United States

Department of
Agriculture
Wood and Wood-Based
Forest Service Materials as Sensors—
Forest
Products
Laboratory
A Review of the
General
Technical
Piezoelectric Effect
Report
FPL–GTR–212 in Wood
Robert J. Ross
Jiangming Kan
Xiping Wang
Julie Blankenburg
Janet I. Stockhausen
Roy F. Pellerin
Abstract Contents
A variety of techniques have been investigated for use in Introduction........................................................................... 1
assessing the physical and mechanical properties of wood Approach............................................................................... 1
products and structures. Ultrasound, transverse vibration,
and stress-wave based methods are all techniques that Technical Documents Reviewed in a Chronological
have shown promise for many nondestructive evaluation Order..................................................................................... 1
applications. These techniques and others rely on the use Patents Selected for Review.................................................. 2
of measurement systems to monitor the response of the Research Summary............................................................... 2
specimen under test. The primary sensing element in many
widely used measurement systems uses piezoelectric sen- Discussion............................................................................. 2
sors to monitor the response of the specimen under test to an Fundamental Concepts...................................................... 2
external force. Commonly used piezoelectric sensors rely on Baseline Studies................................................................ 4
a quartz crystal that converts mechanical energy into electri-
cal energy. The electrical signal obtained from such sensors Origin of the Piezoelectric Effect in Wood....................... 6
is then used in a variety of signal processing steps to arrive Piezoelectric Effect and the Properties of Wood
at basic properties of the material or structural system being and Wood Structural Members......................................... 7
tested. Summary............................................................................... 8
The objective of the research presented in this paper was to References............................................................................. 8
examine the worldwide literature on the piezoelectric effect
in wood. Results of a search of the worldwide literature,
including a patent search, are presented and discussed.
Keywords: Crystallinity, defects, piezoelectric effect,
piezoelectric modulus, wood

June 2012

Ross, Robert J.; Kan, Jiangming; Wang, Xiping; Blankenburg, Julie; Stock-
hausen, Janet I.; Pellerin, Roy F. 2012. Wood and wood-based materials as
sensors—a review of the piezoelectric effect in wood. General Technical
Report FPL-GTR-212. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 9 p.
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Wood and Wood-Based Materials
as Sensors—A Review of the
Piezoelectric Effect in Wood
Robert J. Ross, Supervisory Research General Engineer
Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin
Jiangming Kan, Associate Professor
Beijing Forestry University, School of Technology, Beijing, China
Xiping Wang, Research Forest Products Technologist
Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin
Julie Blankenburg, Supervisory Librarian
National Forest Service Library, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin
Janet I. Stockhausen, Patent Advisor
Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin
Roy F. Pellerin, Professor Emeritus
Washington State University, Pullman, Washington

