ZOOLOGIA 30 (2): 151–156, April, 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1984-46702013000200005

Threats to and viability of the giant anteater, Myrmecophaga tridactyla

(Pilosa: Myrmecophagidae), in a protected Cerrado remnant encroached
by urban expansion in central Brazil

Milena F. Diniz1,2 & Daniel Brito1

1
Laboratório de Ecologia Aplicada e Conservação, Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade
Federal de Goiás, Campus Samambaia, Caixa Postal 131, 74001-970, Goiânia, GO, Brazil.
2
Corresponding author. E-mail: midiniz3@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT. Urbanization poses a serious threat to wildlife populations inhabiting native vegetation remnants surrounded
by the expanding urban and suburban sprawl. The close contact with human activities causes not only direct impacts,
such as habitat loss, but also indirect negative effects, such as population isolation, roadkills and anthropogenic fires.
The Parque Nacional de Brasília is a large Cerrado remnant almost completely surrounded by the city of Brasília, in
central Brazil. Here, we use population viability analysis to model the impacts of urbanization on a population of
Myrmecophaga tridactyla (Linnaeus, 1758) inhabiting that park. Our results show that roadkill mortality is by far the
most serious threat to the long-term persistence of the giant anteater in the study site. The implementation of measures
to better control vehicle speed in the vicinity of the park is urgently needed if we expect the giant anteater population
to be effectively protected in the Parque Nacional de Brasília.
KEY WORDS. Extinction; inbreeding; PVA; roadkill; wildfire.

The Cerrado is one of the richest savannas of the world The Parque Nacional de Brasília (42,389 ha) (15°35’-15°45’S,
(MYERS et al. 2000, MITTERMEIER et al. 2005). It is also one of the 48°05’-48°53’W) was created in 1961, and at present it is com-
world’s most threatened ecosystems due to human activities pletely surrounded by urban and suburban sprawl, and its pe-
(MYERS et al. 2000, MITTERMEIER et al. 2005). Therefore, it is no rimeter is almost completely encircled by high-traffic roads
surprise that it is considered as a priority region for global con- (DF-001, DF-095, BR-020 and BR-251).
servation actions (OLSON & DINERSTEIN 2002, SANDERSON et al. 2002, The giant anteater, Myrmecophaga tridactyla (Linnaeus,
H OEKSTRA et al. 2005, M ITTERMEIER et al. 2005, B ROOKS et al. 1758), occurs in open grasslands and savanna habitats in the
2006).The history of large-scale human impacts in the Cerrado, Neotropics (GARDNER 2007). It is listed as threatened both in
where cattle ranching and crop production (mainly soy) have the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2011) and in
dramatically increased in the last decades, is relatively recent Brazil’s national red list (MACHADO et al. 2008). The major threats
(KLINK & MOREIRA 2002). to the giant anteater are habitat loss (urbanization), roadkills,
The beginning of a serious human occupation of the hunting, fires and feral dogs (IUCN 2011). There is a native
cerrado by humans dates back to the 1950’s, when the country’s giant anteater population in the Parque Nacional de Brasília
new capital (Brasília) was built. Human population growth and (NASCIMENTO & CAMPOS 2011). Our objectives in this contribu-
urbanization quickly followed (IBGE 2011). Up to the present tion are: (1) to estimate the viability of the giant anteater popu-
day, the Cerrado has lost almost 80% of its original vegetation lation in the Parque Nacional de Brasília; (2) to estimate the
(MITTERMEIER et al. 2005), and only 5.5% of the ecoregion is le- relative impacts of isolation due to urbanization, roadkills and
gally protected (a meager 1.4% as strict protected areas) anthropogenic fires on the viability of this population; and (3)
(MITTERMEIER et al. 2005). to propose management procedures that might improve the
The Federal District region (Brasília and its surrounding survival of that population.
municipalities) was listed as an area of extreme high impor-
tance for the conservation of the biodiversity of the Cerrado MATERIAL AND METHODS
(MMA 2007). It is the major urban center in central Brazil.
Brasília was planned to house 500,000 inhabitants, but its cur- To model the viability and the effects of roadkills and
rent population is estimated at 2.6 million inhabitants (IBGE fire on the giant anteater population, we used the PVA soft-
2011). Human population growth and urban sprawl are the ware VORTEX (LACY et al. 2005). We used VORTEX to simu-
main threats to the biodiversity in the Federal District region. late population dynamics and extinction risk for a series of

© 2013 Sociedade Brasileira de Zoologia | www.sbzoologia.org.br | All rights reserved.

