Research Methodology (PHD001)- Question Bank

1. Mention any four differences between review paper and research paper.

Review Paper and Research Paper are two distinct types of academic papers that serve
different purposes and have different characteristics. Here are four key differences between
the two:

1. Purpose:
- Research Paper: The primary purpose of a research paper is to present original research,
new findings, or experimental results. It aims to contribute to the existing knowledge in a
specific field by addressing a research question or hypothesis.
- Review Paper: The main purpose of a review paper is to synthesize and summarize
existing research and literature on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current
state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and offers insights and analysis based on the existing
body of work.

2. Scope:
- Research Paper: Research papers are focused on a specific research question or hypothesis
and provide detailed methodologies, experiments, and results to support their claims. They
generally have a narrow scope and delve deeply into a particular aspect of a subject.
- Review Paper: Review papers have a broader scope as they aim to cover a wide range of
research studies, theories, and findings related to a specific topic. They provide a
comprehensive overview of existing literature and aim to give readers a holistic
understanding of the subject matter.

3. Structure:
- Research Paper: Research papers typically follow a structured format that includes
sections such as an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion,
and conclusion. The structure may vary depending on the field or journal requirements.
- Review Paper: Review papers also follow a structured format but with different sections.
They generally include an abstract, introduction, methods (sometimes), main body sections
organized thematically or chronologically, discussion, and conclusion. The focus is on
presenting the synthesized information and analyzing the existing literature.

4. Originality:
- Research Paper: Research papers aim to present original research findings, new
methodologies, or novel insights. They contribute to the body of knowledge by introducing
new concepts, theories, or experimental results.
- Review Paper: Review papers do not present new research findings or experiments.
Instead, they analyze, summarize, and interpret existing literature and studies. The originality
lies in the analysis and synthesis of the existing information, providing a new perspective or
framework for understanding the topic.

It's important to note that these differences are generalizations, and there can be variations in
the characteristics of research papers and review papers depending on the specific discipline,
journal requirements, or academic context.
2. Define research objective. How research objectives can be formulated?

A research objective is a specific goal or purpose that a researcher aims to achieve through
conducting a research study. It outlines the specific outcomes or results the researcher intends
to accomplish by the end of the research project. Research objectives guide the entire
research process, from defining the research question to designing the study, collecting data,
analyzing findings, and drawing conclusions.

Formulating research objectives involves the following steps:

1. Identify the Research Topic: Determine the general area or topic of interest for your
research. This could be a broad subject or a specific problem or phenomenon you want to
investigate.

2. Define the Research Question: Narrow down the research topic by formulating a clear and
concise research question. The research question should be specific, measurable, achievable,
relevant, and time-bound (SMART). It should reflect the main issue you want to address
through your research.

3. Break Down the Research Question: Analyze the research question and identify the key
components or sub-questions that need to be answered to address the main research question.
These sub-questions will form the basis for your research objectives.

4. Formulate Research Objectives: Based on the sub-questions identified, formulate specific

research objectives. Each research objective should be clear, concise, and focused on a
specific aspect of the research question. Research objectives should be achievable within the
scope of the study and contribute to answering the research question.

5. Align with Research Methodology: Ensure that the research objectives are aligned with the
research methodology you plan to use. The objectives should be attainable through the
chosen research methods and data collection techniques.

6. Review and Refine: Review and refine the research objectives to ensure they are
comprehensive, coherent, and aligned with the overall research plan. Seek feedback from
advisors, colleagues, or experts in the field to ensure clarity and relevance.

By formulating research objectives, researchers can define the direction and purpose of their
study, guide their research design, and evaluate the success of their research project once it is
completed. Clear and well-defined research objectives contribute to the overall quality and
effectiveness of the research study.
3. What do you mean by literature review? Explain the various Boolean operators used for
searching the literature review.
A literature review is a critical and comprehensive summary and evaluation of existing
literature (research articles, books, dissertations, conference papers, etc.) on a specific topic
or research question. It involves systematically searching, analyzing, and synthesizing
relevant sources to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge in
the field.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

1. Identify and understand the existing knowledge and research on a specific topic.

2. Determine the gaps, controversies, or inconsistencies in the literature.

3. Provide a theoretical framework or context for the research study.

4. Identify potential research questions or hypotheses.

5. Support the justification and significance of the research study.

Now, let's discuss the various Boolean operators used for searching the literature review:

Boolean operators are words or symbols used to combine or exclude search terms when
conducting literature searches. They allow researchers to refine and narrow their search
results. The three primary Boolean operators are:

1. AND: The operator "AND" is used to combine search terms and retrieve articles that
include all the specified terms. For example, searching for "obesity AND children" would
return articles that contain both terms, narrowing down the results to publications that
specifically address the relationship between obesity and children.

2. OR: The operator "OR" is used to broaden a search by combining alternative terms or
synonyms. When using "OR," the search results will include articles that contain any of the
specified terms. For example, searching for "climate change OR global warming" would
retrieve articles that discuss either climate change or global warming.

3. NOT: The operator "NOT" is used to exclude specific terms from the search results. It
allows researchers to filter out articles that contain certain terms that are not relevant to their
research. For example, searching for "nanotechnology NOT medicine" would exclude articles
that relate to the application of nanotechnology in the field of medicine.

Boolean operators can be combined to create more complex search queries, allowing
researchers to refine their searches and find more specific and relevant literature. Parentheses
can also be used to group search terms and create more precise search queries. For example:

- (obesity AND children) OR (overweight AND adolescents): This search query would
retrieve articles that discuss either the relationship between obesity and children or the
relationship between overweight and adolescents.
It's important to note that different databases or search engines may have specific conventions
or symbols for Boolean operators. Researchers should consult the search guidelines or help
sections of the specific platform they are using to ensure proper usage of Boolean operators
in their literature search.

