History of the

Philippines

The history of the Philippines dates from

the earliest hominin activity in the
archipelago at least 709,000 years ago.[1]
Homo luzonensis, a species of archaic
humans, was present on the island of
Luzon at least 67,000 years ago.[2][3] The
earliest known anatomically modern
human was from Tabon Caves in Palawan
dating about 47,000 years.[4] Negrito
groups were the first inhabitants to settle
in the prehistoric Philippines.[5] By around
3000 BC, seafaring Austronesians, who
form the majority of the current
population, migrated southward from
Taiwan.[6]

Scholars generally believe that these

ethnic and social groups eventually
developed into various settlements or
polities with varying degrees of economic
specialization, social stratification, and
political organization.[7] Some of these
settlements (mostly those located on
major river deltas) achieved such a scale
of social complexity that some scholars
believe they should be considered early
states.[8] This includes the predecessors
of modern-day population centers such as
Manila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay,
Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, Lanao,
Zamboanga and Sulu[9] as well as some
polities, such as Ma-i, whose possible
location is either Mindoro or Laguna.[10]

These polities were influenced by Islamic,

Indian, and Chinese cultures. Islam arrived
from Arabia, while Indian Hindu-
Buddhist[11] religion, language, culture,
literature and philosophy arrived through
expeditions such as the South-East Asia
campaign of Rajendra Chola I.[12] Some
polities were Sinified tributary states allied
to China. These small maritime states
flourished from the 1st millennium.[13][14]
These kingdoms traded with what are now
called China, India, Japan, Thailand,
Vietnam, and Indonesia. The remainder of
the settlements were independent
barangays allied with one of the larger
states. These small states alternated from
being part of or being influenced by larger
Asian empires like the Ming Dynasty,
Majapahit and Brunei or rebelling and
waging war against them.[15]
The first recorded visit by Europeans is
Ferdinand Magellan's expedition who
landed in Homonhon Island, now part of
Guiuan, Eastern Samar on March 17, 1521.
They lost a battle against the army of
Lapulapu, chief of Mactan, where Magellan
was killed.[16][17][18] The Spanish
Philippines began with the Pacific
expansion of New Spain and the arrival of
Miguel López de Legazpi's expedition on
February 13, 1565, from Mexico. He
established the first permanent settlement
in Cebu.[19] Much of the archipelago came
under Spanish rule, creating the first
unified political structure known as the
Philippines. Spanish colonial rule saw the
introduction of Christianity, the code of
law, and the oldest modern university in
Asia. The Philippines was ruled under the
Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain.
After this, the colony was directly
governed by Spain.

Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spain's

defeat in the Spanish–American War. The
Philippines then became a territory of the
United States. U.S. forces suppressed a
revolution led by Emilio Aguinaldo. The
United States established the Insular
Government to rule the Philippines. In
1907, the elected Philippine Assembly was
set up with popular elections. The U.S.
promised independence in the Jones
Act.[20] The Philippine Commonwealth was
established in 1935, as a 10-year interim
step prior to full independence. However,
in 1942 during World War II, Japan
occupied the Philippines. The U.S. military
overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The
Treaty of Manila in 1946 established the
independent Philippine Republic.
Timeline
Prehistory

Docking station and entrance to the Tabon Cave Complex Site in Palawan, where one of the oldest human remains was
located.

Stone tools and fossils of butchered

animal remains discovered in Rizal,
Kalinga are evidences of early hominins in
the country to as early as 709,000 years.[1]
Researchers found 57 stone tools near
rhinoceros bones bearing cut marks and
some bones smashed open, suggesting
that the early humans were after the
nutrient-rich marrow.[21] Oldest human
fossil is from the third metatarsal of the
Callao Man of Cagayan at about 67,000
years.[2][22] This and the Angono
Petroglyphs in Rizal suggest the presence
of human settlement before the arrival of
the Negritos and Austronesian speaking
people.[23][24] The Callao Man remains and
12 bones of three hominin individuals
found by subsequent excavations in Callao
Cave were later identified to belong in a
new species named Homo luzonensis.[3]
For modern humans, the Tabon Man
remains are the still oldest known at about
47,000 years.[4]
The Negritos were early settlers,[5] but
their appearance in the Philippines has not
been reliably dated.[25] They were followed
by speakers of the Malayo-Polynesian
languages, a branch of the Austronesian
language family. The first Austronesians
reached the Philippines at 3000–2200 BC,
settling the Batanes Islands and northern
Luzon. From there, they rapidly spread
downwards to the rest of the islands of the
Philippines and Southeast Asia, as well as
voyaging further east to reach the
Northern Mariana Islands by around 1500
BC.[6][26][27][28] They assimilated the earlier
Australo-Melanesian Negritos, resulting in
the modern Filipino ethnic groups that all
display various ratios of genetic admixture
between Austronesian and Negrito
groups.[29][30] Before the expansion out of
Taiwan, archaeological, linguistic and
genetic evidence had linked Austronesian
speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to
cultures such as the Hemudu, its
successor the Liangzhu[28][31] and
Dapenkeng in Neolithic
China.[32][33][34][35][36]

The most widely accepted theory of the

population of the islands is the "Out-of-
Taiwan" model that follows the
Austronesian expansion during the
Neolithic in a series of maritime
migrations originating from Taiwan that
spread to the islands of the Indo-Pacific;
ultimately reaching as far as New Zealand,
Easter Island, and Madagascar.[26][37]
Austronesians themselves originated from
the Neolithic rice-cultivating pre-
Austronesian civilizations of the Yangtze
River delta in coastal southeastern China
pre-dating the conquest of those regions
by the Han Chinese. This includes
civilizations like the Liangzhu culture,
Hemudu culture, and the Majiabang
culture.[38] It connects speakers of the
Austronesian languages in a common
linguistic and genetic lineage, including
the Taiwanese indigenous peoples,
Islander Southeast Asians, Chams,
Islander Melanesians, Micronesians,
Polynesians, and the Malagasy people.
Aside from language and genetics, they
also share common cultural markers like
multihull and outrigger boats, tattooing,
rice cultivation, wetland agriculture, teeth
blackening, jade carving, betel nut
chewing, ancestor worship, and the same
domesticated plants and animals
(including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams,
bananas, sugarcane, and
coconuts).[26][37][39]

A 2021 genetic study, which examined

representatives of 115 indigenous
communities, found evidence of at least
five independent waves of early human
migration. Negrito groups, divided
between those in Luzon and those in
Mindanao, may come from a single wave
and diverged subsequently, or through two
separate waves. This likely occurred
sometime after 46,000 years ago. Another
Negrito migration entered Mindanao
sometime after 25,000 years ago. Two
early East Asian waves were detected, one
most strongly evidenced among the
Manobo people who live in inland
Mindanao, and the other in the Sama-
Bajau and related people of the Sulu
archipelago, Zamboanga Peninsula, and
Palawan. The admixture found in the
Sama people indicates a relationship with
the Htin and Mlabri people of mainland
Southeast Asia, both peoples being
speakers of an Austroasiatic language and
reflects a similar genetic signal found in
western Indonesia. These happened
sometime after 15,000 years ago and
12,000 years ago respectively, around the
time the last glacial period was coming to
an end. Austronesians, either from
Southern China or Taiwan, were found to
have come in at least two distinct waves.
The first, occurring perhaps between
10,000 and 7,000 years ago, brought the
ancestors of indigenous groups that today
live around the Cordillera Central mountain
range. Later migrations brought other
Austronesian groups, along with
agriculture, and the languages of these
recent Austronesian migrants effectively
replaced those existing populations. In all
cases, new immigrants appear to have
mixed to some degree with existing
populations. The integration of Southeast
Asia into Indian Ocean trading networks
around 2,000 years ago also shows some
impact, with South Asian genetic signals
present within some Sama-Bajau
communities. There is also some Papuan
migration to Southeast Mindanao as
Papuan genetic signatures were detected
in the Sangil and Blaan ethnic groups.[40]

By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the

Philippine archipelago had developed into
four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal
groups, such as the Aetas, Hanunoo,
Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended
on hunter-gathering and were
concentrated in forests; warrior societies,
such as the Isneg and Kalinga who
practiced social ranking and ritualized
warfare and roamed the plains; the petty
plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera
Highlanders, who occupied the mountain
ranges of Luzon; and the harbor
principalities of the estuarine civilizations
that grew along rivers and seashores while
participating in trans-island maritime
trade.[41] It was also during the first
millennium BC that early metallurgy was
said to have reached the archipelagos of
maritime Southeast Asia via trade with
India[42][43]

Around 300–700 AD, the seafaring

peoples of the islands traveling in
balangays began to trade with the
Indianized kingdoms in the Malay
Archipelago and the nearby East Asian
principalities, adopting influences from
both Buddhism and Hinduism.[44]
Maritime Jade Road

The Maritime Jade Road was initially

established by the animist indigenous
peoples between the Philippines and
Taiwan, and later expanded to cover
Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand,
and other countries.[45] Artifacts made
from white and green nephrite have been
discovered at a number of archeological
excavations in the Philippines since the
1930s. The artifacts have been both tools
like adzes[46] and chisels, and ornaments
such as lingling-o earrings, bracelets and
beads.[47] Tens of thousands were found in
a single site in Batangas.[48][49] The jade is
said to have originated nearby in Taiwan
and is also found in many other areas in
insular and mainland Southeast Asia.
These artifacts are said to be evidence of
long range communication between
prehistoric Southeast Asian societies.[50]
Throughout history, the Maritime Jade
Road has been known as one of the most
extensive sea-based trade networks of a
single geological material in the
prehistoric world, existing for 3,000 years
from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.[51][52][53][54] The
operations of the Maritime Jade Road
coincided with an era of near absolute
peace which lasted for 1,500 years, from
500 BCE to 1000 CE.[55] During this
peaceful pre-colonial period, not a single
burial site studied by scholars yielded any
osteological proof for violent death. No
instances of mass burials were recorded
as well, signifying the peaceful situation of
the islands. Burials with violent proof were
only found from burials beginning in the
15th century, likely due to the newer
cultures of expansionism imported from
India and China. When the Spanish arrived
in the 16th century, they recorded some
warlike groups, whose cultures have
already been influenced by the imported
Indian and Chinese expansionist cultures
of the 15th century.[56]
The Sa Huỳnh culture

Asia in 200 BC, showing the Sa Huỳnh culture in Mainland Southeast Asia and the Philippines in transition.

The Sa Huỳnh culture centered on present-

day Vietnam, showed evidence of an
extensive trade network. Sa Huỳnh beads
were made from glass, carnelian, agate,
olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of
these materials were not local to the
region, and were most likely imported. Han
dynasty-style bronze mirrors were also
found in Sa Huỳnh sites.
Conversely, Sa Huỳnh produced ear
ornaments have been found in
archaeological sites in Central Thailand,
Taiwan (Orchid Island), and in the
Philippines, in the Palawan, Tabon Caves.
One of the great examples is the Kalanay
Cave in Masbate; the artefacts on the site
in one of the "Sa Huỳnh-Kalanay" pottery
complex sites were dated 400BC–1500
AD. The Maitum anthropomorphic pottery
in the Sarangani Province of southern
Mindanao is c. 200 AD.[57][58]

Ambiguity of what is Sa Huỳnh culture

puts into question its extent of influence in
Southeast Asia. Sa Huỳnh culture is
characterized by use of cylindrical or egg-
shaped burial jars associated with hat-
shaped lids. Using its mortuary practice as
a new definition, Sa Huỳnh culture should
be geographically restricted across Central
Vietnam between Hue City in the north and
Nha Trang City in the south. Recent
archeological research reveals that the
potteries in Kalanay Cave are quite
different from those of the Sa Huỳnh but
strikingly similar to those in Hoa Diem site,
Central Vietnam and Samui Island,
Thailand. New estimate dates the artifacts
in Kalanay cave to come much later than
Sa Huỳnh culture at 200–300 AD. Bio-
anthropological analysis of human fossils
found also confirmed the colonization of
Vietnam by Austronesian people from
insular Southeast Asia in, e.g., the Hoa
Diem site.[59][60]

Dates are approximate, consult

particular article for details
  Prehistoric (or Proto-historic)
Iron Age   Historic Iron Age

Precolonial period (AD 900 to

1565) – Independent polities
 Idjang
Samtoy
Caboloan
Namayan
Tondo Pulilu
Cainta
Maynila
Ma-i
Sandao Ibalon
Kedatuan of
Rajahnate
Madja-as
Sultanate of of
Chiefdom of
Kedatuan of Cebu
Rajahnate
Taytay
Dapitan of Rajahnate of
Lanao
Sanmalan Butuan
KumalarangSultanate of
Sultanate of
Maguindana
Sulu o
Locations of pre-colonial principalities, polities, kingdoms and sultanates in the Philippine archipelago

Also known to a lesser extent as the Pre-

Philippines period, is a pre-unification
period characterized by many independent
states known as polities each with its own
history, cultures, chieftains, and
governments distinct from each other.
According to sources from Southern Liang,
people from the kingdom of Langkasuka in
present-day Thailand have been wearing
cotton clothes made in Luzon as early as
516–520 AD.[61] The British Historian
Robert Nicholl citing Arab chronicler Al
Ya'akubi, had written that on the early
years of the 800s, the kingdoms of Muja
(Then Pagan Brunei) and Mayd (Kedatuan
of Madja-as or Ma-i) waged war against
the Chinese Empire.[62] Medieval Indian
scholars also referred to the Philippines as
"Panyupayana" (The lands surrounded by
water).[63]
By the 1300s, a number of the large
coastal settlements had emerged as
trading centers, and became the focal
point of societal changes.[8] The Barangic
Phase of history can be noted for its highly
mobile nature, with barangays
transforming from being settlements and
turning into fleets and vice versa, with the
wood constantly re-purposed according to
the situation.[64] Politics during this era
was personality-driven and organization
was based on shifting alliances and
contested loyalties set in a backdrop of
constant inter-polity interactions, both
through war and peace.[13]
Legendary accounts often mention the
interaction of early Philippine polities with
the Srivijaya empire, but there is not much
archaeological evidence to definitively
support such a relationship.[8]
Considerable evidence exists, on the other
hand, for extensive trade with the
Majapahit empire.[65]

The exact scope and mechanisms of

Indian cultural influences on early
Philippine polities are still the subject of
some debate among Southeast Asian
historiographers,[8][66] but the current
scholarly consensus is that there was
probably little or no direct trade between
India and the Philippines,[8][66] and Indian
cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and
religious practices,[65] filtered in during the
10th through the early 14th centuries,
through early Philippine polities' relations
with the Hindu Majapahit empire.[8] The
Philippine archipelago is thus one of the
countries, (others include Afghanistan and
Southern Vietnam) just at the outer edge
of what is considered the "Greater Indian
cultural zone".[66]

The early polities of the Philippine

archipelago were typically characterized
by a three-tier social structure. Although
different cultures had different terms to
describe them, this three-tier structure
invariably consisted of an apex nobility
class, a class of "freemen", and a class of
dependent debtor-bondsmen called "alipin"
or "oripun."[8][13] Among the members of
the nobility class were leaders who held
the political office of "Datu," which was
responsible for leading autonomous social
groups called "barangay" or "dulohan".[8]
Whenever these barangays banded
together, either to form a larger
settlement[8] or a geographically looser
alliance group,[13] the more senior or
respected among them would be
recognized as a "paramount datu", variedly
called a Lakan, Sultan, Rajah, or simply a
more senior Datu.[64][8][41] Eventually, by
the 14th to 16th century, inter-kingdom
warfare escalated[67] and population
densities across the archipelago was
low.[68]

Initial recorded history

During the period of the south Indian

Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta
Empire, Indian culture spread to Southeast
Asia and the Philippines that led to the
establishment of Indianized
kingdoms.[69][70]
The date inscribed in the oldest Philippine
document found so far, the Laguna
Copperplate Inscription, is 900 AD. From
the details of the document, written in
Kawi script, the bearer of a debt,
Namwaran, along with his children Lady
Angkatan and Bukah, are cleared of a debt
by the ruler of Tondo. It is the earliest
document that shows the use of
mathematics in precolonial Philippine
societies. A standard system of weights
and measures is demonstrated by the use
of precise measurement for gold, and
familiarity with rudimentary astronomy is
shown by fixing the precise day within the
month in relation to the phases of the
moon.[71] From the various Sanskrit terms
and titles seen in the document, the
culture and society of Manila Bay was that
of a Hindu–Old Malay amalgamation,
similar to the cultures of Java, Peninsular
Malaysia and Sumatra at the time.

There are no other significant documents

from this period of precolonial Philippine
society and culture until the Doctrina
Christiana of the late 16th century, written
at the start of the Spanish period in both
native Baybayin script and Spanish. Other
artifacts with Kawi script and baybayin
were found, such as an Ivory seal from
Butuan dated to the early 10th–14th
centuries[72][73] and the Calatagan pot with
baybayin inscription, dated to not later
than early 16th century.[74]

A Boxer Codex image illustrating the ancient Tagalog Maginoo (noble class).

In the years leading up to 1000, there were

already several maritime societies existing
in the islands but there was no unifying
political state encompassing the entire
Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region
was dotted by numerous semi-
autonomous barangays (settlements
ranging in size from villages to city-states)
under the sovereignty of competing
thalassocracies ruled by datus, wangs,
rajahs, sultans or lakans.[75] or by upland
agricultural societies ruled by "petty
plutocrats". A number of states existed
alongside the highland societies of the
Ifugao and Mangyan.[76][77] These
included:

the Kingdom of Maynila

the Kingdom of Taytay in Palawan
(mentioned by Antonio Pigafetta to be
where they resupplied when the
remaining ships escaped Cebu after
Magellan was slain)
the Chieftaincy of Coron Island ruled by
fierce warriors called Tagbanua as
reported by Spanish missionaries
mentioned by Nilo S. Ocampo,[78]
the Confederation of Namayan
the polities of Tondo and Cainta
the Sinitic wangdom of Pangasinan
the nation of Ma-i and its vassal-states
of Sandao and Pulilu
the Kedatuans of Madja-as and Dapitan
the Indianized rajahnates of Sanmalan,
Butuan, and Cebu
 the sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao,
and Sulu

Some of these regions were part of the

Malayan empires of Srivijaya, Majapahit
and Brunei.[79][80][81]

The polity of Tondo

The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, c. 900 CE. The oldest known historical record found in the Philippines, which
indirectly refers to the polity of Tondo
The earliest historical record of local
polities and kingdoms is the Laguna
Copperplate Inscription, which indirectly
refers to the Tagalog polity of Tondo
(c. before 900–1589) and two to three
other settlements believed to be located
somewhere near Tondo, as well as a
settlement near Mt. Diwata in Mindanao,
and the temple complex of Medang in
Java.[82] Although the precise political
relationships between these polities is
unclear in the text of the inscription, the
artifact is usually accepted as evidence of
intra- and inter-regional political linkages
as early as 900 CE.[82][64][13] By the arrival
of the earliest European ethnographers
during the 1500s, Tondo was led by the
paramount ruler called a "Lakan".[64][13] It
had grown into a major trading hub,
sharing a monopoly with the Rajahnate of
Maynila over the trade of Ming dynasty[83]
products throughout the archipelago.[64]
This trade was significant enough that the
Yongle Emperor appointed a Chinese
governor named Ko Ch'a-lao to oversee
it.[84][85]

Since at least the year 900, this

thalassocracy centered in Manila Bay
flourished via an active trade with Chinese,
Japanese, Malays, and various other
peoples in Asia. Tondo thrived as the
capital and the seat of power of this
ancient kingdom, which was led by kings
under the title "Lakan" that belongs to the
caste of the Maharlika, who were the
feudal warrior class in ancient Tagalog
society. At its height, they ruled a large
part of what is now known as Luzon from
Ilocos to Bicol from possibly before 900
AD to 1571, becoming the largest
precolonial state. The Spaniards called
them Hidalgos.[86][87]

The people of Tondo had developed a

culture that is predominantly Hindu and
Buddhist, they were also good
agriculturists, and lived through farming
and aquaculture. During its existence, it
grew to become one of the most
prominent and wealthy kingdom states in
precolonial Philippines due to heavy trade
and connections with several neighboring
nations such as China and Japan.

