Lab Component

of
Second Semester Engineering Mathematics
as prescribed by Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi

Compiled by:
Dr. Ramananda H. S. Dr. K. Sushan Bairy
St Joseph Engineering College, SOAS, REVA University,
Mangaluru, INDIA. Bengaluru, INDIA.

Dr. Smita S. Nagouda Dr. Madhukar Krishnamurthy

CHRIST(Deemed to be University), BMS College of Engineering,
Central Campus, Bengaluru, INDIA. Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru, INDIA.

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Mr. Sonam Kumar

BMS College of Engineering, AMC Engineering college,
Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru, INDIA. Bannerghatta Road, Bengaluru, INDIA.
Message from BOS Chair
Dear Readers,
Welcome to the world of mathematics brought to life through the power of Python!
In your hands, you hold a unique manual that combines the elegance of mathematics
with the versatility of programming. Prepare to embark on a captivating journey where
the realm of numbers, algorithms, and problem-solving converge.
This mathematics lab manual, infused with Python, is your gateway to experiencing
mathematics in a dynamic and interactive way. By integrating programming into the
study of mathematics, we aim to inspire you to explore, experiment, and develop a deep
understanding of mathematical concepts through hands-on coding activities.
Python, a powerful and user-friendly programming language, serves as our trusty com-
panion throughout this manual. It enables us to go beyond pen-and-paper calculations,
unleashing the potential to solve complex problems, visualize mathematical concepts, and
uncover patterns through the magic of coding. As you progress through the chapters,
you will witness how Python becomes a bridge between abstract mathematical ideas and
concrete computational implementations.
Inside these pages, you will embark on a variety of coding adventures that will chal-
lenge your logical thinking, enhance your problem-solving skills, and ignite your creativ-
ity. From building algorithms to solve equations, to simulating mathematical models,
to analyzing data sets, each activity has been carefully crafted to reinforce fundamental
mathematical principles while simultaneously developing your proficiency in Python.
Remember, programming is a skill that grows with practice. Don’t be discouraged
by the occasional hurdle or setback. Embrace the challenges as opportunities to learn,
adapt, and improve. The exercises and examples provided in this manual will guide you
through the intricacies of Python, gradually expanding your knowledge and confidence
as you progress.
We extend our heartfelt appreciation to the authors, educators, and programmers who
have contributed their expertise and passion to create this invaluable resource. Their
dedication ensures that you have in your hands a manual that will equip you with the
skills and knowledge to unravel the mysteries of mathematics using Python.
So, dear readers, let this mathematics lab manual with Python be your guide as you
embark on a thrilling voyage of exploration and discovery. May it inspire you to develop
a deep appreciation for the beauty of mathematics, the artistry of programming, and the
infinite possibilities that arise when these two worlds intertwine.
Take hold of your imagination, harness the power of Python, and delve into the
captivating world of mathematics like never before. Prepare to witness the magic of
algorithms, to unravel the secrets of mathematical patterns, and to develop a lifelong
love for the boundless synergy of mathematics and programming.
Wishing you a remarkable journey filled with mathematical enlightenment and Pythonic
adventures!
I am very much thankful to the authors of this lab manual, Dr. K. Sushan Bairy,
REVA University, Bengaluru, Dr. Ramananda H. S., St Joseph Engineering College,
Mangaluru, Dr. Smita S. Nagouda, Christ(Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, Dr.
Chandra Shekara G., BMS College of Enginering, Bengaluru, Dr. Madhukar Krishna-
murthy, BMS College of Enginering, Bengaluru, Mr. Sonam Kumar, AMC Engineering

1
College, Bengaluru for their continuous effort to prepare this lab manual.
I am very much thankful to Dr. Vidyashankar S. Vice Chancellor VTU, Dr. Ran-
gaswamy B E, Registrar VTU, Dr. T Srinivasa, Registrar Evaluation VTU, Dr. Sadashive
Gowda, Dean Academic VTU, Dr. Sadashiv Halbhavi, Special officer VTU, All the BOS
members, Basic Science & Humanities for their guidance, support and encouragement for
bringing out this manual.

Dr Suresha M
Chairman Board of Studies in Basic Sciences & Humanities

2
Instructions and method of evaluation
1. In each Lab student have to show the record of previous Lab.

2. Each Lab will be evaluated for 15 marks and finally average will be taken for 15
marks.

3. Viva questions shall be asked in labs and attendance also can be considered for
everyday Lab evaluation.

4. Tests shall be considered for 5 marks and final Lab assessment is for 20 marks.

5. Student has to score minimum 8 marks out of 20 to pass Lab component.

3
 Contents: Electrical & Electronics Engineering Stream
Lab 1. Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their geometrical interpretation and Verifica-
tion of Green’s theorem

Lab 2. Computation of basis and dimension for a vector space and graphical representation
of linear transformation

Lab 3. Visualization in time and frequency domain of standard functions

Lab 4. Computing Laplace transform and inverse Laplace transform of standard functions

Lab 5. Laplace transform of convolution of two functions

Lab 6. Solution of algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi and Newton-

Raphson method

Lab 7. Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s forward and backward difference for-
mula

rd
Lab 8. Computation of area under the curve using Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 31 and Simp-
3 th


sons 8 rule

Lab 9. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Taylor’s series and Modified
Euler’s method

Lab 10. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method
and Milne’s predictor and corrector method

4
LAB 1: Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their
geometrical interpretation and Verification of Green’s
theorem
1.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to find the gradient of a given scalar function.

2. to find find divergence and curl of a vector function.

3. to evaluate integrals using Green’s theorem.

1.2 Method I:
1. To find gradient of ϕ = x2 y + 2xz − 4.
# To find gradient of scalar point function .
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ') # Setting the coordinate system
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y + 2 * N . x * N . z - 4 # Variables x ,y , z to be used with coordinate
system N
delop = Del () # Del operator
display ( delop ( A ) ) # Del operator applied to A
gradA = gradient ( A ) # Gradient function is used
print ( f " \ n Gradient of { A } is \ n " )
display ( gradA )

2. To find divergence of F⃗ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂

# To find divergence of a vector point function
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ')
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y * N . z * N . i + N . y ** 2 * N . z * N . x * N . j + N . z ** 2 * N . x * N . y * N . k
delop = Del ()
divA = delop . dot ( A )
display ( divA )

print ( f " \ n Divergence of { A } is \ n " )

5
display ( divergence ( A ) )

3. To find curl of F⃗ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂

# To find curl of a vector point function
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ')
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y * N . z * N . i + N . y ** 2 * N . z * N . x * N . j + N . z ** 2 * N . x * N . y * N . k
delop = Del ()
curlA = delop . cross ( A )
display ( curlA )

print ( f " \ n Curl of { A } is \ n " )

display ( curl ( A ) )

1.3 Method II:

1. To find gradient of ϕ = x2 yz.
# To find gradient of a scalar point function x ^ 2yz
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var , pprint
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ]
G = gradient (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given scalar function F = " )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " \ n Gradient of F = " )
display ( G )

6
2. To find divergence of F⃗ = x2 y î + yz 2 ĵ + x2 z k̂.
# To find divergence of F = x ^ 2yi + yz ^ 2j + x ^ 2zk
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v . x + v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . y + v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 2 ] * v . z
G = divergence (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given vector point function is " )
display ( F )

G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Divergence of F = " )
display ( G )

3. To find curl of F⃗ = xy 2 î + 2x2 yz ĵ − 3yz 2 k̂

# To find curl of F = xy ^ 2i + 2x ^ 2yzj - 3yz ^ 2k
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] * v [ 1 ] ** 2 * v . x + 2 * v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] * v . y - 3 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . z
G = curl (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given vector point function is " )
display ( F )

G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " curl of F = " )
display ( G )

7
1.4 Green’s theorem
Statement of Green’s theorem in the plane: If P (x, y) and Q(x, y) be two con-
tinuous functions having continuous partial derivatives in a region R of the xy-plane,
bounded by a simple closed curve C, then
I Z Z  
∂Q ∂P
(P dx + Qdy) = − dxdy.
∂x ∂y
R
H
1. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(x + 2y)dx + (x − 2y)dy], where c is the region
c
bounded by coordinate axes and the line x = 1 and y = 1.
from sympy import *
var ( 'x , y ')
p=x+2*y
q=x-2*y
f = diff (q , x ) - diff (p , y )
soln = integrate (f , [x ,0 , 1 ] ,[y ,0 , 1 ] )
print ( " I = " , soln )

I= -1

H
2. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(xy + y 2 )dx + x2 dy], where c is the closed curve
c
bounded by y = x and y = x2 .
from sympy import *
var ( 'x , y ')
p = x * y + y ** 2
q = x ** 2
f = diff (q , x ) - diff (p , y )
soln = integrate (f , [y , x ** 2 , x ] ,[x ,0 , 1 ] )
print ( " I = " , soln )

I= -1/20

1.5 Exercise:
1. If u = x + y + z, v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = yz + zx + xy, find gradu, gradv and gradw.
Ans: î + ĵ + k̂, 2(xî + y ĵ + z k̂), (y + z)î + (z + x)ĵ + (z + x)k̂.

2. Evaluate divF and curlF at the point (1,2,3), given that F⃗ = x2 yz î+xy 2 z ĵ +xyz 2 k̂.
Ans: 6xyz, x(z 2 − y 2 )î + y(x2 − z 2 )ĵ + z(y 2 − x2 )k̂.

3. Prove that the vector (yz − x2 )î + (4y − z 2 x)ĵ + (2xz − 4z)k̂ is solenoidal.

4. Find the vector normal to the surface xy 3 z 2 = 4 at the point (−1, −1, 2).
Ans: −4î − 12ĵ + 4k̂.

8
 ⃗ = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, show that (i) ∇ · R
5. If R ⃗ = 3, (ii) ∇ × R
⃗ = 0.
H
6. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(3x + 4y)dx + (2x − 3y)dy], where c is the
c
boundary of the circle x2 + y 2 = 4.
Ans: −8π

9
LAB 2: Computation of basis and dimension for a vec-
tor space and graphical representation of linear trans-
formation
2.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to verify the Rank nullity theorem of given linear transformation.

2. to compute the dimension of vector space.

3. to represent linear transformations graphically.

2.2 Rank Nullity Theorem

Verify the rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T : R3 → R3 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x + 4y + 7z, 2x + 5y + 8z, 3x + 6y + 9z).
import numpy as np
from scipy . linalg import null_space

# Define a linear transformation interms of matrix

A = np . array ( [ [1 , 2 , 3 ] , [4 , 5 , 6 ] , [7 , 8 , 9 ] ] )

# Find the rank of the matrix A

rank = np . linalg . matrix_rank ( A )
print ( " Rank of the matrix " , rank )

# Find the null space of the matrix A

ns = null_space ( A )
print ( " Null space of the matrix " , ns )
# Find the dimension of the null space
nullity = ns . shape [ 1 ]
print ( " Null space of the matrix " , nullity )
# Verify the rank - nullity theorem
if rank + nullity = = A . shape [ 1 ] :
print ( " Rank - nullity theorem holds . " )
else :
print ( " Rank - nullity theorem does not hold . " )

Rank of the matrix 2

Null space of the matrix [[-0.40824829]
[ 0.81649658]
[-0.40824829]]
Null space of the matrix 1
Rank-nullity theorem holds.

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2.3 Dimension of Vector Space
Find the dimension of subspace spanned by the vectors (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1) and (3, 1, 2).
import numpy as np

# Define the vector space V

V = np . array ( [
[1 , 2 , 3 ] ,
[2 , 3 , 1 ] ,
[3 , 1 , 2 ] ] )
# Find the dimension and basis of V
basis = np . linalg . matrix_rank ( V )
dimension = V . shape [ 0 ]
print ( " Basis of the matrix " , basis )
print ( " Dimension of the matrix " , dimension )

Basis of the matrix 3

Dimension of the matrix 3

Extract the linearly independent rows in given matrix : Basis of Row space
from numpy import *
import sympy as sp
A = [ [1 , -1 ,1 , 1 ] ,[2 , -5 ,2 , 2 ] ,[3 , -3 ,5 , 3 ] ,[4 , -4 ,4 , 4 ] ]
AB = array ( A )
S = shape ( A )
n = len ( A )
for i in range ( n ) :
if AB [i , i ] = = 0 :
ab = copy ( AB )
for k in range ( i +1 , S [ 0 ] ) :
if ab [k , i ] ! = 0 :
ab [i , : ] = AB [k , : ]
ab [k , : ] = AB [i , : ]
AB = copy ( ab )
for j in range ( i +1 , n ) :
Fact = AB [j , i ] / AB [i , i ]
for k in range (i , n ) :
AB [j , k ] = AB [j , k ] - Fact * AB [i , k ]
display ( " REF of given matrix : " , sp . Matrix ( AB ) )
temp = { (0 , 0 , 0 , 0 ) }
result = [ ]
for idx , row in enumerate ( map ( tuple , AB ) ) :
if row not in temp :
result . append ( idx )
print ( " \ n Basis are non - zero rows of A : " )
display ( sp . Matrix ( AB [ result ] ) )

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2.4 Graphical representation of a transformation
2.4.1 Horizontal stretch:
Represent the horizontal stretch transformation T : R2 ßR2 geometrically
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is stretched horizontally by 2 units.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 50 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 50 )
plt . show ()

Another example.
from math import pi , sin , cos

12
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

coords = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 0 . 5 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 1 . 5 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ,[0 , 0 ] ] )

coords = coords . transpose ()
coords
x = coords [0 , : ]
y = coords [1 , : ]

A = np . array ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
A_coords = A@coords
x_LT1 = A_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT1 = A_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT1 , y_LT1 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT1 , y_LT1 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')
ax . set_title ( " Horizontal Stretch " ) ;

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2.4.2 Reflection:
Represent the reflection transformation T : R2 → R2 geometrically.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is reflected about y axis.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [ -1 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 50 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 50 )
plt . show ()

Another example.
B = np . array ( [ [ -1 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
B_coords = B@coords

x_LT2 = B_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT2 = B_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT2 , y_LT2 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT2 , y_LT2 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )

14
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')
ax . set_title ( " Reflection " ) ;

2.4.3 Rotation:
Represent the rotation transformation T : R2 → R2 geometrically.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is rotated by π/2 radians.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [0 , - 1 ] ,[1 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 50 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 50 )
plt . show ()

15
 Another example.
theta = pi / 6
R = np . array ( [ [ cos ( theta ) ,- sin ( theta ) ] ,[ sin ( theta ) , cos ( theta ) ] ] )
R_coords = R@coords

x_LT3 = R_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT3 = R_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT3 , y_LT3 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT3 , y_LT3 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')

16
2.4.4 Shear Transformation
Represent the Shear transformation T : R2 → R2 geometrically.
Find the image of (2, 3) under shear transformation.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [2 , 3 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [1 , 2 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
print ( " Image of given vectors is : " , V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 20 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 20 )
plt . show ()

17
Another example.
S = np . array ( [ [1 , 2 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
S_coords = S@coords

x_LT4 = S_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT4 = S_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT4 , y_LT4 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT4 , y_LT4 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,4 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')
ax . set_title ( " Shear " ) ;

18
2.4.5 Composition
Represent the composition of two 2D transformations.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is rotated by π/2 radians then stretched hori-
zontally 2 units.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [2 , 3 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [0 , - 1 ] ,[1 , 0 ] ] )
B = np . matrix ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V3 = B * V2
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
V3 = np . array ( V3 )
print ( " Image of given vectors is : " , V3 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 20 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 20 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V3 [0 , : ] , V3 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'g '] , scale = 20 )
plt . title ( ' Blue = original , Red = Rotated , Green = Rotated + Streached ')
plt . show ()

19
Another example.
C = np . array ( [ [ - cos ( theta ) , sin ( theta ) ] ,[ sin ( theta ) , cos ( theta ) ] ] )
C_coords = C@coords

x_LT5 = C_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT5 = C_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT5 , y_LT5 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT5 , y_LT5 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')

20
2.5 Exercise:
1. Verify the rank nullity theorem for the following linear transformation

a) T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + 4y, 2x + 5y, 3x + 6y).

