Cavaciuti-Davis-Heying ISAM 20220715

IN-SPACE SERVICING, ASSEMBLY,
AND MANUFACTURING FOR THE

NEW SPACE ECONOMY
Alec J. Cavaciuti, Joseph H. Heying, and Joshua Davis
Technological progress in spacecraft life extension, debris removal, space operations autonomy, and
robotics will disrupt the traditional paradigm of spacecraft design, acquisition, launch, operations, and
maintenance. A new generation of spacecraft designed specifically for In-space Servicing, Assembly, and
Manufacturing (ISAM) is leading this charge towards a new space economy. Within the next few years,
spacecraft refueling will be demonstrated and commercial fueling depots may emerge to enable increased
on-orbit maneuverability and orbital anomaly recovery. In the following years, spacecraft that regularly
undergo on-orbit hardware upgrades—a strategic capability identified by the commercial, civil, and
military satellite sectors—may become commonplace. Current space enterprise operations have
demonstrated sustained operational, mission, and business viability without ISAM, but ISAM holds great
promise for improved resiliency and flexibility, faster technology advancement, and expanded space
ecosystems beyond geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO).
The traditional model of relying on satellites with decades-old hardware and technology may give way to
ISAM-enabled capabilities and architectures designed for orbital modification, on-orbit refueling and
upgrade, and debris removal. However, due to the integrated nature of ISAM technologies, industry and
government collaboration will be necessary to ensure the development and adoption of interoperability
standards. There are many obstacles to overcome before an active, self-sustaining on-orbit economy is
established, but recent demonstrations, developments, and investments in ISAM technologies will pave
the path forward.
1 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

In-space Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (ISAM)
ISAM refers to a broad suite of on-orbit activities conducted by a space vehicle that could involve:
• An up-close inspection of another resident space object (RSO)
• Intentional and beneficial changes to another RSO
• Physical attachment of two space objects together
• The manufacture of hardware on-orbit
Advantages Challenges
• Extends the lifetimes and increases performance of satellites • The space sector has not yet established a successful ISAM
through inspection, refuel, repair, and upgrade capabilities demonstration track record to drive down risk for operational
which could contribute to greater return on investment. client space objects.
• Contributes to space industry sustainability or “circular • The current legal framework is not always sufficient to address
economy” of space through reusing, repairing, refurbishing, and liability, and faults can be difficult to assess and attribute.
recycling existing materials and products. • Inexpensive, short-lifetime satellites and reduced launch costs
• Reduces orbital congestion through deorbit technology and by can make replacement cheaper than servicing for some
extending the lifetimes of existing satellites, which reduces the applications.
need for the launch of new orbital assets. • Industry lacks consensus for interoperability and interface
• Enables flexible next-generation architectures and in-space standards.
assembly of structures. • The dual-use nature of ISAM technology could create
opportunities for anti-satellite capabilities, which are
counterproductive to space sustainability goals.
Introduction assembly—the construction of space systems in space

This paper describes the current state of the In-space using pre-manufactured components; and
Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (ISAM) manufacturing—the transformation of raw or recycled
industry, including market and growth challenges. The materials into components, products, or infrastructure in
paper also describes how various satellite industry players space.”1
are responding to these challenges with new technologies,
architectures, and business models to drive adoption and Background and History
advance the ISAM state of play. A 2019 publication titled Satellites are uniquely alone in their environment. They
“On-orbit Servicing: Inspection, Repair, Refuel, Upgrade, are launched with everything they need for their entire
and Assembly, of Satellites in Space” (by Joshua P. Davis, mission, from initial operational capability (IOC) to end of
John P. Mayberry, and Jay P. Penn of The Aerospace life. This has been the norm of civil, commercial, and
Corporation) served as the basis and inspiration for this military spacecraft design since the launch of Sputnik on
paper. October 4, 1957. Over time, this has led to fully redundant
designs and prolonged mission lifetimes because the
ISAM activities can occur on-orbit, on the lunar surface,
ability to physically upgrade, refuel, reboost, or repair
or on other celestial bodies. The White House defines
older orbiting satellites has not existed.
ISAM as “a suite of capabilities…in the areas of
servicing—the in-space inspection, life extension, repair, Since the early days of space, the National Aeronautics
or alteration of a spacecraft after its initial launch, which and Space Administration (NASA) has frequently
includes but is not limited to: visually acquire, rendezvous performed rendezvous and docking, similar to what is
and/or proximity operations, docking, berthing, relocation, needed for ISAM operations, but only with a significant
refueling, upgrading, repositioning, undocking, human-in-the-loop presence. In the decades that have
unberthing, release and departure, reuse, orbit transport since followed, in-space autonomy and robotics have
and transfer, and timely debris collection and removal;
JULY 2022 2 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

progressed alongside a maturing vision of an in-space  2018-Present: SpaceLogistics’* Mission Extension
economy, enabling the feasibility of practical robotic Vehicle-1 (MEV-1) became the first commercial
ISAM concepts. In the last 15 years, the United States servicer spacecraft to perform a docked life extension
government (USG), commercial sectors, foreign procedure upon an out-of-operation commercial
governments, and international organizations have taken a satellite, Intelsat IS-901.5 This was followed by the
strong interest in developing robotic ISAM capabilities, MEV-2's docking to Intelsat IS-1002 on April 12,
removing part of the human presence from ISAM 2021 — the first ever docking of a servicer spacecraft
operations.2 The commercial sector has begun to leverage to an operational satellite in GEO.6 Commercial
these technologies as the first step towards an ISAM organizations and university-led missions, both
enabled in-space economy. The following is a brief internationally and domestically, have shown success
chronology of ISAM mission operations: including, but not limited to, Astroscale’s End-of-
Life-Service by Astroscale-demonstration (ELSA-d),
 1961-1972: Gemini and Apollo demonstrated Orbit Fab’s Tanker-001 Tenzing, and the University
rendezvous, proximity operations, and docking of Surrey’s RemoveDEBRIS.
(RPOD).
 Near Future: Both international and domestic
 1973-1974: Skylab demonstrated on-orbit repairs to governmental and commercial ISAM demonstrations
fix critical components. are expected to continue through the 2020s with
growing funding leading to IOC. Examples include
 1984: Solar Maximum Mission took advantage of a NASA’s On-orbit Servicing, Assembly, and
modular design using orbital replacement units Manufacturing-1 and -2 (OSAM-1 and OSAM-2),
(ORUs) to streamline the on-orbit repair process. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency’s
Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites
 1993-2009: Hubble Space Telescope “Hubble” was
(RSGS), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s
serviced five times, which included replacement of
Commercial Removal of Debris Demonstration
circuit boards, the addition of hardware to correct a
(CRD2) program, European Space Agency’s
mirror flaw, regular upgrades of the scientific
ClearSpace-1, Astroscale’s Life Extension In-Orbit
instruments, and the installation of a device to
(LEXI), and many more highlighted in Appendix B.
facilitate deorbit at the end of mission lifetime.3
USG initiatives and national strategy play an important
 1998-Present: The International Space Station (ISS)
role in the early stages of establishing ISAM technologies
was assembled on-orbit and is continually replenished
and architectures to match international progress made in
with propellant, supplies, and new modules to enhance
the field. In late 2020, the U.S. created a new On-Orbit
its capabilities and provide new science opportunities.
Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (OSAM)
Commercial resupply missions to the ISS
National Initiative to encourage technological progress in
continuously promote technological growth of RPOD
governmental and commercial OSAM. One of the
activities due to the consistent need to dock.4
initiative’s near-term goals proposes capability
assessments to further determine technological gaps and
 2007: The Defense Advanced Research Projects
influence how governmental agencies invest in ISAM
Agency’s Orbital Express demonstrated a full end-to-
developments.7 In April of 2022, the In-space Servicing,
end robotic satellite servicing mission, the first of its
Assembly, and Manufacturing (ISAM) National Strategy,
kind. The mission included autonomous docking, fuel
a product of the ISAM Interagency Working Group of the
transfer, and ORU change-out—essentially removing
humans from the equation.
*SpaceLogistics, a wholly owned subsidiary of Northrop Grumman, is developing space logistics and satellite servicing using commercial servicing
vehicles—the Mission Extension Vehicle (MEV), already on-orbit, and the Mission Robotic Vehicle (MRV) and the Mission Extension Pods
(MEPs), planned for launch in the next few years.