Due to its very good relations with Japan,

the Japanese called Tondo as Luzon, even
a famous Japanese merchant, Luzon
Sukezaemon, went as far as to change his
surname from Naya to Luzon.[88] Japan's
interaction with Philippine states have
precedence in the 700s when
Austronesian peoples like the Hayato and
Kumaso settled in Japan and culturally
mediated with the locals and their
Austronesian kin to the South, served at
the Imperial court and sometimes waged
battles in Japan.[89] Japan also imported
Mishima ware manufactured in Luzon.[90]
In 900 AD, the lord-minister Jayadewa
presented a document of debt forgiveness
to Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah,
the children of Namwaran. This is
described in the Philippines' oldest known
document, the Laguna Copperplate
Inscription.[91]

The Chinese also mention a polity called

"Luzon." This is believed to be a reference
to Maynila since Portuguese and Spanish
accounts from the 1520s explicitly state
that "Luçon" and "Maynila" were "one and
the same",[64] although some historians
argue that since none of these observers
actually visited Maynila, "Luçon" may
simply have referred to all the Tagalog and
Kapampangan polities that rose up on the
shores of Manila Bay.[92]

The polity of Cainta

The Polity of Cainta which is in Rizal

province, was a fortified settlement known
for the Pasig river bisecting it in the middle
while a moat surrounded its log walls and
stone bulwarks armed with native cannons
(Lantakas) while the city itself was
encased by Bamboo thickets. By the time
of Spanish contact, it was ruled by a native
Chief named Gat Maitan.[93]

Confederation of Namayan

Map showing the polities of Tondo (red), Maynila (purple) and Namayan (grey) and its respective approximate territories
based on various sources.

Namayan arose as a Confederation of

local Barangays.[94] Local tradition says
that it achieved its peak in 1175.[95]
Archeological findings in Santa Ana,
Namayan's former seat of power, have
produced the oldest evidence of
continuous habitation among the Pasig-
river polities, pre-dating artifacts found
within the historical sites of Maynila and
Tondo.[96]

Caboloan (Pangasinan)

Places in Pangasinan like Lingayen Gulf

were mentioned as early as 1225, when
Lingayen as known as Li-ying-tung had
been listed in Chao Ju-kua's Chu Fan Chih
(An account of the various barbarians) as
one of the trading places along with Mai
(Mindoro or Manila).[97] In northern Luzon,
Caboloan (Pangasinan) (c. 1406–1576)
sent emissaries to China in 1406–1411 as
a tributary-state,[98] and it also traded with
Japan.[99] Chinese records of this
kingdom, named Feng-chia-hsi-lan
(Pangasinan), began when the first
tributary King (Wang in Chinese), Kamayin,
sent an envoy offering gifts to the Chinese
Emperor.[99] The state occupies the current
province of Pangasinan. It was locally
known the Luyag na Kaboloan (also spelled
Caboloan), with Binalatongan as its capital,
existed in the fertile Agno River valley. It
flourished around the same period, the
Srivijaya and Majapahit empires arose in
Indonesia which had extended their
influence to much of the Malay
Archipelago. The Luyag na Kaboloan
expanded the territory and influence of
Pangasinan to what are now the
neighboring provinces of Zambales, La
Union, Tarlac, Benguet, Nueva Ecija, and
Nueva Vizcaya. Pangasinan enjoyed full
independence until the Spanish conquest.

In the sixteenth century Pangasinan was

called the "Port of Japan" by the Spanish.
The locals wore native apparel typical of
other maritime Southeast Asian ethnic
groups in addition to Japanese and
Chinese silks. Even common people were
clad in Chinese and Japanese cotton
garments. They also blackened their teeth
and were disgusted by the white teeth of
foreigners, which were likened to that of
animals. Also, used porcelain jars typical
of Japanese and Chinese households.
Japanese-style gunpowder weapons were
also encountered in naval battles in the
area.[64] In exchange for these goods,
traders from all over Asia would come to
trade primarily for gold and slaves, but
also for deerskins, civet and other local
products. Other than a notably more
extensive trade network with Japan and
China, they were culturally similar to other
Luzon groups to the south.
In northern Luzon, Caboloan (Pangasinan)
(c. 1406–1576) sent emissaries to China
in 1406–1411 as a tributary-state,[98] and it
also traded with Japan.[100]

The nation of Ma-i

A collection of gold Piloncitos stamped with the Baybayin character for "Ma" possibly representing the nation of Ma-i.

Arab chronicler Al Ya'akubi, had written

that in the 800s, the kingdoms of Muja
(Then Pagan/Hindu Brunei) and Mayd (Ma-
i) militarily competed with the Chinese
Empire.[62] Volume 186 of the official
history of the Song dynasty describes the
polity of Ma-i (c. before 971 – after 1339).
Song dynasty traders visited Ma-i annually,
and their accounts described Ma-i's
geography, trade products, and the trade
behaviors of its rulers.[101] Chinese
merchants noted that Ma-i's citizens were
honest and trustworthy.[102] Because the
descriptions of Mai's location in these
accounts are unclear, there is dispute
about Mai's location, with some scholars
believing it was located in Bay, Laguna,[10]
and others believing it was on the island of
Mindoro.[103] The Buddhist polity traded
with Ryukyu and Japan.[104] Chao Jukua, a
customs inspector in Fukien province,
China wrote the Zhufan Zhi ("Description of
the Barbarous Peoples").[105] William
Henry Scott said, that unlike other
Philippine kingdoms or polities which
needed backing from the Chinese Imperial
Court to attract commerce, the Polity of
Ma-i was powerful enough to have no need
to send tributes to the Chinese throne.[106]

The nation of Sandao

Sandao "三嶋" in Chinese characters,

which was also known as Sanyu (三嶼),
was a Prehispanic Filipino nation recorded
in Chinese annals as a nation occupying
the islands of Jamayan加麻延 (present-
day Calamian), Balaoyou 巴姥酉 (present-
day Palawan), and Pulihuan 蒲裏喚
[107]

(near present-day Manila).[108] In the

Chinese Gazetteer the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志
(1225), it was described as a vassal-state
of the more powerful nation of Ma-i
centered in nearby Mindoro.[109]

The nation of Pulilu

Pulilu was a Prehispanic polity centered at

Polillo, Quezon[110] and was mentioned in
the Chinese Gazeteer Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志
(1225). It is described as politically
connected to the nation of Sandao " 三嶋"
at the Calamianes which itself was a
vassal-state to the larger country of Ma-i
麻逸" centered in Mindoro. Its people
"
were recorded to be warlike, and prone to
pillaging and conflict. In this area, the sea
is full of coral reefs, which have wavy
surfaces that resemble decaying tree
trunks or razor blades. Ships going by the
reefs must be ready to make sharp
maneuvers to avoid them because they
are sharper than swords and halberds. Red
coral and blue langgan coral are also
produced here, however they are quite
difficult to find. It is also similar to the
nation of Sandao in local customs and
trade products. The chief export of this
small polity are rare corals.

Visayan belligerence against Imperial

China

Writing in the 13th century, the Chinese

historian Chao Ju-Kua mentioned raids
conducted by the Pi-sho-ye on the port
cities of southern China between A.D.
1174–1190, which he believed came by
way of the southern portion of the island
of Taiwan.[111] Subsequent historians
identified these raiders as Visayans from
the Visayas islands while the historian
Efren B. Isorena, through analysis of
historical accounts and wind currents in
the Pacific side of East and Southeast
Asia, concluded that said raiders were
most likely the people of Ibabao (the
precolonial name for the eastern coast
and a portion of the northern coast of
Samar).[112]

Kedatuan of Madja-as

Images from the Boxer A royal couple of the

Codex illustrating an Visayans.
ancient kadatuan or tumao
 (noble class) Visayan
couple.

One theory espoused by some historians

is that during the 11th century, ten exiled
datus of the collapsing empire of
Srivijaya[113] led by Datu Puti migrated to
the central islands of the Philippines,
fleeing from Rajah Makatunaw of the
island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island
of Panay and purchasing the island from
Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they
established a confederation of polities and
named it Madja-as centered in Aklan and
they settled the surrounding islands of the
Visayas. This is according to Pedro
Monetclaro's book Maragtas.[114][115]
However the actual personage of Rajah
Makatunaw was mentioned in earlier
Chinese texts about Brunei dating him to
1082, when he was the descendant of Seri
Maharaja and he was accompanied by
Sang Aji (The ancestor of Sultan
Muhammad Shah). There is thus a
disparity of dates between the Maragtas
Book (Based on oral legends) and the
Chinese texts.[116] Historian Robert Nicholl
also positively identify the Preislamic
Bruneian Buddhist kingdom of Vijayapura,
itself a tributary of the Srivijaya Empire in
Palembang, as the ancestral homeland of
the Visayans of the 10 Datus of Panay.[117]
Furthermore, he identified the Rajah
Makatunao mentioned in the Maragtas
book with Rajah Tugau of the Melano
nation centered in Sarawak. Either way,
Madja-as was allegedly founded on Panay
island (named after the destroyed state of
Pannai as well as populated by Pannai's
descendants, Pannai was a constituent
state of Srivijaya which was located in
Sumatra and was home to a Hindu-
Buddhist Monastic-Army that successfully
defended the Strait of Malacca,[118] the
world's busiest maritime choke-point,[119]
which was a significant challenge to
defend due to it being surrounded by the
three most populous nations of the world
back then, China, India and Indonesia. The
people of Pannai policed the Strait against
all odds for 727 years.) Upon their
rebellion against an invading Chola
Empire, the people of Madja-as, being
loyalist warriors, conducted resistance
movements against the Hindu and Islamic
invaders that arrived from the west from
their new home base in the Visayas
islands.[120] This confederation reached its
peak under Datu Padojinog. During his
reign the confederations' hegemony
extended over most of the islands of
Visayas. Its people consistently made
piratical attacks against Chinese imperial
shipping.[121] Augustinian Friar Rev. Fr.
Santaren recorded that Datu Macatunao or
Rajah Makatunao who was the "sultan of
the Moros," and a relative of Datu Puti who
seized the properties and riches of the ten
datus was eventually killed by the warriors
named Labaodungon and Paybare, using
native Filipino and Bornean recruits. This,
after learning of this injustice from their
father-in-law Paiburong, sailed to Odtojan
in Borneo where Makatunaw ruled. The
warriors sacked the city, killed Makatunaw
and his family, retrieved the stolen
properties of the 10 datus, enslaved the
remaining population of Odtojan, and
sailed back to Panay. Labaw Donggon and
his wife, Ojaytanayon, later settled in a
place called Moroboro. Afterwards, datus
in Panay and southern Luzon founded
various towns.[122]

The Rajahnate of Cebu

A picture of a Bronze Image of the Hindu God Shiva (lost during World War 2), found at Mactan-Cebu. It shows how the
culture of the area was Hindu and Indianized.

The Rajahnate of Cebu was a Precolonial

state. It was founded by Sri Lumay
otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya, a
half-Malay and half-Indian, and was a
minor prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty
which happened to occupy Sumatra-
Indonesia. He was sent by the maharajah
to establish a base for expeditionary
forces to subdue the local kingdoms but
he rebelled and established his own
independent Rajahnate instead. The
Chinese recorded the name of the
Rajahanate of Cebu as Sokbu ( 束務). [123]

While the Indianized royalty of Cebu ruled

the native Cebuano people from the
Sanskrit/Tamil-labeled capital, Singhapala
(சிங்கப்பூர்)y[124] which is Tamil-
Sanskrit[125] for "Lion City", the same
rootwords with the modern city-state of
Singapore. This rajahnate warred against
the 'magalos' (slave traders) of
Maguindanao and had an alliance with the
Rajahnate of Butuan and Indianized Kutai
in South Borneo, before it was weakened
by the insurrection of Datu Lapulapu.[63]
The kingdom enjoyed the diplomatic
recognition of Thailand as observed by
Ferdinand Magellan's expedition which
noted an embassy borne by a ship from
Siam (Thailand) that had landed at the
Rajahnate and had tributes meant for
Rajah Humabon.[126][127]
The Rajahnate of Butuan

The Butuan Ivory Seal, displayed at the National Museum of the Philippines. The Kawi script lettering says "But-wan" and
the smaller lettering (similar to Baybayin) says "Bu-wa" (diacritics for the "Wan/Ban" in Kawi and "Bu/Ba" in the smaller
letters have worn off).

The official history of the Song dynasty

next refers to the Rajahnate of Butuan
(c. before 1001–1756) in northeastern
Mindanao which is the first polity from the
Philippine archipelago recorded as having
sent a tribute mission to the Chinese
empire—on March 17, 1001, CE. Butuan
later attained prominence under the rule of
Rajah Sri Bata Shaja.[128] In the year 1011,
Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the
Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan, a
maritime-state famous for its
goldwork[129] sent a trade envoy under
ambassador Likan-shieh to the Chinese
Imperial Court demanding equal
diplomatic status with other states.[130]
The request being approved, it opened up
direct commercial links with the Rajahnate
of Butuan and the Chinese Empire thereby
diminishing the monopoly on Chinese
trade previously enjoyed by their rivals,
Tondo and the Champa civilization.[131]
Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate
is given by the Butuan Silver
Paleograph.[132] Researcher Eric Casino,
believes the name of the first Rajah
mentioned in Chinese records, Rajah
Kiling, is not Visayan in origin but rather,
Indian, because Kiling refers to the people
of India.[133] The Sejarah Melayu (Malay
Annals) of the nearby country of Malaysia,
refers to the similarly worded Keling as
immigrant people from India.[134]

The Rajahnate of Sanmalan

The Nagarakretagama, chronicled the rise of the Java-centered Majapahit Empire and its conquest of the Filipino
kingdoms of Solot (Sulu) and Saludong (Maynila) which then rebelled and sacked the Majapahit province of Pon-i (Brunei).

At the same time as the rise of Butuan

was the emergence of the Rajahnate of
Sanmalan. Sanmalan was a precolonial
Philippine kingdom on what is now
Zamboanga.[135] Known in Chinese
records as "Sanmalan" 三麻蘭. The
Chinese chronicled during 982, a tribute
from its Rajah or King, Chulan, represented
at the imperial court by ambassador Ali
Bakti.[136] In the 1200s, the Chinese
chronicle Zhufan zhi ( 諸蕃志) recorded its
change from a trade emporium to slaving
state as Zamboanga began waging war
and raiding its neighboring kingdoms in
Borneo, Philippines, Sulawesi, and Ternate;
for slaves to sell in Java.[109]

Struggle against Hindu Majapahit

During the 1300s, the Chinese annals,

Nanhai zhi, reported that Brunei invaded or
administered Sarawak and Sabah as well
as the Philippine kingdoms of Butuan, Sulu
and Ma-i (Mindoro) which would regain
their independence at a later date.[137]
Afterwards, the Javanese-centered Hindu
empire of Majapahit, in turn invaded Brunei
and had briefly ruled over Luzon island and
the Sulu Archipelago as recorded in the
epic poem Nagarakretagama, which
stated that they had colonies in the
Philippines at Saludong (Manila) and Solot
(Sulu).[138] It even incorporated the Butuan
and Cebu Rajahanates' Bornean ally, Kutai.
But they failed to take hold of the Visayas
islands, which was populated by Srivijayan
loyalists who were waging incessant
guerrilla warfare against them. Citing
Kapampangan oral legends Nick Joaquin
wrote about a princess of Namayan
named Sasaban who married the Emperor
of Majapahit, locally known as Soledan
and is allegedly the Maharajah Anka
Widyaya.[139] Eventually, the kingdoms of
Luzon regained independence from
Majapahit after the Battle of Manila (1365)
and Sulu also reestablished independence,
and in vengeance, assaulted the Majapahit
province of Poni (Brunei) before a fleet
from the capital drove them out.[140][141]

According to Javanese records a

Javanese force expelled Sulu
marauders from Brunei during
the reign of Angka Wijaya who
was the last king to reign over
Majapahit. The inhabitants of
the Soeloe Islands (in the
present Philippines) made an
attack against Brunei (in order
to obtain camphor), in keeping
 with their (piratical) nature, but
they were driven off by the
Javanese soldiers.

— Stamford Raffles

Sulu reaction against Majapahit

Imperialism didn't stop with the sacking of
Poni (Brunei) as Sulu also invaded North
and East Kalimantan in Borneo, which
were former Majapahit territories.[142] The
subsequent start of the Islamic era
ushered the slow death of Majapahit as its
provinces eventually seceded and became
independent sultanates. With the upsurge
of Islam, the remnants of Hindu Majapahit
eventually fled to the island of Bali.[143]

The Sultanate of Sulu

The banner of the Sultanate of Sulu

In 1380, Karim ul' Makdum and Shari'ful

Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab trader
born in Johore, Malaysia; arrived in Sulu
from Malacca and established the
Sultanate of Sulu by converting its
previous ruler, the Hindu king, Rajah
Baguinda, to Islam and then marrying his
daughter. This sultanate eventually gained
great wealth due to its diving for fine
pearls.[144] Before Islamization, the then
Rajahnate of Sulu was established by
Visayan speaking Hindu migrants from the
Rajahnate of Butuan to the Sulu
Archipelago as Tausug, the language of
the Sulu state is classified as a Southern
Visayan language.[145] During the 10th-
13th centuries the Champa civilization,
located in Central Vietnam and the port-
kingdom of Sulu traded with each other
which resulted in Cham merchants settling
in Sulu where they were known as Orang
Dampuan . The Orang Dampuan were
slaughtered by envious native Sulu
Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang
Dampuan.[146] The Buranun were then
subjected to retaliatory slaughter by the
Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce
between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan
was later restored and the Orang
Dampuans became the ancestors of the
local Yakan people.[147] The Yakans were
descendants of the Taguima-based Orang
Dampuan who came to Sulu from
Champa.[148] As told before, Sulu was also
briefly ruled under the Hindu Majapahit
empire as narrated in the
Nagarakretagama but afterwards, Sulu
and Manila both rebelled and sacked
Brunei which was a nearby loyal province
of Majapahit as Sulu extended its
conquest to the former Majapahit territory
of East and North Kalimantan. However,
with the onset of Islam by the 15th
century, they associated themselves with
their new Arab descended Sultans whose
origins was in Malacca and their fellow co-
religionist Moros (ethnic groups of the
Philippine who had accepted Islam) than
their still Hindu, Visayan speaking cousins.
This culminated with royal intermarriages
between the families of the then newly
Islamized Rajahnate of Manila as well the
Sultanates of Brunei, Sulu and
Malacca.[149]

The Sultanate of Maguindanao

The Sultanate of Maguindanao rose to

prominence at the end of the 15th century,
Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of
Johor, Malaysia: introduced Islam in the
island of Mindanao and he subsequently
married Paramisuli, an Iranun princess
from Mindanao, and established the
Sultanate of Maguindanao.[150]

It ruled most parts of Mindanao and

continued to exist prior to the Spanish
colonialization until the 19th century. The
Sultanate also traded and maintained
good relations with the Chinese, Dutch,
and the British.[151][152]

The Sultanate of Lanao

A performance of the Maranao royal dance, the "Singkil".

The Sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao,

Philippines were founded in the 16th
century through the influence of Shariff
Kabungsuan, who was enthroned as first
Sultan of Maguindanao in 1520. Islam was
introduced to the area by Muslim
missionaries and traders from the Middle
East, Indian and Malay regions who
propagated Islam to Sulu and
Maguindanao. Unlike in Sulu and
Maguindanao, the Sultanate system in
Lanao was uniquely decentralized. The
area was divided into Four Principalities of
Lanao or the Pat a Pangampong a Ranao
which are composed of a number of royal
houses (Sapolo ago Nem a Panoroganan
or The Sixteen (16) Royal Houses) with
specific territorial jurisdictions within
mainland Mindanao. This decentralized
structure of royal power in Lanao was
adopted by the founders, and maintained
up to the present day, in recognition of the
shared power and prestige of the ruling
clans in the area, emphasizing the values
of unity of the nation (kaiisaisa o bangsa),
patronage (kaseselai) and fraternity
(kapapagaria). By the 16th century, Islam
had spread to other parts of the Visayas
and Luzon.
The Bruneian Empire and the
expansion of Islam

Territtorial extent of the Bruneian Empire.

