Teaching All Pages

Teaching of Physical Science
Theory, Perspectives & Practice
K. M. Rajan
Sindhu B. S.
Josen George
Sibu G. Netto
Sajan R. K.
2008
Fr. K. M. Rajan M.Sc.; M.Ed; Ph.D.

Sindhu B. S. M.Sc; M.A.; M.Ed.
Josen George M.Sc.; M.A.; M.Ed.
Sibu G. Netto M.Sc.; M.Ed.
Sajan R. K. M.Sc.; M.Ed.
St. Joseph’s Training College

Mannanam, Kottayam - 686 561
2008
Fr. K. M. Rajan, M.Sc.; M.Ed; Ph.D.

Sindhu B. S. M.Sc; M.A.; M.Ed.
Josen George M.Sc.; M.A.; M.Ed.
Sibu G. Netto M.Sc.; M.Ed.
Sajan R. K. M.Sc.; M.Ed.
Copyright @ Authors
First Published in 2008 by St. Joseph’s Training College,

Mannanam, Kottayam - 686 561
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
or by any means, without permission in writing from the authors.
Price Rs. 185.00
Printed at: M/s Dona Colour Graphs, Kottayam
Copies: 1000
CONTENTS
Preface v
Acknowledgement vii
CHAPTER 1 Science and Education 1
CHAPTER 2 Aims and Objectives of Teaching Science 19
CHAPTER 3 Curriculum Development 39
CHAPTER 4 Strategies of Teaching Physical Science 59
CHAPTER 5 Scientific Method 119
CHAPTER 6 Support Systems and Resource Materials 143
CHAPTER7 Learning: A Generative Process 187
CHAPTER8 Planning of Instruction 197
CHAPTER9 Evaluation 229
CHAPTER 10 Co-curricular Activities 265
CHAPTER 11 Science Teacher 275
CHAPTER 12 Micro-teaching 283
CHAPTER 13 National Talent Search Scheme 299
CHAPTER 14 Famous Scientists and their Contributions 305
References 323
Appendices 335
Author Index 363
Subject Index 367
About the Authors 371
iii
iv
Preface
Most would agree that the physical

science teaching in schools need to be
restructured to address the unprecedented
challenges of our educational system. Some
argue for activity-oriented approach, others
call for problem-based learning, and still others
contend that schools should be held more
accountable to their clients, and so on.
This book offers a comprehensive

examination of the many varied proposals for
improving the standards of science education.
The book details the theory and practice
relevant to physical science teaching. The
ultimate purpose of this work is to help science
teachers put their ideas to use in their classes.
The authors have included samples of lesson
plan, unit plan, year plan, blue-print, etc. to
help the student-teachers, and other
practitioners in the field.
Authors
v
vi
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the work in

science education of all those researchers and
science educators whose work have been
quoted in this book.
The authors place on record the help,

support and encouragement received from
their colleagues in the preparation of this book.
The authors sincerely thank Mr. Santhosh for
the layout, type-setting and cover design of the
book. The authors are indebted to M/s Dona
Colour Graphs, Kottayam for printing this
book to their satisfaction.
The authors are grateful to the management

of St. Joseph’s Training College, Mannanam,
Kottayam, for taking up the publication of this
book.
Authors
vii
viii
1
Chapter I
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION
The word science comes from the Latin word ‘scientia’ that means
knowledge (Barnhart, 1988). The view of science implied here is that
science is a body of knowledge. The facts and laws of science paint
only a partial picture of the whole enterprise. A complete depiction
of science should include the knowledge of the field and what the
body of knowledge can provide in the process of understanding
(Krug, 1960). Reflecting on the question of science, Galileo Galilee
said that the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning
of a single individual. While learning science the learner develops
certain faculties through reasoning and experimentation, which no
other subject can provide. Theories of science that we accept at any
given time are chosen because they function significantly in the process
of knowing rather than as factual representation of some reality (Ross,
1971). Science is an on-going process of refining knowledge and “the
scientific knowledge is tentative - - affected by the process used in its
construction…” (Welch, Klopfer, Aikenhead & Robinson, 1981).
Science always plays a tremendous role in human life. It changes
the entire existence of human beings in such important aspects as
health, communication, transportation, and power. To visualise the
effect of scientific development just look around in a modern room.
For example, the curtain and carpets tinted with dyes, which are not
natural products - - the chemists have prepared these from coal tar.
From the same coal tar, fountain pen ink is produced. The artificial
silk fabric of sofa covers has been made from wood pulp. The electric
light, nickel-plated door fittings, etc. are all feats (important
achievements) of science. The modern world itself is made and
2 TEACHING OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE
maintained by science. We even owe our existence to science.

Kothari commission has remarked, “Science is universal so can
be its benefits. Its material benefits are immense and far-reaching -
industrialisation of agriculture and release of nuclear energy are two
examples - but even more profound is its contribution to culture”
(Report of the Education Commission 1964-66, 1966).
Definitions of Science
Albert Einstein, the celebrated physicist, described science as an
attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience
correspond to logically uniform system of thought. The literature
provides a good number of definitions for science, a few of them are
discussed below.
According to Good (1945), “science is an activity by means of
which a person seeks to relate his current sense experience to his
total structure of understanding in a manner that is in agreement
with all his pertinent observations of properties and behaviour.”
Columbia Encyclopaedia defines science as “an accumulated and
systematised learning in general usage restricted to natural
phenomena.” According to Aldous Huxley, “science is nothing but
systematised and organised common sense” (cited in Rajan, 1999).
Griggs opined that “in the literal sense, science means the pursuit
of knowledge, but it has a wider connotation for our purpose and
can be said to mean knowledge of nature in the widest possible form.
This includes nature study, physics, astronomy, meteorology and
much more.” It is equally important to look beyond definitions and
see what science includes. The following aspects are of utmost
importance as far as science is concerned.
1. Direct and indirect observations
2. Scientific inquiry- - asking questions
3. Drawing of inference from evidence
4. Recording observations
5. Developing ways and means to find answers
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION 3
6. Classification and checking evidences

According to Science Manpower Project, “science is a cumulative
and endless series of empirical observations which result in the
formulation of concepts and theories, with both concepts and theories
being subjected to modification in the light of further empirical
observations. Science is both a body of knowledge and a process of
acquiring and refining knowledge” (cited in Sharma, 1996). Therefore,
it can be inferred that science is a body of knowledge and a continuous
self-evaluative process of enquiry. A popular conception of science is
that it is either a product or a process. The dichotomisation of science
into product (a body of knowledge) and process (a process of knowing)
is a distortion of the nature of science, because the process of knowing
is inseparable from what is known (Robinson, 1968). The process of
knowing and the knowledge used in the process of knowing are
equally important. The value of what we know is equally important
in our efforts to understand things. Therefore, science should be
considered as both a product and a process - - for process would not
be meaningful without product. Science can also be defined as “what
scientists do” (Sharma, 1996). Based on what scientists do, it is possible
to identify at least three things that characterise scientists’ work - -
descriptions, explanations and predictions.
Science as a Product
The notion of science as a product implies that science is an
accumulation of established facts, concepts, generalisations,
principles, theories, etc. Thus, the logical and technical outcomes of
science can be termed as the product of science. For example, when a
concept, theory, principle or law is formulated, it is said to be the
logical outcome of science while scientific inventions can be considered
as the technical outcomes of science.
The content of science is so voluminous that it is impossible for
any one to learn it entirely. Educationalists thought over this difficulty
and tried to make learning science easy and natural by systematising
scientific knowledge. They categorised and reduced the whole
knowledge into certain basic ideas and broad understandings or
conceptual schemes. This made learning science simple and natural.
The areas of scientific knowledge significant for human learning are

referred to as functional understanding, which consists of scientific
vocabulary, scientific facts, scientific concepts, conceptual scheme and
application of the above to new phenomena. Psychologists like Piaget,
Bruner, Gagne, Ausubel, were the exponents of this movement.
1. Fact
A fact is a reality, a real state of a thing, which is usually
demonstrable. According to Conant, “a fact must be directly
observable and must be demonstrable” (cited in Thurber & Collette,
1964). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines fact as
“something known to be true or accepted as true.” A fact can be
described as scientific fact only when it has been arrived at using
scientific method. The source of information and the method employed
in deducing the result should be sufficiently scientific. Facts are the
basis of all knowledge. The main function of fact is to initiate, define
or redefine new knowledge.
2. Concept
A concept is defined as “an abstraction from observed
phenomena; it is a word that states the commonalities among those
observed objects or events and distinguishes the phenomena from
other objects or events” (Mc Millan & Schumacher, 1989, p. 94). A
concept is a generalised mental image, which represents all the
members in a particular category. Thus, a concept is a generalised
idea built upon several facts. It is a set of specific objects, symbols, or
events, which share common characteristics and can be referred by a
particular name or symbol.
3. Generalisation
Facts, concepts and generalisations are inter-related and inter-
dependent. Facts give rise to concepts and when the facts and
concepts are properly classified based on various scientific processes
they give rise to generalisations.
4. Principle
A principle is a general statement, which establishes the
relationship between at least two concepts. A principle is a statement
of relationship, which is significant in its applications. The qualities
of a good principle are - - comprehensiveness, logical trueness,
verifiability, consistency, etc.
5. Theory
Kerlinger defines theory as “a set of interrelated concepts,
definitions and presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying
relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and
predicting the phenomena” (cited in Sharma & Shukla, 2002). The
qualities of a good theory are:
a. It should be based on related facts, concepts, principles, and
generalisations
b. It should be precise and clear
c. It should help in understanding as well as explaining a particular
phenomenon or process
d. It should help in interpretation, verification, and prediction
e. It should be grounded on empirical data
Product approach in science teaching
The product oriented approach (also known as traditional) to
science teaching makes the assumption that mind is a ‘tabula rasa’ or
‘blank slate’ and the student is a passive receiver of information, an
empty vessel waiting to be filled with scientific facts (Driver & Bell,
1986; Cleminson, 1990). Consequently, much of traditional science
teaching consists of textbook instruction in which rote memorisation
is generally encouraged. It has been well-established that students
taught with this approach to science education tend to view scientific
knowledge as finite, isolated bit of information (White, 1988; Hewitt,
1990), where many students fail to develop scientific reasoning skills.
Science as a Process
The view of science as a process implies that science is the
drawing out of inferences from interaction with experiences. The
ways and means adopted by scientists in their pursuit of investigation
is the process of science. Science is not a finished enterprise and there
remains much to be discovered about the universe. In this aspect, the
way of exploring truth is given more emphasis. The method adopted
in science in the exploration of truth is unique and distinct from
methods adopted by other subjects. The process of science includes
the procedures such as observation, collection of data, classification,
analysis, synthesis, evaluation and application to new situations.
Process approach in science teaching

The process aspect of science is emphasised in teaching of science
which is supported by psychological theories proposed by Piaget
(cognitive constructivism), Vygotsky (social constructivism), Gardner
(theory of multiple intelligence), etc. The process approach focuses
on the learning of inquiry skills more than specific content (Gagne,
1967; Harlen, 1978). This approach encourages the students to
generate meaning and knowledge from experience. It considers
learners as active participants in the learning process.
Several projects were designed in the teaching of science taking
into account the objectives of process approach and anticipating
integration of knowledge. Projects such as Nuffield Junior Science in
Britain (Harlen, 1978) and courses in Chemistry such as Chemical
Education Material Study (CHEM - Study), Chemical Bond Approach
(CBA), and Science - A Process Approach (SAPA) of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in the United
States are a few along this direction (Pode, 1966; SAPA, 1966). These
projects emphasised processes of science such as observing, classifying,
inferring and predicting rather than the content of science (Rajan,
2004).
Science as both a Process and a Product

Until recent times science was considered as a collection of
knowledge, an area of subject matter, an array of facts, concepts,
symbols, equations, and formulae or content. The explosion of

knowledge, which influenced all the significant aspects of human
activities, penetrated into the field of education also and enriched its
content and methods (Joseph, 1982). In the past few decades, there
evolved the view that the process and product aspects of science are
interdependent and complementary to each other. They are the two
sides of the same coin. The product of science can only be arrived at
through its processes. The processes of science depend upon the
products of science - - it’s logical and technical outcomes.
Science as an Attitude
Learning of science helps in bringing a typical change in the
attitude of its students. The development of such an attitude is known
as scientific attitude. The acquisition of scientific attitude is one of the
most important outcomes of learning science. A person with scientific
attitude will have the following attributes.
a. Shows disbelief in superstition
b. Records and interprets observations honestly
c. Shows clarity and precision in statements
d. Shows open-mindedness
e. Develops independent thinking
f. Shows spirit of team work, self-help and self-reliance
g. Suspends judgment in the face of insufficient data
h. Shows faith in cause and effect relationship
i. Willingness to consider new ideas and discoveries
The nature of science refers to those characteristics of scientific
knowledge that derive directly from how the knowledge is developed.
The following characteristics can be attributed to the nature of science
(Gega & Peters, 1998):
a. There is no single set or sequence of steps in a scientific
investigation
b. Scientific knowledge is subject to change
c. Scientific knowledge must be at least partially supported by

empirical evidence (that is, scientific knowledge must involve the
collection of data and must be consistent with what we know
about the world and be testable)
d. Scientific knowledge is partially the product of the creative
imagination of the scientists (that is, all scientific knowledge
combines both empirical evidence and the creative interpretation
of data by scientists
e. Given the importance of scientists’ individual creativity, scientific
knowledge is necessarily subjective to some degree (that is,
scientific knowledge is not totally objective as is commonly
believed)
f. Scientific knowledge is a product of both observation and
inference
Place of Science in School Curriculum

Today science has a prime place in school curriculum as a
compulsory subject in almost all nations. The reason is simple - - the
multifarious values and functions of science to the individual and to
the society. The important values/functions of science are discussed
below.
1. Intellectual Function
Scientific knowledge helps to develop intellectual honesty among
learners. This helps in developing an unbiased attitude towards
scientific enterprise. It makes a person systematic, and efficient to
face hardships and failures in life. Science does not accept anything,
which cannot be proved by actual observation, reasoning, and
experimentation. Science helps one to solve problems with sharp
intelligence and wisdom. Thus, study of science helps to achieve higher
mental faculties such as reasoning, analysis, interpretation, logical
thinking, etc.
2. Disciplinary Function
The learning of science develops certain powers of clear and
vigorous thinking of coherent and logical deduction, of exact and

accurate observation - - a mental discipline characteristic of science.
Habits of this kind acquired through science learning will automatically
be generalised and transferred to wider concerns of natural life. These
qualities are the outcomes of science (Joseph, 1982). Learning of science
trains one in scientific method and develops scientific attitude
consisting of traits such as open-mindedness, patience, accuracy,
cleanliness, punctuality, etc. The mental power acquired by learning
science will enable one to discipline oneself and thus help to be a
useful member of the society.
3. Utilitarian Function
This is the age of science and technology and the role of science
in our daily affairs are innumerable. According to Sir Edward
Salisbury, science today has come to play an increasingly important
part in our everyday life and an appreciation of its significance, of its
findings, of its major trends, of its proper use of appliances are essential
to the welfare of individuals in the present and the human race in the
future (cited in Nair, 1990). Science has attained a significant role in
the different aspects of human life. There is a miraculous change in
the ways and means of work and style of life. Science has
revolutionised our way of living. It is now essential for everyone not
only to understand science but also to manage day-to-day affairs.
4. Recreational Function
Recreation of body and mind is one of the important aspects
that need attention in modern life, which is full of tension and
frustration. Learning of science can cater to the recreational needs of
individuals especially during leisure hours. It develops interests, tastes
and appreciations in pupils by offering a large number of
opportunities such as hobbies, games and puzzles. Science provides
through technology a number of recreational gadgets and facilities
such as movies, television, computer, audio-video equipments and
musical instruments, which are inevitable and of great recreational
value in modern life. Science can create sensitiveness to the beauties
of nature and an intellectual appreciation of the great discoveries
and inventions of science.
5. Cultural Function
According to the great Indian poet Dinkar, culture is the way of
life, which is handed over to society from one generation to another
in the form of accumulated customs, habits, and mode of living. The
mode and style of living is different from one society to another and
therefore their culture is not the same (cited in Mangal, 1990). Culture
is the ‘way of life’ or ‘the finer things of life’ those we could cultivate
through education. The learning of science develops in us a logical
mind, a critical judgment, and a capacity for scientific organisation,
which is essential for solving the problems in our life. The welfare of
our society is dependent upon scientific progress and thus helps the
formation of a culture of our own.
6. Vocational Function
Science becomes the primary requirement for a number of
vocations and vocational studies. To enter the field of medicine,
engineering, agriculture, information technology, etc., the basic
criterion is the interest and knowledge of science only. That is why
science is considered as an inevitable part of our school curriculum.
7. Aesthetic Function
Science offers a large number of opportunities for the
development of refined tastes. Knowledge of science develops in man
a passion for truth and beauty in nature. The duty of science is peeping
into the mysteries of nature, which is the treasure house of all beautiful
things. Thus, teaching of science is essential for developing
sensitiveness to the beauty of nature and thereby develops an
intellectual appreciation of great discoveries and inventions of science.
The difference between a scientist and an artist is that artist aims
more deliberately at beauty and a scientist attains and enjoys beauty
through reasoning and truth.
8. Social Function
Science is of great value to society from the very beginning.
Science has helped a child to become a useful citizen. Today’s society
stands on pillars of scientific techniques and knowledge. All our social
activities depend upon science. Science has provided easy and

effective means for transportation and communication, led to
increased agricultural and industrial production, sophisticated
medical and space research, etc. With these advancements, the society
has progressively changed in all dimensions. Thus, science has been
functioning as an instrument for social change.
9. Psychological Function
Science learning is based on the fundamental principle of learning
by doing and learning by living. It follows the maxims of teaching - -
from known to unknown, simple to complex, concrete to abstract,
easy to difficult, empirical to rational, specific to general, near to far
and part to whole. Knowledge of science helps to satisfy the basic
human desire of knowing about wonders of nature and thereby
satisfying the instincts such as curiosity, creativity and self-assertion.
It also helps in attaining group skills such as co-operation, tolerance,
we-feeling, etc., through its manifold activities like hobbies and
projects.
1 0 . Provides Training in Scientific Method

Science develops a specific procedure for dealing with problems.
Such a method prepares an individual to face the problems of life
boldly and to resolve them successfully. The scientific method involves
certain thought processes in solving a scientific problem viz., sensing
the problem, analysing the problem, testing the validity and accuracy
of the various solutions of the problem and application of solutions in
similar problems.
Concept of Correlation
Correlation is one of the essential aspect or technique of the
modern pedagogical system that makes the study of a subject more
purposeful, interesting, permanent and effective by seeking essential
coordination and integration with in the different pieces of knowledge
along with their application. It is based on the essential notion that
knowledge neither exists nor works in isolation (Mangal, 1990). For
the sake of convenience, the accumulated fund of knowledge in science
is taught under different headings, viz., Chemistry, Physics and

Biology. However, all branches of science are inter-dependent and
there are a number of facts and principles that are common to these
subjects. Therefore, it is not wise to learn science as watertight
compartments. The remedy for this is to employ correlation, which
means “the reciprocal relationship between various subjects of the
curriculum” (Sharma & Shukla, 2002, p. 129).
Correlation is a technique of relating two subjects while teaching
any one of them for facilitating meaningful learning and easy
understanding of the topic under discussion. We cannot appreciate
and understand everything about one branch of science in isolation
from others. The correlation of different subjects is very essential for
checking artificiality of treatment and for achieving unity of
knowledge. One of the most important factors that are responsible
for the ineffectiveness of teaching science is the one-sided
specialisation. A few argue that without specialisation one cannot
possibly understand any one area accurately. However, there is a
counter argument that specialisation destroys the natural unity of
knowledge. Therefore, it is suggested that teachers of science should
have sufficient knowledge of other subjects to bring about integration
of different subjects. For example, the functioning of the sense organ
eye in biology class is related to image formation by a camera in physics;
and while discussing the process of digestion in biology, it is related
to chemistry by mentioning the acids involved in the process.
A basic principle of correlation is that the various school subjects
must help the learner in a manner to understand his/her environment
better. Correlation can be classified in two - - (1) systematic correlation
and (2) incidental correlation.
1. Systematic Correlation
Systematic correlation is achieved through planning of the
curriculum. This requires group work of a panel of experts from
various subjects of study at the time of developing the curriculum.
Thorough discussions during curriculum planning can help in
avoiding unnecessary repetition of subject matter, as well as help in
bringing out good correlation among subjects. Related topics in
physics, chemistry, biology and other school subjects can be arranged

scientifically for the same standard by proper planning of the
curriculum. Systematic correlation will be effective only when the
teachers of different subjects co-operate and co-ordinate their work
in unison.
2. Incidental Correlation
Contrary to the systematic correlation, incidental correlation is
achieved by the planning of the teacher, which is not the result of
curriculum organisation. It is intrinsic in nature as the teacher may
correlate one topic with another of the same standard or of the
previous standard, as and when such a relationship is recalled. The
success of such correlation depends on the wide knowledge and
resourcefulness of the teacher.
Correlation of Science with Other Subjects

The correlation of science with other subjects is treated under
three heads:
(1) correlation of science subjects with one another (2) correlation
of science with other school subjects and (3) correlation of science
with social and physical environment (Sharma & Sharma, 1971; Kohli,
1986).
1. Correlation of Science Subject with One Another

All branches of science such as physics, chemistry, botany,
zoology, physiology, agriculture, geology, etc. are correlated and
interdependent upon each other. So science cannot be taught in
isolation.
A study of natural science owes much to physics and chemistry.
For example, the respiration is related to both physics and chemistry.
The change in pressure due to the movement of diaphragm and ribs,
resulting in the expansion and contraction of lungs are explained by
the principle of physics. Whereas the chemical processes of respiration
are explained by chemistry. Similarly, photosynthesis is closely related
to physics and chemistry. A biology teacher while teaching the
functioning of eye can correlate it with the image formation of convex
lens in physics. Again, s/he can mention the use of lenses in the
rectification of eye defects such as short-sightedness and long-
sightedness. Study of digestive system is interrelated with the chemistry
of different digestive juices and their effect on the constituents of food
particles. Therefore, it is desirable that the teacher should ensure
correlation of different subjects wherever desired in order to improve
the effectiveness of teaching learning process. However, when the
correlation is made explicit through example, the interdependency
will enlighten the leaner to have a better understanding of his/her
environment. For this, the teacher should have sufficient knowledge
of other subjects.
2. Correlation of Science with other School Subjects
a) Science and language
Science students are usually weak in their expression compared
to students in arts and humanities. Science students should be able to
express their thoughts in clear, concise, correct and attractive
language. Objective type questions minimise the use of language and
the value of language is usually neglected. The language teachers
frequently demand for the exclusion of science lessons from literature
textbooks. These unhealthy outlooks will cause permanent loss to the
educational enterprise. Fluency of language is also necessary to express
accurately all scientific laws and principles. Language plays an
important role in the teaching of science. It is through different
languages that people get aware of scientific inventions and are able
to appreciate the contributions of science. It is desirable that the
language teacher may ask the students to write an essay on some
invention or on the life history of a scientist. In addition, pieces of
translation can be given from science work. This type of coordination
will influence the study of both the subjects in a positive way.
b) Science and social studies

Science and social studies are related to each other to a great
extent. The development of science and technology pays a great role
in today’s high standard of living. Modernisation and industrialisation
have revolutionised the outlook and philosophy of life. Many of the
scientific principles are directly involved in geographical phenomena.
For example, convection currents, winds, earthquakes, soil, climate

and topic such as pressure, temperature, humidity and minerals are
common to both science and geography. The construction and use of
several instruments such as thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, etc.
are common to physical science and geography. The rotation of the
planets, change in seasons, flow of ocean currents, structure of earth
strata, action of volcanoes and earthquakes are best understood when
geology is studied in relation to physical science.
Relation between science and history is very important in topics
such as the story of man, the story of earth and the man’s endeavours
to fight diseases such as leprosy and plague in the East, scurvy and
small pox in Europe. History of human civilisation can be divided
into different ages on the basis of major sources of power and fuel.
The history and science are much more related if we trace the history
of discoveries and inventions. In history we see industrialisation as
related to scientific inventions.
Science and civics are taught with the same aim of making
students good and useful citizens. Science helps the students to
understand the utility of scientific inventions enabling them to adjust
themselves and to the society. Science helps students to learn, how to
dispose of the human waste, the way of leading a healthy life, the
way of avoiding infectious diseases and how to render first aid at the
time of an accident. All these types of knowledge make them good
and dutiful citizens to lead an ideal civic life. In this way both science
and civics are interrelated and can be taught in an integrated way
(Mangal, 1990).
c) Science and mathematics

The relationship between mathematics and science is highly
significant. Science subjects cannot be taught effectively without using
mathematics. For example, in the study of topics in physics such as
gravitational attraction, the laws of reflection and refraction of light,
study of magnetism and electricity, etc., mathematical language and
computations are necessary. Similarly, while teaching topics in
chemistry such as the laws of combination, structure of atoms,
formula of compounds and chemical equations, etc., require basic
knowledge of mathematics. Several physical quantities such as density,

specific heat, etc., are not measured directly but mathematically
calculated from other measured quantities.
The situation is not different in the case of other sciences.
Knowledge of mathematics is essential in the study of structure and
behaviour of microorganism. Mathematical operations are inevitable
in the calculations of Mendel’s laws of heredity. In the science of
physiology, the human body, structure and its growth are studied
accurately in mathematical terms. In the field of medical sciences also
mathematics is needed in the accurate measurements of human
temperatures, blood pressures, deficiencies of certain substances in
human body and the exact composition of medicines required for
using certain diseases (Mangal, 1990).
d) Science and craft/drawing

Crafts have several applications in science. Improvisation is an
important activity in inculcating scientific thoughts. Crafts such as
wood-work, metal-work, cardboard-work, clay-modelling and
modelling using plaster-of-Paris can be successfully used in preparing
learning aids. Science club activities are closely related to crafts and
drawing. Leisure time activities are selected based on students’
participation in science club and other activities. Drawing, preparation
of charts and some skills in painting will help the study of science
subjects. Gramophone records, audiocassettes, film slides, etc., can
make science lessons more interesting. Thus the learning of science is
related to crafts and drawing.
3. Correlation of Science with Social and Physical

Environment
We are living in an age of science; all our activities are controlled
and governed by science. The impact of science and technology is
evident everywhere. The teachers should correlate their subjects with
daily life - - the social and physical environment of the students.
Learners should be able to carry over their learning from the physics
and chemistry classes to their day-to-day activities. Their life
experiences should facilitate the learning of principles of physical
science also. For example, while teaching a topic on insecticides or

plastics; the teacher can correlate it with the environmental pollution
caused by these compounds. While teaching the topic current
electricity the teacher can supplement the learning by mentioning
the ways and means to save electricity and its importance. It is the
duty of science teacher to relate the classroom teaching with the social
and physical environments by quoting examples from the daily life of
the child.
Advantages of Correlation
The advantages of correlation are enumerated below (Mohan,
2002):
1. Enhances motivation: through correlation, the application of
a subject in a number of situations can be achieved, and the
learner realises the importance of a particular topic or subject
and may become interested in learning.
2. Helps in integration of knowledge: through correlation, the
learner realises the basic unity of knowledge and similarity in
the methods of investigation in various subjects. This leads to
confidence in the use of the scientific method.
3. Widens mental horizon: correlation helps to widen the mental
horizon of the learners; for example, a chemistry student becomes
familiar with geography, history, and economics, if the study of
minerals is properly correlated.
4. Helps in effective learning: correlation can lead to more
effective learning as the same topic is dealt with in several different
situations and viewed from different angles.
5. Enhances economy of effort: a topic involving relationship
of a number of subjects may be placed under one particular
subject and dealt exhaustively, and this reduces the effort in
teaching.
6. Helps in transfer of training: the learner becomes capable of
transferring learning from one situation to other if there is a
particular learning common to both. This makes the learning of
different subjects more meaningful.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING PHYSICAL SCIENCE 19
Chapter II
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Education is the process that brings about pre-determined and

desirable changes in the learner. According to Redden, “Education
is the deliberate and systematic influence, exerted by the mature
person upon the immature through instruction, discipline and
harmonious development of physical, intellectual, aesthetic, social and
spiritual powers of human being according to individual and social
need, directed towards the union of the educand and his creator as
the final end” (cited in, Sharma & Sharma, 1971). Every educational
aim is an expression of a philosophy of life or a combination of several
other competing perspectives about life. The question of what is
desirable is determined mainly from five angles. They are:
1. The needs of the society
2. The human stock of knowledge
3. The psychology of learning
4. The philosophy of the nation
5. The nature of the subject matter.
For any sensible activity, there should be clear goals. So in
teaching also, a teacher has to base his/her work on the goals set for
him/her It is the duty of educators, psychologists, philosophers and
national leaders to agree on what is desirable. The role of the teacher
is to help to bring about such changes that are desirable. The aims of
education are numerous. A few examples of the aims are: knowledge
aim, vocational aim, education for character, education for culture,
education for leisure, education for citizenship, education for spiritual

upliftment, education for individuality, education for social efficiency,
education for complete living, etc. These are very broad aims of
education.
Importance of Science as a School Subject

Why should science be taught in schools? The aims of teaching
science constitute another category which includes eradication of
superstitions, improving scientific literacy, better adaptability to new
technologies, awareness about health and hygiene, etc. The general
education will be incomplete without learning basics of physical
science. The impact of science in agriculture, health care, industry,
and communication technology are vivid to everyone. Apart from
the reasons mentioned above, the important rationale for inclusion
of science in the curriculum is that it will acquaint the learner with
the process of inquiry.
The inquiry process of science is crucial in training the learner in
investigative strategies and in the process by which new knowledge
is obtained (National Science Teachers’ Association, 1964, pp. 17-
19). New scientific techniques can in fact, make-up a deficiency in
natural resources and reduce the demands on capital. It is agreed
that the national prosperity lies in the effective combination of three
factors, viz., technology, materials and capital (Siddiqi & Siddiqi, 1983).
Among the three factors, technology is of primary importance and it
can grow only out of the study of science and its application. Therefore,
Physical Science should form an integral part of school curriculum.
However, aims in general are long term goals which are not
realized in a few hours or days. Therefore, in education short term
goals are set to measure the changes that are happening in the learner.
These short term goals are known as objectives. Educational objectives
are “explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected
to be changed by educative process” (Bloom, 1956, p. 26).
Practical, Disciplinary and Recreational Functions of Physics
and Chemistry
What knowledge is of most worth? It is hard to give an answer
because each discipline provides for our living on this earth. If the
learning of science is not of much use in life then it would be waste to
spend time teaching it. Learning of physical science helps both the
individual and the community. According to the pragmatic school
of philosophy, any education must enable the pupil to meet the
practical situation in his/her life. The learning environments should
promote spirit of community living and principles of democratic living.
The practical function of science includes knowledge about the
working of household gadgets, modern communication methods,
modern methods in agriculture, means of advanced transportation,
awareness of health and hygiene, etc. Science education should enable
the individual earn a living by preparing him/her for a paying
occupation.
It is believed that learning of a subject influences a person in
many ways, viz., the ways in which he/she conducts himself/herself
in the society, his/her values, his/her thinking and so on. It is believed
that Latin develops reasoning power; mathematics develops critical
thinking; and science develops willingness to approach situations in
an unbiased manner. Exposure to the process of science helps develop
skill in observation, search for cause-effect relationship, scientific
attitude towards issues and situations, willingness to consider others
point of view and so on. The concept of disciplinary value of a subject
has roots in mental faculty theory or theory of mental discipline which
has certain theoretical pitfall. The details of the theory can be read in
any basic book on psychology.
Scientific advancement in the past century and mechanisation
tend to reduce working hours. People have more leisure time because
of the advancements in transportation and communication. Leisure
is free and unoccupied time. However, it should be used to retain
general vigour and happiness, and make life rich and prosperous.
However, most of the graduates and postgraduates do not have a
leisure time activity which they would prefer. The school education
should develop tastes which will help the choice of proper forms of
recreation. The science education should develop in the learner habits
which will give enjoyment during leisure hours. The leisure time can
be profitably spent by reading biographies of scientists, collecting
pictures of scientists, collecting specimen, preparing toys involving

principles of physics, writing articles on topics of interest, etc.
Objectives of Teaching Physical Science

Objectives are specific and immediate goals attainable through
instruction. Objectives are defined in fairly concrete terms, the
direction in which all educational efforts should move. They are
statements which describe the kind of behaviour modification to be
brought about in the learner. If objectives are not well-defined, it is
impossible to evaluate a course, a unit, a lesson or a student, and
there is no sound basis for selecting appropriate materials or
instructional methods (Siddiqi & Siddiqi, 1983).
A meaningfully stated objective is one that succeeds in
communicating to the reader the writer’s (teacher’s) instructional
intent. Siddiqi and Siddiqi (1983) impose specificity to instructional
objectives by stating the conditions and criteria of acceptable
performance. For example, given a list of nine levers, the learner
must be able to classify them into three orders of lever. The condition
in this example is ‘given a list of nine levers’ and the observable
behaviour is to ‘classify’ the levers. It is desirable to include a criterion
of acceptable performance such as ‘within ten minutes.’
Several authors have listed ten major instructional objectives of
teaching science (e.g., Sharma & Sharma, 1971; Kohli, 1986). They
are:
1. Knowledge
2. Understanding
3. Application
4. Skill
5. Interest
6. Attitude
7. Appreciation
8. Training in scientific method
9. Providing work for leisure

10. Providing a basis for vocation
Taradevi Report and Kothari Commission have suggested
objectives of teaching science at different levels. These objectives for
different school age children are not of much practical value and are
not reproduced here.
Objectives describe intended outcomes as a result of properly
chosen instructional activities. An objective is a level of mental growth
which the learner is expected to reach through learning activities.
The learner who has achieved these objectives will be different from
the learner who has not. The realisation of an objective brings about
certain changes in the behaviour of the pupil. For example, a pupil
who has acquired knowledge will be able to recall those items of
information and also to recognise them. Here, recall and recognition
are two observable and measurable behaviour changes brought about
in the pupil as a result of the attainment of the objective, knowledge.
The objectives by themselves are not directly observable and
measurable, but evidences of their attainment can be collected through
specifications or learning outcomes. These observable and measurable
behavioural changes are the specification of that objective.
Tyler (1949) suggested that “the most useful form for stating
objectives is to express them in terms which identify both the kind
of behaviour to be developed in the student and the content or
area of life in which this behaviour is to operate” (p. 30). The
objectives should be stated in terms of changes expected in the learner
rather than as duties of the teacher. The terminology should be
unambiguous and each statement should refer to one objective only.
There shall be two parts to each statement of the objective, one
pertaining to the mental process and the other to the content area.
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Taxonomy is a science of classification of things or ideas. The
term taxonomy is derived from two Greek words ‘taxis’ (meaning
arrangement) and ‘nomos’ (meaning law). Thus, taxonomy is the law
of systematic arrangement. Taxonomy is an educational-logical-
psychological classification system in which every term should be

defined precisely (Siddiqi & Siddiqi, 1983). Any law of systematic
arrangement involves hierarchies. In a hierarchy, ideas are arranged
into different levels of importance. The initiative in developing
taxonomy of educational objectives gathered momentum in 1948 in
the convention of the American Psychological Association held in
Boston. The participants expressed their interest in developing a
theoretical framework, which could be used to facilitate
communication among examiners. During 1948-53, several meetings
were held to develop a taxonomy, which resulted in the most
influential book, “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,” edited by
Benjamin S. Bloom in 1956.
The purpose of taxonomy is to set a standard for classification
whereby terms used in the classification are defined precisely.
According to Bloom’s Taxonomy, behavioural changes of individuals
resulting from instruction can be classified into three domains. They
are - - (1) Cognitive Domain, (2) Affective Domain, and (3)
Psychomotor Domain. The details of each domain are given below.
I. Cognitive Domain (Knowing)

The term ‘cognitive’ is used to include activities such as
remembering and recalling knowledge, thinking, problem-solving and
creating. The cognitive domain includes those objectives which deal
with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of
intellectual abilities and skills. Knowledge is considered basic to all
other ends or purposes of education. Knowledge involves the recall
of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or
the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting. The knowledge objectives
emphasize most of the psychological processes of remembering. An
objective is the intended behaviour of students – the ways in which
individuals are to act, think or feel as result of participating in some
unit of instruction. The formulations of educational objectives depend
on - - (1) previous experience of teacher, (2) our understanding about
the learner, and (3) the nature of the subject matter. Accordingly,
following objectives were formulated under the cognitive domain.
1.00 Knowledge
Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and
universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a
pattern, structure, or setting.
1.10 Knowledge of specifics: This involves recall of specific and
isolable bits of information.
1.11 Knowledge of terminology – This involves knowledge of
referents for specific symbols (verbal and non-verbal). For
example, Calorie.
1.12 Knowledge of specific facts – This involves knowledge of
dates, events, persons, places, etc,. For example, the atomic
number of Sodium is 11.
1.20 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics:
This involves the knowledge of the ways of organising, studying,
judging, and criticising.
1.21 Knowledge of conventions – This involves knowledge of
characteristic ways of treating and presenting ideas and
phenomena. For example, the magnetic poles of a magnet are
named north and south.
1.22 Knowledge of trends and sequences – This involves knowledge
of the processes, directions and movement of phenomena with
respect to time. For example, the sequence of the evolution of
the structure of atom since 1805.
1.23 Knowledge of classifications and categories – This involves
knowledge of the classes, sets, division, and arrangements which
are regarded as fundamental for a given subject field, purpose,
argument or problem. For example, burning of oil is classified
as a chemical change
1.24 Knowledge of criteria - This involves knowledge of criteria by
which facts, principles, opinions, and conduct are tested or
judged. For example, the criteria for classifying an element as a
transition element.
1.25 Knowledge of methodology – This involves the knowledge of
methods of enquiry, techniques, and procedures employed in

investigating particular problems and phenomena. For example,
the procedure of salt analysis.
1.30 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field:
This involves the knowledge of the major schemes and patterns
by which phenomena and ideas are organised.
1.31 Knowledge of principles and generalisations – This involves
knowledge of particular abstractions which summarise
observations of phenomena. For example, if the volume of a
given mass of gas is kept constant, the pressure will decrease by
reducing the temperature.
1.32 Knowledge of theories and structures – This involves knowledge
of the body of principles and generalisations together with their
interrelations which present a clear, rounded, and systematic
view of complex phenomenon, problem, or field. For example,
the structure of atom.
2.00 Comprehension
This represents the lowest level of understanding.
2.10 Translation: Comprehension as evidenced by the care and
accuracy with which the communication is paraphrased or
rendered from one language or form of communication to
another. In this objective skill in translating mathematical verbal
material into symbolic statements such as the Pressure is
inversely proportional to Volume at constant temperature can
be translated into the mathematical form.
2.20 Interpretation: The explanation or summarisation of a
communication. This involves reordering, rearrangement, or a
new view of the material. An explanation for - - “Why the life
of an electric bulb is 1000 hours?”
2.30 Extrapolation: This involves the extension of trends or
tendencies beyond the given data to determine implications,
consequences, corollaries, effects, etc. In other words, it is the
skill of predicting continuation of trends. Given the graphical
representation of solubility of salt with temperature, the solubility
at a temperature beyond the range can be inferred by

extrapolating the graph.
3.00 Application
Application involves the use of general ideas, rules of procedure,
or generalised methods in particular and concrete situations.
For example, what is the principle involved in the working of a
fan regulator?
4.00 Analysis
The breaking down of a communication, phenomenon or idea
into its constituent elements or parts. For example, analysis of
a salt into acid and basic radical those constitute the salt.
4.10 Analysis of elements: For example, analysis of a compound
into its constituent elements.
4.20 Analysis of relationships: For example, analysis of the
relationship between concentration of a reactant and the rate
of a reaction.
4.30 Analysis of organisational principles: For example, how
will you classify organic compounds?
5.00 Synthesis
This involves putting together of elements and parts so as to
form a whole. That is, arranging and combining pieces, parts,
elements, etc., in such a way as to constitute a pattern or
structure not clearly there before.
5.10 Production of unique communication
5.20 Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
5.30 Derivation of a set of abstract relations
6.00 Evaluation
This involves judgments about the value of materials and method
for given purposes.
6.10 Judgments in terms of internal evidence such as logical
accuracy, consistency, and other internal criteria.
6.20 Judgment in terms of external criteria such as major
theories, generalisations, and facts about particular cultures.
II. Affective Domain (Feeling)

Objectives of affective domain emphasise emotions or a degree
of acceptance or rejection of information (facts, concept, etc.). The
affective domain relates to the learners’ emotional expression
regarding what is acquired. It is a fact that instructional objectives in
the affective domain is hard to achieve and manipulate. These
objectives are rarely measured in the regular classroom-testing
environment. The affective domain will include attitude,
appreciation, interest, emotional and social adjustments. The
hierarchical growth of affective domain and objectives are listed
below.
1. Receiving
The learner is sensitised to the existence of a particular stimulus
(a fact, a phenomenon), that is, s/he is willing to receive or attend to
the stimulus. This is evidently the first and the crucial step if the
learner is to be properly oriented to learn what the teacher intends to
teach. This category is further divided into three sub categories - -
awareness, willingness to respond, controlled or selected attention
2. Responding
At this level the learner goes beyond merely attending to the
phenomenon. S/he desires to become sufficiently involved in or
committed to a subject, phenomenon, or activity that s/he will seek it
out and gain satisfaction from working with or engaging in it. The
sub categories of the objective are - - acquaintance in responding,
willingness to respond, and satisfaction in response.
3. Valuing
This is concerned with individual’s own valuing or assessment,
but it is much more a social product that has been slowly internalised
or accepted. This category will be found appropriate for many
objectives that use the tem attitude, as well as value. An important
element of behaviour characterised by valuing is that it is not motivated
by the desire to comply or obey, but by the individual’s commitment
to the underlying valued guiding the behaviour. The sub categories
of this objective are - - acceptance of value, performance of a value,
and commitment.
4. Organising
The learner successively internalised values and encounters new
situations which demand more than one value. Thus, necessity arises
for the organisation of values into a system, the determination of
interrelationships among them and the establishment of the dominant
and pervasive ones. The system thus formed will gradually change
incorporating new values. This will involve conceptualisation of value
and organisation of a value system.
5. Characterising
At this level of internalisation, the learner will have a value
hierarchy and an internally consistent system of values that control
the behaviour of the individual. The individual acts consistently in
accordance with the values s/he has internalised. This result in a
general pattern of behaviour which is the result of integration of
different beliefs, ideas and attitudes or a philosophy of his/her own.
The sub categories of this objective are - - generalised set and
characterisation.
III. Psychomotor Domain (Doing)
The psychomotor domain will presumable contain different types
of small and large muscular skills involved in physical learning,
surgery, vocational education of various mechanical and clerical
trades. The hierarchical growth and objective of psychomotor domain
are given below.
1. Manipulation
Manipulation involves working with hands or tools to operate a
mechanical device or any such system which require various
movements of small and large muscles. The sub categories of this
objective are - - following direction, selection and fixation.
2. Control
Control involves skill in operating and regulating an experimental
set up or a device. It will include accuracy, proportion and exactness
in performance. Precision in titration is achieved by skilled use of
pipette and burette.
3. Co-ordination
Co-ordination involves harmonious integration of different skills
at proper sequence. The combination of skills will require a particular
speed in movements which at the same time follow a particular
pattern.
4. Naturalisation
Naturalisation implies that pupil’s skill attains its highest level of
proficiency, that is, the act becomes automatic. For example, when
driving a car, suppose break is applied, then the automatic act is to
press the clutch pedal to shift the gear to a lower speed.
It may be noted that even though an objective is classified under
one domain, it is not entirely devoid of components from other two
domains. Thus, educational objectives are the changes in specific
terms that the teacher wishes to produce in the learner in the areas of
knowing, feeling and doing. Dave has suggested five objectives for
the psychomotor domain, viz., imitation, manipulation, precision,
articulation and naturalisation (cited in Mohan, 2002).
The fifteen objectives under the three domains given above are
reclassified into seven for practical purposes of lesson planning by
the National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
as early as 1973. In this classification the objective application includes
analysis, synthesis and evaluation of the cognitive domain. (This was
also a criticism against the hierarchy of the classification of the
cognitive domain. That is, application will not be possible without

analysis, synthesis and evaluation and the hierarchy is questionable).
The five objectives under affective domain are reclassified into three
with different terms, viz., interest, attitude and appreciation. The
four objectives of psychomotor domain are represented by a single
objective skill. Thus the seven instructional objectives are:
1. Acquiring knowledge
2. Developing understanding
3. Developing application
4. Developing skills
5. Developing interests
6. Developing attitudes
7. Developing appreciation
Bloom’s (1956) classification dominated educational planning for
about half-a-century. Mc Cormack and Yager (1989) proposed a new
taxonomy of science education with five domains. These domains
are - - (1) Knowledge Domain, (2) Process Domain, (3) Creativity
Domain, (4) Attitudinal Domain and (5) Application Domain. The
five domains and important processes and skills associated with each
domain are given below.
1. Knowledge Domain (Knowing and Understanding)

This domain includes knowledge and understanding. Knowledge
acquired in real-life situations are more meaningful and are retained
in the memory. This domain deals with all the content areas that are
directly dealt in the textbook. They are - - symbols, terms, facts,
concepts, formulae, equation, laws, principles, and theories.
2. Process Domain (Exploring and Discovering)

This domain focuses on knowing how scientists develop new
knowledge and helps to internalize the method of science and to instil
an interest in conducting scientific enquiries. Science A Process
Approach (SAPA) of the American Association of Advancement of
Science (AAAS) in the early 1960s de-emphasised ‘content’ and
focused on the ‘process of knowing.’ Subsequently, a list of

specifications was formulated in 1965 (cited in, Bhatt, 1988). Those
thirteen process skills and objectives suggested in the new taxonomy
under the process domain are the same. They are:
i. Observes: Beginning with identifying objects and object
properties, proceeds to the identification of changes in various
physical systems, the making of controlled observation, and the
ordering of series of observation.
ii. Classifies: Development begins with simple classifications of
various physical systems and progresses through multistage
classification, their coding and tabulation.
iii. Uses Numbers: This sequence begins with identifying sets and
their members, and progresses through ordering, counting,
adding, multiplying, dividing, finding average, using decimals
and
iv. Measures: Beginning with the identification and ordering of
lengths, development in this process proceeds with the
demonstration of rules of measurement of length, area, volume,
weight, temperature, force, speed, and a number of derived
measures applicable to specific physical and chemical systems.
V. Uses space-time relationships: This sequence begins with the
identification of shapes, movement and direction. It continues
with the learning of rules applicable to straight and curved paths,
direction at an angle, changes in position, determination of linear
and angular speeds.
vi. Communicates: The learner must develop the ability to convey
acquired knowledge through diverse means. Different social form
of discourse such as debate and seminar can be utilized in
communication. It will include description of simple phenomena
and explanation of observed results of experiments.
vii. Predicts: What happens to a chemical system at equilibrium
involving gases if Pressure is increased? This process involves
interpolation and extrapolation of data to the formulation of
methods of testing predictions.
viii. Infers: Initially the idea is developed that inferences differ from
observations. As development proceeds, inferences are
constructed for observations of physical and chemical
phenomena, and situations are constructed to test inferences
drawn from hypotheses.
ix. Develops operational definitions: Beginning with the distinction
between definitions which are operational and those which are
not, this developmental sequence proceeds to the point where
the child constructs operational definitions in problems that are
new to him/her.
x. Formulates hypothesis: At the start of this sequence, the child
distinguishes hypotheses from inferences, observations, and
predictions. Development is continued to be stage of constructing
hypotheses and demonstrating tests of hypotheses.
xi. Interprets data: This sequence begins with descriptions of data
and inferences based upon them, and progresses to constructing
equations to represent data relating to statements of hypotheses,
and making generalizations supported by experimental findings.
xii. Controls variables: The developmental sequence for this
“integrated” process begins with identification of manipulated
and responding (independent and dependent) variables in a
description of demonstration of an experiment. Development
proceeds to the level at which the students, being given a problem,
inference, or hypothesis, actually conducts an experiment,
identifying the variables, and describing how variables are
controlled.
xiii. Experiments: This is the capstone of the “integrated” processes.
It is developed through a continuation of the sequence of
controlling variables, and includes the interpretation of accounts
of scientific experiments, as well as the activities of stating
problems, constructing hypotheses, and carrying out
experimental procedure.
3. Creativity Domain (Imaging and Creating)

Important skills under this domain are:
i. Combines objects and ideas in new ways.

ii Predicts alternate or novel uses of objects.
iii. Solves problems and puzzles.
iv. Visualises - producing mental images
v. Designs devices and machines
vi. Advances unique ideas
vii. Lateral thinking - This is a method of solving problems using
concepts and thoughts which are different from the usual one’s
viii. Fantasying
ix. Dreams about possibilities
4. Attitudinal Domain (Feeling and Valuing)

An important aim of science education is to develop scientific
attitude and values. Important components of this domain are:
i. Develops positive attitudes towards science and teachers of
science.
ii. Expresses personal feelings in a constructive way.
iii. Takes decisions about personal values.
iv. Makes decisions about social and environmental issues.
v. Develops sensitivity to and respect for the feelings of other people.
5. Application Domain (Using and Applying)
Important components of this domain are:
i. Locates technological principles involved in house-hold devices
ii. Applies science concepts and skills to everyday technological
problems
iii. Selects relevant scientific processes in solving problems of
everyday life
iv. Relates scientific concepts to life experiences
v. Makes decisions based on knowledge of science
vi. Integrates science with other subjects

vii. Evaluates mass media reports on scientific developments
The popular taxonomy of educational objectives known as
Bloom’s taxonomy was revised mainly for two reasons (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2000). That is, (1) to refocus educator’s attention to the
value of the original handbook and (2) to incorporate new knowledge
about how children develop and learn and how teachers plan to teach
and assess their students. This taxonomy is organised around four
basic questions - - (1) What is important for students to learn in the
limited school and classroom time available? (2) How does one plan
and deliver instruction that will result in high levels of learning for a
large number of students? (3) How does one select or design
assessment instruments and procedures that provide accurate
information about how well students are learning? (4) How does
one ensure that objectives, instruction, and assessment are consistent
with one another?
In the revised taxonomy, knowledge is classified into factual,
conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. The factual knowledge
is isolated bits of information such as knowledge of terminology
whereas conceptual knowledge is knowledge of more organised
knowledge forms such as generalisations, categories, principles,
theories and structures. Procedural knowledge is knowledge of ‘how
to do something’. This includes techniques, methods and criteria used
within specific disciplines. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge
about cognition. It includes knowledge about cognitive tasks, strategic
knowledge and self-knowledge. The six cognitive process categories
of the revised taxonomy are given below.
1. Remember
This involves retrieving relevant knowledge from long term memory.
The two cognitive processes are recognising and recalling
1.1 Recognising
1.2 Recalling
2. Understand
This involves making connections between the “new” knowledge
to be gained and their prior knowledge. The new knowledge is
integrated with the existing shema and cognitive framework. The
cognitive processes of this category are given below.
2.1 Interpreting
2.2 Exemplifying
2.3 Classifying
2.4 Summarising
2.5 Inferring
2.6 Comparing
2.7 Explaining
3. Apply
This involves using procedures to perform exercises or solve
problems. This is closely linked with procedural knowledge. The
cognitive processes of this category are given below.
3.1 Executing
3.2 Implementing
4. Analyse
This involves breaking material into constituent parts and
determining how the parts are related to one another and to an
overall structure. The cognitive processes of this category are
given below.
4.1 Differentiating
4.2 Organising
4.3 Attributing
5. Evaluate
This involves making judgments based on criteria and standard.
The cognitive processes of this category are given below.
5.1 Checking
5.2 Critiquing
6. Create
This involves putting elements together to form a coherent or
functional whole. The cognitive processes of this category are
given below.
6.1 Generating
6.2 Planning
6.3 Producing
There are several other classifications of educational objectives
relevant to different disciplines. Our understanding of the process of
learning is emerging and therefore, change is imperative. A
willingness to accept or acknowledge these possibilities is a good step
in the right direction to improve teaching-learning processes.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 39
Chapter III
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
The term curriculum comes from the Latin word ‘currere’ which
means to run. The Latin root of the word ‘curriculum’ means race
course. The course of race, with time came to mean the “course of
study” (Wiles & Bondi, 1989, p. 6). Thus, curriculum is a run way, a
course, which one runs to reach a certain goal.
Several definitions of curriculum stem from differences in
educator’s philosophy and how they envision the school/college
programme. The accountability movement in education has pushed
the definition of curriculum towards an emphasis on the outcome of
education. For example, curriculum is defined as, “the planned and
guided learning experiences and intended learning outcomes
formulated through systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experience, under the auspices of the school, for the learner’s
continuous and wilful growth in personal-social competence” (Tanner
& Tanner, 1975, p. 45).
There are other definitions of curriculum which use analogies to
convey the meaning of curriculum. For example, Cunningham defined
curriculum as, “the tool in the hands of an artist (the teacher) to mould
his material (the pupil) according to his ideals (aim and objectives) in
his studio (classroom/school).” The idealistic philosophy underlying
the above definition is evident from the role of teacher assumed in
the process of education. The point is that the meaning attached to
the word curriculum reflects educator’s philosophy and other biases.
Decisions about curriculum emerge from complex interactions
among several factors such as educational philosophy, educational
psychology, political philosophy of the nation, social needs and the

like (Mitzel, 1982). These factors operate at different levels of decision
making, viz., ideological, societal, institutional and instructional. The
dynamics of decision-making process of Physical Science Study
Committee (PSSC) tells us the biases and prejudices of the curriculum
committee members (Rajan, 2006).
The above discussion about decision making process is to alert
the reader to the fact that there are no definite prescriptions regarding
curriculum development. However, there are general principles that
may help in selecting curriculum for any course of study which are
detailed below.
General Principles of Curriculum Development

The basic principles of curriculum development are given below.
1. Principle of Utility
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) stated that children should be taught
those useful things really necessary in life. Such a utilitarian
consideration can be seen in any curriculum. The curriculum must
include speaking, reading and writing one’s language, simple
arithmetic and measurement, physical education and care of health
and some craft.
2. Principle of Development of Innate Powers
Subjects of study were selected mainly on the basis of their value
in disciplining certain mental powers, as decided by their form. The
development of innate faculties depends on the content and method
of learning. Activities calling for unfolding of the different powers
should be included in the curriculum.
3. Principle of Adjustment to one’s Environment
Rusk analyses man’s environment into two - - material (physical)
and cultural (spiritual). The latter has been classified into three - -
intellectual, aesthetic and moral. The curriculum must represent all
these.
4. Principle of Exaltation of Human Personality

Education is seeking to exalt human personality by adjusting the
individual to his/her cultural environment. This is the view of idealists.
They want the individual to accept, and strive for the values - - truth,
beauty and goodness. This is to be done by recapitulating the life of
the race and so the curriculum should be an epitome of race
experience.
5. Principle of Relevance to Present Life
All experiences are educative. However, only those experiences
of the race which have relevance in helping the individual to
understand the present and adjust himself/herself to his/her needs
be included in the curriculum.
6. Principle of Conservation of Culture
Percy Nunn puts this as special function of nation’s schools.
Education should seek to conserve the best and most valuable
experiences and achievement of the race, by transmitting them to the
succeeding generations. Therefore, curriculum should include all the
creative activities that help safeguard the conditions of the individual
and social life.
7. Principle of Progress
The curriculum should culminate in the continuous expansion
and refinement of knowledge. Therefore, the nation’s schools should
be agents in the process of modernisation and progress. Hence,
curriculum should include science, crafts, social manners, etc.
8. Principle of Vocational Requirements and Aptitudes
The curriculum should cover the requirements especially the fields
of specialisation. Vocational training in line with the special aptitudes
of pupils is desirable.
9. Principle of Leisure
Education must prepare persons not only for the serious business
of life but also for leisure. Hence, the curriculum must include cultural
pursuits and hobbies which will provide for recreation and enjoyment.
10. Principle of Need and Interests of Pupil

The growing problems of life are in a way an important factor
which should determine our present curriculum so that the learner
can tackle them profitably in a personally satisfying and socially
acceptable manner. The needs and interests of the learner are even
more important factors for which the curriculum should give due
importance.
11. Principle of Variety and Flexibility
The materials and activities should have rich variety to prevent
boredom. The major defect of the present day curriculum is its stereo-
typed treatment which kills novelty. The curriculum should be
adaptable to the individual needs and local conditions.
12. Principle of Activity
Friedrich Froebel (1783-1852) considered self-activity as the
method and process of development. Self-activity arises out of one’s
own interests. Self-activity, in his opinion, is a process by which the
individual realises his own nature. Since the child is free to determine
his/her own activities, the instruction requires no artificial techniques.
The curriculum must have scope for varied and interesting activities.
The concepts of “gifts” and “occupations” are designed to stimulate
activity (Purkait, 1995, p. 193).
There are several other criteria such as preparation for life,
educational value of subjects, and balance among different subjects,
correlation, richness and broadness, length of course and suitability
which is also important in making decisions about curriculum.
Defects of Traditional Curriculum
The traditional curriculum has a focus on the disciplining value
of subjects. That is, the curriculum was content-centered. Also the
teacher was considered as a “matured” person with necessary
knowledge and understanding of what is desirable for a student. The
student was considered as the immature who is to be “matured”
through education, the control of which rests with the teacher. Thus,
it was teacher-centered. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Friedrich
Froebel (1783 - 1852), and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827)
argued for a child-centered education. The rationale of their

proposition was compelling to shift from the traditional ways (content-
centered and teacher-centered) to a child-centered approach. Later,
Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) and John Dewey (1859 - 1952)
influenced the child-centered education with due weightage to a life-
centered scheme (see, Purkait, 1995; Ozmon & Craver, 1986). The
defects of traditional curriculum are listed below.
I. Bookish and theoretical,
2. Over-loaded with factual knowledge.
3. Little provision for physical, intellectual, social, and other
practical activities.
4. No adequate provision for needs of the different stages of
development.
5. Not much provision for individual difference - interest, aptitude,
etc.
6. Not easily adaptable to local conditions.
7. Not much vocational and technical provision.
8. Does not provide for work experience and community living.
A Logic of the Physical Science Curriculum
The general principles of curriculum construction and common
defects of traditional curriculum are equally relevant to physical
science. However, as stated earlier decision about curriculum neither
result from empirically verifiable generalisation nor from any
experimental finding (Kliebard, 1977). Curricularists will have to
decide among competing choices (Kliebard, 1982) while being aware
of a multitude of factors and possible interactions among those factors.
The available literature, identifies two models of curriculum
development - - (1) prepared in 1932 by the National Society for Study
of Education (cited in Osborn, 1960) and (2) the Tyler model (Tyler,
1949).
The National Society for Study of Education suggested three basic
factors in the curriculum development, viz., a subject matter specialist,
a classroom teacher or supervisor and a specialist in science teaching.
This model is limited to the instructional element of curriculum and

does not account for the psychology of the learner and the needs of
society. Tyler is more comprehensive in his approach and suggests
that there are three principal sources to be considered in curriculum
construction, viz; studies of learners (psychological), studies of
contemporary life (sociological) and suggestions from subject specialist
(structure of knowledge). He suggests that needs and interests of the
three sources should be filtered through a philosophical mesh to get
the final curriculum. Tyler gives an upper hand to philosophy,
whereby the other parameters are diminished. It is important to look
at physical science curriculum in the background of what is outlined
above. Any curriculum when put in the frame described above help
to see the dominance of one source over the other.
Paul Hirst observed that anyone who advocates curriculum
changes on pure philosophical grounds without considering the
psychological and sociological factors that are relevant is simply
irresponsible (Hirst, 1971, p. 232). Therefore, added to subject
specialists, it is fundamental that any curriculum construction (more
appropriately, curriculum development) effort must have participation
from the three groups philosophers, psychologists and sociologists.
The details of each of this area are summarised in the following
paragraphs.
A Philosophy of Science Curriculum

