SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Concept of a scalar: a quantity that has magnitude but no direction is called a scalar quantity.
Examples are length,area,volume ,mass,density etc.
Concept of a vector: a vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples are
displacement, force, momentum etc.
Scalars are added by ordinary arithmetic. Vectors are added to geometrically, checking
accounts of their directions as well as magnitude. A vector can also be represented by a straight
line whose length represents the magnitude of the quantity and whose direction gives its line of
action. And how to underline shows which way the vector acts.

Addition of Vectors
Two or more vectors acting on a body in a given direction can be combined to give a single
vector which produces the same effect. The single vector is called the resultant. Examples of
addition of vectors can be observed when
1. 2 people carry a heavy bucket
2. Two or more tugs pull a ship
Similarly, the resultant of forces acting in the same straight line is found by addition or
subtraction. There are two major laws which guide how vectors are added. They are the
triangle law of vector addition and the parallelogram law of vector addition.
The triangle law of vector addition states that if two vectors are represented both in
magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle taking in the same order, then the
resultant is represented both in magnitude and direction by the third side taking in opposite
order.

The parallelogram law of vectors states that if two vectors are represented in magnitude and
direction by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. The resultant is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonals of the parallelogram drawn from the common point.
For two vectors, the resultant can be obtained from the formula

The angle is obtained from the sine rule. If the angle is 90 degrees then the resultant would
become.

And direction would be given by

Resolution of vectors
The resultant of vector can be obtained in three ways
1. Parallelogram method
2. Scale drawing method
3. Triangle method
Parallelogram method
Worked examples
Scale drawing method
Worked examples
Triangle method
Worked examples

Resolution of vector components

Vectors can be represented using vertical as well as horizontal components which show the
direction of the vector in the x and y planes.
Worked example

The resultant of more than two vectors

To determine the resultant of several vectors acting at a point, resolve each vector into two
perpendicular directions. To do this, we had a horizontal components and the vertical
components
Worked examples
 MOTION (EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION)
GRAPHS
The motion of an object is best described using graphs such as
1. Displacement time graphs
2. Velocity time graphs
3. Didistancime graphs

1. Displacement time graphs: a displacement time graph could be linear or curved. For a
linear graph, the gradient gives the velocity. The instantaneous velocity is equal to the
gradient QPR.

2. Distance time graphs; in a distance time graph gradient gives the speed

3. Velocity time graphs; the velocity time graph gives a lot of information regarding the
motion of bodies. The following information can be obtained from the graph
 Acceleration
 Retardation
 Distance traveled
 Average speed
The motion of objects form shapes such as triangles, rectangles on trapeziums. The area of
these shapes formed corresponds to the distance moved.
Worked examples
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Consider a body with initial velocity u, Moving in time t. Let its final velocity v and its
acceleration be a.
Worked examples

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

Experiments performed by Galileo in the leaning tower of Pisa proved that objects will fall with
the same as narration towards the Earth irrespective of mass. When discussing vertical motion
under gravity we note that

 If a body is simply dropped from a height the initial velocity is zero

 When a body is projected vertically upwards the final velocity is zero at maximum height
 If the motion is downwards, a=+g, if upwards a= -g.
Hence,

Worked examples
 PROJECTILE MOTION
A projectile is an object or body launched into the air and allowed to move on its own freely
under the influence of gravity and air resistance.
A projectile 36 out a curved path which is parabolic. This curved path is called a trajectory.
Examples of projectiles in everyday life are a thrown javelin or kicked soccer ball in motion.
A body projected in the horizontal direction with a uniform velocity is under the action of two
forces which include

 Uniform velocity and the horizontal direction

 Uniform Acceleration due to gravity in the vertically downward direction

Parameters which describe the motion of a projectile

1. Time of flight(T); the time of flight of a projectile is the time required for it to return to
the same level from which it was projected.

2. Maximum height (H); the maximum height is the highest vertical distance reached as
measured from the horizontal projection plane.
 3. The Range(R): the range of a projectile is defined as the horizontal distance from the
point of projection to the point where the projectile hits the projection plane again.

Worked examples
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The motion of a particle moving along a straight line with an acceleration whose direction is
always towards a fixed point on the line and whose magnitude is proportional to the distance
from the fixed point is called simple harmonic motion (SHM)
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
1. Amplitude
The amplitude of a body undergoing simple harmonic motion is the displacement of the body
from its mean position.
2. Cycle
A circle is a complete revolution or oscillation of a body
3. Period
This is the time taken to complete one cycle. What is measured in seconds. It is also the time
taken to complete a number of oscillations.

4. Frequency
This is the number of cycles a body undergoes a second. It is measured in Hertz
Parameters of simple harmonic motion

 Acceleration

 Velocity
  Displacement

GRAPH OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Relationship between linear speed and angular speed

Relationship between angular acceleration and linear acceleration

Simple harmonic motion on pendulum and spiral spring

1. Simple pendulum
 2. The spiral spring

Energy of a simple harmonic motion

1. Spring
 2. Simple pendulum

TYPES OF OSCILLATION
1. Free oscillation
This is an oscillation in which the amplitude of vibration is constant. For example , a body
hanging freely from one end of a spiral spring displaced through a small distance and released

.
2. Damped oscillation
In dump oscillation, the amplitude of vibration diminishes gradually. The body gradually slows
down due to factors such as air resistance or the shape of the body.

Forced vibration and resonance

Vibrations resulting from the action of external periodic force on an oscillating body are called
forced vibrations. Resonance is a form of a forced vibration. Resonance occurs when the forcing
frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the vibrating body. For example, the rattling
of Windows when an overhead plane passes. This is because the natural frequency of the
windows coincides with the frequencies that make up the noise of the plane's engines.
Worked examples