Term Paper

Research Topic:

The activities of Bernard de Clairvaux and his Muslim sense of era

Student:Sajid khan Supervisor: Pro. Dr Zafar Iqbal

Registration: 556-FSS/MSMC/F22

Department of Media and Communication

International Islamic University, Islamabad

ABSTRACT

The twelfth century was a significant period in European history, marked by both
prosperity and conflict. While the standard of living for many people improved
compared to the previous century, the era was also marked by the organization of
two major crusades, the Second and Third Crusades, which were launched with the
goal of recapturing the Holy Land from Muslim control. These crusades, which
were fueled by a mix of religious fervor and political motivations, had a profound
impact on the course of history and shaped the relationships between Christian and
Muslim cultures for centuries to come.

One of the key figures in the Second Crusade was Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux
Monastery, who played a crucial role in the formation and execution of the
campaign. Bernard was a highly influential figure in the Catholic Church of the
time, and he used his position and reputation to rally support for the crusade. He
wrote letters to a wide variety of people, including kings, queens, and other
powerful figures, urging them to join the crusade and promising them divine favor
in return. In addition to his letters, Bernard also gave sermons throughout Europe,
calling on people to take up arms in the service of God and their fellow Christians.

Bernard's letters and sermons, which were written in Latin, provide valuable
insights into the views and motivations of the people who participated in the
crusade. They also reveal the prejudices and misunderstandings that many
Christians of the time had about Muslims and their religion. In his writings,
Bernard often refers to Muslims as "infidels" and "pagans," and he portrays them
as being hostile and aggressive towards Christians. This characterization was not
entirely accurate, as there were many instances of cooperation and coexistence
between the two faiths during this period. However, it was a widely held view
among Christians at the time, and it helped to fuel the crusades and the broader
conflict between Christian and Muslim cultures.

In this study, we have examined Bernard's letters in the original Latin text, and we
have evaluated both the impact of the crusade and the perceptions of Christians by
Muslims during the era. Our analysis shows that the crusade had a significant
impact on the course of history, as it helped to shape the political and cultural
landscape of the region. It also reveals that there was a great deal of
misunderstanding and mistrust between the two faiths, which contributed to the
ongoing conflict between them.

Overall, the twelfth century was a complex and dynamic period, marked by both
prosperity and conflict. The role of Abbot Bernard and the impact of the Second
Crusade are just a small part of this larger story, but they provide valuable insights
into the motivations and perspectives of the people who lived during this time.

Keywords: Middle Ages, Second Crusade, Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux, Muslim

Sense
Introduction

The Crusades are one of the first things that come to mind when thinking of the
Middle Ages. Both Eastern and Western societies were closely affected by them
and they have been the subject of contemporary works both in our country and
abroad. Many works have been written on each crusade. It is accepted that it is
very difficult to write the sources of the Middle Ages, where religion was used as a
driving force, with an impartial perspective. For this reason, it is extremely
important to see the primary sources in order to understand what the Christians of
the time thought about Muslims. If we rely only on contemporary sources, which
contain information based on different interpretations and perspectives, we will be
misled in trying to present the truth. That is why it is extremely important to refer
to the sources of the period. It is also important to examine the individuals who
stand out in the crusades in order to better understand them. This study aims to
contribute to our knowledge of the Second Crusade through the examination of
Bernard's activities, and to understand the thought world that nourished these
crusades in general. If we look at contemporary works, these are mostly handled in
a military history format, and it is rarely mentioned in the background of the
crusades. In other words, with the exception of the First Crusade, the reasons for
the other crusades are summarized in a few sentences. However, the process of
creating these adventures, which have led thousands of people willingly into the
unknown, is at least as complicated as the crusades themselves and worth
understanding. It is seen that in the realization of the crusades, religious figures
have generally taken on the responsibility, parallel to the use of the religious
element the most. Among these religious figures, perhaps the best known is Pierre
L'Ermite, although some historians think otherwise, since it is generally accepted
that he did not take on this task upon the request of the Pope, he has no official
status. In the second crusade, Bernard, the Abbot of Clairvaux, who is the subject
of our study, was specifically commissioned by the Pope to organize the Crusade.

