2_ Data collection Methods

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 Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to know

 Identify the different methods & techniques of data collection and
criterion that we use to select a method of data collection

 Define a questionnaire, identify the different parts of a questionnaire

and indicate the procedures to prepare a questionnaire

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 Data Collection methods

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 Introduction

 Before any statistical work can be done data must be

collected

 Depending on the type of variable and the objective of the

study different data collection methods can be employed

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 cont’d

 Data collection techniques allow us to systematically collect data

about our objects of study (people, objects, and phenomena) and
about the setting in which they occur

 In the collection of data we have to be systematic

 If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our

research questions in a conclusive way

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 cont’d
 Various data collection techniques can be used such as:
 Observation

 Face-to-face and self-administered interviews

 Postal or mail method and telephone interviews

 Using available information

 Focus group discussions (FGD)

 in-depth interview and

 others

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 Observation

 Observation is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching

and recoding behaviors of people or other phenomena and aspects of the
setting in which they occur, for the purpose of getting (gaining) specified
information

 It includes all methods from simple visual observations to the use of high
level machines and measurements, sophisticated equipment or facilities,
such as radiographic, biochemical, X-ray machines, microscope, clinical
examinations, and microbiological examination

 Outline the guidelines for the observations prior to actual data collection

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 cont’d

Advantages:

Gives relatively more accurate data on behavior and activities

Disadvantages:

Investigators or observer’s own biases, prejudice, desires, and etc. and needs
more resources and skilled human power during the use of high level
machines

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 Interviews and self-administered questionnaire
 Interviews and self-administered questionnaires are probably the most
commonly used research data collection techniques

 Therefore, designing good “questioning tools” forms an important and

time consuming phase in the development of most research proposals

 Once the decision has been made to use these techniques, the following
questions should be considered before designing our tools:

 What exactly do we want to know, according to the objectives and

variables we identified earlier?

 Is questioning the right technique to obtain all answers, or do we need

additional techniques, such as observations or analysis of records?

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 cont’d
 Of whom will we ask questions and what techniques will we use?

 Do we understand the topic sufficiently to design a questionnaire, or

do we need some loosely structured interviews with key informants or
a focus group discussion first to orient ourselves?

 Are our informants mainly literate or illiterate? If illiterate, the use of

self-administered questionnaires is not an option

 How large is the sample that will be interviewed? Studies with many
respondents often use shorter, highly structured questionnaires,
whereas smaller studies allow more flexibility and may use
questionnaires with a number of open-ended questions

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 cont’d

 Once the decision has been made Interviews may be less or more
structured

 Unstructured interview is flexible, the content wording and order of the

questions vary from interview to interview

 The investigators only have idea of what they want to learn but do not
decide in advance exactly what questions will be asked, or in what order

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 cont’d

 In other situations, a more standardized technique may be used, the

wording and order of the questions being decided in advance

 This may take the form of a highly structured interview, in which the
questions are asked orderly, or a self administered questionnaire, in which
case the respondent reads the questions and fill in the answers by himself
(sometimes in the presence of an interviewer who ‘stands by’ to give
assistance if necessary)

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 cont’d
 Standardized methods of asking questions are usually preferred in
community medicine research, since they provide more assurance that the
data will be reproducible

 Less structured interviews may be useful in a preliminary survey, where the

purpose is to obtain information to help in the subsequent planning of a
study rather than factors for analysis, and in intensive studies of
perceptions, attitudes, motivation and affective reactions

 Unstructured interviews are characteristic of qualitative (non-quantitative)

research

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 cont’d

 The use of self-administered questionnaires is simpler and cheaper; such

questionnaires can be administered to many persons simultaneously (e.g. to a class
of students), and unlike interviews, can be sent by post

 On the other hand, they demand a certain level of education and skill on the part of
the respondents; people of a low socio-economic status are less likely to respond to
a mailed questionnaire

 In interviewing using questionnaire, the investigator appoints agents known as

enumerators, who go to the respondents personally with the questionnaire, ask
them the questions given there in, and record their replies

 They can be either face-to-face or telephone interviews

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 Face-to-face and telephone interviews
 Have many advantages
 A good interviewer can stimulate and maintain the respondent’s interest,
and can create a rapport (understanding, concord) and atmosphere
conducive to the answering of questions
 If anxiety aroused, the interviewer can allay it
 If a question is not understood an interviewer can repeat it and if
necessary (and in accordance with guidelines decided in advance) provide
an explanation or alternative wording
 Optional follow-up or probing questions that are to be asked
only if prior responses are inconclusive or inconsistent cannot easily be
built into self-administered questionnaires
 In face-to-face interviews, observations can be made as well
 In general, apart from their expenses, interviews are preferable to self-
administered questionnaire, with the important proviso that they are
conducted by skilled interviewers

