Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Air Transport Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jairtraman

Strategic responses by European airlines to the Covid-19 pandemic: A soft

landing or a turbulent ride?
Stephanie Scheiwiller, Laura Zizka *
Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne//HES-SO University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Western, Switzerland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has dramatically affected the aviation industry. This paper investigates
Airline industry how 20 European airlines communicated their crisis messages during the pandemic by employing Situational
COVID-19 Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) to airline responses. This qualitative study consisting of a systematic re­
Crisis communication
view and content analysis, examined 7237 messages from social media channels and press releases posted be­
Situational crisis communication theory
Twitter
tween December 1, 2019, and May 25, 2020, when the crisis unfolded worldwide. The results indicate that the
Facebook airlines primarily emphasized instructing and adjusting crisis communication strategies. Further, Twitter
replaced Facebook as the primary communication channel. This study provides insights on how airlines can and
should communicate crisis-related messages amidst a severe pandemic. The study concludes with the implica­
tions of these findings and recommendations for airline stakeholders moving forward.

1. Introduction negatively affected by the COVID-19 outbreak since governments closed

their borders. Travel restrictions have severely affected flight schedules;
The COVID-19 outbreak originated from a market in Wuhan, China, large airlines, such as Lufthansa, have canceled half of their flights in
in December 2019 (Federal Office of Public Health, 2020). The virus April 2020 (“Coronavirus is grounding,” 2020). While Lufthansa
COVID-19 belongs to the family of other known coronaviruses, such as requested financial aid, SAS Scandinavia had to lay off 90% of their staff
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) or Middle East Respiratory (ibid). The economic impact of this global crisis on the industry is un­
Syndrome (MERS; Federal Office of Public Health, 2020). The virus is known, but many economists argue that the entire industry is at stake,
spread through droplets from person to person and is highly contagious. and not all companies will survive (ibid). Due to the novelty of the topic,
Scientists warn that discovering a vaccine will take time, at least 18 the airline industry’s coronavirus-related crisis has not been extensively
months (“When will a coronavirus vaccine be ready?” 2020). Due to the researched; thus, it is not evident how companies should act amid a
reasons mentioned above, most countries worldwide have implemented severe pandemic. This gap is addressed in the current project.
strict measures to protect their citizens, such as travel restrictions, Before COVID-19, the airline industry had endured other global
border closures, quarantines, and social distancing (Deloitte, 2020). health crises, such as the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
Gallego and Font (2020) argue that within the first six months, and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS; IATA, 2020). Before
COVID-19 has proven to be the most damaging pandemic in recent COVID-19, SARS had caused the most impact on the aviation industry.
history, and it is the first virus that has caused a global recession (Ozili However, experts argue that COVID-19 will have a longer-lasting effect
and Arun, 2020). on the industry than any other pandemics (IATA, 2020). Apart from
With the unprecedented outbreak of COVID-19, the airline industry epidemics, the airline industry has experienced several other challenges
has experienced the most profound crisis in history, with passenger and crises daily, especially with the emergence of social media and the
traffic significantly decreasing. (Gössling et al., 2020). 90% of the air­ introduction of in-flight connectivity (IATA, 2016). If mishandled, these
lines worldwide have been grounded, with an estimated global industry issues have the potential to severely dent an airline’s established repu­
loss of $252 billion in 2020 (Ellis et al., 2020). The industry’s ultimate tation. Thus, the airline industry must be well-prepared to handle crises
impact and effect are yet unknown, and it may take the airline industry due to the high public exposure.
several years if not longer, to fully recover. The airline industry has been Most of the existing research on the aviation industry’s response

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Laura.zizka@ehl.ch (L. Zizka).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2021.102103
Received 19 November 2020; Received in revised form 19 March 2021; Accepted 17 June 2021
Available online 23 June 2021
0969-6997/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