Introduction Abstracts is an applied life sciences bibliographic database

emphasizing agricultural literature that is international in
The USDA Forest Products Laboratory (FPL) is investigat- scope. The database covers international issues in agricul-
ing various methods and technologies to address issues tural, forestry, and allied disciplines in the life sciences from
surrounding energy usage in wood structures. Investiga- 150 countries in 50 languages. It includes English abstracts
tions on the use of various insulation methodologies and for most articles. Our review of abstracts covered the years
other energy saving techniques are ongoing. One of the from 1939 to 2010 and consisted of three searches of ab-
areas proposed for investigation is the concept of capturing, stracts using three different sets of word descriptors. The
or harvesting, mechanical energy generated by appliances first search required that the word “wood” was used and the
and occupants as they live and work in wood structures. A word “piezo” could be anywhere in the records. This search
significant amount of research has been conducted to inves- yielded 12 records. Our second search of the abstracts used
tigate energy harvesting for a wide range of applications— “wood” in the descriptor field and phrase “electrical proper-
from harvesting energy from the boots of soldiers to power ties” anywhere in the records. 334 records were discovered,
their portable electronic field equipment to using harvesting of which 196 were selected for applicability. The third
technologies to provide power for in-service sensors for search we conducted used “wood” in the descriptor field
monitoring transportation structures. The key component in and the truncation “piezo” anywhere in the records. Based
these harvesting systems is a primary sensing element that on these results and several additional sources, 31 technical
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Such ele- documents and 4 patents were selected for intensive review.
ments are composed of natural or man-made piezoelectric
materials. Technical Documents Reviewed
Although wood is a complex biological material, it has been in a Chronological Order
shown experimentally that wood exhibits a distinguishable 1. Shubnikov 1946
piezoelectric effect. We conducted a worldwide literature re- 2. Bazhenov 1950
view to examine the piezoelectric effect in wood. The goals 3. Fukada 1955
of our review were to 1. Examine the worldwide literature 4. Fukada and others 1957
on the piezoelectric effect in wood, and 2. Summarize re- 5. Bazhenov 1961
sults of the main findings reported in the literature. The ob- 6. Galligan and Bertholf 1963
jective of this paper is to present the results of our review. 7. Fukada, E. 1965
8. Galligan and Courteau 1965
Approach 9. Kytmanov 1967
To review the state-of-the-art in the piezoelectric effect in 10. Lin, R.T. 1967
wood, an extensive literature search on the piezoelectric 11. Fukada 1968
effect in wood was conducted using CAB Abstracts. CAB 12. Hirai and others 1968a
 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–212

13. Hirai and others 1968b Table 1—Significant findings in a chronological order
14. Hirai and others 1970 Year Author Reported findings
15. Hirai and others 1972 1946 Shubnikov Discovery of piezo-effect in
16. Maeda and others 1977 wood
17. Hirai and Yamaguchi 1979 1950 Bazhenov and Konstantinova First reported experiments
18. Kellog 1981 on piezoelectricity in wood
19. Pizzi and Eaton 1984 1955 Fukada Inverse piezoelectric effect
20. Knuffel and Pizzi 1986 in wood
21. Fei and Zeng 1987 1963 Galligan and Bertholf Use of piezoelectric textures
22. Knuffel 1988 to observe stress wave behavior
23. Hirai and others 1992 in wood
24. Suzuki and others 1992 1970 Hirai and others Effects of tree growth, wood
25. Hirai and others 1993 quality, degree of crystallinity,
and micellar orientation
26. Nakai and Takemura 1993
1984 Pizzi and Eaton Correlation between molecular
27. Suzuki and Hirai 1995
forces in cellulose I crystal
28. Nakai and others 1998 and piezoelectric effect
29. Smittakorn and Heyliger 2001 1993 Nakai and Takemura Species, grain orientation
30. Suzuki and others 2003 effects
31. Nakai and others 2005 1998 Nakai and others Relationship to static
and vibration properties
Patents Selected for Review 2005 Nakai and others Relationship to crystal lattice
1. Best 1935 strain and tension stress
of individual wood fibers
2. Sanders 2001
3. Lammer 2006
4. Churchill and Arms 2010 example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will generate
measurable piezoelectricity when their static structure is
Research Summary deformed by about 0.1% of the original dimension. Con-
versely, those same crystals will change about 0.1% of their
Table 1 presents a summary of several of the significant
static dimension when an external electric field is applied to
findings in chronological order from the technical papers
the material.
we reviewed. Note that a piezoelectric effect in wood was
first hypothesized, and later discovered, by Russian scien- Piezoelectricity is found in useful applications such as the
tists in the 1940s–50s. Their work was initiated in an effort production and detection of sound, generation of high volt-
to find an appropriate trigger mechanism for military equip- ages, electronic frequency generation, microbalances, and
ment, specifically missiles. Since then, research has been ultrafine focusing of optical assemblies.
conducted to explore relationships between fundamental
The electrical character of a piezoelectric material must be
wood characteristics and the piezoelectric effect observed.
that of a dielectric wherein charge displacement far out-
Discussion weighs conduction. Thus, the material behaves according
to the relationship: C = Q/V, where C is the capacitance
Fundamental Concepts (farads); Q the charge (coulombs); and V, the potential dif-
ference (volts).
Piezoelectricity is the charge that accumulates in certain sol-
id materials (notably crystals, certain ceramics, and biologi- At the molecular level, a further requirement is placed on
cal matter such as bone and various proteins) in response to the piezoelectric material; there must be planes of molecular
applied mechanical stress. Piezoelectricity means electricity symmetry and within these planes the molecular constitu-
resulting from pressure and is the direct result of the piezo- ents must be oriented in such a manner that the electrical
electric effect. charge centers are not symmetrically located. Monocrystals
are representative of materials that meet these requirements.
The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electro-
mechanical interaction between mechanical and electrical When a piezoelectric crystal is strained, the charge centers
state in crystalline materials. Piezoelectric effect is a revers- are displaced relative to one another, causing a net charge
ible process in that materials exhibiting direct piezoelectric to occur on the crystal surface. The dielectric nature of the
effect (the internal generation of electrical charge resulting crystal, obeying the capacitance relationship, permits the
from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse charge to appear as a voltage. This voltage is the electrical
piezoelectric effect (internal generation of a mechanical evidence of the piezoelectric effect.
strain resulting from an applied electrical field). For

