Hybrid electric vehicles

A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle which runs by the combination of any two or more power
(energy) sources. The present and possible combinations include diesel/electric,
gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Here, one may act as stored energy source
and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. The combination of two power sources
may support two separate propulsion systems. Thus to be a true hybrid, the vehicle must
have at least two modes of propulsion.
components of a Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Internal combustion engine: The primary power source of an HEV is a conventional
engine. Hence, it is the main component responsible for propelling the vehicle. An HEV
cannot run alone on an electric powertrain without an engine.
Electric motor: The secondary power source of an HEV is the electric motor. It assists the
engine during initial acceleration to improve performance and fuel economy. It runs on
electrical energy stored in the battery pack. It can also charge the battery when the vehicle
is braking or coasting via the regenerative braking system.
Battery pack: A battery pack powers the electric motor. Basically, it acts as a fuel tank for
the battery, wherein it stores the electrical energy via regenerative braking and the
generator driven by the IC engine. The battery pack can also power auxiliary electrical
components such as lights.
Generator: It is an essential component found in the series hybrid vehicle. We will touch
upon what series hybrid is in the upcoming sections. A generator draws power from the IC
engine to power the electric motor and charge the battery pack. In simple words, a
generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Transmission: Typically, hybrid vehicles use conventional transmissions similar to petrol
or diesel cars. It transmits the power produced by the IC engine to the drive shaft. The
basic working principle of transmission remains the same, even in an HEV. It is one of the
crucial components required to propel the vehicle.
Fuel tank: Similar to a conventional car, hybrid electric vehicles also have a fuel tank to
store the conventional fuel. With the electric powertrain involved in a hybrid car, the fuel
consumption will be comparatively less than a vehicle purely relying on an IC engine.
Advantages • The electric motor is far more efficient than the heat engine. • EV’s can
use regenerative braking • HEV’s are more environmentally friendly• Reduction in engine
and vehicle weight • Fuel efficiency is increased • Emissions are decreased • Cut
emissions of global warming pollutants by 1/3 or 1/2 • Reduce the dependency on fossil
fuels Disadvantages --An HEV costs more than a conventional car. Hence, the upfront
costs could be a problem if you are on a tight budget.--The repair costs of the electric
powertrain may run high as it is a very complex system.---HEVs may produce less power
than regular petrol or diesel cars. So, if you are a driving enthusiast, it may not suit your
driving style. ---Limited Electric Range: application Consumer Vehicles: Public
Transportation: Delivery and Logistics: Government and Fleet Vehicles: Construction and
Off-Road Equipment: High-Performance Vehicles:
Series Hybrid Electric Drive Train Topology
A series hybrid is like a battery electric vehicle (BEV) in design. Here, the combustion
engine drives an electric generator instead of directly driving the wheels. The generator
both charges a battery and powers an electric motor that moves the vehicle. When large
amounts of power are required, the motor draws electricity from both the battery and the
generator. Series hybrids may also be referred to as extended-range electric vehicles
(EREVs) or range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs) since the gas engine only generates
electricity to be used by the electric motor and never directly drives the wheels.----The
vehicle is propelled by a traction motor. The traction motor is powered by a battery pack
and/or an engine/generator unit. The engine/generator unit either helps the batteries to
power the traction motor when load power demand is large or charges the batteries when
load power demand is small. The motor controller is to control the traction motor to
produce the power required by the vehicle. Vehicle performance (acceleration, gradeability,
and maximum speed) is completely determined by the size and characteristics of the
traction motor drive. The determination of the size of the motor drive and gears of
transmission is the same as in the electric vehicle design. However, the drive train control
is essentially different from the pure electric drive train due to the involvement of an
additional engine/generator unit. The term “peak power source” will replace “battery pack,”
because, in HEVs, the major function of batteries is to supply peaking power. They can be
replaced with other kinds of sources such as supers capacitors and flywheels
Operation Patterns In series hybrid electric drive trains, the engine/generator system
is mechanically decoupled from the driven wheels The speed and torque of the engine are
independent of vehicle speed and traction torque demand, and can be controlled at any
operating point on its speed–torque plane. Generally, the engine should be controlled in
such a way that it always operates in its optimal operation region, where fuel consumption
and emissions of the engine are minimized. Due to the mechanical decoupling of the
engine from the drive wheels, this optimal engine operation is realizable. However, it
heavily depends on the operating modes and control strategies of the drivetrain. The drive
train has several operating modes, which can be used selectively according to the driving
condition and desire of the driver. These operating modes are:
1. Hybrid traction mode: When a large amount of power is demanded, that is, the driver
depresses the accelerator pedal deeply, both engine/generator and peak power source
(PPS) supply their powers to the electric motor drive. In this case, the engine should be
controlled to operate in its optimal region for efficiency and emission reasons. The PPS
supplies the additional power to meet the traction power demand. This operation mode can
be expressed as Pdemand = Pe/g + Ppps, Where Pdemand is the power demanded by
the driver, Pe/g is the engine/generator power, and Ppps is the PPS power.
