THE MEDIATING ROLE OF SPORTS EMOTIONS

INCOACH-ATHLETE RELATIONSHIP AND

ATHLETES’ SPORTS ENGAGEMENT

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL

2023
Volume: 7
Pages: 445-453
Document ID: 2023PEMJ565
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7714172
Manuscript Accepted: 2023-08-3
Psych Educ,2023 , 7: 445-453, Document ID:2023 PEMJ565, doi:10.5281/zenodo.7714172, ISSN 2822-4353
Research Article

The Mediating Role of Sports Emotions in Coach-Athlete Relationship

and Athletes’ Sports Engagement
Jet C. Longakit*, Deljun R. Rodriguez, Felix M. Aque Jr., Yasmina S. Alag, Henry E. Lemana II
For affiliations and correspondence, see the last page.

Abstract
An increasing number of studies have shown the salient effect of pleasant emotions in sports and its
association with sports performance. However, little is known about how the coach and athlete
relationship affects athletes’ engagement through pleasant emotions. This study scrutinized the
mediating role of positive emotions on the relationship between the coach-athlete relationship and the
sports engagement of athletes. A total sample of 227 consisting of 60.8% male (N=138) and female
(39.2%; N=89) tertiary athletes of diverse sports completed an online questionnaire assessing the
coach-athlete relationship, sports engagement, and sports emotions. The results revealed that
pleasant emotions mediate the link between the coach-athlete relationship and the sports
engagement of athletes. These findings show that athletes with strong connections with their coaches
are more likely to experience greater levels of pleasant emotions, resulting in increased sports
engagement of athletes.

Keywords: coach-athlete relationship, sports management, sports emotions

Introduction Most recently, extant literature has shown that coach-

athlete relationships have a salient effect on sports
engagement and lead to a decreased level of burnout
In this contemporary world, participation in sports (McGee & DeFresse 2019). As the coach takes on the
offers many advantages and has played a significant role of being the athlete’s parent and significant other
role in athletes (Wilson & Khoo, 2013). Particularly, during training and competition, they are pivotal
youth sports serve as an instrumental drive in the agents in nurturing the athlete’s development that
development of young athletes. However, youth sports consequentially paves the way for athlete engagement
experiences are not always guaranteed to be positive as to happen (Valbuena et al., 2014). Within the sport
it is well-documented that disinterest paves high levels context, the most powerful, influential, and impactful
of decline in participation beyond adolescence (Curran is driven by having a purposeful coach-athlete
et al., 2015). Youth sports experience includes relationship that establishes positive intent. This intent
athletes, parents, and coaches, of which each aims to tweak salient physical features like skills,
stakeholder has the power to influence the social and techniques, and fitness and social features like
environmental contexts. In particular, the coach, who communication and engagements through energizing,
is acknowledged as a stakeholder who engages and motivating, assuring, encouraging, satisfying,
accommodating, and providing comfort and support.
cultivates connections with young athletes, can
Thus, the coach-athlete relationship is placed at the
influence an athlete's sporting experience through their
heart of coaching practice for it is argued that having a
coaching behavior style (Wekesser et al., 2021).
positive relationship between a coach and an athlete
Consequently, psychologists seek a prioritized could result in the amplification of social features such
as engagement (Jowett & Carpenter, 2015).
perspective in viewing positive psychology (Hodge et
al., 2009). In connection, experts have examined the
Further, numerous studies have indicated that regular
engagement construct, its nature, antecedents, and and longer participation in recreational sports is
outcomes across different life spheres since athlete associated with enjoyment, happiness, and satisfaction
engagement is recognized as a positive psychosocial (Stenseng et al., 2014). This can be seen through the
construct (DeFreese & Smith, 2013; Eklund & lens of broaden-and-build theory, where emotions (i.e.,
DeFreese, 2015; Podlog et al., 2015). Athlete pleasant) are justified by the facilitation of continued
Engagement, a concept that was primarily derived action. This implies that an experience of positive
from the work/employee engagement construct, is emotions triggers individuals to seize their
defined as the “persistent, positive, cognitive-affective environments and participate in activities (Fredrickson,
experience in sport, characterized by confidence, 2013). Since positive emotions and positive affect are
dedication and vigor” (Valbuena et al., 2014). interrelated, they function as internal signals to

