CIBSE GUIDE B2 - Guide B2 Ventilation and Ductwork

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Ventilation and ductwork
CIBSE Guide B2: 2016

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The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

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Note from the publisher
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This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for
the design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building
services. It is not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for
users of the guidance given to exercise their own professional judgement when
deciding whether to abide by or depart from it.
Any commercial products depicted or describer within this publication are included
for the purposes of illustration only and their inclusion does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation by the Institution.

Foreword
Guide B provides guidance on the practical design of heating, ventilation and air
conditioning systems. It represents a consensus on what constitutes relevant good practice
guidance. This has developed over more than 70 years, with the Steering Groups for each
edition of the Guide expanding and pruning the content to reflect the evolution of
technology and priorities.
Since the last edition of Guide B in 2005, the European Energy Performance of Buildings
Directive has been introduced. This requires national building energy regulations to be
based on calculations that integrate the impact of the building envelope and the building
services systems, formalising what was already recognised as good design practice. In
addition, the use of voluntary energy efficiency and sustainability indicators has increased.
These changes have influenced the content of Guide B, but the emphasis remains on system
design. The guidance in Guide B is not in itself sufficient to cover every aspect of the
effective design of HVAC systems. Energy (and carbon emission) calculations will also be
needed, and a range of other environmental criteria may specified by the client. These may,
for example, include whole-life costing or assessments of embodied energy or carbon. The
balance between building fabric measures and the energy efficiency of HVAC systems is
important, as is the balance between energy use for lighting and for heating, ventilation and
cooling. More detailed information on energy efficiency and sustainability can be found in
Guides F and L respectively. The Guide does not attempt to provide step by step design
procedures: these can be found in appropriate textbooks.
Structure of the Guide

Guide B deals with systems to provide heating, ventilation and air conditioning services,
and is divided into several chapters which are published separately. It will usually be
necessary to refer to several — perhaps all — chapters since decisions based on one service
will commonly affect the provision of others.
—— Chapter B0: Applications and activities focuses on how different types of building and
different activities within buildings influence the choice of system. This chapter is
not available in printed form, but can be downloaded from the CIBSE website. For
many activities and types of building, more detailed design information is available
in specialist guidance.
Chapters B1 to B4 address issues relating to specific services. There are usually several
possible design solutions to any situation, and the Guide does not attempt to be prescriptive
but rather to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of different options.
—— B1: Heating, including hot water systems and an appendix on hydronic systems,
which is also applicable to chilled water systems
—— B2: Ventilation and ductwork
—— B3: Air conditioning and refrigeration
—— B4: Noise and vibration control for building services systems (applicable to all systems)
When all chapters have been published, an index to the complete Guide B will be made
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available.
The focus is on application in the UK: though many aspects of the guidance apply more
generally, this should not be taken for granted. The level of detail provided varies: where
detailed guidance from CIBSE or other sources is readily available, Guide B is relatively
brief and refers to these sources. Examples of this are the treatment in the Guide of low
carbon systems such as heat pumps, solar thermal water heating and combined heat and
power. On-site energy generation such as wind power and photovoltaics are not covered.
Regulatory requirements are not described in detail in the Guide – the information varies
between jurisdictions and is liable to change more rapidly than the Guide can be updated.
Instead, the existence of regulations is sign-posted and their general scope explained.
Sometime example tables are shown, but readers should note that these are simply examples
of the type of requirement that is imposed and may not be current.
While there is some discussion of relative costs, no attempt is made to provide detailed cost
figures as these are too project-specific and variable with time and location.
Roger Hitchin
Chair, CIBSE Guide B Steering Committee
Guide B2 Steering Committee
Peter Warren (Chair) Brunel University London
Wayne Aston Keysource Ltd
Nick Barnard Low Carbon Comfort
Colin Biggs Nuaire
Craig Booth Icevent
Eric Curd Independent Environmental Services Professional
Justin Davies Kingspan Insulation
Alan Green Trox UK Ltd
Danny Hall Norman Disney & Young
Jon Hill Polypipe Insulation
Roy Jones Gilberts (Blackpool) Ltd
Ray Kirby Brunel University London
Martin Liddament VEETECH Ltd
Peter Rogers DPL Kitchen Ventilation
Wander Ter Kiule Waterloo
Paul White Advanced Smoke Group Ltd
Referees
John Armstrong Armville Consultancy
Steve Irving AECOM
Maria Kolokotroni Brunel University London
Acknowledgements
The Committee would like to acknowledge the particular contribution of
Martin Liddament as technical author and in processing of peer review comments.
Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by BSI Standards Ltd.
British Standards can be obtained in pdf or hard copy formats from BSI online shop:
www.bsigroup.com/Shop or by contacting BSI Customer Services for hardcopies only: tel:
+44 (0)20 8996 9001, e-mail: cservices@bsigroup.com.
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Public information is reproduced under Open Government Licence v2.0.
Editor
Ed Palmer
Editorial Manager
Ken Butcher
CIBSE Technical Director
Hywel Davies
CIBSE Head of Knowledge
Nick Peake
Contents
2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.1.1 Introduction 2-1
2.1.2 Scope 2-1
2.1.3 Definitions 2-1
2.1.4 Energy and carbon considerations 2-3
2.1.5 System costing 2-3
2.2 Design criteria 2-4

2.2.2 Contaminant control 2-8
2.2.3 Fresh air supply rates 2-9
2.2.4 Ventilation for thermal comfort 2-10
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2.2.5 Humidity 2-10
2.2.6 Ventilation to avoid interstitial condensation 2-10
2.2.7 Air movement: limiting air velocities 2-11
2.2.8 Air distribution 2-11
2.2.9 Noise 2-12
2.3 Systems 2-12

2.3.2 Ventilation systems 2-13
2.3.3 Filtration systems 2-25
2.3.4 Ventilation heat recovery systems 2-30
2.3.5 Duct systems 2-34
2.3.6 Ventilation control systems 2-48
2.4 System design 2-52

2.4.2 Designing for natural ventilation 2-52
2.4.3 Mechanical ventilation design 2-58
2.4.4 Mixed-mode ventilation design 2-63
2.4.5 Ductwork principles of design 2-65
2.4.6 Ventilation design calculation techniques 2-71
2.4.7 Ventilation design measurement techniques 2-75
2.5 Other design considerations 2-79

2.5.2 Noise 2-79
2.5.3 Fire and smoke protection 2-81
2.5.4 Air leakage 2-84

2.6 Equipment 2-87
2.6.1 Fans 2-87
2.6.2 Air control units 2-92
2.6.3 Mixing boxes 2-94
2.6.4 Air terminal devices: diffusers and terminals 2-94
2.6.5 Ventilation air intake and discharge points 2-94
2.6.6 Process exhaust hoods 2-96
2.6.7 Duct equipment 2-98
2.6.8 Ductwork connections 2-103
2.6.9 Natural ventilation equipment 2-106
2.7 Commissioning, operation and maintenance 2-111

2.7.1 Testing and commissioning 2-111
2.7.2 Maintenance and cleaning 2-116
References 2-122
Appendix 2.A1: Recommended sizes for ductwork 2-127

Appendix 2.A2: Space allowances 2-129
Appendix 2.A3: Maximum permissible air leakage rates 2-131
Appendix 2.A4: Methods of fire protection 2-131
Appendix 2.A5: Example calculations 2-132
Appendix 2.A6: Techniques for assessment of ventilation 2-144
Index 2-146
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Introduction 2-1
2 Ventilation and ductwork
2.1 Introduction Section 2.3 reviews the principal methods of providing

ventilation: natural, mechanical and mixed-mode systems.
It also describes the basic principles of related systems for
2.1.1 Introduction air distribution, filtration, heat recovery and control.
Ventilation is the process by which fresh air is provided to Section 2.4 sets out the principles for designing natural,
occupants and concentrations of potentially harmful mechanical and mixed-mode systems and includes the
pollutants are diluted and removed from a space. It is also design of ductwork, calculation techniques and methods of
used to cool a space and as a mechanism to distribute measuring the performance of ventilation systems.
thermally conditioned air for heating and cooling. It is a
fundamental component of building services design since Section 2.5 discusses other design considerations closely
it plays a major role in the comfort, health and productivity related to ventilation and covers noise, air leakage, fire and
smoke protection. Noise and fire protection are dealt with
of occupants. In addition, ventilation can contribute
in more detail in CIBSE Guides B4 (2016c) and G (CIBSE,
significantly to a building’s energy load and, in some cases,
2014) respectively.
can account for 50 per cent or more of total heating or
cooling loss. To stem energy loss from uncontrolled air Section 2.6 covers the components of a ventilation system
change there is growing demand for airtightness combined and includes fans, air control units, mixing boxes, terminal
with demand-controlled ventilation and heat recovery. devices, extract hoods and duct equipment. Also included
is equipment for natural ventilation.
In large buildings, the ventilation system can be extremely
complex and is invariably integrated with the heating and Section 2.7 covers the important areas of testing,
cooling system. Hence there is a strong connection between commissioning, maintenance and cleaning.
ventilation, heating and cooling systems, building envelope,
fire protection and structural design issues (Thomas, 1999).
This impinges on the whole-life costs (BSRIA, 2008) and 2.1.3 Definitions
performance (Allard, 2001) of buildings. Since building
services are required to operate throughout the life of the The meaning of key terms used in this Guide are
building, their operating costs are a very significant element summarised below.
of the whole-life costs of the system. —— Natural ventilation: this is the process by which
airflow through ventilation openings is driven by
For all these reasons, there is a need for up-to-date guidance the natural driving forces of wind (wind effect) and
on the design of ventilation systems. The overall process of temperature difference (stack effect). Natural
design development, from the initial outline design through ventilation systems are described in section 2.3.2.2.
to system selection and detailed equipment specification, is
summarised schematically in Figure 2.1. Cooling systems —— Mechanical ventilation: these systems incorporate
are separately covered by CIBSE Guide B3 (2016a) and fans and control systems to drive the ventilation
heating systems are covered in CIBSE Guide B1 (2016b). process. They are thus able to provide ventilation
irrespective of the availability or suitability of
natural forces. In many countries large buildings
2.1.2 Scope including city centre offices, public buildings and
shopping malls are almost universally mechanically
This guide is intended to be used by practising designers ventilated. In addition to providing fresh air,
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who hold a basic knowledge of the fundamentals of building mechanical systems are also often used to distribute
physics and building services engineering. thermally conditioned air as part of the building’s
heating and cooling (air conditioning) system.
Section 2.2 sets out the criteria for the design of ventilation There are various configurations of mechanical
systems, covering the contribution of ventilation to ventilation; these are described in section 2.3.2.3.
providing a safe and comfortable indoor environment, —— Mixed-mode or hybrid ventilation: this utilises a
including indoor air quality, thermal comfort and noise. combination of both natural and mechanical
This chapter should be read in conjunction with chapter 1 ventilation. The various modes of operation are
of CIBSE Guide A (2015a). described in section 2.3.2.4.
2-2 Ventilation and ductwork
Example items Outline design process Typical activities
Statutory requirements Involve the client and

Regulatory requirements the rest of the design team
Occupants' thermal comfort Identify the requirements
Protection of building fabric of the system to be
Protection of equipment designed
Process requirements
Establish the design

Internal temperatures parameters that relate to
External temperatures the system to be designed
Energy targets
Air temperatures
Cost budget
Space limitations
Electrical loads Do the
Structural loadings parameters
No
comply with
legislation, energy
targets etc?
Sketch a basic system
schematic
Yes
Ductwork materials
Ductwork routing Identify the system type(s)
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Acoustics that could be applied

Fire protection
Produce a preliminary
Communicate the schedule
schedule of major items
to the design team
of plant for each option
Can the system No

work within the
parameters?
Yes No
Produce revised schematic Identify the preferred

layout system option
Does the
design satisfy
client requirements
Yes
Select the system for quality, reliability
components and performance at
acceptable cost
(value engineering
exercise)
Size the system
components
Do the
components
comply with the No
selected
parameters?
Yes
Complete calculations,
generate drawings,
schedules and specifications
Figure 2.1 Outline of the ventilation design process

Introduction 2-3
—— Air change rate: this is the ventilation rate in m3/h 2.1.4 Energy and carbon
divided by the volume in m3 of the enclosed space
expressed in air changes per hour (ACH).
considerations
—— Air infiltration: this is defined as the air ingress, Many countries are committed to significantly reducing
under ambient conditions, that enters a building carbon emissions with the aim of achieving carbon
through adventitious cracks and gaps in the neutrality. There is also strong demand to improve the
building envelope. The corresponding air loss is energy performance of existing buildings. Within Europe,
defined as air exfiltration. energy conservation requirements for buildings are covered
by the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EU,
—— Airtightness: this is a measure of the air leakage rate 2010). This requires member states to apply minimum
through the building envelope for a given test requirements covering the energy performance of both new
pressure (typically at 50 Pa) (see section 2.4.7.2). and existing buildings. There is currently a commitment to
achieving carbon-neutral buildings by 2020. In the UK, the
—— Blower door: a device for pressure testing building Government has also introduced a Climate Change Levy
airtightness. (HMRC, 2012), effectively a specific tax on energy use. To
encourage energy efficiency it has also introduced an
—— Contaminant removal efficiency: this is a term used to
enhanced capital allowance scheme for certain energy-
describe the efficiency of the removal of contaminant
efficient measures (Carbon Trust, 2012). It is intended that
in a space by ventilation. It can relate to the space as
these measures will stimulate a greater interest in energy
a whole or to individual locations.
efficiency amongst building owners and operators and that
—— Dilution ventilation: see ‘mixing (or dilution) energy efficiency will be given a greater prominence in
ventilation’. decisions about building design. Allied to this has been the
introduction of revised Part L of the Building Regulations
—— Displacement ventilation: this is a mechanism by in England as well as revisions to Welsh and Scottish
which fresh air is introduced to a location without Regulations. Similarly, more demanding energy-efficiency
mixing the fresh incoming air with the room air. requirements for buildings are being introduced into the
regulations of many other countries. These set significantly
—— Heat recovery: a process by which sensible ‘dry’ heat more challenging targets for energy-conservation aspects of
from the exhaust air supply is recovered and buildings than has hitherto been the case. The combined
normally used to pre-heat the supply air (see section effect of these regulatory measures is expected to be a
2.3.4). Latent heat can also be recovered with some significant improvement in energy performance, certainly
systems. in new buildings and those undergoing major refurbishment.
—— Latent heat recovery: a process by which latent heat

from moisture in air is recovered. As insulation and construction techniques steadily
improve, ventilation losses account for an ever-greater
—— Mixing (or dilution) ventilation: a system by which proportion of the total building energy consumption.
incoming fresh air is thoroughly mixed with the air Therefore, there is much emphasis on improving building
already in a space. This is a common approach for airtightness and regulating the rate of ventilation. However,
air-driven heating and cooling systems. these need to take place in conjunction with providing
sufficient ventilation for air quality. Fan systems must also
—— Percentage persons dissatisfied (PPD) thermal comfort be energy efficient to ensure that mechanical systems
parameter: the percentage of people expressing operate at optimum efficiency. Part L of the Building
dissatisfaction with the thermal environment in Regulations for England and Wales (NBS, 2013a) therefore
which they are exposed (e.g. too hot or too cold). imposes requirements on airtightness performance and on
the overall specific fan power of a system (see section
—— Predicted mean vote (PMV) thermal comfort parameter: 2.3.5.2). Where thermal ventilation losses are significant,
a measure by each occupant of their perception to increasing use is being made of ventilation heat recovery
thermal comfort varying from –3 for too cold to 0 systems. In some instances these form a major component
for neutral and +3 for too hot. in reducing energy consumption and, in some countries are
compulsory for some building types.
—— Pressure test: a method for testing the airtightness of
a building or a component such as ductwork.
A further method for improving energy efficiency is to
—— Recirculation: the blending of fresh air with extract allow indoor temperature to drift in response to adaptation
air for recycling back into a ventilated space. This to climate conditions. Again, ventilation can play an
forms an important part of an air-driven heating or important role by offering a degree of passive cooling and
cooling system. air movement.
—— Specific fan power: the electrical energy used to drive

each litre/second of air through a ventilation system 2.1.5 System costing
(measured in watts per l·s–1).
—— Task ventilation: a system by which fresh air is System costing is inevitably a major consideration,
ducted directly to the point of need. especially in relation to payback periods and overall
strategic benefit of carbon and energy reduction. Basic
—— Ventilation effectiveness: a term used to describe the guidance is included in CIBSE TM30: Improved life cycle
degree that fresh air is mixed in a space (see section performance of mechanical ventilation systems (2002) and
2.4.7.5). BSRIA Rules of Thumb (5th edition) (2011).
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2.2 Design criteria 2.2.1.1 Purpose of ventilation systems
In designing any ventilation system it is necessary to