Ans: Rank=2, Nullity=1, RNT verified
b) T : R3 → R4 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x+4y−z, 2x+5y+8z, 3x+y+2z, x+y+z).
Ans: Rank=3, Nullity=1, RNT verified

2. Find the dimension of the subspace spanned following set of vectors

a) S = (1, 2, 3, 4), (2, 4, 6, 8), (1, 1, 1, 1)

Ans: Dimension of subspace is 2
b) S = (1, −1, 3, 4), (2, 1, 6, 8), (1, 1, 1, 1), (3, 3, 3, 3)
Ans: Dimension of subspace is 3

3. Find the image of (1, 3) under following 2D transformations

a) Horizontal stretch
b) Reflection
c) Shear
d) Rotation

21
LAB 3: Visualization in time and frequency domain
of standard functions
3.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to use the standard in-built function of Laplace transform.

2. to graphically plot time and frequency domain of standard functions.

Represent the Laplace transform of f (t) = sin 2t, both in time and frequency domains
from sympy import *
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
s , t = symbols ( 's t ' , positive = True )
f = sin ( 2 * t )
F = lapla ce_tra nsform (f ,t , s )
print ( ' The Laplace Transform of f is ' ,F [ 0 ] )
print ( F [ 0 ] . expand () )
p1 = plot (f , show = False , xlim = ( - 10 , 10 ) , line_color = ' blue ' , legend = True )
p2 = plot ( F [ 0 ] , show = False , xlim = ( - 10 , 10 ) , line_color = ' red ' , legend = True )

plotgrid = plotting . PlotGrid (2 , 1 , p1 , p2 , show = False , size = ( 5 . , 3 . 5 ) )

plotgrid . show ()

Represent the Laplace transform of f (t) = e2t , both in time and frequency domains
from sympy import *
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
s , t = symbols ( 's t ' , positive = True )
f = exp ( 2 * t )
F = lapla ce_tra nsform (f ,t , s )
print ( ' The Laplace Transform of f is ' ,F [ 0 ] )
print ( F [ 0 ] . expand () )

22
p1 = plot (f , show = False , xlim = ( - 10 , 10 ) , line_color = ' blue ' , legend = True )
p2 = plot ( F [ 0 ] , show = False , xlim = ( - 10 , 10 ) , line_color = ' red ' , legend = True )

plotgrid = plotting . PlotGrid (2 , 1 , p1 , p2 , show = False , size = ( 5 . , 3 . 5 ) )

plotgrid . show ()

3.2 Exercise:
1. Represent the following functions in time and frequency domains

a) cos t
b) sinh t
c) cosh t
d) e−2t

23
LAB 4: Computing Laplace transform and inverse
Laplace transform of standard functions
4.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to compute Laplace transform using in-built function.

2. to compute inverse Laplace transform using in-built function.

4.2 Laplace Transform

from sympy import *
t , s = symbols ( 't , s ')
a = symbols ( 'a ' , real = True , positive = True )
init_printing ()
f = sin ( a * t )
integrate ( f * exp ( - s * t ) , (t , 0 , oo ) )

from sympy import *

t , s = symbols ( 't , s ')
a = symbols ( 'a ' , real = True , positive = True )
init_printing ()
f1 = sin ( a * t )
print ( ' the Laplace transform of ' , f1 , ' is ')
display ( l aplace _trans form ( f1 , t , s , noconds = True ) )
f2 = cos ( a * t )
print ( ' the Laplace transform of ' , f2 , ' is ')
display ( l aplace _trans form ( f2 , t , s , noconds = True ) )
f3 = cosh ( a * t )
print ( ' the Laplace transform of ' , f3 , ' is ')
display ( l aplace _trans form ( f3 , t , s , noconds = True ) )
f4 = exp ( a * t )
print ( ' the Laplace transform of ' , f4 , ' is ')
display ( l aplace _trans form ( f4 , t , s , noconds = True ) )
f5 = sinh ( a * t )
print ( ' the Laplace transform of ' , f5 , ' is ')
display ( l aplace _trans form ( f5 , t , s , noconds = True ) )
f6 = t ** 3
print ( ' the Laplace transform of ' , f6 , ' is ')
display ( l aplace _trans form ( f6 , t , s , noconds = True ) )

24
4.3 Inverse Laplace Transform
# import i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m
import sympy as sp
s = sp . symbols ( 's ')

t = sp . Symbol ( 't ' , positive = True )

a = sp . symbols ( 'a ' , real = True )

# Using i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m () method
gfg = sp . i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m ( a / ( s ** 2 + a ** 2 ) , s , t)
print ( gfg )
gfg = sp . i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m ( s / ( s ** 2 + a ** 2 ) , s , t)
print ( gfg )
gfg = sp . i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m ( 1 / ( s ** 4 ) , s , t )
print ( gfg )
gfg = sp . i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m ( 1 / ( s ** 2 - a ** 2 ) , s , t)
print ( gfg )
gfg = sp . i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m ( s / ( s ** 2 - a ** 2 ) , s , t)
print ( gfg )
gfg = sp . i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m ( 1 / ( s ** 2 - a ** 2 ) , s , t)
print ( gfg )
gfg = sp . i n v e r s e _ l a p l a c e _ t r a n s f o r m (( 2 ) / ( s - 4 ) , s , t )
print ( gfg )

25
4.4 Exercise:
1. Find the Laplace transform of t cos 4t
s2 −16
Ans: s4 +32s2 +256

sin 2t
2. Find the Laplace transform of t
Ans: tan−1 (2/s)
s2 +s−2
3. Find the inverse Laplace transform of s(s−2)(s+3)
4 −3t
Ans: 52 e2t + 13 + 15
e
s
4. Find the inverse Laplace transform of s4 +4a4
sin at sinh at
Ans: 2a2

26
LAB 5: Laplace transform of convolution of two func-
tions
5.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to calculate Laplace Transform for convolution of two functions.
2. to verify Convolution Theorem for two given functions.
Let f (t), g(t) be two functions, then the convolution f ⊛ g is given by
Zt
(f ⊛ g)(t) = f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ
0

The Convolution Theorem states that L(f ⊛ g) = L(f )L(g).

1. Find the Laplace transform of the convolution of the functions f (t) = t and g(t) = et .
from sympy import *
t , s , tau = symbols ( 't ,s , tau ')

# Given functions
f = t
g = exp ( t )

# Convolution
fog = integrate (
f . subs ( { t : tau } ) * g . subs ( { t : t - tau } ) ,
( tau ,0 , t )
)

# Alternately , convolution can also be calculated using

# the second function and a step reduced first function .
# gof = integrate (
# g . subs ( { t : tau } ) * f . subs ( { t :t - tau } ) ,
# ( tau ,0 , t )
# )

# Function to find laplace transform

def LT ( func ) :
return lap lace_t ransfo rm ( func ,t ,s , noconds = True )

# Calculation
FOG = LT ( fog )

print ( ' Laplace transform of the convolution of given functions is : ')

display ( FOG )

27
2. Verify the Convolution Theorem for Laplace transform of the functions f (t) = t and
g(t) = et .
from sympy import *
t , s , tau = symbols ( 't ,s , tau ')

# Given functions
f = t
g = exp ( t )

# Convolution
fog = integrate (
f . subs ( { t : tau } ) * g . subs ( { t : t - tau } ) ,
( tau ,0 , t )
)

# Function to find laplace transform

def LT ( func ) :
return lap lace_t ransfo rm ( func ,t ,s , noconds = True )

# Calculation
F = LT ( f )
G = LT ( g )
FOG = LT ( fog )

print ( ' Convolution of given functions is : ')

display ( fog )
print ( ' Laplace transform of convolution is : ')
display ( FOG )
print ( ' Laplace transforms of given functions is : ')
display (F , G )

# Checking Convolution Theorem

print ( '\ nChecking Convolution Theorem ... ')
if FOG = = F * G :
print ( ' verified ! ')

28
5.2 Exercise:
sin 3t
1. Find the Laplace transformation of the convolution of f (t) = sin t and g(t) = .
3
Verify the convolution theorem for Laplace transformation.
    
sin 3t 1 1 sin 3t
L sin t ⊛ = 2 × = L(sin t) × L .
3 s + 1 s2 + 9 3
2. Find the Laplace transformation of the convolution of f (t) = t cos t and g(t) =
t2 sin t. Verify the convolution theorem for Laplace transform.
11s8 + 76s6 + 1058s4 − 1904s2 + 171

L (t cos t ⊛ t2 sin t) =
8(s10 + 5s8 + 10s6 + 10s4 + 5s2 + 1) 
2
s −1 2(3s2 − 1)
= 4 × = L(t cos t) × L (t2 sin t) .
s + 2s2 + 1 s6 + 3s4 + 3s2 + 1
3. Find the Laplace transformation of the convolution of f (t) = cosh 3t and g(t) = t5 .
Verify the convolution theorem for Laplace transform.
 
5 120 s 120 5
L (cosh 3t ⊛ t ) = 5 2 = 2 × 6 = L(cosh 3t) × L (t ) .
s (s − 9) s −9 s
4t + 5
4. Find the Laplace transformation of the convolution of f (t) = and g(t) =
e2t
4t − 5
. Verify the convolution theorem for Laplace transform.
e−2t
196 − 25s2
  
4t + 5 4t − 5 5s + 14 14 − 5s
L 2t
⊛ −2t
= = ×
e  e  s4
− 8s2 + 16 s2 + 4s + 4 s2 − 4s + 4
4t + 5 4t − 5
=L ×L
e 2t e−2t

29
LAB 6: Solution of algebraic and transcendental equa-
tion by Regula-Falsi and Newton-Raphson method
6.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi method.

2. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Newton-Raphson method.

6.2 Regula-Falsi method to solve a transcendental equation

Obtain a root of the equation x3 − 2x − 5 = 0 between 2 and 3 by regula-falsi method.
Perform 5 iterations.
# Regula Falsi method
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % x ^3 - 2 *x - 5 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
a = float ( input ( ' Enter a valus : ') ) # 2
b = float ( input ( ' Enter b valus : ') ) # 3
N = int ( input ( ' Enter number of iterations : ') ) # 5

for i in range (1 , N + 1 ) :
c=(a*f(b)-b*f(a))/(f(b)-f(a))
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;

Using tolerance value we can write the same program as follows:

Obtain a root of the equation x3 − 2x − 5 = 0 between 2 and 3 by regula-falsi method.
Correct to 3 decimal places.

30
# Regula Falsi method while loop2
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % x ^3 - 2 *x - 5 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
a = float ( input ( ' Enter a valus : ') ) # 2
b = float ( input ( ' Enter b valus : ') ) # 3
N = float ( input ( ' Enter tolarence : ') ) # 0 . 001
x=a;
c=b;
i=0
while ( abs ( x - c ) > = N ) :
x=c
c = (( a * f ( b ) - b * f ( a ) ) / ( f ( b ) - f ( a ) ) ) ;
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
i=i+1
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;
print ( ' final value of the root is % 0 . 5f '% c )

6.3 Newton-Raphson method to solve a transcendental equa-

tion
Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x + 1, near 1, by Newton Raphson method. Perform
5 iterations
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % 3x - cos ( x ) -1 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
dg = diff ( g ) ;

31
df = lambdify (x , dg )
x0 = float ( input ( ' Enter the intial approximation ') ) ; # x0 = 1
n = int ( input ( ' Enter the number of iterations ') ) ; #n=5;
for i in range (1 , n + 1 ) :
x1 = ( x0 - ( f ( x0 ) / df ( x0 ) ) )
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i , x1 , f ( x1 ) ) ) ; # print all
iteration value
x0 = x1

6.4 Exercise:
1. Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x+1, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.
Perform 5 iterations.
Ans: 0.607

2. Find a root of the equation xex = 2, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.

Correct to 3 decimal places.
Ans: 0.853

3. Obtain a real positive root of x4 − x = 0, near 1, by Newton-Raphson method.

Perform 4 iterations.
Ans: 1.856

4. Obtain a real positive root of x4 + x3 − 7x2 − x + 5 = 0, near 3, by Newton-Raphson

method. Perform 7 iterations.
Ans: 2.061

32
LAB 7: Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s
forward and backward difference formula
7.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to interpolate using Newton’s Forward interpolation method.

2. to interpolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

3. to extrapolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

1. Use Newtons forward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and hence
x: 1 3 5 7 9
calculate y(2) for the following:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
n = int ( input ( ' Enter number of data points : ') )
210
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )

# Reading data points

print ( ' Enter data for x and y : ')
for i in range ( n ) :
x [ i ] = float ( input ( 'x [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
y [ i ] [ 0 ] = float ( input ( 'y [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )

# Generating forward difference table

for i in range (1 , n ) :
for j in range (0 , n - i ) :
y[j][i] = y[j+1][i-1] - y[j][i-1]

print ( '\ nFORWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;

for i in range (0 , n ) :
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , n - i ) :
print ( '\ t \ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()
# obtaining the polynomial
t = symbols ( 't ')
f = [ ] # f is a list type data

p=(t-x[0])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
for i in range (1 , n - 1 ) :
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p - i ) / ( i + 1 ) )
poly = y [ 0 ] [ 0 ]
for i in range ( n - 1 ) :
poly = poly + y [ 0 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]

33
simp_poly = simplify ( poly )
print ( '\ nTHE INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL IS \ n ') ;
pprint ( simp_poly )
# if you want to interpolate at some point the next session will help
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ') # y
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') ) # 2
interpol = lambdify (t , simp_poly )
result = interpol ( a )
print ( '\ nThe value of the function at ' ,a , ' is \ n ' , result ) ;

2. Use Newtons backward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and

x: 1 3 5 7 9
hence calculate y(8) for the following data:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
import sys
print ( " This will use Newton 's backword intepolation formula " )
# Reading number of unknowns
n = int ( input ( ' Enter number of data points : ') )

# Making numpy array of n & n x n size and initializing

# to zero for storing x and y value along with differences of y
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )

# Reading data points

34
print ( ' Enter data for x and y : ')
for i in range ( n ) :
x [ i ] = float ( input ( 'x [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
y [ i ] [ 0 ] = float ( input ( 'y [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )

# Generating backward difference table

for i in range (1 , n ) :
for j in range ( n -1 , i -2 , - 1 ) :
y[j][i] = y[j][i-1] - y[j-1][i-1]

print ( '\ nBACKWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;

for i in range (0 , n ) :
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , i + 1 ) :
print ( '\ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()

# obtaining the polynomial

t = symbols ( 't ')
f=[]

p=(t-x[n-1])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
for i in range (1 , n - 1 ) :
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p + i ) / ( i + 1 ) )

poly = y [ n - 1 ] [ 0 ]
print ( poly )
for i in range ( n - 1 ) :
poly = poly + y [ n - 1 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]
simp_poly = simplify ( poly )
print ( '\ nTHE INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL IS \ n ') ;
pprint ( simp_poly )
# if you want to interpolate at some point the next session will help
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ')
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') )
interpol = lambdify (t , simp_poly )
result = interpol ( a )
print ( '\ nThe value of the function at ' ,a , ' is \ n ' , result ) ;

35
7.2 Exercise:
1. Obtain the interpolating polynomial for the following data
x: 0 1 2 3
y: 1 2 1 10
Ans: 2x3 − 7x2 + 6x + 1

2. Find the number of men getting wage Rs. 100 from the following table:
wage: 50 150 250 350
No. of men: 9 30 35 42
Ans: 23 men

3. Using Newton’s backward interpolation method obtain y(160) for the following data
x: 100 150 200 250 300
y: 10 13 15 17 18
Ans: 13.42

4. Using Newtons forward interpolation polynomial and calculate y(1) and y(10).
x: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y: 4.8 8.4 14.5 23.6 36.2 52.8 73.9
Ans: 3.1 and 100

36
LAB 8: Computation of
area under the curve using
rd th
Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 13 and Simpsons 38


rule
8.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Trapezoidal rule.

rd
2. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Simpson’s 13
rule.

th
3. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Simpson’s 83
rule.

4. to find the area below the curve when discrete points on the curve are given.