4. What is research problem? Explain the step wise process of research problem
formulation.
A research problem refers to an area of concern, a gap in knowledge, or an issue that needs to
be addressed through systematic investigation and analysis. It represents the foundation of a
research study and provides a clear focus for the research objectives, questions, and
methodology. Research problems are typically formulated as specific questions or statements
that guide the research process.

The stepwise process of research problem formulation involves the following steps:

1. Identify a Broad Research Area: Start by identifying a broad area of interest or a general
field of study that you find intriguing or important. This could be based on personal interest,
relevance to a specific discipline, societal needs, or gaps in existing literature.

2. Conduct a Preliminary Literature Review: Conduct a preliminary review of existing

literature related to the broad research area. This will help you gain an understanding of the
current state of knowledge, identify gaps or controversies, and determine areas that require
further investigation.

3. Narrow Down the Research Area: Based on the preliminary literature review, narrow down
the broad research area to a specific topic or research focus. Consider the feasibility,
significance, and relevance of the topic to ensure it aligns with your research goals and
available resources.

4. Identify Research Questions or Objectives: Based on the narrowed-down research area,

formulate specific research questions or objectives that you aim to address through your
study. Research questions should be clear, concise, and answerable through empirical
investigation.

5. Consider the Research Context and Scope: Determine the specific context or setting in
which the research problem exists. Consider any constraints or limitations related to the
research, such as time, budget, access to data, or ethical considerations. Define the scope of
your study to ensure it is manageable and focused.

6. Refine and Finalize the Research Problem: Review and refine the research questions or
objectives to ensure clarity, specificity, and alignment with the research context and scope.
Seek feedback from mentors, advisors, or colleagues to validate the significance and
feasibility of the research problem.

7. Justify the Research Problem: Provide a clear rationale and justification for why the
identified research problem is important and worthy of investigation. Explain how addressing
the research problem can contribute to knowledge, address gaps in the field, or have practical
implications.

8. Formulate a Problem Statement: Finally, synthesize the refined research problem, research
questions, and justification into a concise problem statement. The problem statement should
clearly articulate the issue or gap that needs to be addressed and provide a compelling reason
for conducting the research.

It's important to note that the process of research problem formulation is iterative and may
involve revisiting and refining the problem statement as the research progresses and new
insights emerge. The problem formulation stage sets the direction and foundation for the
entire research study and influences subsequent decisions regarding research design,
methodology, and data collection.

5. State the differences between qualitative research and quantitative research.

Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research are two distinct approaches to conducting
research, each with its own set of characteristics and methodologies. Here are some key
differences between qualitative and quantitative research:

1. Research Focus:

- Qualitative Research: Qualitative research aims to explore and understand the

complexities, meanings, and subjective experiences of individuals or groups. It focuses on
capturing rich, detailed, and contextual data to gain in-depth insights into social phenomena,
attitudes, behaviors, and cultural practices.

- Quantitative Research: Quantitative research aims to quantify, measure, and analyze data
using statistical methods. It focuses on generating numerical data to test hypotheses, identify
patterns, establish correlations, and generalize findings to a larger population.

2. Data Collection:

- Qualitative Research: Qualitative research relies on methods such as interviews, focus

groups, observations, and open-ended questionnaires to collect non-numerical, textual, or
visual data. The emphasis is on capturing narratives, perceptions, and subjective experiences.

- Quantitative Research: Quantitative research relies on structured surveys, experiments, or

other standardized methods to collect numerical data. The focus is on generating measurable
and objective data that can be statistically analyzed.

3. Data Analysis:

- Qualitative Research: Qualitative data analysis involves interpreting and making sense of
textual or visual data by identifying themes, patterns, and relationships. It typically involves
techniques such as thematic analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis.
 - Quantitative Research: Quantitative data analysis involves using statistical techniques to
analyze numerical data and draw conclusions. It includes methods such as descriptive
statistics, inferential statistics, and data modeling.

4. Sampling and Generalizability:

- Qualitative Research: Qualitative research often uses purposive or non-random sampling,

aiming to select participants who can provide rich and diverse perspectives on the research
topic. The focus is on depth and understanding rather than generalizability to a larger
population.

- Quantitative Research: Quantitative research typically uses random or probability sampling

methods to ensure representativeness of the sample. The goal is to generalize findings to a
larger population and make statistically valid inferences.

5. Research Design:

- Qualitative Research: Qualitative research often has a flexible and emergent research
design, allowing the researcher to adapt the approach based on emerging insights. The
researcher's role is active, and the study design is iterative.

- Quantitative Research: Quantitative research follows a structured and pre-determined

research design, with clearly defined variables, hypotheses, and data collection methods. The
researcher's role is more objective and detached.

It's important to note that these differences are generalizations, and there can be variations
within qualitative and quantitative research methodologies and approaches. Researchers may
also employ mixed methods, combining elements of both qualitative and quantitative research,
to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem.

6. (i)Mention the steps of a literature review.

The steps involved in conducting a literature review can vary depending on the specific
research context and goals. However, here is a general framework outlining the steps typically
followed in a literature review:

1. Define the Research Question or Objective: Clarify the specific research question or
objective that your literature review aims to address. This will guide your literature search and
help you focus on relevant sources.

