TOPICS TO BE COVERED

A. SENTIMENT AND MORAL

DECISION-MAKING
B. FEELINGS AND REASON
C. THE MORAL IMPETUS OF
IMPARTIALITY
D. THE SEVEN-STEP GUIDE TO
MORAL REASONING
E. MORAL COURAGE
F. VICE AND VIRTUE
G. PHYSICAL AND MORAL COURAGE
https://www.revechat.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/What-is-customer-sentiment-analysis.jpg H. THE MORAL IMPERATIVE OF THE
WILL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Establish the role sentiment,
reason, and courage play
in ethical and moral decision‐
making;
2. Elaborate on the philosophical
ideas that strengthen
sentiment, reason, and courage,
and their link to morality and
ethics
https://i.ytimg.com/vi/xFLNQVM51AU/maxresdefault.jpg
3. Outline the significance of
sentiment when making
moral and ethical valuations;
4. Outline the significance of
reason when making
moral and ethical valuations;
5. Outline the significance of the
will when making
moral and ethical valuations;
6. Define courage and specify the
nuances between its
https://img.freepik.com/free-photo/high-competition-business-cloud-winner_1323-56.jpg?size=626&ext=jpg two classifications (physical and
moral).
 


THE ETHICS OF SENTIMENT,

REASON AND COURAGE
   
The 18th century
philosopher David Hume, in his
Scottish Ultimately, sentiments serve as the
true grounding principle of morality, Question:
work, A Treatise of Human Nature, not reason In the beginning of An


furthered the idea that morality is Enquiry Concerning the Principle of
based not on reason but on Morals (1983), David Hume states:
emotions. “They (reason) discover truths: But
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive where the truths which they
to the will, but rather is the “slave
of the passions”;
2. Moral distinctions are not derived
discover are indifferent and beget
no desire or aversion, they can have
no influence on conduct and  


  


from reason; behavior. What is honorable, what is

3. Moral distinctions are derived fair, what is becoming, what is noble,
from moral sentiments; that is, the what is generous, takes possession



feeling of approval (esteem, praise) of the heart, and animates us to
and disapproval (blame) felt by embrace and maintain it. What is
spectators who contemplate a intelligible, what is evident, what is

  

character trait or action; probable, what is true, produce only
4. While some virtues and vices are the cool assent of the
natural, others, including justice, understanding… extinguish all the
are artificial. warm feelings and prepossessions in



favor of virtue, and all disgust or

The way Hume sees it, the reliance aversion to vice: Render men totally
on reason alone simply cannot indifferent towards those



suffice when making moral distinctions; and morality is no
valuations. “Hume’s Law,” as what longer a practical study, nor has any
English moral philosopher R.M. Hare tendency to regulate our lives and
(2014) calls it, advances the thought actions.”
that a moral imperative, or an
“ought”, cannot proceed from an
“is”, or a mere factual observation.
(Rayner, 2005).

ETHICS Prof. Baguioet | b b29

   

 
   

 
  

       
 
 
    
 
    
 
 
       

  

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Say there is a cop and a bank There is no such thing as an

robber. Both are rational in that objective moral truth, only QUESTION:
they employ proper reasoning in subjective moral judgments
accomplishing certain objectives,
be it apprehending outlaws or
anchored on feelings.

pulling off a heist job. But for
obvious reasons, they are not
According to Immanuel Kant, Man
 


  

as a moral agent can only attain
moral equals.
virtue if feelings play no significant
In other words, man’s decision to
act morally is not exclusively
role in making decisions.



ensconced in reason. For Hume,

reason only strives to determine
For Kant, man’s moral agency can
only be perfected if decisions are

truths present in the
realities of objects. Furthermore,
external based solely on rationality and not
 



on passions, which he sees as an

reason only informs us about what
enemy of virtue (Churchland, 1996).
transpired and how. So, in
assessing the moral value (or lack
thereof) of an incident that man
  
empirically bears witness to or
participates in, logically, he must
turn to his feelings.
â¬¯“Ü 

The concept of grace. In deciding on important matters,

no approach is more appropriate than a moral one.
Morality, after all, is first and foremost a matter of
consulting reason (Rachels, 2003). Given that feelings
sometimes get the better of people when choosing where
to stand on issues, sound moral reasoning must play an
even more critical role, hence this chapter.
As naturally gratifying as it is to welcome arguments that
confirm our views, it is also expected of us to do the
same, without favor, to those advanced by the opposing
side. Not doing so courts what Leon Festinger (1962)
labels as cognitive dissonance.