8.2 Trapezoidal Rule

R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
# Definition of the function to integrate
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )

# Function to implement trapezoidal method

def trapezoidal ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # Calculating step
size
# Finding sum
integration = my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) # Adding first and
last terms
for i in range (1 , n ) :
k = x0 + i * h # i - th step value
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k ) # Adding areas of the
trapezoids
# Proportioning sum of trapezoid areas
integration = integration * h / 2
return integration

# Input section
lower_limit = float ( input ( " Enter lower limit of integration : " ) )
upper_limit = float ( input ( " Enter upper limit of integration : " ) )
sub_interval = int ( input ( " Enter number of sub intervals : " ) )

# Call trapezoidal () method and get result

result = trapezoidal ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )

# Print result
print ( " Integration result by Trapezoidal method is : " , result )

37
 1 rd


8.3 Simpson’s 3 Rule
R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
# Definition of the function to integrate
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )

# Function to implement the Simpson 's one - third rule

def simpson13 ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # calculating step size
# Finding sum
integration = ( my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) )
k = x0
for i in range (1 , n ) :
if i % 2 = = 0 :
integration = integration + 4 * my_func ( k )
else :
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k )
k += h
# Finding final integration value
integration = integration * h * ( 1 / 3 )
return integration

# Input section
lower_limit = float ( input ( " Enter lower limit of integration : " ) )
upper_limit = float ( input ( " Enter upper limit of integration : " ) )
sub_interval = int ( input ( " Enter number of sub intervals : " ) )

# Call trapezoidal () method and get result

result = simpson13 ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )
print ( " Integration result by Simpson 's 1 / 3 method is : % 0 . 6f " % ( result )
)

8.4 Simpson’s 3/8th rule

R6 1
Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using Simpson’s 3/8 th rule, taking 6 sub intervals
def s impson s_3_8_ rule (f , a , b , n ) :

38
 h = (b - a) / n
s = f(a) + f(b)
for i in range (1 , n , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (3 , n -1 , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (2 , n -2 , 3 ) :
s += 2 * f(a + i * h)
return s * 3 * h / 8

def f ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 ) # function here

a = 0 # lower limit
b = 6 # upper limit
n = 6 # number of sub intervals

result = sim psons_ 3_8_r ule (f , a , b , n )

print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result )

1.27631

8.5 Exercise:
Z1
x2 1
1. Evaluate the integral 3
dx using Simpson’s rule.
1+x 3
0
Ans: 0.23108
Z0.6
3 2
2. Use Simpson’s rule to find e−x dx by taking seven ordinates.
8
0
Ans: 0.5351
Zπ
3. Evaluate using trapezoidal rule sin2 xdx. Take n = 6.
0

Ans: π/2

4. A solid of revolution is formed by rotating about the x-axis, the area between the
x-axis, the lines x = 0 and x = 1, and a curve through the points with the following
co-ordinates:

x y
0.00 1.0000
0.25 0.9896
0.50 0.9589
0.75 0.9089
1.00 0.8415

39
 1
Estimate the volume of the solid formed using Simpson’s rd rule. Hint: Required
R1 2 3
volume is 0 y ∗ πdx. **[Ans: 2.8192]**

5. The velocity v(km/min) of a moped which starts from rest, is given at fixed intervals
of time t(min) as follows:
t: 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
v: 10 18 25 29 32 20 11 5 2 0
Estimate approximately the distance covered in twenty minutes.

Answer for 5.
We know that ds/dt=v. So to get distance (s) we have to integrate.
Here h = 2.2, v0 = 0, v1 = 10, v2 = 18, v3 = 25 etc.
# we shall use simpson 's 1 / 3 rule directly to estimate

h=2
y = [0 , 10 ,18 , 25 , 29 , 32 ,20 , 11 ,5 ,2 , 0 ]
result = ( h / 3 ) * (( y [ 0 ] + y [ 10 ] ) + 4 * ( y [ 1 ] + y [ 3 ] + y [ 5 ] + y [ 7 ] + y [ 9 ] ) + 2 * ( y [ 2 ] + y [ 4 ] + y [
6]+y[8]))

print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result , ' km . ')

309.33333 km.

40
LAB 9: Solution of ODE of first order and first degree
by Taylor’s series and Modified Euler’s method
9.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to solve ODE by Taylor series method.

2. to solve ODE by Modified Euler method.

3. to trace the solution curves.

9.2 Taylor series method to solve ODE

dy
Solve: dx
− 2y = 3ex with y(0) = 0 using Taylor series method at x = 0.1(0.1)0.3.
# # module taylor
'''X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) .
4th - order Taylor series method for solving the initial value problem { y
} ' = { F (x , { y } ) } , where
{ y } = { y [ 0 ] , y [ 1 ] ,... y [n - 1 ] } .
x , y = initial conditions
xStop = terminal value of x
h = increment of x
'''
from numpy import array
def taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) :
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
while x < xStop : # Loop over integration steps
D = deriv (x , y ) # Derivatives of y
H = 1.0
for j in range ( 3 ) : # Build Taylor series
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h
X . append ( x ) # Append results to
Y . append ( y ) # lists X and Y

return array ( X ) , array ( Y ) # Convert lists into arrays

# deriv = user - supplied function that returns derivatives in the 4 x n

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y ' '[ 0 ] y ' '[ 1 ] y ' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '[n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ''' '[ 0 ] y ' '''[ 1 ] y ''' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '''[n - 1 ]]
'''
def deriv (x , y ) :
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )

41
 D[0] = [ 2 * y [ 0 ] + 3 * exp ( x ) ]
D[1] = [ 4 * y [ 0 ] + 9 * exp ( x ) ]
D[2] = [ 8 * y [ 0 ] + 21 * exp ( x ) ]
D[3] = [ 16 * y [ 0 ] + 45 * exp ( x ) ]
return D

x = 0.0 # Initial value of x

xStop = 0 . 3 # last value
y = array ( [ 0 . 0 ] ) # Initial values of y
h = 0.1 # Step size
X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h )

print ( " The required values are : at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0
. 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ]
,X [ 3 ] ,Y [ 3 ] ) )

The required values are :at x= 0.00, y=0.00000, x=0.10, y=0.34850,

x = 0.20, y=0.81079,x = 0.30, y=1.41590

Solve y ′ + 4y = x2 with initial conditions y(0) = 1 using Taylor series method at x =

0.1, 0.2.
from numpy import array
def taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) :
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
while x < xStop : # Loop over integration steps
D = deriv (x , y ) # Derivatives of y
H = 1.0
for j in range ( 3 ) : # Build Taylor series
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h
X . append ( x ) # Append results to
Y . append ( y ) # lists X and Y

return array ( X ) , array ( Y ) # Convert lists into arrays

# deriv = user - supplied function that returns derivatives in the 4 x n

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y "[ 0 ] y "[ 1 ] y "[ 2 ] ... y "[ n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ""[ 0 ] y ""[ 1 ] y ""[ 2 ] ... y ""[ n - 1 ]]
'''
def deriv (x , y ) :
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )
D [ 0 ] = [ x ** 2 - 4 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 1 ] = [ 2 * x - 4 * x ** 2 + 16 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 2 ] = [ 2 - 8 * x + 16 * x ** 2 - 64 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 3 ] = [ - 8 + 32 * x - 64 * x ** 2 + 256 * y [ 0 ] ]

42
 return D

x = 0.0 # Initial value of x

xStop = 0 . 2 # last value
y = array ( [ 1 . 0 ] ) # Initial values of y
h = 0.1 # Step size
X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h )

print ( " The required values are : at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1
] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ) )

The required values are :at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.66967,

x = 0.20, y=0.45026

9.3 Euler’s method to solve ODE:

dy
To solve the ODE of the form dx = f (x, y) with initial conditions y(x0 ) = y0 . The iterative
formula is given by : y(x(i+1) = y(xi ) + hf (xi , y(xi )).
Solve: y ′ = e−x with y(0) = −1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.2(0.2)0.6.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : np . exp ( - x ) # ODE
h = 0 . 2 # Step size
y0 = - 1 # Initial Condition
n=3
# Explicit Euler Method

y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0

for i in range (0 , n ) :
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])

print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 .
5f " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1 ] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ,
x [ 3 ] ,y [ 3 ] ) )
print ( " \ n \ n " )

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = ' Approximate ')

plt . plot (x , - np . exp ( - x ) , 'g * - ' , label = ' Exact ')
plt . title ( " Approximate and Exact Solution " )
plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'f ( x ) ')
plt . grid ()
plt . legend ( loc = ' best ')
plt . show ()

43
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=-1.00000, x=0.20, y=-0.80000,
x = 0.40, y=-0.63625,x = 0.60, y=-0.50219

Solve: y ′ = −2y + x3 e−2x with y(0) = 1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.1, 0.2.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : - 2 * y + ( x ** 3 ) * np . exp ( - 2 * x ) # ODE
h = 0 . 1 # Step size
y0 = 1 # Initial Condition
n=2
# Explicit Euler Method

y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0

for i in range (0 , n ) :
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])

print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x

= % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f \ n \ n " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1
] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ) )

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = " Approximate ( Euler 's method ) " )

plt . title ( " Solution by Euler 's method " )

plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'f ( x ) ')
plt . grid ()
plt . legend ( loc = ' best ')
plt . show ()

44
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.80000,
x=0.20, y=0.64008

9.4 Modified Euler’s method

The iterative formula is:
(n+1) h (n)
y1 = y0 + [f (x0 , y0 ) + f (x1 , y1 )], n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
2
(n)
where, y1 is the nth approximation to y1 .
(0)
The first iteration will use Euler’s method: y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ).
Solve y ′ = −ky with y(0) = 100 using modified Euler’s method at x = 100, by taking
h = 25.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

def modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n ) :
x = np . zeros ( n + 1 )
y = np . zeros ( n + 1 )

x [ 0 ] = x0
y [ 0 ] = y0

for i in range ( n ) :
x[i+1] = x[i] + h
k1 = h * f ( x [ i ] , y [ i ] )
k2 = h * f ( x [ i + 1 ] , y [ i ] + k1 )
y [ i + 1 ] = y [ i ] + 0 . 5 * ( k1 + k2 )

return x , y

45
def f (x , y ) :
return - 0 . 01 * y # ODE dy / dx = - ky

x0 = 0 . 0
y0 = 100 . 0
h = 25
n = 4

x , y = modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n )

print ( " The required value at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( x [ 4 ] ,y [ 4 ] ) )

print ( " \ n \ n " )

# Plotting the results

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - ')
plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'y ')
plt . title ( ' Solution of dy / dx = - ky using Modified Euler \ ' s Method ')
plt . grid ( True )
plt . show ()

The required value at x= 100.00, y=37.25290

9.5 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y ′ = x − y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.9138

2. Find y(0.2) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y ′ = x2 y − 1, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1.

Ans: y(0.2) = 0.80227

46
3. Evaluate by modified Euler’s method: y ′ = ln(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.
Ans: 2.0656, 2.1416, 2.2272, 2.3217

4. Solve by modified Euler’s method: y ′ = x + y, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1, x = 0(0.1)0.3.

Ans: 1.1105, 1.2432, 1.4004

47
LAB 10: Solution of ODE of first order and first de-
gree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method and Milne’s
predictor and corrector method
10.1 Objectives:
1. To write a python program to solve first order differential equation using 4th order
Runge Kutta method.

2. To write a python program to solve first order differential equation using Milne’s
predictor and corrector method.

10.2 Runge-Kutta method

Apply the Runge Kutta method to find the solution of dy/dx = 1 + (y/x) at y(2) taking
h = 0.2. Given that y(1) = 2.
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
def RungeKutta (g , x0 ,h , y0 , xn ) :

x , y = symbols ( 'x , y ')

f = lambdify ( [x , y ] ,g )
xt = x0 + h
Y = [ y0 ]
while xt < = xn :
k1 = h * f ( x0 , y0 )
k2 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k1 / 2 )
k3 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k2 / 2 )
k4 = h * f ( x0 +h , y0 + k3 )
y1 = y0 + ( 1 / 6 ) * ( k1 + 2 * k2 + 2 * k3 + k4 )
Y . append ( y1 )
# print ( ' y ( % 3 . 3f '% xt , ') is % 3 . 3f '% y1 )
x0 = xt
y0 = y1
xt = xt + h
return np . round (Y , 2 )
RungeKutta ( '1 +( y / x ) ' ,1 , 0 .2 ,2 , 2 )

array([2. , 2.62, 3.27, 3.95, 4.66, 5.39])

10.3 Milne’s predictor and corrector method

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x2 + (y/2) at y(1.4).
Given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156, y(1.2)=2.4649, y(1.3)=2.7514. Use corrector formula
thrice.
# Milne 's method to solve first order DE
# Use corrector formula thrice
x0 = 1
y0 = 2

48
y1 = 2 . 2156
y2 = 2 . 4649
y3 = 2 . 7514
h=0.1
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h
def f (x , y ) :
return x ** 2 + ( y / 2 )

y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 is % 3 . 3f '% y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p ) ;
for i in range (1 , 4 ) :
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 ) ;
print ( ' corrected value of y4 after \ t iteration %d is \ t % 3 . 5f \ t '%
(i , y4 ) )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4 ) ;

predicted value of y4 is 3.079

corrected value of y4 after iteration 1 is 3.07940
corrected value of y4 after iteration 2 is 3.07940
corrected value of y4 after iteration 3 is 3.07940

In the next program, function will take all the inputs from the user and display the
answer.
Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x2 + (y/2) at y(1.4).
Given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156, y(1.2)=2.4649, y(1.3)=2.7514. Use corrector formula
thrice.
from sympy import *
def Milne (g , x0 ,h , y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 ) :
x , y = symbols ( 'x , y ')
f = lambdify ( [x , y ] ,g )
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h

y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 ' , y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p )
for i in range (1 , 4 ) :
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 )
print ( ' corrected value of y4 , iteration % d '%i , y4 )

49
 y14 = f ( x4 , y4 )
Milne ( 'x ** 2 + y / 2 ' ,1 , 0 .1 ,2 , 2 . 2156 , 2 . 4649 , 2 . 7514 )

predicted value of y4 3.0792733333333335

corrected value of y4 , iteration 1 3.0793962222222224
corrected value of y4 , iteration 2 3.079398270370371
corrected value of y4 , iteration 3 3.079398304506173

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x − y 2 , y(0)=2 obtain
y(0.8). Take h=0.2. Use Runge-Kutta method to calculate required initial values.
Y = RungeKutta ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 ,0 , 0 . 8 )
print ( 'y values from Runge - Kutta method : ' ,Y )
Milne ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 , Y [ 0 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ,Y [ 3 ] )

y values from Runge -Kutta method: [0. 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.3 ]
predicted value of y4 0.3042133333333334
corrected value of y4 , iteration 1 0.3047636165214815
corrected value of y4 , iteration 2 0.3047412758696499
corrected value of y4 , iteration 3 0.3047421836520892

10.4 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Runge Kutta method when y ′ = x − y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.91379

2. Evaluate by Runge Kutta method : y ′ = log(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.

Ans: 2.155, 2.3418, 2.557, 2.801

3. Solve by Milnes method: y ′ = x + y, y(0)=1, h=0.1, Calculate y(0.4) . Calculate

required initial values from Runge Kutta method.
Ans: 1.583649219

50
 Contents: Computer Science and Engineering Stream
Lab 1. Programme to compute area, volume and center of gravity.

Lab 2. Evaluation of improper integrals , Beta and Gamma functions.

Lab 3. Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their geometrical interpretation

Lab 4. Computation of basis and dimension for a vector space and graphical representation
of linear transformation

Lab 5. Computing the inner product and orthogonality

Lab 6. Solution of algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi and Newton-

Raphson method

Lab 7. Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s forward and backward difference for-
mula

rd
Lab 8. Computation of area under the curve using Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 31 and Simp-
3 th


sons 8 rule

Lab 9. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Taylor’s series and Modified
Euler’s method

Lab 10. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method
and Milne’s predictor and corrector method

51
LAB 1: Programme to compute area, volume and cen-
ter of gravity
1.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to evaluate double integration.

2. to compute area and volume.

3. to calculate center of gravity of 2D object.

