Module 1 Lecture Part 3: Progressivism

Progressivism

The waning years of the Nineteenth and early years of the Twentieth Century witnessed America
confronting an assortment of social concerns beckoning attention. Economic dislocation brought on by
the Depression of 1893-97 highlighted the need for labor reform; opponents of segregationist polices in
the South (and North) organized national bodies in hopes of confronting such apartheid like restrictions;
calls for reforms in food processing, financial services, and the clamor that the rich pay "their fair share"
resulted in a host of reform legislation. Reaching a crescendo in the 1890s, calls for change took hold.
Let’s begin by exploring several of these episodes followed by the reforms they created.

1890s

Pullman Strike and Coxey’s Army

George Pullman manufactured "palace cars" used by railroads that provided luxurious accommodations
for their patrons. Realizing a housed worker was probable a happy work, Pullman developed a town
south of Chicago for his employees, a kind of worker commune so to speak. In 1894, feeling the
economic "pinch" of the day, Mr. Pullman raised rents without any corresponding wage hike for his
workers; many went out on strike! Switch Operators –in solidarity with their Pullman brethren- struck as
well. This led to other railroad workers going out on strike, too. President Grover Cleveland, enforcing an
injunction that the workers get back to work before they halted the mail, sent troops to Chicago to keep
the trains moving. Strikers in Chicago even torched buildings used to house exhibits at the World’s
Exposition held their that year. This movement (which eventually ended by enforcement of the
injunction) led to the arrest and imprisonment for six months of labor leader Eugene V. Debs. While
incarcerated Debs studied Karl Marx and from then on practiced socialism, later becoming leader of the
Socialist Party and running several times for the presidency. Furthermore, demands for workers rights
became a front stage issue.

That same year Jacob Coxey led a march from Massillon, OH, to Washington, DC, in hopes of creating
civil service jobs for workers displaced by the depression. Known as the "Common Wealers," members
of "Coxey’s Army," descended upon Washington only to get arrested for walking on the grass. In no
mood to adopt a massive public works program, Congress paid little attention to Coxey’s Army and their
demands. Similar mass demonstrations took place during this time, only Coxey’s commanded the most
attention. Ostensibly, Jacob Coxey’s celebrity as a businessmen seeking reform for the common man
carried weight as he and his followers sought to make Congress aware of the plight of the dispossessed.

Pollock v. Farmer’s Loan and Trust

The Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 (a compromise bill calling for lower tariff schedules in conjunction
with a small income tax provision of 2% on income) led to the Supreme Court’s decision in the Pollock
case deeming income taxes unconstitutional. "Pollock" –a stock holder in Farmer’s Loan and Trust-
brought suit against the company for withholding taxes on income, in other words, he challenged the
constitutionality of the income tax (Go boy! Oops, I’m not being objective! Bad teacher!). The high court
overturned the income tax provision in a 5-4 split vote (I wonder how Chief Justice John Roberts, today's
"swing vote" between the liberal and conservatives jurists on SCOTUS, would have come down on this
one…hmm); still, the dissenting jurists made a case for the income tax. Eventually, less than twenty
years later, proponents of the tax successfully lobbied for the 16th Amendment to the Constitution.

In closing, we can say the antecedents to progressivism encompassed movements by populist’s

reformers and their allies, racial strife prevalent through the country in the late nineteenth century, un-
regulated businesses, concern over the lack of wealth redistribution in society, and, while not addressed
yet in our notes, a call for "temperance" by those hoping to prohibit the consumption of alcohol.

The Early Twentieth Century and Progressivism

No need to rehash court decisions and laws already studied barring integration; however, the Niagara
Movement (commencing in 1905) hoped to serve as a bulwark against these wrongs. Originally founded
by black educator W.E.B. Dubois, the Niagara Movement took its name from its first meeting place, the
Canadian side of the Niagara Falls. Renouncing Booker T. Washington’s "Atlanta Compromise" speech
given in 1895, Du Bois and followers adopted a manifesto emphasizing "we want full manhood suffrage
and we want it now…we are men!"

