Chapter 1

Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed the Course of Science and
Technology

Introduction
This section presents an overview of how science and technology evolved from ancient times to
the present. It shows how man was able to develop crude technological tools and eventually
improve them through time to make his way of living more convenient and the society more
progressive.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Discuss the interactions between science and technology and society throughout
history
2. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the
environment
3. Identify the paradigm shifts in history

A. General Concepts

What is Science, Technology and Society?

Science and Technology and Society is an interdisciplinary course designed to examine the ways
that science and technology shape, and are shaped by, our society, politics, and culture. It
explores the conditions under which production, distribution and utilization of scientific
knowledge and technological systems occur;; and the effects of these processes upon the entire
society. History and philosophy of science and technology, sociology and anthropology are
greatly interconnected to the discussion of STS because these are the very factors that molded
the development of science and technology as we know it today.

Science is an evolving body of knowledge that is based on theoretical expositions and

experimental and empirical activities that generates universal truths. Technology, on the other
hand is the application of science and creation of systems, processes and objects designed to
help humans in their daily activities. The development of science and technology has brought
immense progress in society and men. Scientific knowledge and technology influences
individuals and society. Better understanding of science and technology is essential to know the
unique attributes of each enterprise, then addressing their implications for society.
Society is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including the interactions that we engage
in to understand the nature of things and to create things. It is also defined as a group of
individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same
geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations (Science Daily).

Science, technology and society is important to the public because it helps address issues and
problems that are of concern to the general population. Scientific and technological principles
have been and continue to be applied to solve problems that people experience in their day-to--
day aspects of living. But scientific findings must be applied at the right scales. The impact of
technological breakthroughs on people, society and the environment must be critically assessed
to preserve its value.

Figure 1 The Interrelationship of science, technology and society Source: Ihueze et al., 2015.
researchgate.net

A lot of our problems in modern society involve not only technology but also human values,
social organization, environmental concerns, economic resources, political decisions, and a
myriad of other factors. These things sits at the interface between the three fields and can also be
solved (if they can be solved at all) by the application of scientific knowledge, technical expertise,
social understanding, and humane compassion.

In the past, science is learned as an independent study from other fields. It focuses on the
scientific methods, natural processes and understanding nature. But in the current global
scenario, science is studied holistically, often in an interdisciplinary method, emphasizing

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systems rather than processes, synthesis more than analysis and predicting nature’s behavior in
order to have useful application in solving contemporary problems

The scientific data that have built up a considerable base of knowledge led to a vast portfolio of
useful technologies, especially in the 21st century, to solve many of the problems now facing
humankind (UNESCO, 1999).

To solve our contemporary problems, science needs to become more multidisciplinary and its
practitioners should continue to promote cooperation and integration between the social and
natural sciences. A holistic approach also demands that science draw on the contributions of the
humanities (such as history and philosophy), local knowledge systems, aboriginal wisdom, and
the wide variety of cultural values.

The influence of science and technology on people’s lives is expanding. While recent benefits to
humanity are unparalleled in the history of the human species, in some instances the impact has
been harmful or the long-term effects give causes for serious concerns. A considerable measure
of public mistrust of science and fear of technology exists today. In part, this stems from the
belief by some individuals and communities that they will be the ones to suffer the indirect
negative consequences of technical innovations introduced to benefit only a privileged minority.
The power of science to bring about change places a duty on scientists to proceed with great
caution both in what they do and what they say. Scientists should reflect on the social
consequences of the technological applications or dissemination of partial information of their
work and explain to the public and policy makers alike the degree of scientific uncertainty or
incompleteness in their findings. At the same time, though, they should not hesitate to fully
exploit the predictive power of science, duly qualified, to help people cope with environmental
change, especially in cases of direct threats like natural disasters or water shortages.

The Role of Science and Technology

1. alter the way people live, connect, communicate and transact, with profound effects on
economic development;;
2. key drivers to development, because technological and scientific revolutions underpin
economic advances, improvements in health systems, education and infrastructure;;
3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely new
sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-communications, bio-technology and nano--
technology. Products are transforming business practices across the economy, as well
as the lives of all who have access to their effects. The most remarkable breakthroughs
will come from the interaction of insights and applications arising when these
technologies converge.
4. have the power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries
5. differentiators between countries that are able to tackle poverty effectively by growing
and developing their economies, and those that are not.
6. engine of growth
7. interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and genetic
engineering

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 B. Historical Antecedents in the World

Just like with any other discipline, the best way to truly understand where we are in science
today is to look back at what happened in the past. The history of science can teach us many
lessons about the way scientists think and understand the world around us. A historical
perspective will make us appreciate more what science really is.

From Ancient Times to 600 BC

Science during ancient times involved practical arts like healing practices and metal tradition.
Some of the earliest records from history indicate that 3,000 years before Christ, the ancient
Egyptians already had reasonably sophisticated medical practices. Sometime around 2650 B.C.,
for example, a man named Imhotep was renowned for his knowledge of medicine. Most
historians agree that the heart of Egyptian medicine was trial and error. Egyptian doctors would
try one remedy, and if it worked, they would continue to use it. If a remedy they tried didn’t
work, the patient might die, but at least the doctors learned that next time they should try a
different remedy. Despite the fact that such practices sound primitive, the results were,
sometimes, surprisingly effective.

The Egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared with other ancient nations
because of one of the early inventions of Egyptian civilization – the papyrus. The papyrus is an
ancient form of paper, made from the papyrus plant, a reed which grows in the marshy areas
around the Nile river. As early as 3,000 years before Christ, Egyptians took thin slices of the stem
of the papyrus plant, laid them crosswise on top of each other, moistened them, and then pressed
and dried them. The result was a form of paper that was reasonably easy to write on and store.
The invention of this ancient form of paper revolutionized the way information was transmitted
from person to person and generation to generation. Before papyrus, Egyptians, Sumerians, and
other races wrote on clay tablets or smooth rocks. This was a time-consuming process, and the
products were not easy to store or transport. When Egyptians began writing on papyrus, all of
that changed. Papyrus was easy to roll into scrolls. Thus, Egyptian writings became easy to store
and transport. As a result, the knowledge of one scholar could be easily transferred to other
scholars. As this accumulated knowledge was passed down from generation to generation,
Egyptian medicine became the most respected form of medicine in the known world. Papyrus
was used as a writing material as early as 3,000 BC in ancient Egypt, and continued to be used to
some extent until around 1100 AD.

Although the Egyptians were renowned for their medicine and for papyrus, other cultures had
impressive inventions of their own. Around the time that papyrus was first being used in Egypt,
the Mesopotamians were making pottery using the first known potter’s wheel. Not long after,
horse-drawn chariots were being used.

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As early as 1,000 years before Christ, the Chinese were using compasses to aid themselves in
their travels. The ancient world, then, was filled with inventions that, although they sound
commonplace today, revolutionized life during those times. These inventions are history’s first
inklings of science.

The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)

The ancient Greeks were the early thinkers and as far as historians can tell, they were the first
true scientists. They collected facts and observations and then used those observations to
explain the natural world. Although many cultures like the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians,
and Chinese had collected observations and facts, they had not tried to use those facts to develop
explanations of the world around them.

Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from the 6th century BC in pre-Socratic
philosophy (Thales, Pythagoras). In circa 385 BC, Plato founded the Academy. With Plato's
student Aristotle begins the "scientific revolution" of the Hellenistic period culminating in the
3rd to 2nd centuries with scholars such as Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos,
Hipparchus and Archimedes.

This period produced substantial advances in scientific knowledge, especially in anatomy,

zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy;; an awareness of the
importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and
its cause;; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to
natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.

The scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the
application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations.
This was passed on from ancient Greek philosophers to medieval Muslim philosophers and
scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the
modern day.

Islamic Golden Age

The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the
history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with
several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph
Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where
scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to
gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and
subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and

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technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from
contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman
antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.

Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially

astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Scientific inquiry was practiced in other subjects like
alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography and cartography, ophthalmology,
pharmacology, physics and zoology.

Islamic science was characterized by having practical purposes as well as the goal of
understanding. Astronomy was useful in determining the Qibla, which is the direction in which
to pray, botany is applied in agriculture and geography enabled scientists to make accurate
maps. Mathematics also flourished during the Islamic Golden Age with the works of Al--
Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshid al Kashi that led to advanced in algebra, trigonometry,
geometry and Arabic numerals.

There was also great progress in medicine during this period. Al-Biruni, and Avicenna produced
books that contain descriptions of the preparation of hundred of drugs made from medicinal
plants and chemical compounds. Islamic doctors describe diseases like smallpox and measles,
and challenged classical Greek medical knowledge.

Likewise, Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Biruni and others studied optics and
mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticized Aristotle’s view of motion.

The significance of medieval Islamic science has been debated by historians. The traditionalist
view holds that it lacked innovation, and was mainly important for handing on ancient
knowledge to medieval Europe. The revisionist view holds that it constituted a scientific
revolution. Whatever the case, science flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean
and further afield, for several centuries, in a wide range of institutions.

Science and Technology in Ancient China

Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant scientific innovations, findings and
technological advances across various scientific disciplines including the natural sciences,
engineering, medicine, military technology, mathematics, geology and astronomy.

Ancient China gave the world the Four Great Inventions that include the compass, gunpowder,
papermaking and printing. These were considered as among the most important technological
advances and were only known to Europe

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1000 years later or during the end of the Middle ages. These four inventions had a profound
impact on the development of civilization throughout the world. However, some modern Chinese
scholars have opined that other Chinese inventions were perhaps more sophisticated and had a
greater impact on Chinese civilization – the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the
technological interaction between East and West.

As stated by Karl Marx, "Gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press were the three great
inventions which ushered in bourgeois society. Gunpowder blew up the knightly class, the
compass discovered the world market and found the colonies, and the printing press was the
instrument of Protestantism and the regeneration of science in general;; the most powerful lever
for creating the intellectual prerequisites.”

The Renaissance (1300 AD – 1600AD)

The 14th century was the beginning of the cultural movement of the Renaissance, which was
considered by many as the Golden Age of Science. During the Renaissance period,
great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics,
anatomy, manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was
accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of printing
democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas.

Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate the early phase of the
Scientific Revolution, 1450–1630. More recently, Peter Dear has argued for a two-phase model of
early modern science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the
restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients;; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th
century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.

But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. There were no new
developments in physics or astronomy, and the reverence for classical sources further enshrined
the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Renaissance philosophy lost much of its
rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. At
the same time, Renaissance humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate
spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. Science would only be revived
later, with such figures as Copernicus, Gerolamo Cardano, Francis Bacon, and Descartes.

