Indian Journal of Engineering & Materials Sciences

Vol. 29, December 2022, pp. 707-713

DOI: 10.56042/ijems.v29i6.70313

Waste Tyre Recycling: A Emerging Applications with a Focus on Permeable

Pavements
Nitin Muttila,b, Sandeep Chaudharyc, K Eswar Prasadd, Swadesh Kumar Singhb,e*
a
College of Engineering and Science, Victoria University, Melbourne VIC 8001, Victoria, Australia
b
Institute for Sustainable Industries & Livable Cities, Victoria University, P.O. Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore 453 552, India.
d
Department of Metallurgy Engineering and Materials Science, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore, MP, 453 552, India
e
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology (GRIET), Hyderabad, 500 090, India

Received: 9 September 2022; Accepted: 17 October 2022

Increasing urbanization and development of automobile industry have given rise to an increase in global tyre waste
generation. In Australia, it is estimated that around 450,000 tonnes of tyres reach their end-of-life annually and a large
percentage of it is disposed to landfill or on-site burial or is stockpiled. This poses a significant environmental and safety
risk, since such sites act as a breeding ground for pests and present a significant fire hazard. Hence it is essential to increase
the recycling of this hazardous waste. This paper presents a review of the recycling of end-of-life tyres (EOLT) in Australia
to produce tyre-derived products (TDPs), which traditionally has been based on mechanical recycling methods (using a
series of shredders, screens, and granulators). Key TDPs from Australian tyre recovery include shredded tyres, crumb rubber
and baled tyres. There is currently an emerging market in Australia for chemical recycling of tyres, which are typically
based on pyrolysis and gasification processes. The produced TDPs have a variety of applications, with key most productive
markets being that for crumb rubber in road sprayed seals and rubber granules in soft-fall surfaces and rubber matting in
playgrounds and so on. There is a strong emerging market for rubberized concrete, which can be used as lightweight fill and
as a drainage medium in landfills. New processing technologies like tyre pyrolysis to generate oil and tyre-derived fuel and
also strongly emerging technologies. With a strong push for sustainable design initiatives, TDPs are also being used in
permeable pavements, a water sensitive design strategy that is gaining popularity in Australia.

Keywords – Waste tyres, End-of-life tyres (EOLTs), Tyre recycling, Tire-derived products (TDPs), Permeable pavements

1 Introduction pollutants into nearby surface and ground water. It has

The generation of end-of-life tyres (EOLT) has been reported in the National Waste Report that large
increased throughout the world due to rapid inventories of tyres have either been abandoned or
industrialization and automobile industry development. have been poorly handled in recent years. Thus, tires
In Australia, about 450,000 tonnes of EOLTs are are classified as hazardous waste in the report owing
generated every year and a large percentage of these to the fire threats, they pose2. Other than the human
EOLTs are stockpiled on site or are buried in mine health and environmental issues, stockpiles of tyres
sites and pits, on agricultural land or are dumped in also have direct financial implications which include
landfills1. Exporting discarded tyre waste has been (but not limited to) costs for clean-up, transport,
prohibited since December 2021. A majority of those disposal and so on. These are categorized as
EOLTs are stockpiled on site (Fig. 1) and are buried environmental, social and economic hazards and risks
in mine sites and pits, on agricultural land and in in Table 1. These hazards and risks make it essential
landfill. Improper management of EOLTs poses a to increase the recovering, recycling and reusing of
significant environmental and human-health risk. this hazardous waste.
When tyres are stockpiled in large quantities, they It is worth mentioning that the Environment
might catch fire or harbor disease vectors like Protection Authority (EPA) in the different states of
mosquitoes and rodents. Burnt tyres produce thick, Australia are dedicated to ensuring that tyres are
toxic smoke that is dangerous when inhaled. And kept, transported, and disposed of in a way that has the
the runoff produced when fighting fires can carry least amount of negative environmental impact3. And
—————— tyres disposed away in landfills are subject to the
*Corresponding author (E-mail: swadeshsingh@griet.ac.in) waste levy4.
708 INDIAN J ENG MATER SCI, DECEMBER 2022

