Vol. IX No.

9 January, 1965

THE JOURNAL
OF GEMMOLOGY
and
PROCEEDINGS OF THE
GEMMOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION
OF GREAT BRITAIN

GEM MOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

OF GREAT BRITAIN
SAINT DUNSTAN'S HOUSE, CAREY LANE
LONDON, E.C.2
 GEMMOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
OF GREAT BRITAIN
( Originally founded in 1908 as the Education
Committee of the National Association of Goldsmiths,
reconstituted in 1931 as the Gemmological Association)
Past Presidents:
Sir Henry Miers, D.Se., M.A., F.R.S.
Sir Willirun Bragg, O.M., K.B.E., F.R.S.
Dr. G. F. Herbert SJDith, C.B.E., M.A., D.Se.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL

President:
Sir Lawrence Bragg, F.R.S.
Vice-President:
Edward H. Kraus, Ph.D., Sc.D.
Chairman:
F. H. Knowles-Brown, F.S.M.C., F.G.A.
Vice-Chairman: N. A. Harper, F.G.A.
Treasurer: F. E. Lawson Clarke, F.G.A.
Elected Fellow$ :
T. Bevis-SD1ith Miss I. Hopkins D. J. Ewing
W. C. BuckinghaD1 R. Webster W. Stern
E. H. Rutland, Ph.D. C. T. Mason, O.B.E., F.R.I.C., M.A.
E. R. Levett J. M. McWilliaD1 (co-opted)
P. W. T. Riley (co-opted)
Examiners:
G. F. Claringbull, B.Sc., Ph.D. B. W. Anderson, B.Sc., F.G.A.
J. R. H. ChisholD1, M.A., F.G.A. A.J. Allnutt, M.Sc., F.G.A.
Instructors: R. K. Mitchell, F.G.A., Mrs. V. Hinton, F.G.A.
Curator: R. Webster, F.G.A.
Librarian: H. Wheeler, F.G.A.
Secretar,), and Director of Examination$ :
G. F. Andrews
Offices:
Saint Dunstan's House, Carey Lane, London, E.C.2
Telephone: MONarch 5D25/26

Affiliated Associations: GeJDJDologieal Association of Australia

Canadian GeJ:DJ:Dological Association
Rhodesian GeJD and Mineral Society
 THE JOURNAL OF
GEMMOLOGY
A N D P R O C E E D I N G S O F THE
GEMMOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
OF G R E A T B R I T A I N

Vol. IX N o . 9 JANUARY 1965

AN UNUSUAL DYED AGATE

By P. C. ZWAAN, Ph.D., F.G.A.

INTRODUCTION

At the beginning of last year I received a letter from

Dr. R. van Tassel, a mineralogist at the Royal Belgian Institute of
Natural Sciences in Brussels, who wrote about a problem for which
he asked my assistance.
An Italian, living in Brussels, h a d requested him to identify a
cabochon-cut agate; in particular he wanted to know whether the
included material, resembling the head of a negro, was of natural
origin.
Although Dr. v a n Tassel could not believe that this inclusion
was natural, he was not able to prove it. H e measured the specific
gravity of the stone (2-58) and made an X-ray reflection diffraction
photograph from which he concluded that the stone was a quartz
(chalcedony). At the edge of the stone he could not find a junction
plane so that, according to him, the stone in question was not a
doublet.
T h e owner of the stone, M r . Fedeli, came to Leiden to show m e
the stone, together with certificates, written in Italian, from the
beginning of this century, on which the inclusion was described as
being natural.
T h o u g h I saw immediately that the inclusion could not be
natural, I was not able to prove this within a short time. Indeed

283
there was no question of the agate being a doublet. T h e stone was
left at my disposal so I got full opportunity to make a close examin-
ation.

FIG. 1. Left: natural moss-agate. Right: agate with "moss" imitation.

FIG. 2. The stone in question.

FIG. 3.
fa
Agates with "moss" imitations, made by B. F. M. Collet.

284
PROPERTIES OF THE STONE

T h e stone has a milky-brown colour and weighs 8-98 carats.

It is a cabochon-cut oval translucent stone and its size is 21-5 x 16-6
x 3-7 millimetres. T h e specific gravity is 2*585, the refractive index
1-538. T h e characteristic agate structure can distinctly be observed.
After studying the inclusion I spoke about the matter with our
draughtsman, Mr. B. F. M . Collet, for it came into my mind that
here was the possibility of "staining".
There were two important arguments which are contradictory
to a natural origin. Firstly the inclusion lies in one plane only
which is never the case in natural moss-agate, for there the "dend-
rites" have expanded in three dimensions (Fig. 1). Moreover the
likeness to a negro-head is too startling (Fig. 2). M r . Collett
affirmed my opinion. T h e dark-brown negro-head has been m a d e
artificially by staining locally for at least four times. This is seen
under the microscope as the different layers do not completely cover
each other. T h e white layers of the agate have, as usual, not
absorbed the dye and are clearly observable in the negro-head.
Probably the stone was repolished after treatment.
T h e inclusion is not found lying on the surface but below.
This means that the dye was made to penetrate before letting it take
effect. Silver nitrate is very suitable for this, as in the dark it simply
penetrates and as soon as it is put in the light, it stains the stone.
However, through the whole stone pigment spots of the dye can be
noticed. U n d e r the microscope they give the stone a speckled
appearance.
In order to trace whether this statement was right, M r . Collet
carried out a few experiments with different "white agates". H e
also stained these stones locally with silver nitrate. T h e results are
shown in Fig. 3.
It became evident, however, that the structure of the agate
has a big influence on the success of this "staining process", and also
the colour. With yellow to yellow-brown coloured stones, as well
as with pearl-grey "agates" he obtained the best results. Stones
with thick white (hard) layers were not suitable.
It is nevertheless obvious that a procedure, as described above,
can lead to the same result as is seen in the stone in question.
Therefore it goes without saying that this stone has been treated
in such a manner.

285
 THE GREAT DIVIDE
By A. E. FARN, F.G.A.

T E S T I N G gemstones always sounds an exciting and interest-

ing business and possibly conjures up visions of scientific
types surrounded by " c o m p l e x " apparatus, occupied with
distinguishing parcels of "erudites" or some such stones.
There are two kinds of gemmology to my mind, commercial
gemmology and gemmology proper. Commercial gemmology is
the one which keeps the other going, whilst gemmology proper
keeps commercial gemmology on the right lines. There is no easy
way for commercial gemmologists to acquire knowledge sufficient
for them to expedite their own gem testing without learning certain
of the gemmologist proper's syllabus. However, it has always been
my impression that somewhere along the line a series of articles
could be produced to illustrate the main requirements of commercial
gemmologists.
In jewellery to-day, the demand for coloured stones has in-
creased and will increase but not for anything or even a little,
"erudite". It is interesting to think back upon the more or less
straightforward names of gemstones such as ruby, sapphire, emerald,
garnet, zircon, spinel, tourmaline, topaz, peridot, jade, diamond,
amethyst, citrine, opal.
All of these latter have been used to a very large extent in
jewellery and to-day, with a more affluent age and teenage demand,
very many more dress rings, brooches, etc., are being sold.
To-day's manufacturers, using casting methods, can produce
rings very cheaply and the accent is upon colour. Because of this
demand for coloured stones it is obvious that synthetics (which are
very pretty stones) will play an increasing part in decorative effect.
Other stones very much in demand are tourmalines, peridots and
garnets, with half pearls (cultured) as cluster variations. These,
to my way of thinking, do not demand too much of a gemmological
knowledge.
Nowhere, to-day, does one see stones in jewellery (modern)
with any of the more recent gemmological named stones in them.
Taafeite is still very scarce and not very decorative, and andalusites,
whilst occurring in batches every now and again, do not seem to
catch on with the public, and benitoite, although very pretty, is
not a sought after stone for jewellery. Even jadeite causes con-

286
fusion—people like their j a d e to be Chinese, not Burmese. Curi-
ously, the Americans like their alexandrites to be Russian.
It is almost certain that stones whose names end in ite do not
make the cash registers ring, let alone finger rings.
And here we come down to basics, the jewellery trade retail,
wholesale, secondhand, manufacturing, stone-sellers, dealers,
mounters, etc., all revolve upon supply and demand, which can
harshly be termed "how m u c h " .
It is the "how m u c h " section which keeps the gemmologists
going commercially and they seldom deal in stones which have a
termination of ite. There are exceptions to this b u t by and large
there does seem to be a great divide between retail jewellery stones
and dilettante gemmologists' stones.
In a like manner I have recently been busy in a more m u n d a n e
fashion on gem-testing for non-gemmologists by encouraging the
use of a lens only and have harped (monotonously) on double
refraction of back facets and lOx lens to such an extent that I
thought of stone testing approaches in terms of D.R. or S.R.
Here again there seemed to be a great divide and for some
time I bemused myself wondering why some were doubly refracting
and some singly refracting.
Taking very ordinary well known gemstomes which are fairly
common I tabulated them and tried to find a reason for the division
of D.R. and S.R. stones but failed, except to note that because of
the orderly structure and close packing of their atoms they imposed
no alteration to the directional properties of light passing through
them, other than normal refraction on passing from a rarer to a
denser medium.
T h e cubics, it would seem, are the squares of the gemmo-
logical world and the others are the deviationists ! T h e isotropics
and anisotropics have good in each camp, as do the trade and
erudite gemmologists. T h e common factor which bridges the
great divide between "commercial" and " p r o p e r " is that they all
must eat.

287
 DICHROISM THROUGH THE MICROSCOPE
by R. S. G. Miles, F.G.A. and]. T. Herring, F.G.A.

The disadvantages encountered in the observation of dichroism

under the microscope by conventional methods, include the facts
that only one of the dichroic colours may be seen at anyone time,
and, that the stage must be revolved for any change of colour or
shade to be seen. Thus the eye must "remember" these changes as
they pass before it. Similarly, the dichroscope, although not
suffering from the above drawbacks, has difficulties of its own,
particularly in relation to the holding and rotation of the specimen,
especially if it is mounted.
A'simple aid which we have devised minimises these problems
by combining the advantages obtained by using the above instru-
ments, while eliminating some of their disadvantages.
We took a piece of ordinary polaroid sheeting and cut from it
two semi-circles, from edges at right-angles to each other (Diagram
1), so that, when fitted together to form a circle, their respective

DIAGRAM I (polaroid sheet,....in~g)_---r" y-_--,

Semi-circles cut from edges

with Vibration Directions

I I
at right-angles

DIAGRAM 3

Lens

metal discs
nIAGRAM2
Semi-circles of polaroid
forming circle.(directions
of polarisation at right-
angles). circle of polaroid

microscope tube

Lens ---1F~~~~~

288
directions of polarization were also at right-angles to each other
(Diagram 2). These were then carefully placed within the tube
of a microscope eyepiece (secured between two metal rings) in such
a manner that the circle they formed was orientated centrally
within the tube and parallel with the eyepiece lenses (Diagram 3).
T h e eyepiece was replaced, polarizer and analyser removed, and the
microscope focused with a coloured stone upon the stage. Since
each semi-circle of polaroid was orientated with its vibration
directions perpendicular to the other, and there was a variation in
the colours seen in the two semi-circles, we knew that this difference
in colours must be due to differential selective absorption of light,
and, therefore, the stone must be dichroic. W h e n the stage (or
eyepeice) was rotated through 360°, dichroism was seen to vary
from a m a x i m u m to a minimum (nil) quantity, four times during the
rotation, the dichroic colours alternating in each semicircle,
through consecutive variations.
T h e advantages of this device are : ( 1 ) T h e stone can be rested
in a dish or on a slide, and rotated with ease, thus eliminating the
fixing or holding necessary when using the dichroscope. (2) Weaker
dichroism can be observed because the dichroic colours can be
observed side by side, thus eliminating the necessity for the eye to
" r e m e m b e r " the colour changes. This is not possible with ordinary
microscope methods.
W h e n using this method, it must of course be remembered that
if no dichroism is evident at first glance, (A) the stage may need to be
rotated to a position which will show m a x i m u m dichroism, or
(B) it may be necessary to re-orientate the stone in order to avoid an
optic axis.
It will be apparent that an eyepiece fitted with this device
cannot be used in the microscope in conjunction with polariser and
analyser. We, in fact, used a spare eyepiece, which we have
retained for this purpose.