2. Peak Power Source-Alone Traction Mode: In this operating mode, the peak power
source alone supplies its power to meet the power demand, that is, Pdemand = Ppps
3. Engine/Generator-Alone Traction Mode: In this operating mode, the engine/generator
alone supplies its power to meet the power demand, that is, Pdemand = Pe/g
4. PPS Charging from the Engine/Generator: When the energy in the PPS decreases to
a bottom line, the PPS must be charged. This can be done by regenerative braking or by
the engine/generator. Usually, engine/generator charging is needed, since regenerative
braking charging is insufficient. In this case, the engine power is divided into two parts: one
is used to propel the vehicle and the other is used to charge the PPS. It should be
noticed that the operation mode is only effective when the power of the engine/generator is
greater than the load power demand. That is, Pdemand = Pe/g – Ppps
5. Regenerative Braking Mode: When the vehicle is braking, the traction motor can be
used as a generator, converting part of the kinetic energy of the vehicle mass into electric
energy to charge the PPS
The control objectives are to 1) Meet the power demand of the driver, 2) Operate each
component with optimal efficiency, 3) Recapture braking energy as much as possible, and
4) Maintain the state-of-charge (SOC) of the PPS in a preset window.
Control Strategies A control strategy is a control rule that is preset in the vehicle
controller and commands the operating of each component. The vehicle controller receives
the operation commands from the driver and the feedback from the drive train and all the
components, and then makes the decisions to use proper operation modes. Obviously, the
performance of the drive train relies mainly on the control quality, in which the control
strategy plays a crucial role. In practice, there are a number of control strategies that can
be used in a drive train for vehicles with different mission requirements. Here two typical
control strategies are introduced: (1) Maximum state-of-charge of peaking power source
(Max. SOC-of-PPS) (2) Engine turn-on and turnoff (engine-on–off) control strategies (1)
Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy The target of this control strategy is to meet the
power demand commanded by the driver and, at the same time, maintain the SOC of the
PPS at its high level. This control strategy is considered to be the proper design for
vehicles for which the performance relies heavily on the peak power source. This includes
vehicles with frequent stop–go driving patterns, and military vehicles for which carrying out
their mission are the most important. A high SOC level will guarantee the high performance
of the vehicles at any time. (2) Thermostat Control Strategy (Engine-On–Off) The
Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy emphasizes maintaining the SOC of the PPS at a high
level. However, in some driving conditions such as long time driving with a low load on a
highway at constant speed, the PPS can be easily charged to its full level, and the
engine/generator is forced to operate with a power output smaller than its optimum. Hence,
the efficiency of the drive train is reduced. In this case, engine-on–off or thermostat control
of the engine/generator would be appropriate. The operation of the engine/generator is
completely controlled by the SOC of the PPS. When the SOC of the PPS reaches its
preset top line, the engine/generator is turned off and the vehicle is propelled only by the
PPS. On the other hand, when the SOC of the PPS reaches its bottom line, the
engine/generator is turned on. The PPS gets its charging from the engine/generator. In this
way, the engine can always be operated within its optimal deficiency region.
Advantages ---Flexibility of location of engine-generator set--Simplicity of drivetrain
---Suitability for short trips Disadvantages---- It needs three propulsion components:
ICE, generator, and motor.-----The motor must be designed for the maximum sustained
power that the vehicle may require, such as when climbing a high grade.--- However, the
vehicle operates below the maximum power most of the time. ----All three drive train
components need to be sized for maximumpower for long-distance, sustained, high-speed
driving.
Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Train Topology
The parallel HEV allows both ICE and electric motor (EM) to deliver power to drive the
wheels. Since both the ICE and EM are coupled to the drive shaft of the wheels via two
clutches, the propulsion power may be supplied by ICE alone, by EM only or by both ICE
and EM. The EM can be used as a generator to charge the battery by regenerative braking
or absorbing power from the ICE when its output is greater than that required to drive the
wheels. The design objectives are: 1. To satisfy the performance requirements
(gradeability, acceleration, and maximum cruising speed) 2. To achieve high overall
efficiency 3. To maintain the battery state-of-charge (SOC) at reasonable levels in the
whole drive cycle without charging from outside the vehicle. 4. To recover the brake
energy.

The operation modes of the drive train are explained below: Motor-alone propelling
mode: The vehicle speed is less than a preset value, which is considered to be the
bottom line of the vehicle speed below which the engine cannot operate steadily. In this
case, the electric motor alone delivers its power to the driven wheels, while the engine is
shut down or idling. Hybrid propelling mode: The load power demand, is greater than
what the engine can produce, both the engine and Electric motor must deliver their power
to the driven wheels at the same time. This is called hybrid propelling mode. In this case,
the engine operation is set on its optimum operation line by controlling the engine throttle
to produce power PPS charge mode: When the load power demand is less than the
power that the engine can produce while operating on its optimum operation line, and the
PPS SOC is below its top line, the engine is operated on its optimum operating line,
producing its power. In this case, the electric motor is controlled by its controller to function
as a generator, powered by the remaining power of the engine. Engine-alone
propelling mode: When the load power demand is less than the power that the engine
can produce while operating on its optimum operation line, and the PPS SOC has reached
its top line, the engine-alone propelling mode is used. In this case, the electric system is
shut down, and the engine is operated to supply the power that meets the load power
demand. Regenerative-alone brake mode: When the vehicle experiences braking and
the demanded braking power is less than the maximum regenerative braking power that
the electric system can supply the electric motor is controlled to function as a generator to
produce a braking power that equals the commanded braking power. In this case, the
engine is shut down or set idling. Hybrid braking mode: When the demanded braking
power is greater than the maximum regenerative braking power that the electric system
can supply, the mechanical brake must be applied. In this case, the electric motor should
be controlled to produce its maximum regenerative braking power, and the mechanical
brake system should handle the remaining portion
Control Strategies of Parallel Hybrid Drive Train (1) (Max. SOC-of-PPS)
Control Strategy When a vehicle is operating in a stop-and-go driving pattern, the PPS
must deliver its power to the drive train frequently. Consequently, the PPS tends to be
discharged quickly. In this case, maintaining a high SOC in the PPS is necessary to ensure
vehicle performance. Thus, the maximum SOC of the PPS control strategy may be the
proper option. (Engine-On–Off) Control Strategy Similar to that used in a series hybrid
drive train, the engine turn-on and turn-off control strategy may be used in some operation
conditions with low speed and low acceleration. In an engine-on– off control strategy, the
operation of the engine is controlled by the SOC of PPS. In the engineon period, the
control is Max. SOC-of-PPS strategy. When the SOC of the PPS reaches its top line, the
engine is turned off and the vehicle is propelled only by the electric motor. When the SOC
of the PPS reaches its bottom line, the engine is turned on and the control again goes into
Max. SOC-of-PPS.
Advantages • Both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven
wheels and no energy form conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less • Compactness
due to no need of the generator and smaller traction motor. Disadvantages •
Mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the engine
operatingpoints cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region.• The mechanical configuration
and the control strategy are complex compared to series hybrid drivetrain. ---Due to its
compact characteristics, small vehicles use parallel configuration. Most passenger cars
employ this configuration.
Series-Parallel System
In the series-parallel hybrid the configuration incorporates the features of both the series
and parallel HEVs. However, this configuration needs an additional electric machine and a
planetary gear unit making the control complex.
Since both the ICE and EM are coupled
to the drive shaft of the wheels via two
clutches, the propulsion power may be
supplied by ICE alone, by EM only or by
both ICE and EM. Power distribution between the engine
and motor is designed so that the engine can run in its
optimum operating range as much as possible.