The most important technological advance of all in this period was the development of printing,
with movable metal type, about the mid-15th century in Germany. Johannes Gutenberg is usually
called its inventor, but in fact many people and many steps were involved. Block printing on
wood came to the West

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from China between 1250 and 1350, papermaking came from China by way of the Arabs to
12th-century Spain, whereas the Flemish technique of oil painting was the origin of the new
printers’ ink. Three men of Mainz—Gutenberg and his contemporaries Johann Fust and Peter
Schö ffer—seem to have taken the final steps, casting metal type and locking it into a wooden
press. The invention spread like the wind, reaching Italy by 1467, Hungary and Poland in the
1470s, and Scandinavia by 1483. By 1500 the presses of Europe had produced some six million
books. Without the printing press it is impossible to conceive that the Reformation would have
ever been more than a monkish quarrel or that the rise of a new science, which was a
cooperative effort of an international community, would have occurred at all. In short, the
development of printing amounted to a communications revolution of the order of the invention
of writing;; and, like that prehistoric discovery, it transformed the conditions of life. The
communications revolution immeasurably enhanced human opportunities for enlightenment
and pleasure on one hand and created previously undreamed-of possibilities for manipulation
and control on the other. The consideration of such contradictory effects may guard us against a
ready acceptance of triumphalist conceptions of the Renaissance or of historical change in
general.

The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.)

The Enlightenment Period or the Age of Reason was characterized by radical reorientation in
science, which emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith. This period
produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions.
The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and
respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline. The Enlightenment
ultimately gave way to 19th-century Romanticism.

The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century precursors included the key natural philosophers
of the Scientific Revolution, including Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to 1680s England, where in the span of three years Isaac
Newton published his “Principia Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his “Essay Concerning
Human Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the scientific, mathematical and
philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major advances.

In this era dedicated to human progress, the advancement of the natural sciences is regarded as
the main exemplification of, and fuel for, such progress. Isaac Newton’s epochal accomplishment
in his Principia Mathematica consists in the comprehension of a diversity of physical phenomena
– in particular the motions of heavenly bodies, together with the motions of sublunary bodies –
in few relatively simple, universally applicable, mathematical laws, was a great stimulus to the
intellectual activity of the eighteenth century and served as a model and inspiration for the
researches of a number of Enlightenment thinkers. Newton’s

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system strongly encourages the Enlightenment conception of nature as an orderly domain
governed by strict mathematical-dynamical laws and the conception of ourselves as capable of
knowing those laws and of plumbing the secrets of nature through the exercise of our unaided
faculties. – The conception of nature, and of how we know it, changes significantly with the rise
of modern science. It belongs centrally to the agenda of Enlightenment philosophy to contribute
to the new knowledge of nature, and to provide a metaphysical framework within which to place
and interpret this new knowledge.

Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1840)

The rise of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were closely connected. It is difficult to
show any direct effect of scientific discoveries upon the rise of the textile or even the
metallurgical industry in Great Britain, the home of the Industrial Revolution, but there certainly
was a similarity in attitude to be found in science and nascent industry. Close observation and
careful generalization leading to practical utilization were characteristic of both industrialists
and experimentalists alike in the 18th century.

What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that careful observation and
experimentation might improve industrial production significantly. The science of metallurgy
permitted the tailoring of alloy steels to industrial specifications, the science of chemistry
permitted the creation of new substances, like the aniline dyes, of fundamental industrial
importance, and that electricity and magnetism were harnessed in the electric dynamo and
motor. Until that period science probably profited more from industry than the other way
around. It was the steam engine that posed the problems that led, by way of a search for a theory
of steam power, to the creation of thermodynamics. Most importantly, as industry required ever
more complicated and intricate machinery, the machine tool industry developed to provide it
and, in the process, made possible the construction of ever more delicate and refined
instruments for science. As science turned from the everyday world to the worlds of atoms and
molecules, electric currents and magnetic fields, microbes and viruses, and nebulae and galaxies,
instruments increasingly provided the sole contact with phenomena. A large refracting telescope
driven by intricate clockwork to observe nebulae was as much a product of 19th-century heavy
industry as were the steam locomotive and the steamship.

The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on the development of modern
science. The prospect of applying science to the problems of industry served to stimulate public
support for science. Governments, in varying degrees and at different rates, began supporting
science even more directly, by making financial grants to scientists, by founding research
institutes, and by bestowing honors and official posts on great scientists. By the end of the 19th
century the natural philosopher following his private interests had given way to the professional
scientist with a public role.

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The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, and
cultural. The technological changes included the following: (1) the use of new basic materials,
chiefly iron and steel, (2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive
power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion
engine, (3) the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that
permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy, (4) a new
organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased division of labor
and specialization of function, (5) important developments in transportation and
communication, including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph,
and radio, and (6) the increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes
made possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production of
manufactured goods.

20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age

The 20th century was an important century in the history of the sciences. It generated entirely
novel insights in all areas of research – often thanks to the introduction of novel research
methods – and it established an intimate connection between science and technology. With this
connection, science is dealing now with the complexity of the real world. The scientific legacy of
the 20th Century gave proof of the revolutionary changes in many areas of the sciences – in
particular, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences and earth and environmental
sciences – and how they contributed to these changes.

The epistemological and methodological questions as well as the interdisciplinary aspects

become ever more important in scientific research. The common denominator of the sciences is
the notion of discovery, and discovery is an organised mode of observing nature. Twentieth
century cosmology greatly improved our knowledge of the place that man and his planet occupy
in the universe. The “wonder” that Plato and Aristotle put at the origin of thought, today
extends to science itself. Questions now arise on the origin and on the whole, its history and its
laws.

The start of the 20th century was strongly marked by Einstein’s formulation of the theory of
relativity (1905) including the unifying concept of energy related to mass and the speed of light:
E = mc2 . He made many more contributions, notably to statistical mechanics, and he provided a
great inspiring influence for many other physicists.

In the second half of the 20th century several branches of science continued to make great
progress and we here list physics, chemistry, biology, geology and astronomy. For example, there
was the development of the semi-conductor

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(transistor), followed by developments in nanotechnology that led to great advances in
information technology. In nuclear physics the discovery of sub-atomic particles provided a
great leap forward.

