Unit 2

WHAT IS SQL ITS ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is a domain-specific programming language
that is designed for managing and manipulating data such as insertion, deletion and
updation, held in a relational database management system (RDBMS), or for stream
processing in a relational data stream management system. According to American
National Standards Institute, it is the standard language for relational database
management systems. Moreover, It is also approved by ISO (International Standard
Organization).

Advantages of SQL
SQL is an efficient language for database communication. It has various
advantages, some of them are listed below:

1. Simple and easy

One of the things that make SQL a popular choice is that it doesn't require any
substantial knowledge about coding and writing programs. SQL has some basic
keywords such as, SELECT, INSERT INTO, UPDATE, etc that can carry out tasks.
Syntactical rules are also simple and easy to follow.

2. Faster Query Processing 

SQL works with an efficient speed. Huge data can be processed in seconds!
Querying, manipulating, and calculations on data with analytical queries in a
relational database can be done in no time.

3. Standard Language

As already mentioned, SQL is a standardized structured query language approved

by ISO and ANSI for relational databases. It's long, detailed and established
documentation overs years also stands a strong plus point. 

4. Portable 

It is highly portable as used in PCs, servers, independent laptops having any

operating system such as Windows, Linux, Mac etc. It can also be embedded with
other applications.

5. Highly Interactive 
As it has simple commands for all purposes, it becomes an interactive language for
its users. It easy to understand and the commands are also understandable to the
non-programmers.

Disadvantages of SQL
1. Poor Interface

SQL has a poor interface as it makes look everything very complex even when it's
not! Due to its difficult interfacing, users find it difficult to deal with the databases. 

2. Cost Inefficient 

SQL Server Standard costs around $1,418/year. The high cost makes it difficult for
some programmers to use it.

3. Partial Control

SQL doesn't grant complete control over databases to its users. This is due to some
hidden business rules. 

4. Security

Regardless of the SQL version, databases in SQL are constantly under threat as it

holds huge amounts of sensitive data. 

Integrity Constraints
o Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of
information.
o Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other processes
have to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not affected.
o Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the database.
Types of Integrity Constraint

1. Domain constraints

o Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an
attribute.
o The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc.
The value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

Example:

2. Entity integrity constraints

o The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
o This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in relation
and if the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those rows.
o A table can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

Example:

3. Referential Integrity Constraints

 o A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.
o In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the Primary
Key of Table 2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be
available in Table 2.

Example:

4. Key constraints

o Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set uniquely.
o An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary key.
A primary key can contain a unique and null value in the relational table.

Example:

What is a Foreign Key

A foreign key is the one that is used to link two tables together via the primary key. It
means the columns of one table points to the primary key attribute of the other
table. It further means that if any attribute is set as a primary key attribute will work
in another table as a foreign key attribute. But one should know that a foreign key
has nothing to do with the primary key.

Use of Foreign Key

The use of a foreign key is simply to link the attributes of two tables together with
the help of a primary key attribute. Thus, it is used for creating and maintaining the
relationship between the two relations.

Example of Foreign Key

Let's discuss an example to understand the working of a foreign key.

Consider two tables Student and Department having their respective attributes as

shown in the below table structure:

In the tables, one attribute, you can see, is common, that is Stud_Id, but it has
different key constraints for both tables. In the Student table, the field Stud_Id is
a primary key because it is uniquely identifying all other fields of the Student table.
On the other hand, Stud_Id is a foreign key attribute for the Department table
because it is acting as a primary key attribute for the Student table. It means that
both the Student and Department table are linked with one another because of the
Stud_Id attribute.

In the below-shown figure, you can view the following structure of the relationship
between the two tables.
Relational Algebra
Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by step process to
obtain the result of the query. It uses operators to perform queries.

Types of Relational operation

1. Select Operation:

o The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

o It is denoted by sigma (σ).

1. Notation:  σ p(r) 
 σ is used for selection prediction
r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like: AND OR
and NOT. These relational can use as relational operators like =, ≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.

For example: LOAN Relation

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMOUNT
Input:

Downtown L-17 1000

1. σ BRANCH_NAME="perry
ride" (LOAN)  
Redwood L-23 2000
Output:
Perryride L-15 1500

Downtown L-14 1500

Mianus L-13 500

Roundhill L-11 900

Perryride L-16 1300

BRANCH_NAME LOAN_NO AMO

Perryride L-15 1500

Perryride L-16 1300

2. Project Operation:

o This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to appear in the result.
Rest of the attributes are eliminated from the table.
o It is denoted by ∏.

1. Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)   

Where
A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

NAME STREET CITY

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye

Hays Main Harrison

Curry North Rye

Johnson Alma Brooklyn

Brooks Senator Brooklyn

Input:

1. ∏ NAME, CITY (CUSTOMER)  

Output:

NAME CITY

Jones Harrison

Smith Rye

Hays Harrison

Curry Rye

Johnson Brooklyn

Brooks Brooklyn
3. Union Operation:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation contains all the tuples
that are either in R or S or both in R & S.
o It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.

1. Notation: R ∪ S   

A union operation must hold the following condition:

o R and S must have the attribute of the same number.

o Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

Example:

CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO

Johnson A-101

Smith A-121

Mayes A-321

Turner A-176

Johnson A-273

Jones A-472

Lindsay A-284

DEPOSITOR RELATION

BORROW RELATION

CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO
 Jones L-17

Smith L-23

Hayes L-15

Jackson L-14

Curry L-93

Smith L-11

Williams L-17

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∪ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)  

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Johnson

Smith

Hayes

Turner

Jones

Lindsay

Jackson

Curry
 Williams

Mayes

4. Set Intersection:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all
tuples that are in both R & S.
o It is denoted by intersection ∩.

1. Notation: R ∩ S   

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)  

Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Smith

Jones

5. Set Difference:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection operation contains all
tuples that are in R but not in S.
o It is denoted by intersection minus (-).

1. Notation: R - S  

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) - ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)  
Output:

CUSTOMER_NAME

Jackson

Hayes

Willians

Curry

6. Cartesian product

o The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table with each row in the
other table. It is also known as a cross product.
o It is denoted by X.

1. Notation: E X D  

Example:
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT

1 Smith A

2 Harry C

3 John B

DEPARTMENT

DEPT_NO DEPT_NAME
 A Marketing

B Sales

C Legal

Input:

1. EMPLOYEE X DEPARTMENT  

Output:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_DEPT DEPT_NO

1 Smith A A

1 Smith A B

1 Smith A C

2 Harry C A

2 Harry C B

2 Harry C C

3 John B A

3 John B B

3 John B C

7. Rename Operation:
The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation to

STUDENT1.
1. ρ(STUDENT1, STUDENT)