HYPOTHESIS

This is a tentative proposition formulated for empirical testing. Thus a research hypothesis is a
statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by research. Therefore, any assumption
that you seek to validate through investigation is called hypotheses. Hence theoretically, there
should be one type of hypotheses on the basis of the investigation that is, research hypothesis.
However, because of the conventions in scientific enquiries and wording used in the constructions
of the hypothesis, Hypotheses can be classified into several types, like; universal hypotheses,
existential hypotheses, conceptual hypothesesetc. Broadly, there are two categories of the
hypothesis:
i. Null hypothesis
ii. Alternative hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Null hypothesis is symbolised as Ho. Null hypothesis is useful tool in testing the significance of
difference. In its simplest form, this hypothesis asserts that there is no true difference between two
population means, and the difference found between sample means is, accidental and unimportant,
that is arising out of fluctuation of sampling and by chance. Null hypothesis is a hypothesis of
indicating 'no difference' or 'no relationship', it is a neutral type of hypothesis.
Alternative Hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis is symbolised as H1 or Ha, is the hypothesis that specifies those values that
are researcher believes to hold true, and the researcher hopes that sample data will lead to
acceptance of this hypothesis as true. Alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities and
it indicates the nature of relationship. The alternative hypothesis is an operational statement of
research hypothesis.
Errors in testing a hypothesis
You have already learned that hypotheses are assumptions that may be prove to be either correct
or incorrect. It is possible to arrive at an incorrect conclusion about a hypothesis for the various
reasons if –
 Sampling procedure adopted faulty
 Data collection method inaccurate
 Study design selected is faulty
 Inappropriate statistical methods used
 Conclusions drawn are incorrect
Two common errors exist when testing a hypothesis.
 Type I error – Rejection of a null hypothesis when it is true.
 Type II error - Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is false.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
It is essential that a hypothesis is carefully formulated. A good hypothesis has several basic
characteristics:
i. It must be testable. If a hypothesis is not testable, then it becomes difficult for a researcher
to either confirm or contradict the relationship among the variables or the deduced
consequences. For example, 'Education brings all round development' is difficult to test
because it is not easy to operationally isolate the other factors that might contribute towards
all round development. Since, a hypothesis predicts the outcome of a study it must relate
variables that are capable of being measured. The hypothesis stated as 'There is a positive
relationship between the learning style and academic achievement of 8" grade students' can
be tested because the variables in the hypothesis are operationally defined and therefore
can be measured.
ii. It must state the expected relationship between the variables. For example the hypothesis:
'There is a significant effect of frustration on the academic achievement of 10" grade
students' states the expected relationship between frustration and achievement, which-can
be measured. However, the hypothesis: ' Students who participate in N.S.S. activities show
higher degree of moral growth than those who do not participate in N.S.S. activities', is not
a good I hypothesis as the term 'moral growth' does not refer to a variable that is
measurable.
iii. It must suggest a tentative solution to the problem under study. For example, 'Academic
achievement varies according to the level of intelligence.' This hypothesis suggests that
intelligence influences the academic achievement.
iv. It must be clear and stated in a precise manner. A clear statement of hypothesis generally
involves concise technical language and definition of terms that are better defined than
those in common language. Vague terms or constructs are difficult to define operationally.
Use of general terms and words such as good, bad, poor, personality, social class etc make
a hypothesis vague. The researcher should use 'personality' as measured by 16 PF (16
personality factors), 'Intelligence' as measured by Raven's Progressive Matrices
(intelligence test) etc. in the statement of a hypothesis.
v. The hypothesis should be limited in scope. The hypothesis of global significance may not
yield the usual consequences. Sometimes an over-ambitious researcher formulates an
ambiguous hypothesis of global significance. It is partly because of his earnestness and
partly because it takes maturity of view point to realize how little can be accomplished in
a specified time. It is desirable to formulate hypotheses that are simple to test, and yet are
highly significant.
vi. A hypothesis must be consistent with known facts. It must be consistent with a substantial
body of established facts. A good hypothesis is grounded in well-established theories and
laws.
vii. A hypothesis must explain what it intends to explain.