during a pandemic has focused on the accessibility of the airline network One framework to understand the basic principles of crisis commu­
and the propagation of airborne diseases (Bowen and Laroe, 2006; nications is SCCT, which argues that an effective response to the crisis
Ferrell & Agarwal, 2018). Due to the novelty of the COVID-19 crisis, depends on assessing the situation and the associated reputational threat
studies have mainly focused on the impact of COVID-19 on the aviation (Coombs, 2007). Moreover, Coombs (2007) introduced ways to support
industry, the links between the medium- and the long-term effects, and this assessment by defining three types of crisis: 1) victim, i.e., where the
labor-related issues (Cugueró-Escofet, Suau-Sanchez and Voltes- Dorta, organization is seen as a victim of the crisis (e.g., rumors, natural ca­
et al., 2020; Sobieralski, 2020). However, little research has been con­ tastrophes), and results in a minor reputational threat; 2) accident, i.e.,
ducted on the interrelationship between crisis communication and epi­ where the organization’s actions were unintentional (e.g., the failure of
demics, which can trigger a public relations crisis and negatively impact equipment, charges from external stakeholders), leading to a medium
the corporate reputation (Yu et al., 2020). Although research on crisis reputational threat; and 3) intentional, i.e., where the organization
communication in the airline industry exists, it mainly focuses on airline knowingly took an unacceptable risk, resulting in a significant reputa­
disasters and not responses to a pandemic (Greer and Moreland, 2003; tional threat. Once the organization defines the crisis type, SCCT sug­
Canny, 2016; Othman and Yusoff, 2020). Further, most of the epidemics gests employing effective crisis response strategies.
and economic crises that airlines have weathered in the past occurred SCCT states that before selecting a crisis response option, the orga­
when social media and digital technology were not as prevalent as nization should release general information on the crisis and instructing
today. This explains the lacuna in research and justifies the need to information about public safety measures (Coombs, 2007; Kim and Liu,
assess airlines’ communication strategies during a pandemic. 2012). The immediate crisis response strategy consists of three clusters
To address one research gap, this study examines the crisis (Coombs, 2007). The first is the deny cluster, where the organization
communication modalities in the pre-crisis and crisis response phases rejects responsibility and denies any connection between the crisis and
from December 1, 2019, to May 25, 2020, of 20 airlines in Europe in the organization or blames another organization or person for the crisis.
light of the global COVID-19 outbreak to gauge the effectiveness of their The second group is the diminish cluster in which an organization at­
‘crisis’ messages. Through an analysis of the airlines’ messages and tempts to decrease its responsibility for the crisis or the resulting dam­
preferred communication channels, the researchers aim to establish a ages. The third group is referred to as the rebuild cluster, in which they
link between the messages and the Situational Crisis Communication admit responsibility and offer compensation or apologies to the victims
Theory (SCCT) strategies posited by Coombs (2007) to identify how the and stakeholders involved in the crisis. This strategy attempts to offset
airline industry should communicate during a severe crisis. While a the negative attribution with corrective action (Coombs, 2007). The
recent study by Albers and Rundshagen (2020) conducted a similar secondary crisis response strategy supports the three primary strategies
analysis, they focused on news items instead of the social media and to diminish the adverse effects and correct accusations and misleading
press release messages in the current study. They also applied Wenzel’s information (Coombs, 2007). The secondary crisis response strategy
typology of crisis response strategies, while this study employs Coombs’s consists of reminder strategy (e.g., remind the stakeholders about the
SCCT theories. Thus, this paper attempts to contribute to the literature company’s past good work), ingratiation strategy (e.g., praise stake­
on crisis communication messages by analyzing messages posted by the holders on their good deeds), and victimage strategy (e.g., remind
top 20 European airlines in the spring months of 2020 to gauge their stakeholders that the organization is a victim of the crisis (Coombs,
effectiveness as crisis response strategies. Two specific research ques­ 2007). Finally, its prior reputation and crisis history may positively or
tions were posited: negatively affect a reputational threat.
RQ1: Have the European airlines communicated correctly according A company’s crisis history consists of the crisis management strate­
to the SCCT? gies utilized by it. Crisis management includes three different phases:
RQ2: What is the preferred communication channel for dissemi­ Pre-crisis, crisis response, and post-crisis, comprising different activities:
nating the crisis response strategy in the airline industry? Preventing crises, responding to them, and gaining knowledge from past
This paper aims to fill the gap in current research by providing a crises (Coombs, 2014a). Thus, when an organization experiences a
novel insight into crisis communication, particularly that of European crisis, it should be mindful of the crisis type and its crisis history while
airlines and how they communicated with their stakeholders amid the formulating an appropriate crisis response strategy.
COVID-19 outbreak. The communication strategies were evaluated Coombs’ (2007) SCCT has been applied in the context of the airline
based on the airlines’ most popular social media channels. This included industry. For example, Canny (2016) used the SCCT to analyze how the
all social media posts from December 1, 2019, to May 25, 2020. Thus, Lufthansa Group responded to a crisis in 2015 when an Airbus A320-211
this research serves to fulfill a research gap and help researchers further carrying 150 people crashed in the French Alps. Using the SCCT as a
widen their horizons in the tourism and aviation industries. This study theoretical lens, Canny (2016) analyzed communication through media
concludes with recommendations for action and theoretical implications channels and explored crisis response strategies. A recent study by
of this study. Othman and Yusoff (2020) employed the SCCT to examine the crisis
management strategies used by Malaysia Airlines during the MH370
2. Crises and crisis communication crisis. Overall, the SCCT framework helps entities to anticipate how
stakeholders will react to the crisis response strategies used during a
A crisis can be qualified as an unforeseen adverse event that requires crisis.
immediate action by the organization and can harm a company’s
reputation by undermining its emergency procedures during an un­ 2.1. Communicating during a crisis
foreseen outbreak (Claeys, 2017; Coombs, 2007). Moreover, public
safety, financial loss, and reputation damage are three related threats The communication strategy called stealing thunder proposes to
that a company may experience (Coombs, 2014a). Coombs (2007) proactively release crisis information when a company experiences a
maintained that stakeholders make “attributions” about the possibility crisis (Lee, 2016). Research shows that when an organization steals the
of a crisis, which affects the way they think, perceive, and interact with thunder, the company becomes a source of information and can lead and
the organization. Thus, attribution theory posits that people are control its flow (Claeys, 2017; Lee, 2016). This garners more favorable
continually searching for the source or entity that is to be held culpable, attention from the public and journalists (Lee, 2016) and ensures that
especially if the crisis is unexpected or has a significant adverse effect on the public perceives the organization as ethical (Claeys, 2017).
them (Coombs, 2007). Hence, leaders within a company must under­
stand crisis responsibility and anticipate the possible attributions of the 2.1.1. Social media
public. Researchers reported that discussions about wrongful accusations