National Science and Technology Council, was released beyond on-orbit operations. For the scope of this paper,
on behalf of the White House. The National Strategy authors will refer to ISAM instead of OSAM. However,
establishes six goals that chart a course towards realizing the term OSAM also appears in this document,
opportunities enabled by ISAM and addresses three particularly as various experts use this term and are quoted
challenges associated with realizing these opportunities.8 in this paper. Fortunately, the Consortium for Execution of
ISAM National Strategy intends to improve USG Rendezvous and Servicing Operations (CONFERS) and
stakeholder collaboration, generate a demand signal, and other groups are working on a formal lexicon.11 We define
accelerate the establishment of standards. Together, the today’s ISAM nomenclature in Appendix A with the
OSAM National Initiative and ISAM National Strategy assistance of CONFERS lexicon, although these terms
plan to accelerate the adoption of more robust ISAM continue to evolve and change.
capabilities, maintaining the U.S.’ role as a leader in the
global commons of space. Moving Toward an Active ISAM
Space Architecture
As ISAM continues to foster more attention domestically, For many successful legacy spacecraft, end of life
other countries such as China are demonstrating corresponds with a depletion of resources and, in some
operational capabilities and progress. For instance, a few instances, a hardware failure. The resulting spacecraft
months after its launch in October 2021, China’s SJ-21 decommissioning halts mission operations and inhibits
satellite rendezvoused and docked with the Beidou-2 G2 future revenue generation. Chris Kunstadter, Head of
satellite in GEO and moved the satellite 3,000 km above Global Space at AXA XL, notes that since 2000, 80 GEO
the GEO belt before returning to its original orbit. Beidou-2 satellites have suffered major anomalies that could have
G2 failed in orbit in between 2009 and 2010 and may have
benefited from on-orbit servicing (OOS); 41 percent had a
partially disintegrated while in free-drift.9 SJ-21’s actions to
failure in the first two months of life, terminating an asset
move the failed satellite out of harm’s way appears to be a
successful demonstration of debris cleanup capabilities. that was otherwise expected to provide value for over
However, these same capabilities are viewed by some as 15 years.12 These first two months are when spacecraft
a demonstration of potential on-orbit offensive experience the most lifetime risk due to component infant
capabilities.10 mortality and deployment failures during on-orbit
checkout. Reviving decommissioned spacecraft with OOS
The development of exhaustive, widely agreed upon reintroduces these capabilities back into the enterprise,
ISAM terminology is in its early stages. Official, defined creating more economically sustainable business models.
terminology is needed and plays a crucial role in The inclusion of ISAM infrastructure to actively support
establishing a cross-industry, unified understanding of continued orbit operations through refueling, repairs, and
various ISAM aspects and activities. Indeed, even the upgrades could serve as a disruption to the way the
appropriate term for these space applications is being government and commercial sectors plan mission lifetimes
debated, with both ISAM and OSAM appearing in and develop mission goals.
headlines. The mere fact that the industry is still grappling
Table 1 highlights examples in which an ISAM
with a common lexicon is a symptom of the industry
architecture could have assisted in diagnosing on-orbit
sector’s early stages of evolution. The term ISAM serves a
anomalies and helped to resolve these spacecraft issues.
broader meaning and addresses more functionalities

the increasing complexity of crowded orbits, the looming
Table 1: Examples of Common risk of debris impact, and consequential loss of high value
Satellite Anomalies assets or their high value orbital slots. According to
European Space Agency’s Space Debris Office,
Intelsat-28 Intelsat-28's West C-band antenna reflector 36,500 human-made items of greater than 10 cm in size
May 2011 failed to deploy. This critical anomaly resulted are estimated to currently be in orbit.18 These objects,
in a $146 million insurance claim and a
significant loss of capability.13 A servicing most of which occupy low Earth orbit (LEO), are large
spacecraft with robotic arms could have enough to critically damage spacecraft, resulting in even
approached Intelsat-28 and repaired the
more debris and possible spacecraft loss. Some of these
antenna, potentially restoring the spacecraft’s
full operational capacity. objects are nonoperational GEO satellites. Kunstadter
commented, “Over 650 GEO satellites are active today, of
SES-14 Société Européenne des Satellites (SES)
launched SES-14 on Ariane 5 and experienced which at least 120 are operating beyond their design life.
January
a launch anomaly that affected the spacecraft’s Satellite failures in the congested GEO arc pose serious
2018 trajectory. The spacecraft’s on-board threats to valuable operational satellites. OSAM will
propulsion system performed an impromptu
burn, preserving the intended trajectory to enable proper and timely retirement of satellites.”19
GEO, but limiting propellant for standard orbital
operations and reserves.14 A servicer Lower launch costs to LEO and GEO have encouraged
spacecraft with refueling capabilities could
refuel SES-14 and mitigate the impacts of the
companies to launch more space vehicles, thereby
unplanned propellant burn. increasing orbital density and risk of collision. From Titan
IV to SpaceX’s Falcon 9, launch costs to LEO have
Intelsat-29e Intelsat-29e suffered a voltage anomaly
followed by a communication system failure, decreased from $24,700 per kg to just $2,720 per kg—
July 2019
resulting in satellite loss three years into its nearly a tenfold reduction.20 Lower launch costs and
15-year design life. The total loss is estimated
rideshare options, combined with shorter satellite lifetimes
to have cost Intelsat $382 million, an amount
that could have been reduced if an OOS and higher satellite production rates, have made it more
architecture with repairing capabilities economically attractive to launch replacement satellites
existed.15
rather than performing on-orbit repair – as seen with
SXM7 Sirius XM’s SXM7 experienced a technical proliferated LEO constellations. However, U.S. National
January failure during on-orbit checkout less than two Space Traffic Management Policy, Space Policy
months after launch, resulting in the loss of the
2021 $220 million spacecraft. OOS inspection could Directive-3, provides guidelines for ensuring that the
have assisted in a quicker and more accurate space environment is secure and safe for commercial and
diagnosis of spacecraft anomalies and civil space traffic. For this reason, the space sector should
subsequent on-orbit repair.16
see increased emphasis on satellite deorbiting services as
the space environment becomes more congested. ISAM
There is growing interest in on-orbit anomaly resolution
serves as a necessary countermeasure to increased
capabilities from industry leadership. Months after
collision risk and orbital debris concerns and may find a
Intelsat-28's launch and malfunction, Intelsat’s General
way into various future satellite architectures.
President, Kay Sears, stated that “Intelsat would have paid
to have [a robotic-servicing vehicle] come over and at
least look at the Intelsat New Dawn satellite to see what Developing an Active ISAM
the problem was.” A “maintenance man” in space, as she Space Architecture
calls it, which orbits the Earth and could rendezvous with Although there is not yet a uniform fleet of servicer
troubled satellites, inspect them, and perform necessary spacecraft, demonstrations by NASA, The Defense
repairs, would provide commercial satellite companies Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and the
valuable information and potentially save millions of commercial sector aim to increase technical maturity to
dollars each year.17 reduce mission risk and pave the path for governmental
and commercial investment in ISAM-integrated missions.
Beyond returning space assets to full operational capacity These developments, in tandem with increased servicing
and preserving revenue potential, ISAM can help mitigate