viii. The variables should be defined operationally so that the predicted relations among them
can be tested empirically. A good hypothesis is capable of explaining and testing
significantly large number of consequences.
ix. It must be based on some relevant theory or discovered truth. For example the hypothesis,
'There is a significant relationship between the contingencies of reinforcement and
 behaviour shaping', derives its source from the theory of Skinner. The relationship between
independent and dependent variables in this hypothesis is supported by the behaviouristic
view of learning by Skinner.
x. The hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. The researcher
should not select a problem which involves hypotheses that are not I amenable to testing
within a reasonable and specified time. The researcher must know the problems which
cannot be solved for a long time because of the lack of data, non-availability of tools and
techniques.
Significance and importance of a hypotheses
i. A hypothesis directs, monitors and controls the research efforts. It provides tentative
explanations of facts and phenomena and can be tested and validated. Such explanations,
if held valid, lead to generalizations, which help significantly in understanding a problem,
and thereby extend the existing knowledge in the area to which they pertain and thus help
in theory building and facilitate extension of knowledge in an area.
ii. The hypothesis not only indicates what to look for in an investigation but how to select a
sample, choose a design of research, how to collect data and how to interpret the results to
draw valid conclusions.
iii. The hypothesis orients the researcher to be more sensitive to certain relevant aspects of
problem so as to focus on specific issues and pertinent facts. It helps the researcher to
delimit his study in scope so that it does not become broad and unwieldy.
iv. The hypothesis provides the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements
expressed in a logical order of relationships, which seek to describe or to explain conditions
or events that have not yet been confirmed by facts. Some relationships between elements
or variables in hypotheses are known facts and others transcend the known facts to give
reasonable explanations for known conditions. The hypothesis helps the researcher relate
logically known facts to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions.
v. Hypothesis formulation and its testing add a scientific rigour to all type of researches. A
well thought set of hypothesis places a clear and specific goal before the researcher and
equips him with understanding. It provides the basis for reporting the conclusions of the
study on the basis of these conclusions. The researcher can make the research report
interesting and meaningful to the reader.
Formulation of hypothesis
A researcher should consider certain points while formulating a hypothesis:
i. Expected relationship or differences between the variables.
ii. Operational definition of variable.
iii. Hypotheses are formulated following the review of literature. The literature leads a
researcher to expect a certain relationship.
Sources of Hypotheses
 Theory: Goal of business (theory) Hypo: the rate of return on CE is an index of business
success; higher the EPS more favorable is the financial leverage
 Observation: Ex: price & demand for a product
 Intuition & Personal experience
 Findings of Studies
 Continuity of research
Hypotheses: Necessary or Not?
 In mere fact finding investigation: no need.
 In exploratory studies: no need as it is not possible & the very purpose is to help in
formulating hypotheses.
 In analytical & experimental studies: must be set up to give clear direction to the study.
Research Purpose /Objective
A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form of a question.
Qualities of a Good Research Purpose and/or Questions
 It is grounded in a theoretical framework.
 It is builds on, but also offers something new to, previous research.
 It has the potential to suggest directions for future research.
 It is a purpose or question that the researcher is sincerely interested and/or invested in.
 It addresses directly or indirectly some real problem in the world.
 It takes ethical issues into consideration.
 It clearly states the variables or constructs to be examined.
 It is not biased in terminology or position.
 It has multiple possible answers.
 It is simple, or at least manageable.
The purpose and question(s) of a study should drive the study design. As such there should be a
close match of the language of the purpose and question(s) with the design.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
The first and most important step in any research is to identify the research problem. Without a
problem in view no research can take its birth.
A research problem may be defined as an area of concern, a gap in the existing knowledge or a
deviation in the norm or standard that points to the need for further understanding and
investigation.
According to Kerlinger — " A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: what
relation exists between two or more variables."
Bless and Higson-Smith (2000:15) express a sentiment shared by many other researchers that
“selecting a research problem is a delicate task.” Puth 1996:82) mentions that the American
Marketing Association (AMA) came to the conclusion in 1968 that “if any step in a research
project can be said to be more important than the others, then problem definition is that step.”