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 Mailed Questionnaire Method
 Under this method, the investigator prepares a questionnaire containing a
number of questions pertaining the field of inquiry

 The questionnaires are sent by post to the informants together with a polite
covering letter explaining the detail, the aims and objectives of collecting the
information, and requesting the respondents to cooperate by furnishing the
correct replies and returning the questionnaire duly filled in

 In order to ensure quick response, the return postage expenses are usually
borne by the investigator

 The main problems with postal questionnaire are that response rates tend to be
relatively low, and that there may be under representation of less literate
subjects

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 Use of documentary sources

 Clinical and other personal records, death certificates, published mortality

statistics, census publications, etc

 Examples include:

 Official publications of Central Statistical Authority

 Publication of Ministry of Health and Other Ministries

 News Papers and Journals

 International Publications like Publications by WHO, World

Bank, UNICEF

 Records of hospitals or any Health Institutions

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 cont’d

 During the use of data from documents, though they are less time

consuming and relatively have low cost, care should be taken on the

quality and completeness of the data

 There could be differences in objectives between the primary author of the

data and the user

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 Problems in gathering data

 It is important to recognize some of the main problems that

may be faced when collecting data so that they can be

addressed in the selection of appropriate collection methods

and in the training of the staff involved

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 Common problems might include:

 Language barriers

 Lack of adequate time

 Expense

 Inadequately trained and experienced staff

 Invasion of privacy

 Suspicion

 Bias (spatial, project, person, season, diplomatic,

professional)

 Cultural norms (e.g. which may preclude men interviewing women)

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 Choosing a Method of Data Collection

 Decision-makers need information that is relevant, timely, accurate and

usable

 The cost of obtaining, processing and analyzing these data is high

 The challenge is to find ways, which lead to information that is cost-

effective, relevant, timely and important for immediate use

 Some methods pay attention to timeliness and reduction in cost

 Others pay attention to accuracy and the strength of the method in using
scientific approaches

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Methods of data collection summary
Types of data Data type by source Methods of data
collection
Qualitative Primary FGD

Primary In-depth – interview

primary Observation

Quantitative Primary / secondary Questionnaires

-open/closed
-Structured
-Self/Interviewer
administered
Primary / secondary -Observation
-Use of documentary
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sources 22
 Sources of Data

 The statistical data may be classified under two categories, depending upon
the sources

1) Primary data

2) Secondary data

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 Primary Data

 Are those data, which are collected by the investigator himself

for the purpose of a specific inquiry or study

 Such data are original in character and are mostly generated by

surveys conducted by individuals or research institutions

 The first hand information obtained by the investigator is more

reliable and accurate since the investigator can extract the
correct information by removing doubts, if any, in the minds of
the respondents regarding certain questions

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 High response rates might be obtained since
the answers to various questions are obtained
on the spot

 It permits explanation of questions concerning

difficult subject matter

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 Secondary Data
 When an investigator uses data, which have already been collected by others,
such data are called "Secondary Data"

 Such data are primary data for the agency that collected them, and become
secondary for someone else who uses these data for his own purposes

 The secondary data can be obtained from journals, reports, government

publications, publications of professionals and research organizations

 Secondary data are less expensive to collect both in money and time

 These data can also be better utilized and sometimes the quality of such data
may be better because these might have been collected by persons who were
specially trained for that purpose

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 On the other hand, such data must be used with great care, because such
data may also be full of errors due to the fact that the purpose of the
collection of the data by the primary agency may have been different from
the purpose of the user of these secondary data

 Secondly, there may have been bias introduced, the size of the sample may
have been inadequate, or there may have been arithmetic or definition
errors, hence, it is necessary to critically investigate the validity of the
secondary data

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 In general, the choice of methods of data collection is largely based on the
accuracy of the information they yield

 In this context, ‘accuracy’ refers not only to correspondence between the

information and objective reality - although this certainly enters into the
concept - but also to the information’s relevance

 This issue is the extent to which the method will provide a precise measure
of the variable the investigator wishes to study