frequency to unprepared client space objects, will increase fly new OSAM capabilities because there is no ‘customer
the adoption of ISAM technology and will likely drive the pull’, and there is no customer pull because the OSAM
industry to a tipping point in which a commercially viable architecture is not flight proven. There is, therefore, a need
ISAM architecture becomes a reality. for dedicated flight demonstrations of OSAM capabilities,
both to prove that the technology works and to establish
The Chicken-and-Egg Dilemma: Servicers and that there are on-orbit services available so that
Clients. The commercial servicing market must now operational customers can start adopting them into their
build a user base to connect two sides of the market where critical path.”21
each side depends upon the prior existence of the other.
This is known as the chicken-and-egg dilemma and is a Another way to establish ISAM technological resiliency
common business problem when introducing a new and reliability is to incorporate ISAM into mission plans
commercial platform to an industry. For the ISAM market, and absorb the risk associated with utilizing the new
this involves: technology. For some spacecraft missions, ISAM is
central to mission performance and requires prepared
 Servicing Companies (Servicers) – need an satellites. These missions have the potential to accelerate
adequate, addressable market to justify the substantial the rest of the ISAM industry. For example, Hubble and
capital investment required to develop servicer the ISS both required ISAM and, as a result, significant
spacecraft capable of performing operations on client efforts and investments were made to service these
satellites and integrating their capabilities into new missions. Currently, NASA is developing future concepts
missions. Servicers would also benefit from a degree and architectures — such as Gateway and crewed Mars
of regulatory certainty, established norms, and missions — that will require significant use of ISAM.
standardized interfaces (see section Legal and They are looking to the commercial sector to provide
Regulatory Considerations) that give investors greater those services, much as they do today for the ISS. In
confidence in orderly market development benefitting March 2020, NASA selected SpaceX for the Gateway
from appropriate governmental awareness and Logistics Services contract to provide Gateway with
oversight. payloads, science experiments, and other key cargo.22 This
practice of incorporating prepared spacecraft into mission
 Satellite Companies (Clients) – need to see an operations such as docking, refueling, and resupplying can
operational history of successes and must become serve as a catalyst for future investments into the ISAM
confident enough in OOS providers to add flown and industry.
proven interface features to prepare their satellites to
allow for OOS. Key Technologies, Demonstrations, and Innovation
Leaders. Multiple major developments in the robotic
Demonstration missions that showcase ISAM ISAM space have taken place over the past two decades.
technologies are believed to be one way out of this Many commercial and governmental organizations are
preliminary market challenge. Tethers Unlimited’s Chief planning additional ISAM technology demonstrations
Technologist, Robert Hoyt, stresses that “demonstration which aim to establish ISAM-enabled architectures upon
drives adoption.” Hoyt believes that “[o]perational which future missions can build. Table 2 highlights five
programs are extremely reluctant to utilize unproven key recent and near-future U.S. ISAM technologies and
technologies, so asking them to adopt an entirely new missions. An expanded “baseball card” table lists recent,
system architecture before it has flight heritage is a upcoming, and ongoing ISAM developments
herculean task.” As a result, “This presents a chicken-and- (Appendix B).
egg problem where it is difficult to secure opportunities to

Table 2: Key Recent and Near-Future U.S. Technologies and Missions
MEV-1 and MEV-2 (SpaceLogistics) OSAM-1 (NASA, Maxar, Tethers Unlimited)
Image source: Northrop Grumman Image source: NASA
2020-2021: MEV-1 (Mission Extension Vehicle-1) launched Mid-2020s: NASA’s On-orbit Servicing, Assembly, and
October 2019 and docked to IS-901 in February 2020. MEV-2 Manufacturing-1 (OSAM-1) consists of two robotic arms
launched in August 2020 and docked to IS-10-02 in April 2021. designed to refuel an unprepared client space object, and a
Today, both are providing five-year life extension services to third arm that will construct a communications antenna to
their respective Intelsat satellites, including propulsion and demonstrate on-orbit assembly (OOA). OSAM-1 will utilize
pointing control. When those service contracts are complete, Tethers Unlimited’s MakerSat payload to manufacture a
the MEVs can undock to provide services for a new client. 10-meter carbon fiber beam on-orbit.23
OSAM-2 (NASA, Redwire) RSGS (DARPA, SpaceLogistics)
Image source: Redwire Space Image source: Northrop Grumman
Mid-2020s: OSAM-2 will demonstrate the feasibility of using Mid-2020s: The Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous
additive manufacturing technology (3D printing) and advanced Satellites (RSGS) program is a public-private partnership
robotics to build two beams on a free-flying satellite. The first between DARPA and SpaceLogistics. The Naval Research
beam will unfurl a surrogate solar array, and the second beam Laboratory (NRL) will supply dexterous robotic arms and
will be used to characterize additively manufactured structures SpaceLogistics will supply a spacecraft bus which leverages
in low Earth orbit.24 technologies developed for MEV and a commercial launch
vehicle. The mission goal is to demonstrate robotic inspection,
upgrade, and repair capabilities on operational GEO
satellites.25
Legal and Regulatory Considerations Liability. The Outer Space Treaty of 196726 and the Space
While the technical aspects of ISAM are rapidly Liability Convention of 197227 are the current
advancing, the legal nature of these activities has led to international laws governing ISAM, though not explicitly.
certain complications. Naturally, ISAM missions incur These principles, governing activities in the exploration
more complex legal considerations than most other and use of outer space and published by the United
spacecraft activities due to the more frequent interactions Nations (UN), discuss in depth the responsibilities of
between multiple spacecraft and the stakeholders they launching states and the liabilities involved in outer space
represent. activity. However, these documents do not cover all the

legal need of the ISAM missions such as MEV-1.28 Due to (NESDIS) also made efforts in 2020 by establishing
the success of recent OOS missions such as the MEVs, formal licensing procedures for private remote sensing
efforts to regulate ISAM are underway. Since outer space space systems.33 While launch/reentry and on-orbit
liability doctrines govern these efforts, updates and activities have similarities in their spectrum licensing
changes to these documents may take place in the near needs, a separation of the two mission operations would
future.29 better streamline spectrum allocation for both commercial
and governmental OOS missions. Moreover, OOS
Norms and Safe ISAM Operations. The development activities are typically shorter in duration than spacecraft
of reliable and recurring ISAM operations will bring about being launched and operated in the current paradigm, so
significant changes to current space utilization methods. many regulatory hurdles could likely be overcome with
The purpose of these advancements is largely to improve new spectrum allocation processes.
the collaborative nature and sustainability of global space
operations. However, there exists the possibility that these Standards. Standard interfaces can directly promote the
powerful technologies will serve as a catalyst for many proliferation of the ISAM industry. Standardized plug-
new mission types including those that may exploit ISAM and-play capabilities have benefited many industries, such
technologies, such as space robotics systems, for nefarious as home computers. Desktop computers are highly
use. While further work is needed to define best practices modular systems with hardware and software standard
and responsible behaviors for the security of satellites and interfaces. These standard interfaces enable a wide variety
in-space operations, the UN General Assembly Resolution of easily interchangeable hardware options, reducing
75/36 seeks to develop an understanding of international consumer costs. The same trend is likely to occur in the
security considerations regarding actions and activities space economy. The definition of industry-wide standard
resulting in perceived threatening behavior, apparent interface specifications, similar to a Universal Serial Bus
interference, or attacks.30 (USB) on a computer, would likely reduce the barriers of
entry, increase competition, and decrease satellite
Within this context, CONFERS has emphasized the need acquisition and maintenance costs.
for norms based on concepts such as keep-out volumes
that aid to define procedures for collision avoidance Draft documentation regarding RPOD/OOS standards are
maneuvers and approach of client space objects. Adhering currently being developed by organizations such as the
to norms, guidelines, and accountability requirements will International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
help discern between benign and malicious actors and will CONFERS. The Draft International Standard ISO/DIS
encourage a safer environment for future use of ISAM 24330 intends to lay a foundation of OOS Concept of
technologies. Operations (ConOps) as well as safety assurance measures
when developing OOS/RPOD capabilities.34 These steps,
Radio Frequency Spectrum Allocation and On-orbit as well as future domestic initiatives taken by the U.S.
Licensing. Currently, the Federal Communications Space Force and other national space entities, will help
Commission (FCC) does not delineate between move the industry towards standardization adoption.
launch/reentry and on-orbit activity when defining the
radio frequency spectrum allocation for space While longer-term standardized interfacing will need to
communications. Due to the lack of spectrum allocation consider mechanical, electrical, data, and thermal
precedent, the FCC and National Oceanic and subsystems for modular and replaceable elements,
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) had to provide ad refueling interfaces are the current priority in standards
hoc operating licenses needed for OOS activities during development. In-space refueling is a prime example of an
the MEV-1 mission.31 Progress is being made, however, as ISAM technology that could be enabled by standardized
NASA and multiple commercial entities (such as Axiom interfaces, much like the automotive industry’s use of gas
and Astroscale) have requested the FCC to open a Notice caps and fuel pump standards. However, opinions vary on
of Proposed Rulemaking to standardize spectrum how exactly these standards will find their way into the
allocation specifically for OOS activity.32 The National ISAM industry. Joe Anderson, Vice President of Business
Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service Development and Operations at SpaceLogistics, noted that