The step in the research process referred to by the AMA as ‘problem definition,’ is broken up into
two distinguishable phases by Puth (1996:82). The first phase entails the identification of the
problem whilst the second phase is the refinement of the problem to a level where it can be clearly
formulated in order to provide direction and guidance to the research process. Problem
identification and problem formulation should result in “a precise statement of the objectives of
the research to be conducted and a set of research questions” (Puth, 1996:82).
Characteristics of a Research Problem
A good research problem should have the following characteristics:
1) It should address a gap in knowledge.
2) It should lead to further research.
3) The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
4) It is ground in theory.
5) It relates to one or more variables.
6) It is do-able within the time frame and budget.
7) Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
8) The researcher's methodological strengths can be applied to the problem.
Reinard (2001:32-35) suggests the following five criteria to formulate sound and useful problem
statements:
 Problem statements must be stated unambiguously, usually as questions.
 Except for simple exploratory studies, problem statements must include at least two
variables.
 Problem statements must be testable.
 Problem statements must not advance personal value judgements.
 Problem statements must be clear grammatical statements.
Sources for Locating a Problem in Research:
1) Interest and competency of the researcher.
2) Previous research work.
3) Research abstracts.
4) Research journals.
5) Relevant books.
6) Expert suggestions.
7) Neglected area.
8) Needs of the present.
9) Planned Instructional Programme.
10) Deep study of the researcher.
RESEARCH IN COMMUNICATION
Reinard (2001:5) defines communication as “the process by which participants transact and assign
meaning to messages” and explains that a message is “the set of verbal and non-verbal cues
communicators exchange.” According to Reinard (2001:4), communication research is “a
speciality that studies message-related behaviour.” He explains that “some people have difficulty
separating communication research from work in psychology, sociology or literature”, and that
they argue “that since ‘meanings are in people’ (Berlo, cited by Reinard, 2001:4) any study of
people is communication research.”
Types of research
There are many different ways according to which research studies are classified – e.g. according
to various focus areas (see paragraph 2.2), the environment from which the research is conducted
(e.g. academic, business or government) or the specific technique of data collection (e.g. personal
interviews, telephone interviews or mailed questionnaires).
The researcher distinguishes different types of research according to the classification of Bless and
Higson-Smith (2000:37-44). These authors suggest that research studies can be classified
according to the following three aspects:
 The methodology used (quantitative, qualitative research or mixed).
 The reasons for the research being conducted (basic social research and applied social
research).
 The demands of the research question (exploratory research, descriptive research,
correlational research and explanatory research).
Different types of research
1. Quantitative and qualitative research
Two broader methodologies are mostly distinguished to classify different types of research studies
– quantitative and qualitative research.
(a) Quantitative research
Quantitative research involves “the collection of primary data from large numbers of individuals,
frequently with the intention of projecting the results to a wider population” (Bennett, 1996:125).
Quantitative research is normally conducted amongst a representative sample of a target
population with the aim to generalise the research findings to the specific population (or
universum). The emphasis is on numerical measurement (Smith, 1998:40; Bless and Higson-
Smith, 2000:38 and MORI, 2001a) and subsequent statistical analysis (Smith, 1998:40; Bless and
Higson-Smith, 2000:38). The large sample (number of respondents) is necessary to analyse the
results according to categories within the target population - that is according to age, gender,
exposure to a communication product or message and so forth. According to Reinard (2001:8)
quantitative research “tends to be explanatory, especially when experiments are involved, or it
attempts to use precise statistical models to achieve comprehensive understandings of human
communication (as in survey studies and polls of public opinion).” Using quantitative research
methods, researchers often aim to explain communication behaviour by looking at processes that
allow them to predict future behaviour (Reinard, 2001:8).
Reinard (2001:11) argues that there are two major types of quantitative research - surveys and
experiments.
TYPES (DESCRIPTION) EXAMPLES
SURVEY METHODS:
Techniques that involve carefully recorded
observations that provide quantitative
descriptions of relationships among variables.
Descriptive or observational surveys:  Discovering what sorts of things small-group
Direct observation of behaviour by use of communicators say that predict their becoming
some measurement (the researcher does not group leaders.
manipulate or change any variables).  Identifying the relationship between the number of
newspapers a person reads on a regular basis and the
amount of ear of society the person reports.

