The Collins English Dictionary and Thesaurus define culture as ‘the total of the inherited ideas, beliefs,

values, and knowledge, which constitute the shared basis of social action’. This system is acquired
socially and organized in our minds in culture specific ways forming a framework, which largely
determines the way we perceive and define the world around us (Alptekin, 1993).

According to Chastain (1988), language and culture are inseparably bound; therefore, complete
comprehension during any type of intercultural communication depends upon the participants’
awareness of the social and cultural significance of the words and expressions employed. Language is
used to convey meaning, but meaning is determined by culture. Damen (1987) notes that to be
meaningful, language must be culture-bound and culture specific.

When studying formulations of objectives of different foreign language teaching (FLT) methods, we
usually encounter such statements as: “to learn the everyday life of the target language speakers”,
revealing the place of culture in that particular method. Although the place of culture and its role in
language teaching has long been present in the thinking of language teachers, the priority given to it
may vary from one period to another leading to different viewpoints in different FLT approaches and
methods.
 What is culture?

Activity 1. Summarize the basic ideas of the text (10 min.)

Defining culture is a very difficult task. According to Duranti (1997), culture is such a complex notion that it
may be neither possible nor desirable to arrive at an all encompassing definition of it. It means different to
different people. For some, it refers to an appreciation of good literature, music, art, and food. However, for
anthropologists and other behavioral scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns.  The
term was first used in this way by the pioneer English anthropologist Edward B. Tylor in his book, Primitive
Culture, published in 1871.  Tylor (1871) said that culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society”. Since Tylor's time, the concept of culture has become the central focus of anthropology.

Even within the field of ELT, the term culture has been defined in many different ways. Trinovitch (1980,
cited in Cakir, 2006) defines culture as “... an all-inclusive system which incorporates the biological and
technical behavior of human beings with their verbal and non-verbal systems of expressive behavior
starting from birth, and this “all-inclusive system” is acquired as the native culture. This process, which can
be referred to as “socialization”, prepares the individual for the linguistically and non-linguistically
accepted patterns of the society in which he lives.

Robinson (1985) distinguishes between behaviorist, functionalist, cognitive and symbolic definitions of
culture. Firstly, culture in behaviorist anthropology is seen as consisting of various forms of behavior, such
as customs, habits and rituals that are linked to specific situations and social groups. Culture is hence
comprehended as something concrete that can be seen and experienced, but very little interest is devoted to why or
under what circumstances the behavioral patterns arise. Secondly, culture is viewed from a functional
perspective. Although functionally oriented anthropology also deals with culture as a social phenomenon, it
seems to go further than the behaviorist approach in the sense that it tries to describe and understand the
structure and variety of these forms of behavior, as well as clarify the roles they play in society. Both
approaches provide the learner with a fairly concrete model for dealing with a foreign culture, by trying to describe
how and why a representative of another culture acts in a particular way. Both the behaviorist and the functionalist
approach represent a product perspective on culture, which, according to Robinson, tend to dominate FL
instruction. Culture, according to the third perspective, that is the cognitive view, does not consist of material
phenomena, such as objects, people or behavior, but is rather a process of memorizing, associating and
interpreting incoming data, which is continually going on in every individual’s brain. Culture could thus be
resembled to a computer program within the individual. In order to be able to clarify the essence of culture,
cognitively-oriented anthropologists have encouraged individuals to be aware of and analyze their personal
experiences. Robinson(1985) regards this “inner” view of culture as a valuable contribution to the behaviorist and
functionalist approaches. It represents a view of culture as an ongoing process, which, according to Robinson, has
had a fairly limited influence on foreign language education. The fourth perspective, the symbolic view sees
culture as a dynamic system of symbols and meanings and stresses the significance of continuous change. It
focuses neither on outer events, nor on internal mechanisms, but on the meaning emerging as a result of the
dialectic process between the two. Every individual is taking part in a process, in which previous experiences
influence the interpretation of new phenomena, and previous interpretations influence new experiences. In every
society and in every individual, culture thus takes on a new meaning, i.e. culture can also be viewed historically.

Adaskou, Britten & Fahsi (1990) help us define culture on a more specific level by outlining four meanings
of culture. Their aesthetic sense includes cinema, literature, music, and media, while their sociological one refers
to the organization and nature of family, interpersonal relations, customs, material conditions, and so on. Their
semantic sense encompasses the whole conceptualization system which conditions perceptions and thought
processes, and their pragmatic or sociolinguistic sense refers to the background knowledge, social and
paralinguistic skills, and language code which are necessary for successful communication. While not necessarily
all-inclusive or mutually exclusive, these aspects of culture provide more substance to the general definition above
and reflect culture's many dimensions.