2.2.1 Introduction understand the functions required of it. These are
summarised in Table 2.1.
The selection of a ventilation strategy is affected by location,
plan depth, heat gains, internal and external pollutant During periods of heating or active cooling, any fresh air
sources, economics, energy and environmental concerns ventilation above that needed to control air quality has an
and internal layout. Ultimately it is the use and occupancy energy penalty. During summer, in non-air-conditioned
of a space that determines the ventilation needs. There is spaces, ventilation rates above those required for air quality
no universal economic solution, although there are some may reduce the demand for mechanical cooling, although
best practice indicators. It is essential that the client this will only be possible when the outside air temperature
understands and accepts the ramifications of the selected is lower than the room temperature. Even if inside and
strategy. Full details on the operational performance and outside temperatures are similar, increased air movement
selection of individual systems are covered in section 2.3. can improve comfort as described in CIBSE Guide A,
In selecting an appropriate ventilation strategy thought chapter 1 (2015a).
must be given to meeting the requirements of the people
and processes that occupy the building without being
excessive and therefore wasteful. However, the pursuance
of an integrated design approach to achieve this also links 2.2.1.2 Occupancy performance
the ventilation strategy with the design of the building
fabric in that, as a prerequisite, all reasonable steps should
There is much evidence showing that the effectiveness of
be taken to maximise the potential of the fabric.
building ventilation has a significant effect on the
performance of those working in the building. Poor indoor
The design process must be based on a clear understanding air quality impairs the performance of employees in a
of client and end-user needs and expectations and must be workspace (Andersson et al., 2006). It has also been shown
followed by effective commissioning, handover and to result in poor health in the home (Bornehag et al., 2005).
building management. Close collaboration between the
architect, services and structural engineers and the client is
essential from the earliest stages of the outline design Evans et al. (1998) have estimated that design, build and
process. In each case, initial agreement should be reached operating costs are in the ratio 1:5:200. Therefore, poor
on the needs required. Checks should be carried out standards of building ventilation can have a significant
continuously by the design team to ensure that the negative effect on operating costs through their adverse
implications of any changes made during design, effect on employee performance, given that the cost of
construction or subsequent fit-out are understood and running and staffing the business is the most significant to
mutually acceptable. users. Over a system life of 10–15 years, a 1 per cent
reduction in productivity may easily equal any savings
made on the design and installation costs of the system. So
This section considers basic design criteria. More specific it is worthwhile for building owners and operators to ensure
information about ventilation techniques and components that buildings are ventilated to provide a healthy and
are given in subsequent sections. effective environment.
Table 2.1 Purposes of ventilation

Purpose Explanation
To provide sufficient ‘background’ ventilation Typical rates need to be increased where smoking is permitted or additional sources of pollution are
for occupants in terms of air quality for present. Most pollutants originate from sources other than people but in such cases general ventilation
breathing and odour control has been shown to be much less effective than treating the problems at source: e.g. by specification,
cleanliness and local extraction.
To provide natural cooling during the Care must be taken to avoid excessive air change rates that may cause draughts or disturb documents.
occupied period Higher rates may be practicable in spaces occupied transitionally, such as atria. The balance point
above which mechanical cooling will provide a more effective solution should be considered.
To provide natural cooling outside the Night cooling or ‘night purging’ can remove heat built up in a structure and its contents and provide
normal occupied period some pre-cooling for the following day. Practical limitations will exist in terms of acceptable secure
openable areas in the case of natural ventilation and on duct size and fan energy consumption for
ducted mechanical systems.
To exhaust heat and/or pollutants from Examples are kitchens, toilets, vending areas and equipment rooms. This enables adjacent areas to be
localised sources or areas more comfortable, with less conditioning of the air. Such systems often need to operate for longer
hours than those serving the main spaces, therefore independent extract systems are preferred.
To act as a carrier mechanism for This can be either via an all-air system in which the air is treated centrally or via air/water or unitary
mechanical cooling and/or humidity control systems in which the air is recirculated and treated locally.
To prevent condensation within the Adequate ventilation for condensation control exceeds the minimum rate of fresh air necessary for
building fabric health and comfort. There is a specific need to address the ventilation of areas where moisture-
generating activities occur.
To enable the efficient operation of processes Needs are entirely dependent on the process. Ventilation may be required to ensure safe combustion or
to ensure that machinery is maintained within a suitable temperature range, e.g. lift motor rooms.
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Design criteria 2-5
2.2.1.3 Establishing key performance optimise the choice of strategy. If the client is unable to
requirements advise on the precise needs, they must at least be made
aware of any limitations of the chosen design.
The key performance requirements that need to be clarified
before a ventilation strategy can be selected are summarised The design team should also be able to advise the client of
in Table 2.2. Ideally, where the issues highlighted in the the cost implications of meeting their stated requirements,
table have not been covered within the specification on a whole-life basis (BSRIA, 2008) if requested.
documents, the design team should expect to agree Requirements may be adjusted over the course of the
requirements with the client at the outset of the project to project to meet financial constraints or changing business
Table 2.2 Establishing performance requirements

Issue Requirement/comments
Client brief To be developed in the context of the other issues.
Integrated design Co-ordinated approach by the architect and other specialists from outline design.
Energy/environmental targets Use of existing specifications or appropriate advice from the design team required.
Compatibility with indoor environment standards.
Indoor environmental standards Use of existing standards or appropriate advice from the design team required.
Areas or objects with special requirements.
Provision of controls Individual, local, team, zone or centralised basis.

Required closeness of control (e.g. of temperature, humidity, air quality, airflow).
The required interaction of the end user with the building services.
The required basis of control, e.g. temperature, CO2, CO or other.
Demands of the building The business process(es) to be undertaken in the building may demand specified levels of availability of
occupants and activities ventilation.
Work patterns over space and over time (regularity, shifts, team structure).
Cellular and open-plan mix with associated partitioning strategy and likelihood of change.
Occupancy numbers and anticipated maximum occupancy over the building lifetime that might need to be taken
into account.
Average occupancy density and any areas of high or low density.
Functions of space use, processes contained therein and subsequent internal loads (e.g. standard office space,
meeting rooms, lecture theatres, photocopying rooms, sports hall, laboratories, manufacturing environments,
retail space).
Anticipated diversity of internal loads.
Investment criteria Constraints imposed by ‘letability’ requirements.
Value engineering and whole-life Understanding of the client’s priorities towards capital cost and issues of whole-life costs.
costs Requirements for calculations to be carried out on systems or system elements and the basis for these calculations.
Has the client been involved in discussions of acceptable design risk?
The importance of part load performance.
Reliability The business process(es) to be undertaken in the building may demand specified levels of reliability of the
ventilation systems.
Maintenance requirements Understanding of the client’s ability to carry out, or resource, maintenance.
Client willingness for maintenance to take place in the occupied space.
Any requirement for ‘standard’ or ‘familiar’ components.
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Associated systems Implications of any particular requirements, e.g. fire, security, lighting, acoustic consideration.
Security Restrictions on size and location of any openings.
Future needs Adaptability, i.e. the identified need to cope with future change of use.
Flexibility, i.e. the identified need to cope with future changes in work practices within the current building use.
Acceptable design margins: it is important to distinguish, in collaboration with the client, between design that is
adequate for current requirements (which may not be currently accepted best practice), design that makes
sensible agreed allowances for future changes and over-design.
Aesthetic considerations The need for system concealment.

Restriction on placement of grilles, diffusers etc.
Restrictions imposed by local authorities, building listing etc.
Procurement issues Time constraints.

Programming constraints, particularly for refurbishment projects.
Table 2.3 Issues affecting the choice of ventilation

Issue Comments Reference
Location Adjacent buildings can adversely affect wind patterns. The proximity of external sources of pollution can CIBSE AM10 (2005)
influence the feasibility of natural ventilation. The proximity of external sources of noise can impact on
the feasibility of natural ventilation.
Pollution Local levels of air pollution may limit the opportunity for natural ventilation. It may not be possible to CIBSE TM21 (1999)
provide air inlets at positions suitable for natural ventilation given the inability to filter the incoming air
successfully.
Orientation Buildings with their main façades facing north and south are much easier to protect from excessive solar CIBSE Guide F (2012)
gain in summer. West façade solar gain is the most difficult to control, as high gains occur late in the day.
Low sun angles occurring at certain times of year affect both east and west facing façades.
Form At building depths greater than 15 m the ventilation strategy becomes more complex; the limit for Section 2.3.2.2
daylighting and single- sided natural ventilation is often taken as 6 m. An atrium can enhance the CIBSE Guide F (2012)
potential for natural ventilation.
Tall buildings can affect the choice of ventilation system due to wind speeds and exposure. Adequate CIBSE Guide F (2012)
floor-to-ceiling heights are required for displacement ventilation and buoyancy-driven natural Section 2.2.8
ventilation; a minimum floor-to-ceiling height of 2.7 m is recommended.
Insulation Insulation located on the external surface de-couples the mass of the structure from the external surface Section 2.4.2
and enables it to stabilise the internal environment. In well-insulated buildings provision must be made
for the removal of excess heat, for example through night cooling.
Infiltration Ventilation strategies, whether natural or mechanically driven, depend on the building fabric being CIBSE TM23 (2000a)
appropriately airtight. This implies a good practice standard of 5 m3·h–1 per m2 of façade (excluding Approved Document B
consideration of the ground floor) and requires suitable detailing. Site quality checks should be followed (NBS, 2013f)
by air leakage pressure testing as part of the commissioning requirement.
Shading The appropriate use of external planting or other features can reduce solar gain. In terms of effective CIBSE Guide F (2012)
reduction of solar gain, shading devices can be ranked in order of effectiveness as follows: external (most
effective), mid pane, internal (least effective).
Horizontal shading elements are most appropriate for reducing high angle solar gains, for example in CIBSE AM10 (2005)
summer time on south facing façades. Vertical shading devices are most appropriate for reducing low
angle solar gain, e.g. on east and west façades. Control of solar shading devices should be linked with that
of the ventilation system. Glare must be controlled to avoid a default to ‘blinds-down’ and ‘lights-on’
operation.
Window choice Openable areas must be controllable in both summer and winter, e.g. large openings for still summer days CIBSE TM21 (1999a)
and trickle ventilation for the winter time. Window shape can affect ventilation performance; deep
windows can provide better ventilation than shallow. High-level openings provide cross-ventilation;
low-level openings provide local ventilation, although draughts should be avoided at working level. The
location of the opening areas affects the ability of the window to contribute to night cooling (see section
2.4.2). Window operation must not be affected by the choice of shading device. See section 2.6.9 for details
of window characteristics.
Glazing Total solar heat transmission through window glazing can vary over a sixfold range, depending on the CIBSE TM21 (1999a)
combination of glass and shading mechanisms selected. Baker and Steemers
(1994)
At concept stage the percentage of glazed area (normally 20–40 per cent of façade area) and selection of
glazing type must balance thermal, ventilation and lighting needs. The choice includes single, double and
triple glazing with selective coatings or gaseous fill. The type of coating may have a greater influence than
the glazing type. Ideal glazing is transparent to long-wave radiation and reflective to short-wave radiation.
Selective low-emissivity double-glazing is equivalent to air-filled triple-glazing.
The use of tinted glazing may increase the use of supplementary electric lighting, increasing internal heat
gains and energy use. Window frame construction and detailing must also be considered.
Thermal mass Thermal mass is used to reduce peak cooling demands and stabilise internal radiant and air temperatures.
The first 50–100 mm of the structure is most effective on a 24-hour basis. Thermal mass can be introduced
into the ceiling/floor slab (most effective), walls or partitions, but must be ‘accessible’ in all cases. Heat
transfer can be via the surface of the material or via cores/channels within it. The exposure of thermal mass
has architectural and other servicing implications, although these effects can be reduced, e.g. by the use of
perforated ceilings. See section 2.4.2.4 for further details of incorporating thermal mass.
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Design criteria 2-7
needs. The design team must also be able to advise on the Airtightness
impact of any such changes on building performance.
It is also important to consider the risks of air leakage
An appreciation of the issues shown in Table 2.2 is an through the building fabric and its subsequent impact on
essential part of the briefing process. Further guidance on infiltration rates and heat loss calculations (see section
briefing as it applies to building services is given in the 2.5.4.4). The most common locations susceptible to air
Building Services Job Book: A Project Framework for leakage are:
Engineering Services (BSRIA, 2009a) —— junctions between the main structural elements
—— joints between walling components
2.2.1.4 Interaction with fabric/facilities
—— periphery of windows, doors and roof lights
—— gaps in membranes, linings and finishes
Building fabric
—— service penetrations, e.g. gas and electricity entry
The required ventilation rate is based on fresh air points and overflow pipes
requirements and any additional ventilation required for —— access and emergency openings
comfort and cooling purposes. Additional needs for comfort
and cooling must take into account: —— some building materials, e.g. poor quality
brickwork, may be permeable.
—— internal heat gains generated by the occupants, e.g.
occupancy itself, lighting and small power loads Airtightness is becoming a mandatory requirement in an
such as office equipment, including computers, increasing number of countries. Full guidance on achieving
screens and photocopiers airtightness is available in Jaggs and Scivyer (2011). In the
UK, airtightness requirements are incorporated in Part L
—— solar heat gains of the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013a). The pressur
isation test for determining whole-building airtightness is
—— the thermal properties of the building fabric described in ‘Building airtightness’ in section 2.4.7.2.
including insulation, glazing and thermal mass. Optimum duct performance is also dependent on effective
duct airtightness (see ‘Duct airtightness’ in section 2.4.7.2).
Although the architect is associated with making many of
the fabric-related decisions, the building services engineer
must be able to advise on their implications for ventilation, Internal heat gains
energy use etc. and must, therefore, be involved in the
decision-making process as far as is practical and at as early Heat gains impact on the ability of a ventilation system to
a stage as possible. The building services engineer should meet thermal comfort needs efficiently. In the absence of
also be consulted prior to any changes that could affect information from the client, the British Council for Offices
ventilation system performance. (BCO, 2009) recommends the following allowances for
internal gains when specifying ventilation systems:
In instances where designs seek to take full advantage of —— solar gains not to exceed 60–90 W·m–2 depending
ventilation to maximise natural cooling, the architect and upon façade orientation
the building services engineer must be able to enter into a
dialogue on the issues introduced in Table 2.3, as a —— occupancy based upon 1 person per 12 m2, but
minimum. (Note that this table focuses solely on issues diversified wherever possible to 1 person per 14 m2
relating to the interaction between the building fabric and at the central plant
services. To these must be added, for example, consideration —— lighting gains of not more than 12 W·m–2
of the building function and broader issues, as raised in
Table 2.2.) Where the ventilation strategy for the building —— office equipment gains of not more than 15 W·m–2
depends on its thermal mass (see section 2.4.2.4 and Braham when diversified and measured over an area of
et al., 2001), early consultation with the structural engineer 1000 m2 or more, but with an ability to upgrade to
is also needed to consider, for example, the implications for 25 W·m–2. Local workstation levels are quoted as
roof design. At some point it may also be necessary to typically 20–25 W·m–2.
involve a façade specialist, who could advise the client
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accordingly. Interaction with the lighting system
It is important to note that maximising the ‘passive The design strategy for daylight provision forms part of the
contribution’ to be gained from the building fabric itself selection process for window and glazing types and shading
requires an understanding of both the advantages and devices. Integration of the electric lighting system to
disadvantages of this approach. For example, external minimise its impact on the design and operation of the
shading reduces the need for cooling but increased ventilation system requires that internal heat gains from
insulation and airtightness may lead to the need for the lighting be minimised by:
increased ventilation and cooling.
—— maximising the use of daylighting
For a detailed explanation of the role of the building fabric —— the selection of light levels, differentiating between
in contributing to an energy-efficient solution, see CIBSE permanently occupied workspaces and circulation
Guide F: Energy efficiency in buildings (2012) and other areas (guidance on lighting levels can be found in
publications cited in Table 2.3. CIBSE Guide A1 (2015a))
—— the selection of efficient light fittings (decorative has been a growth in the availability of data to support the
fittings may have a lower efficiency) activity (CIBSE, 2002; BSRIA, 2008).
—— the installation of an effective lighting control The proper design of ventilation systems can significantly
system, relative to time of day and occupancy level reduce the whole-life costs. Additionally costly modifi
—— the use of ventilated light fittings (see section 2.6.4). cations and alterations can be avoided by ensuring that the
system requirements are properly defined and the design
Consideration should be given to the impact of the chosen fully addresses the requirements.
ventilation strategy on the lighting system, for example the
use of uplighting with exposed thermal mass (Braham et al., Buildings have to adapt and change in response to business
2001). needs. Taking account of this at the design stage can also
help to ensure that the system is designed to enable such
adaptations to be carried out in the most cost-effective
Small power loads manner, again reducing the whole-life costs of the system.
Small power loads, arising from IT and other office-type