2
Wood and Wood-Based Materials as Sensors—A Review of the Piezoelectric Effect in Wood

The fundamental equations that describe the relationship

between mechanical stress and electrical charge are the fol-
lowing:
P = dS + ηE
γ = JS + dE
where a stress S is given to a substance, a polarization P is
produced. z z
At the same time, an electric field E is also caused by the
polarization of the substance. The coefficient d is called
the piezoelectric modulus and η the electric susceptibility.
The converse effect is shown by the second equation. A
mechanical strain γ is produced by an applied electric field Figure 1—General scheme to produce piezoelectric
E and is accompanied by a stress S. The coefficient d for the polarization in wood (Fukada 1968). Graphic used by
converse effect is the same as that for the direct effect. If permission of Washington State University, Pullman.
the condition is made that E = 0, then, by an experimental
procedure, the modulus d can be determined as a ratio of
polarization P to stress S. Thus relations between electrical necessary to consider the extremely heterogeneous nature of
polarization and mechanical stress are generally given the wood. Shubnikov (1946) noted this fact in some of the first
following equations: reported work on piezoelectricity of wood; he proposed
the concept of “piezoelectric texture” to represent a
Px = d11Sx + d12Sy + d13Sz + d14Sxy + d15Syz + d16Szx system consisting of many crystalline particles oriented
Py= d21Sx + d22Sy + d23Sz + d24Sxy + d25Syz + d26Szx unidirectionally.
Pz= d31Sx + d32Sy + d33Sz + d34Sxy + d35Syz + d36Szx The piezoelectric effect in wood may be observed as illus-
trated in Figure 1. The z-axis represents the fiber direction in
Where Px, Py, Pz represent the polarizations in xx, yy, and wood. If a shearing stress is applied as indicated by arrows,
zz-directions, Syz, Szx, and Sxy represent the shear stress in yz, an electrical polarization takes place in the direction perpen-
zx, and xy planes, respectively. The piezoelectric modulus dij dicular to the plane of the stress. The sign of the value of po-
relates each component of the polarization to each compo- larization is reversed when the direction of shear is reversed.
nent of stress. In general, there are 18 components of dij
and they are represented by a piezoelectric tensor as Rectangular coordinates are assigned to the wood structure
follows: with the z, x, and y axes representing the longitudinal,
d11 d12 d13 d14 d15 d16 radial, and tangential directions in a tree trunk, respectively
d21 d22 d23 d24 d25 d26 (Fig. 2).
d31 d32 d33 d34 d35 d36 It is known that cellulose is crystallized to a fairly large
By examination of the geometrical relationship between extent and that the unit cell of cellulose crystal belongs to
applied stress and the resulting polarization in wood, the monoclinic symmetry C2. The piezoelectric tensor for a
piezoelectric tensor for wood has been determined as crystal is determined by the symmetry of a crystal lattice
follows: (Fukada 1968).
0 0 0 d14 0 0
The tensor for a crystal with the symmetry C2 is
0 0 0 0 d25 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d14 d15 0
0 0 0 d24 d25 0
The modulus d14 means that shear stress in the yz plane
produces polarization in the x-direction, and the modulus d31 d32 d33 0 0 d36
d25 means that shear stress in the zx plane produces polariza-
tion in the y-direction. Experimentally, their magnitudes are where the zz-axis is taken in the direction of the longitudinal
nearly the same and their sign is opposite. This fact makes axis of the molecules in the crystal. Eight components of the
evident that the piezoelectric effect is symmetrical about the piezoelectric modulus should be finite.
z-axis. The structure of wood composed of cellulose fiber is very
Characteristics of piezoelectricity considered above apply complicated. Assume that the fiber is composed of many
directly to monocrystalline materials. Piezoelectricity of numbers of cellulose crystallites, orientated in the same
wood cannot be discussed easily in this context; while the direction, is the fiber axis, and that such fibers are regularly
same fundamental relations are believed applicable, it is orientated parallel to the trunk axis. Figure 3 illustrates the
uniaxial orientation of cellulose crystallites. The positive