289
 Gemmological Notes
GREEN BERYLS
Among recently tested stones were some fine green beryls
which looked like emerald of good medium quality. They were
green when viewed through the Chelsea filter, had a density of
2' 72 and were inert between crossed filters. They showed no
trace of chromium in their absorption spectrum. They were fairly
clear stones but, immersed in monobromonaphthalene, revealed
thm layers of phenakite ( ?) crystals. T h e refractive indices were
1-588 to 1-594. T h e owner said they were from a new mine in
Brazil but would not vouchsafe its actual location. Later, from
another source, two hexagonal broken green crystals were sub-
mitted for testing. After a flat had been put on the crystals their
refractive indices were found to vary from 1-587-1-593 to 1-585-
1-592. T h e S.G. was 2-72 and inclusions were observed of a similar
nature to those of the cut stones. They were green when viewed
through the Chelsea filter and when viewed under the mineralight
and Burton L a m p . These stones are a pleasing green, have natural
inclusions, give beryl readings, and remembering that Transvaal
emeralds look drab through the filter and have refractive indices of
similar nature, they could be dangerous where a little knowledge of
gemmology exists.
A.F.

*jC î|C ^C ï|£

N O T IN D A N A
A report m a d e in the Summer 1964 issue of the American
journal Gems and Gemology mentions an unsual product of an amateur
lapidary who had produced "gemstones" by polishing the hardened
paint drippings from the painting room of one of the major auto-
mobile manufacturers.
This note recalls to mind that during the Gemmological
Association's meeting of November 1956, one member, who had
connexions with the paint industry, exhibited such a paint specimen
which had been polished as an "agate slice".

290
 T h e witty caption read: " A unique specimen of a foliated
concretion occurring in later geological period, differing from
most by forming on the vertical surfaces of carboniferous or, in some
cases, organic matrix. Notable for its fine range of colouring
considered as accidental and allochromatic. T h e essential com-
position of the basic material varies within comparatively narrow
limits. Not yet listed in Dana's Textbook of Mineralogy".
R.W.

* * * *

JADE AND N O T JADE

Recent oriental motif carvings, looking very much like deep
green Bowenite and having very misleading patches or flaking in
their structure and yielding rather readily to a carefully applied
needle point hardness test, have proved to be nephrite.
Although bulky it is possible to do a specific gravity test by
means of spring balance, bucket of water and thread suspension.
T h e bulk will average out crudities of the balance. A useful figure
of 2*9 to 3-00 was obtained for the carvings tested.
Similarly, green-coloured carvings sold as " j a d e " or "new
j a d e " have been found to be bowenite. Jewellers should be on
their guard when offered "new j a d e " .
A.F.

291
 Gemmological Abstracts

LIDDIGOAT (R. T.). Developments in the synthetic emerald field. Gems

and Gemology, 1964, X I , 5, pp. 131-138.
A general discussion on the new French synthetic emerald.
This agrees in substance with the descriptions given by other wor-
kers. T h e second part describes, for the first time, a new departure
in the Lechleitner synthetic emerald-coated beryl. This new stone
consists of alternate layers of synthetic emerald and white beryl.
T h e layers of synthetic emerald show the same characteristic inclu-
sions as are seen in the C h a t h a m synthetic emerald. T h e refractive
indices differ for the two different types of layers, being 1-560-1-563
for the synthetic emerald layers and 1-564-1-569 for those of beryl.
T h e density—the average for two specimens—was found to be
2-678. T h e polariscope showed both the overgrowth and the beryl
body; and the layers in the new type gave single crystal reactions.
T h e synthetic emerald layers showed a mosaic pattern of inter-
ference colours, and this was also true of the French synthetic
emerald. T h e luminescence of the Lechleitner stones was found
to be crimson and it was noted that the effect was stronger under the
long-wave ultra-violet lamp. T h e layered stones are a better
emerald colour than the original synthetic emerald-coated beryls.
R.W.

GÜBELIN (p.. J.)- Two new synthetic emeralds. Gems and Gemology,
1964, X I , 5, p p . 139-148. Repeated in Australian Gem-
mologist (with different illustrations), 1964, 38, pp. 5-11.
A survey of the German Zerfass and the French Gilson syn-
thetic emeralds. Both types showed characteristic inclusions
which are similar in essentials with the American synthetic emeralds.
T h e low density of these new synthetic emeralds, about 2-66, is
again similar to that found with the C h a t h a m synthetic emeralds.
T h e Zerfass synthetic emeralds are reported by the author, to have
R . I . 1-558-1-562, with a birefringence of 0-003. This is normal for
synthetic emeralds of American, French and early G e r m a n syn-
theses, but disagrees with the measurements reported by K. Schloss-

292
mâcher, who gave 0*006 as the double refraction of Zerfass syn-
thetic emerald. T h e behaviour under crossed filters and under
ultra-violet light is discussed. T h e article states that the glow
under ultra-volet l g h t given by the French synthetic emerald is
olive green; other workers state that there is a yellow glow shown
by this stone. T h e article includes a comparison table and a short
list of references.
R.W.

CROWNINGSHIELD (R.). Developments and highlights at the Gem Trade

Lab. in New York. Gems and Gemology, 1963/4, X I , 4,
pp. 99-106.
Describes and explains the multi-drill holes often seen in the
beads of cultured pearls when radiographed. These extra drill
holes are said to be used to direct bleach on to the conchiolin layer
in order to whiten the pearls. Notes are given on an unusual star-
effect seen in amethyst, wax-treated amazonite beads, and the
alteration in colour in turquoise by the action of cosmetics. Notes
on inclusions in a Mexican topaz, and in an alexandrite cat's-eye
are given. T h e Mohs's scale hardness given for synthetic spinel is
questioned. A synthetic fluoride (?) boule is described.
R.W.

LIDDICOAT (R. T.). Developments and highlights at the Gem Trade Lab.
in Los Angeles. Gems and Gemology, 1963/4, X I , 4, p p . 114-
121; 1964, X I , 5, pp. 149-156.
Describes a number of interesting articles submitted to the
Los Angeles laboratory, among which were a transparent labra-
dorite feldspar, blue-dyed plastic-coated marble beads, an early
type of synthetic star-sapphire and a synthetic scheelite. Comments
are made on a number of diamonds submitted. These included a
note on the effects of heat on the surface of diamonds, twinning in
a pink diamond, a cyclotroned diamond, an unusual spectrum in a
brown diamond, and how an estimation of the weight of a damaged
diamond before and after recutting may be m a d e . A synthetic
bromellite (beryllium oxide), a star-labradorite, and a coated glass
intaglio were other specimens mentioned.
R.W.

293
GÜBELIN (E. J . ) . Black treated opals. Gems and Gemology.
1964, X I , 5, pp. 157-159.
Describes an examination of the treated black opals and some
notions as to how such stones may be detected.
R.W.

D R A P E R (T.). A new source of emeralds in Brazil. Gems and

Gemology, 1963/4, X I , 4, pp. 111-113 and 124-125.
A cattle herder named Abel knew of green pebbles found on the
Fazenda Sao Thiago, near Salininha, Municipality of Pilao Arcado,
in the State of Bahia. I n 1950 he tried to find out what they were,
but it was not until 1962 that any attempt was made to mine the
stones. T h e locality may be the one Coutinho discovered in 1612,
but he died without revealing the source. It is an entertaining
article in which the author describes the country and the back-
ground stories of the finding and exploitation. Other sources of
emerald in Brazil are also mentioned.
R.W.

OSTWALD ( J.). On the microstractions and origin of emerald. Australian

Gemmologist, 1964, 35, pp. 7-10.
Reasons are suggested to account for the formation of emerald
in both mica schist and in calcite. Notes on the emerald-bearing
locality at Poona, near Cue, in Western Australia are given, and on
the emeralds which are found there. T h e inclusions in these stones
are said to be andradite garnet, staurolite and spots of a black
material, with two types of liquid inclusions. Correlation between
the orientation of the inclusions and the mica schist mother-rock
was experimentally shown by the author. Some reasons are
deduced for the chromium present in the emeralds from the calcite
veins in S. America.
R.W.

GORTON (V.). Fossicking for sapphires. Australian Gemmologist,

1964, 37, pp. 5-8.
An interesting article describing the hunting for sapphires by
visitors to the Anakie fields. There is a description of a screen and
how to make one. Full details of construction are given.
R.W.

294
STEVENS (D.). The Opal—Queen of Gems. P. & O . Lines quarterly
"Posh". Reprinted in Lapidary Journal, 1964, 18, 8, p. 882.
A short article noteworthy for the magnificent coloured photo-
graphs of J e a n n e G. M . Martin, of the Gemological Institute of
America. S.P.

POUGH (F. H . ) . Topaz. Lapidary J o u r n a l 1964, 18, 8, p. 868.

An interesting article, containing information not usually
encountered in text books. S.P.

BASTOS (F. M . ) . The Topaz Mines ofOuro Préto. Lapidary J o u r n a l

1964, 18, 8, p. 918.
O u r o Préto, in the state of Minas Gérais, is virtually the only
production district for yellow and yellowish-red topaz. S.P.

SCHLOSSMACHER (K.). Der Gang einer Edelsteinuntersuchung.

Gem testing. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Gesell, f. Edelsteinkunde,
1964, 48, pp. 27-32.
This article was first published in the Diebener's Goldschmiede-
j a h r b u c h 1964 (Diebener's Goldsmiths' Almanack for 1964) and
gives a general survey of gem testing, explaining the basic gem-
mological instruments, their use and application.
E.S

THEISEN (V.). Die G r u p p e des Epidots. The epidote group.

Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Gesell, f. Edelsteinkunde, 1964, 48,
pp. 24-27.
T h e name epidotes derives from the Greek "epidotos", meaning
added, because to the basis of the prism an edge has been elongated,
i.e. added. T h e other common name is "pistacite", from the green
pistacio colour. T h e chemical composition is Ca2(Al O H )
A ^ S i O ^ . If there is less calcium but more magnesium or iron,
the variety is either piemontite or zoisite. Without aluminium, but
with instead either iron, manganese, cerium or yttrium, the resulting
mineral is called allanite. Piemontite is manganese—containing
epidote. There are other combinations, such as orthite and
clino-zoisite. Epidote is monoclinic, with hardness 6-5, spec,
gravity 3-25-3-50. T h e mineral is mainly green, but other colours
are found as well. A table shows R.I., varying from 1-716-1-78,

295
with the double refraction varying from 0-005-0-039. T h e most
beautiful specimens are found in the Untersulzbachtal in the Tyrol.
There are also occurrences in Norway, Bohemia, Saxony, France,
Italy, Switzerland. Zoisite is found with rubies in Tanganyika,
allanite in Sweden, Greenland, Canada and California.
E.S.

BANK (H.). Smaragdvorkommen in Südrhodesien. Emerald occur-

rences in Southern Rhodesia. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Gesell, f.
Edelsteinkunde, 1964, 48, pp. 14-21.
Details of occurrences, with three maps of the district. T h e history,
geology and geography of the finds are discussed. There is a
bibliography, and chemical composition, physical data and details
of inclusions are given. T h e most important finds are at
Sandawana, Filabusi, Novello and Chikwanda.
E.S.

BURKART (W.). Z u m Schleifen und Polieren von Elfenbein.

Cutting and polishing of ivory. Deutsche Goldschmiedezeitung,
1964, 62, 9, p p . 765-766.
It is suggested that ivory should be polished with Italian
pumice powder, if possible of the grain size 3-0, mixed with water.
T o obtain a better polish it is advised first to use the grain size 3-0,
and then the finer grain size 5-0, both m a d e into a paste with water.
For the last polish one uses a wax, but care has to be taken that no
metallic oxides are included in these waxes; especially Fe2Û3 and
C ^ C ^ must be avoided. T h e last polishing wax must be used dry.
E.S.

E P P L E R (W. F.). Ungewöhnliche Kristall-Einschlüsse im Aqua-

marine. Unusual crystal inclusions in aquamarine. Deutsche Gold-
schmiedezeitung, 1964, 62, 9, pp. 769-770. 7 photomicro-
graphs.
In the Deutsche Goldschmiedezeitung, 1960, 12, pp. 736-738
the author considered an inclusion in a Brazilian aquamarine to be
apatite. It was pointed out that the inclusion was "mica-like" and
consequently the aquamarine was cut so as to examine the inclusion
more thoroughly. It was then found to be biotite, that is a mag-
nesium-iron mica. T h e presence of these minerals in a q u a m a r i n e

296
is rare but not surprising as both are pegmatite minerals. I n the
course of these examinations it was also found that on rare occasions
garnet is found in aquamarines, most probably pyrope.
E.S.

FISCHER (W.). Facettiert oder gemuggelt? Facets or cabochons?

Deutsche Goldschmiedezeitung, 1964, 62, 9, pp. 781-782.
Short explanation as to when to apply faceting and when to
fashion a stone in cabochon style. An article for the apprentice.
E.S.

PARSONS (C. J . ) . Practical Gem Knowledge for the Amateur. Lapidary

Journal, 1964, 18, 7, p. 750.
T h e first of a series written to assist in the acquisition of funda-
mental knowledge about gems tones. There will be four main
sections—descriptive, determinative and historical knowledge, and
gemstone nomenclature. In the first article condemnation of the
use of incorrect names is not emphatic enough.
S.P.

POUGH (F. H . ) . Rare Faceting Materials. Lapidary Journal, 1964,

18, 7, p. 730.
T h e beginning of a series on silicates. This follows an extensive
series, in the same Journal, which has dealt with the faceting of
phosphates, borates, carbonates, sulphates and oxides.
S.P.

THURM (R.). Spektrographische Studien a m Amethyst. Spectro-

graphic studies of amethyst. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Gesell, f.
Edelsteinkunde, 1964, 48, pp. 34-37.
Detailed spectrographic examination of amethyst showed
strong lines for silica, aluminium, chromium and copper. T h e
copper content was metallographically determined as 0-03%.
Weak traces were found of magnesium and titanium, but hardly
any of iron, while the amethyst-coloured synthetic corundum has a
ruby spectrum, as it is coloured by the addition of TiC>2, Fe2Û3,
Cr203.
E.S.

297
BÖLSGHE (R.). Das Schicksal der Habachtal Smaragde. The fate
of the Habach valley emeralds. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Gesell, f.
Edelsteinkunde, 1964, 48, pp. 32-34.
There is a constant theft of emeralds from the district. This is
not due to serious mineralogical students or collectors, but to
"poachers". T h e owner is now offering students a free holiday in
return for guarding the sites.
E.S.

GUEBELIN (E.). Absorptionspektren von Edelsteinen. Absorption

spectra of gems. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Gesell, f. Edelsteinkunde,
1964, 49, pp. 14-20.
Tables of the latest figures for the absorption spectra of gems,
incorporating the results published by B. W. Anderson. T h e gems
are grouped as follows: A. Zircon, B. gems coloured with C ^ C ^ :
pyrope, ruby, red spinel, pink topaz, alexandrite, chrome diopside,
chrome enstatite, demantoid, disthene, euclase, hiddenite, jadeite,
emerald, C. gems coloured v/ith iron: almandine, aquamarine,
axinite, chrysoberyl, diopside, cyanite, enstatite, epidote, hyper-
sthene, idocrase, iolite, kornerupine, green obsidian, olivine, ortho-
clase, sapphire, sinhalite, blue and violet spinel, yellow spodumene,
green tourmaline, vesuvianite, D. absorption spectra caused by
manganese: hessonite, rhodochrosite, rhodonite, spessartite, red
tourmaline, E. absorption spectra caused by other ions: blue
apatite, azurite, sphalerite, Chrysoprase, dioptase, yellow fluorite,
taaffeite, willemite, Zn-spinel, F. absorption spectra caused by the
actual structure of the gem: yellow and brown diamond. G.
absorption spectra of rare earth: andalusite, apatite, danburite,
didymium glass, green fluorite, idocrase, calcite, sphene. H . the
spectra of 14 synthetic stones are listed under this heading, 9 spinels,
3 corundums, one emerald, and one rutile. I. This deals with 6
different types of glasses. K. green-coloured chalcedony, green-
coloured j a d e and artificially coloured yellow, green and pink
diamonds.
E.S.

BANK (H.). Imitationen von Smaragdkristallen. Imitations of

emerald crystals. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Gesell, f. Edelsteinkunde,
1964, 49, pp. 20-23.
Most articles deal only with cut and polished synthetic or im-
itation emeralds. T h e author relates a case where rough crystals

298
were imported from Colombia. Some of these crystals were from
Muzo, some from Chivor and some from Barbur. There was also a
small lot which was said to come from a new find, the mine of Vega
de San J u a n de Gachala, or Gachala in short. This mine was
discovered in 1954 and is about 9 km away from Chivor. T h e
Gachala lot consisted of 11 stones weighing 37-24 cts. At a first
glance these crystals seemed real enough, even having traces of
the matrix. T h e crystallography, however, gave rise to some
suspicion, and it was found that these crystals were in fact glass.
T h e R . I . varied from 1-51 to 1-64, no double refraction and no di-
chroism were found.
E.S.

THEISEN (V.). Der wiedergefundene Witteisbacher Diamant.

The Witteisbach diamond found again. Zeitschr. d. deutsch.
Gesell, f. Edelsteinkunde, 1964, 49, pp. 40-42.
This historic blue diamond weighs 35-5 cts and was first
mentioned about 300 years ago, when it was part of the wedding
ornament of Margare ta of Spain and Emperor Leopold of Austria.
In the year 1722, by the wedding of Maria Amalia to Karl Albrecht
of Bavaria, the diamond came into the possession of the house of
Wittelsbach, and from then on it kept that name. In the year 1931
a Wittelsbach tried to sell the diamond in London, but the offer was
too low, and nothing more was heard of it till 1961, when it was
bought by some Antwerp diamond merchants who recognised it.
E.S.
CROWNINGSHIELD (R.). Developments and highlights of the Gem Trade
Lab. in New York. Gems and Gemology. 1964, 6, X I ,
pp. 180-184.
Jewellery set with synthetic emerald overgrowths on beryl have
been submitted for examination. Green-dyed chalcedony and
chrysoprase-coloured opal are noted. Stained jadeite which had
not faded and plastic-coated and dyed jadeite are mentioned. T w o
bytownites, diamond doublets, stained marble beads, dumortierite
quartz and a fine green enstatite are some of the stones examined in
this laboratory. A hololith ring, probably of magnesite, a magne-
tite in tiger's-eye, clam pearls, and the alteration of colour in a
jadeite after steam-cleaning are discussed. A tumbled " a g a t e "
consisting of a mass of paint drippings is mentioned.
3 illus. R.W.

299
LiDDiGOAT (R. T.). Development and Highlights at the Gem Trade lab.
in Los Angeles. Gems and Gemology. 1964, 6, X I , pp. 185-
189.
Items submitted to this laboratory included an emerald in
which a flaw indicated staining but was proved to have the higher
colour due to reflection from deeper coloured parts of the stone.
Also seen was an emerald with a large three-phase inclusion—a
long multi-strand pearl rope, an opal doublet and swirl lines in
aquamarine. Some notes on diamonds are given.
9 Mus. R.W.

M I L E S (R. R . ) . Coated diamonds. Gems and Gemology, 1964,

6, X I , pp. 163-168.
Further notes on the "colour correction" of diamonds by
coating the back facets with a suitable film—a treatment more
extensively carried out in America than in Europe. T h e points
suggested to be looked for are—an unclassifiable colour when colour
grading by colorimeter is carried out and that despite the coatings'
resistance to chemical attack they are not necessarily resistant to
abrasion. T h e results given by examination with phase-microscopy
are discussed and techniques for the best viewing of the bluish
streaks and the metallic lustre of the coatings are given.
8 Mus. R.W.

E P P L E R (W. F.). Polysynthetic twinning in synthetic corundum. Gems

and Gemology, 1964, 6, X I , p p . 196-174 and 191.
T h e existence of polysynthetic twinning in synthetic corundum
is ably discussed. Reference to the Landmeier/Plato effect is made.
This shows a lozenge-shaped pattern running parallel to the first
order prism. There is another kind, much like that seen in natural
corundum, which lies parallel to the faces of the primitive rhombo-
hedron. Some suggestions are m a d e to account for these, and a
warning is given that "twin-planes" cannot be a wholly reliable
sign for natural corundum.
8 Mus. R.W.

ANTON (B.). The pink pearls of Pakistan. Gems and Gemology.