2. Identify Relevant Databases and Sources: Determine the appropriate databases, libraries, or
sources to search for relevant literature. This may include academic journals, books,
conference proceedings, dissertations, or reputable online databases.

3. Develop Search Keywords and Strategies: Create a list of relevant keywords and phrases
related to your research question. Consider synonyms, variations, and related terms. Develop
search strategies using Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) and truncation symbols (*) to
refine your search.

4. Conduct the Literature Search: Perform the literature search using the identified keywords
and search strategies. Apply any filters or limitations, such as publication dates or specific
study designs, to narrow down the search results.

5. Evaluate and Select Sources: Evaluate the relevance and quality of the retrieved sources.
Read abstracts, summaries, or introductions to determine if the source addresses your research
question. Select the most relevant and credible sources for further examination.

6. Read and Analyze Selected Sources: Read the selected sources thoroughly, extracting key
information, data, or arguments relevant to your research question. Take notes and organize
the information systematically, considering themes, concepts, or patterns that emerge from the
literature.

7. Synthesize and Analyze the Literature: Analyze and synthesize the information from the
selected sources. Identify commonalities, differences, or gaps in the literature. Look for
relationships or patterns, theoretical frameworks, or conceptual models that emerge from the
synthesis.

8. Critically Evaluate the Literature: Assess the strengths, weaknesses, biases, and limitations
of the literature. Consider the quality and validity of the studies, the credibility of the authors,
and potential biases in the research. Identify any methodological or theoretical issues that may
affect the reliability of the findings.

9. Organize and Structure the Literature Review: Organize the information and findings from
the literature review into a coherent structure. Consider different approaches, such as thematic,
chronological, or theoretical frameworks, to present the literature review effectively.

10. Write the Literature Review: Write the literature review, starting with an introduction that
contextualizes the research question and outlines the purpose and scope of the review. Present
the synthesized findings, discussing key themes, theories, and concepts. Conclude the
literature review by summarizing the key findings, highlighting gaps, and suggesting areas for
future research.

11. Revise and Update the Literature Review: Review and revise the literature review draft,
ensuring clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Incorporate feedback from peers, advisors, or
experts in the field. Update the literature review as new research emerges or the research
question evolves.

Remember, these steps are a general guideline, and the specific process may vary depending
on the research field, scope, and goals of your literature review. It is crucial to adapt the steps
to your specific research context and follow any guidelines or requirements set by your
institution or publication.
(ii) Distinguish between Research Methods and Research Methodology.

Research Methods and Research Methodology are two related but distinct concepts in the field
of research. Here's how they can be distinguished:

Research Methods:

Research methods refer to the specific techniques, tools, or procedures used to collect,
analyze, and interpret data in a research study. These methods are employed to address the
research objectives and answer research questions. Research methods can vary depending on
the nature of the research, the data being collected, and the research design. Some common
research methods include surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, case studies, and
content analysis.

In essence, research methods are the practical approaches and techniques researchers employ
to gather and analyze data. They are concrete steps or procedures that are applied within a
research study to obtain empirical evidence and generate findings.

Research Methodology:

Research methodology, on the other hand, refers to the overall framework or the systematic
approach used to conduct research. It encompasses the theoretical underpinnings, principles,
and strategies that guide the entire research process. Research methodology provides a
roadmap for how the research should be conducted, including the selection of research
methods, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures.

Research methodology involves decisions related to the research design, sampling techniques,
data collection methods, data analysis, and interpretation of findings. It also includes
considerations of ethical issues, validity and reliability, and the generalizability of the results.
Research methodology is concerned with the overall planning and organization of the research
study.

In summary, research methods refer to the specific techniques and tools employed to gather
and analyze data, while research methodology refers to the broader framework and approach
that guides the research process. Research methodology encompasses the selection and
application of appropriate research methods within a coherent and systematic research plan.

7. Give the classification of types of research. Explain any two types of research in
detail with example.

Research can be classified into various types based on different criteria. Here are some
common types of research:

1. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research aims to describe and depict the characteristics,
behaviors, or phenomena of a particular population or group. It involves collecting data to
provide an accurate and comprehensive picture of the subject under study. Descriptive
research focuses on answering "what," "who," "where," and "how" questions.
2. Exploratory Research: Exploratory research aims to explore a new area, gain insights, and
generate initial understanding of a phenomenon or problem. It is often conducted when little
or no prior knowledge or information exists on the topic. Exploratory research is characterized
by its flexibility and openness to new ideas and perspectives.

3. Experimental Research: Experimental research involves the manipulation of variables to

establish cause-and-effect relationships. It typically includes the use of control groups and
random assignment to treatment conditions. Experimental research allows researchers to make
causal inferences but requires strict control over variables.

4. Correlational Research: Correlational research aims to examine the relationship between

two or more variables. It investigates the extent to which changes in one variable are
associated with changes in another variable. Correlational research does not imply causation
but helps identify patterns, associations, or predictive relationships.

5. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research involves the collection and analysis of non-
numerical data, such as interviews, observations, documents, or visual materials. It aims to
understand and interpret subjective experiences, meanings, and social phenomena. Qualitative
research focuses on depth, context, and rich descriptions.

6. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of

numerical data. It uses statistical methods to measure and quantify variables, establish
correlations, test hypotheses, and generalize findings to a larger population. Quantitative
research aims for objectivity, generalizability, and statistical validity.

7. Applied Research: Applied research focuses on solving practical problems or addressing

specific issues. It aims to directly apply existing knowledge and theories to real-world
situations. Applied research seeks to generate practical solutions, develop interventions, or
inform decision-making in fields such as medicine, engineering, education, and business.