Syntax for the commands used:

1. Data pretty printer in Python:
pprint ()

2. integrate:
integrate ( function ,( variable , min_limit , max_limit ) )

1.2 Double and triple integration

Example 1:
R1 Rx
Evaluate the integral (x2 + y 2 )dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
w1 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,( y ,0 , x ) ,(x ,0 , 1 ) )
print ( w1 )

1/3

Example 2:
R 3−x−y
R3 3−x R
Evaluate the integral (xyz)dzdydx
0 0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w2 = integrate (( x * y * z ) ,(z ,0 , 3 - x - y ) ,(y ,0 , 3 - x ) ,(x ,0 , 3 ) )
print ( w2 )

81/80

52
Example 3:
RR 2 RR 2
Prove that (x + y 2 )dydx = (x + y 2 )dxdy
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w3 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,y , x )
pprint ( w3 )
w4 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,x , y )
pprint ( w4 )

1.3 Area and Volume

RR
Area of the region R in the cartesian form is dxdy
R

Example 4:
√
Ra (b/a) R a2 −x2
Find the area of an ellipse by double integration. A=4 dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
# a = Symbol ( ' a ')
# b = Symbol ( ' b ')
a=4
b=6
w3 = 4 * integrate (1 ,( y ,0 ,( b / a ) * sqrt ( a ** 2 - x ** 2 ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w3 )

24.0*pi
RR
1.4 Area of the region R in the polar form is rdrdθ
R
Example 5:
Find the area of the cardioid r = a(1 + cosθ) by double integration
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
#a=4

w3 = 2 * integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t ,0 , pi ) )

pprint ( w3 )

53
 RRR
1.5 Volume of a solid is given by dxdydz
V
Example 6:
Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0, xa + yb + zc = 1
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
b = Symbol ( 'b ')
c = Symbol ( 'c ')
w2 = integrate (1 ,( z ,0 , c * ( 1 - x / a - y / b ) ) ,(y ,0 , b * ( 1 - x / a ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w2 )

a*b*c/6

1.6 Center of Gravity

Find the center of gravity of cardioid . Plot the graph of cardioid and mark the center
of gravity.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
import math
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
I1 = integrate ( cos ( t ) * r ** 2 ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I2 = integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I = I1 / I2
print ( I )
I = I . subs (a , 5 )
plt . axes ( projection = ' polar ')
a=5

rad = np . arange (0 , ( 2 * np . pi ) , 0 . 01 )

# plotting the cardioid

for i in rad :
r = a + ( a * np . cos ( i ) )
plt . polar (i ,r , 'g . ')

plt . polar (0 ,I , 'r . ')

plt . show ()

5*a/6

54
1.7 Exercise:
R1 Rx
1. Evaluate (x + y)dydx
0 0
Ans: 0.5
log(2)
R Rx x+log(y)
R
2. Find the (ex+y+z )dzdydx
0 0 0
Ans: -0.2627

3. Find the area of positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y 2 = 16

Ans: 4π

4. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0,
x
2
+ y3 + z4 = 1
Ans: 4

55
LAB 2: Evaluation of improper integrals, Beta and
Gamma functions
2.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate improper integrals using Beta function.
2. to evaluate improper integrals using Gamma function.

Syntax for the commands used:

1. gamma
math . gamma ( x )

Parameters :
x : The number whose gamma value needs to be computed.
2. beta
math . beta (x , y )

Parameters :
x ,y: The numbers whose beta value needs to be computed.
3. Note: We can evaluate improper integral involving infinity by using inf.

Example 1:
R∞
Evaluate e−x dx.
0
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) ,(x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
print ( simplify ( w1 ) )

1
R∞
Gamma function is x(n) = 0
e−x xn−1 dx

Example 2:
Evaluate Γ(5) by using definition
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) * x ** 4 ,( x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
print ( simplify ( w1 ) )

24

56
Example 3:
R∞
Evaluate e−st cos(4t)dt . That is Laplace transform of cos(4t)
0
from sympy import *
t , s = symbols ( 't , s ')
# for infinity in sympy we use oo
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - s * t ) * cos ( 4 * t ) ,(t ,0 , oo ) )
display ( simplify ( w1 ) )

Example 4:
Find Beta(3,5), Gamma(5)
# beta and gamma functions
from sympy import beta , gamma
m = input ( 'm : ') ;
n = input ( 'n : ') ;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
print ( ' gamma ( ' ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% t )
print ( ' Beta ( ' ,m ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% s )

m :3
n :5
gamma ( 5.0 ) is 24.000
Beta ( 3.0 5.0 ) is 0.010

Example 5:
Calculate Beta(5/2,7/2) and Gamma(5/2).
# beta and gamma functions
# If the number is a fraction give it in decimals . Eg 5 / 2 = 2 . 5
from sympy import beta , gamma
m = float ( input ( 'm : ') ) ;
n = float ( input ( 'n : ') ) ;

s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
print ( ' gamma ( ' ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% t )
print ( ' Beta ( ' ,m ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% s )

57
m : 2.5
n :3.5
gamma ( 3.5 ) is 3.323
Beta ( 2.5 3.5 ) is 0.037

Example 6:
Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=5 and n=7
from sympy import beta , gamma
m=5;
n=7;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = ( gamma ( m ) * gamma ( n ) ) / gamma ( m + n ) ;
print (s , t )
if ( abs ( s - t ) < = 0 . 00001 ) :
print ( ' beta and gamma are related ')
else :
print ( ' given values are wrong ')

0.000432900432900433 0.000432900432900433
beta and gamma are related

2.2 Exercise:
R∞
1. Evaluate e−t cos(2t)dt
0
Ans: 1/5

2. Find the value of Beta(5/2,9/2)

Ans: 0.0214

3. Find the value of Gamma(13)

Ans: 479001600

4. Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=7/2 and

n=11/2
Ans: True

58
LAB 3: Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their
geometrical interpretation
1.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to find the gradient of a given scalar function.

2. to find find divergence and curl of a vector function.

1.2 Method I:
To find gradient of ϕ = x2 y + 2xz − 4.
# To find gradient of scalar point function .
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ') # Setting the coordinate system
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y + 2 * N . x * N . z - 4 # Variables x ,y , z to be used with coordinate
system N
delop = Del () # Del operator
display ( delop ( A ) ) # Del operator applied to A
gradA = gradient ( A ) # Gradient function is used
print ( f " \ n Gradient of { A } is \ n " )
display ( gradA )

To find divergence of F⃗ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂

# To find divergence of a vector point function
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ')
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y * N . z * N . i + N . y ** 2 * N . z * N . x * N . j + N . z ** 2 * N . x * N . y * N . k
delop = Del ()
divA = delop . dot ( A )
display ( divA )

print ( f " \ n Divergence of { A } is \ n " )

display ( divergence ( A ) )

59
 To find curl of F⃗ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂
# To find curl of a vector point function
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ')
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y * N . z * N . i + N . y ** 2 * N . z * N . x * N . j + N . z ** 2 * N . x * N . y * N . k
delop = Del ()
curlA = delop . cross ( A )
display ( curlA )

print ( f " \ n Curl of { A } is \ n " )

display ( curl ( A ) )

1.3 Method II:

To find gradient of ϕ = x2 yz.
# To find gradient of a scalar point function x ^ 2yz
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var , pprint
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ]
G = gradient (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given scalar function F = " )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " \ n Gradient of F = " )
display ( G )

60
 To find divergence of F⃗ = x2 y î + yz 2 ĵ + x2 z k̂.
# To find divergence of F = x ^ 2yi + yz ^ 2j + x ^ 2zk
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v . x + v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . y + v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 2 ] * v . z
G = divergence (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given vector point function is " )
display ( F )

G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Divergence of F = " )
display ( G )

To find curl of F⃗ = xy 2 î + 2x2 yz ĵ − 3yz 2 k̂

# To find curl of F = xy ^ 2i + 2x ^ 2yzj - 3yz ^ 2k
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] * v [ 1 ] ** 2 * v . x + 2 * v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] * v . y - 3 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . z
G = curl (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given vector point function is " )
display ( F )

G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " curl of F = " )
display ( G )

61
1.4 Exercise:
1. If u = x + y + z, v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = yz + zx + xy, find gradu, gradv and gradw.
Ans: î + ĵ + k̂, 2(xî + y ĵ + z k̂), (y + z)î + (z + x)ĵ + (z + x)k̂.

2. Evaluate divF and curlF at the point (1,2,3), given that F⃗ = x2 yz î+xy 2 z ĵ +xyz 2 k̂.
Ans: 6xyz, x(z 2 − y 2 )î + y(x2 − z 2 )ĵ + z(y 2 − x2 )k̂.

3. Prove that the vector (yz − x2 )î + (4y − z 2 x)ĵ + (2xz − 4z)k̂ is solenoidal.

4. Find the vector normal to the surface xy 3 z 2 = 4 at the point (−1, −1, 2).
Ans: −4î − 12ĵ + 4k̂.
⃗ = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, show that (i) ∇ · R
5. If R ⃗ = 3, (ii) ∇ × R
⃗ = 0.

62
LAB 4: Computation of basis and dimension for a vec-
tor space and graphical representation of linear trans-
formation
4.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to verify the Rank nullity theorem of given linear transformation

2. to compute the dimension of vector space

3. to represent linear transformations graphically

4.2 Rank Nullity Theorem

Verify the rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation T : R3 → R3 defined by
T (x, y, z) = (x + 4y + 7z, 2x + 5y + 8z, 3x + 6y + 9z).
import numpy as np
from scipy . linalg import null_space

# Define a linear transformation interms of matrix

A = np . array ( [ [1 , 2 , 3 ] , [4 , 5 , 6 ] , [7 , 8 , 9 ] ] )

# Find the rank of the matrix A

rank = np . linalg . matrix_rank ( A )
print ( " Rank of the matrix " , rank )

# Find the null space of the matrix A

ns = null_space ( A )
print ( " Null space of the matrix " , ns )
# Find the dimension of the null space
nullity = ns . shape [ 1 ]
print ( " Null space of the matrix " , nullity )
# Verify the rank - nullity theorem
if rank + nullity = = A . shape [ 1 ] :
print ( " Rank - nullity theorem holds . " )
else :
print ( " Rank - nullity theorem does not hold . " )

Rank of the matrix 2

Null space of the matrix [[-0.40824829]
[ 0.81649658]
[-0.40824829]]
Null space of the matrix 1
Rank-nullity theorem holds.

63
4.3 Dimension of Vector Space
Find the dimension of subspace spanned by the vectors (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1) and (3, 1, 2).
import numpy as np

# Define the vector space V

V = np . array ( [
[1 , 2 , 3 ] ,
[2 , 3 , 1 ] ,
[3 , 1 , 2 ] ] )
# Find the dimension and basis of V
basis = np . linalg . matrix_rank ( V )
dimension = V . shape [ 0 ]
print ( " Basis of the matrix " , basis )
print ( " Dimension of the matrix " , dimension )

Basis of the matrix 3

Dimension of the matrix 3

Extract the linearly independent rows in given matrix : Basis of Row space
from numpy import *
import sympy as sp
A = [ [1 , -1 ,1 , 1 ] ,[2 , -5 ,2 , 2 ] ,[3 , -3 ,5 , 3 ] ,[4 , -4 ,4 , 4 ] ]
AB = array ( A )
S = shape ( A )
n = len ( A )
for i in range ( n ) :
if AB [i , i ] = = 0 :
ab = copy ( AB )
for k in range ( i +1 , S [ 0 ] ) :
if ab [k , i ] ! = 0 :
ab [i , : ] = AB [k , : ]
ab [k , : ] = AB [i , : ]
AB = copy ( ab )
for j in range ( i +1 , n ) :
Fact = AB [j , i ] / AB [i , i ]
for k in range (i , n ) :
AB [j , k ] = AB [j , k ] - Fact * AB [i , k ]
display ( " REF of given matrix : " , sp . Matrix ( AB ) )
temp = { (0 , 0 , 0 , 0 ) }
result = [ ]
for idx , row in enumerate ( map ( tuple , AB ) ) :
if row not in temp :
result . append ( idx )
print ( " \ n Basis are non - zero rows of A : " )
display ( sp . Matrix ( AB [ result ] ) )

64
4.4 Graphical representation of a transformation
4.4.1 Horizontal stretch:
Represent the horizontal stretch transformation T : R2 ßR2 geometrically
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is stretched horizontally by 2 units.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 50 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 50 )
plt . show ()

Another example.
from math import pi , sin , cos

65
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

coords = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 0 . 5 ] ,[ 0 .5 , 1 . 5 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ,[0 , 0 ] ] )

coords = coords . transpose ()
coords
x = coords [0 , : ]
y = coords [1 , : ]

A = np . array ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
A_coords = A@coords
x_LT1 = A_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT1 = A_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT1 , y_LT1 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT1 , y_LT1 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')
ax . set_title ( " Horizontal Stretch " ) ;

66
4.4.2 Reflection:
Represent the reflection transformation T : R2 → R2 geometrically.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is reflected about y axis.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [ -1 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 50 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 50 )
plt . show ()

Another example.
B = np . array ( [ [ -1 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
B_coords = B@coords

x_LT2 = B_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT2 = B_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT2 , y_LT2 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT2 , y_LT2 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )

67
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')
ax . set_title ( " Reflection " ) ;

4.4.3 Rotation:
Represent the rotation transformation T : R2 → R2 geometrically.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is rotated by π/2 radians.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [ 10 , 0 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [0 , - 1 ] ,[1 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 50 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 50 )
plt . show ()

68
 Another example.
theta = pi / 6
R = np . array ( [ [ cos ( theta ) ,- sin ( theta ) ] ,[ sin ( theta ) , cos ( theta ) ] ] )
R_coords = R@coords

x_LT3 = R_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT3 = R_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT3 , y_LT3 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT3 , y_LT3 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')

69
4.4.4 Shear Transformation
Represent the Shear transformation T : R2 → R2 geometrically.
Find the image of (2, 3) under shear transformation.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [2 , 3 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [1 , 2 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
print ( " Image of given vectors is : " , V2 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 20 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 20 )
plt . show ()

70
Another example.
S = np . array ( [ [1 , 2 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
S_coords = S@coords

x_LT4 = S_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT4 = S_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT4 , y_LT4 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT4 , y_LT4 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,4 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')
ax . set_title ( " Shear " ) ;

71
4.4.5 Composition
Represent the composition of two 2D transformations.
Find the image of vector (10, 0) when it is rotated by π/2 radians then stretched hori-
zontally 2 units.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
V = np . array ( [ [2 , 3 ] ] )
origin = np . array ( [ [0 , 0 , 0 ] ,[0 , 0 , 0 ] ] ) # origin point
A = np . matrix ( [ [0 , - 1 ] ,[1 , 0 ] ] )
B = np . matrix ( [ [2 , 0 ] ,[0 , 1 ] ] )
V1 = np . matrix ( V )
V2 = A * np . transpose ( V1 )
V3 = B * V2
V2 = np . array ( V2 )
V3 = np . array ( V3 )
print ( " Image of given vectors is : " , V3 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V [ : ,0 ] , V [ : ,1 ] , color = [ 'b '] , scale = 20 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V2 [0 , : ] , V2 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'r '] , scale = 20 )
plt . quiver ( * origin , V3 [0 , : ] , V3 [1 , : ] , color = [ 'g '] , scale = 20 )
plt . title ( ' Blue = original , Red = Rotated , Green = Rotated + Streached ')
plt . show ()

72
Another example.
C = np . array ( [ [ - cos ( theta ) , sin ( theta ) ] ,[ sin ( theta ) , cos ( theta ) ] ] )
C_coords = C@coords

x_LT5 = C_coords [0 , : ]
y_LT5 = C_coords [1 , : ]

# Create the figure and axes objects

fig , ax = plt . subplots ()

# Plot the points . x and y are original vectors , x_LT1 and y_LT1 are
images
ax . plot (x ,y , ' ro ')
ax . plot ( x_LT5 , y_LT5 , ' bo ')

# Connect the points by lines

ax . plot (x ,y , 'r ' , ls = " --" )
ax . plot ( x_LT5 , y_LT5 , 'b ')

# Edit some settings

ax . axvline ( x =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . axhline ( y =0 , color = " k " , ls = " : " )
ax . grid ( True )
ax . axis ( [ -2 ,2 , -1 , 2 ] )
ax . set_aspect ( ' equal ')

73
4.5 Exercise:
1. Verify the rank nullity theorem for the following linear transformation

a) T : R2 → R3 defined by T (x, y) = (x + 4y, 2x + 5y, 3x + 6y).