Upon the secession of Poni (Brunei) from

the Majapahit Empire, they imported the
Arab Emir from Mecca, Sharif Ali, and
became an independent Sultanate. During
the reign of his descendant, Sultan
Bolkiah, in 1485 to 1521, the recently
Islamized Bruneian Empire decided to
break the Dynasty of Tondo's monopoly in
the China trade by attacking Tondo and
defeating Rajah Gambang and then
establishing the State of Selurong
(Kingdom of Maynila) as a Bruneian
satellite-state and placing his descendants
on the throne of Maynila.[153][154] A new
dynasty under the Islamized Rajah
Salalila[155] was also established to
challenge the House of Lakandula in
Tondo.[156] In addition to establishing the
satellite state of Manila, Sultan Bolkiah
also married Laila Mecana, the daughter of
Sulu Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra to expand
Brunei's influence in both Luzon and
Mindanao. Furthermore, Islam was further
strengthened by the arrival to the
Philippines of traders and proselytizers
from Malaysia and Indonesia.[157] Brunei
was so powerful, it already subjugated
their Hindu Bornean neighbor, Kutai to the
south, though it survived through a
desperate alliance with Hindu Butuan and
Cebu which were already struggling
against encroaching Islamic powers like
Maguindanao. Brunei had also conquered
the northern third and the southern third of
the
Philippines[158][159][160][161][162][163][164][165]
but failed to conquer the Visayas islands
even though Sultan Bolkiah himself was
half-Visayan from his Visayan mother.
Sultan Bolkiah is associated with the
legend of Nakhoda Ragam the singing
captain, a myth about a handsome, virile,
strong, musically gifted and angelic voiced
prince who is known for his martial
exploits. There is contextual evidence that
Sultan Bolkiah may indeed be Nakhoda
Ragam, since he is of half Visayan-Filipino
descent since later Spanish accounts
record that Filipinos, especially Visayans,
were obsessed with singing and the
warrior castes were particularly known for
their great singing abilities.[166]
The Lucoes

Ruins of the Royal Palace of Ayutthaya, in the Ayutthaya Historical Park. Ayutthaya (Thailand) was the setting of the
Burmese-Siamese Wars where Lucoes from Luzon, Philippines were used as soldiers by both sides.

Concurrent with the spread of Islam in the

Philippine archipelago, was the rise of the
Lucoes, or Luzones, who were the people
of Luzon. They rose to prominence by
establishing overseas communities all
across Southeast Asia as well as
maintaining relations with South and East
asia, participating in trading ventures,
navigation expeditions and military
campaigns in Burma,[167] Lucoes warriors
aided the Burmese king in his invasion of
Siam in 1547 AD. At the same time,
Lusung warriors fought alongside the
Siamese king and faced the same
elephant army of the Burmese king in the
defence of the Siamese capital at
Ayuthaya.[168] They were also in Japan,
Brunei, Malacca, East Timor and Sri
Lanka[169][17] where they were employed as
traders and mercenaries.[170][64][171] One
prominent Luções was Regimo de Raja,
who was a spice magnate and a
Temenggung (Jawi: ‫[)تمڠݢوڠ‬172] (Governor
and Chief General) in Portuguese Malacca.
He was also the head of an international
armada which traded and protected
commerce between the Indian Ocean, the
Strait of Malacca, the South China Sea,[173]
and the medieval maritime principalities of
the Philippines.[13]

Pinto noted that there were a number of

Luzones in the Islamic fleets that went to
battle with the Portuguese in the
Philippines during the 16th century. The
Sultan of Aceh together with the Ottoman
commander Heredim Mafamede whose
uncle was the Viceroy of Egypt, assigned
Luzones to defend Aceh, and gave one of
them, Sapetu Diraja, the task of holding
Aru (northeast Sumatra) in 1540. Pinto
also says one was named leader of the
Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands
after the Portuguese conquest in 1511.[174]
Pigafetta notes that one of them was in
command of the Brunei fleet in 1521.[17]

However, the Luzones did not only fight on

the side of the Muslims. Pinto says they
were also apparently among the natives of
the Philippines who fought the Muslims in
1538.[174]

The Luzones were also pioneer seafarers

and it is recorded that the Portuguese
were not only witnesses but also direct
beneficiaries of Lusung's involvement.
Many Luzones chose Malacca as their
base of operations because of its strategic
importance. When the Portuguese finally
took Malacca in 1512 AD, the resident
Luzones held important government posts
in the former sultanate. They were also
large-scale exporters and ship owners that
regularly sent junks to China, Brunei,
Sumatra, Siam and Sunda. One Lusung
official by the name of Surya Diraja
annually sent 175 tons of pepper to China
and had to pay the Portuguese 9000
cruzados in gold to retain his plantation.
His ships became part of the first
Portuguese fleet that paid an official visit
to the Chinese empire in 1517 AD.[175]

On Mainland Southeast Asia, Luzones

aided the Burmese king in his invasion of
Siam in 1547 AD. At the same time,
Luzones fought alongside the Siamese
king and faced the same elephant army of
the Burmese king in the defence of the
Siamese capital at Ayuthaya.[176] Lucoes
military and trade activity reached as far
as Sri Lanka in the Indian Subcontinent
where Lungshanoid pottery made in Luzon
were discovered in burials.[177]
The Portuguese were soon relying on
Luzones bureaucrats for the
administration of Malacca and on Luzones
warriors, ships and pilots for their military
and commercial ventures in East Asia.

It was through the Luzones who regularly

sent ships to China that the Portuguese
discovered the ports of Canton in 1514 AD.
And it was on Luzones ships that the
Portuguese were able to send their first
diplomatic mission to China 1517 AD. The
Portuguese had the Luzones to thank for
when they finally established their base at
Macao in the mid-1500s.[170]
The Luzones were also instrumental in
guiding Portuguese ships to discover
Japan. The Western world first heard of
Japan through the Portuguese. But it was
through the Luzones that the Portuguese
had their first encounter with the
Japanese. The Portuguese king
commissioned his subjects to get good
pilots that could guide them beyond the
seas of China and Malacca. In 1540 AD,
the Portuguese king's factor in Brunei,
Brás Baião, recommended to his king the
employment of Lusung pilots because of
their reputation as "discoverers."[178] Thus
it was through Luzones navigators that
Portuguese ships found their way to Japan
in 1543 AD. The Luzones so impressed the
Portuguese soldier, Joao de Barros, he
considered the Luzones who were
militarily and commercially active across
the region, "the most warlike and valiant of
these parts."[179] Filipinos from the island
of Luzon (Lucoes) were not the only
Filipinos abroad, historian William Henry
Scott, quoting the Portuguese manuscript
Summa Orientalis, noted that Mottama in
Burma (Myanmar) had a large presence of
merchants from the island of
Mindanao.[180]
Rise and fall of the Dapitan Kedatuan

Around 1563 AD, at the closing stages of

the precolonial era, the Kedatuan of
Dapitan in Bohol achieved prominence and
it was known to a later Spanish
missionary, Alcina, as the "Venice of the
Visayas", because it was a wealthy,
wooden and floating city-state in the
Visayas. However, this kedatuan was
eventually attacked and destroyed by
soldiers from the Sultanate of Ternate, a
state made up of Muslim Moluccans. The
survivors of the destruction, led by their
datu, Pagbuaya, migrated to northern
Mindanao and established a new Dapitan
there.

A collection of Philippine lantaka, a type of swivel-gun used in inter-kingdom wars.

They then waged war against the

Sultanate of Lanao and settled in the lands
conquered from them. Eventually, in
vengeance against the Muslims and
Portuguese allied to the Ternateans, they
aided the Spanish in the conquest of
Muslim Manila and in the Spanish
expeditions to capture Portuguese
Ternate.

Inter-kingdom rivalries

During this period there was also a

simmering territorial conflict between the
Polity of Tondo and the Bruneian vassal-
state, the Islamic Rajahnate of Maynila, to
which the ruler of Maynila, Rajah Matanda,
sought military assistance against Tondo
from his relatives at the Sultanate of
Brunei.[181] The Hindu Rajahnates of
Butuan and Cebu also endured slave raids
from, and waged wars against the
Sultanate of Maguindanao.[182]
Simultaneous with these slave-raids, was
the rebellion of Datu Lapulapu of Mactan
against Rajah Humabon of Cebu.[183] The
population was sparse due to warfare and
also due to the common frequency of
typhoons and the Philippines' location on
the Pacific ring of fire.[184] The multiple
states competing over the limited territory
and people of the islands simplified
Spanish colonialization by allowing its
conquistadors to effectively employ a
strategy of divide and conquer for rapid
conquest.
Spanish settlement and rule
(1565–1898)

Early Spanish expeditions and

conquests

A Spanish expedition around the world led

by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
Magellan sighted Samar Island but
anchored off Suluan Island on March 16,
1521. They landed the next day on
Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan,
Eastern Samar. Magellan claimed the
islands he saw for Spain and named them
Islas de San Lázaro. He established
friendly relations with some of the local
leaders especially with Rajah Humabon
and converted some of them to Roman
Catholicism. In the Philippines, they
explored many islands including the island
of Mactan. However, Magellan was killed
during the Battle of Mactan against the
local datu, Lapulapu.[17][185][186]

Over the next several decades, other

Spanish expeditions were dispatched to
the islands. Ruy López de Villalobos led an
expedition that visited Leyte and Samar in
1543 and named them Las Islas Filipinas in
honor of Philip of Asturias, the Prince of
Asturias at the time.[187] Philip became
Philip II of Spain on January 16, 1556,
when his father, Charles I of Spain (who
also reigned as Charles V, Holy Roman
Emperor), abdicated the Spanish throne.
The name was then extended to the entire
archipelago later on in the Spanish era.

1734 Spanish Chart of the Philippine Islands

European colonialization began in earnest

when Spanish explorer Miguel López de
Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and
formed the first European settlements in
Cebu. Beginning with just five ships and
five hundred men accompanied by
Augustinian monks, and further
strengthened in 1567 by two hundred
soldiers, he was able to repel the
Portuguese and create the foundations for
the colonialization of the Archipelago. In
1571, the Spanish, their Latin-American
recruits and their Filipino (Visayan) allies,
commanded by able conquistadors such
as Mexico-born Juan de Salcedo (who was
in love with Tondo's princess, Kandarapa, a
romance his Spanish grandfather Miguel
Lopez de Legaspi, disapproved of)
attacked Maynila, a vassal-state of the
Brunei Sultanate and liberated plus
incorporated the kingdom of Tondo as well
as establishing Manila as the capital of the
Spanish East Indies.[188][189][190] During the
early part of the Spanish colonialization of
the Philippines the Spanish Augustinian
Friar, Gaspar de San Agustín, O.S.A.,
describes Iloilo and Panay as one of the
most populated islands in the archipelago
and the most fertile of all the islands of
the Philippines. He also talks about Iloilo,
particularly the ancient settlement of
Halaur, as site of a progressive trading
post and a court of illustrious
nobilities.[191]
Legazpi built a fort in Maynila and made
overtures of friendship to Lakan Dula,
Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. However,
Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah,
Rajah Sulayman, who was a vassal to the
Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to
Legazpi, but failed to get the support of
Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and
Pangasinan settlements to the north.
When Tarik Sulayman and a force of
Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim
warriors attacked the Spaniards in the
battle of Bangkusay, he was finally
defeated and killed, the Spanish also
destroyed the walled Kapampangan city-
state of Cainta.
A late 17th-century manuscript by Gaspar de San Agustin from the Archive of the Indies, depicting López de Legazpi's
conquest of the Philippines

In 1578, the Castilian War erupted between

the Christian Spaniards and Muslim
Bruneians over control of the Philippine
archipelago. On one side, the newly
Christianized Non-Muslim Visayans of the
Kedatuan of Madja-as and Rajahnate of
Cebu, plus the Rajahnate of Butuan (which
were from northern Mindanao), as well as
the remnants of the Kedatuan of Dapitan
had previously waged war against the
Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of
Maguindanao and Kingdom of Maynila,
then joined the Spanish in the war against
the Bruneian Empire and its allies, the
Bruneian puppet-state of Maynila, Sulu
which had dynastic links with Brunei as
well as Maguindanao which was an ally of
Sulu. The Spanish and its Visayan allies
assaulted Brunei and seized its capital,
Kota Batu. This was achieved as a result in
part of the assistance rendered to them by
two noblemen, Pengiran Seri Lela and
Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had
traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as a
tributary of Spain for help to recover the
throne usurped by his brother, Saiful
Rijal.[192] The Spanish agreed that if they
succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran
Seri Lela would indeed become the Sultan,
while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the
new Bendahara. In March 1578, the
Spanish fleet, led by De Sande himself,
acting as Capitán General, started their
journey towards Brunei. The expedition
consisted of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans,
1,500 Filipino natives and 300
Borneans.[193] The campaign was one of
many, which also included action in
Mindanao and Sulu.[194][195]
The Spanish succeeded in invading the
capital on April 16, 1578, with the help of
Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri
Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri
Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced
to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong. In
Jerudong, they made plans to chase the
conquering army away from Brunei. The
Spanish suffered heavy losses due to a
cholera or dysentery outbreak.[196][197]
They were so weakened by the illness that
they decided to abandon Brunei to return
to Manila on June 26, 1578, after just 72
days. Before doing so, they burned the
mosque, a high structure with a five-tier
roof.[198]
Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–
September 1578, probably from the same
illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies,
although there was suspicion he could
have been poisoned by the ruling Sultan.
Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess,
left with the Spanish and went on to marry
a Christian Tagalog, named Agustín de
Legazpi of Tondo and had children in the
Philippines.[199]
Filipinos during the Spanish era.

Concurrently, northern Luzon became a

center of the "Bahan Trade" (comercio de
bafan), found in Luís Fróis' Historia de
Japam, mainly refers to the robberies,
raids, and pillages conducted by the
Japanese pirates of Kyūshūa as they
assaulted the China seas. The Sengoku
Period (1477–1603) or the warring states
period of Japan had spread the wakō's 倭
寇 (Japanese Pirates) activities in the
China Seas, some groups of these raiders
relocated to the Philippines and
established their settlements in Luzon.
Because of the proximity to China's
beaches, the Philippines were favorable a
location to launch raids on the provinces
of Guangdong and Fujian, and for shipping
with Indochina and the Ryūkyū Islands.[200]
These were the halcyon days of the
Philippine branch of the Bahan trade. Thus,
the Spanish sought to fight off these
Japanese Pirates, prominent among
whom was warlord Tayfusa,[201] whom the
Spaniards expelled after he set up the
beginnings of a city-state of Japanese
pirates in Northern Luzon.[202] The Spanish
repelled them in the fabled 1582 Cagayan
battles.[203] Due to the 1549 Ming ban on
trade leveled against the Ashikaga
Shogunate as a consequence of the
Wokou pirate raids, this resulted in the ban
for all the Japanese to enter China, and for
Chinese ships to sail to Japan. Thus,
Manila became the only place where the
Japanese and Chinese can openly trade,
often also trading Japanese silver for
Chinese silk.[204]
In 1587, Magat Salamat, one of the
children of Lakan Dula, along with Lakan
Dula's nephew and lords of the
neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan,
Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan,
were executed when the Tondo Conspiracy
of 1587–1588 failed[205] in which a
planned grand alliance with the Japanese
Christian-captain, Gayo, (Gayo himself was
a Woku who once pirated in Cagayan) and
Brunei's Sultan, would have restored the
old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the
hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the
execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-
prince of Tondo).[206] Thereafter, some of
the conspirators were exiled to Guam or
Guerrero, Mexico.

Spanish power was further consolidated

after Miguel López de Legazpi's complete
assimilation of Madja-as, his subjugation
of Rajah Tupas, the Rajah of Cebu and
Juan de Salcedo's conquest of the
provinces of Zambales, La Union, Ilocos,
the coast of Cagayan, and the ransacking
of the Chinese warlord Limahong's pirate
kingdom in Pangasinan.[207][208]

The Spanish also invaded Northern Taiwan

and Ternate in Indonesia, using Filipino
warriors, before they were driven out by
the Dutch.[209] The Sultanate of Ternate
reverted to independence and afterwards
led a coalition of sultanates against
Spain.[210][211] While Taiwan became the
stronghold of the Ming-loyalist and pirate
state of the Kingdom of Tungning. The
Spanish and the Moros of the sultanates
of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu also
waged many wars over hundreds of years
in the Spanish–Moro conflict, they were
supported by the Papuan language
speaking Sultanate of Ternate in Indonesia
which regained independence from
Spain,[212] as well as the Sultanate of
Brunei, not until the 19th century did Spain
succeed in defeating the Sulu Sultanate
and taking Mindanao under nominal
suzerainty.

The Spanish considered their war with the

Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of
the Reconquista, a centuries-long
campaign to retake and rechristianize the
Spanish homeland which was invaded by
the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate.
The Spanish expeditions into the
Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-
Islamic world conflict[213] that included a
war against the Ottoman Caliphate which
had just invaded former Christian lands in
the Eastern Mediterranean and which had
a center of operations in Southeast Asia at
its nearby vassal, the Sultanate of
Aceh.[214] Thus the Philippines became a
theatre of the ongoing world-wide-ranging
Ottoman–Habsburg wars.

In time, Spanish fortifications were also

set up in Taiwan and the Maluku islands.
These were abandoned and the Spanish
soldiers, along with the newly
Christianized natives of the Moluccas,
withdrew back to the Philippines in order
to re-concentrate their military forces
because of a threatened invasion by the
Japan-born Ming-dynasty loyalist, Koxinga,
ruler of the Kingdom of Tungning.[215]
However, the planned invasion was
aborted. Meanwhile, settlers were sent to
the Pacific islands of Palau and the
Marianas.[216]

The sketch of the Plaza de Roma Manila by Fernando Brambila, a member of the Malaspina Expedition during their stop in
Manila in 1792.

In 1593, a diplomatic entourage addressed

to the "King of Luzon" from the King of
Cambodia which bore an elephant as a
tribute[217] arrived in Manila. The King of
Cambodia which witnessed the military
activity of precolonial Luzones people who
were mercenaries across Southeast Asia
including at Burma and Siam,[218] now
implored the new rulers of Luzon, the
Spaniards, to aid him in a war to retake his
kingdom from an invasion by the
Siamese.[219] That had caused the ill-fated
Spanish expedition to Cambodia that
although ended in failure had set the
foundations of the future restoration of
Cambodia from Thai rule under French
Cochinchina which tapped Spanish allies.