1964, 6, X I , p p . 175-179 and 191.
Pink pearls have been found in nine districts of East Pakistan.
They have been known since the Mogul period of Indo-Pakistan

300
history. T h e producing molluscs are Lamelliden perreysia a n d
Lamelliden jenkinsianus, a n d they are fished by gypsies a n d nomad
fishermen. A number of these pearls, mounted in jewellery, were
on display at the Pakistan pavilion at the New York World's Fair.
There is much information of a local nature b u t little scientific
description of the pearls.
13 illus. R.W.

BOOK REVIEWS
LIDDIGOAT (R.) and COPELAND (L.). The Jeweler's Manual.
Gemological Inst. America. 1964. ($4.95).
This book has its ancestry in R. M . Shipley's Jeweler's Pocket
Book, first published in 1947. T h e present work has a new format
and differs in scope and purpose from the original work It is a useful
handbook, mainly for the N . American jewellery trade, with m u c h
information for new entrants to the trade. I n the gemmological
sec don the term "semi-precious" receives further condemnation a n d
recommended names for the more important gemstones coincide
with those of the Gemmological Association of Great Britain,with
two minor exceptions. I n the U . K . the term "cinnamon stone" is
no longer used for describing hessonite garnet a n d almandite garnet
is not a n acceptable alternative for almandine garnet. T h e ple-
thora of trade names used in the U.S.A. for synthetic stones is
formidable, a n d the m a n u a l sensibly sets out how each should be
described. I n the chapter on diamonds there is a useful section
on the grading and evaluation of diamonds.
S.P.

WEBSTER (R.). The Gemmologists' Compendium. N.A.G. Press L t d . ,

1964. 25s.
A revised edition of a standard work first published in 1938 as
The Gemmologists' Pocket Compendium. T h e compendium includes
information about m a n y of the newer gem materials feshioned as
gemstones a n d it is an extremely valuable book of reference for all
interested in gemstones.
S.P.

301
SiNKANKAS (J.). Mineralogy for amateurs. D. V a n Nostrand, 1964.
97s. ($12.50).
This is another classic from the pen of Captain Sinkankas.
T h e subject is thoroughly discussed, from atomic structure, physical
properties, optical properties, the formation and association of
minerals to identification procedures and tests. 250 minerals are
well described, and the book has 136 photographs and 191 line
drawings prepared by the author. A useful feature in the des-
criptive part of the book is the derivations of mineral names and
their current pronunciation.
S.P.

CAVENAGO-BIGNAMI. (S.). Gemmologia. Holpli, Milan, 1965 (2nd

edition). Lire 30,000.
An extensively revised and augmented edition of the most
impressive book on gemmology yet published. M a n y illustrations,
both in colour and black and white, have been added, and the text
has been revised to take account of developments in gemmology
since the first edition was published in 1959. T h e quality of the
colour illustrations is excellent. T h e nomenclature has been tidied,
though some misnomers still remain. T h e book has had impressive
sales in Italy. It is a desirable book for the many colour plates and
illustrations alone. O n e wishes for an English edition, but un-
fortunately there seems little likelihood of this.
S.P.

WHEATLEY (W.). Isaac le Gooch, the King's Jeweller and Benefactor.

Hammersmith History Group, 1964. 10s. 6d.
M r . Wheatley's small booklet is the result of a painstaking
quest into the life of a Court Jeweller whose charitable bequests
included gifts to the Dutch Church of London and the Latymer
Foundation of Hammersmith. Isaac le Gooch was jeweller to
King Charles I I . H e was born in Antwerp and came to England
in 1656.
S.P.

302
M E T Z (R.). Precious stones and other crystals. Thames & Hudson,
London, 1964. £8 8s. Od.
I have never seen colour photographs reproduced better
than the eighty-nine which illustrate Dr. Rudolf Metz's book.
It is difficult to know who deserves the most praise, M r . Arnold E.
Franck who photographed these remarkable specimens from the
museums and private collections of Europe, or Messrs. Thames and
Hudson, the publishers responsible for their reproduction. All
one can say is that the blockmaking and the printing are worthy of
a set of truly magnificent photographs. It is indeed hard to believe
as one leafs over the pages that these are illustrations to a text book.
But then this is a curious textbook, lavish and splendid and pleasant,
discursive, its author ranging about the world of crystallography
like a traveller in a strange and fascinating city. H e pauses for a
moment to consider lustre and colour, and then goes on to delve
into the question of specific gravity and then gives us a few para-
graphs on the formation of minerals. H e ends u p by drifting back
into the past and into mythology, tracing the history of gem cutting,
and then, perhaps inevitably quoting Plimy the Elder, who set
down the belief that amethyst "is not only safeguard against
drunkenness if one writes the name of the moon or the sun on it and
hangs it round one's neck with baboon's hair or swallow's feathers,
it protects one against sorcery, is helpful to those who have to deal
with kings, and wards off hail and locusts". As M r . Georg O.
Wild, the well known Idar-Oberstein stone dealer and collector,
says in his introduction: "Rudolf Metz, who is a mineralogist and
geologist, has very lucidly and with scientific thoroughness set down
the data which will give us a fuller understanding of the structure
and origin of minerals". And perhaps for once the writer of a
preface might have gone further in praise of his author, for besides
being lucid and learned, Dr. Metz is also a gracious and an enter-
taining writer.
K.B.

LEIPER (H.). Gem-cutting shop helps. Lapidary J o u r n a l , Calif,

U.S.A. 1964. $3.95.
This book, compiled with the assistance of Pansy D. Kraus,
consists of valuable aids to the gem-cutter that have appeared in the
Lapidary J o u r n a l over the past seventeen years. In some instances

303
there is duplication and the authors have wisely not m a d e any
eliminations, as different approaches to the same problem add to
the interest of the book. This selection of broadly written articles
should encourage the beginner to probe more deeply into his craft
or hobby.
S.P.

ANDERSON (B. W . ) . Gem Testing. Hey wood (Temple Press Books

Ltd.). Seventh Edition. London. 1964. 377 pages. O n e
coloured plate 123 black and white illus. 60s.
It would not be expected that a book which had already passed
through six editions would require m u c h in the way of a review.
This cannot be said about the seventh edition of Anderson's " G e m
Testing", for the volume has been enlarged by some fifty more
pages and m u c h new material has been added.
I n general the book follows the arrangement of the earlier
editions, except that two new chapters have been included. T h e
introduction has been partially re-written and there follows a
completely new chapter on "Collecting, handling and housing
gemstones", in which the use of the loupe and tongs are described
and the way to make a stone paper is told in words and pictures.
T h e chapters on refraction, colour and density have been
increased by the inclusions of notes on R. K. Mitchell's modification
of the Becke line examination and a new section on dispersion. A
very practical method for obtaining the density of large specimens
by the use of a camera tripod and a spring balance is explained.
T h e addition of notes on the new French and German synthetic
emeralds, and on the Lechleitner emerald-coated beryl brings the
chapter on synthetic stones up-to-date. In the chapters on the
individual species (or varieties) much more information is given on
the artificial coloration of gem diamonds. Scheelite and zinc
blende are added as diamond simulants. T h e rubies from the new
sources in Tanganyika are mentioned.
T h e chapter on zircon has been re-written and much more
information is given of the characters of this stone. Small additions
are m a d e to other chapters in order to bring them up-to-date.
T h e beautifully written chapter on pearl is completed with a new
section on non-nucleated cultured pearls. T h e author, who has a
great interest in the subject, has embellished the chapter on lum-

304
inescence with much new material on diamond fluorescence.
The inclusion of notes on "electron volts"; "frequency";
"laser" and "maser"; "micron" and "millimicron" are timely.
The determinative tables have been increased to take in a fuller
range of gem materials. A list of recommended reading is given
and the book concludes with a very full index.
There is very little that can be criticized in this work, but the
reviewer does take exception to the implication (on page 106) that
acetylene is used in place of hydrogen in the furnace used to make
synthetic rutile. This notion apparently came from a report on the
initial experiments carried out by the scientists of the National
Lead Company who used an oxy-acetylene torch, not necessarily with
acetylene, in their first experiment. (Journ. Gemmology, pp.
131-140. No. 4. Vol. II. October 1949). The author will
agree, I think, that to-day a three-cone Verneuil type furnace is
used. It is perhaps a pity that references to the crystal systems
were not amended to the seven systems as now agreed in the
Gemmological Association's examination syllabus—and the author
is an examiner to that body. The older spellings "disk" and
"conchyolin" make quaint reading but may tend to confuse a
young reader as no other book on gem materials seems to use these
spellings.
The type is clear and printed on a better quality paper than
used for the earlier editions. The colour plate is excellently
chosen and printed and does much to illustrate the text on crossed
filter technique.
R.W.

Êegriffe und Bezeichnungen für Edelsteine, Schmucksteine, Perlen, Korallen

sowie Synthesen, Dubletten, Imitationen und Phantasieerzeugnisse.
RAL 560 A5. (Definitions and nomenclature of gemstones,
ornamental stones, pearls, corals, as well as synthetics, doublets,
imitations and fancy products). German Bureau of Standards,
1963, 5th edition.
This being the 5th edition of the German Nomenclature, only
the amendments and additions create interest. And they are both
interesting and disturbing.
The preface boldly claims that this work is based not only on
the BIBOA nomenclature of 1935 but also on the American Federal

305
T r a d e Commissions Rulings of 1957 and the British Nomenclature
of 1961.
Most surprising is the statement that a letter of full agreement
dated the 12th J u n e , 1962, has been received from the president of
the International Confederation of Jewelry, Silverware, Diamonds,
Pearls and Stones (CIBJO), in which organization the following
countries are represented: Austria, Belgium, Denmark France,
Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland and
Western Germany.
T h e work is further backed up by 31 Western Germany trade
organizations and by the Centre International de Promotion de la
Qualité, in Paris, and has been lately joined by the Instituut tot
Voorlichting bij Huishoudelijke Arbeid, which seems to be an
organization promoting good cooking recipes for Dutch housewives.
No wonder that this so universally accepted nomenclature is
published also in French and Italian. An English translation
is in preparation, it is stated, but the G e r m a n text shall prevail
(Massgebend ist allein der deutsche Wortlaut).
T h e new edition contains three divisions, viz., definitions and
trade rules; a table of permissible trade names; an alphabetical list
(a small dictionary) accredited to a well-known professor. T h e
first part is reasonable. It repeats the rule that all stone names
must conform with the scientific names; it is not permitted to apply
the same name for two different species; the naming of a stone
must exclude the possibility of the stone being classed under a
different mineralogical category.
A curious paragraph, also inherited from the former edition
(but not from BIBOA etc.), recommends the qualification of gem-
stones by adding such words as " n a t u r a l " , "precious", or "noble",
althpugh it is also stated that a stone shall always be understood as
genuine when it is not preceded or followed by any qualifying words.
T o ascertain the purity of diamonds, the lOx lens is recom-
mended. It is gratifying that this rule is accepted by the C I B J O ,
since they have adopted, some time ago, a resolution to the effect
that the loupe used should enlarge not more than 10 times. (No
m i n i m u m was stated).
H o w does the willing spirit of these trade rules permeate the
second and third part of the work ?
New names have been inserted in the table. O n e is rhodo-
crosite (sic), for no obvious reason spelt incorrectly. Another new