Ans: Rank=2, Nullity=1, RNT verified
b) T : R3 → R4 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x+4y−z, 2x+5y+8z, 3x+y+2z, x+y+z).
Ans: Rank=3, Nullity=1, RNT verified

2. Find the dimension of the subspace spanned following set of vectors

a) S = (1, 2, 3, 4), (2, 4, 6, 8), (1, 1, 1, 1)

Ans: Dimension of subspace is 2
b) S = (1, −1, 3, 4), (2, 1, 6, 8), (1, 1, 1, 1), (3, 3, 3, 3)
Ans: Dimension of subspace is 3

3. Find the image of (1, 3) under following 2D transformations

a) Horizontal stretch
b) Reflection
c) Shear
d) Rotation

74
LAB 5: Computing the inner product and orthogo-
nality
5.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to compute the inner product of two vectors.

2. to check whether the given vectors are orthogonal.

5.2 Inner Product of two vectors

Find the inner product of the vectors (2, 1, 5, 4) and (3, 4, 7, 8).
import numpy as np

# initialize arrays
A = np . array ( [2 , 1 , 5 , 4 ] )
B = np . array ( [3 , 4 , 7 , 8 ] )

# dot product
output = np . dot (A , B )

print ( output )

77

5.3 Checking orthogonality

Verify whether the following vectors (2, 1, 5, 4) and (3, 4, 7, 8) are orthogonal.
import numpy as np

# initialize arrays
A = np . array ( [2 , 1 , 5 , 4 ] )
B = np . array ( [3 , 4 , 7 , 8 ] )

# dot product
output = np . dot (A , B )
print ( ' Inner product is : ' , output )
if output = = 0 :
print ( ' given vectors are orthognal ')
else :
print ( ' given vectors are not orthognal ')

Inner product is : 77
given vectors are not orthognal

75
5.4 Exercise:
1. Find the inner product of (1, 2, 3) and (3, 4, 5).
Ans: 26

2. Find the inner product of (1, −1, 2, 1) and (4, 2, 1, 0).

Ans: 4

3. Check whether the following vectors are orthogonal or not

a) (1, 1, −1) and (2, 3, 5). Ans: True

b) (1, 0, 2, 0) and (4, 2, −2, 5). Ans: True
c) (1, 2, 3, 4) and (2, 3, 4, 5) . Ans: False

76
LAB 6: Solution of algebraic and transcendental equa-
tion by Regula-Falsi and Newton-Raphson method
6.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi method.

2. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Newton-Raphson method.

6.2 Regula-Falsi method to solve a transcendental equation

Obtain a root of the equation x3 − 2x − 5 = 0 between 2 and 3 by regula-falsi method.
Perform 5 iterations.
# Regula Falsi method
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % x ^3 - 2 *x - 5 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
a = float ( input ( ' Enter a valus : ') ) # 2
b = float ( input ( ' Enter b valus : ') ) # 3
N = int ( input ( ' Enter number of iterations : ') ) # 5

for i in range (1 , N + 1 ) :
c=(a*f(b)-b*f(a))/(f(b)-f(a))
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;

Using tolerance value we can write the same program as follows:

Obtain a root of the equation x3 − 2x − 5 = 0 between 2 and 3 by regula-falsi method.
Correct to 3 decimal places.

77
# Regula Falsi method while loop2
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % x ^3 - 2 *x - 5 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
a = float ( input ( ' Enter a valus : ') ) # 2
b = float ( input ( ' Enter b valus : ') ) # 3
N = float ( input ( ' Enter tolarence : ') ) # 0 . 001
x=a;
c=b;
i=0
while ( abs ( x - c ) > = N ) :
x=c
c = (( a * f ( b ) - b * f ( a ) ) / ( f ( b ) - f ( a ) ) ) ;
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
i=i+1
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;
print ( ' final value of the root is % 0 . 5f '% c )

6.3 Newton-Raphson method to solve a transcendental equa-

tion
Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x + 1, near 1, by Newton Raphson method. Perform
5 iterations
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % 3x - cos ( x ) -1 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
dg = diff ( g ) ;

78
df = lambdify (x , dg )
x0 = float ( input ( ' Enter the intial approximation ') ) ; # x0 = 1
n = int ( input ( ' Enter the number of iterations ') ) ; #n=5;
for i in range (1 , n + 1 ) :
x1 = ( x0 - ( f ( x0 ) / df ( x0 ) ) )
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i , x1 , f ( x1 ) ) ) ; # print all
iteration value
x0 = x1

6.4 Exercise:
1. Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x+1, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.
Perform 5 iterations.
Ans: 0.607

2. Find a root of the equation xex = 2, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.

Correct to 3 decimal places.
Ans: 0.853

3. Obtain a real positive root of x4 − x = 0, near 1, by Newton-Raphson method.

Perform 4 iterations.
Ans: 1.856

4. Obtain a real positive root of x4 + x3 − 7x2 − x + 5 = 0, near 3, by Newton-Raphson

method. Perform 7 iterations.
Ans: 2.061

79
LAB 7: Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s
forward and backward difference formula
7.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to interpolate using Newton’s Forward interpolation method.

2. to interpolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

3. to extrapolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

1. Use Newtons forward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and hence
x: 1 3 5 7 9
calculate y(2) for the following:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
n = int ( input ( ' Enter number of data points : ') )
210
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )

# Reading data points

print ( ' Enter data for x and y : ')
for i in range ( n ) :
x [ i ] = float ( input ( 'x [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
y [ i ] [ 0 ] = float ( input ( 'y [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )

# Generating forward difference table

for i in range (1 , n ) :
for j in range (0 , n - i ) :
y[j][i] = y[j+1][i-1] - y[j][i-1]

print ( '\ nFORWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;

for i in range (0 , n ) :
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , n - i ) :
print ( '\ t \ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()
# obtaining the polynomial
t = symbols ( 't ')
f = [ ] # f is a list type data

p=(t-x[0])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
for i in range (1 , n - 1 ) :
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p - i ) / ( i + 1 ) )
poly = y [ 0 ] [ 0 ]
for i in range ( n - 1 ) :
poly = poly + y [ 0 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]

80
simp_poly = simplify ( poly )
print ( '\ nTHE INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL IS \ n ') ;
pprint ( simp_poly )
# if you want to interpolate at some point the next session will help
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ') # y
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') ) # 2
interpol = lambdify (t , simp_poly )
result = interpol ( a )
print ( '\ nThe value of the function at ' ,a , ' is \ n ' , result ) ;

2. Use Newtons backward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and

x: 1 3 5 7 9
hence calculate y(8) for the following data:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
import sys
print ( " This will use Newton 's backword intepolation formula " )
# Reading number of unknowns
n = int ( input ( ' Enter number of data points : ') )

# Making numpy array of n & n x n size and initializing

# to zero for storing x and y value along with differences of y
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )

# Reading data points

81
print ( ' Enter data for x and y : ')
for i in range ( n ) :
x [ i ] = float ( input ( 'x [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
y [ i ] [ 0 ] = float ( input ( 'y [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )

# Generating backward difference table

for i in range (1 , n ) :
for j in range ( n -1 , i -2 , - 1 ) :
y[j][i] = y[j][i-1] - y[j-1][i-1]

print ( '\ nBACKWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;

for i in range (0 , n ) :
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , i + 1 ) :
print ( '\ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()

# obtaining the polynomial

t = symbols ( 't ')
f=[]

p=(t-x[n-1])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
for i in range (1 , n - 1 ) :
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p + i ) / ( i + 1 ) )

poly = y [ n - 1 ] [ 0 ]
print ( poly )
for i in range ( n - 1 ) :
poly = poly + y [ n - 1 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]
simp_poly = simplify ( poly )
print ( '\ nTHE INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL IS \ n ') ;
pprint ( simp_poly )
# if you want to interpolate at some point the next session will help
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ')
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') )
interpol = lambdify (t , simp_poly )
result = interpol ( a )
print ( '\ nThe value of the function at ' ,a , ' is \ n ' , result ) ;

82
7.2 Exercise:
1. Obtain the interpolating polynomial for the following data
x: 0 1 2 3
y: 1 2 1 10
Ans: 2x3 − 7x2 + 6x + 1

2. Find the number of men getting wage Rs. 100 from the following table:
wage: 50 150 250 350
No. of men: 9 30 35 42
Ans: 23 men

3. Using Newton’s backward interpolation method obtain y(160) for the following data
x: 100 150 200 250 300
y: 10 13 15 17 18
Ans: 13.42

4. Using Newtons forward interpolation polynomial and calculate y(1) and y(10).
x: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y: 4.8 8.4 14.5 23.6 36.2 52.8 73.9
Ans: 3.1 and 100

83
LAB 8: Computation of
area under the curve using
rd th
Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 13 and Simpsons 38


rule
8.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Trapezoidal rule.

rd
2. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Simpson’s 13
rule.

th
3. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Simpson’s 83
rule.

4. to find the area below the curve when discrete points on the curve are given.

8.2 Trapezoidal Rule

R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
# Definition of the function to integrate
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )

# Function to implement trapezoidal method

def trapezoidal ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # Calculating step
size
# Finding sum
integration = my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) # Adding first and
last terms
for i in range (1 , n ) :
k = x0 + i * h # i - th step value
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k ) # Adding areas of the
trapezoids
# Proportioning sum of trapezoid areas
integration = integration * h / 2
return integration

# Input section
lower_limit = float ( input ( " Enter lower limit of integration : " ) )
upper_limit = float ( input ( " Enter upper limit of integration : " ) )
sub_interval = int ( input ( " Enter number of sub intervals : " ) )

# Call trapezoidal () method and get result

result = trapezoidal ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )

# Print result
print ( " Integration result by Trapezoidal method is : " , result )

84
 1 rd


8.3 Simpson’s 3 Rule
R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
# Definition of the function to integrate
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )

# Function to implement the Simpson 's one - third rule

def simpson13 ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # calculating step size
# Finding sum
integration = ( my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) )
k = x0
for i in range (1 , n ) :
if i % 2 = = 0 :
integration = integration + 4 * my_func ( k )
else :
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k )
k += h
# Finding final integration value
integration = integration * h * ( 1 / 3 )
return integration

# Input section
lower_limit = float ( input ( " Enter lower limit of integration : " ) )
upper_limit = float ( input ( " Enter upper limit of integration : " ) )
sub_interval = int ( input ( " Enter number of sub intervals : " ) )

# Call trapezoidal () method and get result

result = simpson13 ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )
print ( " Integration result by Simpson 's 1 / 3 method is : % 0 . 6f " % ( result )
)

8.4 Simpson’s 3/8th rule

R6 1
Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using Simpson’s 3/8 th rule, taking 6 sub intervals
def s impson s_3_8_ rule (f , a , b , n ) :

85
 h = (b - a) / n
s = f(a) + f(b)
for i in range (1 , n , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (3 , n -1 , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (2 , n -2 , 3 ) :
s += 2 * f(a + i * h)
return s * 3 * h / 8

def f ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 ) # function here

a = 0 # lower limit
b = 6 # upper limit
n = 6 # number of sub intervals

result = sim psons_ 3_8_r ule (f , a , b , n )

print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result )

1.27631

8.5 Exercise:
Z1
x2 1
1. Evaluate the integral 3
dx using Simpson’s rule.
1+x 3
0
Ans: 0.23108
Z0.6
3 2
2. Use Simpson’s rule to find e−x dx by taking seven ordinates.
8
0
Ans: 0.5351
Zπ
3. Evaluate using trapezoidal rule sin2 xdx. Take n = 6.
0

Ans: π/2

4. A solid of revolution is formed by rotating about the x-axis, the area between the
x-axis, the lines x = 0 and x = 1, and a curve through the points with the following
co-ordinates:

x y
0.00 1.0000
0.25 0.9896
0.50 0.9589
0.75 0.9089
1.00 0.8415

86
 1
Estimate the volume of the solid formed using Simpson’s rd rule. Hint: Required
R1 2 3
volume is 0 y ∗ πdx. **[Ans: 2.8192]**

5. The velocity v(km/min) of a moped which starts from rest, is given at fixed intervals
of time t(min) as follows:
t: 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
v: 10 18 25 29 32 20 11 5 2 0
Estimate approximately the distance covered in twenty minutes.

Answer for 5.
We know that ds/dt=v. So to get distance (s) we have to integrate.
Here h = 2.2, v0 = 0, v1 = 10, v2 = 18, v3 = 25 etc.
# we shall use simpson 's 1 / 3 rule directly to estimate

h=2
y = [0 , 10 ,18 , 25 , 29 , 32 ,20 , 11 ,5 ,2 , 0 ]
result = ( h / 3 ) * (( y [ 0 ] + y [ 10 ] ) + 4 * ( y [ 1 ] + y [ 3 ] + y [ 5 ] + y [ 7 ] + y [ 9 ] ) + 2 * ( y [ 2 ] + y [ 4 ] + y [
6]+y[8]))

print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result , ' km . ')

309.33333 km.

87
LAB 9: Solution of ODE of first order and first degree
by Taylor’s series and Modified Euler’s method
9.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to solve ODE by Taylor series method.

2. to solve ODE by Modified Euler method.

3. to trace the solution curves.

9.2 Taylor series method to solve ODE

dy
Solve: dx
− 2y = 3ex with y(0) = 0 using Taylor series method at x = 0.1(0.1)0.3.
# # module taylor
'''X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) .
4th - order Taylor series method for solving the initial value problem { y
} ' = { F (x , { y } ) } , where
{ y } = { y [ 0 ] , y [ 1 ] ,... y [n - 1 ] } .
x , y = initial conditions
xStop = terminal value of x
h = increment of x
'''
from numpy import array
def taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) :
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
while x < xStop : # Loop over integration steps
D = deriv (x , y ) # Derivatives of y
H = 1.0
for j in range ( 3 ) : # Build Taylor series
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h
X . append ( x ) # Append results to
Y . append ( y ) # lists X and Y

return array ( X ) , array ( Y ) # Convert lists into arrays

# deriv = user - supplied function that returns derivatives in the 4 x n

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y ' '[ 0 ] y ' '[ 1 ] y ' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '[n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ''' '[ 0 ] y ' '''[ 1 ] y ''' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '''[n - 1 ]]
'''
def deriv (x , y ) :
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )

88
 D[0] = [ 2 * y [ 0 ] + 3 * exp ( x ) ]
D[1] = [ 4 * y [ 0 ] + 9 * exp ( x ) ]
D[2] = [ 8 * y [ 0 ] + 21 * exp ( x ) ]
D[3] = [ 16 * y [ 0 ] + 45 * exp ( x ) ]
return D

x = 0.0 # Initial value of x

xStop = 0 . 3 # last value
y = array ( [ 0 . 0 ] ) # Initial values of y
h = 0.1 # Step size
X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h )

print ( " The required values are : at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0
. 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ]
,X [ 3 ] ,Y [ 3 ] ) )

The required values are :at x= 0.00, y=0.00000, x=0.10, y=0.34850,

x = 0.20, y=0.81079,x = 0.30, y=1.41590

Solve y ′ + 4y = x2 with initial conditions y(0) = 1 using Taylor series method at x =

0.1, 0.2.
from numpy import array
def taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) :
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
while x < xStop : # Loop over integration steps
D = deriv (x , y ) # Derivatives of y
H = 1.0
for j in range ( 3 ) : # Build Taylor series
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h
X . append ( x ) # Append results to
Y . append ( y ) # lists X and Y

return array ( X ) , array ( Y ) # Convert lists into arrays

# deriv = user - supplied function that returns derivatives in the 4 x n

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y "[ 0 ] y "[ 1 ] y "[ 2 ] ... y "[ n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ""[ 0 ] y ""[ 1 ] y ""[ 2 ] ... y ""[ n - 1 ]]
'''
def deriv (x , y ) :
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )
D [ 0 ] = [ x ** 2 - 4 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 1 ] = [ 2 * x - 4 * x ** 2 + 16 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 2 ] = [ 2 - 8 * x + 16 * x ** 2 - 64 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 3 ] = [ - 8 + 32 * x - 64 * x ** 2 + 256 * y [ 0 ] ]

89
 return D

x = 0.0 # Initial value of x

xStop = 0 . 2 # last value
y = array ( [ 1 . 0 ] ) # Initial values of y
h = 0.1 # Step size
X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h )

print ( " The required values are : at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1
] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ) )