The popular schools of philosophy that are included in the
graduate programme of education are - - (1) Idealism, (2) Naturalism,
(3) Pragmatism and (4) Realism. The basic elements of these schools
of philosophy with respect to aims of education, content, and role of
teacher, method of instruction and concept of discipline are different.
These educational philosophies and the differences among them are
enumerated by several authors (e.g., Ozmon & Craver, 1986). A
philosophy of science education alone will be dealt in this section.
A philosophy of science curriculum can evolve only from an
understanding of the nature of science. As described earlier, science
is now considered both a product and a process. Inquiry skills and
scientific methods of inquiry are supposed to reflect the
nature of science as a process. There are several false dichotomies

such as product or process. The dichotomy is a distortion of the nature
of science (Robinson, 1968) for the process of knowing is inseparable
from what is known. The process of knowing and the knowledge
used in the process of knowing are equally important. To substantiate,
Sir Issac Newton once testified, “If I have seen farther than Descartes,
it is by standing on the shoulders of giants” (Wilson, 1937). According
to Losee, the philosophy of science is concerned with four basic
questions (cited in Hodson, 1985, p. 31).
They are:
1. What characteristics distinguish scientific inquiry from other
types of investigation?
2. What procedures should scientists follow in investigating nature?
3. What conditions must be satisfied for a scientific explanation to
be correct?
4. What is the cognitive status of scientific laws and principles?
Several authors on curriculum development agree on these points
(see, Hodson. 1985, 1986).
Psychological Dimensions of Physical Science Curriculum
Several psychological theories provide insight in developing
physical science curriculum. Mental faculty theory, theories about
transfer of training theories about the process of learning and
developmental theories are all illuminating our understanding of the
various psychological dimensions of physical science curriculum.
According to the mental faculty theory or faculty psychology
mind consists of certain independent faculties such as attention,
memory, imagination, reasoning, etc. Faculty physiologists believed
that as exercising of muscles results in improvement, training improves
mental faculties. For example, it was believed that Latin develops
reasoning power; mathematics develops attention, science develops
critical thinking, physical education develops will power and so on.
However, the theory of mind as water-tight compartments is no longer
considered valid.
John Locke (1632 - 1704), a famous British philosopher, held the

view that mind is a “tabula rasa” or “blank slate”. That is, the mind is
a clean slate without anything marked on it. This conception of child’s
mind as a blank slate assumes that the child (student) is a passive
consumer of information, an empty vessel waiting to be filled with
scientific facts (Popper, 1972).
Beginning of 20th century (with the efforts of Alfred Binet)
witnessed a large scale testing of intelligence (Feder, 1979). A critical
study of the intelligence tests resulted in a shift in emphasis from the
use of intelligence tests to the measurement of special aptitudes
(Anastasi & Foley, 1953). Third quarter of the 20th century noticed
another trend which is identified in education literature as “Aptitude
Treatment Interaction” (ATl). That is, aptitude of individual functions
selectively with respect to learning under different instructional
treatment (Cronbach & Snow, 1977). In other words, one instructional
treatment (method) is significantly better for one type of student while
an alternate treatment is significantly better for a different type of
student. Thus, there is no method that has a universal applicability.
Different individuals thrive in different environments suited to their
own characteristics and needs (Koran & Koran, 1984).
The transfer of training and theories thereof (identical elements
and generalisation) are important in the organisation of curriculum.
Individualised instructional techniques, programmed learning
mate-rials are all focusing on the individual difference. The learning
theories and laws of learning find more application in the instructional
techniques rather than in curriculum development. The contri-butions
of Piaget, Gagne, Bruner and Ausubel provide us with logic as to
what a student can learn in two counts - - (a) the developmental
stage and (b) the pre-requisites. The details are given elsewhere in
this book.
The last quarter of the 20th century is extending the
“constructivist” view of the learner proposed by Piaget to a generative
learning model (Osborne & Wittrock, 1983). The generative learning
model is that the child’s brain is much more than a blank slate and in
that it ignores some information and, selectively attends to some other
information. Several researchers have investigated students’ pre-

instructional understanding of certain concepts (e.g., Saxena, 1994).
As Linn (1986) suggested, there is an emerging “science of science
teaching” based on the proliferation of knowledge in the psychology
of learning science that could make curriculum reform dramatic.
There are several maxims about the teaching-learning process.
A few of them are: known to unknown, concrete to abstract, simple
to complex, easy to difficult, empirical to rational, specific to general,
definite to indefinite, part to whole, near to far and so on. These
maxims have roots in some psychological principles.
Sociological Principles of Curriculum Development

The structure and function of a society has its reflections in
curriculum. For example, a rural and backward country and an
industrially developed country will have to adopt different types of
curriculum. The UNESCO has drafted curriculum for the developed,
developing and the under developed countries. In India, education
has to be used for social change and development. Hence, a
curriculum for India should take into consideration the poverty and
superstition of the masses that live in isolation in villages and set the
background for social change.
Social changes are changes in attitudes, behaviours, manners,
relations, customs, habits, etc. Education is expected to change the
values and attitudes of the people and to create in them the urge or
motivation to achieve social class ascendancy or social mobility. The
curriculum must also function as a means to enhance agricultural
productivity, better health and sanitation awareness among our
citizens.
Recently, a major thrust in curriculum revision is to interface
industries with colleges and universities. More specifically, the
Research and Development (R & D) divisions of industries collaborate
with the respective departments in colleges and universities so as to
connect the science education with the society. The infra-structure
facilities of both industries and educational institutions can be
profitably exploited for the common good of the society. One of the
major functions of higher education, as identified by the University

Education Commission is the “extension” which will become more
viable in this collaborative enterprise.
Organising Science Curriculum
The basic requirement of any organisational scheme or plan is
that it should maximise the total effect of selected learning sequences.
The learning sequence follows some basic dictum such known to
unknown, concrete to abstract, simple to complex, empirical to
rational, specific to general, part to whole, near to far and so on.
In the organisation of a subject, it has been pointed out that any
subject can be logically organized in a number of ways. Failure to
recognise the implications of this has led to the opposition of the
‘logical’ order of subject matter and the psychological order of learning
experiences. This opposition stems from an undue emphasis on
learning considered as product rather than as process and from a
failure to discriminate between subject matter and the experiences
through which it is learned. The problem presented is a pseudo-
problem, because there is no such thing as the logical organisation of
a subject. How a subject is organised depends on the purposes which
the organisation is to serve, and the test of the goodness or badness of
the organisational scheme is the total effect of the extent to which it
helps to bring about the desired ends. Because of historical facts,
exposition and the deductive mode of thought have had the greatest
authority in schools.
Many of the objections to the subjects as general organizing
categories arise from the methods of teaching rather than from the
organisational pattern. So, attempts at new organisations have been
by way of the introduction of problem-solving methods and inductive
processes. What is, in effect, a complaint about the methodology of
the teaching-learning process has been taken as an objection to one
sort of organisation. Like some of the other dichotomies mentioned,
the ‘logical-psychological’ controversy arises from undue emphasis
on one or the other of the two interrelated things, the content and
learning experiences (Wheeler, 1967).
The selection of the content usually comes from a particular

syllabus which has been developed by the State Council for Educational
Research and Training (S.C.E.R.T.). Unfortunately, most of the science
teachers are not directly involved in the construction and organisation
of a complete curriculum. Hence, it is recommended that whenever
possible the classroom science teacher should play a vital role in the
development and organisation of science programme which s/he is
expected to follow.
Suggestions for Organising Science Curriculum
Science teachers should regularly meet with supervisors,
consultants and teachers from other schools to plan and formulate
objectives. A possible danger is that a science curriculum which is
organized by others cannot be accepted with as much enthusiasm
and understanding as when the science teacher is an active
participant. The natural curiosity of boys and girls should be
considered throughout the sequence of learning activities. To stimulate
curiosity high school teacher must prepare demonstrations and
experiments appropriate for each topic (unit). The approach not only
fosters pupils’ curiosity but also leads to problem-solving or other
creative activities on the part of the learner. Science teachers should
organize materials so as to develop scientific attitudes and skills in
scientific discovery, through an emphasis on inductive and deductive
reasoning. Students acquire scientific attitudes, suspend judgments
and avoid hasty conclusions in addition to mastering of laboratory
skills of designing experiments to test hypothesis.
Science curriculum is organised to include up-to-date references,
resource materials and resource persons from the community and
allow the needed flexibility to bring in contemporary discoveries.
Values and appreciation are influenced by selected readings from
history, biography and philosophy of science. In many communities
a mechanical engineer, biochemist, local health officer and other
scientific personnel can make worthy contribution to strengthen the
science programme. Publications such as Eureka, Shasthragathy,
Shasthra Keralam, Current Science, Chemistry, Popular Mechanics,
Popular Science, Science & Mathematics weekly, Science New’s Letter,
Scientific American and Science world should be used in organising
a science cuirriculum. Books dealing with philosophy of science,

history of science and lives of great scientist should also be made use
of. Students should also be encouraged to build a home-library
containing many of these materials.
Pupil-teacher planning and pre-planning can be a very strong
influence in the improvement of curriculum organisation. The science
teacher learns much about science and the students when pupils
participate with teacher in curriculum planning. Individual student
as well as group of students proposes projects that are used for the
school museum or the science fair. Individual student perform
demonstrations that they have shown interest in bringing to the
attention of the class. The organisation or a science curriculum should
enable teachers to substitute new ideas for outdated ones and to
augment and supplement current and scientific information.
Flexibility becomes the factor for maintaining up-to-date science
programme.
General Approaches in Curriculum Organisation
There are four alternatives in curriculum organisation each of
which is identifiable in the pattern of curriculum organisation. They
are:
(1) Movement down a long road
(2) The swing of a pendulum
(3) The upward and spiral (Miel, 1971) and
(4) Historical approach. Each of the patterns is detailed below.
1. Movement down a long road

One view of curriculum organisation is that it is like movement
down a long road whereby arrangements or practices once considered
adequate are left behind forever. All that is abandoned becomes the
traditional. The new which is at hand is the right way
or the modern. A shift from broad fields curriculum to subject
matter curriculum and then to activity curriculum adequately
de-scribes the movement down a long road pattern. This view reflects
the either or type of thinking so difficult to avoid in human affairs.
We move from one emphasis to another with no return for a second

look (Miel, 1971). Another example of the type will be special schools
for the physically challenged (differentially abled) students to main-
streaming.
2. The Swing of a Pendulum

The second way of looking at the curriculum organisation is to
draw an analogy to the swing of a pendulum back and forth in the
same groove. According to this view the weight of opinion may go
from teacher-centered method to a child-centered method. Opinion
may shift from favouring homogeneous grouping to heterogeneous
grouping and back again to the same original position with no
variation and no learning from previous experience. This view of
curriculum pattern appears to be near to the truth. The abandoned
position in education is reconsidered and later accepted as valid. The
new version in a careful observation will reveal that it is different in
many ways (Miel, 1971). Thus the pendulum swing is too crude an
analogy to describe actual pattern of movement. Further, this view,
rests upon either or thinking. Opinion may shift from general science
curriculum to specialized subject fields such as chemistry and physics.
Thus, the shift is from integration to specialisation. The pattern is
repeated though with some modification.
3. The upward and outward spiral

The third way of viewing the curriculum organisation is to think
of a spiral which ascends, enlarging as it climbs. The spiral view
accounts for the more refined wisdom distilled from the experience
over time. The upward and outward curriculum organization
acknowledges the gradual nature of development of knowledge and
also the development of learner. In the spiral view, the proposals
made at a later point in educational history usually are much more
refined. At each new point on the upward and outward spiral, the
concepts are clearer and the language of education is more precise.
4. Historical Approach
Subjects such as chemistry and physics have a history of
development. The current status of knowledge has evolved over time.

Both concepts and theories are being subjected to modification in the
light of further empirical observation. For example, one of the first
attempts to investigate the connection between chemical properties
of elements and their atomic masses was made by the German
Chemist, Johann Dobereiner (1780 - 1849). He examined groups of
three elements such as Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine (known as triads)
and noted that Bromine seemed just half-way in its properties between
Chlorine and Iodine. Dobereiner’s ideas were published in 1829 (see,
Nuffield-chelsa Curriculum Trust, 1988). It was in 1864 that the
English Chemist, John Newlands (1838 -1898) came up with another
classification in which “the eighth element starting from a given one
is a kind of repetition of the first like the eighth note in an octave of
music.” He called his rule the “law of octaves.” He arranged all the
fifty known elements in the order of atomic mass and demonstrated
his law.
It was in 1869 that a Russian Chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev,
published the periodic table on which all later versions of periodic
table have been based. Mendeleev stated that when the elements are
arranged in the order of atomic mass, similar properties recur at
intervals. One year later, a German Chemist, Lother Mayer, published
a graph (with atomic mass on X-axis and atomic volume in ml per
mole on Y-axis) showing wave-like, repeating patterns. He also
discovered that the periods differ in length. This sequencing is the
historical approach in curriculum organisation.
Apart from the historical approach there are two approaches in
‘curriculum organisation that focus on the structure of knowledge.
The approaches are - - (1) Type study and (2) Concentric plan. Each
of these is described below.
1. Type Study
In type study, the content to be taught is classified into types. A
type is a typical representative of a group which exemplifies all the
characteristics of that particular group. For example, the halogen
group element, chlorine, is a type of the seventh group elements. Most
of the characteristics exhibited by chlorine can be expected of other
elements too. The type study encourages inductive reasoning and gives
training in scientific thinking. However, it should be noted that all
content areas cannot be classified into types.
2. Concentric Plan
Concentric plan is comparable to the upward and outward spiral
pattern mentioned before. The science course is arranged over a
number of years. In the beginning years a general treatment is,
attempted (Joseph, 1982). Later, it is developed in successive years
according to the mental development of students. For example,
consider the topic acids. In the first year, food items having sour taste
can be familiarised. In the second year the common properties of acids
can be included. In the successive years, strong and weak acids,
monobasic and dibasic acids, electronic concept of an acid, etc. can
be included. A basic assumption in this organisation is that the learner
moves from simple to complex in gradation, with due consideration
of the psychological development of the learner.
The concentric plan has two main advantages. One advantage
is that there is continuity to what students are learning. The other
advantage is that the complexity as well as gradation in the content
will challenge the students so to motivate them. However, the criticism
that students get disinterested by repeated dealing of the same content
every year is meaningless for the depth of the content will draw their
attention.
Other than the two patterns based on structure of knowledge,
there are approaches in curriculum organization which pay attention
to the learner and his/her environment. They are - - (1) Nature study
and (2) Nature rambling. These methods lack specificity and are often
identified as method of curriculum organi-sation for natural sciences
and are not dealt here.
Curriculum innovations in the late 1960s became increasingly
involved with chemistry and physics not so much as single subjects
but as a part of a larger whole (Waddington, 1984). A number of
regroupings were recommended which can be classified into five - -
(1) Core Curriculum, (2) Integrated Curriculum, (3) General Science,
(4) Physical Science and (5) Integrated Science. Each of these
classifications is detailed below.
1. Core Curriculum
Curriculum is defined as “all the learning which is planned and
guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually,
inside or outside the school” (Kerr, 1971, p. 181). The curriculum
takes into account the general and special needs of the learner. This
is comparable to the ‘required’ and ‘elective’ divisions of the traditional
subject curriculum. Society needs citizens with both common and
differentiated competencies and that the school must provide for these
in its educational plan. The terminology core has come to be applied
to that of the curriculum which is concerned with those types of
experiences thought necessary for all learners (Faunce & Bossing,
(1967) irrespective of what occupation, they may expect to follow or
where they may happen to live.
Core curriculum is designed so as to provide all young people
experience, which should help them to live happily and usefully
during the years of youth and grow into the full responsibilities of
adult life. It is not intended to provide education in vocational skills
and knowledge in any discipline. Such intellectual field students may
select based on students’ personal interest which is not the concern
of core curriculum. Core curriculum helps students in the following
areas:
1. Proficiency in the use of language
2. Civic understanding and competence
3. Intelligent action as consumers
4. Family relationships
5. Appreciation of beauty
6. Ability to use time efficiently and to budget it wisely, and
7. Respect for other persons and ability to work cooperatively with
others.
2. Integrated Curriculum
Integrated curriculum is an approach in curriculum organisation
which entails from the view of knowledge as the ‘seamless cloak of
knowledge,’ the ‘unity of learning,’ or a single view of the world and
of life (Pring, 1971). Integration is a pro-word in contrast to
fragmentation of the curriculum which typifies the
compartmentalisation or pigeon-holing of knowledge, with
specialisation.
A subject-based curriculum is said to limit enquiry, set up barriers,
and confine study to a limited range of information. It is argued that
the division of knowledge into distinct subject divisions is artificial
and does not reflect correctly the essential unity of reality and of our
ordinary way of understanding and judging. It is foreign to the
natural and spontaneous method of enquiry. The disciplines represent
the worked out structures of knowledge and the systematic
organisation of experience. The disciplines therefore constitute in
the most complete and developed form of the logical structure of
knowledge. They do not however reflect the pupil’s level and mode
of understanding, nor do they indicate the process whereby the pupil
might attain these structures of knowledge. Thus, the finished product
pruned into the logical neatness of distinct disciplines, does not contain
within it the way in which it should be presented.
3. General Science
General Science courses emerged at the beginning of the twentieth
century as a revolt against the compartmentalisation of different
branches of science such as Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, etc.
Some of our important problems require that the teacher and the
taught should draw upon many disciplines. For example, our
environmental problems require to take an integrated approach not
restricted by the artificial boundaries of any one discipline.
Disci-plinary boundaries often restrict and tend to limit learners as
they investigate problems. Thus, general science stands for an
integrated curriculum so as to help learners get an idea that various
branches of science are not water tight compartments. Also, general
sciencewas based on the idea that it should form an essential part of
the general education of all young people, and was seen by its
proponents as humanistic as well as scientific in scope, broad rather
than deep in content (Waddington, 1984).
Vaidya (1971) lists three aims and objectives of general science
courses - - (1) to impart information about the useful products given
by science and technology, (2) to provide a comprehensive,
consolidated and integrated viewpoint put forward by the various
branches of science and (3) to provide training in thinking which is
essential to the comprehension of the specialised sciences. However,
in view of the outcome of general science curriculum which was in
force in the beginning of second half of 20th century it had to be
abandoned. The National Education Commission or Kothari
Commission Report (1966) made observations against the general
science approach which the Secondary Education Commission or
Mudaliar Commission (1953) had recommended earlier. As a result
of the observations of the Kothari Commission (like a swing of the
pendulum) there emerged the disciplinary approach or separate
subject curriculum, i.e., Physics and Chemistry.
Physics
The word physics means nature. The word physics is derived
from the Latin word physic or Greek Physis. Physics is the study of
nature and the underlying principles that govern the behaviour of
the world around us (Wilson, 1981). We are fortunate to have at our
disposal the scientific information that has been acquired and applied
for the past 7000 years. Even after 7000 years of learning, there is still
much we do not know or understand. Physics attempts to describe
the process of nature through observation and experimentation,
coupled with reflective reasoning, in what we call the scientific
method. Theories are tested and natural laws are formulated to
describe what appears to be an invariant order in nature.
Physics deals both the macroscopic and the microscopic state of
matter (Gupta, 1985). For example, the law of conservation of mass
and energy holds good both in the cosmic scale and in the sub-atomic
scale. Many laws are generalisations arrived through the method of
induction. It is likely that there may be exceptions to the laws which

force the scientists to revise the laws. Thus, science (Physics) is not a
process by which we go from no knowledge to some knowledge or
from some knowledge to total knowledge. Rather, it is a process by
which scientists go from some knowledge to more knowledge (Hull,
1988, p. 26).
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of molecular behaviour. Chemists
specialise in interpreting observations on large amounts of material
in terms of the properties and interactions of individual molecules
and atoms. We trace our origins from the early atomic theories of the
Indian Vedas and the Greek philosophers, through the alchemists
efforts at transmutations, Lavoisier’s discovery of the conservation of
matter, Dalton’s and Avogadro’s brilliant leaps from rather poor data
to excellent insights, Maxwell and Boltzmann’s Kinetic theory,
Mendeleev’s and Mayers ordering of the Chemical elements, to the
discovery of radioactivity, the atomic nucleus, isotopes, and the still-
increasing set of sub-atomic particles (Champbell, 1984, p. 16).
4. Physical Science
Physics and Chemistry have some similarity in the structures of
knowledge. Therefore, these two science subjects are combined to
form physical science. The description and characteristics of physics
and chemistry detailed above have common strands and may be taught
using similar methods.
5. Integrated Science
The general science approach described above did not help realise
the intended objectives. Separate discipline approach (such as
chemistry and physics) also did not provide a coherent view of science.
It was, argued that integrated science help make numerous links
between its various branches. Integrated approach is associated with
the movement to teach science for the majority.
Integration is also a ‘pro’-word that is contrasted with the
fragmentation of the curriculum which typifies the traditional school
with subject barriers, the compartmentalisation of knowledge, with

specialisation and little relevance to life as a whole (Pring, 1971).
A subject-based curriculum is said to limit enquiry, set up barriers,
and confine study to a limited range of information. Often these
barriers are seen to be arbitrary and the integration of subjects is seen
as a necessity to have a comprehensive picture of reality.
STRATEGIES OF TEACHING PHYSICAL SCIENCE 59
Chapter IV
STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
The teaching of physical science employs a number of strategies.

Stones and Morris define teaching strategy as “a generalised plan for
a lesson which includes structure, desired learning behaviour in terms
of the goals of instruction and an outline of planned tactics necessary
to implement the strategy” (cited in Sharma, 2003). A physical science
teacher can adopt several methods, techniques and models as teaching
strategies.
A. Methods of Teaching
The method of teaching refers to regular ways or orderly
procedure employed by the teacher in guiding pupils in order to
accomplish the objectives of learning situations. In other words,
method is a series of related and progressive acts performed by the
teacher and pupils to accomplish the general and specific aims of a
lesson. In the teaching of science, method refers to the transaction of
scientific knowledge and skills by the teacher to students so that they
can use them further.
There are several methods for teaching physical science. These
methods have been classified into different categories such as oral
methods, observation methods and practical methods (Vaidya, 1971).
It is possible to classify method by referring to educational
philosophies. There are several other classifications such as
individualised methods and group methods, child-centred methods
and teacher-centred methods. A classification system helps the teacher
to be aware of his/her line of action in the teaching learning process.
There is a huge body of research literature available on the

effectiveness of teaching methods. However, it is very difficult to single
out one method as the best that will prove equally successful with
every teacher, classroom and content area. The choice of a method is
important taking into account the pupil, the content area, the facilities
available in the school and more importantly what objectives the
teacher is trying to achieve through instruction. A strong knowledge
base of the content area is not a guarantee that the teacher will be
successful in the process of teaching. Therefore, every science teacher
should know the various methodological possibilities and their
limitations (Rajan, 1999). A few important methods are detailed
below.
I. Lecture method
Lecture method is one of the oldest and most basic pedagogic
tool (Mohan, 2002). It is mostly a teacher-centred and expository
method involving one-way communication and transmitting a good
quantum of knowledge or subject matter to a large number of
individuals (Mohanty, 2004).
In this method, the teacher delivers the content to be studied
while the pupils listen. In our classroom teaching, the lecture method
dominates largely since the teachers have been using this method for
years. It is convenient for the teacher, as no practical preparation is
needed. According to James Michael Lee, “the lecture is a pedagogical
method whereby the teacher formally delivers a carefully planned
expository address on some particular topic or problem” (cited in
Maitra, 1991).
In lecture method, the teacher is the only active participant and
the pupils are passive listeners. They are spoon-fed and their power
of observation and reasoning, the exercise of which are so essential in
the learning process are not stimulated. However, a teacher can use
the lecture very effectively by suitably organising the content to be
presented. Mohan (2002) presents a schematic organisation of a good
lecture.
Aim
Introduction
Body
Examples Demonstrations
Discussion Illustrations
Conclusion
Questions
Characteristics of a good lecture

Vaidya (1971) lists the following characteristics associated with
good lecturing:
1. An enthusiastic presenter who is well organised, challenging and
clear in his/her presentation
2. The presentation includes an overview, logical organisation and
closure
3. The organisation of the lecture is made explicit to the audience
such that they understand the relationship between the various
components and parts
4. Verbal and visual clues are provided to emphasise and smooth
transitions between elements of the lecture
5. Attention is maintained through appropriate anecdotes, physical
activity, humour and especially enthusiasm for the topic
6. The audience is challenged to become intellectually involved with
the topic being presented
How to make lecture effective
With a view to make the lecture method more effective, lecturers
should consider the following guidelines meant for necessary activities
at three distinctive phases. That is (i) preparation (ii) presentation
and (iii) evaluation.
1. Preparation
The first step in the process of preparing the lecture is to define
the objectives in clear and specific terms. The lecturer should be able
to answer the four basic questions - - (1) Who is your audience? (2)
What is the purpose of your talk? (3) What is the time available? and
(4) What is the subject matter?
The lecturer should be clear about the nature of audience or the
students, their background, needs, interests and so on. He should
know the duration of the period that his lecture will be delivered. He
should also prepare sufficient subject matter or teaching points for
dealing with the students. It is advisable to develop a synopsis of the
lecture giving the important teaching points at various steps along
with a list of reference materials. This can be done by using the
following structure - - (a) introduction, (b) body of the talk, and (c)
conclusion. Relevant audio visual aids can be thought of while
preparing, and adequate preparation for their use in right time and
place be made earlier to presentation.
2. Presentation
The written word can only be of limited help when it comes to
advise on speaking technique. What is needed is constructive criticism.
Some of the essential points to keep in mind are set forth below.
i. setting the scene
ii. covering the material
iii. time for questions at the end
iv. finish on time
v. good posture
vi. proper gestures
vii. fine appearance
viii. suitable manner
ix. courteousness
x. sincerity
xi. voice and tone modulation
xii. vocabulary
3. Evaluation
Evaluation can be done through out the process of lecturing; it
will help the lecturer understand whether the ideas being presented
are properly conveyed. S/he can get informal feedbacks from the
eyes of the audience. Proper questions and feedbacks obtained through
evaluation can help the lecturer to be on track and improve upon the
methods and techniques followed. S/he can develop a proforma or a
small questionnaire for formal evaluation by collecting views of
reaction of the students on the lecture. Evaluation can also be done
more systematically with the help of a tape recorder or video recorder
as in microteaching.
Merits of lecture method

1. The method is economic
2. The method helps the teacher to cover a lengthy syllabus with in
a short period of time
3. The method is concise and the teacher always feels secure and
satisfied with his/her progress
4. The method is useful in special situations like following (Mangal,
1990):
a) While introducing a topic
b) While summarising the subject matter
c) While giving instruction before performing an experiment
in the laboratory
d) While explaining complicated and difficult experiments
e) While giving historical accounts of scientific events, scientific
discoveries and inventions
f) While describing the life of great scientists and their
achievements
Demerits of lecture method
1. The method is against the principle of learning by doing
2. It does not provide training in scientific method
3. There is no assurance for the teacher whether the students have

understood what he/she had taught in the class
4. This method presupposes a class of intelligent pupils who can
understand and grasp the lecture with the same speed as they
are delivered by the teacher (Sharma & Sharma, 1971). This is
practically impossible in our circumstances
II. Demonstration Method

Demonstration is a method, designed to show or illustrate a
procedure, process, or phenomenon. In demonstration method, the
teacher demonstrates and illustrates certain fundamental phenomena
and the application of various principles. A demonstration should
not be confused with an experiment because in a demonstration the
various variables impinging on the phenomena are not rigidly
controlled and varied (Vaidya, 1971).
Demonstration means ‘to show’. For example, showing the setting
up of an apparatus, the various properties of substances, electrolysis
of water, the working of models, etc., can be included in
demonstration. This method is in accordance with the maxim of
learning - - from concrete to abstract. Successful demonstration in
the hands of a teacher provides first hand experience to his/her pupils
and through them, s/he can link his/her lessons to major ideas,
principles, theories, etc. Demonstration can be best used as a
motivating device while introducing a lesson. The demonstration
method is usually employed when the apparatus is costly and sensitive
and there is chance of damage if allowed to be handled by the pupils
(Das, 1985).
Functions of demonstrations
Through careful selection, planning and execution of various
types of demonstrations, a teacher can achieve the following purposes
in the teaching-learning process (Rajan, 1999):
1. The teacher can introduce experiences unknown to the children,
which can become a starting point for their thinking
2. The teacher can provide worthwhile, rich and significant learning
experiences through which the learner can improve the powers

of observation and reasoning
3. The teacher can illustrate an abstract idea
4. The teacher can provide concrete experiences for solving a
problem
Characteristics of a good demonstration

1. A demonstration should be visible in most of its significant detail
to all the members of the class
2. A demonstration should show only one major idea at a time
3. The demonstration should be striking, clear-cut and convincing
4. The aim and purpose of demonstration must be clear to the
teacher and the learner
5. The apparatus for demonstration should be arranged in the
proper order
Requisites of a good demonstration

1. A good lecture-cum-demonstration room is necessary in which
the demonstration table should be visible to all students
2. A good black board for writing important facts and drawing
diagrams should be provided
3. Thought-provoking questions should be asked while
demon-stration is in progress
4. The teacher should be well-versed in the handling of the
apparatus
Guidance for demonstration

Demonstration is a means for the pupil to see how certain things
are done. It is important that the teacher should prepare for the
demonstration to make it effective. Novice and experi-enced teachers
will need to practice the demonstration. The important guidelines for
demonstration are listed below:
1. Remember that the teacher is the chief actor in a demonstration

2. Every step should he planned in advance with necessary check-
list of items and materials needed
3. Rehearse the demonstration to understand the possible limitations
and deviations which are not usually dealt in theory books
4. During demonstrations, it is desirable to outline the steps on the
black board
5. The demonstrations should be made simple, assuming the
appropriate pre-requisites of the students
6. Do not deviate from the main idea while explanations are given.
The explanation in a classroom situation should be addressed to
the whole class and not to a single student
7. Make sure that the demonstration is being followed by the
students (through questions)
8. Make sure that every member of the class sees the demonstration
for which class rearrangement or change in seating arrangement
may become necessary
9. Do not hurry through the demonstration. Too much of practice
and rehearsal may speed up the demonstration to give the effect
of a magic show
10. Do not drag out the demonstration. Unnecessary delay in
carrying out the demonstration will adversely affect the
demonstration
Merits of demonstration method

1. It is economical in terms of time and expenditure
2. Pupils see actual things and this helps to retain in the memory
what they have seen
3. Helps to develop scientific attitude among pupils
4. This method is appropriate for experiments involving hazardous
chemicals/costly apparatus
Demerits of demonstration method

1. This method is teacher-centred in which the students are passive
listeners
2. There is no scope for developing practical skills as the teacher
alone performs the experiment in this method
3. This method does not cater individual differences
4. There is no scope for ‘learning by doing’ in this method
III. Lecture-demonstration Method

Lecture-demonstration method is a great improvement over
lecture method and demonstration method. In this method, in addition
to lecturing, the teacher provides some concrete experiences by
performing certain experiments or by demonstrating some models.
In the lecture method, the medium of instruction is verbal
whereas, in the lecture-demonstration method, there are chances for
pupils to observe and draw inferences. The spoken facts and principles
are supplemented and reinforced by a series of activities by the teacher
and these enable pupils to understand those items more clearly. It is a
multi-sensory approach and this method was described as the official
method in our schools.
Besides experiments, pictures, diagrams, charts, models, slides,
etc., may also be used as illustrative materials, which will help to
arouse interest in pupils and make the teaching impres-sive. Teaching
by this method has been shown to be as valuable as those of the
laboratory method. However, the method demands careful
preparation and judicious presentation on the part of the teacher not
only in what s/he has to say but also in what s/he has to do.
Merits of lecture-demonstration method

1. Multi-sensory approach is followed in this method
2. The method is often as good as the laboratory method
3. It is economical when compared to individual laboratory work
4. The important maxims of teaching such as proceed from known
to unknown, simple to complex, concrete to abstract and analysis

to synthesis are followed in this method
Demerits
1. Pupils do not participate actively
2. No scope for learning by doing
3. The desirable practical skills are not developed
4. It is impossible to demonstrate certain theoretical topics
IV. Historical Method
In this method, the topic is developed from its very beginning
and carried through various stages of evolution. Science has its own
theory and every invention or discovery has its own historical
background. The children feel very much interested and fascinated
in listening to the stories and the teacher can introduce his talk with
an interesting story. The credit for developing the historical method
may be attributed to J. B. Conant of the Harvard Graduate School of
Education during 1950s (Vaidya, 1971).
This method is particularly suited to teach scientific theories.
Holmyard opined that this method is the only method, which will
effectively produce all the desirable results of teaching chemistry (cited
in Nair, 1969). It is highly instructive to let the child see how one
hypothesis is replaced by another in the light of newly discovered
facts. For example, the gradual development of atomic theory can be
unfolded in an interesting way if the historical method is followed.
Historical approaches in the teaching of science can be classified into
two - - (1) biographical or anecdotal and (2) recapitulatory.
In the first type, that is in biographical or anecdotal approach
interesting biographical details and accounts of important incidents
relevant to a particular discovery are included in the lesson material
at the appropriate place. The emphasis on the events and stories
related to the discoveries could be an important corrective to the
frequently held erroneous view that science is an impersonal study
with no human interest. For example, Archimedes and his bath,
Newton and the apple, Kekule and his dream of snake, etc., will
always appeal to pupils and may be made the means of arousing

interest.
In the second that is in recapitulatory approach the order of
presentation is retracing of the historical developments. The young
pupils resemble the discoverer in being in the beginning of a journey.
Therefore, it is more appropriate to conduct him/her along the road
followed by the original discoverer. It will emphasise the tentative
nature of all scientific theories and the need for constant modification
in the face of newly discovered facts. By treating the work historically,
whereby encountering changed views (and discarding theories) a
beginner is less likely to believe that the latest theory represents absolute
truth.
Science in general and chemistry in particular lends itself to the
historical method. For example, the gradual development of the atomic
theory can be unfolded in a very interesting way. A few important
dates and names are included here in this context. The teacher will
have to collect, and connect the details to present the example. The
dates and name are - - 1800-Volta, 1834-Faraday, 1858-Plucker, 1874-
Stoney, 1886-Goldstein, 1897-Thomson, 1911-Rutherford, 1913-Bohr,
1918-Planck, 1926-Sommerfield, and 1932-Chadwick (Rajan, 1999).
Merits of historical method
1. This method is in accordance with child’s point of views
2. This method develops in pupils a positive attitude towards science
3. Science has the romance of its own. The striving of the human
spirit revealed in the investigation of great scientists has a lasting
effect on the learner
4. In many cases, the historical order of events shows how the
attempts to meet practical needs have given rise to theoretical
considerations. This mode of treatment is particularly beneficial
to pupils
5. The historical method helps the students to understand the
dynamic nature of science
Demerits of historical Method

1. This method is time consuming
2. The pupils may loose sight of the fundamentals in the huge mass
of irrelevant details taught by this method
3. The modern pupil has a large stock of scientific information,
which makes it impossible to place him/her at the position of
the original investigator. Difficulties encountered by the scientists
of early days may not appear as such to the present day school
children. Hence, in many cases the historical treatment is not
suitable for them.
V. Heuristic Method
The word ‘heuristic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘heurisco’,
which means ‘serving to discover’ (I found out). Henry Edward
Armstrong of the Imperial College, London, developed this method.
According to Armstrong, the real purpose of science is original
investigation and discovery. Therefore, the pupil must be put in the
position of an investigator to discover the principles of science for
himself/herself. Armstrong defined the heuristic method of science
as “those method which involve our placing of students as far as
possible in the attitude of the discoverer, methods which involve their
finding out instead of being merely told about things” (cited in Nair,
1969). Science is a practical subject and this method advocates the
correct way of learning as ‘by doing.’
Principles of heuristic method

Joseph (1982) listed the following principles underlying heuristic
method:
1. Principle of activity
2. Principle of logical thinking
3. Principle of proceeding from the known to the unknown
4. Principle of purposeful experience
5. Principle of self-thinking and self-study
Procedure
The student is required to solve a number of problems
experimentally. Each student is given an instruction sheet and is
required to perform a number of experiments pertaining to the
problem. The instruction is made as simple as possible. The pupil
performs the experiments with a bit of guidance from the teacher
and keeps a record of the observations. S/he has to draw conclusions
himself/herself and work out their bearings on the problem at hand.
Thus, s/he is led to reason from observation.
The heuristic method demands discovery rather than dogma;
mental and physical activity on the part of the student in place of
passive receptivity. Westaway commented about the heuristic method
- - “Essentially, therefore, the heuristic method is intended to provide
a training in method; knowledge is a secondary consideration
altogether” (cited in Rajan, 1999). The method emphasises the learning
process and discourages the stuffing of pupils’ minds with facts and
principles. All the steps in problem solving, viz., identifying the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting data, testing the
hypothesis and verification have received adequate weightage in
heuristic method.
Merits of heuristic method
1. This method is based on the principle of learning by doing
2. This method provides for proper training in the method of
investigation
3. Learning becomes free and spontaneous since students attack
problem, without any external restraints
4. This method develops scientific interest and attitude in pupils
5. This method helps to develop self-confidence, self-reliance and
perseverance
Demerits of heuristic method
1. This method demands an exceptionally brilliant teacher, a very
small class size and a well-equipped laboratory and library which
are not usually realised in practice
2. It is too expensive to be adopted in schools

3. Pupils do not get the benefit of others’ experience as Issac Newton
once observed - - “If I have seen farther than Descartes, it is by
standing on the shoulders of giants”(Wilson, 1937)
4. Most students are neither capable of any original investigation
nor they have the necessary ability and required knowledge to
design and perform original experiments
VI. Problem Method

The adoption of some of the desirable elements of heuristic
method has led to the development of problem method. It differs from
the heuristic method in that the problem is found and solved by the
class as a group under the leadership of the teacher. The method is
designed to give each pupil a thorough training in scientific method
of solving problem. “Problem method enjoys the highest prestige as
compared with other methods of science leaching amongst science
teachers all over the world” (Vaidya, 1971).
Vaidya (1971) has defined problem solving in different ways.
Problem solving can be defined as “the process of raising a problem
in the minds of students in such a way as to stimulate purposeful
reflective thinking leading to a rational solution.” “It is a planned
attack upon a difficulty or perplexity for the purpose of finding a
solution.” Students should be frequently confronted with scientific
problems, for they provoke thinking and test the quality of the concepts
formed during teaching.
Problem method involves the following stages - - (1) identifying
the problem (2) collecting data (3) formulating a hypothesis (4) testing
the hypothesis (5) verification (Siddiqi & Siddiqi, 1983; Gupta. 1985).
Procedure
As thinking originates in a recognised perplexity, so to teach each
unit we must start with a problematic situation. The ideal is to have
the problem raised spontaneously in the minds of pupils as a logical
need brought about by a discussion. The teacher should select
situations containing such problems and initiate discussion in order
to stimulate curiosity. Subsequently this must challenge the intellect

of the students to attempt a solution. The problematic situation should
be clearly understood by the pupils and the solution must appear
worthwhile and desirable. Generally, pupils’ interests or experiences
should be mobilised to provide suitable problematic situations (Nair,
1969).
Teacher’s role in the problem solving method is very important,
s/he has to set up an atmosphere of freedom and help so as to develop
in the student an attitude of open mindedness, critical inquiry and
attitude of respect for others point of view. S/he has to eliminate bias
and encourage wide reading.
Merits of problem method

1. This method develops the capacities of planning, thinking,
reasoning, critical enquiry and initiative
2. This method arouses a natural interest in solving problems
3. This method helps in organising and integrating knowledge and
experience
4. This method instils in the learner the social values such as co-
operation
Demerits of problem method

1. This method is not suitable for topics that are descriptive in nature
2. In this method, the individual differences do not receive adequate
attention
VII. Project Method

Project method originated as a revolt against the old system of
education, which imposed the needs and interests of the adults on
the child and considered the child a passive entity. Kilpatrick and
Stevenson are the proponents of this method. According to W. H.
Kilpatrick, “a project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity
proceeding in a social environment.” J. A. Stevenson defines it as “a
problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting.” Ballard
defines project method as “a bit of real life that has been imported
into the school” (cited in Vaidya, I971; Sharma & Sharma, 1971).
As education is closely related to life, this method prepares
students for real life through “learning by doing”. Such learning is
real, meaningful, permanent and applicable. As students take interest
and initiative in projects their whole-hearted co-operation and effort
can easily be ensured. Joseph (1982) listed the following basic principles
of the project method:
1. The principle of purpose
2. The principle of activity
3. The principle of reality
4. The principle of freedom
5. The principle of utility
The following are the major steps of the project method (Sharma
& Sharma, 1971; Joseph, 1982; Kohli, 1986) - - (1) Providing a situation
(2) Proposing the project (3) Planning (4) Execution (5) Evaluation
(6) Recording. Each step is detailed below.
1. Providing a situation
The teacher should provide situations wherein the pupils feel a
spontaneous urge to carry out a particular project. A field trip, news,
an article, a video-clipping or any such exposure can help in providing
a situation.
2. Proposing the project

In proposing a project, interests, attitudes and abilities of the
students should be taken into account. To facilitate the process of
proposing a project, formal and informal discussions with students
based on a topic will be necessary. The project should be acceptable
to all students. The resources in the locality are of prime importance
in the selection of a project.
3. Planning
The students have to plan out the details of the project regarding
different materials needed, number of groups to be formed, availability
of books, resource persons to be contacted, time allotment to each

group, nature of the final product, total time needed, equipments
available and such details necessary in each project.
4. Execution
This is the most important and long step in the project method.
At this stage, the teacher as well as pupils should be careful, since
there may be several problems that they may have to face, which
were not anticipated at the planning stage. The teacher should guide,
encourage and monitor the progress of the project and should give
instructions if necessary.
5. Evaluation
After the project has been completed, it is essential to review the
whole work, find out the mistakes if any, and suggest improvements.
The students must get opportunity to report their own failures and
findings.
6. Recording
The students should keep a complete record of the different steps
of the whole project.
There can be different kinds of projects. The following type of
projects has been suggested by Kilpatrick. They are (cited in Joseph,
1982) - - (1) producer type (2) consumer type (3) problem type (4)
drill type. According to Prasad (2004), following types of projects
can be done by secondary school students - - (1) observation project
(2) constructive project (3) experimental project (4) survey project (5)
research project (6) scientific investigation project. A science project
can be any enriching science experience. Science projects develop
research attitudes, which many result in discoveries. Some students
are not good in remembering facts and figures. They get a chance to
demonstrate their skills by carrying out projects (Beller, 1982).
Merits of project method

1. The method satisfies the specific needs and interest of the
participants
2. The learners are purposefully and profitably occupied

3. The method provides educationally rich and stimulating
experience
4. The method helps to correlate different subjects
5. The method helps to develop democratic way of living and
learning
Demerits of project method

1. The method disorganises the work of the school
2. Teachers hardly get time to provide the suitable situations and
to organise the work
3. A project may have relevant materials in different subject areas
and the teacher will find it difficult to support students in their
efforts
VIII. Developmental Method

Most of the books available on science teaching do not detail the
developmental method. A few books dealing with develop-mental
method details it differently. Washton (1961) describes developmental
method as a combination of inductive and deduc-tive reasoning (p.
197). The method takes on a new aspect of an experiment or a problem.
The teacher and pupils interact constantly which leads to the specific
experimental details or to the specific aspects of the problem. Based
on the question-answer session and discussion the pupils will be given
time for writing up their observations along with the results of their
discussion. The method can be used in the laboratory as well as in the
classroom. The essential nature of the method is that of a problem
solving experience. Careful questioning and interaction on the part
of the teacher is very important. The challenge presented in the
experiment or problem helps to maintain a high degree of interest.
However, Joseph (1982) has described the method with the
Herbartian steps - - preparation, presentation, comparison or
association, generalisation or definition and application (p. 202). The
merits and demerits are identical to the problem method.
Merits of developmental method

1. It gives training in problem solving method
2. There is constant interaction between the pupil and teacher
3. The method is in accordance with the psychological principles
of learning
4. The method arouses interest, stimulates thinking and cultivates
scientific attitude in pupils
Demerits of developmental method

1. Pupils are not given opportunities for developing laboratory skills
2. It demands a lot of work from the teacher
3. The method is not child centred (Joseph, 1982)
IX. Individualised Laboratory Method

Teaching of science without a laboratory is a futile attempt.
Laboratory is an integral part of teaching science. Experimentation
not only verifies the theories but also help in clarifying many
misunderstandings and misconceptions. The concept of cause and
effect is strengthened in a laboratory. Through individualised
laboratory method, the students are able to,
(1) Retain facts learnt in theory classes
(2) Satisfy their interest and curiosity, and feel emotionally satisfied
when they see that they are able to do something on their own
(3) Acquire training is scientific method
(4) Acquire scientific attitude
(5) Acquire skills of handling various apparatus
Individualised laboratory method provides opportunities for each
student to conduct experiment at his own desk in the science
laboratory; the responsibility for performing experiments is shifted
from the teacher to the pupils. Every pupil is provided with the
laboratory manual containing instructions and the teacher guides and
supervises pupils’ work. The laboratory thus becomes a place where
the teacher and the taught solve their problems together.

The teacher divides the apparatus required for experiments into
two groups, reserves one group to be performed by him at the
demonstration table and the other to be conducted by the pupils in
the laboratory. In the case of delicate and costly apparatus, the teacher
himself can perform the experiment, which the pupils observe and
make their conclusions (Joseph, 1982).
Preparation for laboratory work

For the laboratory work to be effective, the following points should
be taken into account:
1. The laboratory should be systematically and skilfully organised
2. The laboratory periods should be perfectly correlated with the
class work
3. The pupils should be told before hand about the setting-up of
apparatus, recording of the result and particulars to be taken
care of. They must also be asked to collect all necessary directions
for the proper conduct of the experiment from textbooks
4. Students should be asked to bring a laboratory workbook wherein
they must have entered all the necessary equipments and draw
neat diagrams and tables for the entry of the results
5. Pupils whose preparation of work is found unsatisfactory should
not be allowed to do the practical work
6. Apparatus should be available in good condition and should be
arranged before the commencement of practical classes
Role of the teacher

The teacher must constantly note the progress of every student
and should be the leader, inspirer and guide. S/he should give
adequate instruction wherever necessary, check the results, and correct
them if necessary.
Record of experiments
Every student should have a record book to record the results of
the experiments. The format includes - - (1) purpose of the experiment

(2) apparatus used for the experiments (3) procedure (4) result (5)
conclusion (Joseph, 1982).
Merits of individualised laboratory method

1. It is a child assertive method
2. It ensures active involvement of students
3. It inculcates manipulating skills and laboratory techniques
Demerits of individualised laboratory method

1. It is highly expensive
2. It is time consuming
3. The dull students are often tempted to copy down the result of
brilliant ones
4. It is a tedious process for the teacher to perform his/her role in
this method
X. Supervised Study
Supervised study provides a practical method of teaching pupils
how to study and as such, it has important place in any scheme of
modern education. It gives the teacher a chance to render individual
help, remedial teaching and guidance to the learners whose learning
strategies are essentially varied (Rajan, 1999). Supervised study is a
method of teaching intended to promote optimum learning. It gives
effective direction and oversight of silent study and laboratory activities
of pupils. The chief aim of supervised study is to help the pupils acquire
good study technique and become efficient learners. The teacher acts
as the director of the learning process.
Activities during supervised study

The teacher can make use of some of the following tasks:
1. Teaching pupils memorise effectively
2. Teaching pupils read rapidly with understanding
3. Guiding pupils in using reference books, maps, charts, diagrams,

etc.
4. Guiding pupils in the preparation of notes and reports
5. Assisting pupils in the formulation of hypotheses
6. Guiding pupils in direct observation of apparatus and specimen
7. Guiding pupils in interpretation of data, graphs, formulae, etc.
8. Supervising in collecting and organising data
9. Teaching pupils how to gather immediate feedback, verify results
and progress systematically
Planning for supervised study
Supervised study can be organised in different modes, some
of them are listed below (Joseph, 1982).
1. The double period plan - in this mode, one period is allotted
for class activity and the other for supervised study under the
guidance of the teacher.
2. The daily extra period plan - here, an extra period is allotted
for supervised study. The teacher will be available after the class.
3. The library study plan - in this type, pupils may go to the
library and work on assignments under the supervision of the
teacher.
4. Divided period plan - here, one period is divided into two
parts - first part for class activity and the other for supervised
study.
Advantages of supervised study

1. It enables the teacher to give individual attention to pupils
2. The pupils get thorough training in study habits
3. It makes the child responsible and self-reliant
4. It creates better teacher people relation
Disadvantages of supervised study

1. It requires good library, laboratory and reading rooms
2. This method requires additional teachers
XI. Dalton Plan

Dalton plan is a scheme of educational reorganisation rather than
a specific method to teach one or more subjects. Dalton plan was
developed by Miss Helen Parkhurst in 1920 and was tried at Dalton
High School, Massachusetts, USA. It recognises the individuality of
the child and aims at giving him or her freedom and making the
school a community, where mutual interaction of individual and
group is possible. It approaches the whole problem of work from the
pupil’s point of view, giving him/her more responsibility and interest
in his/her education. It is intended to be a method of study that calls
for the kind of intellectual and moral habits that are so essential for
the development of a responsible and successful citizen. The school
is conceived to be a sociological laboratory where the children are the
experimenters and the teachers are observers ready to give expert
advice where so required (Nair, 1969).
The Dalton plan replaces classrooms by subject laboratories. The
class exists only as a unit of organisation and not as a unit of
instruction. Curriculum consists of two parts - major subjects and
minor subjects. The major subjects include science, history, geography
and language and the minor subjects include music, arts, and domestic
science. The classes are held in two sessions. The classes for the
major subjects are arranged in the forenoon and the classes for minor
subjects are in the after noon. The work in the different subjects for
the whole year would be divided into smaller units or assignments
known as contracts; monthly, weekly or daily. The assignment
contains elaborate instructions about the things to be done by the
pupils, precautions, reference materials, appliance to be used, self-
testing devices and so on. There is no fixed time-table but the only
condition is that the student should finish the assignments. Superior
or brighter students might receive additional assignments for
enrichment. At the end of each month or contract period, the student
is given a test at his/her request.
Principles of the method

The major principles underlying Dalton plan are:
1. The principle of individual work
2. The principle of freedom
3. The principle of self-effort
4. Principle of Gestalt view of work
Procedure of Dalton plan

Students go to the subject laboratories and work at their own
convenience and pace. They are free to discuss their work with others
and with the teacher. There is no fixed timetable for the work. The
teacher goes about helping and guiding them in referring books,
conducting practical works and taking notes. Every student signs a
contract for the works to be done during each month. A detailed
assignment is given to the students, which forms the basis of his/her
work.
The success of the plan depends on the careful preparation of
the assignment. The subject matter included in the assignment should
be adequate to do the job. It includes books to be referred, observations
to be made and experiments to be performed. It should also contain
brief explanations of points requiring clarifications, helpful suggestions
and precautions to be observed while performing experiments. In
Dalton plan, each pupil’s progress is recorded separately in a card
called job card.
The teacher’s role in Dalton plan is to provide an atmosphere of
study. S/he should clarify their doubts regarding assignments. The
teacher assumes the role of advisor and does not interfere with the
pupils’ work as long as their progress is satisfactory.
Advantages of Dalton plan

1. Teaching is individualised
2. Continuity of work is ensured
3. Self-effort brings confidence in pupils
4. Develops initiative and resourcefulness

5. Problem of discipline is solved
Disadvantages of Dalton plan

1. It is impractical in ordinary schools
2. Preparation of assignments needs much expertise
3. It denies group activity
4. Pupils left alone in laboratory are likely to attempt indiscriminate
experimentation, which may result in damage of the apparatus
and materials (Joseph, 1982).
XII. Differential teaching

Differential teaching is adjusting the teaching according to
individual differences. In a class, there will be gifted, average and
slow learners. In this method different programmes will be given to
these groups. Among the slow learners, there may be physically and
mentally challenged children. Special training should be given to
mentally and physically challenged children. This kind of teaching is
called differential teaching.
The classroom teaching involves tasks with varying degrees of
complexity and difficulty or with difference in subject matter in tune
with the individual abilities, needs and interests. There are three basic
procedures in differential teaching.
1. Assigning individual projects accounting for individual
differences
2. Dividing the class into several heterogeneous groups so that a
variety of talents may be shared or using more homogeneous
groups each assigned with different activities
3. Designing home-work assignments with built-in choices
XIII. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning, although developed in the 1950s by Thelen
(1954) has been widely implemented and researched since 1970s.
Today there are many methods of cooperative learning developed by
different researchers. Well-known scholars like Slavin (1978), Johnson

and Johnson (1986), Sharan and Shashar (1988), and Kagan (1992)
spearheaded the development of cooperative learning.
Cooperative learning is defined as “students working together
to attain group goals that cannot be obtained by working alone or
competitively” (Johnson & Johnson, 1986). It is an act of learning
together. It promotes creative thinking by increasing the number of
ideas, quality of ideas, feelings of stimulation and enjoyment and
originality of expression in creative problem solving. Here the students
are triggered by the ideas of others and different perspectives cause
group members to consider a large number of alternatives.
Theoretical framework for cooperative learning

In cooperative learning, Slavin (2000), values two major
theoretical bases for learning - - ‘motivational’ and ‘cognitive.’ With
respect to the motivational aspect, cooperative learning persists in
the significance of incentives as motivators for further cooperation to
facilitate and deepen learning. Therefore, it appreciates the creation
of a context in which group members can attain their personal goals
only through group attainment. As far as the cognitive aspect is
concerned, cooperative learning helps students to acquire critical
thinking skills.
Richards and Rodgers (2001) argues that cooperative learning
possesses its own theory of language and theory of learning. In its
theory of language, cooperative learning sees language as a tool for
social relations. Students are provided with authentic contexts for
negotiation of meaning through use of the language. In its theory,
cooperative learning is based on the works of developmental
psychologists like John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Kohlberg and especially
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky; all these works accentuate the central role
of social interaction in learning, which promotes collaboration and
eventually independent problem solving.
Elements of cooperative learning

Stahl (1996) enumerates the following elements of cooperative
learning that are essential for successful implementation of
cooperative teaching-learning situations.

1. A clear set of specific learning outcomes: Teachers should describe
in very unambiguous language the specific knowledge and
abilities students are to acquire and then demonstrate on their
own
2. Collective “buy in” to outcome objectives by all students in the
group: Students must collectively accept the expected results as
their own and as something, they want to achieve individually
and as a team
3. A clear and complete set of task-completion instructions: Teacher
must provide directions that describe in clear, precise terms what
students in their respective groups are to do, in what order, with
what materials
4. Heterogeneous groups: Teacher should organise the three, four
or five member small groups. So students are mixed as
heterogeneously as possible, first according to academic abilities
and then based on ethnic background, race and gender
5. Equal opportunity for success: Each student must perceive that
s/he has just as much chance to learn the content and abilities
and to learn the group rewards for academic success by being in
the group
6. Positive interdependence: Within co-operative learning situations,
students have two responsibilities - - a) learns the assigned
materials and b) ensure that all members of the group learn the
assigned material. The technical term for this dual responsibility
is positive Interdependence
7. Face to face promotive interaction: For all the group works,
students should arrange themselves so that they are positioned
and postured facing one another to enable direct eye contact
and face-to-face academic conversations. Promotive interaction
is defined as individuals encouraging and facilitating each other’s
efforts to achieve and complete tasks to reach the group’s goals
8. Positive social interaction behaviours and attitudes: To work
together in a group as an effective academic team, students must
engage in such interaction abilities as leadership, trust building,

conflict management, constructive criticism, encouragement,
compromise, negotiation and clarification
9. Access to must-learn information: Students must have access to
and comprehend the specific information that they must learn
and that is aligned directly with the outcome objectives and the
test items that will be used to measure their academic achievement
10. Opportunities to finish must-complete information processing
tasks: For students to be successful, each must complete a number
of internal information processing tasks aligned with targeted
objectives
11. Sufficient time-spent learning: Each student and each group must
be given the time to learn the targeted information and abilities
to the expected extent
12. Individual accountability (personal responsibility for learning the
targeted content and abilities): Individual accountability exists
when the performance of each individual member is assessed,
the feedback to the individual and the group to compare against
a standard of performance, and the member is held responsible
by group mates for contributing his or her share to the group’s
success
13. Public recognition and rewards for group academic success: The
teacher grades the individual tests, computes the average scores
per team, and determines the appropriate team prizes. The
students receive awards on the day following the test
14. Post-group reflection (debriefing) within group behaviours:
Students must spend time after group tasks to systematically
reflect upon how they worked together as a team. They should
discuss group maintenance; social and group processing
behaviours, roles, and attitudes; and particular behaviours and
attitudes; that promote or prevent the group’s and individual
member’s success
Thus, cooperative learning involves the working together of
students to achieve the shared learning goals by ensuring that, they
and their group mates have successfully completed the learning task
assigned to them.
Types of cooperative learning

The types of cooperative learning adopted in our classroom
include following:
1. Formal cooperative learning

This is the most widely used method. Formal learning groups
involve students working together, for one or several class sessions,
to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks
and assignments. These groups provide the foundation for all other
cooperative learning procedures. They are structured through the
following sequence.
(i) Specify the student outcome objectives for the lesson
(ii) Make a number of instructional decisions
(iii) Explain the task and the position interdependence within the
groups to provide task assistance or increase students’
interpersonal and groups skills
(iv) Evaluate students’ learning
(v) Help students’ assess how well their groups functioned
While forming small formal cooperative learning groups for
students conducting experimental activity, the roles may include
organiser, record writer, assistant, and observer. The goal of the
teacher is to maximise interdependence and active learning among
students. Students become capable of organising themselves as they
gain experience.
2. Informal cooperative learning

An informal cooperative learning group is one in which students
work together in temporary, ad-hoc groups that last for only one
discussion or class period to achieve joint learning goals. Informal
cooperative learning groups are used to focus sufficient attention on
the material to be learned, create an expectation set and mood
conducive to learning, ensure and provide closure to an instructional

session. The one-period long group work activity designed for
conducting any laboratory work in small groups (usually three to
four students) is an example of an informal cooperative learning group.
3. Cooperative base/home groups

These are long-term heterogeneous cooperative learning groups
with a stable membership, whose primary responsibility is to give
each member support, encouragement, and assistance needed for each
one to progress academically, develop cognitively and socially in a
healthy way.
Base groups may also be responsible for letting group members
who were absent know what went on in the class when they miss a
session. Informally everyday, members interact within and between
classes, discussing assignments and helping one another with
homework. The use of base groups tends to improve attendance
personating the work required and the school experience, and improve
the quality and quantity of academic achievement. The larger the
class or school, the more complex and difficult the subject matter, the
more important it is to have base groups.
4. Cooperative learning scripts

Cooperative learning scripts are standard procedures for
conducting repetitive lessons and managing classroom routines. These
repetitive lessons provide a base on which the cooperative classrooms
may be built.
Steps involved in cooperative learning.