Developments and Mental Infrastructure Making the New Campaign Possible

The 12th century, in which Bernard lived, was a period of prosperity, unless a few
famines are counted, during which the Second and Third Crusades were conducted.
In the 11th century, more attention was paid to agriculture in Europe. The new
technology used in land cultivation increased productivity, which led to the
constant growth of money and market economy throughout the 12th century.
Villages also developed and many of them became trade centers. Cathedrals and
priest schools were established in most villages and were filled by male offspring
of nobles who preferred spiritual life to military life. The new monastic orders,
particularly the Cistercians, benefited from these developments: since they
required at least 16 years of age to enter the monastery, the monks received
education in these schools before joining the monastery, which enabled the training
of individuals with the mindset to participate in the Crusade. Close ties were
formed between the monasteries and the noble class that made up the military, and
the monks generally supported the military campaigns with their prayers as they
emerged from this class. In this regard, the period can be seen as providing the
financial and mental formation opportunities for the new campaigns. The
establishment of stricter monasteries that adopted the Benedictine order in the 11th
century also influenced the religious attitude of the 12th century, and this strict
religious trend also manifested itself in Muslim perception. The best examples of
this are the different expressions used in the works of people belonging to the
clergy in relation to Muslims, one of which is the Abbot of Clairvaux, Bernard.

Bernard's Crusade Activities

As is known, the First Crusade was the only successful crusade, in which the
Christians captured Jerusalem and created several political formations in the
Muslim geography. Of course, organizing a new crusade would be less
troublesome, given that the first one was a good example, but the Second Crusade
would end in failure. The main reason for this crusade, as is well known, is the
capture of Urfa by the Muslims in 1144 and the end of the Crusader County of
Urfa. Did hundreds of thousands of people go on this crusade solely motivated by
the success of the first one? While this is of great historical importance, it is not
enough on its own to set so many people on the road. Otherwise, Bernard and the
pope would have had to mention Urfa in their sermons or letters, but there is no
such record. The purpose of organizing the crusade was to fear the loss of
Jerusalem, which is why the most influential clergyman of the time, Bernard, and
King Louis jointly sent a delegation to the pope. Bernard was tasked by the pope
with this task, held meetings in many places, and wrote letters for the organization
of the crusade. The contents of the letters he wrote to the people and clergy of
Speyer, the people and clergy of East France, Bavaria, the people of England, the
archbishop of Cologne, Arnold, the bishop of Brescia, Manfred, Flanders, and the
Duke of Bohemia are known, but it is believed that many more letters have been
lost.
Another importance of Bernard's works or letters in terms of crusades is the
emphasis on the theory of Just War. He used the principles of Augustine, on which
the theory is based, to defend the Crusades. Firstly, a Crusade is a struggle against
injustice, against injustice done to God and his church by the faithless. Secondly,
the Crusaders fight with the command of God through the pope, who is the
representative of God on earth. These two reasons make the organization of the
crusades justified. The Crusade is a Just War. This understanding shows that a
legal reason is added to the religious sentiment in the Crusades.

Bernard's primary activity was making appeals in many places, traveling long
distances in order to participate in these crusades. The list of places he went to for
the purpose of participation in the Crusade and prayer is also quite extensive. Some
of these are Speyer, Worms, Kreuznach, Pichenbach, Coblenz, Remagen, Cologne,
Brauweiler monastery, Aachen, Maastricht, Liege, Huy, Gembloux, Villers,
Fontaine-l'Eveque, Binche, Mons, Valenciennes, Cambrai, Vaucelles, Gomme,
Humbleux monastery, Laon St. John monastery, Rheims, Chalons-sur-Marne,
Flanders, Arras, St. Bertin, St. Omer, Bruges, Afflighem, Mainz, Kenzingen,
Freiburg, Basel, Constance, and Schaffhausen. Bernard, who was away from the
monastery for seven months, traveled thousands of miles and gave dozens of
sermons on the reasons for the Crusade.

Of course, the most emphasized aspects in his sermons are the purification of the
holy lands from infidels, the suffering of fellow believers, and the necessity of this
crusade. In addition to these, the famine that occurred in 1146 was another factor
that helped Bernard's sermons. Almost all of the chronicles of the period,
especially Lotharingia, report that a severe famine occurred on a scale never seen
before, and grain prices increased by 20-25 times. Bernard also mentioned in his
sermons that the way to escape this disaster and to win God's love and mercy was
to participate in the crusade.