The required values are :at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.66967,

x = 0.20, y=0.45026

9.3 Euler’s method to solve ODE:

dy
To solve the ODE of the form dx = f (x, y) with initial conditions y(x0 ) = y0 . The iterative
formula is given by : y(x(i+1) = y(xi ) + hf (xi , y(xi )).
Solve: y ′ = e−x with y(0) = −1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.2(0.2)0.6.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : np . exp ( - x ) # ODE
h = 0 . 2 # Step size
y0 = - 1 # Initial Condition
n=3
# Explicit Euler Method

y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0

for i in range (0 , n ) :
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])

print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 .
5f " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1 ] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ,
x [ 3 ] ,y [ 3 ] ) )
print ( " \ n \ n " )

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = ' Approximate ')

plt . plot (x , - np . exp ( - x ) , 'g * - ' , label = ' Exact ')
plt . title ( " Approximate and Exact Solution " )
plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'f ( x ) ')
plt . grid ()
plt . legend ( loc = ' best ')
plt . show ()

90
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=-1.00000, x=0.20, y=-0.80000,
x = 0.40, y=-0.63625,x = 0.60, y=-0.50219

Solve: y ′ = −2y + x3 e−2x with y(0) = 1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.1, 0.2.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : - 2 * y + ( x ** 3 ) * np . exp ( - 2 * x ) # ODE
h = 0 . 1 # Step size
y0 = 1 # Initial Condition
n=2
# Explicit Euler Method

y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0

for i in range (0 , n ) :
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])

print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x

= % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f \ n \ n " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1
] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ) )

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = " Approximate ( Euler 's method ) " )

plt . title ( " Solution by Euler 's method " )

plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'f ( x ) ')
plt . grid ()
plt . legend ( loc = ' best ')
plt . show ()

91
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.80000,
x=0.20, y=0.64008

9.4 Modified Euler’s method

The iterative formula is:
(n+1) h (n)
y1 = y0 + [f (x0 , y0 ) + f (x1 , y1 )], n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
2
(n)
where, y1 is the nth approximation to y1 .
(0)
The first iteration will use Euler’s method: y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ).
Solve y ′ = −ky with y(0) = 100 using modified Euler’s method at x = 100, by taking
h = 25.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

def modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n ) :
x = np . zeros ( n + 1 )
y = np . zeros ( n + 1 )

x [ 0 ] = x0
y [ 0 ] = y0

for i in range ( n ) :
x[i+1] = x[i] + h
k1 = h * f ( x [ i ] , y [ i ] )
k2 = h * f ( x [ i + 1 ] , y [ i ] + k1 )
y [ i + 1 ] = y [ i ] + 0 . 5 * ( k1 + k2 )

return x , y

92
def f (x , y ) :
return - 0 . 01 * y # ODE dy / dx = - ky

x0 = 0 . 0
y0 = 100 . 0
h = 25
n = 4

x , y = modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n )

print ( " The required value at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( x [ 4 ] ,y [ 4 ] ) )

print ( " \ n \ n " )

# Plotting the results

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - ')
plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'y ')
plt . title ( ' Solution of dy / dx = - ky using Modified Euler \ ' s Method ')
plt . grid ( True )
plt . show ()

The required value at x= 100.00, y=37.25290

9.5 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y ′ = x − y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.9138

2. Find y(0.2) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y ′ = x2 y − 1, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1.

Ans: y(0.2) = 0.80227

93
3. Evaluate by modified Euler’s method: y ′ = ln(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.
Ans: 2.0656, 2.1416, 2.2272, 2.3217

4. Solve by modified Euler’s method: y ′ = x + y, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1, x = 0(0.1)0.3.

Ans: 1.1105, 1.2432, 1.4004

94
LAB 10: Solution of ODE of first order and first de-
gree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method and Milne’s
predictor and corrector method
10.1 Objectives:
1. To write a python program to solve first order differential equation using 4th order
Runge Kutta method.

2. To write a python program to solve first order differential equation using Milne’s
predictor and corrector method.

10.2 Runge-Kutta method

Apply the Runge Kutta method to find the solution of dy/dx = 1 + (y/x) at y(2) taking
h = 0.2. Given that y(1) = 2.
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
def RungeKutta (g , x0 ,h , y0 , xn ) :

x , y = symbols ( 'x , y ')

f = lambdify ( [x , y ] ,g )
xt = x0 + h
Y = [ y0 ]
while xt < = xn :
k1 = h * f ( x0 , y0 )
k2 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k1 / 2 )
k3 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k2 / 2 )
k4 = h * f ( x0 +h , y0 + k3 )
y1 = y0 + ( 1 / 6 ) * ( k1 + 2 * k2 + 2 * k3 + k4 )
Y . append ( y1 )
# print ( ' y ( % 3 . 3f '% xt , ') is % 3 . 3f '% y1 )
x0 = xt
y0 = y1
xt = xt + h
return np . round (Y , 2 )
RungeKutta ( '1 +( y / x ) ' ,1 , 0 .2 ,2 , 2 )

array([2. , 2.62, 3.27, 3.95, 4.66, 5.39])

10.3 Milne’s predictor and corrector method

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x2 + (y/2) at y(1.4).
Given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156, y(1.2)=2.4649, y(1.3)=2.7514. Use corrector formula
thrice.
# Milne 's method to solve first order DE
# Use corrector formula thrice
x0 = 1
y0 = 2

95
y1 = 2 . 2156
y2 = 2 . 4649
y3 = 2 . 7514
h=0.1
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h
def f (x , y ) :
return x ** 2 + ( y / 2 )

y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 is % 3 . 3f '% y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p ) ;
for i in range (1 , 4 ) :
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 ) ;
print ( ' corrected value of y4 after \ t iteration %d is \ t % 3 . 5f \ t '%
(i , y4 ) )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4 ) ;

predicted value of y4 is 3.079

corrected value of y4 after iteration 1 is 3.07940
corrected value of y4 after iteration 2 is 3.07940
corrected value of y4 after iteration 3 is 3.07940

In the next program, function will take all the inputs from the user and display the
answer.
Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x2 + (y/2) at y(1.4).
Given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156, y(1.2)=2.4649, y(1.3)=2.7514. Use corrector formula
thrice.
from sympy import *
def Milne (g , x0 ,h , y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 ) :
x , y = symbols ( 'x , y ')
f = lambdify ( [x , y ] ,g )
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h

y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 ' , y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p )
for i in range (1 , 4 ) :
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 )
print ( ' corrected value of y4 , iteration % d '%i , y4 )

96
 y14 = f ( x4 , y4 )
Milne ( 'x ** 2 + y / 2 ' ,1 , 0 .1 ,2 , 2 . 2156 , 2 . 4649 , 2 . 7514 )

predicted value of y4 3.0792733333333335

corrected value of y4 , iteration 1 3.0793962222222224
corrected value of y4 , iteration 2 3.079398270370371
corrected value of y4 , iteration 3 3.079398304506173

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x − y 2 , y(0)=2 obtain
y(0.8). Take h=0.2. Use Runge-Kutta method to calculate required initial values.
Y = RungeKutta ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 ,0 , 0 . 8 )
print ( 'y values from Runge - Kutta method : ' ,Y )
Milne ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 , Y [ 0 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ,Y [ 3 ] )

y values from Runge -Kutta method: [0. 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.3 ]
predicted value of y4 0.3042133333333334
corrected value of y4 , iteration 1 0.3047636165214815
corrected value of y4 , iteration 2 0.3047412758696499
corrected value of y4 , iteration 3 0.3047421836520892

10.4 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Runge Kutta method when y ′ = x − y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.91379

2. Evaluate by Runge Kutta method : y ′ = log(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.

Ans: 2.155, 2.3418, 2.557, 2.801

3. Solve by Milnes method: y ′ = x + y, y(0)=1, h=0.1, Calculate y(0.4) . Calculate

required initial values from Runge Kutta method.
Ans: 1.583649219

97
 Contents: Mechanical & Civil Engineering Stream
Lab 1. Programme to compute area, volume and center of gravity.

Lab 2. Evaluation of improper integrals , Beta and Gamma functions.

Lab 3. Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their geometrical interpretation

Lab 4. Verification of Green’s theorem

Lab 5. Solution of Lagrange’s linear partial differential equations

Lab 6. Solution of algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi and Newton-

Raphson method

Lab 7. Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s forward and backward difference for-
mula

rd
Lab 8. Computation of area under the curve using Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 31 and Simp-
3 th


sons 8 rule

Lab 9. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Taylor’s series and Modified
Euler’s method

Lab 10. Solution of ODE of first order and first degree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method
and Milne’s predictor and corrector method

98
LAB 1: Programme to compute area, volume and cen-
ter of gravity
1.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to evaluate double integration.

2. to compute area and volume.

3. to calculate center of gravity of 2D object.

Syntax for the commands used:

1. Data pretty printer in Python:
pprint ()

2. integrate:
integrate ( function ,( variable , min_limit , max_limit ) )

1.2 Double and triple integration

Example 1:
R1 Rx
Evaluate the integral (x2 + y 2 )dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
w1 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,( y ,0 , x ) ,(x ,0 , 1 ) )
print ( w1 )

1/3

Example 2:
R 3−x−y
R3 3−x R
Evaluate the integral (xyz)dzdydx
0 0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w2 = integrate (( x * y * z ) ,(z ,0 , 3 - x - y ) ,(y ,0 , 3 - x ) ,(x ,0 , 3 ) )
print ( w2 )

81/80

99
Example 3:
RR 2 RR 2
Prove that (x + y 2 )dydx = (x + y 2 )dxdy
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
w3 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,y , x )
pprint ( w3 )
w4 = integrate ( x ** 2 + y ** 2 ,x , y )
pprint ( w4 )

1.3 Area and Volume

RR
Area of the region R in the cartesian form is dxdy
R

Example 4:
√
Ra (b/a) R a2 −x2
Find the area of an ellipse by double integration. A=4 dydx
0 0
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
# a = Symbol ( ' a ')
# b = Symbol ( ' b ')
a=4
b=6
w3 = 4 * integrate (1 ,( y ,0 ,( b / a ) * sqrt ( a ** 2 - x ** 2 ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w3 )

24.0*pi
RR
1.4 Area of the region R in the polar form is rdrdθ
R
Example 5:
Find the area of the cardioid r = a(1 + cosθ) by double integration
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
#a=4

w3 = 2 * integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t ,0 , pi ) )

pprint ( w3 )

100
 RRR
1.5 Volume of a solid is given by dxdydz
V
Example 6:
Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0, xa + yb + zc = 1
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
y = Symbol ( 'y ')
z = Symbol ( 'z ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
b = Symbol ( 'b ')
c = Symbol ( 'c ')
w2 = integrate (1 ,( z ,0 , c * ( 1 - x / a - y / b ) ) ,(y ,0 , b * ( 1 - x / a ) ) ,(x ,0 , a ) )
print ( w2 )

a*b*c/6

1.6 Center of Gravity

Find the center of gravity of cardioid . Plot the graph of cardioid and mark the center
of gravity.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt
import math
from sympy import *
r = Symbol ( 'r ')
t = Symbol ( 't ')
a = Symbol ( 'a ')
I1 = integrate ( cos ( t ) * r ** 2 ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I2 = integrate (r ,( r ,0 , a * ( 1 + cos ( t ) ) ) ,(t , - pi , pi ) )
I = I1 / I2
print ( I )
I = I . subs (a , 5 )
plt . axes ( projection = ' polar ')
a=5

rad = np . arange (0 , ( 2 * np . pi ) , 0 . 01 )

# plotting the cardioid

for i in rad :
r = a + ( a * np . cos ( i ) )
plt . polar (i ,r , 'g . ')

plt . polar (0 ,I , 'r . ')

plt . show ()

5*a/6

101
1.7 Exercise:
R1 Rx
1. Evaluate (x + y)dydx
0 0
Ans: 0.5
log(2)
R Rx x+log(y)
R
2. Find the (ex+y+z )dzdydx
0 0 0
Ans: -0.2627

3. Find the area of positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y 2 = 16

Ans: 4π

4. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the planes x=0,y=0 and z=0,
x
2
+ y3 + z4 = 1
Ans: 4

102
LAB 2: Evaluation of improper integrals, Beta and
Gamma functions
2.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate improper integrals using Beta function.
2. to evaluate improper integrals using Gamma function.

Syntax for the commands used:

1. gamma
math . gamma ( x )

Parameters :
x : The number whose gamma value needs to be computed.
2. beta
math . beta (x , y )

Parameters :
x ,y: The numbers whose beta value needs to be computed.
3. Note: We can evaluate improper integral involving infinity by using inf.

Example 1:
R∞
Evaluate e−x dx.
0
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) ,(x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
print ( simplify ( w1 ) )

1
R∞
Gamma function is x(n) = 0
e−x xn−1 dx

Example 2:
Evaluate Γ(5) by using definition
from sympy import *
x = symbols ( 'x ')
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - x ) * x ** 4 ,( x ,0 , float ( ' inf ') ) )
print ( simplify ( w1 ) )

24

103
Example 3:
R∞
Evaluate e−st cos(4t)dt . That is Laplace transform of cos(4t)
0
from sympy import *
t , s = symbols ( 't , s ')
# for infinity in sympy we use oo
w1 = integrate ( exp ( - s * t ) * cos ( 4 * t ) ,(t ,0 , oo ) )
display ( simplify ( w1 ) )

Example 4:
Find Beta(3,5), Gamma(5)
# beta and gamma functions
from sympy import beta , gamma
m = input ( 'm : ') ;
n = input ( 'n : ') ;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
print ( ' gamma ( ' ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% t )
print ( ' Beta ( ' ,m ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% s )

m :3
n :5
gamma ( 5.0 ) is 24.000
Beta ( 3.0 5.0 ) is 0.010

Example 5:
Calculate Beta(5/2,7/2) and Gamma(5/2).
# beta and gamma functions
# If the number is a fraction give it in decimals . Eg 5 / 2 = 2 . 5
from sympy import beta , gamma
m = float ( input ( 'm : ') ) ;
n = float ( input ( 'n : ') ) ;

s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = gamma ( n )
print ( ' gamma ( ' ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% t )
print ( ' Beta ( ' ,m ,n , ') is % 3 . 3f '% s )

104
m : 2.5
n :3.5
gamma ( 3.5 ) is 3.323
Beta ( 2.5 3.5 ) is 0.037

Example 6:
Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=5 and n=7
from sympy import beta , gamma
m=5;
n=7;
m = float ( m ) ;
n = float ( n ) ;
s = beta (m , n ) ;
t = ( gamma ( m ) * gamma ( n ) ) / gamma ( m + n ) ;
print (s , t )
if ( abs ( s - t ) < = 0 . 00001 ) :
print ( ' beta and gamma are related ')
else :
print ( ' given values are wrong ')

0.000432900432900433 0.000432900432900433
beta and gamma are related

2.2 Exercise:
R∞
1. Evaluate e−t cos(2t)dt
0
Ans: 1/5

2. Find the value of Beta(5/2,9/2)

Ans: 0.0214

3. Find the value of Gamma(13)

Ans: 479001600

4. Verify that Beta(m, n) = Gamma(m)Gamma(n)/Gamma(m + n) for m=7/2 and

n=11/2
Ans: True

105
LAB 3: Finding gradient, divergent, curl and their
geometrical interpretation
1.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to find the gradient of a given scalar function.

2. to find find divergence and curl of a vector function.