Content analysis:  Studying the amount of violence on children’s

A systematic, quantitative study of verbally television programmes.
communicated material (articles, speeches,  Inquiring into the amount of newspaper space
films) by determining the frequency of specific dedicated to stories about a women‘s movement.
ideas, concepts, or terms.  Analysing the types of speech defects shown by
children in samples of spontaneous speech.

Opinion surveys:  Analysing surveys regarding which candidate

Assessments of reports from individuals about people think won a political debate.
topics of interest.
 Examining whether the public believes that speech
correction therapy should receive increased funding
in public schools.
 Assessing surveys of the favourite television
programmes people watch.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS:
A method of studying the effect of variables in  Studying the impact of the use of evidence by
situations where all other influences are held exposing one group to a speech with evidence and
constant. Variables are manipulated or another group to a speech without evidence
introduced by experimenters to see what effect  Studying the effect of colour in advertising by
they may have exposing one group to an advertisement with colour
printing and another group to an advertisement
without colour printing.

(b) Qualitative research

Qualitative research, according to Goodyear (1998:177), is often defined in terms of its relation to
quantitative research: “Where quantitative research measures, and answers questions like ‘how
many, how often, what proportion, what size …?’, qualitative research leads to understanding and
answers questions like ‘why did, how can, in what way?”
Furthermore, Bennett (1996:133-134) argues that qualitative research methods can also be used
“to uncover new ideas from or hidden feelings of respondents” and that it can best be achieved by
“unstructured interviews in which respondents can talk freely without too much leading” from the
moderator.
In qualitative research, qualifying words or descriptions are used to record responses (Bless and
Higson-Smith, 2000:37) and observations are mostly described in “non-numerical terms”
(Reinard, 2001:6). In qualitative research the researcher involves a smaller number of respondents
(Smith, 1998:40) and there is no attempt to generalise about the population (Bennett, 1996:145).
Qualitative research does not place the same emphasis on classic statistical validity as quantitative
research. Smith (1998:40) explains that, for qualitative research, “validity centers more on face
validity – that is, establishing whether the evidence is consistent with existing theories and prior
knowledge.”
Qualitative research is response and not question orientated. The response to a question largely
determines the following question, therefore respondents are not interviewed according to a
predetermined set of questions (Smith, 1998:40). According to Reinard (2001:6) qualitative
research studies in the field of communication “tend to describe or interpret communication
exchanges.” Reinard (2001:7-8) proceeds to explain that these studies attempt to “describe the
human condition by using general views of social action” and that “researchers who use qualitative
methods often try to interpret the meanings to be found in communication exchanges.”
Qualitative research can be conducted in either an individual or group setting. With regard to
collecting qualitative research results on a group basis, there are also a variety of approaches, but
the most widely used is the group discussion (MORI, 2001b; Smith, 1998:45; Bennett, 1996:136).
A group discussion describes a session involving between six and eight individuals (Smith,
1998:45) who are recruited according to specific criteria.
The moderator’s role is to manage the discussion flow in the group (Smith, 1998:45). Bennett
(1996:138) explains that ideally the moderator should let the group carry on the conversation “by
themselves” and that “interventions are deemed necessary only to introduce a new topic if it does
not come up spontaneously or to bring the discussion back on track if participants have strayed
into irrelevant areas.” The moderator needs to manage the discussion flow according to the
discussion guide in a response-orientated approach and probe for response where appropriate. The
moderator should “create a relaxed atmosphere in which respondents can comment in a
constructive, non-defensive way” (Smith, 1998:45) and facilitate the balanced involvement of
different members of the group. Moderators “should exercise just enough authority to direct and
control the flow of conversation without affecting its content” (Bennett, 1996:138). Furthermore,
the moderator needs to observe non-verbal communication in the group (Smith, 1998:45).