car tyres contain a higher synthetic rubber component

in thinner layers, as well as a nylon (fabric)
component5. Natural rubber is presently chosen over
synthetic rubber in many applications. In addition,
passenger tyres are made of around 6% fabric, which
does not yet have a market. And as fabric is not
usually utilized in truck tyres, they are the favored
feedstock for recycling by local companies.
Since the generation of EOLTs is on the increase,
the real issue is to increase the degree to which EOLTs
are recovered and recycled into useful commodities.
Historically in Australia, recycling of EOLTs has been
Fig. 1 — Stockpiling of waste tyres.
limited due to a lack of markets for tyre-derived
Table 1 — Hazard and risks associated with used tyre stockpiles products (TDPs) and a strong international demand for
Categories Hazards and Risks tyre-derived fuel (TDF). In 2013-14, recycling of
Environmental Fire EOLTs in Australia had fallen to just 5%. Due to the
Leaching hard work being put in by industry and government to
Mosquitos and vermin improve overall conditions, the domestic recycling has
Weeds increased significantly, doubling to around 44,000
Loss of resources tonnes or 10% in 2015-16. And the recovery rate is
Social Health issues projected to exceed 50% by 2025-266. Since the
Fire hazards
production of TDPs in Australia is on the increase, this
Aesthetics
Economic Liability costs
paper next presents an overview of various tire-derived
Degradation of used tyres products. The TDPs coming out of tyre recycling, such
Disposal costs as rubber and steel, become primary inputs for
Site closure and remediation manufacturing of various useful commodities in a
Costs of clean-up, transport, end-use range of sectors. There are a few main applications of
gate fee, etc. TDPs that have a strong existing market in Australia,
Table 2 — Main components of car and truck tyre stockpiles which are presented next. This is followed by a
Material Passenger cars (%) Truck (%) discussion onemerging TDP opportunities and finally
Natural rubber 16 29 conclusions from this study are presented.
Synthetic rubber 29 13
Steel 16 25
2 Materials and Method
Fabric (Nylon, rayon, etc) 6 - In Australia, recovery of EOLT is dominated by
Carbon black 23 24 traditional mechanical recycling methods, whereas there
Zinc Oxide 1 2 is an emerging market for energy from waste (EFW)
Sulphur 1 1 facilities that employ pyrolysis or gasification to
Additives 8 essentially deconstruct a tyre back to its composite
The value of a waste commodity like EOLTs is elements. The TDPs derived from these two methods,
directly linked to the physical composition of the namely mechanical methods and those based on
material and the degree to which the constituent parts pyrolysis and gasification are presented in the following
can be recovered and reused.Tyres are a composite sub-sections6.
product, made up of a mix of rubber (natural and 2.1 Mechanical recycling of tyres
synthetic), steel, fabric, carbon black and bonding Mechanical recycling techniques of tyre recycling
agents. The percentage composition of these materials use a series of shredders, screens, and granulators to
depends on factors like the type of tyre and its separate the component materials and produce a
intended use and Table 2 presents the main variety of TDPs. The following is an overview of the
components of passenger car and truck tyres. relevant TDPs and their applications.
As can be seen in Table 2, truck tyres generally
contain a larger proportion of natural rubber, whereas 2.1.1 Whole tyres/casings
Whole recovered tyres (sometimes known as
 MUTTIL et al.: WASTE TYRE RECYCLING: EMERGING APPLICATIONS WITH A FOCUS ON PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS 709