2
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

and rumors could spread quickly and reach a broad audience when to find themes. This is perhaps the most significant criticism of this
conducted on social media platforms (Cameron and Cheng, 2018; theory that the data analysis is not scientific (deductive) but based on
Grančy, 2014). This can trigger a severe “para-crisis” that can harm its inductive reasoning, drawn from the data analysis (Glaser and Strauss,
reputation (Cameron and Cheng, 2018; Coombs, 2014b). Social media 2017). To overcome this challenge, Glaser and Strauss (2017) suggested
platforms have also increased the probability of crises being disclosed by the constant comparative method. This method combines the coding and
internal and external stakeholders (Claeys, 2017). Stakeholders are analytic procedures and allows a more systematic approach (Glaser and
prioritized according to their importance for reaching their objectives Strauss, 2017). Moreover, the constant comparative method permits the
(Mootien et al., 2013). In the airline industry, stakeholders include researcher to continually validate their thinking (Glaser and Strauss,
airports, airlines, consumers, manufacturers, interest groups, share­ 2017), which was the case in this study.
holders, the media, interest groups, suppliers, and governing in­ The constant comparative method, along with the single coding
stitutions. Claeys (2017) argues that the public will eventually find approach, has been implemented in this research to limit the threats to
information on a crisis through other sources if it is not officially reliability and validity.
revealed by the organization, resulting in the company losing its credi­
bility. Thus, stealing thunder is essential for a company, especially with
3.1. Methods
social media and its increased communication pace. Previous studies
have shown that an organization must choose the right channel when
This research focused on 20 representative European airlines
dealing with a crisis. The right stakeholders need to be reached, and the
selected based on their annual income (Ishak, 2019). The selected air­
potential problem addressed promptly (Coombs, 2018; Göritz et al.,
lines have extensive experience in the industry and provide a reliable
2011). Moreover, Göritz et al. (2011) found that the communication
data source for the present study (Wiesche et al., 2017). For data
channel is more critical for maintaining a company’s reputation than the
collection and analysis, NVivo 1.2 (Mac version) was used. According to
content of the message.
the results, effective channels of the airlines’ crisis communication
Social media’s role in crisis communication in the airline industry
derived from the following five social media platforms: Twitter, Insta­
has been widely recognized. For instance, the International Air Trans­
gram, Facebook, YouTube, and LinkedIn (see Table 1).
port Association has introduced airline companies’ best practices (IATA,
In addition to the social media platforms, press releases from the
2016). One recommendation is to develop a social media policy by
official websites have also been analyzed. From December 1, 2019, to
taking immediate action in the middle of a crisis. Coombs (2014b), in
May 25, 2020, the airlines’ communication content was collected. This
turn, argued that social media could be helpful during crises because
was done as the crisis was unfolding and governments worldwide were
they allow customers to vent, thus releasing tension. An excellent
beginning to shut down air travel. During data collection, the researcher
example of this approach is Qantas Airlines and its Twitter campaign
focused on content published in two languages—English and German
(Coombs, 2014b). Qantas had a Twitter campaign about luxury vaca­
(the native language of each of the researchers).
tion; however, the campaign did not have the desired effect among
In order to identify codes, a coding scheme with keywords was
customers. The customers’ comments were not about luxury vacations;
designed. The coding scheme was established after coding the first
instead, they included angry statements about recent labor disputes.
messages, and the initially identified keywords became prominent. The
Coombs (2014b) argues that stakeholders must have their say.
SCCT model was applied for further coding (Coombs, 2007). The coding
Facebook is the largest social networking site, with over two-and-a-
scheme with the corresponding keywords is presented in Table 2.
half billion active users (Statista, 2020). Nearly one-third of the world’s
Before a framework was established at the beginning of the coding
population has an account on Facebook. Instagram has a primarily
process, the messages containing information about customer service
younger audience, with over a billion active users (Statista, 2020). With
were initially grouped as the instructing and adjusting information
over 575 million users, LinkedIn is a platform for business professionals
category. However, subsequently, it became apparent that particular
and companies (Egan, 2017). Twitter is a microblogging service with
messages did not belong to this group and should be re-classified as
over 386 million users globally (Statista, 2020). Google-owned YouTube
justification messages.
is the largest video platform, with 2.2 billion users globally, and it is the
second most prominent social media network (Egan, 2017; Statista,
4. Results and data analysis
2020). Unlike Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, and LinkedIn, which have
textual content, YouTube is a video-based platform. However, Pinterest
A total of 7237 posts by the targeted airlines were collected from
was excluded Pinterest from the analysis. Pinterest, a picture-sharing
December 1, 2019, to May 25, 2020. Of these messages, 2344 (32%)
channel where users can find inspiration and ideas, is more of a visual
were classified as being related to the COVID-19 crisis. The collected
search engine than a communication channel (Egan, 2017).
posts were coded and analyzed according to the SCCT model (Coombs,
Research shows that European airlines’ most popular social media
2007).
channels are Facebook, followed by Twitter and LinkedIn (Bick, Bühler
and Lauritzen, 2014). This study extends previous research projects by
examining Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, and Instagram to 4.1. Defining the starting point of the COVID-19 crisis
create a more holistic vision of how and where European airlines
communicated crisis-related messages. On January 25, 2020, two airlines—Aeroflot and Finnair—posted
their first crisis-related messages:
3. Data collection and analysis Aerflot: “Information for passengers flying to/from China between 24
January and 7 February. Due to the virus pandemic in China, Aeroflot is
A qualitative research approach was used to conduct this research. offering passengers booked for flights to/from Chinese destinations to change
Qualitative data includes validating information obtained through their flight dates or return tickets” (Facebook, January 25, 2020).
organizing the data, coding, and interpreting themes. The researchers Finnair: “Coronavirus update: We have updated our policy regarding the
conducted an in-depth analysis of social media content through open crew’s possibility to wear masks when working on our flights, in line with the
coding to reveal patterns in the data (Cascio et al., 2019) which is recommendation from Chinese authorities, who recommend that people in
essential for devising themes and concepts concerning the research direct customer contact wear masks as a precaution” (Facebook, January
topic. Some researchers may argue that grounded theory has its limi­ 25, 2020).
tations, as it is difficult for researchers to prevent researcher-induced In contrast to Aeroflot and Finnair, EasyJet was the last to post its
biases (Timonen et al., 2018) and researchers may use their judgment first crisis-related message in mid-March 2020:

3
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

Table 1
Social Media Channels and Followers.
Social Media Channel

Airlines Facebook Instagram LinkedIn Twitter YouTube Total

1 KLM 14 million 1.3 million 586,945 2.3 million 191,000 18 million

2 Turkish Airline 10 million 1.7 million 717,026 1.8 million 416,000 14.6 million
3 Air France 7.3 million 1.0 million 21,399 585,201 93,700 9.0 million
4 TUI UK 5.9 million 172,000 264,082 197,893 19,300 6.5 million
5 Ryanair 5.0 million 680,000 221,090 465,887 67,000 6.4 million
6 British Airways 3.2 million 994,000 431,954 1.3 million 269,000 6.1 million
7 Lufthansa 3.9 million 1.4 million 396,873 269,921 66,100 6.0 million
8 EasyJet 1.7 million 364,000 169,420 516,820 24,200 2.7 million
9 Iberia 1.8 million 394,000 202,306 32,355 32,300 2.4 million
10 Swiss Int. Airlines 1.2 million 775,000 122,127 271,711 55,400 2.4 million
11 TAP Portugal 1.3 million 520,000 200,507 69,715 28,500 2.1 million
12 Virgin Atlantic 655,935 544,000 231,672 626,177 57,400 2.1 million
Airways
13 Alitalia 1.4 million 345,000 99,510 160,181 19,300 2.0 million
14 Vueling Airlines 1.2 million 182,000 122,833 299,003 7,830 1.8 million
15 Norwegian 1.2 million 370,000 123,747 118,200 22,400 1.7 million
16 SAS 1.2 million 259,000 108,260 119,371 13,900 1.7 million
Scandinavian
17 Eurowings 982,825 319,000 18,327 90,877 19,600 1.4 million
18 Finnair 649,916 219,000 72,513 108,399 27,500 1.0 million
19 Aeroflot 1.0 million 656,000 13,933 38,918 27,700 978,533
20 Jet 2 611,540 114,000 46,765 78,306 5,230 855,691

Total 63.4 million 12.3 million 4 million 9.4 million 1.4 million.
Note. Listed according to the number of followers.

