Chapter 1 Stat

Chapter 1
Introduction to statistics, organizing

and visualizing data
BB113 Statistics and its applications
Textbook: Chapter 1 - 2
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 1
Objectives
In this chapter you learn:
◼ The basic vocabulary of statistics

◼ The types of variable used
◼ The types of sampling methods
◼ Organizing categorical & numerical variables.
◼ Visualizing categorical & numerical variables.

What is statistics
◼ Represent scientific procedures and methods

for collecting, organizing, summarizing,
presenting and analyzing data, drawing valid
conclusions and making reasonable decisions.
◼ The figures that results from statistical analysis

also called ‘statistics’.

Population vs. Sample
• The entire group of individuals
to be studied is called the
population.
• An individual is a person or
object that is a member of the
population being studied.
• A sample is a subset of the

population that is being studied.

Statistics basics
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics consists of methods for organizing

and summarizing information.
Descriptive statistics includes

the construction of graphs,
charts, and tables and the
calculation of various
descriptive measures such as
averages, measures of
variation, and percentiles.

Statistics basics
Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics consists of methods for drawing and

measuring the reliability of conclusions about a population
based on information obtained from a sample of the
population.

Classifying Variables By Type
DCOVA
Categorical or qualitative variables allow for
classification of individuals based on some
attribute or characteristic.
What is your
favorite food
group?

Classifying Variables By Type
DCOVA
▪ Numerical or quantitative variables provide
numerical measures of individuals.
▪ The variables have values that represent a
counted or measured quantity.
▪ Discrete variables arise from a counting process.
▪ Continuous variables arise from a measuring process.

Types of Variables
DCOVA
Variables
Categorical Numerical
Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous

Examples: Examples: Ratings Examples: Examples:
◼ Marital Status ◼ Good, Better, Best ◼ Number of Children ◼ Weight
◼ Political Party ◼ Low, Med, High ◼ Defects per hour ◼ Voltage
◼ Eye Color (Ordered Categories) (Counted items) (Measured
(Defined Categories) characteristics)

Measurement Scales
DCOVA
A nominal scale classifies data into distinct
categories in which no ranking is implied.
Categorical Variables Categories
Do you have a Facebook Yes, No

profile?
Growth, Value, Other
Type of investment
TM Berhad, Celcom, Maxis,
Digi, U Mobile
Cellular Provider

Measurement Scales (con’t.)
DCOVA
An ordinal scale classifies data into distinct
categories in which ranking is implied.
Categorical Variable Ordered Categories
Student class designation 1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year, 4th year
Product satisfaction Very unsatisfied, Fairly unsatisfied,

Neutral, Fairly satisfied, Very
satisfied
Faculty rank Professor, Associate Professor,
Assistant Professor, Instructor
Standard & Poor’s bond ratings AAA, AA, A, BBB, BB, B, CCC, CC,
C, DDD, DD, D
Student Grades A, B, C, D, F

DCOVA
▪ An interval scale is an ordered scale in which the
difference between measurements is a meaningful
quantity but the measurements do not have a true
zero point.
▪ Example:
▪ Temperature (0°C does not mean no heat at all)
▪ IQ scores (0 does not imply no intelligence)

DCOVA
▪ A ratio scale is an ordered scale in which the
difference between the measurements is a
meaningful quantity and the measurements have a
true zero point.
▪ Example:
▪ Height
▪ Weight
▪ Area
▪ Number of phone calls received
▪ Salary

Data collection
◼ Data is collected from either a population or a
sample.
◼ Collecting data via sampling is used when
doing so is
a) Less time consuming than selecting every
item in the population.
b) Less costly than selecting every item in the
population.
c) Less cumbersome and more practical than
analyzing the entire population.

Sources of Data
DCOVA
▪ Primary Sources: The data collector is the one
using the data for analysis:
▪ Data from a political survey.
▪ Data collected from an experiment.
▪ Observed data.
▪ Secondary Sources: The person performing data
analysis is not the data collector:
▪ Analyzing census data.
▪ Examining data from print journals or data published on
the internet.