Kagan (1992) lists the following steps in the cooperative learning:
1. Student centred class discussion
In this, the students are motivated to invent and express their
own interest in the subject covered. The aim of the discussion is to
increase their involvement in the topic by stimulating their curiosity.
The discussion should lead to an understanding among all students
and the teacher, about what the students want to learn and experience
in relation to the topic. Thus cooperative learning is a process that

flows out of the interests of the students.
2. Selection of student learning teams

The students may be assigned to teams or may be allowed to
select their teams, depending on the goals of the class. By maximising
the heterogeneity among the students’ teams, the teacher increases
the probability of establishing positive peer tutoring, improving ethnic
and social relations, increasing role-taking abilities, and improving
self-esteem among the students. Thus teams assigned by the teacher
on the basis of heterogeneity increase the need for team-building
experiences.
3. Team-building
Several team-building techniques have been designed. They are
designed to introduce students to each other and for overcoming
resistance among students. Two of these techniques are interview
and round table brain-storming. Interview helps students to introduce
each other. Round table brain-storming produces a strong team
identity, a willingness to work in teams and a sense of the mutual
interdependence of the team-mates and the need for cooperative
interaction.
4. Team topic selection
The teams are allowed to select the topics for their team. Before
doing this, the teams are reminded which topics the class as a whole
has indicated are of greater interest. The team-mates are encouraged
to discuss among themselves the various topics so that they can settle
on the topic of most interest to themselves as a group. As the teams
discuss their interests and begin to settle on a topic, the teacher
circulates among the teams and acts as a facilitator. Thus each of the
teams will settle on a topic and will feel identified with its topic.
5. Minitopic selection
Individual students are encouraged to select minitopics, each of
which covers one aspect of the team topic. Minitopics may have
some overlap, and the students within teams are encouraged to share
references and resources, but each minitopic must provide a unique

contribution to the team effort. The teachers may require that
minitopics meet the approval of the teacher because some topics may
be appropriate to the level of a given student, or because sufficient
resources may not be available on a given topic.
6. Minitopic preparation
The preparation of minitopics takes different forms, depending
on the nature of the topic. The preparation may involve library
research, some form of data gathering, the creation of an individual
project, interviews of experts, the planning of an individual
contribution to a group project, or introspection. All of these activities
take on a heightened interest when the students know that they will
be sharing the fruits of their labour with their team-mates.
7. Minitopic presentations
The minitopic presentations and their discussion within teams is
an extremely important step in cooperative learning. Minitopic
presentations and discussion within teams are done so that all of the
team-mates are exposed to the knowledge or experience acquired by
each, and so that they can actively discuss the topic as a panel of
experts. In the preparation of the minitopic presentations, the teacher
may review the principles of active listening, interviewing and
supportive questioning. Thus the team presentation becomes far more
than, the sum of the mini-presentations.
8. Preparation of team presentations
The teams are informed of how long their presentations will be,
and they are encouraged to plan a presentation that will be interesting
and informative. Non-lecture formats such as debates, displays,
demonstrations, skits, etc., are encouraged. The use of blackboards is
also encouraged. Some teams find it useful to make a media
presentation such as slide show, OHP, etc.
9. Team presentations
The team members become responsible for how the time, the space
and the equipment of the classroom are to be used during their
presentations. One of the greatest difficulties that students have with
their first team presentation is managing time. So there is a need to

appoint a class timekeeper who is not a member of the presenting
team. The teacher may find it useful, following the presentation, to
lead a feedback session and/or to interview the team so that other
teams can learn something about what was involved in the process
of developing the presentation.
10. Evaluation
In this the teachers may wish to elicit comments from the class in
order to evaluate each cooperative learning unit after all teams have
made their presentation on that unit. Following each team
presentation, the teacher may guide a class discussion of the strongest
and weakest elements in the content and the format of the
presentation. Some teachers and students find it comfortable to derive
individual grades from the minitopic papers, the minitopic
presentations, and the team presentations. Others prefer to make
learning and sharing their own reward.
Requisites of an effective cooperative learning situation

There are certain factors needed for cooperative learning for its
smooth functioning. They are:
1. Group formation: This is the planning process in which, the
teacher engages to compose the most efficient grouping based
on the goals of the experience. It involves the aspects such as
assigning students to groups, size of the group, composition of
the group, and classroom arrangement.
2. The role of teacher: The role of the teacher in cooperative
learning is summarised as follows:
(i) Specifying the objective for the lesson
(ii) Making decisions about placing the learning groups before
the lesson is taught
(iii) Explaining the task and goal structure to students
(iv) Careful observation and supportive intervention-
monitoring the effectiveness of the cooperative learning
groups and intervening to provide task assistance or to
increase students interpersonal and group skills

(v) Evaluating the student’s achievement and helping students
discuss how well they collaborated with each other
3. Assessment: The assessment of cooperative learning situation
can be done at two levels - (i) assessment of individual
performance and (ii) assessment of group performance.
Cooperative learning must be used predominantly to prepare
students to live in interdependent, diverse and rapidly developing
world. Therefore, cooperative learning is uniquely suited for science
teaching.
B. Techniques of Teaching
Teaching methods can be implemented through different
techniques of teaching. Methods of teaching determine the way or
style in which content is to be presented whereas, a technique of
teaching assists or helps in the presentation of content in teaching-
learning process. Teaching methods reveal how content is presented
in classrooms, while techniques indicate the activities to be followed
in teaching. Techniques are logical as well as psychological in nature.
Sometimes the nature of the content is most important in employing
a particular technique of teaching. A method includes several
techniques of teaching and one technique employs several maxims of
teaching. There are different teaching techniques such as questioning,
narration, description, explanation, exposition, illustration,
storytelling, etc. (Sharma, 2003). Two important small group-teaching
techniques suitable for classroom practice - buzz session and
brainstorming - are discussed below.
I. Buzz Session
Buzz session is a small group technique with a high degree of
student involvement. This technique is employed during the course
of a lecture or some other similar programme where the students
become motivated and seized with the issues involved (Vedanayagam,
1988). The success of buzz group techniques depends on the awareness
and compliance of the rules and procedure of the technique on the
part of students.
Organisation of buzz session

A typical way of organising a buzz group technique initially
consists of dividing the class into different sub-groups of six to seven
members. The subgroups are then given a minute to select a discussion
leader and a rapporteur. It is the responsibility of the leader of the
sub-group to see that each member of the group expresses himself/
herself freely. After the discussions, the groups reassemble to
reconstitute the original large group. The rapporteur of each sub-
group then presents the summary of the reactions of the group
members to the original presentation. If the members raise any
question, the rapporteur should answer it during the course of
discussion. The unresolved points (if any) are referred back to the
concerned groups for the subsequent discussions and reporting to
the plenary session once again. Finally, the general group reaches a
consensus regarding the solution of the concerned problem.
A teacher can use the buzz session at the beginning of the school
year to help students get to know each other. In such a situation,
students can talk about themselves, their interest, hobbies and other
matters of concern.
Advantages of buzz session

1. It promotes critical thinking among pupils
2. All aspects of a particular problem can be discussed
3. It ensures the involvement of all its participants
4. Helps to develop social skills
Disadvantages of buzz session

1. It needs expertise from the part of teacher
2. It cannot work fruitfully in lower classes
II. Brainstorming
Brainstorming is an activity designed to promote creativity. This
technique was developed by Osborn. It is a problem-oriented strategy
of teaching. This is a form of discussion which enables the group to

do collective and creative thinking. The emphasis is on eliciting of as
many different ideas as possible for more careful considerations later.
This strategy is based on the assumption that a student can learn
better in a group rather than in individual study. This is completely a
permissive style of teaching strategy.
In brainstorming technique, the higher order objectives in
cognitive and affective domains can be achieved. This strategy
consists of a problem-solving situation in which the learners are
assigned a problem and they are asked to discuss any idea
which come to their mind. The group is encouraged to provide
even unusual suggestions. They have to analyse and evaluate the
workability of their own suggestions of the problem. There should
be a person to lead or guide the different groups of the programme
and is called anchor. Anchor has to record all the ideas generated
during the discussion.
Stages in brainstorming
( 1 ) Warm up - in this stage, anchor presents the problem formally
and asks different groups to express their ideas freely. The anchor
should make the situation more interesting for the groups so that
they can express freely. In the classroom situations, normally the
teacher takes the role of anchor. After three or four sessions, his/
her role can be given to students. Warming up can be done by
citing an event, through a small story or through an interesting
description.
( 2 ) Ideation - this is the stage where the groups express their ideas
freely. The anchor should make sure that all the ideas are
recorded.
( 3 ) Evaluation - this is the last stage and in this stage, the evaluation
of different ideas is done. The criteria, which are formulated
through discussion, are used as references to evaluate the ideas.
From these, the most suitable idea is selected as the solution of
the problem under consideration.
Principles of Brainstorming
For brainstorming to be effective, it should be based on the
following principles:
( 1 ) Freewheeling: Once the brain storming session is started, it
should work as a free wheel. It means that there should be no
obstructions to express the ideas. The ideas may be irrelevant or
foolish. Whatever it may be, the group can express it.
( 2 ) No criticism: There should be no such act which hinders the
ideas of groups; even gestures should be avoided.
( 3 ) Quantity breeds quality: As the number of ideas (quantity)
increases, there will be more ideas, which are relevant to the
purpose. The anchor should encourage the group to give more
ideas.
( 4 ) Hitch-hiking: For the formulation of a suitable solution to the
problem, the different ideas can be adopted or accepted. Based
on these ideas, we can create and modify new ideas. Hitch-hiking
is a popular usage; a person reaches his destination with the
help of others.
Steps in brain storming

1. Plan all phases of the problem and think about the sub-problems
which may emerge
2. Select sub-problems to be attacked
3. Think about the differences which may help involving them
4. Select the probable sources of data and collect the most relevant
data
5. Decide the possible ideas through free-wheeling with suspended
judgements, which hints to the solution
6. Select ideas that are most likely to lead to the solution
7. Consider possible ways to test these ideas
8. Test the ideas in terms of relevance, adequacy and sufficiency
9. Imagine all possible contingencies and ways of meeting them
10. Take decisions about the final solution of the problem
Advantages of brainstorming
1. It has both psychological and educational basis of teaching
2. It is a creative strategy of teaching and encourages for eliciting
original ideas
3. It provides a number of ideas of good quality
4. It creates the situations for independent thinking among learners
C. Models of Teaching
Models of teaching deal with a rich variety of approaches to the
problem of teaching. They are intended to help teachers to provide
meaningful effective learning situations. It provides guidelines what
to teach, how to teach and what actions to take while teaching. A
model of teaching contains steps and procedures to generate desired
outcome in learning.
Model of teaching is defined by Joyce and Weil as a plan or pattern
which can be used to design classroom instruction and shape
instructional materials including books and curricula (cited in
Aggarwal, 1995). There are a large number of learning models that
students can easily respond, and complex ones, which the students
gradually acquire through skilful instruction. Some models aim at
specific objectives; others have a broader usefulness.
Models of teaching are really models of learning. The ultimate
outcome of good teaching is good learning. “As we help students
acquire information, ideas, skills, values, ways of thinking, and means
of expressing themselves we are also teaching them how to learn”
(Joyce & Weil, 2003). A model of teaching must enable the students
to learn more easily and effectively and to develop the knowledge
and skills required to master the learning process systematically.
Effective learning must create powerful learners.
Characteristics of a teaching model

Aggarwal (1995) lists the following characteristics for a good
model:
97
( 1 ) Specification of learning outcome - a model of teaching

specifies what the students should perform after completing an
instructional sequence. It specifies the exact learning outcomes.
( 2 ) Specification of learning environment - a good teaching
model specifies in definite terms the environmental conditions
under which a student’s response will be observed.
( 3 ) Specification of criterion of performance - a model of
teaching specifies the criterion of performance, which is expected
from the students.
( 4 ) Specification of operations - a model of teaching specifies
the mechanism that provides for the reaction of students and
interaction with the environment.
( 5 ) Scientific procedure - a model of teaching is based on a
systematic procedure to modify the behaviour of the learner.
Methods of teaching and models of teaching

Models of teaching differ from methods of teaching in many
aspects. A method stands for the dissemination of content. However,
models of teaching aim at the realisation of pre-determined objectives
besides content transaction. Presentation of the content is the core
process of any teaching method, whereas models of teaching
emphasise on definite stages known as phases for its presentation.
The content to be presented determines the method adopted, while
the objectives to be achieved determine the teaching model. Method
is generally a mode or way of presentation; different methods can be
used for presenting one subject matter. Models are instructional
designs; it refers to formal structure of the sequence of acts to be carried
out in classroom and other settings. Generally, models of teaching
are supported by sound theories of teaching and learning. Moreover
they give emphasis to metacognitive (the awareness of the way in
which the knowledge was cognised) aspects in learning.
Types of teaching models

There exists huge variety of teaching models arising from a
variety of sources representing different frames of reference towards
educational goals. They include historical teaching models,

philosophical teaching models, psychological teaching models,
teaching models for teacher education and modern teaching models
(Aggarwal, 1995; Sharma, 2003). Here an attempt is made to describe
the modern models of teaching.
Modern models of teaching

Joyce and Weil (2003) grouped the models of teaching into four
families based on their primary emphasis - the way they approach
educational goals and means. They are - - (1) information processing
family, (2) personal family, (3) social family, and (4) behavioural
systems family. Each of the families is discussed below.
1) Social family
The social models of teaching are developed to generate ‘synergy’
(collective energy generated when people work together). The teaching
models of social family or social interaction oriented family aim to
develop social efficiency among people. Joyce and Weil emphasise
the function of social family of models as they give priority for
improvement of democratic processes and the improvement of the
society to the improvement of individual’s ability (cited in Mangal,
1995). The different models belonging to this family of teaching models
are listed below (Joyce & Weil, 2003, p. 13).
Model Developers
1 Partners in learning
Positive interdependence David Johnson,
Roger Johnson,
Margarita Calderon
Elizabeth Cohen
Structured inquiry Robert Slavin
2 Group investigation John DeweyHerbart Thelen
3 Role playing Fannie Shaftel
4 Jurisprudential enquiry Donald Oliver James Shaver
2) Information processing family

Information processing models emphasise ways of enhancing the
human being’s innate drive to make sense of the world, by acquiring

and organising data, sensing problems and generating solutions to
them, and developing concepts and language for conveying them
(Joyce & Weil, 2003). Models included in information processing family
are helpful for the processing of information. Information processing
models are more concerned with the intellectual growth rather than
the emotional or social development of the individual. Here the
knowledge is acquired while they collect and operate information.
The models belonging to this family are categorised as following (Joyce
& Weil, 2003, p. 15):
Model Developers
1 Inductive thinking
(classification-oriented) Hilda Taba
2 Concept attainment Jerome Bruner
3 Mnemonics
(memory assists) Michael Pressley
Joel Levin
Richard Anderson
4 Advanced organisers David Ausubel
5 Scientific enquiry Joseph Schwab
6 Inquiry training model Richard Suchman
7 Synectics Bill Gordon
3) Personal family
The personal models of teaching begin from the perspective of
selfhood of the individual. They attempt to shape education so that
we come to understand ourselves better, take responsibility for our
education and learn to reach beyond our current development to
become stronger, more sensitive and more creative in our search for
high quality lives. The models of personal family pays great attention
to the individual perspective and seeks to encourage productive
independence so that people become increasingly self-aware and
responsible for their own destinies (Joyce and Weil, 2003, p. 18). The
models belonging to the personal family are listed below:
Model Developers
1 Non-directive eaching Carl Rogers
2 Enhancing self-esteem Abraham Maslow
4) Behavioural systems family

The various teaching models in this family focus the attainment
of self-control, the proficiency to reduce mental strain, to develop
leadership qualities and to meet the challenges suitably. These models
have their origin in the classical conditioning experiments of Pavlov
in 1927, the work of Thorndike on reward learning in 1898, 1911
and in 1913, and the studies of Watson and his associates who applied
the Pavlovian principles to the psychological disorders of human
beings. It was only in the past three to four decades that behaviour
theory (learning) has been systematically applied in school settings.
The impetus on these recent applications comes primarily from the
works of B.F. Skinner and Wolpe. It can be seen that Skinner’s operant
conditioning has given birth to most of the models belonging to this
family (Sharma, 2003). The different models in this family are listed
below (Joyce & Weil, 2003, p. 20).
Model Developers
1 Mastery learning Benjamin Bloom, James Block
2 Direct instruction Tom Good, Jere Brophy,
Carl Gereiter, Ziggy Engleman,
Wes Becker
3 Simulation Carl Smith, Mary Smith
4 Social learning Albert Bandura, Carl Thoresen
Wes Becker
5 Programmed schedule B.F. Skinner
Description of fundamental elements of a teaching model

A teaching model provides valuable guidelines and blue print
for carrying out the task of the realisation of some specific goals. In
order to make use of a model, a teacher must be properly acquainted
with the knowledge of the fundamental elements of that model.
Generally, a teaching model is described in the context of some

fundamental elements. The major elements needed for the description
of a teaching model are - - focus, syntax, principles of reaction, social
system, support system and instructional and nurturant effects
(Mangal, 1995; Sharma, 2003). However, the element focus is not
discussed in Joyce and Weil (2003).
1. Focus: Focus is the central aspect of a teaching model. For what
the model stands, is the theme of the focus. All of the teaching
models are meant for achieving some specific goals or objectives
of teaching in relation to the environment of the learner.
Therefore, objectives of teaching and aspects of the environment
generally constitute the focus of the model (Mangal, 1995).
2. Syntax: The term syntax refers to the description of the model
in action. It describes the sequence of activities in the model -
‘how to start, how to proceed and how to conclude.’
3. Principles of reaction: This element of the model describes
how should a teacher regard and respond to the activities of the
students while working out the model. These responses should
be quite appropriate and selective. Sometimes, s/he may shape
the behaviour of the students by some activities, sometimes avoids
the positive reactions from the part of students and in some other
cases, teacher adopts passive role allowing students to be self-
directive.
4. The social system: The social system describes the roles and
relationship of the students and teacher. In some models, teacher
is the centre of activity; in some others, active participants are
students. There are also models in which both the student and
the teacher share the activity more or less equally. In the first
case, the social system is highly structured and can be planned
earlier; in the second, the system is low structured and in third,
it is moderately structured or medium structured. The role
of the teacher varies from model to model and the way in which
the student behaviour is rewarded also differs from model to
model.
5. The support system: The support system indicates the
supporting conditions necessary for the proper functioning of

the model. It describes the teaching tools, human skills, capacities
and technical facilities used in working out the teaching model.
6. Instructional and nurturant effect: This is the element of a
model, which describes its application context. Some models are
meant for short lessons, some for large and some for both. They
also differ in terms of the goal achievements. Each model through
its element of application context tries to describe the feasibility
of its use in varying context achieving specific educational goals
and demanding specific work environment (Mangal, 1995). The
applicability of the model produces two effects viz.
(i) Instructional effect (Direct effect)
(ii) Nurturant effect (Indirect effect or implicit effect)
Functions and applications of teaching models

1. They suggest the ways and techniques of creating favourable
environmental situations for carrying out teaching process
2. They help in achieving desirable teacher pupil interaction during
teaching
3. The ultimate goal of bringing desirable changes in the behaviour
of pupil may be achieved through these designs
4. They help in the construction of a curriculum or contents of a
course
5. They help the teacher to select appropriate teaching techniques,
strategies or methods for the effective utilisation of the teaching
situations and materials
6. They help in the proper selection of instruction materials for
teaching the prepared curriculum or course
7. They are helpful to design the appropriate educational activities
8. They stimulate the development of new educational innovations
9. They help to establish teaching and learning relationship
empirically
10. They are useful to develop social, personal and cognitive abilities
Description of selected teaching models
a. Concept Attainment Model (CAM)

Jerome S. Bruner and his associates Jacqueline Goodnow and
George Austine are credited for the development of concept
attainment model. This model is based on the assumption that human
beings are endowed with the capacity to discriminate and to categorise
objects and phenomena into groups (Aggarwal, 1995). The concept
attainment model helps students to describe the similarities and
relationship among things of the environment.
Major ideas behind concept attainment

1. Our environment is full of tremendously diverse things and it is
impossible to adjust with it, if one is not endowed with the
capacity to discriminate, to categorise things in groups and to
form concepts. In order to interpret various things, it is necessary
to classify objects or events on the basis of similarities and
differences. According to Bruner - - “to perceive is to categorise,
to conceptualise is to categorise, to learn is to form categories, to
make decision is to categorise.” That is, in order to interpret
various objects or events, there is a coding system in every
individual and a well-structured coding system should be
developed in an individual through education.
2. A concept, a generalised mental image, which represents all the
members in a particular category. Simply it is an abstraction from
facts. Concepts form the basic vocabulary for efficient learning.
A concept includes five elements. They are:
(a) Name - is the word that describes a concept for
communication, for example, atom, friction, etc.
(b) Exemplars - are the instances or items that could be used
in the process of categorisation. They may include positive
examples (exemplars) and negative examples (non-
exemplars). Items that obey all the essential characteristics
used for categorisation leading to the concept are positive
examples. Whereas items that do not satisfy all the
characteristics of positive example, but are needed for

making the grouping meaningful are called negative
examples. The knowledge of negative examples is essential
because the ability to distinguish positive examples definitely
develops only through comparisons with related negative
examples.
(c) Attributes - are the features or characteristics based on
which a number of items could be categorised into a
particular group or class that represents the concept. The
features that are crucial for the occurrence of the object or
event are called essential attributes. Certain others are not
to be considered essential and are called non-essential
attributes. For example, consider the attributes of concept
“metals” - malleability, ductility, lustre, presence of free
electrons, etc. are attributes. However, the essential attribute
of a metal is the presence of free electrons; others are non-
essential.
( d ) Attribute value - attributes have value and range. The
value of an attribute is evaluated or identified based on its
role in identifying and defining a particular concept. For
example, consider the concept poison. Chlorine is a poison
that we put in water. Yet, we judge the amount of chlorine
that will kill certain bacteria and still not harm human beings.
Therefore, tap water is not an exemplar of poisonous water
because it does not contain enough poison to harm human
beings. The value of the attribute is low enough; its presence
does not give the water membership in the category
poisonous to human beings.
(e) Rule or definition - is formed from the essential attributes
to describe a concept. It is the statement of the meaning
attached to a word expression, operation or symbol.
3. Learning is nothing but learning to learn. The learning material
and the process of learning are equally important. Effective and
the systematic ways of solving problems should be devised, that
is, every learner should learn how to learn.
4. Make use of the wonderful gift given to human being by nature

- curiosity as the dynamic force leading to discover.
5. Anything can be taught to anybody in any level of development
in an intellectually honest manner (Bruner, 1961). Experiences
should be selected in accordance with the developmental stages
of the learners.
6. The strategy to learn should be discovery learning.
7. Categorising activity has two components, the act of concept
formation and the act of concept attainment. In the concept
attainment, the concept is determined in advance and the task is
to determine the elements of the concept. Concept formation is
the act by which new categories are formed; it is an act of
invention.
Description of concept attainment model

Based on the ideas put forward by Bruner and his associates,
different models of teaching have been developed. They are - - (1)
reception model of concept attainment (2) selection model of concept
attainment and (3) the model of unorganised material. Each of those
models has a slight different sequence of activities (syntax) but all are
developed from a common conceptual base. The reception model is
described below.
Description of reception model of concept attainment

( 1 ) Focus - it is to help the students in the attainment of a particular
concept. It also enables them to become aware of the process of
conceptualising.
( 2 ) Syntax - sequence of the phases and activities in reception model
is outlined below
Phase I: Presentation of data and identification of the

concept
Activities (i) presenting examples with ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ labels in a
prearranged order by the teacher
(ii) comparing attributes from positive and negative
examples
(iii) generating and testing hypothesis
(iv) stating the rule or definition of the concept according
to its essential attributes
Phase II: Testing attainment of the concept

Activities (i) correctly identifying additional unlabelled examples
of the concept as ‘Yes’ or ‘No’
(ii) generating own examples
Phase III: Analysis of the thinking strategy

Activities (i) describing thoughts
(ii) describing role of hypothesis and attributes
(iii) discussing type and number of hypothesis
(iv) evaluating the strategies
(3) Principles of reaction

During the flow of the lesson, the teacher needs to be supportive
of the students’ hypothesis - emphasising, however that they are
hypothetical in nature - and to create a dialogue in which students
test their hypothesis against each others’. In the later phases of the
model, the teacher must turn the students’ attention towards analysis
of their concept and their thinking strategies, again being very
supportive. The teacher should encourage analysis of the merits of
various strategies rather than attempting to seek one best strategy for
all pupils in all situations (Joyce & Weil, 2003).
(4) Social system

In CAM, the teacher chooses the concept, selects and organises
the material into positive and negative examples. The teacher will
have to design the material (sequence them) in such a way that the
attributes are clear. The teacher acts as a recorder, keeping track of
hypotheses (concepts) as they are mentioned and about the attributes.
The teacher also supplies additional examples as needed. The three
major function of teacher during concept attainment activity are: (1)

to record, (2) to prompt (cue) and (3) to present additional data
(examples). Thus, generally the social system in CAM is highly
structured. A close examination of the syntax proves that the phase
one is highly structured, phase two is moderately structured and phase
three is low structured.
(5) Support system

Concept attainment model requires appropriate examples and
non-examples as the most important support system to facilitate the
class. Materials so designed with concepts embedded in it can be used
– black board, stuffed materials, etc. Creation of atmosphere for the
class is also important.
(6) Instructional and nurturant effects

a. Instructional effects
(i) getting clear notions about the nature of concepts
(ii) developing skills in using appropriate concept building
strategies
(iii) attaining the specific concept
(iv) developing skill in inductive reasoning
b. Nurturant effects
(i) sensitivity to logical reasoning
(ii) tolerance of ambiguity and initial errors
(iii) a sense of using alternative perspectives
Unlike reception model, the tracking and analysis of the attributes
is quite informal in selection model. The selection model differs from
reception model in respect of the labelling of examples. While in reception
model all the examples are labelled wheras the selection model requires
unlabelled examples with the exception of first two demonstrated in
the beginning (Mangal, 1995). The selection model puts more
responsibility and demands on the student in comparison to reception
model; so this model is more suitable for students at higher level.
The unorganised material model represents third variation in the

teaching of concept attainment. It is similar to reception and selection
model, but the difference is that except the first two, all other examples
are provided by the students; ensuring more autonomy to students.
This model is suitable for higher grades (Mangal, 1995).
Merits of concept attainment model

(1) It is a natural way of teaching and learning
(2) It is helpful in developing the power of imagination of the students
(3) It helps in the developments of reasoning power of the students
(4) It helps the students to analyse things systematically
(5) It keeps students actively engaged in the classroom activity
(6) It helps students in making good reasons
(7) It encourages students in the habit of self-study
(8) It helps the learners to apply their knowledge in different
situations
(9) It keeps the students busy in the classroom work
A sample lesson plan based on CAM is given in Appendix I.
b. Inquiry Training Model (ITM)

Richard Suchman developed the inquiry training model for
developing scientific inquiry skills in pupils. This model is developed
for the systematic understanding of the subject matter and to develop
various process skills, which leads to new theories and principles.
The abilities such as productivity in creative thinking, skills for
analysing and collecting information, patience, objectivity, curiosity,
intellectual discipline, etc. can be developed through this model.
Major ideas behind inquiry training

Inquiry training originated in a belief in the development of
independent learners; its method requires active participation in
science inquiry. Suchman summarises the goals of inquiry training
model through his theory. His theory is that (cited in Joyce & Weil,
2003, p. 194):
1. Students inquire naturally, when they are puzzled.

2. They can become conscious of and learn to analyse their thinking
strategies
3. New strategies can be taught directly and added to the students’
existing ones
4. Cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn
about the tentative, emergent nature of knowledge and to
appreciate alternative explanations
Description of inquiry training model

(1) Focus: The focus of this model is to improve the inquiry skills of
the children through systematic inquiry training.
( 2 ) Syntax: The syntax of inquiry training model consists of five
phases. The first phase is the students’ confrontation with the
puzzling situation. Phases two and three are data gathering
operation of verification and experimentation. In these two
phases, students ask a series of questions to which teacher replies
yes or no and they conduct a series of experiments on the
environment of the problem situation. In the fourth phase
students, organise the information they obtain during the data
gathering and try to explain the discrepancy. Finally, in phase
five, students analyse the problem solving strategies they used
during the inquiry. The phases and the concerned operations
are summarised as follows (Joyce & Weil, 2003).
Phase I: Confrontation with the problem

In phase one, the teacher presents a problem situation and
explains the inquiry procedure to students (the objectives and
procedure of yes/no question). The discrepant event can be a puzzle,
problem, riddle or a magic trick that doesn’t require much background
knowledge. A discrepant event is the one that entails conflict with
our notions of reality.
Phase II: Data gathering – verification

In phase two, students gather information (data) about the event
that they see or experience. During this phase students ask questions
about - - (1) object, (2) event, (3) condition, and (4) properties. Each
type of question is briefly described below.
1. Object questions: Object questions are intended to determine
the nature or identity of object. For example, is the bimetal strip
made of copper and Iron? Is the compound a hydrocarbon?
2. Event questions: Event questions attempt to verify the occurrence
or nature of an action. For example, did the metal strip bend?
Did the compound burn in the absence of a compound which is
a rich source of oxygen?
3. Condition questions: Condition questions relate to the state of
objects or systems at a particular time. For example, did the
temperature rise beyond 40oC after an hour?
4. Property questions: Property questions aim to verify the behaviour
of objects under certain conditions as a way of gaining new
information to help build a theory. For example, does copper
bend always when heated?
Phase III: Data gathering – experimentation

In phase three, that is, experimentation, students introduce new
elements (variables) into the situation to see if the event happens
differently. Experiments have two functions - - explorations and direct
testing. Exploration is changing things (adding or deleting a variable
or changing a variable quantitatively beyond the known limit) to see
what will happen.
The following guidelines will help students while asking questions.
1. Ensure that the questions are phrased in such a way so as to
elicit Yes/No response
2. Ask pupils to be specific with their questions
3. Direct pupils’ enquiry questions towards objects, events,
conditions and property
4. Ask pupils to rephrase the inappropriate questions

5. Encourage interaction among pupils.
6. Provide a free intellectual environment without evaluating pupil’s
questions.
7. Review the questions and responses to help the students to keep
track of the process.
Phase IV: Organising, formulating an explanation

In phase four, the teacher calls on students to organise the data
and to formulate an explanation. Students can individually give their
explanation and the group can finally shape the explanation that
fully responds to the problem situation.
Phase V: Analysis of the inquiry process
In phase five, students are asked to analyse their pattern of
inquiry. They may determine the most effective questions and
productive line of questioning and the type of information they needed
which they may not have obtained.
( 3 ) Principles of reaction: The most important reactions of the
teacher take place during the second and third phases. During
the second phase, the teacher’s task is to help the students to
inquire but not to do the inquiry for them. If the teacher is asked
questions that cannot be answered by a yes or no, he or she must
ask the students to rephrase the questions to further their own
attempts to collect data and relate them to the problem situation.
The teacher can, if necessary, keep the inquiry moving by making
new information available to the group and by focusing on
particular problem events or by raising questions. During the
last phase, the teacher’s task is to keep the inquiry directed toward
the process of investigation itself (Joyce & Weil, 2003).
( 4 ) Social system: The social system of Inquiry training model is to
develop a cooperative and rigorous environment. Generally, the
social system of inquiry training model is highly structured. A
close examination of the syntax reveals that the social system is
highly structured in the beginning. In phase II and III, it seems to
be medium structured and gradually turns to low-structured in

phases IV and V.
(5) Support system: The supporting conditions for the effective use
of Inquiry training model are:
(i) A really perplexing and challenging problem and an appropriate
problematic situation that warrant inquiry
(ii) Technical understanding of the intellectual process and strategies
of inquiry
(iii) Resource materials bearing on the problem
( a ) Instructional effects
(i) develop skills in inquiry training
(ii) develop strategies for creative thinking
(iii) helps in developing process skills related to science
(iv) promotes active autonomous learning
(b) Nurturant effects
(i) increases creativity
(ii) develops tendency for self-study
(iii) develop tolerance towards ambiguities and difficulties
(iv) promotes co-operative learning
Merits of inquiry training model
(1) It helps in developing the imagination power of the students
(2) It gives training in analyzing things systematically
(3) It helps in developing reasoning power
(4) It provides training to students to raise suitable questions
(5) It gives training to the students for solving various problems of
life systematically
(6) It engages the continuous attention of the teacher as well as the
students. Students hardly can afford to be absent minded

A sample lesson plan based on ITM is given in Appendix II.
c. Cooperative Learning Model

Cooperative learning model is a teaching strategy, which allows
students to work together in groups with individuals of various talents,
abilities and backgrounds to accomplish a common goal. The
cooperative learning model operates on the belief that teacher-
dominated recitation is actually bad for society. It is based on the
philosophy of education that assumes that the aim of education is to
provide conditions in which the natural curiosity, intelligence and
expressiveness of students will emerge and develop (Kagan, 1992).
John Dewey is the dominating figure in the effort to develop models
on democratic processes. The proponents of the cooperative model
believe that knowledge is constructed and continuously reconstructed
by individuals and groups. Robert Slavin, Roger Johnson, Spencer
Kagen and several others have investigated the effects of co-operative
learning models.
Cooperative learning theorists differ in their views about whether
groups should compete with one another. Slavin favoured competition
whereas Johnson favoured co-operation. It is also encouraging to note
that students with proper academic histories benefit quickly.
Partnerships increase involvement, and the concentration on co-
operation has the side effect of reducing self-absorption and increasing
responsibility for personal learning. There is evidence to prove that
even gifted students perform well in cooperative learning
environments.
Tasks that require social interaction will stimulate learning. The
belief about cooperative learning is that cooperative behaviour is
intellectually stimulating.
Major ideas behind cooperative learning model (Joyce & Weil,
2003)
1. The synergy (collective energy) created in co-operative settings
of learning generates more motivation than individualistic and
competitive environments. Integrative social groups are, in effect,
more than the sum of their parts. The feelings of connectedness

produce positive energy.
2. The members of cooperative groups learn from one another. Each
learner has more helping hands than in a structure that generates
isolation.
3. Interacting with one another produces cognitive as well as social
complexity, creating more intellectual activity that increases
learning when contrasted with solitary study
4. Cooperation increases positive feeling towards one another,
reducing alienation and loneliness, building relationships and
providing affirmative views of other people
5. Cooperation increases self-esteem, not only through increased
learning but also through the feeling of being respected and cared
for by the others in the environment
6. Students can respond to experience in task requiring cooperation
by increasing their capacity to work productively together. In
other words, the more children are given more opportunity to
work together, the better they get at it, which benefit their general
and social skills.
7. Students, including primary school children can learn from
training to increase their ability to work together
Cooperative learning environment

The classroom is analogous to the larger society. It has a social
order and a classroom culture. Students care about the way of life
that develops in the classroom and the standards and expectations
that become established. The normal classroom order that develops
around the basic values of comfort and politeness or keeping the
teacher happy is rejected in this model. The classroom group develops
a social order towards a series of inquiries.
The group size can be two to six; however, groups larger than
six students require skilled leadership. Students should be trained for
working with efficiency in groups, in addition, they should be trained
to become truly interdependent. Procedures to take turns and to
assume responsibilities will improve interdependent behaviours among

group members. A variety of procedures has been developed to help
students learn how to help one another by dividing labour.
Description of cooperative learning model

(1) Focus: The focus of cooperative learning model is to build the
social skills among students. It includes leadership qualities,
decision-making abilities, communication skills, trust building,
conflict management, etc.
( 2 ) Syntax: The syntax of cooperative learning model consists of
six phases. The sequence of the phases in this model is outlined
below
Phase I : Students encounter a puzzling situation (planed or
unplanned)
Phase II : Students explore reactions to the situation
Phase III : Students formulate study task and organise for study
(problem definition, role-assignments, etc.)
Phase IV : Independent and group study
Phase V : Students analyse progress and process
Phase VI : Recycle activity
(3) Principles of reaction

The role of the teacher is one of counsellor, consultant, and
friendly critic. The teacher must guide and reflect the group experiences
over three levels - - (1) task level, (2) group management level and (3)
the level of individual meaning. The instructor must facilitate group
processes, intervene in the group to channel its energy into potentially
educative activities, and supervise these educative activities (Joyce &
Weil, 2003).
(4) Social system

The social system is democratic, governed by decisions
developed from or at least validated by the experiences of the group
directed towards the objectives of the study. The groups plan the
activities. Students and teacher have equal status except for role
differences. The atmosphere is one of reason and negotiation (Joyce
& Weil, 2003).
(5) Support system

The support system includes a well-stocked library in the
institution and liaison with outside resources as well.

a. Instructional effects
(i) it promotes constructivist view of knowledge and its
reconstruction
(ii) independence in learning and respect for the dignity of
others are well recognised
(iii) it encourages disciplined inquiry, effective group process and
governance
b. Nurturant effects
(i) respect for dignity of all and commitment to pluralism
(ii) independence as a learner
(iii) commitment to social inquiry
(iv) interpersonal warmth and affiliation
Merits of cooperative learning model

(1) It increases group cohesion as the team works to learn
information or skills while ensuring that all members have both
responsibility for learning and an important role in the group
(2) It is highly versatile and comprehensive
(3) It blends the goals of academic inquiry, social integration, and
social process learning
(4) It is based on the view of knowledge and it reconstruction
For many students, knowing that they would share what they
have learned with other students appeared to be far more powerful
motivational device than traditional letter grade (Kagen, 1992).
Cooperative learning is philosophically linked to group investigation,

which places faith in curiosity, intelligence, and expressiveness of
students rather than in extrinsic points and competitive motives. The
aim of education is to provide conditions in which the natural
curiosity, intelligence, and expressiveness of students will emerge and
develop. Traditional approaches, which assume that the student is
void into which educators must pump facts, theories, and methods.
Students learn in order to satisfy their own curiosity about themselves
and the world and to share with others. Students are encouraged to
discover and express their own interest in the subject covered. The
progress in learning is not toward a pre-determined teacher defined
goal; it is a process that flows out of the interests of the students.
119
Chapter V
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific method is a method, used for solving problems

scientifically. It is also referred to as ‘the method of science’ or ‘the
method of a scientist.’ Sometimes it is called ‘problem solving method.’
Scientific method is essential in the study of science. Scientific method
is used to standardise knowledge, which is considered ‘standard’ at
that time. This is because the scientific knowledge itself is quite
tentative in its character. While tracing the history of physics we can
see where father (J. J. Thomson) and son (George Thomson) received
Nobel prizes in 1906 and in 1937 for proving two opposite views on
the same subject - - the particle nature and wave nature of electrons
(Vaidya, 1971). This is because the fundamental ideas of science
change in the course of time.
Fields defined scientific method as “the systematic pursuit of
knowledge involving the recognition and formulation of a problem,
the collection of data through observation and experimentation, the
formulation of a hypothesis, and the testing and confirmation of that
hypothesis” (cited in Martin, Sexton, Wagner, & Gerlovich, 1997, p.
311).
According to Lundberg, “scientific method consists of systematic
observation, classification and interpretation of data.” According to
Karl Pearson, “the scientific method is marked by the following features
- (1) careful and accurate classification of facts, (2) observation of
their correlation and sequence, (3) discovery of scientific laws by the
aid of creative imagination, their self criticism, and (4) the final touch-
stone of equal validity for all normally constituted minds” (cited in

Mangal, 1990).
The scientific knowledge acquired through scientific method is
not static and is subject to change on further verification. The acquired
knowledge must be consistent with what we ‘know’ about the world
and it should be testable. The scientific method combines both
empirical evidence and the creative interpretation of data by scientists.
The outcome of scientific investigation is not totally objective as it is
the product of both observation and inference.
Steps in Scientific Method

There is no single set or sequence of steps in a scientific
investigation. In order to make use of scientific method, students
should be taught and well trained in the method of attacking a
problem. Different scientists adopt different methods for solving a
problem in hand. If a pre-planned procedure is used, they can
understand the problem clearly. Mills and Dean suggested six steps
for scientific method (cited in Vaidya, 1971). They are:
(1) Problem survey - analysing a potential problem situation for, item
to be studied
(2) Problem description - providing a clear statement for item to be
studied
(3) Problem discussion - making sure that the student understand
what is involved in the problem
(4) Problem limitation - isolating those part of the problem that can
be attacked profitably
(5) Planning for action - preparing suitable hypotheses for
investigation
(6) Further analysis and limitation - tentative testing of hypothesis
to identify those most likely to yield solution
Karl Pearson gave scientific method its modern form. The
following are the major steps of the scientific method (cited in Mangal,
1990).
SCIENTIFIC METHOD 121
(1) Sensing the problem including its definition, scope and analysis
(2) Experimentation
(3) Collection of data, interpretation of data, selecting and examining
the most fruitful hypothesis and arriving at a tentative solution
(4) Establishment of the law
(5) Generalisation of the law (theory)
(6) Application of the law to new situations
(7) Predictability
(8) Idealisation and abstraction
In scientific method, the investigator has to move through
various steps that are indispensable in the scientific endeavour. Joseph
(1982) listed the following five steps for scientific method.
(1) A felt difficulty
(2) Defining and locating the problem
(3) Suggestion of probable solutions (Formulation of hypotheses)
(4) Finding out the bearings of the solution
(5) Further observation and confirmation through experiments
Each of these steps is described below.
1. A felt difficulty
Sensing a problem from a given situation or previous experience
is the first. Teacher should accept the problem selected by the students
giving due consideration to its suitability to the curriculum, availability
of data, utility to the students in promoting scientific talents, interest
of students, possibility of group work and development of reflective
thinking. This step must be a co-operative endeavour of both the
teacher and the students.
The following example illustrates the first step in scientific method.
A cylindrical coil of insulated wire is taken and the ends of the wire
are connected to a small bulb, now a bar magnet is rapidly introduced
into the coil. It is kept inside the cylindrical coil for some time and
then it is rapidly withdrawn. The students observe that the bulb glows
only when the magnet is introduced or withdrawn, but it does not
glow when it is stationary inside the coil. The following questions
may be asked to the students:
1. Why does the bulb glow, when the magnet is introduced inside
the coil?
2. Why does the bulb glow, when the magnet is withdrawn from
the coil?
3. What is the source of current due to which the bulb glows?
4. Why does the bulb not glow when the magnet is stationary inside
the coil?
5. Why does the bulb glow for a short period only?
The students develop an inner urge to find out the answers to
the above said questions.
2. Defining and locating the Problem

The problem should be studied and analysed thoroughly from
all possible angles. In this step questions such as ‘what is the problem’,
‘how can it be solved’, etc. should be given serious consideration. In
the light of such questions, the problem should be defined clearly in a
concise, precise and clear language. Need and significance of the
study with its scope and limitations should be made clear. There
should be some key words in the statement of the problem which
may help in better understanding of the problem. The students should
be asked to write down the statement of the problem and submit for
classroom criticism and discussion. The most appropriate statement
should be accepted. In the example illustrated above the statement
of the problem may be like:
1. Study of the source of current in the coil when a magnet is
introduced into it
2. Study of the source of current in the coil when a magnet is
withdrawn from it
3. Study of the reason why the current produced in the above cases
is only for a short period of time
4. Study of the reason why there is no current when the magnet is
stationary inside the coil
3. Suggestion of probable solutions

(Formulation of hypotheses)
Through analysis and synthesis, methodical inference and
imagination several hypotheses or suggestions of probable solutions
are arrived at. All available hypotheses are taken into consideration
without prejudice or personal bias. For example, the students note
down the key words and phrases in the stated problem which furnish
clues to its solution. In the above problem, the key words are “source
of current” when “magnet is stationary inside the coil” and that the
“current is only for a short time.” These words, phrases or sentences
give a clue to the formulation of hypotheses. The formulated
hypotheses should satisfy the following conditions:
1. It should agree with the needs of the problem
2. It should be in tune with the pre-established facts and principles
3. Its validity can be checked by further verification either by testing
its workability in similar situations or by proving its non-
workability in negative instances
4. Finding out the bearings of the solution

The implications of each hypothesis are reasoned out logically
and tested through further observation and experiments. If the
implications (bearings) do not agree with the observed facts they are
rejected, otherwise accepted.
5. Further observation and confirmation through experiments

The most important characteristic of the scientific method is the
tendency to inhibit rash and baseless judgements. Conclusions are
subjected to rigorous (repeated) tests.
The students should apply their generalization to their daily life.
This will bridge the gap between the classroom situation and real life
situation. Thus, a generalisation derived through scientific method

cannot be regarded as an accepted conclusion unless it possesses
sufficient ground for solving similar circumstances. Moreover, the
application of the principle will help in verifying the principle itself.
Thus, scientific method derives a definite procedure for solving the
problem inductively and subsequently testing the adequacy of the
generalisation deductively.
Characteristics of Scientific Method

The important characteristics of scientific method can be
enumerated as follows:
1. Scientific method is characterised by objectivity and definiteness
in its process as well as product
2. Scientific method provides enough training in information
processing and drawing conclusions
3. The results derived from the scientific method show generality
4. The results obtained by this method are characterised by the ability
of predicting the future outcomes of the objects or events
5. Peculiarities of the outcomes of scientific method are their
modifiability and dynamicity
Processes Involved in Scientific Method

Every scientific investigation involves two kinds of processes - 1)
the logical process and 2) the technical process. The technical
operations may vary but the logical process of drawing conclusions
from data is common to all sciences. Although technical processes
are indispensable in most scientific enquiries, they are only to assist
in the successful performance of the different steps in the logical
process. The logical process is not different from the thought process
by which we solve problems of daily life. The difference is only in the
complexity of the problem and in the degree of perfection of the
solution. The logical processes include induction, deduction, analogy,
analysis and synthesis and testimony and authority. The technical
process includes collection of data, observation, experimentation,
measurement and manipulation. The logical process is more important
than the technical process because it is in the minds of scientists that

propositions originate.
Elements of Scientific Method

In drawing inferences, several processes are made use of. The
important logical processes that will be discussed here include - -
induction, deduction, analogy, analysis and synthesis, and testimony
and authority. Each process is detailed below.
I. Induction
Induction may be defined as the “operation of discovering and
proving general propositions” (Mill, 1949, p. 186). It is the operation
of the mind by which we infer what we know to be true in a particular
case or cases will be true in all cases which resemble the former in
certain assignable respects. Thus, induction is a process of inference:
it proceeds from the known to the unknown (Mill, 1949, p. 188). It is
through induction that we arrive at inter-relation among natural
phenomena, generalization, laws and principles.
The renowned philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) suggested
inductive reasoning (Ozmon & Craver, 1986). He severely criticised
the practice of deductive reasoning. Induction can be classified into
three - - (1) Perfect induction (2) Baconian induction and (3)
Imperfect induction (Van Dalen, 1962, pp. 21-23). Perfect induction
involves analysis of all cases in a class or group under consideration.
It cannot be employed for practical reasons. In Baconian induction
the investigator should study nature closely and establish general
conclusion based on his/her direct observation. Positive instances,
negative instances and cases in varying degrees should be examined
to make a valid conclusion. In imperfect induction, some cases that
make up the class or group are examined to arrive at a conclusion.
This is the method followed in most of the investigations. All inductive
inferences are based on two laws - - (1) The law of uniformity of
nature and (2) The law of causation.
1. The law of uniformity of nature

A phenomenon that takes place in certain circumstances will
repeat itself whenever the same circumstances occur. That is, nature
is uniform in her behaviour.
2. The law of Causation

Nothing takes place by sheer chance. Every phenomenon has a
cause or a set of causes invariably connected with it.
In complex cases, when there is a plurality of causes, it is difficult
to decide which is the cause and which is the effect. In such cases, we
adopt one of the following five methods known as Mill’s canons of
induction. John Stuart Mill is the first among several others to provide
the most systematic analysis of causation, which are presented in the
five canons (Mill, 1949; Van Dalen, 1962; Mouly, 1964).
The five canons are - - (1) Method of Agreement, (2) Method of
Difference, (3) Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, (4) Method
of Residue, and (5) Method of Concomitant Variations. In establishing
the causal relationship and arriving at an inductive inference, Mill’s
canons are made use of. The cause of a phenomenon is the totality of
the circumstances indispensable to its occurrence. In other words, if
other conditions remaining the same, a certain circumstance cannot
be omitted or quantitatively changed without changing a certain
phenomenon, then that circumstance is the cause of the phenomenon.
a. Method of Agreement
“If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation
have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which
alone all the instances agree is the cause (or effect) of the given
phenomenon” (Mill, 1949, p. 255). If in every observed instance of a
phenomenon, only one circumstance is common that circumstance is
probably a cause or condition of that phenomenon.
Van Dalen (1962) presents a concrete illustration to make the
method more comprehensible. Suppose that six students – A, B, C, D,
E and F – went to a debating tournament and subsequently three of
them – A, B, and C – became ill. To find out the cause of their illness,
the doctor might question A, B and C about what food they had
eaten and find that every item they had selected differed except for
strawberry cream pie. In other words, the only food consumed by all
those who became ill was the pie (Van Dalen, 1962, p. 201).
The conclusions drawn by this method are not decisive and unless
a good number of varied circumstances are considered and all other
causal circumstances are eliminated, the method may lead to absurd
conclusion. The difficulty in finding out common circumstances and
inadequate analysis of complex circumstances also cause failure in
reaching conclusion.
b. Method of Difference
“If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation
occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every
circumstance in common save one (except one), that one occurring
only in the former; the circumstance in which alone two instances
differ is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause
of the phenomenon” (Mill, 1949, p. 256). Whenever the elimination
of a single circumstance is accompanied by the non-occurrence of a
phenomenon, that circumstance is probably related to its causation.
For example, if a surface exposed to air is dry at the atmospheric
temperature and it becomes wet on lowering its temperature while
other conditions remain unaltered it may be concluded that lowering
of temperature is the cause for the wetness of the surface.
This method is largely used in experimental sciences as well as in
every day life. In this method, we compare two circumstances one in
which the phenomenon occurs and the other in which it does not. It
is very important that the two cases should differ only in one relevant
circumstance.
c. Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

“If two or more instances in which the phenomenon occurs have
only one circumstance in common, while two or more instances in
which it does not occur have nothing in common save the absence of
that circumstance, the circumstance in which alone the two sets of
instances differ is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of
the cause of the phenomenon” (Mill, 1949, p. 259). If in a group of

cases in which a phenomenon occurs and there is one and only one
common circumstance, while in another group of cases in which the
phenomenon does not occur and there is nothing in common except
the absence of the above circumstance, then the phenomenon is
causally related to that circumstance.
This is a combination of the two previous methods. The suggestion
of causation arrived at by the method of agreement is strengthened
by the method of difference. To apply this method in the above
example, the doctor would have to determine not only that strawberry
cream pie was the only food that all the students with illness
consumed, but he also would have to question members of the groups
who did not become ill – D, E and F. If he found the only item common
to those who suffered no ill effects was the absence of pie, he would
have strengthened his conclusion that strawberry cream pie was
causally related to the illness of the students. Thus, this method gives
the researcher a double check of his conclusions concerning causality
(Van Dalen, 1962, p. 202).
d. Method of Residues
“Subduct from any phenomenon such part as is known by
previous inductions to be the effect of, and residue of the phenomenon
is the effect of the remaining antecedents” (Mill, 1949, p. 260). In
other words, if part of a complex phenomenon is known to be causally
related to certain operating circumstances, the residual part of the
phenomenon must be due to the rest of the circumstances known or
unknown. This method suggests how we might obtain a complete
knowledge of a complex phenomenon part of which is already
accounted by its known causal relationship in certain circumstances.
The unexplained residual part must be due to causes, which may or
may not be known.
For example, the density of atmospheric nitrogen (separated from
liquefied air) in comparison with that of chemically prepared nitrogen,
was found to be different and this finding led to the discovery of the
element argon in atmosphere.
e. Method of Concomitant Variations

“Whatever a phenomenon varies in any manner whenever
another phenomenon varies in some particular manner, is either a
cause or an effect of that phenomenon, or is connected with it through
some fact of causation” (Mill, 1949, p. 263). That is, if two phenomena
vary concomitantly, while all other relevant circumstances remain
unchanged, they must be causally related.
For example, the change of volume of a given mass of gas is
observed to be accompanied by a change of temperature as well as a
change of pressure. To decide which of them is the cause or whether
both of them are independent causes it is not possible to eliminate
either. However, each of them might be kept constant and the other
varied. The observations thus made reveal the concomitant variation
of pressure and volume as also of temperature and volume. Hence, it
is concluded that both pressure and temperature are causally related
to volume. Accurate measurement of variations of pressure and
volume (temperature being kept constant) and mathematical
calculations based on them led to Boyle’s law. Similarly the
measurement of change in temperature and volume (pressure being
kept constant) led to Charles law.
The concomitant variation may be of two types - - direct and
inverse. When the antecedent and the consequent increase or decrease
together, it is said to be direct; when one of them increases as the
other decreases the variation is inverse. For example, gravitation
between two bodies varies directly with their masses and inversely
with their distance from each other (Joseph, 1982).
The above methods suggested by Mill should not be considered
as infallible. Difficulty arises when a plurality of causes is present or
when different effects remain mixed up in an indistinguishable
manner.
II. Deduction
Probably, the first major contribution to the systematic discovery
of knowledge was made by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who
perfected the syllogistic method of deductive reasoning (Mouly, 1964,
p. 18). Deduction is the process of reasoning that starts from an

accepted generalisation and moves toward a conclusion relating to
any specific instance. To legitimate syllogism, it is essential that there
should be three, and not more than three, propositions, viz. the
conclusion or proposition to be proved, and two other propositions
called premises, which together prove it. Syllogisms are divided by
some logicians into four according to the position of the middle term
which may either be the subject in both premises, the predicate in
both, or the subject in one and the predicate in the other (Mill, 1949).
Only one type is detailed here. For example,
(i) All A is B; All B is C. Therefore, all A is C
(ii) All men are mortal (major premise); All kings are men (minor
premise). Therefore, all kings are mortal (conclusion)
(iii) All metals are good conductors of electricity (major premise);
copper is a metal (minor premise). Therefore, copper is a good
conductor of electricity (conclusion)
In categorical syllogisms as above, two supposedly true statements
stand in such a relationship that they logically imply a particular
conclusion. The truth of deductive inference depends on the accuracy
of the general proposition (major premise) on which it is based.
Deductive reasoning is a useful tool to employ in problem solving,
but it does have limitations. Deduction relies on verbal symbols, which
can be quite ambiguous. The same words do not mean the same thing
to all people and at all times. For example, health in early days referred
only physical fitness, now health means mental and social well-being.
Because of the shift in meaning of words, it is often difficult to evaluate
an argument. One of the major weaknesses of the method is that it
can only deduce the consequences of pre-existing knowledge. It does
not probe beyond that which is already known. It is a device for
pursuing the consequences of generally accepted statements rather
than an instrument to gain new knowledge.
III. Analogy
Scientific method makes use of analogy in drawing inferences in
scientific investigations. It is the most primitive type of inference.
Whenever we perceive a new object or an event, the first impulse of

the mind is to compare and to connect it with the nearly similar
previous experience. When two objects or phenomena are similar in
some respects, we anticipate that they would be similar in some other
points as well. The recognition of such analogy is often helpful in
understanding new experiences and suggesting causal relations. In
fact, the first insight into the nature of an apparently new object or
phenomena is commonly obtained by analogy (Joseph, 1982, pp. 90-
91). General notion of analogy is that it is a relation of resemblance
between two objects. The resemblance is a feeling, which in turn is a
state of the consciousness of the observer. “When we say that one
body is like another we mean that there is a resemblance between the
sensations excited by the two bodies, or between some portions of
those sensations” (Mill, 1949, pp. 44-45).
Analogy consists of an organised system of symmetrical relations
based on identities of parts of structures. Mere similarity of shared
features by two objects cannot possibly account for an analogy
(Johnson-Laired, 1989). For example, consider the analogy between
the solar system and Ruther Ford’s model of the atom. The structure
of the solar system with sun at the centre and planets at the orbits
correspond to the structure of atom with the nucleus at the centre
and electrons at the orbits. Moreover, relational features like planets
revolving around the sun, planets rotating on their own axis, and
fixed orbits of rotation are relational features that hold good in the
structure of atom. Thus, analogies draw inference from only one
known instance to another (Agassi, 1964). Hence, analogical reasoning
is different from inductive and deductive reasoning.
A number of outstanding scientists have profitably used analogies
in systematic research and in developing hypotheses. For example,
the kinetic theory of gases was modelled on macroscopic elastic spheres
such as billiard balls; Huygens developed wave theory of light with
the familiar view of sound as a wave; and Fourier’s theory of heat
conduction was constructed on the analogy of flow of liquids (Nagel,
1961).
A common problem with learning science concept is that their
attributes are not observable or imageable. To make the attributes of
a concept more perceptible and amenable to concrete operation,

scientists have widely used analogies. Analogies provide a viable
medium, a vehicle and a meaningful context to process information
(Royer & Cable, 1976). That is, an analogy evokes certain effects in
the mind of learner, which facilitates thinking about a new idea.
Analogies provide comparisons, which can be used to explain difficult-
to-understand concepts by pointing out their similarities to something
easier to understand, or already understood (Zeitoun, 1984). For
example, the structure of a human eye can be compared to the
analogue camera. The lens, retina, eye-lid, lens accommodation, pupil
dilation and inverted image have comparable elements in camera.
Thus, an analogy assists a novice to acquire knowledge and to develop
a strategy to deal with new ideas.
IV. Analysis and Synthesis

