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Published in:
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
Publication date:
2012
Citation (APA):
Andersen, J. E. T., Burns, D. T., & Hu, P. (2012). Basic mathematics and physics for undergraduate chemistry
students according to the Eurobachelor® curriculum. ABCs of Teaching Analytical Science. Analytical and
Bioanalytical Chemistry, 403(6), 1461-1464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-012-5854-5
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Basic Mathematics and Physics for Undergraduate
Chemistry Students According to the Eurobachelor®
Curriculum
a
Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet building 207, DK-2800
Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
b
School of Chemistry, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast, BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland, UK
1
Introduction
Many subjects of mathematics and physics are relevant to teaching analytical chemistry (AC) but a
few key topics are essential preparing students to the master level [1-4]. Mathematics and physics
are important to understand the operation of advanced apparatus and for the interpretation of data.
The overall aim of introducing 10 ECTS credit points of mathematics and 10 ECTS credit points of
physics in addition to 15 ECTS credit points for AC is to maintain the education in AC at a high
level to benefit science and the progress of AC. The European Association for Chemical and
Molecular Science Division of Analytical Chemistry (EuCheMS-DAC) have suggested a
curriculum for the bachelor degree [4].
As the language of science is mathematics, similarly physics promotes the understanding of basic
mechanisms and chemical interactions. AC requires a multidisciplinary approach to understanding
the art of quantifying chemical species in various mixtures and matrices [2]. Thus, students of
chemistry pursuing competence in AC are faced with numerous topics such as physics, computing,
interfacing, electronics etc. at a relatively high level in order to devise new methods of analysis
using advanced apparatus.
The initial interest in teaching mathematics and physics arose for "self defense" reasons after it
became clear that the students could not cope with statistics of repeated measurements and
propagation of uncertainties. Items such as the Gauss law of propagation of uncertainties and its
application to analytical measurements caused them problems due to lack of knowledge of partial
derivatives. Many students were also often deficient in the physics of classical mechanics and
optics some of which also require familiarity with aspects of geometry.
Discussions with colleagues confirmed similar difficulties in teaching thermodynamics and reaction
kinetics. The items of basic mathematics and physics that chemistry staff regarded as essential for
chemistry students in the first two years of an undergraduate course were prepared. Lists from the
various areas of chemistry had 95% of the items in common. The problem of lack of adequate
background in mathematics was not unique to chemistry students in Belfast, for example, the Royal
2
Society of Chemistry published guidelines, ”Mathematics in Chemistry Degree Courses" [5], two
years later after our first course. The content was remarkably similar to our (Burns & Hu) list, thus a
national consensus existed of what was required as prior knowledge or that needed to be imparted
via remedial/revision teaching.
Given the topics, the problem to be solved was how to produce a logical sequence for the items so
as to avoid giving too much on trust and also too many back tracks to items already dealt with.
Reported here are the content sequences that were found to be effective and indications of when and
how to connect the mathematical items to specific aspects of chemistry (details of which are given
in the supplementary material). The content of each section of the proposed mathematics course
was prepared in detail and the flow of concepts through the various possible sequences of sections
examined. The sequence reported here was chosen by consensus as optimum.
Year I module, "Chemical Computation" (see Fig. 1), started with the section on stoichiometry, for
which simple algebra was a sufficient background, this was included to deal with demonstrable
weakness and/or lack of students’ confidence in basic chemical arithmetic. This was followed by
the basic mathematics section, then by repeated measurements and estimation of uncertainties.
Students were given exercises/problems in stoichiometry, mathematical manipulations, and the
evaluation of analytical data, prior to seminar/discussion classes on each set of topics. The
computing lectures/demonstrations and practice sessions were run in parallel to the mathematical
material and included calculations using spread sheets.
3
flow dynamics, optics and electromagnetism thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics, as
indicated in the supplementary material, Tables 1-5. These topics support the understanding and
operation of modern technical apparatus and interpretation of the data.