Parameter or Statistic? DCOVA
◼ A population parameter summarizes the value

of a specific variable for a population.
◼ 𝜇, 𝜎 2
◼ A sample statistic summarizes the value of a

specific variable for sample data.
◼ ത 𝑠2
𝑋,

Parameter or Statistic?
We want to know about these We have these to
work with
Random
selection
sample
population
parameter statistic

Types of Samples DCOVA
Samples
Non Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple Stratified
Random
Judgment Convenience
Systematic Cluster

Types of Samples:
Nonprobability Sample DCOVA
◼ In a nonprobability sample, items included are
chosen without regard to their probability of
occurrence.
◼ In convenience sampling, items are selected
based only on the fact that they are easy,
inexpensive, or convenient to sample.

Types of Samples:
Nonprobability Sample DCOVA
◼ In a judgment sample, you get the opinions

of pre-selected experts in the subject matter.
◼ Use your own judgement to select what
seems like an appropriate sample

Types of Samples:
Probability Sample DCOVA
◼ In a probability sample, items in the

sample are chosen on the basis of known
probabilities.
Probability Samples
Simple
Systematic Stratified Cluster
Random

Probability Sample:
Simple Random Sample DCOVA
◼ Every individual or item from the frame has an

equal chance of being selected.
◼ Selection may be with replacement or without

replacement.
◼ Samples obtained from table of random

numbers or computer random number
generators.

Simple Random Sample
◼ Sampling with replacement

◼ Each time we select an element from the
population, we put it back in the population
before we select the next element.
◼ Thus, the population contains the same
number of items each time a selection is
made.
◼ As a result, we may select the same item
more than once in such a sample.

Simple Random Sample
◼ Sampling without replacement

◼ occurs when the selected element is not
replaced in the population.
◼ Each time we select an item, the size of the
population is reduced by one element.

◼ Thus, we cannot select the same item more
than once in this type of sampling.

◼ Most of the time, samples taken in statistics are
without replacement.

Selecting a Simple Random Sample
Using A Random Number Table DCOVA
Sampling Frame For Portion Of A Random Number Table

Population With 850 49280 88924 35779 00283 81163 07275
11100 02340 12860 74697 96644 89439
Items 09893 23997 20048 49420 88872 08401
Item Name Item #

Bev R. 001
Ulan X. 002
. . The First 5 Items in a simple
. . random sample
. . Item # 492
Item # 808
. . Item # 892 -- does not exist so ignore
Joann P. 849 Item # 435
Item # 779
Paul F. 850
Item # 002

Probability Sample:
Systematic Sample DCOVA
◼ Decide on sample size: n

◼ Divide frame of N individuals into groups of k
individuals: k=N/n
◼ Randomly select one individual from the 1st
group
◼ Select every kth individual thereafter
N = 40 First Group
n=4
k = 10

Probability Sample:
Stratified Sample DCOVA
◼ Divide population into two or more subgroups (called strata) according

to some common characteristic.
◼ A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup, with sample
sizes proportional to strata sizes.
◼ Samples from subgroups are combined into one.
◼ This is a common technique when sampling population of voters,
stratifying across racial or socio-economic lines.
Population
Divided
into 4
strata

Example
◼

Example
◼

Example
◼

Example
◼

Probability Sample
Cluster Sample DCOVA
◼ Population is divided into several “clusters,” each representative of

the population.
◼ A simple random sample of clusters is selected.
◼ All items in the selected clusters can be used, or items can be

chosen from a cluster using another probability sampling technique.
◼ A common application of cluster sampling involves election exit polls,

where certain election districts are selected and sampled.
Population
divided into
16 clusters. Randomly selected
clusters for sample

Probability Sample:
Comparing Sampling Methods
DCOVA
◼ Simple random sample and Systematic sample:
◼ Simple to use.
◼ May not be a good representation of the
population’s underlying characteristics.
◼ Stratified sample:
◼ Ensures representation of individuals across the
entire population.
◼ Cluster sample:
◼ More cost effective.
◼ Less efficient (need larger sample to acquire the
same level of precision).

Organizing and visualizing variables

Organizing Data Creates Both
Tabular And Visual Summaries
DCOVA
◼ Summaries both guide further exploration and
sometimes facilitate decision making.
◼ Visual summaries enable rapid review of larger

amounts of data & show possible significant
patterns.
◼ Often, the Organize and Visualize step in

DCOVA occur concurrently.