Modern physics grew in the 20th into a primary discipline contributing to all today’s basic
natural sciences, astronomy, chemistry and biology. Although it took a hundred years since
Clausius’s time for it to be fully recognized that all biological processes have also to obey the
laws of thermodynamics, the border between the origin of the living and the non- living worlds
has now at last been blurred. The year 1953 was an important landmark for biology with the
description by Crick and Watson of the structure of DNA, the carrier of genetic information
(Rosch, 2014).

Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of matter and we are well on the
way to an ever more consistent and unitary understanding of the entire structure of natural
reality, which we discover as being made up not only of matter and energy but also of
information and forms. The latest developments in astrophysics are also particularly surprising:
they further confirm the great unity of physics that manifests itself clearly at each new stage of
the understanding of reality.

Biology too, with the discovery of DNA and the development of genetics, allows us to penetrate
the fundamental processes of life and to intervene in the gene pool of certain organisms by
imitating some of these natural mechanisms. Information technology and the digital processing
of information have transformed our lifestyle and our way of communicating in the space of very
few decades. The 20th century has seen medicine find a cure for many life-threatening diseases
and the beginning of organ transplants.

It is impossible to list the many other discoveries and results that have broadened our
knowledge and influenced our world outlook: from progress in computational logic to the
chemistry of materials, from the neurosciences to robotics. Scientific research not only gives
expression to the strength of rationality in explaining the world and the way in which this is
done. The application of scientific knowledge can induce changes of environmental and thus
living conditions. It is these aspects, the interrelations between scientific progress and social
development, which together with insights into the epistemological structure and the ethical
implications of science play an important role in the life and the work of scientists.

Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution

The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a way of describing the blurring of boundaries between the
physical, digital, and biological worlds. It’s a fusion of advances in artificial intelligence (AI),
robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D printing, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and
other technologies. It’s the collective force behind many products and services that are fast
becoming

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indispensable to modern life. Think GPS systems that suggest the fastest route to a destination,
voice-activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, personalized Netflix recommendations,
and Facebook’s ability to recognize your face and tag you in a friend’s photo
(https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2018/12/what- is-the- fourth-industrial-revolution--
4IR.html).

As a result of this perfect storm of technologies, the Fourth Industrial Revolution is paving the
way for transformative changes in the way we live and radically disrupting almost every
business sector. It’s all happening at an unprecedented, whirlwind pace.

The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution is to focus on the technologies
driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can “think” like humans —
recognizing complex patterns, processing information, drawing conclusions, and making
recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from spotting patterns in huge piles of unstructured
data to powering the autocorrect on your phone.

New computational technologies are making computers smarter. They enable computers to
process vast amounts of data faster than ever before, while the advent of the “cloud” has allowed
businesses to safely store and access their information from anywhere with internet access, at
any time. Quantum computing technologies now in development will eventually make
computers millions of times more powerful. These computers will have the potential to
supercharge AI, create highly complex data models in seconds, and speed up the discovery of
new materials.

Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset) that simulate the
real world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical worlds. Examples include
L’Oréal’s makeup app, which allows users to digitally experiment with makeup products before
buying them, and the Google Translate phone app, which allows users to scan and instantly
translate street signs, menus, and other text.

Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new technologies and
products for a range of uses, including developing new pharmaceuticals and materials, more
efficient industrial manufacturing processes, and cleaner, more efficient energy sources.
Researchers in Stockholm, for example, are working on what is being touted as the strongest
biomaterial ever produced.

Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal and commercial use.
While we’re yet to see robot assistants in every home, technological advances have made robots
increasingly complex and sophisticated. They are used in fields as wide-ranging as
manufacturing, health and safety, and human assistance.

3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with less tooling, at a
lower cost, and faster than via traditional processes. Plus, designs can be customized to ensure a
perfect fit.

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Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and biomaterials, promise to shake up
sectors including manufacturing, renewable energy, construction, and healthcare.

The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that monitor users’
physical condition to cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels — being connected to the
internet and identifiable by other devices. A big plus for businesses is that they can collect
customer data from constantly connected products, allowing them to better gauge how
customers use products and tailor marketing campaigns accordingly. There are also many
industrial applications, such as farmers putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes
and inform decisions such as when to fertilize.

Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market sector, spurred by the
falling cost of renewable energy technologies and improvements in battery storage capacity.

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 C. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines

The current state of science and technology in the country can be traced back to its historical
development and the latent events that helped shape it since the pre-colonial period to
contemporary time. What we have or lack today in terms of science and technology is very much
an effect of the government policies that had been enacted by past public officials in trying to
develop a technological society that is responsive to the needs of time.

Pre-Spanish Era.

There is not much written about the Philippines during pre-colonial time but analysis from
archeological artifacts revealed that the first inhabitants in the archipelago who settled in
Palawan and Batangas around 40 000 years ago have made simple tools or weapons of stone
which eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones. This very
primitive technology was brought by primal needs of survival by hunting wild animals and
gathering fruits and vegetables in the forest. They learned that by polishing hard stones, they can
develop sharp objects that are useful in their day to day activities. From this early, we can see
that technology was developed because of a great necessity.

Still on its primitive state, the first inhabitants in the country are learning what can be harnessed
from the environment. They have come to understand that when clay is mixed with 2 water and
then shaped into something before sun drying, it hardens to an object that can also be useful to
them. And because clay is moldable, it can be shaped into various objects.