306
name is the alternative for the German zinkspat, viz., smithsonite, but
this is repeatedly spelt "smithonit", although the species in question
is named after J a m e s Smithson, the founder of the famous Smith-
sonian Institution in Washington. An alternative n a m e for
cordierite is now given as iolite, unfortunately spelt "jolith" in the
table, despite the fact that the name is derived from the Greek word
ion, which bears the accent over the letter i and not over the o.
Another addition is the n a m e cairngorm, persistently spelt "cairn-
gorn".
Conjured up afresh is the most unlucky name " t o p a z " for
various varieties of quartz. This misnomer did not exist in any of
the previous editions. But the 5th edition states, in a footnote
under "permissible trade names", that in commerce citrine is often
called goldtopas, madeira topas, palmeiratopas (sic), or bahiatopas.
And in the same table, "smoky topaz" is now confirmed as a per-
missible denomination for smoky quartz.
T h e misuse of the name topaz is in sharp contrast to the rules
in the first part, and there can be no doubt that it has been inserted
on purpose. For this reason it appears rather audacious to claim,
as does the preface, that this new edition is based on American and
British nomenclatures.
After this disheartening discovery it is tempting to look into
part 3 to see what the professor writes about topaz. H e states
" T o p a z = citrine. False name for natural citrine (yellow crystal)
or burned amethyst. Vide also precious topaz".
So we learn that topaz is both equivalent to citrine and a false
n a m e for citrine. It is not stated that a topaz is a topaz which, in
fact, is the only thing it can be. There is a reference to precious
topaz, and under this caption we are told that precious topaz is the
same as topaz ! And since we already know the learned meaning of
the word topaz, we find it meaningless to stay in this merry-go-
round, which cannot possibly be the work of the esteemed professor.
As a final word "opalisieren" (opalescence) is used for the girasol
effect seen in some fire opals, as well as for the play of colours in
precious opal.
F.J.

307
 TWO TRICKY ITEMS
by G. V. Axon, F.G.A.

T h e pleasure one gets from "guessing" an identification and

then " proving" it to be correct is always to be offset by the tendency
to read the various gem instruments incorrectly with the guess
uppermost in mind. T w o stones recently gave the author a rather
sharp lesson.
T h e first stone, about half-a-carat, was bright green, and with
"horse-tail" inclusions. T h e stone appeared pink with red flashes
under the ordinary colour filter, and even in ordinary light without
the filter appeared to give off red flashes. T h e second stone, of
some 22 carats, was quite a lively brown.
T h e first "guess" was demantoid garnet. T h e stone turned
out to be chrome sphene. T h e second "guess" was heat-treated
amethyst. T h e stone was golden calci te. Neither chrome sphene
nor golden calcite is seen frequently, the former because it is still
rather rare, and the latter because it is so difficult to cut and so
fragile.
Here were two very good examples of tricky looks. Of course,
closer examination would have revealed that the "horse-tail" in
chrome sphene did not appear to radiate, and that the doubling of
the black facets in the calcite was apparent. T h e same would no
doubt apply to a small clean chrome sphene examined under a lens.
Both stones were extremely tricky items, to say the least, for
the "horse-tail" inclusion of demantoid has practically become its
most important single identification, yet here was a stone with very
similar inclusions and almost identical in appearance. T h u s
"horse-tail" inclusions will have to be watched rather more closely
now.
As for golden calcite, so few specimens are to be seen that few
jewellers will ever encounter them. Even so, heat-treated amethyst
is by now almost recognisable at sight—at least I thought it was,
but after the shock of receiving a golden calcite and finding what
appeared to be a heat-treated amethyst, I have again learned the
importance of never taking anything for granted, and of always
making at least two tests, exluding the first "informed guess".

308
 SCHILLER AND PSEUDOCHROMATISM IN
MINERALS AND GEMSTONES
By J. OSTWALD, B.Sc., F.G.A.A., A.M.Aus. I.M.M., F.G.S.

A S indicated by its title this short paper is simply an attempt to

define two phenomena found in a variety of minerals,
some of which have minor importance as gemstones. The
author feels the necessity of such a definition as a variety of terms
have been used in this connexion, some not too happily, while a
number of explanations as to the origin of the phenomena do not
seem to fit the observed facts. In the following pages the nature
and origin of schiller inclusions and pseudochromatism are studied
with particular reference to the pyroxenes and feldspars.
The following terms and definitions may be found in the text
books in any geological library. In each case the authority for the
definition is given.

Schiller
1. A bronze-like lustre or iridescence due to internal reflection in
minerals which have undergone schillerization. (Fay)
2. A type of mineral structure which is manifested by a play of
colour. (Herbert-Smith)
3. A bronze-like lustre in definite crystal directions. (Groth)
4. A nearly metallic lustre. (Rutley)
5. A lovely blue sheen. (Herbert-Smith)
6. A term (from the German) applied to the peculiar lustre, some-
times nearly metallic observed in definite directions in certain
minerals. (Dana's Text Book)
7. Minute plates of iron oxides systematically distributed through
individual crystal. (Wahlstrom)
[NOTE 1. The definitions of Dana (6) and Groth (3) are to be preferred.]

Schillerization
1. The development, along certain planes in a mineral of minute
inclusions which reflect light simultaneously and so give use to
the appearance known as "schiller''. (Holmes)
2. The charging of a mineral with definitely oriented inclusions.
(Rosenbusch)

309
3. A deep-seated metamorphic process resulting in the presence
of inclusions of a secondary origin. (Teall)
4. T h e development along certain planes within the crystal of
tabular, bacillar or stellar enclosures which, reflecting light
falling on them at certain angles, give rise to the peculiar
phenomenon known by the name "schiller". (Judd)

Perthite
1. An intergrowth of potassium and sodium feldspar, probably
crystallized as a result of exsolution. (Challinor)
2. As first described, a flesh-red aventurine feldspar from Perth,
Ontario, called a soda orthoclase, but shown by Gerhard to
consist of interlaminated orthoclase and albite. (Dana's Text
Book)
(NOTE. Herbert-Smith, though he does not use the term just defined, says that
the optical effects seen in moonstone result from thin layers of orthoclase and
albite.)
[NOTE 2. Though many aventurine feldspars are perthitic this does not imply
that the aventurine reflection results from the perthite layering. It seems likely
that in this case exsolved plates may most easily be orientated at the junctions of
potash and soda rich layers.]

Chatoyancy
T h e property of having a lustre resembling that of the eye of the
cat at night. (Dana's Text Book).

Play of colours
A terni used to describe the appearance of several prismatic
colours in rapid succession on turning the mineral. (Dana's
Text Book)
(NOTE. Rutley speaks of play of colour in relation to diamond. There can be no
excuse for such loose terminology, when the correct term, dispersion, is so well
known.)

Change of colours
An expression used when each particular colour appears to
pervade a larger space than in the play of colours and the
succession is less rapid, e.g. labradorite. (Dana's Text Book)

310
Iridescence
T h e exhibition of prismatic colours in the interior or on the
surface of a mineral. (Dana's Text Book)
A display of prismatic colours due to the interference of rays of
light in minute fissures which wall in thin films of air or liquid.
(Rutley)
(1) This latter "definition" seems to be totally inconsistent if we take it that
"prismatic colours" are those which are produced by a prism.
(2) Herbert-Smith terms the labradorite colours iridescence colours and states that
they are due to its lamellar nature, the results of repeated twinning.

Pseudochroma tism
T h e property of being pseudo-chromatic, that is to say, the
colour they show is not a true colour but rather a play of
colour produced by certain physical effects e.g. precious opal,
labradorite. (Berry and Mason)

Schiller plates
Tiny platy inclusions arranged in varying sets of parallel
planes. (Read and Watson)

Aventmine structure
Having the appearance of a glass containing gold coloured
inclusions. (A.G.I. Glossary)
(Bauer relates the "improbable" story that the artificial aventurine glass of Venice
was produced by accident (par aventure) when copper fillings were dropped into a
vat of molten glass. The art was lost until 1827 when Bibaglia, a glassmaker,
rediscovered it.)

Microplakite structure
Inclusions of small rectangular plates of a brownish colour,
strongly pleochroic, generally parallel to the base of hypersthene
crystals. (Johannsen)
(The term "schiller" was probably first used in 1819 by K. von Raumer, as a term
(from the German, schillern, "to vary in colour") to describe the peculiar
optical reflection seen in "schillerfels" (hypersthene)).

From the above list, which is not exhaustive, one may see the
wide range in terminology and definition used. It will also be

311
 seen, however, that we are dealing with two types of phenomena.
These are as follows:—

1. Reflection phenomena
This occurs when a more or less transparent silicate has
orientated inclusions of a platy nature arranged in certain
crystal planes. If these inclusions have metallic lustre it is
reasonable to assume that the mineral will have a metallic
lustre in certain directions and its normal appearance in others.
This is "schiller".

2. Interference—Diffraction—Scattering phenomena
According to the wave theory many colourful phenomena
may be explained by assuming that colours are removed from
white light on reflection by destructive interference of waves, as
in the case of thin films, while coloured spectra may be pro-
duced by reflection off striated surfaces (diffraction gratings).
Tyndall scattering may also produce a blue and a red colour
in some cases.

In the former case the colours are subtractive, as may be seen

with a simple spectroscope, whilst in the latter they are pure spectral
colours. This phenomenon is here called "pseudo-chromatism".
It is this which occurs in precious opal and perhaps occurs in
labradorite. It is also interesting to note that whilst the colours of
opal were generally assumed to be subtractive colours due to inter-
ference, the term "play of colours" was generally used in this rela-
tion, though D a n a had stated that this term referred to "prismatic
colours".
Figs. 1 to 4 are sketches of typical examples of the phenomena
discussed above.