equipment, are an increasingly significant component of 2.2.2 Contaminant control
internal heat gains. Accounting for them in the design of
the ventilation system requires a realistic calculation of A fundamental role of ventilation is contaminant control.
their impact in terms of peak load and anticipated diversity. It is important therefore to understand the characteristics
In order to reduce internal heat gains the designer should: and significance of key pollutants and pollutant sources.
Indoor pollutants are derived from both outdoor and
—— encourage the client to select low-energy equipment indoor sources and each of these sources imposes different
and introduce power cut-off mechanisms requirements on the ventilation control strategies needed
—— locate shared equipment, e.g. vending machines to secure good health and comfort conditions. This topic is
and photocopiers, in a space that can be readily covered in more detail in sections 1.7 and 8.4 of CIBSE
cooled Guide A: Environmental design (2015a).
—— where possible separate IT equipment and servers
from occupied spaces such that the heat from this 2.2.2.1 Outdoor air pollution
equipment does not impact on the occupied space.
Clean outdoor air is essential for achieving good indoor air
quality. Although air cleaning by filtration is possible, it is
2.2.1.5 Solar gain costly and not appropriate in the many buildings that are
naturally ventilated, leaky or ventilated by mechanical
Solar gain primarily occurs through glazing. Short-wave extract systems. Also, general filtration is less effective at
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infrared radiation from the sun enters into the space and controlling respirable fine particulates (e.g. at less than
warms solid surfaces, often making them hot to touch. 2.5 μm) and gaseous pollutants. Filtration is covered in
These then re-radiate into the space at much longer more detail in section 2.3.3.
wavelengths that are impermeable to the glass. As a result,
the heat becomes trapped causing overheating and indoor Some air quality problems are global and can only be
air temperatures to rise above the outdoor value. Solar gain controlled by international effort. Other pollutants are
is, potentially, a substantial component of excess heat load more regional and may be associated with local industry
and can cause serious overheating, especially in a naturally and traffic. Nature, too, presents its own problems, with
ventilated or non-air-conditioned space. Hence solar gain large volumes of dust and gaseous emissions being
must be accurately determined and, where necessary, associated with volcanic activity, while naturally occurring
reduced. Mitigation methods include choice of glazing and radon can penetrate buildings from the underlying
the use of external shading. While internal shading may geological strata. Even rural areas are not immune to
reduce glare and the direct impact of radiant heating on a pollution, where the presence of pollen and fungi spores
person, it rarely reduces the overall heat gain into a space can result in allergic reactions. Typical sources of airborne
This topic is covered in greater detail in CIBSE Guides A pollutants are:
(2015a), B1 (2016b) and B3 (2016a).
—— industrial emission
2.2.1.6 Provision of controls: end-user —— construction dust

perspective —— traffic pollutants
The provision of easy-to-use and quick-acting controls is —— emissions from buildings (boiler exhausts, cooling
fundamental to occupant comfort satisfaction. Any towers, etc.)
requirements of the client must be considered in the light —— rural pollution (pollen, insecticides, etc.)
of the designer’s own experience of end-user behaviour.
Control systems are covered in section 2.3.6. —— soil-borne pollutants (radon, methane, etc.).
Increasing concern about outdoor emissions has resulted in

2.2.1.7 Whole-life cost the introduction of emission controls and ‘clean air’
regulations in many countries. In the US, legislation is
In the UK it is now a requirement that public sector covered by the Clean Air Act. In Europe, emissions controls
purchasers move to whole-life cost-based procurement. fit within the Air Quality Framework Directive (EC, 2008).
The UK Private Finance Initiative (PFI) has stimulated a Implementation in the UK is set out in the Air Quality
marked increase in interest in whole-life costing and there Strategy for England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland
Design criteria 2-9
(DEFRA, 2007). This report explains the measures being and the general level of health of the person exposed. A
undertaken to reduce pollutant concentration in the air detailed discussion is provided in CIBSE TM40: Health
including the designation of Air Quality Management issues in building services (2006a) and limits for specific
Areas at locations identified as having particularly poor air pollutants are set out in chapter 8 and Table 1.5 of CIBSE
quality. This is based on the nationwide monitoring of key Guide A (2015a).
outdoor pollutants. Building developers must check with
local authorities for local air quality conditions and must
2.2.2.4 Metabolic carbon dioxide
also provide information on how a proposed development
will affect the local air quality. UK guidelines on minimising
the risk of pollutant ingress into buildings have been In densely occupied spaces, metabolic carbon dioxide is
published by BRE (Kukadia and Hall, 2011). widely used as a marker for the adequacy of ventilation.
Even at quite high concentrations it is generally regarded
as a non-toxic gas that, in itself, is unlikely to cause injury
Mitigation within buildings of outdoor pollutant sources is
except under extremely unusual conditions. However a
not easy but methods include:
build-up of CO2 in a room leads to a feeling of stuffiness
—— airtightness to prevent the uncontrolled ingress of and can impair concentration. Elevated levels of CO2 in the
outdoor pollutant (see section 2.5.4) body cause an increase in the rate of respiration. Slightly
deeper breathing begins to occur when the atmospheric
—— locating air intakes to avoid outdoor sources
concentration exceeds 5000 ppm (0.5 per cent by volume).
(CIBSE, 1999)
This is the maximum allowable concentration of CO2 for
—— filtration (section 2.3.3) 8-hour exposures by healthy adults (HSE, 2011). Within
the UK, a CO2 figure of 800–1000 ppm is often used as an
—— temporarily reducing ventilation during transient indicator that the ventilation rate in a building is adequate.
periods of high pollution (CIBSE, 2015a). A concentration of 1000 ppm approximately equates to a
‘fresh air’ ventilation rate of 8 l·s–1 per person (CIBSE,
2015a). The actual ventilation value depends on the local
2.2.2.2 Indoor pollutants outside concentration (approximately 350 to 400 ppm
outside urban areas) and the level of metabolic activity.
Pollutants emitted inside buildings are derived from Carbon dioxide monitoring for ventilation control is
metabolism, the activities of occupants and emissions from becoming increasingly more common and relatively
materials used in construction and furnishing. Major inexpensive (see section 2.3.6).
pollutants include:
—— carbon dioxide from metabolism and gas appliances
2.2.3 Fresh air supply rates
—— carbon monoxide (highly toxic and emitted from
poorly maintained gas and other combustion)
2.2.3.1 Introduction
—— formaldehyde from fibre boards and foam insulation
—— moisture (principally generated by occupant Ventilation reduces the concentration of harmful pollutants
activities such as cooking, washing and clothes emitted within a space. It is for this reason that higher
drying) ventilation rates are usually associated with improved
health. Commonly applied methods for determining
—— odour (generated as part of metabolism and emitted suitable outdoor air ventilation rates are:
from furnishings and fabrics)
—— a prescriptive method
—— ozone (from electrical appliances normally
associated with poor maintenance) —— a calculation method for the control of a single
known pollutant being released at a known rate.
—— particulates, including dust, organic fragments,
fibres and smoke particles These are briefly described below. More details are provided
in section 1.8 of CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design
—— volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from furnishing
(2015a).
fabrics and household chemical products
—— laboratory contaminants (chemicals, biohazards,
2.2.3.2 Prescriptive method
radioactive products).
In occupied spaces, the fresh air requirement is increasingly
CIBSE no longer provides recommendations covering
specified in terms of flow rate per person. Where ventilation
ventilation for tobacco smoking. In public buildings in the
is needed to dilute room pollutants not arising from
UK smoking is banned and toxic pollutants generated by
occupancy, fresh air requirements may be expressed as a
smoking are largely regarded as unacceptable, regardless of
volumetric flow rate for the space (e.g. m3·s–1 per m2).
ventilation rate. Harmful indoor pollutant emissions
Formerly, much use was made of expressing ventilation
should always be eliminated where possible. Restrictions
rate in terms of air changes per hour (ACH). This is now
on emissions, particularly of VOCs and particles generally
falling out of favour because of its high dependency on
apply. More information is given in CIBSE Guide A:
room volume, which fails to reflect the physical need to
Environmental design (2015a).
provide fresh air or remove heat.
2.2.2.3 Exposure limits European Standard BS EN 13779: Ventilation for non-

residential buildings. Performance requirements for ventilation
Exposure limits for particular airborne pollutants depend and room-conditioning systems (BSI, 2007a) provides basic
upon a range of factors, including the length of exposure definitions of air quality standards in occupied spaces and
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Table 2.4 Ventilation requirements (reproduced from BS EN 13779: outdoor air supply rate requires to be increased (see
2007 (BSI, 2007a), by permission of the British Standards Institution) CIBSE Guide A, sections 1.8.3.1 and 1.8.4 (2015a)).
Classification Indoor air Ventilation range Default value —— non-steady state conditions that might allow the
quality standard (l·s–1 per person) (l·s–1 per person)
outdoor air supply rate to be reduced (see CIBSE
IDA1 High >15 20 Guide A, section 1.8.3.2 (2015a)).
IDA2 Medium 10–15 12.5
IDA3 Moderate 6–10 8 A more comprehensive analysis of the relationship between
contaminant concentration and ventilation rate is given in
IDA4 Low <6 5
BS 5925: 1991: Code of practice for ventilation principles and
designing for natural ventilation (BSI, 1991).
relates these to fresh air ventilation rates required for each
Note that the existing guidelines for the calculation of
occupant (in terms of l·s–1 per person), using a methodology
outside air ventilation rates are based on the assumptions
set out in BS EN 15251: 2007: Indoor environmental input
that the air outside the building is ‘fresh’ and that the
parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of
pollutant load is inside the building. For buildings in city
buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment,
areas or adjacent to busy roads the quality of the outside air
lighting and acoustics (BSI, 2007b). These are summarised in
needs to be assessed, as this can also be a source of pollutants.
Table 2.4.
Where specific problems are anticipated, an air quality
survey should be undertaken. This should include
It is important to note that these rates relate to comfort air measurements at likely times of peak pollution. This is
quality and do not necessarily reflect the purity of air with covered in more detail by Kukadia and Hall (2011).
respect to health-related contaminants. They are most
applicable for spaces that are relatively free from sources of Ventilation should not be used in place of source control to
pollution and for ventilation air that is itself pure. minimise pollutant concentrations in a space.
Building Regulations Part F (NBS, 2013b) require a
minimum ventilation rate of 10 l·s–1 per person for office 2.2.4 Ventilation for thermal comfort
applications. This fits between classes IDA2 and IDA3 in
Table 2.4. Ventilation provides an essential means to control thermal
comfort. This includes the use of air-conditioning systems
General minimum fresh air requirements for specific for the distribution of heated and chilled air (see CIBSE
building types are given in CIBSE Guide A (2015a). Guide B3 (2016a)) as well as the use of ventilation to
passively cool a space. In the case of natural or passive
cooling the ventilation rate required to maintain thermal
2.2.3.3 Calculating the ventilation rate to comfort in a space is often far higher than that needed to
control a single pollutant meet minimum ventilation rates for air quality. A detailed
discussion of the factors that affect thermal comfort is given
Where a single known pollutant is emitted at a known rate in chapter 1 of CIBSE Guide A (2015a).
the required ventilation rate is based on risk assessments,
for example in the UK, pollutants under the Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations. 2.2.5 Humidity
For a single contaminant under steady conditions, the The role of humidity in maintaining comfortable conditions
steady dilution equation 2.1 may be applied to determine is discussed in section 1.3.1.3 of CIBSE Guide A (2015a)
the flow of outdoor air that, with good mixing, would where an acceptable range of 40–70 per cent relative
maintain the contaminant concentration at a specified humidity (RH) is suggested. However, to minimise the risk
level. of mould growth or condensation and maintain comfortable
conditions, a maximum design figure of 60 per cent RH is
q (106 – Ci ) suggested for the design of air-conditioning systems.
Q = ————— (2.1) Within naturally ventilated buildings, humidity levels as
(Ci – Co) low as 30 per cent RH (or lower) may be acceptable for short
periods of time. However, low RH can result in unpleasant
static electricity shocks, especially when touching metallic
where Q is the outdoor air supply rate (l·s–1), q is the objects.
pollutant emission rate (l·s–1), Co is the concentration of
pollutant in the outdoor air (ppm) and Ci is the limit of
concentration of pollutant in the indoor air (ppm). Full 2.2.6 Ventilation to avoid interstitial
details are given in CIBSE Guide A (2015a). condensation
This equation can be adapted for: Many structures are vulnerable to interstitial condensation,
—— pollutant thresholds quoted in mg·m–3 and which can cause rotting of wood-based components,
situations where Ci is small or the incoming air is corrosion of metals and reduction in the performance of
free of the pollutant in question (see CIBSE Guide thermal insulation. Condensed water can also run or drip
A, section 1.8.3.1 (2015a)). back into the building causing staining to internal finishes
or damage to fittings and equipment. The traditional view
—— situations where the ventilation results in a non- has been that these problems are caused by water vapour
uniform concentration so that higher than average generated in the building diffusing into the structure.
concentrations exist in the occupied zone and the Avoidance measures have therefore concentrated on the
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Design criteria 2-11
inclusion of a vapour control layer on the warm side of the The extraction of air then dilutes the concentration of
structure, appropriate placing of insulation and ventilating pollutants within the space. Mixing systems are particularly
the structure to intercept the water vapour before it can used with conventional warm air heating and cooling
condense. In the UK guidance and requirements are given systems since this is able to distribute the thermally
in Part C of the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013c). conditioned air uniformly. Because the amount of air
Ventilation is specifically required in cavities above the needed to provide thermal conditioning is usually much
insulation in cold pitched and flat roofs, behind the greater than that needed to provide fresh air, recirculation
cladding of framed walls and below timber floors. is widely used (see section 2.4.3). Mixing system
Commonly this is achieved by using natural ventilation performance is not dependent upon room height or room
openings, which are often required by building codes. layout. Air can enter the space via either the floor or the
Many problems can occur from water entrapped within ceiling (see Figure 2.2(a) and (b)). Guidance on diffuser
materials moving within the structure under diurnal design to create mixing is given in section 2.4.3
temperature cycles. Under these circumstances it is helpful
to distinguish between ‘ventilated’ and ‘vented’ air spaces.
A ventilated space is designed to ensure a through flow of 2.2.8.2 Displacement ventilation
air, driven by wind or stack pressures, whereas a vented
space has openings to the outside air that allow some This is based on the provision of low-velocity air supply
limited, but not necessarily through, flow of air. As the air that does not mix with the room air. Air is supplied at a low
in the space expands and contracts under diurnal velocity from low-level, wall-mounted or floor-mounted
temperature cycles, water vapour will be ‘breathed’ out of supply air terminal devices directly into the occupied zone,
the structure. This mechanism can be very effective in large at a temperature slightly cooler than the design room air
span structures where it can be very difficult to ensure temperature, see Figure 2.2(c). The air from a wall-mounted
through ventilation of small cavities. terminal flows downward to the floor due to gravity and
moves around the room close to the floor, creating a thin
Detailed design guidance for the provision of ventilation layer of cool air. Natural convection from internal heat
within structures is available in CIBSE Guide A (2015a), sources, such as occupants and equipment, causes upward
BS 5250: 2011: Code of practice for control of condensation in air movement in the room. The warm, contaminated air
buildings (BSI, 2011a) and BRE Report BR 262: Thermal forms a stratified region above the occupied zone, which is
Insulation: Avoiding Risks (BRE, 2002). then exhausted at high level. The depth of this layer
depends upon the relationship between the incoming
airflow and the rate of flow in the plumes. The boundary
2.2.7 Air movement: limiting air
velocities
Excessive air movement creates uncomfortable draughts.
Guidelines and standards have been developed to provide
guidance on maximum values. Draughts are a particular
problem in the vicinity of cold air diffusers and in the
presence of uncontrolled cold outdoor air ingress. In
warmer weather, the draught caused by air movement can
be beneficial and adds to the sensation of cooling. It also
reduces the operative temperature on which thermal
comfort criteria are largely based. For this reason circulation
fans are commonly used to provide comfort in a non-air-
conditioned environment. The effect of air movement is
function of both mean airspeed and a measure of the
fluctuating component, usually turbulence intensity. BS
EN ISO 7730 (BSI, 2005a) defines a draught rating (DR) for
mechanically ventilated and air-conditioned buildings that
combines the effect of velocity, turbulence intensity and air
temperature. Discussion of acceptable levels of draught
rating and other aspects of air movement is included in
CIBSE Guide A, section 1.6.6.5 (2015a).
2.2.8 Air distribution