Example 1
Weights (kg)
48 70 48 49 49
63 56 56 70 67
53 45 90 65 60
55 45 73 73 70
Weights frequency Frequency histogram for students' weight

7
40 but less than 48
6
48 but less than 56
Frequency 5
56 but less than 64 4
64 but less than 72 3
2
72 but less than 80
1
80 but less than 88
0
88 but less than 96 44 52 60 68 76 84 92
Weight (kg)

Categorical Data Are Organized By
Utilizing Tables
DCOVA
Categorical
Data
Tallying Data
One Two
Categorical Categorical
Variable Variables
Summary Contingency
Table Table

Frequency distribution of
categorical data
◼ A frequency distribution of categorical data is a

listing of the distinct values and their
frequencies.
◼ A frequency distribution provides a table of the

values of the observations and how often they
occurs.

Example 2: Determine a frequency
distribution of these data
Table: Political party affiliations of the students in
Statistics and its Applications
D R O R R R R R D = Democratic
R = Republican
D O R D O O R D
O = Other
D R O D R R O R
D O D D D R O D
O R D R R R R D
Party Tally Frequency

Democratic
Republican
Other

Relative frequency distribution
of categorical data
◼ A relative-frequency distribution of categorical
data is a listing of the distinct values and their
relative frequencies.
◼ A relative-frequency distribution provides a

table of the values of the observations and
(relatively)how often they occurs.
frequency
◼ relative frequency =
number of observations

Example 3: Construct a relative-frequency
distribution of data in Example 2
Party Frequency Relative Frequency

Democratic
Republican
Other

Organizing Categorical Data:
Summary Table
DCOVA
A summary table tallies the frequencies or percentages of
items in a set of categories so that you can see differences
between categories.
Main Reason Young Adults Shop Online
Reason For Shopping Online? Percent
Better Prices 37%
Avoiding holiday crowds or hassles 29%
Convenience 18%
Better selection 13%
Ships directly 3%
Source: Data extracted and adapted from “Main Reason Young Adults Shop Online?”
USA Today, December 5, 2012, p. 1A.

A Contingency Table Helps Organize
Two or More Categorical Variables
DCOVA
◼ Used to study patterns that may exist between
the responses of two or more categorical
variables.
◼ Cross tabulates or tallies jointly the responses

of the categorical variables.
◼ For two variables the tallies for one variable are

located in the rows and the tallies for the
second variable are located in the columns.
Contingency Table - Example
DCOVA
◼ A random sample of 400
invoices is drawn. Contingency Table Showing
Frequency of Invoices Categorized
◼ Each invoice is categorized By Size and The Presence Of Errors
as a small, medium, or large No
amount. Errors Errors Total
◼ Each invoice is also Small 170 20 190

Amount
examined to identify if there
Medium 100 40 140
are any errors. Amount
◼ This data are then organized Large 65 5 70
in the contingency table to Amount
the right. Total 335 65 400

Contingency Table Based On
Percentage Of Overall Total
DCOVA
No
Errors Errors Total 42.50% = 170 / 400
Small 170 20 190 25.00% = 100 / 400
Amount 16.25% = 65 / 400
Medium 100 40 140
Amount No
Large 65 5 70 Errors Errors Total
Amount Small 42.50% 5.00% 47.50%
Total 335 65 400 Amount
Medium 25.00% 10.00% 35.00%
Amount
83.75% of sampled invoices
Large 16.25% 1.25% 17.50%
have no errors and 47.50% Amount
of sampled invoices are for Total 83.75% 16.25% 100.0%
small amounts.
Percentage of Row Totals
DCOVA
No
Small 170 20 190 71.43% = 100 / 140
Amount 92.86% = 65 / 70
Medium 100 40 140
Amount No
Amount Small 89.47% 10.53% 100.0%
Medium 71.43% 28.57% 100.0%
Amount
Medium invoices have a larger
Large 92.86% 7.14% 100.0%
chance (28.57%) of having Amount
errors than small (10.53%) or Total 83.75% 16.25% 100.0%
large (7.14%) invoices.
Percentage Of Column Totals
DCOVA
No
Small 170 20 190 30.77% = 20 / 65
Amount
Medium 100 40 140
Amount No
Amount Small 50.75% 30.77% 47.50%
Medium 29.85% 61.54% 35.00%
Amount
There is a 61.54% chance
Large 19.40% 7.69% 17.50%
that invoices with errors are Amount
of medium size. Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Tables Used For Organizing
Numerical Data
DCOVA
Numerical Data
Ordered Array Frequency Cumulative

Distributions Distributions

Organizing Numerical Data:
Ordered Array DCOVA
▪ An ordered array is a sequence of data, in rank order, from
the smallest value to the largest value.
▪ Shows range (minimum value to maximum value).
▪ May help identify outliers (unusual observations).
Age of Day Students
Surveyed
16 17 17 18 18 18
College
Students 19 19 20 20 21 22
22 25 27 32 38 42
Night Students
18 18 19 19 20 21
23 28 32 33 41 45
Frequency Distribution DCOVA
◼ We first group the observations into classes

(also known as categories or bins) and then
treat the classes as the distinct values of
categorical data.
◼ Most common methods: single-value grouping,

limit grouping, and cutpoint grouping.

