If you have a molecule that has a lot of positive charge on

CHEMISTRY one side and negative charge on the other you can get
what we call a polar molecule (have a permanent dipole)
it always has partial positive and always partial negative.
CHEMICAL BONDING – the outer shell of many atoms
holds 8 electrons, hydrogen being an exception. Atoms
that have an outer shell containing eight electrons are
▪ Dipole-dipole interaction
considered chemically stable. We often say they fulfill
➢ This is a strong interaction we can
what is called the Octet rule. When atoms combine to
have within a molecule with another
form compounds, they can give up, accept, or share
molecule.
electrons in order to assemble an octet of electrons in
➢ Ion attracted to a polar molecule
their outer shells.
▪ Hydrogen bonding
COVALENT BOND - forms when atoms share electrons in ➢ This is stronger than dipole-dipole.
order to satisfy the octet rule. Hydrogen being the partial positive
part of this molecule is covalently
For example, a carbon atom holds four electrons in its bonded by Fluorine, Oxygen, and
outer shell, but it would be much more stable with 8. To Nitrogen.
gain the additional four electrons, carbon can share with ➢ Hydrogen in a polar molecule is
other atoms, and thereby have a completed outer shell. attracted to an atom involved in a
If one carbon and four hydrogen atoms come together polar bond.
and share their electrons, carbon achieves an octet of ▪ Dispersion forces (non-polar forces)/ London
electrons. Note that each hydrogen in this compound dispersion forces - The London dispersion force
achieves two electrons in its outer shell. This is the stable is the weakest intermolecular force. The
configuration of the first electron shell. London dispersion force is a temporary
attractive force that results when the electrons
IONIC BOND – forms when atoms are held together by in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that
the attraction between opposite charges. The reaction make the atoms form temporary dipoles.
between sodium and chlorine is an example of how an
ionic bond is formed. Since sodium has only one electron INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
in its third shell it has the tendency to give up that
electron. Once it does, the remaining outer shell contains ▪ DIPOLE INTERACTION – polar molecules attracted to
8 electrons. This loss of an electron gives sodium a slightly each other.
positive charge. When chlorine gains an electron, it ▪ DISPERSION FORCES – motion of electrons causes
becomes slightly negative. attraction.
▪ VAN DER WAALS INTERACTION occurs when
The charge sodium and chlorine atoms are called ions. adjacent atoms come close enough that their outer
Ions of opposite charges attract each other and form ionic electron clouds just barely touch.
bonds. In this case, the attraction of sodium and chlorine
forms a molecule called sodium chloride, or table salt. DIPOLE INTERACTION

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES - are the forces in between ▪ ION-DIPOLE FORCES - ion attracted to the polar
molecules. In particular, we are talking about the molecule.
attractive forces. The attractive forces of all molecules ▪ ION-INDUCED DIPOLE INTERACTION – The presence
really end up governing all physical properties (boiling of an ion induces an attractive dipole.
point, melting point, viscosity, surface tension, etc.) it is ▪ DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTION – polar molecules
governed by how strong these molecules are bonded attracted to each other.
towards each other. It can also affect how chemicals react.
A special case of dipole-dipole interaction is a
HYDROGEN BOND hydrogen in a polar molecule is
THE THREE BASIC INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
attracted to an atom involved in a polar bond.
The more negative it is the more positive, and the
DISPERSION FORCES
stronger the force.
“default” interaction between chemical species. It
Coulombic attraction - the attraction between oppositely
involves the motion of electrons.
charged particles.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES VS INTRAMOLECULAR
Most molecules being neutral species do not have full
FORCES
positive and full negative on them that tends to be the
world of ionic molecules so we are constantly writing Intermolecular forces are bonds between two different
partial positive 𝛿+ and partial negative 𝛿−. chemical species. Various weak electrostatic attractions.

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Intramolecular forces are bonds within one molecule or
one ionic compound. Strong bonds: ionic and covalent

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 SAFETY LABORATORY TECHNIQUES:
Good ▪ Allow proper storage space for flammable and

laboratory ▪
waste materials
Provide sufficient shelves or cabinets. Do not store
chemicals, apparatus or equipment on the floor.

practice ▪ Use only equipment that is free from flaws such as

cracks, chips, and obvious defects.

(GLP) ▪

▪
Whenever applicable, lubricate before using glass
stopcocks in burettes and separatory funnels.
Use a hood when conducting a reaction that could
GOLDEN RULE IN THE LABORATORY the first and result in an explosion. Close the hood sash to
foremost concern in the laboratory is the promotion of provide a shield.
your safety, welfare, and well-being. GENERAL HAZARD SYMBOLS
SCIENCE LABORATORY – it is a room designed for ▪ Corrosive - These substances destroy
experimental work where students can validate the living tissue and equipment upon
application of scientific concepts. contact. Caution! Do not breathe
GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE – sets of carefully vapors; avoid contact with skin and
validated and approved procedure that is implemented eyes.
to assure quality and reliable result as well as safety in Ex. HCl, sodium hypochlorite, sodium hydroxide
the laboratory.