The terms group discussion and focus group are mostly used interchangeably, but Smith points out
that they are in fact slightly different: “The group discussion, which has a European pedigree,
places the emphasis on depth understanding. In contrast, the more American style focus group
tends to place more emphasis on – albeit still in a qualitative mode – measurement and
quantification” (Smith, 1998:45). It is of critical importance to properly understand the need of the
research client in this regard.
2. Basic and applied research
Based on the reasons why research is conducted, the two types of research distinguished are basic
research and applied research. Whether the aim of the research is basic or applied does not affect
the way in which the research is conducted (Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000:39) – the methods of
inquiry are identical (Reinard, 2001:4). Suchman (cited by Philips, 1985:534) and Kidder and Judd
(1986:396) also emphasise that the significant difference between basic research and applied
research is one of purpose and not of method.
(a) Basic research
Basic research applies when the researcher seeks to “contribute to human knowledge and
understanding relating to a specific phenomenon” (Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000:38). Neuman
(1997:21) argues that “basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the social world.”
Neuman furthermore explains that basic research “focuses on refuting or supporting theories that
explain how the social world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain
way, and why society changes” and that “basic research is the source of most new scientific ideas
and ways of thinking about the world” (Neuman, 1997:21). Reinard (2001:4) explains that basic
research is conducted “to learn about relationships among variables” and according to Vickery
(cited by Powell, 1997:2) basic research “is concerned with elucidating concepts and their
relations, hypotheses and theories.” This aim is normally achieved by “gathering more facts and
information which enables existing theories to be challenged and new ones to be developed” (Bless
and Higson-Smith 2000:38).
Basic research is research conducted “regardless of any immediate commercial product or service”
(Reinard, 2001:4). As Bless and Higson-Smith (2000:38) put it, the “actual utility or application
of this newly acquired knowledge is of little concern to the researcher.” According to Reinard
(2001:34) and Powell (1997:2) most research usually referred to as ‘pure’ scientific research is
actually basic research.
(b) Applied research
Applied research is conducted if the researcher’s motivation is to assist in solving a particular
problem (Reinard, 2001:4; Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000:38; Philips, 1985:534; Neuman,
1997:22 and Powell, 1997:2) or to develop a product (Reinard, 2001:4). According to Neuman
(1997:22) theory is “less central” to applied researchers than “seeking a solution to a specific
problem” and its main strength, is its “immediate practical use.”
Although Powell (1997:2) mentions that applied research is occasionally referred to as action
research, Neuman (1997:23-28) remarks that researchers use “several types of applied research,”
and distinguishes three types of applied research: action research, social impact assessment and
evaluation research.
According to Neuman (1997:23) “action research is applied research that treats knowledge as a
form of power and abolishes the line between research and social action.” Isaac and Michael (cited
by Powell, 1997:45) state that the purpose of action research is “to develop new skills or new
approaches and to solve problems.” Action research is characterised as “practical, orderly, flexible
and adaptive, and empirical to a degree, but weak in internal and external validity” (Isaac and
Michael, cited by Powell, 1997:45). Neuman (1997:23) explains that there are “several types of
action research” and that “most share the following common characteristics:
 Those who are being studied participate in the research process.
 Research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge.
 Research focuses on power with a goal on empowerment.
 Research seeks to raise conscious or increase awareness, and
 Research is tied directly to political action.
Social impact assessment, according to Neuman (1997:24) “may be part of a larger environmental
impact statement required by government agencies. Its purpose is to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment can be used for planning and making
choices among alternative policies.” Researchers conducting social impact assessments “examine
many outcomes and often work in an interdisciplinary research team” (Neuman, 1997:24).
Neuman furthermore notes that “social impact studies often include a cost-benefit analysis” in
which the researcher “estimates the future costs and benefits of one or several proposed actions.”