8. Fundamental Research: Fundamental research, also known as basic or pure research, aims
to expand knowledge and understanding of a subject without any immediate practical
application. It is driven by curiosity and the desire to explore theoretical concepts.
Fundamental research contributes to the development of theories and provides a foundation
for applied research.

These types of research serve different purposes and employ different methodologies.
Researchers select the most appropriate type of research based on their research questions,
objectives, available resources, and the nature of the research problem. It is also common for
researchers to use a combination of research types, known as mixed methods research, to gain
a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem.

Research can be classified into various types based on different criteria. One common
classification categorizes research into three broad types: exploratory research, descriptive
research, and explanatory research. Here, I will explain two types of research in detail with
examples:

1. Exploratory Research:

Exploratory research aims to explore a new area, gain insights, and generate initial
understanding of a phenomenon or problem. It is often conducted when little or no prior
knowledge or information exists on the topic. Exploratory research is characterized by its
flexibility and openness to new ideas and perspectives. It helps researchers formulate research
questions and hypotheses for further investigation.

Example: Suppose a researcher wants to study the factors influencing consumers' preference
for eco-friendly products. As there is limited existing research in this area, the researcher may
conduct exploratory research to gain initial insights. This could involve conducting interviews
or focus groups with a small sample of consumers to explore their perceptions, motivations,
and attitudes towards eco-friendly products. The findings from this exploratory research can
guide the researcher in developing a more focused and specific research study on the topic.

2. Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research aims to describe and depict the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena
of a particular population or group. It involves collecting data to provide an accurate and
comprehensive picture of the subject under study. Descriptive research focuses on answering
"what," "who," "where," and "how" questions.

Example: Let's consider a study on the purchasing behavior of online shoppers in a specific
country. The researcher may employ descriptive research by conducting an online survey with
a large sample of participants. The survey would collect data on various aspects, such as the
frequency of online purchases, preferred payment methods, popular product categories, and
demographic information. The findings would provide a detailed description of the online
shopping behavior within the target population, helping to identify trends and patterns.

8. Define research. Explain characteristics of the research.

Research is a systematic and organized inquiry aimed at generating new knowledge,

understanding, or insights. It involves the systematic investigation of a problem or question
using rigorous methods and approaches to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Research is
conducted across various disciplines and fields to advance knowledge, address gaps in
understanding, and contribute to the development of theories, practices, or policies.

Characteristics of research include:

1. Systematic and Organized: Research follows a structured and systematic approach. It

involves carefully planning and designing the study, defining research questions or objectives,
selecting appropriate methods, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing meaningful
conclusions. Research is organized in a logical and coherent manner to ensure validity and
reliability.

2. Empirical: Research is based on empirical evidence obtained through observations,

measurements, experiments, or other systematic approaches. It involves the collection and
analysis of data to derive conclusions and support or refute hypotheses. Empirical evidence
provides a foundation for making informed decisions and generalizing findings to larger
populations.

3. Objective and Unbiased: Research aims to be objective, unbiased, and free from personal or
subjective opinions. It follows rigorous methodologies to minimize biases and ensure the
reliability and validity of the findings. Researchers strive to approach their work with
intellectual honesty, impartiality, and fairness.

4. Replicable: Research should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to
replicate the study and obtain similar results when following the same procedures and
methods. Replicability strengthens the validity and credibility of research findings and allows
for verification and validation by the scientific community.

5. Generalizable: Research seeks to generalize findings beyond the specific sample or context
under study. While research often focuses on a particular population or setting, the goal is to
draw conclusions and make inferences that can be applied to broader populations or situations.
Generalizability depends on appropriate sampling techniques and representative samples.

6. Cumulative and Progressive: Research is cumulative and builds upon existing knowledge. It
contributes to the body of literature in a particular field and advances understanding by
expanding upon previous studies, theories, or methodologies. Research is an ongoing process
that leads to further questions, new investigations, and continual improvement.

7. Ethical: Research adheres to ethical principles and guidelines to protect the rights and well-
being of participants, maintain confidentiality, and ensure the responsible conduct of research.
Researchers must obtain informed consent, maintain privacy and confidentiality, minimize
potential harm, and follow ethical guidelines established by relevant institutions or
professional bodies.

These characteristics ensure that research is conducted with rigor, integrity, and reliability,
providing a basis for evidence-based decision-making, theory development, and advancements
in various disciplines.
9. Define hypothesis testing. Mention the steps of hypothesis testing and explain any one
step in detail.

Hypothesis testing is a statistical procedure used to make inferences about a population based
on sample data. It involves formulating two competing hypotheses, the null hypothesis (H0)
and the alternative hypothesis (Ha), and using statistical techniques to determine the
likelihood of the observed data given these hypotheses. The goal of hypothesis testing is to
assess the evidence against the null hypothesis and make a decision about accepting or
rejecting it in favor of the alternative hypothesis.

Steps of hypothesis testing:

1. Formulating the Null and Alternative Hypotheses: The first step in hypothesis testing is to
clearly define the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (Ha). The null
hypothesis represents the default assumption or the absence of an effect, while the alternative
hypothesis represents the researcher's claim or the presence of an effect. These hypotheses
should be mutually exclusive and cover all possible outcomes.

2. Selecting the Significance Level: The significance level (often denoted as α) determines the
probability threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis. Commonly used significance levels are
0.05 (5%) or 0.01 (1%). The significance level reflects the researcher's willingness to make a
Type I error, which is rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true.

3. Collecting and Analyzing the Data: The next step involves collecting a representative
sample and collecting relevant data. The data are then analyzed using appropriate statistical
techniques, depending on the nature of the research question and the type of data collected.