Samovar, Porter & Stefani(1998) define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
actions, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe,
and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving .
They claim that this definition ‘covers most of the major territory of culture on which scholars currently agree’.

Culture is also defined in terms of intercultural communication (Lusig & Koester, 1999), the capacity and
ability to enter other cultures and communicate effectively and appropriately, establish and maintain relationships,
and carry out tasks with people of these cultures. With the rapid increase in foreign language learning/teaching
recently, the concept of ‘intercultural competence’ has gained much more significance in relation to the role of
culture in EFL learning/teaching. According to Meyer (1991), this competence refers to “the ability of a person to
behave adequately in a flexible manner when confronted with actions, attitudes and expectations of representatives
of foreign cultures”. This definition, in fact, adds to the notion of communicative competence and enlarges it to
incorporate intercultural competence.

The important point we must take into account when defining culture is that the most frequent definition
of culture in language teaching is related to two expressions, culture with capital “C”, or formal culture, and
culture with small “c”, or deep culture. Writers in cross-cultural studies often distinguish between two uses of the
word culture as: 1) the total way of life of a group of people, and 2) a
refinement or sophistication within a society. The first use has been called little /small “c” culture, and the
second, big “C” culture. Little “c” culture includes the routine aspects of life, such as how common people
greet one another, what they wear, what they eat, and their myriad daily habits. Little “c” culture
encompasses everything as a total way of life, so big “C” culture is necessarily part of little “c” culture. A
cultured (big “C”) person knows the finer points of manners and customs, and can distinguish between the
common and the refined. In summary, on one hand culture can be seen as civilization, the great achievements of
a people as reflected in their history, social institutions, works of art, architecture, music, and literature, commonly
referred to as big “C” culture (Hu, 2002). On the other hand, culture can be viewed as the customs, traditions, or
practices that people carry out as part of their everyday lives, i.e. little/small “c” culture (Halverson, 1985).
 Activity 1. Summarize the basic ideas of the text (10 min.)

Language Teaching and Culture

The significance of teaching culture in and through language teaching has been recognized and widely discussed
over the last two centuries. As research and practice have progressed over these years, the definition of culture and the
relationship between language teaching and culture have been defined and redefined. Regarding the relationship between
culture and language teaching, there are at least two main viewpoints: the static and the dynamic views. The earlier models
including Brooks (1975) or Nostrand(1974) among others, tended to view culture as unvarying and composed of discrete,
concrete facts that can be taught and learnt. Liddicoa (2002) maintains that this static view of culture does not recognize the
link between language and culture. It merely transmits cultural information to learners and ignores the constantly
developing nature of culture. This view treats cultural knowledge as either facts or artifacts. Students are expected to learn
information about a country or people, their lives, their history, their institutions, or their customs or about the cultural
icons these people have produced, such as their literature, their art, their architecture, or their music. A result of this
orientation is that the cultural component becomes self-contained and is often very remote from the language itself.
Moreover, the cultural component may be further separated from language by being taught and presented in the students'
first language rather than in the target language. Although there may be some place for cultural facts in a languages
curriculum, it is more important to study culture as a process in which the learner will eventually engage rather than as a
closed set of information that he/she will be required to recall (Liddicoat, 2002).

By contrast, the more recent models see culture as a dynamic and variable entity. The dynamic view of culture
requires learners to actively engage in culture learning, rather than only learn about the cultural information of the target
culture in a passive way. They are encouraged to view cultural facts as situated in time and space and variable across time,
regions, classes and generations (Crawford & McLaren, 2003). In Liddicoa’s (2002) view, culture is seen as sets of variable
practices in which people engage in order to live their lives and which are continually created and re-created by participants
in interaction. These cultural practices represent a contextual framework that people use to structure and understand their
social world and communicate with other people. As such, culture is not about information and things; it is about actions
and understanding. In order to learn about culture, it is necessary to engage with the linguistic and non-linguistic practices
of the culture and to gain insights into the way of living in a particular cultural context. Cultural knowledge is not therefore
a case of knowing information about the culture; it is about knowing how to engage with the culture. It is important that the
scope of culture learning move beyond awareness, understanding and sympathy, and begin to address the ways in which
culture learning will be practiced by learners. Cultural knowledge is, therefore, not limited in its use to a particular task or
exercise, but instead it is a more general knowing which underlies how language is used and how things are said and done
in a cultural context. As such, it resembles very closely other types of language knowledge. The dynamic view of culture
also requires learners to have knowledge of their own culture and an understanding of their own culturally-shaped
behaviours.

