Moringa oleifera

Moringa oleifera is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree of the

Moringa oleifera
family Moringaceae, native to the Indian subcontinent.[2]
Common names include moringa,[3] drumstick tree[3] (from
the long, slender, triangular seed-pods), horseradish tree[3]
(from the taste of the roots, which resembles horseradish), and
ben oil tree or benzolive tree.[3]

It is widely cultivated for its young seed pods and leaves, used as
vegetables and for traditional herbal medicine. It is also used for
water purification.[4][5] Although listed as an invasive species in
several countries, M. oleifera has "not been observed invading Scientific classification
intact habitats or displacing native flora", so "should be regarded Kingdom: Plantae
at present as a widely cultivated species with low invasive
potential."[2] Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Description Clade: Eudicots

M. oleifera is a fast-growing, deciduous tree[6] that can reach a Clade: Rosids

height of 10–12 metres (33–39 feet) and trunk diameter of 45 Order: Brassicales
centimetres (18 inches).[7] The bark has a whitish-gray color and
is surrounded by thick cork. Young shoots have purplish or Family: Moringaceae
greenish-white, hairy bark. The tree has an open crown of Genus: Moringa
drooping, fragile branches, and the leaves build up a feathery
foliage of tripinnate leaves. Species: M. oleifera
Binomial name
The flowers are fragrant and hermaphroditic, surrounded by five
unequal, thinly veined, yellowish-white petals. The flowers are Moringa oleifera
about 1–1.5 cm (3 ⁄8 –5 ⁄8  in) long and 2 cm (3 ⁄4  in) broad. They Lam.
grow on slender, hairy stalks in spreading or drooping flower
Synonyms[1]
clusters, which have a length of 10–25 cm (4–10 in).[7]

Flowering begins within the first six months after planting. In Guilandina moringa L.
seasonally cool regions, flowering only occurs once a year in late Hyperanthera moringa (L.)
Spring and early Summer (northern hemisphere between April
Vahl
and June, southern hemisphere between October and December).
In more constant seasonal temperatures and with constant Moringa pterygosperma
rainfall, flowering can happen twice or even all year-round.[7] Gaertn. nom. illeg.

The fruit is a hanging, three-sided brown 20–45 cm (8–171 ⁄2  in)

capsule, which holds dark brown, globular seeds with a diameter around 1  cm. The seeds have three
whitish papery wings and are dispersed by wind and water.[7]
In cultivation, it is often cut back annually to 1–2 m (3–6  ft) and
allowed to regrow so the pods and leaves remain within arm's
reach.[7]

Taxonomy
French botanist François Alexandre Pierre de Garsault described the
species as Balanus myrepsica, but his names are not accepted as
valid, as he did not always give his descriptions binomial names.[8]
Pods of Moringa oleifera in
Panchkhal, Nepal
French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck described the species in
1785.[9] A combined analysis of morphology and DNA shows that
M. oleifera is most closely related to M.  concanensis, and the
common ancestor of these two diverged from the lineage of
M. peregrina.[10]

Etymology

The genus name Moringa derives from the Tamil word, murungai,
meaning "twisted pod", alludes to the young fruit.[11] The species
name oleifera is derived from the Latin words oleum "oil" and ferre Moringa flowers
"to bear".[8]

The plant has numerous common names across regions where it is

cultivated, with drumstick tree, horse radish tree or simply moringa
used in English.[2][3]

Ecology
The moringa tree is not affected by any serious diseases in its native
or introduced ranges. In India, several insect pests are seen,
including various caterpillars such as the bark-eating caterpillar, the
hairy caterpillar, or the green leaf caterpillar. The budworms
Noctuidae are known to cause serious defoliation. Damaging agents
can also be aphids, stem borers, and fruit flies. In some regions,
termites can also cause minor damage. If termites are numerous in
soils, insects management costs are not bearable.[7]

The moringa tree is a host to Leveillula taurica, a powdery mildew Moringa pollen
which causes damage in papaya crops in south India.

Cultivation
The moringa tree is grown mainly in semiarid, tropical, and subtropical areas, corresponding in the United
States to USDA hardiness zones 9 and 10. It tolerates a wide range of soil conditions, but prefers a neutral
to slightly acidic (pH 6.3 to 7.0), well-drained, sandy or loamy soil.[12] In waterlogged soil, the roots have a
tendency to rot.[12] Moringa is a sun- and heat-loving plant, and does not tolerate freezing or frost. Moringa
is particularly suitable for dry regions, as it can be grown using rainwater without expensive irrigation
techniques.
 Parameter Requirement/range[12]
Climate Grows best in tropical or subtropical

Altitude 0 – 2000 m

250 – 3000 mm

Rainfall Irrigation needed for leaf production if rainfall <

800 mm
Tree and seed pods of Moringa
Soil Type Loamy, sandy, or sandy-loam oleifera

Soil pH pH 5 – 9

Production area

India is the largest producer of moringa, with an annual production

of 1.2 million tonnes of fruits from an area of 380 km2 .[12]

Moringa is grown in home gardens and as living fences in South

Asia and Southeast Asia, where it is commonly sold in local Moringa seeds
markets. In the Philippines and Indonesia, it is commonly grown for
its leaves, which are used as food. Moringa is also actively
cultivated by the World Vegetable Center in Taiwan, a center for
vegetable research.