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Research Article

approach or continue. This also goes for other positive questions:

affective states. On this note, the concept of
“broadening” one mindset is a definition of “positive 1. Is there a significant intercorrelation among coach-
finding of meaning.” This term is in reference to ath lete relation sh ip s (i.e., com m itm en t,
coping with a phenomenon leading to reinterpretation complementarity, and closeness), sports emotions (i.e.,
in a more positive manner (Garland et al., 2011; pleasant emotion), and sports engagement (i.e.,
Samios et al., 2013). For instance, sensory pleasure confidence, vigor, dedication, and enthusiasm)?
motivates people to approach or continue consuming 2. Is sports emotion (i.e., pleasant emotion) a
stimuli that are biologically useful to them. In the same significant mediator in the relationship among coach-
manner, having free-floating positive moods drives ath lete relation sh ip s (i.e., com m itm en t,
people to continue any line of thinking or action that complementarity, and closeness) and sports
they have initiated. This emphasizes that tendencies to engagement (i.e., confidence, vigor, dedication, and
approach or continue across all affective states share a enthusiasm)?
baseline and that is having a pleasant subjective feel
(Fredrickson, 2013). Notably, a state of positive
consciousness and happiness (i.e., pleasant emotion) is
Literature Review
experienced by individuals who are in a high level of
engagement (Doyle et al., 2016). This corroborates the Coach-Athlete Relationship
idea that engagement is also associated with having a
positive emotion. After all, emotions not only color Generally, the coach-athlete relationship is defined as
our lives and provide sense (Scott, 2009), but also a relationship that is framed by the coach and the
impart significant effects on human ability (Eccles et athlete’s shared thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
al., 2011). (Jowett, 2017). This implies that coach and athlete
share a special connection that is bound to a situation
However, despite the growing body of literature characterized by their social function. This is also
pertaining to coach-athlete relationships, few grains of regarded as one of the most essential relationships in
research have been conducted to shed light on the the context of sports to achieve effective sport
contribution and role of coach-athlete relationships in coaching and have a better chance of achieving
sport engagement, particularly in the context of success through both coach and athletes' influences
athletes in the southern Philippines, the locale of this and modification of each other's behaviors (Kerr-
study. On the account of fulfilling this research gap, Cumbo, 2011). Further, one qualitative research
this study scrutinizes the influence of the coach-athlete indicated that youth sports coaches use coach-athlete
relationship on the athletes' sports engagement. relationships as a tool in facilitating the buildout of life
Grounded on the broaden-and-build theory of pleasant skills (Vella et al., 2013). The communication between
emotion (i.e., broadening effect), this study employs coaches and players has been a key study issue in the
pleasant emotion as a mediator to better explain the United States, where research on the use of
athletes’ sports engagement. The broaden-and-build communication in sports has been extensively
theory of positive emotions provides an explanation as researched (Sullivan et al., 2011). The findings of
to how pleasant emotions encourage sports earlier studies highlight the need for coaches to set up
engagement among athletes. The result of this study settings that would allow athletes to effectively
provides a pivotal knowledge of how coach-athlete achieve their goals. In particular, Choi et al. (2020)
relationships play a crucial contribution in increasing suggested that it is essential for coaches not to actively
sports engagement among athletes, as well as an adhere to their viewpoints, insist on their opinions or
important insight for coaches and athletes in rights, or voice their thoughts strongly, but rather to
promoting pleasant emotions which can lead to strive to conduct themselves in a manner that can be
positive effects on athletes’ engagement in sports. viewed as respectful of the players. As a result, the
coach's autonomy-supportive coaching should come
Research Questions first before efficient communication between the
athlete and coach.
The purpose of this study was to examine the coach-
athlete relationship and sports engagement among Literature supports that the coach-athlete relationship
tertiary athletes and investigate the extent to which also determines emotional response (Choi et al., 2020;
sports emotions (i.e., pleasant emotions) mediated the Nicholls et al., 2016). Choi et al. (2020) further
relationship between the aforementioned variables. explained that, in the context of sports, the emotional
Specifically, it sought to answer the following responses of an individual are also regulated by