Frequency distribution for numerical data
A frequency distribution for numerical data lists

all the classes and the number of values that
belong to each class.
Data presented in the form of a frequency
distribution are called grouped data.

Computing the relative frequency
◼ Frequency in each class divided by the total
observations:
frequency in each class

◼ Relative frequency =
total observations
◼ Relative frequency also knows as proportion.

Single-value grouping
DCOVA
Table: Number of TV sets in each of 50 randomly selected households
1 1 1 2 6 3 3 4 2 4 3 2 1 5 2 1 3 6 2 2 3 1 1 4 3
2 2 2 2 3 0 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 5 1
Number of Relative Table: Frequency and

Tally Frequency
TVs frequency relative-frequency
0 | distributions, using
1 |||| |||| |||| | single-value
grouping, for the
2 |||| |||| ||||
number-of-TVs data
3 |||| |||| ||
4 |||
5 ||
6 ||

Limit grouping DCOVA
◼ Group numerical data using class limits.
◼ Each class consists of a range of values.
◼ Particularly useful when the data are expressed

as whole numbers and there are too many
distinct values to employ single-value grouping.

Limit grouping DCOVA
Terms Used in Limit Grouping

Lower class limit: The smallest value that could go in a class.
Upper class limit: The largest value that could go in a class.
Class width: The difference between the lower limit of a class
and the lower limit of the next-higher class.
Class mark: The average of the two class limits of a class.

Limit grouping – example DCOVA
Table: Days to maturity for 40 short-term investments
70 64 99 55 64 89 87 65 62 38 67 70 60 69 78 39 75 56 71 51
99 68 95 86 57 53 47 50 55 81 80 98 51 36 63 66 85 79 83 70
Use limit grouping, with grouping by 10s, to organize these

data into frequency and relative-frequency distributions.
Min = → 1st class:
Max = → grouping by 10s will results in 7 classes

Limit grouping – example
Table: Frequency and relative-frequency distributions,
using limit grouping, for the days-to-maturity data
Days to Relative
variable Tally Frequency
maturity frequency Relative
30 – 39 ||| 3 0.075 frequency
40 – 49 | 1 0.025 column
3rd class 50 – 59 |||| ||| 8 0.200 Frequency
60 – 69 |||| |||| 10 0.250 column
70 – 79 |||| || 7 0.175
80 – 89 |||| || 7 0.175
90 – 99 |||| 4 0.100
40 1.00
Lower limit of Upper limit of

the 7th class the 7th class
Limit grouping – example
◼ Find the class width.
◼ Find the class mark for class 70 – 79.
Class width = 40 – 30 = 10
70+79
Class mark for class 70 – 79 = = 74.5
2

Cutpoint grouping DCOVA
◼ Group numerical data using class cutpoints.
◼ Each class consists of a range of values.
◼ Particularly useful when the data are continuous

and are expressed with decimals.

Cutpoint grouping DCOVA
Terms Used in Cutpoint Grouping

Lower class cutpoint: The smallest value that could go in a
class.
Upper class cutpoint: The smallest value that could go in the
next-higher class (equivalent to the lower cutpoint of the next-
higher class).
Class width: The difference between the cutpoints of a class.
Class midpoint: The average of the two cutpoints of a class.