4. Computing the Test Statistic: Based on the data analysis, a test statistic is calculated. The
test statistic measures the difference between the observed data and what would be expected
under the null hypothesis. The choice of the test statistic depends on the specific hypothesis
being tested and the type of data.

5. Determining the Critical Region and P-Value: The critical region is defined based on the
significance level and the test statistic. It represents the range of values that, if exceeded by
the test statistic, would lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The p-value is calculated,
which represents the probability of observing data as extreme as, or more extreme than, the
observed data, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

6. Making a Decision: The final step involves comparing the p-value to the significance level.
If the p-value is smaller than the significance level, the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of
the alternative hypothesis. If the p-value is greater than or equal to the significance level, there
is insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis.

Explanation of Step 4: Computing the Test Statistic

In hypothesis testing, calculating the test statistic is a crucial step. The test statistic measures
the discrepancy between the observed data and the expected data under the null hypothesis.
The choice of test statistic depends on the research question and the type of data being
analyzed.

For example, if you were testing the mean difference between two groups, you might use the
t-test as the test statistic. The t-test compares the means of the two groups and calculates a t-
value, which represents the difference between the means divided by the standard error. The t-
value is then compared to a critical value from the t-distribution to determine the statistical
significance.

The calculation of the test statistic involves using relevant formulas or statistical software to
compute the appropriate value. It is essential to choose the correct test statistic and ensure
accuracy in its calculation to make valid inferences from the data.

10. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow down the problem itself as
well as the technique that might be used.” Explain the underlying idea in this
statement in the context of defining a research problem.

The underlying idea in the statement "Knowing what data are available often serves to
narrow down the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used" is that
understanding the availability of data can greatly influence the definition of a research
problem and guide the selection of appropriate research techniques.

When embarking on a research study, researchers need to define a clear and specific research
problem. However, the scope and formulation of the problem can be influenced by the data
that are accessible or attainable. Here's how this idea applies in the context of defining a
research problem:

1. Problem Definition: The availability of data can help researchers refine and narrow down
the research problem. If extensive and comprehensive data exist on a specific topic,
researchers may choose to focus on a more specific aspect or subproblem within that broader
area. On the other hand, if limited data are available, researchers may need to modify their
research problem or consider alternative approaches that require fewer or different types of
data.

2. Research Objectives: Knowing the data that are available can also shape the research
objectives. Researchers can determine the feasibility and attainability of certain objectives
based on the data's quality, quantity, and accessibility. They can assess whether the available
data can adequately address the research questions or if additional data collection efforts are
required.

3. Research Techniques: The data availability influences the selection of appropriate research
techniques. Different research techniques, such as quantitative surveys, qualitative
interviews, or archival data analysis, require different types of data. Researchers need to
match the research techniques to the available data sources and consider the compatibility
between the research question and the data's nature and quality.
4. Data Analysis: Researchers need to consider the analytical techniques that can be applied
to the available data. The data's structure, format, and quality determine the range of
statistical, qualitative, or mixed methods analysis that can be conducted. Data availability can
guide the choice of appropriate statistical tests, coding schemes, or visualization techniques
for data analysis.

By understanding what data are available, researchers can refine their research problem, align
their objectives, and select suitable techniques that maximize the utility of the existing data.
This knowledge helps researchers optimize the use of resources and improve the research's
overall efficiency and effectiveness. However, it's important to note that researchers should
also be cautious of potential limitations and biases in the available data and take steps to
address them appropriately.

11. Write a short note on „Experience Survey‟ explaining fully its utility in exploratory
research studies.

Experience survey is a research technique used in exploratory research studies to gather

information from individuals who have direct or indirect experience with a specific topic,
problem, or phenomenon. It involves collecting insights, opinions, and observations from
knowledgeable individuals to gain a better understanding of the subject under investigation.
The utility of experience surveys lies in their ability to provide valuable preliminary
information, generate hypotheses, identify research gaps, and guide further investigations in
exploratory research.

Key aspects of the utility of experience surveys in exploratory research studies include:

1. Gathering Expert Knowledge: Experience surveys allow researchers to tap into the
expertise and insights of individuals who possess extensive knowledge or experience in a
particular field or domain. These individuals may include practitioners, professionals,
scholars, or key stakeholders who have firsthand experience with the topic of interest. Their
expertise can provide valuable insights, practical perspectives, and contextual understanding
that may not be available in existing literature or databases.

2. Exploring New Areas: Experience surveys are particularly useful when researchers aim to
explore new or emerging areas where limited prior research exists. By consulting experts and
individuals with experience in these areas, researchers can gain preliminary insights, identify
relevant variables, and refine their research questions. This helps in establishing a foundation
for further investigations and hypothesis development.

3. Generating Hypotheses: Through experience surveys, researchers can generate initial

hypotheses or research questions based on the insights and observations provided by the
participants. The gathered information can help identify patterns, relationships, or potential
causal factors that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods. The
generated hypotheses can guide subsequent data collection and analysis, leading to a more
focused and systematic investigation.
4. Identifying Research Gaps: Experience surveys help researchers identify gaps in existing
knowledge or areas where further research is needed. By engaging with experts, researchers
can gain an understanding of unanswered questions, unresolved issues, or areas that require
further exploration. This information helps in refining the research problem, focusing on
relevant aspects, and avoiding redundant or repetitive studies.

