PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF 3D SMART BLIND WALKING

STICK FOR BLIND PEOPLES

Abstract
Vision is a precious gift from God that one can able to see and enjoy this
beautiful world. But many people throughout the world are deprived of this.
According to October 2017 report of World Health Organization (WHO) an estimated
253 million people live with vision impairment: 36 million are blind and 217 million
have moderate to severe vision impairment. Un-operated cataract is the main reason
for blindness in low income and developing countries. Even in China by the end of
2017, the population over 60 will reach 241 million, accounting for 17.3 percent of
the country's total population and nearly 40 million are disabled and semi disabled,
according to data released by the Committee for the elderly in 2018. So, in this case
most of the visually challenged people cannot afford an expensive device to use as
their supporter. So, in this project we have proposed a cost-effective 3D intelligent
Walking device. This is mainly depends on the sensors because Sensors can improve
the world through diagnostics in many applications and it helps to improve
performance. This device is implemented using ARM Controller, IR Sensors (For
3D),Vibration Sensor (Piezoelectric sensor is for Pressure and Acceleration) as well
as GSM and GPS for location Sharing. Also we are introducing Voice module with
this to give the directions through audio format. This Entered device is programmed
by simple machine learning algorithms to optimize the machine.

Keywords: Intelligent Walking Stick, 3-Dimensional, IR Sensors, Voice Module,

Machine Learning GSM and GPS.

CHAPTER-1
 INTRODUCTION
Independence is the important methodology in achieving objectives, dreams and goals in
life. Visually impaired/blind persons find themselves challenging the dangerous paths to go out
independently. There are millions of visually impaired or blind people in this world who are always
need the help from others. For many years the normal walking stick became a well-known attribute
to blind person's navigation and later efforts have been made to improve the walking stick by adding
remote sensor. Blind people have big problem when they walk on the street or stairs using normal
walking stick, but they have sharp haptic sensitivity. The electronic walking stick will help the blind
person by providing more efficient and convenient means of life. Moving through an unknown
environment becomes a real challenge for the blind or impaired people. Those who go out from the
house with the white stick, often use well-known routes and difficulties with new ones. Moreover,
many people simply afraid of being helpless in constant movement of people, vehicle and other road
users. It is therefore advisable to offer new solutions of the problems with existing technologies.
This paper proposes the design and develops a portable stick for a blind people/impaired people for
convenient use and navigation in public and private places.
Visual debilitation also known as blindness is the condition which is affecting many
individuals around globe. This leads to loss of vision. Blind individuals must recognize objects. So,
these people require some aiding equipment. Almost all blinds cannot walk around independently
and require dependent on someone to travel. The preferred walking aid for blind is the traditional
white cane. White cane is one such tool which are used by blind or who have imperfect vision to be
independent. The cane helps blind to find obstacles and to overcome them safely. It was recognized
as the standard gear for the visually impaired. Therefore, various technologies are used as solution
to assist the blind people. Some researchers have developed walking stick for visually impaired
people for safe navigation. In work [1], walking stick consists of a camera, earphone for output and
four ultrasonic sensors. This system gives the result for all 360 degree from the position of the cane.
The camera is used for text and object recognition. In [2], authors have developed walking stick
with an ultrasonic sensor for detecting obstructions using various buzzer sound for each type of
obstruction. This system includes wireless RF remote control which alarm buzzer uniquely when
pressed and also for locating the blind stick when it is misplaced.
OVER VIEW:
However a more astonishing fact is that out of these 285 million people, 39 million people
are completely blind. It is not a herculean task to comprehend the amount of hardship which is
inflicted upon these innocent souls. Even, many children are blind since birth and we must
remember the fact that these children have a very long life ahead of them. Their lives can be
improved significantly if their dependence is reduced to a considerable extent. This played an
essential role in our decision to come up with the very notion of an advanced blind stick. Owing to
amount of strain which is being subjected to our eyes, the probability in enhancement of number of
blind people are bound to rise. The purpose of this blind stick would be to make blind people more
independent [2]. In fact, it will give positive dimensions to their life. The traditional obstacle
detection methods are obsolete and need considerable modifications. In this paper, we were
expected to tackle a real world problem. In a nutshell, we aimed at providing a technical solution to
a real world problem which would help society in some form or the other. The purpose of this
project would be to identify ways and means to make the lives of blind people much easier. To be
specific, this project will help blind people identify obstacles and make their next movement
according to presence or absence of obstacle. At the same time, we realize there may be
circumstances wherein the blind person may be bewildered about his next movement.
authors have introduced system which includes crutch and bracelet. So that crutch will detect
obstacles in front of them with sensors. The other invention [4] by authors is smart cane which can
detect all obstacles in range of 4m during 39ms and output is through audio-based frequency clips
for announcing obstacles detection. In [5], the authors have developed portable device for blind
peoples that will provide direction to new locations and alert them about obstacles in their path
during outdoor navigation. Using a ST microelectronic, this system has MEMS digital compass
module which will allow to give more accurate direction for the blind person. We have proposed a
system for blind people to navigate in safe path by alerting presence of obstacles.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Jismi Johnson et al., (2013), presents the smart walking Stick helps blind people in moving
and allowing them to perform their work easily and comfortably. The blind person cannot recognize
what is the size of that object and how far is he from the object. So, it is difficult for blind person to
move here and there. The smart walking stick supports Object recognition and output comes mainly
in the form of Voice output. In Smart Walking Stick, we detect the object with the help of a camera.
The stick measures the distance between objects and Smart Walking Stick by Ultrasonic sensor.
When the objects or obstacles come in range of the ultrasonic sensor, the speaker tells Name of
obstacle in front of the stick. Images will be captured using a camera and the camera is connected to
the Raspberry Pi. If any obstacle comes in front of blind person, he can know about the obstacle by
hearing the sound generated by the head phone. The smart walking stick is very useful for the
visually impaired persons for their safety and freedom from the other persons at all the time.The
developed system gives good results in detecting obstacles in front of the user [1].
K. Ramarethinam et al.,present the project is to provide the navigation information via
audible messages and hapticfeedback to the visually impaired people helping them to improve their
mobility independently. The system withportable self-contained feature that allows the blind people
to travel through familiar and unfamiliarenvironment. The proposed system consists of hardware
and software. In this system the Braille capacitivetouch screen enables a user-friendly
communication with the systems. All the operations can be made with thistouch screen. The major
components are the GPS receiver and path detector used for receiving the currentposition and
finding the current position and finding the shortest path to the destination. The navigation processof
the system will start once the user gives the destination as voice command. The system is provided
with anemergency button which will trigger an SMS that will send the present location of the user
(GPS coordinates) toa remote phone number asking for help, in case emergency. In addition, the
device provides user informationneeded, in audio format, including time, calendar, object colour,
alarm, obstacle detection, navigation direction,ambient light and temperature conditions. This
project will help the blind people in improving theircommunication ability and not to depend on
none during walking in even unknown areas [2].
Kher Chaitrali S et al., (2013), presents the visually impaired have to face many challenges
in their daily life. The problem gets worse when they travel to an unfamiliar location. Only few of
the navigation systems available for visually impaired people can provide dynamic navigation
through speech output. In this paper, we propose a navigation device for the visually impaired which
is focused on providing voice output for obstacle prevention and navigation using infrared sensors,
RFID technology, and android devices. The device has proximity infrared sensors. RFID tags are
installed into public building and also integrated into blind person’s walking stick. This device is
connected to an android phone through Bluetooth. An android application is designed which gives
voice navigation based on RFID tags read and also updates person’s location information on the
server. One more application is designed for family members to access the blind person’s location
through the server whenever needed.It aims to solve the problems faced by the blind people in their
daily life. The system also takes measures to ensure their safety [3].
Jini.S et al., paper presents the architecture and implementation of a system that will help the
visually impaired people to navigate using GPS technology. The system provides artificial guidance
to the visually impaired through known paths, that is the path for navigation has to be already stored
in the microcontroller. The current latitude and longitude values of the user are obtained using GPS.
These values are continuously compared with the already stored value in the microcontroller. Thus,
helps the blind in navigation. The goal is to create a portable, simple and less costly system that will
allow user to travel through familiar and unfamiliar environments without the aid of guides. Also, it
provides voice recognition to detect obstacles. The obstacles are detected using three ultrasonic
sensors, which are placed on the left, right, and front positions of the blind. The commands and
messages are played back to the blind via APR9600 voice playback IC. The keypad used in system
allows the user to select the desired locations to which he/she wishes to go. Keypad consists of 12
keys where each key represents a location. Blind selects the key using Braille language. The paper
focuses on the development and evaluation of a Navigation system that makes use of Global
Positioning System, voice and ultrasonic sensor for obstacle detection. [4]
A lot of research has been in this domain. An electronic blind stick with haptic perception
uses ultrasonic sensors, a vibrator motor scheme, a controller and a power unit inside the walking
stick. The ultrasonic sensors is used to find the distance of the obstacle and this information is
conveyed to the blind person in the form of tactile sensation. In order to avoid crosstalk, the
ultrasonic sensors have a sequential firing. With the assistance of change in intensity of vibration,
distance variation is experienced by the blind person. Distance is felt by the user in terms of the
vibration intensity change [4].
In another proposed system, two ultrasonic sensors are placed on the stick which have range
varying from 20-350cms. It means that the value can be set by the user. Moreover, in this model, we
have two Infrared sensors which are mounted on the lower side with an intention of avoiding of
small obstacles, precisely ranging 2-10cms. Moreover, there is a button which can be used to send a
message if the blind person needs some help. If the stick is about to hit the obstacle, the buzzer
beeps [5].
In another model, two infrared sensor have been integrated. The purpose of using two sensor
is to detect obstacle in different direction. The horizontal sensor is to detect obstacles on the front
side whereas of the inclined infrared sensor is used to detect obstacles on floor, as well as on upward
and downward stairs. Both these sensors gather data real and ultimately send it to 16F877A
microcontroller which performs the task of processing this data [2].

CHAPTER-3
SYSTEM DESIGN EXPLANATION
 Fig.3.1.Block diagram.
POWER SUPPLY:
All digital circuits require regulated power supply. In this article we are going to learn how
to get a regulated positive supply from the mains supply.
 

Fig:2.2 shows the basic block diagram of a fixed regulated power supply. Let us go through each
block.