Evaluation research is a widely used type of applied research (Neuman, 1997:25) and has as its
primary goal “not the discovery of knowledge but rather a testing of the application of knowledge
within a specific programme or project” (Powell, 1997:45). Neuman (1997:25) emphasises that
“ethical and political conflicts often arise in evaluation research because people have opposing
interests in the findings” and Powell (1997:45) notes that “evaluative researchers must be
concerned with threats to validity, such as intervening variables, measurement techniques and
operational definitions.” The two general types of evaluation research are summative evaluation
and formative evaluation. Summative evaluations look at final programme outcomes (Neuman,
1997:25).A summative or outcome evaluation “tends to be quantitative in nature and often is used
as the basis for deciding whether a programme will be continued” (Powell, 1997:46). Formative
or process evaluation is “built-in monitoring or continuous feedback on a programme” (Neuman,
1997:25) and “examines how well the programme is working” (Powell, 1997:46). According to
Powell (1997:46) formative evaluation is often more qualitative and it is typically used for
“revising and improving programmes.”
Classifying research projects in this way is perceived as not being very useful in practice. Bless
and Higson-Smith (2000:39) argue that no study is “only purely basic or purely applied,” and
Reinard (2001:4) explains that “last year’s basic research may be today’s source of new products.”
Powell (1997:2) also holds the opinion that basic and applied research are “not necessarily
dichotomous” and that “in spite of the fact that basic and applied research have tended to be
conducted in isolation from one another.”
 3. Different objectives of social research
A third way of classifying types of research is based on the demands of the research question that
is in terms of the research objectives. Bless and Higson-Smith (2000:37-44) distinguish four types
of research on the basis of this classification: exploratory, descriptive, correlational and
explanatory.
(a) Exploratory research
In cases where very little is known about the research topic, one speaks of exploratory research
(Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000:37). Powell (1997:58-59) explains that exploratory research “can
increase the researcher’s familiarity with the phenomenon in question, can help to clarify concepts,
can be used to establish priorities for future research, can identify new problems and … can be
used to gather information with practical applications.” According to Neuman (1997:19)
exploratory researchers are “creative, open minded, and flexible; adopt an investigative stance;
and explore all sources of information. Researchers ask creative questions and take advantage of
serendipity, those unexpected or chance factors that have large implications.”
Both Powell (1997:58) and Neuman (1997:19) remarks that exploratory researchers frequently
conduct qualitative research. Powell (1997:59), speaking of exploratory research in general,
emphasises that “it is important to remember that exploratory studies merely suggest insights or
hypotheses; they cannot test them,” and Smith (1998:38) remarks that a “typical outcome” from
exploratory research would be “the generation of a number of hypotheses that could be taken
forward for quantitative testing at a later stage of the project.”
(b) Descriptive research
Descriptive research “presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting or
relationship” (Neuman, 1997:20). Bless and Higson-Smith (2000:41) and Neuman (1997:20) are
of the opinion that descriptive and exploratory research have some similarities. Neuman (1997:20)
remarks that descriptive and exploratory research “blur together in practice” and explains that “in
descriptive research, the researcher begins with a well-defined subject and conducts research to
describe it accurately.” Descriptive research focuses on “how”, “who”, “what”, “when” and
“where” questions (Smith, 1998:38 and Neuman, 1997:20) and “provides a solid platform for
helping to understand currents, and possibly predict future behaviour” (Smith, 1998:38).
(c) Correlational research
When the research question requires an understanding of the relationship between variables, the
research is called correlational research (Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000:37). The task of
determining a casual relationship is a complex and difficult one. Bless and Higson-Smith
(2000:43) explain that “it is based on systematic comparison, manipulation and control of
variables.”
Correlational research is “not only useful when no clear causal relationship exists, but also allows
for an estimation of the strength of the relationship between two variables even when one variable
is influenced by many others” (Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000:43).
(d) Explanatory research
“When the research question demands that the researcher explains the relationship between
variables and demonstrates that change in one variable causes change in another variable, the
research is called explanatory research” (Bless and Higson-Smith, 2000:37). According to Neuman
(1997:20) the desire to know why things are the way they are, to explain, is the purpose of
explanatory research. Neuman (1997:20-21) explains that explanatory research “builds on
exploratory and descriptive research and to identify the reason why something occurs.” Bless and
Higson-Smith (2000:43) state that explanatory research is often not feasible: “This is the case when
it is not possible to manipulate the suspected independent variable or to assess the time-order of
variables.”