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 The investigator’s familiarity with a study procedure may be a valid
consideration

 It comes as no particular surprise to discover that a scientist formulates

problems in a way which requires for their solution just those techniques in
which he himself is specially skilled

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 The selection of the method of data collection is also based on
practical considerations, such as:

1. The need for personnel, skills, equipment, etc. in relation to

what is available and the urgency with which results are
needed

2. The acceptability of the procedures to the subjects - the

absence of inconvenience, unpleasantness, or untoward
consequences
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3. The probability that the method will provide a good coverage, i.e. will
supply the required information about all or almost all members of the
population or sample

• If many people will not know the answer to the question, the
question is not an appropriate one

 The investigator’s familiarity with a study procedure may be a valid

consideration

 It comes as no particular surprise to discover that a scientist formulates

problems in a way which requires for their solution just those techniques in

which he himself is specially skilled

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Difference between Primary and Secondary Data
Primary Data Secondary Data
 Real time data.  Past data.
 Sure about sources of data.  Not sure about sources
 Help to give results/finding of data.
 Costly and Time  Refining the problem.
consuming process.  Cheap and no time
 Avoid biasness of response consuming process.
data  Can not know in data
 More flexible. biasness or not
 Less Flexible.

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 Types of Questions

 Before examining the steps in designing a questionnaire, we need to review

the types of questions used in questionnaires

 Depending on how questions are asked and recorded we can distinguish

two major possibilities - Open –ended questions, and closed questions

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 Open-ended questions

 Open-ended questions permit free responses that should be recorded in

the respondent’s own words

 The respondent is not given any possible answers to choose from

 Such questions are useful to obtain information on:

 Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar,

 Opinions, attitudes, and suggestions of informants, or

 Sensitive issues

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 For example:

 “Can you describe exactly what the traditional birth attendant did
when your labor started?”

 “What do you think are the reasons for a high drop-out rate of village
health committee members?”

 “What would you do if you noticed that your daughter (school girl) had
a relationship with a teacher?”

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 Closed Questions

 Closed questions offer a list of possible options or answers from which the
respondents must choose When designing closed questions one should try
to:

 Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and mutually exclusive

 Keep the number of options as few as possible

 Closed questions are useful if the range of possible responses is known

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For example:

o “What is your marital status?

1. Single
2. Married/living together
3. Separated/divorced/widowed

o “Have your every gone to the local village health worker for treatment?
1. Yes
2. No

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 Closed questions may also be used if one is only interested in certain aspects of
an issue and does not want to waste the time of the respondent and
interviewer by obtaining more information than one needs

 For example: a researcher who is only interested in the protein content of a

family diet may ask:

“Did you eat any of the following foods yesterday? (Circle yes or no for each
set of items)
 Peas, bean, lentils Yes No
 Fish or meat Yes No
 Eggs Yes No
 Milk or Cheese Yes No

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 Closed questions may be used as well to get the respondents to express their
opinions by choosing rating points on a scale

For example:

“How useful would you say the activities of the Village Health
Committee have been in the development of this village?”
1. Extremely useful Ο
2. Very useful Ο
3. Useful Ο
4. Not very useful Ο
5. Not useful at all Ο

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 Requirements of questions

 Must have face validity – that is the question that we design should be one
that give an obviously valid and relevant measurement for the variable

 For example, it may be self-evident that records kept in an

obstetrics ward will provide a more valid indication of birth
weights than information obtained by questioning mothers

 Must be clear and unambiguous – the way in which questions are worded
can ‘make or break’ a questionnaire

 Questions must be clear and unambiguous

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  They must be phrased in language that it is believed the respondent
will understand, and that all respondents will understand in the same
way

 To ensure clarity, each question should contain only one idea; ‘double-
barreled’ questions like ‘Do you take your child to a doctor when he
has a cold or has diarrhoea?’ are difficult to answer, and the answers
are difficult to interpret

 Must not be offensive – whenever possible it is wise to avoid questions that

may offend the respondent, for example those that deal with intimate matters,
those which may seem to expose the respondent’s ignorance, and those
requiring him to give a socially unacceptable answer

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 The questions should be fair - They should not be phrased in a way that
suggests a specific answer, and should not be loaded

 Short questions are generally regarded as preferable to long

ones

 Sensitive questions - It may not be possible to avoid asking ‘sensitive’

questions that may offend respondents, e.g. those that seem to expose the
respondent’s ignorance