In spite of distributing pamphlets discussing civil rights issues and lobbying liberal whites to their cause,
the movement never gained enough traction leading to nationwide support. In 1910, Dubois founded a
successor group -the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP); the
organization gained national recognition and grew to attract many white supporters. With its cadre of
lawyers the NAACP challenged segregation laws, and, sometimes, successfully gained acquittals for
blacks accused of crimes in the South. Perhaps the organizations greatest claim to fame involved Brown
v. The Board of Topeka, KS, whereby Thurgood Marshall (later the first black Supreme Ct. Judge) and
other lawyers representing the NAACP persuaded the high court to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson.
Currently, the NAACP serves as a political advocacy group.

Teddy Roosevelt
With the assassination of President William McKinley, Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt took the office of
president in 1901. "Teddy" –or "TR" believed in progressivism. Never one to shy away from a fight,
Roosevelt had pushed for reforms as Police Commissioner of New York City, United States Civil Service
Commissioner, and as Asst. Sect. of the Navy. During the Spanish-American War he organized a group
comprised of Harvard "aristocrats" and western "frontiersmen" to form the "Rough Riders," a regiment
which saw action in Cuba.

History has dubbed his reform program the "Square Deal" (a reference to his mediation of the
Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902 where, according to him, everyone (strikers and management) would get
a "Square Deal"). TR’s Square Deal promoted the idea of inheritance taxes on the wealthy (can you
believe he was a Republican!), supported low tariffs; additionally, the Dept. of Commerce is created in
1903 to regulate businesses.

During TR’s reign the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 gave the Agricultural Department the ability to
inspect meat packing plants; packers paid fines if their facilities defied public health codes (the Spanish
American War witnessed many of our troops succumbing to bad meat sold by American suppliers, so
calls for reform had been brewing). The Pure Food and Drug Act, too, allowed federal inspectors access
to such goods before consumer usage. He had hoped his successor (William Howard Taft) would share
his zeal for progressive reform throughout govt., but Taft had his own agenda-more on him in the next
lesson.

"Southern" Progressives

Northerners and their liberal allies did not have a monopoly on the ideology of progressivism.
Southerners, too, recognized the need for societal reforms; Hoke Smith –governor of Georgia from
1906-1911- improved child labor conditions and established juvenile courts. James Vardaman, also a
governor, supported the "direct primary" in Mississippi allowing voters to cross party lines and vote for
whomever they deemed worthy. The direct primary also functioned to limit the influence of party
"bosses" who had nominated candidates, now party members could appoint their leaders.

Across the South child labor reforms took hold, as did abolition of the convict lease system -a process
allowing private industry to lease convicts from state penal institutions and use them in industry or
agricultural pursuits. Although the revenue flows proved quite lucrative to the state, lessors had little
incentive to provide decent shelter, clothing, or food to their wards. Southerners legislatures called for
reform; by the early 20th century, most states had abolished this practice. Prohibition took hold as many
counties across the region became "dry," effectively limiting alcohol consumption. "Drink" could only
lead to indolence, waste, time spent away from ones family and other responsibilities, so its prohibition
would only improve society’s mores.

Alabama passed child labor reform disallowing employment of children under 12; rail road shipping
rates became subject to regulation; suspension of "trusts" (a form of business ownership prevalent
during the age) became the norm. Texas even had an insurance law –Robertson Law of 1907- requiring
any life insurance company doing business in the state invest in state securities and real estate; a means
of limiting the outflow of capital. Sadly, however, reforms and reformers failed to address the dearth of
adequate public education and housing for blacks, and the prevalence of lynching.