3
 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–212

z d'
Stress
δd

d"

Polarization
y
Figure 4—Vector representation of stress S
and polarization P (Fukada 1968). Graphic
used by permission of the Journal of Wood
Science and Technology.
x

The piezoelectric tensor for such an assembly of unidirec-

tionally orientated crystallites is
0 0 0 d14 0 0
Figure 2—Rectangular coordinates 0 0 0 0 –d14 0
assigned to wood (Fukada 1968).
Graphic used by permission of 0 0 0 0 0 0
Washington State University, Pullman.
This tensor form is identical to that experimentally deter-
mined for wood.
z Cellulose fibrils twist spirally with a certain angle to the
longitudinal axis of the cell. However, if the average is
taken for the layers in which fibrils describe a spiral form
x
in alternative directions, the form of the resultant tensor of
piezoelectric modulus is the same as derived above.
Since polymeric substances possess a viscoelastic prop-
erty, it is anticipated that when stress is applied, electrical
polarization does not appear instantly but arises gradually
x with time. Therefore, the piezoelectric modulus is treated as
a complex quantity and determines the phase lag between
stress and polarization as well as the absolute value of the
z modulus.
Figure 3—Uniaxial and non-polar
Figure 4 represents stress and polarization in a vector dia-
orientation of crystallites (Fukada
1968). Graphic used by permission gram. The polarization is delayed behind the stress by an
of the Journal of Wood Science and angle δd. The component of polarization in phase with the
Technology. stress represents the real part of modulus d' and the compo-
nent of polarization 90º out of phase with the stress of the
imaginary part of modulus d". The ratio of d" to d' may be
end of the zz-axis of each crystallite is distributed at random
expressed as the tangent of δd. These relationships are very
in the axis of symmetry, that is, with the same probability
similar to those encountered with the complex mechanical
for two opposite directions. The xx-axis of each crystallite is
compliance and the complex dielectric constant.
distributed at random and uniformly in the plane perpendic-
ular to the axis of symmetry. The piezoelectric modulus for Baseline Studies
such an assembled system of crystallites can be calculated
by taking an average of the moduli of the crystallites. Then Table 2 provides a summary of the species used in several
it turns out that only d14 and d25 are finite for the system and reported studies. Note that a wide range of species has been
that the other moduli become zero due to cancellation of the used in these studies, and all have exhibited a piezoelectric
effect. The values of d14 and d25 of the system are propor- effect. Reported moisture content values of the specimens
tional to the mean value of d14 and d25 in the single crystal used in the studies varied considerably; from a relatively dry
of cellulose. The coefficient of proportion is dependent on state (below 10%) to over 70%. The specimens used were
density, crystallinity, and degree of orientation. relatively small, with any dimension not exceeding 60 mm.
Galligan and Courteau (1965), Knuffel (1988), and Knuffel
and Pizzi (1986) were exceptions—they used lumber size
specimens in their experiments.