“Commercial space has led the industry as customers for NASA awarded four companies—Eta Space, Lockheed
the life extension of existing unprepared satellites, but it is Martin, SpaceX, and United Launch Alliance (ULA)—a
my belief that... the National Security Space will, and combined total of over $250 million for this effort.36 In
must, lead the way with development and deployment of March 2022, DARPA began funding eight teams for their
satellites that are prepared for refueling; and commercial Novel Orbital Moon Manufacturing, Materials, and Mass-
space will follow when the infrastructure is present.” efficient Design (NOM4D) program with goals of
Although the prospect of ISAM standards in space is not developing space-based manufacturing methodologies.37
fully defined, this dynamic landscape is promoting a Internationally, the European Union’s Horizon 2020
renaissance of forward-thinking space environment, program38 is funding OOS activities through the
mobility, and logistics developments that could change the development of the EROSS European Robotic Orbital
current paradigm. Support Services (EROSS) and EROSS+ programs
supported by a multitude of commercial partners.39
Game Changer Lifecycle: Market and
Demonstration “Demo” Phase. There are already a
Technology Phases
range of past demonstrations for robotic servicing
Robotic ISAM advancements have reached a tipping point applications, both domestically and internationally.
of technical feasibility, acceptable mission risk levels, and Looking ahead, governmental organizations such as
business case viability. Governmental and commercial NASA, European Space Agency (ESA), Japan Aerospace
entities, both inside and outside of the U.S., are beginning Exploration Agency (JAXA), and DARPA, and many
to field prototypes for robotic servicer spacecraft and commercial companies are committing large investments
commercial ISAM. These near-term activities are now to demonstrate robotic ISAM capabilities. Throughout the
influencing future spacecraft system design and space early-to-mid 2020s, the commercial sector may begin to
segment architectures. In fact, plans for future space offer regular services to enhance existing satellites. (See
systems are beginning to look drastically different from Appendix B for examples).
today’s systems and architectures.35 Figure 1 lays out the
expected path of ISAM technology maturation and market Standardized interfaces across various ISAM technologies
adoption. A description of the chart is as follows: will allow for plug-and-play capabilities and will lower the
build and operating costs of ISAM. Many organizations
Research and Development “R&D” Phase. Many and companies are working to develop interface
technologies that have direct terrestrial applications, such demonstrations for this purpose. In a recent attempt at
as robotic arms for manufacturing and medical use, have standardization, Lockheed Martin has released technical
already received ample R&D funding for their specifications for the Mission Augmentation Port, which
development. Other diverse technologies for specific aims to serve as an open-source, non-proprietary interface
space environment applications, such as fluid transfer standard for which other companies can design compliant
systems designed for operation in microgravity, are more interfacing technology.40 Standardization demos will be a
reliant on entities such as NASA for technology key technology trigger that will help to mature ISAM to
maturation. In fact, NASA’s space exploration efforts the next market phase, “growth.” With widespread
have been the driving R&D force for ISAM to date, standards adoption, and integration of cooperative
including human spaceflight, Lunar and Martian landers interfaces into operations, the ISAM market has great
and rovers, and space stations that have required potential to expand quicker than ever before. However,
significant amounts of consistent RPOD and servicing advancing beyond the demo phase to the growth phase
activities. might be difficult if ISAM demos suffer failures, either
technically or programmatically.
The commercial, defense, and international sectors’
growing interest in developing ISAM technology has Market Growth Phase. Once demo missions show
resulted in additional R&D efforts. For example, NASA’s consistent success, the space industry will likely
“Tipping Point” program funds industry-developed experience rapid growth of ISAM capabilities. The space
cryogenic fluid management technology. In October 2020,

insurance business may further encourage the growth of Market Maturity Phase. As ISAM reaches market
an ISAM-enabled new space economy by adjusting space maturity, these technologies and their clients will be
insurance premiums based upon a satellite’s ability to pervasive throughout the space industry. It is expected that
mitigate risk and allow repair in lieu of spacecraft manufacturers of larger spacecraft systems will transition
replacement. However, this will require satellite customers to modular architectures to accommodate ISAM for their
to commit to a ConOps that includes servicing.41 customers. NASA plans to continue development of large
Governmental regulators may also require or offer structures in space, such as Gateway,42 that require module
incentives for ISAM-ready satellites to address debris assembly in lunar orbit—as well as future flagship
mitigation concerns. observatories, such as the Large Ultraviolet Optical
Infrared (LUVOIR) telescope.43 These space structures
Conversely, maintaining ISAM in a market growth phase will be ISAM-ready, with regular servicing and upgrading
could be difficult. For instance, satellite underwriters may baselined into the operations.
not feel confident with understanding and quantifying risk
for ISAM-ready satellites. Industry stakeholders may find During this mature market phase, satellites will be
it more straightforward and cost-effective to launch launched with the expectation that they will be refueled.
numerous cheaper satellites that can be easily replaced. The satellites will be modular to allow for frequent or as-
For these cases, ISAM may prove to be too expensive for needed technology insertion. For noncritical missions,
the high-quantity, proliferated LEO environment. Yet, reliability requirements may be relaxed resulting in lower
gaining governmental commitment to the mitigation of development, assembly, integration, and test costs due to
space debris and the requirement of ISAM-ready satellites the availability of on-orbit repairability. However, to reach
might prove challenging. However, the proactive this mature market phase, space sector stakeholders
development of norms and regulations with involvement (government and commercial) must demonstrate a
and consensus from international leaders may help to commitment to space sustainability.
reduce ISAM skepticism.
Figure 1: ISAM Market Maturation Path. At any point in time, various ISAM-related technologies might exist at different
market maturity phases. However, most ISAM technologies will not advance beyond early market phases until stakeholders
agree on and adopt interoperability standards into their designs and business models.

ISAM Market Drivers: Maneuverability, Extension Pod (MEP). Under this agreement, the Mission
Modularity, and Space Sustainability Robotic Vehicle (MRV) will be launched in spring 2024
While ISAM is still in its infancy, the potential market with plans to install an MEP on a satellite owned by
implications, even in the near-term, are enormous. The Australian company Optus.46 Also, in March 2022, it was
commercial sector’s investments in ISAM have announced that the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force
contributed to current near-term growth. SpaceLogistics, invested $6 million into Orbit Fab’s Rapidly Attachable
Astroscale, Redwire Space, and numerous other Fluid Transfer Interface (RAFTI) for refuel of U.S.
companies are working to bring commercial servicer military satellites.47
spacecraft to market. Over time, the capabilities of the
ISAM market will expand, growing from the near-term Adam Harris, Vice President of Business Development at
MEV, OSAM-1, and RSGS-like capabilities into complex Orbit Fab states, “Refueling spacecraft enables endless
space architectures that rely on refueling, upgrading, maneuver and allows for robust and resilient [Department
assembly, and manufacturing. of Defense] (DoD) space architectures.” He emphasizes
that “the future winners in the space economy will design
Near term, satellite services will likely be limited to their spacecraft with refueling from the beginning.
inspection, orbit modification, and orbit maintenance of Whether those missions dip into the atmosphere, change
legacy unprepared satellites, and refueling of minimally orbit planes, or accomplish massive assembly in orbit for
prepared satellites. Longer term, demonstrations trips to other planets, refueling allows those new mission
showcasing other ISAM capabilities such as upgrade, areas to exist.” Finally, he points out that “refueling is also
repair, and assembly will usher in a broader market, a key enabler to allow operators to maneuver away from
potentially overtaking the need for refueling, inspection, impending threats and respond with unprecedented
and orbit modification due to the increasing complexity of agility.”48
in-space technology and operations in the deeper future.
Refueling reintroduces station keeping back into
In-Space Maneuverability: Orbit Maintenance and spacecraft operations and allows for drifted spacecraft to
Modification, and Refueling. Satellites living beyond move into their intended orbits, extending lifetimes. Space
their design life have become the norm, and operators are tugs and servicers can perform these orbit maintenance
reluctant to decommission functional satellites simply and modification operations as well by “ferrying” client
because they are running low on fuel. Space assets whose satellites instead. These space vehicles may be more suited
functionality is solely limited by a lack of fuel can still for satellites unprepared for refueling or those that do not
provide value to governmental and commercial operators require a complete refuel service. Still these services delay
once these consumables are replenished. Some estimates novel satellite purchases, maintain assets in valuable GEO
show that more than 50 percent of GEO satellites will slots, and prolong the life of productive and profitable
experience operational impacts due to fuel depletion.44 space vehicles. With a robust infrastructure of life
Refueling these satellites allows for operators to maintain extension servicers, a secondary market in older-but-
orbital slot position with their own propellant systems functional spacecraft may emerge, similar to the used car
extending lifetimes. This capability is extremely valuable market. Companies or governments unable or unwilling to
for governmental and commercial satellite operators. purchase new satellites instead might buy used ones
During the Space Tech Conference in May 2018, SES and whose orbits have been maintained or can be modified to
Intelsat discussed their ability to monetize value from meet new mission needs.
aging spacecraft, and how both companies were looking to
integrate OOS life extension capabilities into their Modular Spacecraft Design. As the success of ISAM
business models going forward.45 materializes, satellite designs will begin to incorporate
prepared servicing features such as standard quick-
Recent investments in this area reflect customer disconnect refueling valves; machine vision-friendly
confidence in the value of these servicing technologies. In fiducials; grapple fixtures; and common structural, power,
February 2022, SpaceLogistics announced a launch data, and fluid interfaces. Spacecraft currently being
agreement with SpaceX and the first sale of a Mission acquired are already studying serviceability features and,