Analysis and synthesis are the real foundations of scientific
method. Analysis is the process of ascertaining the constituents of a
system or an entity. In induction we analyse the observed facts of
nature into their various component elements and synthesise some of
them to formulate inter-relations or a unified whole. In education
also, we analyse the implications of a general proposition and
synthesise the relevant aspect to obtain a particular truth. Analogical
inference also involves analysis of analogous phenomena and synthesis
of particular elements.
Things and events of nature are mostly complex and we have to
analyse them before we can discover any order or cause-effect
relationship. Synthesis helps us to develop class concepts and
formulate definitions, discover causal relationship, confirm hypothesis
and laws. Analysis and synthesis are particularly important in the
study of phenomena having plurality of causes such as cancer and
coronary artery disease.
V. Testimony and Authority

Testimony means personal or documentary evidence or
attestation in support of a statement or fact. Authority refers to the
right to command or give an ultimate decision. Bertrand Russell
observed that, to modern educated people (it seems) matters of fact

have to be ascertained by observation and not by consulting
authorities (cited in Mouly, 1964, p. 20). This is an entirely modern
conception, which hardly existed before the 17th century.
When searching for knowledge, man sometimes seeks the
testimony of experts, who because of their intellect, training and
experience or aptitudes are better informed than other people. Society
would not advance if it were unwilling to accept the opinion of
specialists. However, one must exercise discrimination while selecting
experts. Although it is often necessary to consult experts, it is
dangerous to accept their opinion unconditionally and for all time.
Historical records reveal that through out the centuries society
has collected not only wisdom but also much intellectual nonsense.
Many long-revered educational, medical and scientific theories have
been proved false. For example, it was believed that ‘aspirin’ which is
used to lower body temperature has side effects but now doctors say
that a calculated amount of aspirin is good because it will minimise
the chances of heart diseases.
When one has not had personal experience with a phenomenon,
the simple alternative is to consult his/her parents, teacher or even
older siblings for answers to problems with which they are not familiar.
Throughout the history of science, certain persons have been
recognised as authorities. That is, there emerged a group (or class) of
people who are credited with having many of the answers to the
problems that perplexed their less enlightened contemporaries.
Frequently it so happened that these authorities were merely persons
of authority or power whose word was law, not because of any great
wisdom or communion with truth but because of prestige derived
through strength, birth, wealth, association with magic, or some other
form of public acceptance (Mouly, 1964, p. 15).
VI. Hypotheses
Hypotheses are tentative suppositions taken as true in the pursuit
of scientific investigation. They are calculated guesses that are the
products of gifted and informed minds. There are several definitions
available in the literature that helps to understand the value and
function of a hypothesis.
“Hypotheses are simply inferences that people want to test” (Gega
& Peters, 1998, p. 94). According to Hodnett, “Hypotheses are your
eyes as you try to approach problems in a scientific manner. Through
them you look into the disorder that is a problem and see the
possibilities of order” (cited in Van Dalen, 1962, p. 130). In the words
of Van Dalen, “A hypothesis serves as a powerful beacon that light
the way for the research worker” (cited in Mouly, 1964, p. 88).
According to James Creighton, “Hypothesis is tentative supposition
or provisional guess, which seems to explain the situation under
observation” (cited in Rajan, 1999).
Importance of hypothesis in scientific thinking

Hypothesis plays an important role in scientific investigation.
Critical examination of the observed facts and its careful and
purposeful reflection (thought) lead to suggestions of probable
solutions. These tentative suggestions are known as hypotheses. In a
scientific investigation, a hypothesis usually takes the form of a
universal relationship in terms of which we attempt to explain the
facts of observation. A hypothesis is essentially a product of
constructive imagination. As such, it may or may not be a faithful
picture of reality. However, without some such suppositions, it is not
possible to make any progress in scientific enquiry. Analogy and simple
methods of induction are helpful in framing hypothesis. Depth of
knowledge, imagination and genuine interest in the subject help in
framing fruitful hypothesis.
A hypothesis can be accepted only when it is proved to be in
agreement with all relevant facts. Hence, every hypothesis should be
subjected to rigorous tests before it is accepted or rejected. In general,
we must deduce the implications of the hypothesis. That is, we
anticipate such phenomena through suitable experiments. If the results
agree with the deduced anticipations, the hypothesis is likely to be
true. However, the testing must be repeated by fresh deductions and
more extensive observations before it can be accepted as theory or
law. When the conclusions drawn from the hypothesis do not agree
with the observed facts, it must be modified or rejected. For example,
Kepler rejected 14 hypotheses before establishing the laws of planetary

motion.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis

A good hypothesis should be legitimate. Legitimacy of a
hypothesis has to be ascertained first before it can be used as a guiding
device for conducting a scientific enquiry (Majumdar, 2005). The
characteristics of a good hypothesis can be enumerated as:
1. It must be conceptually clear, specific, definite and verifiable
2. It must be consistent with well-established laws of nature
3. It must be adequate to explain all the facts under investigation
4. It should be related to available techniques
5. It should be related to a body of theory
6. The consequences of which can be deductively inferred and
compared with facts
Before we accept a hypothesis, it must be shown to agree with a
particular fact (for which it is suggested). A good hypothesis will be
not only in agreement with the already observed facts but also enable
us to anticipate other facts, which might be verified by further
observation and experiment. The success of a scientific investigation
depends on the formulation of a good hypothesis, without the
guidance of which we shall not know what to do or observe or what
experiment to perform.
Sources of hypotheses
There are a few, more or less clearly defined sources, which the
researcher usually would tap for obtaining a general guideline for
his/her research (Majumdar, 2005). They are:
1. Hypotheses originate from the existing literature
2. Hypotheses originate from the general culture
3. Hypotheses originate in the science itself
4. Hypotheses originate from analogies
5. Hypotheses originate as consequences of personal, idiosyncratic

experiences
Technical Processes of Scientific Method

Apart from the logical processes discussed above, the scientific
method draws much from the technical processes such as collection
of facts and data, observation and experimentation. Each process is
detailed in the following pages.
I. Collection of facts and data

The starting point in any scientific investigation is collection of
facts relating to the problem at hand. To scientists, facts are any
experience, change, occurrence or event that is sufficiently stable and
supported by enough evidence to be counted on in an investigation.
To the scientist, facts are not something that is self-evident, but rather
data she/he discovers through purposeful probing. To the investigator
facts are never permanent or final; they may undergo change as an
investigation evolves. They are subject to reinterpretation or revision
whenever man gains a better insight into the phenomena.
Facts relate exclusively to objective world, that is, the phenomena
of the external universe. They are different from ideas. All knowledge
is primarily derived from facts; hence, the collection of facts is very
important in a scientific study of any phenomenon. Facts are necessary
not only to help us frame hypothesis but also to test them. Facts
collected should be accurate, impersonal and extensive. The validity
of conclusion ultimately depends on careful collection of facts.
II. Observation
Observation means prolonged perception of things. Every
statement of facts or data rests directly or indirectly on observation.
Observation may be regarded as the sole process by which we gather
facts. Though explicitly a sensory process, observation also implies
an almost unconscious inferential process. Observation involves
mental processes such as attention, selection, analysis, classification,
etc.
Ordinarily observation in a scientific investigation must be

purposeful, and then only we will be able to know what to look for
and how to look for it. With reference to the problem at hand, we
should select and isolate what we have to observe and our attention
should not be distracted; if the observation is to be accurate and
fruitful. Since inferences and judgements form inevitable part of
observation, it is important that observation should be free from bias
and prejudice, because human frailties and biases can introduce errors
into data gathering.
A scientist often employs movie cameras, recordings,
oscillographs or similar instruments to make a permanent record of
the occurrences in an investigation. These instruments provide first-
hand evidence that s/he and others can study immediately and can
recheck as often as necessary in the future. Even the most expensive
and delicate instrument do not have the varied powers of observation
of human beings. Moreover, instruments are of little value unless the
investigator knows how to use them skilfully understands their
limitations and checks their operational performance for precision
and accuracy.
A successful observer must have an abundance of pertinent
previous knowledge. To increase the range, richness and accuracy of
observations and to guard against errors in perception, a broad
background in the field where in the problem lies is of unique
importance. Becoming thoroughly familiar with what to expect in a
given situation, places the investigator in a better position to spot
significant events that occur as well as any condition that is unusual
or that do not conform to his/her belief or accepted theories. It is his/
her previous knowledge that enables him/her to select and isolate
the features of observation. Correct interpretation is possible only if
one has the requisite knowledge.
To avoid errors in perception that arises because of faulty recall
a researcher records his/her data soon after observing, in an exact
system of notations. Scientific descriptions are written in precise and
concrete terms. One employs words and symbols that mean the same
thing to other investigators as they mean to the writer. Whenever
possible, an investigator describes his/her data quantitatively in terms
of height, weight, distance, duration, speed or number of units.

Numerical measures are more precise than word description and may
make possible further analysis of problem by statistical procedures. It
should be noted that the word description and qualitative
(ethnographic, anthropological) studies are highly useful in social
science but cannot be used profitably in physical sciences.
Observation is subject to error and limitation because of
imperfections of human senses. Moreover, sense organs are easily
misled because their powers are limited. In addition, the instruments
that we use to aid our senses have their limitations too. Therefore,
what we can possibly learn by observation is only a fraction of what
might really exist.
III. Experiment
Natural phenomena are so complicated that it is often difficult
to establish relationship by bare observation. In such cases, one controls
the conditions of the phenomena under investigation and observes
the results of the control in order to decide causal relationships. This
type of artificial observation of phenomena under controlled condition
is known as experiment.
Experiment is active observation. In bare observation, we merely
note, and record the phenomena as they occur in their natural course.
However, in experiment, one study phenomenon, taking place under
purposefully pre-arranged condition. The use of instruments does not
make the observation experimental in character. They only aid the
senses and do not interfere with the observed phenomena, but when
we apply a chemical reagent to an object, under microscope, and
study the effect, it becomes an experiment.
In an experiment, there are mainly two types of variables - - (1)
the independent variable and (2) the dependent variable. The
independent variable is the variable that is altered or manipulated by
the investigator. The variable upon which the effects of the change
are observed is the dependent variable. For example, a particular
method of teaching can be an independent variable and the
achievement can be the dependent variable.
Suppose that an investigator wants to determine whether

children will achieve greater mastery of the topic “universe” if taught
using “computer assisted instruction” or “radio lesson”, s/he may
select two groups of subjects who are alike in all respects, so that
differences in their nature cannot affect the results. However, if s/he
fails to control the procedures, differences in them may contribute to
the subject mastery of “universe.” S/he should provide “computer
assisted instruction” and “radio lesson” groups the same treatment,
(distribution of practice, equally interesting and difficult lessons,
subject matter equally suitable for teaching by either method,
achievement test that is equally fair for evaluating both methods of
instruction, same amount of time to complete the final tests, etc.) so
as to avoid influence of procedural differences on the gains in
achievement.
Limitations of Experiments
1. Experiments are not always possible. For example, astronomical
phenomena, evolution, earthquake, volcano, etc., are beyond
human control and we study them only by observation.
2. Variation of one condition (variable) at a time is not always
possible, because in most cases conditions are interdependent.
3. Some conditions are incapable of elimination and others incapable
of variation except within certain limits. For example, gravitation,
friction, etc.
4. At times, we are lead to erroneous conclusions because of
unsuspected conditions influencing the result.
Process Skills Involved in Scientific Method

A number of process skills are involved in the use of problem
solving or scientific method. Process skills are part of a chain of
activities to collect evidence and to reach valid inferences through an
analysis of the same. It focuses on a scientific procedure of developing
new knowledge and learning on ones own. American Association
for Advancement of Science (AAAS) has identified eight basic skills
and five integrated processes (cited in Vaidya, 1971).
I. Basic skills
They are the process skills, which can be emphasised at the
primary grades, and serve as a foundation for using the integrated
skills at the higher grades. They are the primary ways of obtaining
information. The important basic skills are discussed below.
a) Observing
The process of observing is the taking in or sense perceptions.
Observing involves using five senses to find out about objects and
events, their characteristic properties, differences, similarities and
changes.
b) Measuring
Thinking about properties in a quantitative way naturally leads
to measuring them. This involves comparing an unknown quantity
with a known. The observations are quantified using proper measuring
devices and techniques. Here, measurements are to be recorded in an
orderly and systematic fashion with labelled units of measure. Charts,
graphs or tables can be generated manually or with computer
software.
c) Using space time relationship

It refers to observation of form, distance, motion, speed, directions
and time. This skill originates from the ability to identify shape of the
bodies, their motion, speed and direction.
d) Communicating
It refers to the use of written and spoken words, graphs,
demonstrations, drawings, diagrams or tables to transmit information
and ideas to others. To reflect the true nature of science, ideas must
be shared.
e) Classifying
It refers to the process of organising observations in ways, which
carry special meaning. It is the grouping or ordering subjects or events
according to similarities or differences in properties. Here lists, tables
or charts are generated.
f) Predicting
To predict is to forecast a future observation by inferring from
data. It is the process of forming an idea of excepted results. It refers
to types of thinking that require our best guesses based on the
information available to us (Martin, et al., 1997). It is an insight of
what will occur based on present knowledge and understandings,
observations and inferences.
g) Using numbers
This means applying number and their mathematical
relationships to make decisions. Numbers are basic to science.
Mathematical knowledge is applied here.
h) Inferring
It is the process of interpreting or explaining observations or
experiences. Inference leads to conclusion. The accuracy of our
inferences usually improves with more chances to observe (Gega &
Peters, 1998).
II. Integrated process skills

Integrated science process skills rely on the learners’ capabilities
to think at a higher level and to consider more than one thought at a
time. The important integrated process skills are discussed below.
a) Controlling variables
It refers to manipulating one factor to investigate the out come
of an event while other factors are held constant.
b) Interpreting data
Interpreting data involves organising, analysing and synthesising
data using tables, graphs and diagrams to locate patterns that lead to
the construction of inferences, predictions or hypotheses.
c) Defining operationally
It is creating a definition by describing what is done and observed.
It is written in the language of students. Definitions are in context of
students’ experiences, not from the glossary, and not to be memorised.
d) Formulating hypothesis (Hypothesising)

This means tentatively accepting an explanation as a basis for
further investigation. That is making shrewd guesses based on
evidences that can be tested through experimentation.
e) Experimenting
It refers to designing one’s own experiment to test a hypothesis
using procedures to obtain reliable data.
The above-mentioned skills and integrated processes do not
operate in isolation. Experimenting, for example, involves coordination
among all the preceding basic skills and integrated processes.
143
Chapter VI
SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND
RESOURCE MATERIALS
Support systems and resource materials are those facilities and

materials that the teacher utilises for an effective curriculum
transaction. Systematic and proper use of these provides the learner
with a variety of experiences and helps to realise the educational
objectives. The details of important support systems and resource
materials in teaching physical science are given below.
1. Science Laboratory
The most important support system that assists the teaching and
learning of science is science laboratory. Physical science teaching is
different from teaching of other subjects because of the fact that most
of the lessons are accompanied by demonstration and or laboratory
work. Laboratory work supplements classroom activities. “Practical
classroom experiments help in broadening pupils’ experience and
develop initiative, resourcefulness and co-operation” (Yadav, 1992).
An effective and efficient teaching in science is possible only with the
aid of a good laboratory with necessary equipments. Laboratory serves
three main functions in students’ learning. They are - - (1) deepening
the students’ understanding (2) developing skill in observation and
(3) developing skill in measurement (Sharma & Sharma, 1971).
The place of laboratory in science learning is not mere illustration
and verification of the taught theory; one learns to solve problems in
the laboratory. Vanaja (2005) enumerates the major contributions of
a science laboratory as follows.
1. A source of problems for students

A true science laboratory should be a source of innumerable
problems. A sensitive science teacher can recognise them and draw
the students’ attention towards them. The teacher should be able to
maintain an exploratory atmosphere encouraging investigations by
students.
2. Provides for the solutions of problems that students

encounter
In the laboratory, the students should get a chance for problem
solving; to define problem, formulate hypotheses, gather and interpret
data, test hypotheses, formulate generalisations and draw
conclusions. The teacher should be able to create occasions for problem
solving as part of laboratory work. S/he has to make the resources
available for the students. The students must have the opportunity to
design experiments, devise equipments and improvise apparatus.
3. Helps students to understand the scientists’ role

in society
Through laboratory work, the students understand the methods
of investigation employed by scientists, the dependence of social
development upon the scientific endeavour, and the implications of
the findings of science on society.
4. Provides means for illustrations of phenomena and
principles
Illustrations and verifications are important aspects in the study
of science. Science laboratory provides the means for the illustrations
of phenomena and principles, as well as for their application. In
addition, it provides the means to verify facts, laws and
generalisations.
5. Develops knowledge and understanding of the nature of
science
Firsthand experiences obtained in the laboratory contribute to
the building up of knowledge and understanding in students and
facilitate abstractions.
SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND RESOURCE MATERIALS 145
6. Contributes to the development of skills, habits

and attitudes
Through the activities in the laboratory the students develop
attitudes and skills useful in daily life - - cleanliness, punctuality, co-
operation, honesty, ability to use common instruments, etc.
The advantages of science laboratory in schools are:
1. Develops intuition and deepens the understanding of concepts
2. Enables the students to apply the concepts learnt in the class to
new situations
3. Enables the students to experience basic phenomena
4. Develops critical, intuitive and rational thinking
5. Enables the students to learn to use scientific apparatus
6. Enables the students to learn to recognise and estimate errors
7. Develops reporting skills (written and oral)
8. Enables the students to practise collaborative problem solving
9. Enables the students to exercise curiosity and creativity by
designing procedures to test hypotheses
10. Enables the students to test important laws and rules
11. Enables the students to appreciate the role of experimentation in
science
12. Stimulates interest and excitement
13. Encourages the slow learners
14. Challenges the students, especially the gifted
15. Involves students in problem solving
Organisation of Science Laboratory

In the planning of science laboratory, there are several factors
that need consideration. Only important factors are detailed here.
First, the number of students working at a time should be estimated;
second, the minimum space necessary for each pupil should be
calculated; third, the different types of practical work (group and

individual) that will be done in the laboratory should be known in
advance. Also other space for storage and preparation should be
accounted for.
The location, lay-out and furnishing of laboratory need special
consideration. The location of the laboratory should be preferably at
the ground floor. If possible, one end or extreme side of the school
building should be selected for the purpose. A north-south orientation
with a variation of 30o on either side is recommended. Depending on
the number of students working at a time, different plans have been
suggested by several authors (e.g., Vaidya, 1971; Sharma & Sharma
1971; Gupta, 1985). The one suitable for the present needs and
adaptable for future needs should be preferred.
In the furnishing of laboratory there are many items such as
tables for demonstration, tables for experiment, electrical power
supply, gas supply, water supply, sink, electrical light fittings, wall
shelves, ledgers for balances, chalk board, etc., that need to be selected
to meet peculiar demands.
Science Teacher and Laboratory Work

In order to make practical work most effective, the science teacher
should always keep in view the following points:
1. There should be co-ordination of theoretical and practical work
2. The teacher should see that there is no mechanical repetition of
the same experiment given in the textbooks. S/he should make
additions and alterations in order to arouse reflective thinking
3. The experiments should meet the capacity of the particular
students
4. The purpose of experiment should be made very clear to the pupils
5. The experimental details and observation notes should be made
in the laboratory then and there
6. The teacher should sit at a place from where s/he can observe
the work of each student
7. The notes written in the laboratory should be examined critically

8. General instruction should be given before the commencement
of laboratory work. If assignment method is followed, then the
teacher should correct the notebooks of the pupils a day before
their turn for practical work. In case where the class is large and
the equipment is inadequate, ‘group plan’ may be adopted.
However, the merits and demerits of a group plan should be
evaluated in making the decisions.
For a smooth conduct of the laboratory work, the teacher
may prepare instruction cards. The card will include details such as:
1. Number of experiments
2. The purpose of experiments
3. The method to the adopted
4. Precaution to be observed
5. Method of tabulating the results
6. Conclusion
Records Kept in the Laboratory

For the smooth functioning of the science laboratory, the
laboratory assistant or science teacher-in-charge will have to keep
records of different items in the laboratory. The records related to
laboratory are classified into four (Das, 1985). They are - - (1)
permanent stock register, (2) stock register of chemicals, (3) stock
register for breakable articles, and (4) order register. Each of these
records is briefly described below:
(1) Permanent stock register

This register should list all articles, apparatus, equipment,
specimen, etc., which are non-breakable or non-consumable and thus
are permanent in nature. The list may be prepared in the alphabetic
order with the details such as date of purchase, number or quantity,
name of manufacturer, etc.
(2) Stock register of chemicals

This register should contain the name of chemicals listed in the
alphabetic order. The current stock of each chemical should be
indicated in appropriate units. This is the register for consumables
and the register should be checked on a weekly or monthly basis to
infer the current stock of the frequently used chemicals.
(3) Stock register for breakable articles

This register lists all articles made of glass, china, silica and such
other breakable materials. The items should be listed in the alphabetic
order with brand names so as to facilitate replacement and collection
of dues from students.
(4) Order register

This register is the master register of everything contained in the
laboratory. This register is the basic document that will provide
information for the above-mentioned registers. The different columns
in this register should indicate date of order, order details, name of
the company, price, number or quantity purchased, date of delivery
or receipt, date of payment, voucher details and remarks. It is desirable
to have a section for recording articles received as donation/gift.
Common Accidents in Laboratory and their First Aid

Physical science laboratory work involves some elements of
danger. The science teacher should foresee the possible dangers and
caution the students about these dangers. In the laboratory, students
may have to work with a.c. power supply, inflammable and explosive
substances, strong acids and alkalies, metals like sodium, potassium
and mercury, gases such as chlorine and bromine. Glasswares,
chinawares and other equipments may cause cuts, burns and bruises.
Therefore, it is essential that a teacher should know the first aid for
the common accidents in the laboratory. The common accidents and
their first aids are listed below.
1. Cuts: Stop bleeding by applying pressure on the wound in the
form of a dressing. The wound should be cleaned with a 1:10
lotion of dettol and water or any antiseptic. Minor cuts should

be treated with tincture of iodine on a pad of cotton wool. No
washing is necessary unless the wound is dirty.
2. Dry burns: Prevent contact with air by applying vaseline or olive
oil.
3. Acid burns: Wash immediately with large quantities of water
and then with sodium bicarbonate solution.
4. Alkali burns: Wash with running water and then with 1% acetic
acid or lemon juice.
5. Phosphorous burns: Wash with water and cover with cotton wool
soaked in dilute silver nitrate solution.
6. Acid in eye: The eye should be opened and closed under running
water. Then it should be washed with 1% solution of sodium
bicarbonate.
7. Alkali in eye: The eye should be thoroughly washed with water
and then with a solution of 1% boric acid.
8. Solid in eye: Turn the eye-lid gently over a match-stick, then use
camel hair brush dipped in glycerine to remove the solid.
9. Poisoning: In case when solid or liquid poison is swallowed, the
procedures to be adopted are given below.
(a) Corrosive: White of egg or milk and rice or barley water
should be given
(i) Acid: If the poisoning is due to some acid, first allow to drink
water and then lime-water or milk of magnesia [Mg (OH) 2]
(ii) Alkali: If the poisoning is due to alkali, first allow to drink
water and then acetic acid or lemon juice.
(b) Non-corrosive: A table spoon of salt or mustard oil in a
tumbler of water should be given to encourage vomiting.
White of egg or rice water may also be given. If the nature of
the poison is not known activated charcoal, magnesium oxide
and tannic acid in the ratio 2:1:1 may be given. The mixture
is known as the universal anti-dote.
(c) Gas poisoning: should be allowed to breathe fresh air and

some stimulants such as hot tea or coffee may be given. To
counteract chlorine or bromine, smell ammonia and rinse
the mouth and throat with sodium bicarbonate solution.
10. Electric shocks: The electric switch should be immediately turned
off. The person should be made to lie on his back and should be
allowed to breathe fresh air. In case s/he can drink some liquid
s/he should be given some tea or coffee. In case, the condition is
serious, artificial respiration should be given.
11. Unconsciousness: The person should be brought to an open place
to breathe fresh air. S/he should be made to sit in such a way
that his/her head should be between his/her two knees. In
addition to this, s/he should be given some stimulants such as
tea or coffee to drink.
12. Fire: Wrap the person in fire-proof blanket. If an inflammable
substance is on fire, close the mouth of the vessel. Small fire due
to oil, phosphorus, etc., can be put out by smothering them with
large quantities of dry sand. If the fire is due to gas or electricity,
the source of supply or the main connection should be cut off.
First Aid Kit
In the science laboratory, following items should be kept in a box
to facilitate first aid. The items are:
1. Acetic acid (1% to 5%)
2. Ammonium hydroxide (1% to 5%)
3. Burnol
4. Sodium bicarbonate (1%)
5. Silver nitrate
6. Boric acid
7. Tannic acid
8. Hydrogen peroxide (3%)
9. Glycerine
10. Ether
11. Castor oil
12. Mustard oil
13. Mineral oil
14. Liquid paraffin
15. Adhesive tape roll (½” or 1" wide)
16. Bandage (various size)
17. Camel hair brush
18. Dropper
19. Dettol
20. Sterilized dressing
21. Common salt
22. Starch
23. Tincture of iodine
24. Universal anti-dote
The cupboard containing first aid materials must be left open
and a list of accidents and their corresponding first aids should be
hung near it.
2. Science Library
Science library is an essential support system for a good science
teaching and effective learning. It provides supplementary
information for the teacher and student. In a world of ‘information’,
a science teacher has to proceed at par with the latest trends in
education; both in subject matter and in pedagogic practices. Other
wise s/he may fail in his/her task of instruction. A well-equipped
library helps the science teacher to gather information about the
advancements in science and its classroom implications. In addition,
the twenty first century student is not a passive learner, but an active
participant in the educative process. The Science library provides a
number of resources, which are helpful in the learners’ pursuit of
knowledge construction.
Advantages of Science Library

The important advantages of a science library can be summarised
as follows (Vanaja, 2005):
1. Source of knowledge
It helps both students and teachers to keep themselves up-to-
date in various dimensions of scientific knowledge. It provides
supplementary information to the topics prescribed in the syllabus.
2. Source of latest developments in science

This is an era of knowledge explosion. What is new today in
science is old tomorrow. New science books are being written
everyday for giving information about the new discoveries and
inventions. The students and teachers can be acquainted with such
fast developments through the books, journals and electronic resources
provided in the libraries.
3. Source of information about new methods of instruction

With the widening of knowledge, more appropriate instructional
strategies, methods and techniques are to be incorporated in the
learning process. The materials in the library may help the teachers
to be acquainted with the latest methods and techniques of instruction.
4. Helps in better learning by students

The students get a chance to read several books on the same
topic written in various styles by different authors. It stimulates their
thoughts and helps them to comprehend the concepts in a better way.
5. Inculcates good reading habits in students

The use of library develops interest in reading and acquiring
knowledge. Gradually it helps them in developing good habits like
reading with concentration, self-study, punctuality, discipline, caring
for books, etc.
6. Provides inspiration
The reading materials narrating scientific inventions and
discoveries as well as the life history may thrill the students and inspire
them to undertake scientific endeavours.
7. Develops scientific attitude

The use of library helps the students in learning the scientific
method of solving problems and in developing scientific attitude in
their thoughts and actions.
8. Good use of leisure time

The library provides a means for fruitful use of leisure time for
students as well as teachers.
9. Fosters creativity
The use of library may foster the creative talents of students in
writing articles in journals, designing and executing science projects,
developing scientific hobbies, etc.
10. Helps in developing values

The proper use of library helps to develop values such as co-
operation, orderliness, punctuality, tolerance, etc.
I. Organisation of Science Library

The following points should be borne in mind while organising a
school library.
a) Place and accommodation

Science library can be established as a separate library. If it is not
possible due to economic or administrative reasons, it can be
established as a part of the general library or can be attached as a
separate facility near the classroom. Whatever may be the
arrangement, the students should have an easy access to the books in
the library.
b) Library-in-charge
If the science library is a part of the general library, the librarian
could be in charge of the science section also. In such cases, it is nice
to have a ‘library-teacher’ for each class who can guide students to
select books relevant to their standard. If the science library is attached
to science lab or classrooms, the science teacher should be the in charge
of such arrangements. S/he can utilise the service of selected students
in the various activities of the library.
c) Classifying science books and reading materials

In general, the books and materials to be kept in the science library
may be categorised as follows:
(i) Prescribed books for each standard
(ii) Books providing detailed information in every branch of science
(iii) Books on latest developments and progress in science
(iv) Books on discoveries and inventions in science
(v) Books on the historical landmarks in the field of science
(vi) Books narrating the life history of scientists
(vii) Books on scientific hobbies and fiction
(viii)Interesting pictorial and well-illustrated books on science for
creating interest in science reading
(ix) Science periodicals, journals and magazines
(x) Materials like charts, pictures, etc. to be used as an aid for the
teaching and learning of the different topics in all branches of
science
(xi) Reference books, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, etc. related to the
facts and process of science
II. Management of Science Library

A collection of books and reading materials will not make the
science library beneficial for students and teachers. The following
points are to be remembered in the management of a science library.
a) Proper classification of books

The books should be properly classified and kept so that, the
reader may easily locate a particular book on the given topic. Giving
reference number to each book will make this task easy.
b) Proper service and maintenance

For the proper maintenance of a science library and effective
service, the following things are to be considered:
(i) A lending register should be maintained. It should include the
names of students, date of issue of the book, date of return of the
book, etc. This will also help the teacher to understand the
number of students interested in reading the science books.
(ii) Students should be instructed not to tear any picture or page
from the books and magazine of the library. They should also be
told and made to learn the proper way of using the books and
materials without getting them damaged in any way.
(iii) The books and the materials should be protected from the white
ants, cockroaches and other harmful insects by taking necessary
precautions.
c) Rules for use

Rules of library should be properly displayed for the information
of the readers. Major rules that have to be obeyed for a smooth
functioning of a library are given below:
(i) Every class should have a fixed day and time for getting books
issued to them and also for returning the same
(ii) Period for which the book is issued should be made clear to the
students
(iii) The students should know clearly that they have to return the
books within the stipulated period
(iv) There should be a specific period in the timetable known as library
period for attending the library to read books and other reading
materials
(v) The students should be made to observe silence and keep

discipline in the library
III. Promoting Students’ Interest in the Use of Science

Library
The following ways and means may be adopted by the teachers
or organisers to create interest in students in the library work:
(i) The teacher should give titiles and names of authors of references
books during the classroom teaching or demonstration
(ii) If possible the teacher may bring good books from the library
and show them in the class by emphasizing their salient features
(iii) The students may be asked to take necessary notes from the library
books and read them out to the whole class for the benefit of
others
(iv) Discussion and debates on the topics of scientific interest should
be encouraged among the students using books and material
available in the library
(v) The student should have full freedom in the choice of books for
reading. They may be helped properly in selecting, locating and
getting the books on the subjects of their interest
(vi) Information regarding new arrivals may be displayed on the
bulletin board of the library
(vii) Science club activities, science fairs and exhibitions, science
magazine of the school, wall magazines and organization of
different houses for the co-curricular activities can do a lot in
creating the necessity of consulting library and collecting
necessary information from it for the successful running of such
cocurricular activities. A wise teacher should make use of them
for attracting students to read in the library
(viii)Enthusiasm and interest on the part of the students in establishing
science library can be created by taking proper steps in this
direction by the teacher. The initiative, zeal and enthusiasm of
the science teacher is of great importance in creating students’
interest in the use of library
3. Syllabus
Syllabus is the core of the curriculum that outlines the content to
be taught in a class for a period of study. It is a specific, systematic
and hierarchically ordered arrangement of the content learned during
the course of study. Syllabus functions as a support system and guides
the teacher, to organise and complete the instructional process in
stipulated time. It is a sketch that helps to prepare textbooks,
workbooks, teachers’ handbooks, source books, lesson transcripts,
learning materials, etc.
Syllabus provides a plan of the course outline (hours of instruction
of each unit, details of examination, etc.), course objectives, modes of
transaction as well as the learning activities related to the content.
Principles to be considered while framing a syllabus in

science
Joseph (1982) enumerated the following principles for framing
syllabus for high school science.
1. A syllabus framed should be useful in realising the aims and
objectives of teaching science
2. It should be related to the natural interest and activities of
children at various stages of their development
3. Topics must be selected as far as possible from pupils’
environment.
4. The syllabus should be broad and comprehensive enough to
provide pupils an understanding of science as a whole.
5. The high school science should be primarily a preparation for
life and not for higher studies in science.
6. The content chosen should be in accordance with the learning
capacity of the pupils.
7. Undue importance to specialisation on different branches of
Physics and Chemistry should be avoided.
8. The syllabus should be flexible and should allow the teacher to

make slight alterations. There should be provisions to include
topics of local importance.
9. The syllabus should also take into account the time allotted for
the subject in the timetable.
10. It should incorporate the correlation aspects in science.
11. The arrangements of the topics in the syllabus should be in
accordance with the psychological principles of learning
12. It should include the materials which help in the appreciation of
work and sacrifice of great scientists in their search for truth.
4. Textbook
In science teaching and learning the importance of textbook as a
resource material cannot be underestimated. “The textbook is almost
widely used of educational teaching instruments… Indeed, the text
book is almost synonymous with schooling” (Thurber & Collette, 1964,
p. 227). The textbook was once considered as a main source of
information. The concept of textbook has changed considerably over
the decades. However, today it is an indispensable part of study, as a
beacon to the student in his/her learning activities.
A science textbook is usually divided into sections or units, which
are built around specific topics. It contains an introductory section,
which reviews the content of the book, attempts to define science,
and alerts the reader of the relevance of the content, etc., thus
attempting to set the stage for the year’s programme.
Each section in the textbook starts with provision for some activity
that prepares pupils for the work and to the body of each section.
Each section presents printed information, supplemented by
illustration and suggestion for supplementary activities such as
experiments, demonstrations, readings, etc. All units end with
questions for evaluation along with a list of expected learning
outcomes and technical words used. Modern textbooks
provide glossary of the technical terms at the end of the book.
Biographical sketches of scientists and accounts of specific
developments are given in an attention-capturing manner by bold

faces, special fonts, boxes, etc., to supplement each unit. Good science
textbooks close with name index and subject index to help students
to refer the relevant pages.
Characteristics of a good text book

Thurber and Collette (1964) suggested six criteria in the selection
of a good text book. They are:
1. Content
2. Organisation
3. Literary style and vocabulary
4. Illustration
5. Teaching aids
6. Mechanical make-up and appearance
Each of the above criteria is detailed below
1. Content
(a) The textbook should be appropriate for the age level and
experience of the pupils
(b) The subject matter of the textbook should be consistent with the
needs and interests of the pupils
(c) The content should reflect the unknowns and uncertainties in
science as well as the known
(d) The content should cover the prescribed syllabus
(e) Factual materials given in the text book must be accurate
2. Organisation
There are different patterns of organisation that are common in
science textbooks. The college textbooks follow the logical organisation
in which the concepts and principles are developed in a way that an
educated person might organise them. The logical organisation is often
deductive in nature. The second type, psychological organisation, is
followed in school level textbooks in which the material is presented
from the pupil’s viewpoint. The approach is mostly inductive in nature.

The following points must be considered in the organisation of the
textbook.
(a) The content should be organised from simple to complex
(b) The organisation should follow the inductive development of the
content
(c) Whenever possible the subject matter should be presented as a
problem that has no ready solution
(d) The organisation of the content should challenge the attention
and hold the interest of the pupils
(e) The content organisation in units (chapters) should be of suitable
size and arranged into a well-connected course
(f) The organisation should inform the student of the correlation of
the different units
3. Literary Style and Vocabulary
The style of a textbook is important given the age level of the
student for whom it is meant. The vocabulary should be adjusted to
the capacity of pupils and technical terms should be used only when
it is necessary. There are computer programmes that will evaluate
the appropriateness of vocabulary used in a textbook for specified
age level. The readability of a textbook is an important consideration
in its evaluation. The style should be judged based on:
(a) Length of sentences
(b) Directness of sentences
(c) Number of ideas per sentence
(d) Use of lead sentences for a paragraph
(e) Continuity of thought
4. Illustration
The quantity and quality of illustrations needs consideration.
Photographs should be clearly reproduced. Diagrams should be
carefully prepared. Colour to the illustrations adds to their teaching
value. Illustrations should be well-selected and should amplify the

materials printed on the same page. The following points are worth
considering:
(a) Illustration should be sufficient in number, size and quality
(b) There must be good variety of illustrations like charts, maps,
diagrams, graphs, etc.
(c) The illustration must be well-distributed throughout the book
(d) The illustration must be suitably labelled
5. Teaching Aids
The teaching aids that are relevant to each unit should be
incorporated along with the text material. This will help the learner
cognitively in processing the information. There must be:
(a) Sufficient number of experiments described and suggested
(b) Adequate laboratory exercises should be detailed with directions
(c) Suggestions of projects and problems where the knowledge can
be applied should be mentioned
(d) Suggestions for the organisation of reviews, summaries, and
suggestions for further study including references should be
provided
6. Mechanical Make-up and Appearance

Artistry of cover, durability of binding, size of the book, quality
of paper, length of line and size and legibility of type (font size) are
considered under this heading. The book should have an attractive
overall appearance. The cover design and the colour of binding should
be attractive. The two-column format with a wide margin will be
more attractive. The white space between lines adds to the ease of
reading. The following points may be considered under this heading:
(a) Paper quality – thickness, whiteness, finish, etc.
(b) Printing font size appropriate for the age level
(c) Spacing between lines and words
(d) Attractive cover

(e) Strong and durable binding
(f) Reasonable cost
The above six criteria can be used to evaluate textbooks. Various
scorecards and checklists have been devised to make the selection of
textbook as objective as possible. For example, Hunter developed a
scorecard for textbook evaluation with seven major factors. The seven
items and distribution of scores are given below (cited in Thurber &
Collette, 1964).
1. Educational rank of author 50
2. Mechanical make-up and cost 100
3. Psychological soundness 300
4. Subject matter 250
5. Literary style 110
6. Learning exercises 140
7. Teachers’ help 50
Total 1000
Vogel suggested a spot check evaluation scale that may be a good
guide for selecting a science textbook. The major criteria are grouped
under ten major headings (cited in Thurber & Collette, 1964). They
are - - (1) qualification of the author, (2) organisation, (3) content,
(4) presentation, (5) accuracy, (6) readability, (7) adaptability,
(8) teaching aids, (9) illustrations, and (10) appearance.
Vogel’s card is suggestive and at the same time seems subjective.
All the above ten criteria suggested by Vogel have sub-items, the first
two heads have four each and the rest eight heads have five each.
Each sub-item is considered while scoring. Each sub-item has a value
of two points and the score obtained for each head is termed as partial
score. The value of each item under each head is totalled against the
part of score. The partial scores of each head were then counted and
the overall value is scored.
Uses of science textbook

1. Science textbook provides authoritative information for the pupils
to supplement classroom instruction and laboratory work
2. It is a source of factual materials in the preparation of
assignments both for teachers and for students
3. It provides the necessary illustrations that help in easy
comprehension of ideas
4. It supplies follow-up exercises, numerical problems and other
learning devices, which would serve as a means of applying the
knowledge gained
5. It helps pupils in systematic revision
6. It provides description of processes particularly those outside the
experience of pupils
7. It provides a background for thinking and further study
8. It supplements students with biographical and historical sketches
to realise the cultural value of science.
5. Resource Unit
“The term resource unit in science refers to a huge collection of
science materials and activities related to a particular topic” (Joseph,
1982). It is a resource of materials from which a teacher can select
suitable topics, activities, books and audio-visual aids for curriculum
transaction. The resource unit is much more comprehensive than a
teaching unit. It differs from the teaching unit in purpose, scope,
making and organisation. It is a broad reservoir of information,
activities and materials from which a teaching unit may be built. It is
a guide and a store house for an enthusiastic teacher, to deal with his
subject matter more effectively. A science teacher should be wise
enough to make purposeful use of contents and suggested student
activities; s/he is not expected to deal everything given in the resource
unit.
A team of experts usually prepare the resource unit during
workshops, in-service programmes, etc. The steps involved in the
preparation of a resource unit are:

1. Title: Describes the content in simple, attractive and self
explanatory manner
2. Introduction: Provides the social and scientific significance of
the unit and also indicates why it becomes important to children
of this particular age level
3. General objectives: Brief statements specifying the expected
learning outcomes
4. Content analysis: Analyses the content exhaustively and
presents it in simple and clear language
5. Activities of the unit: Provides explicit descriptions of the
projects, demonstrations, experiments and field trips, which can
be used/undertaken for the complete treatment of the unit
6. Teaching materials and sources: These materials are divided
into those suitable for teachers’ use and those for students’ use.
The reference materials for the teachers include a careful selection
of books, pamphlets, periodicals, articles, films, charts, etc. The
reference materials for students include textbooks, supplementary
reading materials, periodicals, etc. Audio-visual aids, which help
in effective presentation of the lesson, may also be described here.
7. Evaluation procedures: As the final step, evaluation procedures
appropriate for the unit have to be mentioned. Measuring
instruments, sample tests, informal evaluation techniques,
methods of evaluating students’ works such as projects, seminars,
assignments, practical, etc. are included in it.
6. Workbook
A workbook is a supplement to the science textbook. There are
several functions for a workbook in the learning process. Workbooks
are usually organised in the same order that the textbooks follow. It
provides for different types of activities. These activities include - -
forms (proforma) for reporting data, diagrams to be labelled, blank
spaces for drawing diagrams, suggestions for supplementary work,
study guides for preparing assignments and self-testing devices. The
self-testing items included in the workbook are: multiple-choice items,

fill in the blank items, matching type items, short note question and
problems of various kind.
Workbook minimises the work-load of teachers in preparing
worksheets, assignments and laboratory experiments. Also, the test
items help in the task of evaluation. Since the workbook is prepared
by a group of teachers, the test items will be of better quality.
Advantages of workbook
1. It promotes self-learning and self-assessment
2. It gives practise in what pupils have learnt in the class and
thereby reinforces learning
3. It promotes scientific thinking
4. It makes learning more structured
5. It provides for systematic practice of skills
6. It helps in revision of topics included in the textbooks
Limitations of workbook
1. It is highly organised and not flexible
2. It demands uniform outcomes from the students
3. Independent work is discouraged
7. Teachers’ Handbook
“It is a ready reference material for the teacher to supplement
his classroom teaching” (Joseph, 1982). It contains summaries of
chapters in the textbook, conceptual development of topics, statement
of objectives to be realised, explanation of significant terms, facts,
concepts, principles, etc., learning experiences to be provided,
precautions to be taken while demonstrations, activities appropriate
to each topic, evaluation tools, assignments for pupils and suggested
reading materials for the teacher and pupils.
Advantages teachers’ handbook

1. It equips the teacher with sufficient knowledge about what is to
be taught
2. The problem of finding out suitable learning experiences and
activities for teaching different lessons is easily solved
3. It helps the teacher to adopt appropriate methods to teach every
topic
4. It helps the teacher in the planning and execution of different
tasks involved in teaching
5. It makes the work of the teacher easier
8. Reference Books
Reference books are used to supplement knowledge gained in
the classroom and to acquire new knowledge (Das, 1985). Reference
books provide a means for self-improvement. These include
dictionaries, yearbooks, government reports, journals, encyclopaedia
of science, etc. They are authentic and reliable sources of information.
Authors of the reference books will be persons who have made original
contributions in the field.
The students must be given special training in the use of reference
books. The teacher should ensure that the suggested reference
materials are easily comprehensible, readily available and appropriate
for the age levels of the pupils. The teacher should be familiar with
these materials in advance to suggest them to his/her students.
Advantages of reference books

a. It supplements the classroom learning
b. It facilitates pupils’ self-study habits and spirit of self-effort
c. It helps the pupils to workout assignments
d. It stimulates scientific thinking and inculcates elements of
scientific attitude
e. It leads students to new vistas of knowledge
9. Supplementary Readers
Supplementary readers will introduce students to new materials
and meet their varied needs and interests (Washton, 1961). They refer
to literature other than the prescribed textbooks or reference books
but furnish additional details on science topics. These include books
on different aspects of science, newspaper supplements, magazine
articles, brochures, etc. The interested learners can utilise a number
of supplementary books to deepen their subject competencies.
Good supplementary reading in science will serve to stimulate
additional reading in the same or related topic. This can develop
initiative and self-direction in the learners. Teachers should encourage
their students in reading supplementary materials, by helping in
proper selection of materials that are challenging to the learners.
Advantages of supplementary readers

a. It helps to develop the intellectual potentialities, deepens scientific
interests, and cultivates the traits of scientific attitude
b. It supplements and integrates classroom learning
c. It inculcates self-study habits and promotes independent reading
d. It strengthens linguistic ability and develops literary tastes
10. Audio-visual Aids

‘Audio-visual Aids’, ‘Audio-visual Media’, ‘Instructional or
Educational Media’, ‘Learning Resources’, ‘Educational
Communication Technology’, and ‘Information Communication
Technology (ICT) in Education’, all these refer to the same thing.
Earlier the term used was audio-visual aids in education. With the
advancement in the means of communication and technology,
educators coined new terms.
Sensory experience forms the foundation for intellectual activity.
Sensory aids effect an economy of time in learning. For long, the
common practice to communicate knowledge has been by means of
written or oral language. But language has many limitations which
may contribute to learning difficulty. Generally, modern educators
recognise in audio-visual materials such basic values as concreteness,

enrichment, and dynamic interest. The number of aids for teaching
has become so numerous that today a teacher of any subject need not
resort to any of the archaic methods of teaching. Even the most abstract
concept can now be presented to the pupils in a concrete way by
means of more than one aid (Sampath, Panneerselvam, & Santhanam,
1998).
Definitions of Audio-visual Aids

Audio-visual aids are those sensory objects or images, which
initiate or stimulate and reinforce learning.
Audio-visual or teaching aids are instructional materials or
devices that help a teacher in the effective realisation of his/her
objectives by calling upon the auditory and visual sense of his students
(Mangal, 1995).
Audio-visual aides are those aids which help in completing the
triangular process of learning i.e., motivation, classification and
stimulation (Good, 1945).
Audio-visual aids are those devices by the use of which
communication of ideas between persons and groups in various
teaching and training situations is helped. These are also termed as
multi-sensory materials (Dale, 1967).
Significance of Audio-visual Aids in Education

Audio-visual aids have great significance in the modern
educational scenario. It helps both teachers and students in realising
the teaching-learning objectives. Some of the general advantages of
using audio-visual aids are:
1. Effective substitute for direct contact of students with

the environment – physical and social (Vicarious
experience): live or recorded telecast of events through television
or radio, motion pictures, carefully prepared slides, etc., can help
the teacher surpass the limits of time and space and provide
students needed experiences of abstract concepts/ideas; of distant
places/people; of complicated/dangerous process, etc.
2. Guarantee maximum use of senses: involvement of more sense

organs leads to rich and better teaching-learning experience.
3. Better motivation: builds more interest and attention energising
learners to learn effectively out of their inner urges, instincts,
drives and motives.
4. Reality: brings a bit of real life into the learning situation and
helps students gain the concept they are learning much faster
than through reading of book.
5. Development of higher faculties: verbalism promotes
memorisation. Use of audio-visual aids triggers the imagination,
thinking process and reasoning power of the students and call
for creativity, initiative and other higher mental activities.
6. Positive transfer of learning and training: use of audio-
visual aids help in the learning of other concepts, principles and
solve the real problems of life in future.
7. Meets individual differences: learners vary much in their
learning styles, some are auditory (prefers things to be heard),
some are visual (prefers things to be seen), while some others are
multi-sensory (learn better by doing). The use of variety of audio-
visual aids helps in meeting the needs of different types of
students.
8. Provide reinforcement: increases the probability of re-
occurrence of the responses and render help in the process of
teaching and learning.
9. Based on maxims of teaching: helps the teacher to follow the
maxims of teaching such as concrete to abstract.
10. Concept formation: thinking and reasoning are the core of
concept formation. Audio-visual aids minimises verbalism and
evokes thinking and reasoning. Proper use of elicitation can lead
to better comprehension and concept formation.
1 1 . Continuity of thoughts: helps in ensuring continuity of
thought and which is the basic necessity for real education.
12. Ensures better retention: increases retention as they stimulate

the learner to the situation in which learning takes place.
Classification of Audio-visual Aids

Two basic approaches to classification of audio-visual aids are
discussed below:
1. Traditional Approach: in this style the audio-visual aids,
materials and equipments are classified under four heads as
mentioned below:
a) Audio aids: those aids that call upon the auditory sense and
thus help individuals to learn through listening come under this
head. Radio broadcasts, audio-cassette recordings, audio CDs,
etc. are examples for this category.
b) Visual aids: those aids which call upon the visual senses and
thus help individual to learn through viewing come under this
head. These aids may be further sub divided as: (i) Projective
and (ii) Non-projective aids.
i. Projective aids: include visual aids such as silent motion picture,
film-strips, slides, transparencies, epidiascope, magic lantern,
micro-projections, opaque projector, overhead projector, etc.
ii. Non-projective aids: include aids that are appealing to sight -
graphic aids such as photographs, posters, maps, charts, graphs,
flash cards, cartoons, comics, etc., display materials such as
chalk board, flannel board, bulletin board, magnetic board, peg
board, material for school museum, etc., three dimensional aids
such as globe, models, objects, specimens, mock ups, dioramas,
puppets, etc.
c) Audio-visual aids: those aids that call upon the auditory and
visual senses and thus help individuals to learn through listening
as well as viewing come under this head. Television, sound
motion-picture, synchronised audio-slide projection, radio vision,
computer assisted instruction, etc. are examples for this category.
d ) Activity aids: those aids that call upon the five senses and help
individuals to learn thorough listening, viewing as well as doing
come under this head. Dramatisation, role playing, laboratory

experiments, field trips, study tours, group discussions, debates,
etc. are examples for this category.
2. Technological Approach: in this style the audio-visual aids,
materials and equipments are classified under three heads as
mentioned below:
a) Simple hardware: magic lantern, epidiascope, slide projector,
filmstrip projector, opaque projector, overhead projector etc.
come under this category.
b) Hardware: radio, television, record player, tape recorder, video
cassette recorder, CD/DVD players, 16 mm projector, teaching
machines, computers, liquid crystal display monitors, LCD
projectors, etc. come under this category.
c) Software: slides, OHP transparencies, filmstrips, pictures,
photographs, printed materials, graphic aids such as graphs,
charts, maps, diagrams, cartoons, posters, etc. and three
dimensional objects like models, dioramas, specimen, etc. come
under this head.
Essential Audio-visual Aids
The audio-visual aids that are most important in the
classroom context are discussed below:
1). Chalk board or Black board

Chalk board or black board is a reusable writing surface on which
text or drawings are made with chalk or other erasable markers. Black
boards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark
grey slate stone. Modern versions are often green or brown and are
thus sometimes called a green board or brown board instead.
It is the oldest and the best friend of teachers and the unique
device which still stands tall in the midst of newer, better and
sophisticated gadgets. It is the cheapest, but valuable and most
universally used teaching aid. It is considered ‘sine qua non’ (main
thing) of our educational system, because it helps in almost all activities
of the teacher like planning, illustrating, point clinching, summarising,
reviewing, etc. In short it is the most convenient surface where the

teacher can develop subject matter visually. It helps the teacher make
way for oral-visual switching and thus maintain attention of the
students.
Uses of black board

1. Helps to seek attention of the class by illustrating the salient
features of the lesson.
2. Facilitates in developing interest among pupils by way of writings
and drawings.
3. Provides space for decorative and creative works.
4. Helps the teacher to focus students’ attention on the topic of
discussion.
5. Helps to review the day’s work in a short span of time.
Types of chalk board

1. Paint coated pressed wood: Hard board or any plywood surface
coated with special dull paint for black board.
2. Dull finished plastic surface: PVC or laminated plastic sheets
can be used but these boards are not durable and cost effective.
3. Porcelain coated steel surface: The highest grade chalkboards
are made of rougher version porcelain enamelled steel (black,
green, blue or sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard
wearing and chalkboards made of porcelain usually last 10-20
years in intensive use. This can also serve as magnetic board.
4. Ground glass board: the writing surface is ground glass and
there is no coating of any material on the writing surface to wear
out. It can be made in a variety of colours. Only one side of the
glass plate is ground. The back surface is painted with good
quality paint of the required colour or suitable coloured material
like cloth could be used in the back ground.
Suggestions for using black board

a. Hold the chalk between the thumb and the fingers with the non-
working end of the chalk pointing to the palm of the hand.
b. Do not over crowd materials; write only important points
c. Ensure optimum size of letters and legibility of words
d. Give adequate spacing between letters, between words and
between lines
e. Avoid slanting of letters
f. Use coloured chalks especially while drawing diagrams
g. Ensure proper lighting conditions to avoid chalk board glare
2). Charts
The word ‘chart’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Charta’ which
means ‘a prior thought sketch of action.’ Charts are used for easy
understanding of large quantities of data and the relationship between
different parts of the data. Usually charts are combination of pictorial,
graphical or numerical material which presents a clear visual
summary. Charts can usually be read more quickly than the raw data
that they come from. They are used in a wide variety of fields, and
can be created by hand (often on chart paper or graph paper) or by
computer, using a charting application.
Uses of charts
1. Showing relationship by means of facts, figures and statistics.
2. Presenting materials symbolically
3. Showing continuity of a process
4. Presentation of abstract ideas in visual form
5. Showing development of structure
6. Creating problem to pave way for thinking
Types of charts
1. Narrative chart: is an extended left to right arrangement of
facts or ideas for expressing events in a process, development of

an issue, progress during a course of time, etc.
2. Tabulation chart: is an expression of facts and ideas arranged in
left to right or top to bottom manner. This type of charts helps to
compare numerical data and list out ideas.
3. Flow chart: is used to sequence and show functional relationship
in happenings of any social as well as physical phenomena. It
also shows organizational set up and basic tenets of
administrative utility.
4. Pictorial chart: is prepared by mounting or pasting a picture
on a chart paper. It is a systematic arrangement of key facts and
ideas in graphic or pictorial form. Such charts help in eliciting
information and are useful for low age group students.
5. Chain chart: is a circular or semicircular arrangement of facts
and ideas for expressing a cyclic process or a process of transition.
6. Tree chart: is a symbolic presentation through roots, trunk,
branches and leaves of a tree. It gives an effective way of showing
the development or growth of a thing.
3). Models
A model is a true representation of a real thing which is either
very big like earth or very small like an atom. They are scaled replica
of three dimensional things or representation of real things. Models
are concrete objects with manageable dimensions; they simplify the
reality and demonstrate processes. Models offer a kind of shortcut or
substitute for the real things and sometimes models can be more
effective than reality. Being three dimensional, models evoke creativity,
better interest and simplify matters.
Uses of models
1. Models make abstract ideas concrete
2. Provide convenience to reduce and enlarge objects to observable
and manageable size
3. Easy demonstrations as they provide interior view of objects and
machines
4. Pave way for building creativity in students

5. Give a firsthand experience on distant, unattainable and
dangerous things or processes
Types of models
Models are classified into four. They are:
I. Classification based on size
1. Enlarged scale model, for example, model of an atom
2. Reduced scale model, for example, model of a volcano
II. Classification based on make style
1. Three-dimensional model, for example, model of an aircraft
2. Sectional model, for example, model of a transformer
3. X-ray model, for example, model of a bio-gas plant
III. Classification based on function
1. Static model, for example, model of a dam
2. Working model, for example, model of a water pump
IV. Classification based on the way of presentation
1. Isolated Entity, for example, model of an electromagnet used in
an electric bell
2. Integrated unit in a miniature set up, for example, model of
planetary system
4). Over Head Projector (OHP)

The overhead projector is a comparatively new but a very useful
development for classrooms and lecture theatres. The teacher instead
of writing on the black board writes (facing the students) on a roll of
cellophane paper called transparency. This transparency is placed
on projecting glass and projected on the screen at the back of the
teacher. For effective presentations previously prepared OHP
transparencies can also be used. The name over head projector came
from this fact that the projected image is behind and over the head of
the speaker. The over head projector has similar optical elements as
in film projectors and slide projectors, but has its own uniqueness.
Preparation of transparencies
Over Head Projector Transparency (OHPT) can be prepared by
writing or drawing sketches over the transparent plastic sheets or
rolls. Transparencies can also be prepared photographic technique
or by getting Xerox copies of the materials on cellophane materials.
Overlay techniques (placing one transparency over the other for
projection) can enhance the effectiveness of presentations that require
establishment of figure ground relationships. By selecting suitable
colours for preparation of the transparencies the teacher can bring in
realistic effects.
Advantages of Over Head Projector

1. Large image: a very large projected image in a minimum
projection distance is offered
2. Face the class: the image formed in over the head and behind
the speaker, so the speaker can face the audience and observe
their reactions, the speaker can adjust the presentation to meet
the response of the audience.
3. Lighted room: the equipment can be used in a well-lighted room
which enables the presenter freedom of presentation even in
lighted settings.
4. Light weight: the comparatively light weight and manageable
size of the equipment makes it portable.
5. Flexibility and versatility: the visualization used can be
prepared in advance or even during the time of presentation,
this helps the presenter gain total control of presentation and
generates interest in the topic presented.
6. Homemade materials: visuals can be made in minimum time
and at low cost. The transparencies once made can be preserved
and can be utilised again for subsequent lectures.
7. Personalised presentation: The projections can be coloured
by use of coloured ink, it can be made impressive by step by step
presentations with appropriate use of overlays. LCD panel can

also be fitted to the projection surface.
8. Substitutes black board: the presenter can write on the
transparencies whenever he needs and can wipe it off afterwards
with a clean cloth. It is also possible to use triacetate film roll that
can be constantly rolled over the illuminated stage, so text written
continuously could be presented on the screen.
9. Comfortable stand: the presenter has not to run from the machine
to the screen to explain things to the audience. He can use a
pointer or pencil to point out important details on a slide.
10. User friendly: The operation of the projector is quite easy. It
simply demands turning the power switch on and off, and
placing the transparency.
5). Film Strip Cum Slide Projector