This major transformation in perspective has also been characterized by conceptual shifts from culture-specific to
culture-general models of intercultural competence. Culture-specific learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge and
skills relevant to a given “target culture,” i.e., a particular culture group or community. Culture-general learning, on the
other hand, refers to knowledge and skills that are more generalizable in nature and transferable across cultures. This body
of knowledge includes, among other things, the concept of culture, the nature of cultural adjustment and learning, the
impact of culture on communication and interaction between individuals or groups, the stress associated with intense
culture and language immersions (culture and language fatigue), coping strategies for dealing with stress, the role of
emotions in cross-cultural, cross-linguistic interactions, and so forth. Culture-general skills include the capacity to display
respect for and interest in the culture, the ability to be a self-sustaining culture learner and to draw on a variety of resources
for that learning, tolerance and patience in cross-cultural situations, control of emotions and emotional resilience, and the
like (Lustig and Koester, 1996, Kelley and Myers, 1995).

Now let’s examine various views proposed by different educators and scholars in respect to the relationship
between culture and language teaching. Seelye (1976) claims that learning a language in isolation of its cultural roots
prevents one from becoming socialized into its contextual use. Seelye (1976) maintains that knowledge of linguistic
structure alone does not carry with it any special insight into the political, social, religious, or economic system.
 According to Rivers (1981) the focus must be on both appropriate content and activities that enable students to
assimilate that content. Activities should encourage them to go beyond fact, so that they begin to perceive and experience
vicariously the deeper levels of the culture of the speakers of the language.

Kramsch (1993) sees culture as a fifth language skill besides the usual four skills of listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. Out of those considerations, Kramsch develops a concept that she terms looking for third places. Rather than
simply adopting the target culture, Kramsch explains that a third place emerges, a place that “grows in the interstices
between the cultures the learners grew up with and the new cultures he or she is being introduced to” She points out that at
the intersection of multiple native and target cultures, the major task of language learners is to define for themselves what
this 'third place' that they have engaged in seeking will look like, whether they are conscious of it or not.

According to Brown(1994) culture is deeply ingrained part of the very fiber of our being, but language _ the means
for communication among members of a culture_ is the most visible and available expression of that culture. And so a
person’s world view, self-identity, and systems of thinking, acting, feeling, and communicating can be disrupted by a
change from one culture to another. In a word, culture is a way of life. It is the context within which we exist, think, feel
and relate others. It is the “glue” that binds a group of people together. It can be defined as a blueprint that guides the
behavior of people in community and is incubated in family life. It governs our behavior in groups, makes us sensitive to
matters of status, and helps us to know what others expect of us and what will happen if we do not live up to their
expectations. Thus, culture helps us to know how far we can go as individuals and what our responsibility is to the group.
Brown (1994) maintains that a language is a part of a culture and a culture is a part of a language. He believes that the two
are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture.
As a result, cultural competence is an integral part of language learning, especially in foreign language learning.

Similarly, Tang (1999) propounds the view that culture is language and language is culture. He suggests that to
speak a language well, one has to be able to think in that language, and thought is extremely powerful. Language is the soul
of the country and people who speak it. Language and culture are inextricably linked, and as such we might think about
moving away from questions about the inclusion or exclusion of culture in foreign language curriculum, to issues of
deliberate immersion versus non-deliberate exposure to it.

Nida, a well-known linguist and translation theorist, also made some brilliant points concerning the relationship
between language and culture. Nida (2001) held that culture is the totality of beliefs and practices of a society; nothing is of
greater strategic importance than the language through which its beliefs are expressed and transmitted and by which most
interaction of its members takes place.

Liddicoat et al. (2003) also claim that language and culture interact with each other in a way that culture connects
to all levels of language use and structures; i.e. there is no level of language which is independent of culture .Moreover, the
fact that language expresses, embodies and symbolizes cultural reality clearly shows that language and culture are bounded
together (Kramsch, 1998). The relationship between language and culture is made meaningful in language learning as “the
person who learns language without learning culture risks becoming a fluent fool” (Bennett, Bennett & Allen, 2000).

Mitchell and Myles (2004) argue that “language and culture are not separate, but are acquired together, with each
providing support for the development of the other” (p. 235). This relationship can be reflected in terms such as
linguaculture (Friedrich, 1989), languaculture (Risager, 2005) language-and-culture (Liddicoat et al., 2003) or
culturelanguage (Papademetre & Scarino, 2006). It is also shown in cultural denotations and connotations in semantics
(Byram, 1989), cultural norms in communication (Kramsch, 1993) and the mediatory role of language in the social
construction of culture (Kramsch, 1996).
 Activity 1. Summarize the basic ideas of the text (10 min.)

