Chapter 20

Complex numbers
(iii) In pure √ mathematics the symbol i is used to
20.1 Cartesian complex numbers indicate −1 (i being the first letter of the word
imaginary). However i is the symbol of electric
There are several applications of complex numbers current in engineering, and to avoid possible con-
in science and engineering, in particular in electrical fusion the√next letter in the alphabet, j , is used to
alternating current theory and in mechanical vector represent −1.
analysis.
There are two main forms of complex number –
Cartesian form and polar form – and both are Problem 1. Solve the quadratic equation
explained in this chapter. x 2 + 4 = 0.
If we can add, subtract, multiply and divide complex √
numbers in both forms and represent the numbers on Since x 2 + 4 =0 then x 2 = −4 and x = −4.
an Argand diagram then a.c. theory and vector analysis   √
become considerably easier. i.e., x = [(−1)(4)] = (−1) 4 = j (±2)
√
(i) If the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x + 5 = 0 is = ± j2, (since j = −1)
solved using the quadratic formula then,
(Note that ± j 2 may also be written ±2 j).

−2 ± [(2)2 − (4)(1)(5)]
x=
2(1) Problem 2. Solve the quadratic equation
√ √ 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0.
−2 ± [−16] −2 ± [(16)(−1)]
= =
2 2 Using the quadratic formula,
√ √ √ 
−2 ± 16 −1 −2 ± 4 −1 −3 ± [(3)2 − 4(2)(5)]
= = x=
2 2 2(2)
√ √ √
√ −3 ± −31 −3 ± (−1) 31
= −1 ± 2 −1 = =
4 4
√
√ −3 ± j 31
It is not possible to evaluate −1 in real =
terms. 4
√ However, if an operator j is defined as √
j = −1 then the solution may be expressed as 3 31
x = −1 ± j 2. Hence x = − ± j or −0.750 ± j1.392,
4 4
(ii) −1 + j 2 and −1 − j 2 are known as complex correct to 3 decimal places.
numbers. Both solutions are of the form a + jb, (Note, a graph of y = 2x 2 + 3x + 5 does not cross
‘a’ being termed the real part and jb the the x-axis and hence 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0 has no real
imaginary part. A complex number of the form roots.)
a + jb is called Cartesian complex number.
214 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Problem 3. Evaluate 20.2 The Argand diagram

−4
(a) j3 (b) j4 (c) j 23 (d) 9
j A complex number may be represented pictorially on
rectangular or cartesian axes. The horizontal (or x) axis is
(a) j 3 = j 2 × j = (−1) × j = − j, since j 2 = −1 used to represent the real axis and the vertical (or y) axis
is used to represent the imaginary axis. Such a diagram
(b) j 4 = j 2 × j 2 = (−1) × (−1) = 1 is called an Argand diagram. In Fig. 20.1, the point A
(c) j 23 = j × j 22 = j × ( j 2)11 = j × (−1)11 represents the complex number (3 + j 2) and is obtained
by plotting the co-ordinates (3, j 2) as in graphical work.
= j × (−1) = − j Figure20.1 also showstheArgand points B, C and D rep-
(d) j9= j × j 8 = j × ( j 2)4 = j × (−1)4 resenting the complex numbers (−2 + j 4), (−3 − j 5)
and (1 − j 3) respectively.
= j ×1 = j
−4 −4 −4 − j 4j
Hence = = × =
j9 j j −j −j2 Imaginary
axis
4j
= = 4 j or j4 B
−(−1) j4

j3
A
j2
Now try the following exercise
j

Exercise 85 Further problems on the 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 Real axis

introduction to cartesian complex numbers 2j

In Problems 1 to 9, solve the quadratic equations. 2j 2

1. x 2 + 25 =0 [± j 5] 2j 3
D
2. x − 2x + 2 = 0
2
[x = 1 ± j ] 2j 4

3. x 2 − 4x + 5 =0 [x = 2 ± j ] C 2j 5

4. x 2 − 6x + 10 =0 [x = 3 ± j ]
Figure 20.1
5. 2x 2 − 2x + 1 =0 [x = 0.5 ± j 0.5]
6. x 2 − 4x + 8 =0 [x = 2 ± j 2]
7. 25x 2 − 10x + 2 = 0 [x = 0.2 ± j 0.2]
20.3 Addition and subtraction of
8. 2x 2 + 3x + 4 =0 complex numbers

√ 
3 23
− ±j or − 0.750 ± j 1.199 Two complex numbers are added/subtracted by adding/
4 4
subtracting separately the two real parts and the two
9. 4t 2 − 5t + 7 =0 imaginary parts.

√ 
5 87 For example, if Z 1 = a + jb and Z 2 = c + jd,
±j or 0.625 ± j 1.166
8 8
then Z 1 + Z 2 = (a + jb) + (c + j d)
1 4 = (a + c) + j (b +d)
10. Evaluate (a) j 8 (b) − 7 (c) 13
j 2j
and Z 1 − Z 2 = (a + jb) − (c + j d)
[(a) 1 (b) − j (c) − j 2]
= (a − c) + j (b −d)
 Complex numbers 215

Thus, for example, (3 − j 4) by vector OQ. In Fig. 20.2(a) by vector addition

(i.e. the diagonal of the parallelogram) OP + OQ = OR.
(2 + j 3) +(3 − j 4)= 2 + j 3 +3 − j 4
R is the point (5, − j 1).
= 5 − j1
Hence (2 + j 3) +(3 − j 4) =5 − j1.
and (2 + j 3) −(3 − j 4)= 2 + j 3 −3 + j 4
In Fig. 20.2(b), vector OQ is reversed (shown as OQ
)
= −1 + j7 since it is being subtracted. (Note OQ = 3 − j 4 and
OQ = −(3 − j 4) =−3 + j 4).
The addition and subtraction of complex numbers may OP − OQ = OP + OQ = OS is found to be the Argand
be achieved graphically as shown in the Argand diagram point (−1, j 7).
of Fig. 20.2. (2 + j 3) is represented by vector OP and
Hence (2 + j 3) −(3 − j 4) =−1 + j 7

