Radiation Merged

Foundation of Radiation
Electromagnetic waves or radiation: The accelerated charges or changing electric currents give
rise to electric and magnetic fields.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ME 311 (Conduction & Radiation)
 Represent the energy emitted by matter as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations
of the atoms or molecules.
 Electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves, and all electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light in a vacuum
𝑐
 Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency, ν or wavelength, λ . (λ = )
ν
𝑪𝒐
 C = The speed of propagation of a wave in that medium. 𝑪 = 𝒏
, where n is the index of
refraction of that medium and the speed of light in a vacuum (𝐶𝑜 = 3 *108 m/s)
 The refractive index is essentially 1 for air and most gases, about 1.5 for glass, and about 1.33
for water
 The frequency of an electromagnetic wave depends only on the source and does not depend on
the medium through which the wave travels.
Radiation
Lecture 6
 Electromagnetic radiation as the propagation of a collection of photons or quanta (discrete

ℎ𝑐
packets of energy). Each photon of frequency is considered to have an energy of 𝑒 = ℎν =
λ
Page # 1 M. A. Islam
Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a
result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
 Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium
 In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation
in a vacuum
 In heat transfer studies focus is on thermal radiation
 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation
 Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases, emit, absorb, or
transmit radiation to varying degrees
Radiation
Lecture 6
 Radiation usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids that are opaque to
thermal radiation such as metals, wood, and rocks
Thermal Radiation
 Waves of different wavelength differ significantly in their behavior
 The electromagnetic radiation encountered in practice covers a wide

range of wavelengths𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝝁𝒎 < 𝝀 < 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝝁𝒎.
Mechanism of different types of electromagnetic radiation

 Gamma rays are produced by nuclear reactions
 X-rays by the bombardment of metals with high-energy electrons
 Microwaves by electron tubes such as klystrons and magnetrons
 Radio waves by the excitation of some crystals or by the flow of
alternating current through electric conductors.
 Thermal radiation due to energy transitions of molecules, atoms, and
electrons of a substance
 Solar radiation due to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun
Radiation
Lecture 6
Thermal Radiation
The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from about 0.1 to 100 𝝁𝒎.
Figure : Thermal radiation emission [1] Figure: Different color ranges [1]
 All matter whose temperature is above absolute zero continuously emits thermal radiation as a
result of vibrational and rotational motions of molecules, atoms, and electrons of a substance.
 The rate of thermal radiation emission increases with increasing temperature.
 Thermal radiation includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well as a portion of the
ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
 Light, or the visible spectrum, consists of narrow bands of color from violet (0.40–0.44 𝝁𝒎) to
Radiation
Lecture 6
red (0.63–0.76 𝜇𝑚)
Blackbody : A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
 At a specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody
 A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.
 A blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to direction
of emission.
Distinction between the idealized blackbody and an ordinary black surface.
 Any surface that absorbs light (the visible portion of radiation) would appear black to the eye,
and a surface that reflects it completely would appear white.
 Snow and white paint reflect light and thus appear white. But they are essentially black for
infrared radiation since they strongly absorb long-wavelength radiation.
Radiation
Lecture 6
 Surfaces coated with lampblack paint approach idealized blackbody behavior.

 Another type of body that closely resembles a blackbody is a large cavity with a small opening,
as shown in Figure
Stefan Boltzmann's law : The emission of thermal radiation is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature
 The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area was
determined experimentally as
𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈 𝑻𝟒 (𝐖/𝒎𝟐 )
Eb is called the total blackbody emissive power, T is the temperature in Kelvin and 𝜎 is a physical
constant known as Stefan Boltzman constant which have the value
−𝟖
𝑾
𝝈 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒎𝟐 𝑲𝟒
The law is verified in an experiment with the heat source by demonstrating the dependency of
the measured radiation on the fourth power of the temperature of the heat source.
The spectral blackbody emissive power: The amount of radiation energy emitted by a blackbody
at an absolute temperature T per unit time, per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength about the
wavelength
𝑪𝟏 𝐖
𝑬𝒔𝒃 =
Radiation
Lecture 6
𝝀𝟓 [𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝑪𝟐 /𝝀𝑻 − 𝟏] 𝒎𝟐 𝝁𝒎
T is the absolute temperature of the surface, λ is the wavelength of the radiation emitted, and k =
1.38065 * 10-23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant
ME 311 (Conduction & Radiation) Lecture 6
Department of Mechanical Engineering Radiation
 The emitted radiation is a continuous function of