4.2. Crisis communication strategies used by the airlines

Table 2
Keywords selected for coding according to SCCT.
The content analysis of the collected data revealed that in their crisis
SCCT Response Strategies Keywords communication messages, the airlines employed five different strate­
Clusters
gies. The crisis response strategies were: (1) instructing and adjusting
Instructing and flight update, attention to passenger on information, (2) deny, (3) diminish, (4) rebuild, and (5) bolster. These
adjusting flight, cancellation, safety, HEPA, masks, strategy clusters and their individual strategies and the frequency of
information disinfection
Deny Scapegoat due to COVID-19, because of COVID-19,
related posts are summarized in Table 3.
due to government restrictions
Diminish Justification thank you for your understanding, 4.2.1. Most employed crisis communication strategies
patience, high volume of requests, As shown in Table 3, the secondary crisis response strategy was the
customer service,
most frequently used in the data (n = 957, 40.8%). Among the secondary
Rebuild Apology Apology, we are sorry
Compensation Voucher, refund, rebook, free change, crisis response strategies, the ingratiation strategy (n = 819, 34.9%) has
flexible booking option been employed the most. During the crisis, airlines frequently praised
Bolster Ingratiation thank you, clapping for our carers, in frontline workers and airline customers and employees. Another strat­
collaboration with, in coordination, egy used within this cluster was the victimage strategy (n = 133, 5.7%).
together with, organized with,
repatriation, medical supply, cargo flight
The least adopted strategy from the Bolster cluster was the reminder
Reminder always have been strategy (n = 5, 0.2%). Some examples of relevant crisis response mes­
Victimage Grounded, waiting for you, we look sages in the Bolster cluster are shown in Table 4.
forward to seeing you again soon

EasyJet: “We are currently experiencing extremely high volumes on so­ Table 3
cial media, and we are sorry for any inconvenience this may cause … We Crisis communication strategies identified in the data.
would like to reassure you that the safety, health, and wellbeing of our
Crisis Response Strategies N %
passengers and crew always has been, and always will be, our number one
priority. Thanks for your support during this time.” (Facebook, March Instructing and Adjusting Information 859 36.7
Primary Crisis Response Strategy 22.5
17, 2020)
528
Deny
Overall, the content analysis results revealed that most airlines
Scapegoat
(65%) released their first crisis communication messages in early March Diminish
2020, while 25% published their first messages in January 2020. Only Justification
5% of the airlines released their first crisis-related message in February Rebuild
2020. Accordingly, the pre-crisis timeframe was determined in the Apology
Compensation
present study as the period from December 1, 2019, to February 29, Secondary Crisis Response Strategy 40.8
2020. The crisis timeframe was set as the period from March 1, 2020, to 957
May 25, 2020. Bolster
Ingratiation
Reminder
Victimage
Total 2344 100

4
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Airline social media responses and SCCT strategies. Response category Airline (s) Social Media Corresponding findings/
Response category Airline (s) Social Media Corresponding findings/ examples
examples
guarantee credit to help
Instructing and Air France Facebook “To ensure you travel in Swiss air transport cope with
Adjusting (base TAP (May 15, complete safety, body the consequences of the
response) Portugal 2020) temperature checks by current coronavirus crisis.”
Turkish Facebook infrared thermometer are Victimage British Facebook “We’ll never stop dreaming
Airlines (March 11, being gradually deployed on Airways (April 9, of creating wonderful
Finnair 2020) departure of all of our KLM 2020) memories for our customers,
KLM Twitter flights. Passengers whose TAP Facebook but we know that now is not
Swiss (March 26, temperature exceeds 38C Portugal (April 29, the time to travel. When our
2020) (100F) will not be able to 2020) aircraft are cleared for take-
Twitter board and will be able to Twitter (April off once again, we will be
(March 9, postpone their trip free of 1, 2020) ready to fly and serve. From
2020) charge.” our family to yours, thank
Twitter “The health and safety of our you. We love you Britain,
(March 25, customers and crew are and will see you very soon.”
2020) TAP’s priority. Through “For over a hundred years
Twitter (Feb. daily preventive it’s been our passion to fly
4, 2020) disinfection, our specialized you to the most beautiful
flight cleaning teams places in the world.
continue to ensure, with However, under the current
reinforcement due to the circumstances, we’re not
pandemic, that passengers able to fly you everywhere.
who are soon to board one of That’s why we’ve decided to
our flights will have all the bring a piece of our
necessary conditions to homeland to you.”
make a safe flight.” “Today we say ‘See You
“With HEPA filters, we Soon’ on behalf of the entire
renew the air in our aircraft TAP family … We were born
every 3 min and keep the air to fly and we are sure that
quality always at a high level soon we will have the
for you.” pleasure of welcoming you
“We are cancelling our on board again. Let us take
flights to/from Milan March care of each other. Together,
7- April and to/from Rome we ill fly over borders and
12 March 7- April.” obstacles again.”
“CHECK YOUR FLIGHT Reminder EasyJet Facebook “We would like to reassure
STATUS- Due to travel Iberia (March 17, you that the safety, health,
restrictions and 2020) and wellbeing of our
cancellations, our operation Facebook passengers and crew always
has changed. Always check (May 6, has been, and always will be,
your ‘flight status’ page, as 2020) our number one priority.
flights ae subject to change Thanks for your support
and push messages may during this time.”
come with a delay.” “Security has always been
“SWISS decided to extend part of our DNA. However,
flight suspensions to and today we have to adapt our
from Beijing and Shanghai protocol and protect
until 29 February. Flight ourselves.”
operations to and from Hong Compensation EasyJet Facebook “Has your flight been
Kong will continue as Eurowings (April 30, cancelled? Get a little
planned.” 2020) ‘easyJet extra’ towards your
Ingratiation Air France Facebook “Every day, our teams Twitter (April next trip when you choose a
Eurowings (April 7, receive many messages of 23, 2020) voucher.”
Swiss 2020) support. We sincerely thank “You have booked a flight
Twitter (April you for all these wonderfully for May or June and no
4, 2020) heartwarming words. Air longer wish to travel on that
Twitter (May Franc and all its teams are date? You can easily rebook
7, 2020) fully mobilized to provide or request a flight voucher.”
you optimum support and Apology Alitalia Facebook “We apologise for the
assistance and answer all Iberia (March 17, difficulties reaching our call
your questions.” 2020) centre.”
“It’s time to say THANK Instagram “We are sorry to make you
YOU! All Eurowings (April 20, wait while we resolve your
colleagues on the ground 2020) travel incidents.”
and in the air understand Justification Air France Facebook “Our teams have been
only too well that the British (April 23, reinforced and remain
situation is not always easy Airways 2020) mobilized on a daily basis to
for our passengers at the Twitter answer your queries as soon
moment.” (March 13, as possible. However, the
“SWISS and Edelweiss are 2020) number of requests remains
thankful that both chambers extremely high.”
of the Swiss Federal “We understand that many
Assembly have approved by of our customers have
clear majorities the questions about this fast-
moving situation. We’ve
(continued on next page)