More generally, moringa grows in the wild or is cultivated in

Central America and the Caribbean, northern countries of South
America, Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and various countries
of Oceania.

As of 2010, cultivation in Hawaii was in the early stages for

commercial distribution in the United States.[12] Foliage of Moringa oleifera

Cultivation practice

Soil preparations

In tropical cultivation, soil erosion is a major problem, requiring soil treatment to be as shallow as possible.
Plowing is required only for high planting densities. In low planting densities, digging pits and refilling
them with soil is preferable to ensure good root system penetration without causing too much land erosion.
Optimal pits are 30–50 cm (12–20 in) deep and 20–40 cm (8–151 ⁄2  in) wide.

Propagation
Moringa can be propagated from seed or cuttings. Direct seeding is possible because the germination rate of
M.  oleifera is high. Moringa seeds can be germinated year-round in well-draining soil. Cuttings of 1 m
length and at least 4 cm diameter can be used for vegetative propagation.

Breeding

In India, from where moringa most likely originated,[2] the diversity of wild types gives a good basis for
breeding programs. In countries where moringa has been introduced, the diversity is usually much smaller
among the cultivar types. Locally well-adapted wild types, though, can be found in most regions.

Because moringa is cultivated and used in different ways, breeding aims for an annual or a perennial plant
are obviously different. The yield stability of fruits is an important breeding aim for the commercial
cultivation in India, where moringa is cultivated as an annual. On less favorable locations, perennial
cultivation has big advantages, such as less erosion. In Pakistan, varieties have been tested for the nutritional
composition of their leaves on different locations.[13] India selects for a higher number of pods and dwarf or
semidwarf varieties. Breeders in Tanzania, though, are selecting for higher oil content.

Yield and harvest

M. oleifera can be cultivated for its leaves, pods, and/or its kernels for oil extraction and water purification.
The yields vary widely, depending on season, variety, fertilization, and irrigation regimen. Moringa yields
best under warm, dry conditions with some supplemental fertilizer and irrigation.[12] Harvest is done
manually with knives, sickles, and stabs with hooks attached.[12] Pollarding, coppicing, and lopping or
pruning are recommended to promote branching, increase production, and facilitate harvesting.[14]

Fruits

When the plant is grown from cuttings, the first harvest can take place 6–8 months after planting. Often, the
fruits are not produced in the first year, and the yield is generally low during the first few years. By year
two, it produces around 300 pods, by year three around 400–500. A good tree can yield 1,000 or more
pods.[15] In India, a hectare can produce 31 tons of pods per year.[12] Under North Indian conditions, the
fruits ripen during the summer. Sometimes, particularly in South India, flowers and fruit appear twice a year,
so two harvests occur, in July to September and March to April.[16]

Leaves

Average yields of 6 tons/ha/year in fresh matter can be achieved. The harvest differs strongly between the
rainy and dry seasons, with 1120  kilogram/ha per harvest and 690  kg/ha per harvest, respectively. The
leaves and stems can be harvested from the young plants 60 days after seeding and then another seven times
in the year. At every harvest, the plants are cut back to within 60 cm of the ground.[17] In some production
systems, the leaves are harvested every 2 weeks.
The cultivation of M. oleifera can also be done intensively with irrigation and fertilization with suitable
varieties.[18] Trials in Nicaragua with 1 million plants per hectare and 9 cuttings/year over 4 years gave an
average fresh matter production of 580 metric tons/ha/year, equivalent to about 174 metric tons of fresh
leaves.[18]

Oil

One estimate for yield of oil from kernels is 250 L/ha.[12] The oil can be used as a food supplement, as a
base for cosmetics, and for hair and the skin. Seeds of Moringa can also be used in production of biofuel.