wavelength.
 At any wavelength, the amount of emitted radiation
increases with increasing temperature.
 As temperature increases, the curves shift to the left to the
shorter wavelength region.
 The radiation emitted by the sun, which is considered to be
a blackbody at 5780 K (or roughly at 5800 K), reaches its
peak in the visible region of the spectrum. Therefore, the
sun is in tune with our eyes.
Fig.: Spectral blackbody emissive power
Wien’s displacement law: The wavelength at which the peak occurs for a specified temperature
𝝀𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 2897.8 𝝁m · K
Example: The peak of the solar radiation, for example, occurs at 2897.8/ 5780 0.50 𝝁 m, which is
near the middle of the visible range. The peak of the radiation emitted by a surface at room temperature
(T 298 K) occurs at 9.72 𝝁 m, which is well into the infrared region of the spectrum.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Consider a 20-cm-diameter spherical ball at 800 K suspended in air as shown in Figure.
Assuming the ball closely approximates a blackbody, determine (a) the total blackbody emissive
power, (b) the total amount of radiation emitted by the ball in 5 min, and (c) the spectral blackbody
emissive power at a wavelength of 3 m
Radiation
Lecture 6
The Stefan–Boltzmann law 𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈 𝑻𝟒 (𝐖/𝒎𝟐 ) gives the total radiation emitted by a blackbody at all
wavelengths from 0 to ∞.
 Often interested in the amount of radiation emitted over some wavelength band.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Blackbody radiation function: The function represents the fraction of radiation emitted from a
blackbody at temperature T in the wavelength band from 0 to 𝝀
Radiation
Lecture 6
Lecture 6 ME 311 (Conduction & Radiation)
Radiation Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page # 12
M. A. Islam
Example: The temperature of the filament of an incandescent lightbulb is 2500 K. Assuming the
filament to be a blackbody, determine the fraction of the radiant energy emitted by the filament that
falls in the visible range. Also, determine the wavelength at which the emission of radiation from
the filament peaks
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiation intensity: The rate at which radiation energy is emitted in the (, ) direction per unit
area normal to this direction and per unit solid angle about this direction.
 Radiation intensity is used to describe how the emitted radiation varies with the zenith and
azimuth angles
 Rate of radiant energy propagation in a particular direction, per unit area normal to the
direction, per unit solid angle about the direction
 Radiation emitted by a blackbody per unit normal area is the same in all directions, But this
is not the case for real surfaces
Radiation intensity
Radiation
Lecture 6
Solid Angle
The differential solid angle d subtended by a differential area dS on a sphere of radius r can be
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝜔 = 2
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
𝑟
𝑑𝐴𝑛 𝑑𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝑑𝜔 = 2
=
𝑟 𝑟2
Example: The solid angle subtended by a 5 cm2 plane surface when viewed from a point O at a
distance of 80 cm along the normal of the surface is
Radiation
Lecture 6
𝐴𝑛 5 𝑐𝑚2
𝑑𝜔 ≈ 2 = 2
= 7.81 × 10−4 𝑆𝑟
𝑟 80 𝑐𝑚
The radiation intensity
The radiation intensity for emitted radiation Ie( , ) is defined as the rate at which radiation energy
dQ· e is emitted in the ( , ) direction per unit area normal to this direction and per unit solid angle
about this direction.

Radiation
Lecture 6
The radiation flux incident on a surface from all directions is called irradiation G, a
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiosity
The rate at which radiation energy leaves a unit area of a surface in all directions is radiosity J
The spectral intensity for emitted radiation I, e(, , ) can be defined as the rate at which radiation
energy dQ·e is emitted at the wavelength in the (, ) direction per unit area normal to this
direction, per unit solid angle about this direction,
Radiation
Lecture 6
the spectral emissive power becomes
Page # 19
M. A. Islam
Example: A small surface of area A1 3 cm2 emits radiation as a blackbody at T1 600 K. Part
of the radiation emitted by A1 strikes another small surface of area A2 = 5 cm2 oriented as
shown in Figure. Determine the solid angle subtended by A2 when viewed from A1, and the
rate at which radiation emitted by A1 that strikes A2

Radiation
Lecture 6
Emissivity
The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a given
temperature to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of a
surface is denoted by , and it varies between zero and one, 0

1. Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody, for which 1
The spectral directional emissivity: The ratio of the intensity of radiation emitted by the surface
at a specified wavelength in a specified direction to the intensity of radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature at the same wavelength
The total directional emissivity is defined in a like manner by using total intensities (intensities
integrated over all wavelengths) as
Radiation
Lecture 6
The fraction of irradiation absorbed by the surface is called the absorptivity , the fraction reflected
by the surface is called the reflectivity , and the fraction transmitted is called the transmissivity
The first law of thermodynamics requires that the sum of the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted
radiation energy be equal to the incident radiation
Radiation
Lecture 6
Page # 23
M. A. Islam
Kirchhoff’s law: The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is equal to
its total hemispherical absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody at the same
temperature.
Consider a small body of surface area As , emissivity , and absorptivity at