"casings") are unprocessed tyres that may be sold locally when the tyre is being retreat. Casings are placed on a
or exported for resale or retreading in the secondary revolving disc, and a sequence of blades takes the tread
market. The domestic market for casings has seen a away from the casing until it is ready for the new tread
dramatic fall over the previous decade, as Australian to be installed. Buffering are around 10–20 mm in length
customers have moved away from passenger tyre and are highly sought after owing to the very low levels
rethreads and towards new tyres. On the other hand, of contamination found in them. Granules and buffing’s
truck and light truck casings are still collected for are used in a variety of applications, including soft-
rethreading, with rethreading factories located in most fall surfacing, moulded products, playgrounds, and
major cities. From Australia, there is a significant casing equestrian terrain.
export market that extends into Asia and Africa.
2.1.5 Crumb rubber
2.1.2 Baled tyres Crumb rubber (also known as rubber crumb, crumb
Tyres are squeezed into a block shape using a or powder) is the most refined product derived from
hydraulic bale press and then bonded together with conventional tyre recycling. Crumb rubber has a
high-tensile wire to make a solid block. Baling is a particle size of less than 1 mm in diameter and is
quick and very inexpensive technique that has the manufactured using a three-stage grinding process
potential to significantly increase efficiency in both that separates the rubber from the fabric and steel.
interstate and international transportation operations. Crumb rubber may also be created via a cryogenic
Tyres, on the other hand, are seldom baled for technique, in which the rubber is frozen with liquid
transportation to local recyclers. According to reports, nitrogen and crushed in a hammer mill, which is less
shredded tyres are highly sought after in India since the frequent. Cryogenic crumbing is no longer performed
bales may be handled physically, as opposed to in Australia owing to the high expense of the
containerized shredded tyres.EPU bales typically equipment and labor. Thickened crumb rubber accounts
contain more than 100 EPUs ranging in weight from for a considerable portion of the local market for TDP,
500 kg to two tonnes. It is worth mentioning that the with applications ranging from asphalt pavements
cost of baling tyres has been estimated to be around to high-value polymer goods and explosives, among
$70 per tonne, but the cost of shredding has been others. Infrastructure expenses, on the other hand, are
estimated to be between $80 and $120 per tonne6. The prohibitively expensive, with a commercial-scale
cost of offshoring for baled or shredded tyres is around crumbing factory likely to cost more than $10 million.
$30–$40 per tonne. These are projections for 2017.
2.1.6 Steel
2.1.3 Shredded tyres Tyresare often made up of two different steel
The majority of EOLTs in Australia that are components. This "steel belt" is a thin layer of high-
collected for recycling end up in the form of shredded tensile steel that rests under the tread and provides
(chipped) tyres, with tyre-derived fuel (TDF) being reinforcement for the rubber while also providing
the most popular commodity on the market in this strength while carrying large loads. Furthermore, the
category. It is estimated that EOLTs used for energy sidewall of a tyre is reinforced by steel beading or
recovery (including TDF and baled tyres) account for wire, which helps to keep the tyre securely attached to
roughly 80% of the local and international used tyre the bead of the wheel rim. Metal recyclers reprocess
market. recovered steel into commercial-grade steel billet,
which is then sold on the market. Unlike other types
2.1.4 Granulated tyre/ buffing
of steel scrap, scrap steel collected from tyres is of
Rubber granulate is typically in the range of 2 mm to
poor value. Passenger tyres include around 16 percent
15 mm in size and is created using a sequence of
steel by weight, whereas truck/off-highway tyres
granulators and screens that further refine and
contain approximately 25 percent steel by weight6.
uniformize shredded tyres into a refined and consistent
product. Granulate is mostly free of pollutants, thanks 2.1.7 Nylon and polyester fabric
to the removal of metal and fabric contaminants by Passenger tyres are frequently reinforced with a
magnets and air separation, respectively. The term layer of nylon fabric under the tread and a steel belt
"buffing" refers to pure tyre rubber that is used to around the circumference of the tyre. This is often
efficiently shave off the residual tread on a tyre casing nylon or polyester, and it may be removed during the
710 INDIAN J ENG MATER SCI, DECEMBER 2022