Toxicity
Toxicity data in humans is limited, although lab studies indicate that certain compounds in the bark and
roots or their extracts may cause adverse effects when consumed in excess.[19] Supplementation with
M. oleifera leaf extract is potentially toxic at levels exceeding 3,000 milligram/kg of body weight but safe at
levels below 1,000 mg/kg.[20] M. oleifera may interfere with prescription drugs affecting cytochrome P450
(including CYP3A4) and may inhibit the anti-hyperglycemic effect of sitagliptin.[19]

Uses
M. oleifera has numerous applications in cooking throughout its regional distribution. Edible parts of the
plant include the whole leaves (leaflets, stalks and stems); the immature, green fruits or seed pods; the
fragrant flowers; and the young seeds and roots.[21]

Nutrition

Various parts of moringa are Moringa oleifera leaf, raw

edible:[2] Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 64 kcal (270 kJ)
Immature seed pods,
called "drumsticks" Carbohydrates 8.28 g
Leaves Dietary fiber 2.0 g
Mature seeds Fat 1.40 g
Oil pressed from seeds Protein 9.40 g
Flowers
Vitamins Quantity %DV†
Roots
Vitamin A equiv. 378 μg 47%
Nutritional content of 100 g of Thiamine (B1) 0.257 mg 22%
fresh M. oleifera leaves (about 5 Riboflavin (B2) 0.660 mg 55%
cups) is shown in the table Niacin (B3) 2.220 mg 15%
(USDA data). Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.125 mg 3%
Vitamin B6 1.200 mg 92%
The leaves are the most nutritious Folate (B9) 40 μg 10%
part of the plant, being a Vitamin C 51.7 mg 62%
significant source of B  vitamins,
vitamin  C, provitamin  A as beta- Minerals Quantity %DV†
carotene, vitamin  K, manganese, Calcium 185 mg 19%
and [22][23] Iron 4.00 mg 31%
protein. When
compared with common foods Magnesium 147 mg 41%
particularly high in certain Manganese 0.36 mg 17%
nutrients per 100 g fresh weight, Phosphorus 112 mg 16%
cooked moringa leaves are Potassium 337 mg 7%
considerable sources of these Sodium 9 mg 1%
same nutrients. Some of the Zinc 0.6 mg 6%
calcium in moringa leaves is
bound as crystals of calcium Other constituents Quantity
oxalate.[24] Oxalate levels may Water 78.66 g
vary from 430 mg/100g to 1050 Units
mg/100g, [25] compared to the μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
oxalate in spinach (average 750 IU = International units
mg/100g).[26] †
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations
for adults.
Seeds Source: USDA FoodData Central (https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html)

The seeds can be removed from

M. oleifera pods, raw
mature pods, cut, and cooked for
consumption.[27] Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 37 kcal (150 kJ)
In Nigeria, the seeds are prized for
their bitter flavor; they are Carbohydrates 8.53 g
commonly added to sauces or Dietary fiber 3.2 g
eaten as a fried snack. The edible Fat 0.20 g
seed oil may be used in
Protein 2.10 g
condiments or dressings.[21]
Vitamins Quantity %DV†
Ground, debittered moringa seed Vitamin A equiv. 4 μg 1%
is suitable as a fortification Thiamine (B1) 0.0530 mg 5%
ingredient to increase the protein, Riboflavin (B2) 0.074 mg 6%
iron and calcium content of wheat Niacin (B3) 0.620 mg 4%
flours.[21][28][29] Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.794 mg 16%
Vitamin B6 0.120 mg 9%
Fruit pods Folate (B9) 44 μg 11%
Vitamin C 141.0 mg 170%
The young, slender fruits, Minerals Quantity %DV†
commonly known as
Calcium 30 mg 3%
"drumsticks", are often prepared
Iron 0.36 mg 3%
as a culinary vegetable in South
Asia. They are prepared by Magnesium 45 mg 13%
parboiling, commonly cut into Manganese 0.259 mg 12%
shorter lengths, and cooked in a Phosphorus 50 mg 7%
[30] Potassium 461 mg 10%
curry or soup until soft. The
taste is described as reminiscent of Sodium 42 mg 3%
asparagus,[31] with a hint of green Zinc 0.45 mg 5%
beans, though sweeter due to the Other constituents Quantity
immature seeds contained Water 88.20 g
inside. [32] The seed pods, even
Units
when cooked by boiling, remain
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
high in vitamin C[33] (which may IU = International units
be degraded variably by cooking), †
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations
and are also a good source of
dietary fiber, potassium, for adults.
magnesium, and manganese.[33] Source: USDA FoodData Central (https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html)

In India and Bangladesh, drumstick curries are commonly prepared

by boiling immature pods to the desired level of tenderness in a
mixture of coconut milk and spices (such as poppy or mustard
seeds).[21] The fruit is a common ingredient in dals and lentil soups,
such as drumstick dal and sambar, where it is pulped first, then
simmered with other vegetables and spices like turmeric and cumin.
Mashed drumstick pulp commonly features in bhurta, a mixture of
lightly fried or curried vegetables.[21]