temperature T contained in a large isothermal enclosure at the same temperature, as shown in
Figure 11–35. Recall that a large isothermal enclosure forms
a blackbody cavity regardless of the radiative properties of the enclosure surface, and the body
in the enclosure is too small to interfere with the blackbody
nature of the cavity. Therefore, the radiation incident on any part of the surface of the small
body is equal to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at temperature T. That is, G Eb(T ) T 4
, and the radiation absorbed by the small
body per unit of its surface area is
Gabs G T 4
The radiation emitted by the small body is
Radiation
Lecture 6
Eemit T 4
Considering that the small body is in thermal equilibrium with the enclosure,
the net rate of heat transfer to the body must be zero. Therefore, the radiation
emitted by the body must be equal to the radiation absorbed by it:j
View / Shape/ Configuration / Angle Factor : The effects of orientation are accounted for
by the geometric parameter or the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that is
intercepted by surface j.
Characteristics
 Purely geometric quantity
 Does not depend on of the surface properties and temperature.
Classification of View Factor

Diffuse view factor : The surfaces are diffuse emitters and diffuse reflectors is called the
diffuse view factor, and the view.
Specular view factor : The view factor based on the assumption that the surfaces are
diffuse emitters but specular reflectors is called the specular view factor.
Fij / 𝑭𝒊→𝒋 = The fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes surface j directly
Radiation
Lecture 6
General expression for the view factor View Factor
Consider two differential surfaces dA1 and dA2 on two arbitrarily oriented surfaces A1 and A2,
respectively, as shown in Figure .

 The distance between dA1 and dA2 is r, and the angles between the normals of the surfaces and
the line that connects dA1 and dA2 are θ1 and θ2, respectively.
 Surface 1 emits and reflects radiation diffusely in all

directions with a constant intensity of I1, and the solid angle
subtended by dA2 when viewed by dA1 is dω21.
The rate at which radiation leaves dA1 in the direction of θ1 is

𝒅𝑨𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐
𝑰𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟏 and 𝒅𝝎𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐
The portion of this radiation that strikes
𝒅𝑨𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐
Radiation
Lecture 6
𝑸𝒅𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟏 𝒅𝝎𝟐𝟏 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟏

𝒓𝟐
General expression for the view factor View Factor
The total rate at which radiation leaves 𝒅𝑨𝟏 (via emission and reflection) in all directions is the radiosity
(which is 𝑱𝟏 = 𝝅𝑰𝟏 ) times the surface area, ⇒ 𝑸𝒅𝑨𝟏 = 𝑱𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟏 = 𝝅𝑰𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟏
The total rate at which radiation leaves the entire A1 ⇒ 𝑸𝑨𝟏 = 𝑱𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝝅𝑰𝟏 𝑨𝟏
Then the differential view factor 𝒅𝑭𝒅𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 , which is the fraction of radiation leaving 𝒅𝑨𝟏 that strikes
𝑸𝒅𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐
𝒅𝑨𝟐 directly, becomes 𝒅𝑭𝒅𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 = = 𝒅𝑨𝟐
𝑸𝒅𝑨𝟏 𝝅 𝒓𝟐
𝑰𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝒅𝑨𝟐

The portion of radiation strikes dA2⇒ 𝑸𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨 𝑸𝒅𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 = 𝒅𝑨𝟏
𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝑰𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐
The radiation strikes the entire A2 , 𝑸𝑨𝟏 →𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨 𝑸𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 = 𝒅𝑨𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟐
𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝑸𝑨𝟏 →𝑨𝟐 𝟏 𝑰𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐

View factor, 𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑭𝑨𝟏 →𝑨𝟐 = = 𝒅𝑨𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟐
𝑸𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝒓𝟐
Radiation
Lecture 6
View Factor Relations
The Reciprocity Relation: Enables to determine the counterpart of a view factor from a knowledge of
the view factor itself and the areas of the two surface
⇒ 𝑨𝒊 𝑭𝒊→𝒋 = 𝑨𝒋 𝑭𝒋→𝒊
The view factors Fi → j and Fj → i are not equal to each other unless the areas of the two surfaces are.
𝑭𝒋→𝒊 = 𝑭𝒊→𝒋 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨𝒊 = 𝑨𝒋
𝑭𝒋→𝒊 ≠ 𝑭𝒊→𝒋 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑨𝒊 ≠ 𝑨𝒋
The Summation Rule: The sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of
the enclosure, including to itself, must equal to unity.
⇒ 𝑭𝒊→𝒋 = 1
𝑗=1
Superposition rule: The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of the view
factors from surface i to the parts of surface j.
Radiation
Lecture 6
⇒ 𝑭𝟏→(𝟐,𝟑) = 𝑭𝟏→𝟐 + 𝑭𝟏→𝟑

Prove the following:
View Factor Relations
The Symmetry Rule: Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will
have identical view factors from that surface
⇒ 𝑭𝟏→𝟐 = 𝑭𝟏→𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝟐→𝟏 = 𝑭𝟑→𝟏
View Factors between Infinitely Long Surfaces: The Crossed-Strings Method
(𝑳𝟓 +𝑳𝟔 ) − (𝑳𝟑 +𝑳𝟒 )