Film strip cum slide projector helps to project photographic slides
and film strips on to a screen or any white coloured surface like walls.
These projectors are equipped with strong light source to supply an
intense and focused beam of light on to the slide holder/film strip
carrier. Slide holders are frames containing two slits into which slides
are put manually or automatically one after the other for projection
and film strip carriers consist of two rollers with toothed wheels to
clamp the edges of the film strip.
Slides and film strips are used as teaching aids for supplementing
the science teaching. It is possible with these aids to demonstrate
something which is in normal course difficult to see through naked
eyes and also helps to illustrate an application immediately after a
principle has been developed. Photographs of relevant matter meant
for projection can be developed in laboratories on celluloid slides or
film strips and can be easily displayed.
Preparation of slides
Any picture or diagram, which will take more than five minutes
to draw on chalkboard during the class period, can be reproduced
on a glass slide and an enlarged image of the picture can be projected
on a screen with a slide projector or epidiascope. The size of a standard

lantern slide is 31/4" square or 31/4" x 4". At present 2" square slide is
gradually replacing the 31/4" slide. The thickness of the standard
31/4" square slide is about 1/8" being made up of two glass plates held
together by a binding strip. Each glass plate is of 1/16" thick.
The slide on which the picture is reproduced is protected by a
similar piece of glass, and it is termed as cover glass. The slide and the
cover glass are bound together at the edges by a piece of paper called
binding strip. The binding strip is usually 1/2" wide and is usually
made of opaque paper. Readymade strips, one side glued are available,
cello tape can also be used. Opaque paper or metal foils can also be
placed between the two glass plates in order to make the required
area transparent and the rest opaque.
The size of the picture should be restricted within 21/4"square so
that the margin of 1/2" is left all around. A white paper circle or similar
marking is made at one corner of the slide as an indicator to help
proper placement of the slide in the slide holder during projection.
There are several methods for slide preparation. Some of them
are mentioned below:
1. Pictures are drawn on perfectly cleaned and dried glass plates
with Indian ink using crow-quill pen or a marker pen.
2. An even coating of egg albumin (white of egg) or gelatin (1g
gelatin in 25ml of water) is made on the glass plate with brush
and dried. Pictures can easily be drawn with Indian ink and the
slides can be coloured with any transparent water colour with
fine brush. The density must be increased in stages and it must
be remembered that once a particular density is built up, it cannot
be reduced.
3. Diagrams can be drawn on cellophane papers (OHP
transparency) with Indian ink or marker pens. The paper can be
properly cut and placed in between two glass plates and bound.
4. Free-hand drawing using some sharp pointed tool can be made
on a glass plate coated with opaque-paint/lamp-black/Indian-
ink. The diagram will stand illuminated in a dark background
when projected, so these slides can also be called reverse slides

5. Objects, pictures, diagrams, etc. can be photographed or
reproduced on reflex printing paper and with the help of negative;
a positive print can be made on a photographic lantern slide or
diapositive film using photo enlarger. The picture thus obtained
can be suitably framed with the rigid cardboard mount with cut
over picture area.
6). Projectors
Currently, there are three basic types of video projector
technology in use. They are - - Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) and Digital Light Processing (DLP); these refer to the
internal mechanisms that the projector uses to compose the image.
Although the CRT video projector option is no longer available
for general consumer use, it is still used in some commercial and
industrial settings, and many older units are still in operation.
LCD was reserved for less expensive designs while DLP models
has the performance edge for high-end projectors. However, recent
advances have seen both technologies converge and in most cases
there is less of a reason to pick one technology over another. LCD
technology has improved immensely in the last decade while DLP
models are more competitively priced than ever before. So in short,
both technologies are now able to offer clear and lively images, the
main consideration to make choice depends on the specific
requirements such as brightness, resolution, contrast and connectivity.
a) CRT Projector
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) projector is the largest and most widely
used projector. When video projectors first arrived on the scene,
television technology was based on the CRT, on which the viewer
sees the television image. Three small CRTs, sometimes called “guns”
(one for each primary colour), coupled with a light magnifying lens,
can project a colour image onto a large screen in a darkened room.
With the proper video processing circuitry, CRT size, and lens
combination, a CRT projector can produce excellent high resolution
images.
b) LCD Projectors
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) technology is used by many
electronic device manufacturers such as Epson, Hitachi, Sanyo and
Sony. LCD projectors contain three separate LCD glass panels, one
for red, green, and blue components of the image signal being
transferred to the projector. As the light passes through the LCD
panels, individual pixels can be opened to allow light to pass or closed
to block the light. This activity modulates the light and produces the
image that is projected onto the screen.
LCD is generally more ‘light efficient’ than DLP (ie. the same
wattage lamp in both an LCD and DLP would produce a brighter
image through the LCD). LCD projectors help to get beautiful coloured
and a clear image even in a bright room and tend to produce a sharper
image.
c) DLP Projectors
Digital Light Processing (DLP) technology can be found in
projectors from manufacturers such as BenQ, InFocus and Optoma.
DLP is the world’s only all-digital display solution. DLP technology
uses an optical semiconductor, known as the Digital Micromirror
Device (DMD) chip to recreate source material. DLP gives higher
contrast for images. They are generally more portable as fewer
components are required. It has been claimed that DLP projectors
last longer than LCD projectors.
7). Micro Soft Power Point

Microsoft Office Power Point is one of the most powerful
presentation-software developed by the Microsoft Corporation. It is
a software that is used to create and display information in the form
of a slide show. It is also possible to incorporate graphics, sounds,
animations and even videos to make it more interactive, interesting,
attention capturing for the viewer. This helps to leave a permanent
mark in the mind of the viewer.
Creating a new presentation

1. To launch the power point application, click on Start button
and move your pointer to All Programs find Microsoft Office

and then click on Microsoft Office Power Point.
2. When the application opens click on Blank Presentation and then
click on OK.
3. The Slide Auto layout option will open. Ideally your first slide
should be the heading of your presentation, so choose the top
left lay out by clicking on it. Then click OK. In the slide that
opens out, click inside the box named ‘Click to add title’ and
write the heading. Then click inside the box below named, ‘Click
to add subtitle’ and write the sub heading (it could be your name).
4. Now add a new slide. To do so click on the Insert Menu Bar and
click on New Slide. Choose the layout most suited to your needs
and click OK. Click inside the box and begin typing the
information. In this way create the presentation.
Creating a presentation based on suggested content and
design
You can create a new presentation in several ways. You can start
by working with the Auto Content Wizard, in which you begin with
a presentation that contains suggested content and design. You can
also start with an existing presentation and change it to suit your
needs. Another way to start a presentation is by selecting a design
template that determines the presentations design but doesn’t include
content. You can also begin with an outline you import from another
application or with a blank presentation that has neither suggested
content nor design.
Saving a new or existing presentation

Click File menu, and then click Save. Find the folder you want to
save in, give a name for the file and click Save.
Saving a presentation to always open as a slide show

1. Open the presentation you want to save as slide show.
2. On the File menu, click Save As.
3. In the Save as type list, click Power Point Show.
Use of micro soft power point presentations in schools

Computer generated slide presentations can enhance the
effectiveness of classroom lectures. Teachers can use it to emphasize
main points and key announcements. The subject matter taught
becomes more organised. From a student’s perspective, class material
is far more legible and interesting than notes written on the
blackboard.
Advantages of power point

1. Support lectures by highlighting key points
2. Present tips and outlines
3. Present examples
4. Provide pictures and other graphics supporting the material
5. Stimulate interest by use of clipart and cartoons
6. Display assignment information
7. Make important announcements
8. Deliver key points at a parent-teacher meeting
Tips for using power point:

1. Avoid overcrowding and overloading of matter in slides
2. Make letter size readable without strain to eyes
3. Font selected should be bold and thick
4. Use capitals with purpose
5. Consider one central idea per slide
6. Insert duplicate slide rather than going back to the previous slide
7. Ensure maximum contrast between foreground and background
8. Use animation only with specific purpose
9. Attempt slide transition only with purpose.
11. CD-ROM
Compact Disc-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) is a secondary
storage device on which data are recorded and read by laser beams.
It is also called laser optical disc. Read only means that nothing can
be erased once written on the disc. Multiple writing is possible on the
same disc if prompted during writing. It is used to hold pre-recorded
text, graphics, and sound. Users have access only to the data
imprinted on the disc by manufacturers.
The size of a Compact Disc is commonly 4.75" in diameter. Its
storage capacity is 700 MB/80Min. A CD-ROM stores data on the
surface of a poly carbonate disc, which is covered by a thin layer of
reflective aluminium film (which gives it the silver look) and a layer
of lacquer for protection. Data are recorded on CDs as binary
information and is encoded by the lengths of pits and space between
them. The data stored in the disc can be retained without loss or
damage for a long time.
Advantages of CD-ROM
1. High storage capacity around 700 MB; helps to store large
quantity of data in forms such as text, images and audio-video
recordings
2. Economical; the production cost of a CD ROM is very low
3. Durability; can be preserved for a long time without damage
4. Easy to handle; the size of the disc suits for easy carriage, and it
is easy to play the disc
12. Encarta
Encarta is a digital multimedia encyclopaedia published by
Microsoft Corporation. The first edition was published in 1993. The
current Microsoft Encarta can be considered the successor of the Funk
and Wagnalls, Crollier, and New Merit Scholar encyclopaedias. None
of these formerly successful encyclopaedias are in print now, being
unable to adapt to the new market dynamics of electronic
encyclopaedias.
The complete English version, Encarta Premium consists of more

than 68,000 articles, numerous images and movies, and homework
tools, and is available on the World Wide Web by yearly subscription
or by purchase on DVD-ROM or multiple CD-ROMs. Many articles
can also be viewed online free of charge, a service supported by
advertisements. Its articles are integrated with multimedia content
and may have a collection of links to websites selected by its editors.
A sidebar may display alternative views or original materials relevant
to the topic. Encarta’s Visual Browser, available since the 2004 version,
presents a user with a list of related topics. Its multimedia includes
virtual 3-dimensional tours of ancient structures, 2-dimensional
panoramic images of world wonders or cities; and a virtual flight
program which moves the user over landscape. Encarta also includes
a trivia game called “MindMaze” in which the player explores a castle
by answering questions whose answers could be found in the
encyclopaedia’s articles.
13. Improvised Apparatus

The apparatus devised and made by a teacher or by pupils in the
school laboratory or workshop is called improvised apparatus or
homemade apparatus. It is not always possible to purchase apparatus
especially the costly ones from the market. Or in certain other cases,
suitable apparatus needed for classrooms may not be readily available.
In such situations a science teacher has to fabricate some equipment
for classroom and laboratory use. A teacher with imagination and
skill will be able to make several useful appliances using locally
available ordinary or scrap materials.
Improvisation in a country like India has great importance, as it
is difficult to afford all equipments necessary for classroom teaching.
In addition, making of improvised apparatus has a great role in
developing scientific interest and attitude among the school children.
Many simple devices can be made from tin cans, cigar boxes,
packing cases, electric bulbs, scrap metals, screws, nails, wire, cork,
etc. These improvised apparatus have the special advantage of the
whole of the apparatus being open to observation in contrast to the
finished product available in the market.
Advantages of improvised aids

1. It is economical.
2. When the students make things with their own hand, they
thoroughly understand the underlying principles. Hence, the
homemade apparatus has high educational value.
3. It develops constructive and creative instincts in pupils.
4. It can inspire young children to explore, discover and invent new
things.
5. It is based on psychological principle of learning by doing.
6. It provides opportunities for the use of initiative and
resourcefulness.
7. Students learn to think critically and improve their work by auto-
suggestions.
8. It helps to develop scientific attitude.
9. It has recreational values and helps to lay the foundation of useful
hobbies.
10. It aids in securing motivation and creating interest.
11. It enables children to appreciate the difficulties of early scientists.
12. It enables the teacher to introduce variety into the nature of
experiments.
14. Video Lessons

Video-tapes or video-cassettes are made up of materials that can
store data magnetically. Video tapes emerged as storage devices that
can store both auditory and visual signals. In the field of education
they helped to store instructional materials for easy and repetitive
use. These video taped materials can be played back through monitors
in classrooms or audio-visual rooms.
Video-tapes can provide virtually instantaneous reproduction and
in this sense it is superior to films. Video-tapes in the form of video-
cassettes have made it more user-friendly and portable. The user can
easily take the cassette and play it by inserting into the video player
attached to the television. The potential advantage of video cassettes

lie in the fact that control of the equipment and the learning process
is placed in the hands of the learner through control over the
mechanics of the machine. It helps the learner acquire a wide range
of motor, intellectual, cognitive and interpersonal skills as well as
affective aspects.
This type of instruction thus is advantageous in carrying out both
individualised and group instructions. This instructional mode could
be of great use in distance education, continuing education, adult
education and literacy mission programmes. An example for a video
lesson in science is “World of Chemistry” developed by MIT
Massachusetts, USA.
The various audio-visual aids described above have the potential
to make the teaching-learning more effective. However, no single
audio-visual aid is superior to any other audio-visual aid. The teacher
will have to select one audio-visual aid, given the nature of the content,
age-group of the learner, the time available and the facilities available
in a particular school. Knowledge of these aids should better equip
the teacher to make a judicious choice in the curriculum transaction.
For example, an equation such as F = ma can be written on a
black board which may take only a few seconds. It will be a
meaningless exercise to put the equation on a slide since enlarging
the size of the letters will not serve any pedagogical purpose. Whereas,
the cross-section of a dry-cell can be put on a slide or OHP because
drawing the diagram on black board will take five to ten minutes
which will not be time-effective. However, a simulation of the
structure of atom should be prepared as a Power Point presentation
because the other audio-visual aids are incapable of providing such
learning experience. To sum-up, the ingenuity of a teacher depends
on his/her optimum use and choice of the various audio-visual aids
available.
187
Chapter VII
LEARNING: A GENERATIVE PROCESS
Science education researchers have shown considerable interest

in Ausubel’s and Gagne’s learning theories which give importance to
the role played by the prior knowledge in learning. However, they
were considering the theory of learning hierarchy and theory of
anchoring new learning material to what already exists in the learner’s
cognitive structure.
What already exists in the learner’s cognitive structure has a great
influence on the mastery of new concepts. New concepts are directly
or indirectly related to this pre-existing knowledge. So, the most
important single factor that has influence in the learning of science is
the learner’s prior knowledge. The teaching of science can be made
more effective if Gagne’s learning hierarchy and Ausubel’s learning
theory are translated into practice. In the words of Ausubel, “if we
had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, we
would say this - - the most important single factor influencing learning
is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him
accordingly” (Ausubel, Novak, & Hanesian, 1978; p.163). Gagne
points out the discrepancy in the present system of education - - “it
is, in fact, the existence of prior capabilities that is slighted or even
ignored by most of the traditional learning prototypes. And it is these
prior capabilities that are of crucial importance in determining the
conditions required for subsequent learning” (cited in Ausubel, Novak,
& Hanesian, 1978; p.168).
Chemistry is a subject composed of sets of organised rules which
build on each other which may be represented as a learning hierarchy.
A hierarchy is an arrangement of tasks or items into a pattern that

shows the pre-requisite and relationships among them. So, while
teaching a concept, the teacher should be aware of the pre-requisites
of that concept which the teacher intends to teach. If students have
sufficient pre-requisite knowledge for learning a particular concept,
then, it is easy for the teacher to link it with students’ prior knowledge
which helps to understand the concept properly, thus providing a
better retention. For example, ‘chemical equilibrium’ is a concept in
chemistry. For learning this concept, the pre-requisites are - - forward
reaction, backward reaction and reaction rates. If pupils are not
familiar with these pre-requisites, then, it is not of much use to teach
them the concept of chemical equilibrium directly because they will
fail to get it in their cognitive structure. So, it is very important to test
the pre-requisite knowledge without which learning cannot be
effective and permanent.
Pre-conceptions
The most fundamental problems confronting today’s cognitive
psychologists are two - - (1) how to represent the knowledge that a
person has and (2) how to identify the mechanisms by which a person
uses this knowledge. Mere pre-requisite knowledge will not help in
meaningful learning. Pupils must know the relevance of the pre-
requisites in learning a new concept. Most of the new materials that
our pupils encounter in schools are substantively associated to a
previously learned background of meaningful ideas and information.
Ausubel is of the opinion that the curriculum often is deliberately
organised in this fashion to provide for easy introduction of new facts,
concepts and proposition (Ausubel, et al., 1978).
Prior learning will not become pre-requisite unless it is
incorporated into new learning. This incorporation of prior knowledge
is possible through proper teaching methods. The pre-requisites should
be properly determined before teaching a difficult concept. The
difficult or complex concept may be composed of simpler or less
complicated concepts or rules, which might have already been learnt
by pupils. “Certain previously learned capabilities provide necessary
support for new learning, regardless of what is being learned” (Gagne,
LEARNING: A GENERATIVE PROCESS 189
1976, p. 267). When the intellectual skill of adding integers is learned,

the previously acquired skill of subtracting whole numbers is
incorporated as part of the new capability. He is of the opinion that
certain intellectual skills, often those learned years ago, may be seen
to give support to the learning of other kinds of capabilities.
Relevance of pre-conceptions
Gagne defines the term pre-requisite as a capability of prior
learning which is incorporated in new learning; the previously learnt
entity actually enters into newly learned capability, becomes and
remains a part of the behaviour which results from the events of
learning (Gagne, 1977). However Ausubel and Gagne were thinking
only in terms of the facilitative effects of prior knowledge. Now, there
is a growing interest in the notion that students do posses ‘invented
ideas’ based upon their interpretations of sensory impressions which
influence the ways in which they respond to and understand the
disciplinary knowledge as presented in the classroom (Driver &
Erickson, 1983). This understanding mainly stems from a
‘constructivist epistemology’ (Driver, 1982; Osborn & Wittrock, 1983)
in which it is assumed that learners actively generate meaning from
experiences. Students learn generally in the context of their previous
experience. Dewey (1956) maintained that an educational experience
which stimulates development is the one which arouses interest,
enjoyment, and challenge the ‘immediate experience’ of the student.
Therefore, any teaching style or model should start with what students
know.
Planning of instruction and prerequisites

In lesson planning, there is a step known as identifying the
previous knowledge or pre-requisite. The previous knowledge is
identified as something the students have learned in the previous class
or during their study of the subject in the previous year. Student-
teachers are encouraged to link the new content with the identified
pre-requisite knowledge. The teacher-educators do not even alert the
student-teachers about the possibility of interaction between new
content and pre-requisite knowledge in unanticipated ways. Students
have many common-sense beliefs about phenomena which are not
in agreement with the way in which these phenomena are interpreted

in school science. For example, when a boy pushes a wall, it shows a
tendency to move. But this proposition of ‘tendency’ is not acceptable
to an average high school student.
Researchers have also investigated about the concept of ‘gas.’
They found that pupils do not initially be aware that air and other
gases possess material character. For example, pupils regard air and
smoke having transient character similar to that of ‘thoughts’ (Driver,
Squires, Rushworth, & Wood-Robinson, 1994). When pupils observe
a solid changing into liquid, pupils may think that it loses weight or
mass. Stavy presented pupils with two samples of ice having identical
weights. She melted one sample of ice and then interviewed pupils
about the relative weights of the two samples. Only 50% of pupils at
the ages of five and six believed that the weight (or mass) is conserved.
However, 50% students at the age of seven and 75% students at the
age of ten believed that the mass is conserved in both cases (cited in,
Driver, et al., 1994). Another example is that of air and air pressure.
School children of the age 12-16 think that only wind, and not still
air, has pressure.
Several cognitive psychologists have proposed that internalisation
(selection, perception and interpretation) of new information and
ideas by a person are a function of his/her existing conceptual
framework (e.g., Piaget, 1964). Pre-conceptions often interfere with
intended learning outcomes. When a student retains and continues
to use his/her pre-conception to interpret classroom information, s/
he is likely to give it meaning which differs from or even conflicts
with the meaning intended by his/her teacher. It is possible that the
learner is not even aware of this gap and that s/he is perfectly satisfied
with his/her own interpretation, thinking that such was also his/
her teacher’s intention. The teacher too can be totally unaware of
how the student has internalised the new information. The teacher
often attributes a wrong answer to a question as students’ ‘not
understanding’ but the fact is that students ‘understand the content
differently’ from what was intended (Piaget, 1964).
The process of interaction of learner’s naive pre-conception and
that of scientist’s accepted conception and subsequent internalisation

is termed as ‘accommodation’ in Piaget’s theory. That is, in
accommodation, student’s mind modifies his/her pre-conceptions to
reach consonance with the accepted scientific conceptions. Pre-
conceptions might undergo partial or radical modifications. The degree
of cognitive accommodation demanded from a student in studying
science varies with the subject studied and with the nature of the
students’ pre-conceptions (Nussbaum & Novick, 1982). It is suggested
that a psychological state variously called as “disequilibrium” or
‘cognitive dissonance’ or ‘conceptual conflict’ should be created to
seek more knowledge in order to relieve such a state. Nussbaum and
Novick (1982) suggested that demonstrations are not compelling forces
to create the conceptual conflict.
Research on the role of students’ pre-instructional conceptual
framework in learning science has revealed that the science instruction
very often has rather limited success. A review of research literature
shows that several terms have been used to denote students’ pre-
instructional conceptual frameworks. They are - - pre-conceptions
(Anderson & Smith, 1983), phenomenological primitives (diSessa,
1983), intuitive ideas (Mc Closkey, 1983), children’s Science (Osborne,
Bell & Gilbert, 1983), alternative frameworks (Driver & Easley, 1978;
Saxena, 1997), naive beliefs (Caramazza, Mc Closkey, & Green, 1981),
misconceptions (Ausubel, 1966), and mini theory. Of the above
mentioned conceptions, only pre-conceptions and misconceptions are
discussed here:
1. Pre-conceptions: Students have primitive notions about objects
and phenomena which stand without significant explanatory
substructure or justification. Such explanatory elements are called
pre-conceptions. For example, consider a man standing at rest
with a load on his head. For a learner the man is doing some
work, but in scientific terms he is not doing any work. In this
context the learner has a preconception that the man is doing
work. Another example is the ‘resistance’ offered by a conductor.
The word meaning of resistance is ‘the ability of a body to resist.’
However in current electricity, the term resistance is used to
denote that the number of available free electrons is not adequate
in a material for the flow of electric current. Here, there is no

obstruction caused to the flow of current, which is a pre-
conception of the learner associated with the vocabulary -
‘resistance.’ Pre-conceptions originate from different sources such
as lived-experiences, use of language, interaction with objects
and people, etc.
2. Misconceptions: This refers to incorrect conceptions when
viewed from the scientific point of view which have been formed
by science instruction itself. For example, while using a still model
of an atom for teaching structure of atom, the teacher may induce
the learner to think that there are rigid paths around the nucleus
or that the electrons are stationary. Use of colour chalks to draw
electronic structure the teacher may use, say red colour to denote
the electrons in the K shell and blue to denote the electrons in the
L shell, this may induce the learner to think that electrons in the
K shell are different from that in the L shell.
Role of teacher in the constructivist paradigm

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of teachers
understanding how children learn. To teach children successfully,
teacher requires an understanding of how children think and
construct scientific knowledge as well as a thorough understanding
of science (Alsop, 2003). Since children’s existing ideas have a major
influence on learning, it is necessary that the teacher should be
sensitive to his/her pupil’s ideas. If teachers are aware of some possible
views held by children at various age levels, then they can devise
appropriate ways to ascertain different views held by their pupils
(through the use of questionnaires, informal discussions or interviews).
As a medical practitioner diagnoses the cause of a symptom before
attempting to alleviate it, so the teacher needs to diagnose the
viewpoints of her/his pupils before deciding how to set about
modifying them towards more scientifically acceptable ones. Where
pupils’ views are completely unknown, an awareness of the
significance of pupil’s views can in itself lead to the discovery of some
important factors in children’s present thinking about the topic
concerned. For this to occur regularly, however, a systematic recording
of interesting comments made by pupils in the class will have to be

analysed.
It is usually not possible, in ordinary class interactions, to explore
any one pupil’s ideas in depth. However, small changes in emphasis
by the teacher can assist here. For example, when an inappropriate
or unexpected answer is provided by a pupil in a teacher-led
discussion, a few moments can be spent attempting to find out why
the pupil gave that answer. So, often in class, the inappropriate
answer is ignored and the teacher moves the question on to another
pupil in constant pursuit of the ‘right’ answer. To discover or to
diagnose children’s existing knowledge, teachers must provide plenty
of opportunities for pupils to express their ideas, whether in small
groups or in whole-class settings. However, this in itself is not enough.
Teachers, need to ensure a classroom climate where children’s ideas
are valued and listened to. The role of teacher as listener is inherent
in the role of ‘teacher as diagnostician’ (Osborne & Freyberg, 1985).
Learner and constructivism

“The psychological theory of constructivism came from Jean Piaget
and Lev Vygotsky. The theory of constructivism has led to a debate
between those who place more emphasis on the individual cognitive
structuring process and those who emphasise the social effects on
learning” (Fosnot, 1996, p. 23). The terms ‘cognitive constructivism’
and ‘social constructivism’ have become common when talking about
psychological theories of the new concept of learning.
Along with the previous psychologists mentioned, Bruner (1961)
had a big influence on the theory of constructivism. Bruner’s major
idea was that learning is an active social process; in which students
construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge.
He also suggested that the teacher should motivate and encourage
students to discover principles by themselves.
Cognitive Constructivism
Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of developmental
psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget’s theory has two major parts - - (1)
‘ages and stages’, which predicts what children can and cannot
understand at different ages, and (2) a theory of development that

describes how children develop cognitive abilities. The theory of
development is the major foundation of cognitive constructivist
approaches to teaching and learning. Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development suggests that humans cannot be ‘given’ information
which they automatically understand and use, they must ‘construct’
their own knowledge. They have to build their knowledge through
experience. Experiences allow them to create mental images in their
head. Cognitive prospective theories focus on both what students
learn and the process by which they do so (Fosnot, 1996).
The role of the teacher and the classroom environment are
important parts of Piaget’s theory. The role of the teacher is to provide
a classroom, full of interesting things to encourage the child to
construct their own knowledge and to have the ability to explore.
The classroom must give the students the opportunity to construct
knowledge through their own experiences. They cannot be ‘told’ by
the teacher. There is less emphasis on teaching directly specific skills
and more emphasis on learning in a meaningful context.
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism is a theory developed by psychologist Lev
Vygotsky. Vygotsky’s theory is very similar to Piaget’s assumptions
about how children learn, but he places more emphasis on the social
context of learning. In Piaget’s theory, the teacher plays a limited
role whereas in Vygotsky’s theory the teacher plays a very important
role in learning. There is much more room for an active, involved
teacher. Social constructivism argues that students can, with help
from adults or children who are more advanced, grasp concepts and
ideas that they cannot understand on their own. Unlike cognitive
constructivism, teachers in social constructivism do not just stand by
and watch children explore and discover. The teacher may guide
students as they approach problems, may encourage them to work
in groups, ask a question to think about issues, and support them
with encouragement and advice.
Social constructivism views each learner as a unique individual
with unique needs and backgrounds. The learner is also seen as
complex and multidimensional. Social constructivism not only

acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but
actually encourages, utilises and rewards it as an integral part of the
learning process (Wertsch, 1997). Social constructivism encourages
the learner to arrive at his/her own version of the truth, influenced
by his/her background, culture or embedded world view. Historical
developments and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and
mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a member of a
particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner’s life.
Vygotsky (1988) suggested that children learn not so much in
terms of what they can do on their own but rather, in terms of what
they can achieve when they are given help. In this context, Vygotsky
coined a term ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ (ZPD). Vygotsky
(1978) clarified the ZPD as ‘the distance between the actual
development level as determined by problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem solving under
the guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (p. 86).
The proposition is that we should provide opportunities for our pupils
to engage in scientific activities in advance of their current individual
achievements but within the boundaries of ZPD. In this context, the
term ‘scaffolding’ has been used to describe the role of teaching.
During scaffolding, the teacher does not adjust the task but offers
support and guidance in such a way that the learners are able to
extend their intellectual range. Scaffolding can take different forms
such as - - (1) highlight important features of the task, (2) make the
task meaningful in terms of what the pupils’ already know,
(3) establish a familiar context for the task, and (4) split a task into a
series of manageable stages or reduce the mathematical or linguistic
complexity. Further, a task can be made emotionally and socially
appealing, reducing stress and anxiety and creating the classroom
environment that is supportive and conducive of learning. As the
competence of the child increases, the teacher needs to gradually
remove the support (or scaffold) and the timing of this is both sensitive
and crucial. A detailed description of the theory is beyond the scope
of this book.
197
Chapter VIII
PLANNING OF INSTRUCTION
Planning is very important in instruction as in any enterprise.

Adopting a top-down planning strategy, there are three levels to the
planning of instruction. The plan of instruction for a particular
academic year of a particular subject is decided at the beginning of
the year. There are several factors that are to be considered in the
process of planning. Based on the plan of instruction for the whole
academic year, unit and lesson plan are developed. Thus, planning
of instruction has three levels. They are - - (1) Year Plan, (2) Unit Plan
and (3) Lesson Plan. Each of these is detailed below.
Year Plan
A year plan is a plan for an academic year. Based on the number
of working days in each term (quarter) the number of class periods
available to teach a particular subject is estimated. The time that will
be spent on co-curricular activities, vacations in each term, local
holidays, study holidays and examination days are to be taken into
account. Then, the time available is distributed among the different
units (chapters) included in the syllabus. Thus, the year plan stipulates
the time available (in number of class periods) to teach each unit, the
month in which each unit will be taught and the relative weightages
to the instructional objectives in each unit. Teachers of the same faculty
can sit together and decide on the year plan. However, the termly
and annual examinations are conducted as per the schedule of
teachers’ unions and there is no scope for any such school-based
decision. Thus, teachers are not directly involved in the development
of a year plan. Teachers get the year plan to be implemented and
their job is made easy. It is desirable to have a year plan for each
school taking into account the peculiarities of the school. Different

formats for year plan are given below.
Year Plan
(based on the seven instructional objectives)
Subject : Standard :
School : Year :
Objectives in percentage
No. Unit Month No. of class periods %
1* 2* 3* 4* 5* 6* 7*
1
2
3
4
5
1*. Knowledge 2*. Understanding 3*. Application

4*. Skills 5*. Interest 6*. Attitude 7*. Appreciation
An alternate format for the year plan proposed by the State

Council of Educational Research and Training includes details of
classroom and outside classroom activities. It also indicates different
resources/learning materials to teach the unit. The unit to be taught
in each month is indicated in this format. A sample of the format is
given below.
PLANNING OF INSTRUCTION 199
Year Plan
Subject : Standard :
School : Year :
Classroom Activities Outside Classroom

No. Month Unit Activities
Remarks
Activities Resources Activities Resources
1 June Heat Experiment, Thermometer, Field trip to … Freezer,

Discussion different
liquids, ice,
2 Jul.
3 Aug.
4 Sept.
5 Oct.
6 Nov.
7 Dec.
8 Jan.
9 Feb.
10 Mar. Revision
A table showing the period distribution for different Units will

also help in the year plan. The total number of periods available in a
year is estimated on the basis of two periods per week and a total of
32 weeks for instruction. The format for the period distribution is
given below.
Standard X
Subject: Physics
Distribution of Periods
Sl. No. Chapters No. of Periods
1 Heat 6
2 Heating effect of electricity 8
3 Electromagnetic Induction 10
4 Electric power generation and distribution 10
5 Light 8
6 Nuclear Physics 6
Total 48
Unit Plan
A unit is a mutually related content area. According to Preston,
“A unit is a large block of related subject-matter as can be overviewed
by the learner” (cited in Sharma & Sharma, 1971). It may consist of
several sub-units or topics. A unit is organised in such a manner so
that each lesson plays a role in the development of the unit. Unit
planning is an important aspect in the planning of instruction. One
of the importances of a unit plan is that it breaks up the year’s work
into small sections which students can understand and overview
(Thurber & Collette, 1964). It is argued that most students work better
on a series of short tasks than on a few large ones. The purpose of the
task is better understood when the task is smaller.
A unit plan can have all the elements of a lesson plan. But for
practical reasons, different authors have suggested different formats
for the use of teachers. The simplest format for unit plan includes the
name of the unit with time allotted, major objectives, learning
outcomes and evaluation items (Thurber & Collette, 1964). The unit
plan suggested by Soman (1987) includes general information such
as subject, standard, time, introduction, pre-requisites, objectives and
specifications, teaching aids, learning experiences and evaluation

items.
The unit plan must invariably include the pre-requisites relevant
to each unit which will help in the preparation of the class. Referring
to the year plan, the teacher can have an idea about the time allotted
to teach a particular unit. The demonstrations and explanations
should be arranged in such a way so as to finish the unit in the
prescribed time. While teaching, the weightages to be given to each
objective should be borne in mind. The learning experiences should
satisfy the requirements for realising different objectives in their
respective weightages. An idea about the weightages to be given to
the different objectives will be given in the year plan. A unit plan has
the following eight sections:
1. General information
a. Subject
b. Standard
c. Unit
d. Time (in class periods)
2. Content overview (a brief summary of the unit)
3. Pre-requisites (which will be used in the introduction of the unit)
4. Statements of instructional objectives with items of content
analysis.
5. Teaching Aids.
a. Glass wares/Instruments
b. Chemicals/Consumables
c. Improvised Apparatus/Charts/Models
6. A three column format with content, objectives with specification
and learning experiences.
7. Evaluation items
8. Home Assignments
a. Written assignments
b. Activity Assignments
A Sample Unit Plan

A sample unit plan is given below. Only sample items in each
category are given and it is not complete.
1. General information
a. Subject: Chemistry
b. Standard: VIII
c. Unit: Energy changes in chemical reactions
d. Time: 7 class periods
2. Content overview
Exothermic reactions – endothermic reactions – pyrotechny –
photochemical reactions – chemistry of photography –
phosphorescence – electrochemical cell – electrolysis of acidified water
- electroplating
3. Pre-requisites
The pupil knows that matter undergoes physical and chemical
changes.
4. Statements of instructional objectives

I. The pupil acquires knowledge about the following terms, facts
and equations.
Terms: (1) Exothermic reactions
(2) Endothermic reactions
(3) Thermo chemical reactions
(4) Pyrotechnic mixture
(5) Phosphorescence
(6) Photochemical reactions

(7) Electrochemical cell
(8) Electrolysis
(9) Electrochemical reactions
Facts: (1) Magnesium burns in air to give magnesium oxide, heat
and light
(2) Sodium hydroxide combines with hydrochloric acid to
give sodium chloride, water and heat
(3) Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to give
magnesium chloride, hydrogen and heat
(4) Nitrogen and hydrogen combine to give ammonia and
heat
(5) Ammonium chloride dissolves in water absorbing heat
(6) Ammonium nitrate dissolves in water absorbing heat
(7) Potassium nitrate dissolves in water absorbing heat
(8) Water gas produced by passing steam over red hot coke
in the presence of heat, etc.,
Equations: (1) 2 Mg + O2 à 2 MgO + Heat
(2) NaOH + HCl à NaCl + H2O + Heat
(3) Mg + 2 HCl à MgCl2 + H2 + Heat
II. The pupil develops understanding about the above mentioned
terms, facts, and equations and the following concepts and
definitions
Concepts: (1) Heat energy is liberated in exothermic reactions
(2) Heat energy is absorbed in endothermic reactions.
(3) Electricity is produced by electrochemical reactions
(4) Metals can be purified by electrolytic decomposition,
etc.,
Definitions: (1) Exothermic reaction – Reactions in which heat and

other forms of energy are liberated are called
exothermic reactions.
(2) Endothermic reactions – Reactions in which heat
energy is absorbed is called endothermic reactions,
etc.
III. The pupil applies the knowledge and understanding about

various types of energy changes in reactions in new (unfamiliar)
situations such as
(1) Sodium reacts vigorously with water and bursts into flame
(2) Melting of ice
(3) Storage of certain medicines in coloured bottles, etc
IV. The pupil develops skill in observation in reactions such as (list a

few important reactions that will be demonstrated)
V. The pupil develops interest in reading about compounds that

give colour to flames in fire works
VI. The pupil develops scientific attitude in recording and interpreting

data honestly.
VII. The pupil develops appreciation about the different uses of

chemical reactions.
5. Teaching Aids
A. Glass wares/apparatus
(i) 20 ml Test tubes
(ii) 100 ml Beakers, etc.,
B. Chemicals/consumables
(i) Magnesium ribbon
(ii) Dilute hydrochloric acid
(iii) Ammonium chloride, etc.,
C. Improvised apparatus/charts/models
(i) For example, a chart showing electroplating of an iron
spoon
6. A three column format with content, objectives with

specification and learning experiences.
Content Objective with Specification Learning Experience

Preparation K/Recalls What is a chemical change?
Presentation
Mg combines with U/Infers 2 Mg + O2 à 2 MgO+
oxygen giving MgO Heat(Demonstration)
7. Evaluation items
(1) What are exothermic reactions? Write two examples.
(2) What are endothermic reactions? Write two examples.
(3) What is water gas? How is it prepared?
8. Home Assignments
a. Written assignments – All the important items of content should
be covered under the written assignment.
b. Activity Assignments – The topic is not suitable for giving activity
assignments. However, students may be asked to collect names
of some tablets which are preserved in coloured bottles.
The activity-oriented approach to teaching of science and
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) scheme has
influenced the modern unit plan. The alternate format is given below.
Format of a Sample Unit Plan

Subject: Chemistry Standard: VIII
Unit: Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Time: 7 Class Periods
Sl. Curricular Learning Evaluation* Time

Activities
No. Objectives) Materials in
(Content & Domain CT Pt Asgmt C/R S/P periods
1 Through experiment, Experiment Resistance,

observation, Discussion Ammeter, one
and discussion pupil Battery, Period
identifies the heating Bulb
effect of electricity
*
CT –Class Test Pt – Project Asgmt – Assignment
C/R – Collection/Record S/P – Seminar/Presentation
Triangular Relationship among Objective, Learning Experience and

evaluation
Objectives specify the changes to be brought about in the
behaviour of the pupil. What changes are to be made is the concern
of the teacher before teaching. Objectives of teaching constitute the
focal point of any teaching procedure. Objectives tell us what the
pupil is expected to do and the conditions under which s/he should
perform. Furst (1958) elaborated on the triangular relationship among
objectives, learning experiences and evaluation. The objectives are
realized by selecting suitable learning experiences. Evaluation is the
process to measure the extent to which the contemplated learning
experiences were functional in bringing the changes. Also, the
learning experiences are designed keeping in view the learning
experiences. Thus, the objectives, learning experience and evaluation
are interrelated.
Objective
Learning Experience Evaluation
The term ‘learning experience’ refers to the interaction between

the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which
he can react (Tyler, 1949, p. 41). Learning takes place through the
active behaviour of the learner. It is possible for two students to be in
the same class and for them to have two different experiences.
However, the teacher can provide an educational experience through
setting up an environment and structuring the situation so as to
stimulate the desired type of reaction. The nature of the learning
experiences is determined by the objective. In other words, learning
experiences are objective-based. So, developing learning experience
to achieve the objective is the second stage in the process of teaching.
Teacher has to assess how far the learning experiences have been
successful for the attainment of the pre-determined objectives. This
is the task of evaluation. For example, a doctor gives certain medicine
to a patient and observes the effect of the medicine and determines
whether s/he should continue it or change it. Like wise, a teacher
should monitor the progress of the learner. Here, progress is measured
in terms of the objectives. Thus, the objectives, learning experience
and evaluation are interdependent and inseparable. That is, the
objectives are realised through learning experience, and learning
experiences are planned to achieve the objectives. The effectiveness
of learning experience is evaluated and the evaluation is done in terms
of the objectives. Thus, evaluation is also related to the learning

experience and objectives. The interdependency of objectives, learning
experience and evaluation is represented as a triangular relationship
as shown above.
Lesson Plan
Careful planning of classroom lessons is the key to successful
teaching (Thurber & Collette, 1964). A lesson plan gives direction to
the teacher (Das, 1985). The term lesson is interpreted in different
ways by different people. Generally, teachers take it as a work to be
covered in a class period which runs for about 40 minutes (Gupta,
1985). About half a century ago Good (1945) defined a lesson plan as
a teaching outline of the important points of a lesson arranged in the
order in which they are to be presented which may include objectives,
points to be made, questions to ask, references and assignments.
The importance of lesson plan has been detailed by many authors
(e.g., Joseph, 1982; Sharma, 1996). However, research findings suggest
that teachers have three reasons for lesson planning (Clark & Peterson,
1990; pp 70-71). They are: (1) planning to meet immediate personal
needs (e.g., to reduce uncertainty and anxiety, to find a sense of
direction, confidence and security); (2) planning as a means to the
end of instruction (e.g., to learn the material, to collect and organise
materials, to organise time and activity flow); and (3) planning to
serve a direct function during instruction (e.g., to organise students,
to get an activity started, to aid memory, to provide a framework for
instruction and evaluation).
Apart from the three reasons, there are several variables that
influence the lesson planning, viz., locality of the school (urban/rural),
number of students in the class, students’ previous knowledge
assumed by the teacher, resources available at the school, etc. (Gupta,
1985). Therefore, there can be as many lesson plans as there are
teachers on a single topic (Joseph, 1982). One way to think of a lesson
is by using the analogy of story which is highly organised; it has a
beginning, a middle and an end (Stigler & Stevenson, 1991). A good
story engages the reader’s interest in a series of interconnected events
which are best understood in the context of the events that precede
and follow it.

The published curriculum (text book) is transformed in the
planning process by additions, deletions, changes in sequence and
emphasis, teacher’s interpretations and misunderstandings (Clark &
Peterson, 1990). Novice teachers seem to be reluctant in making
changes in the process of planning. For example, a text book may
contain a concept (e.g. alkali metals are highly reactive) for which
there is no fact given. In such cases, the teacher will have to create
(add) two or more facts that will lead to the concept. However, to a
greater extent teachers (both novice and experienced) are influenced
by the published curriculum material (text book) in the lesson
planning. The process of planning is restricted by the prescribed
content in the text book. Teacher-educators should encourage teacher-
trainees to make necessary changes demanded by the method and
context.
Steps in Lesson Planning

Lesson planning is associated with the name of John F. Herbart
(1776-1841). Herbart’s theory of education is based on the assimilative
function of mind. This assimilative power of mind to him is the
apperception. Apperception implies the linking up of new experiences
with the old (Purkait, 1995, p.183). The principle of apperception
suggests two important processes in learning, viz., absorption and
reflection. Absorption stands for clearness and association, and
reflection involves system and method. Thus, Herbart suggested four
steps in the educative process. They are - - (1) clearness, (2) association,
(3) system and (4) method. Later, Herbart’s disciple, Ziller, divided
the step clearness into two - preparation and presentation. The other
three steps were renamed (Purkait, 1995, p. 184). Thus, the five steps
of lesson planning are - - (1) preparation, (2) presentation, (3)
association/comparison, (4) generalisation/systematisation and (5)
application (Ozmon & Craver, 1986, p. 49). However, several authors
have added recapitulation to make six Herbartian steps in developing
a lesson plan (e.g., Maitra, 1991; Kohli, 1986; Joseph, 1982). The main
problem in delineating the Herbartian steps is that none of the authors
have indicated the source from which they have drawn this
information. However, the process of lesson planning centres around

the six Herbartian steps - - (1) preparation or introduction, (2)
presentation, (3) association or comparison, (4) generalisation or
systematisation, (5) application and (6) recapitulation. Each step is
detailed below.
1. Preparation/Introduction
According to Herbart, the mind of the child must be prepared to
receive the knowledge. It is just like preparing land before sowing the
seed (Kohli, 1986, p. 91). There are several techniques to prepare
students for learning. The technique or activity depends on the nature
of the content area and the learning experiences. Maitra (1991) has
listed four methods to prepare students for learning. They are - - (1)
asking questions related to previous knowledge, (2) narrating a story
related to the topic, (3) arousing curiosity by presenting a bit of
unknown facts and (4) doing an experiment leading into the lesson.
Das (1985) suggested that the preparation stage should culminate in
the announcement of the day’s lesson. A few teacher-educators even
insist on writing the title of the day’s lesson on the chalk board. There
is no uniformity in the practice and may be unnecessary in some cases.
2. Presentation
The content of the lesson is presented at this stage in a manner
that will facilitate meaningful learning. The inductive method and a
spirit of heurism coupled with thought provoking questions should
pervade the classroom. This will help students engage in the learning
process. A chalk board summary would help students organise the
new material in their mind. Each experience should have a logic in
the sequence and appropriate media and methods should be selected
in the presentation.
3. Association/Comparison
Learning becomes permanent when the new knowledge is
associated with already known facts, concepts and experiences.
Isolated bits of information are easily forgotten. A number of possible
connections should be made by giving examples and recalling ideas
that students already know and that will have bearings on the new
content. Comparisons initiate reflective thinking which may result in

inductive and analogical reasoning. Probing questions help in the
process of association and comparison. These mental processes will
lead into classification and generalisation.
4. Generalisation/Systematisation
Generalisation is the process of abstraction. This process of
generalisation/systematisation helps the learner to develop an
understanding about a group/class of objects/events. The
generalisation arrived by inductive method can be used further
(deductively) to infer the quality/property of a new object which
belongs to the same group. This will be elaborated under induction
and deduction in chapter V
5. Application
The knowledge and understanding developed by a student is
valuable only if s/he can use them in unfamiliar situations. The
generalisation arrived in the previous stage should be validated by
extending it to novel situations. The application stage gives the learner
an idea about the worth of the knowledge and makes learning more
clear and meaningful.
6. Recapitulation
Recapitulation is the last step in the sequence of Herbartian steps.
In recapitulation, the knowledge, understanding, application and skill
involved in the content area are tested/reviewed using appropriate
test items. This will help both the teacher and the student in evaluating
the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
The Herbartian steps described above are basic to lesson planning.
However, it need not be followed rigidly. For example, in some cases,
the application stage may be more suitable after a review of what
students have learned. Vaidya (1971) is very critical about the rigid
steps in lesson planning. He states, “There is no Money Order form
like proforma for writing up the lesson plan” (p. 168). He lists fourteen
parts to a lesson plan with freedom to pick and choose as there is no
agreed format. However, a proforma evolved as a result of a State
Level Workshop held at Peet Memorial Training College, Mavelikara,

Kerala in 1995 is given below.
There shall be ten steps in the development of a lesson plan. They
are:
(1) General Information
(2) Content Analysis
(3) Statements of Instructional Objectives
(4) Pre-requisites/Previous Knowledge/Entry Behaviour
(5) Teaching Aids
(6) Preparation/Introduction
(7) Presentation
(8) Application
(9) Review/Recapitulation and
(10) Assignments. Each step is detailed below.
1. General Information
General information includes details such as name of teacher,
name of school, standard and division, strength, subject, unit, lesson
unit, date and duration.
2. Content Analysis
Content analysis is an important step in the planning of a lesson.
However, only a few authors (e.g., Nair, 1982) have discussed the
importance of content analysis. And the discussion on content analysis
is surprisingly inadequate. Most of the books available on science
teaching have analysed the content into four categories viz., terms,
facts, concepts and principles. A detailed analysis of content area is
very important in developing appropriate instructional sequence. Also,
a type of activity/experience rests on the items in a content area.
A detailed content analysis of physical science (physics and
chemistry) will reveal that the four categories (terms, facts, concepts
and principles) are quite insufficient to analyze the content
exhaustively. Therefore, the following twelve categories are created

to do a better job of content analysis. The categories are - - (1) symbols,
(2) terms, (3) facts, (4) formulae, (5) equation, (6) concepts, (7)
definitions, (8) conventions, (9) hypotheses, (10) laws, (11) principles
(12) theory and (13) processes. It may be necessary to generate more
categories and the list is not claimed to be exhaustive. Each of the
thirteen items is detailed below with suitable examples.
(1) Symbols: A symbol is something that stands for the idea, an
expression, a quantity or a mathematical operation not
intrinsically suggested by its form or character (Good, 1945). In
chemistry, a symbol is a letter(s) representing an atom of an
element. For example, ‘S’ is the symbol for sulphur and ‘g’ stands
for acceleration due to gravity.
(2) Terms: A term is a new word having significant meaning to the
pupil. The term can be a scientific term or a technical term. For
example, calorie, mechanical advantage, potential energy,
chemical equilibrium, etc.
(3) Facts: A fact is a reality, a real state of a thing which is almost
always demonstrable. According to Conant, a fact must be
directly observable and must be demonstrable (cited in Thurber
& Collette, 1964). For example, magnesium reacts with
hydrochloric acid giving magnesium chloride and hydrogen;
copper conducts electricity.
(4) Formulae: A formula is an algebraic statement of a rule for
computation or a computational law expressed in symbols (Good,
1945). Formulae can also be considered as a statement of facts
in symbolic or general form, by substitution in which a result
applicable to particular data may be obtained. It can also be a
chemical formula of a compound such as HCl.
For example,
m1 m2
G = _______
d2
(5) Equation: An equation is a statement of the equality of two or

more quantities. For example, the lens equation, 1/f = 1/u + 1/v.
Chemical equations are representation of reactions in terms
of symbols and formulae of the elements and compounds
involved.
For example, NaOH + HCl à NaCl + H2O + Heat
(6) Concepts: A concept is defined as “an abstraction from observed
phenomena; it is a word that states the commonalities among
those observed objects or events and distinguishes the phenomena
from other objects or events” (Mc Millan & Schumacher, 1989;
p. 94). A concept is a classification of objects, events or ideas
into a set by abstracting the common essential characteristics
which defines that set. Thus, a concept is a generalized idea
built upon several facts. For example, a concept such as heat
expands metals is a generalised idea arrived at from two or more
facts, viz., heat expands copper and heat expands iron.
(7) Definitions: A definition is a statement of the meaning to be
attached to a word, expression, operation or symbol. For example,
the definition of the term ‘ionization potential’ is that it is the
minimum energy required to release the most loosely held electron
from a single, neutral, gaseous atom. Similarly specific gravity,
isotope, calorie and other such terms can be defined.
(8) Conventions: A convention is an established usage taken as an
arbitrary sequence which is in popular use. A convention is not
essentially logical or having anything scientific in it. For example,
focal length of a convex lens is taken to be a positive value and
that of a concave lens is taken as a negative value.
(9) Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a supposition put forward in
explanation of observed facts. It is a proposition put forth as
probably true but requiring further investigation or
experimentation. For example, it is hypothesised that earth acts
as a magnet.
(10) Laws: A law is a formal statement of the manner or order in
which certain natural phenomena occur under specified
conditions. For example, in Boyle’s law, the condition is that at
constant temperature, the pressure of a given mass of gas is

inversely proportional to its volume.
(11) Principles: A principle is a general statement which establishes
the relationship between at least two concepts. For example,
Archimedes principle states that when a body is partially or fully
immersed in a liquid, the loss of weight experienced by the body
is equal to the amount of liquid displaced. There are two major
concepts involved in the principle. They are - - (1) loss of weight
experienced by a body immersed in the liquid and (2) the amount
of liquid displaced by a body immersed in the liquid. The
relationship between the two concepts is stated in the Archimedes
principle.
(12) Theory: A theory is a general rule or system of relationship
advanced as the explanation of observed events or natural
phenomena. It is a logically deduced construct isolated from its
application. For example, Bohr’s theory of atom.
(13) Processes: A process involves a series of facts (operations) which
will have a sequential order of occurrence, which are standardised
and accepted. For example, the procedure for the laboratory
preparation of hydrogen sulphide involves use of Kipp’s
apparatus, chemicals such as ferrous sulphide and dilute
hydrochloric acid in designated bulbs; which should follow a
sequential order.
The categories given above are not mutually exclusive, since a
principle involves concepts and facts at the concrete level. A disclaimer
is in order, that is, the categories listed here are typically useful to
physical science and may not be useful to other subjects. Also, other
categories may have to be generated for doing a thorough content
analysis of subject areas other than physical science. A critical and
detailed analysis of content is crucial for the teacher to sequence the
learning experiences (activities) and budget the time required in
developing a lesson. The arbitrary nature of curricular objectives and
specifications can be reduced to a greater extent by proper content
analysis.
3. Statements of Instructional Objectives

These are statements about the expected behavioural changes in
the pupil. Each statement should include only one objective. The
statements should be written in terms of the expected behavioural
changes in the pupil. There should be two parts to each statement of
instructional objective, one pertaining to the behavioural change and
the other related to the content item.
4. Pre-requisites/Previous Knowledge/Entry Behaviour

Of the three terms, the term pre-requisite is more appropriate for
it focuses on the required previous knowledge/entry behaviour
without which the teacher cannot proceed. It is crucial in the
development of a lesson to isolate the pre-requisite from where the
class should begin. The pre-requisite is not necessarily something that
the student has learned in the previous class(es). It can be an experience
or an anecdote. The purpose of identifying the pre-requisite is to start
the lesson from where the students are. It also helps in arousing the
apperception mass thereby motivating the students to learn.
5. Teaching Aids
The list of teaching aids should be written comprehensively.
General statements such as ‘usual classroom aids’ should be avoided.
It is desirable to prepare the list of teaching aids under three
subdivision viz., (a) Glasswares/Instruments, (b) Chemicals/
Consumables and (c) Improvised Apparatus/Charts/Models. The
improvised items, models and charts should be described in one or
two sentences to get an idea about the item.
6. Preparation/Introduction
The preparation stage is detailed under the Herbartian steps in
the previous pages and is not reproduced here.
7. Presentation
The details of presentation are described under the Herbartian
steps in the previous pages.
8. Application (wherever appropriate)

The step is comparable to the Herbartian step and is described in
the previous pages.
9. Review/Recapitulation
The content presented is reviewed using appropriate items. The
order of review can be altered if that will help the application stage.
10. Assignments
Assignments are of two types - - (1) written assignments and (2)
activity assignments. Written assignments are intended basically to
review the content area. It may contain items that require long answers
and drawing of diagrams which cannot be given as seat-work because
of time constraints. Activity assignments are designed to engage
students in activities that will enable them to work with their hands,
to develop manipulative and observational skill which will contribute
to the development of scientific hobbies. The assignments should be
so designed that it will cater to the needs of the below average, average
and above average students. The materials and facilities available in
an average home should be taken into account while giving activity
assignments.
Several alternatives and parallel formats have been suggested by
different authors for lesson planning. For example, Tyler (1949)
suggested a linear model with four steps - - (1) specify the objectives,
(2) select learning activities, (3) organise learning activities and (4)
specify evaluation procedures. Thurber and Collette (1964) added
three items, viz., materials, references and assignments to what Tyler
had suggested. Different format for the body of the lesson plan such
as matter and method (Das, 1985), teaching point and teacher-pupil
activities (Maitra, 1991) and matter, method and black board summary
(Kohli, 1986) have been proposed. However, a four column format
with content, specification, learning experience and evaluation was
popular in the State of Kerala until 2001. A sample lesson plan in the
four column format is given in Appendix III.
In spite of the different format and stages in lesson planning, the
fact remains that the lesson plan is the real plan to be executed in a
class period. The unit plan is the reference for developing a lesson
plan with respect to time allotted and weightages to be given to
different instructional objectives.
Lesson Types
Lesson types can be construed from several perspectives. Dunkin
(1987) analysed lesson formats from the point of view of classroom
communication and interaction. Wittrock (1986) summarised the
complexity of classroom events and the demand on the teacher in
group lessons. A few teacher educators think of lesson types as lessons
that can be taught using different methods. A few others consider
lesson types on the basis of the focus of teaching and learning activities,
i.e., teacher-centered, student-centered and content-centered. The one
that will be discussed here stems from the nature of the content area.
Teacher-trainees often find the development of lesson plan very
difficult for they are not systematically exposed to the types of lessons
that they will have to plan. A comprehensive and exhaustive
description of the types of lesson plans are beyond the scope of what
is attempted here. However, four types of content area will be dealt
here (Rajan, 1999a). They are - - (1) descriptive type, (2) inductive
type, (3) procedural type and (4) logical relationship type. Each type
is discussed below.
1. Descriptive Type
In descriptive type, the content is mostly at the factual level.
Analysis of content of this type reveals that there are so many facts in
the content area with a minimum of concepts. For example, the high
school chemistry deals with periodic classification of elements. There
are several facts such as number of elements, atomic weight, physical
state of elements at ordinary temperature, number of groups, number
of periods, etc. The content demands verbal description of the
arrangements of elements with the help of a chart. There is little scope
for demonstration and most of the content items are facts to be
memorised.
2. Inductive Type
Inductive type lessons are typical for they contain a set of facts
which lead to concepts and generalisations. Several content area fall
under this category. For example, in chemical bonding; two or three
compounds such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride and
hydrogen chloride formed by ionic bond are examined. This leads to
the concept that atoms donate their electrons to complete octet in the
formation of ionic bonds. The content forms a hierarchical sequence
which is essentially inductive in nature. Another example will be order
of levers; two or three simple machines such as scissors, tongs, see-
saw are given to the students. Students are asked to find the position
of Fulcrum, Resistance and Effort. From the pattern of the positions
of F, R and E, the concept of first order lever can be developed
inductively.
3. Procedural Type
In Procedural Type, a standard procedure is detailed in a
particular sequence. The content usually contains a few facts to be
arranged in a sequence which invariably involve a diagram. For
example, laboratory preparation of a gas such as hydrogen sulphide.
This involves a chemical equation and a diagram with a procedure to
be adopted in the process of laboratory preparation. The number of
facts are limited and importance is in the peculiarity of arrangement
of (Kipp’s) apparatus and how it is used for the purpose. Working of
an apparatus such as Rheostat can also be conceived as a procedural
type.
4. Logical Relationship Type