Imaginary
axis Problem 4. Given Z 1 = 2 + j 4 and Z 2 = 3 − j
determine (a) Z 1 + Z 2 , (b) Z 1 − Z 2 , (c) Z 2 − Z 1 and
P (21j3)
j3 show the results on an Argand diagram.
j2

j
(a) Z 1 + Z 2 = (2 + j 4) +(3 − j )
= (2 + 3) + j (4 −1) = 5 + j 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis
2j R (5 2j ) (b) Z 1 − Z 2 = (2 + j 4) −(3 − j )
2j2 = (2 − 3) + j (4 −(−1)) = −1 + j 5
2j3 (c) Z 2 − Z 1 = (3 − j ) −(2 + j 4)
2j4 = (3 − 2) + j (−1 − 4) = 1 − j 5
Q (3 2j 4)

(a)
Each result is shown in the Argand diagram of
Fig. 20.3.
Imaginary
axis Imaginary
axis
S (211j7) j7
(211 j 5) j5
j6
j4
j5
( 5 1j 3)
j3
Q9 j4
j2
j3 P (21j3)
j
j2

j 21 0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis
2j
23 22 21 0 1 2 3 Real axis
2j 2
2j

2j2 2j 3

2j 4
2j3
2j 5 ( 12 j 5)
2j4 Q (32j4)

(b)
Figure 20.3
Figure 20.2
216 Higher Engineering Mathematics

20.4 Multiplication and division of Problem 5. If Z 1 = 1 − j 3, Z 2 = −2 + j 5 and

complex numbers Z 3 = −3 − j 4, determine in a + j b form:
Z1
(i) Multiplication of complex numbers is achieved (a) Z 1 Z 2 (b)
Z3
by assuming all quantities involved are real and Z1 Z2
then using j 2 = −1 to simplify. (c) (d) Z 1 Z 2 Z 3
Z1 + Z2
Hence (a + j b)(c + j d)
(a) Z 1 Z 2 = (1 − j 3)(−2 + j 5)
= ac + a( j d) +( j b)c + ( j b)( j d)
= −2 + j 5 + j 6 − j 215
= ac + j ad + j bc + j 2bd
= (ac − bd) + j (ad + bc), = (−2 + 15) + j (5 + 6), since j 2 = −1,

since j 2 = −1 = 13 + j11

Thus (3 + j 2)(4 − j 5) Z1 1 − j3 1 − j3 −3 + j 4
(b) = = ×
Z 3 −3 − j 4 −3 − j 4 −3 + j 4
= 12 − j 15 + j 8 − j 210
−3 + j 4 + j 9 − j 212
= (12 − (−10)) + j (−15 +8) =
32 + 42
= 22 − j 7 9 + j 13 9 13
= = + j
(ii) The complex conjugate of a complex num- 25 25 25
ber is obtained by changing the sign of the or 0.36 + j0.52
imaginary part. Hence the complex conjugate
of a + j b is a − j b. The product of a complex Z1 Z2 (1 − j 3)(−2 + j 5)
number and its complex conjugate is always a (c) =
Z 1 + Z 2 (1 − j 3) + (−2 + j 5)
real number.
13 + j 11
For example, = , from part (a),
−1 + j 2
(3 + j 4)(3 − j 4)= 9 − j 12 + j 12 − j 216 13 + j 11 −1 − j 2
= ×
= 9 + 16 = 25 −1 + j 2 −1 − j 2
−13 − j 26 − j 11 − j 222
[(a + j b)(a − j b) may be evaluated ‘on sight’ as =
a 2 + b2 ]. 12 + 22
9 − j 37 9 37
(iii) Division of complex numbers is achieved by = = −j or 1.8 − j 7.4
5 5 5
multiplying both numerator and denominator by
the complex conjugate of the denominator. (d) Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 = (13 + j 11)(−3 − j 4), since
For example, Z 1 Z 2 = 13 + j 11, from part (a)

2 − j 5 2 − j 5 (3 − j 4) = −39 − j 52 − j 33 − j 244
= ×
3 + j 4 3 + j 4 (3 − j 4) = (−39 + 44) − j (52 + 33)

6 − j 8 − j 15 + j 220 = 5 − j85
=
32 + 42
Problem 6. Evaluate:
−14 − j 23 −14 23  
= = −j 2 1+ j3 2
25 25 25 (a) (b) j
(1 + j )4 1− j2
or −0.56 − j0.92
 Complex numbers 217

(a) (1 + j )2 = (1 + j )(1 + j ) =1 + j + j + j 2
4. (a) Z 1 + Z 2 − Z 3 (b) Z 2 − Z 1 + Z 4
=1+ j + j −1= j2
[(a) 7 − j 4 (b) −2 − j 6]
(1 + j )4 = [(1 + j )2]2 = ( j 2)2 = j 24 = −4
5. (a) Z 1 Z 2 (b) Z 3 Z 4

Hence
2
=
2
=−
1 [(a) 10 + j 5 (b) 13 − j 13]
(1 + j )4 −4 2
6. (a) Z 1 Z 3 + Z 4 (b) Z 1 Z 2 Z 3
1 + j3 1 + j3 1 + j2 [(a) −13 − j 2 (b) −35 + j 20]
(b) = ×
1 − j2 1 − j2 1 + j2 Z1 Z1 + Z3
7. (a) (b)
1 + j2+ j3 + j 26 −5 + j 5 Z2 Z2 − Z4
= = 
12 + 22 5 −2 11 −19 43
(a) +j (b) +j
= −1 + j 1 = −1 + j 25 25 85 85
 2 Z1 Z3 Z1
1+ j3 8. (a) (b) Z 2 + + Z3
= (−1 + j )2 = (−1 + j )(−1 + j ) Z1 + Z3 Z4
1− j2

= 1− j − j + j2 =− j2 3 41 45 9
(a) + j (b) − j
  26 26 26 26
1+ j3 2
Hence j = j (− j 2) =− j 22 =2, 1− j 1
1− j2 9. Evaluate (a) (b)
since j 2 = −1 1+ j 1+ j