5. Feasibility Assessment: Experience surveys can help assess the feasibility of conducting
in-depth research studies. By consulting experts and individuals with experience, researchers
can gather insights into potential challenges, resource requirements, or methodological
considerations that may arise during data collection, analysis, or interpretation. This
information aids in designing realistic research plans and ensuring that subsequent
investigations are practical and achievable.

In summary, experience surveys play a vital role in exploratory research studies by providing
access to expert knowledge, generating hypotheses, identifying research gaps, and assessing
the feasibility of further investigations. They serve as a valuable starting point for
researchers, allowing them to gather preliminary insights, refine their research objectives, and
lay the foundation for more rigorous and targeted research endeavors.

12. What is sample design? Explain steps in sample design.

Sample design refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals or units from a larger
population for the purpose of conducting research. It involves determining the appropriate
sampling technique, sample size, and the criteria for selecting participants to ensure that the
sample is representative of the population and can yield valid and reliable results.

The steps involved in sample design are as follows:

1. Define the Target Population: The first step is to clearly define the target population, which
refers to the larger group of individuals or units that the researcher wants to generalize the
findings to. The target population should be well-defined and specific, ensuring that it aligns
with the research objectives.

2. Select the Sampling Technique: There are various sampling techniques available, each
with its own strengths and limitations. The choice of sampling technique depends on factors
such as the nature of the research problem, available resources, time constraints, and the level
of accuracy required. Common sampling techniques include random sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster sampling, convenience sampling, and purposive sampling.

3. Determine the Sample Size: The sample size refers to the number of individuals or units
that will be included in the sample. Determining an appropriate sample size is crucial to
ensure the statistical reliability and generalizability of the research findings. The sample size
is influenced by factors such as the desired level of precision, the variability within the
population, the selected sampling technique, and the available resources.

4. Sampling Frame: A sampling frame is a list or representation of the population from which
the sample will be drawn. It serves as a reference for selecting participants and ensuring that
the sample is representative of the target population. The sampling frame can be a physical
list, a database, or any other relevant source that provides a comprehensive and accurate
representation of the population.
5. Selecting Participants: Once the sampling technique, sample size, and sampling frame are
determined, the researcher proceeds to select participants for the study. The selection process
should follow the predetermined criteria outlined in the sampling design. For example, in
random sampling, participants are selected randomly from the sampling frame using
techniques such as random number generators or lottery methods. In stratified sampling,
participants are selected proportionally from different subgroups within the population.

6. Implementing the Sample: After selecting the participants, the researcher needs to
approach them and obtain their participation in the study. This involves contacting the
selected individuals, explaining the purpose of the research, ensuring their willingness to
participate, and obtaining informed consent if necessary. The researcher may also need to
consider factors such as response rates and non-response bias to ensure the representativeness
of the sample.

Proper sample design is crucial for ensuring the external validity and generalizability of
research findings. By following the steps of sample design, researchers can obtain a sample
that is representative of the target population and provides reliable and valid results, allowing
for meaningful inferences and conclusions to be drawn.

13. Define sampling. Write in brief about various sampling techniques.

Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals or units from a larger
population for the purpose of conducting research. The selected subset, known as the sample,
is used to gather data and make inferences about the population. Sampling is employed when
it is not feasible or practical to study the entire population due to factors such as time, cost, or
logistical constraints.

There are several sampling techniques commonly used in research. Here is a brief overview
of some of the key sampling techniques:

1. Random Sampling: Random sampling involves selecting participants from the population
in a completely random manner. Each individual in the population has an equal chance of
being selected, and the selection is independent of any characteristics or traits. Random
sampling ensures that each member of the population has an equal opportunity to be included
in the sample, which helps to minimize bias and improve the generalizability of the findings.

2. Stratified Sampling: Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into

homogeneous subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics or variables of interest.
Participants are then randomly selected from each stratum in proportion to their
representation in the population. This technique ensures that each subgroup is adequately
represented in the sample, allowing for more precise estimates and comparisons within each
stratum.

3. Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters or
groups, usually based on geographic or administrative boundaries. A random sample of
clusters is selected, and all individuals within the selected clusters are included in the sample.
Cluster sampling is useful when it is impractical or costly to directly sample individuals, such
as in large-scale surveys or studies involving geographically dispersed populations.
4. Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling involves selecting individuals who are
readily available and accessible to the researcher. This sampling technique is characterized by
its ease and convenience, but it may introduce bias as the sample may not be representative of
the population. Convenience sampling is often used in pilot studies, exploratory research, or
situations where time and resources are limited.

5. Purposive Sampling: Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental sampling, involves

selecting participants based on specific criteria determined by the researcher's judgment or
expertise. Participants are chosen purposefully to provide unique insights, represent certain
characteristics, or fulfill specific research requirements. Purposive sampling is commonly
used in qualitative research or when studying specialized populations.

6. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling involves identifying initial participants who meet
the research criteria and then asking them to refer other potential participants who also meet
the criteria. This sampling technique is often used when studying hidden or hard-to-reach
populations. It relies on the network or social connections of participants to identify and
recruit additional participants.

These are just a few of the many sampling techniques available in research. The choice of
sampling technique depends on the research objectives, the nature of the population, available
resources, and the desired level of representativeness and generalizability. Each sampling
technique has its own strengths, limitations, and considerations, and researchers should
carefully select the most appropriate technique for their specific study.

14. Point out the possible sources of error in measurement. Describe the tests of sound
measurement.

Possible Sources of Error in Measurement:

1. Random Error: Random error refers to the variability or inconsistency in measurement due
to chance factors. It can occur due to fluctuations in the measuring instrument, environmental
conditions, or the respondent's behavior. Random error affects the precision of measurement
and can lead to inconsistent or unreliable results.