5
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

Table 4 (continued ) service. One of the least frequently used strategies was the scapegoat
Response category Airline (s) Social Media Corresponding findings/ strategy from the deny cluster (n = 82; 3.5%). Table 4 provides several
examples examples of primary crisis response messages.
brought in extra teams to
help, but please bear with 4.3. Airlines’ crisis communication before and during the COVID-19 crisis
us, it’s taking longer than
usual.”
Scapegoat Finnair Twitter “We are adjusting our
The unprecedented COVID-19 crisis took the aviation industry by
Iberia (March 20, European traffic in April due surprise, and their communication frequency declined. According to the
2020) to the impacts of the results, the airlines communicated 22% more often during the pre-crisis
Press room coronavirus. We are period, December 1, 2019, to February 29, 2020, then during the crisis
(Feb. 6, decreasing the seat capacity
phase from March 1, 2020, to May 25, 2020. Specifically, while the
2020) of our European traffic in
April by over 20 per cent.” airlines released, on average, 2.42 messages per day during the pre-crisis
“Because of the coronavirus period, the number of messages during the crisis phase dropped to 1.65
epidemic alert, the situation messages per day. Furthermore, the results also revealed considerable
caused by the coronavirus differences in how each airline managed their crisis communication
outbreak in China has led
Iberia to expand the
during the COVID-19 crisis period (See Table 5). For example, while
interruption of its Madrid- Eurowings and Finnair communicated the most frequently during the
Shanghai service until the crisis, the Norwegian and the Vueling Airlines’ crisis communication
end of April.” was very sparse (249, 239 vs. 34, 31). Furthermore, there were differ­
ences in the airline companies’ preferences for specific strategies. For
instance, while Swiss International Airlines predominantly used the
4.2.2. Second most employed crisis communication strategy
bolster strategy, Finnair extensively used the instructing and adjusting
The second most preferred crisis communication strategy was the
information strategy.
instructing and adjusting information strategy (See Table 4). Specif­
Interestingly, the airlines’ preferences in choosing strategies for crisis
ically, this strategy was used in 859 messages (36.7%) during the crisis
communication were influenced by whether a given airline was a full-
period. Some examples of this strategy are provided on Table 4. Mes­
cost or a low-cost carrier. The results showed that full-cost carriers
sages classified as instances of this strategy can be further categorized
more frequently used the bolster strategy (43%) than their low-cost
into (1) instructing information messages (n = 273, 11.7%), which
counterparts (36%; see Fig. 1). Furthermore, as opposed to full-cost
inform stakeholders about safety measures and precautions taken to
airlines, low-cost carriers more frequently published messages based
protect their customers and employees and (2) adjusting information
on the instructing and adjusting information strategy (34% vs. 45%,
messages (n = 586, 25%), such as posts about flight cancellations and
respectively). Finally, full-service carriers frequently communicated
changes.
about compensations and refunds (12%) compared to low-cost carriers
(10%).
4.2.3. Least employed crisis communication strategy
Furthermore, in the primary crisis response strategy (n = 528,
22.5%; see Table 3), which has been the least employed strategy, the 4.4. Channels used during pre-crisis and crisis communication
most frequently used cluster was the rebuild cluster (n = 294, 12.5%).
This cluster includes two strategies—compensation and apology—with The results revealed several unique patterns concerning the choice
the latter used only 21 times (0.9%) in the data. The compensation and frequency of use of social media channels during the pre-crisis and
strategy included mostly messages about free cancellations, re-booking crisis periods (see Fig. 2). To start with, Twitter was the most frequently
options, refunds and voucher compensations (n = 273; 11.6%). The used channel—airlines used it for 30% of their messages both before and
justification strategy (n = 152, 6.5%), which belongs to the diminish during the crisis. Furthermore, the second most frequently used social
cluster, was employed in combination with the airline’s customer media channel was Facebook, used for 23% of the airlines’ messages and
updates. Interestingly, Instagram was more frequently used during the

Table 5
Frequency of Airlines’ Communication According to SCCT Recommendation.
Airlines Instructing/Adjusting Deny Diminish Rebuild Bolster Total
a
Eurowings 53 2 15 37 142 249
Finnair 92 18 23 31 75 239
Swiss Int. Airlines 36 3 8 26 124 197
Lufthansa 57 12 4 27 66 166
Ryanaira 101 9 5 10 28 153
SAS Scandinavian 48 12 3 6 71 140
KLM 43 2 1 10 67 139
TAP Portugal 62 1 1 23 37 136
Jet2a 103 3 4 9 15 134
TUI UK 37 3 21 7 53 121
Virgin Atlantic 23 0 8 5 72 108
Aeroflot 58 1 4 27 13 103
Turkish Airlines 47 3 5 11 33 99
Iberia 13 2 2 26 34 77
Alitalia 28 1 2 5 31 67
British Airways 5 0 5 13 34 57
Air France 20 1 7 5 16 49
EasyJeta 11 4 3 11 16 45
Norwegiana 7 6 2 5 14 34
Vueling Airlinesa 15 0 0 0 16 31

Note. a = low-cost carriers.

6
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

Fig. 1. Frequency of full-service and low-cost carriers’ crisis communication.

Fig. 2. Frequency of using different communication channels during the pre-crisis and crisis periods.

pre-crisis phase (20%) than in the crisis period (16%). The pattern was facilitating the crisis’s mitigation (Lee, 2016).
reversed with LinkedIn: It was more frequently used during the crisis Nevertheless, EasyJet’s first crisis-related message was long overdue.
period (17%) than before the crisis (14%). Instead of releasing proactive information about flight cancellations and
providing further passenger assistance, as Aeroflot and Finnair did in
5. Discussion and implications January 2020, EasyJet’s first crisis message was a mix of several
different crisis response strategies, such as apology (“we are sorry for
5.1. Defining the starting point of the COVID-19 crisis any inconvenience this may cause”), justification (“we are currently
experiencing extremely high volumes on social media”), reminder (“we
The presented study results revealed considerable differences in how would like to reassure you that the safety, health, and wellbeing of our
each of the studied airlines handled the start of the crisis. The World passengers and crew always has been, and always will be, our number
Health Organization (WHO; 2020) announced that COVID-19 was a one priority”), and ingratiation (“Thanks for your support during this
global pandemic at the end of January 2020. However, most airlines time!” (EasyJet, Facebook, March 17, 2020). Such mixing of several
released their first crisis-related message almost one and a half months crisis response strategies can undermine the response’s effectiveness
afterward—early March 2020. This late response is surprising, mainly (Coombs, 2007). Accordingly, to be effective, a company should have a
because when a company faces a crisis, a quick reaction in a matter of consistent crisis response strategy in place.
minutes is pivotal (Elliott, 2019). Employing the stealing thunder
strategy, a proactive release of crisis information to the public gives an
organization the power to be in charge of the information flow, thereby