1 1
(a) − j (b) − j
2 2
Now try the following exercise  
−25 1 + j 2 2 − j 5
10. Show that −
2 3+ j4 −j
Exercise 86 Further problems on
= 57 + j 24
operations involving Cartesian complex
numbers
1. Evaluate (a) (3 + j 2) +(5 − j ) and
(b) (−2 + j 6) −(3 − j 2) and show the 20.5 Complex equations
results on an Argand diagram.
If two complex numbers are equal, then their real parts
[(a) 8 + j (b) −5 + j 8]
are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. Hence if
2. Write down the complex conjugates of a + j b =c + j d, then a = c and b = d.
(a) 3 + j 4, (b) 2 − j .
Problem 7. Solve the complex equations:
[(a) 3 − j 4 (b) 2 + j ] (a) 2(x + j y) =6 − j 3
3. If z = 2 + j and w = 3 − j evaluate (b) (1 + j 2)(−2 − j 3) =a + j b
(a) z + w (b) w − z (c) 3z − 2w (d)
5z + 2w (e) j (2w − 3z) (f ) 2 j w − j z
(a) 2(x + j y) =6 − j 3 hence 2x + j 2y = 6 − j 3
[(a) 5 (b) 1 − j 2 (c) j 5 (d) 16 + j 3 Equating the real parts gives:
(e) 5 (f ) 3 + j 4]
2x = 6, i.e. x = 3
In Problems 4 to 8 evaluate in a + j b form
given Z 1 = 1 + j 2, Z 2 = 4 − j 3, Z 3 = −2 + j 3 Equating the imaginary parts gives:
and Z 4 = −5 − j .
2y = −3, i.e. y = − 32
218 Higher Engineering Mathematics

(b) (1 + j 2)(−2 − j 3) =a + j b 
2+ j 3 1
−2 − j 3 − j 4 − j 26 = a + j b 2. = j (x + j y) x = , y =−
1− j 2 2
Hence 4 − j 7 =a + j b
Equating real and imaginary terms gives: √
3. (2 − j 3) = (a + j b) [a = −5, b = −12]
a = 4 and b = −7
4. (x − j 2y) −( y − j x) =2 + j [x = 3, y = 1]
Problem 8. Solve the equations:
√
(a) (2 − j 3) = (a + j b) 5. If Z = R + j ωL + 1/j ωC, express Z in
(a + j b) form when R = 10, L =5, C = 0.04
(b) (x − j 2y) +( y − j 3x) =2 + j 3
and ω = 4. [Z = 10 + j 13.75]
√
(a) (2 − j 3) = (a + j b)
Hence (2 − j 3)2 = a + j b,
20.6 The polar form of a complex
i.e. (2 − j 3)(2 − j 3)= a + j b number
Hence 4 − j 6 − j 6 + j 29 = a + j b
(i) Let a complex number z be x + j y as shown in
and −5 − j 12= a + j b the Argand diagram of Fig. 20.4. Let distance
OZ be r and the angle OZ makes with the positive
Thus a = −5 and b = −12 real axis be θ.
(b) (x − j 2y) +( y − j 3x) =2 + j 3 From trigonometry, x = r cos θ and
Hence (x + y) + j (−2y − 3x) = 2 + j 3 y = r sin θ
Equating real and imaginary parts gives: Hence Z = x + j y = r cos θ + j r sin θ
x+y=2 (1) = r(cos θ + j sin θ)
and −3x − 2y = 3 (2)
Z =r(cos θ + j sin θ) is usually abbreviated to
i.e. two simultaneous equations to solve. Z =r∠θ which is known as the polar form of
a complex number.
Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives:
2x + 2y = 4 (3) Imaginary
axis
Adding equations (2) and (3) gives:
Z
−x = 7, i.e., x = −7
r
jy
From equation (1), y = 9, which may be checked
in equation (2). ␪
O A Real axis
x

Now try the following exercise Figure 20.4

Exercise 87 Further problems on complex (ii) r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of Z and
equations is written as mod Z or |Z |.
r is determined using Pythagoras’ theorem on
In Problems 1 to 4 solve the complex equations.
triangle OAZ in Fig. 20.4,
1. (2 + j )(3 − j 2) =a + j b [a = 8, b =−1] 
i.e. r = (x 2 + y 2 )
 Complex numbers 219

(iii) θ is called the argument (or amplitude) of Z and Imaginary

is written as arg Z . axis

By trigonometry on triangle OAZ, (23 1j4) (3 1j4)

j4

y j3
arg Z = θ = tan−1
x r j2 r
j
(iv) Whenever changing from cartesian form to polar
␣ ␪
form, or vice-versa, a sketch is invaluable for
23 22 21 ␣ ␣1 2 3 Real axis
determining the quadrant in which the complex
2j
number occurs.
2j2
r r
Problem 9. Determine the modulus and argument 2j3
of the complex number Z = 2 + j 3, and express Z
in polar form. (23 2 j4) 2j4 (3 2 j4)

Figure 20.6
Z = 2 + j 3 lies in the first quadrant as shown in
Fig. 20.5.
(b) −3 + j 4 is shown in Fig. 20.6 and lies in the
Imaginary second quadrant.
axis
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53.13◦, from
part (a).
j3
Argument =180◦ − 53.13◦ = 126.87◦ (i.e. the
r argument must be measured from the positive real
axis).
␪
0 2 Real axis Hence −3 + j4 = 5∠126.87◦
(c) −3 − j 4 is shown in Fig. 20.6 and lies in the third
Figure 20.5 quadrant.
 √ Modulus, r = 5 and α = 53.13◦, as above.
Modulus, |Z | =r = (22 + 32) = 13 or 3.606, correct
to 3 decimal places. Hence the argument = 180◦ + 53.13◦ = 233.13◦,
which is the same as −126.87◦.
Argument, arg Z = θ = tan −1 3
2
Hence (−3 − j4) = 5∠233.13◦ or 5∠−126.87◦
= 56.31◦ or 56◦19
(By convention the principal value is normally
In polar form, 2 + j 3 is written as 3.606∠56.31◦ . used, i.e. the numerically least value, such that
−π < θ < π).
Problem 10. Express the following complex
numbers in polar form: (d) 3 − j 4 is shown in Fig. 20.6 and lies in the fourth
quadrant.
(a) 3 + j 4 (b) −3 + j 4 Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53.13◦ , as above.
(c) −3 − j 4 (d) 3 − j 4 Hence (3 − j4) = 5∠−53.13◦