by the end of the 2020s, it is likely that all large satellite for assembly (See section Next Generation Space
acquisitions will require prepared designs for servicing.49 Economy: On-orbit Manufacture and Assembly).52
In fact, the USG has begun showing interest in this area,
as the Defense Innovation Unit (DIU) announced in A Functional Space Enterprise: Inspection,
March 2022 the Modularity for Space Systems (M4SS) Repairability, Upgradability, and Space
project, which includes three prototypes in development Sustainability. Since the early days of space operations,
by Tethers Unlimited, Maxar Technologies, and Motiv satellite inspection has been highly valued amongst
Space Systems.50 governmental and commercial satellite operators.
However, much of inspection is done by ground-based
While designing for full serviceability means a change in systems which have various limitations, such as
current satellite design practices, it has been shown that atmospheric conditions and spacecraft locations relative to
modular designs can be cost-neutral compared to ground sensors.53 Robust on-orbit inspection capabilities
traditional highly integrated designs when considering circumvent these limitations and provide unabated
more than a single satellite purchase.51 The increased cost inspection, including the assessment of spacecraft
of modular system design is largely offset during the anomalies. This capability not only benefits the mission
assembly, test, and integration phases of the acquisition user by beginning the process of addressing on-orbit
cycle. While modular designs tend to increase satellite dry failures and complications, but also the satellite insurance
mass compared to highly optimized designs, weight market.54 Insurance companies can use servicer spacecraft
penalties can be recovered by the benefits of ISAM. to aid in the inspection of insured satellites, assisting in the
evaluation of satellite anomaly claims worth hundreds of
Modular satellites designed for upgradability and refueling millions of dollars. Once inspection has been completed,
have distinct advantages. For example, refuellable additional servicer spacecraft can perform OOS activities,
vehicles can be launched with less propellant than needed repair the satellite if necessary, and restore capability.
for the entire mission, saving hundreds of kilograms in
launch weight, and increasing the launch vehicle payload At the Space Tech Conference in May 2018, both SES and
mass margins. In addition, modularity reduces the need for Intelsat commented on their desire to purchase satellites
expensive weight optimization activities as mass margins with 30-year lifetimes, but with payloads that could be
degrade over the development cycle. The ability to add or upgraded every five years.55 Regular payload
replace components on-orbit means that satellites could reconfiguration or upgrade would require a servicer
potentially be designed with less redundancy on their spacecraft unless the upgrades could be performed entirely
noncritical components. Furthermore, satellites could through software updates, which is unlikely to be
launch without a noncritical component or payload if their sufficient over a 30-year time span. This effort would be
production is late, thereby maintaining launch schedules— entirely reliant on satellite servicing, as an extremely long-
on-orbit assembly activities could install the missing lived satellite bus would require routine maintenance and
elements later. This enhanced flexibility may also alter the refueling. With the ability to upgrade hardware, not only
paradigm of spacecraft mission assurance, reducing the can lifetimes be extended, but satellites can improve their
need to perform lengthy and costly test campaigns by functionality as hardware technology progresses during
relying on the ability to repair and replace failed their lifetimes.
components on-orbit.
A satellite that can replace or upgrade its payload every
Modular designs also allow for easier and more efficient few years has the potential to significantly reduce the cost
transfer for assembly. Current designs for on-orbit transfer of space activities, opening new markets to price sensitive
vehicles (OTVs) are already considering the modularity of customers. Long-life platforms that provide power,
these systems to develop more dynamic and user-friendly propulsion, pointing, thermal control, and other satellite
payload delivery. Much like the international sea freight bus functions could host payloads for a variety of
industry and its use of standardized shipping containers, customers with varying lifetimes and generate new
OTVs and space tugs can deliver on-orbit key components revenue streams. Customers would be able to lease time

on these space platforms, thereby reducing capital robust OOA infrastructure, systems could launch large
expenditures and risk by virtue of foregoing a highly telescope apertures like JWST separately or in pieces for
integrated spacecraft for one dedicated mission. assembly in space.61 Assembly, however, is not just
limited to flagship missions. NASA and industry are
Next Generation Space Economy: On-orbit working on concepts that include partial assembly of
Manufacture and Assembly “traditional” satellites on-orbit, which entails replacing
deployable structures with disassembled structures to
Chief Growth Officer and Executive Vice President of
maximize packaging efficiencies,62 as well as assembly of
Space Infrastructure at Redwire Space, Al Tadros
entire satellites from modular components.63
believes, “In LEO, GEO, and beyond, missions that use
OSAM are beginning to demonstrate that spacecraft which
are intentionally designed with in-space assembly and Terrestrial Applications for In-Space Manufacturing.
maintenance features are best positioned to accelerate Beyond assembly on-orbit, the space industry is looking
humanity’s expansion into space and global leadership in towards on-orbit manufacturing as having enormous
the sustainable use of space.”56 potential for utility much closer to home. Companies like
Redwire are exploring the manufacturing of materials in
The ISS is a perfect example of the altruistic expansion space for terrestrial applications, such as fiber-optic
into space enabled by ISAM, in particular on-orbit cables, ceramics, and 3D printed polymers and crystals.64
assembly. The football field-sized structure was assembled
by the international space community over the past three A satellite manufactured on-orbit can take advantage of
decades and has been continuously occupied since 2000. materials that cannot be exposed to air. It can also avoid
As servicing activities become more complex and space the structural limitations of being built in a standard
architectures begin to incorporate serviceability, a robust gravity environment, and the intense acoustic environment
space economy will emerge. As a result, the cost and risk during launch. ISAM’s intrinsic modularity and design
of OOA and on-orbit manufacturing (OOM) will likely freedom without the bounds of Earth’s surface gravity has
decrease57 and the ISS may be viewed as a model of future the potential to redefine the standard view of a satellite.
OOA developments.
Satellites manufactured and assembled in space have Conclusion

significant technical advantages over those manufactured Despite more sophisticated designs and longer lifetimes,
and assembled on the ground—the clearest being freedom satellites today are the same lonely outposts that have
from the limitations of launch vehicle constraints.58 existed since the Sputnik era. To keep up with advancing
Today, spacecraft must fit within the volume restrictions technological needs and the influx of companies
of the launch vehicle fairing,59 within the mass-to-orbit attempting to enter the LEO and GEO environment,
capability of the system, and be designed to withstand the satellites will need to adapt. But market attitudes are
vibrational and acoustic loads imparted during launch—a shifting, and on-orbit robotic capabilities have reached an
period of minutes that drives design considerations into a inflection point. While NASA will continue to need
system whose mission life is measured in years. Next servicing for the ISS, Gateway, and other concepts, it is
generation large-scale missions, such as new space key operational and economic objectives from commercial
stations or space telescopes intended for scientific space operations and governmental mission needs that are
discovery, may exceed a launch vehicle’s physical accelerating ISAM demand. Today, satellite owners and
constraints, thus requiring OOA like the ISS. Even operators are exploring how to leverage these capabilities
SpaceX’s Starship fairing, with a proposed 9-meter to enhance their existing constellations and to prepare their
diameter, would not accommodate an entire structure the next generation of spacecraft for the coming paradigm
size of the ISS.60 Additionally, satellites with large shift. Looking to the future, a communal ecosystem of
deployable structures, such as the James Webb Space satellites will become more resilient, longer lasting, and
Telescope (JWST), have significant design restrictions due flexible as they will be designed to rely upon a fleet of
to the launch vehicle fairing volume limitations. With a helpful servicing companions.