recycling process by employing air separation Table 3 — A summary of tyre-derived products (TDPs) and
technology. When this occurs in Australia, the resulting their applications
waste is normally disposed of in landfill. Tyre-derived products Applications
2.2 Chemical recycling of tyres Whole tyres / casings Secondhand reuse or retreading
Chemical recycling technologies are typically based Baled tyres Used for further processing
on pyrolysis and gasification processes. These Shredded tyres Production of Tyre-derived Fuels (TDFs)
technologies aim to recover embodied energy from Used to create soft-fall surfaces, synthetic
Granule / buffings
EOLT and bring them back to their raw component sports fields, athletic tracks, etc
parts. The tyre is destructed into various compounds, Crumb rubber Road-surfacing, as a polymer in adhesives
one of which is collected and condensed into Melted to form steel billets, which are used
Steel
to form rods, bars and wire
manufacturing oil, thanks to the use of heat, which Nylon / rayon fabric Typically sent to landfill in Australia
serves as a catalyst for the chemical process. The carbon Syngas is combustible and can be used to
and steel may be removed, cooled, and separated at the Synthetic gas (syngas)
generate electricity
conclusion of the operation when the chemical reaction Carbon black/ char
Manufacture of new tyres, as a color
is complete. The main TDPs from chemical recycling of pigment in plastics and paints
tyres are discussed in the following sub-sections: Ship oil (in raw form) and diesel products
Fuel oil
(after further refining)
2.2.1 Syngas Utilized as process heat or used to create
Steam
Syngas (or synthetic gas) is produced when tyres electricity
are heated in low or no oxygen environments. It is rubber acts as a flexible binding agent to reduce
comprised mainly of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, cracking and thus increase product life. Soft fall
is combustible and can be used to generate electricity.  matting in playgrounds is another strong local market
2.2.2 Carbon Black / char for TDPs. The following sub-sections present an
This is the solid material remaining after the recycling overview of these main applications of TDPs that
process and is a mostly carbon-based product. have a strong existing market in Australia.
2.2.3 Fuel oil 3.1.1 Road surfacing
The primary TDP from pyrolysis and gasification Bitumen is consumed globally on a large scale as a
is fuel oil. The oil produced from this process in its binder in asphalt, which is understandable given the
raw form is used as a low-grade ship oil and it can be extensive road infrastructure found in most nations.
further refined into higher quality diesel products. For example, roughly 44,000 kg of bitumen is
2.2.4 Steam required for the building of one kilometre of asphalt
Steam can be captured from the Energy from road7. The hunt for alternatives to traditional binders
Waste (EFW) process and utilized as process heat or for road pavements has thus generated a lot of
used to create electricity. attention in recent years. Researchers have investigated
a wide range of materials in their search for a
3 Result and Discussions sustainable binder, including recycled tyre rubber,
TDPs can be used in a variety of applications, recycled polystyrene, waste motor oil, various sources
including in road applications, playground and sporting of lignin, waste cooking oil, polyurethane, polythene,
surfaces, civil infrastructure and engineering projects. phenolic resins, soy fatty acids, and others, all using a
They can also be used for energy recovery and as performance-based design concept. Recycled tyre
explosive compounds for the mining industry. A rubber is the only alternative material to bitumen that
summary of the various TDPs and their applications are is routinely used in asphalt mixes, out of all of the
presented in Table 3 (sourced from Genever et. al., alternatives to bitumen8.
2017)6. The key most productive domestic applications Crumb rubber is currently being used in significant
as well as emerging applications of TDPs in Australia volumes in road construction. It can be used as a
are also presented in the following sub-sections. replacement for traditional polymer modified binders
3.1 Key current applications (PMBs) in asphalt pavements and spray seals. The
The largest and most productive domestic markets addition of crumb rubber increases the road’s resistance
in Australia are crumb rubber in road sprayed seals to surface cracking and can reduce traffic noise. Because
and in tile adhesives. In both these applications, the of the thicker bituminous layer, these pavements have
 MUTTIL et al.: WASTE TYRE RECYCLING: EMERGING APPLICATIONS WITH A FOCUS ON PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS 711