GENERAL LABORATORY RULES:

▪ Oxidizer - Oxidizing substances can
▪ No open-toed shoes or flip-flops. ignite flammable and combustible
▪ No shorts or loose-fitting clothes. material. Caution! Keep away from
▪ Use clips and hair nets to keep your hair in place. flammable, combustible, and
▪ Remove rings, watches, and pieces of jewelry spontaneously combustible materials.
before performing an experiment.
▪ Know what to do during emergency situations. Ex. hydrogen peroxide, calcium hypochlorite,
▪ Know how to read and interpret material safety ammonium nitrate.
data sheets. (MSDS).
▪ Do not eat, drink, or use tobacco products in the
laboratory.
▪ Keep Away from Food - Store away from
▪ Never work alone in the laboratory.
foodstuffs. Toxic or poisonous materials
▪ Keep lab doors closed; however, there are
are hazardous to health when inhaled,
instances wherein experimental work produces
swallowed or when they come in contact
too many fumes which may require the opening of
with the skin. Danger! Avoid contact with the
the lab doors.
human body and immediately consult a physician
▪ Hallways, corridors, and exit ways must be kept
in case of contact.
clear. Do not locate (even temporarily) laboratory
equipment or supplies in these areas.
▪ Radioactive - This symbol designates those
▪ Wear personal protective equipment, as
substances which have measurable
appropriate.
radioactivity. Caution! Avoid exposure.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE):

▪ Wear lab gowns or lab coats whenever performing ▪ harmful if swallowed. Irritating (i) to skin.
an experiment. Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect.
▪ Wear eye protective goggles Harmful (n): danger of serious damage to
▪ Do not wear contact lenses health by prolonged exposure through
▪ Prescription glasses do not count as safety inhalation and if swallowed.
goggles.
▪ Wear the right kind of gloves when handling
corrosive reagents like acids as well as hot ▪ Very toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause
containers. long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
environment.

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▪ Explosives are considered all products and
preparations, if they explode through
ignition or if they are more sensitive than
dinitrobenzene towards blows and friction
Precaution: Avoid impact, knocks, frictions, sparks,
heat, and fire.

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SAFE STORAGE OF CHEMICALS GENERAL RULES ▪ Inform professors/instructors /lab
▪ Dangerous goods must be stored under
technician about health concerns
special safety conditions to avoid health the ▪ Be cautious with your own health –
environmental disaster. allergic response to chemicals
▪ It doesn’t matter how many ▪ If on medication inform your
▪ Separate the incompatible materials professor/instructor/lab technician &
▪ If the substance has several hazard degrees, it
bring your own health aid kit if necessary
should be classified as per its highest one:
▪ Determine the locations of lab first aid
EXPLOSIVE>OXIDIZING>FLAMMABLE>TOXIC>CO kits & university clinic
RROSIVE>HARMFUL

WASTE CLASSIFICATION

▪ Waste Receptacles

GARBAGE BINS

BROKEN GLASS CONTAINER

CLEANLINESS

WORKING ATTITUDE

▪ Patience
▪ Time conscious
▪ Honesty
▪ Cleanliness & neatness
▪ Achievement driven & focussed
▪
▪ Resource Management (chemical usage,
water, electricity)
▪ Respect
▪ Diligence & Proactive
▪ Independence

HEALTH

“An ounce of prevention is better than a pound

of cure”

▪ Wear proper PPE

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LABORATORY
EQUIPMENT

6
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TYPE OF HAZARDS IN THE LABORATORY ▪ SENSITIVITY - measures how a person
reacts to the substance compared to the
PHYSICAL HAZARDS reactions of other people.
▪ Excessive noise HIERARCHY OF HAZARD CONTROL
▪ Inadequate illumination
▪ Extreme pressure 1. ANTICIPATE
▪ Poor ventilation 2. RECOGNIZE
▪ Radiation 3. EVALUATE
4. CONTROL
ERGONOMIC HAZARDS
DIFFERENT CHEMICAL HAZARD CONTROLS
▪ Manual handling
1. ELIMINATION
▪ Repetitive motion
▪ Forceful motion designing or modifying work activities or
▪ Awkward posture processes that do not require the use of
▪ Static posture chemicals.

CHEMICAL HAZARDS Example: Use of autoclave for sterilizing

instead of using sterilizing chemicals.
Chemical hazards arise from the excessive
airborne concentration of: 2. SUBSTITUTION

▪ Acids/mist use of less hazardous chemicals or a

▪ Gases chemical in a less hazardous form. A
▪ Vapors substitute chemical should not introduce
▪ Particulates new risks.
▪ Fumes Example: Use of detergent in place of
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS chlorinated solvent for cleaning

Biological hazards include: 3. ISOLATION

▪ Bacteria separating people from the chemical by

▪ Virus distance or barriers to prevent or reduce
▪ Fungi exposure.
▪ Molds Example: Use of closed systems, such as
▪ Microorganisms during processing or transfer of flammable
▪ Animals liquids.
FACTORS FOR DETERMINING CHEMICAL AND 4. ENGINEERING CONTROLS
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
physical controls that eliminate or reduce
▪ TOXICITY - measures how much the generation of chemicals, suppress or
substance is required to cause harm contain chemicals, or limit the area of
▪ ROUTE OF ENTRY contamination in the event of spills and leaks.
▪ DOSE - measures how much enters the
body 5. ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS
▪ DURATION - length of exposure
systems of work or safe work practices which
▪ INTERACTION - other substances to
help to reduce employee exposure to
which the body is exposed.
hazards Example:
▪ RESPONSE - how the body reacts to the
substances Standard operating procedures in the lab

Good housekeeping

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6. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS

PPE’s should be:

▪ properly selected for the task

▪ readily available
▪ cleaned and maintained
▪ correctly used
▪ removed before leaving the laboratory

WHAT ENGINEERING CONTROLS DO WE

HAVE IN THE CHEMISTRY LABORATORY?

EXHAUST FAN - keeps gas and vapor

concentration below exposure limit.

FUME HOOD - a suction device that encloses,

captures, or removes contaminants.

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