Incorporation to the Mexico-based

Viceroyalty of New Spain

The founding of the City of Manila by

uniting the dominions of Sulayman III of
Namayan, Sabag, Rajah Ache Matanda of
Maynila who was a vassal to the Sultan of
Brunei, and Lakan Dula of Tondo who was
a tributary to Ming Dynasty China –
caused the establishment of Manila on
February 6, 1579, through the Papal bull
Illius Fulti Præsidio by Pope Gregory XIII,
encompassing all Spanish colonies in Asia
as a suffragan of the Archdiocese of
Mexico.[220] Aside from Manila the capital,
the Spanish and Latin American
populations were first concentrated in the
5 newly founded Spanish Royal Cities of
Cebu, Arevalo, Nueva Segovia, Nueva
Caceres, and Vigan.[221] Aside from these
cities, they were also scattered across the
Presidios of Cavite, Calamianes, Caraga,
and Zamboanga.[222] For much of the
Spanish colonial period, the Philippines
was part of the Mexico-based Viceroyalty
of New Spain. Of the Spaniards and Latin
Americans sent to the Philippines, almost
half of the individuals levied to Manila
were reported in judicial files as
españoles, and about a third, as mestizos.
Castizos amounted to a total of 15
percent, while peninsulares were around 5
percent of those punished with
deportation to Manila.[223]
Spanish settlement during the 16th
and 17th centuries

Spanish era Manila canal

The "Memoria de las Encomiendas en las

Islas" of 1591, just twenty years after the
conquest of Luzon, reveals a remarkable
progress in the work of colonialization and
the spread of Christianity.[224] A cathedral
was built in the city of Manila with an
episcopal palace, Augustinian, Dominican
and Franciscan monasteries and a Jesuit
house. The king maintained a hospital for
the Spanish settlers and there was another
hospital for the natives run by the
Franciscans. In order to defend the
settlements the Spaniards established in
the Philippines, a network of military
fortresses called "Presidios" were
constructed and officered by the
Spaniards, and sentried by Latin-
Americans and Filipinos, across the
archipelago, to protect it from foreign
nations such as the Portuguese, British
and Dutch as well as raiding Muslims and
Wokou.[225]
The Manila garrison was composed of
roughly four hundred Spanish soldiers and
the area of Intramuros as well as its
surroundings, were initially settled by 1200
Spanish families.[226] In Cebu City, at the
Visayas, the settlement received a total of
2,100 soldier-settlers from New Spain.[227]
At the immediate south of Manila,
Mexicans were present at Ermita[228] and
at Cavite[229][230][231] where they were
stationed as sentries. In addition, men
conscripted from Peru, were also sent to
settle Zamboanga City in Mindanao, to
wage war upon Muslim pirates.[232] These
Peruvian soldiers who settled in
Zamboanga were led by Don Sebastián
Hurtado de Corcuera who was governor of
Panama.[233] There were also communities
of Spanish-Mestizos that developed in
Iloilo,[234] Negros[235] and Vigan.[236]

Principalia family by Simón Flores y de la Rosa, uncle of painter Fabián de la Rosa

Interactions between native Filipinos[238]

and immigrant Spaniards plus the Latin-
Americans and their Spanish-Mestizo
descendants eventually caused the
formation of a new language, Chavacano,
a creole of Mexican Spanish.[239]
Meanwhile, in the suburb of Tondo, there
was a convent run by Franciscan friars and
another by the Dominicans that offered
Christian education to the Chinese
converted to Christianity. The same report
reveals that in and around Manila were
collected 9,410 tributes, indicating a
population of about 30,640 who were
under the instruction of thirteen
missionaries (ministers of doctrine), apart
from the monks in monasteries. In the
former province of Pampanga the
population estimate was 74,700 and 28
missionaries. In Pangasinan 2,400 people
with eight missionaries. In Cagayan and
islands Babuyanes 96,000 people but no
missionaries. In La Laguna 48,400 people
with 27 missionaries. In Bicol and
Camarines Catanduanes islands 86,640
people with fifteen missionaries. Based on
the tribute counts, the total founding
population of Spanish-Philippines was
667,612 people,[240] of which: 20,000 were
Chinese migrant traders,[241] 15,600 were
Latino soldier-colonists sent from Peru
and Mexico (In the 1600s),[242] Another
source gave an additional number of
35,000 Mexican immigrants in the
1700s.[244][243] Immigrants included 3,000
Japanese residents,[245] and 600 pure
Spaniards from Europe.[246] There was
also a large but unknown number of Indian
Filipinos as majority of the slaves
imported into the archipelago were from
Bengal or Southern India,[247] adding
Dravidian speaking South Indians and
Indo-European speaking Bangladeshis into
the ethnic mix, and the rest were Malays
and Negritos. They were under the care of
140 missionaries, of which 79 were
Augustinians, nine Dominicans and 42
Franciscans.[248] Adding during the
Spanish evacuation of Ternate, Indonesia,
the 200 families of mixed Mexican-
Filipino-Spanish and Moluccan-Portuguese
descent who had ruled over the briefly
Christianized Sultanate of Ternate (They
later reverted to Islam) were relocated to
Ternate, Cavite and Ermita, Manila.[249] and
they were presaged by their previous ruler,
Sultan Said Din Burkat who was enslaved
but eventually converted to Christianity
and was freed after being deported to
Manila.[250]

A Gobernadorcillo de Naturales comparable to a modern-day mayor. Mostly of Indio descent.

The islands were fragmented and sparsely
populated[251] due to constant inter-
kingdom wars[252] and natural disasters
(As the country is on the Typhoon belt and
Pacific Ring of Fire),[184] which made it
easy for Spanish invasion. The Spanish
then brought political unification to most
of the Philippine archipelago via the
conquest of the various small maritime
states although they were unable to fully
incorporate parts of the sultanates of
Mindanao and the areas where the ethnic
groups and highland plutocracy of the
animist Ifugao of Northern Luzon were
established. The Spanish introduced
elements of western civilization such as
the code of law, western printing and the
Gregorian calendar alongside new food
resources such as maize, pineapple and
chocolate from Latin America.[253]

Education played a major role in the socio-

economic transformation of the
archipelago. The oldest universities,
colleges, and vocational schools and the
first modern public education system in
Asia were all created during the Spanish
colonial period, and by the time Spain was
replaced by the United States as the
colonial power, Filipinos were among the
most educated subjects in all of Asia.[254]
The Jesuits founded the Colegio de Manila
in 1590, which later became the
Universidad de San Ignacio, a royal and
pontifical university. They also founded the
Colegio de San Ildefonso on August 1,
1595. After the expulsion of the Society of
Jesus in 1768, the management of the
Jesuit schools passed to other parties. On
April 28, 1611, through the initiative of
Bishop Miguel de Benavides, the University
of Santo Tomas was founded in Manila.
The Jesuits also founded the Colegio de
San José (1601) and took over the Escuela
Municipal, later to be called the Ateneo de
Manila University (1859). All institutions
offered courses included not only religious
topics but also science subjects such as
physics, chemistry, natural history and
mathematics. The University of Santo
Tomás, for example, started by teaching
theology, philosophy and humanities and
during the 18th century, the Faculty of
Jurisprudence and Canonical Law,
together with the schools of medicine and
pharmacy were opened.

Bahay na bato, a typical Filipino urban house during the colonial era

Outside the tertiary institutions, the efforts

of missionaries were in no way limited to
religious instruction but also geared
towards promoting social and economic
advancement of the islands. They
cultivated into the natives their taste for
music and taught Spanish language to
children.[255] They also introduced
advances in rice agriculture, brought from
America maize and cocoa and developed
the farming of indigo, coffee and sugar
cane. The only commercial plant
introduced by a government agency was
the plant of tobacco.

Church and state were inseparably linked

in Spanish policy, with the state assuming
responsibility for religious
establishments.[256] One of Spain's
objectives in colonialization of the
Philippines was the conversion of the local
population to Roman Catholicism. The
work of conversion was facilitated by the
disunity and insignificance of other
organized religions, except for Islam,
which was still predominant in the
southwest.[256] The pageantry of the
church had a wide appeal, reinforced by
the incorporation of indigenous social
customs into religious observances. The
eventual outcome was a new Roman
Catholic majority, from which the Muslims
of western Mindanao and the upland tribal
and animistic peoples of Luzon remained
detached and alienated from (Ethnic
groups such as the Ifugaos of the
Cordillera region and the Mangyans of
Mindoro).

Villa Fernandina de Vigan founded by the Mexican conquistador Juan de Salcedo.

At the lower levels of administration, the

Spanish built on traditional village
organization by co-opting local leaders.
This system of indirect rule helped create
an indigenous upper class, called the
principalía, who had local wealth, high
status, and other privileges. This
perpetuated an oligarchic system of local
control. Among the most significant
changes under Spanish rule was that the
indigenous idea of communal use and
ownership of land was replaced with the
concept of private ownership and the
conferring of titles on members of the
principalía.[256]

Around 1608 William Adams, an English

navigator contacted the interim governor
of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y
Velasco on behalf of Tokugawa Ieyasu,
who wished to establish direct trade
contacts with New Spain. Friendly letters
were exchanged, officially starting
relations between Japan and New Spain.
From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was
governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty
of New Spain from Mexico, via the Royal
Audiencia of Manila, and administered
directly from Spain from 1821 after the
Mexican revolution,[257] until 1898.

The Manila galleons, were constructed in

Bicol and Cavite.[258] The Manila galleons
were accompanied with a large naval
escort as it traveled to and from Manila
and Acapulco.[259] The galleons sailed
once or twice a year, between the 16th and
19th centuries.[260] The Manila Galleons
brought with them goods,[261] settlers[230]
and military reinforcements destined for
the Philippines, from Latin America.[262]
The reverse voyage also brought Asian
commercial products[263] and
immigrants[264] to the western side of the
Americas.[265] Legally, the Manila Galleons
were only allowed to trade between
Mexico and the Philippines, however illegal
trade, commerce, and inter-migration, were
happening in secret between the
Philippines and other would be nations in
the Spanish Americas due to the
tremendous demand and profitability of
Asian products in Latin America and this
clandestine defiance of Spanish colonial
decrees forbidding trade, continued all
throughout the term of the Manila
Galleons.[266]

The Spanish military fought off various

indigenous revolts and several external
challenges, especially from the British,
Dutch, and Portuguese and Chinese
pirates. Roman Catholic missionaries
converted most of the lowland inhabitants
to Christianity and founded schools,
universities, and hospitals. In 1863 a
Spanish decree introduced education,
establishing public schooling in
Spanish.[267]

In 1646, a series of five naval actions

known as the Battles of La Naval de
Manila was fought between the forces of
Spain and the Dutch Republic, as part of
the Eighty Years' War. Although the
Spanish forces consisted of just two
Manila galleons and a galley with crews
composed mainly of Filipino volunteers,
against three separate Dutch squadrons,
totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch
squadrons were severely defeated in all
fronts by the Spanish-Filipino forces,
forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans
for an invasion of the Philippines.

In 1687, Isaac Newton included an explicit

reference to the Philippines in his classic
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica by mentioning Leuconia, the
ancient Ptolemaic name for the
Philippines.[71]

Spanish rule during the 18th century

Coat of arms of Manila were at the corners of the Cross of Burgundy in the Spanish-Filipino battle standard.
Colonial income derived mainly from
entrepôt trade: The Manila Galleons sailing
from the port of Manila to the port of
Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico
brought shipments of silver bullion, and
minted coin that were exchanged for
return cargoes of Asian, and Pacific
products. A total of 110 Manila galleons
set sail in the 250 years of the Manila-
Acapulco galleon trade (1565 to 1815).
There was no direct trade with Spain until
1766.[256]
Plaza Santo Tomas in Intramuros, Manila; where the Santo Domingo Church, Colegio de Santa Rosa and the original
University of Santo Tomas were built during the Spanish era.

The Philippines was never profitable as a

colony during Spanish rule, and the long
war against the Dutch from the West, in
the 17th century together with the
intermittent conflict with the Muslims in
the South and combating Japanese
Wokou piracy from the North nearly
bankrupted the colonial treasury.[256]
Furthermore, the state of near constant
war caused a high death and desertion
rate among the Mestizo, and Indio (Native
American) soldiers[262] sent from Mexico
and Peru that were stationed in the
Philippines.[268] The high death and
desertion rate also applied to the native
Filipino[238] warriors conscripted by Spain,
to fight in battles all across the
archipelago. The repeated wars, lack of
wages and near starvation were so
intense, almost half of the soldiers sent
from Latin America either died or fled to
the countryside to live as vagabonds
among the rebellious natives or escaped
enslaved Indians (From India)[269] where
they race-mixed through rape or
prostitution, further blurring the racial
caste system Spain tried hard to
maintain.[270] Mixed Spanish-Filipino
descent may be more common than
expected as many Spaniards often have
Filipino concubines and mistresses and
they frequently produce children out of
wedlock.[271] These circumstances
contributed to the increasing difficulty of
governing the Philippines. The Royal Fiscal
of Manila wrote a letter to King Charles III
of Spain in which he advises to abandon
the colony, but the religious orders
opposed this since they considered the
Philippines a launching pad for the
conversion of the Far East.

The Philippines survived on an annual

subsidy paid by the Spanish Crown and
often procured from taxes and profits
accrued by the Viceroyalty of New Spain
(Mexico), and the 200-year-old
fortifications at Manila had not been
improved much since first built by the
Spanish.[272] This was one of the
circumstances that made possible the
brief British occupation of Manila between
1762 and 1764.

British occupation (1762–1764)

Britain declared war against Spain on

January 4, 1762, and on September 24,
1762, a force of British Army regulars and
British East India Company soldiers,
supported by the ships and men of the
East Indies Squadron of the British Royal
Navy, sailed into Manila Bay from Madras,
India.[273] Manila was besieged and fell to
the British on October 4, 1762.

Outside of Manila, the Spanish leader

Simón de Anda y Salazar organized a
militia of 10,000 mostly from Pampanga to
resist British attempts to extend their
conquest outside Manila. Anda y Salazar
established his headquarters first in
Bulacan, then in Bacolor.[274] After a
number of skirmishes and failed attempts
to support Filipino uprisings, the British
command admitted to the War Secretary
in London that the Spanish were "in full
possession of the country".[275] The
occupation of Manila ended in April 1764
as agreed to in the peace negotiations for
the Seven Years' War in Europe. The
Spanish then persecuted the Binondo
Chinese community for its role in aiding
the British.[276] An unknown number of
Indian soldiers known as sepoys, who
came with the British, deserted and settled
in nearby Cainta, Rizal, which explains the
uniquely Indian features of generations of
Cainta residents.[277]

Spanish rule in the second part of the

18th century

In 1766 direct communication was

established with Spain and trade with
Europe through a national ship based on
Spain. In 1774, colonial officers from
Bulacan, Tondo, Laguna Bay, and other
areas surrounding Manila reported with
consternation that discharged soldiers and
deserters (From Mexico, Spain and Peru)
during the British occupation were
providing the indios military training for the
weapons that had been disseminated all
over the territory during the war.[278]
Expeditions from Spain were administered
since 1785 by the Real Compañía de
Filipinas, which was granted a monopoly
of trade between Spain and the islands
that lasted until 1834, when the company
was terminated by the Spanish crown due
to poor management and financial
losses.[279] About this time, Governor-
General Anda complained that the Latin-
American and Spanish soldiers sent to the
Philippines had dispersed "all over the
islands, even the most distant, looking for
subsistence".[280]

In 1781, Governor-General José Basco y

Vargas established the Economic Society
of the Friends of the Country.[281] The
Philippines was administered from the
Viceroyalty of New Spain until the
independence to Mexico in 1821
necessitated the direct rule from Spain of
the Philippines from that year.
Spanish rule during the 19th century

The landing of the Spanish expedition to Sulu by Antonio Brugada.

The Philippines was included in the vast

territory of the Kingdom of Spain, in the
first constitution of Spain promulgated in
Cadiz in 1812. It was never a colony as
modern-day historical literature would say,
but an overseas region in Asia (Spanish
Constitution 1812). The Spanish
Constitution of 1870 provides for the first
autonomous community for "Archipelago
Filipino" where all provinces in the
Philippine Islands will be given the semi-
independent home rule program.

Filipina mestiza women

During the 19th century Spain invested

heavily in education and infrastructure.
Through the Education Decree of
December 20, 1863, Queen Isabella II of
Spain decreed the establishment of a free
public school system that used Spanish as
the language of instruction, leading to
increasing numbers of educated
Filipinos.[282] Additionally, the opening of
the Suez Canal in 1869 cut travel time to
Spain, which facilitated the rise of the
ilustrados, an enlightened class of
Spanish-Filipinos that had been able to
enroll in Spanish and European
universities.

A great number of infrastructure projects

were undertaken during the 19th century
that put the Philippine economy and
standard of living ahead of most of its
Asian neighbors and even many European
countries at that time. Among them were a
railway system for Luzon, a tramcar
network for Manila, and Asia's first steel
suspension bridge Puente Claveria, later
called Puente Colgante.

[283]

Ilustrados in Madrid, c.1890

On August 1, 1851, the Banco Español-

Filipino de Isabel II was established to
attend the needs of the rapid economic
boom, that had greatly increased its pace
since the 1800s as a result of a new
economy based on a rational exploitation
of the agricultural resources of the islands.
The increase in textile fiber crops such as
abacá, oil products derived from the
coconut, indigo, that was growing in
demand, etc., generated an increase in
money supply that led to the creation of
the bank. Banco Español-Filipino was also
granted the power to print a Philippine-
specific currency (the Philippine peso) for
the first time (before 1851, many
currencies were used, mostly the pieces of
eight).
Filipino Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero born in Manila to a Vizcayan Spaniard who was a peninsulares general in the
Philippines José de Azcárraga and a Filipina mestiza María Palmero. He became the Prime minister of Spain.

Spanish Manila was seen in the 19th

century as a model of colonial governance
that effectively put the interests of the
original inhabitants of the islands before
those of the colonial power. As John
Crawfurd put it in its History of the Indian
Archipelago, in all of Asia the "Philippines
alone did improve in civilization, wealth,
and populousness under the colonial rule"
of a foreign power.[284] John Bowring,
Governor General of British Hong Kong
from 1856 to 1860, wrote after his trip to
Manila:

Credit is certainly due to Spain

for having bettered the
condition of a people who,
though comparatively highly
civilized, yet being continually
distracted by petty wars, had
sunk into a disordered and
uncultivated state. The
inhabitants of these beautiful
Islands upon the whole, may
 well be considered to have lived
as comfortably during the last
hundred years, protected from
all external enemies and
governed by mild laws vis-a-vis
those from any other tropical
country under native or
European sway, owing in some
measure, to the frequently
discussed peculiar (Spanish)
circumstances which protect the
interests of the natives.[285]

In The Inhabitants of the Philippines,

Frederick Henry Sawyer wrote:
Until an inept bureaucracy was
substituted for the old paternal
rule, and the revenue
quadrupled by increased
taxation, the Filipinos were as
happy a community as could be
found in any colony. The
population greatly multiplied;
they lived in competence, if not
in affluence; cultivation was
extended, and the exports
steadily increased. [...] Let us be
just; what British, French, or
Dutch colony, populated by
 natives can compare with the
Philippines as they were until
1895?.[286]

The first official census in the Philippines

was carried out in 1878. The colony's
population as of December 31, 1877, was
recorded at 5,567,685 persons.[287] This
was followed by the 1887 census that
yielded a count of 6,984,727,[288] while that
of 1898 yielded 7,832,719 inhabitants.[289]
Latin-American revolutions and direct
Spanish rule

Filipino Mestizo priests Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora collectively known as the Gomburza was
wrongly executed after 1872 Cavite mutiny. It will sparked the movements that would later bring about the revolution that
would end Spain's control of the archipelago.

In the Americas; overseas Filipinos were

involved in several Anti-colonial
movements, Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr. in his
paper: "Manilamen and seafaring:
engaging the maritime world beyond the
Spanish realm", stated therein that
Filipinos who were internationally called
Manilamen were active in the navies and
armies of the world even after the era of
the Manila Galleons such as the case of
the Argentine war of independence
wherein an Argentinian of French descent,
Hypolite Bouchard, laid siege to Monterey
California as a privateer for the Argentine
army. His second ship, the Santa Rosa,
which was captained by the American
Peter Corney, had a multi-ethnic crew
which included Filipinos.[290] It has been
proposed that those Filipinos were
recruited in San Blas, an alternative port to
Acapulco Mexico where several Filipinos
had settled during the Manila-Acapulco
Galleon trade era.[291] Argentinian-
Philippine relations can be traced even
earlier since the Philippines already
received immigrants from South America,
like the soldier Juan Fermín de San Martín,
who was the brother of the leader of the
Argentinian Revolution Jose de San
Martin. Likewise, in Mexico, about 200
Filipinos were recruited by Miguel Hidalgo
in his revolution against Spain, the most
prominent of which was the Manila-born
Ramon Fabié[292][293] afterwards when the
revolution was continued by President
Guerrero, General Isidoro Montes de Oca,
another Filipino-Mexican, had participated
in the Mexican Revolutionary war against
Spain too.[294] The recent participation of
overseas Filipinos in Anti-Imperial wars in
the Americas started even earlier when
Filipinos in the settlement of Saint Malo,
Louisiana assisted the United States in the
defense of New Orleans during the War of
1812.[295]

Upon Mexican independence, the Filipinos

has had such an effect on Mexico that
there were plans among the newly
independent Mexicans, to help the
Filipinos revolt against Spain too, there
was even a secret memorandum from the
Mexican government which read:
Now that we Mexicans have
fortunately obtained our
independence by revolution
against Spanish rule, it is our
solemn duty to help the less
fortunate countries especially
the Philippines, with whom our
country has had the most
intimate relations during the
last two centuries and a half. We
should send secret agents with a
message to their inhabitants to
rise in revolution against Spain
and that we shall give them
financial and military assistance
to win their freedom. Should the
Philippines succeed in gaining
her independence from Spain,
we must felicitate her warmly
and from an alliance of amity
and commerce with her as a
sister nation. Moreover, we
must resume the intimate
Mexico-Philippine relations, as
they were during the halcyon
days of the Acapulco-Manila
galleon trade.[296]
Likewise, in this period, overseas Filipinos
were also active in the Asia-Pacific
especially in China and Indochina. During
the Taiping rebellion, Frederick Townsend
Ward had a militia employing foreigners to
quell the rebellion for the Qing
government, at first he hired American and
European adventurers but they proved
unruly, while recruiting for better troops, he
met his aide-de-camp, Vincente (Vicente?)
Macanaya, who was twenty three years old
in 1860 and was part of the large Filipino
population then living in Shanghai, who
"were handy on board ships and more than
a little troublesome on land', as Caleb Carr
journalistically put it.[297] Smith, another
writer about China also notes in his book:
"Mercenaries and Mandarins" that
Manilamen were 'Reputed to be brave and
fierce fighters' and 'were plentiful in
Shanghai and always eager for action'.
During this Taiping rebellion, by July 1860,
Townsend Ward's force of Manilamen
ranging from one to two hundred
mercenaries successfully assaulted Sung-
Chiang Prefecture.[298] Thus, while the
Philippines was slowly engendered with
revolutionary fervour being suppressed by
Spain, overseas Filipinos have had an
active role in the military and naval
engagements of various nations in the
Americas and Asia-Pacific.[299] Soldiers
from the Philippines were recruited by
France, which was allied to Spain, to
initially protect Indo-Chinese converts to
Roman Catholicism who were persecuted
by their native governments, and later for
an actual conquest of Vietnam and Laos
as well as the establishment of the
Protectorate of Cambodia which was
liberated from Thai invasions and re-
established as a vassal-state of France
with the combined Franco-Spanish-Filipino
forces creating French Cochinchina which
was governed from the former Cambodian
and now Vietnamese city of Saigon.[300]
Santa Lucia Gate, Intramuros, Manila overlooking San Agustin, San Ignacio Church belltowers and Ateneo de Manila where
Jose Rizal once studied.