Contemporary methods of teaching are encouraged. Lectures, seminars and practical classes should
be balanced and offered in appropriate quantities. Individual challenges, team projects, peer-review
problems, e-learning, problem-based learning and oral presentations will all assist the student
communicating results to wider audiences.
Classical mechanics is needed for understanding statics, motions and interactions (Fig. 2). The
treatment of nature by mathematical tools provides an effective description of reality, but one which
requires much training to understand. Universities are encouraged to support the use of practical
classes, demonstrations and laboratory work that promotes the students insight to the subjects.
Teaching of mechanics offers an excellent opportunity to demonstrate the correspondence between
simple theoretical modelling and experiment. Since chemists often have to model complicated
systems of molecular interactions, it helps to understand their basics in physics, e.g. spheres rolling
on a slope or the properties of a spinning top. Such activities are encouraged despite the increase in
laboratory hours is also accompanied by an increased use of resources. Some of the concepts, such
as angular momentum and moment of inertia, apply directly to understanding of molecular motion.
Despite the obvious links to chemistry, only a limited number of subjects within liquid-flow
dynamics (Fig. 2) are normally taught to chemists. Further, as the fundamentals of liquids are
traditionally contained in chemical thermodynamics in order not to create duplication, a small
number of subjects are attached to physics, e.g. Bernouilli’s equation.
In order to allow insight into the world of electronics, a number of topics including
electromagnetism (Fig. 2) have to be dealt with. The reason for including electronics is to give
students’ skills to mend faulty electronic apparatus at a basic level, such as checking fuses, diodes,
capacitors and transistors. Further, for safety, the measurement of voltages and currents, both very
high and very low, must be taught. Finally, interfacing and automation constitute subjects of
increasing importance to AC where programming skills and software skills are also needed. In
4
parallel to quantum mechanics, electromagnetism is needed to understand the behaviour of
electromagnetic radiation and radioactive decay. Although magnetism is not important to chemical
reactions, it is of paramount importance to NMR spectroscopy [8], an important analytical tool.
Accordingly, topics of spin, magnetism and superconductivity should be available in optional
credits of chemistry.
In thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics (Fig. 2), several topics can with advantage be
shared between the teaching of chemistry and of physics. The concepts of energy, heat and work are
treated similarly with properties of gases as the common points of origin. However, these concepts
may also be used to show the relations between units, which are of great importance to promote the
comprehension of new definitions of the fundamental units.
When teaching chemistry and physics, demonstrations, experiments and practices facilitate many
inherently difficult issues of understanding and give a unique opportunity to make classes
interesting and vivid. Although very demanding on resources, EucheMS-DAC supports application
of contemporary means of learning that facilitates the process of learning. Individual work in a
competitive environment benefits a scientific trial but ‘seasoning’ by work in groups using
pedagogical tools promotes good profiles for future career prospects.
Conclusions
The mathematics section of the course has run with only minor modifications for 18 years. The
lectures are supported by seminars, tutorials, and sets of problems. The items needed for second
year physical chemistry, namely, group theory, vectors, matrix algebra were and are introduced as
needed within the main chemistry syllabus. The mathematics material (lecture text and copy of
slides) have also been used successfully for self-study by individual mature students on ancillary
chemistry courses. The various sections of chemical computation are now not given in a single
block, the section on stoichiometry is now included in laboratory calculations, the statistics section
is incorporated into the second year module, “Instrumental Analysis”. The recommended text
remains that by Scott [9] or Coclett and Doggett [10].
Teaching physics is a rewarding field of science where demonstrations may be used to demonstrate
complicated principles by relatively simple means. The proposed workload of physics may be
5
considered as an absolute minimum, as recommended by DAC. Universities may offer 10 ECTS
compulsory and 10 ECTS elective with a lower number of credits given to exercises [11]. However,
application of physics to the Eurobachelor® curriculum requires teaching by chemists at a more
advanced level including principles of physics demonstrated by means of advanced apparatus.