4
Wood and Wood-Based Materials as Sensors—A Review of the Piezoelectric Effect in Wood

Table 2—A list of wood species investigated for piezoelectric effect in previous
studies
Reference Species
Fei and Zeng 1987 Magnolia grandiflora Linn
Tilia amurensis Rupr
Taxodium ascendens Brongn
Pinus massoniana Lamb
Cunninghamia lanceolata Hook
Fukada and others 1957 (10 old timbers from 8 years to 1,300 years)
Galligan and Courteau 1965 Douglas-fir
Hirai and others 1968 Tsuga (Tsuga sieboldii Carr.)
Shioji (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.)
Shirakaba (Betula platyphylla SUKATCHEV. var.; japonica HARA.)
Hônoki (Magnolia obovata THUNB)
Taiwanhinoki (Chamaecyparis taiwanensis MASAM. et SUZUKI)
Kiri (Paulownia tomentosa STEUD.)
Hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtuse ENDL.)
Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. DON)
Konara (Quercus serrata MURRAY.)
Akamatsu I (Pinus densiflora SIEB. et ZUCC.)
Akamatsu II
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia BRITT.)
Makanba
Hirai and others 1970 Sugi (summerwood and springwood)
Hirai and others 1972 Hinoki tree (Chamaecyparis obtuse SIEB. et ZUCC)
Hirai and Yamaguchi 1979 Hinoki
Knuffel and Pizzi 1986 Pinus patula
Knuffel 1988 Pinus patula
P. taeda
P. elliottii
Maeda and others 1977 Japanese cedar
Nakai and Takemura 1993 Beisugi (Thuja plicata Donn)
Hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtuse ((S. and Z.)) Endl.)
Beitsuga (Tsuga heterophylla ((Raf.)) Sarg.)
Beimatsu (Pseudotsuga menziesii ((Mirb.)) Franco)
Buna (Fagus crenata Bl.)
Nakai and others 1998 Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.)
Nakai and others 2005 Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtuse Endl.)
Suzuki and others 1992 Hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtuse ((S. and Z.)) Endl.)
Beimatsu (Pseudotsuga menziesii ((Mirb.)) Franco)
Beihiba (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ((D. Don)) Spach)
Agathis (Agathis sp.)
Igem (Podocarpus imbricatus Bl.)
Momi (Abies firm S. and Z.)
White fir (Abies alba Mill.)
Spruce (Picea pungens Engelm)
Shinanoki (Tilia japonica Simk)
Katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum S. and Z.)
Buna (Fagus crenata Bl.)
Lauan (Pentacme contorta Merr. and Rolfe)
Nato (Palaquium sp.)
Matoa (Pometia pinnata Forst.)
Sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.)
Suzuki and Hirai 1995 Chamaecyparis botusa Endlicher
Larix leptolepis Gordon
Magnolia ovobata Thunberg