As the early Filipinos flourished, they have learned how to extract, smelt and refine metals like
copper, gold, bronze and iron from nature and consequently fashion them into tools and
implements. At this point, the inhabitants of the country are showing a deeper understanding of
their nature because they were able to obtain valuable resources from nature.
As the inhabitants shifted from wandering from one place to another and learned to settle in
areas near the water source, they also learned how to weave cotton, engaged themselves in
agriculture and are knowledgeable on building boats for coastal trade.

From the above mentioned facts, it can be concluded that primitive Filipinos are practicing
science and technology in their everyday lives. The ancient crafts of stone carving, pottery and
smelting of metals involves a lot of science, which is understanding the nature of matter
involved. The ingenuity of the Ifugaos in building the Banaue Rice Terraces The smelting of
metals exhibited the primitive Filipino’s knowledge on the composition of alloy and the optimum
temperature that will produce the metal with acceptable tensile strength. All in all, the primitive
Filipinos were living in perfect harmony with nature and they obtain from it what is just needed
in their everyday life through a very simple science of understanding how mother nature
operates

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Spanish Colonial Era.

As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science and technology in the country can
be traced back to the Spanish regime because they established schools, hospitals and started
scientific research that had important consequences in the development of the country. These
schools, which are mostly run by Spanish friars, formed the first Filipino professionals. The The 3
highest institution of learning during this time was the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo
Tomas.

But the very strict hold of the church among citizens and its intervention and meddling to the
government propelled by fear of intellectual awakening among Filipinos have greatly hindered
the progress of these professionals to further enhance their knowledge, conduct scientific
investigations and contribute to the advancement of society. But a few of persistent Filipino
scientists succeeded by educating themselves abroad. One notable example of course is our
national hero, the great Dr. Jose P. Rizal. Dr. Jose Rizal is the epitome of the Renaissance man in
the Philippine context. He is a scientist, a doctor, an engineer (he designed and built a water
system in Dapitan), a journalist, a novelist, an urban planner and a hero. Being a doctor and
scientist, he had extensive knowledge on medicine and was able to operate his mother’s blinding
eye. When he was deported in Dapitan, his knowledge on science and engineering was translated
into technology by creating a water system that improved the sanitation of households in the
area. Dr. Jose

Dr. Jose Rizal was a brilliant man and his life stood out among his contemporaries. But it cannot
be said that there is no contribution to science and technology among the Filipino men and
women during the Spanish era. The charity hospitals became the breeding ground for scientific
researches on pharmacy and medicine, with great focus on problems of infectious diseases, their
causes and possible remedies. And in 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was
created and whose functions were to conduct biochemical analyses for public health and to
undertake specimen examinations for clinical and medico-legal cases. Its publication, probably
the first scientific journal in the country was titled Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas
showed the studies undertaken during that time.

As the colonization of the Spaniards lengthened, they began to exploit the natural resources of
the country through agriculture, mining of metals and minerals and establishing various kinds of
industries to further promote economic growth. As such, scientific research on these fields were
encouraged by the government. By the nineteenth century, Manila has become a cosmopolitan
center and modern amenities were introduced to the city. However, little is known about the
accomplishments of scientific bodies commissioned by the Spanish government during this time.
Because of limited scientific research and its consequent translation to technology during the
Spanish regime, none of the industries prosper. The Philippines had evolved into a primary
agricultural exporting economy, and this is not because of the researches undertaken on

15
this field, but was largely because of the influx of foreign capital and technology which brought
modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production.

American Period

If the development in science and technology was very slow during the Spanish regime, the
Philippines saw a rapid growth during the American occupation and was made possible by the
government’s extensive public education system from elementary to tertiary schools. The
establishment of various public tertiary schools like the Philippine Normal School and University
of the Philippines provided the needs for professionally trained Filipinos in building the
government’s organization and programs. The growth and application of science were still
concentrated on the health sector in the form of biochemical analyses in hospitals. The
government supported basic and applied research in the medical, agricultural and related
sciences. The University of the Philippines Los Bañ os opened the College of Agriculture in 1909
while the University of the Philippines – Diliman opened the Colleges of Arts, Engineering and
Veterinary Medicine in 1910. The College of Medicine was opened four years later.

During this time, there were already quite a number of qualified Filipino physicians who held
teaching positions in the College of Medicine, whereas most of the early instructors and
professors in other colleges such as in the sciences and engineering were Americans and
foreigners. Capacity building programs that include sending qualified Filipinos abroad for
advanced training were conducted to eventually fill up the teaching positions in Philippine
universities. Moreover, the American colonial government sent Filipino youths to be educated as
teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers in American colleges to further capacitate the
Filipinos in various fields.

However, there was difficulty in recruiting students for science and technology courses like
veterinary medicine, engineering, agriculture, applied sciences and industrial-vocational
courses. The enrollment in these courses were dismal that the government had to offer
scholarships to attract students. The unpopularity of these courses stemmed from the Filipinos’
disdain toward manual work that developed from the 400 years under Spanish colonization. The
Filipinos then prefer prestigious professions at that time like priesthood, law and medicine.

The government provided more support for the development of science and created the Bureau
of Government Laboratories in and was later changed to Bureau of Science. It was composed of a
biological laboratory, chemical laboratory, serum laboratory for the production of virus vaccine,
serums and prophylactics, and a library. The bureau was initially managed by American senior
scientists but as more Filipinos were trained and acquire the necessary knowledge and skills,
they eventually took over their positions. The Bureau of Science served as the primary training
ground for Filipino scientists and paved the way for pioneering scientific research, most
especially on the study of various tropical diseases that were prevalent during those times like
leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria and beri-beri. Another great contribution of
the Bureau of Science to the development of science and technology in the country was the
publication of the

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Philippine Journal of Science. This scientific journal published researches done in local
laboratories and reported global scientific developments that had relevance to the Philippine
society. The Bureau of Science became the primary research center of the Philippines until
World War II. Lastly, on December 8, 1933, the National Research Council of the Philippines was
established.