The Criollo and Latino dissatisfaction

against the Peninsulares (Spaniards direct
from Spain) spurred by their love of the
land and their suffering people had a
justified hatred against the exploitative
Peninsulares who were only appointed to
high positions due to their race and
unflinching loyalty to the homeland. This
resulted in the uprising of Andres Novales
a Philippine born soldier who earned great
fame in richer Spain but chose to return to
serve in poorer Philippines. He was
supported by local soldiers as well as
former officers in the Spanish army of the
Philippines who were primarily from the
now sovereign Mexico[301] as well as the
freshly independent nations of Colombia,
Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Argentina and
Costa Rica.[302] The uprising was brutally
suppressed but it foreshadowed the 1872
Cavite Mutiny that was a precursor to the
Philippine Revolution.[303][304][305] However,
Hispanic-Philippines reached its zenith
when the Philippine-born Marcelo
Azcárraga Palmero became a hero as he
restored the Bourbon Dynasty of Spain to
the throne during his stint as Lieutenant-
General (Three Star General) after the
Bourbons have been deposed by
revolutionaries. He eventually became
Prime Minister of the Spanish Empire and
was awarded membership in the Order of
the Golden Fleece, which is considered the
most exclusive and prestigious order of
chivalry in the world.[306] In the aftermath
of Chilean soldiers' participation in the
Andres Novales uprising against Spain, the
Irish-Chilean founder of Chile, Bernardo
O'Higgins, caught wind of anti-Spanish
sentiment among Filipinos and planned to
send a fleet to liberate the Philippines from
Spain, under the command of Scottish-
Chilean admiral, Lord Thomas Cochrane.
The fleet would have been sent to the
Philippines had it not been for Bernardo
O'Higgins' untimely exile.[307]

Philippine Revolution

Andrés Bonifacio, father of the Philippine Revolution.

Revolutionary sentiments arose in 1872

after three Filipino priests, Mariano
Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora,
known as Gomburza, were accused of
sedition by colonial authorities and
executed by garotte. This would inspire the
Propaganda Movement in Spain, organized
by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal,
Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano
Ponce, that clamored for adequate
representation to the Spanish Cortes and
later for independence. José Rizal, the
most celebrated intellectual and radical
ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels "Noli
Me Tángere", and "El filibusterismo", which
greatly inspired the movement for
independence.[308] The Katipunan, a secret
society whose primary purpose was that
of overthrowing Spanish rule in the
Philippines, was founded by Andrés
Bonifacio who became its Supremo
(leader).

In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas

of the Philippines, especially at Manila,
according to burial statistics, as much as
3.3% of the population were pure European
Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as
high as 9.9%. The Spanish-Filipino and
Chinese-Filipino Mestizo populations also
fluctuated. Eventually, everybody
belonging to these non-native categories
diminished because they were assimilated
into and chose to self-identify as pure
Filipinos[309] since during the Philippine
Revolution, the term "Filipino" included
anybody born in the Philippines coming
from any race.[310][311] That would explain
the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese,
Spanish and mestizo, percentages across
the country by the time of the first
American census in 1903.[312]

The Philippine Revolution began in 1896.

Rizal was wrongly implicated in the
outbreak of the revolution and executed
for treason in 1896. The Katipunan in
Cavite split into two groups, Magdiwang,
led by Mariano Álvarez (a relative of
Bonifacio's by marriage), and Magdalo, led
by Baldomero Aguinaldo cousin of Emilio
Aguinaldo. Tension between the factions
led to the Tejeros Convention in 1897, at
which an election chose Emilio Aguinaldo
as president over Bonifacio and Trias.
Subsequent leadership conflicts with
Bonifacio culminated in his execution by
Aguinaldo's soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to
a truce with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and
Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries
were exiled to Hong Kong. Not all the
revolutionary generals complied with the
agreement. One, General Francisco
Macabulos, established a Central
Executive Committee to serve as the
interim government until a more suitable
one was created. Armed conflicts
resumed, this time coming from almost
every province in Spanish-governed
Philippines.

Revolutionaries gather during the Malolos Congress of the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines.

In 1898, as conflicts continued in the

Philippines, the USS Maine, having been
sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for
the safety of its citizens during an ongoing
Cuban revolution, exploded and sank in
Havana harbor. This event precipitated the
Spanish–American War.[313] After
Commodore George Dewey defeated the
Spanish squadron at Manila, a German
squadron arrived in Manila and engaged in
maneuvers which Dewey, seeing this as
obstruction of his blockade, offered war—
after which the Germans backed down.[314]
The German Emperor expected an
American defeat, with Spain left in a
sufficiently weak position for the
revolutionaries to capture Manila—leaving
the Philippines ripe for German
picking.[315]

The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the

Philippines in the hope he would rally
Filipinos against the Spanish colonial
government. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19,
1898, via transport provided by Dewey. On
June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the
independence of the Philippines in Kawit,
Cavite. Aguinaldo proclaimed a
Revolutionary Government of the
Philippines on June 23. By the time U.S.
land forces arrived, the Filipinos had taken
control of the entire island of Luzon except
for Spanish capitol in the walled city of
Intramuros. In the Battle of Manila, on
August 13, 1898, the United States
captured the city from the Spanish. This
battle marked an end of Filipino-American
collaboration, as Filipino forces were
prevented from entering the captured city
of Manila, an action deeply resented by the
Filipinos.[316]

The First Philippine Republic

(1899–1901)

Emilio Aguinaldo, President of the First Philippine Republic

On January 23, 1899, the First Philippine

Republic was proclaimed under Asia's first
democratic constitution, with Aguinaldo as
its president.[308] Under Aguinaldo, The
Philippine Revolutionary Army was also
renowned to be racially tolerant and
progressive as it had a multi-ethnic
composition that included various other
races and nationalities asides from the
native Filipino,[238] being its officers. Juan
Cailles an Indian and French Mestizo
served as a Major General,[317] the Chinese
Filipino José Ignacio Paua was a Brigadier
General,[318] and Vicente Catalan who was
appointed supreme Admiral of the
Philippine Revolutionary Navy was a
Cuban of Criollo descent.[319] There were
even Japanese, French and Italian soldiers
in the Revolution and Republic, such as the
Japanese officer Captain Chizuno
Iwamoto, French soldier Estaquio
Castellor, and Italian revolutionary Captain
Camillo Ricchiardi. And, even among the
defeated Spanish Army and American
invaders, there are those who defected to
the side of the Philippine Republic. The
most famous of which was African-
American Captain David Fagen who joined
the Filipinos due to his disgust of
American racism against both African-
Americans and Filipinos. Various nations,
mostly Latin American, also influenced the
new Republic, the Sun in the Philippine flag
was taken from the Sun of May of Peru,
Argentina, and Uruguay which symbolized
Inti who was the Incan Sun God, while the
stars in the flag were inspired by the stars
in the flags of the nations of Texas, Cuba,
and Puerto Rico.[320] The Constitution of
the First Philippine Republic was also
influenced by the Constitutions of Cuba,
Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa
Rica, and Guatemala, in addition to using
the French Constitution of 1793.[321]

An early flag of the Filipino revolutionaries.

Despite the establishment of the First
Philippine Republic, Spain and the United
States had sent commissioners to Paris to
draw up the terms of the Treaty of Paris to
end the Spanish–American War. The
Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo,
had been excluded from sessions as
Aguinaldo's government was not
recognized by the family of nations.[316]
Although there was substantial domestic
opposition, the United States decided to
annex the Philippines. Despite the fact that
the first Philippine Republic was patterned
after the French and American
Revolutions, plus the Latin-American
Republics; the Americans and French
themselves sought to crush the revolution
in the Philippines.[322] In addition to Guam
and Puerto Rico, Spain was forced in the
negotiations to cede the Philippines to the
U.S. in exchange for
US$20,000,000.00.[323] U.S. President
McKinley justified the annexation of the
Philippines by saying that it was "a gift
from the gods" and that since "they were
unfit for self-government, ... there was
nothing left for us to do but to take them
all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift
and civilize and Christianize them",[324][325]
in spite of the Philippines having been
already Christianized by the Spanish over
the course of several centuries. The First
Philippine Republic resisted the U.S.
occupation, resulting in the Philippine–
American War (1899–1913).

The estimated GDP per capita for the

Philippines in 1900, the year Spain left and
the First Philippine Republic was in
operation, was $1,033.00. That made it the
second-richest place in all of Asia, just a
little behind Japan ($1,135.00), and far
ahead of China ($652.00) and India
($625.00).[326]

American rule (1898–1946)

1898 political cartoon showing U.S. President McKinley with a native child. Here, returning the Philippines to Spain is
compared to throwing the child off a cliff.

Filipinos initially saw their relationship with

the United States as that of two nations
joined in a common struggle against
Spain.[327] However, the United States later
distanced itself from the interests of the
Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was
unhappy that the United States would not
commit to paper a statement of support
for Philippine independence.[328] The
islands were ceded by Spain to the United
States alongside Puerto Rico and Guam as
a result of the latter's victory in the
Spanish–American War.[329] A
compensation of US$20 million was paid
to Spain according to the terms of the
1898 Treaty of Paris.[330] Relations
deteriorated and tensions heightened as it
became clear that the Americans were in
the islands to stay.[328]
Philippine–American War

Filipino casualties on the first day of war

Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899,

after two American privates killed three
Filipino soldiers as American forces
launched a major attack in San Juan, a
Manila suburb.[331] This began the
Philippine–American War, which would
cost far more money and take far more
lives than the Spanish–American War.[308]
Some 126,000 American soldiers would be
committed to the conflict; 4,234
Americans died,[331] as did 12,000–20,000
Philippine Republican Army soldiers who
were part of a nationwide guerrilla
movement of at least 80,000 to 100,000
soldiers.[332]

The general population, caught between

Americans and rebels, suffered
significantly. At least 200,000 Filipino
civilians died as an indirect result of the
war mostly as a result of the cholera
epidemic at the war's end that took
between 150,000 and 200,000 lives.[333]
Atrocities were committed by both
sides.[331]

American troops guarding the bridge over the River Pasig on the afternoon of the surrender. From Harper's Pictorial
History of the War with Spain, Vol. II, published by Harper and Brothers in 1899.

The poorly equipped Filipino troops were

easily overpowered by American troops in
open combat, but they were formidable
opponents in guerrilla warfare.[331]
Malolos, the revolutionary capital, was
captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo
and his government escaped, however,
establishing a new capital at San Isidro,
Nueva Ecija. On June 5, 1899, Antonio
Luna, Aguinaldo's most capable military
commander, was killed by Aguinaldo's
guards in an apparent assassination while
visiting Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija to meet
with Aguinaldo.[334] With his best
commander dead and his troops suffering
continued defeats as American forces
pushed into northern Luzon, Aguinaldo
dissolved the regular army on November
13 and ordered the establishment of
decentralized guerrilla commands in each
of several military zones.[335] Another key
general, Gregorio del Pilar, was killed on
December 2, 1899, in the Battle of Tirad
Pass—a rear guard action to delay the
Americans while Aguinaldo made good his
escape through the mountains.

President Emilio Aguinaldo boarding the USS Vicksburg after his capture by American forces.

Aguinaldo was captured at Palanan,

Isabela on March 23, 1901, and was
brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility
of further resistance, he swore allegiance
to the United States and issued a
proclamation calling on his compatriots to
lay down their arms, officially bringing an
end to the war.[331] However, sporadic
insurgent resistance continued in various
parts of the Philippines, especially in the
Muslim south, until 1913.[336]

In 1900, President McKinley sent the Taft

Commission, to the Philippines, with a
mandate to legislate laws and re-engineer
the political system.[337] On July 1, 1901,
William Howard Taft, the head of the
commission, was inaugurated as Civil
Governor, with limited executive
powers.[338] The authority of the Military
Governor was continued in those areas
where the insurrection persisted.[339] The
Taft Commission passed laws to set up
the fundamentals of the new government,
including a judicial system, civil service,
and local government. A Philippine
Constabulary was organized to deal with
the remnants of the insurgent movement
and gradually assume the responsibilities
of the United States Army.[340]

The Tagalog, Negros, and Zamboanga

Republics

Brigadier General James F. Smith arrived

at Bacolod on March 4, 1899, as the
Military Governor of the Sub-district of
Negros, after receiving an invitation from
Aniceto Lacson, president of the
breakaway Cantonal Republic of
Negros.[341] The Negros Republic became
a Pro-American protectorate of the United
States.[342] Another insurgent republic was
briefly formed during American
administration: the Tagalog Republic in
Luzon, under Macario Sakay.[343] In the
island of Mindanao the Chavacano
speaking Republic of Zamboanga was
proclaimed.[344] That government was
formed by Vicente Álvarez with the
support of Jamalul Kiram II, the then-
current Sultan of Sulu, and included Latin-
American (Peruvian, Uruguayan and
Argentinian)[345] enslaved soldiers who
had revolted against the Spanish colonial
government.[346]

Insular Government (1901–1935)

William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine Assembly.

Representatives from the Philippine Independence Mission left to right:Isauro Gabaldón, Sergio Osmeña, Manuel L.
Quezon, Claro M. Recto, Pedro Guevara, Jorge Bocobo,
The Philippine Organic Act was the basic
law for the Insular Government, so called
because civil administration was under the
authority of the U.S. Bureau of Insular
Affairs. This government saw its mission
as one of tutelage, preparing the
Philippines for eventual independence.[347]
On July 4, 1902, the office of military
governor was abolished and full executive
power passed from Adna Chaffee, the last
military governor, to Taft, who became the
first U.S. Governor-General of the
Philippines.[348] United States policies
towards the Philippines shifted with
changing administrations.[308] During the
early years of territorial administration, the
Americans were reluctant to delegate
authority to the Filipinos, but an elected
Philippine Assembly was inaugurated in
1907, as the lower house of a bicameral
legislature, with the appointive Philippine
Commission becoming the upper house.

Philippines was a major target for the

progressive reformers. A 1907 report to
Secretary of War Taft provided a summary
of what the American civil administration
had achieved. It included, in addition to the
rapid building of a public school system
based on English teaching, and boasted
about such modernizing achievements as:
steel and concrete wharves at the newly
renovated Port of Manila; dredging the
River Pasig,; streamlining of the Insular
Government; accurate, intelligible
accounting; the construction of a
telegraph and cable communications
network; the establishment of a postal
savings bank; large-scale road-and
bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt
policing; well-financed civil engineering;
the conservation of old Spanish
architecture; large public parks; a
bidding process for the right to build
railways; Corporation law; and a coastal
and geological survey.[349]
In 1903 the American reformers in the
Philippines passed two major land acts
designed to turn landless peasants into
owners of their farms. By 1905 the law
was clearly a failure. Reformers such as
Taft believed landownership would turn
unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The
social structure in rural Philippines was
highly traditional and highly unequal.
Drastic changes in land ownership posed a
major challenge to local elites, who would
not accept it, nor would their peasant
clients. The American reformers blamed
peasant resistance to landownership for
the law's failure and argued that large
plantations and sharecropping was the
Philippines' best path to development.[350]

Tranvía in Manila during American Era

Elite Filipina women played a major role in

the reform movement, especially on health
issues. They specialized on such urgent
needs as infant care and maternal and
child health, the distribution of pure milk
and teaching new mothers about children's
health. The most prominent organizations
were the La Protección de la Infancia, and
the National Federation of Women's
Clubs.[351]

When Democrat Woodrow Wilson became

U.S. president in 1913, new policies were
launched designed to gradually lead to
Philippine independence. In 1902 U.S. law
established Filipinos citizenship in the
Philippine Islands; unlike Hawaii in 1898
and Puerto Rico in 1918, they did not
become citizens of the United States. The
Jones Law of 1916 became the new basic
law, promised eventual independence. It
provide for the election of both houses of
the legislature.
Manila, Philippines, ca.1900s

In socio-economic terms, the Philippines

made solid progress in this period. Foreign
trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in
1895, 13% of which was with the United
States. By 1920, it had increased to
601 million pesos, 66% of which was with
the United States.[352] A health care
system was established which, by 1930,
reduced the mortality rate from all causes,
including various tropical diseases, to a
level similar to that of the United States
itself. The practices of slavery, piracy and
headhunting were suppressed but not
entirely extinguished. A new educational
system was established with English as
the medium of instruction, eventually
becoming a lingua franca of the Islands.
The 1920s saw alternating periods of
cooperation and confrontation with
American governors-general, depending on
how intent the incumbent was on
exercising his powers vis-à-vis the
Philippine legislature. Members to the
elected legislature lobbied for immediate
and complete independence from the
United States. Several independence
missions were sent to Washington, D.C. A
civil service was formed and was gradually
taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively
gained control by 1918.

El Hogar Building. With Manila's Hispanic- Austronesian-Sinic roots. Daniel Burnham built a plan that takes advantage of
its cityscape, possessing the Bay of Naples, the winding river of Paris, and the canals of Venice. With his City Beautiful
movement style of Urban planning.

Philippine politics during the American

territorial era was dominated by the
Nacionalista Party, which was founded in
1907. Although the party's platform called
for "immediate independence", their policy
toward the Americans was highly
accommodating.[353] Within the political
establishment, the call for independence
was spearheaded by Manuel L. Quezon,
who served continuously as Senate
president from 1916 until 1935.

World War I gave the Philippines the

opportunity to pledge assistance to the US
war effort. This took the form of an offer
to supply a division of troops, as well as
providing funding for the construction of
two warships. A locally recruited national
guard was created and significant
numbers of Filipinos volunteered for
service in the US Navy and army.[354]
Daniel Burnham built an architectural plan
for Manila which would have transformed
it into a modern city.[355]

Frank Murphy was the last Governor-

General of the Philippines (1933–35), and
the first U.S. High Commissioner of the
Philippines (1935–36). The change in form
was more than symbolic: it was intended
as a manifestation of the transition to
independence.
Commonwealth

Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon

The Great Depression in the early thirties

hastened the progress of the Philippines
towards independence. In the United
States it was mainly the sugar industry
and labor unions that had a stake in
loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines
since they could not compete with the
Philippine cheap sugar (and other
commodities) which could freely enter the
U.S. market. Therefore, they agitated in
favor of granting independence to the
Philippines so that its cheap products and
labor could be shut out of the United
States.[356]

Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington, D.C.

In 1933, the United States Congress

passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act as a
Philippine Independence Act over
President Herbert Hoover's veto.[357]
Though the bill had been drafted with the
aid of a commission from the Philippines,
it was opposed by Philippine Senate
President Manuel L. Quezon, partially
because of provisions leaving the United
States in control of naval bases. Under his
influence, the Philippine legislature
rejected the bill.[358] The following year, a
revised act known as the Tydings–
McDuffie Act was finally passed. The act
provided for the establishment of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines with
transition to full independence after a ten-
year period. The commonwealth would
have its own constitution and be self-
governing, though foreign policy would be
the responsibility of the United States, and
certain legislation required approval of the
United States president.[358] The Act
stipulated that the date of independence
would be on July 4 following the tenth
anniversary of the establishment of the
Commonwealth.