TRANSFORMER
 A transformer consists of two coils also called as “WINDINGS” namely PRIMARY &
SECONDARY.
They are linked together through inductively coupled electrical conductors also called as
CORE. A changing current in the primary causes a change in the Magnetic Field in the core & this
in turn induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If load is applied to the secondary then
an alternating current will flow through the load. If we consider an ideal condition then all the
energy from the primary circuit will be transferred to the secondary circuit through the magnetic
field.

So

 
The secondary voltage of the transformer depends on the number of turns
in the Primary as well as in the secondary.

Rectifier
A rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal into DC signal. For rectification purpose
we use a diode, a diode is a device that allows current to pass only in one direction i.e. when the
anode of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode also called as forward biased condition &
blocks current in the reversed biased condition.
 
Rectifier can be classified as follows:
1)      Half Wave rectifier.

This is the simplest type of rectifier as you can see in the diagram a half wave rectifier
consists of only one diode. When an AC signal is applied to it during the positive half cycle the
diode is forward biased & current flows through it. But during the negative half cycle diode is
reverse biased & no current flows through it. Since only one half of the input reaches the output, it is
very inefficient to be used in power supplies.

  2)      Full wave rectifier.

 Half wave rectifier is quite simple but it is very inefficient, for greater efficiency we would
like to use both the half cycles of the AC signal. This can be achieved by using a center tapped
transformer i.e. we would have to double the size of secondary winding & provide connection to the
center. So during the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts & D2 is in reverse biased condition.
During the negative half cycle diode D2 conducts & D1 is reverse biased. Thus we get both the half
cycles across the load.
One of the disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier design is the necessity of using a center
tapped transformer, thus increasing the size & cost of the circuit. This can be avoided by using the
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

  3) BridgeRectifier.

As the name suggests it converts the full wave i.e. both the positive & the negative half cycle
into DC thus it is much more efficient than Half Wave Rectifier & that too without using a center
tapped transformer thus much more cost effective than Full Wave Rectifier.

Full Bridge Wave Rectifier consists of four diodes namely D1, D2, D3 and D4. During the
positive half cycle diodes D1 & D4 conduct whereas in the negative half cycle diodes D2 & D3
conduct thus the diodes keep switching the transformer connections so we get positive half cycles in
the output.
 

If we use a center tapped transformer for a bridge rectifier we can get both positive &
negative half cycles which can thus be used for generating fixed positive & fixed negative voltages.

FILTER CAPACITOR

Even though half wave & full wave rectifier give DC output, none of them provides a
constant output voltage. For this we require to smoothen the waveform received from the rectifier.
This can be done by using a capacitor at the output of the rectifier this capacitor is also called as
“FILTER CAPACITOR” or “SMOOTHING CAPACITOR” or “RESERVOIR CAPACITOR”.
Even after using this capacitor a small amount of ripple will remain.
We place the Filter Capacitor at the output of the rectifier the capacitor will charge to the
peak voltage during each half cycle then will discharge its stored energy slowly through the load
while the rectified voltage drops to zero, thus trying to keep the voltage as constant as possible.
 If we go on increasing the value of the filter capacitor then the Ripple will decrease. But then
the costing will increase. The value of the Filter capacitor depends on the current consumed by the
circuit, the frequency of the waveform & the accepted ripple.

 
Where,
Vr= accepted ripple voltage.( should not be more than 10% of  the voltage)
I= current consumed by the circuit in Amperes.
F= frequency of the waveform. A half wave rectifier has only one peak in one cycle so F=25hz
Whereas a full wave rectifier has Two peaks in one cycle so F=100hz.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 
 A Voltage regulator is a device which converts varying input voltage into a constant
regulated output voltage. Voltage regulator can be of two types
1)      Linear Voltage Regulator
      Also called as Resistive Voltage regulator because they dissipate the excessive voltage
resistively as heat.
2)      Switching Regulators.
They regulate the output voltage by switching the Current ON/OFF very rapidly. Since their
output is either ON or OFF it dissipates very low power thus achieving higher efficiency as
compared to linear voltage regulators. But they are more complex & generate high noise due to their
switching action. For low level of output power switching regulators tend to be costly but for higher
output wattage they are much cheaper than linear regulators.
The most commonly available Linear Positive Voltage Regulators are the 78XX series where
the XX indicates the output voltage. And 79XX series is for Negative Voltage Regulators.

After filtering the rectifier output the signal is given to a voltage regulator. The maximum
input voltage that can be applied at the input is 35V.Normally there is a 2-3 Volts drop across the
regulator so the input voltage should be at least 2-3 Volts higher than the output voltage. If the input
voltage gets below the Vmin of the regulator due to the ripple voltage or due to any other reason the
voltage regulator will not be able to produce the correct regulated voltage.
3 Circuit diagram:

Fig 2.3. Circuit Diagram of power supply

IC 7805:
7805 is an integrated three-terminal positive fixed linear voltage regulator. It supports an
input voltage of 10 volts to 35 volts and output voltage of 5 volts. It has a current rating of 1 amp
although lower current models are available. Its output voltage is fixed at 5.0V. The 7805 also has a
built-in current limiter as a safety feature. 7805 is manufactured by many companies, including
National Semiconductors and Fairchild Semiconductors.

The 7805 will automatically reduce output current if it gets too hot.The last two digits
represent the voltage; for instance, the 7812 is a 12-volt regulator. The 78xx series of regulators is
designed to work in complement with the 79xx series of negative voltage regulators in systems that
provide both positive and negative regulated voltages, since the 78xx series can't regulate negative
voltages in such a system.

The 7805 & 78 is one of the most common and well-known of the 78xx series regulators, as
it's small component count SPECIFICATIONS IC 7805 and medium-power
regulated 5V make it useful for powering TTL
devices. Vout 5V

Table 2.1. Specifications Vein - Vout Difference 5V - 20V of IC7805

Operation Ambient Temp 0 - 125°C

Output Imax 1A
3.3. LCD DISPLAY

LCD Background:

One of the most common devices attached to a micro controller is an LCD display. Some of the
most common LCD’s connected to the many microcontrollers are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This
means 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Basic 16x 2 Characters LCD

Figure 1: LCD Pin diagram

Pin description:

Pin No. Name Description

Pin no. 1 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 2 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 3 VEE Contrast adjust
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 4 RS
1 = Data input
0 = Write to LCD module
Pin no. 5 R/W
1 = Read from LCD module
Pin no. 6 EN Enable signal
Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1
 Pin no. 9 D2 Data bus line 2
Pin no. 10 D3 Data bus line 3
Pin no. 11 D4 Data bus line 4
Pin no. 12 D5 Data bus line 5
Pin no. 13 D6 Data bus line 6
Pin no. 14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)

Table 1: Character LCD pins with Microcontroller

The LCD requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data bus. The user
may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data
bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data
bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the
8 lines for the data bus).

The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.

The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that we are sending it data.
To send data to the LCD, our program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other
two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring
EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies
from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a
command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the
data being sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the
letter "T" on the screen we would set RS high.

The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the
data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or
reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write
commands--so RW will almost always be low.

Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation selected
by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4,
DB5, DB6, and DB7.

Schematic:
Circuit Description:

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is
connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain output. While most
Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating
the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of computers,
some of which may have no internal pull up resistors.

We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire the
R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a
result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted and
finished processing the last instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into
our program.

The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As
with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. We can use a bench power supply set to 5v or
use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors, especially if we have trouble
with the circuit working properly.

SETB RW

Handling the EN control line:

As we mentioned above, the EN line is used to tell the LCD that we are ready for it to
execute an instruction that we've prepared on the data bus and on the other control lines. Note that
the EN line must be raised/ lowered before/after each instruction sent to the LCD regardless of
whether that instruction is read or write text or instruction. In short, we must always manipulate EN
when communicating with the LCD. EN is the LCD's way of knowing that we are talking to it. If we
don't raise/lower EN, the LCD doesn't know we're talking to it on the other lines.
 Thus, before we interact in any way with the LCD we will always bring the EN line low with
the following instruction:

CLR EN

And once we've finished setting up our instruction with the other control lines and data bus
lines, we'll always bring this line high:

SETB EN

The line must be left high for the amount of time required by the LCD as specified in its
datasheet. This is normally on the order of about 250 nanoseconds, but checks the datasheet. In the
case of a typical microcontroller running at 12 MHz, an instruction requires 1.08 microseconds to
execute so the EN line can be brought low the very next instruction. However, faster
microcontrollers (such as the DS89C420 which executes an instruction in 90 nanoseconds given an
11.0592 MHz crystal) will require a number of NOPs to create a delay while EN is held high. The
number of NOPs that must be inserted depends on the microcontroller we are using and the crystal
we have selected.

The instruction is executed by the LCD at the moment the EN line is brought low with a
final CLR EN instruction.

Checking the busy status of the LCD:

As previously mentioned, it takes a certain amount of time for each instruction to be

executed by the LCD. The delay varies depending on the frequency of the crystal attached to the
oscillator input of the LCD as well as the instruction which is being executed.

While it is possible to write code that waits for a specific amount of time to allow the LCD to
execute instructions, this method of "waiting" is not very flexible. If the crystal frequency is
changed, the software will need to be modified. A more robust method of programming is to use the
"Get LCD Status" command to determine whether the LCD is still busy executing the last
instruction received.
 The "Get LCD Status" command will return to us two tidbits of information; the information
that is useful to us right now is found in DB7. In summary, when we issue the "Get LCD Status"
command the LCD will immediately raise DB7 if it's still busy executing a command or lower DB7
to indicate that the LCD is no longer occupied. Thus our program can query the LCD until DB7
goes low, indicating the LCD is no longer busy. At that point we are free to continue and send the
next command.

Applications:

 Medical equipment
 Electronic test equipment
 Industrial machinery Interface
 Serial terminal
 Advertising system
 EPOS 
 Restaurant ordering systems
 Gaming box
 Security systems
 R&D Test units
 Climatizing units
 PLC Interface
 Simulators
 Environmental monitoring
 Lab development
 Student projects
 Home automation
 PC external display
 HMI operator interface.
3.4. IR SENSOR:

IR transmitter and receiver

Basics of IR transmitter and receiver transmitter and receiver are commonly used in engineering
projects for remote control of objects. In particularly, in Robotic system uses transmitter and
receiver. Here i would like to describe the basics if IR transmitter and receiver

Basics of IR transmitter:

An electroluminescent IR LED is a product which requires care in use. IR LED’s are fabricated
from narrow band hetero structures with energy gap from 0.25 to 0.4 eV. Infra red transmitter emits
IR rays in planar wave front manner. Even though infra red rays spread in all directions, it
propagates along straight line in forward direction. IR rays have the characteristics of producing
secondary wavelets when it collides with any obstacles in its path. This property of IR is used here.