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Research Article

environmental factors, such that, when an individual

receives higher social support from his coach, he
experiences significantly higher positive emotions.
Additionally, Avci et al. (2018) enumerated al., 2016). Alluding to the findings of Mirehie &
personality, collective competence, passion, empathic Gibson (2019), negative emotions have been lowered
accuracy, satisfaction, psychological being, and well- through sports engagement and increased subjective
being as factors that are correlated with coach-athlete well-being (SWB) and satisfaction rate whereas
relationships (Avci et al., 2018). This infers that positive emotions manifested among elite sports
establishing a positive relationship will socially, athletes as realized in a competitive state. In
individually, and physically positively contribute to consonance with the aforementioned effects, 53 youths
the athletes while negative relationships will result in including their families in Los Angeles California
stress, burnout, and dropouts among athletes (Gullu et engaged in a virtual sport-based (i.e., personality youth
al., 2020). Moreover, given the information mentioned development) which yielded enjoyable and
in this section, it props up the assumption on the challenging (Bates et al., 2021). Conceptually, these
association of coach-athlete relationship, positive explored ideas support the assumption of the
emotion, and sports engagement. association of pleasant emotions and sports
engagement.
Pleasant Emotions and Sports Engagement
Broaden and Build Theory
Patterns in the interest of emotions in the parlance of
research tremendously increased, including its The primary characteristic of this theory adheres to the
properties associated with sports performance before tenet of fostering positive or pleasant emotions that
and during across various measures. Emotions are craft individuals to cope and magnify learning
utilized as the gist of the phenomenon to generate opportunities (Johnson et al., 2021). Thompson et al.
human alertness upon engaging in the endeavors of (2021) investigated further extension of broaden and
their environment (Friesen et al., 2013) where athletes build in two studies. Their results revealed that
terms as strategize to ascend performance in the pleasant emotions have the capability to undo
competition (Lane et al., 2012; Wagstaff, 2014). persisting cognitive losses that occur from past
Eccles et al., (2011) expressed that regulation and unpleasant phenomena. Equally important literature
levels of emotions experienced by athletes influence indicates that pleasant emotions have the ability to
their performance and well-being. Further, individuals transform individuals for the better by broadening and
who experience pleasant emotions (i.e., enjoyment, building effect over time, making them healthier and
happiness, and satisfaction) participate in sports more more socially integrated, knowledgeable, effective,
on a regular basis and longer (Adie et al., 2012; and resilient (Fredrickson, 2004; Stenseng & Phelps,
Annesi, 2010). A predictive validity emerged that 2013). Another compelling piece of evidence
harmonious passion (adaptive behavior) develops and em p h asizes the role of p leasan t emo tion
ascends vitality, life satisfaction, enhanced enjoyment, widening/broadening through-action procedures and
and happiness which is critical in advocating positive building reserves (i.e., social, intellectual, and
emotional outcomes in sports (Stenseng & Phelps, physical) and eventually a developmental foundation
2013); certain findings also imply that a passionate of advantages (Stifter et al., 2019). This ideates the
behavior as a characteristic of athletes in sports is crucial importance of a coach-athlete relationship and
positively linked to a high level of positive outcomes participation in sports by broadening people's
in emotions which turns out a propelling force in mentality and building their resources. Consistent with
sports commitment (Stenseng et al., 2014). this viewpoint, research has demonstrated that
individuals who experience positive emotions while
Thus, sports engagement among athletes contrasts with participating in sports are more likely to pursue their
fatigue, prevents exhaustion, and encourages a positive objectives and goals (Doyle et al., 2016; Stensing et
sporting environment (Martin et al., 2014; De al., 2014). Taken together, this study supports the
Francisco et al., 2017). As conveyed by Krueger utilization of this theory that can possibly influence the
(2012), the sports engagement term is with reference relationship between coach-athlete and their
to the full absorption state. In the area of leisure, engagement in sports that is empirical in flourishing
scholars distinguish sports participation in leisure with interventions in sports science and industry.
positive outcomes. Consistently, it influences social
interactions and is believed to enhance the well-being
of athletes (Berdychevsky et al., 2013; Broughton et