Role of culture in different language teaching approaches and methods

The literature review indicates that different approaches to language teaching approached the issue of the
integration of culture in language teaching in various ways, emphasizing different aspects of culture to be
included in their teaching program. In this part, I am going to make a clear picture of how culture and culture
teaching have been viewed under various circumstances and through the eyes of different approaches throughout
the history of foreign language teaching.

Traditional Methods
The Grammar- Translation Method

Rivers (1968) and Omaggio (1986) among others criticize GTM for not paying attention to authentic
spoken communication and the social language variation and not offering any concern for the teaching of cultural
awareness, at least on an everyday level. Some educators such as Long- Fu(2001), however, believe that a close
examination of the technical characteristics of the method reveals that GTM was constantly involved in the
comparison of the two languages through translation, hence forced into implicitly recognizing that language is
closely interwoven with every aspect of culture, and in fact language is also culture. Long- Fu (2001) refers to
the teaching of Latin dialogues or colloquy as a good example of the inclusion of the teaching of culture in GTM.
He states that the culture involved in GTM refers only to the high arts of a country, which may not contribute
significantly to the students’ ability to function linguistically and socially while facing a foreign realty in a daily
social interaction, nor to a full understanding of the foreign people. Long-Fu (2001) believes that this is natural
since in that time there was no face-to-face personal interaction between people of various cultures, chiefly
because the world’s economic situation was very primitive indeed then. Thus, the purpose of mastering a foreign
language during this period was largely literary rather than pragmatic.

The Direct Method

Due to the advances in science and technology, and with the invention of means of transportation such as
steamboats and trains, the foundation of for a social objective of language teaching was laid (Long-Fu, 2001).
People now had to deal with real-life situations because they wanted to travel to other countries and do business
there. Therefore, their attitude toward learning/teaching a foreign language changed. This led to the advent of the
Direct Method (DM) advocated by such educators as Berlitz and Jespersen. This method received its name from
the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and
visual aids with no recourse to the students’ native language (Diller, 1978).One of the main characteristics of this
method is that the use of culturally oriented pictures makes students aware of some of the everyday situations
they might encounter in the foreign culture (Rivers, 1968; Omaggio, 1986).

Larsen-Freeman (2000) states that culture in DM consists of the history of people who speak the target
language, the geography of the country or countries where the language is spoken, and the information about the
daily lives of people who speak the language.

Long-Fu( 2001) maintains that DM preoccupation with culture is associated with small ‘c’ culture at the
beginning stages and large ‘C’ culture at the advanced stage. Jespersen (1904) argues the most important purpose
in teaching of languages in DM may be considered as the access to the best thoughts and institutions of a foreign
nation, its literature, culture,--- in short, the spirit of the nation in the widest sense of the word. However, as
Long-Fu (2001) states, the lack of a well-defined socio-linguistic and socio-cultural theoretical basis made the
teaching of cultural content incidental and subordinated to the teaching of language in this method. Teachers do
not concern themselves with was expected to be needed by the students in real life situations

The Audio-Lingual Method

In addition to the teaching of linguistic forms, the Audio-Lingual Method advocates for a contrastive
analytic approach in the teaching of culture. The cultural notes that supplement the pattern drills describe
everyday life, comparing American culture to the “target” culture (Grittner, 1990). The colloquial and socio-
linguistically appropriate language used in the dialogues shows that ALM emphasize the teaching of small ‘c’
culture especially in the early years of the language learning process. As Chastain(1976) maintains, the dialogues
in ALM texts was both linguistically and culturally authentic. By cultural authenticity he means that the
conversation in ALM was to take place in the L2 culture and be appropriate to the situation.

Stern (1983), however, believes that while ALM was not impervious to the cultural aspect of second
language instruction, language learning in the first instance was viewed as the acquisition of a practical set of
communication skills. This indicates that the cultural dimension in ALM is still behind the real purpose of
foreign language teaching and again, like the Direct Method, is subordinated to language teaching (Long-Fu,
2001).

The Cognitive Approach

In this approach, the language learner is expected to acquire competence with the consciousness in a
meaningful manner as a necessary prerequisite to the acquisition of performance skills (Long-Fu, 2001). The
cultural orientation of language teaching reflected by the Cognitive Approach, however, is not as clear as in the
previous methods; though it is clear the cognitive psychologists in the late 1960s, like Ausubel, placed great
importance on meaningfulness and organization of background knowledge in the learning process ( Omaggio,
1983).