1.2 Method I:
To find gradient of ϕ = x2 y + 2xz − 4.
# To find gradient of scalar point function .
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ') # Setting the coordinate system
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y + 2 * N . x * N . z - 4 # Variables x ,y , z to be used with coordinate
system N
delop = Del () # Del operator
display ( delop ( A ) ) # Del operator applied to A
gradA = gradient ( A ) # Gradient function is used
print ( f " \ n Gradient of { A } is \ n " )
display ( gradA )

To find divergence of F⃗ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂

# To find divergence of a vector point function
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ')
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y * N . z * N . i + N . y ** 2 * N . z * N . x * N . j + N . z ** 2 * N . x * N . y * N . k
delop = Del ()
divA = delop . dot ( A )
display ( divA )

print ( f " \ n Divergence of { A } is \ n " )

display ( divergence ( A ) )

106
 To find curl of F⃗ = x2 yz î + y 2 zxĵ + z 2 xy k̂
# To find curl of a vector point function
from sympy . vector import *
from sympy import symbols
N = CoordSys3D ( 'N ')
x ,y , z = symbols ( 'x y z ')
A = N . x ** 2 * N . y * N . z * N . i + N . y ** 2 * N . z * N . x * N . j + N . z ** 2 * N . x * N . y * N . k
delop = Del ()
curlA = delop . cross ( A )
display ( curlA )

print ( f " \ n Curl of { A } is \ n " )

display ( curl ( A ) )

1.3 Method II:

To find gradient of ϕ = x2 yz.
# To find gradient of a scalar point function x ^ 2yz
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var , pprint
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ]
G = gradient (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given scalar function F = " )
display ( F )
G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " \ n Gradient of F = " )
display ( G )

107
 To find divergence of F⃗ = x2 y î + yz 2 ĵ + x2 z k̂.
# To find divergence of F = x ^ 2yi + yz ^ 2j + x ^ 2zk
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v . x + v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . y + v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 2 ] * v . z
G = divergence (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given vector point function is " )
display ( F )

G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Divergence of F = " )
display ( G )

To find curl of F⃗ = xy 2 î + 2x2 yz ĵ − 3yz 2 k̂

# To find curl of F = xy ^ 2i + 2x ^ 2yzj - 3yz ^ 2k
from sympy . physics . vector import *
from sympy import var
var ( 'x ,y , z ')
v = ReferenceFrame ( 'v ')
F = v [ 0 ] * v [ 1 ] ** 2 * v . x + 2 * v [ 0 ] ** 2 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] * v . y - 3 * v [ 1 ] * v [ 2 ] ** 2 * v . z
G = curl (F , v )
F = F . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " Given vector point function is " )
display ( F )

G = G . subs ( [ ( v [ 0 ] ,x ) ,( v [ 1 ] ,y ) ,( v [ 2 ] ,z ) ] )
print ( " curl of F = " )
display ( G )

108
1.4 Exercise:
1. If u = x + y + z, v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = yz + zx + xy, find gradu, gradv and gradw.
Ans: î + ĵ + k̂, 2(xî + y ĵ + z k̂), (y + z)î + (z + x)ĵ + (z + x)k̂.

2. Evaluate divF and curlF at the point (1,2,3), given that F⃗ = x2 yz î+xy 2 z ĵ +xyz 2 k̂.
Ans: 6xyz, x(z 2 − y 2 )î + y(x2 − z 2 )ĵ + z(y 2 − x2 )k̂.

3. Prove that the vector (yz − x2 )î + (4y − z 2 x)ĵ + (2xz − 4z)k̂ is solenoidal.

4. Find the vector normal to the surface xy 3 z 2 = 4 at the point (−1, −1, 2).
Ans: −4î − 12ĵ + 4k̂.
⃗ = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, show that (i) ∇ · R
5. If R ⃗ = 3, (ii) ∇ × R
⃗ = 0.

109
LAB 4: Verification of Green’s theorem
1.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to evaluate integrals using Green’s theorem.

1.2 Green’s theorem

Statement of Green’s theorem in the plane: If P (x, y) and Q(x, y) be two con-
tinuous functions having continuous partial derivatives in a region R of the xy-plane,
bounded by a simple closed curve C, then
I Z Z  
∂Q ∂P
(P dx + Qdy) = − dxdy.
∂x ∂y
R
H
1. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(x + 2y)dx + (x − 2y)dy], where c is the region
c
bounded by coordinate axes and the line x = 1 and y = 1.
from sympy import *
var ( 'x , y ')
p=x+2*y
q=x-2*y
f = diff (q , x ) - diff (p , y )
soln = integrate (f , [x ,0 , 1 ] ,[y ,0 , 1 ] )
print ( " I = " , soln )

I= -1

H
2. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(xy + y 2 )dx + x2 dy], where c is the closed curve
c
bounded by y = x and y = x2 .
from sympy import *
var ( 'x , y ')
p = x * y + y ** 2
q = x ** 2
f = diff (q , x ) - diff (p , y )
soln = integrate (f , [y , x ** 2 , x ] ,[x ,0 , 1 ] )
print ( " I = " , soln )

I= -1/20

1.3 Exercise:
H
1. Using Green’s theorem, evaluate [(3x + 4y)dx + (2x − 3y)dy], where c is the
c
boundary of the circle x2 + y 2 = 4.
Ans: −8π

110
LAB 5: Solution of Lagrange’s linear partial differen-
tial equations
1.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to solve linear Partial Differential Equations of first order

Solve the PDE, xp + yq = z, where z = f (x, y)

from sympy . solvers . pde import pdsolve
from sympy import Function , Eq , cot , classify_pde , pprint
from sympy . abc import x , y , a
f = Function ( 'f ')
z = f (x , y )
zx = z . diff ( x )
zy = z . diff ( y )
# Solve xp + yq = z
eq = Eq ( x * zx + y * zy , z )
pprint ( eq )
print ( " \ n " )
soln = pdsolve ( eq , z )
pprint ( soln )

∂z ∂z
Solve the PDE 2p + 3q = 1, where p = ∂x
and p = ∂y
from sympy . solvers . pde import pdsolve
from sympy import Function , Eq , cot , classify_pde , pprint
from sympy . abc import x , y , a
f = Function ( 'f ')
z = f (x , y )
zx = z . diff ( x )
zy = z . diff ( y )
# Solve 2p + 3q = 1
eq = Eq ( 2 * zx + 3 * zy , 1 )
pprint ( eq )
print ( " \ n " )
soln = pdsolve ( eq , z )
pprint ( soln )

111
 ∂z ∂z
Solve the PDE x2 p + y 2 q = (x + y)z, where p = ∂x
and p = ∂y
from sympy . solvers . pde import pdsolve
from sympy import Function , Eq , cot , classify_pde , pprint
from sympy . abc import x , y , a
f = Function ( 'f ')
z = f (x , y )
zx = z . diff ( x )
zy = z . diff ( y )
# Solve x ^ 2p + y ^ 2q =( x + y ) z
eq = Eq ( x ** 2 * zx + y ** 2 * zy ,( x + y ) * z )
pprint ( eq )

print ( " \ n " )

soln = pdsolve ( eq , z )
pprint ( soln )

1.2 Exercise:
1. Solve y 2 p + x2 q = y 2 x
Ans: z = x2 /2 + F (y 3 − x3 )

2. Solve xp + yq = 3z
Ans: z = x3 F (y/x)

3. Solve y 2 p − xyq = x(z − 2y)

Ans: x2 + y 2 = F (y 2 − yz)

112
LAB 6: Solution of algebraic and transcendental equa-
tion by Regula-Falsi and Newton-Raphson method
6.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Regula-Falsi method.

2. to solve algebraic and transcendental equation by Newton-Raphson method.

6.2 Regula-Falsi method to solve a transcendental equation

Obtain a root of the equation x3 − 2x − 5 = 0 between 2 and 3 by regula-falsi method.
Perform 5 iterations.
# Regula Falsi method
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % x ^3 - 2 *x - 5 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
a = float ( input ( ' Enter a valus : ') ) # 2
b = float ( input ( ' Enter b valus : ') ) # 3
N = int ( input ( ' Enter number of iterations : ') ) # 5

for i in range (1 , N + 1 ) :
c=(a*f(b)-b*f(a))/(f(b)-f(a))
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;

Using tolerance value we can write the same program as follows:

Obtain a root of the equation x3 − 2x − 5 = 0 between 2 and 3 by regula-falsi method.
Correct to 3 decimal places.

113
# Regula Falsi method while loop2
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % x ^3 - 2 *x - 5 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
a = float ( input ( ' Enter a valus : ') ) # 2
b = float ( input ( ' Enter b valus : ') ) # 3
N = float ( input ( ' Enter tolarence : ') ) # 0 . 001
x=a;
c=b;
i=0
while ( abs ( x - c ) > = N ) :
x=c
c = (( a * f ( b ) - b * f ( a ) ) / ( f ( b ) - f ( a ) ) ) ;
if (( f ( a ) * f ( c ) < 0 ) ) :
b=c
else :
a=c
i=i+1
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i ,c , f ( c ) ) ) ;
print ( ' final value of the root is % 0 . 5f '% c )

6.3 Newton-Raphson method to solve a transcendental equa-

tion
Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x + 1, near 1, by Newton Raphson method. Perform
5 iterations
from sympy import *
x = Symbol ( 'x ')
g = input ( ' Enter the function ') # % 3x - cos ( x ) -1 ; % function
f = lambdify (x , g )
dg = diff ( g ) ;

114
df = lambdify (x , dg )
x0 = float ( input ( ' Enter the intial approximation ') ) ; # x0 = 1
n = int ( input ( ' Enter the number of iterations ') ) ; #n=5;
for i in range (1 , n + 1 ) :
x1 = ( x0 - ( f ( x0 ) / df ( x0 ) ) )
print ( ' itration % d \ t the root % 0 . 3f \ t function value % 0 . 3f \ n '%
(i , x1 , f ( x1 ) ) ) ; # print all
iteration value
x0 = x1

6.4 Exercise:
1. Find a root of the equation 3x = cos x+1, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.
Perform 5 iterations.
Ans: 0.607

2. Find a root of the equation xex = 2, between 0 and 1, by Regula-falsi method.

Correct to 3 decimal places.
Ans: 0.853

3. Obtain a real positive root of x4 − x = 0, near 1, by Newton-Raphson method.

Perform 4 iterations.
Ans: 1.856

4. Obtain a real positive root of x4 + x3 − 7x2 − x + 5 = 0, near 3, by Newton-Raphson

method. Perform 7 iterations.
Ans: 2.061

115
LAB 7: Interpolation /Extrapolation using Newton’s
forward and backward difference formula
7.1 Objectives:
Use python
1. to interpolate using Newton’s Forward interpolation method.

2. to interpolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

3. to extrapolate using Newton’s backward interpolation method.

1. Use Newtons forward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and hence
x: 1 3 5 7 9
calculate y(2) for the following:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
n = int ( input ( ' Enter number of data points : ') )
210
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )

# Reading data points

print ( ' Enter data for x and y : ')
for i in range ( n ) :
x [ i ] = float ( input ( 'x [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
y [ i ] [ 0 ] = float ( input ( 'y [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )

# Generating forward difference table

for i in range (1 , n ) :
for j in range (0 , n - i ) :
y[j][i] = y[j+1][i-1] - y[j][i-1]

print ( '\ nFORWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;

for i in range (0 , n ) :
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , n - i ) :
print ( '\ t \ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()
# obtaining the polynomial
t = symbols ( 't ')
f = [ ] # f is a list type data

p=(t-x[0])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
for i in range (1 , n - 1 ) :
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p - i ) / ( i + 1 ) )
poly = y [ 0 ] [ 0 ]
for i in range ( n - 1 ) :
poly = poly + y [ 0 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]

116
simp_poly = simplify ( poly )
print ( '\ nTHE INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL IS \ n ') ;
pprint ( simp_poly )
# if you want to interpolate at some point the next session will help
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ') # y
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') ) # 2
interpol = lambdify (t , simp_poly )
result = interpol ( a )
print ( '\ nThe value of the function at ' ,a , ' is \ n ' , result ) ;

2. Use Newtons backward interpolation to obtain the interpolating polynomial and

x: 1 3 5 7 9
hence calculate y(8) for the following data:
y: 6 10 62 210 502
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
import sys
print ( " This will use Newton 's backword intepolation formula " )
# Reading number of unknowns
n = int ( input ( ' Enter number of data points : ') )

# Making numpy array of n & n x n size and initializing

# to zero for storing x and y value along with differences of y
x = np . zeros (( n ) )
y = np . zeros (( n , n ) )

# Reading data points

117
print ( ' Enter data for x and y : ')
for i in range ( n ) :
x [ i ] = float ( input ( 'x [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )
y [ i ] [ 0 ] = float ( input ( 'y [ '+ str ( i ) + ' ]= ') )

# Generating backward difference table

for i in range (1 , n ) :
for j in range ( n -1 , i -2 , - 1 ) :
y[j][i] = y[j][i-1] - y[j-1][i-1]

print ( '\ nBACKWARD DIFFERENCE TABLE \ n ') ;

for i in range (0 , n ) :
print ( '% 0 . 2f ' % ( x [ i ] ) , end = ' ')
for j in range (0 , i + 1 ) :
print ( '\ t % 0 . 2f ' % ( y [ i ] [ j ] ) , end = ' ')
print ()

# obtaining the polynomial

t = symbols ( 't ')
f=[]

p=(t-x[n-1])/(x[1]-x[0])
f . append ( p )
for i in range (1 , n - 1 ) :
f . append ( f [ i - 1 ] * ( p + i ) / ( i + 1 ) )

poly = y [ n - 1 ] [ 0 ]
print ( poly )
for i in range ( n - 1 ) :
poly = poly + y [ n - 1 ] [ i + 1 ] * f [ i ]
simp_poly = simplify ( poly )
print ( '\ nTHE INTERPOLATING POLYNOMIAL IS \ n ') ;
pprint ( simp_poly )
# if you want to interpolate at some point the next session will help
inter = input ( ' Do you want to interpolate at a point ( y / n ) ? ')
if inter = = 'y ':
a = float ( input ( ' enter the point ') )
interpol = lambdify (t , simp_poly )
result = interpol ( a )
print ( '\ nThe value of the function at ' ,a , ' is \ n ' , result ) ;

118
7.2 Exercise:
1. Obtain the interpolating polynomial for the following data
x: 0 1 2 3
y: 1 2 1 10
Ans: 2x3 − 7x2 + 6x + 1

2. Find the number of men getting wage Rs. 100 from the following table:
wage: 50 150 250 350
No. of men: 9 30 35 42
Ans: 23 men

3. Using Newton’s backward interpolation method obtain y(160) for the following data
x: 100 150 200 250 300
y: 10 13 15 17 18
Ans: 13.42

4. Using Newtons forward interpolation polynomial and calculate y(1) and y(10).
x: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
y: 4.8 8.4 14.5 23.6 36.2 52.8 73.9
Ans: 3.1 and 100

119
LAB 8: Computation of
area under the curve using
rd th
Trapezoidal, Simpson’s 13 and Simpsons 38


rule
8.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Trapezoidal rule.

rd
2. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Simpson’s 13
rule.

th
3. to find area under the curve represented by a given function using Simpson’s 83
rule.

4. to find the area below the curve when discrete points on the curve are given.