Fresh ventilation air needs to be draught free and maintain
a safe level of pollutant concentration in the vicinity of
occupants. Important air distribution techniques are used
to achieve this, each with a particular purpose. The main
approaches are described in the following sections.
2.2.8.1 Mixing (or dilution) ventilation
Mixing ventilation is based on the air being supplied into

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Figure 2.2 Supply/extract arrangements for ventilation: (a) mixing,

the room in a manner that creates sufficient turbulence for supply and exhaust at high level, (b) mixing, supply at high level, exhaust
the contaminants within the space to be equally distributed. at low level, (c) displacement
will stabilise at a level at which these two flow rates are to 25 W·m–2 due to discomfort considerations (Sandberg
equal. and Blomqvist, 1989).
The airflow in displacement ventilation has both horizontal There are conditions under displacement systems that are
and vertical air movement characteristics. Horizontal air less effective than traditional mixed-flow ventilation
movement occurs within the thermally stratified layers that strategies. These include (Jackman, 1990):
are formed between the upper (warm) and lower (cool) air —— where the supply air is warmer than the room air
layers in the room. Vertical air movement is caused by the (except under particular circumstances where cold
presence of cold and warm objects in the space. Warm down-draughts exist over the supply position)
objects, such as people, create upward convection currents;
cold objects, such as cold windows and walls, cause —— where contaminants are cold and/or more dense
downward currents. than the surrounding air
—— where surface temperatures of heat sources are low,
For given rates of ventilation and pollutant discharge, the e.g. <35 °C
air quality in the occupied zone of a room with displacement
ventilation can be higher than that using a mixed-flow —— where ceiling heights are low, i.e. <2.3 m (the
ventilation method. In displacement ventilation, air preferred height is not less than 3 m)
movement above the occupied zone is often mixed and it is —— where disturbance to room airflows is unusually
when this mixed region extends down into the occupied strong.
zone that the air quality becomes similar to that in a mixed-
flow system.
2.2.9 Noise
There is limited cooling capacity unless it is combined with
active cooling systems such as chilled ceilings or beams (see Noise is generated by mechanical systems or can enter into
CIBSE Guide B3 (2016a)). Heating must normally be the building from outside sources. Naturally ventilated
provided using hydronic radiators. In the true meaning of buildings can be particularly prone to outside noise through
displacement ventilation, natural ventilation is not possible open windows while mechanically ventilated buildings can
since it cannot provide the precision control that is be prone to system noise. Guidance on maximum noise
necessary. Sometimes, however, the definition is loosely thresholds are given in chapter 1 of CIBSE Guide A (2015a).
applied to the situation where an airflow pattern is Noise is considered in more detail in section 2.5.2 and
established across a building in which fresh air enters CIBSE Guide B4 (2016c).
through one side and propagates across the building to
exhaust openings elsewhere. Solutions to minimising noise include the following.
—— Naturally ventilated buildings:
With displacement ventilation, a vertical temperature
—— acoustic vents
gradient is unavoidable. BS EN ISO 7730 (BSI, 2005a)
recommends a vertical temperature gradient for sedentary —— noise barriers (vegetation and fences)
occupants of less than 3 K. This equates to approximately
3 K·m–1 if workers are assumed to be seated, although a —— location of intakes away from noise zones;
limit of 1.8 or 2 K·m–1 is often proposed for offices (i.e. 5 K reduced noise locations can include high-
limit for a typical floor-to-ceiling height of 2.5 m). However, level intakes (e.g. by using wind towers),
as 30–50 per cent of the overall supply-to-extract courtyards and at locations away from busy
temperature difference occurs between the supply air and roads.
that at ankle level in the main space, a limiting difference —— Mechanically ventilated buildings:
between floor and ceiling height for typical office
applications can be taken as 7–10 K. The supply air —— control of external noise sources
temperature should not be lower than 18 °C for sedentary —— limitations on mechanical duct flow velocity
occupancy and 16 °C for more active occupancy. It is also
recommended that the limits of variation of temperature —— use of silencers.
across the room should be within a temperature range of
3 K, i.e. ±1.5 K about the mean room air temperature.
A combination of near-floor temperatures below 22 °C and

2.3 Systems
airflows in excess of 0.15 m·s–1 may cause discomfort due to
cold feet, so occupants should be located a sufficient 2.3.1 Introduction
distance from diffusers. Equipment manufacturers should
be consulted for detailed performance characteristics. A wide range of ventilation systems and associated
technologies is needed to meet the air-quality needs of
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The zone around a supply air diffuser within which the buildings. Ventilation solutions vary from basic natural
supply air conditions have the greatest effect is labelled the ventilation systems to complex mechanical approaches. In
near-zone. The permitted near-zone extent together with addition, the maintenance of air quality may often require
the maximum allowable comfort temperature at the near- air cleaning methods, while energy efficiency demands
zone perimeter for a given supply air temperature dictates efficient fans, low-loss systems and good control technology.
the air volume per diffuser and its size. In an office the Providing fresh air to complex spaces also requires the use
near-zone may be 1 m, in a commercial application or in a of duct systems, which must meet the often conflicting
foyer it may be 3 m. The maximum cooling load that can be requirements of restricted space while providing ducting of
delivered by displacement ventilation is therefore limited sufficient cross-section to minimise pressure losses. This
Systems 2-13
chapter describes the systems needed to accomplish openable area equivalent to 5 per cent of floor area has been
effective ventilation. regarded as a satisfactory default minimum for fulfilling
occupant ventilation needs and general purging by natural
ventilation. This, however, does not necessarily satisfy
2.3.2 Ventilation systems requirements for special air quality needs or satisfy all the
requirements needed for natural summer cooling.
2.3.2.1 Background
A prerequisite for the use of natural ventilation to provide
cooling for thermal comfort is the control of heat gains into
The variability of building type and climate conditions the occupied space. Natural ventilation cannot provide a
results in the need for a wide variety in the type of constant flow rate but the important parameter is the time-
ventilation system required to maintain good indoor air averaged flow, rather than the instantaneous flow rate. This
quality. Within the UK, large city-centre office buildings means that, within reason, the fresh air rate can vary
tend to be mechanically ventilated. On the other hand, without there being any significant variation in indoor air
many smaller buildings and public buildings, such as quality because of the fresh air quality reservoir provided
schools and hospitals, tend to be predominantly naturally by the volume of the space.
ventilated. Almost all the existing housing stock is naturally
ventilated, although modern airtight housing is increasingly
being fitted with mechanical systems incorporating heat Wind-driven natural ventilation
recovery (see section 2.3.4). Demand for improved thermal
comfort, combined with large internal heat gains, is Wind pressure acting on a building drives airflow through
resulting in an increasing requirement for mechanically windows, natural vents or mechanically controlled
ventilated air-conditioned spaces. In some buildings a openings, as well as through adventitious leakage openings
combined ‘mixed-mode’ or ‘hybrid’ approach to ventilation in the building fabric. Wind-driven ventilation is caused by
is used in which natural ventilation is applied for some of varying surface pressures acting across the external building
the time or to some of the spaces while mechanical envelope see (Figure 2.4). The distribution of pressure
ventilation is used when and where natural ventilation is depends on:
unsuitable.
—— the terrain
—— localised obstructions
2.3.2.2 Natural ventilation
—— the wind speed and its direction relative to the
Natural ventilation may be defined as ventilation that relies building
on moving air through a building under the natural forces
—— the shape of the building.
of wind and buoyancy. A building can be considered to be
naturally ventilated when most of the space is ventilated by
such forces for most of the period during which ventilation Air will flow through the building from areas of high
is needed. Some spaces, such as bathrooms, kitchens, WCs pressure to areas of low pressure. In very general terms,
and other polluting areas, may be required to incorporate building surfaces facing into the wind will experience
intermittent mechanical extractor fans. Full details on positive pressures; leeward surfaces and those at right
natural ventilation theory and design are given in CIBSE angles to the wind direction will experience negative
AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings (2005) pressure (suction). Since wind velocity increases with
(see also section 2.4.2). height and the wind pressure increases as the square of
wind speed, the top of high-rise buildings can therefore
experience relatively large wind pressures compared with
In a mild and warming climate, such as the UK, there is ground level.
still very strong demand for natural ventilation. The
Carbon Trust (2007) stated that ‘average overall energy
By locating openings in the positive and negative pressure
consumption of air conditioned buildings is approximately
regions, a suitable flow pattern through the building can be
twice that of similar sized naturally ventilated buildings’. It
planned. Knowledge of local climate conditions is essential.
also stated that ‘making the most of natural ventilation is a
Suitable openings include windows vents and wind towers
simple and cost-effective way of achieving big savings’
(see section 2.6.9).
(Carbon Trust, 2006). In the case of schools, the UK
Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment
(CABE, 2009) requires that natural ventilation be used Stack or buoyancy-driven ventilation
wherever possible. Similarly, the carbon reduction strategy
of the UK National Health Service (NHS, 2009) states that Stack-driven ventilation is driven by the pressure
‘Buildings designed with passive ventilation have improved differences created between the inside and outside of a
resilience to energy supply failure and are more energy building by temperature difference (see chapter 4 of CIBSE
efficient than mechanically ventilated buildings. In an Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a)). Warm air inside a space rises to
acute hospital up to 70 per cent of net floor space could be be replaced by colder air, as shown in Figure 2.5. In the
entirely or partially naturally ventilated.’ However, natural normal situation, where the inside of the building is warmer
ventilation may not always be the best choice and it is than outside, the pressure difference acts inwards at the
important that the economic benefits are properly assessed lower levels of the building and outwards at the high levels.
and compared with alternative solutions. The driving pressures created by stack effect can often be
similar in magnitude to wind-driven ventilation pressure,
Typical natural ventilation configurations are summarised especially in sheltered locations. Stack ventilation is
in Figure 2.3. Purpose-provided ventilation openings can therefore an important contributor to natural ventilation
consist of a combination of vents, stacks, wind towers and design. Systems can be applied to both single-storey and
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
openable windows. Traditionally, the provision of an multi-storey buildings by utilising interconnected openings
Vr Vr
to ti to ti to ti
A1 A1 A3
A ha Cp1 Cp2
A2 A2 A4
(a) Single sided single opening (b) Single sided double opening (c) Cross ventilation
(d) Scoop cross ventilation (e) Ducted cross ventilation (f) Chimney
Extract mode Supply mode
(g) Atrium ventilation (h) Double facade ventilation
Wind
(i) Wind tower/catcher
Figure 2.3 Typical natural ventilation configurations
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Systems 2-15
Negative
pressure
region
Positive
pressure
region
Figure 2.4 Wind-driven
ventilation (from Guide to
Wind
Ventilation (AIVC, 1996)
direction
reproduced by kind permission
of AIVC)
Positive with
respect to Figure 2.5 Stack-driven
outdoor pressure ‘Neutral’ ventilation. Flow pattern for
pressure outside temperature less than
plane inside temperature (from Guide
Negative with
to Ventilation (AIVC, 1996),
respect to
reproduced by kind permission
outdoor pressure
of AIVC)
placed at different heights. Design details are covered in of the building that can be ventilated by natural means (see
section 2.4.2. ‘Cross-flow ventilation: maximum penetration depth’ in
section 2.3.2.2). Note that the same effect could be achieved
Stack-driven ventilation is enhanced by maximising the by a central spine of chimneys and wind terminals.
vertical distances between openings. This may be
accomplished by atrium design (see ‘Atrium ventilation’ in The atrium also provides an opportunity for introducing
section 2.3.2.2) or by the use of passive stacks (see section daylight into the centre of a deep-plan building. Because
2.6.9.12). atria are designed to capture natural light, they are by
definition solar assisted. To promote natural ventilation,
Combined wind and stack-driven ventilation the air temperature in the atrium should be as high as
possible over as great a proportion of the atrium height as
possible. If the atrium is open to the surrounding space, or
Combined wind and stack systems can provide ventilation
if it provides high-level walkways between floors, then
irrespective of driving force. Good designs of natural
excess temperatures at occupied high levels may be
ventilation should seek to utilise both forces. This is
unacceptable. The design should therefore seek to allow
accomplished by optimising the location of openings to
solar energy to be absorbed by surfaces such as:
benefit from wind effect and temperature difference. In
particular wind pressure can enhance stack effect by placing
—— elements of the structure
stack outlets in the negative pressure region above the roof
(see ‘Wind-driven natural ventilation’ in section 2.3.2.2).
—— solar baffles or blinds that act as shading devices.
An example of the interaction of wind and stack pressure is
given in Figure 2.6.
As stack ventilation, roof vents must be carefully positioned
within the form of the roof so that positive wind pressures
Atrium ventilation do not act on the outlets thereby causing reverse flow. This
is achieved by:
An atrium is a variation on the chimney ventilation
principle (see Figure 2.7) The essential difference is that —— designing the roof profile so that the opening is in a
the atrium serves more functions than the chimney; for negative pressure zone for all wind angles
example it can also provide space for circulation and social
interaction. These can restrict the flexibility to locate the —— using multiple vents that are automatically
atrium to maximum advantage for ventilation purposes. controlled to close on the windward side and open
The design of atria is discussed in detail by Saxon (1986). on the leeward side
With a centrally located atrium, the air can be drawn from —— using dampers on the outlets to control the air path
both sides of the building, thereby doubling the plan width
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in high winds
Open Figure 2.6 Combined effect of

