Contents

RDBMS DAY 1........................................................................................................................................2

Features of PL/SQL............................................................................................................................2
Advantages of PL/SQL........................................................................................................................3
PL/SQL anonymous block overview...................................................................................................3
1) Declaration section....................................................................................................................4
2) Executable section.....................................................................................................................4
3) Exception-handling section........................................................................................................5
The PL/SQL Comments......................................................................................................................5
EXAMPLES --ADDITION declare a number; b number; c number; begin a:=&a; b:=&b; c:=a+b; 
dbms_output.put_line('Sum of ' || a || ' and ' || b || ' is ' || c); Here & is used to take user
input at runtime..... --SUM OF 100 NUMBERS Declare a number; s1 number default 0; Begin
a:=1; loop s1:=s1+a; exit when (a=100); a:=a+1; end loop; dbms_output.put_line('Sum between
1 to 100 is '||s1); End;...................................................................................................................6
Multi plication Table......................................................................................................................6
Home work....................................................................................................................................7
Initializing Variables in PL/SQL.....................................................................................................8
Variable Scope in PL/SQL.............................................................................................................9
Arithmetic Operators.....................................................................................................................10
 Relational Operators.....................................................................................................................11
Comparison Operators.................................................................................................................11
Logical Operators..........................................................................................................................12
PL/SQL Operator Precedence....................................................................................................13

RDBMS DAY 1
PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of programming languages. It was
developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90's to enhance the capabilities of SQL. PL/SQL is one
of three key programming languages embedded in the Oracle Database, along with SQL itself and
Java. This tutorial will give you great understanding on PL/SQL to proceed with Oracle database and
other advanced RDBMS concepts.

The PL/SQL programming language was developed by Oracle Corporation in the late 1980s as
procedural extension language for SQL and the Oracle relational database. Following are certain
notable facts about PL/SQL −

PL/SQL is a completely portable, high-performance transaction-processing language.

PL/SQL provides a built-in, interpreted and OS independent programming environment.

PL/SQL can also directly be called from the command-line SQL*Plus interface.

Direct call can also be made from external programming language calls to database.

Features of PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following features −

 PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL.

 It offers extensive error checking.
 It offers numerous data types.
 It offers a variety of programming structures.
 It supports structured programming through functions and procedures.
 It supports object-oriented programming.
 It supports the development of web applications and server pages.
Advantages of PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following advantages −

 SQL is the standard database language and PL/SQL is strongly integrated with SQL.
PL/SQL supports both static and dynamic SQL. Static SQL supports DML operations
and transaction control from PL/SQL block. In Dynamic SQL, SQL allows
embedding DDL statements in PL/SQL blocks.
 PL/SQL allows sending an entire block of statements to the database at one time. This
reduces network traffic and provides high performance for the applications.
 PL/SQL gives high productivity to programmers as it can query, transform, and
update data in a database.
 PL/SQL saves time on design and debugging by strong features, such as exception
handling, encapsulation, data hiding, and object-oriented data types.
 Applications written in PL/SQL are fully portable.
 PL/SQL provides high security level.
 PL/SQL provides access to predefined SQL packages.
 PL/SQL provides support for Object-Oriented Programming.
 PL/SQL provides support for developing Web Applications and Server Pages.

PL/SQL anonymous block overview

PL/SQL is a block-structured language whose code is organized into blocks. A PL/SQL block
consists of three sections: declaration, executable, and exception-handling sections. In a
block, the executable section is mandatory while the declaration and exception-handling
sections are optional.

A PL/SQL block has a name. Functions or Procedures is an example of a named block. A

named block is stored into the Oracle Database server and can be reused later.

A block without a name is an anonymous block. An anonymous block is not saved in the
Oracle Database server, so it is just for one-time use. However, PL/SQL anonymous blocks
can be useful for testing purposes.

The following picture illustrates the structure of a PL/SQL block:

1) Declaration section

A PL/SQL block has a declaration section where you declare variables, allocate memory for
cursors, and define data types.

2) Executable section

A PL/SQL block has an executable section. An executable section starts with the keyword
BEGIN and ends with the keyword END. The executable section must have a least one
executable statement, even if it is the NULL statement which does nothing.

3) Exception-handling section
A PL/SQL block has an exception-handling section that starts with the keyword EXCEPTION.
The exception-handling section is where you catch and handle exceptions raised by the code
in the execution section.

Note a block itself is an executable statement, therefore you can nest a block within other blocks.