Although more demanding on resources this also brings back the fun of physics. A total of 10
ECTS credits is suggested for the training of physics at the basic level with the aim however to
ensure the highest level of competence in AC. For students interested in developing their skills of
physics should be offered a platform of elective courses covering 10 ECTS credits. A large amount
of knowledge is required for the student if they intend to participate in the science of analytical
chemistry, which after all is one of the prime objectives of courses given in a university
environment. While the recommendations of mathematics are based on a course run for many years,
the recommendations on physics is built on recent experience and observations on that required for
students’ participation in development of analytical methodology.
Details from other academics approaches to the problems discussed are welcomed these will inform
the basis of future discussions within DAC and other interested parties about further development of
the teaching of analytical chemistry at undergraduate level.
Acknowledgements
Many thanks are due to Reiner Salzer for his encouragement, fruitful discussions and constructive
comments. The initiative of DAC Delegates for promoting the Eurobachelor® Degree is gratefully
acknowledged.
References
[1] http://ectn-assoc.cpe.fr/chemistry-eurolabels/cel/3_ceb01_Introduction.htm
[2] Niessner R, Broekaert JA, Bron M, Einax J, Emons H, Haisch C, Huber C, Jakubowski N,
Knopp D, Popp J, Schaferling M. Analytical Chemistry 2008/2009, Nachrichten aus der Chemie
58:223
6
[4] Salzer R (2009), Master programs in analytical chemistry, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 394:649
[5] R.S.C., "Mathematics in Chemistry Degree Courses", Royal Society of Chemistry, London,
(1996).
[6] Salzer R (2004) Eurocurriculum II for Analytical Chemistry approved by the Division of
Analytical Chemistry of FECS. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 378:28
[7] Salzer R, Mitchell T, Mimero P et al (2005) Analytical chemistry in the European higher
education area. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 381:33
[8] Jiao P, Jia Q, Randel G, Diehl B, Weaver S and Milligan G, Quantitative (1)H-NMR
Spectrometry Method for Quality Control of Aloe vera Products, J. AOAC Int. (2010) 93:842
[9] Scott SK, "Beginning Mathematics for Chemistry", Oxford University Press, Oxford, (1995).
[10] Cockett M, Doggett G, "Maths for Chemists", 2nd edition. Royal Society of Chemistry,
Cambridge (2012).
[11] http://www.kurser.dtu.dk/10020.aspx?menulanguage=en-GB
7
Figure 1. Year I module of mathematics for Chemistry represented by four key areas of effort. The
contact hours (black) and credits (grey) includes exercise, seminars and exams. Workload factor = 3
and one ECTS = 25 contact hour per semester week.
8
Figure 2. The total workload expressed in contact hours (black) and credits (grey) for a 10 point
module (workload factor = 3 and one ECTS = 25 contact hour per semester week) in the bar
diagram expresses the weighting of individual subjects, as recommended by DAC.
9
Supplementary Material
a) Stoichiometry (3 lectures)
Mean, median and mode. Histograms. Gaussian curve of error. Standard deviation
and variance. Probability. Tests of significance, t, F, (Chi)2. Law of propagation of
errors, examples including density, titrimetry, Nernst equation, Beer-Lambert law.
Regression.
10
Lecture 1
Topics in detail
a) aims
d) definition of factorials
b) Explain, with examples, that, a physical quantity = numerical value x unit, and that
the units are manipulated by the rules of simple algebra.
List the 7 SI base units and give their definitions in full and their appoved symbols.
Define some of the derived units e.g. the standard atmosphere, the calorie and the
litre.
Introduce the IUPAC books of units, symbols and nomenclature for physical and for
analytical chemistry.
Note, due to the use of electronic calculators for multiplication and division at school
level many students know little, if anything, about logarithms and their uses.
11
c) Define a logarithm, show their use for multiplication, division and powers, and
how to change their base.
e) Tabulation appears early, to facilitate the practical course. State the basic rule,
when tabulating data and labeling graphs use the quotient of physical quantity and
unit. Give as example logeP vis 1/T, stress that the slope of the graph = -L/R is a
number, i.e. the units of L and R cancel.
Lastly, to illustrate dimensional analysis, evaluate the gas constant R in a variety of units from
R = PV/nT.