"Other" Progressives and State Reforms

Robert "Bob" Lafollette, a reform minded governor from Wisconsin, implemented the "Wisconsin Idea"
where he would have academics write bills for the state legislature. Lafollette believed scholars might
best address the needs of constituents better then legislators who often grew "out of touch" with the
people. Lafollette also battled for labor reform, regulation of business, and conservation of natural
resources.

In California we had Governor Hiram Johnson. Elected in 1910 and known for turning down gifts of
$5,000 from supporters, Johnson took on the Southern Pacific Railroad and ended their dominance of
California politics. He led fights for 8hour work days for women, free textbooks in public schools, direct
primary, and workmen’s compensation insurance. Many of Johnson’s reforms are still in existence in the
state today. By no means a "perfect" man, Johnson called for the exclusion of Japanese migrants to
California, and by the 1920s, from the U.S. entirely.

State Reforms: Direct Primary, Recall, Referendum, and Initiative

As mentioned, the Direct Primary allowed voters to cross party lines and limit the role played by party
bosses in nominations. Recall gave voters the rights to recall elected officials (remember Gray Davis,
hmm?); Referendum granted voters the right of deciding on bills sent to them by the legislature for
approval. And the "Initiative" called on voters to put issues on ballots after gathering a petition.

All of these political freedoms we owe to the progressive movement.

Progressive Amendments to the United States Constitution

The following are considered the "Progressive" amendments to the U.S. Constitution.

The 16th Amendment: Congress shall have the power to lay and collect taxes on income. We have
addressed previously the issue of fairness, so no sense in belaboring the point.

17th Amendment: "The people shall elect senators, not the legislature." Yes, we take it for granted that
we can vote in –or out- the "Kamala Harris's" and "Diane Feinstein’s" but in years past, state
representatives voted for in/out our senators. Story has it that a Sen. Nelson Aldrich of Rhode Island
served Standard Oil so well in the early years of the last century that he clearly paid no attention to the
voices of his constituents…change was needed.

The 18th Amendment: Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol. A victory for the
temperance movement having been active since the 1840s. As mentioned, Southerners embraced this
amendment as did many civic groups across the country.

The 19th Amendment: "The right of citizens of the U.S. to vote shall not be denied [based on gender]." A
long (roots having took hold in the 1840’s), hard fought "right" finally granted with this amendment.
Activists had tried to attach a suffrage provision to the 14th and 15th Amendments during the
Reconstruction era, but to no avail. Some states had allowed women the franchise, Wyoming being the
first, followed by Idaho, Colorado and Utah.

"Fissures" in the Progressive movement

By the end of World War I, the movement itself began to dissolve. Domestically progressives disunited
over issues concerning culture, social concerns, and economic reforms. Chiefly, immigration from
southern European nations concerned many for that region (and Russia) had been a seat of anarchist’s
sentiments, and there was some concern that these "undesirables" might export themselves to America.

Such ideas seemed plausible at the time since Bolsheviks, Communists, and anarchists had stirred up
trouble in several European countries. Tom Watson, William Jennings Bryan and other progressives
favored anti-immigration platforms, believing that some immigrants diluted American cultural values. A
few progressives feared that "Romanism," or complete reverence to the Church of Rome (Catholic
Church) by Italian immigrants, might supersede their loyalties to republican, representative type
government. Moreover, many of these immigrants consumed alcohol and used it in religious services;
would they respect the 18th Amendment?

Disillusionment encompassing society following WWI culminating in race riots and economic strife also
took its toll on the progressive movement. As a result many, such as John Dewey and Charles Beard
focused on economic issues. Dewey- a philosopher- believed the problems society faced were
"economic disparity, not ethnic and racial comity." "Man’s prejudice," to Dewey, came from a
"distinctive fear of the stranger." Historian Charles Beard’s 1927 writing Rise of American Civilization
portrayed history as a struggle between the elites and the masses. Even sociologists like Robert and
Helen Lynd in their book Middleton critiqued the economic ills of America.

Not until the Great Depression and World War II do we begin to see some reconciliation in the
Progressive movement.