𝑭𝟏→𝟐 =
𝟐𝑳𝟏
Radiation
Lecture 6
View factor expressions for some common geometries of finite size (3D)

Radiation
Lecture 6
Page # 31
View factor expressions for some infinitely long (2D) geometries
M. A. Islam
View factor between two aligned parallel rectangles of equal size
Radiation
Lecture 6
View factor between two perpendicular rectangles with a common edge
Radiation
Lecture 6
Page # 34
View factor between two coaxial parallel disks
M. A. Islam
View factors for two concentric cylinders of finite length: Outer cylinder to inner cylinder
Radiation
Lecture 6
View factors for two concentric cylinders of finite length: outer cylinder to itself
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Determine the view factors formed by two spheres, shown in Figure
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Determine the fraction of the radiation leaving the base of the cylindrical
enclosure shown in Figure that escapes through a coaxial ring opening at its top
surface. The radius and the length of the enclosure are r1 = 10 cm and L = 10 cm,
while the inner and outer radii of the ring are r2 = 5 cm and r3 = 8 cm, respectively.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Determine the view factors from the base of the pyramid shown in Figure to each of its
four side surfaces. The base of the pyramid is a square, and its side surfaces are isosceles triangles.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Determine the view factor from any one side to any other side of the
infinitely long triangular duct whose cross section is given in Figure
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Two infinitely long parallel plates of widths a = 12 cm and b = 5 cm are located a
distance c = 6 cm apart, as shown in Figure. Determine the view factor F1 → 2 from surface 1 to
surface 2 by using the crossed-strings method. (b) Derive the crossed-strings formula by forming
triangles on the given geometry and using Eq. for view factors between the sides of triangles.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Two infinitely long parallel plates of widths a = 12 cm and b = 5 cm are located a
distance c = 6 cm apart, as shown in Figure. Determine the view factor F1 → 2 from surface 1 to
surface 2 by using the crossed-strings method. (b) Derive the crossed-strings formula by forming
triangles on the given geometry and using Eq. for view factors between the sides of triangles.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiation heat transfer: Black surfaces
Consider two black surfaces of arbitrary shape maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2, as
shown in Figure. Recognizing that radiation leaves a black surface at a rate of 𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈 𝑻𝟒 per
unit surface area and that the view factor F1 → 2 represents the fraction of radiation leaving
surface 1 that strikes surface 2, the net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 1 to surface 2
can be expressed as
Now consider an enclosure consisting of N black surfaces maintained at specified temperatures

Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Consider the 5-m * 5-m * 5-m cubical furnace shown in Figure, whose surfaces closely
approximate black surfaces. The base, top, and side surfaces of the furnace are maintained at uniform
temperatures of 800 K, 1500 K, and 500 K, respectively. Determine (a) the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between the base and the side surfaces, (b) the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the
base and the top surface, and (c) the net radiation heat transfer from the base surface
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Consider the 5-m * 5-m * 5-m cubical furnace shown in Figure, whose surfaces closely
approximate black surfaces. The base, top, and side surfaces of the furnace are maintained at uniform
temperatures of 800 K, 1500 K, and 500 K, respectively. Determine (a) the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between the base and the side surfaces, (b) the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the
base and the top surface, and (c) the net radiation heat transfer from the base surface
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiation Heat Transfer: Diffuse, Gray Surfaces
To make a simple radiation analysis

 The surfaces are nontransparent (opaque), they are diffuse emitters (Diffuse) and diffuse
reflectors (Gray) and their radiation properties are independent of wavelength.

 Each surface of the enclosure is isothermal, and both the incoming and outgoing radiation are
uniform over each surface
Radiation
Lecture 6
the radiosity of a blackbody is equal to its emissive power
Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface

The net rate of radiation heat transfer from a surface i of surface area Ai is denoted by Q i and is
expressed as
In an electrical analogy to Ohm’s law, this equation can be rearranged as

Radiation
Lecture 6
Figure: Electrical analogy of

surface resistance to radiation.[1]
Net Radiation Heat Transfer between Any Two Surfaces