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Designing the research study
Mouton (2001:55) explains that a research design is “a plan or blueprint of how you intend
conducting the research.” Mouton (2001:56) argues that researchers often confuse ‘research
design’ and ‘research methodology.’ Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so
conceived as to obtain answers to research. Thus, research design could be Exploratory,
Descriptive, Causal or Explanatory.
Differences between research design and research methodology
Research Design Research Methodology
Focuses on the end product: What kind of Focuses on the research process and the kind
study is being planned and what kind of result of tools and procedures to be used.
is aimed at?
Point of departure = research problem or Point of departure = specific tasks (data
question. collection or sampling) at hand.
Focuses on the logic of research: What kind of Focuses on the individual (not linear) steps in
evidence is required to address the research the research process and the most ‘objective’
question adequately? (unbiased) procedures to be employed.

CHALLENGES OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

Reinard (2001:6-14) identifies the following six challenges of communication research:
 The challenge of breadth and focus
 The multiple methods challenge
 The scholarly rigour challenge
 The personal challenge (or what do I need to do to study communication research methods
successfully?)
 The ethical challenge
 The structure of the field challenge.
The challenge of breadth and focus
Reinard (2001:6) is of the opinion that although “the number of communication applications can
seem enormous, there is a rational order to it.” Making this statement, he refers to the work done
by McBath and Jeffrey (1978) to identify the professional areas in communication on behalf of the
Speech Communication Association and the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES).
These two organisations were trying to organise information about careers in various fields.
Communication Specialities
Communication Taxonomy Description
1. The Broad Areas of Mass
Media Communication
Advertising The study of mass media methods of influence to promote a
product, service or cause.
Communication Technology The study of the mechanisms and technologies of mass media.
Communication Policy The study of public policy and regulation of mass media
communication and freedom of speech.
Film as Communication The role of popular and technical cinema in society.
Journalism The study of the methods of reporting and organising news for
presentation in print media.
Public Relations The study of methods of managing publicity and press relations
for an organisation, person or cause.
Radio The study of the methods and uses of radio.
Television The study of the methods and uses of televised communication.
2. Specific Areas of Speech
Communication Research
Code Systems The study of the uses of verbal and non-verbal symbols and signs
in human communication.
Intercultural Communication The study of communication among individuals of different
cultural backgrounds.
Interpersonal Communication The study of communication interactions occurring in person-to-
person and small group situations.
 Conflict Management The study of the role of communication in the creation and control
of conflict.
 Family Communication The study of communication transactions within the constraints
of families of all sorts.
Organisational Communication The study of interrelated behaviours, technologies, and systems
functioning within an organization.
Health Communication The study of communication issues among participants involved
in medical and health systems.
Oral Interpretation The study of literature through performance involving the
development of skilled verbal and non-verbal expression based on
critical analysis of written texts (aesthetics of literature in
 performance, criticism of literature in performance, group
performance, oral traditions).
Pragmatic Communication The study and practice of communication, the object of which is
to influence or facilitate decision making.
 Argumentation The study of reason-giving behaviour.
 Debate The study of decision making in which adversaries present
arguments for decision by a third party.
 Discussion and Conference The study of methods of decision making in which participants
(including Group Decision strive to discuss, explore and make decisions on issues.
Making)
 Parliamentary Procedure The study of the means used to handle deliberation in large
legislative bodies through the use of formal rules and procedures
to regulate debate and discussion.
 Persuasion The study of the methods used to influence the choices made by
others.
 Communication and the Law The study of communication issues involved in
the legal system and the practice of law
Public Address The study of speakers and speeches, including the historical and
social context of platforms, campaigns, and movements.
Rhetorical and Communication The study of the principles that account for human communicative
Theory experiences and behaviour.
Communication Education The study of communication in pedagogical contexts
(communication development, oral communication skills,
instructional communication).
Speech and Hearing Science The study of the physiology and acoustical aspects of speech and
hearing (biological aspects of speech and hearing, phonological
aspects of speech and hearing, physiological aspects of speech and
hearing).