The PL/SQL Comments

Program comments are explanatory statements that can be included in the PL/SQL code that
you write and helps anyone reading its source code. All programming languages allow some
form of comments.

The PL/SQL supports single-line and multi-line comments. All characters available inside
any comment are ignored by the PL/SQL compiler. The PL/SQL single-line comments start
with the delimiter -- (double hyphen) and multi-line comments are enclosed by /* and */.

DECLARE
-- variable declaration
message varchar2(20):= 'Hello World!';
BEGIN
/*
* PL/SQL executable statement(s)
*/
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/

BEGIN
/*
* PL/SQL executable statement(s)
*/
dbms_output.put_line('Hello');
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Hello

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL anonymous block example

The following example shows a simple PL/SQL anonymous block with one executable
section.
1 BEGIN
2    DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line ('Hello World!');
3 END;

The executable section calls the DMBS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE procedure to display the "Hello
World" message on the screen.

EXAMPLES
--ADDITION
declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
c:=a+b; 
dbms_output.put_line('Sum of ' || a || ' and ' || b || ' is ' || c);
End;
/

Here & is used to take user input at runtime.....

--SUM OF 100 NUMBERS

Declare
a number;
s1 number default 0;
Begin
a:=1;
loop
s1:=s1+a;
exit when (a=100);
a:=a+1;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('Sum between 1 to 100 is '||s1);
End;

Multi plication Table

Declare
a number;
mult number default 0;
counter number default 1;
Begin
a:=&a;
loop
mult:=a*counter;
dbms_output.put_line(a||'*’||counter||=||mult);
counter=counter+1;
exit when (counter=10);

end loop;
End;

Home work
1. Write a program to display area and circumference of a circle with given radius(user will
enter radius)
2. Write a program to display area and circumference of a circle with radius values 3 to 10

(use loop and end loop statements)

Day 2

S.No Category & Description

1
Scalar
 Single values with no internal components, such as a NUMBER, CHARACTER,
DATE, or BOOLEAN
Number : Numeric values on which arithmetic operations are performed.
NUMBER (prec, scale)
Fixed-point or floating-point number
INTEGER: Stores only integer values

Character:
Char: Fixed-length character string with maximum size of 32,767 bytes
Varchar: Variable-length character string with maximum size of 32,767 bytes
2
Long: Variable-length character string with maximum size of 32,760 bytes

Date: The DATE datatype is used to store fixed-length datetimes, which

include the time of day in seconds since midnight. Valid dates range from
January 1, 4712 BC to December 31, 9999 AD.
3
The default date format is 'DD-MON-YY'

Boolean: Data type stores logical values that are used in logical
operations. The logical values are the Boolean
4 values TRUE and FALSE and the value NULL.

Large Object (LOB)

5 Pointers to large objects that are stored separately from other data items, such as
text, graphic images, video clips, and sound waveforms.

Null
6 NULL values represent missing or unknown data and they are not an
integer, a character, or any other specific data type

Initializing Variables in PL/SQL

Whenever you declare a variable, PL/SQL assigns it a default value of NULL. If you
want to initialize a variable with a value other than the NULL value, you can do so
during the declaration, using either of the following −
 The DEFAULT keyword
 The assignment operator
For example −
counter binary_integer := 0;
greetings varchar2(20) DEFAULT 'Have a Good Day';
You can also specify that a variable should not have a NULL value using the NOT
NULL constraint. If you use the NOT NULL constraint, you must explicitly assign an
initial value for that variable.
It is a good programming practice to initialize variables properly otherwise,
sometimes programs would produce unexpected results. Try the following example
which makes use of various types of variables −
DECLARE
a integer := 10;
b integer := 20;
c integer;
f real;
BEGIN
c := a + b;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of c: ' || c);
f := 70.0/3.0;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of f: ' || f);
END;
/

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Value of c: 30
Value of f: 23.333333333333333333

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Variable Scope in PL/SQL

PL/SQL allows the nesting of blocks, i.e., each program block may contain another
inner block. If a variable is declared within an inner block, it is not accessible to the
outer block. However, if a variable is declared and accessible to an outer block, it is
also accessible to all nested inner blocks. There are two types of variable scope −
 Local variables − Variables declared in an inner block and not accessible to outer
blocks.
 Global variables − Variables declared in the outermost block or a package.
Following example shows the usage of Local and Global variables in its simple
form −
DECLARE
 -- Global variables
num1 number := 95;
num2 number := 85;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num1: ' || num1);
dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num2: ' || num2);
DECLARE
-- Local variables
num1 number := 195;
num2 number := 185;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num1: ' || num1);
dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num2: ' || num2);
END;
END;
/

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Outer Variable num1: 95
Outer Variable num2: 85
Inner Variable num1: 195
Inner Variable num2: 185

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or

logical manipulation. PL/SQL language is rich in built-in operators and provides the
following types of operators −

 Arithmetic operators
 Relational operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 String operators
Here, we will understand the arithmetic, relational, comparison and logical operators
one by one. The String operators will be discussed in a later chapter − PL/SQL -
Strings.