stronger reflection cracking resistance than older or binder viscosity, binder supply, and blending time all
fractured pavements. Recycled Tyre Rubber Modified impact the digesting process of asphalt (bitumen) and
Bitumen (RTR-MB) is an example of contemporary rubber12. As a result, even though this product has
technology that has shown to improve the performance been in use for many years, it is essential to take these
of road pavements. considerations into account.
It is commonly applied in granulated form, which 3.1.2 Surfacing and Soft-fall matting
is referred to as crumb rubber modifier (CRM). The demand for commodities using rubber granule
Rubber is included in hot mix asphalt by either a wet and buffings have increased in recent years.
or a dry process, depending on the manner of Playground and pathway surfaces use black or
inclusion. Rubber Modified Bitumen (RMB) is coloured granule bonded together to form a soft
generated by the use of a blended and partly reacted surface to reduce injuries from falling. This is applied
CRM, which is subsequently used as a binder in the wet (as a wet pour) and sets hard the same way that
wet process. On the other hand, in the dry method, the concrete is applied. Granule / buffings are also used to
CRM is introduced to the aggregate of the hot mix, create indoor and outdoor sport surfaces (including
where some CRM interacts with the asphalt bitumen gymnasiums), either as rubber underlay or within the
and bigger particles replace a portion of the mineral surface itself.
aggregates. 3.2 Emerging TDP applications
Rubberized bitumen has a high viscosity, which could
be an issue and these difficulties may impose restrictions 3.2.1 Rubberized concrete
on its application. However, it has been claimed that Rubber concrete is used in construction, and it is
utilizing a warm mix asphalt additive may help to becoming clearer that rubber-concrete technology is a
minimize the temperatures used in the manufacturing profitable solution for minimizing rubber waste, which
process while also improving the performance of asphalt is also ecologically friendly. A common use for rubber is
rubber mixes9. In addition, the use of rubber in asphalt as an aggregate replacement in concrete pavements.
has improved the quality of other materials. Rubberized When it comes to the manner of integration, a dry
bitumen binders, for example, were shown to exhibit the mixing approach is commonly employed, in which the
following qualities10: rubber is added to the concrete mixture in the same way
 Increased bitumen resistance to rutting as a result that aggregate would be put into concrete. Rubber-
of its high viscosity and softening point. concrete technology has a number of features that
 Increased bitumen resistance to surface-initiated demonstrate both the benefits of rubber integration as
cracks and a reduction in fatigue cracking. well as the potential issues that may need to be
 Decreased temperature susceptibility and improved addressed. The claimed downsides of rubber concrete
durability; and technology, on the other hand, include a loss in the
 Decreased road pavement maintenance expenses. strength of the concrete. Moreover, since rubber has a
lower density than other materials, the density of the
There are, however, a number of considerations to rubber concrete product is likewise lower.
be taken into account, all of which have been shown The compressive strength, split-tensile, modulus of
to have an impact on the quality of rubber asphalt. rupture, and modulus of elasticity declined as the
One of them is the size of the rubber particles, which crumb rubber concentration rose. The permeability of
has an effect on the consistency of the mixture as well the crumb rubber concrete was satisfactory up to a
as the quality of the main product that is created 40% sand replacement. A 30 percent sand-to-crumb
throughout the process. This was proved in a study, rubber substitution (or 5.5% of the total mixture
which revealed that including ultra-small rubber volume) was found to be the most effective and
particles into asphalt bituminous binder is the most generate the fresh and hardenedqualities required for
efficient method of preventing trunk-crack development concrete pavement13.
in the asphalt mixture11. Another study found that, in
addition to rubber size, crumb rubber content, rubber 3.2.2 Tyre-derived fuel
texture, and the chemistry of the bitumen binder were Recycling old tyres is becoming more popular,
also important factors to consider10. Furthermore, with several possibilities including "energy recovery",
parameters such as rubber content, rubber gradations, where EOLTs with a calorific value equal to excellent
blending conditions (temperature and duration), grade coal are utilized as an alternative to fossil fuels,
712 INDIAN J ENG MATER SCI, DECEMBER 2022