2. Systematic Error: Systematic error, also known as bias, refers to consistent and predictable
deviations from the true value of the measured variable. It can occur due to flaws or
limitations in the measurement instrument, biased sampling, or researcher bias. Systematic
error affects the accuracy of measurement and can lead to consistent overestimation or
underestimation of the true value.

3. Instrumentation Error: Instrumentation error arises from the inadequacy or malfunctioning

of the measuring instrument or equipment. It can occur due to calibration issues,
measurement drift over time, or improper use of the instrument. Instrumentation error
introduces inaccuracies in measurement and affects the reliability and validity of the results.

4. Response Bias: Response bias occurs when respondents provide answers that do not
accurately reflect their true thoughts, opinions, or behaviors. It can arise due to social
desirability bias, where respondents provide socially acceptable responses rather than truthful
ones, or acquiescence bias, where respondents tend to agree with statements without proper
consideration. Response bias can lead to distorted or inaccurate measurement outcomes.

5. Sampling Error: Sampling error arises from the use of a sample instead of the entire
population for measurement. It occurs due to natural variability between the sample and the
population, resulting in differences between the sample statistics and the true population
parameters. Sampling error can affect the generalizability of the findings to the population.

Tests of Sound Measurement:

1. Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurement over repeated
administrations or observations. It assesses the degree to which the measurement instrument
produces consistent results under similar conditions. Tests of reliability include test-retest
reliability (consistency over time), inter-rater reliability (consistency between different
raters), and internal consistency reliability (consistency among items within a scale).
Reliability can be assessed using statistical measures such as correlation coefficients,
Cronbach's alpha, or intraclass correlation.

2. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a measurement instrument measures what it
is intended to measure. It assesses the accuracy and appropriateness of the inferences or
conclusions made based on the measurement. Tests of validity include content validity
(whether the items adequately represent the construct), criterion validity (correlation with an
external criterion), and construct validity (the extent to which the measurement aligns with
theoretical constructs). Validity can be assessed using various methods, including expert
judgment, theoretical reasoning, and statistical analyses.

3. Construct Measurement: Construct measurement evaluates the operationalization and

measurement of abstract or complex constructs. It involves assessing the extent to which the
measurement instrument captures the underlying construct accurately and comprehensively.
Tests of construct measurement involve factor analysis, exploratory and confirmatory factor
analysis, and convergent and divergent validity assessments. These tests help identify the
underlying dimensions of the construct and assess the degree to which the measurement
aligns with the theoretical framework.

4. Sensitivity and Specificity: Sensitivity and specificity are measures commonly used in
diagnostic testing or screening measures. Sensitivity refers to the ability of a measurement
instrument to correctly identify the presence of a particular attribute or condition. Specificity
refers to the ability of the measurement instrument to correctly identify the absence of a
particular attribute or condition. These measures evaluate the accuracy and discriminatory
power of the measurement instrument in correctly classifying individuals or units.

By conducting these tests, researchers can evaluate and improve the quality of their
measurements, minimize sources of error, and enhance the reliability and validity of their
findings.
15. Difference Between Survey and Experiment.

Surveys and experiments are both research methods used to gather data and investigate
phenomena, but they differ in their design, purpose, and control over variables. Here are the
main differences between surveys and experiments:

1. Design and Purpose:

- Surveys: Surveys are observational studies that aim to collect data from a sample of
individuals or units to describe, understand, or analyze their characteristics, opinions,
behaviors, or experiences. Surveys typically involve administering questionnaires or
conducting interviews to gather self-reported information.
- Experiments: Experiments are controlled studies designed to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between variables. Experiments involve manipulating independent variables and
measuring the effects on dependent variables while controlling for confounding variables.
The purpose of experiments is to test hypotheses, evaluate interventions, or determine the
impact of specific factors.

2. Control over Variables:

- Surveys: In surveys, researchers do not have direct control over variables. They collect
data as they naturally occur or as reported by the participants. Surveys focus on observing
and measuring existing variables without manipulation.
- Experiments: Experiments allow researchers to manipulate variables and control the
conditions in which the study is conducted. They involve randomly assigning participants to
different groups or conditions, with each group exposed to a different level of the
independent variable. This control allows researchers to isolate and examine the effects of
specific variables on the outcome.

3. Causal Inference:
- Surveys: Surveys do not establish causal relationships between variables. They provide
information about associations, correlations, or patterns in the data, but they cannot determine
cause and effect. Surveys are more suitable for descriptive or exploratory research where the
focus is on understanding relationships or trends.
- Experiments: Experiments are designed to establish causal relationships. By manipulating
the independent variable and controlling for confounding factors, researchers can determine
the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable, allowing for causal
inferences.

4. Research Control:
- Surveys: Surveys lack the same level of control as experiments. Researchers rely on self-
report measures, which can be influenced by response bias or other factors. Surveys are
useful for studying variables that are difficult or unethical to manipulate, or when the
research goal is to gather subjective opinions or experiences.
- Experiments: Experiments offer a higher level of control over the research environment
and variables. Researchers can ensure consistent conditions, minimize biases, and draw
stronger conclusions about cause and effect. Experiments are particularly effective when
investigating interventions, treatments, or variables that can be manipulated.

5. Time and Resource Requirements:

 - Surveys: Surveys are often quicker and less resource-intensive than experiments. They
can be administered to a large number of participants simultaneously, and data collection can
be completed relatively efficiently.
- Experiments: Experiments generally require more time, effort, and resources. They
involve recruiting participants, setting up experimental conditions, and carefully controlling
variables. Experiments may require smaller sample sizes compared to surveys but can
demand more intensive data collection procedures.