Arithmetic Operators
Following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by PL/SQL. Let us
assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 5, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

 + Adds two operands A + B will
give 15

- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give

5

* Multiplies both operands A * B will give

50

/ Divides numerator by de-numerator A / B will give

2

** Exponentiation operator, raises one operand to A ** B will

the power of other give 100000

Relational Operators
Relational operators compare two expressions or values and return a Boolean
result. Following table shows all the relational operators supported by PL/SQL. Let
us assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition (A = B) is not
=
becomes true. true.

!=
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal
<> (A != B) is true.
then condition becomes true.
~=

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, if (A > B) is not
>
yes then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if yes (A < B) is true.
<
then condition becomes true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right (A >= B) is not
 operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right (A <= B) is true
<=
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used for comparing one expression to another. The
result is always either TRUE, FALSE or NULL.
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

If 'Zara Ali' like 'Z% A_i'

The LIKE operator compares a character, string, or returns a Boolean true,
LIKE CLOB value to a pattern and returns TRUE if the value whereas, 'Nuha Ali' like
matches the pattern and FALSE if it does not. 'Z% A_i' returns a
Boolean false.

If x = 10 then, x
between 5 and 20
The BETWEEN operator tests whether a value lies in a
returns true, x between
BETWEEN specified range. x BETWEEN a AND b means that x
5 and 10 returns true,
>= a and x <= b.
but x between 11 and
20 returns false.

If x = 'm' then, x in ('a',

The IN operator tests set membership. x IN (set) 'b', 'c') returns Boolean
IN
means that x is equal to any member of set. false but x in ('m', 'n', 'o')
returns Boolean true.

The IS NULL operator returns the BOOLEAN value

TRUE if its operand is NULL or FALSE if it is not If x = 'm', then 'x is null'
IS NULL
NULL. Comparisons involving NULL values always returns Boolean false.
yield NULL.

Logical Operators
Following table shows the Logical operators supported by PL/SQL. All these
operators work on Boolean operands and produce Boolean results. Let us
assume variable A holds true and variable B holds false, then −
Show Examples

Operato Description Examples

 r

Called the logical AND operator. If both the operands are (A and B)
and
true then condition becomes true. is false.

Called the logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands (A or B) is

or
is true then condition becomes true. true.

Called the logical NOT Operator. Used to reverse the not (A and
not logical state of its operand. If a condition is true then B) is true.
Logical NOT operator will make it false.

PL/SQL Operator Precedence

Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This
affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence
than others; for example, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the
addition operator.
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has
higher precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those
with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence
operators will be evaluated first.
The precedence of operators goes as follows: =, <, >, <=, >=, <>, !=, ~=, ^=, IS
NULL, LIKE, BETWEEN, IN.
Show Examples

Operator Operation

** exponentiation

+, - identity, negation

*, / multiplication, division

+, -, || addition, subtraction, concatenation

 comparison

NOT logical negation

AND conjunction

OR inclusion

Write a program to find factorial of number

declare
   
-- declare variable num , fact
-- and temp of datatype number
 num number := 6;             
 fact number := 1;            
 temp number;        
   
begin
   
temp :=num;
  
-- here we check condition 
-- with the help of while loop
while( temp>0 )             
loop
fact := fact*temp;
temp := temp-1;
  
end loop;
  
dbms_output.put_line('factorial of '|| num || ' is ' || fact);
  
 end; 

HOW TO DISPLAY MESSAGES ON SCREEN ---

DBMS_OUTPUT: is a package that includes a number of procedure and

functions that accumulate information in a buffer so that it can be
retrieved later. These functions can also be used to display messages to
the user.

PUT_LINE: Put a piece of information in the package buffer followed by

an end-of-line marker. It can also be used to display message to the
user. Put_line expects a single parameter of character data type. If used
to display a message, it is the message 'string'.