Commonwealth Period

When the Americans granted independence and the Commonwealth government was
established, the Filipinos were busy in working towards economic reliance but acknowledge the
importance and vital role of science and technology for the economic development of the
country by declaring that “The State shall promote scientific research and invention…” The
short-lived Commonwealth Government was succeeded by the Japanese occupation when the
Pacific war broke out in 1941. The prevailing situations during the time of Commonwealth
period to the Japanese regime had made developments in science and technology practically
impossible. This is also true when World War II ended and left Manila, the country’s capital, in
ruins. The government had to rebuild again and normalize the operations in the whole country.

Science and Technology since Independence

In 1946 the Bureau of Science was replaced by the Institute of Science and was placed under the
Office of the President of the Philippines. However, the agency faced lack of financial support
from the government and experienced planning and coordination problems. In a report by the
US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950, there is a lack of basic information which were
necessities to the country's industries, lack of support of experimental work and minimal budget
for scientific research and low salaries of scientists employed by the government. In 1958,
during the regime of President Carlos
P. Garcia, the Philippine Congress passed the Science Act of 1958 which established the National
Science Development Board (NSDB).

The Philippine government focused on science and technology institutional capacity-building

which were undertaken by establishing infrastructure-support facilities such as new research
agencies and development trainings. However good these projects were, it produced
insignificant effects because of lack of coordination and planning, specifically technology
planning, between concerned agencies which hindered them from performing their assigned
functions effectively. This was aptly illustrated in the unplanned activities of the researchers
within the agencies. Most areas of research were naively left to the discretion of the researchers
under the assumption that they were working for the interests of the country. They were
instructed to look for technologies and scientific studies with good commercialization potential.
Without clear research policy guidelines, researches were done for their own sake, leaving to
chance the commercialization of the results.

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Likewise, during this time, rebuilding the country involved establishing more state funded
manual and trading schools which would eventually become the current state universities and
colleges. The trade schools produced craftsmen, tradesmen and technicians that helped in
shaping a more technological Philippines while still being an agricultural based nation.
Eventually, when these trade schools were elevated to college and university status, they
produced much of the country’s professionals, although there was a great disparity on the low
proportion of those in agriculture, medical and natural sciences with those from teacher training
and commerce/business administration courses which had higher number of graduates. The
increase in the number of graduates led to the rise of professional organizations of scientists and
engineers. These organizations were formed to promote professional interests and create and
monitor the standards of practice.

As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in the education and training of
scientists and engineers since independence in 1946. This is in part due to the conservative nature
of self-regulation by the professional associations. Because of specialized training, vertical
organizations by disciplines and lack of liaison between professions, professional associations have
been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science, technology and society and
the relevance of their training to Philippine conditions.

Science and Technology in the 1960s to 1990s

During these years, the government gave greater importance to science and technology. The
government declared in Section 9(1) of the 1973 Philippine Constitution that the “advancement
of science and technology shall have priority in the national development.”

On April 6, 1968, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-hectare land in Bicutan, Taguig as
the site of the Philippine Science Community. Then in 1969, the government provided funds to
private universities to encourage them to conduct research and create courses in science and
technology. The government also conducted seminars for public and private high school and
college science teachers, training programs and scholarships for graduate and undergraduate
science scholars, and workshops on fisheries and oceanography.

In the 1970s, focus on science and technology was given to applied research and the main
objective was to generate products and processes that were supposed to have a greater
beneficial impact to the society. Relative to this, several research institutes were established
under the National Science Development Board (NSDB) which includes the Philippine Coconut
Research Institute and Philippine Textile Research Institute. Moreover, the Philippine Atomic
Energy Commission, another agency under NSDB, explored the uses of atomic energy for
economic development. To prepare the pool of scientists who will work on Philippine Atomic
Commission, Pres. Marcos assisted 107

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institutions in undertaking nuclear energy work by sending scientists abroad to study nuclear
science and technology, and providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers and
technicians. Then in 1972, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 4, the National Grains Authority
was created and it was tasked to improve the rice and corn industry and thereby help in the
economic development of the country. This was followed by the creation of Philippine Council
for Agricultural Research to support the progressive development of agriculture, forestry, and
fisheries in the country. The Marcos administration also established the Philippine Atmospheric
Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of
National Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific knowledge to
ensure the safety of the people through Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972. On the following
year, the Philippine National Oil Company was created by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 334,
s. 1973, to promote industrial and economic development through effective and efficient use of
energy sources. To strengthen the scientific culture in the country, the National Academy of
Science and Technology was established under Presidential Decree No. 1003-A, s. 1976. The
National Academy of Science and Technology was composed of scientists with “innovative
achievement in the basic and applied sciences” who will serve as the reservoir of scientific and
technological expertise for the country.

In the 1980s, science and technology was still focused on applied research. In 1982, NSDB was
further reorganized into a National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) composed of four
research and development Councils;; Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research
and Development (PCARRD);; Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research Development
(PCIERD);; Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD) and the National
Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP). NSTA has also eight research and development
institutes and support agencies under it. These are actually the former organic and attached
agencies of NSDB which have themselves been reorganized.

The expanding number of science agencies has given rise to a demand for high calibre scientists
and engineers to undertake research and staff universities and colleges. Hence, measures have
also been taken towards the improvement of the country’s science and manpower. In March
1983, Executive Order No. 889 was issued by the President which provided for the
establishment of a national network of centers of excellence in basic sciences. As a consequence,
six new institutes were created: The National Institutes of Physics, Geological Sciences, Natural
Sciences Research, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematical Sciences. Related to this efforts was the
establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service by Presidential Decree No. 901 on
19 July 1983. This is designed to attract more qualified scientists to work in government and
encourage young people to pursue science degrees and careers.