APPENDIX A – DEFINITIONS AND Combined Stack Attitude Control. An on-orbit service
ACRONYMS in which the servicer spacecraft maintains attitude stability
for the combined stack.
CONFERS Approved Definitions
Abort. An action which stops an onboard process and, if Docked Life Extension. On-orbit services enabling
necessary, initiates an alternate process to put the servicer increased duration of client operations as a combined
spacecraft and client space object in a safe and collision- stack.
free state.
Docking. (verb) When a servicing spacecraft executes a
Approach Volume. An agreed-upon three-dimensional controlled trajectory to affect a rigid connection with a
space centered on the passive vehicle (Client Space Object Client Space Object.
or Servicing Vehicle) in which unintentional contact is
possible within the passive anomaly recovery time and Inspection. Sensing of a Client Space Object by a servicer
ranging and active relative orbit control is needed for spacecraft.
safety. Synonym for Proximity Operations Control
Volume. Keep-Out Volume. A minimum 3D volume of space
around the client space object. The volume is based on
Berthing. (verb) The act of effecting a rigid connection navigational uncertainty of each Rendezvous, Proximity
between a Servicing Spacecraft and a Client Space Object Operations and Docking (RPOD) phase or any operational
with the aid of a robotic arm. volume into which a servicer spacecraft may not enter
without approval.
Capture. (verb) The act of establishing a physical
connection between two space objects. On-Orbit Assembly (OOA). On-orbit activities to
physically attach objects to each other. Examples include
Client. An entity/organization procuring the service. constructing a space station or large telescope, combining
satlets to create a satellite, and adding a reflector dish to an
Client Space Object (prepared and unprepared). The existing satellite. Assembly can overlap with upgrade,
space object being serviced by the servicer spacecraft. An depending on the operation.
example of a prepared client space object is a space
vehicle equipped with a gas cap compatible with a On-Orbit Servicing (OOS). Activities by a servicer
servicing spacecraft’s refueling nozzle. An unprepared spacecraft or servicing agent on a client space object
client space object does not offer features designed to aid which require rendezvous and/or proximity operations.
in acquisition, tracking, rendezvous, mating, and/or OOS activities include non-contact support, orbit
servicing activities, though there may be information modification (relocation) and maintenance, refueling and
transfer between the servicer spacecraft and client space commodities replenishment, upgrade, repair, and debris
object. Examples of unprepared client space objects are mitigation.
legacy satellites, derelict rocket bodies, and pieces of
orbital debris. Prepared. Configured with navigation fiducials and/or
grapple/capture interfaces and/or servicing interfaces. An
Collision Avoidance Maneuver. An operation executed example of a prepared client space object is a space
by a space object relative to another space object to avoid vehicle equipped with a gas cap compatible with a
contact for a specified amount of time. servicing spacecraft’s refueling nozzle.
Combined Stack. A combined client space object and

servicer spacecraft after Docking or Berthing.

Proximity Operations. Orbital maneuvers performed Acronyms
between a servicer spacecraft and a client space object on CNES Centre National D'Etudes Spatiales
a relative planned path within a predefined Approach CONFERS Consortium for Execution of Rendezvous
Volume. and Servicing Operations
ConOps Concept of Operations
Proximity Operation Control Volume. Synonym for CRD2 Commercial removal of Debris
Approach Volume. Demonstration
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects
Relocation. Changing the orbit of the Client Space Object Agency
by a Servicing Vehicle. DIU Defense Innovation Unit
DLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und
Rendezvous. Process wherein two space objects (artificial
Raumfahrt (German Aerospace Center)
or natural body) are intentionally brought close together
DOD Department of Defense
through a series of orbital maneuvers at a planned time
ELSA-d End-of-Life-Service by Astroscale-
and place.
demonstration
ELSA-M End-of-Life Services by Astroscale-Multi
Servicer. An entity/organization that provides On-Orbit
EROSS European Robotic Orbital Support
Servicing operations.
Services
Servicer Spacecraft. Spacecraft performing the servicing ESA European Space Agency
action. ETS-VII Engineering Test Satellite VII
FCC Federal Communications Commission
Servicing Operations. Action provided by Servicer GEO Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit
Spacecraft to the Client Space Object, including, but not GRIP Grappling & Resupply Interface for
limited to, inspection, capture, docking, berthing, Products
relocation, refueling, life extension, removal, combined GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center
stack control, repair, upgrade, assembly, manufacturing, IOC Initial Operational Capability
undocking, unberthing, release. ION InOrbit Now
ISAM In-space Servicing, Assembly, and
Manufacturing
ISO International Organization for
Standardization
ISS International Space Station
JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
JWST James Webb Space Telescope
LEO Low Earth Orbit
LEXI Life Extension In-Orbit
LiDAR Laser Imaging, Detection, and Ranging
LUVOIR Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared
M4SS Modularity for Space Systems
MEP Mission Extension Pod
MEV Mission Extension Vehicle
MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center
NASA National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NESDIS National Environmental Satellite Data
and Information Service

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric SSO Sun-synchronous Orbit
Administration TRL Technology Readiness Level
NOM4D Novel Orbital Moon Manufacturing, ULA United Launch Alliance
Materials, and Mass efficient Design UN United Nations
NRL Naval Research Laboratory USB Universal Serial Bus
OMV Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle USG United States Government
OOA On-orbit Assembly USSF United States Space Force
OOM On-orbit Manufacturing
OOS On-orbit Servicing
APPENDIX B – ISAM Baseball Cards
ORU Orbital Replacement Unit
OSAM On-orbit Servicing, Assembly and Recent, Ongoing, and Upcoming ISAM
Manufacturing Missions and Services
OSSIE Orbit Solutions to Simplify Injection and End-to-end robotic autonomous OOS was first
Exploration demonstrated by DARPA’s Orbital Express in 2007. This
OTV Orbital Transfer Vehicle mission followed up the success of the remote-operated
R&D Research and Development Japanese Engineering Test Satellite VII (ETS-VII)
RAFTI Rapidly Attachable Fluid Transfer demonstration mission conducted in 1997, which
Interface displayed rendezvous and docking operations.65 With over
RPO Rendezvous and Proximity Operations 25 years since ETS-VII and more than 15 years since
RPOD Rendezvous, Proximity Operations, and Orbital Express’s successful mission, a significant amount
Docking of work has been done to advance the technologies and
RSGS Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous develop a viable ISAM market. Table 5 highlights recent
Satellites ongoing and upcoming ISAM technologies and is not an
RSO Resident Space Object exhaustive list of all flight concepts. There exist many
SES Société Européenne des Satellites smaller companies in the early stages of technology design
SOARS Spacecraft On-orbit Advanced Refueling and funding who have been left out—however, many of
and Storage the technology and market leaders throughout the space
SNC Sierra Nevada Corporation industry are highlighted.
SPIDER Space Infrastructure Dexterous Robot

Table 3: ISAM Baseball Cards
Industry Leaders
Astroscale End-of-Life Services by Astroscale- Astroscale Life Extension In-orbit. Servicer to