152 M. F. Diniz & D. Brito

scenarios: 1) baseline scenario, where we assumed no inbreed- per year). For each scenario, the duration of each simulation
ing, no roadkills and no anthropogenic fires to occur; 2) in- was set at 100 years, and the model was run 1,000 times. The
breeding scenario, where we included the inbreeding carrying capacity for the study site was calculated based on
depression tool in VORTEX (3.14 lethal equivalents, see RALLS an estimated density of 0.4 giant anteaters/km 2 (MIRANDA
et al. 1998), assuming that the urban expansion of Brasília 2004). We assumed that the remnant was fully occupied at
caused the giant anteater population to become isolated; 3) the beginning of a simulation, and set the initial population
wildfire scenario, where we included a 5% chance for the popu- size of each scenario as equal to its carrying capacity. We con-
lation being hit by a wildfire (SILVEIRA et al. 1999); and 4) sidered as viable those scenarios that showed a >95% prob-
roadkill scenarios, where we included mortality due to the ability of persistence during the 100 year period modeled in
high traffic on the roads that surround the Cerrado remnant; the study (SHAFFER 1981, SOULÉ 1987).
we modeled three roadkill mortality intensities (8, 17 or 25 Giant anteaters are solitary and may be active during the
individuals killed per year). Roadkills are a serious threat to day or night, depending on the temperature (CAMILO-ALVES &
the giant anteater’s populations in the Cerrado (CÁCERES 2011). MOURÃO 2006, MOURÃO & MEDRI 2007). It is more active in open
Even though the Parque Nacional de Brasília is almost com- habitats and rests in woodlands (MOURÃO & MEDRI 2007). Their
pletely surrounded by high-traffic roads, there is no monitor- diet consists of ants and termites (GARDNER 2007). A single young
ing program of roadkills set in place for this protected area. is born per reproductive event (GARDNER 2007). Life history data
Therefore, we decided to incorporate this threat in our model used as input in VORTEX was obtained from previous PVA stud-
using three roadkill impact scenarios: 0.05 of the population ies on the giant anteater published in the scientific literature
affected (or eight individuals killed per year); 0.10 (or 17 in- (MIRANDA 2004). A scheme of giant anteater biological data and
dividuals killed per year); and 0.15 (or 25 individuals killed parameter changes in scenarios modeled is given in Table I.

Table I. Life history parameters (based on MIRANDA 2004) and threat scenarios used to model the viability of Myrmecophaga tridactyla
population in Parque Nacional de Brasília. For a detailed description of input parameters, see LACY et al. (2005).
Parameter/Scenario Baseline Inbreeding Fire Roadkill 5% Roadkill 10% Roadkill 15%
Reproductive structure Polygynous baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Age 1st reproduction 3 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Longevity 15 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Litter size 1 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Sex ratio (male:female) 1.5:1 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Broods/year 1 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Progeny/brood 1 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Density dependent reproduction Yes baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
% breeding P(0) 90% baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
% breeding P(K) 60% baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Allee parameter 1 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Steepness parameter 2 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
% female breeding 60*((N/K)2)))*(N/(1+N)) baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Environmental variation% female breeding 12.5% baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
% male breeding pool 100% baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Mortality rate (1st year) 50 ± 5% baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Mortality rate 10 ± 1% baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Initial population size 170 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Carrying capacity 170 baseline baseline baseline baseline baseline
Inbreeding depression No Yes baseline baseline baseline baseline
Lethal equivalents – 3.14 baseline baseline baseline baseline
Fire frequency – baseline 5% baseline baseline baseline
Fire severity on survival – baseline 75% baseline baseline baseline
Fire severity on reproduction – baseline 25% baseline baseline baseline
Harvest No baseline baseline 8 individuals/year 17 individuals/year 25 individuals/year

ZOOLOGIA 30 (2): 151–156, April, 2013

Threats to and viability of Myrmecophaga tridactyla in a protected Cerrado remnant 153