When IR rays gets emitted from LED, it moves in the direction it is angled. When any obstacle
interferes in the path, the IR rays get cut and it produces secondary wavelets which propagates
mostly in return direction or in a direction opposite to that of the primary waves, which produces the
net result like reflection of IR rays.

Basics of IR receiver:
Infrared photo receiver is a two terminal PN junction device, which operates in a reverse bias. It has
a small transparent window, which allows light to strike the PN junction. A photodiode is a type of
photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode
of operation. Most photodiodes will look similar to a light emitting diode. They will have two leads,
or wires, coming from the bottom. The shorter end of the two is the cathode, while the longer end is
the anode.

A photodiode consists of PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes
the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged electron
hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it,
these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes
move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.

Working of infrared communication:

Various types of infrared based applications are available in the market. The circuit for
infrared based applications is designed along with the transmitter and receiver sections i.e. we can’t
use it for other application. But the infrared communication project which we have done here can be
used in any application just by replacing the application at the place of infrared LED in the circuit
diagram of infrared communication. By using this project we can design infrared based applications
easily. The entire circuit consists of two sections named as
 1. Transmitter section and
2. Receiver section

1. Transmitter section:

The transmitter section consists of a 555 timer IC functioning in astable mode. It is wired as
shown in figure. The output from astable mode is fed to an IR LED via resistor which limits its
operating current. Infrared LED in the transmitter section emits IR radiation which is focused by a
plastic lens (optics) in to a narrow beam.

2. Receiver section:

The receiver section consists of a silicon phototransistor to convert the infrared radiation to
an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and
filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. The receiver section comprises an
infrared receiver module, and a led indicator. When the signals are interrupted, the IR Led goes off
after a few seconds depending upon the value of RC combination.

We can increase the distance between the IR transmitter and receiver just by placing the
lens between them. After connecting the IR transmitter and receiver circuit, we can get the output by
applying 6V Power supply to the circuit. We can use this circuit with any application very simply.
For example a buzzer circuit is placed at the output of IR circuit, when the signals are interrupted,
the buzzer produces sound. Both the transmitter and receiver parts can be mounted on a single bread
board or PCB. The infrared receiver must be placed behind the IR Led to avoid false indication due
to infrared leakage. An object moving nearby actually reflects the IR rays emitted by the IR Led.

Photo Diodes:

A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a photo detector. Photodiodes are

packaged with either a window or optical fiber connection, to let in the light to the sensitive part of
the device. They may also be used without a window to detect vacuum UV or X-rays.

A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a

transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. The phototransistor works like a
photodiode, but with a much higher responsivity for light, because the electrons that are generated
by photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this current is then amplified
by the transistor operation.

Fig (3.13) Photodiode schematic symbol

Principle of operation:

A photodiode is a p-n junction or p-i-n structure. When a photon of sufficient energy

strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged
electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length
away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region,
producing a photocurrent.

Photodiodes can be used under either zero bias (photovoltaic mode) or reverse bias
(photoconductive mode). In zero bias, light falling on the diode causes a current across the device,
leading to forward bias which in turn induces "dark current" in the opposite direction to the
photocurrent. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells in fact; a solar cell
is just a large number of big photodiodes. Reverse bias induces only little current (known as
saturation or back current) along its direction.

But a more important effect of reverse bias is widening of the depletion layer
(therefore expanding the reaction volume) and strengthening the photocurrent. Circuits based on this
effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on the photovoltaic effect and also tend to have
lower capacitance, which improves the speed of their time response. On the other hand, the
photovoltaic mode tends to exhibit less electronic noise.

Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure, but they are operated with much higher
reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown,
resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the
device.

Features:

Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

1. Responsivity:

The responsivity may also be expressed as quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of
photo generated carriers to incident photons and thus a unit less quantity.

2. Dark current:

The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background radiation and the saturation
current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a
photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise
when a photodiode is used in an optical communication system.

3. Noise-equivalent power:

(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the RMS noise
current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic directivity (D) is the inverse of NEP,
1/NEPThe NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.

Applications:

1. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such as
photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
2. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
3. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence
are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P-N vs. P-I-N Photodiodes:

 1. Due to the intrinsic layer, a PIN photodiode must be reverse biased (Vr). The Vr increases
the depletion region allowing a larger volume for electron-hole pair production, and reduces
the capacitance thereby increasing the bandwidth.
2. The Vr also introduces noise current, which reduces the S/N ratio. Therefore, a reverse bias
is recommended for higher bandwidth applications and/or applications where a wide
dynamic range is required.
3. A PN photodiode is more suitable for lower light applications because it allows for unbiased
operation.
3.5. WATER LEVEL SENSOR:

Water level sensor LM 324:

Fig3.4.1 .Water level sensor LM324

General Description:
The LM324 series consists of four independent, high gains; internally frequency compensated
operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over
a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power
supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op amp
circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For example,
the LM124 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply voltage which is
used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring
the additional ±15V power supplies.

Unique Characteristics
In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage
can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage. The unity
gain cross frequency is temperature compensated. The input bias current is also temperature
compensated
Advantages
1. Eliminates need for dual supplies
2. Four internally compensated op amps in a single package
3. Allows directly sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
4. Compatible with all forms of logic
5. Power drain suitable for battery operation
Features
1. Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
2. Large DC voltage gain 100 dB
3. Wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1 MHz (temperature compensated)
4. Wide power supply range: Single supply 3V to 32V or dual supplies ±1.5V to ±16V
5. Very low supply current drain (700 μA)—essentially independent of supply voltage
6. Low input biasing current 45 nA (temperature compensated)
7. Low input offset voltage 2 mV and offset current: 5 nA
8. Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
9. Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
10. Large output voltage swing 0V to V+ − 1.5V

DESCRIPTION:

The LM124LM124/LM224/LM324/LM2902 Low Power Quad Operational

Amplifiers series are op amps which operate with only a single power supply voltage, have true-
differential inputs, and remain in the linear mode with an input common-mode voltage of 0 VDC.
These amplifiers operate over a wide range of power supply voltage with little change in
performance Characteristics. At 25°C amplifier operation is possible down to a minimum supply
voltage of 2.3 VDC.
 The pinouts of the package have been designed to simplify PC board layouts.
Inverting inputs are adjacent to outputs for all of the amplifiers and the outputs have also been
placed at the corners of the package (pins 1, 7, 8, and 14). Precautions should be taken to insure that
the power supply for the integrated circuit never becomes reversed in polarity or that the unit is not
inadvertently installed backwards in a test socket as an unlimited current surge through the resulting
forward diode within the IC could cause fusing of the internal conductors and result in a destroyed
unit. Large differential input voltages can be easily accommodated and, as input differential voltage
protection diodes are not needed, no large input currents result from large differential input voltages.
The differential input voltage may be larger than V+ without damaging the device. Protection
should be provided to prevent the input voltages from going negative more than −0.3 VDC (at
25°C). An input clamp diode with a resistor to the IC input terminal can be used.

To reduce the power supply drain, the amplifiers have a class an output stage for
small signal levels which converts to class B in a large signal mode. This allows the amplifiers to
both source and sinks large output currents. Therefore both NPN and PNP external current boost
transistors can be used to extend the power capability of the basic amplifiers. The output voltage
needs to raise approximately 1 diode drop above ground to bias the on-chip vertical PNP transistor
for output current sinking applications. For ac applications, where the load is capacitive coupled to
the output of the amplifier, a resistor should be used, from the output of the amplifier to ground to
increase the class a bias current and prevent crossover distortion. Where the load is directly coupled,
as in dc applications, there is no crossover distortion. Capacitive loads which are applied directly to
the output of the amplifier reduce the loop stability margin. Values of
50 pF can be accommodated using the worst-case non inverting unity gain connection. Large closed
loop gains or resistive isolation should be used if larger load capacitance must be driven by the
amplifier.
LM124/LM224/LM324/LM2902

The bias network of the LM124 establishes a drain current which is

independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage over the range of from 3 VDC to 30
VDC. Output short circuits either to ground or to the positive power supply should be of short time
duration. Units can be destroyed, not as a result of the short circuit current causing metal fusing, but
rather due to the large increase in IC chip dissipation which will cause eventual failure due to
excessive junction temperatures. Putting direct short-circuits on more than one amplifier at a time
will increase the total IC power dissipation to destructive levels, if not properly protected with
external dissipation limiting resistors in series with the output leads of the amplifiers. The larger
value of output source current which is available at 25°C provides a larger output current capability
at elevated temperatures (see typical performance characteristics) than a standard IC op amp.

The circuits presented in the section on typical applications emphasize operation

on only a single power supply voltage. If complementary power supplies are available, all of the
standard op amp circuits can be used. In general, introducing a pseudo-ground (a bias voltage
reference of V+/2) will allow operation above and below this value in single power supply systems.
Many application circuits are shown which take advantage of the wide input common-mode voltage
range which includes ground. In most cases, input biasing is not required and input voltages which
range to ground can easily be accommodated.

3.6. MQ2 Sensor:

MQ2 sensors need to be calibrated and periodically checked to ensure sensor accuracy and system
integrity. It is important to install stationary sensors in locations where the calibration can be performed
easily. The intervals between calibrations can be different from sensor to sensor. Generally, the manufacturer
of the sensor will recommend a time interval between calibrations. However, it is good general practice to
check the sensor more closely during the first 30 days after installation. During this period, it is possible to
observe how well the sensor is adapting to its new environment. Also, factors that were not accounted for in
the design of the system might surface and can affect the sensor’s performance.

If the sensor functions properly for 30 continuous days, this provides a good degree of confidence
about the installation. Any possible problems can be identified and corrected during this time. Experience
indicates that a sensor surviving 30 days after the initial installation will have a good chance of performing its
function for the duration expected. Most problems—such as an inappropriate sensor location, interference
from other MQ2es, or the loss of sensitivity—will surface during this time.