The multiple methods challenge

Reinard (2001:6) explains that qualitative methods are mostly used in studying literature whilst
the historical method is employed in history and the experiment holds a prominent position in
psychology. Contrary to this, the communication researcher uses all of these and other methods to
answer questions. Research projects in communication tend to rely mostly on quantitative and
qualitative methods. The research question or objectives guides the selection of methods, not the
other way around (Bulmer, 2000a:10; Reinard, 2001:8; Smith, 1998:40).
The communication researcher needs to have appropriate knowledge of different research methods
and needs to know when, why and how to apply different methods. Furthermore, the researcher
needs to understand when and how to apply more than one method during work on a
communication project in order to properly address the aim and objectives of the research project.
The scholarly rigour challenge
In order for research to meet standards of excellence, communication researchers must conduct
research with recognition of five key challenges identified after Tuckman by Reinard (2001:12):
  Research is systematic: Productive research follows steps that carry out some sort of
design. Researchers ask questions and implicitly agree in advance to seek for answers by
examining pertinent information.
 Research is data driven: If data cannot be collected, or if we are unwilling to alter our
opinions, the issue is not suitable for research.
 Research is a sound argument: Research arguments reason from research data and
information to draw conclusions. Thus, arguments in this context are defined as claims
advanced on the basis of reasoning from evidence. Sound reasoning is vital for effective
research. Logic and the methods to evaluate arguments are valuable tools to judge research.
 Research is capable of replication: If research methods are so vaguely described that it is
impossible to repeat the procedures in a study, the worth of the entire research project is
questioned. Regardless of whether replications actually are completed, the ability to
replicate studies is essential for any piece of sound research.
 Research is partial: Research findings are partial because we may discover new
relationships involving other variables that make us modify or qualify the conclusions we
have found. Thus, communication researchers do not claim to have discovered ‘The Truth’
for all time. Instead, they advance tentative - but meaningful - insights for communication
phenomena.
The personal challenge
This challenge relates to the question of what a person needs to do to study communication
research methods successfully. According to Reinard (2001:13-14) the following five aspects
apply:
 The need to think in an orderly way – to train our minds to separate the relevant from the
irrelevant, the observable from the unobservable, and the complete from the incomplete
 The need to write clearly – crisply, clearly, precise, structured and to the point
 The need to set aside personal prejudices in the light of data – be willing to let the data
decide our conclusions, even if we do not like them.
 The need to stay organised and follow instructions – research requires carefully following
protocols and methods and to fight the urge to leave out steps, to take shortcuts or to ignore
instructions.
 The need to know the reasons for studying research methods – e.g. to learn to think
rigorously and critically, to find answers to questions about communication, to acquire
survival skills to help read and use the field’s literature and to learn how to sort through
past research for answers to research questions.
The ethical challenge
Every decision made in communication – e.g. which methodology to apply for a project – is not
merely a practical one, but also an ethical one. Reinard (2001:14) remarks that “research is judged
not only by the rigor of procedures and the results obtained but (also) by the ethics of the
researchers.”
In the literature on social research, the importance of specifically the ethical issues of voluntary
participation of respondents, privacy, anonymity and confidentiality is emphasised (e.g. Bless and
Higson-Smith, 2000:100-101; Shalofsky, 1998:1111-1113; Groenewald, 1981:97-98). The reality
is that ethical issues in communication research are much broader than the few mentioned above
that only relate to a specific aspect of data collection.
The structure of the field challenge
Reinard (2001:14) correctly remarks that “communication research has been promoted by many
organisations whose members often cross the barriers created by the organisation of different
schools” and that “it is helpful to know how the diverse and major organisations in our field
showcase our research.”
The researcher is of the opinion that communication researchers need to make a specific effort to
enhance their perspective and the quality of their work by seeking to engage and interact with other
researchers in the field of communication research through outreach to professional organisations
in their country as well as abroad, to private sector research companies, the advertising and public
relations industry and the academic environment.
Why Research in Development Communication?
Three factors account for the rising interest in communication studies:
 Penetration of the mass media into the audiences of developing countries and the
corresponding potential of this development for reaching their development goals
 The emphasis on social reform policies called for widespread diffusion of new knowledge
and techniques.
 Political concerns as evidenced by American concern over structural changes in developing
regions which would supposedly thwart the possibility of revolutionary take-over as in the
case of Cuba.