BSMedTech

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM  The superior (or tubal) pole of the ovary is attached to the pelvic
wall by suspensory ligament of the ovary, which carries the
ovarian vessels and nerves.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM CONSISTS OF INTERNAL SEX ORGANS  The inferior (or uterine pole) is attached to the uterus by the
AND EXTERNAL GENITAL STRUCTURES ovarian ligament.
 Before puberty, the surface of the ovary is smooth, but during
 Internal: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina. The internal
reproductive life, it becomes progressively scarred and irregular
female reproductive organs are located in the pelvis.
because of repeated ovulations.
 External: mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris, vestibule
and opening of the vagina, hymen, and external urethral orifice. THE OVARY IS COMPOSED OF A CORTEX AND A MEDULLA
The external genital structures are situated in the anterior part of
the perineum known as the vulva.  medulla or medullary region: (central portion) contains loose
connective tissue, a mass of relatively large contorted blood
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS UNDERGO REGULAR CYCLIC CHANGES vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
FROM PUBERTY TO MENOPAUSE  cortex or cortical region: (on the periphery) contains ovarian
follicles embedded in a richly cellular connective tissue
 Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus of the sexually matured female
 “Germinal epithelium” instead of mesothelium covers the ovary.
undergo marked structural and functional changes related to
 The surface of the ovary is covered by a single layer of cuboidal,
neural activity and changes in hormone levels during each
and in some parts, almost squamous cells. This cellular layer,
menstrual cycle and during pregnancy.
known as the germinal epithelium, is continuous with the
 Menarche occurs in females between 9 and 14 years of age and
mesothelium that covers the mesovarium.
marks the end of puberty. first menstrual cycle
 A dense connective tissue layer, the tunica albuginea, lies between
 Menopause or climacterium (commonly called the change of life)
the germinal epithelium and the underlying cortex.
happens between ages 45 to 55.
 The boundary between the medulla and cortex is indistinct.
 Menstrual cycle averages about 28 to 30 days in length.
 The name germinal epithelium is a misnomer because it was
 During menopause the ovaries cease their reproductive function of
incorrectly thought in the past that it was the site of germ cell
producing oocytes and their endocrine function of producing
formation.
hormones that regulate reproductive activity.
 It is now known that the primordial germ layers are of extragondal
 Other organs (e.g. vagina and mammary glands) show varying
origin.
degrees of reduced function, particularly secretory activity.
OVARIAN FOLLICLES PROVIDE THE MICROENVIRONMENT FOR THE
PRODUCTION OF GAMETES AND STEROID HORMONES ARE THE TWO MAJOR
DEVELOPING OOCYTE
FUNCTIONS OF THE OVARY
 Ovarian follicles of various sizes, each containing a single oocyte,
 Oogenesis
are distributed in the stroma of the cortex.
 Developing gametes are called oocytes; mature
 Normally, only one oocyte reaches full maturity and is released
gametes are called ova.
from the ovary during each menstrual cycle.
 Steroid hormones (estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the
 During reproductive life span, a woman produces only about 400
ovaries)
mature ova.
 Estrogen: growth and maturation of internal and
 Most of the estimated 600,000 to 800,000 primary oocytes present
external sex organs
at birth do not complete maturation and are gradually lost through
o responsible for the female sex
atresia, the spontaneous death and subsequent resorption of
characteristics
immature oocytes.
o promote breast development
 The size of a follicle indicates the developmental state.
 Progesterone: prepare the internal sex organs, mainly FOLLICLE DEVELOPMENT
the uterus, for pregnancy by promoting secretory
changes in the endometrium  Three basic types of ovarian follicle can be identified on the basis
o prepare the mammary gland for lactation of developmental state:
 primordial follicles;
Gametogenesis and steroidogenesis – two primary functions of the ovary
 growing follicles, which are further subcategorized as primary and
Both of these hormones play an important role in the menstrual cycle by secondary (or antral) follicles; and
preparing the uterus for implantation of a fertilized ovum.  mature follicle or Graafian follicles

If implantation does not occur, the endometrium of the uterus degenerates THE PRIMORDIAL FOLLICLE IS THE EARLIEST STAGE OF FOLLICULAR
and menstruation follows. DEVELOPMENT