Fig: Diagram of MQ2 sensor

Working of MQ2 sensor:

 During the first 30 days, the sensor should be checked weekly. Afterward, a maintenance schedule,
Hazardous MQ2 Monitors including calibration intervals, should be established. Normally, a monthly
calibration is adequate to ensure the effectiveness and sensibility of each sensor; this monthly check will also
afford you the opportunity to maintain the system’s accuracy. The method and procedure for calibrating the
sensors should be established immediately. The calibration procedure should be simple, straightforward, and
easily executed by regular personnel. Calibration here is simply a safety check, unlike laboratory analyzers
that require a high degree of accuracy. For area air quality and safety MQ2 monitors, the requirements need
to be simple, repeatable, and economical. The procedure should be consistent and traceable. The calibration
will be performed in the field where sensors are installed so it can occur in any type environment. Calibration
of the MQ2 sensor involves two steps. First the “zero” must be set and then the “span” must be calibrated.

The sensing material in TGS MQ2 sensors is metal oxide, most typically SnO2. When a metal oxide
Crystal such as SnO2 is heated at a certain high temperature in air, oxygen is adsorbed on the crystal
surface with a negative charge. Then donor electrons in the crystal surface are transferred to the
adsorbed oxygen, resulting in leaving positive charges in a space charge layer. Thus, surface
potential is formed to serve as a potential barrier against electron flow.

Inside the sensor, electric current flows through the conjunction parts (grain boundary) of SnO2
micro crystals. At grain boundaries, adsorbed oxygen forms a potential barrier which prevents
carriers from moving freely. The electrical resistance of the sensor is attributed to this potential
barrier. In the presence of a deoxidizing MQ2, the surface density of the negatively charged oxygen
decreases, so the barrier height in the grain boundary is reduced. The reduced barrier height
decreases sensor resistance.

Sensor resistance will drop very quickly when exposed to MQ2, and when removed from MQ2 its
resistance will recover to its original value after a short time. The speed of response and reversibility
will vary according to the model of sensor and the MQ2 involved.

Feature
- Power requirements: 5 VDC @ ~160mA

- Interface Type: Resistive

- Dimensions: 0.75" diameter x 0.65" tall excluding leads (19.1mm diameter x 16.55mm tall excluding leads)

- Operating temp range: -4 to +122 °F (-20 to +50 °C)

Connections
connecting five volts across the heating (H) pins keeps the sensor hot enough to function correctly.
Connecting five volts at either the A or B pins causes the sensor to emit an analog voltage on the other pins.
A resistive load between the output pins and ground sets the sensitivity of the detector. Please note that the
picture in the datasheet for the top configuration is wrong. Both configurations have the same pinout
consistent with the bottom configuration. The resistive load should be calibrated for your particular
application using the equations in the datasheet, but a good starting value for the resistor is 10 kΩ.

3.8. GSM MODULE:

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)

Definition:

GSM, which stands for Global System for Mobile communications, reigns (important) as
the world’s most widely used cell phone technology. Cell phones use a cell phone service carrier’s
GSM network by searching for cell phone towers in the nearby area. Global system for mobile
communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication.

GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a

common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-
European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many countries
outside of Europe will join the GSM partnership.
MODEM SPECIFICATIONS:

The SIM300 is a complete Tri-band GSM solution in a compact plug-in module.

Featuring an industry-standard interface, the SIM300 delivers GSM/GPRS900/1800/1900Mhz

performance for voice, SMS, data and Fax in a small form factor and with low power consumption.

The leading features of SIM300 make it deal fir virtually unlimited application, such as WLL
applications (Fixed Cellular Terminal), M2M application, handheld devices and much more.

1. Tri-band GSM/GPRS module with a size of 40x33x2.85

2. Customized MMI and keypad/LCD support
3. An embedded powerful TCP/IP protocol stack
 4. Based upon mature and field proven platform, backed up by our support service, from
definition to design and production.
General Features:

 Tri-band GSM/GPRS900/1800/1900Mhz
 GPRS multi-slot class 10
 GPRS mobile station class –B
 Complaint to GSM phase 2/2+
i. -class 4(2W @900MHz)
ii. -class 1(1W @/18001900MHz)
 Dimensions: 40x33x2.85 mm
 Weight: 8gm
 7. Control via AT commands
 (GSM 07.07, 07.05 and SIMCOM enhanced AT commands)
 SIM application tool kit
 supply voltage range 3.5…….4.5 v
 Low power consumption
 Normal operation temperature: -20 ’C to +55 ‘C
 Restricted operation temperature : -20 ’C to -25 ‘C and +55 ’C to +70 ‘C
 storage temperature: -40 ‘C to +80 ‘C

Specifications for Fax:

Group 3 and class 1

Specifications for Data:

 GPRS class 10: max 85.6 kbps (downlink)

 PBCCH support
 coding schemes Cs 1,2,3,4
 CSD upto 14.4 kbps
  USSD
 Non transperant mode
 PPP-stack

Specifications for SMS via GSM/GPRS:

 Point to point MO and MT

 SMS cell broadcast
 Text and PDU mode

Compatibility:

At cellular command interface

Specifications for voice:

1. Tricodec

-Half rate (HR)

-Full rate (FR)

-Enhanced full rate (EFR)

2. Hands free operation

(Echo cancellation)

Drivers:

Microsoft windows mobile RIL driver

MUX driver

Interfaces:

 Interface to external SIM 3v 1.8v

  60 pins board-to-board connector
 Two analog audio interfaces
 Keypad interfaces
 LCD interface
 RTC backup
 AT commands via serial interface
 Dual-Serial interfaces
 Antenna connector and antenna pad
Approvals:

 FTA
 Local type approval
 CE

Need of GSM:

The GSM study group aimed to provide the followings through the GSM:

 Improved spectrum efficiency.

 International roaming.
 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BS)
 High-quality speech
 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone
company services.
 Support for new services.

GSM – Architecture:

A GSM network consists of several functional entities whose functions and interfaces are
defined. The GSM network can be divided into following broad parts.

 The Mobile Station (MS)

 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
  The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

Following fig shows the simple architecture diagram of GSM Network.

Fig: GSM Network.

The added components of the GSM architecture include the functions of the databases and
messaging systems:

 Home Location Register (HLR)

 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)
 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
 Following fig shows the diagram of GSM Network along with added elements.

Fig: GSM Network along with added elements.

The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface, also known as the air interface
or radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching center across the A
interface.

GSM network areas:

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined:

Cell: Cell is the basic service area, one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global
Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.

Location Area: A group of cells form a Location Area. This is the area that is paged when a
subscriber gets an incoming call. Each Location Area is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI).
Each Location Area is served by one or more BSCs.

MSC/VLR Service Area: The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service area.
PLMN: The area covered by one network operator is called PLMN. A PLMN can contain one or
more MSCs.

The GSM networks parts are explained as follows:

1) Mobile Station:

The mobile station (MS) consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio
transceiver, display and digital signal processors, and a smart card called the Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM).  The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can have access to all
subscribed services irrespective of both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific
terminal.  By inserting the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone, the user is able to receive
calls at that phone, make calls from that phone, or receive other subscribed services.

The mobile equipment is uniquely identified by the International Mobile Equipment

Identity (IMEI).  The SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI),
identifying the subscriber, a secret key for authentication, and other user information.  The IMEI
and the IMSI are independent, thereby providing personal mobility.  The SIM card may be
protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identity number.

2) Base Station Subsystem:

The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts, the Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
and the Base Station Controller (BSC).  These communicate across the specified Abis interface,
allowing (as in the rest of the system) operation between components made by different suppliers.

The Base Transceiver Station houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the
radio link protocols with the Mobile Station.  In a large urban area, there will potentially be a large
number of BTSs deployed.  The requirements for a BTS are ruggedness, reliability, portability, and
minimum cost.

The Base Station Controller manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs.   It
handles radio channel setup, frequency hopping, and handovers, as described below.  The BSC is
the connection between the mobile and the Mobile service Switching Center (MSC).  The BSC also
translates the 13 kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the standard
64 kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network or ISDN.

3) Network Subsystem:

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile

services Switching Center (MSC).  It acts like a normal switching node of
the PSTN or ISDN, and in addition provides all the functionality needed to
handle a mobile subscriber, such as registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and
call routing to a roaming subscriber.  These services are provided in conjunction with several
functional entities, which together form the Network Subsystem.  The MSC provides the
connection to the public fixed network (PSTN or ISDN), and signaling between functional entities
uses the ITUT Signaling System Number 7 (SS7), used in ISDN and widely used in current public
networks.

The Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR), together with
the MSC, provide the call routing and (possibly international) roaming capabilities of GSM.  The
HLR contains all the administrative information of each subscriber registered in the corresponding
GSM network, along with the current location of the mobile.  The current location of the mobile is
in the form of a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) which is a regular ISDN number used to
route a call to the MSC where the mobile is currently located.  There is logically one HLR per GSM
network, although it may be implemented as a distributed database.

The Visitor Location Register contains selected administrative information from the
HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed services, for each mobile currently
located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR.  Although each functional entity can be
implemented as an independent unit, most manufacturers of switching equipment implement one
VLR together with one MSC, so that the geographical area controlled by the MSC corresponds to
that controlled by the VLR, simplifying the signaling required.  Note that the MSC contains no
information about particular mobile stations - this information is stored in the location registers.
 The other two registers are used for authentication and security purposes.   The
Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on
the network, where each mobile station is identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI).  An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.  The
Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in each
subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel.

GSM - The Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

The BSS is composed of two parts:

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

 The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling
operations between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a
BSS may consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The BSS
uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then
connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.

The Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

 The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link
protocols with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.

The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A
BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell. Each
BTS has between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the cell. Each BTS
serves a single cell. It also includes the following functions:

 Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the antenna.
 Transcoding and rate adaptation
 Time and frequency synchronizing
 Voice through full- or half-rate services
 Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
 Random access detection
 Timing advances
 Uplink channel measurements

3.9. GPS MODULE:

Global Positioning System

Introduction:
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a burgeoning technology, which provides unequalled accuracy and
flexibility of positioning for navigation, surveying and GIS data capture. The GPS NAVSTAR (Navigation
Satellite timing and Ranging Global Positioning System) is a satellite-based navigation, timing and
positioning system. The GPS provides continuous three-dimensional positioning 24 hrs a day throughout the
world. The technology seems to be beneficiary to the GPS user community in terms of obtaining accurate
data up to about100 meters for navigation, meter-level for mapping, and down to millimeter level for
geodetic positioning. The GPS technology has tremendous amount of applications in GIS data collection,
surveying, and mapping.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S. space-based radio navigation system
that provides reliable positioning, navigation, and timing services to civilian users on a continuous
worldwide basis -- freely available to all. For anyone with a GPS receiver, the system will provide
location and time. GPS provides accurate location and time information for an unlimited number of
people in all weather, day and night, anywhere in the world.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of

a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS was originally
intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system available for
civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day. There are
no subscription fees or setup charges to use GPS.