Philippine First Lady Aurora Quezon

A Constitutional Convention was
convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On
February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of
the Republic of the Philippines was
approved by the convention by a vote of
177 to 1. The constitution was approved
by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on
March 23, 1935, and ratified by popular
vote on May 14, 1935.[359][360]

On September 17, 1935,[361] presidential

elections were held. Candidates included
former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the
Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader
Gregorio Aglipay, and others. Manuel L.
Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the
Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the
winners, winning the seats of president
and vice-president, respectively.[362]

The Commonwealth Government was

inaugurated on the morning of November
15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps
of the Legislative Building in Manila. The
event was attended by a crowd of around
300,000 people.[361] Under the Tydings–
McDuffie Act this meant that the date of
full independence for the Philippines was
set for July 4, 1946, a timetable which was
followed after the passage of almost
eleven very eventful years.
Legislative Building of the commonwealth of the Philippines

The new government embarked on

ambitious nation-building policies in
preparation for economic and political
independence.[363] These included national
defense (such as the National Defense Act
of 1935, which organized a conscription
for service in the country), greater control
over the economy, the perfection of
democratic institutions, reforms in
education, improvement of transport, the
promotion of local capital,
industrialization, and the colonization of
Mindanao.

However, uncertainties, especially in the

diplomatic and military situation in
Southeast Asia, in the level of U.S.
commitment to the future Republic of the
Philippines, and in the economy due to the
Great Depression, proved to be major
problems. The situation was further
complicated by the presence of agrarian
unrest, and of power struggles between
Osmeña and Quezon,[363] especially after
Quezon was permitted to be re-elected
after one six-year term.

A proper evaluation of the policies'

effectiveness or failure is difficult due to
Japanese invasion and occupation during
World War II.
World War II and Japanese
occupation

Military

Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo and Manuel Roxas began and ended the conflict on opposite sides.

Japan launched a surprise attack on the

Clark Air Base in Pampanga on the
morning of December 8, 1941, just ten
hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Aerial bombardment was followed by
landings of ground troops on Luzon. The
defending Philippine and United States
troops were under the command of
General Douglas MacArthur. Under the
pressure of superior numbers, the
defending forces withdrew to the Bataan
Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor
at the entrance to Manila Bay.

On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur

declared the capital city, Manila, an open
city to prevent its destruction.[364] The
Philippine defense continued until the final
surrender of United States-Philippine
forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April
1942 and on Corregidor in May of the
same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of
war captured by the Japanese at Bataan
were forced to undertake the infamous
Bataan Death March to a prison camp
105 kilometers to the north. About 10,000
Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before
reaching their destination.[365] President
Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied
the troops to Corregidor and later left for
the United States, where they set up a
government in exile.[366] MacArthur was
ordered to Australia, where he started to
plan for a return to the Philippines.
Exiled Manuel L. Quezon (sitting second to the right) in Washington, D.C., with Representatives of 26 United Nations at
Flag day ceremonies in the White House to reaffirm their pact.

The Japanese military authorities

immediately began organizing a new
government structure in the Philippines
and established the Philippine Executive
Commission. They initially organized a
Council of State, through which they
directed civil affairs until October 1943,
when Japan declared the Philippines as an
independent republic at Gozen Kaigi since
U.S. government had promised
independence of the Philippines in 1935.
The Japanese-sponsored republic headed
by President José P. Laurel proved to be
unpopular.[367]

From mid-1942 through mid-1944,

Japanese occupation of the Philippines
was opposed by large-scale underground
and guerrilla activity.[368][369] The Philippine
Army, as well as remnants of the U.S.
Army Forces Far East,[370][371] continued to
fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and
was considered an auxiliary unit of the
United States Army.[372] Supplies and
encouragement were provided by U.S.
Navy submarines and a few parachute
drops.[373] Their effectiveness was such
that by the end of the war, Japan
controlled only twelve of the forty-eight
provinces.[367] One element of resistance
in the Central Luzon area was furnished by
the Hukbalahap, which armed some
30,000 people and extended their control
over much of Luzon.[367] While remaining
loyal to the United States, many Filipinos
hoped and believed that liberation from
the Japanese would bring them freedom
and their already-promised
independence.[374]
As many as 10,000 American and Filipino soldiers died in the Bataan Death March

The Philippines was the bloodiest theater

of the war for the invading empire, with at
least 498,600 Japanese troops killed in
fighting the combined Filipino resistance
and American soldiers, a larger number of
casualties compared to the second-placed
theater, the entirety of China, which caused
the Japanese about 455,700
casualties.[375][374] The occupation of the
Philippines by Japan ended at the war's
conclusion. At the eve of the liberation of
the Philippines, the Allied forces and the
Japanese Empire waged the largest naval
battle in history, by gross tonnage in the
Battle of Leyte Gulf.[378] The American
army had been fighting the Philippines
Campaign since October 1944, when
MacArthur's Sixth United States Army
landed on Leyte. Landings in other parts of
the country had followed, and the Allies,
with the Philippine Commonwealth troops,
pushed toward Manila. However, fighting
continued until Japan's formal surrender
on September 2, 1945. Approximately
10,000 U.S. soldiers were missing in action
in the Philippines when the war ended,
more than in any other country in the
Pacific or European Theaters. The
Philippines suffered great loss of life and
tremendous physical destruction,
especially during the Battle of Manila. An
estimated 1 million Filipinos had been
killed, a large portion during the final
months of the war, and Manila had been
extensively damaged.[367]

Home front
Leyte Landing of General Douglas MacArthur to liberate the Philippines from the Empire of Japan

As in most occupied countries, crime,

looting, corruption, and black markets
were endemic. Japan in 1943 proposed
independence on new terms, and some
collaborators went along with the plan, but
Japan was clearly losing the war and
nothing became of it.[379]

With a view of building up the economic

base of the Greater East Asia Co-
Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Army
envisioned using the islands as a source
of agricultural products needed by its
industry. For example, Japan had a surplus
of sugar from Taiwan but, a severe
shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow
cotton on sugar lands with disastrous
results. They lacked the seeds, pesticides,
and technical skills to grow cotton.
Jobless farm workers flocked to the cities,
where there was minimal relief and few
jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using
cane sugar for fuel, castor beans and
copra for oil, derris for quinine, cotton for
uniforms, and abaca (hemp) for rope. The
plans were very difficult to implement in
the face of limited skills, collapsed
international markets, bad weather, and
transportation shortages. The program
was a failure that gave very little help to
Japanese industry, and diverted resources
needed for food production.

Living conditions were bad throughout the

Philippines during the war. Transportation
between the islands was difficult because
of lack of fuel. Food was in very short
supply, due to inflation.[380]

The Third Republic (1946–

1965)
The Flag of the United States of America is lowered while the Flag of the Philippines is raised during the Independence
Day ceremonies on July 4, 1946

The return of the Americans in spring 1945

was welcomed by nearly all the Filipinos,
in sharp contrast to the situation in nearby
Dutch East Indies. The collaborationist
"Philippine Republic" set up by the
Japanese under Jose P. Laurel, was highly
unpopular, and the extreme
destructiveness of the Japanese Army in
Manila in its last days solidified Japan's
image as a permanent target of hate. The
pre-war Commonwealth system was
reestablished under Sergio Osmeña, who
became president in exile after President
Quezon died in 1944. Osmeña was little-
known and his Nacionalista Party was no
longer such a dominant force. Osmeña
supporters challenged the legitimacy of
Manuel Roxas who had served as
secretary to Laurel. MacArthur testified to
Roxas' patriotism and the collaborationist
issue disappeared after Roxas was elected
in 1946 on a platform calling for closer
ties with the United States; adherence to
the new United Nations; national
reconstruction; relief for the masses;
social justice for the working class; the
maintenance of peace and order; the
preservation of individual rights and
liberties of the citizenry; and honesty and
efficiency of government.[381] The United
States Congress passed a series of
programs to help rehabilitation, including
$2 billion over five years for war damages
and rehabilitation, and a new tariff law that
provided for a 20-year transition from free
trade to a low tariff with the United States.
Washington also demanded that
Americans would have equal rights with
Filipinos in business activities, a special
treatment that was resented. In 1947 the
United States secured an agreement that it
would keep its major military and naval
bases. On the whole the transition to
independence, achieved in 1946, was
mostly peaceful and highly successful,
despite the extreme difficulties caused by
massive war damages.[382] The special
relationship with the United States
remained the dominant feature until sharp
criticism arose in the 1960s.[383]

Administration of Manuel Roxas

(1946–1948)

Manuel Roxas inaugurated as president in 1946

Elections were held in April 1946, with

Manuel Roxas becoming the first president
of the independent Republic of the
Philippines. The United States ceded its
sovereignty over the Philippines on July 4,
1946, as scheduled.[308][384] However, the
Philippine economy remained highly
dependent on United States markets—
more dependent, according to United
States high commissioner Paul McNutt,
than any single U.S. state was dependent
on the rest of the country.[385] The
Philippine Trade Act, passed as a
precondition for receiving war
rehabilitation grants from the United
States,[386] exacerbated the dependency
with provisions further tying the
economies of the two countries. A military
assistance pact was signed in 1947
granting the United States a 99-year lease
on designated military bases in the
country.

During Roxas' term of office administration

of the Turtle Islands and Mangsee Islands
was transferred by the United Kingdom to
the Republic of the Philippines. By an
international treaty concluded in 1930
between the United States (in respect of
its then overseas territory, the Philippine
Archipelago) and the United Kingdom (in
respect of its then protectorate, the State
of North Borneo) the two powers agreed
the international boundaries between
those respective territories.[387] In that
treaty the United Kingdom also accepted
that the Turtle Islands as well as the
Mangsee Islands were part of the
Philippines Archipelago and therefore
under US sovereignty. However, by a
supplemental international treaty
concluded at the same time, the two
powers agreed that those islands,
although part of the Philippines
Archipelago, would remain under the
administration of the State of North
Borneo's British North Borneo
Company.[388] The supplemental treaty
provided that the British North Borneo
Company would continue to administer
those islands unless and until the United
States government gave notice to the
United Kingdom calling for administration
of the islands to be transferred to the U.S.
The U.S. never gave such a notice. On July
4, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines
was born. It became the successor to the
U.S. under the treaties of 1930. On July 15,
1946, the United Kingdom annexed the
State of North Borneo and, in the view of
the United Kingdom, became the sovereign
power with respect to what had been the
State of North Borneo.[389] On September
19, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines
notified the United Kingdom that it wished
to take over the administration of the
Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi and the
Mangesse Islands. Pursuant to a
supplemental international agreement, the
transfer of administration became
effective on October 16, 1947.[390][391]

Roxas did not stay long in office because

of a heart attack as he was speaking at
Clark Air Base on April 15, 1948. He was
succeeded by his vice president Elpidio
Quirino.[392]
Administration of Elpidio Quirino
(1948–1953)

President Quirino (in the center-left) and family in Malacañang Palace.

The Roxas administration granted general

amnesty to those who had collaborated
with the Japanese in World War II, except
for those who had committed violent
crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart
attack in April 1948, and the vice president,
Elpidio Quirino, was elevated to the
presidency. He ran for president in his own
right in 1949, defeating José P. Laurel and
winning a four-year term.

World War II had left the Philippines

demoralized and severely damaged. The
task of reconstruction was complicated by
the activities of the Communist-supported
Hukbalahap guerrillas (known as "Huks"),
who had evolved into a violent resistance
force against the new Philippine
government. Government policy towards
the Huks alternated between gestures of
negotiation and harsh suppression.
Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay
initiated a campaign to defeat the
insurgents militarily and at the same time
win popular support for the government.
The Huk movement had waned in the early
1950s, finally ending with the
unconditional surrender of Huk leader Luis
Taruc in May 1954.

Enhancing President Manuel Roxas' policy

of social justice to alleviate the lot of the
common mass, President Quirino, almost
immediately after assuming office, started
a series of steps calculated to effectively
ameliorate the economic condition of the
people.[393] After periodic surprise visits to
the slums of Manila and other backward
regions of the country, President Quirino
officially made public a seven-point
program for social security, to wit:[393]
Unemployment insurance, Old-age
insurance, Accident and permanent
disability insurance, Health insurance,
Maternity insurance, State relief, Labor
opportunity

President Quirino also created the Social

Security Commission, making Social
Welfare Commissioner Asuncion Perez
chairman of the same.[393] This was
followed by the creation of the President's
Action Committee on Social Amelioration,
charged with extending aid, loans, and
relief to the less fortunate citizens. Both
the policy and its implementation were
hailed by the people as harbingers of great
benefits.[393]

Administration of Ramon Magsaysay

(1953–1957)

President Magsaysay (right) in 1957

As President, he was a close friend and

supporter of the United States and a vocal
spokesman against communism during
the Cold War. He led the foundation of the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, also
known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that
aimed to defeat communist-Marxist
movements in Southeast Asia, South Asia
and the Southwestern Pacific.

During his term, he made Malacañang

literally a "house of the people", opening its
gates to the public. One example of his
integrity followed a demonstration flight
aboard a new plane belonging to the
Philippine Air Force (PAF): President
Magsaysay asked what the operating
costs per hour were for that type of
aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the
PAF, covering the cost of his flight. He
restored the people's trust in the military
and in the government.

Magsaysay's administration was

considered one of the cleanest and most
corruption-free in modern Philippine
history; his rule is often cited as the
Philippines' "Golden Years". Trade and
industry flourished, the Philippine military
was at its prime, and the country gained
international recognition in sports, culture,
and foreign affairs. The Philippines placed
second on a ranking of Asia's clean and
well-governed countries.
Supported by the United States,
Magsaysay was elected president in 1953
on a populist platform. He promised
sweeping economic reform, and made
progress in land reform by promoting the
resettlement of poor people in the Catholic
north into traditionally Muslim areas.
Though this relieved population pressure
in the north, it heightened religious
hostilities.[394] Remnants of the
communist Hukbalahap[395] were defeated
by Magsaysay.[396][397] He was extremely
popular with the common people, and his
death in an airplane crash in March 1957
dealt a serious blow to national
morale.[398] At this time, the Philippines
joined the United Nations in defending
South Korea from North Korean invasions.
The Philippines was the first country in
Southeast Asia to recognize South Korean
independence and was the first to send
military units to fight on South Korea's
behalf.[399][400]

Administration of Carlos P. Garcia

(1957–1961)
Garcia inaugurated as president in 1957

Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the

presidency after Magsaysay's death, and
was elected to a four-year term in the
election of November that same year. His
administration emphasized the nationalist
theme of "Filipino first", arguing that the
Filipino people should be given the
chances to improve the country's
economy.[401]

Garcia successfully negotiated for the

United States' relinquishment of large
military land reservations. However, his
administration lost popularity on issues of
government corruption as his term
advanced.[402]

Administration of Diosdado
Macapagal (1961–1965)

Diosdado Macapagal departing for Malacañang

In the presidential elections held on

November 14, 1961, Vice President
Diosdado Macapagal defeated re-
electionist President Carlos P. Garcia and
Emmanuel Pelaez as a vice president.
President Macapagal changed the
independence day of the Philippines from
July 4 to June 12.

The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA

3844) was a major Philippine land reform
law enacted in 1963 under President
Macapagal.[403]

Marcos era
The leaders of the SEATO nations in front of the Congress Building in Manila, hosted by Philippine President Ferdinand
Marcos (4th from left) on October 24, 1966.

Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but

was defeated by his former party-mate,
Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, who
had switched to the Nacionalista Party.
Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated
public works projects and intensified tax
collection.[404] In a failed attempt to retake
east Sabah, the Jabidah massacre, where
Muslim Tausug Filipinos were killed by the
Philippine Army, occurred under the
authority of Marcos.[405] Due to his
popularity among Christians, Marcos was
re-elected president in 1969, becoming the
first president of the Philippines to get a
second term.[404] Crime and civil
disobedience increased. The Communist
Party of the Philippines formed the New
People's Army and the Moro National
Liberation Front continued to fight for an
independent Muslim nation in Mindanao.
An explosion which killed opposition
lawmakers during the proclamation rally of
the senatorial slate of the Liberal Party on
August 21, 1971, led Marcos to suspend
the writ of habeas corpus. Protests surged
and the writ was restored on January 11,
1972.[406]
The Marcoses and the Nixons at the Malacañang Palace

Martial law

Amid the growing popularity of the

opposition, Marcos declared martial law
on September 21, 1972, by virtue of
Proclamation No. 1081 to stifle dissent.
Marcos justified the declaration by citing
the threat of Communist insurgency and
the alleged ambush of defense secretary
Juan Ponce Enrile.[406] Ruling by decree,
Marcos curtailed press freedom and other
civil liberties, abolished Congress, closed
down major media establishments,
ordered the arrest of opposition leaders
and militant activists, including his
staunchest critics: senators Benigno
Aquino Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose
Diokno.[407][406] Crime rates plunged
dramatically after a curfew was
implemented.[408] Many protesters,
students, and political opponents were
forced to go into exile, and a number were
killed.[406][409]

A constitutional convention, which had

been called for in 1970 to replace the
colonial 1935 Constitution, continued the
work of framing a new constitution after
the declaration of martial law. The new
constitution went into effect in early 1973,
changing the form of government from
presidential to parliamentary and allowing
Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973.
Marcos claimed that martial law was the
prelude to creating a "New Society", which
he would rule for more than two
decades.[406] The economy during the
1970s was robust, due to previous
engagements by various administrations.
However, the economy suffered after
incurring massive debt and downgrading
prospects of the Philippines under martial
rule, while the wife of the president, Imelda
Marcos, lived in high society.[406][409]

The human rights abuses[410][15] under the

dictatorship particularly targeted political
opponents, student activists,[411]
journalists, religious workers, farmers, and
others who fought back against the
administration. Based on the
documentation of Amnesty International,
Task Force Detainees of the Philippines,
and similar human rights monitoring
entities,[412] the dictatorship was marked
by 3,257 known extrajudicial killings,[412]
35,000 documented tortures, 77
'disappeared', and 70,000
incarcerations.[413][414]

Some 2,520 of the 3,257 murder victims

were tortured and mutilated before their
bodies were dumped in various places for
the public to discover – a tactic meant to
sow fear among the public,[413][415] which
came to be known as "salvaging."[416]
Some bodies were even cannibalized.[417]

Fourth Republic
Manila circa 1980s

Marcos officially lifted martial law on

January 17, 1981. However, he retained
much of the government's power for arrest
and detention. Corruption and nepotism as
well as civil unrest contributed to a serious
decline in economic growth and
development under Marcos, whose own
health faced obstacles due to lupus. The
political opposition boycotted the 1981
presidential elections, which pitted Marcos
against retired general Alejo Santos, in
protest over his control over the
results.[407] Marcos won by a margin of
over 16 million votes, allowing him to have
another six-year term under the new
Constitution that his administration
crafted.[409] Finance Minister Cesar Virata
was eventually appointed to succeed
Marcos as Prime Minister.[418]

In 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino

Jr. was assassinated at Manila
International Airport upon his return to the
Philippines after a long period of exile.
This coalesced popular dissatisfaction
with Marcos and began a succession of
events, including pressure from the United
States, that culminated in a snap
presidential election in February 1986.[409]
The opposition united under Aquino's
widow, Corazon Aquino. The official
election canvasser, the Commission on
Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the
winner of the election. However, there was
a large discrepancy between the Comelec
results and that of Namfrel, an accredited
poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent
result was rejected by local and
international observers.[419] Cardinal
Jaime Sin declared support for Corazon
Aquino, which encouraged popular
revolts.[420] General Fidel Ramos and
Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile
withdrew their support for Marcos. A
peaceful civilian-military uprising, now
popularly called the People Power
Revolution, forced Marcos into exile and
installed Corazon Aquino as president on
February 25, 1986. The administration of
Marcos has been called by various
sources as a kleptocracy[421][422][423] and a
conjugal dictatorship.[404][409]

Fifth Republic (1986–present)

Administration of Corazon Aquino

(1986–1992)

Corazon Aquino, widow of the assassinated opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., takes the Oath of Office on February 25,
1986
Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991.