OVARIAN STRUCTURES  The primordial follicle first appear in the ovaries during the third
month of fetal development.
 The ovaries are paired, almond-shaped, pinkish white structures  Early growth of the primordial follicle is independent of
 Each ovaries is attached to the posterior surface of the broad gonadotrophin stimulation.
ligament by a peritoneal fold, the mesovarium.  A single layer of squamous follicle cells surrounds the oocyte.
 BSMedTech
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

 Thee cytoplasm of the oocyte, referred to as ooplasm, contains a CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS FORM THE THECA LAYERS OF THE PRIMARY
Balbiani body - localized accumulation of Golgi membranes and FOLLICLE
vesicles, endoplasmic reticulum, centrioles, numerous
mitochondria, and lysosomes.  As the granulosa cells proliferate, stromal cells immediately
 In addition, human oocytes contain annulate lamellae. surrounding the follicle form a sheath of connective tissue cells,
known as the theca folliculi, just external to the basal lamina.
 Theca folliculi further differentiates into two layers:
 theca interna: inner, highly vascularized layer of
cuboidal secretory cells, possesses Luteinizing hormone
(LH) receptors. Theca interna in response to LH
stimulation, synthesize androgens that are precursors
of estrogens.
 theca externa is the outer layer of connective tissue
cells, contains mainly smooth muscle cells and bundles
of collagen fibers
 Boundaries between the theca layers are not distinct.
THE PRIMARY FOLLICLE IS THE FIRST STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
GROWING FOLLICLE  Maturation of the oocyte occurs in the primary follicle.
 The surrounding flattened follicle cells proliferate and become
cuboidal. Now, identifiable as primary follicle.
 As the oocyte grows, it secretes specific proteins that are
assembled into an extracellular coat called the zona pellucida.
 The zona pellucida in humans is composed of three classes of
sulfated acidic ZP glycoproteins.
 ZP-1: has not yet been functionally characterized
 ZP-2: secondary spermatozoa-binding protein
 ZP-3: spermatozoa-binding receptor and inducer of the
acrosome reaction, most important

THE SECONDARY FOLLICLE IS CHARACTERIZED BY A FLUID-CONTAINING

ANTRUM

 Secondary follicle or antral follicle.

Several factors are required for oocyte and follicular growth:

 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

 Growth factors (e.g., epidermal growth factor [EGF], insulin-like
growth factor I [IGF-I])
 Calcium ions (Ca2)

FOLLICLE CELLS UNDERGO STRATIFICATION TO FORM THE GRANULOSA Fluid filled cavities appear among the granulosa cells. As the hyaluronan-rich
LAYER OF THE PRIMARY FOLLICLE fluid called liquor folliculi continues to accumulate among the granulosa cells,
the cavities begin to coalesce, eventually forming a single, crescent shaped
 Through rapid mitotic proliferation, the single layer of follicle cells cavity called the antrum.
gives rise to a stratified epithelium, the membrana granulosa
(stratum granulosum), surrounding the oocyte.
 The follicle cells are now identified as granulosa cells.

The eccentrically positioned oocyte undergoes no further growth. The

inhibition is achieved by the presence of a small peptide called oocyte
maturation inhibitor, which is secreted by the granulosa cells into the antral
fluid.
 BSMedTech
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

THE MATURE OR GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE CONTAINS THE MATURE SECONDARY OVULATION IS A HORMONE-MEDIATED PROCESS RESULTIG IN THE RELEASE
OOCYTE OF THE SECONDARY OOCYTE

 Due to lack of the enzyme aromatase, the theca interna cells are Ovulation is the process by which a secondary oocyte is released from the
not able to produce estrogen. Graafian follicle.
 In contrast, granulosa cells are equipped with aromatase.
 The mature or Graafian follicle has a diameter of 10 mm or more.  Release of the secondary oocyte in the middle of the menstrual
cycle (i.e., on the 14th day of a 28-day cycle).

Factors for the actual release of secondary oocyte include:

 increase in the volume and pressure of the follicular fluid

 enzymatic proteolysis of the follicular wall by activated
plasminogen
 hormonally directed deposition of glycosaminoglycans between
the oocyte–cumulus complex and the stratum granulosum
 contraction of the smooth muscle fibers in the theca externa layer,
triggered by prostaglandins

Just before ovulation, blood flow stops in a small area of the ovarian surface
overlying the bulging follicle. These area of the germinal epithelium, known as
macula pellucida or follicular stigma, becomes elevated and then ruptures.

The oocyte, surrounded by the corona radiata and cells of the cumulus
oophorus, is released from the ruptured follicle.