Because the outer skin is tough and fibrous, drumsticks are often
chewed to extract the juices and nutrients, with the remaining
fibrous material discarded. Others describe a slightly different
method of sucking out the flesh and tender seeds and discarding the
tube of skin.[32]

Seed oil Flowers prepared for cooking

Mature seeds yield 38–40% edible oil called ben oil from its high
concentration of behenic acid. The refined oil is clear and odorless,
and resists rancidity. The young fruits can be boiled and the oil
skimmed off the water surface.[27] The seed cake remaining after
oil extraction may be used as a fertilizer or as a flocculent to purify
water.[34] Moringa seed oil also has potential for use as a
biofuel.[35]

Roots Drumstick vegetable pods at a

market
The roots are shredded and used as a condiment with sharp flavor
qualities deriving from significant content of polyphenols.[36]

Leaves

Edible raw or cooked (depending on hardiness),[27] the leaves can be used in many ways. They are perhaps
most commonly added to clear broth-based soups, such as the Filipino dishes tinola and utan. Tender
moringa leaves, finely chopped, are used as garnish for vegetable dishes and salads, such as the Kerala dish
thoran. It is also used in place of or along with coriander.[21] The leaves are also cooked and used in ways
similar to spinach, and are commonly dried and crushed into a powder for soups and sauces.[2]

For long-term use and storage, moringa leaves may be dried and powdered to preserve their nutrients. Sun,
shade, freeze and oven drying at 50–60  °C are all acceptable methods, albeit variable in their retention
efficacy of specific micro- and macronutrients.[37][38] The powder is commonly added to soups, sauces and
smoothies.[21] Owing to its high nutritional density, moringa leaf powder is valued as a dietary supplement
and may be used to enrich food products ranging from dairy, such as yogurt and cheese,[28] to baked goods,
such as bread and pastries,[21][28] with acceptable sensory evaluation.[21][28]

Dunt-dalun chin-yei, Traditional Thai Bread in Benin with Sabaw sa

Burmese drumstick kaeng som with moringa powder as kalamunggay, a
sour soup drumstick pods and one of the Visayan fish soup
fresh pla thu ingredients from the Philippines
with moringa leaves

Traditional medicine and research

The bark, sap, roots, leaves, seeds and flowers are used in traditional medicine.[2][39]

Research has examined how it might affect blood lipid profiles and insulin secretion.[19] Extracts from
leaves contain various polyphenols, which are under basic research to determine their potential effects in
humans.[40] Despite considerable preliminary research to determine if moringa components have bioactive
properties, there is no high-quality evidence to indicate that it has any effect on health or diseases.[19]

Other uses

In developing countries, moringa has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural
development, and support sustainable landcare.[2][41] It may be used as forage for livestock, a micronutrient
liquid, a natural anthelmintic, and possible adjuvant.[42][43]

Moringa trees have been used to combat malnutrition, especially among infants and nursing mothers.[2]
Since moringa thrives in arid and semiarid environments, it may provide a versatile, nutritious food source
throughout the year in various geographic regions.[44] Some 140 organizations worldwide have initiated
moringa cultivation programs to lessen malnutrition, purify water, and produce oils for cooking.[2]

Moringa oleifera leaf powder was as effective as soap for hand washing when wetted in advance to enable
anti-septic and detergent properties from phytochemicals in the leaves.[45] Moringa oleifera seeds and press
cake have been implemented as wastewater conditioners for dewatering and drying fecal sludge.[46]

Moringa seed cake, obtained as a byproduct of pressing seeds to obtain oil, is used to filter water using
flocculation to produce potable water for animal or human consumption.[47][48] Moringa seeds contain
dimeric cationic proteins[49] which absorb and neutralize colloidal charges in turbid water, causing the
colloidal particles to clump together, making the suspended particles easier to remove as sludge by either
settling or filtration. Moringa seed cake removes most impurities from water. This use is of particular interest
for being nontoxic and sustainable compared to other materials in moringa-growing regions where drinking
water is affected by pollutants.[48]

Gallery

Upper and lower side of the Branch of a fully grown Flowers of Moringa oleifera
tripinnate leaf of Moringa oleifera moringa tree with flowers on a morning
and leaves (West Bengal)

Dry open moringa pod on the

ground showing winged
seeds (Hawaii)

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External links

Dressler, S.; Schmidt, M. & Zizka, G. (2014). "Moringa oleifera" (http://www.africanplants.sen

ckenberg.de/root/index.php?submitForm=true&page_id=77&searchTextMenue=Moringa+ole
ifera&filterRegionIDs%5B%5D=6&filterRegionIDs%5B%5D=1&filterRegionIDs%5B%5D=2
&filterRegionIDs%5B%5D=3&filterRegionIDs%5B%5D=5). African plants – a Photo Guide
(http://www.africanplants.senckenberg.de). Frankfurt/Main: Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg.

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