In addition, the information conveyed to the West about how Muslims treated
Christians at that time also contributed to the formation of the crusade. In this
context, the expressions used in a letter written by Nicholas, who was Bernard's
secretary, to Bernard in 1126 are exemplary of the subject: A part of the Christian
people are chained, and others are slaughtered like sheep

Bernard, known as Doctor Mellifluus (the sweet-tongued scholar/teacher), also

made efforts to protect the armies that set out for the crusade and tried to ensure
that those who went on the crusade could safely reach their main destination. For
this purpose, Bernard sent letters to the Moravians, Saxons, and Danes, who were
threats to the north and northeast, on behalf of the German Emperor Conrad, high-
ranking clergymen, and princes, especially to the Moravians, informing them that
they should attend the council that met in Frankfurt on March 11-23, which
Bernard also attended, and the council to be held in Magdeburg, and inviting all
Christians to the crusade to the holy lands. The purpose of these letters was
probably to prevent the Slav clans, who lived on the other side of the Elbe and
were a source of concern, from attacking from the side while the Crusader armies
advanced towards Byzantine lands. Therefore, the Saxons, Danes, and Moravians
were discouraged from participating in the Crusade to fight the Wendles and told
that fighting the Slavs was also a Crusade. In another example, Bernard sent an
invitation letter to the Bohemians to participate in the crusade.

Top of Form

It should not be thought that Bernard had no difficulties when making the call for
the crusade. Examples of this can again be seen in his letters. The best example is
what he wrote to the Count of Nevers, Carinthian Ida:

Respected Abbot of Vezelay, it is reported that you and your people, merchants,
and all people who wish to go to Vezelay are preventing... We warn and want you
to not do this in any way from now on. We are afraid that if you start doing such
things, they could cause a lot of harm to you and your husband here and where he
is, and we definitely do not want this. Believe us and completely abandon this evil.

The mentioned subject was also valued by Pope III. Eugene and a letter was also
written by the pope on this subject:

It is said that the well-remembered Count William has promised, in the presence of
our respected brother Auxerre Hugh and faithful son Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux,
that neither he nor his men, merchants, or others who wish to go to Vezelay will
prevent it. However, now it is learned from our faithful son Abbot Pontius of
Vezelay that you are obstructing and disturbing those who wish to go here, either
through yourself or your men. Therefore, with this present text, we command you
not to dare to do this inhuman act again. If you dare to do this, you should fear
being subjected to the wrath of God, who is able to do everything, through the
prayers of Saint Mary, who loves her Lord much.

Bernard's works or letters have another importance in terms of the Crusades, which
is the emphasis on the theory of Just War. He used the principles of Augustine, on
which the theory is based, to defend the Crusades. Firstly, a Crusade is a struggle
against injustice, against God and his church, against injustice done by unbelievers.
Secondly, the Crusaders, through the papacy as God's representative on earth, fight
by God's command. These two reasons make the organization of the Crusades just.
The Crusade is a Just War. This understanding shows that in addition to the
religious sentiment in the Crusades, a legal reason is also added.

Bernard's primary activity was to make appeals in many places by traveling long
distances to participate in these wars. The list of places he went to pray and
encourage participation in the Crusade is quite extensive. Some of these are:
Speyer, Worms, Kreuznach, Pichenbach, Coblenz, Remagen, Cologne, the
monastery of Brauweiler, Aachen, Maastricht, Liege, Huy, Gembloux, Villers,
Fontaine-l'Eveque, Binche, Mons, Valenciennes, Cambrai, Vaucelles, Gomme, the
monastery of Humbleux, the monastery of St. John at Laon, Rheims, Chalons-sur-
Marne, Flanders, Arras, St. Bertin, St. Omer, Bruges, Afflighem, Mainz,
Kenzingen, Freiburg, Basel, Constance, and Schaffhausen. Bernard, who was away
from the monastery for seven months, traveled thousands of miles and delivered
dozens of speeches on the reasons for the Crusade.

In his speeches, the most emphasized points were of course the purification of the
Holy Land from infidels, the persecution of co-religionists, and the necessity of
this war. In addition, the famine that occurred in 1146 also helped Bernard's
speeches. Almost all of the chronicles of the period - especially Lotharingia -
report that a very severe famine, unprecedented in scope, occurred and that grain
prices rose 20-25 times. Bernard also pointed out in his speeches that the way to
escape this disaster and win the love and mercy of God was to participate in the
Crusade.