At the time of ovulation, the fimbriae of the uterine tube become closely
apposed to the surface of the ovary, and the cumulus mass containing the
oocyte is then gently swept by the fimbriae into the abdominal ostium of the
uterine tube.

After ovulation, the secondary oocyte remains viable for approximately 24

hours. If fertilization does not occur this period, the secondary oocyte
degenerates as it passes through the uterine tube.

THE COLLAPSED FOLLICLE UNDERGOES REORGANIZATION INTO THE CORPUS

LUTEUM AFTER OVULATION

 Cells of the granulosa and theca interna layers then differentiate

into granulosa luteal and theca luteal cells in the process called
luteinization.
 These luteal cells undergo dramatic morphologic changes,
increasing in size and filling with lipid droplets.
 A lipid-soluble pigment, lipochrome, in the cytoplasm of cells gives
them a yellow appearance in fresh preparations.
 BSMedTech
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

TWO TYPES OF LUTEAL CELLS THE CORPUS LUTEUM OF PREGNANCY IS FORMED AFTER FERTILIZATION
AND IMPLANTATION
 Granulosa lutein cells (80%): centrally located cells, synthesize
estrogens, progesterone, and inhibin  The existence and function of the corpus luteum depends on a
 Inhibin: regulates production and secretion of FSH from combination of paracrine and endocrine secretions, collectively
the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. described as luteotropins.
 Paracrine
 Theca lutein cells (20%): peripherally located, secrete androgens  Estrogens
and progesterone  IGF-I and IGF-II

THE CORPUS LUTEUM OF MENSTRUATION IS FORMED IN THE ABSENCE OF  Endocrine

FERTILIZATION  hCG,
 LH and prolactin,
 The corpus luteum is a transient endocrine gland in the adult ovary
 Insulin
that differentiates from the follicle wall after ovulation. It is vital to
 High levels of progesterone, produced from cholesterol by the
mammalian reproduction as it produces the steroid hormone,
corpus luteum, block the cyclic development of ovarian follicles.
progesterone, which acts on the reproductive tract to permit
 Human chorionic gondatropin (hCG) can be detected in the serum
embryo implantation and to support a maternal environment that
as early as 6 days after conception and in the urine as early as 10
sustains intrauterine pregnancy.
to 14 days of pregnancy.
 If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops secreting
 Eventually the placenta will take over the function of the corpus
progesterone and decays (after approximately 10 to 12 days in
luteum.
humans). It then degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is a
 Rapid increase in circulating hCG in early pregnancy is responsible
mass of fibrous scar tissue.
for “morning sickness”.
DURING CAPACITATION, THE MATURE SPEMATOZOA ACQUIRE THE ABILITY
UTERINE TUBES
TO FERTILIZE THE OOCYTE
The uterine tubes are paired tubes that extend bilaterally from the uterus
 Capacitation: spermatozoa must be activated within the female
towards the ovaries. Also commonly called the fallopian tubes.
reproductive tract
 Successful capacitation is confirmed by hyperactivation of the Each tube is 10 to 12 cm long and can be divided into four segments by gross
spermatozoa, which manifests as a vigorous, whiplash-like beating inspection:
pattern of their flagella.
 Fertilization normally occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube.  Infundibulum: funnel-shaped segment
 Spermatozoa must penetrate the corona radiata to gain access to  Fringed extensions, or fimbriae
the zona pellucida.
 Capacitation is complete when spermatozoa are able to bind to the  Ampulla: longest segment
zona pellucida receptors.  Site of fertilization
 Penetration is accomplished by limited proteolysis of the zona
pellucida.  Isthmus: narrow, medial segment
 Uterine or intramural part lies within the uterine wall and opens
BEFORE SPERMATOZOA CAN FERTILIZE THE SECONDARY OOCYTE, THEY into the cavity of the uterus.
MUST ACQUIRE MORE THRUST TO PENETRATE THE CORONA RADIATA AND
ZONA PELLUCIDA

 Impregnation of the oocyte allows structures lying inside the

spermatozoon to enter the cytoplasm of the oocyte.
 Several spermatozoa may penetrate the zona pellucida, but only
one spermatozoon completes the fertilization process.

Three types of postfusion reaction occur to prevent other spermatozoa from

entering the secondary oocyte.