Corazon Aquino immediately formed a

revolutionary government to normalize the
situation, and provided for a transitional
"Freedom Constitution".[424] A new
permanent constitution was ratified and
enacted in February 1987.[425]

The constitution crippled presidential

power to declare martial law, proposed the
creation of autonomous regions in the
Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, and
restored the presidential form of
government and the bicameral
Congress.[426]

Progress was made in revitalizing

democratic institutions and respect for
civil liberties, but Aquino's administration
was also viewed as weak and fractious,
and a return to full political stability and
economic development was hampered by
several attempted coups staged by
disaffected members of the Philippine
military.[427]
Economic growth was additionally
hampered by a series of natural disasters,
including the 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo that left 700 dead and 200,000
homeless.[428]

During the Aquino presidency, Manila

witnessed six unsuccessful coup
attempts, the most serious occurring in
December 1989.[429]

In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a

treaty that would have allowed a 10-year
extension of the U.S. military bases in the
country.[430] The United States turned over
Clark Air Base in Pampanga to the
government in November, and Subic Bay
Naval Base in Zambales in December
1992, ending almost a century of U.S.
military presence in the Philippines.[431]

Administration of Fidel V. Ramos

(1992–1998)

Ramos inaugurated as president in 1992

In the 1992 elections, Defense Secretary
Fidel V. Ramos, endorsed by Aquino, won
the presidency with just 23.6% of the vote
in a field of seven candidates. Early in his
administration, Ramos declared "national
reconciliation" his highest priority and
worked at building a coalition to overcome
the divisiveness of the Aquino years.[426]

He legalized the Communist Party and laid

the groundwork for talks with communist
insurgents, Muslim separatists, and
military rebels, attempting to convince
them to cease their armed activities
against the government. In June 1994,
Ramos signed into law a general
conditional amnesty covering all rebel
groups, and Philippine military and police
personnel accused of crimes committed
while fighting the insurgents.[432]

In October 1995, the government signed

an agreement bringing the military
insurgency to an end. A peace agreement
with the Moro National Liberation Front
(MNLF), a major separatist group fighting
for an independent homeland in Mindanao,
was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year-old
struggle.[432] However, an MNLF splinter
group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
continued the armed struggle for an
Islamic state.
Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain
passage of an amendment that would
allow him to run for a second term were
met with large-scale protests, leading
Ramos to declare he would not seek re-
election.[433]

On his presidency the death penalty was

revived in the light of the rape-slay case of
UPLB students Eileen Sarmienta and Allan
Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be
executed was Leo Echegaray in 1999.[434]
Administration of Joseph Estrada
(1998–2001)

President Estrada in 2000

Joseph Estrada, a former movie actor who

had served as Ramos' vice president, was
elected president by a landslide victory in
1998. His election campaign pledged to
help the poor and develop the country's
agricultural sector. He enjoyed widespread
popularity, particularly among the poor.[435]
Estrada assumed office amid the Asian
Financial Crisis. The economy did,
however, recover from a low −0.6% growth
in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by
1999.[436]

Like his predecessor there was a similar

attempt to change the 1987 constitution.
The process is termed as CONCORD or
Constitutional Correction for Development.
Unlike Charter change under Ramos and
Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according
to its proponents, would only amend the
'restrictive' economic provisions of the
constitution that is considered as
impeding the entry of more foreign
investments in the Philippines. However it
was not successful in amending the
constitution.[437]

After the worsening secessionist

movement in Mindanao in April 2000,
Estrada declared an "all-out-war" against
the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
(MILF).[438][439] The government later
captured 46 MILF camps including the
MILF's headquarters, Camp
Abubakar.[438][440][441]

In October 2000, however, Estrada was

accused of having accepted millions of
pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling
businesses.[442] He was impeached by the
House of Representatives[443] but his
impeachment trial in the Senate broke
down when the senate voted to block
examination of the president's bank
records. In response, massive street
protests erupted demanding Estrada's
resignation. Faced with street protests,
cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of
support from the armed forces, Estrada
resigned from office on January 20,
2001.[444][445]
Administration of Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo (2001–2010)

President Arroyo between the monarchs of Spain in 2006

Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo

(the daughter of President Diosdado
Macapagal) was sworn in as Estrada's
successor on the day of his departure. Her
accession to power was further
legitimized by the mid-term congressional
and local elections held four months later,
when her coalition won an overwhelming
victory.[446]

Arroyo's initial term in office was marked

by fractious coalition politics as well as a
military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that
led her to declare a month-long nationwide
state of rebellion.[446] Later on in
December 2002 she said would not run in
the May 10, 2004, presidential election, but
she reversed herself in October 2003 and
decided to join the race anyway.[446]

She was re-elected and sworn in for her

own six-year term as president on June 30,
2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped
conversation surfaced bearing the voice of
Arroyo apparently asking an election
official if her margin of victory could be
maintained.[447] The tape sparked protests
calling for Arroyo's resignation.[447] Arroyo
admitted to inappropriately speaking to an
election official, but denied allegations of
fraud and refused to step down.[447]
Attempts to impeach the president failed
later that year.

Halfway through her second term, Arroyo

unsuccessfully attempted to push for an
overhaul of the constitution to transform
the present presidential-bicameral republic
into a federal parliamentary-unicameral
form of government, which critics describe
would be a move that would allow her to
stay in power as Prime Minister.[448]

Her term saw the completion of

infrastructure projects like Line 2 in
2004.[449]

Numerous other scandals (such as the

Maguindanao massacre, wherein 58
people were killed, and the unsuccessful
NBN-ZTE broadband deal) took place in
the dawn of her administration. She
formally ended her term as president in
2010 (wherein she was succeeded by
Senator Benigno Aquino III) and ran for a
seat in congress the same year (becoming
the second president after Jose P. Laurel
to run for lower office following the
presidency).

Administration of Benigno Aquino III

(2010–2016)

President Aquino with U.S. President Barack Obama in 2011

Benigno Aquino III, the son of president
Corazon C. Aquino, began his presidency
on June 30, 2010. His administration
claimed to be focused on major reforms
that would bring greater transparency,
reduced poverty, reduced corruption, and a
booming market which will give birth to a
newly industrialized nation.

The 2010 Manila hostage crisis caused

deeply strained relations between Manila
and Hong Kong for a time.

The Sultanate of Panay, the newset of 21

in the country, was formally established
covering 10 000 Muslims in the island.[450]
Tensions regarding Sabah due to the
Sultanate of Sulu's claim gradually rose
during the early years of his
administration. Standoffs in Sabah
between The Sultanate of Sulu's Royal
Army and the Malaysian forces struck in
2013.[451][452]

In 2012, the Framework Agreement on the

Bangsamoro was signed to create the
Bangsamoro Government in
Mindanao.[453] In response, the
Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters
(BIFF) was assembled by religious
extremists with the goal of seceding from
the Philippines.
The economy performed well at 7.2% GDP
growth, the second fastest in Asia.

Aftermath of Typhoon Haiyan in Tacloban, Leyte

In May 2013, the Philippines implemented

the Enhanced Basic Education Act of
2013, commonly known as K–12 program.
It added two more years to the country's
ten-year schooling system for primary and
secondary education.[454] The country was
then hit by Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) on
November 8, 2013, which heavily
devastated the Visayas.[455][456] Massive
rehabilitation efforts by foreign world
powers sending aid, devolved into chaos
following the revelations that the
administration and that the government
had not been properly handing out the aid
packages and preference for political
maneuvering over the safety of the people,
leading to mass deterioration of food and
medical supplies.

In 2014, the Comprehensive Agreement on

the Bangsamoro was signed after 17 years
of negotiation with the Moro Islamic
Liberation Front (MILF), a move which
sought to bring peace in Mindanao and the
Sulu.[457] When US President Barack
Obama visited the Philippines on April 28,
2014, Aquino signed the Enhanced
Defense Cooperation Agreement,
facilitating the return of United States
Armed Forces bases into the
country.[458][459][460][461]

From January 15 to 19, 2015, Pope Francis

stayed in the Philippines for a series of
publicity tours and paid visits to the
victims of Typhoon Haiyan.[462][463] On
January 25, 2015, 44 members of the
Philippine National Police-Special Action
Force (PNP-SAF) were killed during an
encounter between MILF and BIFF in
Mamasapano, Maguindanao, leading to a
delay in the passage of the Bangsamoro
Basic Law.[464][465]

Under Aquino's presidency, the Philippines

has had controversial clashes with the
People's Republic of China on a number of
issues (such as the standoff in
Scarborough Shoal in the South China Sea
and the dispute over the Spratly islands).
This resulted in the proceedings of the
Philippines to file a sovereignty case
against China in a global arbitration
tribunal. Later on in 2014, the Aquino
Administration then filed a case to the
Arbitration Tribunal in The Hague which
challenged Beijing's claim in the South
China Sea after Chinese ships were
accused of harassing a small Philippine
vessel carrying goods for stationed
military personnel in the South Thomas
Shoal where an old Philippine ship had
been stationed for many years.[466]

On January 12, 2016, the Philippine

Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced
Defense Cooperation Agreement paving
the way for the return of United States
Armed Forces bases into the country.[467]
On March 23, 2016, Diwata-1 was
launched to the International Space
Station (ISS), becoming the country's first
micro-satellite and the first satellite to be
built and designed by Filipinos.[468]

Administration of Rodrigo Duterte

(2016–2022)

Rodrigo Duterte delivering his first State of the Nation Address.

Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte

succeeded Aquino and became the first
president from Mindanao. Under Duterte's
first 100 days, the government launched a
24-hour complaint office accessible to the
public through a nationwide hotline, 8888,
and changed the nationwide emergency
telephone number from 117 to
911.[469][470] Duterte launched an
intensified anti-drug campaign to fulfill a
campaign promise of wiping out
criminality in six months;[471] by August
2019, the death toll for the war on drugs
was 5,779.[472][473][474] On July 12, 2016,
the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in
favor of the Philippines in its case against
China's claims in the South China Sea; the
ruling deprived surface features in the
contested area of territorial-generating
status, effectively deflating China's nine-
dash line territorial claims.[475] Later that
November, president Ferdinand Marcos'
remains was buried at the Libingan ng mga
Bayani (the country's official cemetery for
heroes) after the Supreme Court of the
Philippines ruled in favor of the burial,
provoking protests from various
groups.[476]

Following clashes between government

forces and the Maute group in Marawi,
Duterte, on May 23, 2017, signed
Proclamation No. 216 declaring a 60-day
martial law in Mindanao.[477] To attain
inclusive economic growth and improve
quality of life in the country, in 2017, the
Duterte administration launched its
socioeconomic policy, DuterteNomics, in
which infrastructure development and
industrialization were a significant part
of.[478] The policy included the Build! Build!
Build! Infrastructure Plan, which aimed to
sustain the country's economic growth
and accelerate poverty reduction[479] by
developing transport infrastructure such
as railways, roads, airports, and seaports,
irrigation, and flood control
projects.[480][481] Duterte signed the
Universal Access to Quality Tertiary
Education Act, providing free tuition and
exemption from other fees in public
universities and colleges, as well as
subsidies for those enrolled in private
higher education institutions. Duterte also
signed into law the Universal Health Care
Act, the creation of the Department of
Human Settlements and Urban
Development, establishing a national
cancer control program, and allowing
subscribers to keep their mobile numbers
for life.[482]

In 2018, the Bangsamoro Organic Law was

legislated into law[483] and was ratified
following a successful plebiscite a year
later. The Bangsamoro transition period
began, paving the way for the formal
creation of the Bangsamoro ARMM.[484]
Administration of Bongbong Marcos
(2022–present)

In May 2022, Ferdinand Marcos Jr. (known

by his nickname "Bongbong"), son of
former president and dictator Ferdinand
Marcos, won the presidential election by a
landslide. His vice presidential candidate
was Sara Duterte, daughter of then-
president Rodrigo Duterte.[485] On June 30,
2022, Marcos was sworn in as the
Philippine president and Sara Duterte was
sworn in as vice-president.[486] A few
weeks after his inauguration as president,
the 2022 Luzon earthquake hit Northern
Luzon, resulting in 11 casualties and 615
people injured.[487]