In addition, the information transmitted to the West about how Muslims treated
Christians also contributed to the formation of the Crusade. In this context, the
expressions used by Nicholas, who was Bernard's secretary, in a letter he wrote to
Bernard in 1126 are exemplary on this subject: "A part of the Christian people is
chained, and another part is slaughtered like sheep to be slaughtered."

Doctor Mellifluus, also known as Bernard, also made efforts to protect the armies
leaving for the Crusade and tried to ensure that those participating in the Crusade
could safely reach their main destination. For this purpose, Bernard sent letters on
behalf of the German Emperor Konrad, high-ranking clergy and princes to the
Moravians, Saxons, and Danes against the Slav Wends, who threatened the north
and northeast, and especially told the Moravians in a letter written in March 11-23
in Frankfurt, where Bernard also participated, about the decisions taken at the
meeting and the need to participate in the meeting to be held in Magdeburg, and
invited all Christians to the Crusade to the Holy Land. The purpose of these letters
was to prevent the Slav tribes living beyond the Elbe from attacking the Crusader
armies from the side during their advance towards Byzantine lands. For this
reason, the Saxons, Danes, and Moravians

I pray that your eyes be upon the Temple Knights, open your hearts with great care
to the eager defenders of the church. If you support these individuals who put their
lives on the line for their brothers, you will have done something that pleases both
God and people.

In three separate advice letters that Bernard wrote to the Queen, the following
statements are included:
You see how bold I am in recommending others to you, so perhaps I am
recommending these Premonstratensian brothers to you in vain. Actually, they are
so recommendable by their own merits that they do not need anyone else. If I am
not mistaken, they will be found to be powerful in speech and action, patient in
turmoil, and members of the council, with a burning spirit. They have surrounded
themselves, not with flesh and blood, but with the armor of God and the sword of
the Holy Spirit, which is the Word of God, against the power of evil in the
heavens. Consider them as peaceful warriors, harmless to humans, but ruthless to
demons, or accept the reason for their pilgrimage, which is Christ.

My dear uncle Andreas, we can believe him in everything, he writes us very good
things.

He showed that you love and keep close the Temple Knights, and that you
prudently and wisely endure the threatening dangers of the region with useful ideas
and assistance, according to the wisdom given to you by God.

Upon hearing that I am held in good regard by you, many people who are going to
Jerusalem desire to be recommended to you, the most excellent one, through me.
One of them is this young man, who is my relative. It is said that he has strong
arms and is gentle in morals. I am pleased that he has chosen to fight for God
rather than the world at this time. Therefore, do as you are accustomed and, in my
regard, take care of this one as well as you have taken care of the rest of my
relatives whom you have known through me. As for the others, let not desire for
pleasure and temporary fame hinder you from your journey to the kingdom of
heaven. Why should it be better to rule for a few days on earth and be deprived of
the eternal kingdom of heaven? But I trust in the Lord that you will be better. If the
testimony of my very dear uncle, Andreas, is true, which many of us believe, you
will rule forever with the grace of God. Show kindness to pilgrims, the poor, and
especially those who are imprisoned, because God is won by such sacrifices.
Although we know that you are busy with good deeds and trustworthy, write to us
often so that it may not harm you and may be beneficial to us.
As can be seen, Bernard attempted to remove obstacles on the path while at the
same time creating the foundation for the Crusader expedition by taking advantage
of the circumstances of the time.

Muslim Perception

In addition to the efforts shown in his letters to make the expedition possible,
Bernard's letters also provide information about the Muslim perception of the time
and the situation in Jerusalem. The way in which Christians in the Middle Ages
saw Muslims and the feelings they held towards them has been the subject of many
studies. The statements made in Bernard's letters summarize these feelings.

Before the Crusades, it was known that an image of "the great enemy" was being
created for Islam in the West. At this point, the name Muhammad was turned into
the Prince of Darkness, Mahound, and appeared as a play on words in the works of
medieval novelists and playwrights. Similarly, Bernard uses a play on words to
state that Jesus came to the holy lands to fight against the princes of darkness, and
that those who came with the Crusades fought against Muslims, who are followers
of the same princes. He puts this idea into writing by calling Muslims "the servants
of the same people" (ipsorum satellites). This is clearly seen in the statements he
makes about the Temple Knights in his writings:

Just as he (Jesus) then devastated the princes of darkness with his own power, he is
now scattering and destroying the followers of those princes, the children of
disbelief, with the strength of brave men.
In another example, Bernard, in a letter he wrote to the Eastern Frankish clergy and
people, makes reference to the Holy Bible and uses the words "dog" and "pig" to
imply that Muslims unjustly hold the holy lands in their hands:

The earth is shaking; because the God of the heavens has begun to lose his own
country... Here he lived with people for over 30 years; he showed himself and his
miracles there; he consecrated his blood there... And now, because of our sins, the
heads of the sinful hatred of the cross have raised the sword of the word of the
country35. If no one stops them, it is near that they will invade the city of the
living God, destroy the places of our salvation, and defile the holy places of the
spotless Lamb with purple blood. With a godless mouth they are eyeing the temple
of the Christian religion and attempting to invade and crush the chosen place under
their feet37. What are you doing, brave men, what are you doing, servants of the
cross? Are you giving the holy things to dogs and pearls to pigs38 in this way?
After the infidelity of the infidels was cleansed with the swords of their ancestors,
how many sinners here confessed their sins with tears and obtained forgiveness!39

Bernard's letter to his uncle Andreas, a Temple Knight, reflects the situation in
Jerusalem after the expedition:

... (in his letter) I read about the fear you feel because of the danger to the land
honored by the presence of the Lord and the city founded by his blood. It is a
shame for our leaders. They have done no good in the land of the Lord. They
quickly returned to their own lands and are doing incredible evils... Nevertheless,
we believe that the Lord will not reject his own people and will not abandon his
own inheritance... I want you to come and I fear that you will not come. I am in
such a place between wanting and not wanting that I feel both and do not know
what to choose41.

Finally, Bernard, trying to create a negative perception of Muslims, tells the

soldiers of Jesus that fighting against all these evils will be a just war. When it is
considered that the owner of these words is an official religious figure appointed
by the pope, it should be taken into account that his approach carries a meaning
beyond the personal preferences of an individual and how it can create enthusiasm
for a world that he does not know the truth of in the ordinary Crusader world.

Methodology

This research paper appears to use a historical analysis approach to study the
twelfth century, specifically focusing on the Second Crusade and the role of Abbot
Bernard of Clairvaux in its formation and execution. The primary sources for this
research appear to be the letters and sermons written by Bernard in Latin. The
research paper also appears to evaluate the perceptions of Christians by Muslims
during this time period. The aim of the research is to understand the impact of the
Second Crusade on the course of history and the relationship between Christian
and Muslim cultures, as well as to examine the misunderstandings and mistrust that
existed between the two faiths.

In addition to analyzing the primary sources, the research paper may also include
other sources such as contemporary historical accounts and scholarly work on the
subject. The historical analysis approach involves examining and interpreting the
past in order to better understand it and its impact on the present. In this case, the
research is looking at the specific events and actions of the Second Crusade and the
role of Abbot Bernard in order to understand the motivations and perspectives of
the people involved, as well as the consequences of the crusade for the region and
for the relationship between Christian and Muslim cultures. The inclusion of the
evaluation of perceptions of Christians by Muslims during this time period adds
another layer to the research, as it helps to understand the broader context and the
ways in which the two faiths interacted and understood each other. The research
paper may also discuss the implications of these findings for our understanding of
the twelfth century and for our current understanding of the relationship between
Christian and Muslim cultures.

Evaluation

In conclusion, while attempting to create a negative perception of Muslims,

Bernard informs the soldiers of Jesus that fighting against all these evils will be a
justified war. When considering that the speaker is an official religious figure
appointed by the Pope, it should be taken into account that his approach carries a
meaning beyond personal preferences, and it should also be considered how it can
generate enthusiasm for a world that does not know the truth in the ordinary
Crusader's world.

In the final analysis, Bernard, who tried to create a negative perception of

Muslims, informs the soldiers of Jesus that fighting with so much evil will be a
justified war. When it is considered that the owner of these words is an official
religious figure appointed by the pope, it should be taken into account that his
approach carries more than just personal preferences, and it should be considered
how much enthusiasm he would create for a world he does not know the truth
about in the world of a common Crusader.:

During the time that I have preached and visited various places, the number of
people has increased. Castles and cities have been emptied, and now there are
seven women for every man, everywhere, there are widows with their husbands
still alive.