5
 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–212

Most reported work used test setups that resulted in a uni-

form compressive stress being applied to the specimen, ori-
enting each specimen so that the angle between growth rings
and the application of load was approximately 45º. The
electric charge generated was detected by electrodes that
consisted of conductive paint, glued-on metal foil, pins, or
small metal buttons placed against a specimen’s surface.
Based on early experimentation by Bazhenov (1961), Fu-
kuda (1955, 1965), and Hirai and others (1970), the magni-
tude of the piezoelectric modulus of wood is approximately
1/20 of that of a quartz crystal. Bazhenov (1961) and Hirai
and others (1970) found that the values of the piezoelectric
modulus, d14, increased gradually from the pith to the bark
of a tree. They also reported that the values of the piezoelec-
tric modulus for springwood and summerwood, for the same
year’s growth, were nearly equal.
Fukada and others (1957) found that the piezoelectric
moduli increased with increasing density. Bazhenov (1961)
found that the piezoelectric modulus d25 increased and that
of d14 decreased with increasing density in pines. Hirai and
others (1968a) confirmed that the d25 piezoelectric modulus
Figure 5—Relationships between the ratios of crystal
increased with increasing density, but they show no data for lattice strain to surface strain (triangles), piezoelectric
d14. voltage (squares), and tension stress. Note: values of
tension stress are shown as a percentage of ultimate
Bazhenov (1961) found that the piezoelectric modulus is tensile stress (Nakai and others 2005). Graphic used
related to temperature, and it increases as temperature in- by permission of the Journal of Wood Science and
creases. Maeda and others (1977) found that d' of the piezo- Technology.
electric constant of the Japanese cedar at 74% of moisture
content increased with the increasing temperature for the
Using conformational analysis, Pizzi and Eaton (1984)
piezoelectric constant determined at 10 Hz.
concluded that van der Waal forces were responsible for the
Smittakorn and Heyliger (2001) developed a theoretical piezoelectric effect in wood. They concluded that the elec-
model for the steady-state and transient behavior of adaptive trical charge most likely develops in response to an imposed
wood composite plates composed of layers of wood and oth- shear force that results in laminar lateral–longitudinal defor-
er piezoelectric materials to simultaneously study the effects mations in the five-strand unit of the crystalline cellulose I
of mechanical, electrical, temperature, and moisture fields. molecule found in the microfibrils of wood. They also con-
They considered the theoretical model as a means of study- cluded that electrostatic and hydrogen bond interactions do
ing any laminated wood plate where the elastic, temperature, not contribute to the piezoelectric effect.
moisture, and electric fields influence the overall structural
Hirai and others (1968b, 1972) have shown that the piezo-
response. Their results of studying a representative example
provided an indication of the level of response of adaptive electric modulus can be increased by increasing the crys-
tallinity of the cellulose by treatment with gamma rays,
wood composites, although no experimental verification had
exposure to high temperature for extended periods, liquid
been conducted in their investigation.
ammonia, ethlyenediamine, or sodium hydroxide. Fukada
Origin of the Piezoelectric Effect in Wood and others (1957) found that aging wood increased its crys-
tallinity and its piezoelectric modulus. Based on his experi-
Fukada (1955) and Bazhenov (1961) both hypothesized that
mental results, he also postulated that fungal decomposition
the piezoelectric effect observed in wood originates in crys-
decreased both crystallinity and piezoelectric modulus.
talline cellulose regions of the wood cell wall and that its
intensity is dependent upon the degree of crystallinity. Hirai Nakai and others (2005) found that the first and second
and others (1970) furthered that hypothesis, postulating that peaks in the piezoelectric voltage appeared almost simulta-
the magnitude of the piezoelectric modulus of wood depend neously with the peak of the ratio of crystal lattice strain to
upon degree of crystallinity and orientation of surface strain (Fig. 5). They also noted that the piezoelectric
cellulose crystals in the cell wall. response decreased because of the effect of microscopic
cracks in their specimens.

6
Wood and Wood-Based Materials as Sensors—A Review of the Piezoelectric Effect in Wood

Piezoelectric Effect and the Properties of 3 J2

Wood and Wood Structural Members ×10–9 c.g.s.e.s.u
M6
Nakai and others (1998) measured the piezoelectricity of