(a) 3 + j 4 is shown in Fig. 20.6 and lies in the first

Problem 11. Convert (a) 4∠30◦ (b) 7∠−145◦
quadrant.  into a + j b form, correct to 4 significant figures.
Modulus, r = (32 + 42 ) = 5 and argument
θ = tan −1 43 = 53.13◦.
(a) 4∠30◦ is shown in Fig. 20.7(a) and lies in the first
Hence 3 + j4 = 5∠53.13◦ quadrant.
220 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Imaginary
axis Problem 12. Determine, in polar form:
(a) 8∠25◦ × 4∠60◦
4
308
jy (b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠−44◦ × 2∠80◦
0 x Real axis
(a) 8∠25◦ ×4∠60◦ = (8 × 4)∠(25◦ +60◦) = 32∠85◦
(a)
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠ −44◦ × 2∠80◦
x = (3 × 5 × 2)∠[16◦ + (−44◦ )+ 80◦ ] = 30∠52◦
␣ Real axis
jy
7
1458 Problem 13. Evaluate in polar form
π π
16∠75◦ 10∠ × 12∠
(b) 4 2
(a) (b) π
2∠15◦ 6∠−
Figure 20.7 3
Using trigonometric ratios, x = 4 cos 30◦ = 3.464
and y = 4 sin 30◦ = 2.000. 16∠75◦ 16
(a) = ∠(75◦ − 15◦) = 8∠60◦
2∠15◦ 2
Hence 4∠30◦ = 3.464 + j2.000
π π
(b) 7∠145◦ is shown in Fig. 20.7(b) and lies in the 10∠ × 12∠   
third quadrant. (b) 4 2 = 10 × 12 ∠ π + π − − π
π 6 4 2 3
◦ ◦ ◦ 6∠−
Angle α = 180 − 145 = 35 3
Hence x = 7 cos 35◦ = 5.734 = 20∠
13π
or 20∠−
11π
or
12 12
and y = 7 sin 35◦ = 4.015
Hence 7∠−145◦ = −5.734 − j4.015 20∠195◦ or 20∠−165◦
Alternatively
Problem 14. Evaluate, in polar form
7∠−145◦ = 7 cos(−145◦) + j 7 sin(−145◦) 2∠30◦ +5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦.
= −5.734 − j4.015
Addition and subtraction in polar form is not possible
directly. Each complex number has to be converted into
cartesian form first.
Calculator
Using the ‘Pol’ and ‘Rec’ functions on a calculator 2∠30◦ = 2(cos 30◦ + j sin 30◦ )
enables changing from Cartesian to polar and vice-versa
to be achieved more quickly. = 2 cos 30◦ + j 2 sin30◦ = 1.732 + j 1.000
Since complex numbers are used with vectors and
5∠−45◦ = 5(cos(−45◦) + j sin(−45◦))
with electrical engineering a.c. theory, it is essential that
the calculator can be used quickly and accurately. = 5 cos(−45◦) + j 5 sin(−45◦)

= 3.536 − j 3.536
20.7 Multiplication and division in
polar form 4∠120◦ = 4( cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ )

If Z 1 =r1 ∠θ1 and Z 2 =r2 ∠θ2 then: = 4 cos 120◦ + j 4 sin 120◦
(i) Z1 Z2 = r1 r2 ∠(θ1 + θ2 ) and
= −2.000 + j 3.464
Z1 r1
(ii) = ∠(θ1 − θ2 )
Z2 r2 Hence 2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦
 Complex numbers 221

= (1.732 + j 1.000) +(3.536 − j 3.536) 6. (a) 3∠20◦ × 15∠45◦

− (−2.000 + j 3.464) (b) 2.4∠65◦ × 4.4∠−21◦
= 7.268 − j 6.000, which lies in the fourth quadrant [(a) 45∠65◦ (b) 10.56∠44◦]
   7. (a) 6.4∠27◦ ÷ 2∠−15◦
−6.000
= [(7.268)2 + (6.000)2 ]∠ tan−1
7.268 (b) 5∠30◦ × 4∠80◦ ÷ 10∠−40◦
[(a) 3.2∠42◦ (b) 2∠150◦]
= 9.425∠−39.54◦
π π
8. (a) 4∠ + 3∠
6 8
(b) 2∠120◦ + 5.2∠58◦ − 1.6∠−40◦
Now try the following exercise [(a) 6.986∠26.79◦ (b) 7.190∠85.77◦]

Exercise 88 Further problems on polar

form
20.8 Applications of complex
1. Determine the modulus and argument of numbers
(a) 2 + j 4 (b) −5 − j 2 (c) j (2 − j ).
⎡ ⎤ There are several applications of complex numbers
(a) 4.472, 63.43◦
⎢ ⎥ in science and engineering, in particular in electrical
⎣(b)5.385, −158.20◦⎦ alternating current theory and in mechanical vector
(c) 2.236, 63.43◦ analysis.
The effect of multiplying a phasor by j is to rotate
In Problems 2 and 3 express the given Cartesian it in a positive direction (i.e. anticlockwise) on an
complex numbers in polar form, leaving answers Argand diagram through 90◦ without altering its length.
in surd form. Similarly, multiplying a phasor by − j rotates the pha-
2. (a) 2 + j 3 (b) −4 (c) −6 + j sor through −90◦ . These facts are used in a.c. the-

√  ory since certain quantities in the phasor diagrams
(a) 13∠56.31◦ (b)4∠180◦
√ lie at 90◦ to each other. For example, in the R−L
(c) 37∠170.54◦ series circuit shown in Fig. 20.8(a), V L leads I by
90◦ (i.e. I lags V L by 90◦ ) and may be written as
3. (a) − j 3 (b) (−2 + j )3 (c) j 3(1 − j ) j V L , the vertical axis being regarded as the imagi-

√ 
(a) 3∠−90◦ (b) 125∠100.30◦ nary axis of an Argand diagram. Thus V R + j V L = V
√ and since V R = IR, V = I X L (where X L is the induc-
(c) 2∠−135◦ tive reactance, 2π f L ohms) and V = IZ (where Z is
the impedance) then R + j X L = Z .
In Problems 4 and 5 convert the given polar com-
plex numbers into (a + j b) form giving answers C
R L R
correct to 4 significant figures.
4. (a) 5∠30◦ (b) 3∠60◦ (c) 7∠45◦
⎡ ⎤ I
VR VL
I
VR VC
(a) 4.330 + j 2.500
⎢ ⎥ V V
⎣(b)1.500 + j 2.598⎦ Phasor diagram Phasor diagram
(c) 4.950 + j 4.950
VR I
5. (a) 6∠125◦ (b) 4∠π (c) 3.5∠−120◦ VL V ␾
⎡ ⎤
(a) −3.441 + j 4.915
⎢ ⎥ ␪
⎣(b) −4.000 + j 0 ⎦ VC
VR I
(c) −1.750 − j 3.031 V
(a) (b)
In Problems 6 to 8, evaluate in polar form.
Figure 20.8
222 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Similarly, for the R−C circuit shown in Fig. 20.8(b),