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Research Article

Methodology (α=.91) (i.e., dejection, anxiety, and anger). On a range

of 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely), SEQ intends to
Design, Respondents, Procedures
quantify the intensity of an athlete's positive emotions
Two descriptive quantitative designs, i.e., correlation in a competitive event. This scale has been proven to
and mediation methods, were employed in this study have good psychometric properties (Arnold &
which was composed of 227 tertiary athletes. Most of Fletcher, 2014; Laborde et al., 2014).
the respondents were male (60.8%; N=138) while
females constituted 39.2% (N=89) coming from Lastly, the level of engagement was measured and
private and public higher education institutions in the quantified using the athlete engagement questionnaire
southern part of the Philippines. Using purposive (AEQ). This is a 16-item questionnaire assessing the
sampling, the respondents were recruited on the basis engagement level of athletes in terms of their
that they participated in any competitive events (e.g., confidence, dedication, vigor, and enthusiasm with
intramurals, inter-collegiate games). The rosters were sample items such as: “I believe I am capable of
p r o v i d e d by their r e s p e c t i v e s p o r t s accomplishing my goals in sports,” I am dedicated to
directors/coordinators and validated through their achieving my goals in sports,” and “I feel excited
entry forms submitted upon the conducted event. Prior about my sport” to be filled out on a point ranging
to data collection, permission was sought from the from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). AEQ
respective sports coordinators and directors with obtained a Cronbach’s alpha of .99. The psychometric
proper coordination among different higher properties of the measure are well-established (De
educational institutions. The questionnaire was Francisco et al., 2018).
administered online and informed consent forms were
delivered through google forms. The nature and
purpose of the study, respondents’ rights, and data Results
confidentiality were emphasized in the said form.
Also, the participants were not restrained nor assigned Correlation Analyses
a limitation to ask pertaining to the study where lines
were constantly available for clarification to aid and The mean scores, standard deviations, and bivariate
enrich answering the items. Thus, the respondents’ correlations between coach-athlete relationship factors
availability, time preference, and comfort were highly (commitment, closeness, complementarity), pleasant
considered. emotions, and athletic engagement factors (confidence,
dedication, vigor, enthusiasm) are shown in Table 1
Measures
(see appendix). Results indicate that all Pearson
The coach-athlete relationship questionnaire (CART- correlations between factors produced positive and
Q) by Jowett and Ntoumanis (2004) is composed of 23 significant values (r= 0.258 -0.978, p <0.001). The
items designed to measure the nature of the coach- table shows there is a positive correlation between the
athlete relationship. On a 7-point range, from 1 coach-athlete relationship with pleasant emotions, r
(strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree), respondents (227) = .318, p <.001; pleasant emotions with athletic
were asked to fill out the frequency of their
engagement, r (227) = .283, p <.001; and coach-athlete
relationship with their coach in the scheme. Sample
relationship with athletic engagement, r (227) = .377, p
items include: “I feel close to my athlete/coach,” “I
<.001.
feel that my sports career is promising with my
coach/athlete,” and “I feel appreciation for the
Mediation Analyses
sacrifices my athlete/coach has experienced to improve
his/her performance. CART-Q indicated adequate
The results of mediation analyses of positive emotions
reliability and validity (Jowett, 2017). For this study,
in coach-athlete relationships and athletes’
the CART-Q obtained (α=.96) for closeness, (α=.97)
engagement in sports are shown in Table 2 (see
for commitment, and (α=.97) for complementarity
appendix). The results indicate an overall significant
respectively.
indirect effect of the coach-athlete relationship on
Meanwhile, the respondents’ pleasant emotions were athletes’ engagement through positive emotions (β =
measured through the sports emotions questionnaire .0509; 95% CI= .0148 to .1063, p < .001). The results
(SEQ) of Jones et al. (2005) to describe the also reveal that through positive emotions, there is a
experiences and challenges of the athletes’ specific positive and significant indirect effect of commitment
emotions in sports. A 22-item questionnaire with on athletes’ engagement (β = .1787; 95% CI= .0535 to
factors indicating assessments among various .3735, p <.001), closeness on athletes’ engagement (β
emotions, like pleasant emotions (α=.84) (i.e.,
excitement and happiness) and unpleasant emotions