The origin of "schiller structuré"

T h e changing metalloid lustre seen at certain orientations in
the minerals of the enstatite-hypersthene group was first studied
in the late 18th century. T h e name "schillerspar" was used by
J . C. H . Heyer in 1786, in Crell's Annalen, to designate the mineral
we call bastite, a decayed and altered ortho-pyroxene. Bronzite,
a name applied to schillered enstatite dates from 1807. T h e first
extensive studies in the nature of the inclusions were those of

312
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Trippke (1878) and Kosmann (1869). These authors found t h a t

among the more easily identifiable inclusions of magnetite, apatite
and zircon in hypersthene there were commonly developed "tabular
microlithic interpositions", lying in three different directions, with
their plane faces parallel to the principal cleavage face (010).
These plates are generally rhombic or irregular, and appear in
thin section as thin opaque strips or even points in all sections which
are not parallel to the plane of the most perfect cleavage. In
colour they range from dark brown and opaque, through shades of
red, brown and yellow, to almost colourless. In reflected light the
thicker opaque plates have a metallic habit, while even the trans-
parent ones are sub-metallic. Generally the elongation of these
plates is parallel to the " C " crystal axis. Both Trippke and
Kosmann thought them to be of secondary origin, and found that
in diallage they were isotropic in nature. From this they deduced
them to be opaline.
T h e extensive researches of J . W. J u d d stemmed from an
investigation in 1885 on the peridotites of Scotland. In these
basic rocks, which he believed to have formed at considerable depth

313
and under great pressure, he found the crystals of feldspar and
ferromagnesians to be "shot through" with minute rods and plates
of a more or less definite form. As an example, the feldspar of the
Cuchullin Hills, Skye, was full of minute black rods and plates
often occurring in layers in five planes, those of the pinacoids and
prisms, producing the labradorite play of colours. T h e pyroxenes,
both monoclinic and orthorhombic showed similar orientated
inclusions. J u d d regarded the inclusions as amorphous in nature,
being composed of hydrated oxides, such as opal, hyalite and
limonite. H e further decided that these inclusions were of second-
ary origin, the result of a deep-seated metamorphic process which
he termed "schillerization".
In his paper of 1886 J u d d proposed a theory of schillerization
based on five postulates. These are as follows:
1. If a crystal is subjected to intense strain, planes of easy solution
arise parallel to the directions along which the strain is exerted
and as a result certain cavities filled with liquids or solids, the
products of the solvent action, will be formed along such planes.
2. In every crystal, in addition to the cleavage planes and the
glide planes, J u d d postulated the existence of a third set of
structural planes along which chemical action occurred most
readily. These planes of chemical weakness had a definite
crystal orientation.
3. U n d e r great pressure solvents act in these planes of chemical
weakness to produce cavities, or negative crystals. These
often become filled with decomposition products. At any one
depth the plane of greatest chemical weakness is attacked first.
4. There appears to be a definite relation between the planes of
cleavage, gliding and chemical susceptibility.
In proof of this hypothesis J u d d put forward the following
observations :
1. In faulted pebbles from the Old R e d Sandstone from the
Highlands, cavities filled with liquid and secondary solids were
found in planes parallel to the faulted surface. These cavities
were produced by solvent action in directions of strain.
2. Since their discovery by Daniell in 1816, etch figures on crystal
faces have received much study. But it was not until 1884
that Von Ebner of Gratz discovered the presence of the solution
planes (Lösungsflächen). Mainly studying calcite and ara-
gonite Von Ebner was able to show that certain planes exist in

314
 these crystals in which chemical action takes place most easily.
3. According to Mugge there is evidence to show that cleavage
planes and glide planes are mutually interchangeable. In
actual experiment it was found that cavities developed under
pressure in twinning planes just as in natural cleavage planes.
4. In m a n y plagioclases the minute black enclosures are parallel
to the albite and pericline twinning planes.
5. In certain feldspar crystals from a gabbro at Humlebak Scharf,
Norway, albite twin lamellae and layers of inclusions may be
seen under the microscope in those parts of the crystal which
have suffered most deformation.
Thus, briefly, J u d d believed that "schiller structures", com-
monly seen in pyroxenes, feldspars and olivines were structures
characteristic of deep-seated rocks and were produced as secondary
phenomena by pressure. In this theory he is followed by A. G.
MacGregor (1931) who, however, regarded them as a result of
regional metamorphism. In favour of the theory is the fact that
the labradorite and hypersthene from the great Archaeozoic
"shield" of the Labrador area of C a n a d a both show orientated
inclusions, as though they were developed as a result of strain
(or regional metamorphism). If, on the other hand, the inclusions
are primary, it seems rather a coincidence that two "classic"
examples of the phenomenon should occur side by side.
It would be wrong, however, to assume J u d d ' s theory is the
only one which can explain the lineation of micro-inclusions in
feldspars and pyroxenes. I n fact most modern petrologists believe
these textures are the result of unmixing in solid solutions. During
certain conditions of cooling these solid solutions unmix, producing
in minerals special exsolution textures. T h e moonstone structure
is certainly produced by this phenomenon. Kozu and Suzuki have
shown in this case that the x-ray pattern of this gemstone indicates
the presence of two space lattices at room temperature (one ortho-
clase, the other albite), and this is no doubt the result of unmixing
during slow cooling of an original homogeneous potash-soda
feldspar. In the case of enstatite-hypersthene (and perhaps
plagioclase) unmixing may produce schiller structures. Perhaps
the relationship between schiller structures and deep-seated origin
may then not be due to the ideas J u d d put forward, but rather to
the results of slow cooling which occurs in these bodies; rapid
cooling would prevent unmixing.

315
 This concept of solid solution in minerals was discovered early
in the 19th Century, soon after the development of accurate
methods of chemical analysis. Minerals were found, not to be
constant in chemical nature but rather, they were variable within
certain limits. Minerals were then looked upon as mixed crystals,
as though a single perfect crystal could contain molecules of two or
more substances. W e now know, however, that there are no
molecules in ionic crystals, only an ordered pattern (or lattice)
running through the whole crystal, with atoms of various elements
situated in various parts of the lattice. T h e whole structure might
be m a d e up mainly of atoms A and B, but here and there atoms X
take the place of an A, and Y takes the place of B. Mason illustrates
the concept with the idea of a bricklayer who, when he runs short
of red bricks for a wall, incorporates a yellow brick here and there.
But the yellow bricks must fit the red bricks and must be of the same
size, or double the size or three times and so on. Certain definite
conditions govern the atomic replacement. These may be found
in textbooks such as Goldschmidt's "Geochemistry" or Winkler's
"Structure und Eigenschaften der Kristalle".

Identification of " Schiller" inclusions

Within the last two decades a powerful x-ray technique has
been applied to the identification of orientated inclusions in
minerals resulting from exsolution, alteration or partial inversion.
This method uses oscillation photographs i.e. the crystal under
study is made to rotate slowly around an edge (say, the C axis) and
the x-ray reflections are recorded on a cylindrical film whose axis
coincides with the rotation axis of the crystal. In the pyroxenes
studied by this method, by Bown and Gay in 1959, the crystal was
m a d e to oscillate in two 15° ranges, across the normals to (100)
and (010). These experimenters m a d e use of a general principle
called by them " t h e intergrowth symmetry principle", to determine
the nature of the orientated intergrowth. Basically, this means
that orientated crystallites give spots on the photograph governed
by the host symmetry, not by their own symmetry or orientation.
Now if a similar photograph is taken of a " p u r e " pyroxene and the
two photos compared, certain spots will be seen on the first photo-
graph which are due to the inclusions.
T h e problem is one of (a) identification and (b) orientation of
inclusions. If the inclusion is also a pyroxene it may be identified

316
by matching similar photos of pure substance spots and "inclusion"
spots as to position and relative intensity. For example, augite
lamellae in schillered hyperthene could be identified by comparing
the inclusion spots with the spots of pure augite. The orientation
of the lamellae would be the same as the orientation of the "pure"
augite crystal. More difficult identifications and orientation
studies may involve the use of powder photographs.
Some of the combinations studied by Bown and Gay included:
(1) Augte + (001) Pigeonite lamellae; (2) Augite + (100) Hyper-
sthene lamellae; (3) Pigeonite + (001) Augite lamellae; (4) Hyper-
sthene + (100) Augite lamellae; (5) Hypersthene + (100) Magnetite
lamellae; (6) Hypersthene + Ilmeni te + Hematite lamellae; (7)
Augite + (100) and (001) Magnetite lamellae.
Some of these no doubt include the common schillered hyper-
sthenes, bronzite, etc. Fig. 5 (a, b, c), shows the orientation of
inclusions in cases 1, 2, and 4 above.

Yo.Yp

(a) (a)

(c)

Zo'

317
 The aventurines
Apart from the coloured glass, the term "aventurine" is usually
applied to varieties of two minerals, quartz and feldspar. Only
the latter shows a true schiller. This is essentially a potash feldspar
containing orientated exsolved plates of a reddish coppery mineral,
which is usually thought to be hematite, though O. Anderson
discovered an aventurine labradorite from Modoc County, Cali-
fornia, in which the inclusions were metallic copper. T h e main
deposits of aventurine feldspar are in Norway, near Lake Baikal,
U.S.S.R; near Archangel; and in U.S.A.
Aventurine quartz is essentially a translucent granular quartz
containing scattered glistening spangles of silvery, reddish and
green micaceous minerals (the green from India containing fuchsite)
without definite orientation. Owing to its hardness this is more
suitable than the feldspar for cutting but it is inferior to feldspar in
beauty.
A "schillered" quartz from M a n h a t t a n Island, described by
Scott, appears to be quartz containing thin films. T h e term
"schiller" is used incorrectly.

Conclusions on schiller
T h e phenomenon of schiller arises from the development,
either by exsolution or secondary alteration, of orientated lamellae,
which have a definite relation to certain crystal structural planes.
If these lamellae are metallic in lustre, then the host mineral shows
a brilliant metallic reflection in certain orientations. This is true
schiller, resulting from simple reflection. If on the other hand the
lamellae are transparent it is possible that interference effects may
be produced, though in this case the phenomenon is not a schiller
as defined above.

Pseudochromatism
This term is used by Berry and Mason as equivalent to the
term "play of colour" of the older writers. In this section only the
pseudochromatism of labradorite will be discussed at any length, as
the writer feels that the results of modern studies on precious opal
are too well known to be described here.

318
Labradorite
T h e mineral now known to us as labradorite was discovered in
1770 by Moravian missionaries, who found it in use by the Esqui-
m a u x of the Labrador coast. T h e first specimens reached Europe
in 1775, some specimens consisting of pure labradorite with its
beautiful deep blue play of colour, while others were slabs of an
igneous rock containing, as well as labradorite, crystals of hyper-
sthene, with a beautiful coppery red "schiller". T h e rock, a norite,
occurs on the Isle of St. Paul and along the adjacent mainland.
Soon afterwards, in 1781, similar labradorite was discovered,
as boulders, at Peterhof, near St. Petersburg, in Russia. Here
the boulders showed the characteristic blue colour, but weaker
than that of the Labrador material. Near Kiev it occurs again
in situ in a gabbro, along with diallage. Here single crystals of
labradorite measure up to five inches, though most are smaller.
M a n y other localities occur in Russia.
About 1825 specimens were discovered in Finland, near the
iron mines of Abo. Here the material tends to be transparent and
colourless, with beautiful colours, often in concentric zones about
a dark nucleus. T h e United States of America has a number of
important localities, in New York State, and in Pennsylvania,
Arkansas and North Carolina. Bauer, in his "Precious Stones",
states that some fine material had come on the market from Bris-
bane, Australia. No such material was known to the writer, who
was a student of geology in that town, though some large boulders
of " a u g e n " gneiss containing labradorite in the Botanic Gardens,
reputedly brought from South America (?) as ballast in the days of
sail may have provided the material.
Incidentally, as would be expected, Bauer gives an excellent
account of the material and its play of colour. H e notes the general
opaque nature of the mineral, its ash gray colour and the magnifi-
cent display of colours at one particular orientation. In this
position it shows metallic sheen and the colour together. As
Bauer states: " T h e r e is no art by which a reproduction or an imita-
tion of it in any way comparable to the original may be produced".
H e likens the colour to that seen on the wings of certain South
American butterflies, to the blue of Morpho cypris and M . Achilles
and the green of Apatura seraphina. Also, although he does not
pretend to have m a d e a detailed scientific study of the cause of the
play of colours, he notes particularly that the colours may be