The GPS is made up of three parts: satellites orbiting the Earth; control and monitoring stations on
Earth; and the GPS receivers owned by users. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space that are
picked up and identified by GPS receivers. Each GPS receiver then provides three-dimensional
location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) plus the time.

Individuals may purchase GPS handsets that are readily available through commercial
retailers. Equipped with these GPS receivers, users can accurately locate where they are and easily
navigate to where they want to go, whether walking, driving, flying, or boating. GPS has become a
mainstay of transportation systems worldwide, providing navigation for aviation, ground, and
maritime operations. Disaster relief and emergency services depend upon GPS for location and
timing capabilities in their life-saving missions. Everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone
operations, and even the control of power grids, are facilitated by the accurate timing provided by
GPS. Farmers, surveyors, geologists and countless others perform their work more efficiently,
safely, economically, and accurately using the free and open GPS signals.
Geo positioning -- Basic Concepts:
By positioning we understand the determination of stationary or moving objects. These can be determined
as follows:

1. In relation to a well-defined coordinate system, usually by three coordinate values and

2. In relation to other point, taking one point as the origin of a local coordinate system.

The first mode of positioning is known as point positioning, the second as relative positioning. If the object
to be positioned is stationary, we term it as static positioning. When the object is moving, we call it
kinematics positioning. Usually, the static positioning is used in surveying and the kinematics position in
navigation.

GPS - Components and Basic Facts:

The GPS uses satellites and computers to compute positions anywhere on earth. The GPS is based on
satellite ranging. That means the position on the earth is determined by measuring the distance from a
group of satellites in space. The basic principles behind GPS are really simple, even though the system
employs some of the most high-tech equipment ever developed. In order to understand GPS basics, the
system can be categorized into 5 Logical steps.

List of components:

1. Triangulation from the satellite is the basis of the system.

2. To triangulate, the GPS measures the distance using the travel time of the radio message.
3. To measure travel time, the GPS need a very accurate clock.
4. Once the distance to a satellite is known, then we need to know where the satellite is in space.
5. As the GPS signal travels through the ionosphere and the earth's atmosphere, the signal is delayed.

To compute a position in three dimensions we need to have four satellite measurements. The GPS
uses a trigonometric approach to calculate the positions, The GPS satellites are so high up that their orbits
are very predictable and each of the satellites is equipped with a very accurate atomic clock.

Components of a GPS:
The GPS is divided into three major components
  The Control Segment
 The Space Segments
 The User Segment

1. The Control Segment:

The Control Segment consists of five monitoring stations (Colorado Springs, Ascension Island,
Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and Kwajalein Island). Three of the stations (Ascension, Diego Garcia, and Kwajalein)
serve as uplink installations, capable of transmitting data to the satellites, including new ephemeredes
(satellite positions as a function of time), clock corrections, and other broadcast message data, while
Colorado Springs serves as the master control station. The Control Segment is the sole responsibility of the
DOD who undertakes construction, launching, maintenance, and virtually constant performance monitoring
of all GPS satellites.

The DOD monitoring stations track all GPS signals for use in controlling the satellites and
predicting their orbits. Meteorological data also are collected at the monitoring stations, permitting the
most accurate evaluation of tropospheric delays of GPS signals. Satellite tracking data from the monitoring
stations are transmitted to the master control station for processing. This processing involves the
computation of satellite ephemeredes and satellite clock corrections. The master station controls orbital
corrections, when any satellite strays too far from its assigned position, and necessary repositioning to
compensate for unhealthy (not fully functioning) satellites.

2. The Space Segment:

The Space Segment consists of the Constellation of NAVASTAR earth orbiting satellites. The
current Defense Department plan calls for a full constellation of 24 Block II satellites (21 operational and 3
in-orbit spares). The satellites are arrayed in 6 orbital planes, inclined 55 degrees to the equator. They orbit
at altitudes of about 12000, miles each, with orbital periods of 12 sidereal hours (i.e., determined by or
from the stars), or approximately one half of the earth's periods, approximately 12 hours of 3-D position
fixes. The next block of satellites is called Block IIR, and they will provide improved reliability and have a
capacity of ranging between satellites, which will increase the orbital accuracy. Each satellite contains four
precise atomic clocks (Rubidium and Cesium standards) and has a microprocessor on board for limited self-
monitoring and data processing. The satellites are equipped with thrusters which can be used to maintain
or modify their orbits.
3. The User Segment:
The user segment is a total user and supplier community, both civilian and military. The User
Segment consists of all earth-based GPS receivers. Receivers vary greatly in size and complexity, though the
basic design is rather simple. The typical receiver is composed of an antenna and preamplifier, radio signal
microprocessor, control and display device, data recording unit, and power supply. The GPS receiver
decodes the timing signals from the 'visible' satellites (four or more) and, having calculated their distances,
computes its own latitude, longitude, elevation, and time. This is a continuous process and generally the
position is updated on a second-by-second basis, output to the receiver display device and, if the receiver
display device and, if the receiver provides data capture capabilities, stored by the receiver-logging unit.

Working of GPS:

GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal
information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to calculate the user's
exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a
satellite with the time it was received. The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the
satellite is. Now, with distance measurements from a few more satellites, the receiver can determine
the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map.

GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D
position (latitude and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, the
receiver can determine the user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the user's
position has been determined, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing,
track, trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time and more.

3.10. APR9600 with speaker:

 APR9600 is a low-cost high performance sound record/replay IC incorporating flash analogue
storage technique. Recorded sound is retained even after power supply is removed from the module. The
replayed sound exhibits high quality with a low noise level. Sampling rate for a 60 second recording period
is 4.2 kHz that gives a sound record/replay bandwidth of 20Hz to 2.1 kHz.

However, by changing an oscillation resistor, a sampling rate as high as 8.0 kHz can be achieved.
This shortens the total length of sound recording to 32 seconds. Total sound recording time can be varied
from 32 seconds to 60 seconds by changing the value of a single resistor. The IC can operate in one of two
modes: serial mode and parallel mode. In serial access mode, sound can be recorded in 256 sections. In
parallel access mode, sound can be recorded in 2, 4 or 8 sections. The IC can be controlled simply using push
button keys. It is also possible to control the IC using external digital circuitry such as micro-controllers and
computers.

The APR9600 has a 28 pin DIP package. Supply voltage is between 4.5V to 6.5V. During recording
and replaying, current consumption is 25 mA. In idle mode, the current drops to 1 A. The APR9600
experimental board is an assembled PCB board consisting of an APR9600 IC, an electret microphone,
support components and necessary switches to allow users to explore all functions of the APR9600 chip.
The oscillation resistor is chosen so that the total recording period is 60 seconds with a sampling rate of 4.2
kHz. The board measures 80mm by 55mm.
APR9600 Experimental board

Description of APR9600:

Pin-out of the APR9600 is given in Figure 1. A typical connection of the chip is given in Figure 2 (This
is the circuit diagram of the module). Pin functions of the IC

are given in Table 1. During sound recording, sound is picked up by the microphone. A microphone pre-
amplifier amplifies the voltage signal from the microphone. An AGC circuit is included in the pre-amplifier,
the extent of which is controlled by an external capacitor and resistor. If the voltage level of a sound signal
is around 100 mV peakto- peak, the signal can be fed directly into the IC through ANA IN pin (pin 20). The
sound signal passes through a filter and a sampling and hold circuit. The analogue voltage is then written
into non-volatile flash analogue RAMs. It has a 28 pin DIP package. Supply voltage is between 4.5V to 6.5V.
During recording and replaying, current consumption is 25 mA. In idle mode, the current drops to 1 A.

Theory of APR 9600 module:

 The circuit diagram of the module is shown in Figure 2. The module consists of an APR9600 chip, an
electrets microphone, support components, a mode selection switch (-RE, MSEL1, MSEL2 and – M8) and 9
keys (-M1 to –M8 and CE). The oscillation resistor is chosen so that the total recording period is 60 seconds
with a sampling rate of 4.2 kHz. Users can change the value of the ROSC to obtain other sampling
frequencies. It should be noted that if the sampling rate is increased, the length of recording time is
decreased. Table 3 gives the details. An 8-16 Ohm speaker is to be used with the module. Users can select
different modes using the mode selection switch. The module is measured 80mm 55mm. Connection
points (0-8, C and B) can connect to other switches or external digital circuits. In this cased, on-board keys
M1 to M8 and CE are by-passed.

Features of APR9600 module:

1. Parallel mode recording and replaying:

(i) Record sound tracks:

This is an example of recording 8 sound tracks. The mode switch should have the following pattern:
MSEL1=1(switched to left-hand side of the mode selection switch), MSEL2=1 (left-hand side). –M8=1 (left-
hand side). RE=0 (right-hand side). The maximum length of the 8 tracks is 7.5 seconds. Press –M1
continuously and you will see BUZY LED illuminates. You can now speak to the microphone. Recording will
terminate if –M1 is released or if the recording time exceeds 7.5 seconds. Similarly, press –M2 to -M8 to
record other sound tracks.

(ii)Replay sound tracks:

Now make RE=1 (switched to Left-hand side of the mode selection switch) while keep other
switches at the same location. Toggle –M1 to –M8 (press key and release) causes a particular sound track to
replay once. While the sound is playing, press the same key again or press CE key will terminate the current
sound track. Press other key while a sound is being played causes a new sound track to be played. If a key
from –M1 to -M8 is pressed continuously, the particular sound track will be played continuously. Press CE to
stop playing the sound track.
2 Serial mode recording and replaying

(i)Record sound tracks sequentially:

This is an example of recording sequential sound tracks. The mode switch should have the following
pattern: MSEL1=0(switched to right-hand side of the mode selection switch), MSEL2=0 (right-hand side). –
M8=1 (left-hand side). RE=0 (right-hand side). Press CE first to reset the sound track counter to zero. Press
and hold –M1 down and you will see BUZY LED illuminates. You can now speak to the microphone.
Recording will terminate if –M1 is released or if the recording time exceeds 60 seconds (in this case you will
run out the memory for your next sound track). Press –M1 again and again to record 2nd, 3rd , 4th and
other consecutive sound tracks. Each sound track may have different lengths, but the accumulated length of
all sound tracks will not exceed 60 seconds.

(ii)Replay sound tracks sequentially:

Now make RE=1 (switched to Left-hand side of the mode selection switch) while keep other
switches at the same location. Toggle –M1 (press key and release) causes the 1st sound track to be played
once. Toggle –M1 again and again will play the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and other consecutive sound tracks. Press CE to
reset the sound track counter to zero.