Problem 16. An alternating voltage of 240 V,
VC lags I by 90◦ (i.e. I leads VC by 90◦) and
50 Hz is connected across an impedance of
V R − j VC = V , from which R − j X C = Z (where X C
1 (60 − j 100) . Determine (a) the resistance (b) the
is the capacitive reactance ohms). capacitance (c) the magnitude of the impedance and
2π fC
its phase angle and (d) the current flowing.
Problem 15. Determine the resistance and
series inductance (or capacitance) for each of the (a) Impedance Z = (60 − j 100) .
following impedances, assuming a frequency of
50 Hz: Hence resistance = 60 

(a) (4.0 + j 7.0)  (b) − j 20  (b) Capacitive reactance X C = 100  and since
1
(c) 15∠−60◦  XC = then
2πf C
1 1
(a) Impedance, Z = (4.0 + j 7.0)  hence, capacitance, C = =
resistance = 4.0  and reactance = 7.00 . 2π f X C 2π(50)(100)
Since the imaginary part is positive, the reactance 106
= μF
is inductive, 2π(50)(100)
i.e. X L = 7.0  = 31.83 μF
Since X L = 2πf L then inductance, (c) Magnitude of impedance,
XL 7.0 
L= = = 0.0223 H or 22.3 mH |Z | = [(60)2 + (−100)2 ] = 116.6 
2π f 2π(50)
 
−100
(b) Impedance, Z = j 20, i.e. Z = (0 − j 20)  hence Phase angle, arg Z = tan −1 = −59.04◦
resistance = 0 and reactance = 20 . Since the 60
imaginary part is negative, the reactance is cap- V 240∠0◦
1 (d) Current flowing, I = =
acitive, i.e., X C = 20  and since X C = Z 116.6∠−59.04◦
2πf C
then: = 2.058 ∠59.04◦ A
1 1
capacitance, C = = F The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in
2πf XC 2π(50)(20)
Fig. 20.8(b).
106
= μF = 159.2 μF
2π(50)(20)
Problem 17. For the parallel circuit shown in
(c) Impedance, Z Fig. 20.9, determine the value of current I and its
phase relative to the 240 V supply, using complex
= 15∠−60◦ = 15[ cos (−60◦ ) + j sin (−60◦ )]
numbers.
= 7.50 − j 12.99  R1 5 4 V XL 5 3 V

Hence resistance = 7.50  and capacitive reac-

R2 5 10 V
tance, X C = 12.99 
1
Since X C = then capacitance,
2πf C R3 5 12 V XC 5 5 V
I
1 106
C= = μF
2πf XC 2π(50)(12.99)
240 V, 50 Hz
= 245 μF
Figure 20.9
 Complex numbers 223

V 8N 10 N
Current I = . Impedance Z for the three-branch
Z 210⬚
parallel circuit is given by:
120⬚
1 1 1 1
= + + ,
Z Z1 Z2 Z3
45⬚
where Z 1 = 4 + j 3, Z 2 = 10 and Z 3 = 12 − j 5
1 1
Admittance, Y1 = =
Z1 4+ j3 15 N
1 4 − j3 4− j3
= × = Figure 20.10
4 + j 3 4 − j 3 42 + 32
= 0.160 − j 0.120 siemens The resultant force
1 1 = f A + f B + fC
Admittance, Y2 = = = 0.10 siemens
Z2 10
= 10∠45◦ + 8∠120◦ + 15∠210◦
1 1
Admittance, Y3 = = = 10(cos 45◦ + j sin 45◦) + 8(cos 120◦
Z3 12 − j 5
1 12 + j 5 12 + j 5 + j sin 120◦) + 15(cos 210◦ + j sin 210◦ )
= × =
12 − j 5 12 + j 5 122 + 52 = (7.071 + j 7.071) + (−4.00 + j 6.928)
= 0.0710 + j 0.0296 siemens + (−12.99 − j 7.50)
Total admittance, Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 = −9.919 + j 6.499
= (0.160 − j 0.120) + (0.10) Magnitude of resultant force

+ (0.0710 + j 0.0296) = [(−9.919)2 + (6.499)2 ] = 11.86 N
= 0.331 − j 0.0904 Direction of resultant force
 
= 0.343∠−15.28◦ siemens 6.499
= tan −1 = 146.77◦
V −9.919
Current I = = VY
Z (since −9.919 + j 6.499 lies in the second quadrant).
= (240∠0◦ )(0.343∠−15.28◦ )
Now try the following exercise
= 82.32 ∠−15.28◦ A

Problem 18. Determine the magnitude and Exercise 89 Further problems on

direction of the resultant of the three coplanar applications of complex numbers
forces given below, when they act at a point.
1. Determine the resistance R and series induc-
Force A, 10 N acting at 45◦ from the positive tance L (or capacitance C) for each of the
horizontal axis. following impedances assuming the frequ-
Force B, 87 N acting at 120◦ from the positive ency to be 50 Hz.
horizontal axis.
(a) (3 + j 8)  (b) (2 − j 3) 
Force C, 15 N acting at 210◦ from the positive
(c) j 14  (d) 8∠−60◦ 
horizontal axis.
⎡ ⎤
(a) R = 3 , L = 25.5 mH
⎢ (b) R = 2 , C = 1061 μF ⎥
The space diagram is shown in Fig. 20.10. The forces ⎢ ⎥
may be written as complex numbers. ⎣ (c) R = 0, L = 44.56 mH ⎦
Thus force A, f A = 10∠45◦, force B, f B = 8∠120◦ (d) R = 4 , C = 459.4 μF
and force C, fC = 15∠210◦.
224 Higher Engineering Mathematics