Bernard, as can be seen, tried to take advantage of the conditions of the time to
establish the ground for the Crusade while trying to remove the obstacles in this
way. In addition to the efforts he made for the campaign to be possible, his letters
also provide information about the perception of Islam in the period and the
situation in Jerusalem. In many studies, it has been the subject of how Christians
saw Muslims and how they felt in the Middle Ages. The statements in Bernard's
letters also summarize these feelings. Before the Crusades, as was known, an
"enemy" image was tried to be created for Islam in the West. At this point, the
name Muhammad was turned into the prince of darkness Mahound, which
appeared as a wordplay in the works of Middle Age novel and play writers.
Bernard also uses a similar wordplay, stating that Jesus came to the holy lands to
fight the princes of darkness and that those who came with the Crusades fought
against Muslims, who were followers of the same princes. He put this thought into
writing by calling Muslims "servants of the same people" (ipsorum satellites). The
expressions he used can be clearly seen in his work on the Templars. In another
example, Bernard uses the dog and pig words, referring to the Holy Book, when
writing to the Eastern Frankish clergy and people, suggesting that Muslims
unfairly hold the holy lands in their hands: In the end, Bernard, who tries to create
a bad perception about Muslims, informs the soldiers of Jesus that fighting against
such evil will be a justified war. When it is considered that the owner of these
words is an official religious figure appointed by the Pope, it should be taken into
account that his approach carries a meaning beyond personal preferences of an
individual and how it will create enthusiasm for a world he does not know the truth
about should be taken into account in the world of an ordinary Crusader.

Bernard actively used letters, the most effective means of communication at the
time, to ensure the safety of the routes taken by the armies and to protect and
encourage those who were going to the holy lands, as well as to make them feel
that they were doing the right thing and had the support of a religious authority.

As it can be seen, Bernard has tried to create the foundation for the Crusade by
taking advantage of the conditions of the time, while also trying to remove
obstacles on this path. Bernard's letters not only show the effort he has made for
the Crusade to be possible, but also provide information about the perception of
Muslims at the time and the situation in Jerusalem. In the Middle Ages, how
Christians perceived Muslims and what feelings they had for them have been the
subject of many studies. The statements in Bernard's letters summarize these
feelings. Before the Crusades, it was known that an image of "the great enemy"
was being tried to be created for Islam in the West. At this point, the name
Muhammad was turned into the prince of darkness Mahound, which was used as a
wordplay in the works of Middle Age novel and play writers. Bernard also uses a
similar wordplay, stating that Jesus came to the holy lands to fight against the
princes of darkness and that those who came with the Crusades fought against
Muslims, who were followers of the same princes. He expresses this thought by
calling Muslims "the servants of the same people" (ipsorum satellites) in his
writing. The use of these expressions can be clearly seen in his work on the
Temple Knights. In another example, Bernard uses the words dog and pig in a
letter he wrote to the clergy and people of East Francia, referring to the Holy Bible
and suggesting that Muslims unjustly hold the holy lands in their hands. After the
unsuccessful second Crusade, the Crusader armies, which were reorganized by the
loss of Urfa, could not reach what they wanted on their journey to the East.
Although the reasons for their departure or failure are known to everyone, when
the preparations for the Crusade are looked at, deep religious propaganda is
encountered again.

"This letter of praise written in response to a request letter from Hugh, a friend
who is one of the founders of the Knights Templar, is an important document
written for the Templars in the Middle Ages. Aside from its contribution to
literature or knights, what is important to us is the language used when talking
about Muslims."

"In Bernard's letters, his arguments are mostly supported by quotes from the Holy
Bible. It is unknown if he has accepted the principle that "there is no error in
metaphor," but when he talks about saving the East from enemies, the dog and pig
comparisons he uses for those who occupy the holy lands may have created an
image in the minds of the Christian people of the time, who were not very
knowledgeable about Muslims. Other expressions he used are "servants of
darkness," "unbelievers," "faithless," or "irreligious."
"The Middle Ages was one of the periods when the Muslim-Christian conflict was
most intense. The Crusades are a reflection of this. During this time, the religious
figures who were respected by the people were the ones who had a say. One of
them, Bernard, the Abbot of Clairvaux, who was appointed by the papacy during
the Second Crusade, contributed to the participation of more people in the crusade
by writing and visiting personally. The expressions he used to describe Muslims
through metaphor are indicative of the Muslim-Christian hostility of the time, in
the service of his goal."
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