Radiation
Lecture 6
Methods of Solving Radiation Problems

Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures

The network method is not practical for enclosures with more than three or four surfaces, however,
because of the increased complexity of the network
Radiation
Lecture 6
Page # 50
Some familiar arrangements that form a two-surface enclosure
M. A. Islam
Example: Two very large parallel plates are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 = 800 K and T2
= 500 K and have emissivities 𝜀1 = 0.2 and 𝜀1 = 0.7, respectively, as shown in Figure. Determine
the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the two surfaces per unit surface area of the plates.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures
the algebraic sum of the currents (net radiation heat transfer) at each node must equal zero
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Consider a cylindrical furnace with r0 =H = 1 m, as shown in Figure. The top (surface 1) and
the base (surface 2) of the furnace has emissivities 𝜀1 = 0.8 and 𝜀2 = 0.4, respectively, and are
maintained at uniform temperatures T1 = 700K and T2 =500 K. The side surface closely approximates a
blackbody and is maintained at a temperature of T3 = 400 K. Determine the net rate of radiation heat
transfer at each surface during steady operation and explain how these surfaces can be maintained at
specified temperatures.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: A furnace is shaped like a long equilateral triangular duct, as shown in Figure. The width of
each side is 1 m. The base surface has an emissivity of 0.7 and is maintained at a uniform temperature of
600 K. The heated left-side surface closely approximates a blackbody at 1000 K. The right-side surface is
well insulated. Determine the rate at which heat must be supplied to the heated side externally per unit
length of the duct in order to maintain these operating conditions.

Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: A solar collector consists of a horizontal aluminum tube having an outer diameter of 2 in.
enclosed in a concentric thin glass tube of 4-in. diameter, as shown in Figure. Water is heated as it flows
through the tube, and the space between the aluminum and the glass tubes is filled with air at 1 atm
pressure. The pump circulating the water fails during a clear day, and the water temperature in the tube
starts rising. The aluminum tube absorbs solar radiation at a rate of 30 Btu/h per foot length, and the
temperature of the ambient air outside is 70°F. The emissivities of the tube and the glass cover are 0.95
and 0.9, respectively. Taking the effective sky temperature to be 50°F, determine the temperature of the
aluminum tube when steady operating conditions are established (i.e., when the rate of heat loss from the
tube equals the amount of solar energy gained by the tube)
Radiation
Lecture 6
Page # 58
M. A. Islam
Page # 59
M. A. Islam
Radiation shields: A thin, high-reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material inserts that reduce
radiation heat transfer between the two surfaces.
 Multilayer radiation shields constructed of about 20 sheets per cm thickness separated by
evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic and space applications.
 To reduce the error caused by the radiation effect when the temperature sensor is exposed to
surfaces that are much hotter or colder than the fluid itself.
 The lower the emissivity of the shield, the higher the resistance
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: A thin aluminum sheet with an emissivity of 0.1 on both sides is placed between two
very large parallel plates that are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 = 800 K and T2 = 500 K
and have emissivities 𝜀1 = 0.2 and 𝜀2 = 0.7, respectively, as shown in Fig.. Determine the net rate of
radiation heat transfer between the two plates per unit surface area of the plates and compare the
result to that without the shield.

Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: A thermocouple used to measure the temperature of hot air flowing in a duct
whose walls are maintained at Tw = 400 K shows a temperature reading of Tth =650 K (Fig.).
Assuming the emissivity of the thermocouple junction to be 𝜀 = 0.6 and the convection heat transfer
coefficient to be h = 80 W/m2 · °C, determine the actual temperature of the air.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Radiation Exchange With Emitting And Absorbing Gases
 A participating medium emits and absorbs radiation throughout its entire volume. That is,
gaseous radiation is a volumetric phenomena, and thus it depends on the size and shape of the
body. This is the case even if the temperature is uniform throughout the medium.
 Gases emit and absorb radiation at a number of narrow wavelength bands. This is in contrast to
solids, which emit and absorb radiation over the entire spectrum. Therefore, the gray assumption
may not always be appropriate for a gas even when the surrounding surfaces are gray.
 The emission and absorption characteristics of the constituents of a gas mixture also depends on
the temperature, pressure, and composition of the gas mixture. Therefore, the presence of other
participating gases affects the radiation characteristics of a particular gas.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: A cylindrical furnace whose height and diameter are 5 m contains combustion gases at
1200 K and a total pressure of 2 atm. The composition of the combustion gases is determined by
volumetric analysis to be 80 percent N2, 8 percent H2O, 7 percent O2, and 5 percent CO2.
Determine the effective emissivity of the combustion gases (Fig.).
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: A cylindrical furnace whose height and diameter are 5 m contains combustion gases at
1200 K and a total pressure of 2 atm. The composition of the combustion gases is determined by
volumetric analysis to be 80 percent N2, 8 percent H2O, 7 percent O2, and 5 percent CO2.
Determine the effective emissivity of the combustion gases (Fig.).
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Reconsider the cylindrical furnace discussed in Example. For a wall temperature of 600
K, determine the absorptivity of the combustion gases and the rate of radiation heat transfer from
the combustion gases to the furnace walls (fig)
Radiation
Lecture 6
Example: Reconsider the cylindrical furnace discussed in Example. For a wall temperature of 600
K, determine the absorptivity of the combustion gases and the rate of radiation heat transfer from
the combustion gases to the furnace walls (fig)
Radiation
Lecture 6
Figure: Spectral absorptivity of CO2 at 830 K and 10 atm for a path length of 38.8 cm
Radiation
Lecture 6
Emissivities of H2O gases in a mixture of nonparticipating gases at a total
pressure of 1 atm for a mean beam length of L (1 m atm 3.28 ft atm)
Radiation
Lecture 6
Emissivities of CO2 gases in a mixture of nonparticipating gases at a total
pressure of 1 atm for a mean beam length of L (1 m atm 3.28 ft atm)
Radiation
Lecture 6
Page # 71
M. A. Islam
Exercises
1) What is an electromagnetic wave? How does it differ from a sound wave?
2) By what properties is an electromagnetic wave characterized? How are these properties related
to each other?
3) What is visible light? How does it differ from the other forms of electromagnetic radiation?
4) How do ultraviolet and infrared radiation differ? Do you think your body emits any radiation
in the ultraviolet range? Explain.
5) What is thermal radiation? How does it differ from the other forms of electromagnetic
radiation?
6) What is the cause of color? Why do some objects appear blue to the eye while others appear
red? Is the color of a surface at room temperature related to the radiation it emits?
7) Why is radiation usually treated as a surface phenomenon?
8) Why do skiers get sunburned so easily?
9) How does microwave cooking differ from conventional cooking?
10) Electricity is generated and transmitted in power lines at a frequency of 60 Hz (1 Hz = 1 cycle
per second). Determine the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves generated by the passage
Radiation
Lecture 6
of electricity in power lines.