(iii)Record sound tracks with forward control:

This is an example of recording sound tracks with forward control. The mode switch should have the
following pattern: MSEL1=0(switched to right-hand side of the mode selection switch), MSEL2=0 (right-hand
side). –M8=0 (right-hand side). RE=0 (right-hand side). Press CE first to reset the sound track counter to
zero. This mode is rather similar to the above sequential sound recording. The only difference is that after –
M1 is pressed and released; the sound track counter does not increment itself to the next sound track
location. To move to the next sound track, –M2 should be toggled. So if –M1 is not toggled again and again
without toggling –M2, sound will be recorded at the same sound track location.

(iv) Replay sound tracks with forward control:

 Now make RE=1 (switched to Left-hand side of the mode selection switch) while keep other
switches at the same location. Toggle –M1 (press key and release) causes the 1st sound track to be played
once. Toggle –M1 again and again will still play the 1st sound track. Once –M2 is toggled, the sound track
counter is incremented and the next sound can be played. Press CE to reset the sound track counter to zero.

3. Sampling rates

The sampling rate is determined by the value of the OSC resistor (R8 in the circuit diagram). It can be
adjusted by users to suit their specific requirements.

Application tips of APR9600 for better sound replay quality:

1. Use a good quality 8 Ohm speaker with a cavity such as speakers for computer sound systems. Do not use
a bare speaker which gives you degraded sound.

2. For better sound replay quality, speak with a distance to the on-board microphone and speak clearly. Also
keep the background noise as low as possible.

3. For even better sound replay quality, use microphone input or Audio Line In input. If Audio Line In is used,
the amplitude of input signal should be < 100 mV p-p.
Speaker:

Fig: Diagram of a dynamic loudspeaker.

A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electroacoustic transducer that converts an electrical signal

into sound. The speaker moves in accordance with the variations of an electrical signal and causes
sound waves to propagate through a medium such as air or water .After the acoustics of the listening
space, loudspeakers (and other electroacoustic transducers) are the most variable elements in a
modern audio system and are usually responsible for most distortion and audible differences when
comparing sound systems.

It is an inexpensive, low fidelity 3½-inch speaker, which is typically found in small radios.

Theory of speaker:

The term "loudspeaker" may refer to individual transducers (known as "drivers") or to

complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure including one or more drivers. To adequately
reproduce a wide range of frequencies, most loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver,
particularly for higher sound pressure level or maximum accuracy. Individual drivers are used to
reproduce different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers (for very low frequencies);
woofers (low frequencies); mid-range speakers (middle frequencies); tweeters (high frequencies);
and sometimes super tweeters, optimized for the highest audible frequencies.

The terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way
systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds falls upon the
woofer and tweeter. Home stereos use the designation "tweeter" for the high frequency driver, while
professional concert systems may designate them as "HF" or "highs". When multiple drivers are
used in a system, a "filter network", called a crossover, separates the incoming signal into different
frequency ranges and routes them to the appropriate driver. A loudspeaker system with n separate
frequency bands is described as "n-way speakers": a two-way system will have a woofer and a
tweeter; a three-way system employs a woofer, a mid-range, and a tweeter.

Driver design:

Fig: Diagram of cut away view of a dynamic loudspeaker.

 CHAPTER-3

CHAPTER-5

CONTROLLER EXPLANATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO ARM

The ARM7 circle of relatives consists of the ARM7TDMI, ARM7TDMI-S, ARM720T, and
ARM7EJ-S processors. The ARM7TDMI middle is the industry’s maximum appreciably used 32-
bit embedded RISC microprocessor answer. Optimized for charge and energy-touchy applications,
the ARM7TDMI answer provides the low strength consumption, small length, and immoderate
overall performance wanted in transportable, embedded programs.

The ARM7EJ-S processor is a synthesizable center that offers all of the benefits of the
ARM7TDMI low strength consumption, small length, and the thumb coaching set even as also
incorporating ARM’s modern day DSP extensions and allowing acceleration of java-based
packages. Compatible with the ARM9™, ARM9E™, and ARM10™ families, and Strong-Arm®
structure software written for the ARM7TDMI processor is 100% binary-compatible with specific
people of the ARM7 own family and forwards-like minded with the ARM9, ARM9E, and ARM10
households, in addition to products in Intel’s Strong ARM and x scale architectures. This offers
designers a desire of software-well suited processors with robust rate-usual performance factors.
Support for the ARM structure today includes:

• Operating structures along side Windows CE, Linux, palm and SYMBIAN OS.

• More than 40 actual-time working structures, at the side of qnx, Wind River’s vxworks and
mentor pics’ vrtx.

• Co simulation equipment from important eda vendors

• A style of software improvement tools.

2.2. ARM7 TDMI
The ARM7TDMI Core Diagram. The ARM7TDMI middle is based totally at the Von- Neumann
architecture with a 32-bit information bus that consists of every instructions and records. Load,
store, and swap instructions can get entry to statistics from reminiscence. Data can be eight-bit,
sixteen-bit, and 32-bit.

Instruction pipeline

The ARM7TDMI center uses a three-degree pipeline to growth the glide of commands to the
processor. This permits more than one simultaneous operations to take location and continuous
operation of the processing and reminiscence structures. The instructions are done in 3 levels: fetch,
decode and execute.
Memory interface
The ARM7TDMI memory interface is designed to permit most useful normal overall
performance capability and minimize reminiscence utilization. Speed crucial control signals are
pipelined to permit machine manage talents to make the most the short-burst access modes
supported with the resource of many memory technology. The ARM7TDMI has four number one
forms of memory cycle: Internal, Non sequential, Sequential, Coprocessor registers transfer. There
is likewise the choice to apply each a unmarried bidirectional data bus or separate unidirectional
data input and output buses.

Memory codecs
The ARM7TDMI may be configured to deal with stored phrases in both huge-endian or little-endian
format.

Performance, code density and running states

The ARM7TDMI middle facilitates two operating states and education set

• ARM nation for 32-bit, phrase-aligned instructions

• Thumb country for 16-bit, 1/2 word-aligned commands.

The ARM education set permits a software to obtain most overall overall performance with the
minimal variety of instructions. The less complicated thumb schooling set offers tons extended code
density reducing reminiscence requirement. Code can switch among the ARM and thumb training
devices on any approach name.

Operating modes
The ARM7TDMI center has seven modes of operation:

• User mode is the standard utility execution united states of america

• allow very rapid interrupt processing and to hold values throughout

• interrupt calls

• System mode is a privileged user mode for the operating machine

• Undefined mode is entered while an undefined steerage is carried out.

Coprocessors

Up to 16 coprocessors can be connected to an ARM7TDMI machine.

Debug capabilities

Internal u . S . Of the ARM center can be examined the usage of a JTAG interface to allow
the insertion of commands into middle pipeline and keep away from the usage of external
information bus. ARM7TDMI middle includes an inner purposeful unit called the Embedded ICE
commonplace sense.

ARM7TDMI processor center

The ARM7TDMI processor core implements the ARMv4T Instruction Set Architecture (ISA).This
is a superset of the ARMv4 ISA which offers help for the sixteen-bit Thumb schooling set. Software
the use of the Thumb coaching set is nicely perfect with all contributors of the ARM Thumb own
family, along with ARM9, ARM9E, and ARM10 households.

Registers

The ARM7TDMI center consists of a 32-bit statistics path and associated manage logic. This
records path contains 31 great-motive 32-bit registers, 7 devoted 32-bit registers coupled to a barrel-
shifter, Arithmetic Logic Unit, and multiplier.

Modes and exceptions

The ARM7TDMI enables seven modes of operation:

• User mode

• Fast Interrupt (FIQ)

• Interrupt (IRQ)

• Supervisor mode

• Abort mode

• Undefined mode and System mode.

 All modes apart from User are privileged modes. These are used to provider hardware
interrupts, exceptions, and software program interrupts. Each privileged mode has an associated
Saved Program Status Register (SPSR). This register is discover to keep the kingdom of the Current
Program Status Register (CPSR) of the project right away in advance than the exception happens.
System mode does no longer have any banked registers. It uses the User mode registers. System
mode runs duties that require a privileged processor mode and permits them to invoke all
instructions of exception.

Processor states
The ARM7TDMI processor may be in one among states:

•ARM

In ARM us of a, sixteen fashionable registers and one or status registers are handy at any person
time. The ARM nation sign on set contains sixteen immediately available registers: R0 to R15. All
of those except R15 are preferred-purpose, and may be used to preserve each data or deal with
values. The registers to be had to the programmer in each mode, in ARM u . S ., are illustrated in
Figure 3.Three.3.1 Register Organization in ARM kingdom.

•THUMB nation

The THUMB kingdom register set is a subset of the ARM nation set. The programmer has direct get
right of entry to to 8 famous registers, R0-R7, in addition to the Program Counter (PC), a stack
pointer check in (SP), a link sign up (LR), and the CPSR. There are banked Stack Pointers, Link
Registers and Saved Process Status Registers (SPSRs) for each privileged mode. The registers to be
had to the programmer in every mode, in THUMB state,

Exceptions
The ARM7TDMI allows seven kinds of exception:

• FIQ – fast interrupt

• IRQ – normal interrupt

• Data abort

• Pre fetch abort

• Undefined education

• Reset.

All exceptions have banked registers for R14 and R13. After an exception, R14 holds the move
lower back address for exception processing. This address is used both to move again after the
exception is processed and to address the steerage that brought about the exception. R13 is banked
all through exception modes to provide every exception handler with a private stack pointer. The
fast interrupt mode also banks registers 8 to twelve in order that interrupt processing can start with
out the need to keep or repair those registers.
Status registers
All different processor states are held in fame registers. The contemporary strolling processor repute
inside the CPSR. The CPSR holds:

•Four ALU flags (Negative, Zero, Carry, and Overflow)

•An interrupt disable bit for each of the FIQ and IRQ interrupts

•A bit to indicate ARM or Thumb execution state

•Five bits to encode the contemporary-day processor mode.

Conditional execution
All ARM instructions are conditionally performed and can optionally replace the 4 circumstance
code flags (Negative, Zero, Carry, and Overflow) in line with their give up end result. Fifteen
situations are applied.

Classes of commands

The ARM and Thumb preparation units can be divided into four large training of education:

• Data processing instructions

• Load and store commands
• Branch commands

Data processing commands The records processing commands characteristic on facts held in
popular-purpose registers of the 2 supply operands, one is constantly a check in.