Both surveys and experiments have their strengths and limitations, and the choice between
them depends on the research objectives, the nature of the research question, available
resources, and ethical considerations.

16. Explain various methods for collection of primary data.

There are several methods for collecting primary data, which is data that is collected firsthand
specifically for a research study. Here are some commonly used methods for collecting
primary data:

1. Surveys: Surveys involve administering questionnaires or structured interviews to a sample

of individuals. Surveys can be conducted through various means, such as face-to-face
interviews, telephone interviews, online surveys, or mailed questionnaires. Surveys are
efficient for collecting large amounts of data quickly and are suitable for gathering
information on attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and demographic characteristics.

2. Interviews: Interviews involve conducting in-depth conversations with individuals or small

groups to gather detailed information. Interviews can be structured (where questions are
predetermined and standardized), semi-structured (where there is flexibility to explore topics
in more depth), or unstructured (where the conversation flows freely). Interviews are useful
for collecting rich, qualitative data and gaining insights into participants' experiences,
perceptions, and motivations.

3. Observations: Observations involve directly observing and recording behaviors, events, or

phenomena in their natural settings. Observations can be conducted covertly (without
participants' knowledge) or overtly (with participants' consent). This method is particularly
useful for studying behaviors, interactions, or processes that may be difficult to capture
through other means. Observations can be recorded in written notes, audio or video
recordings, or through systematic coding.

4. Experiments: Experiments involve manipulating variables and measuring their effects on

dependent variables while controlling for other factors. In an experimental design,
participants are randomly assigned to different groups or conditions, allowing researchers to
establish cause-and-effect relationships. Experiments are well-suited for studying
interventions, treatments, or the effects of specific factors.

5. Case Studies: Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group,
organization, or event. Researchers collect data from multiple sources, including interviews,
observations, documents, and artifacts. Case studies provide detailed, contextualized
information and are useful for studying complex or unique phenomena.
6. Focus Groups: Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants
(typically 6-12) to engage in a facilitated discussion on a specific topic. The group dynamic
allows for interactions, exchanges of ideas, and the exploration of diverse perspectives. Focus
groups are valuable for capturing collective opinions, attitudes, and experiences, and for
generating rich qualitative data.

7. Ethnography: Ethnography involves immersing oneself in a particular culture, group, or

community to gain an in-depth understanding of their behaviors, beliefs, and practices.
Ethnographers spend an extended period of time in the field, participating in activities,
conducting interviews, making observations, and collecting various forms of data.
Ethnography is commonly used in social and cultural research.

8. Diaries or Journals: Diaries or journals involve participants keeping records of their

thoughts, experiences, or behaviors over a specified period. This method provides insights
into participants' daily lives, routines, and subjective experiences. Diaries or journals can be
in written format or collected through digital platforms.

The choice of primary data collection method depends on the research objectives, the nature
of the research question, the available resources, and the characteristics of the target
population. Researchers often employ multiple methods to gather a comprehensive and
diverse range of data to address their research objectives effectively.

17. What is tabulation? Explain it and discuss its principles.

Tabulation refers to the systematic arrangement of data in a table or matrix format to

summarize and present the collected information in a concise and organized manner. It
involves grouping and categorizing data based on different variables or dimensions and
presenting them in a structured format for easy interpretation and analysis.

Principles of Tabulation:

1. Classification: The first principle of tabulation is classification, which involves grouping

data into meaningful categories or classes. Variables are identified and organized into logical
groups or dimensions. This process helps to simplify and organize the data for effective
analysis and interpretation.

2. Tabular Format: The second principle is the use of a tabular format. The data is presented
in a table or matrix form, with rows and columns representing different categories or
dimensions of the variables. The tabular format provides a clear structure and makes it easier
to compare and analyze the data.

3. Order: The principle of order emphasizes arranging the data in a logical or meaningful
order. The data can be sorted in ascending or descending order based on a specific variable or
criterion. Ordering the data helps in identifying patterns, trends, or relationships among the
variables.

4. Simplicity and Clarity: Tabulation should adhere to the principles of simplicity and clarity.
The table should be easy to understand and interpret without any ambiguity. It should provide
clear headings, labels, and units of measurement. Unnecessary complexities or excessive
details should be avoided to ensure that the information is presented in a concise and
comprehensible manner.

5. Completeness: The principle of completeness states that tabulation should include all
relevant data for a given analysis. No essential information should be omitted, and the table
should provide a comprehensive overview of the data. This allows researchers and readers to
have a complete picture of the variables under consideration.

6. Statistical Summaries: Tabulation often includes statistical summaries such as frequencies,

percentages, means, or medians. These summaries provide a concise representation of the
data distribution and allow for quick comparisons and interpretations. Statistical measures
help to summarize the data and provide insights into the patterns and characteristics of the
variables.

7. Documentation: The last principle emphasizes the importance of documenting the

tabulated data and providing necessary explanations or footnotes. Documentation helps in
understanding the variables, the criteria used for classification, the source of the data, and any
specific assumptions or considerations made during tabulation. Proper documentation ensures
transparency and enables other researchers to replicate or validate the findings.

Tabulation is an essential step in data analysis and presentation. It facilitates the exploration,
summary, and interpretation of data by presenting it in an organized and structured format.
The principles of tabulation ensure that the information is classified, ordered, and presented
in a clear, concise, and meaningful way, enabling researchers and readers to extract valuable
insights from the data.

18. Explain Sandler‟s A-test.