In logical relationship type, the content is of higher level involving
relationship among concepts. The content can be a principle or a law
involving mathematical concepts such as proportionality, equality of
variables. More often than not, these content areas are dealt at an
abstract level in textbooks and teacher trainees find it difficult to select
appropriate learning experience. On several occasions, teacher-
trainees resort to deductive approach that cause too much of
information processing load on the part of the learner. Much attention
is to be paid in helping teacher-trainees in both selecting learning

experiences and also in sequencing them. For example, Boyle’s Law;
the pressure and volume relationship of a given mass of gas at constant
temperature can be presented in the form of a table with arbitrary
values. This will lead to the inference of the inverse relationship
between pressure and volume.
The four types mentioned above entail different levels of planning.
That is, the pre-requisite, learning experience, method of instruction,
and home assignment have basic differences in the four types. The
role of pre-requisite in the Logical Relationship Type is much more
crucial than the other types. The selection of learning experience is
very simple in all types except the Logical Relationship Type. The
method of instruction in the high schools of Kerala was mostly lecture-
demonstration, but now activity methods are attempted. The home
assignments can have a variety of items in Inductive and Logical
Relationship type but Descriptive and Procedural types involve mostly
items to be recalled.
Most of the content areas in high school physics and chemistry
will fall in either of the above four categories or a simple combination
of one or more of the above categories. Teacher-educators will have
to identify types of lesson plans in their areas of specialisation and
must positively incorporate the types in the discussion of lesson plans.
A thorough content analysis and identification of types of lesson plans
are essential for an effective pre-service training of the teachers.
Although the instructional methods aim at the realisation of objectives,
the content types set limitations on curriculum transaction. An
awareness of the structure of the content in a way helps for a better
preparation of the student-teachers in the task of lesson planning.
An alternate format for lesson plan

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a Central Government funded
programme was initiated in 2001. The programme aimed at universal
enrolment through proper strategy in the teaching-learning process.
The universal enrolment was also aimed at universal retention and
attainment. Free and compulsory education up to eighth grade was
aimed in this project. The approach of SSA can be characterised as
process-oriented, activity-based, learner-centred, life-oriented,

strategy-enriched and environment-based. The role of science teacher
can be redefined as a facilitator, guide and co-learner. The classroom
atmosphere is democratic and permissive. The classroom activities
are simple, practical and challenging to keep students engaged in the
task. Multiple intelligence theory of Howard Gardner (1993) provides
a frame work for the learning process and classroom interaction.
Multiple intelligence as it denotes has several dimensions. they are -
- (1) linguistic intelligence, (2) logical-mathematical intelligence, (3)
spatial intelligence, (4) bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, (5) musical
intelligence, (6) inter-personal intelligence, (7) intra-personal
intelligence, (8) naturalistic intelligence and (9) existential intelligence.
The nine intelligences are briefly described below (Armstong, 2001).
(1) Linguistic intelligence - This is the capacity to use words
effectively, whether oral or in written. This includes rhetoric,
mnemonics, explanation and metalanguage. For example, writer,
orator.
(2) Logical-mathematical intelligence - This is the capacity to use
numbers effectively and to reason well. This intelligence includes
sensitivity to logical patterns and relationships, statements and
propositions, functions, and other related abstractions. This
includes categorisation, classification, inference, generalisation,
calculation and hypothesis testing. For example, scientists and
mathematicians have high level of logical mathematical
intelligence.
(3) Spatial intelligence - This is the ability to perceive the visual-
spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on those
perceptions. It includes the capacity to visualize, to graphically
represent visual or spatial ideas, and to orient oneself
appropriately in spatial matrix. For example, artists and architects
have high level of spatial intelligence.
(4) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence - This is the expertise in using one’s
whole body to express ideas and feelings and facility in using
one’s hands to produce or transform things. This includes physical
skills such as coordination, balance, dexterity, flexibility and
speed. For example, athletes, dancers and sculptures have high

level of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
(5) Musical intelligence - This is the capacity to perceive, discriminate,
transform and express musical forms. This includes sensitivity to
the rhythm, pitch or melody and timbre or tone. For example,
composers and performers have high level of musical intelligence.
(6) Interpersonal intelligence - This is the ability to perceive and make
distinctions in the moods, intentions, motivations and feelings of
other people. This includes sensitivity to facial expressions, voice,
gestures and interpersonal cues. For example, teachers,
counsellors and political leaders have high level of interpersonal
intelligence.
(7) Intrapersonal intelligence - This is related to self-knowledge and
the ability to act adaptively on the basis of that knowledge. This
includes self-awareness (one’s strengths and limitations),
awareness of inner moods, intentions, motivations,
temperaments, desires and the capacity for self discipline, self-
understanding and self-esteem. For example, psychotherapists
and religious leaders have high level of intrapersonal intelligence.
(8) Naturalistic intelligence - This is the expertise in the recognition
and classification of the numerous species in the environment of
an individual. This includes sensitivity to natural phenomena
and interest in plants and animals. For example, naturalists,
biologists and animal activists have high level of naturalistic
intelligence.
(9) Existential intelligence - This concerns with ultimate life issues.
This is the capacity to locate oneself with respect to such existential
features of human conditions such as significance of life, meaning
of death and the like. To deal with questions of life such as: “Who
are we?” “What is it all about?” “Why is there evil?” “Where is
humanity heading?” “Is there meaning in life?” For example,
theologians, yogis and philosophers have high level of existential
intelligence.
Advocates of Multiple Intelligence theory propose that each
individual has capacities in all nine intelligences and these intelligences
function together in unique ways in each person. Gardner (1993)

suggested that if appropriate encouragement, enrichment and
instruction are given all the nine intelligences can be developed to a
reasonably high level of performance. Also, these intelligences always
interact with each other and no intelligence exists in isolation.
Traditional classroom activities do not provide opportunities for
students to employ their full range of intellectual abilities. The
classrooms are dominated by teacher talk and students are responding
to directions of teachers. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), Johann
Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827), Friedrich Froebel (1783-1852), Maria
Montessori (1870-1952) and John Dewey (1859-1952) were all
advocates of learning through experiences (Ozmon & Craver, 1986;
Purkait, 1995; Pollard, 1997). Needless to repeat the fact that several
Cognitive Psychologists narrated the value of direct experiences.
Some models of teaching specifically tap on different intelligences.
For example, cooperative learning emphasises interpersonal
intelligence. The point in the new approach (MI Classroom) is that
teachers should use a range of methods, materials and techniques to
appeal to the multiple intelligences of learners. A few methods and
materials that can be employed to profit from each Intelligence is
listed below.
Intelligence Method/Materials
Linguistics Lecture
Brain storming
Discussion
Story telling
Reading in class
Preparing class magazines
Posters
Books, tape-recorders
Logical - mathematical Problem-solving

Demonstration
Puzzles and games
Heuristic/explorative
approaches
Experiments, brain teasers,
number games
Spatial Charts, graphs, maps,
photograph
Slides, videos, movies
Collage
3D- Kits
Computing, graphics
Art materials, picture library
Bodily-kinesthetic Field trips
Mime
Hands on activities
Cooking, gardening
Physical manipulations
Body language,
Signals to communicate
Physical education activities
Tools, clay, sports equipments
Musical Singing, humming
Using musical instruments
Tape-recorder, musical
instruments
Interpersonel Cooperative learning
Peer teaching
Cross-age tutoring
Group brain storming
Community involvement
Social gathering
Intrapersonal Independent study
Self-paced instruction
Individual projects
Programmed instruction
Home work
Materials for projects
Naturalistic Aquariums
Terrariums
Gardening
Nature videos
Films and movies
Binoculars, telescope,
microscope
Existential Readings in controversial
issues, critiques on life and
death issues, debates on
controversial issues
Lesson Planning in MI Theory

Multiple intelligence (MI) theory suggests use of diverse teaching
strategies and materials in teaching and learning processes. There is
no definite guideline with respect to lesson planning. However,
whatever is demanded by cognitive components of intelligence is to
be satisfied. That is, during an academic year, lessons should be
planned in such a way that all students can have their strongest
intelligences addressed at least some of the time.
Armstrong (2001) suggested seven steps in creating MI lesson
plan. The steps are - - (1) decide on the topic/objective, (2) relate the
topic with nine intelligences, (3) consider the possibilities of using
different techniques and materials appropriate for developing different
intelligences, (4) brainstorm the various alternatives to generate a
minimum of two ideas to address each intelligence, (5) select
appropriate activities taking into account the infrastructure facilities

of the school/classroom, number of students in the class and time
available, (6) set up a sequential plan of action to address each
intelligence and (7) implement the plan.
While trying to relate the topic with nine intelligences (step 2),
several probing questions should be asked. For example, how can I
use spoken or written words? (linguistic intelligence), how can I bring
in logical thinking skills or classifications? (logical-mathematical
intelligence), how can I use visual aids? (spatial intelligence), How
can I bring in a rhythmic or melodic framework? (musical intelligence),
How can I use hands-on experience? (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence),
how can I engage students in peer sharing or cooperative learning?
(interpersonal intelligence), How can I evoke personal feelings or give
students choices? (intrapersonal intelligence), How can I relate the
topic with natural phenomena or living things? (naturalistic
intelligence) and How can I address current controversies (nuclear
weapons) in science? (existential intelligence).
Classroom management techniques have been suggested by MI
theorists (e.g., Armstrong, 2001). Some of the strategies for gaining
students’ attention are - - write the words “silence please!” on the
black board (linguistic strategy), clap your hands rhythmically (musical
strategy), put your finger against your lips to suggest silence (bodily-
kinesthetic strategy), put up a picture of an attentive classroom on
the board and refer to it with a pointer (spatial strategy), use a stop
watch to notify (write on black board) the time being wasted (logical-
mathematical strategy), whisper in the ear of a student, “It is time to
start - pass it on” (interpersonal strategy), start teaching the lesson
and allow students to take charge of their own behaviour
(intrapersonal strategy) and play a recording of a sound of a bird or
animal (naturalist-strategy). Most of the strategies are appropriate
for primary and upper primary school students. However, similar
strategies appropriate for high school and higher secondary school
students are to be developed. In the new approach, the instructional
objectives are stated as curriculum statement or curricular objectives.
These statements include objectives and specific objectives. Specific
objectives are measurable and observable change of behaviour. They
are very concrete, definite and clear expressions of learner behaviours.

Keeping in view the target objectives, teachers look for specifications.
Each objective has its own specifications and they are written as action
verb.
Format of an alternate lesson plan

1. Preliminary details/General information
2. Content Overview: (Broad outline of the content)
3. Content Analysis: (Analysis of the content area into terms, facts,
concepts, definitions, principles etc.)
4. Curricular Objectives:
Specific Objectives:
5. Strategies: Group activities, Discussion Strategies
6. Pre- requisites:
7. Misconceptions (identified/anticipated):
8. Learning Materials:
A. Glass wares/apparatus
B. Chemicals/Consumables
C. Improvised Apparatus/Charts/Models
9. Precautions/First aid:
10. Process/Activities Response/Evaluation
Orientation/organisation/introducation
Number of groups to be formed
and number of session
Sessions No. 1 to 4 or 5 (duration)
11. Follow-up Activities
(a) Written Assignment
(b) Activity Assignments
Sample lesson plans both in chemistry and physics in two column
format are given in Appendix IV and V.
229
Chapter IX
EVALUATION
Evaluation is an integral part of any process. The word evaluation

goes beyond answering the question “how much?” To know how
much we need only measurements, but evaluation is something more.
Evaluation is the act or process of determining the value of something.
Value judgement is possible only with the help of a standard or a
frame of reference. In education, the frame of reference for evaluation
is the objective without which there cannot be any evaluation. Thus
evaluation is the process of determining how effectively students are
advancing toward learning objectives (Thomas, 1960).
In education, evaluation helps to measure the progress of students
and the teacher effectiveness. The Report of the Education
Commission (1966) summarises the concept of evaluation in the
following lines. “It is now agreed that evaluation is a continuous
process, forms an integral part of the total system of education and is
intimately related to educational objectives. It exercises a great
influence on the pupil’s study habits and the teacher’s method of
instruction and thus helps not only to measure educational
achievement but also to improve it” (p. 243). Evaluation has the
following three dimensions:
1. The measuring aspect of evaluation

To evaluate, the extent of change happened in the learner has to
be measured. How much is the change? Is the student progressing
in all the expected domains of development? Which domain needs
more attention? This is one of functions of evaluation.
2. The classifying aspect of evaluation

The measurement indicated by the quantity, say marks obtained
in an achievement test in Chemistry, is sufficient to promote the
learner to the next higher level of learning.
3. The guidance aspect of evaluation

Evaluation serves to guide the teacher and the taught. Teacher
can diagnose the difficulties of the pupil and suggest appropriate
remedial measures. Teacher can look toward himself/herself in
understanding common errors committed by students. In other
words, the efficiency of the teacher can be assessed by evaluation.
There are different tools such as achievement test, questionnaire,
interview, rating scales, etc., that will assist in the process of evaluation.
Here, the discussion will be limited to achievement tests.
Achievement Tests
Achievement test measure the effects of learning that occurred
under partially known and controlled conditions. A test of educational
achievement is the one designed to measure different objectives in a
specified subject or a group of subjects (Freeman, 1962). The written
examination, Horace Mann noted, put all students in a uniform
situation, permit a wider coverage of content, reduce the chance
element in question choice, and eliminate the possibility of favouritism
on the part of the examiner (cited in, Anastasi, 1968). The achievement
tests usually have the following four objective type test items
(Ahmann, 1965). They are - - (1) supply test items, (2) true-false test
items, (3) multiple-choice test items and (4) matching test items. Each
type is detailed below.
1. Supply-test Items
Supply test items are questions or incomplete statements which
require highly abbreviated answers, which is a significant word or
expression. An important advantage of supply test item is that the
possibility of the students guessing the correct answer is reduced.
Moreover, s/he must recall it rather than recognise the correct
response. Strictly speaking, supply test item is not an objective test
EVALUATION 231
item as we cannot eliminate the subjective judgement of the students’

response. Moreover, there is a possibility of the students’ answer
being partially correct.
2. True-false Test Items

True-false test items are difficult to construct as every
generalisation has got exceptions. In order to construct cent percent
correct or false statement, the teacher may have to add several
adjectives which incorporate a number of ideas that may confuse the
students.
3. Multiple-choice Test Items

Multiple-choice test items are composed of a stem followed by a
series of possible responses or options. The distracters/options should
be plausible, so that the pupils who do not possess the achievement
being evaluated will tend to select them rather than the correct
answer. The test maker can attain plausibility by making the
distracters familiar, reasonable, natural and related to the same
concept as the correct answer. (One method, though not easily
accessible is to use a completion test item and then tabulate the
incorrect responses of pupils and to include those responses which
have high frequency as distracters). The stem is usually a direct
question or incomplete statement. The options are usually four or
five in number, only one of which is the correct answer. The incorrect
responses are distracters or foils. This is the most popular test item in
standardised tests. Multiple-choice test items include recall of
information as well as complex student behaviour patterns such as
to analyse and synthesise. Often, attempts are made to score wrong
responses, which give a more intimate view of the students’ command
of the subject matter involved in the test item.
4. Matching Test Item

Matching test items consist of two, occasionally three, lists of
items and a set of instructions for matching one of the items in the
first list with one or more of the items in the second or third list.
Every effort is made to keep the lists as homogeneous as possible.
Students can respond to this type of objective test item quite rapidly,
provided that the list of the responses is relatively short.

Ahmann (1965) has raised four major criticisms about objective
test items. They are:
1. Objective test measures only factual knowledge
2. Objective test items are ambiguous particular to better students.
3. Objective tests encourage students to learn small bits of
knowledge rather than broad understanding and discourage
writing efforts.
4. Objective tests encourage the students to engage in guessing
The first criticism is not valid, as successful test items can be
designed so as to measure students’ comprehension and
discrimination. Pre-testing and subsequent will do away with the
second criticism. The third criticism can be minimised by including
questions of higher objective, but it sis true that the writing efforts are
discouraged. Since science curriculum does not emphasise on the
objective of ‘developing expression,’ it cannot be considered as a
limitation here. The problem of guessing is persistent but can be
discouraged by negative scoring for the incorrect answers. To sum
up, objective test items are unique in all respects except for the guessing
and lack of expression.
Essay test items are helpful in measuring the development of
expression, reasoning, explanation and advancing an argument. Most
evaluation specialist today will agree that essay-objective test
controversy is not an either or proposition. Most of the techniques
when properly used can and should be valuable tools for the teacher
to use in evaluating the much different behaviour which educational
objectives define. However, there are several limitations to essay type
items (Schwartz & Tiedman, 1957).
1. Essay tests are an inefficient method of measurement. Multiple-
choice test is much more efficient than the essay test and permits
a more comprehensive measurement. However, the criticism is
valid if the content or topics involved are readily adaptable to
objective testing.
2. Essay test cannot be reliably graded. The scores assigned to a
EVALUATION 233
single paper by different teacher show a high range of variability.

3. Essay test encourage bluffing. The essay test, if loosely graded,
does provide an opportunity for bluffing.
4. Grading of essay tests is too often influenced by extraneous factors
such as spelling and hand writing. Critics of essay tests argue
that grades on essays often reflect not only an evaluation of what
was written but a conscious or unconscious bias resulting from
errors in spelling, grammar, and from poor hand writing.
Construction and Administration of an Achievement Test

There are seven steps in the construction of an achievement test.
They are:
1. Designing the test
2. Preparing the Blueprint
3. Preparation of Items
4. Editing of Question Paper
5. Administering the Test
6. Scoring the Test
7. Evaluating the Test
Each of the above steps is detailed below.
1. Designing the test

The first step in constructing an achievement test is to design the
test. There are four dimensions to the design. They are - - (a)
weightages to objectives, (b) weightages to content, (c) weightages to
the types of questions, and (d) weightages to the difficulty level. Each
of these designs is detailed below.
(a) Weightage to objectives

What objectives are to be tested and what weightages are to be
given to different objectives will be stated in this design. Weightages
to the different objectives are given according to the nature of the
unit and also based on the importance given to different objectives
during instruction. The relative importance should be considered in
allotting weightages. The design should contain the list of objectives,

the marks for each objective, percentage of marks, and the total marks
for the achievement test.
Design No. 1
No. Objectives Marks % of Marks
1 Knowledge & Understanding 15 60

2 Process Skills 5 20
3 Application 5 20
Total 25 100
(b) Weightage to content

The content to be tested and weightages to be given to different
areas of content are stated in this design. The content (unit/chapter)
to be tested is divided into three or four subunits. The subunit which
is important can be inferred from the time spent in teaching the
subunits. By giving weigthage to each subunit, the test is made
comprehensive (incorporating representative items from all content
areas).
Design No. 2
1 Reaction rates 6 24
2 Chemical equilibrium 12 48
3 Calculation of reaction rates 7 28
Total 25 100
(c) Weightage to the types of questions

Form of the question to be used and the weightages to different
forms of questions are stated in this design. A test is meant to measure
more than one objective, as such, different forms of questions suitable
for the measurement should be included, keeping in view, the relative
importance of the objectives to be tested. The weightages to be given
EVALUATION 235
to each form of question should be decided on the basis of the time

needed for answering the items tested and the skills involved.
Design No. 3
1 Objective (O) 10 40
2 Short Answer (SA) 10 40
3 Essay 5 20
Total 25 100
(c) Weightage to the difficulty level

The weightages to the difficulty level is given as per the spirit of
the Normal Distribution Curve (NDC). A good test will have items
of varying difficulty so that discrimination is possible among students.
Majority of questions should be of average difficulty such that all
students can attempt those questions. There should be some easy
questions that all the students can answer. The remaining items should
be difficult questions of high standard that only bright students can
answer.
Design No. 4
1 Easy (E) 5 20
2 Average (A) 15 60
3 Difficult (D) 5 20
Total 25 100
2. Preparing the blueprint

A blueprint gives the details of the designs in concrete terms. It
is a three-dimensional chart giving the placement of different
questions with respect to: (i) objectives tested, (ii) content areas
covered, and (iii) the types of questions. In addition to these
dimensions, the blueprint will also indicate the numerical weightage

to each question individually. Format of the blueprint is given below.
Blue print
Standard: Subject:
Time: unit:
Total Marks:
K&U Process Skills Application Total

O SA E O SA E O SA E
II (10) 1 (11) 2
III
Subtotal
Total
N.B. Number inside the bracket indicates question number and the
number outside bracket indicate the marks allotted.
3. Preparation of items
Multiple choice items should be drafted with utmost care. A
few suggestions for constructing Multiple Choice items are given
below.
General rules
1. The item as a whole should present a problem related to an
identifiable objective of teaching
2. The item as a whole should be presented in a form which makes
it easy for the pupil to understand the nature of the problem to
be solved.
3. One item in a test should not provide information needed in
solving another item in the test.
4. Grammatical consistency should be maintained throughout the
item.
EVALUATION 237
Rules for stating a problem/question

1. The stem may be in the form either of a direct question or an
incomplete statement. If the incomplete statement form of stem
is used, it should be meaningful in itself and imply a direct
question.
2. The problem stated in the stem must have a definite answer.
3. The problem must be accurately stated and should not include
irrelevant materials.
4. The problem/stem should be stated in a positive form.
5. The distracters of multiple-choice item should be plausible, so
that the pupil who does not possess the achievement being
evaluated will tend to select them rather than the correct answer.
6. The distracters should be as homogeneous as possible.
7. The suggested answers should be as brief as possible.
8. The number of distracters/decoys should be four or five.
Item card
It is desirable to prepare item cards in the process of compiling
test items. An item card is a method of keeping track of the items
prepared for the test. The item card is a 5" X 3" card on which
information such as unit, sub-unit, objective, specification, item type,
difficulty level, marks and estimated time are written on one side and
the item is written on the other side. This will facilitate item choice
and sequencing of items as per the estimated item difficulty
Facing side (side 1)

Unit Energy changes Sub-unit Endothermic
Objective Knowledge Specification Recognises
Item type Objective (MC) Difficulty level Average
Marks: 1 Time: ½ a minute
The other side (Side 2)
Water gas is a mixture of …………………

A. Carbon monoxide and hydrogen
B. Oxygen and hydrogen
C. Carbon monoxide and oxygen
D. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen
4. Editing of question paper

Scheme of options and sections
In preparing a test, the scheme of option and scheme of section
are to be decided in advance. The practice of providing option is not
considered to be sound and should be avoided. Whenever options
are given, internal option is preferred to overall option. Internal option
will discourage selective study. The options given should be similar
in form, content, objective and difficulty level. The question paper is
usually arranged in sections depending on the type of questions
included in the test. The objective type questions are very often given
in a separate sheet and collected back at the end of the time limit.
Editing of question paper is of crucial importance. It consists of
- - (1) assembling the questions, (2) instructions to examinees, and (3)
total marks and total time. Each aspect is discussed below:
(1) The questions should be arranged into different sections on the
basis of types of questions. They should be arranged in the
increasing order of difficulty. The gradation in difficulty will
help the students in answering the questions so that the student
is not held up by a difficult item while comparatively easy items
are waiting to be attempted.
(2) The paper setter should take care in giving direction to the
examinees with regard to what they are supposed to do with
respect to each question. These instructions should be specific
and unambiguous. General instructions, if any, should be given
at the beginning of the question paper and specific instructions
EVALUATION 239
related to a particular section should be given just before the

beginning of the section.
(3) Total marks and total time allotted for the whole question paper
should be given at the beginning. Marks for each question or for
each section may also be given at the right-hand side of the
margin.
5. Administering the test

The editing may have important implications for the
administration of the test, viz., collection of answer script for the
section containing objective type questions. Such implications should
be anticipated and necessary arrangements should be made and
proper direction should be given well in advance.
6. Scoring the test

Scoring key should be prepared for objective type items. If the
objective type item is multiple-choice, the key may be prepared as
follows.
Qn. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Key A D C A B A C D B A
Marking scheme should be prepared for Short Answer and Essay

questions. The marking scheme gives expected outlines of the answer
and marks for each point or aspect of the questions. The relevant
points should be mentioned briefly so as to maintain objectivity in the
process of evaluation. A sample question and relevant value points
are given below.
Question: With the help of a diagram describe the preparation of

Sulphur Dioxide in the laboratory.
Qn. No. Value Points Marks Total

.. Chemical equation of the reaction 2
Diagram 1
Labelling 1 5
1
Neatness /2
1
Proportionality of figures in diagram /2
7. Preparation of Question-wise analysis

The question paper is analysed in terms of sub-unit, objectives,
and specifications, type of questions, marks, estimated difficulty and
estimated time. This analysis is very helpful to check the question
paper against the blue-print. A proforma for the question-wise
analysis is given below.
Qn. No. Sub-unit Objective Specifi Type of Marks Estimated Estimated

cation question difficulty time
.. Pyrotechny Knowledge Recognises Objective 1 Average ½ a minute
8. Evaluating the test

Evaluation of a teacher made test is detailed below under the
title ‘standardised test’.
Standardised Test
One meaning of the word ‘standardised’ is that specific and
detailed directions for test administration and scoring procedures are
established. “A standardised test is a test which comprises of carefully
selected items, having been given to a number of samples or groups
under standard conditions and for which norms have been established
after careful evaluation” (Bhatia, 1973, p. 104). The development of
EVALUATION 241
a standardised test requires a pre-test followed by an item analysis to

help identify those items which might be unsatisfactory.
Supplementary materials include manuals that explain the purpose
and use of the test and reports of technical information on its reliability,
validity and other characteristics. Thus, a standardised test is
presumably one that has been prepared with care by specialists, tried
out experimentally and then published. Norms are ordinarily supplied
so that a student’s score can be compared with those of defined group
of students, often a nation-wide sample.
Three important merits of a standardised test are - - (1) A
standardised test is accompanied by carefully established norms for
comparing achievement of pupils of the same age and grade, (2)
Standardised tests are carefully designed keeping in view the
instructional objectives and they possess greater objectivity, and (3)
Standardised test is superior in validity, reliability and other technical
aspects since try-out and evaluation are made (Bhatia, 1973).
Ahmann (1965) prescribed five steps in the construction of
standardised tests. They are:
(1) Planning
(2) Writing the test item
(3) Pre-testing
(4) Analysing
(5) Norming
(1) Planning
The primary concern in planning is to identify specifically what
goals the test should accomplish. In case of achievement test, the
specifications (by the representatives) are outlined in considerable
detail. The subject matter to be covered, the types of behavioural
changes of the students to be sampled is carefully cross referenced by
means of tables of specifications.
(2) Writing the test items

The test items should evaluate only the stated objectives. The
item should give maximum weightage to most important objective.
The test item should be so organised that the student understands

the question asked or the problem to be solved. The type of answer
desired should be understandable to the student who knows the
material.
(3) Pre-testing
The pilot-test or try out form of the test is called a pre-test. The
pre-test consists of a larger number of items (usually three times of
the number of required items) than the final test.
(4) Analysing
The individual test items are analysed to assess the Difficulty
Index or level (DI) and Discriminating Power (DP). On the basis of
the analysis, items are selected and a final form of the test is assembled.
Item Difficulty
Test item difficulty index is the percentage of students who
answer a given item correctly. The following formula is used to
determine the item difficulty or Difficulty Index (DI)
U +L
DI = X 100
2N
Where U and L are number of right answers in the Upper and

Lower Groups and N the number of students in each group, or
DI =
Where Nr is the number of students who answered the test item

correctly and Nt the total number of students who attempted the test
item.
The calculated percentages range from 0 to 100. It is most
desirable that the percentages cluster around the 50 percent level. In
case of well developed test the range is between 30 and 70. The
knowledge of DI helps to arrange the items in the increasing order of
EVALUATION 243
difficulty so that the student is not held up by a difficult item while

comparatively easy items are waiting to be attempted.
Discriminating Power
Test item discriminating power is the capability of the item to
differentiate between superior and inferior students. A small segment
of the high scores and a small segment of low scores are used to identify
the upper group and the lower group. The size of the Upper Group
and Lower Group can vary, but it is generally taken as 27% of the
total group (Kelly, 1939). The general equation for calculating DP is
given below.
U −L
DP =
N
Where U, is the number of students who answered the item
correctly in the Upper Group; and L, number of students who
answered the item correctly in the Lower Group, and N, number of
students in each group.
Kelly (1939) had suggested the Upper and Lower group as the
27% for the ease of calculation. For example, suppose there are 1000
students who attempted all the items in a test. 370 answer scripts of
students can be randomly selected. These 370 answer scripts should
be arranged in the ascending order of their total score. Of the 370,
27% of the lowest scores will constitute the Lower Group and 27% of
the highest scores will constitute the Upper Group. The 27% of 370 is
approximately 100. Thus the denominator in the equation is 100.
Thus the calculation is made easy.
(5) Norming
A norm as the term used in relation to test scores, is the average
or typical test score for the member of a specific group (Ebel, 1966, p.
455). The raw score is converted to some relative measure for easy
interpretation. Norm indicates the individual’s relative position in a
normative sample and permits an evaluation of his/her performance
in reference to other persons (Anastasi, 1968, p. 67). Moreover, a
direct comparison of the individual’s performance on different tests
is possible. Of the different norms, percentile rank is the most widely
used.
In the process of developing norms, the test is administered to a

sample of students typical of those for whom the test is originally
designed. The scores of the students are classified into reasonably
homogeneous groups according to pertinent student characteristics
such as age, Socio Economic Status (SES), type of school, and
geographic area. The test results are arranged in tables in such a
way as to provide a basis for comparison between the test score of a
student and the typical performance made by the sample of the
students.
Qualities of a good measuring tool

Apart from being objective-based, comprehensive, possessing the
qualities of objectivity and power of discrimination, a test should be
valid and reliable. The concept of validity and reliability will detailed
below.
Validity of a test
The concept of test validity pertains to “what the test measures
and how well it does so” (Deighton, 1971, p. 393). Validity has to do
with the meaning of the score assigned and the inference from that
score on that indicator to the construct the researcher intended to
measure. An index of validity shows “the degree to which a test
measures what it purports to measure, when compared with an
accepted criterion” (Freeman, 1962, p. 88). “Validity is the
correspondence between the construct and the indicator and the
ability of measurement procedure to yield scores that represent the
true amount of the indicator possessed by each individual” (Smith &
Glass, 1987, p. 111). No indicator attains this ideal; the idea that
there is even a “true amount” is disputed by some. Validation is the
process of studying the accuracy of predictions and inferences made
from test scores. Strictly speaking one does not validate a test; rather
one evaluates a certain kind of interpretation of data derived from a
specified procedure. A particular test is published for users who have
many different purposes. Each user requires a different interpretation
and each interpretation has its own degree of validity. Hence there is
no such thing as “the validity” of a test. No test is valid for all purposes,
in all situations, or for all groups of students. There are five different
EVALUATION 245
types of validity - - (1) content validity, (2) face validity, (3) construct
validity, (4) empirical validity, and (5) predictive validity. They are
discussed below.
1. Content validity
Content validity involves the systematic examination of the test
content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the
behaviour domain to be measured. The behaviour domain tested
must be systematically analysed to make sure that all major aspects
are covered by the test items, and in the correct proportions. Content
must therefore be broadly defined to include major objectives of the
domain. In other words validity refers to the degree to which content
is measured accurately that reflects the concept it is intended to
measure (Bohrrnstedt & Knoke, 1988). For example, an achievement
test must contain items that represent the curriculum and the
instructional objectives. Then only the data can be interpreted as a
true indication of whether the instructional programme has been
effective or not.
2. Face validity
Face validity is not validity in the technical sense; it refers, not to
what the test actually measures, but what it appears to measure
superficially. Fundamentally, the question of the face validity concerns
with rapport and public relation. Is there logical consistency between
the content of the test items (observation schedule, rating scale) and
the definition of the construct? If the content appears irrelevant,
inappropriate, silly or childish the result will be poor co-operation
regardless of actual validity of the test.
3. Construct validity
The construct validity of a test is the extent to which the test may
be said to measure a theoretical construct or trait. “Construct validity
depends upon the degree to which the test items individually and
collectively sample the range or class of activities or traits, as defined
by the mental process or the personality trait being tested” (Freeman,
1962, p. 94). Construct validity of a given test might be demonstrated
by calculating substantial correlation with other tests that have been

shown to measure satisfactorily the mental process or traits in question.
4. Empirical validity
Empirical validity refers to the relation between test scores and a
criterion, the latter being an independent and direct measure of that
which the test is designed to measure.
5. Predictive validity
The term predictive validity has been used to describe validity
coefficients between the indicator and some criterion assessed later
in time. Predictive validity of a test is “the extent to which the test is
efficient in forecasting and differentiating behaviour or performance
in a specified area under actual working and living conditions”
(Freeman, 1962, p. 89). For example, a measure of academic potential
can be administered to a sample of high school pupils and correlated
with the first-semester college grades for the same sample. A positive
correlation provides some meaning to the scores on the academic
potential test. Whatever construct it measures, it at least predicts
college grades with some accuracy.
Reliability of a test
Test reliability refers to “the consistency of scores obtained by
the same person when retested on different occasions or with an
equivalent form of the test” (Deighton, 1971, p. 393). The concept of
reliability underlies the computation of the ‘error of measurement’ of
a single score, whereby we can predict the range of fluctuation likely
to occur in a single individual’s scores as a result of irrelevant chance
factors (Anastasi, 1968). The test reliability indicates the extent to
which individual differences in test scores are attributable to ‘true’
differences in the characteristics under consideration and the extent
to which they are attributable to chance factors. In other words,
reliability refers to the degree to which observations of a study are
repeatable (Bohrrnstedt & Knoke, 1988). A measuring instrument is
said to be reliable according to the degree to which it generates
consistent observations at two points in time. Or a measure is reliable
to the degree that two different researchers using the same instrument
EVALUATION 247
on the same sample would generate the same observations. Before

any standardised test is released for operational use, its reliability must
be empirically ascertained. A high reliability coefficient indicates that
a student’s score was not influenced much by the chance in selecting
of certain items rather than some other items for inclusion in the test
or by the students’ luck or lack of luck in guessing the correct answer
(Ebel, 1966).
Reliability can be checked with regard to score fluctuations over
time, over item samples, or over examiners and other factors.
Reliability of the same test may differ in different aspects and therefore,
the type of reliability and the method employed to measure it must be
specified in the test manual. The number and major characteristics
of the persons on whom reliability was calculated should also be
reported. With this information the test user can predict whether the
test will be about equally reliable for the persons with whom she/he
plans to use it or whether it is likely to be more reliable or less reliable.
It must be noted that a measure of a concept cannot be valid if it is
unreliable. However, a measure can be reliable (or consistent) without
being valid (or a true measure). The test reliability is expressed
mathematically in terms of variance of errors of measurement and
reliability coefficients (Deighton, 1971). There are three methods
which are widely used to calculate reliability - - (1) test-retest reliability,
(2) alternate form reliability, and (3) split-half reliability. They are
described below.
(1) Test-retest reliability

The most obvious method for finding out the reliability of test
scores is by repeating the identical test on a second occasion. Test-
retest reliability is the name given to this technique. It involves
computing the correlation between the two sets of scores generated
by repeated administration of the test. Reliability coefficients range
from r = 1 (indicating perfect reliability) and r = 0.00 (indicting that
all the variance in the measurement procedure is due to error). The
higher the correlation coefficient, the greater the reliability and lower
the amount of error that can be attributed to the temporary
characteristics of the subjects. Test-retest reliability shows the extent
to which scores of a test can be generalised over different occasions.

When test-retest reliability is reported in a test manual, the interval
over which it has measured should always be specified, since the
correlation decrease progressively as the interval lengthens (Anastasi,
1968).
(2) Alternate forms reliability

Another way of addressing the reliability is to build parallel test
or test forms and administer them to the same sample of subjects.
This provides a measure of alternate forms reliability. The correlation
coefficient between the two sets of scores is a measure of item
equivalence. High values of the correlation indicate that the scores
on individuals can be generalised beyond the particular items on that
test to a population of similar items. Low correlations demonstrate
how much an individual’s scores are influenced by an item or two on
one or the other of the test forms (Smith & Glass, 1987).
(3) Split-half reliability

It is possible to arrive at a measure of reliability from a single
administration of the test. This procedure is an estimate of the internal
consistency of a test. This procedure is known as split-half reliability,
wherein the researcher divides the items in the test into two parts
(such as the odd-numbered items and the even-numbered items),
scores the two parts separately, calculates the coefficient of correlation
between the two parts. The result indicates whether the two sets of
items are measuring the same thing. It should be noted that the
items on the test should be arranged in the approximate order of
difficulty which yields very nearly equivalent half scores. The
correlation coefficient calculated in this method provides reliability
of only a half test. The reliability of the whole test can be calculated
using the formula,
R =
Where R is the reliability of the whole test and r the reliability
coefficient of the half test
EVALUATION 249
Coefficient of correlation – Spearman’s rank order correlation

Correlation provides us a measure of how two random variables
are associated in a sample. If the relationship between two variables
is such that larger values of one variable tend to associate with larger
values of another, the correlation is said to be positive. A coefficient
of + 1.00 denotes a perfect positive correlation. The value of correlation
coefficient indicates the strength of association between the two
variables. This means that when coefficient of correlation is close to
+1, an individual with a high value for one variable will likely to
have a high value for the other variable. For example, taller person
weigh heavier. That is, there is a positive correlation between height
and weight. But if larger values of one variable tend to associate
with smaller values of the others correlation is said to be negative. A
value of –1.00 denotes perfect negative correlation. (e.g., distances
from the ground of persons X and Y while on a seesaw).
By correlation or association we mean the lack of statistical
independence between variables X and Y. The lack of association
means that the value of one variable cannot be reasonably anticipated
by knowing the values o the other variable.
Correlation does not mean causation. For example, older women
bear intelligent children. Correlation only means association. One
variable may or may not be the cause of the others variable. A
correlation coefficient is an index which shows the relationship
between two variables.
A coefficient of rank correlation is calculated using the
Spearman’s rank order formula Rho (ρ).
6∑ D 2
ρ = 1−
N ( N 2 − 1)
Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation is a statistic defined in
such a way as to take a value of +1 when the paired ranks are in the
same order and a value of –1 when the ranks are in an inverse order.
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation

Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and
interpreting evidences of students’ progress and achievement. The
term Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) suggests
continuous assessment of the total growth and development of
pupils. Continuous evaluation means that evaluation is conducted
more frequently spread through out the total span of instructional
time. Comprehensive evaluation refers to the evaluation of the
total growth and development of the pupil – physical, mental,
social, emotional and spiritual. Pupils are evaluated in both the
scholastic and co-scholastic areas in respect of different aspects of
development. CCE helps to evaluate those objectives of learning
which cannot be evaluated through year-end written
examinations. CCE has the advantage that situations are provided
to make the evaluation much more comprehensive than possible
by testing with a minimum sample of contents and objectives as
done in terminal examinations.
In CCE, both the process and product of learning are evaluated.
Therefore, tools to evaluate the process objectives should also be
developed and used as part of teaching-learning strategy. The process
objectives include observational and enquiry skills, collecting and
recording data, appreciation of art and culture, cooperation, and
development of values. To evaluate these objectives, a variety of
evaluation tools such as observation schedule, anecdotal record,
checklist, rating scale, etc. are used.
Components of evaluation
In order to flourish continuous and comprehensive evaluation
we make use of the following components of evaluation.
1. Continuous Evaluation (CE)
2. Terminal Evaluation (CE)
I. Continuous Evaluation (CE)

In the activity-based classroom, teacher provides variety of
experiences through varied tools such as brain storming, group work,
discussion, project, seminar, debate, field visit, practical work, etc.
EVALUATION 251
Taking into account the nature of the subject, several tools are advised
for continuous evaluation. The common items used for CCE are - -
(1) project, (2) field study, (3) seminar, (4) debate, (5) practical, (6)
class test, (7) assignment, and (8) model preparation. The above items
can be classified into five categories (SCERT, 2005).
Sl. No. Area Items
1. Investigative activities Project, Field study

2. Interactive activities Seminar, Debate
3. Practical based activities Practical
4. Performance based activities Class test
5. Assigned tasks Assignment,
Model preparation
Evaluation of CE items
The CE items are to be evaluated on the basis of specific
indicators or attributes given below.
1. Project
Structure of a project report
i. Title
Title of the project, name and address of the group members,
year, etc. can be written on the cover page. In the first page, title of
the project (a brief account of the topic to be studied), number of
group members, name of the teacher, etc. can be written in an orderly
manner. In the second page certificate by the guide about the project
should be given. In the third page content of the project should be
written briefly.
ii. Introduction
Introduction can be written, starting from fourth page.
iii. Objectives and or hypotheses
iv. Method and tools used for the study
v. Collection of data
vi. Analysis and conclusion
vii. Suggestions (if any)
viii. Reference
ix. Appendices (questionnaire, observation format, checklist, etc.)
The project diary is helpful to prepare project report. The
learner should note down the objectives/hypotheses, methodology,
duration of study, etc. of the project. The authenticity of the report
and the genuineness of the data are verified using the project diary.
Hence, it is desirable that the teacher may give instructions to prepare
the project diary. The teacher may conduct interim evaluation to see
whether the learner makes entries in the diary at the appropriate
time.
Criteria of evaluation/specific indicators or attributes of a project
i. Planning skills score 4/3/2/1
a) Ability to determine the appropriate learning strategy
b) Ability to develop appropriate tools for the study
c) Ability to determine in advance the duration of study, details
of activities to be done at each stage.
The ability for planning has to be assessed at the time of planning
itself. Details of planning should be recorded in the project diary by
the learner.
ii. Ability to collect data score 4/3/2/1
a) Ability to collect relevant data according to the plan
b) Ability to classify and arrange the data so as to help easy analysis
c) Credibility/reliability of the data can be verified from on the spot
recordings in the project diary.
The pupils should get a clear idea about the sources from where
data are to be collected. For example, the pupil should get help to
find out the reference for a particular project. The teacher should
conduct discussions with pupils to find out the feasibility of the project.
EVALUATION 253
iii. Ability to analyse and arrive at conclusions

score 4/3/2/1
a) Ability to analyse data
b) Ability to arrive at conclusion on the basis of analysis
c) Ability to formulate suitable suggestions/proposals on the basis
of findings
There may be projects where data collection is done as a group
activity or individual activity. But, students should be encouraged to
analyse and draw conclusions individually.
iv. Excellence of the project report score 4/3/2/1
a) Ability to prepare project so as to reflect procedure of the project
b) Quality of the report in communicating the findings.
c) Authenticity of the report
d) Consistency with the project diary
Evaluation of the learner should be done at each and every stage
of the project. After evaluation, the reports may be returned to the
learners.
v. Awareness of the content and methodology
score 4/3/2/1
a) Ability to substantiate conclusions
b) Ability to communicate/explain the methodology and strategies
Evaluation can be done during presentation of reports (for those
who get opportunity for presentation). For others, short interviews
may be conducted.
2. Field study
Criteria of evaluation/specific indicators/attributes of field study
is given below
Sl. No. Components Score
1. Planning 4/3/2/1
2. Data collection 4/3/2/1
3. Observation and involvement 4/3/2/1
4. Preparation of report 4/3/2/1
5. Awareness of the content 4/3/2/1
3. Seminar
Criteria of evaluation/specific indicators/attributes of a seminar
is given below
1. Ability to plan and organise 4/3/2/1

2. Ability for data collection 4/3/2/1
3. Awareness of the contents
(presentation of papers, participation in
discussion, ability to establish ideas
logically in discussion) 4/3/2/1
4. Ability to prepare paper,
(evaluation of observation/ clarity,
arrangement of ideas) 4/3/2/1
5. Excellence in presentation 4/3/2/1
EVALUATION 255
4. Debate
Criteria of evaluation/specific indicators or attributes of a debate
is given below
1. Participation at different stages 4/3/2/1

2. Democratic approach 4/3/2/1
3. Relevance and logic of the facts and
concepts presented 4/3/2/1
4. Communicative skill 4/3/2/1
5. Practical
Criteria of evaluation/specific indicators or attributes of practical
is given below
1. Systematic procedures (understanding

about scientific principles, order of
working etc.) 4/3/2/1
2. Skills to handle tools 4/3/2/1
3. Accuracy/precision in the activities
(controlling variables, measurement,
recording, display) 4/3/2/1
4. Analysis of data 4/3/2/1
5. Excellence of the record 4/3/2/1
6. Assignment
Criteria of evaluation/specific indicators or attributes of
assignment is given below

2. Comprehensiveness of the content 4/3/2/1
3. Excellence in creativity ( clarity and
suitability of structure); excellence in
language (for language assignment);
systematic analysis 4/3/2/1
4. One’s own observations, evaluations, etc 4/3/2/1
5. Time-bound completion 4/3/2/1
7. Model preparation
Criteria of evaluation/specific indicators or attributes of model
is given below
1. Relevance 4/3/2/1
2. Improvisation skill 4/3/2/1
3. Creativity 4/3/2/1
II. Terminal Evaluation (T.E)

Terminal Evaluation should be in written form. The
intention of the test must not be confined to testing of memory. It is
an important tool for evaluating the facts, concepts, ideas gained by
the learner. While preparing questions for the terminal evaluation,
more emphasis should be given to the level of application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation than knowledge and understanding.
EVALUATION 257
Grading
In evaluation, we make use of two systems such as marking
system and grading system for assessing the performance of the
learner. Consider an achievement test of total score 100. There is a
possibility of getting zero score to 100 score for individuals. In other
words, we can say that this is a 101 point scale. It is very difficult to
distinguish a learner scored 89 with another learner who scored 90.
There may not be any measurable difference in the abilities of these
two learners using the test-items. To overcome such limitations a
popular mode of evaluating students’ performance known as grading
system has been evolved. It is used all over the world. The common
types of grading used are absolute grading and relative grading. In
absolute grading scores are given for the evaluation items. Then they
are converted into percentage and appropriate letter grades
corresponding to each score. This is also referred to as criterion
referenced grading. In relative grading the grade assigned to a student
is based on his/her level of performance with respect to others.
Assessment of Skills, Interests and Attitudes in Science

Assessment or evaluation is a continuous enterprise, which is an
integral part of teaching-learning process. By using various assessment
procedures, teacher may get a clear idea about the extent of
development of his/her students in different dimensions. Thus, the
teacher will be able to know the appropriateness of the learning
strategies adopted, and to organize adequate learning tasks for
students. Hence, the assessment processes become beneficial for both
the teacher and the students. Here the procedures for assessment of
skills, interests and attitudes in science are discussed.
1. Assessment of Skills
A skill can be defined as the ability to perform a task with
expertise, mastery and efficiency. A number of skills is essential in
the learning of science since it involves a great deal of experimentation.
Science learning aims at the development of psychomotor skills such
as manipulating skill, drawing skill and observational skill. To assess
these scientific skills following procedures may be used.
a) Practical tests – Observation of actual performance

Practical test is essential, when it is intended to test manipulative
skills (Joseph, 1982). Here the assessment is carried out by the
observation of actual performance of the learner. In practical
examinations students are allowed to design an experiment to prove
a principle, plan the entire procedure, handle materials and
apparatus, perform the experiment and observe the results from
which inferences are drawn. The observation of such practical
examination enables the teacher to rate the student in terms of his/
her proficiency in scientific skills.
b) Evaluation of records
Evaluation of students’ records of observation helps the teacher
in assessing the observational skill of students. The record works also
give an idea about the students’ skill in drawing, provided such
instances are included in it.
c) Written tests
Generally, it is not possible to assess the performance or skills
using written tests. However, some skill-related outcomes can be
tapped through writing. Using written tests, it is possible to assess
mastery of some of the complex knowledge that is prerequisites to
perform the skill in question (Stiggins, 1997).
For example if a student doesn’t know how the functions of
different pieces of science lab equipment relate to one another in an
experimental context, there is no way that student will successfully
complete the lab work. The teacher could devise a question in the
written test to see if he/she had mastered the prerequisite knowledge.
The assessment of drawing skills can also be carried out using written
examinations.
2. Assessment of Interests
An interest may be defined as “a tendency to seek out an activity
or object, or a tendency to choose it rather than some alternative”
(Cronbach, 1969, p. 339). Every individual has preferences for some
EVALUATION 259
activities or objects and aversion to others. These preferences emanate

from the underlying interests of that individual. Interests propel a
person to do his/her best in the work assigned to him/her. Interests
of an individual are not of equal strength. They may vary in strength
and potency. The following procedures are widely used to assess the
interests including scientific interest.
a) Use of interest inventories

Interest inventories are ‘self-reporting’ devices, generally in the
form of questionnaires. Items may be given in these inventories as
questions for which the student has to give responses, or as incomplete
sentences, which are to be completed by the student. In such
inventories, the teacher could inquire about students’ hobbies, what
they do in their leisure time, and what types of books they read or
show they watch. From the responses of student to these items, the
interest of the student can be assessed.
In order to measure interest the popular tools used are the Strong
Vocational Interest Blank and the Kuder Preference Record. The
Strong Vocational Interest Blank has 400 questions or statements
regarding specific areas, and the respondent is expected to mark his
preference (Like, Indifferent or Dislike) to each item. In the Kuder
Interest Inventory, a respondent has to choose one activity from the
three activities mentioned in each group. Special answer keys are
provided to score the responses. The scores obtained by an individual
enable one to get an adequate knowledge of his/her interest.
For a science interest inventory, the items included will be
designed to measure the individual’s interest in the field of science.
Example: Kerala University Science Interest Inventory (Nair & Thomas,
1971). Some illustrative items from this inventory are given below.
The respondents are asked to indicate one of the activities they
like most from the given set of three activities for each item.
1. A - Listening to political speeches
B - Attending science lectures
C - Listening to religious discourses
2. A - Seeing movies
B - Visiting factories
C - Attending cultural programmes
3. A - Join the N C C
B - Join a Science Cub
C - Join a Social Service League
4. A - Make an electromagnet
B - Make wooden models
C - Make clay models
5. A - Reading newspapers
B - Reading books on spiritual subjects
C - Reading popular science magazines
b) Teacher observation and record keeping

As an alternative to asking students about their interests
through inventories, a teacher can observe the students’ activities and
keep a record of these observations. To record various activities of
students the teacher can use audio/video recording devices also. These
recordings may provide valuable information regarding the interest
of students. The leisure time activities of students may provide hints
to the teacher about their interests.
An overview of science interest of children can also be ascertained
from their selection of reading materials. By keeping a record of these
reading materials, a teacher can see if children increase their voluntary
selections of science books, which indicate science interest.
3. Assessment of Attitude
An attitude is an emotionally toned pre-disposition to react in a
certain way towards a person, an object, an idea or a situation. Allport
defined attitudes as a “mental and neural state of readiness, organised
through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon
the individual’s response to all objects with which it is related” (cited
in Skinner, 1995, p.326). Attitudes can be stated as likes and dislikes
EVALUATION 261
of a person, which are based on experience that affect later behaviour.

The personal likes and dislikes are influenced by interests and values.
Scientific attitude is one of the outcomes of science teaching. It is
characterised by - - (1) critical observation (2) open-mindedness (3)
curiosity to know more about things around one (4) disbelief in
superstitions and (5) objectivity in one’s approach to problems.
Scientific attitude can be assessed using techniques like teacher
observation and anecdotal records, recordings, rating scales,
interviews, children’s work products, situation evaluation, etc.
(Yadav, 1992). Some of the methods used for the assessment of
scientific attitudes are discussed here.
a) Teacher observation
The teacher may observe and record anecdotes of student’s
scientific or unscientific behaviour. From these records, the extent of
scientific attitude of students can be estimated.
b) Recordings
Use of audio/video recording during science discussion can be
used for assessing the scientific attitude. The conclusions arrived from
these recordings will be more objective than that of written recordings.
c) Interviews
Personal interviews of individual or small groups of students
enable the teacher to probe into their scientific attitude.
d) Using attitude scales

Two widely used measuring devices - - Thurstone’s scale of
equal appearing intervals and Likert’s scale of summated ratings
can be employed to assess attitude towards science.
(i) The method of equal appearing intervals.