2. Two impedances, Z 1 = (3 + j 6)  and 7. A delta-connected impedance Z A is given

Z 2 = (4 − j 3)  are connected in series to by:
a supply voltage of 120 V. Determine the Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
magnitude of the current and its phase angle ZA =
Z2
relative to the voltage.
Determine Z A in both Cartesian and polar
[15.76 A, 23.20◦ lagging]
form given Z 1 = (10 + j 0) ,
3. If the two impedances in Problem 2 are con- Z 2 = (0 − j 10)  and Z 3 = (10 + j 10) .
nected in parallel determine the current flow- [(10 + j 20) , 22.36∠63.43◦ ]
ing and its phase relative to the 120 V supply 8. In the hydrogen atom, the angular momen-
voltage. [27.25 A, 3.37◦ lagging] tum, p, of the de Broglie wave is given
 
4. A series circuit consists of a 12  resistor, a jh
by: pψ = − (±jmψ). Determine an
coil of inductance 0.10 H and a capacitance of 2π 
160 μF. Calculate the current flowing and its mh
expression for p. ±
phase relative to the supply voltage of 240 V, 2π
50 Hz. Determine also the power factor of the 9. An aircraft P flying at a constant height has
circuit. [14.42 A, 43.85◦ lagging, 0.721] a velocity of (400 + j 300) km/h. Another air-
craft Q at the same height has a velocity of
5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 20.11, determine
(200 − j 600) km/h. Determine (a) the veloc-
the current I flowing and its phase relative to
ity of P relative to Q, and (b) the velocity of
the applied voltage. [14.6 A, 2.51◦ leading]
Q relative to P. Express the answers in polar
6. Determine, using complex numbers, the mag- form, correct to the

nearest km/h. 
(a) 922 km/h at 77.47◦
nitude and direction of the resultant of the
coplanar forces given below, which are act- (b) 922 km/h at −102.53◦
ing at a point. Force A, 5 N acting horizontally,
10. Three vectors are represented by P, 2∠30◦ ,
Force B, 9 N acting at an angle of 135◦ to force
Q, 3∠90◦ and R, 4∠−60◦ . Determine in
A, Force C, 12 N acting at an angle of 240◦ to
polar form the vectors represented by (a)
force A. [8.394 N, 208.68◦ from force A]
P + Q + R, (b) P − Q − R.


(a) 3.770∠8.17◦
XC 5 20 V R1 5 30 V (b) 1.488∠100.37◦
11. In a Schering bridge circuit,
R2 5 40 V XL 5 50 V Z X = (R X − j X C X ), Z 2 = − j X C2 ,
(R3 )(− j X C3 )
Z3 = and Z 4 = R4
(R3 − j X C3 )
R3 5 25 V 1
where X C =
2πf C
At balance: (Z X )(Z 3 ) = (Z 2 )(Z 4 ).
I C3 R4
Show that at balance R X = and
C2
V 5 200 V C2 R3
CX =
Figure 20.11 R4
 Chapter 21
De Moivre’s theorem
= 2197∠382.14◦(since 742.14
21.1 Introduction
≡ 742.14◦ − 360◦ = 382.14◦)
From multiplication of complex numbers in polar form, = 2197∠22.14◦ (since 382.14◦

(r∠θ) × (r ∠θ) = r 2 ∠2θ ≡ 382.14◦ − 360◦ = 22.14◦)

or 2197∠22◦8
Similarly, (r∠θ)× (r∠θ)× (r∠θ) = r 3∠3θ, and so on.
In general, De Moivre’s theorem states: Problem 2. Determine the value of (−7 + j 5)4,
[r∠θ] n
= r n∠nθ expressing the result in polar and rectangular forms.
The theorem is true for all positive, negative and  5
fractional values of n. The theorem is used to determine (−7 + j 5) =[(−7)2 + 52 ]∠ tan−1
powers and roots of complex numbers. −7
√
= 74∠144.46◦
21.2 Powers of complex numbers (Note, by considering the Argand diagram, −7 + j 5
◦ 4 ◦ ◦ must represent an angle in the second quadrant and not
For example [3∠20 ] = 3 ∠(4 × 20 ) = 81∠80
4
by
in the fourth quadrant.)
De Moivre’s theorem.
Applying De Moivre’s theorem:
Problem 1. Determine, in polar form √
(−7 + j 5)4 = [ 74∠144.46◦]4
(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 (b) (−2 + j 3)6.
√
= 744 ∠4 ×144.46◦
(a) [2∠35◦]5 = 25 ∠(5 × 35◦),
from De Moivre’s theorem = 5476∠577.84◦

= 32∠175◦ = 5476∠217.84◦
(b)  3 or 5476∠217◦50 in polar form
(−2 + j 3)= [(−2)2 + (3)2 ]∠ tan−1
−2
√ Since r∠θ = r cos θ + j r sin θ,
= 13∠123.69◦ , since −2 + j 3 5476∠217.84◦ = 5476 cos217.84◦
lies in the second quadrant
√ + j 5476 sin217.84◦
(−2 + j 3)6 = [ 13∠123.69◦]6
√ = −4325 − j 3359
= ( 13)6 ∠(6 × 123.69◦),
i.e. (−7 + j5)4 = −4325 −j3359
by De Moivre’s theorem
in rectangular form
= 2197∠742.14◦
226 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following exercise 13∠427.38◦. When the angle is divided by 2 an angle
less than 360◦ is obtained.
Hence
Exercise 90 Further problems on powers   
of complex numbers (5 + j 12) = [13∠67.38◦] and [13∠427.38◦]
1. Determine in polar form (a) [1.5∠15◦]5 1 1
(b) (1 + j 2)6. = [13∠67.38◦] 2 and [13∠427.38◦] 2
[(a) 7.594∠75◦ (b) 125∠20.61◦]  
1 1 ◦
= 13 2 ∠ × 67.38 and
2. Determine in polar and cartesian forms 2
(a) [3∠41◦]4 (b) (−2 − j )5.