Innovative/ Designers Methods

From humanistic approaches, there arise three prominent methodologies _ the silent way, suggestopaedia
and community language learning known as Innovative or Designers Methods. Gattegno(1972) advocated the
Silent Way Approach where the students are made aware of the various challenges that are presented before them
in the process of language learning or acquisition. Here learners are given their full freedom. Based on this
method, culture is an inseparable part of language. Language reflects culture and everyday life, art, literature, etc.
should be learned (Larsen-Freeman,2000).

Curran (1976), on the other hand, encouraged community language learning wherein the learners are
given the independence to talk about their personal and linguistic problems and can decide their curriculum. The
teacher is just a facilitator who creates an emotionally secure environment that alleviates their anxiety and fear of
learning. Based on this method, knowing the target culture is important to be successful in communication.
Culture is integrated with language. Social life style, art, literature, customs, habits should be taught (Larsen-
Freeman, 2000).

Suggestopaedia is another humanistic teaching method developed by a Bulgarian psychotherapist, Georgi

Lozanov. Lozanov(1979) claims that, by this method, a language can be learned three to five times faster than by
the traditional teaching methods. This method is based on the modern understanding of how the brain works and
how we learn most effectively. Much of the learning relies on music, games, puzzles etc. The culture which
students learn in this approach concerns the everyday life of people who speak the target language. The use of
fine arts is also common (Larsen-Freeman, 2000).
 Activity 1. Summarize the basic ideas of the text (10 min.)

Modern Approaches
The Communicative Approach

Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) maintain that Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) provides for the teaching of
everyday, real-world language use in a variety of socio-cultural situations in which features of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and
culture are selected and graded according to their priority in actual communication. The Communicative Approach intends to place
foreign language teaching in a clearly defined social and cultural context in line with the socio-linguistic viewpoint that language is
generally influenced by the society, economics, culture and the people who use it as well (Long-Fu, 2001).Canale and Swain (1980)
describe communicative competence as integrated by four parts: linguistic competence, discourse competence ,socio-linguistic
competence , and strategic competence.

However, as Byram (1997) argues, to define communicative competence largely in terms of sociolinguistic norms of a
particular community or on a native speaker model basis seems to be rather narrow a view from the perspective of intercultural
communication. This is because such a model ignores the social identity of the learners in any intercultural communicative event.
Byram (1997), instead suggests a ‘language for intercultural understanding’ dimension of cultural teaching which will be explained in
the next section.

Cooperative Language Learning

More than just being a classroom way of learning language vocabulary and forms for future exam use, classroom activities
allow learners to use their different understandings of how the world operates, leading to stronger personal ties between group
members, more well-defined individual identities, and a greater sense of membership in the learning community. Cooperative Language
Learning can help students feel less isolated as learners and form a more effective “classroom culture” in which collaboration towards a
common emergent goal plays a significant role in their emotional and linguistic development as a legitimized member of a social
learning community (Murphey & Asaoka, 2006). More than simply a methodology for language teaching, CLL is a methodology of
encouraging students to continue the cooperative learning process well beyond the classroom and school context into the greater society
around them.

Content-Based Language Instruction

Among the main tenets of Content-Based Language Instruction is that teachers must be candidates who are able to understand
and construct learning environments that support students’ cultural identities, language and literacy development, and content-area
achievement. Language use depends on the cultural background of the user. So learning a foreign language implies learning about the
culture of its native speakers, which is no less relevant in the context of CBI. Met (1991) proposes that "... 'content' in content-based
programs represents material that is cognitively engaging and demanding for the learner, and is material that extends beyond the target
language or target culture".

In CBI classes, culture is a very important aspect intermingling with the specific vocabulary students usually acquire. Teachers
should take into consideration the fact that their students have already studied language for several years so they have the necessary
linguistic skills to understand language. The task of interspersing culture into the English classes becomes easier for the CBI teachers
since they can present culture through the specific vocabulary or expressions students need to acquire. Teachers may present classes
with texts illustrating different cultural aspects closely related to the students’ future specialization; he or she may use visual materials
bringing out important cultural facts, newspapers or magazines from that country with both cultural and factual content. Debates, role-
plays and case studies shouldn’t be left out since they represent a great opportunity for students to express their opinions as well as to
imagine how it feels to be “in the skin of a foreigner”.

