SPEECH ACTS

Submitted To: Mam Shazia Akbar

Submitted By: Muntaha Fawad
Fizza Zafar
Hadia Chaudhary
Khadija Shaikh
Abdul Qayoom
Shamsullah
Course: Semantics and Pragmatics
Department: BS 4th English (Morning)
 SPEECH ACTS
The term “Speech Act” was coined by the philosopher John L. Austin (1911-1960 Great Britain).
John Austin in his book “How to do things with Words”, is the first one to introduce the idea of
speech acts, analyzing the relationships between utterance and performance. Later, it was
developed by another philosopher John L. Searle (1932 USA).

DEFINITION
• A speech act is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance.
• A speech Act is a meaningful utterance given in accordance with speech principles and
rules.
• Speech Acts are rudimentary elements of everyday communicative life.
In simple words, speech acts are performed by a speaker. It is what people do through their
language. It is basically a process of utterance, the utterance of words, phrases, sentences, etc. We
all use language with communicative intentions and speech acts are acts of communication that
express those intentions.
We perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation,
compliment, or refusal.
A speech act might contain just one word, as in “sorry” to perform an apology or several words or
sentences, for example, “Sorry, I forgot your birthday.” These acts include real-life actions under
some speaking rules or principles.
Here are some examples of speech acts that we use or hear every day:
Greetings: Hi Sara, EID MUBARAK!
Request: Give me a cup of coffee, please.
Complaint: I have already been waiting three weeks for the computer and you promised me that
it would be delivered within a week.
Refusal: Oh! I would love to see that movie with you but this Friday I have to attend the marriage
ceremony of a friend.
Invitation: We are having some people over on Saturday evening and wanted to know if you
would like to join us.

SPEECH ACT COMPONENTS

According to John L. Austin, there are three types of acts in speech acts. These acts are
characteristic of most utterances.
 Locutionary Act Illocutionary Act/ Perlocutionary Act/
Illocutionary Force Perlocutionary Effect

An utterance that produces An utterance that has social An utterance that gives an
literal meaning. utterance in mind. effect to do something.

1. Locutionary Act
The locutionary speech act is equivalent to uttering certain utterances with certain sense
references, which again is equivalent to meaning in the traditional sense (Austin, 1962: 108).
In line with this Cutting (2002:16) states that the Locutionary Act is what is said. Yule (1996)
proposes that the locutionary act is the act of producing meaningful utterances.
According to Austin, Locutionary acts are acts of speaking, acts involved in the construction
of speech, such as uttering certain sounds and using particular words in conformity with
grammatical rules of a particular language and with certain senses and references as determined
by the rules of language from which they are drawn. It is the basic act of utterance, and it is
the literal meaning of what is said. An example of a Locutionary speech act can be seen in the
following sentences:
(a) It is so dark in this room.
(b) The box is heavy.
The above two sentences represent the actual condition. The first sentence refers to the
lightening of the room and the second sentence refers to the weight of the box.

2. Illocutionary Act
The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance, such as
promising, apologizing, or offering. (Yule, 1996:48). This is also called the act of doing
something in saying something. The most significant level of activity in a speech act is the
illocutionary act because the force, which has been desired by the speakers, determines this
act. The illocutionary act can be the real description of the interaction condition. For example:
(a) It is so dark in this room.
(b) The box is heavy.
Based on the above examples, the first sentence shows a request to switch the light on and the
second sentence shows a request to lift the box
 3. Perlocutionary Act
Hufford and Heasley (1983:250) state that a perlocutionary act is an act carried out by a speaker
when making an utterance that causes a certain effect on the hearer and others. It is also the act
of offering someone. Perlocutionary act refers to the effect the utterance has on the thoughts
and actions of other people. It is specific to the circumstances of issuance. For example:
(a) It is so dark in this room.
(b) The box is heavy.
Based on the example it can be inferred that the first sentence is uttered by someone while
switching the light on and the second sentence is uttered by someone while lifting the box.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SPEECH ACTS

Speech acts are a fundamental aspect of human communication, and they can be classified into
five categories based on their intended function or purpose: directives, commissive,
representatives, declarative, and expressive.

i. Directives
Directives are speech acts that aim to get the listener to do something. Directives can be
expressed in various ways, such as making a request, giving an order, or suggesting.