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= .1403; 95% CI= .0403 to .2900, p <.001), and resources and relationships and are more likely to
complementarity on athletes’ engagement (β =.1365; function at their best and display excellent
95% CI= .0420 to .2835, p <.001). Considering the performance. This goes on to argue that the rise of
results of the indirect effect of positive emotions in pleasant emotions raises the athlete’s engagement in
Table 2, the confidence interval for the indirect effect sports on a more regular basis and longer as they feel
using 10,000 bootstraps samples was entirely above satisfaction (Adie et al., 2012; Annesi, 2010).
zero ([.0148, .1063]), which shows that positive Likewise, this implies that pleasant emotion is a drive
emotions partially mediate the relationship between for athletes to be more confident, dedicated, vigorous,
coach-athlete relationship on athletes’ sports and enthusiastic. The study’s result also affirms the
engagement. study of Doyle et. al. (2016) which states that
individuals who are experiencing pleasant emotions
are more likely to pursue their goals as they engage in
Discussion sports. This means that athletes are more goal-oriented
and focused in their sports engagement if they are
This study aimed at assessing the coach-athlete exposed to pleasant emotions. This is especially
relationship and sports engagement among tertiary important in the atmosphere of training for it ascends
athletes and investigating the extent to which sports performance in competitions (Lane et al., 2012;
emotions (i.e., pleasant emotions) mediated the Wagstaff, 2014).
relationship between the aforementioned variables.
Moreover, the result of the mediation analysis in Table
Specifically, it sought to determine whether there is a
2 presents an overall significant indirect effect of
significant intercorrelation among coach-athlete
coach-athlete relationships and athletes’ engagement
relationships (i.e., commitment, complementarity, and
in sports through pleasant emotions. This implies that
closeness), sports emotions (i.e., pleasant emotion),
as the coach-athlete relationship increases, pleasant
and sports engagement (i.e., confidence, vigor,
emotions increase, and as pleasant emotions increase,
dedication, and enthusiasm) and whether sports
athletes’ sports engagement increases. Moreover, this
emotion (i.e., pleasant emotion) is a significant
furthers that the coach-athlete relationship is a very
mediator in the relationship among coach-athlete
important key that propels the athlete's engagement in
relationships (i.e., commitment, complementarity, and
sports through pleasant emotions. In the context of the
closeness) and sports engagement (i.e., confidence,
broaden and build theory, pleasant emotions broaden
vigor, dedication, and enthusiasm). To achieve these
people's momentary thought-action repertoires which
research objectives, the study made use of descriptive
is a key to building psychological capacities such as
correlational and mediation approaches.
optimism and perseverance (Fredrickson, 2013; Vella
Results shown in Table 1 showcase the bivariate et al., 2011). Hence, coaches needed to rule over their
correlation of the coach-athlete factors, pleasant relationship with their athletes to promote the
emotions, and athlete engagement factors. This implies discovery of novel actions and ideas in getting them
that the more the relationship between coaches and closer to one another and establishing a rapport that
athletes increases, the more they engage in sports as will cause them to strengthen social bonds and commit
depicted by the significant correlation. To be more to their sports endeavors (Fredrickson, 2013). As they
specific, as coaches establish more closeness to the become more socially integrated, they are being
athletes, the more enthusiastic the athletes are in their transformed for the better and it is easier to
sports; the complementarity of coaches to athletes as supplement one another through the intervention of
they supplement them one way or another makes pleasant emotions (Choi et al., 2013; Fredrickson,
athletes more vigorous, for they can depend on them 2004; Stenseng & Phelps, 2013). This will lead to the
openly and see them as a significant drive in their life athlete’s feeling of enthusiasm that will produce a
in sports. This issues the coach’s commitment to their range of change-oriented behaviors like being vigorous
athletes toward training and wellbeing. In the same for the sport, engaged in action planning, and
way, the athlete reciprocates in being faithful, cognitively flexible for goal striving and team
dedicating to the pursuit they set together such as performance (Kauffman & Hodgetts, 2016).
training and dietary aspects. Pleasant emotions are
previously linked to both factors of coach-athlete Conclusion
relationship and athlete sports engagement as it has a
positive significant correlation to both. According to
Fredrickson (2013), people who express and Most research tried to draw attention to factors that
experience pleasant emotions have greater personal may have an impact on the participation of student-