8.2 Trapezoidal Rule

R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
# Definition of the function to integrate
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )

# Function to implement trapezoidal method

def trapezoidal ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # Calculating step
size
# Finding sum
integration = my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) # Adding first and
last terms
for i in range (1 , n ) :
k = x0 + i * h # i - th step value
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k ) # Adding areas of the
trapezoids
# Proportioning sum of trapezoid areas
integration = integration * h / 2
return integration

# Input section
lower_limit = float ( input ( " Enter lower limit of integration : " ) )
upper_limit = float ( input ( " Enter upper limit of integration : " ) )
sub_interval = int ( input ( " Enter number of sub intervals : " ) )

# Call trapezoidal () method and get result

result = trapezoidal ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )

# Print result
print ( " Integration result by Trapezoidal method is : " , result )

120
 1 rd


8.3 Simpson’s 3 Rule
R5 1
Evaluate 1+x2
.
0
# Definition of the function to integrate
def my_func ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 )

# Function to implement the Simpson 's one - third rule

def simpson13 ( x0 , xn , n ) :
h = ( xn - x0 ) / n # calculating step size
# Finding sum
integration = ( my_func ( x0 ) + my_func ( xn ) )
k = x0
for i in range (1 , n ) :
if i % 2 = = 0 :
integration = integration + 4 * my_func ( k )
else :
integration = integration + 2 * my_func ( k )
k += h
# Finding final integration value
integration = integration * h * ( 1 / 3 )
return integration

# Input section
lower_limit = float ( input ( " Enter lower limit of integration : " ) )
upper_limit = float ( input ( " Enter upper limit of integration : " ) )
sub_interval = int ( input ( " Enter number of sub intervals : " ) )

# Call trapezoidal () method and get result

result = simpson13 ( lower_limit , upper_limit , sub_interval )
print ( " Integration result by Simpson 's 1 / 3 method is : % 0 . 6f " % ( result )
)

8.4 Simpson’s 3/8th rule

R6 1
Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using Simpson’s 3/8 th rule, taking 6 sub intervals
def s impson s_3_8_ rule (f , a , b , n ) :

121
 h = (b - a) / n
s = f(a) + f(b)
for i in range (1 , n , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (3 , n -1 , 3 ) :
s += 3 * f(a + i * h)
for i in range (2 , n -2 , 3 ) :
s += 2 * f(a + i * h)
return s * 3 * h / 8

def f ( x ) :
return 1 / ( 1 + x ** 2 ) # function here

a = 0 # lower limit
b = 6 # upper limit
n = 6 # number of sub intervals

result = sim psons_ 3_8_r ule (f , a , b , n )

print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result )

1.27631

8.5 Exercise:
Z1
x2 1
1. Evaluate the integral 3
dx using Simpson’s rule.
1+x 3
0
Ans: 0.23108
Z0.6
3 2
2. Use Simpson’s rule to find e−x dx by taking seven ordinates.
8
0
Ans: 0.5351
Zπ
3. Evaluate using trapezoidal rule sin2 xdx. Take n = 6.
0

Ans: π/2

4. A solid of revolution is formed by rotating about the x-axis, the area between the
x-axis, the lines x = 0 and x = 1, and a curve through the points with the following
co-ordinates:

x y
0.00 1.0000
0.25 0.9896
0.50 0.9589
0.75 0.9089
1.00 0.8415

122
 1
Estimate the volume of the solid formed using Simpson’s rd rule. Hint: Required
R1 2 3
volume is 0 y ∗ πdx. **[Ans: 2.8192]**

5. The velocity v(km/min) of a moped which starts from rest, is given at fixed intervals
of time t(min) as follows:
t: 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
v: 10 18 25 29 32 20 11 5 2 0
Estimate approximately the distance covered in twenty minutes.

Answer for 5.
We know that ds/dt=v. So to get distance (s) we have to integrate.
Here h = 2.2, v0 = 0, v1 = 10, v2 = 18, v3 = 25 etc.
# we shall use simpson 's 1 / 3 rule directly to estimate

h=2
y = [0 , 10 ,18 , 25 , 29 , 32 ,20 , 11 ,5 ,2 , 0 ]
result = ( h / 3 ) * (( y [ 0 ] + y [ 10 ] ) + 4 * ( y [ 1 ] + y [ 3 ] + y [ 5 ] + y [ 7 ] + y [ 9 ] ) + 2 * ( y [ 2 ] + y [ 4 ] + y [
6]+y[8]))

print ( '% 3 . 5f '% result , ' km . ')

309.33333 km.

123
LAB 9: Solution of ODE of first order and first degree
by Taylor’s series and Modified Euler’s method
9.1 Objectives:
Use python

1. to solve ODE by Taylor series method.

2. to solve ODE by Modified Euler method.

3. to trace the solution curves.

9.2 Taylor series method to solve ODE

dy
Solve: dx
− 2y = 3ex with y(0) = 0 using Taylor series method at x = 0.1(0.1)0.3.
# # module taylor
'''X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) .
4th - order Taylor series method for solving the initial value problem { y
} ' = { F (x , { y } ) } , where
{ y } = { y [ 0 ] , y [ 1 ] ,... y [n - 1 ] } .
x , y = initial conditions
xStop = terminal value of x
h = increment of x
'''
from numpy import array
def taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) :
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
while x < xStop : # Loop over integration steps
D = deriv (x , y ) # Derivatives of y
H = 1.0
for j in range ( 3 ) : # Build Taylor series
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h
X . append ( x ) # Append results to
Y . append ( y ) # lists X and Y

return array ( X ) , array ( Y ) # Convert lists into arrays

# deriv = user - supplied function that returns derivatives in the 4 x n

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y ' '[ 0 ] y ' '[ 1 ] y ' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '[n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ''' '[ 0 ] y ' '''[ 1 ] y ''' '[ 2 ] ... y ' '''[n - 1 ]]
'''
def deriv (x , y ) :
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )

124
 D[0] = [ 2 * y [ 0 ] + 3 * exp ( x ) ]
D[1] = [ 4 * y [ 0 ] + 9 * exp ( x ) ]
D[2] = [ 8 * y [ 0 ] + 21 * exp ( x ) ]
D[3] = [ 16 * y [ 0 ] + 45 * exp ( x ) ]
return D

x = 0.0 # Initial value of x

xStop = 0 . 3 # last value
y = array ( [ 0 . 0 ] ) # Initial values of y
h = 0.1 # Step size
X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h )

print ( " The required values are : at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0
. 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ]
,X [ 3 ] ,Y [ 3 ] ) )

The required values are :at x= 0.00, y=0.00000, x=0.10, y=0.34850,

x = 0.20, y=0.81079,x = 0.30, y=1.41590

Solve y ′ + 4y = x2 with initial conditions y(0) = 1 using Taylor series method at x =

0.1, 0.2.
from numpy import array
def taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h ) :
X = []
Y = []
X . append ( x )
Y . append ( y )
while x < xStop : # Loop over integration steps
D = deriv (x , y ) # Derivatives of y
H = 1.0
for j in range ( 3 ) : # Build Taylor series
H = H*h/(j + 1)
y = y + D[j]*H # H = h^j/j!
x = x + h
X . append ( x ) # Append results to
Y . append ( y ) # lists X and Y

return array ( X ) , array ( Y ) # Convert lists into arrays

# deriv = user - supplied function that returns derivatives in the 4 x n

array
'''
[ y '[ 0 ] y '[ 1 ] y '[ 2 ] ... y '[n - 1 ]
y "[ 0 ] y "[ 1 ] y "[ 2 ] ... y "[ n - 1 ]
y '''[ 0 ] y '''[ 1 ] y '''[ 2 ] ... y '''[n - 1 ]
y ""[ 0 ] y ""[ 1 ] y ""[ 2 ] ... y ""[ n - 1 ]]
'''
def deriv (x , y ) :
D = zeros (( 4 , 1 ) )
D [ 0 ] = [ x ** 2 - 4 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 1 ] = [ 2 * x - 4 * x ** 2 + 16 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 2 ] = [ 2 - 8 * x + 16 * x ** 2 - 64 * y [ 0 ] ]
D [ 3 ] = [ - 8 + 32 * x - 64 * x ** 2 + 256 * y [ 0 ] ]

125
 return D

x = 0.0 # Initial value of x

xStop = 0 . 2 # last value
y = array ( [ 1 . 0 ] ) # Initial values of y
h = 0.1 # Step size
X , Y = taylor ( deriv ,x ,y , xStop , h )

print ( " The required values are : at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( X [ 0 ] ,Y [ 0 ] ,X [ 1
] ,Y [ 1 ] ,X [ 2 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ) )

The required values are :at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.66967,

x = 0.20, y=0.45026

9.3 Euler’s method to solve ODE:

dy
To solve the ODE of the form dx = f (x, y) with initial conditions y(x0 ) = y0 . The iterative
formula is given by : y(x(i+1) = y(xi ) + hf (xi , y(xi )).
Solve: y ′ = e−x with y(0) = −1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.2(0.2)0.6.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : np . exp ( - x ) # ODE
h = 0 . 2 # Step size
y0 = - 1 # Initial Condition
n=3
# Explicit Euler Method

y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0

for i in range (0 , n ) :
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])

print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f ,

x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 .
5f " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1 ] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ,
x [ 3 ] ,y [ 3 ] ) )
print ( " \ n \ n " )

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = ' Approximate ')

plt . plot (x , - np . exp ( - x ) , 'g * - ' , label = ' Exact ')
plt . title ( " Approximate and Exact Solution " )
plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'f ( x ) ')
plt . grid ()
plt . legend ( loc = ' best ')
plt . show ()

126
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=-1.00000, x=0.20, y=-0.80000,
x = 0.40, y=-0.63625,x = 0.60, y=-0.50219

Solve: y ′ = −2y + x3 e−2x with y(0) = 1 using Euler’s method at x = 0.1, 0.2.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

# Define parameters
f = lambda x , y : - 2 * y + ( x ** 3 ) * np . exp ( - 2 * x ) # ODE
h = 0 . 1 # Step size
y0 = 1 # Initial Condition
n=2
# Explicit Euler Method

y [ 0 ] = y0
x[0]=0

for i in range (0 , n ) :
x[i+1]=x[i]+h
y[i + 1] = y[i] + h*f(x[i], y[i])

print ( " The required values are at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f , x

= % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f \ n \ n " % ( x [ 0 ] ,y [ 0 ] ,x [ 1
] ,y [ 1 ] ,x [ 2 ] ,y [ 2 ] ) )

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - - ' , label = " Approximate ( Euler 's method ) " )

plt . title ( " Solution by Euler 's method " )

plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'f ( x ) ')
plt . grid ()
plt . legend ( loc = ' best ')
plt . show ()

127
The required values are at x= 0.00, y=1.00000, x=0.10, y=0.80000,
x=0.20, y=0.64008

9.4 Modified Euler’s method

The iterative formula is:
(n+1) h (n)
y1 = y0 + [f (x0 , y0 ) + f (x1 , y1 )], n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
2
(n)
where, y1 is the nth approximation to y1 .
(0)
The first iteration will use Euler’s method: y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ).
Solve y ′ = −ky with y(0) = 100 using modified Euler’s method at x = 100, by taking
h = 25.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib . pyplot as plt

def modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n ) :
x = np . zeros ( n + 1 )
y = np . zeros ( n + 1 )

x [ 0 ] = x0
y [ 0 ] = y0

for i in range ( n ) :
x[i+1] = x[i] + h
k1 = h * f ( x [ i ] , y [ i ] )
k2 = h * f ( x [ i + 1 ] , y [ i ] + k1 )
y [ i + 1 ] = y [ i ] + 0 . 5 * ( k1 + k2 )

return x , y

128
def f (x , y ) :
return - 0 . 01 * y # ODE dy / dx = - ky

x0 = 0 . 0
y0 = 100 . 0
h = 25
n = 4

x , y = modified_euler (f , x0 , y0 , h , n )

print ( " The required value at x = % 0 . 2f , y = % 0 . 5f " % ( x [ 4 ] ,y [ 4 ] ) )

print ( " \ n \ n " )

# Plotting the results

plt . plot (x , y , 'bo - ')
plt . xlabel ( 'x ')
plt . ylabel ( 'y ')
plt . title ( ' Solution of dy / dx = - ky using Modified Euler \ ' s Method ')
plt . grid ( True )
plt . show ()

The required value at x= 100.00, y=37.25290

9.5 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y ′ = x − y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.9138

2. Find y(0.2) by Taylor Series exapnsion when y ′ = x2 y − 1, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1.

Ans: y(0.2) = 0.80227

129
3. Evaluate by modified Euler’s method: y ′ = ln(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.
Ans: 2.0656, 2.1416, 2.2272, 2.3217

4. Solve by modified Euler’s method: y ′ = x + y, y(0) = 1, h = 0.1, x = 0(0.1)0.3.

Ans: 1.1105, 1.2432, 1.4004

130
LAB 10: Solution of ODE of first order and first de-
gree by Runge-Kutta 4th order method and Milne’s
predictor and corrector method
10.1 Objectives:
1. To write a python program to solve first order differential equation using 4th order
Runge Kutta method.

2. To write a python program to solve first order differential equation using Milne’s
predictor and corrector method.

10.2 Runge-Kutta method

Apply the Runge Kutta method to find the solution of dy/dx = 1 + (y/x) at y(2) taking
h = 0.2. Given that y(1) = 2.
from sympy import *
import numpy as np
def RungeKutta (g , x0 ,h , y0 , xn ) :

x , y = symbols ( 'x , y ')

f = lambdify ( [x , y ] ,g )
xt = x0 + h
Y = [ y0 ]
while xt < = xn :
k1 = h * f ( x0 , y0 )
k2 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k1 / 2 )
k3 = h * f ( x0 + h /2 , y0 + k2 / 2 )
k4 = h * f ( x0 +h , y0 + k3 )
y1 = y0 + ( 1 / 6 ) * ( k1 + 2 * k2 + 2 * k3 + k4 )
Y . append ( y1 )
# print ( ' y ( % 3 . 3f '% xt , ') is % 3 . 3f '% y1 )
x0 = xt
y0 = y1
xt = xt + h
return np . round (Y , 2 )
RungeKutta ( '1 +( y / x ) ' ,1 , 0 .2 ,2 , 2 )

array([2. , 2.62, 3.27, 3.95, 4.66, 5.39])

10.3 Milne’s predictor and corrector method

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x2 + (y/2) at y(1.4).
Given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156, y(1.2)=2.4649, y(1.3)=2.7514. Use corrector formula
thrice.
# Milne 's method to solve first order DE
# Use corrector formula thrice
x0 = 1
y0 = 2

131
y1 = 2 . 2156
y2 = 2 . 4649
y3 = 2 . 7514
h=0.1
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h
def f (x , y ) :
return x ** 2 + ( y / 2 )

y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 is % 3 . 3f '% y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p ) ;
for i in range (1 , 4 ) :
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 ) ;
print ( ' corrected value of y4 after \ t iteration %d is \ t % 3 . 5f \ t '%
(i , y4 ) )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4 ) ;

predicted value of y4 is 3.079

corrected value of y4 after iteration 1 is 3.07940
corrected value of y4 after iteration 2 is 3.07940
corrected value of y4 after iteration 3 is 3.07940

In the next program, function will take all the inputs from the user and display the
answer.
Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x2 + (y/2) at y(1.4).
Given that y(1)=2, y(1.1)=2.2156, y(1.2)=2.4649, y(1.3)=2.7514. Use corrector formula
thrice.
from sympy import *
def Milne (g , x0 ,h , y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 ) :
x , y = symbols ( 'x , y ')
f = lambdify ( [x , y ] ,g )
x1 = x0 + h
x2 = x1 + h
x3 = x2 + h
x4 = x3 + h

y10 = f ( x0 , y0 )
y11 = f ( x1 , y1 )
y12 = f ( x2 , y2 )
y13 = f ( x3 , y3 )
y4p = y0 + ( 4 * h / 3 ) * ( 2 * y11 - y12 + 2 * y13 )
print ( ' predicted value of y4 ' , y4p )
y14 = f ( x4 , y4p )
for i in range (1 , 4 ) :
y4 = y2 + ( h / 3 ) * ( y14 + 4 * y13 + y12 )
print ( ' corrected value of y4 , iteration % d '%i , y4 )

132
 y14 = f ( x4 , y4 )
Milne ( 'x ** 2 + y / 2 ' ,1 , 0 .1 ,2 , 2 . 2156 , 2 . 4649 , 2 . 7514 )

predicted value of y4 3.0792733333333335

corrected value of y4 , iteration 1 3.0793962222222224
corrected value of y4 , iteration 2 3.079398270370371
corrected value of y4 , iteration 3 3.079398304506173

Apply Milne’s predictor and corrector method to solve dy/dx = x − y 2 , y(0)=2 obtain
y(0.8). Take h=0.2. Use Runge-Kutta method to calculate required initial values.
Y = RungeKutta ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 ,0 , 0 . 8 )
print ( 'y values from Runge - Kutta method : ' ,Y )
Milne ( 'x - y ** 2 ' ,0 , 0 .2 , Y [ 0 ] ,Y [ 1 ] ,Y [ 2 ] ,Y [ 3 ] )

y values from Runge -Kutta method: [0. 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.3 ]
predicted value of y4 0.3042133333333334
corrected value of y4 , iteration 1 0.3047636165214815
corrected value of y4 , iteration 2 0.3047412758696499
corrected value of y4 , iteration 3 0.3047421836520892

10.4 Exercise:
1. Find y(0.1) by Runge Kutta method when y ′ = x − y 2 , y(0) = 1.
Ans: y(0.1) = 0.91379

2. Evaluate by Runge Kutta method : y ′ = log(x + y), y(0) = 2 at x = 0(0.2)0.8.

Ans: 2.155, 2.3418, 2.557, 2.801

3. Solve by Milnes method: y ′ = x + y, y(0)=1, h=0.1, Calculate y(0.4) . Calculate

required initial values from Runge Kutta method.
Ans: 1.583649219

133