For example, if someone says "Can you please pass the salt?" They are making a request, and
if someone says "You need to finish your homework before you can go out," they are giving
an order.

Subcategories

Directives can be further divided into three subcategories:

Requests, orders, and suggestions.

• Requests are polite and indirect, and they give the listener the option to refuse.
• Orders are direct and authoritative, and they do not give the listener the option to refuse.
• Suggestions are less direct than orders, and they give the listener the option to accept or
reject the suggestion.

ii. Commisives
Commisives are speech acts that commit the speaker to future action. Commisives can be
expressed in various ways, such as by making a promise or a threat.
For example, if someone says, "I promise to be there on time," they are making a promise,
and if someone says "If you don't stop doing that, I'll call the police," they are making a threat.
 Subcategories
Commisives can be further divided into two subcategories:
Promises and threats.
• Promises are statements that commit the speaker to future action, and they are usually
positive.
• Threats are statements that commit the speaker to future action, and they are usually
negative.

iii. Representatives
Representatives are speech acts that convey information or make a statement about the world.
Representatives can be expressed in various ways, such as by stating a fact or giving an
opinion.

For example, if someone says, "It's raining outside," they are stating a fact, and if someone
says, "I think that movie was great," they are giving an opinion.

Subcategories

Representatives can be further divided into two subcategories:

Assertive and directive.

• Assertions are statements that assert the truth or falsity of a proposition, and they can be
either true or false.
• Directives are statements that direct the listener's attention to something, and they are
usually true.
iv. Declarative
Declarative speech acts that bring about a change in the world. Declarative can be expressed
in various ways, such as naming a ship or declaring someone guilty.
For example, "I hereby name this ship the USS Enterprise." "I find the defendant guilty of the
charges."
Subcategories
Declarative can be further divided into two subcategories:
Verdictives and exercitives.

• Verdictives are statements that bring about a change in someone's status or condition, such
as declaring someone guilty or innocent.
• Exercitives are statements that bring about a change in the world, such as naming a ship or
declaring war.
 v. Expressives
Expressives are speech acts that express the speaker's feelings or attitudes towards
something. Expressives can be expressed in various ways, such as expressing gratitude or
apologizing.

For example, if someone says, "Thank you for your help," they are expressing gratitude,
and if someone says, "I'm sorry for what I did," they are apologizing.

Subcategories

Expressives can be further divided into two subcategories:

Compliments and apologies.

• Compliments are statements that express approval or admiration, and they are usually
positive.
• Apologies are statements that express regret or remorse, and they are usually negative.

REFERENCE AS SPEECH ACT

Definition
Any expression which serves to identify anything, process, event, action, or any other kind of
“individual” or “particular” is a referring expression.
According to semantics, the concept of reference as a speech act involves the act of referring to or
mentioning specific entities or concepts in communication. It plays a crucial role in conveying
meaning and understanding in various contexts. In this response, we will explore the introduction,
theories, types, and examples of reference as a speech act in semantics.

Types of reference as a speech act

Reference as a speech act can take different forms based on how the speaker refers to the intended
referent. Some common types of reference include:
➢ Singular Reference: This type of reference involves pointing to a specific individual or
object in the discourse. For example, saying, "That is my car" while pointing at a particular
vehicle establishes a singular reference.
➢ General Reference: General reference involves referring to a class or category of entities
rather than specific individuals. For instance, saying, "Cats are adorable" refers to the
general category of cats.
➢ Indirect Reference: Indirect reference occurs when a speaker refers to a particular entity
by using expressions that indirectly indicate or describe it. For example, saying, "The tall
person over there" indirectly refers to a specific individual based on their height.
Examples of Reference as a Speech Act
(a) "Please pass me the book on the table."
Here, the speaker refers to a specific book and locates it on the table.
(b) "John is the best candidate for the job."
The speaker refers to John as the most suitable person for the job.
(c) "This restaurant has the most delicious pizza in town."
The speaker refers to the restaurant and its pizza, emphasizing their exceptional quality.