Lecture 2
Topics in detail
b) Series
i) why needed
v) logarithmic series
12
a) i) is needed for 3 component phase rule diagrams. The properties of
iii) show that the inverse law follows from the definition of solid
angle for a point source of flux (for electical, magnetic and light flux).
function.
ii) S = 1 + x + x2....., how to sum. Note, students will meet this series later, in the
quantum theory of specific heats.
iii) Definition of ex. Hence the need to explain factorial terminology
This is the only gap in the logic as the student needs to know or
iv) state that the binomial coefficients appear in the patterns seen
in NMR and ESR spectra.
Use of (1+x)n = 1+nx as a useful aproximation, if x is small.
v) deduce the series for loge(1+x) and loge(1-x).
c) Explain that an independent variable is one that can have any value.
and on P.
13
P,T Vm,T
Lecture 3
Topics
Differential Calculus
i) why needed
ii) notations
ii) ∆, δ, d, ∂,
14
dy/dx, y', y*
Hookes Law,
Lecture 4
Topics in detail
Partial Differentiation
In a similar manner to the material in lecture 3. In iii) the main items were Gibb's
eqations and Maxwell's relations.
Lecture 5
Topics in detail
a) Integration
15
b) Partial Fractions
Comment
Lecture 6
Topics
i) Langmiur's isotherm
ii) Kohlrauch's law
iii) Debye equation for molecular dipoles
iv) conductance of a weak electrolyte
v) osmotic pressure of a solution of macromolecules
vi) viscosity of polymer solutions.
16
i) If PV = nRT,
show (∂2P/∂T∂V)V = (∂2P/∂V∂T)T.
ii) If f(P,V,T) = 0,
show (dV/dT)P = - (∂P/∂T)V/(∂P/∂V)T.
The mathematics section of the course has run with only minor modifications for 18
years. The lectures are supported by sets of problems discussed seminars (3) and
small group tutorial (2). The items needed for second year physical chemistry,
namely, group theory, vectors, matrix algebra were and are introduced as needed
within the main syllabus.
The mathematics material (lecture text and overheads/Powerpoint) have also been
used successfully for self-study by individual mature students on ancillary chemistry
courses.
The various sections of chemical computation are not now given in a single block, the
section on stoichiometry is now included in laboratory calculations, the statistics
section incorporated into the second year module, Instrumental Analysis. The
recommended text remains that by Scott.
17
Table 1. Overview of subjects divided in two categories of priority with main focus on modeling
for a 3.6 CP module/30 contact hours in Mechanics of the EurobachelorTM in AC.
• Kinematics • Dynamics
• Work • Stress
• Velocity • Strain
• Accelerations • ....
• Momentum
• Angular momentum
• Moment of inertia
• Kinetic energy
• Potential energy
• Collisions
• Gravitation
18
Table 2. Overview of subjects with main focus on chromatography for a 1.4 CP module/12 contact
hours in liquid-flow dynamics of the EurobachelorTM in AC.
• Ideal liquids
• Pressure
• Viscosity
• Viscous flow
• Diffusion
• Bernoulli’s equation
• Boundary layers
• Hagen-Poiseuille flow
• Surface tension
19
Table 3. Overview of subjects divided in two categories of priority with main focus on detectors for
a 1.9 CP module/16 contact hours in Electromagnetism of the EurobachelorTM in AC.
• Electrostatics • Resistor
• Capacitor • Biot-Savart
• Diamagnetism • Superconductivity
• Paramagnetism • …
20
Table 4. List of subjects with main focus on gases and units for a 0.6 CP module/5 contact hours in
thermodynamics of the EurobachelorTM in AC.
• Work
• Heat
• Energy
• Gases
• Boltzmann statistics
• Fermi-dirac statistics
• Rotational energy
• Vibrational energy
• Temperature
21
Table 5. List of subjects divided into two categories of priority with main focus on spectrometry for
a 2.4 CP module/20 contact hours in Quantum Mechanics of the EurobachelorTM in AC. Some of
the subjects of lower priority are found in basic courses of AC.
• Spin • Scattering
22
23