In 1986, under the Aquino administration, the National Science and Technology Authority was
replaced by the Department of Science and Technology, giving science and technology a
representation in the cabinet. Under the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan for the
years 1987-1992, science and technology's role in economic recovery and sustained economic
growth was highlighted. In this period, science and

19
technology was one of the top three priorities of the government towards economic recovery.

With the agency's elevation to full cabinet stature by virtue of Executive Order 128 signed on 30
January 1987, the functions and responsibilities of DOST expanded correspondingly to include
the following: (1) Pursue the declared state policy of supporting local scientific and technological
effort;; (2) Develop local capability to achieve technological self-reliance;; (3) Encourage greater
private sector participation in research and development. moreover, funding for the science and
technology sector was tripled from 464 million in 1986 to 1.7 billion in 1992.

The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the premiere science and technology body
in the country charged with the twin mandate of providing central direction, leadership and
coordination of all scientific and technological activities, and of formulating policies, programs
and projects to support national development. The Science and Technology Master Plan was
formulated which aimed at the modernization of the production sector, upgrading research
activities, and development of infrastructure for science and technological purposes. A Research
and Development Plan was also formulated to examine and determine which areas of research
needed attention and must be given priority. The criteria for identifying the program to be
pursued were, development of local materials, probability of success, potential of product in the
export market, and the its strategic nature. The grants for the research and development
programs was included in the Omnibus Investment Law.

During President Fidel Ramos’s term, there was a significant increase in personnel specializing
in the science and technology field. In 1998, there was an estimated 3,000 competent scientists
and engineers in the Philippines. Adding to the increase of scientists would be the result of the
two newly built Philippine Science High Schools in Visayas and Mindanao which promotes
further development of young kids through advance S&T curriculum. The government provided
3,500 scholarships for students who were taking up professions related to S&T. Priority for S&T
personnel increased when Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No.
8439) was established. The award was published in order to give incentives and rewards for
people who have been influential in the field of S&T.

Still under the Ramos administration, DOST established the “Science and Technology Agenda for
National Development (STAND)”, a program that was significant to the field of S&T. It identified
seven export products, 11 domestic needs, three other supporting industries, and the coconut
industry as priority investment areas. The seven identified export products were computer
software;; fashion accessories;; gifts, toys, and houseware;; marine products;; metal
fabrications;; furniture;; and dried fruits. The domestic needs identified were food, housing,
health, clothing, transportation, communication, disaster mitigation, defense, environment,
manpower development, and energy. Three additional support industries were included in the
list of priority sectors, namely, packaging, chemicals, and metals because of their linkages with
the above sectors.

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In the Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo administration, numerous laws and projects were implemented
which concerns both the environment and science to push technology as a tool to increase the
country’s economic level. This is to help increase the productivity from Science, Technology and
Innovations (STI) and help benefit the poor people. Moreover, the term “Filipinnovation” was the
coined term used in helping the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia.

The STI was developed further by strengthening the schools and education system such as the
Philippine Science High School (PSHS), which focuses in science, technology and mathematics in
their curriculum. This helps schools produce get more involve in this sector. Private sectors were
also encouraged to participate in developing the schools through organizing events and
sponsorships. Future Filipino scientists and innovators can be produced through this system.

Recently, the Philippines ranked 73rd out of 128 economies in terms of Science and Technology
and Innovation (STI) index, citing the country’s strength in research and commercialization of
STI ideas (DOST, 2018). However, a study by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies
highlighted the weak ties between innovation-driven firms and the government, and it also
identified the country’s low expenditure in research and development (R&D). This is the reason
the government is now extending all its efforts to reach out with the private sector, explaining
that STI plays an important role in economic and social progress and is a key driver for a long- -
term growth of an economy. Technology adoption allows a country’s firms and citizens to benefit
from innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch up and even leap-frog
obsolete technologies. Technology adoption, the official said, allows a country’s firms and
citizens to benefit from innovations created in other countries, and allows it to catch up and even
leap-frog obsolete technologies.

Hopes in Philippine Science and Technology

Despite the many inadequacies, from funding to human capital, there are some science and
technology-intensive research and capacity-building projects which resulted in products which
are currently being used successfully and benefits the society.

One of these is the micro-satellite. In April 2016, the country launched into space its first micro--
satellite called Diwata-1. It was designed, developed and assembled by Filipino researchers and
engineers under the guidance of Japanese experts. The Diwata (deity in English) satellite
provides real-time, high-resolution and multi-color infrared images for various applications,
including meteorological imaging, crop and ocean productivity measurement and high--
resolution imaging of natural and man-made features. It enables a more precise estimate of the
country’s agricultural production, provides images of watersheds and floodplains for a better
understanding of water available for irrigation, power and domestic consumption. The satellite
also provides accurate information on any disturbance and degradation of forest and upland
areas.

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The country also has the Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (NOAH), which uses the
Lidar (light detection and ranging) technology. Project NOAH was initiated in June 2012 to help
manage risks associated with natural hazards and disasters. The project developed hydromet
sensors and high-resolution geo-hazard maps, which were generated by light detection and
ranging technology for flood modeling. Noah helps the government in providing timely warning
with a lead time of at least six hours in the wake of impending floods. The country is now
training the Cambodians on this technology, as part of the partnerships among ASEAN countries,
just like in the case of Japan which assisted the country’s scientists and engineers in building its
first micro-satellite.