Task-Based language Teaching

One of the main features of TBLT is that it implements classroom activities in which students use authentic materials and have
specific tasks to accomplish in order to meet real-world language objectives. One of these is Activities Using Cultural Objects . These
activities involving the direct use and handling of products of a culture(such as postcards, photographs, symbols, and images in song
lyrics)can be very effective in a task-based language classroom. One such activity, called Culture Composition developed by Tomalin
and Stempleski (1998), has as its purpose the development of writing skills, as well as the recognition of cultural artifacts. The teacher
hands out various pieces of realia, collected from travels abroad to English speaking countries, such as bus or air tickets, receipts,
coupons, money and photographs. The items are mixed up and in random order. Students are put into groups of two or three. They
identify each item, and then make up a story about their set of items. The groups present their stories to the rest of the class, each person
in the group taking a turn to tell part of the story. As an item occurs in the story, it is shown to the class and placed on the table. When
all groups have finished, the students write their own individual version of their story. For these types of activities which teach
culture ,a task-oriented approach is suggested. Students work together in pairs or  small groups to fine- tune precise information. They
share and discuss what they have discovered, and interpret the information within the context of the target culture and in comparison to
their own culture.

The Intercultural Competence

One of the most significant changes in language learning and teaching over the past two decades has been the recognition of
the intercultural competence as a key component. This change has transformed the nature of the experience of teaching and learning
languages to a great extent. According to Atay et al.(2009), the objective of language learning is no longer defined in terms of the
acquisition of communicative competence in a foreign language, which refers to a person’s ability to act in a foreign language in
linguistically, socio-linguistically and pragmatically appropriate ways (Council of Europe, 2001). Rather, it is defined in terms of the
intercultural competence. As stated by Byram (1997), the success of interaction implies not only an effective interchange of
information, as was the goal of communicative language teaching, but also the “the ability to decenter and take up the other’s
perspective on their own culture, anticipating and where possible, resolving dysfunctions in communication and behavior ” (p. 42).
Linguistic competence alone is not enough for learners of a language to be competent in that language (Krasner, 1999). Language
learners must know what forms are culturally appropriate to address people, express gratitude, make requests, and agree or disagree
with someone. They should realize that behaviors and intonation patterns that are appropriate in their own discourse community may be
perceived differently by members of the target discourse community. They have to understand that, in order for communication to be
successful, language use must be associated with other culturally appropriate behavior.

The best known model of intercultural competence is supplied by Byram (1997). Byram’s model of intercultural
communicative competence identifies five different factors involved: Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills of interpreting and relating, Skills of
discovery and interaction and Political education including critical cultural awareness. Knowledge includes learning about social
groups, products, practices and processes of interaction. Attitudes involve curiosity and openness towards the other as well as readiness
to revise cultural values and beliefs and to interact and engage with otherness. Skills of interpreting and relating mean ability to identify
and explain cultural perspectives and mediate between and function in new cultural contexts. Skills of discovery and interaction are
related to the ability to acquire new knowledge of culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge attitudes and skills
under the constraint of real-time communication. Finally critical awareness is defined as the ability to evaluate critically the
perspectives and practices in one’s own and other cultures. The influence of Byram’s model has been immense. It gives a detailed
outline of what intercultural competence is and what kind of skills need to be considered when teaching language according to the
intercultural approach. It is useful for teachers as it breaks down a complex concept into its constituent parts. Additionally, the model is
specifically designed for the language classroom.

This change to the role of culture in language teaching entails a change in teachers’ perceptions toward foreign language
teaching. They are now expected not only to teach the foreign linguistic code, but also to “contextualize that code against the socio-
cultural background associated with the foreign language and to promote the acquisition of intercultural communicative competence”
(Castro, 1999). The teacher is expected to mediate between the native language and target language culture(s) to help learners achieve
the above mentioned goals (Byram & Risager, 1999; Edelhoff, 1993). Thus, to support the intercultural learning process, foreign
language teachers need additional knowledge, attitudes, competencies and skills. They need to be acquainted with basic insights from
cultural anthropology, culture learning theory and intercultural communication and need to be willing to teach intercultural competence
and know how to do so (Edelhoff, 1993; Willems, 2002).

Activity 2 Continue the list of ideas of what is cultural awareness and why should it be considered

1. To understand cultural differences and being aware of different cultural values, beliefs, and
perceptions. Considered to be an important skill, it has been shown to enhance communication in the
workplace.

2. The knowledge of, understanding of and experiences with one’s own culture as well as others’
cultures that inform one’s ability to navigate new experiences.

3. Developing sensitivity and understanding of another ethnic group. This usually involves internal
changes in terms of attitudes and values. Awareness and sensitivity also refer to the qualities of
openness and flexibility that people develop in relation to others. Cultural awareness must be
supplemented with cultural knowledge ( Adams, 1995 ).