This method was originally devised by Thurstone and Chave in
1929 and has been modified subsequently (Edwards, 1957).
Procedure
A number of statements related to the psychological object (in
the present context, science) are collected and given to judges (say
100 in number) who are asked to classify them in an eleven point
scale, showing each statement’s degree of favourableness towards
the psychological object. Through this rating procedure, the number
of judges placed each statement at different points (1 to 11) is found
out. From this the median or scale value for each statement is
calculated. The items for the final scale are selected based on the
variance and scale values. That is the items should have less variance
(high level of agreement among judges regarding the position of
statement) and they should be fairly and evenly spread on the scale
continuum. Such statements (say 25 to 35 in number) which are
relevant and least ambiguous are arranged in a random order to form
the final scale.
The respondents are asked to indicate the statements with which
they agree. The total scale values of those statements will give the
attitude of the respondent quantified.
(ii) The Method of summated ratings

Likert introduced this method in 1932; it is simpler, easier and
less laborious than that developed by Thurstone.
Procedure
A large number of statements which express a feeling (favourable
or unfavourable) towards the psychological object are collected. The
statements are scrutinised to avoid ambiguous or irrelevant items.
The draft scale containing approximately equal numbers of favourable
and unfavourable statements are administered to a sample (say 200)
of the same population for which the scale has to be constructed.
Each item or statement is followed by five responses indicating degree
of strength of attitude – Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided/
Uncertain (U), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). The
respondents are asked to indicate any one of them for each item. The
responses Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided/Uncertain (U),
Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD) are given scores 5,4,3,2 and
EVALUATION 263
1 if it is a favourable statement and 1,2,3,4, and 5 if it is an

unfavourable statement.
Based on total scores, 27 percent of the subjects with high scores
and 27 percent of the subjects with low scores are taken as criterion
groups. Selecting criterion groups of twenty seven percentage
provides the best compromise between two desirable but inconsistent
aims - - (1) to make the extreme groups as large as possible, and (2) to
make the extreme groups as different from one another as possible
(Ebel & Frisbie, 1991, p. 227). From the mean scores of items,
calculated for each of the criterion groups, ‘t’ value for each statement
is found out. Then 20 to 25 items with high t values (t > 1.75) are
selected for the final attitude scale, with approximately equal numbers
of favourable and unfavourable statement.
The final scale can be administered to the population and the
scoring procedure is same as that for draft scale. If the number of
statement is 25, then a score 25 x 3 = 75 corresponds to a neutral
attitude, while less than this value indicates unfavourableness and
more than that indicates favourableness (Best & Kahn, 2005).
265
Chapter X
CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
The learning activities carried out inside or outside the school

premises, which supplement the classroom learning, are generally
termed as co-curricular activities. They help in developing scientific
attitudes, interests, skills and values in students. The inspiring and
encouraging experiences students gain through these activities may
foster the ‘scientists’ in students. The common co-curricular activities,
which are feasible in our schools, are discussed here.
1. Field Trips and Study Tours

Field trip or study tour to places of scientific importance plays a
major role in the process of learning science. A field trip is a planned
visit to a place outside the regular classroom. Through field trips,
students see other people doing work in the natural setting. Field
trips motivate pupils to learn science and stimulate their interests. A
science teacher can utilise community resources through field trips.
They supplement, enrich and correlate classroom teaching. The
advantages of field trips and study tours as enumerated by Joseph
(1982) are:
i. Motivate children to learn science.
ii. Get opportunity to have first-hand experience.
iii. Supplement classroom instruction.
iv. Provide opportunity to see things in their natural form.
v. Provide opportunity to collect specimens and other useful
material.
vi. Stimulate spirit of collective working and sociability.
vii. Help in the assessment of the importance of science.

viii. Foster scientific enquiry.
The first-hand experience, they provide tends to be more
meaningful and they arouse interest in students than the classroom/
laboratory experiments and demonstrations. Some useful field trips
are:
1. Visits to chemical and other industrial plants such as sugar mill,
tea factory, oil refinery, soap factory, ceramic factory, glass
factory, etc.,
2. Power generating stations,
3. Airports and sea ports, and
4. Water and sewage works.
Distinction between Field Trip and Study Tour

Study tours are considered broader in scope than filed trips. While
field trips are mainly intended to supplement classroom learning,
study tours aim at developing social skills and values also. Field trips
may be arranged with a specific purpose that is to gain direct
experience of a principle, which is learned in the classroom. For
example, to understand the process of purification of water, the
teacher may plan a visit to near by water purification plant. In study
tours, which may last for more than a day, the students get direct
experiences from the places they visited as well as they learn ‘how to
live with others.’
Organisation of Field Trips and Study Tours

Educational field trips need careful and detailed planning;
Sharma and Sharma (1971) suggested five steps in the conduct of
field trips. They are: (1) Planning, (2) Preparation, (3) Execution, (4)
Follow-up, and (5) Evaluation. Each step is briefly discussed below.
1. Planning
The concerned teacher should survey the proposed site for field
trip. The teacher should discuss the plan with students who will be
CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 267
participating in the field trip. The date and time should be decided in
advance. The transport and other travel arrangements should be
made at least a month in advance. The anticipated expense per student
should be calculated based on the total expense for transport, food,
lodging and other expenses.
2. Preparation
The purpose of the visit should be made clear to students. The
places of interest should be detailed as a part of preparation. Small
groups should be formed to take responsibilities that will need students’
participation. Permission of the owner or person-in-charge of the place
to be visited should be secured well in advance. Written permission
from parents should be obtained before the commencement of the
programme.
3. Execution
Execution stage will be easier if the planning and preparation
were adequate. However, unanticipated things may happen during
a field trip. It is desirable to keep contact telephone numbers of school
personnel to inform any such events. During the execution, the teacher
should act as a supervisor.
4. Follow-up
Follow-up is important after any educational field trip. Students
may be asked to write a report of the field trip, to make a model or to
display the collected materials. The teacher can encourage them to
write an essay for the school magazine based on the field trip.
5. Evaluation
Evaluation of the field trip acts as a guide for the teacher to
improve his/her role in the conduct of the field trip. The most enjoyed
events and places reported by students help the teacher in the future
planning of field trips.
2. Science Club
A science club provides opportunities to students to express their
creative abilities in the field of science. The routine science programme

may not cater to the individual needs and interests. Moreover, the
classroom activities are usually formal and teacher-centred. Contrary
to the classroom environment, the science club is informal and the
pupils are free to choose their activities (Das, 1985). In other words,
the classroom demands conformity and repression, while the science
club facilitates freedom of expression of every individual.
Individual laboratory work at high school level is not feasible in
a country like India. Therefore, science club should serve as a place
for group and individual work. Science club activities improve
students’ comprehension and help to develop scientific hobbies.
Participation in science club should never be imposed on the students.
It should emerge as a need of the students. Otherwise, the basic
purpose of the science club will be defeated.
Patnaik and Seetharamappa (1994) and several others (e.g.,
Sharma & Sharma 1971, Kohli, 1986) have listed objectives of science
club. The major objectives are:
1. To provide opportunities for bringing forth students’ hidden
talents
2. To explore local resources and to learn and maintain the
environment
3. To provide opportunities for the development of scientific skills
4. To popularize science among the ordinary people
5. To inculcate scientific attitude in pupils
6. To provide opportunities for training in scientific methods
7. To develop scientific interest among people and thereby
developing scientific hobbies
8. To keep students in touch with the latest developments in science
and their impact on human beings
Organisation of Science Club

Any organisation should have an organizational set up for its
smooth functioning. Usually, the head of the institution is the patron
of the science club. The students (members) of the club should meet
the recurring expenditure. The science club should form two bodies -
- a general body consisting of all students, and an executive committee.
The executive committee should consist of the patron, sponsor,
president, vice-president, secretary, assistant secretary, treasurer,
librarian and publicity convener. The sponsor of the club will be the
science teacher concerned. The duty of each office bearer should be
clearly given in the constitution of the club. Other committees may
also be formed depending upon the requirement of the club. The
success of the activities of the club depends on the effective planning
of the programme.
Duties and responsibilities of executive body

i. Prepare the action plan for carrying out activities of the club
ii. Meet as and when required to decide the programme of activities
iii. Evaluate all the activities of the club and present the same before
the general body
iv. Prepare budgets, maintain accounts, etc.
v. Take decisions regarding membership
vi. Supervise activities of all committees formed.
Suggested science club activities

The science club can take up several activities. The one suitable
to the club members and feasible with the available local resources
should be selected. A few science club activities are listed below.
1. Guest lectures on topics of current importance
2. Seminars, symposia, panel discussions and debates
3. Maintaining bulletin boards
4. Conducting competitions such as quiz
5. Collection and preservation of samples of chemical compounds
6. Arranging demonstrations
7. Improvisations
8. Conducting science exhibition and science fairs

9. Observing days of scientific importance
10. Undertaking science projects
11. Organizing field trips
12. Helping in the science library
13. Organizing street plays to conscientise common man
14. Publishing school magazine in science
3. Science Fairs
Science fair is of great importance in the instruction of science in
a non-formal way. It serves as a forum for the display of useful
activities carried out by students. It provides an occasion for the
parents and public to get acquainted with the school activities. Science
fair helps in disseminating knowledge and in developing science
consciousness among students and the community.
The objectives of science fair as suggested by NCERT (as cited in
Vanaja, 2005) are:
i. To give impetus and encouragement to the students to tryout
their ideas and apply their classroom learning to creative channels
ii. To provide opportunities to students to witness the achievements
of their colleagues and thereby stimulate them to plan their own
projects
iii. To popularize science activities among people so that further
improvements in standards of performance may be achieved
iv. To give encouragement and recognitions to the bright and
energetic students who have special talents
v. To identify and nurture the future scientists of India
vi. To provide the much needed forum for the activities of the science
clubs
vii. To make the community get associated with the school
Levels of Science Fairs

Science fairs are organised at four levels. They are (1) institutional
level, (2) district level, (3) state level, (4) regional level and national
level.
(1) Institutional level science fair

Institutions organise science fairs annually where the students
are allowed to display their projects, exhibits, etc. It provides an
occasion for the interaction between teachers, parents and community.
The winners will be sent to the higher-level science fairs.
(2) District level science fairs

The District Educational Officer conducts these fairs; annually,
in consultation with NCERT/SCERT, which decides the themes and
sub themes for the fair. The best projects or prize winning entries will
be selected for entry into state level fairs.
(3) State level science fairs

Usually SCERT conducts State level science fair annually.
Winners at state level will be allowed to participate in regional level
or national level science fairs.
(4) Regional level and National level science fairs

The regional level science fairs are conducted by NCERT or
agencies like Vishweshwariah Industrial and Technological Museum,
Bangalore.
The NCERT conducts the national level science fair annually on
the basis of the write-ups by students who participated in the state
level fairs.
Organisation of Science Fair

The following factors should be considered while organising a
science fair.
1. Planning
Careful planning is necessary for the successful conduct of a
science fair. The following aspects have to be considered in the
planning stage.
i. Aims and objectives of the fair
ii. Themes and sub themes of the fair
iii. Financing and sponsorship
iv. Location and time duration of the fair
v. Proper control and co-ordination of the fair
vi. Provision of various facilities
2. Distribution of work
The work and responsibilities should be distributed among
various committees. There should be committees like
i. Advisory committee
ii. Programme committee
iii. Reception committee
iv. Publicity committee
v. Finance committee
vi. Administrative committee
3. Safety and first aid

To ensure the safety of the projects, exhibitors and the public
safety rules should be strictly observed.
1. Electrical and fire safety rules should be observed. All electrical
connections should be false free
2. No project should be permitted which may constitute a hazard
to the public
3. First aid arrangements should be provided
4. Execution of the Science Fair

On the day of the fair following points should be kept in mind.
1. Each entrant should be given adequate space to setup the project
2. Facilities like water; electricity, etc. should be available wherever
necessary
3. Projects of same category should be placed together
4. Directions for public who visit the fair should be given clearly
5. Judging
An expert team consisting of scientists, professors of science, etc.,
should judge the science fair. The NCERT has given the following
criteria for judging the exhibits in the fair (cited in Vanaja, 2005).
1. Scientific Approach - 30 points

2. Originality - 20 points
3. Technical skill and workmanship - 20 points
4. Thoroughness - 10 points
5. Dramatic Value - 10 points
6. Personal Interview - 10 points
Total - 100 points
The participants of the fair must be aware of the judging criteria
and the judges should stick on to the criteria. This would make the
judgment reliable, valid, and uniform.
6. Evaluation
When the fair is over, there should be a thorough evaluation,
participating members of all the committees to find out the extent of
realisation of the pre-defined objectives of the fair. This evaluation
will also help to identify the weaknesses in the organization of the
fair, which could be avoided in the future.
Advantages of Science Fairs

i. Science fairs provide excellent opportunity for sharing science
projects done by individuals, small groups or entire class with
other students of the same school, other schools, parents and
other members of the community.
ii. Science fairs can be a motivating force for individual as well as
group work.
iii. Through science fairs, the talented students are recognized,
rewarded, and stimulated.
iv. Science fairs help young people to utilise their time in a
constructive way.
v. They develop a keen taste and interest for scientific investigation
and in solving scientific problems.
SCIENCE TEACHER 275
Chapter XI
SCIENCE TEACHER
Teacher makes countless decisions in the classroom about the

curriculum, instruction technique, classroom management, and
standards of discipline (Heck & Williams, 1984; Johnson, 1990). The
quality of decision-making depends on several factors such as
knowledge of the foundations of curriculum, methodology of teaching,
knowledge related to the specific classroom setting and the ability to
diagnose the numerous factors that operate simultaneously in the
classroom. Thus, science teachers have a wider range of roles to
perform than teachers of other subjects do.
Good science teaching develops in children, the kinds of attitudes,
ways of thinking and solid knowledge base that promote success in
the real world. Enthusiastic, intelligent, and well-educated science
teachers inspire and prepare students for the technological world.
For science teaching to be effective, science teacher has to keep pace
with the developments and s/he should constantly retrospect his/
her performance. The classroom, library, laboratory, science club and
science workshop activities make special pedagogical demands on
the science teacher. Osborn and Freyberg (1985) have classified the
roles of teacher into six - - (1) the teacher as a motivator, (2) the teacher
as a diagnostician, (3) the teacher as a guide, (4) the teacher as an
innovator, (5) the teacher as an experimenter and (6) the teacher as a
researcher.
Qualities of a Science Teacher

Besides the academic qualifications prescribed by the
government/authority/ employer concerned, a good science teacher
should possess certain special qualities also. It is not easy to have all
the good qualities in a science teacher. However, the science teacher
should possess atleast certain general and special qualities. The
qualities needed for a science teacher can be classified into two - - (1)
general qualities and (2) special qualities.
1. General qualities
The qualities needed for a science teacher under this category is
same as those qualities needed for teachers of other subjects. They
may include the following:
a) Regular attendance and punctuality
b) Sincerity to cover the syllabus in time and conducting regular
evaluation
c) Should possess a knowledge of educational psychology
d) Personal contact with students and special help to weak students
e) Availability to students even outside class hours
f) Insist on good discipline and good behaviour
g) Experiences joy in his/her work
h) Truthfulness and tolerance
i) Resourcefulness and always strive to improve competencies
j) Lack of bias/prejudice and value oriented
k) Self-confidence and strong will-power
l) Simple living and high thinking
m) Social skills such as empathy, co-operative mentality, respect for
others, etc.
n) Willingness to attend seminars, workshops, etc. for professional
growth
2. Special qualities
The special qualities needed for a science teacher are enumerated
below:
SCIENCE TEACHER 277
a) Thorough knowledge of subject matter

b) Knowledge of history of science and innovations in science
c) Adequate knowledge of other related subjects
d) Well-versed in the latest techniques, strategies and methodology
of teaching science
e) Practical skills to handle the apparatus and to manipulate
equipments
f) Thorough knowledge and awareness regarding the system of
examination and evaluation and the changing trends in these
area
g) Sufficient practical skills in improvising apparatus
h) Taste for conducting co-curricular activities related to science
i) Willingness to do research related to one’s own subject
j) Publication of books and articles in journals related to science
k) Knowledge of laboratory-precautions and first aid
l) Ability to handle gadgets such as computer, LCD, etc. and make
use of ICT in education
Duties and Responsibilities of a Science Teacher

As a professional, a science teacher has to discharge various duties
and responsibilities (Siddiqi & Siddiqi, 1983; Mangal, 1990). It can be
summarised as given below:
The science teacher should
a) Plan the work for the whole year before the commencement of
the academic year
b) Plan his/her lessons well in advance before each class
c) Organise science laboratory, science library and science museum
d) Facilitate curriculum transaction in various classes assigned to
him in the school timetable
e) Guide and assist students in their classrooms, laboratory and
library
f) Assign appropriate and relevant homework and assignment to

students and assess them regularly
g) Inform students of the latest developments in science
h) Attend summer institutes, seminars, workshops and other in-
service programmes
i) Organise various co-curricular activities such as, science fair,
science exhibition, science excursion, field trip, nature walk,
scientific hobbies, etc.
j) Actively assist in improving and developing science curriculum
k) Keep regular record of the progress of students
l) Subscribe and contribute to good science and educational journals
such as School Science, Journal of Indian Education, Indian
Education Review, etc.
m) Help and assist the school administration especially in the conduct
of various school programmes
Professional Growth
The strength and success of an educational system depends on
the quality of teachers. A teacher’s personal qualities, educational
qualifications, professional training, managerial skills, and the position
he occupies in his institution and in the community contributes to the
quality of teaching. A teacher is prepared for the profession before s/
he enters it, but must also be prepared repeatedly to keep abreast
with latest developments. The purpose of in-service/continuing
education is to satisfy this need. The frontiers of human knowledge
in various fields expand rapidly. There is, therefore, a need for
continued study and growth that would raise the competence of the
teacher on the job and in turn, increase the standard of the whole
education system (Vedanayagam, 1989). The formal education and
training is not sufficient and needs more in the form of professional
growth of the teacher for doing justice with his/her students.
Meaning of professional growth

Professional growth means the growth and development of
SCIENCE TEACHER 279
teachers’ abilities, capacities and competencies for carrying out

properly all his responsibilities related to the teaching profession
(Mangal, 1990). It can be attained only through sincere efforts from
the part of the teacher. S/he has to attend in-service/continuing
education programmes such as attending refresher courses, seminars,
workshops, etc., to excel in their profession.
In-service education
In-service education in a broad sense includes all experiences
and activities provided for teachers and are designed to promote
personal and professional growth while in service. The continuing
education also has the connotation of the life-long education; of
educating oneself throughout life, whether he is a student, teacher or
a non- professional (Vedanayagam,1989). The in-service education
programme can take up several forms and patterns depending on
the purpose for which it is conducted, the resources and infrastructure
available, and the duration of the course.
Need for in-service education

a) To provide opportunities for updating the knowledge of
development in science and technology
b) To acquire improved understanding of pedagogical techniques
c) To give opportunity to practise new teaching techniques and
share experiences with other teachers
d) To give teachers an exposure to new techniques and
developments in Information and Communication Technology
(ICT)
e) To suggest remedies for inadequacies of existing teacher education
programmes
Some of the common types of in-service education are discussed
below:
a) Professional meeting: Conferences of science teachers at the
various levels will be helpful in exchanging ideas, innovations,
research findings, etc., whereby they get updated for the present
educational scenario. The National Science Teachers’ Association
(NSTA) and state affiliates organise such conventions and

meetings for teachers.
b) Faculty meeting: Administrators and supervisors must schedule
an adequate number of faculty meetings during a school year.
Each faculty meeting needs to pinpoint selected problems
identified by teachers, discuss issues and means for improvement
and solving these problems would help teachers do better in their
profession.
c) Content course: These courses are conducted to upgrade the
teachers in their specialisation in terms of knowledge of the latest
developments, current issues and trends, their application and
their relevance to teaching. Content courses are organised with
the help of competent resource persons in a particular area of
discipline, as the competency of the resource persons largely
contributes to the success of the programme. During summer
holidays, these courses are organised for a longer duration of 4-
6 weeks and this gives time for real upgradation of the teachers
in the concerned subject.
d) Refresher course: These are generally organised to give an
opportunity to teachers to refresh and improve their knowledge
of the subjects they teach and widen their experience in the
methodology of teaching. The duration of the refresher course is
generally three, four or five days.
e) Summer institute: It can be on one specific topic or area, covering
invariably all aspects of the teaching-learning processes such as
content, methodology, educational technology, and evaluation
including practical aspects of laboratory work, field trips and
experimentation. For example, summer institutes sponsored by
the National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT), University Grants Commission (UGC), Academic Staff
Colleges, etc.
f) Workshop: It means working in groups to complete a specified
task within a stipulated time. The participants have a full share
in all activities in the conduct of a workshop. The essential
features of the workshop are the intensive consideration of
SCIENCE TEACHER 281
practical problems of classroom teaching, informal working

conditions, sharing of experiences with the peer group and the
availability of a range of resources such as resource persons,
books, journals, learning aids and equipment and apparatus for
laboratory work. Outside one’s own institution, workshops are
being organised by NCERT, Universities, SCERTs, extension
departments of training colleges, etc.
g) Seminar: These are gatherings of professionals with a major
theme(s) for discussion, where experts in the field present their
views. Such meetings are organised at various levels - - state,
national, international, etc. Seminars are organised by agencies
such as NCERT, Uuniversities, SCERTs, Colleges, etc.
Role of NCERT in Promoting Professional Growth

National Council of Educational Research and Training
established in 1961, is an autonomous organisation, which plays a
major role at the national level in the formulation and implementation
of national policies and programmes in school education and teacher
education. The council is fully financed by Government of India. At
present, its organisational setup is composed of the following.
a) National Institute of Education (NIE): it is composed of various
departments that cater to the need of science. NIE is situated at
New Delhi.
b) Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET): this institute
engages in discovering and implementing the hardware and
software technology for the improvement of education including
formal and informal science education.
c) Regional Colleges of Education (RCE): These colleges are located
at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhuvaneswar and Mysore. These are
residential institutions with adequate laboratory, library and other
facilities.
d) Field Officers: NCERT has set up a number of field officers at
the main places spread out in the whole country to provide
effective liaison with the state education authorities as well as
with the state level institutions such as, SCERT, State Institutes
of Science Education (SISE), and Extension departments working
in the training colleges for providing academic and training inputs
to the school education system.
NCERT undertakes many programmes to impart quality in-service
education to both elementary and secondary teachers. The major
programmes organised by NCERT are (Mangla, 2001):
a) School based in-service education and training
b) Seminar programmes for elementary and secondary teacher
educators
c) Orientation courses in microteaching and models of teaching
d) Annual conferences of State Boards of Education and SCERTs
e) Teacher motivated in-service education and training including
participation in seminars, workshops, conferences, etc.
f) Publication of books, journals and periodicals
Role of SCERT
State Government have established in their respective states,
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) for
bringing qualitative improvement in school and teacher education.
The guidance and help is available from the field officers of the NCERT
located in the state.
State Institutes of Science established at a suitable place in the
respective states by the state governments are mainly responsible for
the planning, research, co-ordination and implementation of the work
related with science education at the state level. Their functions
include arranging in-service training programmes to science teachers,
working as centre for conducting research studies in science
education, implementing innovative ideas and programmes related
with the study of science, preparing materials and aids for the teaching
of science, working as guide and source for organising science
education for students and masses, etc.
283
Chapter XII
MICRO-TEACHING
Micro-teaching is a teacher training technique which was first

adopted at Stanford University, USA in 1961 by Dwight W. Allen
and his co-workers. The technique of micro-teaching is based on
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning. It is a training technique
which requires student-teachers to teach a single concept or a few
facts, using specified teaching skill, to a small number of pupils in a
short duration of time. The most important point in micro-teaching is
that teaching is practiced in terms of definable, observable, measurable
and controllable teaching skills. According to Gage “teaching skills
are specific instructional techniques and procedures that a teacher
may use in the classroom. They represent an analysis of the teaching
process into relatively discrete components that can be used in different
combination in the continuous flow of the teacher’s performance”
(cited in Passi, 1976). The component teaching skills can be practised
one by one under simplified teaching situations. The assumption
behind micro-teaching technique is that once these component-
teaching skills are mastered one by one, they can be integrated for
real teaching.
Definitions of microteaching
Allen defines, micro-teaching as “a scaled down teaching
encounter in class size and time” (cited in Singh & Sharma, 1987).
According to Bush, “micro-teaching is a teacher education
technique which allow teachers to apply clearly defined teaching skills
to carefully prepared lessons in a planned series of five to ten minutes
encounters with a small group of real students, often with an
opportunity to observe the result on a video tape” (cited in Mohan,

2002).
According to Passi and Lalitha “micro-teaching is a training
technique which requires student-teacher to teach a single concept
using specified teaching skill to a small number in a short duration of
time” (cited in Passi, 1976).
According to Flanders, “micro-teaching programme is organised
to expose the trainees to an organised curriculum of miniature
teaching encounters, moving from the less complex to the more
complex” (cited in Aggarwal, 1995).
From the above definitions, it can be understood that
microteaching is a scaled down sample of teaching in which common
complexities in the classroom-teaching are reduced in terms of - - (1)
length of content, (2) class size, (3) number of skills used, and (4)
number of students.
Phases in microteaching
Clift lists three phases of micro-teaching (cited in Aggarwal,
1995). The phases and the various processes which are to be performed
by student-teachers under these phases are summarised as follows.
1. Knowledge acquisition phase (Pre-active phase)

a) Observe the demonstration of skill
b) Analyse and discuss the demonstration
2. Skill acquisition phase (Interactive phase)
a) Prepare the micro-lesson
b) Practice the skill (teach)
c) Evaluate the performance
d) Re-teach
3. Transfer phase (Post-active phase)
a) Transfer of skills to link practice situation
b) Transfer of skills to macro-teaching situation
MICRO-TEACHING 285
Steps of Micro-teaching
In view of the above three phases the following steps are
included in the micro-teaching procedure.
1. Orientation of student-teachers - The student teachers should
be given necessary theoretical background about microteaching
regarding the aspects given below:
a) Concept of micro-teaching
b) Significance of micro-teaching
c) procedure of micro-teaching
d) Requirements and settings needed for micro-teaching
2. Discussion of teaching skills – Here discussions are made with
an emphasis on the following:
a) Analysis of teaching into component teaching skills
b) The rationale and role of these teaching skills in teaching
c) The component teaching behaviours comprising various
teaching skills
3. Selection of a particular teaching skill – A particular skill is
defined to the student-teachers in terms of specific teaching-
behaviours and the objectives with such behaviours aim at
teaching.
4. Presentation of a model demonstration lesson (on a particular
skill) – Depending upon the availability of the resources and
type of skill involved, demonstration or model lesson can be given
in a number of ways. A few suggestions are given below:
a) By providing written material
b) By exhibiting a film or a video tape
c) By making the student-teachers listen an audio tape
d) By arranging a demonstration from a live model; that is a
teacher-educator or an expert demonstrate the use of the
skill
5. Observation of the model lesson and criticism – An observation

schedule designed for the observation of the specific skill is
distributed among the student-teachers and they are also trained
in its use before hand. Such observation of the model lesson and
its relevant criticism provides desirable feedback to the student-
teachers.
6. Actual practice for the development of a particular skill – The
actual practice of the selected skill is carried out through the
following steps - - (a) planning the micro-lesson, (b) teaching the
micro-lesson (role playing), (c) feedback (critique conference), (d)
re-planning the micro-lesson, (e) re-teaching, and (f) re-feedback.
These steps are repeated till the student-teacher acquires the
particular skill. Thus, the steps are collectively known as
microteaching cycle. The steps involved in micro-teaching cycle
are detailed below:
a) Planning the micro-lesson: The student-teacher prepares a
micro-lesson plan by selecting a suitable topic, concentrating
on one skill at a time, by taking a small content and
considering the behavioural components involved in the skill.
The standard setting for a micro-class is as given below.
Number of pupils : 5 to10
Type of pupils : real pupils or peers
Type of supervisors : teacher-educators and peers
Time duration : 36 minutes
This duration is divided as follows:
For teaching session : 6 minutes
For feedback session : 6 minutes
For re-plan session : 12 minutes
For re-teach session : 6 minutes
For re-feedback session : 6 minutes
Total : 36 minutes
MICRO-TEACHING 287
b) Teaching the micro-lesson or role-playing: The student-

teacher teaches the prepared micro-lesson to a small group
of pupils in simulated condition. The reaction shown by
students will approximate the reality. The supervisor and
peers can observe the class and can note down the
observations in a specifically developed proforma. The lesson
may be videotaped if facilities are available.
c) Feedback: In this session, feedback is given immediately to
the student-teacher by the observers or by audio/video
recorderings. The student-teacher observes and analyses his/
her lesson with the help of supervisor, peer group and video
clippings. This should be followed by suggestions to improve
the skill.
d) Re-plan session: In the light of the feedback, the student-
teacher re-plans the same lesson (or a different lesson) in
order to use the skill attempted more effectively.
e) Re-teach session: The revised micro-lesson is re-taught to a
different but comparable group using the same skill.
f) Re-feedback session: The student-teacher is provided with
re-feedback on the re-taught micro-lesson. The verbal and
non-verbal acts involved in teaching are unique in each
situation. The small group interaction during the re-teach
session could be drastically different from the first teach
session. Therefore, a re-feedback brings in another dimensions
as well as more acceptability to a particular component skill
in teaching.
7. Link-practice (Integration of teaching skills) – It is concerned
with the task of integrating several skills, individually mastered
by the student-teacher. It is helpful in bridging the gap between
training in isolated teaching skills and the real teaching situation
faced by a teacher. Link-practice is employed here to practise
the use of a few skills simultaneously before the full class teaching.
The steps involved in link-practice are similar to those of
micro-teaching cycle. But in link-practice, the number of students
in the class will be 20 to 25; duration of class will be 20 to 25

minutes; content of the lesson will include two or three concepts
or ideas and the number of skills incorporated will be two or
three. Genearlly students are taught in link-practice sessions, in
which the problems of class management is in between that of a
micro-teaching class and that of actual classroom situation. The
planning, teaching and feedback sessions will be repeated until
the student-teacher becomes able to employ the selected skills
simultaneously.
Micro-teaching Skills
A teaching skill has been defined differently by different
exponents. According to Passi (1976), “teaching skill is a group of
teaching acts or behaviours intended to facilitate pupil’s learning
directly or indirectly.” Many attempts have been made to list down
different teaching skills. Allen and Ryan listed the following fourteen
teaching skills (cited Aggarwal, 1995)
1. Stimulus variation
2. Set induction
3. Closure
4. Teacher silence and non-verbal cues
5. Reinforcing pupil participation
6. Fluency in questioning
7. Probing questions
8. Use of higher order questions
9. Divergent questions
10. Recognising and attending behaviours
11. Illustrating and use of examples
12. Lecturing
13. Planned repetition
14. Completeness of communication
The following six teaching skills have been selected for
MICRO-TEACHING 289
detailed study as they foster the teacher-pupil interaction at various

stages of teaching process. They are given below:
1. Skill of introducing a lesson
2. Skill of probing questions
3. Skill of explaining
4. Skill of illustrating with examples
5. Skill of stimulus variation
6. Skill of reinforcement
1. Skill of introducing a lesson

When a teacher introduces a lesson, he provides a brief
introduction about the lesson to the pupils. Introduction of a
particular lesson includes the use of verbal and non-verbal behaviour,
teaching aids and appropriate devices for making the pupils realise
the need of studying the particular lesson. The components of the
skill of introducing a lesson are:
a) Use of previous knowledge: The previous knowledge will
be acquired from various sources such as classroom
experiences, books, friends, etc. Mind cannot receive any
new knowledge unless there is continuity with the relevant
previous knowledge. Introducing a new lesson involves
bringing the relevant previous knowledge in them to their
conscious level.
b) Use of appropriate devices: The various techniques suitable
for introducing a lesson are - - (1) use of examples or
analogies, (2) questioning, (3) lecturing or describing or
narrating or illustrating, (4) story telling, (5) role playing or
dramatisation, (6) use of audiovisual aids, and (7)
experimentation or demonstration. The appropriateness of
such devices depends on its suitability to the age, grade,
interest, culture, experiments, maturity of the pupils, and
also on the unit to be taught.
c) Maintenance of continuity: Continuity refers to the sequence
of idea or information being presented while introducing a

lesson. Logical sequence should be ensured.
d) Proper usage of relevant statements or questions: A
statement or a question, which a teacher uses while
introducing a lesson, should be relevant and must be related
to the aim of the lesson. Such statements or questions should
contribute to the effectiveness of the skill in terms of
establishing cognitive and affective rapport with the pupils.
2. Skill of probing questions
Ability to ask good questions has long been regarded as one
of the chief merits for successful teaching. This skill of probing
questions may be defined as the art of response management
comprising a set of behaviours for going deep in to the pupils’ responses
with a view to elicit the desired response. The components of the skill
of probing questions are:
a) Prompting : Prompting is a technique of going deep in to
the pupils’ initial response and leading him/her from
incorrect or no response to the expected response, with a
series of hints or prompts through step by step questioning
process. Here the teacher neither supplies answer to the pupil
nor does he redirect the question to some other pupils, but
helps the pupil to answer he question him/herself. While
using this technique, a teacher does not discourage the pupil
for the no or wrong answers and the teacher help the pupil
to arrive at the criterion response by means of systematic
and step by step questions process.
b) Seeking further information: The technique of further
information, which involves leading pupil from partially
correct or incomplete response to the correct, complete or
criterion response through questioning. For seeking
information from the students, the teacher helps the pupil
to clarify, elaborate or explain his initial response by asking
questions such as ‘give some examples,’ ‘make it more clear
by giving some evidence,’ etc.
MICRO-TEACHING 291
c) Refocusing: This technique is generally used when the pupil

gives a correct response. The teacher relates the answer with
the topic already covered in the class. This technique enables
the pupil to view his/her response in relation to other similar
situations.
d) Redirecting: This technique is applied in a ‘no response’ or
‘incomplete response’ situation. It involves putting or
directing the same question to several pupils for response.
This can be used for the purpose of probing and for
increasing pupil participation.
e) Increasing critical awareness: This technique is applicable
in a correct response situation. This involves asking ‘how’
and ‘why’ of a completely correct or expected response. The
teacher asks the pupil to justify his/her response rationally.
Therefore, this technique elicits a rationale for his initial
response.
A sample micro-lesson on skill of probing questions is given in
Appendix VI.
3. Skill of explaining
Explaining can be defined as an activity to bring about an
understanding about a concept, principle, etc. It is an activity to fill
up a gap in someone’s understanding. Explaining depends upon the
type of past experience, the type of the new phenomenon, and the
type of relationship between them. In a classroom, the teacher explains
a phenomenon or an idea in order to bring about or increase
understanding in the pupils about it. The skill involves a number of
desirable and undesirable behaviours. A teacher has to increase the
desirable instances and try to avoid undesirable ones. The components
of the skill of explaining are:
a) Desirable behaviours:
(i) Using explaining links: This involves using linking words
and phrases in the statements of an explanation. They are
generally conjunctions or prepositions which explicitly
indicate the cases, consequences, reasons behind, space
sequence, time sequence, means or purposes of an event,

concept, action or condition. The following are some of the
explaining links which are generally used - - the result of,
therefore, hence, as a result of, consequently, that’s why,
due to, this is how, in order to, since, because, so that, why,
but, their, etc.
(ii) Using beginning statements: Generally, before an
explanation certain statements are made for setting the minds
of the listeners. The beginning statements create mental
readiness on the part of pupils to listen to what is going to
be explained.
(iii) Using concluding statements: After the explanation,
certain statements are made which conclude the whole
explanation. The concluding statements or summarising
statements help in consolidating what has been explained.
(iv) Testing pupils’ understanding: This behaviour of the
teacher involves putting questions to pupils to test whether
or not they have understood what has been explained.
b). Undesirable Behaviours:
(i) Stating irrelevant statement: While explaining, a statement
becomes irrelevant when it is not related to and does not
contribute to the understanding of the concept or
phenomenon being explained. Such statements distract the
attention of students from the subject of explanation and
this lead to confusion.
(ii) Lacking in continuity: This refers to break in the sequence
of ideas or information presented during explaining. During
explaining, continuity breaks in the following situations :
(a) When a statement is not logically related to the previous
statement
(b) When an already covered topic referred to without showing
its relationship
(c) When there is no sequence of place or space or time
MICRO-TEACHING 293
(d) When the statements are irrelevant

(iii) Using inappropriate vocabulary, vague words and phrases:
This involves using terms unknown to the most of the pupils
of that age group and grade level. Sometimes while
explaining, a teacher uses such words and phrases which
indicate that s/he is failing to make something explicit. For
example, I mean, actually, probably, you see, you know,
almost, etc.
(iv) Lacking in fluency: It occurs when a teacher speaks
incoherently. There is lack of fluency when a teacher speaks
half sentences or reformulates in the midway of a sentence
or a statement. Lack of fluency not only distracts pupil’s
attention but also hinders their understanding of the subject
of explanation.
4. Skill of illustrating with examples
Skill of illustrating with examples may be defined as the art
of judicious selection and proper presentation of suitable examples in
order to generalise a concept or idea with a view to its understanding
and proper application. The skill is more important as it takes the
learners from known to unknown. It also involves the principle of
securing and sustaining the attention of pupils. The components of
the skills of illustrating with examples are:
a) Formulating simple examples: Simple examples are those
examples which are based on pupils’ previous knowledge and
suitable to their maturity. Teacher should try to give examples
from the previous knowledge/experience of pupils in order to
make the idea, concept or principle clear and understandable to
pupils.
b) Formulating examples relevant to rule or concept: It refers to
the applicability of the examples to the rule or concept which
the teacher has to illustrate. Irrelevant examples not only lead to
confusion, but also hinder the understanding of the rule or
concept which they illustrate.
c) Formulating interesting examples: An example is said to be
interesting if it can arouse curiosity and interest in pupils.

Examples will be interesting if they are suitable to the age group
and maturity level of pupils.
d) Using appropriate media for examples: Examples can be
classified in to verbal and non-verbal. Verbal examples are those
given verbally. They include giving analogies, story telling, etc.
Non-verbal media include objects, models, pictures, diagrams,
maps, sketches and experimental demonstrations. Teacher should
select appropriate media for developing examples.
e) Using examples by inductive-deductive approach: By inductive
approach a teacher can easily clarify a concept or rule to pupils.
But this approach does not help the teacher to verify whether or
not the pupils have understood the concept. For this purpose,
deductive approach is necessary. It involves giving or eliciting a
number of examples after the concept has been stated. So it is
better to follow inductive-deductive approach for illustrating with
examples.
5. Skill of stimulus variation
The skill of stimulus variation can be defined as deliberate changes in
the attention drawing behaviours of the teacher in order to secure
and sustain pupils’ attention towards the lesson at high level.
The attention drawing behaviours included in the skill of stimulus
variation are:
a) Teacher movement: In order to secure and sustain attention of
pupils a teacher has to move about in the class. Movements should
be purposeful and within the limit so that pupils attention level
is maintained high.
b) Teacher gestures: Using the movements of heads hand and body,
the teacher will be more expressive and dynamic in his/her
presentation in the class. The oral message is less effective in
conveying meaning than oral message combined with gestures.
Gestures can be made by movements of the parts of the body to
direct attention, to emphasise importance, to explain emotions,
or to indicate shapes, sizes, movements, etc.
MICRO-TEACHING 295
c) Change in speech pattern: Whenever a teacher wants to express

emotions or feelings, s/he can modulate his/her voice. This
sudden variation in the stimulus will attract the attention of
pupils. Thus by making sudden or radical changes in tone,
volume or speed of the communication a teacher can draw the
attention of students in a better manner.
d) Change in sensory focus: The behaviours that direct or focus
pupils attention to the particular point can include certain verbal
statements (verbal focusing) or gestures or movements (gestural
focusing) and both verbal statements and gestures (verbal and
gestural focusing). The simultaneous use of verbal and gestural
focusing is found by experience to be more effective than either
of them alone.
e) Change in interaction style: In a classroom there can be three
types of interaction among pupils and teacher - - (a) teacher-
group interaction, (b) teacher-pupil interaction, and (c) pupil-
pupil interaction.
f) Pausing: Pausing means short break or introducing silence during
talk. This sudden behaviour of the teacher will draw pupils’
attention towards the teacher and hence towards the lesson.
g) Oral-visual switching: If there is a change in the medium through
which the teacher gives information to the pupils, generally
pupils’ attention will be drawn towards it. Hence, such frequent
changes help the teacher to sustain pupils’ attention to what s/
he is conveying.
Example:
a. Oral ß à oral-visual
b. Oral ß à visual
c. Visual ß à oral-visual
296
Observation schedule for skill of stimulus variation
Rating
Coding (in minutes)
Not at all à Very much
Components
½ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½ 4 4½ 5 5½ 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Teacher movements
Teacher gestures
Change in speech pattern
Change in sensory focus
TEACHING OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Change in interaction style
Pausing
Oral – visual switching

297
6. Skill of reinforcement
Skill of reinforcement may be defined as the art of judicious and
effective use of reinforcers by a teacher for influencing pupils’
behaviour in the desired direction; directed towards maximum pupil-
participation. There are various ways in which the teacher can
reinforce the pupils’ desirable behaviour. Skill of reinforcement
involves increased use of positive reinforcers and avoids the use of
negative reinforcers. The component skills of skill of reinforcement
are:
a) Positive verbal reinforcement: Positive verbal reinforcers refer
to those verbal behaviours of the teacher that brings positive
reinforcement.
(i) The use of words such as ‘good,’ ‘very good,’ ‘fine,’ ‘yes,’ ‘well
done,’ ‘excellent,’ ‘right,’ etc. are examples of verbal
reinforcement.
(ii) Repeating and rephrasing pupil’s responses
(iii) Use of extra verbal cues such as ‘um um,’ ‘aha,’ etc.
b) Positive non-verbal reinforcement:
(i) Use of nonverbal expressions like nodding of head, smiling,
moving towards the responding pupil, keeping eyes on the pupil,
giving ears to the pupil indicating that attention is being paid to
the pupils’ words
(ii) Writing the responses of the pupil on the blackboard
c) Negative verbal reinforcement: Negative verbal reinforcement
refers to the verbal behaviour of the teacher that bring about
negative reinforcement. This type of reinforcement interferes with
the learning of the pupils. Avoid discouraging expressions such
as ‘wrong,’ ‘incorrect,’ ‘stop it,’ ‘nonsense,’ ‘I don’t like what you
are doing,’ ‘do something else,’ ‘that is not good,’ etc.
d) Negative non-verbal reinforcement: Negative non-verbal
reinforcers are those non-verbal behaviours of the teacher that
bring about negative reinforcement. Following types of reinforcers
should be avoided by the teacher - - frowning, staring, moving
away from the responding pupil, keeping eyes on the pupil with
discouraging looks, not looking at the responding pupil, tapping
foot impatiently and walking around, etc.
e) Inappropriate or wrong use of reinforcers: The following
undesirable behaviours should be avoided by the teacher.
(i) Using reinforcers when not needed
(ii) Not using reinforcers when needed
(iii) Using the reinforcing in a less or excess amount than desired
(iv) Encouraging or reinforcing only a few responding pupils.
NATIONAL TALENT SEARCH SCHEME 299
Chapter XIII
NATIONAL TALENT SEARCH SCHEME
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT,

established in 1961) initiated a programme to identify and nurture
the talented students at the school level in 1963. However, the scheme
called National Science Talent Search Scheme (NSTSS) was
successfully implemented in the year 1964. The purpose of this scheme
was to identify talented students and awarding them with
scholarships. During the first year of the implementation of the
scheme, it was confined to the Union Territory of Delhi and only 10
scholarships were awarded to the Class XI students. Subsequently,
the scheme was extended to all the states and the union territories in
the country with 350 scholarships for the students of Class XI.
Objectives of National Science Talent Search Scheme

The main objectives of the scheme are (Rajan, 1999):
a. To identify secondary school students who possess creative
abilities in the scientific field
b. To stimulate scientific interest among pupils by competitive
processes and recognition of merit
c. To encourage schools to take more active interest in the search
for scientific ability
d. To quicken awareness in schools of the need for providing
challenging opportunities to the talented students in science
e. To help in building up a body of future-scientists who will
contribute to the scientific advancement of the nation in the fields
of both pure and applied sciences
The scheme seeks to assess:

a. The pupils’ aptitude for science
b. The pupils’ powers of scientific reasoning and skill in scientific
experimentation
c. The pupils’ ability to apply knowledge; to analyse and interpret
scientific data
d. The pupils’ ability to express scientific concepts clearly and
precisely
e. The pupils’ creativeness and mental alertness in the investigation
of the scientific phenomena
f. The pupils’ awareness of the basic nature of science
g. The pupils’ knowledge about the recent developments in the
various branches of pure and applied sciences
h. The pupils’ skill to devise and develop some original ideas
experimentally
National Science Talent Search Examination

As part of NSTSS, NCERT organised National Science Talent
Search Examination (NSTSE) as a national level scholarship
programme in India every year to identify and nurture talented
students. The programme was open to students of Indian nationality.
Only students studying in Class VIII and Class X standards were
eligible for appearing in the selection process. It was widely regarded
as the most prestigious examination at high school level in the country.
These scholarships were awarded based on a written
examination, a project report and an interview. The written
examination comprised of a Science Aptitude Test and an Essay on a
given scientific theme. The candidates were to submit the project report
at the time of the written examination. A stipulated number of
candidates selected based on these three components were then
subjected to personal interview. The performance of the candidates
on these four components was considered for awarding scholarships.

These scholarships were awarded for pursuing education only in basic
sciences up to doctoral level.
National Talent Search Scheme

With the introduction of 10+2+3 pattern of education, NSTSS
also underwent a paradigm shift in the year 1976. It was no longer
confined to only basic sciences but was extended to social sciences,
engineering and medicine as well. It was renamed as National Talent
Search Scheme (NTSS). Since the education system in India was
undergoing a change, the scheme was made open to the students of
Classes X, XI and XII and separate examinations were conducted for
each class. The number of scholarships was raised to 500. The selection
procedure was also changed. In the National Talent Search
Examination (NTSE) the candidates are to appear for two objective-
type written tests namely; the Mental Ability Test (MAT) and the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). A predetermined number of
candidates qualifying these two tests were subjected to a face-to-face
interview. The final awards were made based on composite scores
obtained in the MAT, the SAT and the interview.
The number of scholarships was again enhanced from 500 to
550 in the year 1981. These 50 scholarships were exclusively meant
for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) candidates. The
number of scholarships was again increased to 750 in the year 1983
with a provision of 70 scholarships especially for SC/ST candidates.
This arrangement continued until the scheme was decentralized in
the year 1985. Yet another change in the scheme was effected from
the year 2000 wherein the number of scholarships was raised from
750 to 1000 with the provision of reservation for SC and ST candidates
based on the national norms of 15% and 7.5% respectively.
The scheme was partially decentralised in 1985 and was confined
to only class X. Under the new arrangement, the selection of
candidates for the awards became a two-tier process - - the first tier
conducted at state level and the second tier at national level.
The states got complete autonomy to design and conduct their
written examinations. However, they were advised to follow the

national pattern, which comprised MAT and SAT. The MAT, which
consisted of 100 multiple choice type questions, was to be attempted
by all the candidates. The SAT consisted of 25 multiple choice type
questions each on eight subject areas namely Mathematics, Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, History, Geography, Civics and Economics. The
candidates could choose any four out of these eight subjects and had
to answer 100 questions in the SAT.
A fixed number of candidates who qualified at the national level
examination were called for face-to-face interviews. The award of
scholarships was finally determined based on the candidates’ scores
obtained in all three components namely the MAT, the SAT and the
Interview.
A crucial modification in the scheme was again made in the year
1995 when the provision of choice in the SAT was abolished and all
the subjects were made compulsory. These subjects were Science,
Social Science and Mathematics with 40, 40 and 20 questions
respectively. The scholarships under the present scheme are awarded
to the candidates for pursuing courses in sciences and social sciences
up to doctoral level and in professional courses like medicine and
engineering up to second-degree level, subject to the fulfilment of the
conditions provided in this brochure.
Eligibility
Before 2006, all students studying in Class X in any type of
recognised school were eligible to appear at the state level examination
from the state in which the school is located. The state can impose
any other eligibility condition for appearing in the screening
examination like any qualifying percentage of marks in the previous
annual examination, etc. However, from 2006 onwards, a separate
examination for Class VIII is conducted. More than 1,50,000 students
appear for the screening examination of the NTSE every year. From
2006 National Talent Search examination is held at the end of Class
VIII. For students who have passed Class VIII before 2006-07,
however, the NCERT decided to conduct two more NTS examinations
for the students reaching class X for selection in years 2007 and 2008.
Syllabus
There is no prescribed syllabus for the NTSE examination.
However, the standard of items conforms to the level of CBSE Class
X Public Examinations. There are also many prescribed books that
aid students appearing for this examination.
Scheme of Testing
From 2008 onwards, the maximum marks obtainable for the
NTSE were 90 in both the MAT and the SAT. The passing marks are
40% (36 marks). The 90 marks in the SAT were split as follows: -
Mathematics: 20 marks -Science: 35 marks -Social Sciences: 35 marks.
Scholarship
The students who qualify for the interview are eligible for
scholarship. The amount of scholarship has been enhanced to Rs.
500/- per month for all the students studying in Class IX onwards
(irrespective of the class/ course) except for Ph.D., wherein it is paid
as per UGC norms. The older systems of book grant and the criterion
of parental income for deciding payment of scholarship were
discontinued.
The scholarships will be provided to the students studying in
Classes IX to XII and up to Ph.D. level to those students who will
pursue their courses in Basic and Social Sciences including Commerce.
Scholarship will be given up to Masters Degree level that pursues
professional courses like Engineering, Medicine, Law, Management,
etc.
305
Chapter XIV
FAMOUS SCIENTISTS
AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)

The great scientist Galileo Galilei was born on 15th February 1564
at Pisa, Italy. He was deeply interested in the study of nature and
science. He helped to unlock many secrets of astronomy and natural
motion. He believed that the planets revolved around the sun, and
not the Earth. The Church of Rome denounced Galileo as a heretic.
He faced the inquisition and was forced to renounce those beliefs
publicly, though later research, of course, proved him correct and
Church later recognised the validity of Galileo’s work. This renowned
astronomer and mathematician died on 8th January 1642.
Major contributions of Galileo

(1) Discovery of the isochronal nature of pendulum: At the age of
19 in the cathedral of Pisa, he timed the oscillations of a swinging
lamp (chandelier while candles were lit in the church) by means
of his pulse beats and found the time for each swing to be the
same, no matter what the amplitude of the oscillation, thus
discovering the isochronal nature of the pendulum, which he
verified by experiment.
(2) Invention of the first high-powered astronomical telescope:
Galileo succeeded in making a workable and sufficiently
powerful telescope with a magnifying power of about 40. Using
this telescope he gathered astonishing evidence about mountains
on the moon, about moons circling Jupiter, and about an
incredibly large number of stars, especially in the belt of the Milky

Way.
(3) Discovery regarding velocities of falling bodies: He disproved the
Aristotle’s proposition that articles of different weights when
dropped from a height would reach ground at different times
based upon their weights, heavier first and the lighter later.
Galileo himself dropped two iron balls one weighing 100 pounds
and other one pound from the seventh floor of the 180 feet high
Leaning Tower of Pisa (Garg, 1992). Both the balls reached the
ground simultaneously thereby empirically disproving Aristotle’s
long revered writings. The observation that all bodies fall at the
same speed in vacuum is one of Galileo’s ideas that led to the
laws of motion and eventually to relativity theory.
(4) Discoveries in astronomy: Galileo discovered that the moon,
shining with reflected light, had an uneven, mountainous surface
and that the Milky Way was made up of numerous separate stars.
In 1610, he discovered the four largest satellites of Jupiter, the
first satellites of a planet other than Earth to be detected. He
observed and studied the oval shape of Saturn, the phases of
Venus, and the spots on the sun. His investigations confirmed
his acceptance of the Copernican theory of the solar system, that
the sun to be the central body and the earth a moving body
revolving with the other planets about it (heliocentrism).
(5) Invention of a horse-powered pump to raise water
(6) Described the true parabolic paths of cannonballs and other
projectiles
(7) Explained the hydrostatic principles of balancing
(8) Studies on centre of gravity of various solids
(9) Discovery of thermometer
2. Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)

Sir Isaac Newton, mathematician and physicist, one of the
foremost scientific intellects of all time was born on 25th December
1642 at Woolsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, England. He was sent to school
FAMOUS SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS 307
at the age of 12 where he did not do well. At the age of 19 he joined

Trinity College, Cambridge and graduated in 1665. At the age of 27
he became Professor of Physics in the Trinity College (Anthony, 1963).
He was selected Fellow of Royal Society in 1672. In 1703, he became
the president of the Royal Society and continued in that position until
his death in 1727.
Major contributions of Newton

(1) Works on gravitation and mechanics: Newton identified
gravitation as the fundamental force controlling the motions of
the celestial bodies. He calculated the relative masses of heavenly
bodies. He explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of
the equinoxes from the forces exerted by the Sun and Moon.
(2) Laws of motion: Newton postulated that: (1) all bodies attract
each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them, (2) every body continues to be in a state
of rest or of uniform motion unless it is acted upon by an external
force and (3) every action will have an equal and opposite
reaction. These propositions are popularly known as Newton’s
laws of motion.
(3) Theory of fluids: Newton solved problems of fluids in movement
and of motion through fluids. From the density of air, he
calculated the speed of sound waves.
(4) Refraction of light: He investigated the refraction of light and
proved that sunlight is a combination of seven colours. The
mixture of these seven colours produces white light, which was
demonstrated by the Newton’s colour disc. He postulated that
light consisted of streams of minute particles, called, “corpuscles”
and suggested corpuscular theory of light.
3. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743 – 1794)

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier was born on 26th August 1743 in
Paris, France. By education and training he was a lawyer (Anthony,
1963), prominent in the histories of chemistry, finance, biology, and
economics. At the age of 25, he was elected a member of the French
Academy of Sciences. Because of his prominence in the pre-

revolutionary government in France, he was beheaded on 8th May
1794 at the height of the French Revolution. His contributions are
considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level of
physics and mathematics during 18th century.
Major contributions of Lavoisier

(1) Thermodynamics and the nature of combustion: He
demonstrated that burning is a process that involves the
combination of a substance with oxygen. Lavoisier demonstrated
the role of oxygen in the rusting of metal and in respiration of
animals and plants. Lavoisier showed that respiration is
essentially a slow combustion of organic materials using inhaled
oxygen. Lavoisier’s explanation of combustion disproved the
“Phlogiston theory”, which postulated that materials release a
substance called phlogiston when they are burned.
(2) Composition of water and air: Lavoisier studied the composition
of water and air, which at that time were considered elements.
He identified that the components of water are oxygen and
hydrogen, and that air is a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen
and oxygen.
(3) Naming of Oxygen: He demonstrated that “air” is responsible
for combustion and it is the source of acidity. In 1779, he named
the part of “air” responsible for combustion as oxygen.
(4) Law of conservation of mass: He showed that, although matter
can change its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter
is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical
change. These experiments lead to the law of conservation of
mass, which Lavoisier was the first to state.
(5) Allotropy in elements: Lavoisier introduced the possibility of
allotropy in elements when he discovered that diamond is a
crystalline form of carbon.
(6) Analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature: Lavoisier
contributed to devise a systematic nomenclature of chemical
compounds and this system, facilitated communication of
discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still

largely in use today, including names such as sulphuric acid,
sulphates, and sulphites.
4. Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691)

Robert Boyle was born on 25th January 1627 in Lismore Castle,
in County Waterford, Ireland. He was a natural philosopher, chemist,
physicist, inventor, and was noted for his works in physics and
chemistry. Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a
cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. Through this publication
Boyle questioned the Aristotelian conception of four elements - - earth,
air, water and fire (Anthony, 1963). He was one among the first
members of the council of the Royal Society. He died on 30th
December 1691.
Major contributions of Boyle

(1) The enunciation of Boyle’s law.
(2) Discovery of the part taken by air in the propagation of sound.
(3) Investigations on, the expansive force of freezing water.
(4) Conducted studies on, specific gravities and refractive powers,
crystals, electricity, colour and hydrostatics.
(5) Proposed the view of elements as, the indecomposable
constituents of material bodies. Distinguished mixtures and
compounds.
(6) Coining the term “analysis”: He made considerable progress in
the technique of detecting the ingredients of compounds, and he
called the process by the term analysis. He further postulated
that the elements were ultimately composed of particles of various
sorts and sizes.
(7) Boyle studied the chemistry of combustion and of respiration,
and conducted experiments in physiology.
5. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834 – 1907)

This Russian chemist was born on 8th February 1834 in Tobolsk,
Siberia. He is credited as being the creator of the first version of the

periodic table of elements. Unlike other contributors to the table,
Mendeleev predicted the properties of elements yet to be discovered.
Mendeleev became Professor of Chemistry at the Saint Petersburg
Technological Institute and the University of St. Petersburg in 1863.
In 1865 he became Doctor of Science for his dissertation on “the
combinations of water with alcohol”. By 1871 he transformed St.
Petersburg into an internationally recognised centre for chemistry
research. Though Mendeleev was widely honoured by scientific
organisations all over Europe, including the Copley Medal from the
Royal Society of London, he resigned from St. Petersburg University
on 17thAugust 1890. In 1893, he was appointed Director of the Bureau
of Weights and Measures. He died on 2nd February 1907. The
Mendeleev craters on the Moon, as well as element number 101 the
radioactive mendelevium, are named after him.
Major contributions of Mendeleev

(1) Classification of elements: He arranged elements in the order of
atomic mass while working on the idea that there must be a
relation between the mass and properties of chemical elements.
He devised a periodic table in which the elements were arranged
in columns and rows so that each column includes elements of
related character. The table contained several vacant spaces and
he predicted the properties of the undiscovered elements that
would occupy those spaces (Anthony, 1963, p. 220).
(2) Worked on the capillarity of liquids and the working of the
spectroscope.
(3) Formulated new state standards for the production of vodka; it
should be produced in the ratio of one molecule of ethyl alcohol
diluted with two molecules of water, giving a dilution by volume
of approximately 38% alcohol to 62% water.
(4) Mendeleev studied origin of petroleum and concluded that
hydrocarbons are abiogenic and form deep within the earth. He
investigated the composition of oil fields, and helped to install
the first oil refinery in Russia.
(5) Mendeleev is one of the founders, of the Russian Chemical Society.

(6) He worked on the theory and practice of protectionist trade and
on agriculture.
(7) Mendeleev is given credit for the introduction of the metric system
to the Russian Empire.
(8) He invented pyrocollodion, a kind of smokeless powder based
on nitrocellulose.
6. Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867)

Michael Faraday was born on 22nd September 1791at
Newington Butts, England. He was a chemist and physicist (or natural
philosopher, in the terminology of that time) who contributed to the
fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry and is popularly
known as “father of electromagnetic induction”. Although Faraday
received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics,
such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history.
He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824. Faraday was
the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for
life. In June 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday a Doctor
of Civil Law degree (honorary). The SI unit of capacitance, farad
and Faraday constant are named after him. This famous scientist died
on 25th August 1867. The former UK Faraday Atmospheric Research
Station in Antarctica was named after him.
Major contributions of Faraday

(1) Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying
a dc supply, and established the basis for the magnetic field
concept in physics.
(2) He discovered electromagnetic induction, and established the
laws of electromagnetic induction.
(3) Faraday constructed the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern
power generators.
(4) He discovered diamagnetism: In 1845, he discovered the
phenomenon that he named diamagnetism, and what is now

called the Faraday effect. The plane of polarisation of linearly
polarised light propagated through a material medium can be
rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned
in the propagation direction. This established that magnetic force
and light were related.
(5) Experiments on fundamental nature of electricity: Faraday used
static batteries, and animal electricity to produce the phenomena
of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He
concluded that, contrary to scientific opinion of the time, the
divisions between the various “kinds” of electricity were illusory.
Faraday instead proposed that only single “electricity” exists,
and the changing values of quantity and intensity (voltage and
charge) would produce different groups of phenomena.
(6) He discovered electrolysis and derived laws of electrolysis.
(7) He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that
there was an underlying relationship between the two
phenomena.
(8) His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the
foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due
to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.
(9) Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called
metallic nanoparticles. In 1847 he discovered that the optical
properties of gold colloids differed from those of the
corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported
observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be
considered the birth of nanoscience.
(10) Faraday cage: In his work on static electricity, Faraday
demonstrated that the charge only resided on the exterior of a
charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on
anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior
charges redistribute such that the interior fields due to them
cancel. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a
Faraday cage.
(11) Faraday discovered benzene (which he called bicarburet of

hydrogen).
(12) He invented the system of oxidation numbers.
(13) Faraday determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate
hydrate.
(14) He popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode,
and ion.
(15) Faraday made a special study of chlorine, and discovered two
new chlorides of carbon.
(16) He succeeded in liquefying several gases.
(17) He investigated the alloys of steel.
(18) Faraday produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical
purposes.
(19) He invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen
burner, which is used almost universally in science laboratories
as a convenient source of heat.
(20) In 1820 Faraday reported on the first synthesis of compounds
made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and C2Cl4.
7. Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (1888 – 1970)

C. V. Raman was born at Trichinapally in India on 7th November
1888. He was the first Indian scholar who completed all his studies in
India to receive the Nobel Prize. Raman has been honoured with a
large number of honorary doctorates and memberships of scientific
societies. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1924. For his
pioneering work on scattering of light, he won the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1930. He became Professor at the Indian Institute of Science
at Bangalore in 1933, and since 1948 he was the Director of the Raman
Institute of Research at Bangalore, established and endowed by him.
Major contributions of C. V. Raman

(1) He carried out his experimental research in acoustics and optics
at the laboratory of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of

Science at Calcutta.
(2) He founded the Indian Journal of Physics in 1926, of which he
was the editor.
(3) Study on scattering of light: In 1928, he discovered that when an
intense beam of monochromatic light is scattered by a liquid, the
spectrum of the scattered radiations contains lines whose
wavelengths are longer and shorter than the incident radiation.
This finding is known as Raman effect, for which he received
Nobel prize in 1930.
(4) Studies on the diffraction of light by acoustic waves of ultrasonic
and hypersonic frequencies.
(5) He established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore in 1949,
where he worked until his death on 21st November 1970.
(6) In 1948 Raman, through studying the spectroscopic behaviour
of crystals, approached fundamental problems of crystal
dynamics in a new manner. His laboratory was dealing with the
structure and properties of diamond and the structure and optical
behaviour of numerous iridescent substances (labradorite, pearly
felspar, agate, opal, and pearls).
(7) He studied optics of colloids, electrical and magnetic anisotropy,
and the physiology of human vision.
8. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (1858 – 1947)

The famous German physicist Max Planck was born on 23rd
April 1858 in Kiel, Germany. He is considered as the founder of
quantum theory. He was educated at Munich and Berlin universities
and later he worked there as professor of physics. In 1918 he was
awarded the Nobel prize in physics in recognition of his quantum
theory.
Major contributions of Max Planck

(1) Thermodynamic basis for Arrhenius theory: He proposed a
thermodynamic basis for Arrhenius theory of electrolytic
dissociation.
(2) Theory of black-body radiation: The experimentally observed
black-body spectrum could be well described by his famous black-
body radiation law.
(3) Quantum theory of radiation: Around the year 1900, Planck
established a theory regarding the exchange of energy between
matter and electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation
is absorbed by matter only in the form of discrete packages. The
amount of energy in a package depends on the frequency of the
radiation. This package of energy is called quantum. The energy
could only be a multiple of an elementary unit E = hν, where h is
Planck’s constant, and ν is the frequency of the radiation. On the
basis of this he explained the phenomenon of photo electric effect.
The discovery of Planck’s constant enabled him to define a new
universal set of physical units (such as the Planck length and the
Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants.
9. Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)

Albert Einstein was born on 14th March 1879(1879-03-14) at
Württemberg, Germany. He was perhaps the most well-known
scientist of the 20th century. In 1905 Einstein received his doctorate
from the University of Zürich for a theoretical dissertation on the
dimensions of molecules. He received Nobel prize in physics in 1921,
Copley medal in 1925, and Max Planck medal in 1929. He is best
known as the creator of the special and general theories of relativity
and for his bold hypothesis concerning the particle nature of light.
Einstein died on 18th April 1955 at Princeton, USA.
Major contributions of Einstein

(1) Brownian motion: He made significant predictions about the
motion of particles that are randomly distributed in a fluid.
(2) Photoelectric effect: When light energy of certain frequency falls
on surface of metals such as cesium electrons are emitted. He
was awarded Nobel prize in Physics, considering this discovery.
(3) The special theory of relativity: A reliable explanation for the
way radiation and matter interact when viewed from different

inertial frames of reference, that is, an interaction viewed
simultaneously by an observer at rest and an observer moving at
uniform speed.
(4) The general theory of relativity: It deals with problems in which
one frame of reference is accelerated with respect to another
frame of reference.
(5) Mass-energy equation: He proposed the famous equation E =
mc2 which relates mass and energy. This was the principle behind
the development of atom bomb.
10. Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861 – 1944)

Prafulla Chandra Ray was a Bengali academician, a distinguished
chemist and entrepreneur. He was born on 2nd August 1861, in
Khulna District (now in Bangladesh) and died on 16th June 1944. He
was the founder of Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals, India’s
first pharmaceutical company. He was reputed as a successful,
inspiring and popular teacher. Acharya Prafulla Chandra College
and Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray Polytechnic, both in Kolkata,
are named after him.
Major contributions of Prafulla Chandra Ray

(1) Invented a new stable chemical compound - mercurous nitrite:
This path breaking work made way for a large number of
investigative papers on nitrites and hyponitrites of different
metals, and on nitrites of ammonia and organic amines. This
entire endeavour along with his inspiring leadership gave birth
to a brand new Indian School of Chemistry in 1924.
(2) His contributions in the field of chemistry were widely acclaimed.
He had written 107 papers in all branches of chemistry by 1920.
(3) He realised that advancement of India can happen only by
economic advancement through development of new industries
on scientific lines. He showed the way by investing his own money
into forming Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works in
1893. This company culminated into the pioneer of chemical
industry in India. In 1902, it became a limited company and grew

up under his guidance. He is considered as the father of Indian
chemical industry.
11. Homi Jehangir Bhabha (1905 – 1966)

Homi Jehangir Bhabha, was an Indian nuclear physicist of Parsi-
Zorastrian heritage who had a major role in the development of the
Indian atomic energy programme and is considered to be the father
of India’s nuclear programme. After his death in 1966, the Atomic
Energy Establishment was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre in his honour.
Major contributions of Homi Jehangir Bhabha

(1) Cascade theory of cosmic radiations: He described how primary
cosmic rays from outer space interact with the upper atmosphere
and found that the electron showers were formed by the cascade
production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron
pairs.
(2) Proposed quantum theory regarding the behaviour of nuclear
particles.
(3) Suggested vector theory of mesons.
(4) In 1945, he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research in Bombay.
(5) Established the Atomic Energy Commission of India in 1948.
(6) Served as the member of the Indian Cabinet’s Scientific Advisory
Committee and set up the Indian National Committee for Space
Research with Vikram Sarabhai.
12. Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar (1910 – 1995)

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, was an Indian born American
astrophysicist, and Nobel laureate in physics in 1983 along with
William Alfred Fowler for their work in the theoretical structure and
evolution of stars. Chandrasekhar served at the University of Chicago
from 1937 until his death in 1995.
Major contributions of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

(1) Studied stellar structure and stellar dynamics; proposed the
theory of white dwarfs.
(2) Worked on hydrodynamic and hydromagnetic stability.
(3) Studied the equilibrium and the stability of ellipsoidal figures of
equilibrium, and also general relativity.
(4) Studied on black holes and proposed Chandrasekhar limit - - the
limit describes the maximum mass of a white dwarf star as
approximately 1.44 times of solar mass, above which a star will
ultimately collapse into a neutron star or a black hole (following
a supernova).
(5) Worked on the theory of colliding gravitational waves.
13. Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam (1931- )

Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was born 15th October
1931, in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, India. He was the eleventh
President of India, serving from 2002 to 2007. He is known as the
father of Indian missile technology. He has received honorary
doctorates from as many as thirty universities. The Government of
India has honoured him with the nation’s highest civilian honours - -
the Padma Bhushan in 1981; Padma Vibhushan in 1990; and the
Bharat Ratna in 1997.
Major contributions of Abdul Kalam

(1) As the Project Director, he made significant contributions to the
development of India’s first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(SLV-III).
(2) As the Chief Executive of Integrated Guided Missile Development
Programme (IGMDP), he also played major part in developing
many missiles of India including Agni and Prithvi.
(3) He was the Chief Scientific Advisor to Defence Minister and
Secretary, Department of Defence Research and Development
from 1992 to 1999. Pokhran-II nuclear tests were conducted
during his tenure.
14. Vikram Sarabhai ( 1919 – 1971)

Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was an Indian physicist. He was born
on 12th August 1919 in the city of Ahmedabad in western India and
is considered as the Father of the Indian space program. He was
awarded Ph.D. by Cambridge university in 1947 for his thesis titled
Cosmic Ray investigation in Tropical Latitudes.
Major contributions of Vikram Sarabhai

(1) Founded the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad
in 1947.
(2) He was the chairman of the atomic energy commission.
(3) Founder of rocket launching station, Thumba.
(4) Founder of rocket launching centre at Sri Haricotta.
(5) Founder of experimental satellite communication station at
Ahmedabad.
(6) Conducted original researches in cosmic rays and contributed
much to space research.
15. Enaackal Chandy George Sudarshan (1931 - )

E. C. G. Sudarshan was born on 16th September 1931, Pallam,
in Kottayam district of Kerala, India, is a prominent physicist, author,
and professor at the University of Texas at Austin.
Major contributions of Sudarshan

(1) He was the originator (with Robert Marshak) of the V-A theory
of the weak force, which eventually paved the way for the
electroweak theory.
(2) He developed a quantum representation of coherent light. His
theorem proves the equivalence of classical wave optics to
quantum optics. The theorem makes use of the Sudarshan-
Glauber representation. This representation also predicts optical
effects that are purely quantum, and cannot be explained
classically.
(3) He was the first to propose the existence of tachyons, particles
that travel faster than light.