11) A microwave oven is designed to operate at a frequency of 2.8 *109 Hz. Determine the
wavelength of these microwaves and the energy of each microwave.
Exercises
1) A radio station is broadcasting radio waves at a wavelength of 200 m. Determine the frequency
of these waves.
2) A cordless telephone is designed to operate at a frequency of 8.5 * 108 Hz. Determine the
wavelength of these telephone waves.
3) What is a blackbody? Does a blackbody actually exist?
4) Define the total and spectral blackbody emissive powers. How are they related to each other?
How do they differ?
5) Why did we define the blackbody radiation function? What does it represent? For what is it
used?
6) Consider two identical bodies, one at 1000 K and the other at 1500 K. Which body emits more
radiation in the shorter-wavelength region? Which body emits more radiation at a wavelength
of 20 μm?
7) Consider a 20-cm * 20-cm *20-cm cubical body at 1000 K suspended in the air. Assuming the
body closely approximates a blackbody, determine (a) the rate at which the cube emits
Radiation
Lecture 6
radiation energy, in W, and (b) the spectral blackbody emissive power at a wavelength of 4
μm.
Exercises
1) What does a solid angle represent, and how does it differ from a plane angle? What is the value of
a solid angle associated with a sphere?
2) How is the intensity of emitted radiation defined?
3) For a diffusely emitting surface, how is the emissive power related to the intensity of emitted
radiation?
4) For a surface, how is irradiation defined? For diffusely incident radiation, how is irradiation on a
surface related to the intensity of incident radiation?
5) For a surface, how is radiosity defined? For diffusely emitting and reflecting surfaces, how is
radiosity related to the intensities of emitted and reflected radiation?
6) When the variation of spectral radiation quantity with wavelength is known, how is the
corresponding total quantity determined?
7) A small surface of area A1 = 4 cm2 emits radiation as a blackbody at T1 800 K. Part of the
radiation emitted by A1 strikes another small surface of area A2 = 4 cm2 oriented as shown in the
figure. Determine the solid angle subtended by A2 when viewed from A1, and the rate at which
radiation emitted by A1 that strikes A2 directly. What would your answer be if A2 were directly
Radiation
above A1 at a distance of 80 cm?

Lecture 6
Exercises
1) Define the properties emissivity and absorptivity. When are these two properties equal to each
other?
2) Define the properties reflectivity and transmissivity and discuss the different forms of
reflection.
3) What is a graybody? How does it differ from a blackbody? What is a diffuse gray surface?
4) What is the greenhouse effect? Why is it a matter of great concern among atmospheric
scientists?
5) We can see the inside of a microwave oven during operation through its glass door, which
indicates that visible radiation is escaping the oven. Do you think that the harmful microwave
radiation might also be escaping
6) The spectral emissivity function of an opaque surface at 1000 K is approximated a
Radiation
Lecture 6
Determine the average emissivity of the surface and the rate of radiation emission from the surface,
in W/m2
Exercises
1) What is the solar constant? How is it used to determine the effective surface temperature of the
sun? How would the value of the solar constant change if the distance between the earth and
the sun doubled?