• The EM can be used as a generator to charge the
battery by regenerative braking or
absorbing power from the ICE when its
output is greater than that required to
drive the wheels• However, this
configuration needs an additional electric machine
and a planetary gear unit making the control complex.
Advantages---- Improved vehicle power capability---Better dynamic performance and
high cruising speed--Better fuel economy with less emissions--Zero emission operation
Disadvantages possible Very expensive system---Control complexity---Complex drive
train configuration
Social and Environmental Importance of Hybrid & Electric Vehicle • As
modern culture and technology continue to develop, the growing presence of global
warming and irreversible climate change draws increasing amounts of concern from the
world’s population. • According to various reports, cars and trucks are responsible for
almost 25% of CO2. emission and other major transportation methods account for another
12%. • Air pollution, global warming, and the rapid depletion of the Earth’s petroleum
resources are now problems of paramount concern. • In recent decades, the research and
development activities related to transportation have emphasized the development of high
efficiency, clean, and safe transportation. • With immense quantities of cars on the road
today, pure combustion engines are quickly becoming a target of global warming blame.
One potential alternative to the world’s dependence on standard combustion engine
vehicles are hybrid cars • Electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles
have been typically proposed to replace conventional vehicles in the near future. • The
social and environmental problems like air pollution, gas emissions causing global
warming, and petroleum resource depletion due to the use of conventional engines gave
birth to the development of electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell
technology.
A) Air Pollution Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels is a reaction between the fuel and
air that releases heat and combustion products. This heat is converted to mechanical
power by an engine and the combustion products are released into the atmosphere.
However, the combustion products contain nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, and
unburned hydrocarbons, which are toxic to human health.
Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are formed by the reaction between nitrogen in
the air and oxygen. The most commonly found nitrogen oxide is nitric oxide (NO), but small
amounts of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and traces of nitrous oxide (N2O) are also present.
Nitrogen dioxide is partly responsible for smog and acid rain, which dilutes in rain and
destroys forests and historical monuments made of marble.
Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide is a poison caused by incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons due to a lack of oxygen. It binds more strongly to haemoglobin than oxygen,
making it difficult for normal body functions to break. Dizziness is the first symptom of
carbon monoxide poisoning, which can lead to death.
Unburned Hydrocarbons Unburned hydrocarbons are a result of incomplete
combustion and can be harmful to living beings, such as direct poisons or carcinogenic
chemicals. They are also responsible for smog, which is colourless but dangerous and
poisons as it attacks the membranes of living cells, causing them to age prematurely or
die.
Other Pollutants Impurities in fuels cause the emission of pollutants, especially sulphur,
which is found in diesel, jet fuel, gasoline, and natural gas. Combustion of sulphur with
oxygen releases sulphur oxides (SOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). Sulphur trioxide reacts
with water to form sulphuric acid, which is a major component of acid rain. Petroleum
companies add chemical compounds to their fuels to improve performance, but this
releases lead metal, which is responsible for a neurological disease called saturnism. It is
now forbidden in most developed countries and other chemicals have replaced it.
B}Global Warming • Global warming is caused by the presence of carbon dioxide and
other gases in the atmosphere, which trap the Sun's infrared radiation and increase the
temperature. It results in major ecological damages to ecosystems, natural disasters, and
meteorological phenomena such as El Nio. The melting of polar icecaps raises sea levels
and can cause permanent inundation of coastal regions. Carbon dioxide emissions from
transportation account for a large share of global warming emissions.
C) Depletion of Petroleum Resources • The majority of fuels used for transportation
come from petroleum, which is a fossil fuel formed from the decomposition of living matter
over millions of years. This process involves living matter dying and being slowly covered
by sediments, which eventually form thick layers and transform into rock. The trapped
living matter encounters high pressures and temperatures, leading to the formation of
hydrocarbons or coal. This process took millions of years, making the Earth's resources in
fossil fuels finite.
What is electric traction?
The action of pulling something over a surface (especially a road or a track) is known as
traction. The action of drawing of vehicles by electric power derived from overhead wires,
third rail, storage batteries or diesel generators mounted on the vehicles is known as
electric traction. In simple words, the traction system which uses electric power for its
operation is known as electric traction.