 Fast block to polyspermy. A large and long-lasting (up to 1 minute)

depolarization of the oolemma creates a transient electrical block
to polyspermy.
 Cortical reaction. Changes in the polarity of the oolemma then THE WALL OF THE UTERINE TUBE IS COMPOSED OF THREE LAYERS
trigger release of Ca2 from the ooplasmic stores.
 The serosa or peritoneum is the outermost layer and is composed
 Zona reaction. The released enzymes (proteases) of the cortical
of mesothelium and a thin layer of connective tissue
granules not only degrade the glycoprotein oocyte plasma
 Muscularis: inner circular and outer thinner longitudinal layer
membrane receptors for sperm binding but also form the
 Mucosa: inner lining
perivitelline barrier by cross-linking proteins on the surface of the
zona pellucida. The mucosal lining is simple columnar epithelium composed of two kinds of
cells—ciliated and nonciliated.
 BSMedTech
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

 Ciliated cells: most numerous UTERINE WALL IS COMPOSED OF THREE LAYERS

 Nonciliated cells or peg cells: secretory cells
 Endometrium: mucosa
 Myometrium: thick muscular layer
 Perimetrium: outer serous layer or visceral peritoneal covering of
the uterus. The perimetrium covers the entire posterior surface of
the uterus but only part of the anterior surface. The remaining part
of the anterior surface consists of connective tissue or adventitia.

Both myometrium and endometrium undergo cyclic changes each month to

prepare the uterus for implantation of an embryo.

 These changes constitute the menstrual cycle.

THE MYOMETRIUM FORMS A STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL SYNCYTIUM

The myometrium is the thickest layer of the uterine wall. It is composed of

three indistinctly defined layers of smooth muscle.

 The middle muscle layer contains numerous large blood vessels

(venous plexuses) and lymphatics and is called the stratum
vasculare.
 The smooth muscle bundles in the inner and outer layers are
predominantly oriented parallel to the long axis of the uterus.

BIDIRECTIONAL TRANSPORT OCCURS IN THE UTERINE TUBE

 Several conditions that may alter the integrity of the tubal

transport system (e.g., inflammation, use of intrauterine devices,
surgical manipulation, tubal ligation) may cause ectopic
pregnancy.
 Majority of ectopic pregnancies (98%) occur in the uterine tube.

UTERUS

The human uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ located in the pelvis

between the bladder and rectum. Compared with the body of the uterus, the cervix has more connective tissue
and less smooth muscle.
All subsequent embryonic and fetal development occurs within the uterus,
which undergoes dramatic increases in size and development. THE ENDOMETRIUM PROLIFERATES AND THEN DEGENERATES DURING A
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Anatomically, the uterus is divided into two regions:
During reproductive life, the endometrium consists of two layers or zones that
 Body: large upper portion, anterior surface is almost flat; the
differ in structure and function:
posterior surface is convex
 Cervix: lower, barrel-shaped, separated from the body by isthmus.  The stratum functionale or functional layer is the thick part of the
The lumen of the cervix, the cervical canal, has a constricted endometrium, which is sloughed off at menstruation.
opening at each end. The internal os communicates with the cavity  The stratum basale or basal layer is retained during menstruation
of the uterus; the external os with the vagina. and serves as the source for the regeneration of the stratum
functionale.

The stratum functionale is the layer that proliferates and degenerates during
the menstrual cycle.

The vasculature of the endometrium also proliferates and degenerates

during each menstrual cycle.

CYCLIC CHANGES OF THE ENDOMETRIUM DURING THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

ARE REPRESENTED BY THE PROLIFERATIVE, SECRETORY, AND MENSTRUL
PHASES

 The menstrual cycle is a continuum of developmental stages in the

functional layer of the endometrium.
 BSMedTech
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

 It is ultimately controlled by gonadotropins secreted by the pars  Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst settles into
distalis of the pituitary gland that regulate secretion of the ovary. the endometrium.
 The cycle normally repeats every 28 days.  The cell mass resulting from the series of mitotic divisions is known
as morula, and the individual cells are known as blastomeres.
THREE SUCCESSIVE PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE  The early embryo gives rise to a blastocyst, a hollow sphere of cell
with a centrally located clump of cells.
 Proliferative phase: occurs concurrently with follicular maturation
 This inner cell mass will give rise to the tissues of the embryo
and is influenced by ovarian estrogen secretion.
proper; the surrounding layer of cells, the outer cell mass, will form
 Secretory phase: coincides with the functional activity of the
the trophoblast and the placenta.
corpus luteum and is primarily influenced by progesterone
secretion.
 Menstrual phase: commences as hormone production by the ovary
declines with the degeneration of the corpus luteum.

The proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle is regulated by estrogens.

 continues after day 1 after ovulation, which occur about day 14 of

a 28-day cycle

The secretory phase of the menstrual cycle is regulated by progesterone.

 beginning a day or two after ovulation

THE MENSTRUAL PHASE RESULTS FROM A DECLINE IN THE OVARIAN

SECRETION OF PROGESTERONE AND ESTROGEN
 Fluid passes inward through the zona pellucida during this process,
 The corpus luteum actively produces hormones for about 10 days forming a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocyst cavity. This event
if fertilization does not occur. defines the beginning of the blastocyst.
 As hormone levels decline, changes occur in the blood supply to the  The outer cell mass is now called the trophoblast, and the inner
stratum functionale. -> eventual ischemic -> sloughing off cell mass is referred to as the embryoblast.
 The menstrual flow normally lasts about 5 days.
 The average blood loss in the menstrual phase is 35 to 50 ml. IMPLANTATION OCCUR DURING A SHORT PERIOD KNOWN AS THE
IMPLANTATION WINDOW

 In humans, the implantation window begins on day 6 after the LH

surge and is completed by day 10.
 The invading trophoblast differentiates into the
syncytiotrophoblast and the cytotrophoblast.
 The cytotrophoblast is a mitotically active inner cell layer
producing cells that fuse with the syncytiotrophoblast, the outer
erosive layer.
 The syncytiotrophoblast is not mitotically active and consists of a
multinucleate cytoplasmic mass; it actively invades the epithelium
and underlying stroma of the endometrium.

Through the activity of the trophoblast, the blastocyst is entirely embedded

within the endometrium on about 11th day of development.

Syncytiotrophoblast is the outer layer of the trophoblasts and actively invades

the uterine wall, rupturing maternal capillaries and thus establishing an
interface between maternal blood and embryonic extracellular fluid,
facilitating passive exchange of material between the mother and the embryo.

 In the absence of ovulation (a cycle referred to as an anovulatory

cycle), a corpus luteum does not form, and progesterone is not
produced.
 If fertilization and implantation occur, a gravid phase replaces the
menstrual phase of the cycle.
 BSMedTech
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

AFTER IMPLANTATION, THE ENDOMETRIUM UNDERGOES DECIDUALIZATION Blockage of the openings of the mucosal glands results in the retention of their
secretions, leading to formation of dilated cysts within the cervix called
During pregnancy, the portion of the endometrium that undergoes Nabothian cysts.
morphologic changes is called the decidua or decidua graviditas.
THE DEVELOPING FETUS IS MAINTAINED BY THE PLACENTA, WHICH
Three different regions of the decidua: DEVELOPS FROM FETAL AND MATERNAL TISSUES

 decidua basalis is the portion of the endometrium that underlies  The placenta consists of a fetal portion, formed by the chorion, and
the implantation site a maternal portion, formed by the decidua basalis.
 decidua capsularis is a thin portion of endometrium that lies  The uteroplacental circulatory system begins to develop around
between the implantation site and the uterine lumen day 9, with the development of vascular spaces called trophoblastic
 decidua parietalis includes the remaining endometrium of the lacunae within the syncytiotrophoblast. Maternal sinusoids, which
uterus develop from capillaries of the maternal side, anastomose with the
trophoblastic lacunae.
By the 13th day of development, an extraembryonic space, the chorionic
cavity, has been established. The cell layers that from the outer boundary of
this cavity (i.e., the syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast, and extraembryonic
somatic mesoderm) are collectively referred to as the chorion. The innermost
membranes enveloping the embryo are called the amnion.

 Fetal and maternal blood are separated by the placental barrier.

 The placenta is the site of exchange of gases and metabolites
between the maternal and fetal circulation.