countryside wind and temperature difference
Wind on ventilation rate and airflow
2.0 dominant pattern (from Guide to Ventilation
Air change rate (air changes per hour, ACH)

regime (AIVC, 1996) reproduced by kind
Rural permission of AIVC)
Urban
Temperature
1.0 dominant
regime
30 K
20 K
10 K
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.0
0 5 10
Building height wind speed (m/s)
(a) (c)
2 3 2 3
1 4 1 4
Wind direction V = 0 m/s V = 2 m/s

(V = speed in m/s) Q = 0.48 ACH Q = 0.48 ACH
Temperatiure
difference = 20 K
(c) (d)
2 3 2 3
1 4 1 4
V = 4.2 m/s V = 4.6 m/s

Notes Q = 0.37 ACH Q = 0.48 ACH
While the rate of ventilation can be held almost At (c) the wind exactly opposes stack pressure at
constant for a range of weather conditions, the openings 2 and 4, leaving flow only through 1 and
pattern of airflow changes. 3. The effective reduction in the number of openings
reduces slightly the overall air change rate. This
In (a), ventilation is dominated by temperature effect is less pronounced as the number of openings
(temperature dominant regime). Air enters through increase since it is unlikely that a significant
the lower openings (1 and 4) and leaves through proportion of them would simultaneously
the upper openings (2 and 3). experience exactly opposing pressures.
As wind increases in situation (b), wind pressure At greater wind speeds (d), flow enters the building
reinforces stack pressure at the windward lower through the windward side (1 and 2) and leaves
opening (1) and leeward upper opening (3), while through the leeward openings (3 and 4). This marks
opposing the stack pressure at the other openings the start of the wind dominant regime.
(2 and 4). Although the pattern and magnitude of
flow essentially remains unaltered, the flow rate
through each opening changes.

Systems 2-17
Solar
gains
Cooler Shaft
Warmer
Figure 2.7 Buoyancy-driven ventilation Figure 2.8 Double façade ventilation
—— using multiple dampers in a controls philosophy to The warmed air is then supplied into the occupied zones
open and close on the windward or leeward side as via ventilation openings between the cavity and the space.
necessary. If the air in the cavity is too hot, then it can be exhausted to
outside or to a heat recovery device.
Natural ventilation can be supplemented on hot still days
by the use of extract fans in the atrium roof. Subject to The efficiency of the solar collector mode can be significantly
approval by the fire officer, these can also form part of the reduced if the conduction losses are too high. The possibility
smoke control system. It is likely that any components used of condensation should also be checked based on the
in such a system should have fire or smoke classifications conditions of the air entering the cavity and the temperature
(see section 2.5.3). of the glass.
Double façade natural ventilation

Single-sided natural ventilation: maximum penetration
The double façade is a special form of solar chimney, where depth
the whole façade acts as an air duct (see Figure 2.8). It can
act as an extract plenum similar to a solar chimney. In order Sometimes natural ventilation may only be provided
to provide absorbing surfaces to promote convective flow in through openings on a single side of a space (e.g. a row of
the façade, cavity blinds are used. These also prevent direct windows, see Figure 2.9). This can restrict the impact of
solar gain passing through the façade to the occupied space. wind-driven ventilation since the same openings must
provide for both supply and extract. To ensure that the full
Alternatively, the cavity could be used as a supply plenum. depth of a single-sided space is adequately ventilated, the
Outside air is introduced into the cavity at low level and the depth of a single-sided ventilated room should not generally
cavity acts as a solar collector, pre-heating the outside air. exceed 2.5 times the ceiling height (see Table 2.5).
Single sided: maximum depth = 2.5 × h
Height, h
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 2.9 Single-sided ventilation maximum penetration (from Guide to Ventilation (AIVC, 1996) reproduced by kind permission of AIVC)
Height, h
Cross flow: maximum depth = 5 × h
Figure 2.10 Cross-flow ventilation (from Guide to Ventilation (AIVC, 1996) reproduced by kind permission of AIVC)
Cross-flow ventilation: maximum penetration depth such as cooling coils or humidifiers, which can
harbour biological growth.
Cross-ventilation occurs where there are ventilation —— There is no plant noise.
openings on both sides of the space concerned (see Figure
2.10). Depending on weather conditions and the config —— It can be integrated with cooling systems to prevent
uration of openings, cross-ventilation can be driven by overheating.
wind or stack pressure or a combination of both. As the air —— Wind towers, stacks and atria can increase the
moves across the zone, there will be an increase in depth of space that can be naturally ventilated.
temperature and a reduction in air quality as the air picks
up heat and pollutants from the occupied space. —— There is no need to house mechanical plant rooms
Consequently there is a limit on the depth of space that can therefore there is more floor space available for
be effectively cross-ventilated. This implies a narrow plan occupation.
depth for the building, which has the added benefit of
enhancing the potential for natural lighting. Cross- Limitations include the following points:
ventilation is only generally effective up to a maximum of —— Under-ventilation can occur at low driving forces.
five times the floor-to-ceiling height (see Table 2.5).
—— Inadequate control could lead to excessive winter
In the case of an atrium, passive stack or a wind tower it heat loss. Although close control over temperature
may be possible to extend the building depth to 10 times and humidity is possible, it requires a tight control
the ceiling height by creating fresh air cross-flow paths strategy. Poor control could lead to inadequate
towards or from the centre of the building. More information ventilation.
about natural ventilation components is given in section —— Risk of draught: poorly located openings could
2.6.9. result in cold draughts. Cold back-draught is
possible from passive stacks if the air in the stack is
not heated to room temperature.
Advantages and limitations of natural ventilation
—— Restrictions on the maximum penetration depth of
natural ventilation could result in limitations on
Natural ventilation offers many advantages, especially in a building and/or room size.
mild climate. However, there are also important limitations
that can restrict its use, especially in urban environments —— Flexibility is difficult to achieve if extensive
and where energy efficiency can be improved by heat partitioning is introduced.
recovery. —— Overheating risk: natural ventilation may reach its
limits if heat gains increase and no mechanical
Advantages include the following points: cooling is installed. This limit will depend on many
factors including indoor heat gain, solar gains and
—— It can provide acceptable levels of thermal comfort
outdoor temperature. A full thermal analysis is
and indoor air quality under many seasonal
needed to assess the potential of passive cooling.
conditions and can also meet acoustic requirements
The long-term impact of global warming also needs
for the internal conditions with a minimum use of
to be considered.
energy.
—— Mechanical heat recovery is not possible.
—— User control: anecdotal evidence suggests that
users are reported to favour access to openable —— Predictability: performance can be modelled in
windows or some form of local override facility. theory, but in practice is subject to variation in the
motivating forces of wind and weather.
—— It is relatively inexpensive to install, however costs
are heavily influenced by the complexity of window —— Noise: there may be problems associated with
or ventilator design and by the building form external noise or the transmission of internal noise.
necessary to achieve effective natural ventilation. —— Ability to deal with polluted outdoor environments:
protection from outdoor pollutants by filtration is
—— Minimal maintenance needs: natural ventilation not possible but effects of transient pollutants can
systems are generally more accessible for cleaning be mitigated by closing windows and other types of
and maintenance than mechanical systems, and opening during times of pollution (e.g. periods of
there are no components subject to high humidity, peak traffic movement).
Table 2.5 Natural ventilation options and maximum recommended —— Where air is passed from one zone to another the
depths (from CIBSE AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings flow of fresh air must be sufficient to provide
(2005)) acceptable air quality in the downstream zone.
Strategy Maximum effective depth relative to floor-to-
ceiling height 2.3.2.3 Mechanical ventilation
Single-sided opening 2.5 × floor-to-ceiling height
Mechanical ventilation strategies
Cross flow 5.0 × floor-to-ceiling height
Mechanical ventilation systems incorporate fans and
Stack ventilation 5.0 × floor-to-ceiling height control systems to drive the ventilation process. They are
thus able to provide ventilation irrespective of the
availability or suitability of natural forces. Large buildings
Atria 10 × floor-to-ceiling height if centrally located including city centre offices, public buildings and shopping
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,

Systems 2-19
malls are almost universally mechanically ventilated. In diffuser. Additional heating or cooling may be applied at
addition to providing fresh air, mechanical systems are also the air terminal unit. The characteristics of a diffuser
commonly used to distribute thermally conditioned air as depend on the type of ventilation system. In the case of
part of the building’s heating and cooling or air- mixing systems (see section 2.6.4) the diffuser is designed
conditioning system. to maximise the level of turbulence and hence encourage
the rapid mixing of supply air with room air. The orientation
The main roles for mechanical ventilation are: of the flow jets and the flow velocity must be designed such
that the heat or cooling characteristics of the supply air is
—— to provide fresh air ventilation rapidly dispersed into the occupied zone without causing
—— to assist in naturally cooling a building when the draught or thermal discomfort.
outside air temperature is less than the indoor air
temperature, e.g. night cooling by mechanical Displacement systems (see section 2.2.8.2)
ventilation assistance
—— to distribute thermally conditioned air from a In the case of displacement systems the diffuser must be
heating and air-conditioning system. designed to avoid mixing. Detailed information is given in
section 2.4.3.5. Primary thermal treatment may be minimal
There are several possible arrangements for the supply and in the case of a displacement ventilation system. Recirculation
extraction of air in mechanical ventilation systems. These is also usually avoided with displacement systems since
are summarised in Figure 2.11. thermal needs are not provided by the supply air.
Large building ‘balanced’ mechanical ventilation Advantages
A schematic of the main elements of a typical large This is a well-established ventilation approach, which has
commercial building ventilation system is illustrated in the following advantages:
Figure 2.12). This arrangement forms the basis of
—— It can control indoor climate irrespective of outdoor
mechanical systems in large buildings throughout the
conditions.
world and is fundamental to modern heating, ventilation,
and air conditioning (HVAC) design. This approach —— Control can be provided at an individual level,
incorporates a separate network of fans and ducts to supply regardless of location.
fresh (and often thermally tempered) air to a space and
extract polluted air from a space. —— Closeness of control: close control over temperature
and humidity is possible (subject to air being at a
Supply air is drawn from the outside via an air intake. This suitable temperature), but with higher energy use.
may be pre-heated or cooled by an exhaust air heat recovery —— Flexibility: this can be achieved but with cost
unit (see section 2.3.4) before being blended with penalties.
recirculated air in a mixing box. The air is then filtered and
thermally conditioned (heated or cooled) before being —— Predictability: performance can be predicted
supplied to the ventilated space via an air terminal unit and subject to commissioning and maintenance.
Mechanical
ventilation Supply air
Exhaust intake
Balanced Extract/exhaust Supply Heat

Fr
recovery
(alternative to
recirculation)
Filter Chiller Heater Humidifier/
dehumidifier
Mainly Mainly Dampers Mixing
displacement mixing box Draw-through
Displacement Mixing
arrangement
‘piston’ ‘dilution’ (see CIBSE Guide B)
Recirculation
ventilation ventilation system
Exhaust air No heat Control

Air to air
heat recovery recovery Silencer
heat recovery
(not common) Extract Fan
fan
Passive Air Extract

grille
chilled beam/ conditioning
ceiling cooling
Constant air volume (CAV) Air terminal unit
(diffused)
Variable air volume (CAV) May be coupled to:
• fan coil unit
• VAV system
Active chilled beams • active chilled beam
(a) Mechanical balanced ventilation for non-residential buildings
Fan coil units Figure 2.12 Mechanical balanced ventilation for non-residential
building (source: Good Practice Guide GPG 257 (Action Energy, 1997)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 2.11 Summary of mechanical systems (Crown copyright)) Exhaust