7
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

5.2. Crisis communication strategies used by the airlines Airlines, all other airlines adopted one or all crisis response strategies
within the primary crisis response strategy, therefore going beyond the
Before defining a crisis response, an organization should carefully SCCT recommendation.
consider its crisis responsibility and the attribution made by its stake­ From the SCCT perspective, the rebuild strategies—apology and
holders. According to the SCCT framework, the COVID-19 crisis can be compensation—are beneficial and relevant during crises where there is a
classified as a victim crisis (Coombs, 2007). The airlines were victims of strong attribution of responsibility and a severe reputational threat, such
the crisis: Since borders were closed, the demand for air travel sharply as intentional or accidental crises (Coombs, 2007). However, in the
declined, and the companies had no other choice than to cancel flights event of a victim crisis, offering compensation is not obligatory. None­
and eventually ground their fleet (Deloitte, 2020). Coombs (2007) theless, the rebuild strategy is one of the main strategies for further
argued that stakeholders’ attribution in a victim crisis is weak; therefore, accumulating reputational assets (Coombs, 2007). The airlines’ motives
the overall reputational threat is mild. Under such circumstances, the behind their proactive offers of compensation may have been the air­
SCCT framework recommends using the instructing and adjusting in­ lines’ intention to avoid a further crisis, gain a reputational advantage,
formation strategy and the bolster strategy (Coombs, 2007). Overall, the and influence consumer behavior after the crisis.
airlines followed this recommendation, and their COVID-19 crisis Furthermore, the content analysis results highlighted that the air­
communication response did not accept responsibility for the crisis. lines’ customer service centers most explicitly used the justification
strategy. However, many airlines admitted that they were overwhelmed
5.2.1. Most employed crisis communication strategy by customers’ messages and calls. Research has reported that many
The results of the content analysis revealed that airlines predomi­ social media crises result from customer service problems (Coombs,
nantly implemented communication strategies from the bolster cluster. 2014b). As discussed in the literature, according to Coombs (2014b) and
They employed the reminder strategy from the SCCT framework, which Cameron and Cheng (2018), such ‘para-crises,’ unless appropriately
aims to remind customers about a company’s past good deeds. Addi­ handled, can trigger a real crisis. To address the issue and diminish their
tionally, airlines emphatically praised their stakeholders during the responsibility for the crisis circumstances, many airlines opted to justify
crisis. Applauding messages to frontline hospital workers and ‘thank the long waiting times explicitly. Alongside the justification strategy, a
you’ messages to customers, government institutions, and employees few airlines also published apology messages for the inconvenience
were frequently released. Except for Jet2 and Aeroflot, all other airlines caused.
made extensive use of this strategy, with Eurowings releasing the Overall, releasing crisis communication where the blame for an
highest number of ingratiation messages. Praising stakeholders was emergency is attributed to a third party facilitates reducing the attrib­
previously reported to evoke sympathy for an organization, particularly uted crisis responsibility (Coombs, 2007). Hence, it may be logical for an
during a victim crisis (Coombs, 2007). Through the ingratiation strat­ organization to seek a scapegoat for a victim crisis. However, this
egy, the airlines sought to minimize a potential threat to their strategy was among the least frequently used. As Antonetti and Baghi
reputation. (2019) argued, a possible explanation is that to have an effective and
Although the COVID-19 pandemic can be classified as a victim crisis, credible scapegoat strategy, a company needs to identify a third party
airlines made little use of the victimage strategy than other strategies that can be blamed for an emergency. However, during a pandemic, a
within the bolster cluster. With their victimage messages, the airlines third party can neither be identified nor held responsible for the situa­
sought to evoke sympathy for their situation and emphasize how much tion. Accordingly, this strategy was rarely used for COVID-19 crisis
they suffered from the COVID-19 crisis. According to Coombs (2007), communication.
organizations use the victimage strategy to persuade their customers Concerning RQ1, the results confirmed that the airlines followed the
that they are also the victims of a situation and deserve mercy. However, SCCT recommendations effectively to communicate their crisis-related
due to the adverse and robust impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, all messages. The results also showed that the airlines are aware of a
stakeholders—including customers, employees, governments —can be possible continuation of the current emergency and, accordingly,
regarded as victims. From this perspective, airlines appearing as victims included the crisis response strategies beyond the base response that best
seeking the sympathy and attention of other victims may not be an suited their needs.
effective crisis strategy. This could explain why the victimage strategy
was rarely used. 5.3. Airlines’ crisis communication before and during the COVID-19 crisis

5.2.2. Second most employed crisis communication strategy This paper’s second goal was to explore the differences in crisis
As recommended by the SCCT framework, companies should prior­ communication frequency before and during the COVID-19 crisis. For
itize communication about safety precautions and actions taken to airlines such as British Airways, Iberia, or Norwegian, the crisis
reduce potential harm to the public, regardless of the crisis type communication almost stopped in May 2020. The reason for this abrupt
(Coombs, 2007). As demonstrated by the results, the airlines followed cessation of announcements was that 90% of the airlines’ worldwide
the SCCT recommendation and released instructing information about fleet was grounded, and many airline staff had been laid off (Ellis et al.,
safety precautions taken to reduce the risk for customers and employees 2020). As discussed in the introduction, although the airline industry is
who had contracted the virus while traveling with or working for the well-equipped to handle crises, unforeseeable and unprecedented situ­
company. Apart from instructing information messages, airlines also ations such as COVID-19 can challenge even the most well-equipped and
frequently released adjusting information messages, such as flight up­ well-trained organizations.
dates, cancellations, and amendments. In general, such information Regarding the frequency, the results showed that, within the time­
messages are the basis of any crisis response and must be implemented frame analyzed in the present study, the airlines published content 2344
anyhow. The entities responded to the crisis by releasing essential in­ times. The researcher also found differences in the frequency of crisis
formation, demonstrated their transparency to the stakeholders, and communication between different periods of the current emergency:
applied the stealing thunder strategy (Lee, 2016). Specifically, while the airlines published 2.42 messages per day in the
pre-crisis phase, around 1.65 crisis-related messages were released per
5.2.3. Least employed crisis communication strategy day in the crisis phase. Furthermore, the results also showed that airlines
Furthermore, the results demonstrated that, besides using the navigated the crisis in different ways. While some focused more on the
instructing and adjusting information strategy combined with the bolster strategy, others predominantly used the instructing and adjust­
bolster strategies, which lines up with the SCCT recommendation, air­ ing information strategy. According to Coombs (2007), the more coop­
lines also used the primary crisis response strategy. Except for Vueling erative an airline’s response strategy, the higher is its costs for the