319
produced in more than one way, the yellows and greens in one way,
the characteristic blues in another. This fact will be referred to
later.
T h e first scientific study was m a d e by Von Hessel in 1827.
With the aid of a two-circle goniometer he discovered the following
facts : ( 1 ) T h e play of colours occurs at only certain definite orienta-
tions. (2) T h e reflection of coloured light came from certain
definite planes. H e attributed the play of colours to reflections
from inner cleavage planes. In 1829 Brewster stated that: (1) T h e
reflecting plane m a d e an angle of 10°52' with the cleavage face P.
(2) T h e colour of the transmitted light is complementary to the
reflected. His theory was that the colour was produced by reflect-
ion from an infinite number of planes.
In the same year Nordenskiold, after studying the Finnish
material noted that the colours are sometimes concentric and the
reflecting plane may be a cleavage plane. H e further postulated
that the atoms of transparent crystals can be arranged for the
refraction of light in different ways.
Senff, also in 1829 (a great year for the study of labradorite)
discovered that in Finnish labradorite the colour was visible when
the crystal was turned 22°30' from the plane of the (010) cleavage.
In 1830 Bonsdorff postulated a reflection from layers of silica
in the material. Reusch in 1863 imagined the colour was due to
reflection from minute cleavages.
Far more important was the work of Vogelsang in 1868
This experimenter divided the colour into 2 classes :
Class A, T h e common blue colour which he thought was a
polarization phenomenon due to its lamellae structure.
Class B. T h e golden reddish "schiller" with the rarer yellow
and green, due to the presence of black acicular microlites and
yellowish red microscopic lamellae.
Anderson, writing in the "American J o u r n a l of Science",
describes the play of blue and green colours as a "glaukisiren" and
makes the very important statement that the colours are probably
due to light scattering by submicroscopic inclusions.
Rayleigh in 1923 made some interesting observations on the
subject. His conclusions were:
1. T h e colour of the mineral results from reflections of two types.
2. T h e first reflection is specular, from micro-inclusions in the

320
 cleavage plane (perhaps (010) though crystal notation is not
used in this paper). This is a blue or sometimes a yellow
reflection. (A thin plate colour.)
3. T h e beautiful colours of the "play of colours" occur as a diffuse
reflection from a plane about 15° from the above cleavage.
4. T h e nature of the particles which make u p this diffuse plane is
not easy to determine, though they are parallel sided, irregular
in outline approximately 0-005 m m in dimension and dis-
tributed at random in depth. (Also variable in thickness.)
5. T h e bright colours are probably the result of interference of
streams of light from the two surfaces of each " p a t c h " .
6. T h e brightness of the colour is explained by a large number of
reflecting "patches" adding their effects, without definite
phase relations, such as would give use to regular interference.
In 1924 Boggild studied both labradorite and peristerite. His
boservations included :
1. Play of colour only occurs in plagioclases of composition
92.5-85.5 AL and 49-38 AL.
2. Peristerite has only one plane of reflection of coloured light.
3. Labradorite has 3 planes of reflection of coloured light.
4. In all cases the coloured material is either twinned or laminated.
5. In peristerite the reflecting plane is between (0.8.1) and
(1.21.2).
However, Boggild notes that gedrite from Avisiarfik, in Greenland,
also shows colours reflected from the (010) plane, without any
visible twinning or lamenations.
Parsons, in 1930, put forward a list of points which he thought
to be of prime importance in the study of the play of colours :
1. Iridescent colour in crystals is reflected from definite crystal-
lographic planes.
2. In most cases the material that has been examined was twinned.
3. T h e colours are interference colours of the first and second
order.
4. T h e colours of the iridescent light is complementary to that of
the transmitted light at a given angle of incidence.
5. T h e coloured light is not plane polarized.
6. T h e atoms of crystals can be so arranged that light will be
refracted in different ways.

321
 7. T h e colours of plagioclase are shown only by those of certain
chemical composition.
Statement 6 in the list is considered most important by Parsons,
who concludes that the colours are produced by optical interference
from large numbers of atomic structural planes which make angles
of 23°15' ± 1 ° with the (010) face. Yet further on in his article he
states that the particular tint of colour seen is determined by the
thickness of the twinning lamellae, variation in colour (in concentric
zones) being due to bending of the twinning layers. So the paper
seems to oscillate between attributing the colour to twinning lamel-
lae and certain structural atomic planes.
T h e most recent investigation of the labradorite colours is that
of R a m a n and J a y a r a m a n in 1950. According to these workers
the colours are not due to the visible inclusions (the layers of rod-
like structures so commonly seen) because of their irregular dis-
tribution. R a t h e r they believe that the colour, particularly the
metalloid blue, is due to variations in the mineralogical nature of the
soda-lime feldspar. In fact they consider that most labradorites
are grey and translucent rather than transparent because of the
presence of an extremely fine micro-perthite structure of ortho-
clase microliths in the labradorite host.
While the albite twinning of labradorite is not fundamental to
the development of the colour it does govern the orientation of the
orthoclase microliths. In albite twinning 010 is both a composition
plane and a reflection plane. Now if we number the twin lamellae,
clearly visible in the 001 face, in the order 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 etc., then
the orthoclase microliths in layers 1, 3, 5 are parallel to each other,
as are those in 2, 4, 6, but the orientations of microliths in the two
sets would be different.
R a m a n and J a y a r a m a n put forward five criteria of prime im-
portance :
1. Every specimen of labradorite which is twinned according to
the albite law and shows iridescence should display the
latter in two distinct settings of the specimen, if the direction
of incidence of light and the direction of observations are
constant.
2. For the same reason, for any given position of specimen and
light the iridescence should be observable in two divergent
directions.
3. T h e two reflections have their origin in different parts of the

322
 crystal, namely the two differently orientated parts of the albite
twin.
4. T h e two sets of reflections show similar colours.
5. T h e settings of the crystal required for observing the two
independent sets of reflections should make equal angles with
the setting required to obtain a specular reflection from the
composition plane.
T h e author then describes in some detail slight complications
due to the presence of pericline twinning. In (5) above the angle
of m a x i m u m intensity of iridescence is 14° on either side of the
010 face.
As to the origin of the colours themselves the writers are rather
indefinite, and more or less propose that they are "labradorite
colours". T h e concentric distributions, so commonly red-brown,
yellow and pale blue, set in a background of metalloid blue, is not
a thin film colour or Newton's rings colour. T h e writers however
state that the colours seen depend on the size and distribution of the
orthoclase microliths in the layers. I n their finest state they scatter
light and presumably the metalloid blue is a Tyndall blue scattered
by small particles. T h e other colours are interference colours due
to interference of light in particles of dimension in excess of those
required to give the first order Newtonian colours.
So, basically the remarkable metalloid blue is thought by
R a m a n and J a y a r a m a n to be a Tyndall blue.
T h e writer has in his collection a beautiful thin section of
labradorite (0-03 mms thick) which is crowded with parallel rod-
like inclusions and which shows the most striking metalloid blue in
certain orientations. With the aid of a 5-axis universal stage he
was able to determine : the crystal orientation of the thin section ;
the crystal orientation of the rod-like crystallites; the orientation
of the metalloid blue reflecting " p l a n e " (the "diffuse p l a n e " of
Rayleigh).
(No details of orientation procedure are given here, as this
paper is concerned with results rather than experimental studies,
but the interested reader should refer to the Geological Society of
America Memoir 8, " T h e Universal Stage" by R. C. E m m o n s ; a
standard text).
T h e results of the above study are listed below :
1. T h e rod-like crystallites (some of which are actually cavities
rather than crystals), occur in the (010) plane.

323
 2. T h e metalloid blue reflecting plane (the diffuse reflecting
plane of Rayleigh) in centred 22°30' off (010). This figure is
essentially that of Senff (1829) and Parsons (1930). T h e axis
of rotation used was in the (010) plane, and at 90° to the
elongation of the crystallites. At 14° (Raman, 1950) and 15°
(Rayleigh, 1923) no blue was observed.
3. A rotating Wright analyser indicated that the metalloid blue
light was plane polarized to a certain extent. This plane polar-
ized light was not confused with that produced at the Brewster
angle, approximately 57°.
Another cut specimen in the author's collection shows a yellow-
ish-red colour by transmitted light and the normal metalloid blue
by reflection. T h e former colour is very similar to the " r e d "
fringes seen on the edges of the isogyres in biaxial crystals showing
dispersion.

Conclusions on labradorite
It seems likely that the striking blue reflection of labradorite,
a remarkable example of pseudochromatism, is a Tyndall effect.
Tyndall scattering occurs also in some chalcedony, and in the so-
called blue quartz. A major point of distinction between these and
labradorite seems to be that the scattering particles have a definite
orientation in the latter, while in the former they are randomly
distributed in the host mineral.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, O . Aventurine labradorite from California, Amer. Min., July 1917.
2. Bauer, M . Precious Stones, Chas. Griffen, 1903.
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4. Bown, M . G. and Gay, P. The Identification of Oriented Inclusions in Pyroxenes, Amer. Min.,
M a y - J u n e 1959.
5. Challinor, J. A Dictionary of Geology, Univ. of Wales Press, 1961.
6. D a n a , E. S. Textbook of Mineralogy, J o h n Wiley, 1903.
7. Groth, P. Physikalische Krystallographie, 1895.
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15. Norden Skiold, N . Pog. Ann., No. 19, p . 179, 1830.
16. Parsons, A. L. Iridescent Colour in Peristerite, Amer. Min., Vol. 15. N o . 3, 1930.
17. Rayleigh, Lord. The Colours of Labradorite Feldspar, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 103, 1923.
18. R a m a n , C. V. and J a y a r a m a n , A. The Structure of Labradorite and its Iridescence, R a m a n Research
Inst., 1950.
19. Read, H . H . and Watson, J. Introduction to Geology, Vol. I, Macmillan, 1962.
20. Rosenbusch, H . Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-Forming Minerals (translated by J. P.
Iddings), Wiley and Sons, 1898.
21. Rutley, F. Elements of Mineralogy (revised by H . H . R e a d ) , Thos. M u r b y , 1960.
22. Scott, G. S. Iridescent Quartz from New York City, Amer. Min., Vol. 3, No. 10, 1919.
23. Teall, H . British Petrography, London, 1888.
24. Trippke, P. Ueber den Enstatit aus den Olivinknollen des Groditz Berges, N.J.B., 1878.
25. Williams, J. H . The Peridotites of the Cortland Series, Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 3 1 , 1886.