RESULTS The results of our models suggest that roadkills are the
most serious threat to the persistence of the giant anteater popu-
The results of the VORTEX modeling show that, in the lation in the Parque Nacional de Brasília (Fig. 1). The giant
baseline scenario (no inbreeding and roadkills), the giant ant- anteater population is very sensible to roadkills, and even the
eater population in the Parque Nacional de Brasília is viable removal of just a few individuals increases the probability of
within the 100 years of the simulation (Fig. 1). Fires, which are a extinction of the population (Fig. 1). The removal of eight or
natural phenomenon in the Cerrado, do not affect population more individuals due to roadkills, in our simulations, resulted
viability (Fig. 1). Under this scenario, the population retains most in a rapid extirpation of the population from the study area
of its original genetic diversity (Fig. 2) after the simulations, but (Fig. 1). Even though the impact of inbreeding is not as drastic
there is a decline in the mean population size (Fig. 3). as that of roadkills, inbreeding also has the potential to threaten
the persistence of the population (Fig. 1). Inbreeding and fires
caused declines in population size in scenarios where the popu-
lation did not go extinct (Fig. 2). Inbreeding and fires also re-
sulted in greater loss of genetic diversity than that predicted
by the baseline scenario (Fig. 3).

Figure 1. Persistence probability estimated under the baseline and

threat scenarios (see text) used to model the population of
Myrmecophaga tridactyla at Parque Nacional de Brasília.

Figure 3. Estimated heterozigosity under the baseline and threat

scenarios (see text) used to model the population of Myrmecophaga
tridactyla at Parque Nacional de Brasília. Heterozigosity estimates
for all scenarios were conducted only up to the point where popu-
lation persistence was >50%.

DISCUSSION

The intense process of urbanization that has taken place

in the last few decades poses a serious hazard for the giant ant-
eater population of the Parque Nacional de Brasília. Roadkills
are the leading human impact on terrestrial vertebrate mortal-
ity (FORMAN & ALEXANDER 1998). Roadkill mortality may result
in population declines, population bottlenecks, and increased
Figure 2. Estimated population size under the baseline and threat extinction risks (FORMAN et al. 2003). Road width, vehicle traf-
scenarios (see text) used to model the population of Myrmecophaga fic levels, paving, and speed limits affect roadkill rates (FORMAN
tridactyla at Parque Nacional de Brasília. Population size estimates & ALEXANDER 1998, ORLOWSKY & NOWAK 2006). Medium-sized and
for all scenarios were conducted only up to the point where popu- large mammals are highly mobile, which increases their chances
lation persistence was >50%. to encounter roads, to try to cross them, and to be killed by