ELSA-d/ELSA-M66,67 demonstration/Multiple. ELSA-d a LEXI68 provide life extension by acting as the
2021-2022 demonstration of propulsion system for client. By using
(Tokyo, Japan) Astroscale’s servicer and client (Tokyo, Japan) four robotic arms, this technology can
satellites repeatedly docking and optimally position itself to provide
releasing. ELSA-M aims to leverage stationkeeping, attitude control, and
these capabilities to service multiple other orbital relocation services. LEXI
clients per mission. can dock/undock with clients, allowing
servicing to multiple clients per
Image Source: Astroscale
Image Source: Astroscale mission.
Axiom Space  Axiom Space’s commercial space Maxar  Space Infrastructure Dexterous Robot
Axiom Station station is under construction. Through SPIDER (OSAM-1) (SPIDER). Demo on OSAM-1 will
a unique partnership with NASA, the robotically assemble seven individual
(Houston, TX)  (Westminster, CO) 
first Axiom module is expected to dock components into one large antenna
with the International Space Station in reflector. Enables on-orbit assembly.
2024. Additional modules will launch
each year. Axiom Station will become
an independent commercial space
station prior to the end of life of the
ISS.
Image Source: Axiom Space Image Source: Maxar
Northrop Grumman/ MEV-1 (Mission Extension Vehicle-1) Northrop Grumman/ The Mission Robotic Vehicle (MRV)
SpaceLogistics launched in October of 2019 and SpaceLogistics will be a commercial servicing
MEV-1, MEV-269 docked to IS-901 in February 2020. MRV/MEP70 spacecraft with advanced robotics
MEV-2 launched in August 2020 and technology. The primary purpose will
(Dulles, VA) docked to IS-10-02 in April 2021. (Dulles, VA) be the installation of Mission
Today, both offer five-year life Extension Pods (MEPs) to provide
extension services to their respective propulsion augmentation. The MRV is
Intelsat satellites and provide also designed to address inspection
propulsion and pointing control. The and repair, relocations, propulsion
MEVs can also undock and provide augmentation, and replacement of
services for future clients. Image Source: Northrop Grumman parts and systems. Planned launch in
Image Source: Northrop Grumman
2024.
Orbit Fab Tanker-001 launched in June 2021 Redwire Space OSAM-2 will demonstrate the
Tanker-001 Tenzing71 and deployed in sun-synchronous Archinaut (OSAM-2) feasibility of using additive
orbit. World’s first on-orbit operational manufacturing technology (3D
(San Francisco, CA) fuel depot. Designed for green (Jacksonville, FL) printing) and advanced robotics to
propellant High-Test Peroxide (HTP) build two beams on a free-flying
compatibility. Development time of satellite. The first beam will unfurl a
less than one year. surrogate solar array, and the second
beam will be used to characterize
additively manufactured structures in
Image Source: Redwire Space
LEO.
Image Source: Orbit Fab

U.S. Civil and Government Efforts
DARPA Robotic Servicing of GEO Satellites. Defense Innovation Unit Selected Sierra Nevada Corporation
RSGS72 DARPA has partnered with Northrop Orbital Outpost73 (SNC), NanoRacks, and Arkisys for
Grumman/SpaceLogistics to develop Phase I contracts for the Orbital
(Arlington, VA) and deploy a robotic servicer or MRV. (Mountain View, CA) Outpost. It will be a self-contained,
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) will free-flying spacecraft capable of
integrate robotic payload elements supporting assembly, microgravity
including manipulator arms. Launch experiments, logistics, manufacturing,
planned for 2023. training, and hosted payloads.
Image Source: Northrop

Grumman/SpaceLogistics
Image Source: SNC
NASA GSFC Mission to demonstrate refueling a NASA MSFC Demonstration mission to 3D print two
OSAM-174 satellite in space, assembling a OSAM-275 10-m long beams on-orbit using
communications antenna, and Redwire’s Archinaut technology, onto
(Greenbelt, MD) (Huntsville, AL) one of which a solar array will unfurl.
manufacturing a beam. Partnered
with Maxar and Tethers Unlimited, Public-private partnership that
Inc. Launch no earlier than 2025. includes Northrop Grumman and
NASA’s Jet Propulsion
Laboratory. Launch no earlier than
2024.
Image Source: Redwire Space
Image Source: NASA
Non-U.S. Civil and Governmental Efforts
ESA ESA selected ClearSpace for first ever ESA The TITAN project advances the
ClearSpace-176 debris removal of an ESA-owned item. TITAN77 development of a robotic arm for
ClearSpace-1 will use an satellite servicing. Under the ESA
(Renens, Switzerland) experimental, four-armed robot to (Torun, Poland) contract, a prototype of a multi-
capture a Vega Secondary Payload articulated robotic arm will be
Adapter (Vespa) left behind by ESA's developed for the future deorbiting
Vega launcher in 2013. Expected and servicing of in-orbit satellites by
launch in 2025 or 2026. PIAP Space.
Image Source: ESA

Image Source: ClearSpace
European Commission European Robotic Orbital Support JAXA Astroscale’s Active Debris Removal
EROSS+ Services. Technology demonstration CRD278 by Astroscale-Japan (ADRAS-J) has
led by Thales Alenia Space dedicated been contracted for the initial phase of
(Cannes, France) to life extension, refueling, inspection, (Tokyo, Japan) JAXA’s Commercial Removal of
controlled debris reentry, and other Debris Demonstration (CRD2)
operations. On-orbit demonstration program. A public-private
expected by 2026. collaboration, Phase 1 of this program
is expected to launch in 2023. Once
Phase 1 displays non-cooperative
Image Source: Thales Alenia
Image Source: Astroscale
RPO capabilities, Phase 2 plans to
demonstrate the removal of a launch
vehicle’s second stage in fiscal year
2025.

Commercial
Atomos Developing Quark Orbital Transfer D-Orbit An OTV designed for the last-mile
Quark OTV79,80 Vehicle (OTV) to deliver satellites ION Satellite Carrier81,82 delivery of CubeSats and microsats of
inserted into rideshare or lower orbits mass up to 150 kg and to perform in-
(Denver, CO) to their desired orbits utilizing high- (Como, Italy) orbit experiments of hosted payloads.
power electric propulsion and Four successful missions as of Q1
advanced RPO techniques. Expected 2022, with over 70 payloads delivered
launch in 2023. to orbit.
Image Source: Atomos
Image Source: D-Orbit
Exolaunch Reliant OTV comes in a Standard Exotrail CNES is providing funding for the
Reliant83 and Pro model to transfer satellites to Space Van84 development of this electrically
different orbital altitudes. Reliant Pro propelled vehicle designed to deliver
(Berlin, Germany) (Massy, France) nano and microsatellites to their final
will also have modular satellite
upgrade and debris collection orbits. Expected launch in 2024.
abilities. Testing and flight
qualification to begin in 2022.
Image Source: Exolaunch

Image Source: Exotrail
Momentus Family of three orbital transfer Moog Large family of Orbital Maneuvering
Vigo/Ardo/Fervoride vehicles or “space tugs” are designed OMV85 Vehicles (OMVs) designed to serve as
to deliver payloads of 200–20,000 kg a modular platform for payload hosting
(Santa Clara, CA) (Elma, NY) and deployment. They will be able to
into desired orbits to meet customer
needs. They will enable Momentus’ serve as space tugs to conduct orbit
goal of providing in-space raising maneuvers for hosted
payloads.
infrastructure services. Vigoride-3, an
experimental space tug was launched
May 2022.
Image Source: Moog
Image Source: Momentus
Nanoracks The Outpost program aims to Obruta RPOD Kit serves as a low-cost
Outpost repurpose the upper stage of launch RPOD Kits/Service Pods86,87 interface to provide a “turnkey
vehicles for use as platforms for solution” for inspection, refuel, orbital
(Houston, TX) (Ottawa, Ontario) relocation, and other capabilities. This
robotic manufacturing, servicing, etc.
These platforms intend to be modular product aims to provide
controllable and function across cheap access to docking in order to
lower barriers to entry in the OSAM
multiple orbits.
market. Service pods to be used for all
aspects of OOS and privately hired to
service customer clients.
Image Source: Obruta
Image Source: Nanoracks

Commercial
SCOUT Observational payload launched in Skyrora Skyrora’s Space Tug, designed to

June 2021 as part of Orbit Fab’s Space Tug90,91,92 transport 350 kg into a 500 km SSO,
SCOUT-Vision88,89
Tenzing refueling depot. Its has the potential to remove space
(Alexandria, VA) capabilities enable Tenzing to “detect, (Edinburgh, Scotland) debris, conduct inspections, and fix
identify, and model observed objects it faulty satellites. Skyrora aims to be the
encounters in orbit.” first launcher from British soil.
Image Source: Skyrora