Piezoelectric constant
kiln-dried Sitka spruce specimens and simultaneously re- O2 P2
2
corded scanning electron microscope images in real time I1
K2 L4
to observe the deformation process of wood. Results of
N2
their experiments showed that there were two types of mi-
R2 H5
croscopic destruction in the specimens. With the first type, 1
although a small uprush around the boundary of the annual
ring was observed, the specimens were broken only by
shearing fracture in the 45º direction. With the second type,
the specimens were finally broken by shearing fracture after
repeated buckling. They found that the piezoelectric voltage 0 5 10 15
increased almost linearly in the elastic region, preceded to Dynamic Young’s modulus (×1010 dyne/cm2)
the maximal point, and then decreased gradually, and a clear Figure 6—The relation between dynamic Young’s modulus
peak appeared in the bucking and shearing fracture. and the piezoelectric constants of old timbers (Fukada
and others 1957). Graphic used by permission of Oyo
Nakai and Takemura (1993) measured the piezoelectricity of Buturi.
air-dried specimens (from five species) under time-varying
load to investigate the possible relationship between piezo-
electricity and the fracture of wood. A time-varying load
Piezoelectric modulus, d×10–9 c.g.s.e.s.u
1
was applied at a constant rate, accompanying a preliminary
load and a sinusoidal load with a frequency of 20 Hz. They
found that the greatest voltage of the piezoelectric signals as 0.5
reported in a previous paper was in the case of a grain angle
of 45º, and the voltages of the piezoelectric signals depend-
ed on the magnitude of the load, species, and grain angle. Θ
0
The results of their experiments showed that the piezoelec- 0 45 90 135 180
tricity–time curves can be classified into three types (Type
A, B, and C). Each curve consists of an initial rising part, a
–0.5
gradually increasing part, a subsequent decreasing part, and
finally, a rapid rising and falling (Type A and B) or merely
falling part (Type C), where the second part of the Type B
–1
is much flatter compared with that of the Type A. They also
found that decreasing piezoelectricity against an increasing Θ: Angle between directions of tree and fiber axis
load was another characteristic behavior in the plastic region Figure 7—Anisotropy of piezoelectric modulus (Hirai and
before a sudden fracture of a specimen. others 1968). Graphic used by permission of Washington
State University, Pullman.
Fukada and others (1957) found that the relation between
the dynamic Young’s modulus and the piezoelectric con-
stant of the old timbers was linear (Fig. 6). Nakai and others piezoelectric signal usually began smaller, increased to max-
(1998) reported a similar linear relation in the kiln-dried Sit- imum after about five cycles, and then began to attenuate
ka spruce with the exact relationship between the dynamic to zero. Also, the piezoelectric response started to develop
Young’s modulus and the piezoelectric constant as almost simultaneously with the arrival of the stress wave

( )
and reached its first peak within 0.0001 s. They observed
Pp
Ec (×103 kgf/cm2) = 1.18 + 3.15 that the first peak of the piezoelectric signals might be either
ρ × Lp
positive or negative, which are uncontaminated by reso-
Hirai and others (1968a) found that the piezoelectric effect nance. They also found that the piezoelectric effect in the
varied with the angle between the direction of the stress wet boards was still found to be very strong. But because of
and the direction of the fiber axis and that maximum piezo- the conductive conditions, the electrical signal originating at
electric polarization was obtained when the direction of the the beginning of the board propagated faster than the stress
stresses were at angles of 45º and 135º with the direction of wave, and at 20% moisture content, the piezoelectric effect
the fiber axis (Fig. 7). began to coincide with the arrival of the stress wave.

Knuffel and Pizzi (1986) measured the piezoelectric effect Knuffel (1988) investigated the effect of the natural defects
in Pinus patula structural timber beams. They found that the on the piezoelectric effect in structural timber. There were

7
 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–212

Figure 8—Piezoelectric response in structural timber (Knuffel 1988). Graphic used by permission of
Holzforschung.

three findings from their investigation. Firstly, the piezo- Fei, Y.Y.; Zeng, S.X. 1987. Piezoelectric effect in wood.
electric first wavepeak values showed a definite and very Journal of Nanjing Forestry University. 3: 100–104.
sensitive increase in amplitude in the vicinity of knots and
cross-grain (Fig. 8). Second, the piezoelectric response was Fukada, E. 1955. Piezoelectricity of wood. Journal of the
far more sensitive to the defects than to MOE. At last, the Physical Society of Japan. 10(2): 149–154.
piezoelectric effect was directly related to strain concentra- Fukada, E. 1965. Piezoelectric effect in wood and other
tions in the anatomical structure. crystalline polymers. In: Galligan, W.L., ed. Proceedings,
second symposium on nondestructive testing of wood. April,
Summary 1965. Spokane, WA: Washington State University. 143–170.
1. Research has been conducted on the piezoelectric ef- Fukada, E. 1968. Piezoelectricity as a fundamental property
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