THE PLACENTA IS A MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGAN PRODUCING STEROID AND

PROTEIN HORMONES

The placenta produces steroids and peptide hormones as well prostaglandins

that play an important role in the onset of labor.
THE ENDOMETRIUM OF THE CERVIX DIFFERS FROM THE REST OF THE UTERUS
The following peptide hormones are secreted by the placenta:
 The transformation zone is the site of transition between vaginal
 HCG: trophoblasts
stratified squamous epithelium and cervical simple columnar
 Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS), also known as
epithelium.
human placental lactogen (hPL): syncytiotrophoblast
 The portion of the cervix that projects into the vagina, the vaginal
 IGF-I and IGF-II: cytotrophoblast
part or ectocervix, is covered with a stratified squamous
 Endothelial growth factor (EGF)
epithelium.
 Relaxin: softening of the cervix
 Columnar epithelium of the cervical canal, the endocervix, occurs
 Leptin: syncytiotrophoblast
in the transformation zone.
 Other growth factors stimulate cytotrophoblastic growth (e.g., fi
broblast growth factor, colony-stimulating factor [CSF-1], platelet-
derived growth factor, and interleukins [IL-1 and IL-3]) or inhibit
trophoblast growth and proliferation (e.g., tumor necrosis factor).

THE VAGINA IS A FIBROMUSCULAR TUBE THAT JOINS INTERNAL

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS TO THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

The vaginal wall consists of the following:

 An inner mucosal layer has numerous transverse folds or rugae and

is lined with stratified squamous epithelium.
 An intermediate muscular layer; outer longitudinal layer and an
inner circular layer.
 An outer adventitial layer; inner dense connective tissue layer
adjacent to the muscularis and an outer loose connective tissue
layer.
 The vagina possesses a stratified, squamous nonkeratinized
epithelium and lacks glands.
 BSMedTech
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
HUM HISTO 2ND YEAR – 2ND SEM

 intralobular collecting duct carries alveolar secretions into the

lactiferous duct.
 intralobular stroma is specialized hormonally sensitive loose
connective tissue
 Glandular epithelial cells and myoepithelial cells are the most
important cells associated with mammary ducts and lobules.
 The morphology of the secretory portion of the mammary gland
varies with the menstrual cycle.
 Terminal duct lobular units (TDLUs)—also referred to as lobules—
are epithelial structures within the breast that produce milk during
lactation; they are also the primary anatomical source of most
breast cancer precursors and cancers.

EXTERNAL GENITALIA

The female external genitalia consists of the following parts, which are
collectively referred to as the vulva and have a stratified squamous epithelium
as follows:

 The mons pubis is the rounded prominence over the pubic

symphysis formed by subcutaneous adipose tissue.
 The labia majora are two large longitudinal folds of skin,
homologous to the skin of the scrotum.
MAMMARY GLANDS UNDERGO DRAMATIC PROLIFERATION AND
 The labia minora are paired, hairless folds of skin that border the
DEVELOPMENT DURING PREGNANCY
vestibule and are homologous to the skin of the penis.
 The clitoris is an erectile structure that is homologous to the penis.  First trimester is characterized by elongation and branching of the
Its body is composed of two small erectile bodies, the corpora terminal ductules.
cavernosa. Contains numerous sensory nerve endings.
 Second trimester is characterized by differentiation of alveoli from
 Vestibule. Lined with stratified squamous epithelium. the growing ends of the terminal ductules.
 the lesser vestibular glands (also called Skene’s glands)
 Third trimester commences maturation of the alveoli.
– present near the clitoris
 the greater vestibular glands (also called Bartholin’s BOTH MEROCRINE AND APOCRINE SECRETION ARE INVOLVED IN
glands) – are homologous to the male bulbourethral PRODUCTION OF MILK
glands
 The secretion released in the first few days after childbirth is known
NUMEROUS SENSORY NERVE ENDINGS ARE PRESENT IN THE EXTERNAL as colostrum
GENITALIA  Lactation is under the neurohormonal control of the
adenohypophysis and hypothalamus.
 Meissner’s corpuscles: mons pubis and labia majora
 Pacinian corpuscles: labia majora and clitoris
 Free nerve endings: external genitalia

IN FEMALES, MAMMARY GLANDS DEVELOP UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF SEX

HORMONES

 Mammary glands are modified tubuloalveolar apocrine sweat

glands.
 The areola contains sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and modified
mammary glands (glands of Montgomery). -> produce a lubricating
and protective secretion that changes the skin’s pH and
discourages microbial growth.
 Terminal duct lobular unit (TDLU) of the mammary gland
represents a cluster of small secretory alveoli (in lactating gland)
or terminal ductules (in inactive gland) surrounded by
intralobular stroma.

TDLU

 Each TDLU represents a grape-like cluster of small secretory alveoli

that forms a lobule and consists of the following:
 Terminal ductules are present in the inactive gland