4. Being conscious and disregarding potential biases that may be formed based on prior experiences. It
is being aware that individuals possess unique ways of perceiving the world around them based on their
cultural background and acknowledging those beliefs to benefit all individuals inclusively.

5. Awareness of the fact that cultures condition the way people see the world and behave and of the
fact that different cultures do so in different ways

6. It is the understanding and gaining knowledge about the differences and similarities between diverse
groups of people regarding their demographic characteristics.

7. Becoming more aware of how aspects of our culture have shaped our beliefs and behaviors

8. Being aware of the fact that differences in behavior or thinking can be aroused by culture. According
to Hofstede (1991), cultural awareness is the first step towards gaining intercultural competences.

9. Consciousness of various characteristics, e.g., values, beliefs, and perceptions, among cultures.
Activity 3 In seeking to develop cultural awareness, there are several key factors to consider.
Express your thoughts and ideas for or against the following statements

  Communication: This is perhaps the biggest challenge facing leaders in the international
business environment. Outstanding communication skills are valuable in any employee and at any
organizational level; they’re even more important when dealing across cultures. Subtle differences in
how people communicate, both verbally and non-verbally, can make the difference between a deal
going through and an agreement falling apart. Certainly, it’s helpful to speak the local language.
However, with a thorough understanding of the local culture and a skilled translator, it’s possible to be
an effective communicator in any country.

  Observation and sensitivity: There are several ways to become more culturally aware.
Studying up on the target market is an obvious first step. Still, the most reliable tools could be your
level of sensitivity and your powers of observation. When you’re in a foreign country, learn how those
around you conduct themselves and their business. Listen more than you talk and chances are you’ll
learn more, faster.

 Flexibility: When doing business internationally, you may face situations in which you are not
in control or don’t have all the answers. You will have to deal with uncertainty, especially in cultures
where communication may be more subtle and nuanced than in the United States. Be patient with
yourself as well as with business partners or potential customers. Keep the focus on the big picture.
 Self-awareness: It’s not easy to absorb and understand everything that is happening around you
in cross-cultural business settings. At such times, it can be beneficial to tap into your self-awareness
skills. Ask yourself, “Why do I think this?” and “Why am I feeling this way?” and then adjust your
responses or actions as necessary.

With these considerations in mind, there are strategies that people can adopt in order to nurture and
strengthen their cultural awareness. Among them:

  Appreciate differences: A culture is built on more than just food, music, art and clothing. Its
foundation includes stories, values and beliefs passed down through generations. Learn to value a
culture’s contributions to the greater human story.

 When in doubt, ask: Don’t be afraid to ask questions. You won’t be perceived as less
intelligent, as people generally appreciate the interest, and enjoy sharing information about their nation
and its culture. By being humble and acknowledging that you’re still learning you may be more likely
to gain acceptance in a new culture.

 Smile: You may have heard the saying, “A smile is the same in every language.” Indeed, a
smile can be a great ice-breaker and stress reliever. Have a smile ready when facing unexpected
challenges and look for humor in a predicament.

Activity 4 Why is it important to develop cultural awareness?

Worldview is “how we see the world.” Cultural awareness, on the other hand, is “the ability of standing
back from ourselves and becoming aware of our cultural values, beliefs, and perceptions,” according to
the Culturosity Group.

It’s asking ourselves questions like:

Why do we do things that way?
How do we see the world?
Why do we react in that particular way?
“Genius has no race. Strength has no gender. Courage has no limit.” This quotation comes from the
movie Hidden Figures and it exemplifies the main idea of cultural awareness. Cultural awareness is the
foundation of communication and it involves the ability of standing back from ourselves and becoming
aware of our cultural values, beliefs, and perceptions. Cantatore (2005). This awareness has two
purposes. The first purpose is for people to see themselves from “outside” in the sense of understanding
how different cultures and experiences have shaped their own values, beliefs, and expectations. The
second purpose is for people to appreciate others from the “inside” in the same fashion. The purpose of
being culturally aware is for people to be open minded about different cultures, perspectives, and
interacting with different people. The benefits of cultural awareness is gaining lots of new information
on how different cultures. It also benefits communications, observations, and self-awareness.

There are Four Degrees of Cultural Awareness (Culturosity):

1. My Way is the Only Way
People are aware of their own way of doing things and believe that their way is the only way. They
tend to ignore cultural differences and their impact during this stage. Culturosity refers to this as the
“Parochial Stage.”
This was my degree of cultural awareness before I left America at the age of 19 to study in France. I
thought my American way was the only way . . . until I was exposed to another culture and saw another
way of living.
I didn’t even realize that I carried my American culture with me in my suitcase until it suddenly
collided with another culture—the French culture.