Cutpoint grouping – example DCOVA
Table: Weights, in pounds, of 37 males aged 18-24 years
129.2 185.3 218.1 182.5 142.8 155.2 170.0 151.3 187.5 145.6
167.3 161.0 178.7 165.0 172.5 191.1 150.7 187.0 173.7 178.2
161.7 170.1 165.8 214.6 136.7 278.8 175.6 188.7 132.1 158.5
146.4 209.1 175.4 182.0 173.6 149.9 158.6
Use cutpoint grouping, with class width of 20 and a first cutpoint of

120, to organize these data into frequency and relative-frequency
distributions.
1st cutpoint of 120; class width of 20 → 1st class: 120 – under 140
Max = 278.8 lb → last class is 260 – under 280

Cutpoint grouping – example
Table: Frequency and relative-frequency distributions,
using cutpoint grouping, for the weight data
Relative
Weight (lb) Tally Frequency
frequency
120 – under 140 ||| 3 0.081
140 – under 160 |||| |||| 9 0.243
160 – under 180 |||| |||| ||| 14 0.378
180 – under 200 |||| || 7 0.189
200 – under 220 ||| 3 0.081
220 – under 240 0 0.000
240 – under 260 0 0.000
260 – under 280 | 1 0.027
37 0.999
Lower cutpoint Upper cutpoint
of the 8th class of the 8th class
Guidelines for grouping data DCOVA
1. The number of classes should be small

enough to provide an effective summary but
large enough to display the relevant
characteristics of the data. Rule of thumb:
between 5 and 20.
2. Each observation must belong to one, and
only one, class.
3. Whenever feasible, all classes should have
the same width.

◼ To determine the width of a class, you divide the

range (highest value – lowest value) of the data by
the number of class groupings desired.
highest value − lowest value

class width =
number of classes

Frequency Distribution Example
DCOVA
A manufacturer of insulation randomly selects 20

winter days and records the daily high temperature.
24 35 17 21 24 37 26 46 58 30
32 13 12 38 41 43 44 27 53 27
Construct a frequency and relative frequency and
percentage distributions with 5 classes using cutpoint
grouping.

Frequency Distribution Example
▪ Sort raw data in ascending order:
DCOVA
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58.
▪ Find range: 58 - 12 = 46.
▪ Number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 20).
▪ Compute class width: 10 (46/5 then round up).
▪ Determine class cutpoints:
Alternative way of writing:
▪Class 1: 10 – under 20
10 but less than 20
or
▪Class 4: 40 – under 50 10 ≤ 𝑥 < 20
▪ Class 5: 50 – under 60
▪ Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55.
▪ Count observations & assign to classes.
Organizing Numerical Data: Frequency
Distribution Example
DCOVA
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Class Midpoints Frequency
Total

Organizing Numerical Data: Relative &
Percent Frequency Distribution Example
DCOVA
Relative
Class Midpoints Frequency Percentage
frequency
Total
frequency
Relative frequency = ,
total
frequency
Percentage = relative frequency ×100 or = × 100
total

The cumulative distribution
◼ It provides a way of presenting information

about the percentage of values that are less
than a specific amount.

Organizing Numerical Data: Cumulative
Percentage Distribution Example
Cumulative
DCOVA
percentage
Percentage of temperature that are

Class Percentage less than the class lower cutpoint
15 0
30 15% = 0 + 15
25 45% = 15 + 30
20 70% = 15 + 30 + 25
10 90% = 15 + 30 + 25 + 20
0 100% = 15 + 30 + 25 + 20 + 10
Organizing Numerical Data: Cumulative
Percentage Distribution Example
DCOVA
Cumulative percentage distribution of the temperature

Percentage of temperature that are less than
Temperature the indicated value
0
15
45
70
90
100

Why Use a Frequency Distribution?
DCOVA
◼ It condenses the raw data into a more
useful form.
◼ It allows for a quick visual interpretation of
the data.
◼ It enables the determination of the major
characteristics of the data set including
where the data are concentrated /
clustered.

Going From Classes To Excel Bins
DCOVA
◼ Microsoft Excel creates distribution tables using bins
(named by their upper limit) rather than classes.
Class Excel Bin Name

An extra bin
9.99 added in Excel
10 but less than 20 19.99 slightly less than
the smallest
20 but less than 30 29.99 observation
30 but less than 40 39.99

Visualizing Categorical Data
Through Graphical Displays
DCOVA
Categorical
Data
Visualizing Data
Summary Contingency
Table For One Table For Two
Variable Variables
Bar Pareto Side By Side Doughnut

Chart Chart Bar Chart Chart
Pie or
Doughnut Chart

Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Bar Chart
DCOVA
▪ The bar chart visualizes a categorical variable as a series of bars. The
length of each bar represents either the frequency or percentage of
values for each category. Each bar is separated by a space called a gap.
Reason For Percent

Shopping Online?
Better Prices 37%
Avoiding holiday 29%
crowds or hassles
Convenience 18%
Ships directly 3%