2) What changes would you notice if the sun emitted radiation at an effective temperature of
2000 K instead of 5762 K?
3) Explain why the sky is blue and the sunset is yellow orange.
4) When the earth is closest to the sun, we have winter in the northern hemisphere. Explain why.
Also explain why we have summer in the northern hemisphere when the earth is farthest away
from the sun.
5) What is the effective sky temperature?
6) You have probably noticed warning signs on the highways stating that bridges may be icy even
when the roads are not. Explain how this can happen.
7) Unless you live in a warm southern state, you have
8) probably had to scrape ice from the windshield and windows of your car many mornings. You
Radiation
Lecture 6
may have noticed, with frustration, that the thickest layer of ice always forms on the wind-
shield instead of the side windows. Explain why this is the case.
Exercises
1) What does the view factor represent? When is the view factor from a surface to itself not zero?
2) How can you determine the view factor F12 when the view factor F21 and the surface areas
are available?
3) What are the summation rule and the superposition rule for view factors?
4) What is the crossed-strings method? For what kind of geometries is the crossed-strings method
applicable?
5) Consider an enclosure consisting of six surfaces. How many view factors does this geometry
involve? How many of these view factors can be determined by the application of the
reciprocity and the summation rules.
6) Consider an enclosure consisting of five surfaces. How many view factors does this geometry
reciprocity and summation rules?
7) Consider an enclosure consisting of 12 surfaces. How many view factors does this geometry
Radiation
Lecture 6
reciprocity and the summation rules?
Exercises
1) Determine the view factors F13 and F23 between the rectangular surfaces shown in Figure
2) Consider a cylindrical enclosure whose height is twice the diameter of its base. Determine the
view factor from the side surface of this cylindrical enclosure to its base surface
3) Consider a hemispherical furnace with a flat circular base of diameter D. Determine the view
factor from the dome of this furnace to its base
4) Determine the view factors from the base of a cube to each of the other five surfaces
5) Consider a conical enclosure of height h and base diameter D. Determine the view factor from
the conical side surface to a hole of diameter d located at the center of the base.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Exercises
1) Determine the view factors F12 and F21 for the very long ducts shown in Figure without using
any view factor tables or charts. Neglect end effects.
(a)Semicylindrical duct
(b) Triangular duct
(c) Rectangular duct
2) Determine the view factors from the very long grooves shown in Figure to the surroundings
without using any view factor tables or charts. Neglect end effects
(a)Semicylindrical groove
(b) Triangular groove
(c) Rectangular groove
Radiation
Lecture 6
Exercises
1) Two infinitely long parallel cylinders of diameter D are located a distance s apart from each
other. Determine the view factor F12 between these two cylinders.
2) Three infinitely long parallel cylinders of diameter D are located a distance s apart from each
other. Determine the view factor between the cylinder in the middle and the surroundings.
3) Determine the view factor F12 between the rectangular surfaces shown in Figure.
4) Three infinitely long parallel cylinders of diameter D are located a distance s apart from each
other. Determine the view factor between the cylinder in the middle and the surroundings.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Exercises
1) Why is the radiation analysis of enclosures that consist of black surfaces relatively easy? How
is the rate of radiation heat transfer between two surfaces expressed in this case?
2) How does radiosity for a surface differ from the emitted energy? For what kind of surfaces are
these two quantities identical?
3) What are the radiation surface and space resistances? How are they expressed? For what kind
of surfaces is the radiation surface resistance zero?
4) What are the two methods used in radiation analysis? How do these two methods differ?
5) What is a reradiating surface? What simplifications does a reradiating surface offer in the
radiation analysis?
6) Two very long concentric cylinders of diameters D1 = 0.2 m and D2 = 0.5 m are maintained at
uniform temperatures of T1 =950 K and T2 = 500 K and have emissivities e1 = 1 and e2=0.7,
respectively. Determine the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the two cylinders per
unit length of the cylinders
Radiation
Lecture 6
Exercises
1) What is a radiation shield? Why is it used?
2) What is the radiation effect? How does it influence the temperature measurements?
3) Give examples of radiation effects that affect human comfort.

4) Consider a person whose exposed surface area is 1.7 m2 , emissivity is 0.85, and surface
temperature is 30°C. Determine the rate of heat loss from that person by radiation in a large
room whose walls are at a temperature of (a) 300 K and (b) 280 K.
5) A thin aluminum sheet with an emissivity of 0.15 on both sides is placed between two very
large parallel plates, which are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 = 900 K and T2 = 650
K and have emissivities e1 = 0.5 and e2 = 0.8, respectively. Determine the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between the two plates per unit surface area of the plates and compare the result
with that without the shield.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Exercises
1) How does radiation transfer through a participating medium differ from that through a
nonparticipating medium?
2) Define spectral transmissivity of a medium of thickness L in terms of (a) spectral intensities