PERFORMATIVE UTTERANCES

Performative utterances, introduced by philosopher J.L. Austin, refer to speech acts in which the
act of uttering the words itself brings about a particular action or effect. In other words, the
statement itself acts rather than merely describing or stating something. The effectiveness of
performative utterances lies in the social conventions and contexts surrounding them.
Performative utterances can be categorized into various types based on their function and purpose.
Here are some common types:

I. Declarations
These utterances bring about a change in the external world. For example, saying "I now
pronounce you husband and wife" during a wedding ceremony legally binds the couple in
matrimony.

II. Promises
These utterances commit the speaker to a future course of action. When someone says, "I
promise to be there at the party," they commit themselves to attending the event.

III. Commands
Commands are directives that seek to influence the behavior of others. Utterances like
"Close the door" or "Please be quiet" are examples of performative commands.

IV. Oaths
Oaths are solemn declarations that invoke a sense of commitment and trust. For instance,
taking an oath during a courtroom proceeding, such as "I swear to tell the truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth," establishes a legal obligation to provide truthful testimony.

V. Thanking and apologizing

Utterances like "Thank you" and "I apologize" are performative in nature as they express
gratitude or seek forgiveness, respectively. These statements function to convey the
speaker's intentions and affect the social dynamics of the interaction.
VI. Linguistic and Social Convention
It is important to note that the success of a performative utterance relies on the appropriate
context, authority, sincerity, and recognition by the relevant participants. The speech act
must be performed with the necessary linguistic and social conventions to be recognized
and validated.
Limitations
Additionally, performative utterances can be subject to certain limitations and challenges.
Misunderstandings or misinterpretations can occur if the context or intent is unclear, leading to the
failure of the performative act. The effectiveness of performative utterances can also vary based
on cultural, social, and historical contexts, as different societies may have distinct norms and
conventions surrounding speech acts.

Overall, performative utterances are a fascinating aspect of language, as they demonstrate the
power of words to bring about actions and shape social interactions. By understanding their types
and nuances, we can gain insights into the complex nature of communication and the role of
language in our daily lives.

SPEECH ACT FUNCTIONS

Speech acts are a fundamental aspect of human communication. They are the building blocks of
language, and they allow us to convey meaning and express ourselves in a variety of ways. The
various functions of speech acts, including conveying information, making requests, expressing
emotions, giving orders, making promises, and asking questions are discussed below.

▪ Conveying information
One of the primary functions of speech acts is to convey information. When we speak, we
often try to communicate something to another person. This might be a simple statement
of fact, such as "the sky is blue," or it might be a more complex explanation of a concept
or idea. In either case, the goal is to convey information to the listener clearly and
understandably.

▪ Making requests
Another function of speech acts is to make requests. When we want something from
someone else, we often use language to ask for it. This might be a simple request, such as
asking someone to pass the salt at the dinner table, or it might be a more complex request,
such as asking a coworker to help with a project. In either case, the goal is to get the listener
to do something for us.

▪ Expressing emotions
Expressing emotions is another important function of speech acts. When we feel happy,
sad, angry, or any other emotion, we often use language to express those feelings. This
might be a simple statement, such as "I'm feeling really happy today," or it might be a more
complex expression of our emotions, such as writing a poem or song. In either case, the
goal is to convey our emotions to others and to connect with them on an emotional level.
 ▪ Giving orders
Giving orders is another function of speech acts. When we are in a position of authority,
such as a manager or a parent, we often use language to give orders to others. This might
be a simple command, such as telling an employee to complete a task, or it might be a more
complex set of instructions, such as telling a child how to complete a homework
assignment. In either case, the goal is to get the listener to do something that we believe is
important.

▪ Making promises
Making promises is another important function of speech acts. When we make a promise,
we are using language to commit ourselves to a particular course of action. This might be
a simple promise, such as promising to meet a friend for lunch, or it might be a more
complex promise, such as promising to complete a project by a certain deadline. In either
case, the goal is to create a sense of trust and reliability between us and the listener.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, speech acts are a fundamental aspect of human communication. Understanding
these categories can help us better understand the different types of speech acts and how they are
used in different contexts. By being aware of the different types of speech acts, we can
communicate more effectively and avoid misunderstandings in our interactions with others.