Another hope lies in the so-called Intelligent Operation Center Platform. Established through a
collaboration between the local government of Davao City and IBM Philippines Inc., the center
resulted in the creation of a dashboard that allows authorized government agencies, such as
police, fire and anti-terrorism task force, to use analytics software for monitoring events and
operations in real time.

Current Initiatives in Science and Technology in the Country

DOST, in cooperation with HEIs and research institutions, established advanced facilities that
seek to spur R&D activities and provide MSMEs access to testing services needed to increase
their productivity and competitive advantage.

One is the Advanced Device and Materials Testing Laboratories. The center houses advanced
equipment for failure analysis and materials characterization to address advanced analytical
needs for quality control, materials identification and R&D. Closely related to this facility is the
Electronics Products Development Center, used to design, develop and test hardware and
software for electronic products.

There are also high-performance computing facilities that perform tests and run
computationally intensive applications for numerical weather prediction, climate modeling, as
well as analytics and data modeling and archiving.

The Philippines could also boast of its Genome Center, a core facility that combines basic and
applied research for the development of health diagnostics, therapeutics, DNA forensics and
preventive products, and improved crop varieties.

The country also has drug-discovery facilities, which address the requirements for producing
high-quality and globally acceptable drug candidates. She said the Philippines also has
nanotechnology centers, which provide technical services and enabling environment for
interdisciplinary and collaborative R&D in various nanotechnology applications.

There are also radiation processing facilities that are used to degrade, graft, or crosslink
polymers, monomers, or chemical compounds for industrial, agricultural, environmental and
medical applications. The Philippines could also boast of its Die and

22
Mold Solutions Center, which enhances the competitiveness of the local tool and die sector
through the localization of currently imported dies and molds.

These are reflections that we are advancing, albeit slowly, to a culture that embraces STI as a
sure path to growth.

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D. Paradigm Shift

What is a paradigm?

A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the commonly accepted views about a
subject, conventions about what direction research should take and how it should be performed.

The philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes “the practices that define a
scientific discipline at a certain point in time." Paradigms contain all the distinct, established
patterns, theories, common methods and standards that allow us to recognize an experimental
result as belonging to a field or not.

Science proceeds by accumulating support for hypotheses which in time become models and
theories. But those models and theories themselves exist within a larger theoretical framework.
The vocabulary and concepts in Newton’s three laws or the central dogma in biology are
examples of scientific “open resources" that scientists have adopted and which now form part of
the scientific paradigm.

Paradigms are historically and culturally bound. For example, a modern Chinese medical
researcher with a background in eastern medicine, will operate within a different paradigm than
a western doctor from the 1800s.

A paradigm dictates:

what is observed and measured

the questions we ask about those observations
how the questions are formulated how the results are interpreted how research is carried
out
what equipment is appropriate

Many students who opt to study science do so with the belief that they are undertaking the most
rational path to learning about objective reality. But science, much like any other discipline, is
subject to ideological idiosyncrasies, preconceptions and hidden assumptions.

In fact, Kuhn strongly suggested that research in a deeply entrenched paradigm invariably ends
up reinforcing that paradigm, since anything that contradicts it is ignored or else pressed
through the preset methods until it conforms to already established dogma.

The body of pre-existing evidence in a field conditions and shapes the collection and
interpretation of all subsequent evidence. The certainty that the current paradigm is reality itself
is precisely what makes it so difficult to accept alternatives.

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What is a Paradigm Shift?

"The successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual
developmental pattern of mature science" - Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

Figure 1 Paradigm shift. Source: https://thesaurus.plus/

The shift from one paradigm to another occurs when enough anomalies to the current paradigm
build up, causing scientists to question the foundational principles upon which their worldview
rests. During “normal science,” when the current paradigm is in place, these anomalies are
discounted as acceptable levels of error. However, during “revolutionary science” or a paradigm
shift, these anomalies become the center of attention as scientists attempt to construct a new
world view that incorporates and explains them. This period of intense focus on explaining
anomalies and developing a new paradigm is considered “revolutionary science,” and it is
sparked by a “crisis” where the old paradigm fails explain key anomalies or outliers. Once a new
paradigm is developed, however, there is a return to “normal science” under the new worldview.

Figure 2 Paradigm Shift

Source: https://edtosavetheworld.com

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An Example of a Paradigm Shift

Many physicists in the 19th century were convinced that the Newtonian
paradigm that had reigned for 200 years was the pinnacle of discovery and that
scientific progress was more or less a question of refinement. When Einstein
published his theories on General Relativity, it was not just another idea that
could fit comfortably into the existing paradigm. Instead, Newtonian Physics
itself was relegated to being a special subclass of the greater paradigm ushered
in by General Relativity. Newton’s three laws are still faithfully taught in schools,
however we now operate within a paradigm that puts those laws into a much
broader context.

Interestingly, Kuhn’s theory itself was something of a game changer at the time,
since scientists were not accustomed to thinking of what they were doing in such
metaphysical terms. Kuhn’s theories are today understood to be part of a greater
paradigm shift in the social sciences, and have also been modified since their
original publication.

Kuhn later conceded that the process of scientific advancement might be more
gradual. For example, Relativity did not completely prove Newton wrong, but
merely reframed his theory. Even the Copernican revolution was a little more
gradual in replacing Ptolemy's beliefs.

The concept of paradigm is closely related to the Platonic and Aristotelian views
of knowledge. Aristotle believed that knowledge could only be based upon what
is already known, the basis of the scientific method. Plato believed that
knowledge should be judged by what something could become, the end result, or
final purpose. Plato's philosophy is more like the intuitive leaps that cause
scientific revolution;; Aristotle's the patient gathering of data.

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