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athletes in sports, including sports performance, workshops with experts in sports psychology. This
burnout, and coaching style. However, student-athletes will boost their self-assurance and that of their coach,
have not yet been examined in connection to the role teammates, and rivals, leading to more sporting
of the coach-athlete relationship and its impact on engagement.
sports engagement through sports emotions. This study
offers of the essence data on the significance of the
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Appendix

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviation, and Bivariate Correlations of variables

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Commitment 16.66 5.08 ---
2. Closeness 23.67 6.66 .941***
---
3. Complementarity 23.20 6.61 .901*** .946*** ---
4. CAR Total 63.52 17.93 .965*** .987*** .976*** ---
5. PE 20.67 6.77 .311*** .322*** .298***
.318*** ---
6. Confidence 16.75 4.04 .365*** .342*** .339*** .356*** .295*** ---
7. Dedication 17.14 3.93 .373*** .374*** .375*** .383*** .267*** .918*** ---
8. Vigor 17.33 4.16 .365*** .360*** .356*** .368*** .258*** .893*** .932*** ---

9. Enthusiasm 17.48 4.15 .350*** .353*** .347*** .359*** .280*** .890*** .931*** ---
.969***
10. AE Total 68.70 15.79 .374*** .368*** .365*** .377*** .283*** .953*** .978*** .977**
.973***
*
Note: A total of 227 tertiary athletes participated in this study. CAR- Coach-athlete relationship; PE- Pleasant
emotions; AE- Athletic Engagement. Correlation is significant at p<.001*** level (2-tailed)

Table 2: Results of Mediation Analyses

BC 95% CI
IV M DV Effect of Effect of Total Effect Direct Effect Indirect Effect BOOT BOOT BOOT
IV on M (a) M on DV (b) SE LL UL
CAR→ PE→ AE .1200*** .4240** .3324*** .2816*** .0509*** .0226 .0148 .1063
CO→ PE→ AE .4143*** .4313** 1.1629*** .9843*** .1787*** .0793 .0535 .3735
CL→ PE→ AE .3274*** .4286** .8726*** .7322*** .1403*** .0622 .0403 .2900
CMP→ PE→ AE .3054*** .4469** .8723*** .7358*** .1365*** .0597 .0420 .2835
CO→ PE→ CON .4143*** .1201** .2899*** .0509*** .0497*** .0202 .0172 .0980
CO→ PE→ DED .4143*** .0971** .2883*** .0497*** .0402*** .0194 .0095 .0877
CO→ PE→ VIG .4143*** .0980* .2987*** .0528*** .0406*** .0205 .0079 .0908
CO→ PE→ EN .4143*** .1162** .2861*** .0528*** .0481*** .0211 .0145 .0955
CL→ PE→ CON .3274*** .1231** .2074*** .0393*** .0403*** .0161 .0142 .0787
CL→ PE→ DED .3274*** .0949* .2203*** .0381*** .0311*** .0151 .0068 .0674
CL→ PE→ VIG .3274*** .0969* .2247*** .0405*** .0317*** .0162 .0058 .0710
CL→ PE→ EN .3274*** .1137** .2202*** .0404*** .0372*** .0165 .0107 .0771
CMP→ PE→ CON .3054*** .1271** .2072*** .0393*** .0388*** .0154 .0141 .0763
CMP→ PE→ DED .3054*** .0988** .2230*** .0380*** .0302*** .0144 .0075 .0653
CMP→ PE→ VIG .3054*** .1022** .2237*** .0406*** .0312*** .0154 .0070 .0698
CMP→ PE→ EN .3054*** .1188** .2183*** .0404*** .0363*** .0158 .0114 .0755
Note: A total of 227 tertiary athletes participated in the study. Data were bootstrapped to 10, 000 resamples. All coefficients are standardized.
IV= independent variable, DV= dependent variable, M = mediator, BC= bias-corrected, SE = standard error, CI= confidence interval, LL =
lower limit, UL = upper limit, CAR= Coach-athlete relationship, PE = positive emotions, AE = athletic engagement, CO = commitment, CL =
closeness, CMP = complementarity, CON = confidence, DED = dedication, VIG = vigor, EN = engagement, *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001.

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