  
(a) 81∠164◦, −77.86 + j 22.33
1 1
13 2 ∠ × 427.38◦
(b) 55.90∠−47.18◦ , 38 − j 41 2
√ √
3. Convert (3 − j ) into polar form and hence = 13∠33.69◦ and 13∠213.69◦
evaluate (3 − j√
)7, giving the answer in polar
form. [ 10∠−18.43◦ , 3162∠−129◦ ] = 3.61∠33.69◦ and 3.61∠213.69◦
In problems 4 to 7, express in both polar and Thus, in polar form, the two roots are
rectangular forms. 3.61∠33.69◦ and 3.61∠−146.31◦.
4. (6 + j 5)3 [476.4∠119.42◦, −234 + j 415] √ √
13∠33.69◦ = 13(cos 33.69◦ + j sin 33.69◦ )
5. (3 − j 8)5
[45530∠12.78◦, 44400 + j 10070] = 3.0 + j 2.0
√ √
6. (−2 + j 7)4 [2809∠63.78◦, 1241 + j 2520] 13∠213.69◦ = 13(cos 213.69◦ + j sin 213.69◦)


(38.27 × 106)∠176.15◦ ,
7. (−16 − j 9)6 = −3.0 − j 2.0
106(−38.18 + j 2.570)
Thus, in cartesian form the two roots are
±(3.0 + j2.0).
From the Argand diagram shown in Fig. 21.1 the two
21.3 Roots of complex numbers roots are seen to be 180◦ apart, which is always true
when finding square roots of complex numbers.
The square root of a complex number is determined by
letting n =1/2 in De Moivre’s theorem, Imaginary axis

 1 1 1 √ θ
i.e. [r∠θ] = [r∠θ] 2 = r 2 ∠ θ = r ∠ j2
2 2 3.61
There are two square roots of a real number, equal in 213.698
33. 698
size but opposite in sign. 23 3 Real axis
3.61
Problem 3. Determine the two square roots of the 2j 2
complex number (5 + j 12) in polar and cartesian
forms and show the roots on an Argand diagram.
Figure 21.1
  
12
(5 + j 12) = [52 + 122 ]∠ tan−1
5
= 13∠67.38◦ In general, when finding the nth root of a complex
number, there are n solutions. For example, there are
When determining square roots two solutions result. three solutions to a cube root, five solutions to a fifth
To obtain the second solution one way is to root, and so on. In the solutions to the roots of a complex
express 13∠67.38◦ also as 13∠(67.38◦ + 360◦ ), i.e. number, the modulus, r, is always the same, but the
 De Moivre’s theorem 227
√
arguments, θ, are different. It is shown in Problem 3 (−14 + j 3) = 205∠167.905◦
that arguments are symmetrically spaced on an Argand
diagram and are (360/n)◦ apart, where n is the number -  
−2 −2 2
of the roots required. Thus if one of the solutions to the (−14 + j 3) 5 = 205 5 ∠ − × 167.905◦
cube root of a complex number is, say, 5∠20◦, the other 5
two roots are symmetrically spaced (360/3)◦ , i.e. 120◦
from this root and the three roots are 5∠20◦, 5∠140◦ = 0.3449∠−67.164◦
and 5∠260◦ .
or 0.3449∠−67◦ 10

1 There are five roots to this complex number,

Problem 4. Find the roots of [(5 + j 3)] 2 in
 
rectangular form, correct to 4 significant figures. −2 1 1
x 5 = 2 =√ 5 2
√ x5 x
(5 + j 3) = 34∠30.96◦
The roots are symmetrically displaced from one
Applying De Moivre’s theorem: another (360/5)◦ , i.e. 72◦ apart round an Argand
diagram.
- Thus the required roots are 0.3449∠−67◦ 10 ,
1 1
(5 + j 3) 2 = 34 2 ∠ 12 × 30.96◦ 0.3449∠4◦ 50 , 0.3449∠76◦ 50 , 0.3449∠148◦ 50 and
0.3449∠220◦50 .
= 2.415∠15.48◦or 2.415∠15◦ 29
Now try the following exercise
The second root may be obtained as shown above, i.e.
having the same modulus but displaced (360/2)◦ from
the first root. Exercise 91 Further problems on the
roots of complex numbers
1
Thus, (5 + j 3) 2 = 2.415∠(15.48◦ + 180◦ ) In Problems 1 to 3 determine the two square roots
of the given complex numbers in Cartesian form
= 2.415∠195.48◦ and show the results on an Argand diagram.
1. (a) 1 + j (b) j
In rectangular form:

(a) ±(1.099 + j 0.455)
2.415∠15.48◦ = 2.415 cos 15.48◦ (b) ±(0.707 + j 0.707)
+ j 2.415 sin15.48◦ 2. (a) 3 − j 4 (b) −1 − j 2


= 2.327 + j0.6446 (a) ±(2 − j )
(b) ±(0.786 − j 1.272)
and 2.415∠195.48◦ = 2.415 cos 195.48◦
3π
+ j 2.415 sin195.48◦ 3. (a) 7∠60◦ (b) 12∠

2 
= −2.327 − j0.6446 (a) ±(2.291 + j 1.323)
1 (b) ±(−2.449 + j 2.449)
Hence [(5 + j 3)] 2 = 2.415∠15.48◦and
In Problems 4 to 7, determine the moduli and
2.415∠195.48◦or
arguments of the complex roots.
± (2.327 + j0.6446). 1
4. (3 + j 4) 3


Moduli 1.710, arguments 17.71◦ ,
Problem 5. Express the roots of
−2 137.71◦ and 257.71◦
(−14 + j 3) 5 in polar form.
228 Higher Engineering Mathematics
√
By definition, j = (−1), hence j 2 = −1, j 3 = − j ,
1 j 4 = 1, j 5 = j , and so on.
5. (−2 + j ) 4 ⎡ ⎤ θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
Modulus 1.223, arguments Thus e j θ = 1 + j θ − − j + + j − · · ·
⎣ 38.36◦, 128.36◦, ⎦ 2! 3! 4! 5!
Grouping real and imaginary terms gives:
218.36◦ and 308.36◦
 
1
jθ θ2 θ4
6. (−6 − j 5) 2
 e = 1− + −···
2! 4!
Modulus 2.795, arguments  
109.90◦, 289.90◦ θ3 θ5
+ j θ− + −···
−2
3! 5!
7. (4 − j 3) 3
Modulus 0.3420, arguments 24.58◦, However, from equations (2) and (3):
144.58◦ and 264.58◦
 
8. For a transmission line, the characteristic θ2 θ4
1− + − · · · = cos θ
impedance Z 0 and the propagation coefficient 2! 4!
γ are given by:
  