and (b) the spectral absorption coefficient.
3) Define spectral emissivity of a medium of thickness L in terms of the spectral absorption
coefficient.
4) How does the wavelength distribution of radiation emitted by a gas differ from that of a
surface at the same temperature?
5) Consider an equimolar mixture of CO2 and O2 gases at 500 K and a total pressure of 0.5 atm.
For a path length of 1.2 m, determine the emissivity of the gas.
6) A cubic furnace whose side length is 6 m contains combustion gases at 1000 K and a total
pressure of 1 atm. The composition of the combustion gases is 75 percent N2, 9 percent H2O,
6 percent O2, and 10 percent CO2. Determine the effective emissivity of the combustion
gases.
Radiation
Lecture 6
Exercises
1) Consider a person who is resting or doing light work. Is it fair to say that roughly one-third of the
metabolic heat generated in the body is dissipated to the environment by convection, one-third by
evaporation, and the remaining one third by radiation?
2) What is sensible heat? How is the sensible heat loss from a human body affected by (a) skin
temperature, (b) environment temperature, and (c) air motion?
3) What is latent heat? How is the latent heat loss from the human body affected by (a) skin
wettedness and (b) relative humidity of the environment? How is the rate of evaporation from the
body related to the rate of latent heat loss.
4) How is the insulating effect of clothing expressed? How does clothing affect heat loss from the
body by convection, radiation, and evaporation? How does clothing affect heat gain from the sun?
5) Explain all the different mechanisms of heat transfer from the human body (a) through the skin
and (b) through the lungs.
6) What is operative temperature? How is it related to the mean ambient and radiant temperatures?
How does it differ from effective temperature?
7) The convection heat transfer coefficient for a clothed person while walking in still air at a velocity
Radiation
Lecture 6
of 0.5 to 2 m/s is given by h = 8.6V0.53, where V is in m/s and h is in W/m2 · °C. Plot the
convection coefficient against the walking velocity, and compare the convection coefficients in
that range to the average radiation coefficient of about 5 W/m2 · °C
ME 311 (Conduction & Radiation) Lecture 6
Department of Mechanical Engineering Radiation
M. A. Islam would like to thank the following for preparing the lecture materials and have no
intention to plagiarize other than teaching students and use as reference materials.
Sl Books Authors
1 Heat transfer Yunus A. Cengel & Michael A. Boles
2 Heat transfer Incorpera
3 Heat transfer J. P. Holman
4 Heat transfer Ozisik
5 Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer G. Rogers
6 Heat transfer
7 Heat transfer
8 Heat transfer
9 Heat transfer
10 Heat transfer
11 Heat transfer
12 Heat transfer

Radiation Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radiation Merged

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radiation Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Foundation of Radiation

 Electromagnetic radiation as the propagation of a collection of photons or quanta (discrete

 The electromagnetic radiation encountered in practice covers a wide

Mechanism of different types of electromagnetic radiation

red (0.63–0.76 𝜇𝑚)

 Surfaces coated with lampblack paint approach idealized blackbody behavior.

 The emitted radiation is a continuous function of

Fig.: Spectral blackbody emissive power

about this direction.

the spectral emissive power becomes

rate at which radiation emitted by A1 that strikes A2

surface is denoted by , and it varies between zero and one, 0

1. Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody, for which 1

Consider a small body of surface area As , emissivity , and absorptivity at

Classification of View Factor

respectively, as shown in Figure .

 Surface 1 emits and reflects radiation diffusely in all

The rate at which radiation leaves dA1 in the direction of θ1 is

The portion of this radiation that strikes

𝑸𝒅𝑨𝟏 →𝒅𝑨𝟐 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟏 𝒅𝝎𝟐𝟏 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝑨𝟏

𝑰𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝒅𝑨𝟐

𝑸𝑨𝟏 →𝑨𝟐 𝟏 𝑰𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐

⇒ 𝑭𝟏→(𝟐,𝟑) = 𝑭𝟏→𝟐 + 𝑭𝟏→𝟑

⇒ 𝑭𝟏→𝟐 = 𝑭𝟏→𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝟐→𝟏 = 𝑭𝟑→𝟏

View Factors between Infinitely Long Surfaces: The Crossed-Strings Method

(𝑳𝟓 +𝑳𝟔 ) − (𝑳𝟑 +𝑳𝟒 )

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Now consider an enclosure consisting of N black surfaces maintained at specified temperatures

To make a simple radiation analysis

reflectors (Gray) and their radiation properties are independent of wavelength.

the radiosity of a blackbody is equal to its emissive power

Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface

In an electrical analogy to Ohm’s law, this equation can be rearranged as

Figure: Electrical analogy of

Net Radiation Heat Transfer between Any Two Surfaces

Methods of Solving Radiation Problems

Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures

length of the duct in order to maintain these operating conditions.

result to that without the shield.

of electricity in power lines.

above A1 at a distance of 80 cm?

the sun doubled?

reciprocity and the summation rules?

3) Give examples of radiation effects that affect human comfort.

2) Define spectral transmissivity of a medium of thickness L in terms of (a) spectral intensities

You might also like