2. I Know Their Way, But My Way is Better

During this stage, people are aware of other ways of doing things. However, they still consider their
way as the best way. People tend to perceive cultural differences as sources of problems and ignore
them in order to reduce their significance. Culturosity refers to this as the “Ethnocentric Stage.”
In a recent conversation with my friend from Norway, she was describing her last trip to Guatemala to
visit her husband’s family. While there, she struggled with their “cultural differences” around the
notion of time. Norwegians are very prompt; whereas, Latin Americans tend to be “late” . . . sometimes
“very late.”
When my friend challenged her husband’s family about being on time, they realized (maybe for the
first time) that there were obvious cultural differences between them. However, the problem, the
tension, and the significance of their cultural differences were ignored. My Norwegian friend would
simply have to adjust to their way and their notion of time.

3. My Way and Their Way

People become aware of their own way of doing things and others’ ways of doing things. According to
the situation, they will choose the way that seems best to them. In this stage, people tend to realize that
there are both problems and benefits resulting from cultural differences. They begin to look at cultural
diversity and search for new solutions and alternatives. Culturosity refers to this as the “Synergistic
Stage.”
As an American married to a French husband, this is the reality of our cross-cultural marriage and
family life. We are almost always aware of our different ways of doing things —American and French,
and we are forced to constantly choose the way that seems best for each situation. (Which language
will we speak in our home? Which Christmas traditions will we celebrate this year? How will be
discipline and educate our children?) There are obvious advantages and disadvantages in each of our
cultures—leading to tensions, problems, and benefits—but we try to use our cultural diversity for our
good and the good of our children.
After years of cross-cultural marriage and family life . . . we gradually developed “Our Way.”
4. Our Way
People from various cultural backgrounds gather together to create their own culture of shared
meanings. They dialogue together, create new meanings and new rules for a particular situation.
Culturosity refers to this stage as the “Participatory Third Culture Stage.”
This is the beauty of our many years of cross-cultural marriage and family life. It also describes the
uniqueness of our “Oasis of Cultures” that we have formed around the world. We love to gather
together—representing 10 or more countries and a smattering of diverse cultures and languages. We
dialogue together, we learn from each other, we share our cultures with each other, and we create a new
“third culture” together—an “international culture” wherever we are.

Why is Important to Develop Cultural Awareness?

“Culturosity” is defined as:
1. A desire to learn about and engage with other cultures
2. An essential mindset in a global world
3. Today’s competitive advantage
Having cultural awareness makes us global citizens! It helps us break down cultural barriers and build
cultural bridges. I know it’s a cliché, but it truly can help us “change the world.” When we break down
those cultural barriers, we learn to love those who are different from us. We begin to see the beauty in
our diversity which truly can “make the world a better place.”
As we begin to see our own culture and understand ourselves better, we will be better able to
relate to people of other cultures—resulting in less cultural conflict and more cultural
connection.

When you look at the four degrees of cultural awareness according to Culturosity, where do
you see yourself? What can you do to develop your own cultural awareness—expand your
global tapestry—right where you are?

We invite you to tell us your own cultural stories and global adventures . . . as you engage with the
world, breaking down barriers, building bridges, and “weaving cultures”! Write about them in the
comment box below.
Activity 6. Consider two types of culture

We focused our work on two big categories of culture:

“Big C” culture

“Big C” culture refers to that culture which is most visible. Some visible forms of culture include

 Holidays,
 Art,
 Popular culture,
 Literature, and
 Food
 Architecture

These are things that will never go away.

When learning about a new culture, the “big C” cultural elements would be discovered first; they are
the most overt forms of culture. These are the “Shakespeares”,  the “Gaudi’s”, the Michelangelos, the
Vazovs – the famous figures, literature, architecture, music, dance, history – things that will never go
away.

Little c” culture

“Little c” culture, in contrast, in the more invisible type of culture associated with a region, group of
people, language, etc. Some examples of little c culture include

 communication styles,
 verbal and non-verbal language symbols,
 cultural norms (what is proper and improper in social interactions),
 how to behave,
 myths and legends

This is the stuff that is here today and may go away tomorrow.; yet it makes living today absolutely
positively possible. We can’t live without little c culture; we can’t communicate without little c culture.
A lot of intercultural communication is based on duality – either or, this or that. Our perception plays a
huge part in this process.

Exploring cultural differences is in fact a journey where we constantly question the obvious, we are
often unsure whether what we do is what we should do whether what we say or not say is appropriate,
polite, the ‘right; thing to do.
Activity 7. The importance of Culture in our Life. Define key ideas.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.