EG: dbms_output.put_line(x);

REMEMBER: To display messages to the user the SERVEROUTPUT

should be set to ON.

EG: SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

A bit about comments. A comment can have 2 forms i.e.

-- The comment line begins with a double hyphen (--). The entire line will
be treated as a comment.

-- The C style comment such as /* i am a multiline comment */

CONDITIONAL CONTROL AND ITERATIVE CONTROL AND

SEQUENTIAL CONTROL

IF and else.....
IF --Condition THEN
--Action
ELSEIF --Condition THEN
--Action
ELSE
--Action
END IF;

SIMPLE LOOP
loop
-- Sequence of statements;
end loop;
the loop ends when u use EXIT WHEN statement --condition

WHILE LOOP

While --condition
loop
--sequence of statements
end loop;

FOR LOOP
FOR i in 1..10
loop
--sequence of statements
end loop;

GOTO (sequential control)

GOTO X;
<< X >>

--SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF LOOP STATEMENT I.E. EXIT WHEN

Declare
a number:= 100;
begin
loop
a := a+25;
exit when a=250;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line (to_Char(a));
end;

--EXAMPLE OF WHILE LOOP

Declare
i number:=0;
j number:= 0;
begin
while i <=100 loop
j := j+1;
i := i +2;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(to_char(i));
end;

--EXAMPLE OF FOR LOOP

Declare
begin
for i in 1..10
loop
dbms_output.put_line(to_char(i));
end loop;
end;

--SEQUENTIAL CONTROL GOTO

--CALCULATE THE AREA OF A CIRCLE FOR A VALUE OF RADIUS

VARYING FROM 3 TO 7. STORE THE RADIUS AND THE
CORRESPONDING VALUES OF CALCULATED AREA IN A TABLE
AREAS.

Declare
pi constant number(4,2) := 3.14;
radius number(5);
area number(14,2);

Begin
radius := 3;
While radius <=7
Loop
area := pi* power(radius,2);
Insert into areas values (radius, area);
radius:= radius+1;
end loop;
end;

--REVERSING A NUMBER 5639 TO 9365

Declare
given_number varchar(5) := '5639';
str_length number(2);
inverted_number varchar(5);

Begin
str_length := length(given_number);
For cntr in reverse 1..str_length
loop
inverted_number := inverted_number || substr(given_number, cntr, 1);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('The Given no is ' || given_number);
dbms_output.put_line('The inverted number is ' || inverted_number);
end;

Home Work
1. Write Data types in PL SQL
2. Write short note on
a. Initializing variable with example
b. Scope of variable Global and local
c. Operators used in PL SQL
i. Arithmetic operators
ii. Comparative operators
iii. Logical operators
3. Which command is used to display message on screen
4. Write a program to find factorial of a number
5. Write a program to find reverse number of a number
DAY 3
--QUERY EXAMPLE--IS SMITH EARNING ENOUGH

Programmable SQL
SQL is embedded in program.

Emp table
create table emp(empno number(3) primary key,ename
varchar(10),salary number(6));

1. PL SQL program to display details of empno=1

declare
veno emp.empno%type;
vename emp.ename%type;
vesalary emp.salary%type;
begin
select empno,ename,salary into veno,vename,vesalary from emp where
empno=1;
dbms_output.put_line(‘empno:’||vempno||
’ename:’||vename||
’salary:’||vsalary’);
end;
/
Select empno from emp where empno=3;

In this program

DDL
DML
Select
Where
Group bu
Aggregate
1. Declare section 3 variables are declared veno,vename and
vsalary. V prefix is used to for variable.
%type automatically assigns data type column in the table to a
variable. So no need to define a datatype to a variable.
2. In execution section values stored in a table are transferred into
variables with empno=1
 3. To display the contents of variables dbms_output.put_line
command is used.

This is anonymous block which is not saved in database. Named

blocks i.e. procedure,function,trigger and cursor.

Another way to display detail of empno=1

Declare
erec emp%rowtype;
begin
select * into erec
from emp
where empno=1;
dbms_output.put_line( ' Emp No = ' || erec.empno ||
' Emp Name = ' || erec.ename ||
' Salary = ' || erec.sal ||
' Commission = ' || erec.comm ||
' Designation = ' || erec.job);
end details;
/

Instead of defining variables individually erec variable is used access

data collectively.
%type is used for single variable. %rowtype is used access the whole
row of the columns. Then erec.eno ,erec.ename erec.sal ,erec.comm
become individual variables.

Write a program to display details of given employee (Use & operator)