The Pie Chart
DCOVA
▪ The pie chart is a circle broken up into slices that represent categories.
The size of each slice of the pie varies according to the percentage in
each category.
Reason For Shopping Percent

Online?
Better Prices 37%
Avoiding holiday crowds or 29%
hassles
Convenience 18%
Ships directly 3%

Side By Side Bar Charts DCOVA
▪ The side by side bar chart represents the data from a contingency table.
No
Errors Errors Total
Invoice Size Split Out By Errors
Small 50.75% 30.77% 47.50% & No Errors
Amount
Medium 29.85% 61.54% 35.00% Errors
Amount
Large 19.40% 7.69% 17.50% No Errors
Amount
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Large Medium Small
Invoices with errors are much more likely to be of

medium size (61.5% vs 30.8% & 7.7%).

Visualizing Numerical Data
By Using Graphical Displays
DCOVA
Numerical Data
Frequency Distributions
Ordered Array and
Cumulative Distributions
Stem-and-Leaf
Histogram Polygon Ogive
Display

Stem-and-Leaf Display
DCOVA
◼ A simple way to see how the data are distributed

and where concentrations of data exist.
METHOD: Separate the sorted data series

into leading digits (the stems) and
the trailing digits (the leaves).

Stem and Leaf Display
DCOVA
A stem-and-leaf display organizes data into groups (called
stems) so that the values within each group (the leaves) branch
out to the right on each row.
Age of College Students
Age of Day Students Day Students Night Students

Surveyed
16 17 17 18 18 18 Stem Leaf Stem Leaf
College
Students 19 19 20 20 21 22
1 67788899 1 8899
22 25 27 32 38 42
Night Students 2 0012257 2 0138
18 18 19 19 20 21 3 28 3 23
23 28 32 33 41 45
4 2 4 15
Key: 2|5 = 25 Key: 1|8 = 18

Visualizing Numerical Data:
The Histogram
DCOVA
▪ A vertical bar chart of the data in a frequency distribution is

called a histogram.
▪ In a histogram there are no gaps between adjacent bars.
▪ The class cutpoints (or class midpoints) are shown on the

horizontal axis.
▪ The vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or

percentage.
▪ The height of the bars represent the frequency, relative

frequency, or percentage.
The Histogram
Class Midpoints Frequency Relative frequency Percentage DCOVA
10 ≤ 𝑥 < 20 15 3 0.15 15
20 ≤ 𝑥 < 30 25 6 0.30 30
30 ≤ 𝑥 < 40 35 5 0.25 25
40 ≤ 𝑥 < 50 45 4 0.20 20
50 ≤ 𝑥 < 60 55 2 0.10 10
20 1.00 100
8
Histogram: Temperature
6
Frequency
(In a percentage
histogram the vertical
axis would be defined to 4
show the percentage of
observations per class).
2
0
5 15 25 35 45 55More

The Polygon
DCOVA
▪ A percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of

each class represent the data in that class and then connecting
the sequence of midpoints at their respective class
percentages.
▪ The cumulative percentage polygon, or ogive, displays the

variable of interest along the X axis, and the cumulative
percentages along the Y axis.
▪ Useful when there are two or more groups to compare.

The Frequency Polygon DCOVA
Useful When Comparing Two or More Groups
Center city Metro area
Meal cost ($) Midpoint frequency frequency
10 ≤ 𝑥 < 20 15 0 1
20 ≤ 𝑥 < 30 25 6 14
30 ≤ 𝑥 < 40 35 5 12
40 ≤ 𝑥 < 50 45 9 10
50 ≤ 𝑥 < 60 55 9 10
60 ≤ 𝑥 < 70 65 10 3
70 ≤ 𝑥 < 80 75 6 0
80 ≤ 𝑥 < 90 85 2 0
90 ≤ 𝑥 < 100 95 3 0
Total 50 50
The Frequency Polygon DCOVA
Frequency Polygons for Meal Cost at Center City and

Metro Area Restaurants
16
14
12 Center city frequency
Frequency
10 Metro area frequency
8
6
4
2
0
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105
Meal cost ($)