No reproduction or networking permitted without license from S&P Global Exhaust
Not for Resale, 10/20/2022 05:10:40gas
MDTor Extract
particle cleaning fan
—— Ability to deal with polluted environments: there is pressure relative to the ambient outdoor atmospheric
control of air intake positioning. These should be pressure.
located away from pollutant sources (see CIBSE,
1999 and BSRIA, 2000). Filtration is possible in When the pressure generated by the mechanical system is
harsh environments (see section 2.3.3). However, greater than the pressures generated by the natural driving
gaseous and fine particle control may involve forces of wind and stack pressure, the airflow rate is
considerable expense and regular maintenance. dominated by the mechanical ventilation rate (this process
—— It is suitable for hot and cold climates. is covered in more detail in CIBSE Guide A (2015a)). Thus
this system can inhibit the impact of air infiltration driving
—— It is suitable for large buildings. forces. However, for full control of ventilation the building
—— It is suitable for urban and city centre locations. should be reasonably airtight.
Disadvantages In the domestic setting, extract ventilation is placed in ‘wet’

rooms such as WCs, bathrooms and kitchens. The resultant
suction pressure prevents moisture, generated in wet
Disadvantages are as follows.
spaces, from entering the living area thus reducing the risk
—— High capital costs: costs are heavily influenced by the of condensation. In addition, cooking fumes and other
amount of mechanical plant and the need for a dual pollutants are prevented from spreading to occupied zones.
duct system, i.e. one for supply and one for extract. In the commercial setting extract ventilation is used for
containment. Examples include industrial fume hoods,
—— High running costs: the system
Supply air incurs electrical commercial kitchens and laboratory applications (see
Exhaust energy demand and regular
intake maintenance costs;
CIBSE Guide B0 (2016b)).
power is now limited by regulation (NBS, 2011d/e).
—— Risk of draught from displacement units: poor design
A further important advantage of extract ventilation is that
Heat may lead to draught risk.
recovery contaminantsFresh
fromairthe exhaust air can be centrallyExhaust
collected
inlet Filters Heat air outlet
(alternative
—— to
High space demand: space is needed for ductwork and removed by filtration before discharge
Exhaust into the
recirculation)
and equipment. Filter Chiller Heater Humidifier/ atmosphere. Waste heat can exchanger fan
also be extracted using ‘run-
Mixing
dehumidifier around’ coils for use as supply air pre-heat or, in the case of
Dampers
—— Building airtightness:
box for the associated heating and
Draw-through low-grade heat, for use in conjunction with a heat pump.
cooling system to work at maximum efficiency the
arrangement
building needs to be as airtight as possible.(see CIBSE Guide B)
Recirculation
system
Excessive under-pressures will lead to high fan energy
consumption and could cause back-draught from flued
Mechanical extract ventilation
Control appliances in adjacent spaces. Hence a Supplyfull risk assessment
fan
will be needed to identify any problem. Part F of the
Silencer
InExtract
smaller commercial buildings and dwellings, Fan the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013b) provides guidance on
complexities
fan of balanced systems may be reduced by the avoidance of back-draught when using extract systems.
installation of anExtract
extract only system (Figure 2.13). In this
Wet Dry
case air is extracted
grillefrom ‘wet’ or contaminated areas such Fans can be window, ceiling zone or wallzone
mounted but are most
as process areas, kitchens, toilets and bathrooms. effectively located at a high level away from the source of
fresh air such as an internal door or trickle ventilator. In a
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Clean, make-up fresh air is provided by a network Air terminal

of unit
kitchen they are ideally combined with a cooker hood.
(diffused)
purpose-provided ‘passive’ supply openings to occupied May be coupledCeiling-mounted
to: fans should be ducted to outside; however,
zones as well as natural leakage openings. Because• air fan is it should be noted that ductwork lengths of as little as 1 m
coil unit
• VAV systemcan considerably impair performance due to pressure
extracted from the space, the enclosure will be at a negative
• active chilled beam
(a) Mechanical balanced ventilation for non-residential buildings (b) Domestic heat recovery system
Exhaust Air intake
Exhaust gas or Extract Filter Supply

particle cleaning fan fan
Building in
Heat ‘suction’ or
recovery Control ‘underpressure’ Control
(run-around
coils)
contaminated
contaminated
Supply through
air inlet
Occupied Occupied
‘Wet’ or
‘Wet’ or
Extract or ‘clean’ Extract or ‘clean’

Supply air
zone
zone
grille zone grille zone

Figure 2.13 Mechanical extract ventilation system (source:
Good Practice Guide GPG 257 (Action Energy, 1997) (Crown
copyright))
Provided by S&P Global (c) Mechanical extract ventilation system (d) Mechanical supply system
Licensee=The Fire Service College/7133957001, User=Filer, Sophie
Systems 2-21
losses, hence correct selection is imperative. In all cases, Disadvantages

manufacturers’ data on pressure drop should be applied.
—— The distribution of fresh air supply can be
uncertain, depending on the size of the opening
Fans should be located so as not to produce draughts or area servicing a space and the resistance to flow in
draw combustion products from open-flue appliances. the paths leading to the extract system.
Guidance is covered in Part J of the Building Regulations
(NBS, 2013f), BS 5864: 2010: Installation in domestic premises —— It can be perceived by occupants to have high
of gas-fired ducted-air heaters of rated input not exceeding 70 kW running costs and is prone to tampering by
(BSI, 2010a) and BRE IP 13/94: Passive Stack Ventilation in occupants.
Dwellings (BRE, 1994). Note that cooker hoods require —— Noise can be an issue.
permanently open vents as close as possible to the hood.
Control can be by manual switching or through being wired —— The system requires maintenance.
into a door or light switches. Another option is humidity —— Air cleaning not is possible.
control with manual override, although the sensor may
cause the fan to operate when moisture generation is not —— Risk of back-draught: resultant under pressure
taking place, for example on warm, humid summer days. makes this system unsuitable in locations that use
The sensor needs to be positioned with consideration to open-flue heating appliances.
where the major source of moisture is located. It may be
more suitable to install cowled shutters to avoid noise
Mechanical supply ventilation
problems with external gravity back-draught shutters
rattling in the wind. Supply air
Exhaust intake Mechanical supply systems incorporate mechanical fans to
supply fresh air to a space (see Figure 2.14). Air is exhausted
When exhaust air is ducted and discharged at a single through purpose-provided passive vents and air infiltration
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
location, it is possible to recover heat using a run-round openings. Because air is supplied to the space, the enclosure
Heatcoil (see section 2.3.4.3). This recovered heat may be used
recovery will be at a positive pressure relative to the ambient
Fresh air outdoor
Exhaust
to pre-heat inlet Filters Heat air outlet
(alternative to hot water systems or provide space heating pre- atmospheric pressure. Exhaust
heat by means of a heat pump.
recirculation) exchanger fan
Filter Chiller Heater Humidifier/
dehumidifier Mechanical supply ventilation provides fresh air directly to
Dampers Mixing
box Draw-through a space. The positive pressure inhibits infiltration ingress
Advantages arrangement from outdoors and adjacent spaces. Additionally, the supply
Recirculation airB)can be cleaned by filtration (see section 2.3.3) and
(see CIBSE Guide
——
system It is simple and widely applicable. therefore this method has important applications in clean
room design. However, in hot, humid climates, supply
Supply
—— There is a reduced duct demand compared with a
Control ventilation can force moisture-laden outdoor
fan air into the
combined supply-and-extract system. Silencer
building fabric.
Extract Fan
—fan
— It provides the possibility of rapid extract.
In dwellings the supply fan is typically mounted in the roof
space and delivers air that
Extract Wethas beenDryfiltered and tempered
—— The understood. system
grilleis easily
by the roof space into the dwelling.zone
zone The system works on
the principle of continuous dilution, displacement and
Heat recovery is possible for secondary purposes using a replacement of air in the dwelling. Air discharge from the
Air terminal unit
run-around coil or heat pump to absorb heat from the
(diffused)
dwelling is via purpose-provided extract vents and/or
exhaust air (see section 2.3.4.3). leakage
May be coupled to: paths. Fans typically run continuously at low speed,
• fan coil unit
• VAV system
• active chilled beam
(a) Mechanical balanced ventilation for non-residential buildings (b) Domestic heat recovery system
Exhaust Air intake
Exhaust gas or Extract Filter Supply

particle cleaning fan fan
Building in
Heat ‘suction’ or
recovery Control ‘underpressure’ Control
(run-around
coils)
contaminated
contaminated
Supply through
air inlet
Occupied Occupied
‘Wet’ or
‘Wet’ or
Extract or ‘clean’ Extract or ‘clean’

Supply air
zone
zone
grille zone grille zone

Figure 2.14 Mechanical supply ventilation (source: Good
Practice Guide GPG 257 (Action Energy, 1997) (Crown
copyright))
Provided by S&P Global (c) Mechanical extract ventilation system (d) Mechanical supply system
with manual or humidity controlled boost to a higher speed In operation, warm, moist air is extracted from kitchens,
when required. Temperature controls can incorporate bathrooms, utility rooms and toilets via a system of ducting
single roof space sensors or sensors in both the roof and and passed across a heat exchanger before being exhausted.
living spaces. The latter system adjusts the flow rate of the Fresh incoming air is pre-heated and ducted to the living
unit to suit the temperatures in both spaces, thereby room and other habitable rooms.
providing the optimum energy benefits for the occupants.
Fan units incorporating highly efficient motor technology Ducts may be circular or rectangular and typically range in
can provide a significant net energy gain to the dwelling. size from 100 to 150 mm in diameter. Air velocities should
be kept below 4 m·s–1. Vertical exhaust ducts should be
fitted with condensate traps; horizontal exhaust ducts
Advantages should slope away from fans to prevent condensate running
—— It is simple and well established as a means of back. Both supply-and-extract grilles should be located at
controlling condensation. high level as far as practical from internal doors but at a
sufficient distance from each other to avoid ‘short
—— It is compatible with open-flued appliances. circuiting’, i.e. a minimum of 2 m. Suitable louvres or cowls
should be fitted to prevent ingress of rain, birds or insects.
—— It utilises any heat gain in the roof space.
—— It allows filtration of the air before it enters the Such systems can provide the ideal ventilation almost
space. independent of weather conditions. During normal
operation the total extract airflow rate will be 0.5–0.7 air
changes per hour (ACH) based on the whole dwelling
Disadvantages volume, less an allowance for background natural
—— Occupants perceive the systems to have high infiltration if desired. Individual room air change rates will
running costs. be significantly higher, possibly 2–5 ACH, in rooms with an
extract terminal. To be most effective a good standard of air
—— Noise can be an issue. tightness is required, typically the permeability should be
better than 5 m3·h–1/m2 at 50 pa. Airflows need to be
—— Systems are prone to tampering by occupants. balanced at the time of installation. Extract rates from
—— Maintenance (particularly filter replacement) is bathrooms and kitchens can be boosted during times of
required. high moisture production although care should be taken
not to cause draughts. The system can be acoustically
—— Effectiveness depends on building shape/layout. treated to reduce noise ingress. Commissioning should
follow CIBSE Commissioning Code A: Air distribution
—— Since there will usually be multiple extract vents it
systems (2006b).
is not possible to recover heat or pollutants from
the exhaust air
Transfer grilles or clearance beneath internal doors are
necessary. Part F of the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013b)
Domestic ‘balanced’ mechanical ventilation system with requires bottom edges of internal doors to be clear of the
heat recovery floor surface by 10  mm. Transfer grilles are usually
positioned not more than 450 mm above the floor. If placed
A scaled-down version of the commercial balanced system higher they may allow the rapid movement of toxic
is becoming increasingly common in dwellings. A combustion products or facilitate the spread of fire. Fire
schematic is presented in Figure 2.15. dampers should be inserted where the ductwork passes
through separating walls and floors, and are desirable in
Almost invariably, the fundamental benefit of a balanced kitchens, for example cooker hoods. In dwellings, the
ventilation system is to combine it with an air-to-air heat principal requirement is to maintain the separation of fire
recovery system (see section 2.3.4). compartments, for example where ducts pass through
protected escape routes. The most common approach is to
Fresh air Exhaust use a means of preserving the partition, such as intumescent
inlet Filters Heat Exhaust air outlet
duct sleeves. Dampers should not be used in kitchen
exchanger fan extracts, instead protection is required through fire-
resisting ductwork (see section 2.3.5).
It is claimed that such systems are effective in reducing

condensation due to the controlled ventilation and airtight
structure reducing cold air draughts. Manufacturers also
Supply claim that they improve indoor air quality and help in
controlling dust-mite populations.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fan
Advantages
—— It provides controlled pre-heated fresh air
Wet Dry throughout the house.
zone zone
—— It reduces the heating demand in very airtight
dwellings (typically effective in dwellings with
infiltration rates < 5 m3·h–1/m2).
o: Figure 2.15 Domestic heat recovery system —— It reduces the risk of condensation.
eam
Systems 2-23
External cowl
Frame
Housing assembly
Fan assembly
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Terminal block
Terminal enclosure cover
Heat exchanger Supply cable

Grille surround Grommet
Earth cable
Motor run and speed control
capacitors
Cable securing clamp
Rating/wiring label
Filters
Removable grilles Figure 2.16 Single-room ventilation heat recovery unit
(reproduced courtesy of Vent-Axia)
Disadvantages Advantages
—— Ductwork can be difficult to accommodate. —— It provides continuous low-level ventilation.
—— Initial costs are high. —— It provides the option of rapid extract.
—— The systems have an ongoing maintenance liability. —— It recovers heat energy.

—— It allows filtration of the supply air.
—— A suitable level of airtightness must be provided.
—— It is almost silent in operation at trickle speed.
—— Installation and commissioning is more complex
than for other systems.
Disadvantages:
—— Because of increased electrical demand to offset
fossil fuel heating, a carbon benefit must be —— Occupants perceive the systems to have high
demonstrated. running costs.
—— Systems can freeze and cease to function below —— Regular maintenance is required.
0 °C. Anti-frost measures include switching off, —— Some recirculation is possible, due to the close
heating or operating at reduced efficiency. All these proximity of supply-and-extract grilles.
impact on cost and energy performance.
—— It is ineffective unless the building is airtight
In cold climates heat recovery systems have become popular
for dwellings since considerable energy saving is possible 2.3.2.4 Mixed-mode or hybrid ventilation
with heat recovery efficiencies of up to 92 per cent being systems
attainable. In milder climates payback periods become
more difficult to justify. However, at low temperatures the Mixed-mode ventilation may be defined as the combination
performance of heat recovery can be hampered by the need of natural and mechanical ventilation and/or cooling
for frost protection. systems. These systems are described in full detail in
CIBSE AM13: Mixed mode ventilation (2000a).
Heat recovery room ventilators
Sub-classifications of mixed-mode systems given in CIBSE
AM13 are as follows.
This is a single-room version of a mechanical ventilation
heat recovery system, which is mounted in an external wall —— Contingency designs: contingency designs are usually
(often to replace an extract fan, see Figure 2.16). These naturally ventilated buildings that have been
ventilators incorporate a heat exchanger that recovers designed to permit the selective addition of
approximately 60 per cent of the heat from the outgoing air. mechanical ventilation and cooling systems where
This is passed across to the incoming air to pre-heat it. The these may be needed at a later date. Occasionally
extract fan is often dual speed, providing low-speed, the passive measures may themselves be the
continuous trickle ventilation or high-speed extract. High- contingency plan, with an initially fully air-
speed extract can be under manual or humidity control. conditioned building designed to be amenable to
This system is principally designed for wet rooms although subsequent naturally ventilated operation, either in
versions are now available for living and bedrooms. part or in whole.
—— Complementary designs: natural and mechanical A selection process for choosing a mixed-mode approach is
systems are both present and are designed for illustrated in Figure 2.17. The mixed-mode approach
integrated operation. This is the most common should not be seen as a compromise solution. It needs to be
variety of mixed-mode system. Complementary chosen at a strategic level and the appropriate option
designs can operate in two modes. selected. The ability to provide general advice on
applicability is limited because the final design can range
—— Concurrent operation: the most widely used from almost fully naturally ventilated with a degree of fan
mode, in which background mechanical assistance for still days, to almost fully air conditioned with
ventilation, with or without cooling, the option to revert to natural ventilation at a later date.
operates in parallel with natural systems. Selection issues to be considered are listed below.
Often the mechanical system suffices,
controlling draughts and air quality and —— Costs: capital and operating costs are highly
removing heat, but occupants can open the variable. A balancing factor is to what extent
windows if they so choose. supplementary mechanical systems have been
installed.
—— Changeover operation: natural and
mechanical systems are available and used —— Maintenance: poor designs could result in
as alternatives according to need, but they excessively complex maintenance requirements.
do not necessarily operate at the same time.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Changeover may be on the basis of a variety —— Operability: as above, poor designs in terms of
of conditions as suggested below under controls complexity can result in inefficient and
Control (see section 2.3.6). The chosen misunderstood system operation.
control strategy must guard against the risk
that changeover systems may default to —— Window design: a mixed-mode approach might
concurrent operation. Problems of this allow this to be less complicated and more robust
kind tend to increase with the complexity than in buildings designed for natural ventilation
of the proposed operating strategies. alone.
—— Zoned systems: these allow for differing —— Energy efficiency: in relation to fully air-conditioned
servicing strategies to occur in different buildings, mixed-mode systems should use less
parts of the building. The zoned approach energy for fans, pumps and cooling. However, this
works best where the areas are functionally is dependent upon the savings in mechanical plant
different. Many buildings operate in this that have been attained.
manner, e.g. a naturally ventilated office
—— Occupant satisfaction and comfort: mixed-mode
with an air-conditioned computer room
buildings offer the potential for a high level of
and a mechanically ventilated restaurant
occupant satisfaction in that they provide more
and kitchen. Mixed-mode increases the
options for correcting a situation.
range of options available, e.g. offices with
openable windows at the perimeter and
mechanical ventilation in core areas. The Advantages
zoned approach works best where the areas
are functionally different or where the —— It can take advantage of natural ventilation to
systems are seamlessly blended. reduce mechanical energy consumption.
Start
Choose No Might this Yes Suitable for No Might this No Choose a