8
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

company. In this context, it is unsurprising that, as compared to from the pandemic must be implemented in this checklist and ensure
full-service carriers, low-cost carriers more frequently gave a less coor­ that an organization has to have several pre-written statements ready for
dinated response. release. This strategy will increase the pace of crisis communication.
Finally, to reduce pressure on the customer service center, a task force
5.4. Channels used during pre-crisis and crisis communication must be established and trained. This task force should be on call and
support the customer service center in times of crisis. The training
Concerning the airlines’ communication channels for pre-crisis and manager and the crisis communication manager should establish the
crisis communication, the findings revealed that Twitter was the most task force and provide adequate training.
frequently used channel during the pre-crisis and crisis periods. This is Based on this study, the best practices to safeguard a company’s
an interesting finding, as the targeted airlines’ social media channels reputation in the event of a second wave are as follows: 1) Communicate
have more followers on Facebook, followed by Instagram, than Twitter. the basic facts about the crisis first, within an hour of the first signs of a
Furthermore, this finding contradicts the conclusion drawn in a previous crisis; 2). Emphasize instructing and adjusting information strategies; 3)
study, where Facebook was reported to be the most commonly used Increase communication frequency during a crisis; and 4) Determine the
social media channel in the airline industry (Bick, Bühler and Lauritzen, appropriate crisis communication channels for addressing specific
2014). Also, the finding that Instagram was not a preferred channel of stakeholder groups.
crisis communication for the airlines converges with Egan’s (2017)
argument that as a picture- and video-sharing platform for expressing 6. Conclusion/limitations/future studies
one’s creativity, individuality, and achievements, Instagram is not a
suitable channel for the communication of crisis-related content. To conclude, the airline industry suffered from the COVID-19
Finally, the findings confirmed that LinkedIn was a more credible source pandemic in 2020. Despite the first signs of recovery in the airline in­
for crisis-related content. dustry when the present research project was being completed, it re­
Only looking at the follower count is not sufficient for organizations mains unknown how the “new normal” will unfold. This study reveals
to have an effective communication strategy. As argued by Coombs that to protect an organization’s reputation, crisis communication
(2018) and Göritz et al. (2011), organizations should be aware of the cannot be overestimated. Taken together, the findings of the conducted
target audiences of major social media channels and possess sufficient research expanded upon SCCT’s response options and support the
knowledge of how users interact on those channels. Overall, the present argument that every crisis is different and requires a unique approach to
study shows that the airlines managed to adjust their social media offset the reputational threat posed by the crisis. Notably, despite the
channel strategies during the crisis to address appropriate stakeholders. extensive negative economic impacts of a crisis on an organization,
companies can turn it into an opportunity and benefit from it in terms of
5.5. Implications setting effective communication practices for the future. However, it is
still to be seen whether the airline industry will have a soft landing or a
This study is particularly relevant in the current situation, as it turbulent ride as the COVID-19 pandemic continues.
provides an insight into how European airlines communicated to their
stakeholders amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The results can also help
airlines get prepared for a possible second (or third) wave deriving from 6.1. Limitations and future studies
variants of the COVID-19 pandemic. The aviation industry plays a cen­
tral role in the tourism sector; thus, this research can interest those in the The present study has several limitations. First, this study focused on
hospitality industry, particularly service-related organizations. The the messages from the airlines to the customers. A future study could
findings also highlight the importance of knowing the peculiarities of investigate customer perceptions of these messages or the customer
different social media channels and their users. Such knowledge enables messages themselves. Second, although the researcher analyzed a large
an organization to elaborate and implement effective crisis communi­ dataset of the represented European airlines’ messages, only content
cation strategies. Overall, the present study provides a comprehensive published in English and German received focus. Further, airlines such
framework for the airline and tourism industry to understand crisis as TAP Portugal, Iberia, and Aeroflot released crisis-related messages in
communication dynamics on social media better. their country’s languages. Thus, future research could include national
Towards the end of the present research period, some improvements languages beyond English and German. Third, the present study
in the COVID-19- related situation occurred, and European countries analyzed a limited sample of 20 European airlines, selected according to
started to lift their quarantine measures and re-open their borders. their revenue.
However, despite these optimistic developments, the second wave of the Further research could expand on this study by including more
COVID-19 pandemic was inevitable. For this reason, this study suggests airline companies from Europe or other continents. Fourthly, the
several practical implications when communicating in the future about methodology could be a limitation as the most significant criticism of the
this or another pandemic. Firstly, entities should ensure that they have a methodology we employed is that it is not scientific (deductive) but
well-established crisis communication team that can be empowered to based on inductive reasoning, drawn from the data analysis (Glaser and
make decisions. In the event of lay-offs, the crisis communication team Strauss, 2017). Future studies could use the constant comparative
has to remain in operation. An airline entity’s CEO should ensure that method suggested by Glaser and Strauss (2017), which combines the
the crisis communication team is not affected by lockdowns or lay-offs. coding and analytic procedures and allows a more systematic approach.
Secondly, the existing crisis communication plans need to be updated Finally, the timeframe from December 1, 2019, to May 25, 2020, was
with the findings and lessons learned from the pandemic. The crisis established for gathering the data, which covered the pre-crisis and
communication manager and the crisis team are responsible for this crisis phase but did not include the post-crisis phase. Future studies
task. Thirdly, airline companies must assign a dedicated spokesperson, could analyze the messages in the post-crisis phase or the messages in all
who can bolster the credibility of a company’s crisis communication, three phases.
cannot be overestimated. According to the data, none of the airlines
named or listed their crisis communication managers’ contact details or References
crisis teams on their homepages. Only a few of the airlines displayed the
contact details of the public relations team. The spokesperson is also Agarwal, P., Ferrell, C., 2018. Flight bans and the Ebola crisis: policy recommendations
for future global health epidemics. Harvard Publ. Health Rev. 14. Retrieved from.
responsible for the completion of this task. Fourthly, the crisis commu­ http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Chelsea-Ferr
nication manager should create a crisis checklist. The knowledge gained ell-and- Pulkit-Agarwal14.pdf.