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Prejudice is an intrinsic flaw in human thought, so in
order to keep intact the moral soundness of a decision,
one must pay heed to facts. Though here arises a pressing
question: How do we exactly ascertain if something is
factual or not?

Unfortunately, there is no fixed formula in doing so!

Though facts nevertheless act as shield against potent
emotional appeals designed to either change or further
reinforce one’s opinion.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Those who suffered from leprosy (or Hansen’s Disease)
back in the Middle Ages were expelled from mainstream
society and resettled in “leper colonies” due to the
https://images.ctfassets.net/yixw23k2v6vo/7s4zNeY unfounded belief that the disease is incurable and
RbT5AdwlWCn7yaV/7d72f89ac1a49a826fda847f1ba
spreads fast. The heavy physical disfigurements of the
f7808/dominik-jirovsky-Ezanmmtkna8-unsplash.jpg?
w=600&h=400&fm=jpg&fit=thumb&q=65&fl=progr sufferers proved enough to frighten people, despite later
essive scientific evidences pointing to the contrary.
 RE AS ON
AND
I MPART I ALI T Y
In short, reason and impartiality, as guided by sound
judgment, can be reliable tools in bypassing the
subjectivity of feelings (which sometimes
distract from making the right decisions).


   
 


THE MORAL IMPETUS OF IMPARTIALITY

Impartiality simply states that no one is above or
beneath any standard when making moral
valuations. So, favoring one person over another
on the sole basis of race or skin color, for instance,
is never justifiable. Moral judgments, after all,
should be backed by reason. (Rachels, 2003)

In that regard, using complexion/skin color (or

sexual preference and religious orientation, for
that matter) as guiding principle when making
moral valuations on people is not only invalid but
also morally indefensible.

The Antebellum era, the period in the American

South leading up to the Civil War when racism (i.e.
the enslavement of black people) was not only a
norm but also a lucrative industry, is one historical
example of when moral impartiality was not
properly observed. The Philippines under Spanish
colonial rule is another, a time when the natives
(called “indios”) were discriminated against mainly
due to their inferior physical appearance and their
perceived laziness (a claim without evidence).

REASON AND IMPARTIALITY IN THE FIRST

AMENDMENT DEFENSE ACT (FADA)
The so‐called First Amendment Defense Act (FADA)
was introduced in the United States Congress in
June 10, 2015 by Senator Mike Lee of Utah and
House Representative Raul Labrador of Ohio. This
controversial bill, if passed into law, will protect
people who will take actions against others “on the
basis that they acted in accordance with a religious
belief or moral conviction” from being penalized by
the federal government. Its scope will cover acts of
discrimination committed against the third sex that
are premised on the idea that:
https://i.pinimg.com/736x/d7/01/09/d7010989654cfe5e3fb05e6c614faef3.jpg
  

1. Marriage is or should be recognized 6. Come up with a choice or decision based on

the above-mentioned steps.
as the union of one man and woman, or
7.Review Steps 1–6.
2. Sexual relations are properly
reserved to such a marriage (like the What can you do to prevent making such a
example above). decision again? Are there precautions to take?
What changes should be affected on an
organizational and personal level (such as
Is FADA legislating hate against
reviewing policy or being a more discerning
the LGBTQ community? Or is it protecting employee, among others)? Would it be possible
people from being discriminated for to get more support next time?
standing up for their religious beliefs?
MORAL COURAGE

  
   To thoroughly interrogate man’s character, one
should raise the question, “WHAT IS THE GOOD
   OF MAN?”

The answer to this, quite simplistically, is the

1. State the problem.
soul’s adherence to virtue. Virtue, as defined by
2. Check the facts Aristotle, is a character trait that manifests in
3. Identify relevant factors. the habitual performance of a set of behavioral
4. Develop a list of options. cues.
5. Test the options.
Take for example a compassionate individual.
He/she never demonstrates compassion only on
-Harm Test (Would less harm be done occasions, for this is a defining (and
on other people when I favor this one unchangeable) aspect of his/her character. In
decision over the others?) other words, he/she must be compassionate at
all times.

-Publicity Test (Would I be proud of The abovementioned definition of virtue,

this decision if it makes the evening though relatively all‐encompassing, is rather
news? Would I want my loved ones to incomplete.
know?)
VIRTUE is a trait of character, manifested in
habitual action, that is good for a person to
-Defensibility Test have (Rachels, 2003). This extends to moral
(Would I be able to defend this decision virtues as well, courage included.
before the court or a panel of reviewers
COURAGE DEFINED
without appearing self‐serving?)
COURAGE is that which sits between the
-Organization Test extremes of cowardice and recklessness, the
(What would my company’s (or same way virtue does between excess and
deficiency. Courage resides at the nexus point
organization’s) ethics officials and/or
of danger and endurance, and can be classified
legal counsel say regarding the option?) as either physical or moral.