See also
Philippines
portal

Ancient Filipino diet and health

Archaeology of the Philippines
Battles of Manila
Battles of the Philippines
Dambana
Filipino nationalism
Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935
History of Asia
History of Southeast Asia
List of disasters in the Philippines
List of Philippine historic sites
List of presidents of the Philippines
List of sovereign state leaders in the
Philippines
Military history of the Philippines
National hero of the Philippines
Politics of the Philippines
Resident Commissioner of the
Philippines
Sovereignty of the Philippines
Suyat
Timeline of Philippine history
Timeline of Philippine sovereignty
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X) . JSTOR 20072046 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/20072046) . S2CID 162707729 (ht
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138. Rausa-Gomez 1967, Lourdes Rausa-Gomez
cited Sir Stamford Raffles, himself citing
the 'Traditional History of Java' wherein he
said that Manila and Sulu in the Philippines
were part of Majapahapit, however she
doubted the veracity of Stamford Raffles
assertion due to the lack of archaeological
evidence between Majapahit and the
Philippines in her 1967 article. However,
that article has been renderred outdated
due to the discovery of the Laguna
Copperplate Inscription in 1989 which
proved links between Java and Manila,
which makes her dismissal of the Raffles
assertion null and the Raffles assertion
feasible.
139. Odal-Devora, Grace (2000). Alejandro,
Reynaldo Gamboa; Yuson, Alfred A. (eds.).
The River Dwellers. Pasig : The River of Life.
Unilever Philippines. pp. 43–66.
140. History for Brunei Darussalam: Sharing our
Past. Curriculum Development Department,
Ministry of Education. 2009. ISBN 978-
99917-2-372-3.
141. Rausa-Gomez 1967, p. 92.
142. Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-
colonial History of the Philippines (https://c
ore.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf)
By Wang Zhenping Page 258.
143. Andy Barski, Albert Beaucort; Bruce
Carpenter, Barski (2007). Bali and Lombok.
Dorling Kindersley, London. p. 46. ISBN 978-
0-7566-2878-9.
144. 100 Events That Shaped The Philippines
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145. Sundita, Christopher Allen (2002). In
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146. The Filipino Moving Onward 5' 2007 Ed (htt
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147. Philippine History Module-based Learning I'
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148. Philippine History (https://books.google.co
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149. "Brunei" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-fac
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150. "The Maguindanao Sultanate" (https://web.
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ww.mnlf.net/History/The%20Maguindana
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Liberation Front web site. "The Political and
Religious History of the Bangsamoro
People, condensed from the book Muslims
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f.net/History/The%20Maguindanao%20Sult
anate.htm) on January 26, 2003) Retrieved
January 9, 2008.
151. Palafox, Queenie. "The Sultan of the River"
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2810/http://www.nhcp.gov.ph/index.php?o
ption=com_content&task=view&id=574) .
National Historical Commission. Archived
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ndex.php?option=com_content&task=view&
id=574) on June 17, 2013. Retrieved
March 16, 2013.
152. Shinzō Hayase (2007). Mindanao
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153. Scott 1984.
154. Pusat Sejarah Brunei (http://www.history-ce
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155. Santiago, Luciano P.R., The Houses of
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156. Henson, Mariano A. 1965. The Province of
Pampanga and Its Towns: A.D. 1300–1965.
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157. Agoncillo 1990, p. 22.
158. Saunders 2013, p. 60.
159. Herbert & Milner 1989, p. 99.
160. Lea & Milward 2001, p. 16.
161. Hicks 2007, p. 34.
162. Church 2012, p. 16.
163. Eur 2002, p. 203.
164. Abdul Majid 2007, p. 2.
165. Welman 2013, p. 8.
166. Cf. William Henry Scott (1903). "Barangay:
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167. Scott, William Henry (1989). "The
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1122) . Philippine Studies. Ateneo de
Manila University Press. 37 (2): 131–144.
ISSN 2244-1638 (https://www.worldcat.or
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168. Scott 1989, p. 195.
169. The former sultan of Malacca decided to
retake his city from the Portuguese with a
fleet of ships from Lusung in 1525 AD.
SOURCE: Barros, Joao de, Decada terciera
de Asia de Ioano de Barros dos feitos que
os Portugueses fezarao no descubrimiento
dos mares e terras de Oriente [1628],
Lisbon, 1777, courtesy of William Henry
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Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City:
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170. Pires, Tomé; Rodrigues, Francisco;
Cortesão, Armando (1978). A suma oriental
de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco
Rodrigues: Leitura e notas de Armando
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171. Reid, Anthony (1995). "Continuity and
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Islam and Christianity" (http://epress.anu.e
du.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile
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James J. Fox; Darrell Tryon (eds.). The
Austronesians: Historical and comparative
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580354-9.
173. Antony, Robert J., ed. (2010). Elusive
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174. Pinto, Fernao Mendes (1989) [1578]. The
Travels of Mendes Pinto. Translated by
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175. Scott 1989, p. 194.
176. Scott 1989, p. 195.
177. "Quest of the Dragon and Bird Clan; The
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178. Bayao, Bras, Letter to the king dated Goa
November 1, 1540, Archivo Nacional de
Torre de Tombo: Corpo Cronologico, parte
1, maco 68, doc. 63, courtesy of William
Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century
Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994,
page 194.
179. The Mediterranean Connection by William
Henry Scott Page 138 (Published By:
Ateneo de Manila University) Taken from
"Translated in Teixera, The Portuguese
Missions, p. 166."
180. Scott, William Henry (1989). "The
Mediterranean Connection" (http://www.phil
ippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/
download/1122/6410) . Philippine Studies.
37 (2): 131–144. Quoting from; Cortes 30,
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181. Pigafetta, Antonio (1524). Relazione del
primo viaggio intorno al mondo.
182. Marivir Montebon, Retracing Our Roots – A
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183. Celestino C. Macachor (2011). "Searching
for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of
Jovito Abellana" (https://web.archive.org/w
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5.com/custom3.html) . Rapid Journal. 10
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skrima.s5.com/custom3.html) on July 3,
2012.
184. Storms of history Water, hazard and society
in the Philippines 1565–1930 (https://www.
jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9?se
q=1) By Greg Bankoff
185. Pigafetta, Antonio (1874). The first voyage
round the world by Magellan (https://www.a
rchive.org/details/firstvoyageround00piga/
page/n5/mode/2up) . Translated by Lord
Stanley of Alderley. London: The Hakluyt
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186. Lacsamana 1990, p. 47
187. Scott 1985, p. 51.
188. Kurlansky 1999, p. 64.
189. Joaquin 1988.
190. De Borja, Marciano R. (2005). Basques in
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Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp. 30–
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191. The friar says: Es la isla de Panay muy
parecida a la de Sicilia, así por su forma
triangular come por su fertilidad y
abundancia de bastimentos... Es la isla
más poblada, después de Manila y
Mindanao, y una de las mayores, por bojear
más de cien leguas. En fertilidad y
abundancia es en todas la primera... El otro
corre al oeste con el nombre de Alaguer
[Halaur], desembocando en el mar a dos
leguas de distancia de Dumangas...Es el
pueblo muy hermoso, ameno y muy lleno
de palmares de cocos. Antiguamente era el
emporio y corte de la más lucida nobleza
de toda aquella isla...Mamuel Merino,
O.S.A., ed., Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas
(1565–1615), Madrid: Consejo Superior de
 Investigaciones Cientificas, 1975, pp. 374–
376.
192. Alip 1964, p. 201,317.
193. Annual report of the Secretary of War 1903,
p. 379 (https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?i
d=njp.32101050737699&view=1up&seq=39
3) .
194. McAmis 2002, p. 33.
195. "Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II,
1578" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141
014220759/http://www.filipiniana.net/Artif
actView.do?artifactID=P40000000008&que
ry=Francisco%20de%20Sande) . Archived
from the original (http://www.filipiniana.ne
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8&query=Francisco%20de%20Sande) on
October 14, 2014. Retrieved October 17,
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196. Frankham 2008, p. 278.
197. Atiyah 2002, p. 71.
198. Saunders 2002, pp. 54–60.
199. Saunders 2002, p. 57.
200. Hall and McClain 1991, 235.
201. His name appears also as "Taizufú",
"Tayfuzu" or "Zaizufu". San Agustín 1975,
541
202. AGI, Filipinas, 6, r. 5, n. 53.
203. " "Merchants, Missionaries and Marauders:
Trade and Traffic between Kyūshū (Japan)
and Luzon (Philippines) in the Late
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204. The "Indo-Pacific" Crossroads (https://lirias.
kuleuven.be/retrieve/578752#page=22) :
The Asian Waters as Conduits of
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Tanaka Takeo 1961.")
205. Martinez, Manuel F. Assassinations &
conspiracies : from Rajah Humabon to
Imelda Marcos. Manila: Anvil Publishing,
2002.
206. Fernando A. Santiago Jr. "Isang Maikling
Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–
1898" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090
814203000/http://www.philjol.info/index.p
hp/MALAY/article/viewFile/80/77) .
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0/77) on August 14, 2009. Retrieved
July 18, 2008.
207. Kurlansky, Mark. (1999). The Basque
History of the World. New York: Walker &
Company. p. 64. ISBN 0-8027-1349-1.
208. Joaquin, Nick. (1988). Culture and History:
Occasional Notes on the Process of
Philippine Becoming. Manila: Solar
Publishing.
209. Borschberg, Peter (2015). Journal,
Memorials and Letters of Cornelis Matelieff
de Jonge: Security, Diplomacy and
Commerce in 17th-century Southeast Asia.
NUS Press. pp. 82, 84, 126, 421. ISBN 978-
9971-69-527-9.
210. "Antonio de Morga, in Blair and Robertson,
The Philippines Islands, XV, Pages 97-98"
211. Cesar A. Majul, Muslims in the Philippines
(Quezon City: University of the Philippines
Press,1999), 128–129.
212. Sordilla, Shane Patrick. "MAGUINDANAO
AND TERNATE CONNECTION AND
DISCONNECTION DURING THE AGE OF
EUROPEAN COLONIZATION: AN
OVERVIEW" (https://www.academia.edu/38
617032) .
213. Truxillo, Charles A. (2012). Crusaders in the
Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines
in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World
War (https://books.google.com/books?id=p
rA99TUDgKQC&pg=PA1) . Jain Publishing
Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-89581-864-5.
214. Peacock Gallop (2015) "From Anatolia to
Aceh: Ottomans, Turks and Southeast
Asia".
215. Borao, José Eugenio (2010). "The Baroque
Ending of a Renaissance Endeavour". The
Spanish experience in Taiwan, 1626–1642:
the Baroque ending of a Renaissance
endeavor. Hong Kong University Press.
p. 199. ISBN 978-962-209-083-5.
JSTOR j.ctt1xcrpk (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/j.ctt1xcrpk) .
216. "Catholic Missions in the Carolines and
Marshall Islands" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20171128085201/http://www.micse
m.org/pubs/articles/religion/frames/cathm
issionsfr.htm) . micsem.org. Archived from
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s/religion/frames/cathmissionsfr.htm) on
November 28, 2017. Retrieved May 22,
2020.
217. Morga (2008), Sucesos, p. 81.
218. Reid, Anthony (1995). "Continuity and
Change in the Austronesian Transition to
Islam and Christianity" (http://epress.anu.e
du.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile
_devices/ch16.html) . In Peter Bellwood;
James J. Fox; Darrell Tryon (eds.). The
Austronesians: Historical and comparative
perspectives (https://openresearchlibrary.or
g/ext/api/media/f3c41f5e-0a6e-4c6b-a292-
1bbc81ed9492/assets/external_content.pd
f) (PDF). Canberra: Department of
Anthropology, The Australian National
University. doi:10.22459/A.09.2006 (https://
doi.org/10.22459%2FA.09.2006) .
hdl:2027/mdp.39015051647942 (https://hd
l.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.3901505164794
2) . ISBN 9780731521326.
219. George Childs Kohn (October 31, 2013).
Dictionary of Wars (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=qTDfAQAAQBAJ&q=1599+spa
nish+cambodia&pg=PA445) . Routledge.
pp. 445–. ISBN 978-1-135-95494-9.
220. "History – the First Cathedral 1581–1583 (h
ttp://www.manilacathedral.org/History/hist
ory_1.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20130524232007/http://www.mani
lacathedral.org/History/history_1.htm)
May 24, 2013, at the Wayback
Machine.http://www.manilacathedral.org/H
istory/history_1.htm Manila Metropolitan
Cathedral-Basilica Official Website.
Retrieved on March 22, 2013.
221. "A History of the Philippines by David P.
Barrows" (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/
38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#xd19e340
8) . "The Largest Cities.—Most of this
Spanish population dwelt in Manila or in the
five other cities which the Spaniards had
founded in the first three decades of their
occupation. Those were as follows:—"
222. Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish
Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific
By Stephanie J. Mawson (https://academic.
oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419)
AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas,
leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1,
núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r
−428 v ; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285,
núm. 1, fos. 30 r −41 v .
223. Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific
World From Mexico to the Philippines,
1765–1811. By Eva Maria Mehl, Published
at University of North Carolina Wilmington.
Chapter 4: Levies for the Philippines in Late
Colonial Mexico (Page 172)
224. Sánchez-Jiménez, David (October 1, 2010).
"La hispanización y la identidad hispana en
Filipinas" (https://academicworks.cuny.ed
u/ny_pubs/221/) . Publications and
Research.
225. "Fortress of Empire, Rene Javellana, S. J.
1997" (http://filipinokastila.tripod.com/fort.
html/) .
226. Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the
Philippines" (http://www.gutenberg.org/file
s/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139) .
Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 179.
"Within the walls, there were some six
hundred houses of a private nature, most of
them built of stone and tile, and an equal
number outside in the suburbs, or
"arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards
("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los
Españoles"). This gives some twelve
hundred Spanish families or
establishments, exclusive of the religious,
who in Manila numbered at least one
hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain
times, about four hundred trained Spanish
soldiers who had seen service in Holland
 and the Low Countries, and the official
classes."
227. "Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines" (htt
p://www.philippine-history.org/spanish-exp
editions.htm) . PHILIPPINE-HISTORY.ORG.
2005.
228. Herrington, Don. "West Coast Of The Island
Of Luzon | Tourist Attractions" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20161206200644/http://w
ww.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guide
s/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attracti
on-city-of-manila) .
www.livinginthephilippines.com. Archived
from the original (http://www.livinginthephil
ippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philip
pines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila)
on December 6, 2016. Retrieved February 2,
2017.
229. Galaup "Travel Accounts" page 375.
230. "Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific
World" By Eva Maria Mehl, page 235.
231. Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the
Philippines" (http://www.gutenberg.org/file
s/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139) .
Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 229.
"Reforms under General Arandía.—The
demoralization and misery with which
Obando's rule closed were relieved
somewhat by the capable government of
Arandía, who succeeded him. Arandía was
one of the few men of talent, energy, and
integrity who stood at the head of affairs in
these islands during two centuries. He
reformed the greatly disorganized military
force, establishing what was known as the
"Regiment of the King," made up very
largely of Mexican soldiers [note:
emphasis added]. He also formed a corps
 of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These
were regular troops, who received from
Arandía sufficient pay to enable them to live
decently and like an army."
232. Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James
Alexander (1905). The Philippine Islands,
1493–1898 (https://archive.org/details/phil
ippineisland25blai) . Vol. 25. Cleveland,
Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. pp. 150–
177.
233. "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF
THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS
ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE
RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST.
AUGUSTINE" (http://www.zamboanga.com/
html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm)
(Zamboanga City History) "He (Governor
Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera)
brought a great reënforcements of soldiers,
many of them from Perú, as he made his
voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."
234. Quinze Ans de Voyage Autor de Monde Vol.
II ( 1840) (http://ilongo.weebly.com/iloilo-hi
story-part-5.html) Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20141009181632/http://ilon
go.weebly.com/iloilo-history-part-5.html)
October 9, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
Retrieved July 25, 2014, from Institute for
Research of Iloilo Official Website.
235. "The Philippine Archipelago" By Yves
Boquet Page 262
236. De la Torre, Visitacion (2006). The Ilocos
Heritage. Makati City: Tower Book House.
p. 2. ISBN 978-971-91030-9-7.
237. Duka 2008, p. 72 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&dq=filipino&
pg=PA72) .
238. During the Spanish colonial period, the
terms Insulares and Filipino generally
referred to full-blooded Spaniards who had
been born in the Philippines, distinguishing
them from Spaniards born in Spain who
were termed Peninsulares. The first
documented use of the tern Filipino to refer
to persons of Philippine ethnicity was in the
19th century poem A la juventud filipina by
Jose Rizal.[237]
239. Park 2022, p.  "For this, Bernal borrows a
premise offered by linguist Keith Whinnom
in Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the
Philippine Islands (1956), namely that
"Mexican Spanish" is "the basis of the
vocabulary of the contact vernaculars."
Quoted from León-Portilla, "Algunos
nahuatlismos en el castellano de Filipinas."
León-Portilla, in turn, affirms that he
constructs his short reflection from
Retana's Diccionario de Filipinismos (1923).
240. The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the
Philippines in the 21St Century By Duncan
Alexander McKenzie (Page xii)
241. Carol R. Ember; Melvin Ember; Ian A.
Skoggard, eds. (2005). "History" (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC
&pg=PA751&dq=%22In+1893%2C+the+Qin
g+rulers+officially+withdrew+the+migration
+ban%22) . Encyclopedia of Diasporas:
Immigrant and Refugee Cultures around the
World, Volume 1. Springer.
242. Stephanie Mawson, 'Between Loyalty and
Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish
Domination in the Seventeenth Century
Pacific' (Univ. of Sydney M.Phil. thesis,
2014), appendix 3.
243. Garcia, María Fernanda (1998). "Forzados y
reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia
(1756–1808)" (https://bagn.archivos.gob.m
x/index.php/legajos/article/view/1243) .
Bolotin Archivo General de la Nación. 4
(11).
244. Park 2022, p. 100 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100) ,
citing a 1998 journal article.[243]
245. "Japanese Christian" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20100507124349/http://ph.pagena
tion.com/mnl/Paco_120.9997_14.5808.ma
p) . Philippines: Google map of Paco
district of Manila, Philippines. Archived
from the original (http://ph.pagenation.co
m/mnl/Paco_120.9997_14.5808.map) on
May 7, 2010.
246. "Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571–
1599) By Antonio Garcia-Abasalo" (http://w
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247. Peasants, Servants, and Sojourners:
Itinerant Asians in Colonial New Spain,
1571–1720 By Furlong, Matthew J. (https://
repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/1
0150/333213/azu_etd_13473_sip1_m.pdf?
sequence=1&isAllowed=y&title=repository.a
rizona.edu) "Slaves purchased by the
indigenous elites, Spanish and Hokkiens of
the colony seemed drawn most often from
South Asia, particularly Bengal and South
India, and less so, from other sources, such
as East Africa, Brunei, Makassar, and
Java..." Chapter 2 "Rural Ethnic Diversity"
Page 164 (Translated from: "Inmaculada
Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila
(siglos xvi–xvii) (Córdoba: Universidad de
Córdoba, 1997), 31, 35–36."
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existentes en Filipinas el dia 31 de 1.591"
Archivo del Bibliófilo Filipino IV, p 39–112
249. Zamboangueño Chavacano: Philippine
Spanish Creole or Filipinized Spanish
Creole? By Tyron Judes D. Casumpang
(Page 3)
250. Bartolome Juan Leonardy y de Argensola,
Conquistas de las islas Molucas (Madrid:
Alonso Martin, 1909) pp. 351–8; Cesar
Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon
City: University of the Philippines Press,
1973) pp. 119–20; Hal, History of
Southeast Asia, pp. 249–50.
251. Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the
Philippines" (http://www.gutenberg.org/file
s/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139) .
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"Fourth.—In considering this Spanish
conquest, we must understand that the
islands were far more sparsely inhabited
than they are to-day. The Bisayan islands,
the rich Camarines, the island of Luzon,
had, in Legaspi's time, only a small fraction
of their present great populations. This
population was not only small, but it was
also extremely disunited. Not only were the
great tribes separated by the differences of
language, but, as we have already seen,
each tiny community was practically
independent, and the power of a dato very
 limited. There were no great princes, with
large forces of fighting retainers whom they
could call to arms, such as the Portuguese
had encountered among the Malays south
in the Moluccas."
252. Reyeg, Fernardo; Marsh, Ned (December
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ext/u2/a556504.pdf) (PDF). The Filipino
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p. 21. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
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256. Dolan & 1991-4
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259. Williams, Glyn (1999). The Prize of All the
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260. Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon,
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261. 1996. "Silk for Silver: Manila-Macao Trade
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262. Letter from Fajardo to Felipe III From
Manila, August 15 1620.(From the Spanish
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rg.org/files/16086/16086-h/16086-h.htm)
("The infantry does not amount to two
hundred men, in three companies. If these
men were that number, and Spaniards, it
would not be so bad; but, although I have
not seen them, because they have not yet
arrived here, I am told that they are, as at
other times, for the most part boys,
mestizos, and mulattoes, with some
Indians (Native Americans). There is no
little cause for regret in the great sums that
reënforcements of such men waste for, and
cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what
betterment there will be until your Majesty
 shall provide it, since I do not think, that
more can be done in Nueva Spaña,
although the viceroy must be endeavoring
to do so, as he is ordered.")
263. Fish, Shirley. The Manila-Acapulco
Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific,
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270. Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the
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2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and
Spanish creoles and mestizos do not
exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all
ages, and the distinct castes or
modifications known in America under the
name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc.,
although found in the Philippine Islands, are
generally confounded in the three classes
of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and
Chinese." In other words, the Mexicans who
had arrived in the previous century had so
intermingled with the local population that
distinctions of origin had been forgotten by
the 19th century. The Mexicans who came
 with Legázpi and aboard succeeding
vessels had blended with the local
residents so well that their country of origin
had been erased from memory.
271. Philippine Studies Vol. 41, No. 3 (Third
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Christine Doran
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doi:10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007 (http
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281. Dolan & 1991-5
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283. De Borja, Marciano R. (2005). Basques in
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290. Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2006).
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president of Mexico of African descent. See
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300. Gooding, Nigel. "Filipino Involvement in the
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a large percentage of Mexican recruits and
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became the bastion of discontent
supporting the Novales mutiny. ~Garcia de
los Arcos, "Criollismo y conflictividad en
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Dictatorship, and Resistance (https://archive.
org/details/philippinesreade00schi) . South
End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-275-5.
Scott, William Henry (1984). Prehispanic
source materials for the study of Philippine
history (https://books.google.com/books?id=
FSlwAAAAMAAJ) . New Day Publishers.
ISBN 978-971-10-0227-5.
Scott, William Henry (1985). Cracks in the
parchment curtain and other essays in
Philippine history (https://books.google.com/
books?id=dKvtAAAAMAAJ) . New Day
Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0073-8.
Shafer, Robert Jones (1958). The economic
societies in the Spanish world, 1763–1821 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/economicsocietie00
00shaf) . Syracuse University Press.
Taft, William (1908). Present Day Problems (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=rxqmVdt
6hKgC) . Ayer Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8369-
0922-7.
Tracy, Nicholas (1995). Manila Ransomed:
The British Assault on Manila in the Seven
Years War (https://books.google.com/books?
id=AoNxAAAAMAAJ) . University of Exeter
Press. ISBN 978-0-85989-426-5.
Wionzek, Karl-Heinz (2000). Germany, the
Philippines, and the Spanish–American War:
four accounts by officers of the Imperial
German Navy (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=F-RxAAAAMAAJ) . National Historical
Institute. ISBN 9789715381406.
Woods, Ayon kay Damon L. (2005). The
Philippines (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C) . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-
85109-675-6.
 Zaide, Sonia M. (1994). The Philippines: A
Unique Nation. All-Nations Publishing Co.
ISBN 978-971-642-071-5.

Further reading
Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J.
(2005). State and Society in the Philippines (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=cTx7AAA
AQBAJ) . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-7425-6872-3.
Columbia University Press (2001).
"Philippines, The" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20080728061705/http://www.bartleby.co
m/65/ph/PhilipRep.html) . Columbia
Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Bartleby.com.
Archived from the original (http://www.bartle
by.com/65/ph/PhilipRep.html) on July 28,
2008.
Barrows, David Prescott (1905). A History of
the Philippines . (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=n8MYAAAAYAAJ) Amer. Bk.
Company.
Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James
Alexander, eds. (1903). 1582–1583 (http://qu
od.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.0
05) . The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803.
Vol. 5. Historical introduction and additional
notes by Edward Gaylord Bourne. Cleveland,
Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. "Explorations
by early navigators, descriptions of the
islands and their peoples, their history and
records of the catholic missions, as related in
contemporaneous books and manuscripts,
showing the political, economic, commercial
and religious conditions of those islands
from their earliest relations with European
nations."
Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands,
1493–1898 (1903)
vol 7 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.007)
vol 8 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.008)
vol 9 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.009)
vol 13 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.013)
vol 24 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.024)
 vol 25 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.025)
vol 36 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.036)
vol 42 online (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
p/philamer/afk2830.0001.042)
Corpuz, O.D. (2005). Roots of the Filipino
Nation. University of the Philippines Press.
ISBN 978-971-542-461-5.
Elliott, Charles Burke (1916). The Philippines :
To the End of the Military Régime (http://www.
minnesotalegalhistoryproject.org/assets/Elli
ott%20end%20Philippines%20Military%20Re
g%20(1916)..pdf) (PDF). The Bobbs-Merrill
Company.
Elliott, Charles Burke (1917). The Philippines:
To the End of the Commission Government, a
Study in Tropical Democracy (https://archive.
org/details/afj2336.0001.001.umich.edu)
(PDF). The Bobbs-Merrill Company.

Foreman, John (1906). The Philippine Islands,

A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical,
Social and Commercial History of the
Philippine Archipelago (https://www.gutenber
g.org/files/22815/22815-h/22815-h.htm) .
Charles Scribner's Sons. (other formats
available (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebook
s/22815) )
Mijares, Primitivo (1976). The Conjugal
Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos.
Union Square Publications. Republished as
Mijares, Primitivo (2017). The Conjugal
Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos
(https://books.google.com/books?id=4Uwqt
AEACAAJ) . Ateneo de Manila University
Press. ISBN 978-971-550-781-3.
Millis, Walter (1931). The Martial Spirit (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=dJkuAAAAI
AAJ) . Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-
0-929587-07-3.
Nieva, Gregorio (September 28, 1921). "Now
Is The Time To Solve The Philippine Problem:
The View Of A Representative Filipino" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=sVroBrOJL6
4C&pg=PA135) . The Outlook. Outlook
Publishing Company, Inc. 129: 135–137.
Retrieved July 30, 2009.
Ocay, Jeffry (2010). "Domination and
Resistance in the Philippines: From the Pre-
hispanic to the Spanish and American
Period" (https://www.ejournals.ph/article.ph
p?id=7287) . LUMINA. 21 (1).
Scott, William Henry (1992). Looking for the
Prehispanic Filipino: And Other Essays in
Philippine History (https://books.google.com/
books?id=Z6ZwAAAAMAAJ) . New Day
Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0524-5.
Worcester, Dean Conant (1913). The
Philippines: Past and Present (https://www.gu
tenberg.org/ebooks/12077) . New York: The
Macmillan company.
Worcester, Dean Conant (1898). The
Philippine Islands and Their People (https://ar
chive.org/details/philippineislan00goog) .
Macmillan & co.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to History of the Philippines.
Official government portal of the
Republic of the Philippines (https://web.
archive.org/web/20070930195314/htt
p://www.gov.ph/) .
National Historical Institute (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20120224035104/htt
p://www.nhi.gov.ph//index.php?option=c
om_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=
3) .
The United States and its Territories
1870–1925: The Age of Imperialism (htt
p://www.hti.umich.edu/p/philamer/) .
History of the Philippine Islands by
Morga, Antonio de (https://www.gutenb
erg.org/ebooks/7001) in 55 volumes,
from Project Gutenberg. Translated into
English, edited and annotated by E. H.
Blair and J. A. Robertson. Volumes 1–14
and 15–25 (http://www.gutenberg.org/b
rowse/authors/b#a2296) indexed
under Blair, Emma Helen.
Philippine Society and Revolution (http
s://web.archive.org/web/201011090709
59/http://www.philippinerevolution.net/
cgi-bin/cpp/pdocs.pl?id=lrp_e%3Bpag
e%3D01) (archived from the original (ht
tp://www.philippinerevolution.net/cgi-bi
n/cpp/pdocs.pl?id=lrp_e;page=01) on
2010-01-10).
The European Heritage Library –
Balancing Paradise and Pandemonium:
Philippine Encounters with the rest of
the World (http://euroheritage.net/spani
shphilippines2.shtml) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20111112103938/
http://euroheritage.net/spanishphilippin
es2.shtml) November 12, 2011, at the
Wayback Machine
Filipiniana, The Premier Digital Library of
the Philippines (https://web.archive.org/
web/20081217085143/http://filipiniana.
net/)
 Philippine History (http://www.philippine
-history.org/)

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