 θ3 θ5
R + j ωL and θ− + − · · · = sin θ
Z0 = and 3! 5!
G + j ωC

γ = [(R + j ωL)(G + j ωC)]
Thus e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ (4)
Given R = 25 , L =5 × 10−3 H,
G = 80 × 10−6 siemens, C = 0.04 × 10−6 F
and ω = 2000 π rad/s, determine, in polar Writing −θ for θ in equation (4), gives:

Z 0 = 390.2∠ −10.43◦ ,
form, Z 0 and γ . e j (−θ) = cos(−θ) + j sin(−θ)
γ = 0.1029∠61.92◦

However, cos(−θ) = cos θ and sin(−θ) = −sin θ

21.4 The exponential form of a Thus e −jθ = cos θ − j sin θ (5)

complex number
The polar form of a complex number z is:
Certain mathematical functions may be expressed as z =r(cos θ + j sin θ). But, from equation (4),
power series (for example, by Maclaurin’s series—see cos θ + j sin θ = e jθ .
Chapter 8), three examples being:
Therefore z = re jθ
x2 x3 x4 x5
(i) ex = 1 + x + + + + +··· (1) When a complex number is written in this way, it is said
2! 3! 4! 5! to be expressed in exponential form.
x3 x5 x7 There are therefore three ways of expressing a com-
(ii) sin x = x − + − +··· (2)
3! 5! 7! plex number:
x2 x4 x6 z =(a + j b), called Cartesian or rectangu-
(iii) cos x = 1 − + − +··· (3) 1.
2! 4! 6! lar form,
Replacing x in equation (1) by the imaginary number
2. z =r(cos θ + j sin θ) or r∠θ, called polar form, and
j θ gives:
( j θ)2 ( j θ)3 ( j θ)4 ( j θ)5 3. z =re j θ called exponential form.
e j θ = 1+ j θ + + + + +· · ·
2! 3! 4! 5! The exponential form is obtained from the polar form.
π
j 2θ 2 j 3θ 3 j 4θ 4 j 5θ 5 For example, 4∠30◦ becomes 4e j 6 in exponential
= 1 + jθ + + + + +···
2! 3! 4! 5! form. (Note that in re j θ , θ must be in radians.)
 De Moivre’s theorem 229

Problem 6. Change (3 − j 4) into (a) polar form, (a) Thus if z =4e j 1.3 then ln z = ln(4e j1.3 )
(b) exponential form. = ln 4 + j1.3
(or 1.386 + j1.300) in Cartesian form.
(a) (3 − j 4) = 5∠−53.13◦ or 5∠−0.927 (b) (1.386 + j 1.300) =1.90∠43.17◦ or 1.90∠0.753
in polar form in polar form.
(b) (3 − j 4) = 5∠−0.927 = 5e−j0.927
in exponential form Problem 11. Given z = 3e1− j , find ln z in polar
form.
Problem 7. Convert 7.2e j 1.5 into rectangular
If z = 3e1− j , then
form.
ln z = ln(3e1− j )
7.2e j 1.5 = 7.2∠1.5 rad(= 7.2∠85.94◦) in polar form = ln 3 + ln e1− j

= 7.2 cos 1.5 + j 7.2 sin1.5 = ln 3 + 1 − j

= (0.509 + j 7.182) in rectangular form = (1 + ln 3) − j

= 2.0986 − j 1.0000
π
Problem 8. Express z = 2e1+ j 3 in Cartesian = 2.325∠−25.48◦ or 2.325∠−0.445
form.
 π Problem 12. Determine, in polar form, ln (3 + j 4).
z = (2e1 ) e j 3 by the laws of indices
π ln(3 + j 4) = ln[5∠0.927] = ln[5e j 0.927]
= (2e1 )∠ (or 2e∠60◦ )in polar form
3 = ln 5 + ln(e j 0.927 )
 π π
= 2e cos + j sin = ln 5 + j 0.927
3 3
= 1.609 + j 0.927
= (2.718 + j4.708) in Cartesian form
= 1.857∠29.95◦ or 1.857∠0.523

Problem 9. Change 6e2− j 3 into (a + j b) form.

Now try the following exercise
6e2− j 3 = (6e2 )(e− j 3 ) by the laws of indices
= 6e2 ∠−3 rad (or 6e2 ∠−171.890 ) Exercise 92 Further problems on the
in polar form exponential form of complex numbers
= 6e2 [cos (−3) + j sin (−3)] 1. Change (5 + j 3) into exponential form.
[5.83e j 0.54]
= (−43.89 − j6.26) in (a + jb) form
2. Convert (−2.5 + j 4.2) into exponential form.
[4.89e j 2.11]
Problem 10. If z = 4e j 1.3 , determine ln z (a) in
Cartesian form, and (b) in polar form. 3. Change 3.6e j 2 into cartesian form.
[−1.50 + j 3.27]
π
If z = re j θ then ln z = ln(re j θ ) 4. Express 2e3+ j 6 in (a + j b) form.
[34.79 + j 20.09]
= lnr + ln e j θ
i.e. ln z = lnr + j θ, 5. Convert 1.7e1.2− j 2.5 into rectangular form.
[−4.52 − j 3.38]
by the laws of logarithms
230 Higher Engineering Mathematics

6. If z = 7e j 2.1 , determine ln z (a) in Cartesian 9. When displaced electrons oscillate about an

form, and (b) in polar form.
⎡ ⎤ equilibrium position the displacement x is
(a) ln 7 + j 2.1 given by the equation:
⎣(b) 2.86∠47.18◦or⎦ 5 √ 6
2.86∠0.82 ht (4m f −h 2 )
− 2m + j 2m−a t
x = Ae
7. Given z =4e1.5− j 2 , determine ln z in polar
form. [3.51∠−34.72◦ or 3.51∠−0.61] Determine the real part of x in terms of t ,
8. Determine in polar form (a) ln (2 + j 5) assuming (4m f − h 2 ) is positive.
 √ 
(b) ln (−4 − j 3) ⎡ ⎤ − 2m
ht (4m f − h 2 )
Ae cos t
(a) 2.06∠35.26◦or 2m −a
⎢ 2.06∠0.615 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣(b) 4.11∠66.96◦or⎦
4.11∠1.17