Image Source: SCOUT
Spaceflight Developed in 2020, the Sherpa line of Starfish Space Small and affordable space tug
Sherpa four OTVs are designed to provide Otter Space Tug93 designed to complete life extension,
final delivery to rideshare customers’ active debris removal, and
(Seattle, WA) (Seattle, WA) autonomous transportation services.
desired orbits. Includes delivery to
LEO, GEO, and low-Lunar orbits.
Spaceflight has launched more than
50 customer payloads across three
Sherpa OTVs, including the industry’s
first ever electric OTV. Sherpa-ES,
pictured left, is planned to launch on Image Source: Starfish Space
Image Source: Spaceflight the GEO Pathfinder mission in 2023.
StartRocket Debris mitigation technology University of Surrey University-led mission launched in

Foam Debris Catcher94 designed to extrude a web of polymer RemoveDEBRIS95,96 2018 to test net, harpoon, dragsail,
foam to capture and deorbit space and LiDAR vision technologies for
(Moscow, Russia) (Guildford, England) debris removal. These demonstrations
debris. Aiming for 2022 launch.
concluded in early 2019.
Image Source: StartRocket Image Source: University of Surrey
Tethers Unlimited Integrated modular robotics payload Tethers Unlimited Payload attached to NASA’s OSAM-1
GAUNTLET97 to attach to the body of a spacecraft. 97 mission with goals of demonstrating
MakerSat
Consists of robotic arms, payload in-space manufacture of a 10-meter
(Bothell, WA) (Bothell, WA) carbon fiber boom. Will verify beam
connectors, servicing interface, and
machine vision to enable servicing structural properties on orbit.
architecture on heritage pacecraft.
Image Source: Tethers Unlimited Image Source: Tethers Unlimited

Commercial
UARX Space Orbit Solutions to Simplify Injection Zero-G Horizons Spacecraft On-Orbit Advanced
OSSIE98,99 and Exploration. Modular and scalable Technologies Refueling and Storage. Funded by a
orbital transfer vehicle designed to SOARS Phase II NASA SBIR contract to
(Nigrán, Spain) provide precise orbital injection and develop on-orbit cryogenic and
inclination changes for CubeSats and (Daytona Beach, FL) hypergolic fuel depots to provide
small spacecraft. Can deliver to Earth satellite refuel technology. Utilizes
orbits, the moon, and beyond. novel fluid transfer interfaces and
Cooperation agreement signed with adaptive rotational controls to enable
the German Aerospace Center (DLR) efficient liquid-gas separation and
in early 2021. transfer in microgravity environments.
Image Source: UARX Space SOARS will be demonstrated onboard
Image Source: Zero-G Horizons the ISS in late 2022 or 2023.
Technologies
Commercial Standard Interfacing Efforts
Altius Space Machines Low-cost, light weight grappling Altius Space Machines Low-profile magnetic connecting
DogTag100 interface weighing. Designed with MagTag100 power/data interface to enable module
various grappling techniques attachment. Prepares clients for a
(Broomfield, CO) (Broomfield, CO) variety of servicing types, including
(magnetic, electrostatic, adhesive,
and mechanical) to enable servicing. upgrade, repair, inspection, etc.
Includes optical fiducials to aid Applications can vary from CubeSats
to large spacecraft.
navigation and docking during
servicing operations. DogTags on-
orbit with One Web satellites.
Image Source: Altius Space Machines Image Source: Altius Space Machines
Astroscale Low-cost standardized docking plate Orbit Fab Rapidly Attachable Fluid Transfer
Docking Plate101 designed to be attached to client RAFTI/GRIP102 Interface. Equips spacecraft with
satellites, proactively enabling on- refueling capabilities, enabling satellite
(Tokyo, Japan) (San Francisco, CA) life extension services. Interfaces with
orbit servicing. Aims to enable
refueling, relocation, and end-of-life the GRIP active docking and refueling
deorbit capabilities. The plate is system allows fluid transfer (which
can occur at full system pressure).
customizable with a range of sizes
Includes three alignment markers for
and mounting options. Image Source: Orbit Fab cooperative docking.
Image Source: Astroscale

Acknowledgments About the Center for Space Policy
The authors would like to thank key ISAM innovators and and Strategy
experts who were willing to share their industry insight, The Center for Space Policy and Strategy is dedicated to
including Astroscale U.S.’s Dave Fischer, Dave Hebert, shaping the future by providing nonpartisan research and
Clare Martin, Charity Weeden; AXA XL’s Chris strategic analysis to decisionmakers. The Center is part of
Kunstadter; Nanorack’s Chris Cummins; Orbit Fab’s The Aerospace Corporation, a nonprofit organization that
Adam Harris, Dalton Hayes; Redwire Space’s Al Tadros; advises the government on complex space enterprise and
SpaceLogistics’ Joseph Anderson; and Tethers systems engineering problems.
Unlimited’s Robert Hoyt.
The views expressed in this publication are solely those of
Thank you to Rebecca Reesman for her invaluable help on the author(s), and do not necessarily reflect those of The
RPO and OOS topics, Robin Dickey for her expertise in Aerospace Corporation, its management, or its customers.
space norms and standards, and Audrey Allison for her
expertise on ISAM spectrum allocation. Thank you to peer For more information, go to www.aerospace.org/policy or
reviewers John P. Mayberry, Harrison Wight, Gregory email policy@aero.org.
Richardson, and Lance Hrivnak. Finally, a big thank you
to The Aerospace Corporation’s Center for Space Policy
© 2022 The Aerospace Corporation. All trademarks, service marks, and trade
and Strategy and Karen Jones, who served as this paper’s names contained herein are the property of their respective owners. Approved
editor. for public release; distribution unlimited. OTR2022-00778
About the Authors

Alec J. Cavaciuti is an associate member of the technical
staff, supporting civil space program management and
programmatic assessments. Cavaciuti has a bachelor’s
degree in aerospace engineering from Purdue University.
Joseph H. Heying is an associate member of the technical

staff, specializing in project engineering and supporting
programmatic assessments, with an emphasis on
technology demonstrations. Heying has a bachelor’s
degree in aerospace engineering from Purdue University
and is pursuing a master’s degree in space systems
engineering at Johns Hopkins University.
Joshua P. Davis is a senior project engineer providing

support to various civil and national security customers,
including development of in-space transportation and in-
space servicing, assembly, and manufacturing concepts
and architectures for DOD applications. Davis has
bachelor’s degrees in mechanical engineering and
aeronautical science and engineering from the University
of California and a master’s degree in astronautical
engineering from the University of Southern California.

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IN-SPACE SERVICING, ASSEMBLY,

AND MANUFACTURING FOR THE

Alec J. Cavaciuti, Joseph H. Heying, and Joshua Davis

1 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

Introduction assembly—the construction of space systems in space

JULY 2022 2 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 2 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 3 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 4 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 5 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

MEV-1 and MEV-2 (SpaceLogistics) OSAM-1 (NASA, Maxar, Tethers Unlimited)

Image source: Northrop Grumman Image source: NASA

OSAM-2 (NASA, Redwire) RSGS (DARPA, SpaceLogistics)

Image source: Redwire Space Image source: Northrop Grumman

JULY 2022 6 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

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JULY 2022 8 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

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JULY 2022 11 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

Satellites manufactured and assembled in space have Conclusion

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Combined Stack. A combined client space object and

JULY 2022 13 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 14 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 15 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

Astroscale End-of-Life Services by Astroscale- Astroscale Life Extension In-orbit. Servicer to

JULY 2022 16 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

U.S. Civil and Government Efforts

Image Source: Northrop

Image Source: NASA

Non-U.S. Civil and Governmental Efforts

Image Source: ESA

JULY 2022 17 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

Image Source: Exolaunch

JULY 2022 18 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

SCOUT Observational payload launched in Skyrora Skyrora’s Space Tug, designed to

Image Source: Skyrora

Image Source: Spaceflight the GEO Pathfinder mission in 2023.

StartRocket Debris mitigation technology University of Surrey University-led mission launched in

Image Source: StartRocket Image Source: University of Surrey

Image Source: Tethers Unlimited Image Source: Tethers Unlimited

JULY 2022 19 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

Commercial Standard Interfacing Efforts

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About the Authors

Joseph H. Heying is an associate member of the technical

Joshua P. Davis is a senior project engineer providing

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JULY 2022 23 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 24 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

JULY 2022 25 CENTER FOR SPACE POLICY AND STRATEGY

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