-Virtue Test COWARDICE is either retreat or complete

(What kind of person would also choose inaction in the face of adversity, while
recklessness is immature risk‐taking.
such an option? Is he/she who someone
might consider as “virtuous”? What
would become of me if I enact this
  



Conventional wisdom implies that PHYSICAL AND MORAL COURAGE

courage is a deeply‐held military
Physical courage is the enactment of virtue through
virtue (though there exists a more actual activity. Conversely, moral courage is never
specific term for it: belligerence), always demonstrated on a strictly physical level.
as it is obviously a prerequisite in Instead, moral courage engages in such acts serves
combat. In engaging an enemy on mainly to further typify the virtues one lives by.

a physical level, there is evident Champion boxer Muhammad Ali known for his physical
danger that only the absence of courage as an athlete, was stripped of his heavyweight
fear in man can hurdle. title in 1967 due to his refusal to be drafted in
Vietnam and subsequently fight in what he believes to
be an ideologically detestable war. His activism, an
But courage serves an equally
offshoot of his perceived moral courage, has cost him
important function in the lives of his career during this period.
people outside the army. In fact,
it can be present even in the most But moral courage is not only exclusive to larger‐than‐
ostensibly harmless of life figures of history like Ali, for ordinary people can
also demonstrate it in equally ordinary scenarios
environments. A frail student across different settings. When the world entered the
standing up to the resident bully 21st century, courage as manifest virtue began to
in a school setting, though in no steadily depart from the trappings of war (where true
way comparable to a military courage can be found, according to Aristotle) and into
the struggles of everyday life. Suddenly, everyone can
skirmish, is nevertheless courage
be actors in their own moral dramas.
manifest. So is a patient battling
cancer. Or a fisherman braving QUESTION:
the waves to provide food for his What are the pros and cons of courage as a virtue?
family.
MORAL
COURAGE: DETERMINANTS
To Peter Geach (1956), courage is
what is constantly needed in the Bystander Effect (or “Bystander Apathy”)
ordinary course of life because -revealed that people respond to emergency situations,
where victims’ safety are much evidently at stake,
the human body is vulnerable to
quicker and with little regard for the bystander effect
risk. After all, belligerence in compared to ordinary helping situations In short,
battle does not automatically moral courage is rather easy to arouse in truly dire
equate to virtue. Thus, a solider, scenarios, thus removing the “Bystander Effect” as a
no matter how courageous, is genuine determinant.

never virtuous if he fights for an MOOD

unworthy cause. Illustrative of -It is said that people are more likely to help others if
this are Schutzstaffel (SS) army they are in a positive mood, because doing so is seen as
units that carried out orders in a factor in prolonging it.
the name of a wicked ideology
Mood also plays an important role on whether or not a
(Nazism). person chooses to demonstrate helping behavior.
Furthermore, those in a neutral to negative mood state
were also seen to augment their prosocial behavior
because it is believed to counter a bad mood. It was
subsequently revealed that neither of the three mood
states (positive, negative, neutral) affects one’s
capacity for moral courage in any way, as it varies
depending on the situation
 MORAL COURAGE: FOSTERING FACTORS    
      


 
SOCIAL NORMS:

           


predominantly the most salient prosocial ones, in  
encouraging morally courageous acts. 
ANGER: Morally         
    
courageous acts are often caused by moral outrage, 

     

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ETTHICS PLV

Worksheet 4.1
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages when a person makes moral valuations based solely on feelings?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages when a person makes moral valuations based solely on impartiality?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 How do you think can moral impartiality help in resolving societal issues such as racism and sexism?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What social media sites do you use? How do these contribute to the development of your moral character?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What other steps do you think can be added to Michael Davis’ Seven-Step Guide to Moral Reasoning? Justify.
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

ETHICS | 37
ETTHICS PLV

6. What are the pros and cons or courage as a virtue? Explain each.
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Which do you think is more important between moral courage and physical courage? Why?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Why do you think some people are more courageous than others?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

9. How does will, as a component of morality, stack up compared to feelings and impartiality?
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Narrate your ‘kwento ng kabutihan’ for the past week.

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

ETHICS | 37