The other has two basic paper work:

 • An right away rate
• A register price optionally shifted.

If the operand is a shifted sign up the shift amount may have a right away price or the rate of every
different sign up. Four forms of shift can be distinctive. Most information processing commands can
perform a shift found with the aid of way of a logical or arithmetic operation.

Multiply instructions are available in lessons:

• Normal, 32-bit cease result

• Long, sixty four-bit result variations.

Both kinds of multiply preparation can optionally carry out an accumulate operation.

Load and preserve instructions

Single or more than one registers can be loaded and stored at one time. Load and keep single
register commands can transfer a 32-bit word, a sixteen-bit half word, or an eight-bit byte between
reminiscence and a check in. Byte and 1/2 word loads may be mechanically 0 extended or signal
prolonged as they're loaded. Load and keep commands have three number one addressing modes:

• offset
• pre-indexed
• Post-indexed.

The cope with is shaped through including or subtracting a right away or sign on- based offset to or
from a base sign in. Register-based offsets can also be scaled with shift operations. Pre-indexed and
put up-indexed addressing modes replace the base sign up with the result of the offset calculation.
As the PC is a massive-purpose test in, a 32-bit fee may be loaded straight away into the PC to carry
out a soar to any cope with in the 4GB reminiscence area. Load and store more than one command
perform a block switch of any quantity of the overall purpose registers to or from memory. Four
addressing modes are provided:

• Pre-increment addressing
• Post-increment addressing
• Pre-decrement addressing
• Post-decrement addressing
 Fig : Load and store instructions.

Branch commands

As well as permitting any facts processing or load steerage to change control flow (thru modifying
the PC) a stylish department schooling is supplied with 24-bit signed offset, permitting ahead and
backward branches of as much as 32MB. Branch with Link (BL) permits efficient subroutine calls,
and preserves the cope with of the training after the department in R14 (the Link Register or LR)

Advantages

• Simple hardware
• Small die size
• Low electricity intake
• Simple interpreting
• Higher overall performance
• Easy to put in force an powerful pipelined shape.

Disadvantages

• Performance is predicated upon on compiler

• Poor code density
• RISC has a hard and fast size of training format

Applications

Using the ARMv7 shape, ARM can support its feature as a low-energy/typical overall performance
chief on the equal time as conquering new markets to hold its cores up in excessive performance and
down in the low-price excessive-amount domain of the microcontroller ARM designs the
technology that lies on the coronary heart of advanced virtual merchandise, from wireless,
networking and client amusement solutions to imaging, automobile, protection and storage devices.
ARM's complete product offering consists of 16/32-bit RISC microprocessors, facts engines, 3-D
processors, digital libraries, embedded memories, peripherals, software and development tools, in
addition to analog abilities and excessive-velocity connectivity merchandise.

4.3. LPC2148 MICROCONTROLLER

LPC2148 microcontroller board primarily based on a 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S CPU with real-
time emulation and embedded trace aid, that combine microcontrollers with embedded high-pace
flash reminiscence beginning from 32 KB to 512 KB. A 128-bit massive reminiscence interface and
precise accelerator structure enable 32-bit code execution on the maximum clock price. For vital
code period applications, the possibility sixteen-bit Thumb mode reduces code through extra than
30% with minimum performance penalty. The that means of LPC is Low Power Low Cost
microcontroller. This is 32 bit microcontroller synthetic through Philips semiconductors (NXP). Due
to their tiny length and occasional power consumption, LPC2148 is right for packages wherein
miniaturization is a key requirement, inclusive of get right of entry to control and factor-of-sale.

4.3.1 FEATURES OF LPC2148 MICROCONTROLLER

• 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S microcontroller in a tiny LQFP64 package.

• 8 KB to 40 KB of on-chip static RAM and 32 KB to 512 KB of on-chip flash memory; 128-

bit huge interface/accelerator permits excessive-speed 60 MHz operation.

• USB 2.Zero Full-tempo compliant device controller with 2 KB of endpoint RAM. In

addition, the LPC2148 gives 8 KB of on-chip RAM available to USB with the resource of DMA.

• One or (LPC2141/42 Vs, LPC2144/46/forty eight) 10-bit ADCs provide a complete of 6/14
analog inputs, with conversion times as low as 2.Forty four ms in line with channel.

• Single 10-bit DAC presents variable analog output (LPC2148 handiest)

• Two 32-bit timers/out of doors occasion counters (with four capture and 4 evaluate channels
each), PWM unit (six outputs) and watchdog.

• Low energy Real-Time Clock (RTC) with impartial electricity and 32 kHz clock input
4.3.2 LPC2148 MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE

Fig : LPC2148 Microcontroller Architecture.

4.3.3 PIN DIAGRAM

Fig : LPC2148 Microcontroller Pin Diagram.

4.3.4. ARCHITECTURAL OVERVIEW

Fig Suggests the LPC2148 Microcontroller Architecture. The ARM7TDMI-S is a desired reason 32-
bit microprocessor, which offers high normal performance and virtually low strength intake. The
ARM architecture is primarily based mostly on Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) concepts,
and the guidance set and associated decode mechanism are a bargain less complicated than those of
micro programmed Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC). This simplicity results in a
excessive steering throughput and wonderful actual-time interrupt response from a small and fee-
effective processor middle. Pipeline strategies are employed so that every one factors of the
processing and reminiscence systems can characteristic constantly. The ARM7TDMI-S processor
additionally employs a unique architectural approach called Thumb, which makes it ideally fitted to
excessive-amount programs with memory rules, or packages in which code density is an difficulty.

On-chip flash software memory

The LPC2141/42/44/forty six/forty eight contains a 32 KB, sixty four KB, 128 KB, 256 KB
and 512 KB flash memory tool respectively. This reminiscence may be used for each code and
records garage. Programming of the flash reminiscence may be performed in numerous methods. It
may be programmed In System through the serial port Due to the architectural solution chosen for
an on-chip boot loader, flash memory available for consumer’s code on LPC2141/42/40 4/46/48 is
32 KB, sixty four KB, 128 KB, 256 KB and 500 KB respectively.

On-chip static RAM

On-chip static RAM may be used for code and/or information storage. The SRAM may be
accessed as eight-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The LPC2141, LPC2142/forty four and LPC2146/48
provide 8 KB, sixteen KB and 32 KB of static RAM respectively. In case of LPC2146/48 only, an 8
KB SRAM block supposed to be utilized in particular by way of manner of the USB also may be
used as a fashionable motive RAM for information garage and code storage and execution.

Memory map

The LPC2141/forty /forty four/46/forty eight memory map incorporates severa outstanding regions,
as shown in Figure 3.Five Memory map. In addition, the CPU interrupt vectors may be remapped to
permit them to are living in either flash reminiscence (the default) or on-chip static RAM.
Pin be a part of block

The pin be a part of block lets in decided on pins of the microcontroller to have a couple of function.
Configuration registers control the multiplexers to allow connection between the pin and the on chip
peripherals. Peripherals have to be related to the correct pins preceding to being activated, and
previous to any related interrupt(s) being enabled. Activity of any enabled peripheral characteristic
that isn't mapped to a associated pin need to be taken into consideration undefined.

Fast popular purpose parallel I/O (GPIO)

Device pins that are not related to a particular peripheral characteristic are managed through
the GPIO registers. Pins can be dynamically configured as inputs or outputs. Separate registers
permit placing or clearing any variety of outputs concurrently. The cost of the output join up may be
observe decrease back, similarly to the cutting-edge-day state of the port pins.LPC2141/42/forty
four/forty six/forty eight introduces multiplied GPIO functions over in advance LPC2000

Gadgets Interrupt Controller

The Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) accepts all of the interrupt request inputs and categorizes
them as Fast Interrupt Request (FIQ), vectored Interrupt Request (IRQ), and non-vectored IRQ as
described via programmable settings. If a couple of request is assigned to the FIQ elegance, the FIQ
service ordinary will observe a phrase from the. If any of the vectored IRQs are pending, the VIC
presents the address of the high-quality-priority asking for IRQs provider recurring, in any other
case it affords the cope with of a default everyday that is shared thru all the non-vectored IRQs. The
default everyday can read any other VIC register to look what IRQs are lively.

CHAPTER-6

SOFTWARE TOOLS
6.1. INTRODUTION TO ORCAD
OrCAD Circuit Design

• This device is used to design the schematic of the hardware.

• Using Orcad the PCB format is designed Keil IDE’s:

• This device is used to expand the supply code wanted for the layout.

• The tool allows us no longer handiest to develop however additionally bring together the
code and simulate the code.

• The Keil tool is also used to convert the compiled Embedded C code to its equivalent hex
code.

Flash Programmer

• Flash programmer is used to fuse the built hex code into the Microcontroller AT89c51 (right
here).

• Language: Embedded C.

ORCAD CAPTURE CIS

OrCAD Capture CIS is designed to reduce production delays and value overruns through
efficient management of additives. It reduces the time spent looking existing parts for reuse,
manually entering element facts content, and maintaining component records. Users seek elements
primarily based on their electrical characteristics and OrCAD Capture CIS robotically retrieves the
related component. Flexible and scalable, the solution is quickly carried out. OrCad Capture CIS is
right for person layout teams or multi-website teams who want to collaborate across multiple
locations, OrCAD Capture CIS offers designers get right of entry to to correct part information early
inside the layout process and allows whole issue specs to be surpassed to board designers and
different participants of the design group, reducing the potential for downstream mistakes. It affords
access to price facts so designers can use favored, decrease cost, and in stock parts. The embedded
component selector accesses records saved in MRP/ERP systems and engineering databases and
synchronizes externally sourced information with the schematic layout database, so payments of
substances may be automatically generated.

BENEFITS

• Provides rapid, intuitive schematic enhancing.