9
S. Scheiwiller and L. Zizka Journal of Air Transport Management 95 (2021) 102103

Albers, S., Rundshagen, V., 2020. European airlines’ strategic responses to the COVID-19 admin.ch/bag/en/home/krankheiten/ausbrueche-epidemien-
pandemic (January-May, 2020). J. Air Transport. Manag. 87, 1–7. https://doi.org/ pandemien/aktuelle-ausbrueche-epidemien/novel-cov/krankheit-symp
10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101863. tome-behandlung- ursprung.html.
Antonetti, P., Baghi, I., 2019. When blame-giving crisis communications are persuasive: a Font, X., Gallego, I., 2020. Changes in air passenger demand as a result of the COVID-19
dual-influence model and its boundary conditions. J. Bus. Ethics. https://doi.org/ crisis: using big data to inform tourism policy. J. Sustain. Tourism. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10551-019-04370-x. 10.1080/09669582.2020.1773476.
Arun, T., Ozili, P., 2020. Spillover of COVID-19: Impact on the Global Economy. Glaser, B.G., Strauss, A.L., 2017. Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for
Retrieved from. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3562570. Qualitative Research. Routledge, New York, NY.
Bick, M., Bühler, J., Lauritzen, M., 2014. Social Media Communication in European Göritz, A., Schultz, F., Utz, S., 2011. Is the medium the message? Perceptions of and
Airlines. Twentieth Americas Conference on Information System, Savannah. reactions to crisis communication via Twitter, blogs and traditional media. Publ.
Bowen, J.T., Laroe, C., 2006. Airline networks and the international diffusion of severe Relat. Rev. 37 (1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.12.001.
acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Geogr. J. 127 (2), 130–144. https://doi.org/ Gössling, S., Hall, C.M., Scott, D., 2020. Pandemics, tourism and global change: a rapid
10.1111/j.1475-4959.2006.00196.x. assessment of COVID-19. J. Sustain. Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080/
Cameron, G., Cheng, Y., 2018. The status of social-mediated crisis communication 09669582.2020.1758708.
(SMCC) research. In: Austin, L., Jin, Y. (Eds.), Social Media and Crisis Grančy, M., 2014. Airline Facebook pages—a content analysis. European Transport Res.
Communication. Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 9–20. Rev. 6, 213–223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12544-013-0126-9.
Canny, I.U., 2016. An application of situational crisis communication theory on Greer, C.F., Moreland, K.D., 2003. United ’Airlines’ and American ’Airlines’ online crisis
Germanwings flight 9525 crisis communication. SSRN Electronic J. 7 (3), 1–18. communication following the September 11 terrorist attacks. Publ. Relat. Rev. 29,
Retrieved from. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299593974_An_Applica 427–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2003.08.005.
tion_of_Situational_Cr isis_Communication_Theory_on_Germanwings_Fligh IATA, 2016. Crisis Communication in the Digital Age: A Guide to “Best Practice” for the
t_9525_Crisis_Communication. Aviation Industry. Retrieved from. http://www.iata.org/publications/Document
Cascio, M.A., Freedman, D.A., Lee, E., Vaudrin, N., 2019. A team-based approach to open s/social- media-crisis-communications-guidelines.pdf.
coding: considerations for creating intercoder consensus. Field Methods 31 (2), IATA, 2020. COVID-19. Third impact assessment. Retrieved March 24, 2020, from.
116–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X19838237. https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/publications/economic-reports/th
Claeys, A.S., 2017. Better safe than sorry: why organizations in crisis should never ird-impact- assessment.
hesitate to steal thunder. Bus. Horiz. 60 (3), 305–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Ishak, S., 2019. Leading airline groups by revenue. Airl. Bus. 35 (6), 28–29. Retrieved
bushor.2017.01.003. from. https://edition.pagesuite- professional.co.uk/h
Coombs, W.T., 2007. Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: the tml5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname=&edid=bd1095d8- 6883-4f7
development and application of situational crisis communication theory. Corp. 5-90c4-c3391904a5a0.
Reput. Rev. 10 (3), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1550049. Kim, S., Liu, B.F., 2012. Are all crises opportunities? A comparison of how corporate and
Coombs, W.T., 2014a. Crisis Management and Communications. Institute for Public government organizations responded to the 2009 flu pandemic. J. Publ. Relat. Res.
Relations. Retrieved from. https://instituteforpr.org/crisis- management-commun 24 (1), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2012.626136.
ications/. Lee, S.Y., 2016. Weathering the crisis: effects of stealing thunder in crisis
Coombs, W.T., 2014b. State of Crisis Communication: Evidence and the Bleeding Edge. communication. Publ. Relat. Rev. 42 (2), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Institute for Public Relations. Retrieved from. https://instituteforpr. pubrev.2016.02.005.
org/state-crisis-communication- evidence-bleeding-edge/. Othman, A.F., Yusoff, S.Z., 2020. Crisis communication management strategies in
Coombs, W.T., 2018. Revising situational crisis communication theory. In: Austin, L., MH370 crisis with special references to situational crisis communication theory. Int.
Jin, Y. (Eds.), Social Media and Crisis Communication. Routledge, New York, NY, J. Acad. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci. 10 (4), 172–182. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v10-
pp. 21–37. i4/7118.
Cugueró-Escofet, N., Suau-Sanchez, P., Voltes-Dorta, A., 2020. An early assessment of the Sobieralski, J.B., 2020. COVID-19 and airline employment: insights from historical
impact of COVID-19 on air transport: just another crisis or the end of aviation as we uncertainty shocks to the industry, 5. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary
know it? J. Transport Geogr. 86 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2020.102749. Perspectives. Retrieved from. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
Deloitte, 2020. Global COVID-19 Government Response: Daily Summary of Government S2590198220300348.
Response Globally. Retrieved from. https://www2.deloitte.com/ch/en/p Statista, 2020. Most Popular Social Media Networks Worldwide as of April 2020, Ranked
ages/finance/articles/covid19-government-funding- response.html. (Accessed 15 by Number of Active Users. Retrieved from. https://www.statista.
April 2020). com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of- users/.
Egan, K., 2017. The Difference between Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, & Timonen, Verpi, Foley, Geraldine, Conlon, Catherine, 2018. Challenges When Using
Pinterest (updated for 2020). Retrieved February 20, 2020, from. https://www. Grounded Theory: A Pragmatic Introduction to Doing GT Research. International
impactbnd.com/blog/the-difference-between-facebook-twitter-linkedin- google- Journal of Qualitative Methods 17, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/
youtube-pinterest. 1609406918758086.
Elliott, K., 2019. How to create an effective crisis preparedness plan in the digital age. In: World Health Organization, 2020. Rolling Updates on Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19).
Culp, R. (Ed.), The New Rules of Crisis Management, 3 ed. Retrieved from. https Retrieved from. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel- coronavi
://www.rockdovesolutions.com/the-new-rules-of-crisis-management-3rd-edition. rus-2019/events-as-they-happe.
Ellis, D., Guira, J., Tyers, R., 2020. What future do airlines have? Three experts discuss. Yu, Meng, Li, Zhiyong, Yu, Zhicheng, He, Jiaxin, Zhou, Jhingyan, 2020. Communication
Retrieved from. https://theconversation.com/what-future-do-airlines-have-th related health crisis on social media: a case of COVID-19 outbreak. Current Issues in
ree-experts- discuss-135365. Tourism 2020, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1752632.
Federal Office of Public Health FOPH, 2020. COVID-19, symptoms and treatment, origins
of the new coronavirus. Bundesamt für Gesundheit BAG. Retrieved from. www.bag.

10