natural change in natural change in sealed
ventilation the future? ventilation? the future? building
Possibly Partially Possibly
Consider Yes Contingency No Consider No Contingency Yes Consider
contingency to plan parallel or plan contingency
add systems appropriate? zoned systems appropriate? for nat. vent.
Uncertain No
Sealed
Choose NV Yes Nat. vent. NV Can some Sealing Yes Choose AC or
for these alone zones be either alone MV for these
zones sufficient? NV or sealed? sufficient? zones
Neither quite appropriate
Consider Yes Can they work Yes Are natural and No Are they Yes Consider
concurrent well at the mechanical mutually alternate
operation same time? systems exclusive? operation
complimentary
Not normally necessary Not entirely
Consider Consider
changeover changeover Figure 2.17 Decision chart for
operation operation
selecting mixed-mode ventilation
Systems 2-25
—— Mechanical components are usually quite basic, 2.3.3.2 Definitions

hence costs can be lower than a full mechanical
system. The following definitions, drawn from BS EN 779: 2012:
—— It can be incorporated with mechanical or passive Particulate air filters for general ventilation (BSI, 2012a), are
cooling systems. commonly used in describing the properties of air filters.
—— Test airflow rate: volumetric airflow rate through the
Disadvantages filter under test. Expressed in m3·s–1 (for a reference
air density of 1.20 kg·m–3).
—— It is less controllable than a full mechanical system.
—— Face velocity: the airflow rate divided by the face
—— Complementary systems could be expensive.
area (m·s–1).
—— Initial pressure drop: the pressure drop (Pa) of the
2.3.3 Filtration systems clean filter operating at the test airflow rate.
In mechanically ventilated buildings, effective air filtration —— Final pressure drop: the pressure drop (Pa) up to
relies on good maintenance (see CIBSE TM26: Hygienic which the filtration performance is measured for
maintenance of office ventilation ductwork (2000b)). Poor classification purposes.
filtration performance can allow dirt and dust to accumulate
within a ductwork system, reducing the efficiency of heat —— Average efficiency (Em): weighted average (%) of the
exchange equipment and providing potential sites for efficiency of 0.4 μm particles for the different
microbiological activity. Spores and bacteria can then be specified dust loading levels up to final pressure
released into the occupied space, causing potential comfort drop.
and health problems. Natural ventilation systems, on the —— Average efficiency (Eij): average efficiency (%)for a
other hand, are generally more accessible for cleaning and size range i at different loading intervals j.
maintenance, and there are no components subject to high
humidity, such as cooling coils, or humidifiers, which can —— Minimum efficiency: lowest efficiency among the
harbour biological growth. discharged efficiency, initial efficiency and the
lowest efficiency throughout the loading procedure
of the test.
2.3.3.1 Nature of airborne contaminants
—— Initial arrestance (%): arrestance of the first 30 g
Atmospheric dust is a complex mixture of solid particulate loading dust increment.
matter, comprising dusts, smokes, and fumes and non-
particulate vapours and gases. A sample of atmospheric —— Average arrestance: ratio of the total amount of
dust may contain minute quantities of soot and smoke, loading dust retained by the filter to the total
minerals such as rock, metal or sand, organic material such amount of dust fed up to the final pressure drop.
as grain, flour, wool, hair, lint and plant fibres and, perhaps,
mould spores, bacteria and pollen. Particles are not
2.3.3.3 Filter testing
generally called dust unless they are smaller than 80 μm.
Smokes are suspensions of fine particles produced by the Applicable standards

incomplete combustion of organic substances, such as coal
or wood, or by the release into the atmosphere of a wide The applicable test standard for particulate air filters for
variety of chemical compounds in a finely divided state. general ventilation is BS EN 779: 2012: Particulate air filters
Smoke particles vary considerably in size from about for general ventilation (BSI, 2012a).
0.3  μm downwards. Fumes are solid particles, predominantly
smaller than 1.0 μm, formed by the condensation of
These filters are classified according to their performance
vapours.
as measured in this test procedure.
Non-particulate contaminants consist of vapours
condensable at normal pressures and temperatures and In order to obtain results for comparison and classification
gases, of which the most damaging to plants and buildings purposes, particulate air filters are tested against two
is sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide and various oxides of synthetic aerosols—a fine aerosol for measurement of
nitrogen are also present in minute quantities. There is a filtration efficiency as a function of particle size within a
wide variation in atmospheric solids between rural, particle size range 0.2 μm to 3.0 μm and a coarse one for
suburban and industrial areas, as shown in Table 2.6. obtaining information about test dust capacity and, in the
case of coarse filters, filtration efficiency with respect to
Table 2.7 shows an analysis of a sample of atmospheric dust, coarse loading dust (arrestance).
in terms of the total numbers of particles for the size range.
The figures may be considered typical for average urban This European Standard applies to air filters having an
and suburban conditions, but wide variations may be initial efficiency of less than 98 per cent with respect to
encountered in particular cases. Current emphasis in office 0.4 μm particles. Filters should be tested at an airflow rate
and other ‘standard’ accommodation is on the removal of between 0.24 m3·s–1 (850 m3·h–1) and 1.5 m3·s–1 (5400 m3·h–1).
particles smaller than 10 μm. These, along with chemicals
outgassed from carpets and furnishings in modern The performance results obtained in accordance with this
workspaces, have been linked with reports of sick building standard cannot by themselves be quantitatively applied to
syndrome and are able to penetrate into the lungs, causing predict performance in service with regard to efficiency and
respiratory problems.
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lifetime.
For higher efficiencies, BS EN 1822-5: 2009: High efficiency Test for high efficiency filters
air filters (EPA, HEPA and ULPA). Determining the efficiency of
filter elements (BSI, 2009a) is applicable. The preferred pan-European test method for testing high
efficiency EPA (efficient particulate air filter), HEPA (high
efficiency particulate air filter) and ULPA (ultra-low particle
The BS EN 779: 2012 classification system previously in
arrestor) filters is BS EN 1822-5: 2009: High efficiency air
use (comprising groups F and G filters) has been changed
filters (EPA, HEPA and ULPA). Determining the efficiency of filter
to three groups (F, M and G filters). Filters found to have an
elements (BSI, 2009a). This test method is based on scanning
average efficiency value of less than 40 per cent of 0.4 μm
by a particle counter at the most penetrating particle size
particles are allocated to group G and the efficiency reported
(MPPS) of the filter. MPPS is variable and is determined by
as ‘<40%’. The classification of G filters (G1–G4) is based
testing samples of the filter medium used in the manufacture
on their average arrestance with the loading dust.
of the filter being tested. The challenge aerosol is di-ethyl-
hexyl-sebacat (DEHS) mineral oil or equivalent, but other
Filters found to have an average efficiency value from 40 oils are permitted. Condensation nucleus counters (CNC)
per cent to less than 80 per cent of 0.4 μm particles will be are used for monodispersed aerosols and laser particle
allocated to group M (M5, M6) and the classification is counters (LPC) for polydispersed aerosols.
based on their average efficiency (0.4 μm). The filter classes
F5 and F6 have changed to M5 and M6, but with same The most recent version of the standard introduced a
requirements as in the old classification system. category of EPA grade filters, formally H10 to H12. This was
done because the previous classification did not fully
represent the test method employed for all the H grades,
Filters found to have an average efficiency of 80 per cent or
particularly regarding leak testing. It was decided that the
more of 0.4 μm particles will be allocated to group F (F7–
filter grades should be grouped by test method. The grades
F9) and the classification is based on their average efficiency
are now as follows.
(0.4 μm) as in the old system and the minimum efficiency
during the test. —— Group E: EPA filters
—— Group H: HEPA filters
Filters are classified according to their average efficiency or
—— Group U: ULPA filters.
average arrestance under the following test conditions.
Filters are classified in ‘groups’ and ‘classes’. For each
—— The airflow shall be 0.944 m3·s–1 (3400 m3·h–1) if the
group a slightly different test procedure applies. All filters
manufacturer does not specify any rated airflow
are classified according to their filtration performance.
rate.
Group E filters are subdivided in three classes:
—— 250 Pa maximum final test pressure drop for coarse
(G) filters. —— Class E10
—— Class E11
—— 450 Pa maximum final test pressure drop for
medium (M) and fine (F) filters. —— Class E12.
Group H filters are subdivided in two classes:

If the filters are tested at 0.944 m3·s–1 and at maximum final
test pressure drops, they are classified according to Table —— Class H13
2.6, for example G3, F7. Filters tested at airflows and final
—— Class H14.
test pressure drops different from those above shall be
classified according to Table 2.6, and the classification
Group U filters are subdivided in three classes:
should be qualified by test conditions in parentheses, e.g.
G4 (0.7 m3·s–1, 200 Pa), F7 (1.25 m3·s–1). —— Class U15
Table 2.6 Classification of general ventilation filters
Group Class Final test Average arrestance (AM) Average efficiency (EM) Minimum efficiency*
pressure drop of synthetic dust of 0.4 μm particles of 0.4 μm particles
/ Pa /% /% /%
Coarse G7 250 50 ≤ AM < 65 — —

G2 250 65 ≤ AM < 80 — —
G3 250 80 ≤ AM < 90 — —
G4 250 90 ≤ AM — —
Medium M5 450 — 40 ≤ EM < 60 —

M6 450 — 60 ≤ EM < 80 —
Fine F7 450 — 80 ≤ EM < 90 35

F8 450 — 90 ≤ EM < 95 55
F9 450 — 95 ≤ EM 70
* Minimum efficiency is the lowest efficiency among the initial efficiency, discharged efficiency and the lowest efficiency throughout the loading
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
procedure of the test.

Systems 2-27
Table 2.7 Classification of EPA, HEPA and ULPA filters
Filter Integral value Local value (see BS EN 1822-4)*

group/class
Efficiency / % Penetration / % Efficiency / % Penetration / %
E10 ≥ 85 ≤ 15 Group E filters not leak tested for classification purposes

E11 ≥ 95 ≤5
E12 ≥ 99.5 ≤ 0.5
H13 ≥ 99.95 ≤ 0.05 ≥ 99.75 ≤ 0.25

H14 ≥ 99.995 ≤ 0.005 ≥ 99.975 ≤ 0.025
U15 ≥ 99.9995 ≤ 0.0005 ≥ 99.9975 ≤ 0.0025

U16 ≥ 99.99995 ≤ 0.00005 ≥ 99.99975 ≤ 0.00025
U17 ≥ 99.999995 ≤ 0.000005 ≥ 99.9999 ≤ 0.0001
* Local penetration values lower than those given here may be agreed between the supplier and purchaser.
—— Class U16 bonded carbon units and electrostatic filters. Specialist

advice should be sought on any requirements.
—— Class U17.
After testing, filter elements are classified according to Dry testing

Table 2.7 on the basis of their integral efficiency (Group E)
or their integral efficiency and local (Groups H and U) In applications such as cleanrooms used for the production
MPPS efficiency or penetration. The other addition is that of semi-conductors, testing for local leaks with an oil-based
filters with filter media having an electrostatic charge are aerosol would result in filter contamination and subsequent
classified according to the table on the basis of their production problems. In these circumstances filters are
discharged efficiency or penetration as per Annex B of BS tested using atmospheric air or polystyrene latex spheres
EN 1822-5: 2009: High efficiency air filters (EPA, HEPA and (PSL).
ULPA). Determining the efficiency of filter elements (BSI, 2009a).
2.3.3.4 Filter application and selection
On-site testing Table 2.8 presents a broad classification of air cleaners and
Figure 2.18 illustrates the various characteristics of dusts,
The efficiency of a filter installation depends not only on mists etc., together with other relevant data.
the filter efficiency but also on the security of the seal
between the filter and the air system. This is particularly Table 2.9 provides recommended filter specification data
vital in HEPA filter installations; hence penetration must be drawn from the National Engineering Specification Y42:
established immediately prior to use and at regular intervals Air Filtration (NES, 1996) and promoted within BSRIA
throughout the working life of the system. guidance (Pike, 1996; Bennett, 1996). CIBSE TM26:
Hygienic maintenance of office ventilation ductwork (2000b)
A common methodology utilises an oil-based aerosol to considers other means of reducing the admittance of micro-
challenge the installed filter. Concentrations are determined organisms other than just the installation of a HEPA filter.
using photometry: Under certain conditions, air filters can support the growth
of micro-organisms and act as a source of contaminants.
—— DOP (an abbreviation for di-octylphthalates) is an Standard air filters can be obtained with an anti-microbial
oily liquid with a high boiling point. Normally, DOP coating that is reported to kill or inhibit the growth of
vapour is generated at a concentration of 80 mg·m–3 micro-organisms on the filter material and any trapped
and the downstream concentration is determined dust and debris. However, due to the potential for the active
using a light scattering photometer via a probe that biocide to outgas from the surface, the user of such systems
scans the entire downstream face of the filter should take steps to ensure that they are safe for building
installation. occupants. Anti-microbial ductwork coatings are also
available, however they also have a potential for the active
biocide to outgas from the surface.
Gas and vapour removal
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) is provided by
Most manufacturers quote efficiencies for removal of a wide ultraviolet lamps mounted in the supply ductwork. The
range of gases and vapours based on upstream and ultraviolet (UV) light causes inactivation of micro-
downstream concentrations. Adsorption filters are also organisms by disrupting their DNA. This system is claimed
rated in terms of the mass of gas/vapour that can be adsorbed to be effective against all types of bacteria and fungi, as well
before saturation of the adsorbent. as spores and viruses that are normally found in the air. The
user of such systems should ensure that staff are protected
Specification and testing methods have been developed for from exposure to the UV radiation. Photo-catalytic oxidation
gas and vapour removal by filters and recirculating air technology involves the action of low-energy UV on a
cleaning units (Gilbert, 1999). This work has looked at the catalyst in the presence of water vapour that generates
performance of a wide range of systems including active hydroxyl radicals that destroy micro-organisms. As this is
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an oxidation process, the microbial hydrocarbons are data for hours of use for different localities. Tables 2.10 and
reduced to carbon dioxide and water. This technique can be 2.11 give typical data on the amount and nature of solids in
used against bacteria, fungi/spores, viruses and allergens. the atmosphere. Issues of external air quality, including
sulphur dioxide and particulate matter (PM10), are discussed
in CM 4548: Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales
2.3.3.5 Filter maintenance
and Northern Ireland (DEFRA, 2007), which is subject to
periodic review.
The life of a filter depends upon the:
—— concentration and nature of contaminants
If condition-based maintenance is being used, the filter
—— filter efficiency pressure differential should be monitored. Replacement
filters are installed when a specific differential is attained.
—— dust-holding capacity corresponding to rise in
If the filter represents a significant proportion of the total
pressure loss between clean and dirty conditions
pressure loss of the system, and there is no provision for
—— face velocity at the filter. automatic fan duty adjustment (e.g. a variable air volume
(VAV) system), then the rise in pressure loss due to filter
A maintenance regime can be based on time intervals or on soiling should not exceed 20 per cent of the total system
condition. Details of external conditions that may affect loss with a clean filter. This differential can be reported via
filter life, such as the entering pollution concentration, may a building energy management system (BEMS). Note that a
be determined in consultation with the local environmental method of alerting maintenance staff of filter failure or
health officer. Alternatively, a local survey may be blockage is also required for the time-based replacement
undertaken. Some filter manufacturers provide prediction method.
(a) Dusts, smokes and mists
Permanent impurities Temporary impurities Heavy industrial dust