 In such situations the interviewer (questioner) should do it

very carefully and wisely

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 Steps in Designing a Questionnaire
 Designing a good questionnaire always takes several drafts

 In the first draft we should concentrate on the content

 In the second, we should look critically at the formulation and sequencing of

the questions

 Then we should scrutinize the format of the questionnaire

 Finally, we should do a test-run to check whether the questionnaire gives us the

information we require and whether both the respondents and we feel at ease
with it

 Usually the questionnaire will need some further adaptation before we can use
it for actual data collection

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Step1:Content
Take your objectives and variables as your starting point

 Decide what questions will be needed to measure or to define your

variables and reach your objectives

 When developing the questionnaire, you should reconsider the variables

you have chosen, and, if necessary, add, drop or change some

 You may even change some of your objectives at this stage

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 Step 2: Formulating questions

Formulate one or more questions that will provide the information needed for
each variable

 Take care that questions are specific and precise enough that
different respondents do not interpret them differently

 For example, a question such as: “Where do community members usually seek
treatment when they are sick?” cannot be asked in such a general way because
each respondent may have something different in mind when answering the
question:

• One informant may think of measles with complications and say he goes to
the hospital, another of cough and say goes to the private pharmacy;

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 • Even if both think of the same disease, they may have different
degrees of seriousness in mind and thus answer differently;

• In all cases, self-care may be overlooked

 The question, therefore, as rule has to be broken up into different parts and
made so specific that all informants focus on the same thing

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For example,

 one could:

• Concentrate on illness that has occurred in the family over the past 14
days and ask what has been done to treat if from the onset; or

• Concentrate on a number of diseases, ask whether they have occurred

in the family over the past X months (chronic or serious diseases have a
longer recall period than minor ailments) and what has been done to
treat each of them from the onset

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Check whether each question measures one thing at a time

 For example, the question, ''How large an interval would you and your
husband prefer between two successive births?''

 would better be divided into two questions because husband and wife may
have different opinions on the preferred interval

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Avoid leading questions
 A question is leading if it suggests a certain answer
 For example, the question, ''Do you agree that the district health team
should visit each health center monthly?'' hardly leaves room for “no” or
for other options
 Better would be: “Do you think that district health teams should visit each
health center? If yes, how often?”
 Sometimes, a question is leading because it presupposes a certain
condition
 For example: “What action did you take when your child had diarrhoea the
last time?” presupposes the child has had diarrhoea
 A better set of questions would be: “Has your child had diarrhoea?
 If yes, when was the last time?” “Did you do anything to treat it? If yes,
what?”

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 Step 3: Sequencing of questions
Design your interview schedule or questionnaire to be “consumer friendly”

 The sequence of questions must be logical for the respondent and allow
as much as possible for a “natural” discussion, even in more structured
interviews
 At the beginning of the interview, keep questions concerning “background
variables” (e.g., age, religion, education, marital status, or occupation) to a
minimum
• If possible, pose most or all of these questions later in the
interview (Respondents may be reluctant to provide “personal”
information early in an interview)

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 Start with an interesting but non-controversial question (preferably open) that is directly
related to the subject of the study
• This type of beginning should help to raise the informants’ interest and lessen
suspicions concerning the purpose of the interview (e.g., that it will be used to
provide information to use in levying taxes)

 Pose more sensitive questions as late as possible in the interview (e.g., questions
pertaining to income, sexual behavior, or diseases with stigma attached to them, etc

 Use simple everyday language

 Make the questionnaire as short as possible

• Conduct the interview in two parts if the nature of the topic requires a long
questionnaire (more than 1 hour)

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Step 4: Formatting the questionnaire

When you finalize your questionnaire, be sure that:

 Each questionnaire has a heading and space to insert the number, data and
location of the interview, and, if required the name of the informant

• You may add the name of the interviewer to facilitate quality control

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 Layout is such that questions belonging together appear together visually

• If the questionnaire is long, you may use subheadings for groups of

questions

 Sufficient space is provided for answers to open-ended questions

 Boxes for pre-categorized answers are placed in a consistent manner half of

the page

 Your questionnaire should not only be consumer but also user friendly!

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 Step 5: Translation

 If interview will be conducted in one or more local languages, the

questionnaire has to be translated to standardize the way questions will be
asked

 After having it translated you should have it retranslated into the original
language

 You can then compare the two versions for differences and make a decision
concerning the final phrasing of difficult concepts

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 • THANKS

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