(4) Developed formalism called dynamical maps that is one of the
most fundamental formalism to study the theory of open
quantum system.
(5) In collaboration with Baidyanaith Misra, proposed the quantum
Zeno effect.
(6) He worked on elementary particle physics, quantum optics,
quantum information, quantum field theory, gauge field theories,
classical mechanics and foundations of physics.
16. Meg Nad Saha (1893 – 1956)

Meg Nad Saha was born on 6th October 1893. He was educated
at Calcutta and London and was Member of Parliament during 1952-
56. As a member of Lok sabha, he fought for the development of
heavy industries in the country (Joseph, 1982). The lasting memorial
to him is the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics at Kolkata.
Major contributions of Saha

(1) He studied on solar corona and invented an instrument to
measure the weight and pressure of solar rays.
(2) He derived the famous equation which he called ‘equation of the
reaction - isobar for ionisation’ which is known as Saha’s Thermo-
Ionisation Equation, or the Saha Equation. (Thermal ionisation -
- when an element is heated to a very high temperature, the
electrons in its atom get enough energy to break free from the
atom). Meghnad Saha’s ionisation equation opened the door to
stellar astrophysics.
(3) Saha’s equation is one of the basic tools for interpretation of the
spectra of stars in astrophysics. By studying the spectra of various
stars, one can find their temperature and from that, using Saha’s
equation, determine the ionisation state of the various elements
in the star.
(4) He was associated with building several scientific institutions like
the Physics Department in Allahabad University and the Institute
of Nuclear Physics in Calcutta.

(5) He founded the journal “Science and Culture” and was the editor
until his death.
(6) Saha was the leading spirit in organising the scientific societies
like the National Academy of Science, the Indian Physical Society,
Indian Institute of Science and the Indian Association for the
Cultivation of Science.
(7) He was also the chief architect of river planning in India. He
prepared the original plan for the Damodar Valley Project.
17. Sivaram Krishna Chandrasekhar (1930 – 2004)

Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar was born on 6th August 1930
at Calcutta. He was a great material physicist who made outstanding
contributions in the field of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals are the
substances that have entered our daily lives since last thirty years; we
see them in wristwatches, calculators and in many appliances. He
was acknowledged world-wide, with his insightful and authoritative
papers and his book titled “Liquid Crystals”. He died on 8th March
2004.
Major contributions of Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar

(1) In 1977, he and his co-workers discovered a new type of liquid
crystal made of a new type of molecule. These molecules had the
shape of discs rather than the well studied rods. The discs exhibit
columnar liquid crystals which had a two dimensionally periodic
order.
(2) Discovered a new type of liquid crystals called discotic liquid
crystals which are made up of octopus like molecules - the alkyl
esters of hexahydroxy benzene, the maiden entry into this class
was presented by Chandra along with his students Sadashiva
and Suresh, who published the finding in the Indian physics
journal “Pranama”.
(3) His book ‘Liquid Crystal’ was popular amongst workers on that
field and has been translated to Russian and Japanese.
(4) He started the Centre for Liquid Crystal Research.
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APPENDICES 335
APPENDIX I
Concept Attainment Model – Lesson Plan
General Information
Name of the Teacher : Subject : Chemistry
Name of the School : Unit : Physical and chemical
changes
Standard : VIII Lesson unit : Physical change
Division : Date :
Strength : Duration : 45 minutes
Objectives
1. To help the pupil identify physical change

2. To help the pupil categorise physical change
3. To help the pupil cite examples for physical change
4. To help the pupil find out the properties of physical change
5. To help the pupil define physical change
Name of the concept: Physical change
Essential attributes:
1. Change in size, shape or the state of the substance
2. No new substance is formed
3. Temporary change
Non-essential attributes:
1. Colour of the substance
2. Amount of the substance
3. Temperature of the substance
Positive examples: Negative examples:
1. Cutting of paper Burning of wood
2. Cutting of wood Burning of paper
3. Stretching of rubber band Rusting of iron
4. Melting of sulphur Burning of sugar
5. Stretching of iron into wires Reaction between silver
nitrate and sodium chloride
6. Glowing of a filament Burning of rubber band
7. Breaking of glass Burning of magnesium ribbon
8. Melting of wax Burning of candle
Rule to define the concept: Physical change is a temporary change which
does not involve the formation of any new substance.
Orientation to the process Response/Evaluation

Dear students today we are going to play a game, I
have an idea in my mind. I am going to give you Orientation to the
some examples in pairs labelled as ‘Yes’ and ‘No.’ process.
The ‘Yes’ examples have something in common,
you have to find out what is common (what are the
common characteristics) in those examples.
Phase I: Presentation of data and identification of the concept
T: See the examples, now, I will present a pair, look Teacher presents
I will write it on the black board; cutting of paper the first two pairs
is a ‘yes’ example whereas burning of wood of labelled
is a ‘no’ example. Now see the second set; cutting examples.
of wood is a ‘yes’ example and burning of paper
is a ‘no’ example.
S: it may be related to breaking up of things. Hypothesis I
T: but why did you say so?
S: paper and wood are sliced in both the cases.
T: now see the next pair, stretching of a rubber Teacher presents
band is a ‘yes’ example and rusting of iron is a the second set of
‘no’ example. labelled examples.
S: it is something like deformation of structure? Hypothesis II
T: no.
S: sir, give us the next pair.
T: see the next pair, melting and cooling of sulphur Teacher presents
is a ‘yes’ example while burning of sugar is a the third set of
‘no’ example. labelled examples.
S: sir is it something related to states of substance. Hypothesis III
T: why did you say so?
S: in all the ‘yes’ examples no new substances is
formed.
T: yes, that is right.
S: and in all ‘no’ examples some new substances
are formed.
T: OK, but was that the only observation.
S: no, there are much more, size, shapes…
S: the change seems to be temporary.
T: exactly, come on just think…
S: there is change in state for the examples given
as ‘yes’.
APPENDICES 337
T: yea, there you are, come on, now can you name
that idea.
S: No, sir.
T: just try to state your inferences based on your
observations.
S: the idea in your mind might be a temporary
change in which no new substances is formed.
T: Very good; this type of changes are called Teacher names the
physical changes, now can you define physical correct concept.
change based on your observations? Pupil lists the
essential attributes.
S: physical changes are temporary changes in
which no new substances are formed, but there Pupil states
may be change in size, shape and state. definition.
Phase II: Testing attainment of the concept
T: I am going to give some pairs of examples. You

have to label them as ‘yes’ or ‘no.’ Breaking of
glass tumbler and burning of
magnesium ribbon.
S: the first one is a ‘yes’ example and the second a Students label the
‘no’ example. unlabelled
T: burning of candle and melting of wax. examples.
S: the first one is a ‘no’ example and the second
one is a ‘yes’ example.
T: very good; you are clear with the idea, now can
you create some examples for the idea…
S: stretching of iron into wires is a ‘yes’ example. Students generate
S: melting of ice… their own
S: boiling of water… examples
Phase III: Analysis of the thinking strategy
T: you people said that the concept in my mind

was ‘physical change,’ but how did you reach
that conclusion?
S: sir, you first said you have something in your
mind and challenged us to find it out and you
started giving ‘yes’ and ‘no’ examples and we
went on guessing.
S: you started with two sets of examples cutting of
paper and cutting of wood, as ‘yes’ examples

whereas burning of paper and burning of wood Students describe
as ‘no’ examples and there we got the idea of thoughts.
‘breaking up of things’.
S: sir, you said about stretching of rubber band
S: yea, that’s why I said about deformation…
S: the right type of examples both ‘yes’ and ‘no’ Discuss the role of
and the hypotheses formulated helped us to hypotheses
reach the desired conclusion. The discussion
with examples of melting and cooling of sulphur
made our concept of physical change more clear.
S: sir, it was a new experience for us, thank you.
T: Oh! There the bell goes… bye students. I am
taking leave…
S: Thank you sir…
APPENDICES 339
APPENDIX II
Inquiry Training Model – Lesson Plan
General Information
Name of the School : Unit : Acids and Bases
Standard : VIII Lesson unit : Acids and carbonates
Division : Date :
Objectives
1. To help the pupil formulate an explanation about the reaction between
carbonates and acids
2. To help the pupil develop process skills such as observing, collecting data,
developing hypothesis, experimenting, testing hypothesis and drawing
inferences.
3. To help the pupil engage in strategies for creative enquiry through questions
Orientation to the process Response/Evaluation
I am going to present a problem/puzzle/riddle/ Teacher ensures

magic trick before you. You have to find out a that the pupil
solution to the problem (try to explain the understood the
phenomenon that you are going to observe). You rules of the
can raise questions to get it clarified but make sure problem
that I could answer them in ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ only.
Phase I: Presenting a discrepant event or demonstrate the event
T: Hey, see what all things are there with me?
S: A glass beaker, egg, water…
T: Ha! Let it be there… Last day I was in the kitchen Pupil notes the
to prepare some mango pickle I placed all the discrepancy
ingredients near the stove; I saw my wife
rushing in with two eggs in her hand to prepare
omelette, I asked her to go out and come after
half an hour; we quarrelled over the matter,
suddenly one of the egg rolled out of her hand
and fell into a tumbler near me, I scolded her
and was about to take a spoon to get it out of the
liquid…but to our surprise… Oh! Let us see what
happened, we have with us that liquid and the
egg. Now watch it out carefully…
S: Oh! The egg is rising to the top?
Phase II: Data gathering - verification
T: what are you asked to do?

S: to ask questions and find out the reason behind
the phenomena observed.
T: how am I going to answer?
S: in ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
S: is it hot water?
T: no
S: is it a rotten egg?
T: no
S: is it pure water?
T: no
S: is it concentrated solution of salt?
T: no, come see what is going on…
S: is it soap solution?
T: no, why did you say so?
S: is the bubble due to presence of soap?
T: no, come on it’s a good observation…
S: is it due to formation of some gas?
T: yes, you are correct.
Phase III: Data gathering - experimentation
S: is it the gas bubbling?

S: yes
S: a gas is being formed and it is seen as bubbles
S: come see the bubbles sticking on the egg
Students explain in
S: is it because of the bubbles… their own words
S: is the bubble sticking on to the egg?
T: yes, very good observation, but how does it
form?
S: is there any reaction going on there?
S: yes
S: does the egg react with the solution?
T: yes, but then what is the reaction?
S: I have read that eggshell is made of carbonate;
calcium carbonate. Am I right?
T: yes.
APPENDICES 341
S: let me test the nature of the solution using a

litmus paper
S: yes, the blue litmus turns red…
S: is the solution basic?
S: no
S: acids react with carbonates am I correct?
T: yes
S: but, why did the egg sink again?
S: the gas on its surface might have escaped. Is it
true?
T: yes, but see it is rising again to the top
S: the reaction is going on and the new gas
molecules are sticking on to the surface of the
egg and that makes it float.
S: it is a marvellous piece of observation.
S: is the gas formed carbon dioxide?
T: yes, but how can you say that?
S: acids react with carbonates to liberate carbon
dioxide, so the gas formed might be carbon
dioxide.
S: let us test whether the gas will support
combustion
Phase IV: Organising, formulating explanation
S: the egg on contact with acid reacts, because of

the calcium carbonate present in the shell. The
CO2 formed sticks on to the shell making the egg
less denser, due to increase in volume, causing
it to rise to the top of the solution.
S: on reaching to the surface of the solution, the
gas escapes and the egg starts to sink because
of density variation and the process goes on
until all the CaCO3 present in the shell
gets used up.
S: Acids react with carbonates liberating carbon
dioxide.
T. Yea, very good, now can you suggest more
examples for this phenomenon, you can find it
from our environment
S: Concentrated floor-cleaning agents spoil the

marble floor.
S: Taj Mahal’s white marble got faded because of
acid rain.
Phase V: Analysis of the inquiry process
T: now let us recall what we have done to explain

the reaction that puzzled you - what all
questions and conclusions helped you to
reach the answer?
S: we first heard about your experience in the
kitchen and saw you demonstrate it.
T: what kind of questions did you ask?
S: questions for which you answered ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
T: all right, did the questions help you in any way?
S: yes, helped us to form some guesses.
T: which question helped you to get on to the right
track?
S: the questions about the gas formed, about the
solution, CO2 gas formed on the surface of the
shell were answered ‘yes’ and you made us
probe deep into the problem.
T: right, so at first you encountered with the
problem, asked questions, collected information,
tested your hypotheses andfinally arrived at
the conclusion. A nice thing I noticed is that
everyone participated in the inquiry process; it
was really nice… shall I take leave…
S: Thank you sir…
APPENDICES 343
APPENDIX III
A sample lesson plan in chemistry
(In the four column format incorporating Bloom’s taxonomy)
I. General Information
Name of the teacher : Subject : Chemistry
Name of the school : Unit : Chemical
equilibrium
Standard : VIII Lesson unit : Irreversible and
reversible reactions
Division : Date :
II. Content Overview
Irreversible reaction - reversible reaction – forward reaction – backward reaction
III. Content Analysis
Symbol: (symbols to be added)
Terms:
1. Irreversible reaction
2. Reversible reaction
3. Forward reaction
4. Backward reaction
Facts:
1. Dilute sodium hydroxide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid producing
sodium chloride and water
2. Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc producing zinc sulphate and
hydrogen
3. On heating, potassium chlorate gives potassium chloride
4. Potassium nitrate gives potassium nitrate on heating
5. When a glass rod dipped in ammonia is kept over hydrogen chloride
white fumes are produced
6. Magnesium reacts with oxygen producing magnesium oxide
7. Phosphorous burns producing phosphorus pentoxide
8. Ammonium chloride decomposes into ammonia and hydrogen chloride
9. Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride producing ammonium chloride
Equations:
1. NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
2. Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
3. 2KClO3 2 KCl + 3O2
4. 2KNO3 2KNO2 + O2
5. 2Mg + O2 2 MgO
6. 4P + 5O2 2P2O5
7. NH4Cl NH3 + HCl
Concepts:
1. In reversible reactions, the reactions do not cease but are in equilibrium
2. In reversible reactions, the reactants are converted into products and
products are converted into reactants

Definitions:
1. Forward reaction: the reaction in which the reactants are converted into
products is called a forward reaction
2. Backward reaction: the reaction in which the products are converted into
reactants is called a backward reaction
3. Reversible reaction: the reaction in which the reactants are converted into
products and the products are converted into reactants is called a reversible
reaction
4. Irreversible reaction: the reaction in which the reactants are completely
converted into products and the reverse process is not possible is called a
irreversible reaction
IV. Statements of instructional objectives
1. The pupil acquires knowledge of the above mentioned symbols, terms,
facts and equations
2. The pupil develops understanding of the above mentioned symbol, terms,
facts equations concepts and definitions
3. The pupil applies their understanding in new and unfamiliar situations
4. The pupil develops skill in observation through demonstrations
5. The pupil develops interest in doing various experiments
6. The pupil develops scientific attitude such as open mindedness and
intellectual honesty
7. The pupil develops scientific appreciation of the contributions of science
to life and society
V. Previous knowledge
1. The pupil is familiar with certain chemical reactions.
2. The pupil knows how to write balanced chemical equations
VI. Teaching aids
a) Glass wares/apparatus
1. Beakers (100 ml) 5 2. Test tubes (15 ml) 2
3. Spirit lamp 1 4. Glass rod 1
b) Chemicals
1. Sodium hydroxide 10 ml 2. Litmus paper (red) 1
3. Phenolphthalein 2 ml 4. Dilute hydrochloric acid 10 ml
5. Ammonium chloride 10 g 6. Magnesium 2g
7. Water 500 ml
c) Improvised aids
Nil
APPENDICES
VII. Body of the lesson plan
Content Specification Learning experience Evaluation
Preparation
Sodium hydroxide solution
recalls What is meant by a chemical reaction?
is alkaline which turns red
litmus to blue 10 ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution is taken in a test
tube, litmus paper is dipped in the solution. What is the
nature of the solution?
Presentation
Dilute sodium hydroxide
reacts with dilute hydro- identifies Two drops of phenolphthalein are added, solution turns What is the
chloric acid producing pink. 10 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid is added. Test tube reason for the
infers is shaken. What happened to the colour of the solution decolourisation
sodium chloride and water
when hydrochloric acid is added? of the solution?
NaOH + HCl à NaCl + H2O (BBW)
Magnesium reacts with What is the
recalls What is the chemical name of the ash formed when
oxygen producing mag- product formed
magnesium ribbon is burnt? when mag-
nesium oxide
2Mg + O2 à 2 MgO (BBW) nesium is burnt?
The reaction in which the suggests
reactants are converted into What may be the name given to the reaction in which the What is meant by
defines reactants are converted into products?
products is called a forward forward reaction?
reaction Forward reaction (BBW)
345
346
Ammonium chloride identifies 5g of ammonium chloride is taken in a test tube. Moist red What are the
decomposes into ammonia litmus paper is placed at the mouth of the test tube. Test products formed
and hydrogen chloride tube is heated. What may be the reason for the red litmus when
paper to turn to blue? Which alkali in the test tube makes ammonium
red litmus paper turn blue? chloride is
heated?
identifies Ammonia.
What are the products in this reaction?
predicts Ammonia and hydrogen chloride
translates NH4Cl à NH3 + HCl (BBW)
Ammonia reacts with Test tube is heated further. What is the substance deposited
hydrogen chloride inside of the test tube? What is the
producing ammonium predicts Ammonium chloride (BBW) product formed
chloride when ammonia
NH3 + HCl à NH4Cl (BBW) is treated with
What is the name given to the reaction in which products hydrochloric
TEACHING OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE

are converted into reactants? acid?
The reaction in which the
products are converted into suggests Backward reaction (BBW)
reactants is called a What is meant
backward reaction defines
by backward
The reaction in which the suggests What is the name given to the reaction containing forward reaction?
reactants are converted into reaction and backward reaction? What is meant
products and the products defines by reversible
are converted into reactants Reversible reaction (BBW) reaction?
is called a reversible reaction
APPENDICES
In the forward reaction translates How can a reversible reaction be represented? How is the reversible
ammonium chloride gives NH3 + HCl D NH4Cl (BBW) reaction of
ammonia and hydrogen compares ammonium chloride
chloride and in the How is this reaction different from the reaction between represented?
backward reaction ammonia contrasts sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid? What is the
and hydrogen chloride difference between
combine to form ammonium the reaction of
chloride ammonium chloride
and the reaction of
The reaction in which the suggests Two reactions are there, for ammonium chloride while there sodium hydroxide
is only one for sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric and hydrochloric
reactants are completely defines acidWhich is the backward reaction in the case of sodium acid?
converted into products and hydroxide and hydrochloric acid?What is the name given
the reverse process is not to the reaction containing only forward reaction? What is meant by
possible is called a Irreversible reaction (BBW) irreversible reaction?
irreversible reaction
Application
The formation of ammonia How ammonia is formed? Represent the reaction. Cite an example for a
cites N2 + 3H2 D 2NH3 reversible reaction?
from hydrogen and nitrogen
example
is a reversible reaction
347
Review
1. What is the product formed when magnesium is burnt?
2. What is meant by forward reaction?
3. What are the products formed when ammonium chloride is heated?
4. What is the product formed when ammonia is treated with hydrochloric
acid?
5. What is meant by backward reaction?
6. What is meant by reversible reaction?
7. How is the reversible reaction of ammonium chloride represented?
8. What is the difference between the reaction of ammonium chloride and
the reaction of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid?
9. What is meant by irreversible reaction?
Assignment
1. Prepare a list of three reactions that are examples of reversible reaction.
APPENDICES 349
APPENDIX IV
A Sample Lesson Plan in Chemistry
(In constructivist model incorporating new taxonamy of science education)
Name of the School : Unit : Water
Standard : VIII Lesson Unit : Hardness of water
Division : Date :
( Here a broad out line of the content should be given)
Hard water- soft water - reasons for hardness of water- temporary hardness-
permenent hardness- how to remove hardness.
(Here analysis of the content area in terms of symbols, terms, facts, concepts,
definitions, formulae, equation, conventions, hypotheses, laws, principles and
processes should be given.)
Terms
1. Hard water
2. Soft water
3. Temporary hardness
4. Permanent hardness
Facts
1. Soap does not form lather with water in which calcium chloride is
dissolved.
2. Soap does not form lather with water in which magnesium chloride is
dissolved.
3. Soap does not form lather with water in which calcium bicarbonate is
dissolved.
4. Soap forms lather with water containing calcium bicarbonate when it is
heated .
5. Water containing calcium chloride after treatment with sodium carbonate
forms lather with soap.
6. Water containing magnesium chloride after treatment with sodium
carbonate forms lather with soap.
Concepts
1. Hard water doesnot form lather with soap due to the presence of dissolved
salts of magnesium and calcium.
2. Soft water easily forms lather with soap.
3. Hardness of water can be removed by removing the dissolved salts of

calcium and magnesium, either by heating or adding sodium carbonate/
chemicals.
Definitions
1. Water that does not easily form lather with soap due to the presence of
dissolved salts of calcium or magnesium is called hard water.
2. Water that easily forms lather with soap is called soft water.
3. Hardness of water caused by dissolved bicarbonates that can be removed
by heating is called temporary hardness.
4. Hardness of water caused by dissolved sulphates and or chlorides and
can only be removed by adding sodium carbonate (chemicals) is called
permanent hardness.
Equations
1. Ca(HCO3)2heat → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 ↑
2. CaCl2 + Na2 CO3 → CaCO3 + 2 NaCl
3. Mg SO4 + Na2 CO3 → MgCO3 + Na2 SO4

IV. Learning Objectives
1. Knowledge Domain
The pupil develops knowledge and understanding about the above
mentioned terms , facts, concepts, etc.
Specific Objectives
a. Identifies the causes of hardness of water.
b. Finds reasons for not using sea water for domestic purposes.
c. Describes the reactions while heating hard water or when treated
with sodium carbonate.
2. Process Domain
The pupil acquires process skills required to develop knowledge and
understanding of above mentioned concepts, definitions, etc.
Specific Objectives
a. Does experiments related to the nature of water
b. Observes various experiments carefully
c. Communicates ideas related to causes of hardness of water, with
peers.
d. Develops operational definition for hardness of water
e. Makes inferences related to the topic hardness of water
3. Application Domain
The pupil applies the aquired knowledge and skills in new and unfamiliar
situations.
APPENDICES 351
Specific Objectives
a. Finds instances from daily life where the hardness of water is to
be considered.
b. Selects appropriate technique to remove hardness of a sample of
water.
4. Creativity Domain
The pupil develops creative abilities related to the topic.
Specific Objectives
a. Designs devices to remove hardness of water for domestic
purposes.
b. Advances ideas to prepare soaps that can be used even in hard
water.
5. Attitudinal Doman
The pupil develops scientific attitudes and values by learning the topic.
Specific Objectives
a. Shows interest in doing experiments related to hardness of water.
b. Shows honesty in recording observations during experiments.
V. Strategies
1. Experiments
2. Group discussion
3. Demonstration
VI. Pre- requisites
1. The pupil knows that there are soluble and insoluble salts of elements
such as magnesium and calcium
2. The pupil knows a number of salts that are dissolved in the water
obtained from various sources.
VII. Misconceptions
Pupil may think that the presence of sodium chloride is the only reason for
not using sea water for domestic purposes.
VIII. Learning Materials
a) Glass wares/Apparatus: Boiling tube 6
10 ml test tube 18
Spirit lamp 6
b) Consumables : Water 1 litre
Calcium chloride 30 g
Magnesium sulphate 30 g
Calcium bicarbonate 30 g
Sodium carbonate 30 g
Soap pieces 30 g
c) Improvised aids: Nil
IX. Precautions/ First Aid Do not taste the chemicals
X. Classroom Transaction
Process/ Activity Response/ Evaluation
1. Orientation/ Organisation (3 minutes)

Teacher encourages the students to discuss about
the nature of water that is used for domestic purposes
and divides the class into six groups (The number of (The appropriate-
students in a group can be conveniently fixed to facilitate ness of grouping)
group activities. Names may be given to each group
and leaders may be selected in each group by members
of the group)
No. of groups - 6
No. of sessions- 5
2. Session 1 (10 minutes) (Here the perfor-
Each group is asked to dissolve a little /2 g calcium mence of students in
chloride and a little /2 g magnesium sulphate in water each group should
taken in two different test tubes and to shake it with the be recerved. The
given soap pieces. They are also asked to shake soap effectiveness of the
pieces with water taken in another test tube and compare selected activity in
the findings and to write their inferences after constructing
discussing the findings in their groups. concept to be
Consolidation of idea assessed and
When salts of calcium or magnesium is dissolved recorded . This is to
in water, it will not form lather with soap. Such be done for each
water is called hard water. In pure water soap activity in the class)
forms lather easily and is called soft water.
3. Session 2 (5 minutes)
Students are asked to make operational definitions
for hardness of water by discussing in their groups.
Consolidation of idea
Water that doesnot form lather easily with soap ,
due to the presence of dissolved salts of calcium
or magnesium is called hard water.
water that easily form lather with soap is called
soft water.
Each group is asked to dissolve calcium
bicarbonate in water and to test its lather formation with
soap. They are asked to heat the water containing
calcium chloride, magnesium sulphate and calcium
bicarbonate, and then to test the lather formation with
soap. They are asked to write their inferences after
discussing the findings within their groups.
APPENDICES 353
Hardness of water caused by bicarbonates can
be removed by heating and such hardness is
called temporery hardness.
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O +CO2 ↑
Each group is asked to add sodium carbonate to
water containing calcium chloride and water containing
magnesium sulphate and to test the lather formation
with soap. They are asked to discuss the findings and
to write down their inferences.
Hardness of water caused by sulphates and
chlorides of calcium or megnesium can be
removed by adding sodium carbonate. Such
hardness is called permanent hardness.
CaCl2 + Na2 CO3 → CaCO3 + 2 NaCl
Mg SO4 + Na2 CO3 → MgCO3 + Na2 SO4
↓ 6. Session 5 (5 minutes)
Students are asked to make definitions for
temporary hardness and permanent hardness by
discussing in their groups.
Hardness of water caused by dissolved
bicarbonates and can be removed by heating is
called temporary hardness. Hardness of water
caused by dissolved sulphates and or chlorides
and can only be removed by adding sodium
carbonate/chemicals is called permanent
hardness.
XI. Follow up Activities

a) Written assignments
1. What is hard water?
2. What is soft water?
3. Suggest a method to remove hardness of water?
4. What are the causes of hardness of water?
b) Activity assignment
Collect samples of water from two different sources in your locality and
compare the lather formation with soap.
APPENDICES 355
APPENDIX V
A Sample Lesson Plan in Physics
(In the constructivist format incorporating new taxonomy of science education)
Name of the Teacher : Subject : Physics
Name of the School : Unit : Current electricity
Standard : VIII Lesson Unit : Rheostat
Division : Date :
Rheostat – parts – function – working of
Symbol
(symbolic representation of rheostat)
Terms
1. Rheostat
2. Sliding contact
Facts
1. Resistance of a small pencil is less than that of a lengthier one of the
same kind
2. Resistance of a 10 meter metallic wire is greater than that of a 5 meter
wire
Concepts
1. Rheostat is a device used to change the resistance in an electric circuit
2. Rheostat can be used in an electric circuit to control the intensity of
electric current
IV. Learning Objectives
1. Knowledge Domain
The pupil develops knowledge and understanding about the above
mentioned symbols, terms, facts and concepts.
Specific Objectives
a. Recognises the role of resistance in the conduction of electric
current
b. Identifies the parts of a rheostat
c. Describes the function of different parts of rheostat
d. Gives reason for the change in resistance of a conductor when
the sliding contact of the rheostat is moved
e. Identifies the change in brightness of the bulb and reading of the
ammeter when the resistance is changed
2. Process Domain
The pupil acquires process skills required to develop the knowledge and
understanding of the above mentioned facts and concepts
Specific Objectives
a. Examines and experiments with rheostat
b. Observes the experiments carefully
c. Communicates the ideas related to rheostat with peers
d. Infers that the movement of sliding contact is the reason for change
in resistance
e. Predicts the brightness of bulb when the sliding contact is moved
on either side
3. Application Domain
The pupil applies the aquired knowledge and skills in new and unfamiliar
situations.
Specific Objectives
a. Cites examples for devices where rheostats are used
b. Distinguishes the variation in ammeter reading when the sliding
contact is adjusted
4. Creativity Domain
The pupil develops creative abilities related to the topic.
Specific Objectives
a. Designs circuits which involve the use of rheostat
b. Advances ideas regarding the use of rheostat in electrical and
electronic circuits
5. Attitudinal Doman
The pupil develops scientific attitudes and values by learning the topic.
Specific Objectives
a. Collects more information regarding rheostats and their impor-
tance in current electricity
b. Shows honesty in recording observations during experiments
V. Strategies
1. Experiments
2. Group discussion
VI. Pre- requisites
1. The pupil knows the concept of resistance of a conductor
2. The pupil knows that the resistance of a conductor depends on its
length.
VII. Misconceptions
The resistance offered by a rheostat depends on the size of the rheostat
APPENDICES 357
VIII. Learning Materials

a. Glass wares/apparatus Rheostat 100 ohm -5
1.5 volt cell - 10
1.5 volt bulb -5
Ammeters -5
Key/switch -5
Pencils -5
b. Consumables Nil
c. Improvised aids
A chart showing the circuit diagram involving ammeter, bulb, key and a
cross-section of a pencil
IX. Precautions/ First Aid
Use ammeters of suitable range to show deflections for cells connected
X. Classroom Transaction
1 Orientation/Organisation (5 minutes)
Students, today we will do some interesting
experiments with equipment.The teacher divides the (The appropriate-
students into five groups ness of grouping)
No. of groups: 5
No. of sessions: 4
Each group is provided with a bulb, a switch, an
ammeter; a lead pencil cut open into two halves and (Here the perfor-
connecting wires (shown on chart).(Draw the circuit mence of students in
diagram with the components given above) Each group each group should
observes the brightness of the bulb and the ammeter be recerved. The ef-
reading by sliding the arrow headed wire over the thin fectiveness of the se-
lected activity in
graphite rod in the pencil and records their observations
constructing con-
in the science diary. The students are asked to find out
answers for the following questions by discussing in cept to be assessed
their groups. and recorded . This
is to be done for each
What relationship did you observe on the brightness of
activity in the class)
bulb and movement of arrow headed wire over the lead
of the pencil?
Is there any relation between the reading of ammeter
and movement of arrow headed wire over the lead of
the pencil?

Idea to be consolidated
Resistance of a conductor can be varied and the
strength of the electric current can be controlled
by varying resistance.
The students get familiarised with the device
rheostat. Each group observes the parts of the rheostat
provided to them and notes down the details. Teacher
provides them with the symbolic representation of
rheostat.
Rheostat is a device which consists of a
cylindrical porcelain hollow tube over which a
metallic wire is wound. It has a sliding contact
which helps to vary the length of the metallic
wire to be included in the circuit.
Students in groups repeat the experiment done in
the first session by replacing the lead pencil with a
rheostat. Each group notes down the brightness of the
bulb and ammeter reading by adjusting the sliding
contact of the rheostat. The students are asked to find
out answers for the following questions by discussing
in their groupsWhat relationship did you observe on
the brightness of bulb and movement of sliding
contact?Is there any relation between the reading of
ammeter and movement of sliding contact?
Varying the length of the conductor can help in
increasing or decreasing the resistance of a
rheostat and thereby control the electric current
in a circuit.
Each group is asked to discuss about the impact
of increasing the number of turns on the rheostat
(The appropriateness of grouping)(Here the
performance of students in each group should be
APPENDICES 359
recorded. The effectiveness of the selected activity in

constructing the concept to be assessed and recorded.
This is to be done for each session of the class.)
XI Follow up activities
1. Written assignments
a. What is the function of a rheostat in a circuit?
b. What similarities could you find while experimenting with pencil and
rheostat?
2. Activity assignment
Improvise a pencil rheostat
APPENDICES 361
Appendix VI
A sample micro-lesson on skills of probing questions
Name of Student - teacher : Subject : Chemistry

Name of School : Unit : Acids and bases
Standard : VIII Lesson Unit : Properties of acids
Division : Date :
Strength : 5-10 Duration : 6 minutes
Classroom Transaction
Teacher : What is the taste of lemon juice?
Student : Lemon juice has sour taste.
Teacher : What is the reason for the sour taste ? (Seeking further information)
Student : Presence of acid
Teacher : Good. Can you name any other substance that contains acid that we
use at home ? (Seeking further information)
Student : Vinegar, curd.........
Teacher : OK, can you name the acids present in them ?
(Seeking further information)
Student : Acetic acid, citric acid.................
Teacher : Can you name some strong acids used in the laboratory ?
(Refocusing)
Student : Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid..........
Teacher : What is the effect of acids on metals ? (Seeking further information)
Student : No response
Teacher : Can anyone answer me ? (Redirecting)
Student : No response
Teacher : How will you prepare hydrogen gas ? (Prompting)
Student : We get hydrogen gas when dilute hydrochloric acid reacts
with zinc foil.
Teacher : Good. what happen when dilute sulphuric acid reacts with
magnesium ? (Refocusing)
Student : We get hydrogen
Teacher : What is common in these two reactions ?
(Seeking further information)
Student : Hydrogen gas
Teacher : What inference can we draw from this ?
(Increasing critical awareness)
Student : No response.
Teacher : Can anybody answer me ? (Redirecting)
Student : Metals react with acids to give hydrogen gas
Teacher : Very good, acids react with metals to liberate hydrogen gas
AUTHOR INDEX 363
AUTHOR INDEX
Agassi, J., 131 Deighton, L. C., 244, 246, 247

Aggarwal, J. C., 96, 98, 103, 284, 288 Dewey, J., 189
Ahmann, J. S., 230, 232, 241 diSessa, A. A., 191
Aikenhead, G. S., 1 Driver, R., 5, 189, 190, 191
Alsop, S., 192 Dunkin, M. J., 218
Anastasi, A., 46, 230, 243, 246, 248 Easley, J., 191
Anderson, C. W., 191 Ebel, R. L., 243, 247, 263
Anderson, L. W., 35 Edwards, A. L., 261
Anthony, H. D., 307, 309, 310 Erickson, G., 189
Armstrong, T., 225, 226
Ausubel, D. P., 187, 188, 191 Faunce, R. C., 54
Feder, B., 46
Barnhart, R. K., 1 Foley, J. P., 46
Bell, B., 5, 191 Fosnot, C. T., 193, 194
Beller, J., 75 Freeman, F. S., 230, 244, 245, 246
Best, J. W., 263 Freyberg, P., 193 275,
Bhatia, K. K., 240, 241 Frisbie, D. A., 263
Bloom, B. S., 20, 24, 31 Furst, E. J., 206
Bohrnstedt, G. W., 245, 246
Bondi, J., 39 Gagne, R. M., 6, 188, 189
Bossing, N. L., 54 Gardner, H., 221, 223
Bruner, J. S., 193 Garg, R., 306
Bruner, J., 105 Gega, P. C., 7, 134, 141
Gerlovich, J., 119
Cable, G.W., 132 Gilbert, J., 191
Caramazza, A., 191 Glass, G. V., 244, 248
Champbell, J. A., 57 Good, C. V., 2, 68, 208, 213
Clark, C. M., 208, 209 Green, B., 191
Cleminson, A., 5 Gupta, S. K., 56, 146, 208
Collette, A. T., 4, 158, 200, 208, 213, 217
Craver, S. M., 43, 44, 125, 209, 223 Hanesian, H., 187, 188
Cronbach, L. J., 46, 259 Harlen, W., 6
Heck, S. F., 275
Dale, E., 168 Hewitt, P. G., 5
Das, R. C., 64, 147, 166, 208, 210, 217, Hirst, P. H., 44
268 Hodson, D., 45
Hull, D. L., 57 Mouly, G. J., 126, 129, 133
Johnson, D. W., 84 Nagel, E., 131

Johnson, R.T., 84 Nair, A. S., 259
Johnson, S. M., 275 Nair, P. S., 9, 68, 70, 73, 81
Joseph, T. T., 7, 9, 53, 70, 74, 75, 76, 77, Nair, R. S., 212
78, 79, 80, 83, 121, 129, 131, 157, 163, National Science Teachers’
165, 208, 209, 258, 265 Association, 20
Joyce, B., 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106, 108, Novak, J. D., 187, 188
109, 111, 113, 115, 116 Novick, S., 191
Nuffield-Chelsa Curriculum Trust, 52
Kagan, S., 84, 88, 113, 116 Nussbaum, J., 191
Kahn, J. V., 263
Kelly, T. L., 243 Osborn, G., 43, 46
Kerr, J. F., 54 Osborn, R. J., 189, 193
Kliebard, H. M., 43 Osborne, R., 191, 275
Klopfer, L. E., 1 Ozmon, H. A., 43, 44, 125, 209, 223
Knoke, D., 245, 246
Kohli, V. K., 13, 74, 209, 210, 217, 268 Panneerselvam, A., 168
Koran, J. J., 46 Passi, B. K., 283, 284, 288
Koran, M. L., 46 Patnaik, S. P., 268
Krathwohl, D. R., 35 Peters, J. M., 7, 134, 141
Krug, E. A., 1 Peterson, P. L., 208, 209
Piaget, J., 190
Linn, M. C., 47 Pode, J. S. F., 6
Pollard, M., 223
Maitra, K., 60, 209, 210, 217 Popper, K. R., 46
Majumdar, P. K., 135 Prasad, M. K., 75
Mangal, S., 10,11,15,16, 63, 98, 101, 102, Pring, R., 55, 58
107, 108, 120, 168, 277, 279 Purkait, B. R., 42, 209, 223
Mangla, S., 282
Martin, R., 119, 141 Rajan, K. M., 2, 6, 40, 60, 64, 69, 71, 79,
Mc Cormack, A.J., 31 134, 218, 299
McCloskey, M., 191 Report of the Education Commission,
McMillan, J. H., 4 229
Miel, A., 51 Richards, J. C., 84
Mill, J. S., 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, Robinson, J. T., 1, 3, 45
131 Rodgers, T., 84
Mitzel, H. E., 40 Ross, S. D., 1
Mohan, R., 17, 30, 60, 284 Royer, J. M., 132
Mohanty, J., 60 Rushworth, P., 190
AUTHOR INDEX 365
Thelen, H., 83
Sampath, K., 168 Thomas, J., 259
Santhanam, S., 168 Thomas, R. M., 229
SAPA., 6 Thurber, W. A., 4, 158, 159, 162, 200,
Saxena, A. B., 47, 191 208, 213, 217
SCERT, 251 Tiedman, S. C., 232
Schumacher, S., 4 Tyler, R.W., 23, 43, 207, 217
Schwartz, A., 232
Seetharamappa, J., 268 Vaidya, N., 56, 59, 61, 64, 68, 74, 119,
Sexton, C., 119 120, 139, 146, 211
Sharan, S., 84 Van Dalen, D. B., 125, 126, 127, 128,
Sharma, D. N., 13, 19, 22, 64, 74, 143, 134
146, 200, 266, 268 Vanaja, M., 143, 270, 273
Sharma, R. A., 59, 92, 98, 100, 101 Vedanayagam, E. G., 92, 278, 279
Sharma, R. C., 3, 5, 12, 13, 19, 22, 64, Vygotsky, L., 195
74, 143, 146, 200, 208, 266, 268
Sharma, R. D., 283 Waddington, D. J., 53, 56
Shashar, C., 84 Wagner, K., 119
Shukla, S. C., 5, 12 Washton, N. S., 76, 167
Siddiqi, M. N., 20, 22, 24, 277 Weil, M., 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106, 108,
Siddiqi, N. N., 20, 22, 24, 277 109, 111, 113, 115, 116
Singh, L. C., 283 Welch, W. W., 1
Skinner, C. E., 260 Wertsch, J. V., 195
Slavin, R. E., 84 Wheeler, A. E., 48
Smith, E. L., 191 White, B.Y., 5
Smith, M. l., 244, 248 Wiles, J., 39
Snow, R. E., 46 Williams, C. R., 275
Soman, K., 200 Wilson, G., 45
Squires, A., 190 Wilson, J. D., 56
Stahl, R. J., 84 Wittrock, M. C., 46, 189, 218
Stevenson, H. W., 208 Wood-Robinson, V., 190
Stiggins, R. J., 258
Stigler, J. W., 208 Yadav, M. S., 143, 261
Yager, R. E., 31
Tanner, D., 39
Tanner, L., 39 Zeitoun, H. H., 132
SUBJECT INDEX 367
SUBJECT INDEX
Achievement tests, 230-240 Cooperative learning model, 113-117

blue print, 235-236 description of, 115-116
construction of, 233-240 merits of, 116-117
item card, 237-238 Concept, 4
Affective domain, 28-29 Continuous and Comprehensive
Analogy, 130-132 Evaluation (CCE), 250-257
Analysis, 132 Continuous Evaluation (CE), 250-
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, 318 256
Application, 34 Terminal Evaluation (TE), 256-
Attitude, 260 257
assessment of, 260-263 Core curriculum, 54
Thurstone’s scale, 261-262 Correlation, 11
Likert’s scale, 261, 262-263 incidental, 13
Attitudinal domain, 34 of science with other subjects, 13
Audio-visual aids, 167 systematic, 12
advantages of, 168 Creativity domain, 33-34
classification of, 170 Curriculum organisation, 48-50
definitions of, 168 concentric plan, 53
significance of, 168 historical approach, 51-52
Authority, 132-133 movement down a long road, 50
swing of a pendulum, 51
Black board, 171 type study, 52, 53
suggestions for using, 173 upward and outward spiral, 51
types of, 172 Curriculum, 39-40
uses of, 172 defects of, 42
Boyle, 309 definitions of, 39
general principles, 40-41
C. V. Raman, 313-314
logic of, 43
CD-ROM, 183
philosophy of, 44
Chalk board, 171
psychology of, 45
Charts, 173
sociology of, 47
types of, 173
Chemistry, 57 Deduction, 129-130
Co-curricular activities, 265-274 Difficulty Index, 242-243
Coefficient of correlation, 249 Discriminating Power, 243
Cognitive constructivism, 193-194
Cognitive domain, 24-28 E. C. G. Sudarshan, 319-320
Concept attainment model, 103-108 Einstein, 315-316
description of, 105-108 Encarta, 183
merits of, 108 Evaluation of CE items, 251-256
assignment, 256 Inquiry training model, 108-113

debate, 255 description of, 109-113
field study, 253-254 merits of, 112-113
model, 256 In-service education, 279
practical, 255 need for, 279
project, 251-253 Integrated curriculum, 55
seminar, 254 Integrated Science, 57-58
Evaluation, 229-263 intellectual function of, 8
aspects of, 229-230 psychological function of, 11
Experiment, 138 recreational function of, 9
limitations of, 139 social function of, 10
utilitarian function of, 9
Fact, 4 vocational function of, 10
Faraday, 311-313 Interests, 258
Field trip and study tour, 265-267 assessment of, 259-260
distinction between, 266 science interest inventory, 259-
organisation of, 266-267 260
Film strip cum slide projector, 177 Kuder Preference Record, 259
First aid kit, 150 Strong Vocational Interest Blank,
First aid, 148 259
Functions of science, 20-22 Isaac Newton, 306-307
Galileo Galilee, 1 Knowledge domain, 31
Galileo, 305-306
Gardner, 6 Lavoisier, 307-309
General science, 55-56 Lesson plan, 208-227
Generalisation, 4 alternate format of, 220-227
Grading, 257 conventional format of, 211-217
Herbartian steps of, 209-211
H. J. Bhabha, 317 lesson types, 218-220
Hypotheses, 133-136 Link practice, 287-288
characteristics of, 135
formulation of, 123, 142 Max Planck, 314-315
importance of, 134 Meg Nad Saha, 320-321
sources of, 135-136 Mendeleev, 309-311
Methods of teaching, 59-92
Importance of science, 20 cooperative learning, 83-92
Improvised apparatus, 184 Dalton plan, 81-83
advantages of, 185 demonstration method, 64-67
Induction, 125-129 developmental method, 76-77
Baconian, 125 differential teaching, 83
imperfect, 125 heuristic method, 70-72
Mill’s canons of, 124 historical method, 68-70
perfect, 125 individualised laboratory
method, 77-79
SUBJECT INDEX 369
lecture method, 60-64 Objective based learning, 206-208

lecture- demonstration method, Objectives of science teaching,
67-68 Observation, 136-138
problem method, 72-73 Over Head Projector (OHP), 175
project method, 73-76 advantages of, 176
supervised study, 79-81 uses of, 175
Microsoft Power Point, 180 P.C. Ray, 316-317
Micro-teaching cycle, 286-287 Physical Science, 57
Micro-teaching skills, 288 Physics, 56-57
observation schedule, 296 Power Point presentations, 182
skill of explaining, 291-293 Pre-conceptions, 188-192
skill of illustrating with relevance of, 189
examples, 293-294 Principle, 5
skill of introducing a lesson, 289 Process domain, 31
skill of probing questions, 290- Process skills, 139-142
291 basic skills, 140
skill of reinforcement, 297-298 integrated process skills,141
skill of stimulus variation, 294- Professional growth, 278-279
296 meaning of, 279
Micro-teaching, 283-298 role of NCERT, 281-282
definitions of, 283-284 role of SCERT, 282
phases in, 284 Projectors, 179
steps of, 285-287 types of, 179
Misconceptions, 192 Psychomotor domain, 29-31
Models, 174
types of, 175 Reference books, 166
Models of teaching,96-117 advantages of, 166
behavioural systems family, 100 Reliability of a test, 246-248
characteristics of, 96-97 alternate forms, 248
functions and applications of, split-half, 248
102 test-retest, 247-248
fundamental elements of, 100-102 Resource materials, 158
information processing family, Resource unit, 163
98-99
Science club, 267-270
personal family, 99-100
activities of, 269-270
social family, 98
organisation of, 268-269
Multiple intelligence, 221-223
Science fair, 270-274
NTSE, 301-303 advantages of, 274
eligibility for, 302 levels of, 271
scheme of testing of, 303 organisation of, 271-273
syllabus of, 303 Science laboratory, 143
National Talent Search Scheme advantages of, 145
(NTSS), 299-303 common accidents in, 148
objectives of, 299-300
contributions of, 143 Standardised test, 240-244

instruction card,147 construction of, 241-244
organisation of,145 Strategies of teaching, 59-117
records, 147 Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar,
role of science teacher,146 317-318
Science library, 151 Supplementary readers, 167
advantages of a science library, advantages of, 167
152 Support systems, 151
management of, 154 Syllabus, 157
organisation of, 159
Syllogism, 130
Science Manpower Project, 3
Synthesis, 132
Science teacher, 275-282
duties and responsibilities of, Taxonomy of educational objectives,
277-278 23
qualities of, 275-277 Teachers’ handbook, 165
Science, 1-2 advantages of, 166
aesthetic function of,10 Techniques of teaching, 92-96
as a process, 6 brain storming, 93-96
as a product, 3,5 buzz session, 92-93
as an attitude, 7 Testimony, 132
cultural function of, 10 Textbook, 158
definitions of, 2 characteristics of, 159
disciplinary function of, 10 Vogel’s criteria, 162
in school curriculum, 8-11 uses of, 163
Scientia, 1 Theory, 5
Scientific attitude, 7
Unit plan, 200-206
Scientific knowledge, 120
Scientific Method, 11 Validity of a test, 244-246
Scientific method, 119,120 construct, 245-246
characteristics124 content, 245
definitions of, 119 empirical, 246
elements of, 125 predictive, 246
Karl Pearson’s scheme, 120-121 Variables, 138
processes involved in,124,125 dependent variable, 138
steps in, 120-124 independent variable, 138
Sivaram Krishna Chandrasekhar, Vikram Sarabhai, 319
321 Vygotsky, 6
Skills, 257
assessment of, 257-258 Workbook, 164
Social constructivism, 194-195 advantages of, 165
Zone of Proximal Development Year plan, 197-200
(ZPD), 195
SUBJECT INDEX 371
About the Authors
Fr. K. M. Rajan is a lecturer (Selection Grade) in physical science at St.

Joseph’s Training College, Mannanam, Kottayam since 1983. He was a re-
search fellow with the California Educational Research Cooperative (CERC),
University of California, Riverside, U. S. A. during 1990-1993
He received his B.Sc. degree (1978) from the University of Kerala, his M.Sc.
degree (1980) from Jabalpur University, his B.Ed. Degree (1981 - First Rank) and
M.Ed. degree (1983) from Calicut University, his Ph.D. degree from the University
of California, U.S.A. At present, he is a research guide in Education at the School
of Pedagogical Sciences, M.G. University, Kottayam.
He is a member of the American Educational Research Association (AERA)
and has attended American Educational Research Association (AERA) meetings
at Chicago (1991) and San Francisco (1992). He is a life member of Council for
Teacher Education (CTE), All India Association for Educational Research
(AIAER), International Association of Educators for World Peace (IAEWP) and
a member of All Kerala Training College Teachers’ Association (AKTCTA). He
has published four books and eight research articles.
B. S. Sindhu is a Lecturer in Physical Science at Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I

Training College, Malecruz, Ernakulam, and has twelve years of experience as a
teacher educator.
She received her Masters Degree in Chemistry (1994) and Education (1996)
from the University of Kerala and secured Masters Degree in Sociology (2004)
from Madurai Kamaraj University. She has qualified UGC-NET in Education
(1999). She is a research scholar in Education, at the School of Pedagogical
Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University.
She is a member of Council for Teacher Education (CTE). She has at-
tended several conferences, seminars, workshops, and courses organised by
UGC, Kerala and Mahatma Gandhi Universities.
Josen George is a Lecturer in Physical Science at Avila College of Educa-

tion, Edacochin, Cochin.
He received his B.Sc. Chemistry in 1988, M.Sc. Chemistry in 1990, M.A.
Sociology in 1995 (3rd Rank), B.Ed. in 2000, and M.Ed. in 2002 (1st Rank) from
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. He has qualified UGC-NET in Educa-
tion in 2003. He has submitted doctoral thesis in Education in 2008 at Mahatma
Gandhi University.
He has attended conferences, seminars, workshops, and courses organised
by UGC, SCERT, and Mahatma Gandhi University. He has participated and
presented papers at national seminars and published papers in Journals of
Education.
Sibu G. Netto is a Lecturer in the Postgraduate Department of Mar Severios

College of Teacher Education, Mallappally, Chengaroor since 2007. He has five
years of teaching experience as a Lecturer in Physical Science at under graduate
level.
He received his Bachelors Degree in Chemistry (1997), Education (1999),
and Masters Degree in Chemistry (2001) from the University of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram He secured second rank for Masters Degree in Education
in 2002 from Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. He has submitted doc-
toral thesis in Education in 2008 at Mahatma Gandhi University.
He has attended conferences, seminars, workshops, and courses
organised by UGC, SCERT, and Mahatma Gandhi University. He has partici-
pated and presented papers at state and national seminars.
Sajan R. K. is a Lecturer in Physical Science at Sree Narayana College of

Education, Muvattupuzha, Ernakulam since 2003. He has also worked as Lec-
turer in Physics at higher secondary schools.
He received his B.Sc. Physics in 1998, M.Sc. Physics in 2000, B.Ed. in 2001
from the University of Kerala and M.Ed. in Science Education from Annamalai
University, Chidambaram securing second rank in 2003. He has qualified UGC-
NET in Education in 2003.
He is a member of Council for Teacher Education (CTE). He has attended
several conferences, seminars, workshops, and courses organised by UGC, Kerala
and Mahatma Gandhi Universities. He has participated and presented papers
at national and international seminars.

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Teaching of Physical Science

Theory, Perspectives & Practice

Fr. K. M. Rajan M.Sc.; M.Ed; Ph.D.

St. Joseph’s Training College

Fr. K. M. Rajan, M.Sc.; M.Ed; Ph.D.

First Published in 2008 by St. Joseph’s Training College,

Price Rs. 185.00

Printed at: M/s Dona Colour Graphs, Kottayam

CHAPTER 1 Science and Education 1

CHAPTER 2 Aims and Objectives of Teaching Science 19

CHAPTER 3 Curriculum Development 39

CHAPTER 4 Strategies of Teaching Physical Science 59

CHAPTER 5 Scientific Method 119

CHAPTER 6 Support Systems and Resource Materials 143

CHAPTER7 Learning: A Generative Process 187

CHAPTER8 Planning of Instruction 197

CHAPTER9 Evaluation 229

CHAPTER 10 Co-curricular Activities 265

CHAPTER 11 Science Teacher 275

CHAPTER 12 Micro-teaching 283

CHAPTER 13 National Talent Search Scheme 299

CHAPTER 14 Famous Scientists and their Contributions 305

Author Index 363

Subject Index 367

About the Authors 371

Most would agree that the physical

This book offers a comprehensive

The authors acknowledge the work in

The authors place on record the help,

The authors are grateful to the management

maintained by science. We even owe our existence to science.

6. Classification and checking evidences

The areas of scientific knowledge significant for human learning are

Process approach in science teaching

Science as both a Process and a Product

symbols, equations, and formulae or content. The explosion of

c. Scientific knowledge must be at least partially supported by

Place of Science in School Curriculum

vigorous thinking of coherent and logical deduction, of exact and

activities depend upon science. Science has provided easy and

1 0 . Provides Training in Scientific Method

is taught under different headings, viz., Chemistry, Physics and

physics, chemistry, biology and other school subjects can be arranged

Correlation of Science with Other Subjects

1. Correlation of Science Subject with One Another

b) Science and social studies

For example, convection currents, winds, earthquakes, soil, climate

c) Science and mathematics

knowledge of mathematics. Several physical quantities such as density,

d) Science and craft/drawing

3. Correlation of Science with Social and Physical

science also. For example, while teaching a topic on insecticides or

Education is the process that brings about pre-determined and

education for leisure, education for citizenship, education for spiritual

Importance of Science as a School Subject

pictures of scientists, collecting specimen, preparing toys involving

Objectives of Teaching Physical Science

9. Providing work for leisure

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

psychological classification system in which every term should be