324
 ASSOCIATION
N O T I C E S

PRESENTATION OF AWARDS
A reunion of members was held at Goldsmiths' Hall, London, on Monday,
26th October, 1964. This was followed by the annual presentation of awards at
which Mr. Norman Harper, Vice-Ghairman of the Association, presided. He
said: "The Gemmological Association are very pleased and happy to welcome
you all to this presentation ceremony, and to congratulate all the successful
candidates in our recent examinations. Once again we are able to do this in tins
delightful and impressive Livery Hall of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths,
and our sincere thanks go out to the Company for their kindness in allowing us
this privilege. The Gemmological Association is now entering its second half
century, and is stronger and healthier than ever. This year we had the largest
entry for our examinations in the history of the Association, when 273 entered for
the Preliminary and 139 for the Diploma. The examiners have been at pains to
ensure that the Standards required in the examinations have been maintained.
It is our aim to favour neither a brilliant theoretical person, nor a particularly
excellent practical worker, but a balanced gemmologist who does not fall too low
in any branch of the subjects covered by our syllabus. For the second year the
Association has arranged the examinations for the Diamond Certificate, and once
again all the candidates passed both in theory and practice. I would like on
behalf of the Association to thank De Beers for their help and all their interest in
these Courses.
"I would also like to take this opportunity of placing on record the Associa-
tion's indebtedness to the Midlands Branch, and the West of Scotland Branch for
their continued keenness and enthusiasm. Their is one person to whom special
tribute is due, and that is our Secretary, Mr. Gordon Andrews. He has been our
Secretary for 25 years, and has done a splendid and dedicated job of work. I am
sure we all hope that Mr. Andrews is our Secretary for many years to come.
"I specially welcome Fellows and visitors from overseas including Miss U.
Tillander, Finland, Dr. H. Nairis and Dr. G. Neilsson from Sweden, Mr. P.
Vanderkelen of the Gemmological Association of Australia, and Mr. J. A. Fleming,
New Zealand. I am also glad to welcome Mr. J. Pike, of Messrs. Rayner and
Keeler Ltd., who so kindly present the Rayner and Tully prizes.
"We now come to the object of our gathering here tonight, which is to present
diplomas and certificates to successful candidates in our examinations and I am
extremely pleased to introduce you to Mr. A. E. Shipton, President of the British

325
Jewellers' Association, who will perform this ceremony. Mr. Shipton is well
known in the jewellery trade, and he became a Fellow of the Association in 1932.
He was for some time Chairman of the Midlands Branch of the Association and
in that capacity did some splendid work. He is managing director of an important
firm of precious stone cutters and merchants in Birmingham, and it is a great
pleasure to us to have him with us during his term of office."
Mr. Shipton, in congratulating the successful candidates, said they were only
at the start of their career. Often they would have to be tactful when they were
shown a magnificent "alexandrite" bought at a bargain price in Gibraltar.
The treasurer of the Association, Mr. F. E. Lawson Clarke, in thanking the
B.J.A. President, said that those who studied gemmology were introduced to new
worlds of interests, such as those of optics, mineralogy, microscopy, photography
and the work of the lapidary, which was Mr. Shipton's special interest.

MIDLANDS BRANCH MEETINGS

Members of the Midlands Branch of the Association visited the Barber
Institute of Fine Arts, Birmingham University, on the 25th September, 1964.
They were welcomed by Dr. Garlic, a member of Professor Ellis Waterhouse's
staff, who outlined to members the history of the Barber Institute, and discussed
examples of the varied European schools of painting exhibited there. Members
were able to inspect the four galleries and, apart from paintings, were shown a
carved jade bowl and drinking cup of the Ching Dynasty and a bloodstone bowl
with silver-gilt settings by Paul Storr.
* * * *

An informal social evening was held by the Branch at "La Reserve", Sutton
Coldfield, Warwickshire, on Wednesday, 21st October, 1964.

TALKS BY MEMBERS
CAFFELL, E. W. "Gemstones", Heston Congregational Church (Ladies' Friend-
ship Club), 22nd September, 1964.
GILLOUGLEY, J. H., JNR. "The Diamond Story", Ralston and Oldhall Towns-
womens Guild, Paisley, 15th October, 1964.
KENT, D. G. "Gemmology", Bromley (Branch) Young Conservaties, 4th
November, 1964.
OLIVER, R . J . N. "Diamonds", Liverpool 41 Club, 6th November, 1964.
JONES, T. G. "Gemstones", Abingdon Abbey Townswomen's Guild, 10th
October; "Science of gemstones", Haselmere Natural History Society, Surrey,
14th November, 1964.
CAFFELL, E.W., "Gemstones", Coulsdon Rotary Club, 16th November, 1964.

WEST OF SCOTLAND
A meeting of the West of Scotland Branch was held in Glasgow on 22nd
October, 1964. It took the form of a film show, at which "Diamonds in the
West" and "The Conquest of Time" were shown.

326
 OBITUARY
Mrs. Gordon Glennie (née Elsie Ruff), at Barbados, 1st November, 1964.
Miss Elsie Ruff will be remembered by her many friends for her inate courtesy and
for the painstaking researches which she made in connexion with the problem of
jade. Her book "Jade of the Maori", published by the Association in 1950,
won her great esteem and since that time she had published, in various gem-
mological journals, her studies of the occurrence, nomenclature and working of
jade in Europe and the Americas. She became a Fellow of the Association in
1924.

COUNCIL MEETING
A meeting of the Council of the Association was held at Saint Dunstan's
House, Carey Lane, London, E.C.2, on Wednesday, 30th September 1964.
Dr. W. Stern presided. The following were elected.

ELECTED TO FELLOWSHIP Bradburn, Gwendoline (Mrs.)

Adshead, Christine V., (Miss), Sydney, Australia
London, E.12. Climie, Robert, Newtown St. Boswells,
Algar, S. Forbes, Hamilton, Ont., Roxburgh
Canada Greene, Jane B., (Mrs.), Princeton,
Barker, Brian M., Pinner Middx. U.S.A.
Bromly, Ivan P., London, N.10. Hunt, Elyane M. (Mrs.), London
(D.1963) Johnson, Arthur W., London
Colclough, Albert C , Rainham, Knox, Christine G. (Miss), Hamilton,
Essex. Canada
Graham, Martin J. P., Reigate, Kothari, Ramesh R., Madras, India
Surrey Marshall, M. Sheila (Mrs.), Ibadan,
Kelly, Hugh, London, W.l. Nigeria
Kerry, Stewart M., London, N.W.I 1. Miles, Richard S. G., Nottingham
King, Michael L., Witham, Essex Myers, Julia H. (Miss), Double Bay,
Koller, Tibor, Melbourne, Australia Australia
Lechleitner, Paul A., Lucerne, Schiffman, Charles A., Geneva,
Switzerland Switzerland
Reid, Wilmot P., Kitwe, N. Rhodesia Wyer, Philip G., Birmingham
Snider, James R., Willowdale, Ont.,
Canada ELECTED TO ORDINARY MEMBERSHIP
Bagi, Julius, Toronto, Canada Austin, Virginia S. (Mrs.), Phoenix,
Arizona, U.S.A.
TRANSFERRED TO FELLOWSHIP FROM Bastos, Francisco M., Minas Gérais,
ORDINARY OR PROBATIONARY Brazil
MEMBERSHIP : Beattie, Floyd E., San Francisco,
DOWIE, Frederick G., Christchurch, Calif., U.S.A.
New Zealand Berkowitsch, Leo, Zurich,
Larcher, David M., Sheffield Switzerland
Bjorn-Hansen, Eva (Mrs.), Oslo, Blondel, Vera A. (Miss), Guernsey,
Norway C.I.
Bond, Cecil A., Waltham Abbey, Butland, William M., Natal, South
Essex Africa

327
Decoster, Micheline (Miss), Brussels, Taylor, Allan M., New York, U.S.A.
Belgium Van Starrex, Gertrud (Mrs.),
Dryden, Kenneth E., Spalding, Lines. Colombo, Ceylon
Holcombe, John W., Queenstown, Ward, Muriel J . (Mrs.), West Perth,
South Africa W. Australia
Hightower, Jackson G., Twin Falls, Weber, Adolphe, Geneva,
Idaho, U.S.A. Switzerland
Kasliwal, Nemichand G., Bombay,
India ELECTED TO PROBATIONARY
McTeigue, Walter J. Jr., New York, MEMEBERSHIP
U.S.A. Bachmann, Peter J., Guernsey, G.I.
Machlup, Harry, Johannesburg, Blom, Karin S. (Miss), Schwabisch
South Africa Gmünd, Germany
Meyer, Frederic W., San Francisco, Bloom, Harry, Johannesburg, South
Calif., U.S.A. Africa
Okayama, Jiro, Tokyo, Japan Dryden, John F., Spalding, Lines.
Owen, Stephen E., Talgarth, Foulser, Terence F., Hatch End,
Breconshire Middx.
Parsons, Garlos D., Bur bank, Calif., Gadebusch, Dedo-Alexander, Köln,
U.S.A. Germany
Price, Robert A., Welling, Kent Gilewicz, Richard N., Southampton,
Reed, George W. H., Dar-Es-Salaam, Hants.
Tanganyika Maynes, Georgina (Miss), Belfast,
Schneider, S. Herman (Dr.), Zurich, Ireland
Switzerland Nicholson, William, Botcherby,
Silver, Nevis G., Auckland, New Carlisle
Zealand Reiter, Peter O., Zurich, Switzerland
Sonne, Sigurd V., Copenhagen, Roos, Peter, Amstelveen, Holland
Denmark Sansford, Paul V., Weymouth, Dorset
Stanislaus, Saverimuttu J . L.s Thomas, Graham A., Mold, Flints.
Colombo, Ceylon Ubben, Els (Miss), Roermond,
Simpson, James E., New York, U.S.A. Holland
Stroud, Gerald M., London, E.G.I. Winkler, Gunter, Jr., Augsburg,
Suzuki, Tadahiko, Hokkaido, Japan Germany

The Council gave consideration to matters arising in connexion with exami-

nations. The Chairman emphasized that the Association was taking great care
to ensure that the standard required for qualification in the examinations was being
maintained.
The Council considered a request received from the National Association of
Goldsmiths for advice concerning the definition of a flawless diamond and also
considered comments made on the gemstone nomenclature draft by the Associa-
tion, which was in the course of being revised in the light of current trade practices.

GIFTS TO THE ASSOCIATION

From Nigel Kennedy, F.G.A., a group of phenakite crystals, showing twin-
ning. From Professor S. Gavenago-Bignami, Milan, a copy of the second edition
of her book Gemmologia.

328
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vii
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viii
 Vol. IX
No.9
January. 1965

c o N T E N T s

An Unusual Dyed Agate P.C. Zwann p.283

The Great Divide A. E. Faro p.286

DichroisDl through the Microscope

R. S. G. Miles and J. T. Herrimg p.288

GeDlDlological Notes p.290

GeDlDlological Abstracts p.292

Book Reviews p.301

Two Tricky IteDls G. V. Axon p.308

Schiller and PseudochroDlatisDl in Minerals and

GeDlstones J. Ostwald p. 309

ASSOCIATION NOTICES p. 325

Printed by F. y. Milner & Sons Ltd., Breniford and London