or "chemical processing" such as pyrolysis, thermolysis, Australia, the use of recycled tyre-derived products to
and gasification. Tire-derived fuels (TDFs) currently create urban paving has been investigated. that can,
have a limited markets in Australia and it is almost amongst other properties, provide water to nearby
entirely an export product and is a commonly traded trees14. The research project is investigating the
global commodity. suitability of using up to 50% waste tyre products in
TDFs in general have a calorific value of around permeable pavement applications as part of more
7,200 – 8,300 kcal/kg, which is roughly the same as comprehensive irrigation and storm-water management
high quality black coal and is around 25% higher than solutions for urban areas. Many Local Government
brown coal. This makes it an ideal fuel to co-fire with Councils across Australia are reviewing and trialing
traditional coal in power generation, paper and pulp permeable pavement materials in their areas.
facilities and cement kilns6.
3.3.2 Mechanical performance
3.2.3 Crumb rubber explosives TDPs can also be added to the permeable pavement
Based on the development of recent projects, it has mixture to alter the final product's flexibility. There are
been found that crumb rubber is an effective additive regions where ground movement or the entry of roots
to traditional ammonium nitrate fuel oil in explosives. may cause damage to traditional rigid pavements, and
The addition of rubber improves blast efficiency and tyre aggregates may be able to improve the end product's
allows work to be undertaken in wet areas, which is a performance. Waste tyre and rubber aggregates have
considerable weakness of products available in the been studied in the past, but their emphasis has been
current market. mostly on developing extremely compacted mixes,
3.3 Potential of permeable pavements
which has limited their use.
Permeable/ porous pavements and surfaces are a A study at the University of Melbourne15 investigated
significant construction concept in urban planning the feasibility of utilizing different fractions of waste
because they enable water to permeate the structure. The tyre-derived aggregates and crushed rock in permeable
market for permeable surfaces is growing in Australia, pavement applications. They found that the lightly
especially since it is driven by sustainable design bonded flexible-rigid mixtures are a viable replacement
initiatives called Water Sensitive Urban Design for traditional porous pavements to improve the load-
(WSUD) in Australia and a strong push from water bearing mechanism and increase the flexibility of
authorities to better manage runoff in urban areas. pavement.
Permeable surfaces have benefits not just in terms of In another study, at a car park in Adelaide, South
WSUD principles, but also in terms of its mechanical Australia, researchers tested the mechanical performance
properties, which are discussed in the following sub- of large-scale permeable pavements made from tyre and
sections: rock-derived aggregates (TDA and RDA), which were
bound together with a polyurethane (PUR) binder. In a
3.3.1 WSUD benefits 400 m2 area, multiple TDA-based mix designs, such as
Due to the impermeable nature of traditional urban varying RDA contents and sizes/shapes as well as
pavements, rainfall-induced surface runoff may lead to different PUR contents, were used to pave. Compression
flash floods and contamination of nearby water bodies. tests were carried out as part of a six-month field
The detrimental effects of such typical pavements may performance monitoring program that included
be alleviated with permeable pavements, which enable in-situ lightweight deflectometer testing and strain
water to pass through their surface layers. Permeable measurements using optic fibre sensing. The lower the
pavements thus assist to minimize surface runoff and act pavement's strength and stiffness, the greater the TDA
as an effective way to minimize the burden on storm and PUR content. As a result, both the TDA and PUR
water collecting systems, thus reducing the danger of contents benefited from the increase in strain (and hence
flash floods. They also aid in storm water treatment by deformability). The strength and stiffness of the
screening contaminants from downstream water pavement were improved while the generated strain was
collecting systems. They also allow the transition of reduced when the RDA size was increased to create an
nutrients and water to the surrounding plants and can induced inter-particle frictional resistance in the soft–
also lead to improvement in groundwater recharge. rigid matrix. A larger RDA angle means more effective
In research conducted by the University of mechanical interlocking (and consequently interfacial
Melbourne and supported by Tire Stewardship
 MUTTIL et al.: WASTE TYRE RECYCLING: EMERGING APPLICATIONS WITH A FOCUS ON PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS 713

friction), which leads to better strength and stiffness in which allow water to soak through rather than runoff
the final product. Passenger cars in parking bays into stormwater. They can be manufactured using crumb
imposed low to medium traffic loads, while TDA-based rubber or rubber granule.
technology (with its applied mixed designs) couldn't This review has demonstrated that the recycling of
handle large traffic flows, such as light–medium trucks EOLTs in Australia has significant opportunities and
making U-turns in parking aisles16. potential markets. The domestic recycling rate has
4 Conclusion increased significantly from just 5% in 2013-14 to
The increase in the stockpiling and disposal of end- doubling the rate to 10% in 2015-16. The projections
of-life tyres (EOLTs) nowadays is a serious concern of the opportunities for TDPs in Australia estimate
that contributes to various hazards, including risks to that the recovery rate could increase fivefold to more
human health and contamination of the environment. than 50% by 2025-26, which is a very encouraging
These hazards make it essential to increase the sign in terms of recycling of this hazardous waste.
recovering, recycling and reusing of waste tyres. The
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