ZOOLOGIA 30 (2): 151–156, April, 2013

154 M. F. Diniz & D. Brito

vehicles. Medium-sized and large mammals are especially sus- carrying capacity in the beginning of all scenarios modeled.
ceptible on two-lane high-speed roads (FORMAN & ALEXANDER One possible limitation of our approach is that some of the
1998). Giant anteaters have already been documented to suf- values of the parameters used were estimated from another
fer from roadkill mortality in the Cerrado (e.g., CÁCERES et al. population (Parque Nacional das Emas, see MIRANDA 2004). Some
2010), and in the study area. The giant anteater population of population parameters are determined by the evolution of the
the Parque Nacional de Brasília is completely surrounded by lineage that originated the species, and show little or no varia-
two-lane high-traffic roads (Fig. 1), and as a consequence, in- tion across different populations of the same species. However,
dividuals dispersing or trying to forage in adjoining areas must other parameters are more affected by the local environmental
cross these roads, becoming vulnerable to passing vehicles. conditions (e.g., mortality rates). The stochastic nature of the
MIRANDA (2004) observed a mortality rate of one individual per viability model already incorporates some of this local varia-
year in the Parque Nacional das Emas, a site with much lower tion. The parameters that could have significant variation across
human density, vehicular traffic and far from major urban cen- populations were exactly those we chose to model different
ters. The human population in Brasília has increased from 1.2 scenarios in order to evaluate local threats that reflect better
million in 1980 to 2.6 million in 2010 (IBGE 2011), and the local reality.
number of vehicles in the capital of Brazil has increased dra- A genetic study conducted at the Parque Nacional das
matically in the last few years. Emas found that the giant anteater population of that area has
Wildfires are a natural phenomenon in the Cerrado. low levels of genetic diversity and high levels of inbreeding
However, the large human population living close to the Parque (COLLEVATTI et al. 2007). The population estimated for the Parque
Nacional de Brasília causes a disruption in the natural fire re- Nacional de Brasília is much smaller than that inhabiting the
gime of the Cerrado, and anthropogenic fires occur more fre- Parque Nacional das Emas. Our results show that if urbaniza-
quently. Our simulations show that genetic diversity is lost and tion results in isolation of the giant anteater population and
the population declines in the presence of fires. Wildfires have inbreeding, this might increase the risk of extinction and cause
already been reported to kill giant anteaters in the Cerrado, population declines, but inbreeding is not expected to cause
culling a significant portion of the population (SILVEIRA et al. loss of genetic diversity (see results above). However, we did
1999). Individuals suffer from the direct mortality due to the not model a scenario with the possible synergistic effects of
impacts of fires, but those who survive are capable of using fire and inbreeding. Fires may depress population size and cause
burnt areas to forage (PRADA & MARINHO-F ILHO 2004). Giant ant- a genetic bottleneck, resulting in loss of genetic diversity (e.g.,
eaters can escape from fires by taking refuge in gallery forests COLLEVATTI et al. 2007).
along river banks or fleeing to areas adjacent to the Parque The results of our simulations suggest that the three sce-
Nacional de Brasília (SILVEIRA et al. 1999). Unfortunately, due to narios we have modeled threat the giant anteater population
the isolation of the national park, when a fire occurs, individu- under scrutiny in the following order of importance: roadkills,
als fleeing the affected area will have to cross the roads sur- fires, inbreeding. In order to improve the chances of survival
rounding the park, increasing the chances of roadkills. of the giant anteater population at the Parque Nacional de
The predictions derived from our simulations might be Brasília, we recommend that some management actions are
viewed as optimistic because we did not model scenarios evalu- implemented. Because our analysis shows that roadkills are by
ating other known threats to the giant anteater population in far the most serious threat, we suggest that speed bumps and
the study area, such as feral dogs (LACERDA et al. 2009). It has speed traps (pardais in Portuguese) are installed in the roads
been demonstrated that feral dogs cause an edge effect in the close to the park. Speed limits in the vicinity to the park should
Brasília Parque Nacional de Brasília, and giant anteaters avoid also be re-evaluated, and maximum speeds decreased. These
the outer skirts of the park (LACERDA et al. 2009). Dogs come measures should be complemented by a more strict enforce-
from urban and suburban areas close to the park: stray dogs ment of traffic laws and more rigorous punishment for infrac-
enter the park through a garbage dump located in the vicinity tions. The construction of wildlife overpasses could also mitigate
of the protected area (LACERDA et al. 2009). Even though giant roadkills. Decreasing roadkill mortality is likely to bring great
anteaters are hunted in certain areas (e.g., KOSTER 2008) there is benefits not only for the giant anteater population, but also
no evidence of that they are hunted [by wild dogs] in the Parque for other wide-ranging wildlife species found at the site (e.g.,
Nacional de Brasília. However, even though humans are not the manned wolf). We also recommend that a fire manage-
hunting giant anteaters in the study site, there is the possibil- ment action plan, specifically for the study area, should be
ity that feral dog packs may hunt down giant anteaters, as they developed. Even though wildfires are a natural process in the
come into the national park. Feral dog attacks have been listed Cerradoand should not be controlled/suppressed, anthropo-
as a possible cause for the decline of the giant anteater popula- genic fires should be extinguished as fast as possible.
tion in the Parque Nacional de Brasília (HOROWITZ 1992). An- Management actions to counteract the negative effects
other reason why our results may be perceived as optimistic is of inbreeding in the short term could include the construction
that we have considered the giant anteater population at its of wildlife passes (e.g., CLEVENGER & WALTHO 2000, VAN WIEREN &

ZOOLOGIA 30 (2): 151–156, April, 2013

Threats to and viability of Myrmecophaga tridactyla in a protected Cerrado remnant 155

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Submitted: 27.IV.2012; Accepted: 21.XII.2012.

Editorial responsibility: Heraldo L. de Vasconcelos

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