The Percentage Polygon DCOVA
Center city Metro area

Meal cost ($)
Relative frequency Percentage Relative frequency Percentage
10 ≤ 𝑥 < 20 0.00 0 0.02 2
20 ≤ 𝑥 < 30 0.12 12 0.28 28
30 ≤ 𝑥 < 40 0.10 10 0.24 24
40 ≤ 𝑥 < 50 0.18 18 0.20 20
50 ≤ 𝑥 < 60 0.18 18 0.20 20
60 ≤ 𝑥 < 70 0.20 20 0.06 6
70 ≤ 𝑥 < 80 0.12 12 0.00 0
80 ≤ 𝑥 < 90 0.04 4 0.00 0
90 ≤ 𝑥 < 100 0.06 6 0.00 0
Total 1.00 100 1.00 100

The Percentage Polygon
DCOVA

Visualizing Numerical Data: The
Cumulative Percentage Polygon (Ogive)
DCOVA
Percentage of Center City Percentage of Metro Area

Meal cost Restaurants Meals that cost Restaurants Meals that cost
($) less than indicated amount less than indicated amount
10 0 0
20 0 2
30 12 30
40 22 54
50 40 74
60 58 94
70 78 100
80 90 100
90 94 100
100 100 100

Visualizing Numerical Data: The
Cumulative Percentage Polygon (Ogive)
DCOVA
𝑌 axis : cumulative percentages

𝑋 axis : lower cutpoint of the class intervals (10, 20, …), approximated
by the upper cutpoint of the previous bins (9.99, 19.99, …)
Visualizing Two Numerical Variables
By Using Graphical Displays
DCOVA
Two Numerical
Variables
Scatter Time-
Plot Series
Plot

Visualizing Two Numerical
Variables: The Scatter Plot
DCOVA
▪ Scatter plots are used for numerical data
consisting of paired observations taken from
two numerical variables.
▪ One variable is measured on the vertical axis
and the other variable is measured on the
horizontal axis.
▪ Scatter plots are used to examine possible
relationships between two numerical variables.

Scatter Plot Example
DCOVA
Volume Cost Cost per day vs. Production Volume

per day per day 250
23 125
200
26 140
29 146
Cost per day
150
33 160
100
38 167
42 170 50
50 188 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
55 195 Volume per day
60 200

In Excel It Is Easy To
Inadvertently Create Distortions
◼ Excel often will create a graph where the

vertical axis does not start at 0.
◼ Excel offers the opportunity to turn simple

charts into 3-D charts and in the process can
create distorted image.
◼ Unusual charts offered as choices by Excel will

most often create distorted images.

Best Practices for Constructing
Visualizations DCOVA
▪ Use the simplest possible visualization.

▪ Include a title & label all axes.
▪ Include a scale for each axis if the chart contains axes.
▪ Begin the scale for a vertical axis at zero & use a
constant scale.
▪ Avoid 3D or “exploded” effects & the use of chart junk.
▪ Use consistent colorings in charts meant to be
compared.
▪ Avoid using uncommon chart types including radar,
surface, bubble, cone, and pyramid charts.

Exercise
Political view Frequency
Liberal 160
Moderate 246
Conservative 94
a) Obtain a relative-frequency distribution. Round

your answer to 3 decimal places.
b) Construct a relative-frequency bar chart on
graph paper.

Chapter 1 Stat

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1 Stat

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1 Stat

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1

Introduction to statistics, organizing

◼ The basic vocabulary of statistics

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 2

◼ Represent scientific procedures and methods

◼ The figures that results from statistical analysis

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 3

• A sample is a subset of the

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 4

Descriptive Statistics consists of methods for organizing

Descriptive statistics includes

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 5

Inferential statistics consists of methods for drawing and

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 6

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 7

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 8

Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 9

Categorical Variables Categories

Do you have a Facebook Yes, No

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 10

Product satisfaction Very unsatisfied, Fairly unsatisfied,

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 11

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 12

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 13

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 14

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 15

◼ A population parameter summarizes the value

◼ A sample statistic summarizes the value of a

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 16

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 17

Non Probability Probability Samples

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 18

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 19

◼ In a judgment sample, you get the opinions

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 20

◼ In a probability sample, items in the

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 21

◼ Every individual or item from the frame has an

◼ Selection may be with replacement or without

◼ Samples obtained from table of random

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 22

◼ Sampling with replacement

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 23

◼ Sampling without replacement

population is reduced by one element.

than once in this type of sampling.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 24

Sampling Frame For Portion Of A Random Number Table

Item Name Item #

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 25

◼ Decide on sample size: n

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 26

◼ Divide population into two or more subgroups (called strata) according

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 27

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 28

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 29

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 30

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 - 31

◼ Population is divided into several “clusters,” each representative of