• Boosts schematic enhancing performance by design reuse
• Automates the integration of FPGA and PLD devices
• Makes modifications quick thru a unmarried spreadsheet editor
• Imports and exports clearly every commonly used design record format
• Reduces delays caused by out-of-stock elements (CIS)
• Promotes reuse of favored additives (CIS)
• Encourages reuse of known true part facts (CIS)
• Makes reuse of reproduction circuitry easy through hierarchical blocks (CIS)

Fig 6.1: Orcad Schematic capture window

6.2. KEIL C COMPILER:

Keil Software publishes one of the maximum entire improvement tool suites for 8051
software, that's used throughout enterprise. For development of C code, their Developer's Kit
product consists of their C51 compiler, as well as an included 8051 simulator for debugging. A
demonstration model of this product is available on their website, but it consists of numerous
barriers. The C programming language became designed for computer systems, although, and no
longer embedded structures. It does now not support direct get admission to to registers, nor does it
allow for the studying and setting of single bits, very vital requirements for 8051 software program.
In addition, most software developers are acquainted with writing packages that willby done by way
of an working gadget, which offers system calls the program may additionally use to access the
hardware. However, a great deal code for the 8051 is written for direct use at the processor, with out
an running machine. To support this, the Keil compiler has introduced several extensions to the C
language to replace what would possibly have typically been implemented in a device call, along
with the connecting of interrupt handlers. The motive of this manual is to similarly give an
explanation for the limitations of the Keil compiler, the changes it has made to the C language, and
the way to account for those in developing software for the 8051 microcontroller.

Keil Limitations

There are several very essential limitations in the evaluation version of Keil's Developer's Kit that
users want be privy to whilst writing software program for the 8051.

Object code must be much less than 2 Kbytes

The compiler will bring together any-sized source code file, but the very last item code won't
exceed 2 Kbytes. If it does, the linker will refuse to create a very last binary executable (or HEX
file) from it. Along the equal traces, the debugger will refuse any documents that are over 2Kbytes,
despite the fact that they had been compiled using a extraordinary software package deal. Few
scholar initiatives will move this 2Kbyte threshold, but programmers have to be aware about it to
apprehend why code can also now not compile while the mission grows too massive.

Program code starts at address 0x4000

All C code compiled and linked the usage of the Keil tools will start at address 0x4000 in
code memory. Such code might not be programmed into devices with less than 16Kbytes of Read-
Only Memory. Code written in meeting may additionally dodge this quandary with the aid of the
use of the "origin" keyword to set the begin to address 0x0000. No such paintings-around exists for
C programs, although. However, the included debugger within the evaluation software can also still
be used for trying out code. Once tested, the code may be compiled by way of the overall model of
the Keil software, or with the aid of every other compiler that supports the C extensions utilized by
Keil.

C Modifications

The Keil C compiler has made a few adjustments to some other wise ANSI-compliant
implementation of the C programming language. These adjustments have been made solely to
facilitate the use of a higher-level language like C for writing packages on microcontrollers.

Variable Types

The Keil C compiler helps maximum C variable types and adds several of its own.

Standard Types

The assessment version of the Keil C compiler supports the usual ANSI C variable kinds, except the
floating-factor kinds. These kinds are summarized underneath.

Table 6.1: Range of Datatypes

Type
Bits Bytes Range

Char 8 1 -128 to +127

Unsigned char 8 1 0 to 255

Enum 16 2 -32,768 to +32,767

Short 16 2 -32,768 to +32,767

Unsigned short 16 2 0 to 65,535

Int 16 2 -32,768 to +32,767

Unsigned int 16 2 0 to 65,535

Long 32 4 -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647

 Unsigned long 32 4 0 to 4,294,697,295

In addition to these variable types, the compiler also supports the struct and union data structures,
as well as type redefinition using typedef.

Keil Types

To aid a microcontroller and embedded structures applications, Keil brought several new sorts to
their compiler. These are summarized inside the table below

Table : Different Keil Types and ranges

Bits Bytes Range

Bit 1 0 0 to 1

Sbit 1 0 0 to 1

Sfr 8 1 0 to 255

sf16 16 2 0 to 65,535

Of these, only the bit type works as a standard variable would. The other three have special
behavior that a programmer must be aware of.

Bit
This is a data type that gets allotted out of the 8051's bit-addressable on-chip RAM. Like
other facts kinds, it is able to be declared as both a variable. However, not like widespread C kinds,
if won't be used as a pointer.

Sbit, sfr, and sf16

 These are unique sorts for gaining access to 1-bit, 8-bit, and 16-bit unique function registers.
Because there may be no manner to not directly address registers in the 8051, addresses for those
variables need to be declared outside of features within the code. Only the statistics addressed by the
variable can be manipulated in the code.

Conveniently, the standard special function registers are all described inside the reg51.H document
that any developer might also include into their source document. Only registers unique to the
specific 8051-derivative being used for the undertaking want have these variable declared, such as
registers and bits related to a 2nd on-chip serial port.

Keil Variable Extensions

In writing programs for a typical pc, the operating gadget handles manages memory on
behalf of the programs, eliminating their want to know about the reminiscence shape of the
hardware. Even greater vital, most computers having a unified memory area, with the code and
records sharing the equal RAM. This isn't always true with the 8051, which has separate
reminiscence spaces for code, on-chip facts, and external facts.

Accommodate for this whilst writing C code, Keil added extensions to variable declarations
to specify which reminiscence space the variable is allocated from, or factors to. The maximum
critical of those for student programmers are summarized within the following table.

Table : Memory Types and spaces

Extension Memory Type Related ASM

Directly-addressable data memory (data

Data MOV A, 07Fh
memory addresses 0x00-0x7F)

Indirectly-addressable data memory (data MOV R0, #080h

Idata
memory addresses 0x00-0xFF) MOV A, R0

Xdata External data memory MOVX @DPTR

Code Program memory MOVC @A+DPTR

 These extensions may be used as part of the variable type in declaration or casting by
placing the extension after the type, as in the example below. If the memory type extension is not
specified, the compiler will decide which memory type to use automatically, based on the memory
model.

Keil Function Extensions

Keil provides two important extensions to the standard function declaration to allow for
creation of interrupt handlers and reentrant functions.

6.3 FLASH MAGIC

Flash Magic is an application advanced by means of Embedded Systems Academy to permit you to
easily get entry to the features of a microcontroller device. With this program you can erase
individual blocks or the complete Flash memory of the microcontroller. This software is very
beneficial for folks that paintings within the electronics subject. The most important window of the
program consists of five sections wherein you may find the maximum not unusual features in an
effort to software a microcontroller device. Using the “Communications” section you'll be capable
of pick out the way a particular device connects in your computer. Select the COM port to be used
and the baud price. It is recommended that you choose a low baud price first and growth it
afterwards. This manner you'll decide the best velocity with which your device works. In order to
choose which components of the reminiscence to erase, choose from the items within the “Erase”
section. The third phase is non-compulsory. It offers you the opportunity to program a HEX file. In
the subsequent segment you'll be capable of find distinct programming alternatives, which include
“verify after programming”, “gen block checksums”, “execute” and others. When you’re executed,
click the Start button that may be located in the “Start” segment. The software will start the tool, and
you'll capable of see the progress of the operations at the bottom of the principle window.

Using Flash Magic, you're capable of carry out unique operations to a microcontroller tool,
operations like erasing, programming and studying the flash memory, enhancing the Boot Vector,
performing a clean test on a phase of the Flash reminiscence and many others.

Flash Magic is the standard device for programming NXP microcontrollers, and it is loose! It has a
sincere and intuitive user interface and with it is 5 easy steps you could erase and application a
device and setting key options. After programming is has an automatic verifying choice.
 Fig 6.8: Start up screen of the Flash Magic software

Features of software

• Read and write the Intel Hex file

• Read signature, lock and fuse bits

• Clear and Fill memory buffer

• Verify with reminiscence buffer

• Reload current Hex document

• Display buffer checksum

• Program decided on lock bits & fuses

• Auto detection of hardware

6.3.1 DUMPING A PROJECT IN FLASH MAGIC

1. Start up Flash Magic

 Fig 6.9: Main screen of the software

Select the COM port to which UART cable is connected (via default it's miles COM1)

three. Select Baud Rate as 9600 and also pick the device we used (LPC2148)

4. Enable “Erase all Flash+Code Rd Prot” &“Verify after programming” buttons (so that every
one the flash & code reminiscence of controller could be erased & code can be dumped and
established after programming)

5. Browse the specified .Hex (file which we are going to be dumped), For instance:
C:UsersashokDocumentsprojvoice-playback.Hex

6. Before going to press “Start” button press & preserve the reset button of controller board till
programming is completed

7. Clicking the Start button will result in all the selected operations inside the principal window
taking location.
 CHAPTER-5

METHODOLOGY WITH WORKING

CIRCUIT DIGRAM:

WITH GPS:

EXPLANATION OF RESULT:

The idea of the proposed system came into existence because of a short visit to a
blind school. It was seen that the individuals were given training to walk with a
stick along a fixed path every day with a person to guide each of them. The
inception of the project was marked by the conversations held with the blind
people in the school and their staff. The data collected was indicative of the facts
and miseries of their daily life. The visual disability made them incapable of doing
any kind of simple chores independently. This laid us to research on the already
existing technologies and conduct literature survey.

Fig.4.2. Hardware Kit Implementation.

Location formation using GPS and GSM module

When a blind or elderly person is out of home for walk or for other reason, if
his/her health becomes suddenly poor i.e. if he feels that it is difficult for him to
reach home back, he can intimate one of his relatives about this. There is an alert
button provided on the stick, this button when pressed sends the coordinate of stick
to a pre stored mobile number, i.e. "+91**********" via GSM module through
SMS. The GPS module calculates the latitude and longitude of the location of the
user.
Fig.4.2. Mobile number registration

Fig.4.2.Vibration sensor indication.

Fig.4.2. 3D IR sensor.
 Fig.4.3.Speaker output image.

Significance of the System

The main advantage of the system is that it helps the blind people in both indoor
and outdoor, care-free navigation. The devices placed in the stick makes it
comfortable and easy to handle. The smart stick helps in detecting obstacles placed
at a distance in front of the user. The system is suitable for both indoor and outdoor
environment. The information regarding obstacles is given through voice alerts,
eliminates the difficulty of understanding vibration patterns which was used in
earlier systems. The system is a moderate budget mobile navigational aid for the
visually impaired.

Fig.4.4. Output results at vibration detected time.

Fig.4.5.1st IR sensor detected time we get 1 meter distance detected.
 CONCLUSION
The project intended the blueprint and architecture of a smarter concept of SMART
WALKING STICK for blind and disable people. This blind aid system can be rendered a fresh
dimension of useful assistance and gives a sense of artificial vision along with dedicated obstacle
and hollow detection circuitry. This cost effective and light weight device can be designed to
take of pattern of a clastic and portable device, which can be unconditionally mounted on an
ordinary white cane or blind stick. The aimed combination of several working sub-systems
makes a time demanding system that monitors the environmental scenario of static and dynamic
objects and provides necessary feedback forming navigation more precise, safe and secure.
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