Electron microscope Microscope Visible to naked eye
Smokes Fog Mist Drizzle Rain
Polio myelitis Tobacco smoke Staphylococcus
Viruses Bacteria
Influenza Pollen
ZnO fumes Alkali fumes
Pulverised fuel ash
Pigments
Mould spores
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
0·01 0·1 1·0 10 100 1000 10 000
Particle diameter / µm
(b) Dust collectors
Settling chambers
Low pressure-drop cyclones
High efficiency cyclones
Viscous film filters
aperture Mesh
Nominal
Impingement filters (dry)

1003
1405
1676
2411
2812
3353
104
152
211
295
422
500
599
699
853
Electrostatics precipitators
53
66
76
89
Diffusion filters
300
240
200
170
150
100
72
52
36
30
25
22
18
16
12
10
8
7
6
5
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
0·01 0·1 1·0 10 100 1000 10 000
(c) Settling rates

Particles move like Particles settle with constant velocity Terminal velocity low and quickly attained
gas molecules
Settling rates / m.s–1
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 10
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
0·01 0·1 1·0 10 100 1000 10 000
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 2.18 Characteristics of dusts and mists

Systems 2-29
Table 2.8 Classification of air cleaners
Type Remarks Method of Face Resistance at Dust holding Relative efficiency Relative cost
cleaning velocity face velocity / Pa capacity /%
/ m·s–1
Initial Final Sodium Synthetic
flame dust
Viscous impingement:
— panel or Thickness ranges Permanent 1.5–2.5 20–60 100–150 High; can be 10 > 85 Low
unit 12–100 mm; small or (washable) or (depending critical
intermediate air disposable on
volumes; good for thickness)
particles > 10 μm
diameter; efficiency
decreases with dust
loadings; used as
after-cleaners
oving
—m Will handle heavy Continuous 2–2.5 30–60 100–125 Self-cleaning 10 > 85 Medium
curtain dust loads; or (operating) by immersion
intermediate or large intermittent;
air loads; used as can be
precleaners etc. automatic
Dry:
—p
anel, bag, Small or intermediate Usually 1.25– 25–185 125–250 Generally 30–80 96–100 Low to high
cartridge air volumes disposable 2.5 (depending (depending not as high (depending (depending
or unit on on as viscous on filter on filter
with efficiency) efficiency) impingement; type, type,
fabric or can be critical medium medium
fibrous and face and face
medium velocity) velocity)
—m
oving Intermediate or large Continuous 2.5 30–60 Self-cleaning Can be selected over a Medium to
curtain air volumes or wide range high
intermittent; depending
can be on efficiency
automatic or
disposable
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
— a bsolute Pre-filter necessary; Disposable Up to Up to 250 Low > 99.9 100 High
or small air volumes; 2.5
diffusion particles down to
(HEPA) 0.01 μm diam.
Electrostatic:
— charged Pre-filter desirable; Washable or 1.5–2.5 Negligible; Negligible; Can be critical — Not High; low
plate after-filter used to wipeable; can resistance resistance suitable maintenance
collect agglomerates; be automatic added added over 5 μm costs
power-pack and safety (40–60 Pa) (40–60 Pa) diam.
precautions necessary to improve to improve
(up to 12 kV); uniformity uniformity
particles down to of air of air
0.01 μm diam; distribution distribution
intermediate to large
air volumes
— charged As for charged plate Disposable 1.25 25 125 High 55–65 Not High; low
medium suitable maintenance
over 5 μm costs
diam.
Adsorption Should be protected Can be Low Low; can be Low; can Medium 95 (dependent on gas to High
units from dust, oil and reactivated selected; be selected; adsorbs up to be removed)
grease; used for odour constant constant half its own
removal* weight of
many organic
substances
Mechanical Not suitable for To be Varies 50–100 Constant High — — High; low
collectors particles less than emptied with (some act as maintenance
0.01 μm diameter design air movers) costs
* Odours can also be removed by combustion, masking or liquid absorption devices
Note: air washers used for humidification or dehumidification purposes sometimes also act as air cleaning devices. These include capillary air washers, wet
filters, adsorption spray chambers etc., for which manufacturers’ data should be consulted.
Table 2.9 Recommended filter specification data Table 2.10 Typical amounts of solids in the atmosphere for various
localities
Filter data to be specified Essential Desirable
Locality Total mass of solids / mg·m–3
Air flow rate (m3·s–1) *
Rural and suburban 0.05–0.5
Air velocity (m·s–1) *
Metropolitan 0.1–1.0
Initial filter pressure drop (Pa) *
Industrial 0.2–5.0
Final filter pressure drop (Pa) *
Factories or work rooms 0.5–10.0
Average arrestance (%) *
Initial dust spot efficiency (%) *
Table 2.11 Analysis of typical atmospheric dust in relation to particle
Average dust spot efficiency (%) *
size
Minimum dust holding capacity (g) *
Range of particle size Amount of solid as percentage of number of
Class of filter (EU number) * (diameter)/mm particles and total mass of particles / %
Size of filter (height, width, limiting depth (mm)) * Number of particles Total mass of particles
Casing * 30 to 10 0.005 28
Test standards * 10 to 5 0.175 52
Access * 5 to 3 0.250 11
Filter medium * 3 to 1 1.100 6
1 to 0.5 6.970 2
Less than 0.5 91.500 1
Further details on filter maintenance can be found in
guidance produced by BSRIA (Pike, 1996) and BESA
(2012). Designers are also referred to CIBSE TM26:
Hygienic maintenance of office ventilation ductwork (2000b). 2.3.4 Ventilation heat recovery
systems
2.3.3.6 Filter installation
2.3.4.1 Background
BSRIA has analysed the whole-life performance of filter
Heat recovery devices used in ventilation systems generally
systems (Pike, 1996; Bennett, 1996) (i.e. the balance
provide heat recovery from exhaust to supply air in winter
between space and capital costs and the operating costs
and can also recover cooling in peak summer conditions.
such as inspection, change, energy and costs of associated
They are also used in specific system configurations such as
equipment, e.g. duct cleaning and redecoration). The
indirect evaporative cooling (see CIBSE Guide B, Chapter 3
conclusion is that filter performance depends not only on
on air conditioning. Devices used to recover heat from
the filter specification but also on the design and installation
process applications (e.g. dryers, flues) may transfer the
of the filter system.
heat to the process or to another application. Selection of
equipment should be suitable for process exhaust
Poor filter installation will neutralise the benefits of temperatures. Where the recovered heat is fed to a
specifying good filters. The overall efficiency for the filter ventilation system, modulation control is normally required
installation must be not less than that specified for the to prevent overheating in warm weather.
filter. It is suggested that:
Buildings should be airtight, as infiltration has a significant
—— air intakes are located at a high level away from the impact on the viability of heat recovery (AIVC, 1994).
direction of the prevailing wind to prolong filter
life and improve the quality of the intake air Technical considerations for design and selection of heat
recovery devices include:
—— air filters should be protected from direct rain by
using weather louvres to prevent waterlogging —— heat recovery efficiency (sensible and total)
—— filters should be installed upstream of mechanical —— airflow arrangement

equipment to provide protection for that equipment;
a final filter should be located downstream of the
fan under positive pressure to reduce the risk of Table 2.12 Maximum final pressure drops for filters (reproduced from
Table 9 of BS EN 13053 (BSI, 2006c), by permission of the British
dust entering the system downstream of the filter
Standards Institution)
—— adequate access for cleaning should be provided Filter class Final pressure drop / Pa
G1–G4 150
—— filter frames should be of good quality to prevent F5–F7 200
leakage and distortion; side withdrawal will make
F8–F9 300
this difficult to achieve.
The final pressure drops are the typical maximum values for AHUs in
operation and lower than those used in BS EN 779: 2012 (BSI, 2012a) for
For filters installed in air-handling units (AHUs), and with classification purposes, for reasons of energy saving, and the performance
specific fan power (SFP) in mind, lower filter pressure drops obtained from tests according to BS EN 779 are not necessarily met at
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are necessary. Table 2.12 gives maximum ‘dirty’ conditions. these lower pressure drops.
Systems 2-31
—— fouling (filters should be placed in both supply and effectiveness of the heat exchanger. Alternatively, the heat
exhaust airstreams) exchanger may be periodically defrosted.
—— corrosion (particularly in process applications)
Pressure drops depend on a number of factors including
—— cross-leakage exchanger design, airflow rates, temperatures and
connections. These pressure drops should be minimised, as
—— condensation and freeze-up they impose a fan energy penalty that will need to be
—— pressure drop balanced against the recovered energy. Face velocities are
normally limited by the need to avoid excessive pressure
—— face velocity drops. Larger devices will have lower pressure drops and
—— construction materials (suitability for temperatures, higher efficiency but will cost more and require more space.
pressures, contaminants) The selection and evaluation of heat recovery devices
should include the following parameters:
—— maintenance (in particular cleaning of surfaces)
—— cost expenditure on device, filters etc. and savings
—— controls. on other plant (e.g. boilers) due to heat recovery
—— energy, both recovered and required to operate the
2.3.4.2 Efficiency analysis system (e.g. fan, pump, wheel)
The heat recovery efficiency (or effectiveness) of a device is —— maintenance requirements

normally defined as follows: —— space requirements of device, filters etc.
Actual heat transfer Energy analysis may be undertaken using simulation
Efficiency = ————————–—–—–—–– modelling or spreadsheet calculations based on hourly
Maximum possible heat transfer
conditions (see CIBSE AM11: Building performance
modelling (2015c)). Table 2.13 compares a number of heat
The maximum theoretical efficiency is a function of the recovery devices as described below. Recent guidance on
exchanger flow configuration; counter-flow exchangers heat recovery is also given in BSRIA HRS 1/2009: Heat
have a higher theoretical efficiency than parallel flow Recovery Systems (2009b).
exchangers. Practical considerations often favour cross-
arrangements that lie between the two (ASHRAE, 2008). Heat recovery within mechanical ventilation systems
becomes economic when the value of the recovered heat or
Sensible heat recovery devices do not transfer moisture. cooling outweighs the increase in fan capital and running
Latent heat is only transferred when the warmer airstream costs, as well as those of the heat recovery equipment. The
is cooled below its dew-point and condenses. Total heat viability of heat recovery increases:
recovery devices transfer both sensible heat and moisture
between the airstreams. Moisture transfer is desirable in —— as the number of air changes per hour increases and
hot, humid climates to reduce the moisture in the supply the heating/cooling season lengthens
air and in cold, dry climates to raise the moisture in the
—— as the temperature difference between supply-and-
supply air.
extract airstreams increases
Drains should be included to collect and dispose of the —— with increased proximity of the supply-and-extract
condensate. In extreme conditions, where the temperature airstreams, although it can still be considered when
also drops below 0 °C, frosting or icing can occur. This can they are not adjacent through the use of a run-
be prevented by pre-heating the supply air or reducing the around coil.
Table 2.13 Comparison of heat recovery devices (based on ‘Chapter 8: Air-to-air energy recovery’ in ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment
(ASHRAE, 2008))
Device Typical heat Typical face Cross-leakage Typical pressure Modulation control Features
recovery efficiency velocity /% drop
/% / m·s–1 / Pa
Recuperator 50 to 80 (sensible) 1 to 5 0 to 5 25 to 370 Bypass No moving parts

Easily cleaned
Run-around coil 50 (sensible) 1.5 to 3 0 100 to 500 Pump or bypass Flexibility; exhaust airstream
valves can be separated from supply
Thermal wheel 65 to 90 (total) 2.5 to 5 1 to 10 100 to 170 Wheel speed or Latent transfer
bypass Compact large sizes
Cross air contamination
possible
Heat pipe 50 to 65 (sensible) 2 to 4 0 100 to 500 Tilt angle down to No moving parts except tilt
10% of maximum High cost, few suppliers
Regenerator 85 to 95 (sensible) 1.5 to 3 <1 to5 70 to 300 Regulating Relatively high capital cost but
changeover period high efficiency
Self-cleaning action from flow
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- reversal
Heat recovery can increase the overall pressure drop and Exhaust
subsequent fan power used by 50 per cent, although options
such as double accumulators offer high heat recovery
efficiencies and lower pressure drops.
When heat recovery devices are used in full fresh air

systems, parasitic losses should be avoided in summertime
operation by the use of a bypass. Effective damper control
for minimum fresh air and free cooling on recirculation Pump
systems should be provided through enthalpy control.
Supply
2.3.4.3 Types of systems Figure 2.20 Run-around coil heat recovery method (from Guide to
Ventilation (AIVC, 1996))
Various heat recovery systems are available, including the
following. Modulation control can be achieved by pump operation
and/or valve bypass arrangements on the coils. These
consist of finned heat exchangers located in the supply and
Plate heat exchangers exhaust ducts. Heat transfer efficiencies can vary between
40 and 60 per cent.
These contain no moving parts and consist of separated
interleaved flow channels through which the exhaust and
supply air flows. The channel walls have high thermal Thermal wheels
conductance to facilitate the rapid transfer of heat (this
makes little difference due to the limiting effect of the A thermal wheel comprises a cylinder packed with a
boundary layers). Maximum heat transfer is achieved with suitable heat transfer medium, which rotates slowly within
a counter-flow configuration (see Figure 2.19 (a)) in which an airtight casing that bridges the ducts between which
the direction of flow of the exhaust air is in the opposite heat is to be transferred (see Figure 2.21). Thermal wheels
direction to the flow of the supply air. Practical heat transfer are generally quite compact and achieve high efficiencies
efficiencies of up to 90 per cent are possible from this due to a counter-flow configuration. The heat transfer
configuration only with low velocities. In practical systems properties are determined by the material contained in the
a cross-flow arrangement is commonly used in which the wheel, i.e:
flow direction of the exhaust air is at right angles to the —— corrugated, inorganic, fibrous, hygroscopic material that
supply air (Figure 2.19 (b)). This results in slightly lower transfers both sensible and latent heat: air flows through
efficiency (typically up to 70 per cent) but permits a simple the channels formed by the corrugations
layout.
—— corrugated metal (aluminium, stainless steel or Monel):
latent heat transfer is restricted to that resulting
Run-around coils from condensation when the temperature of the
heat transfer medium falls below the dew-point
Finned air-to-water heat exchangers are installed in the temperature of the warm airstream.
ducts between which the heat is to be transferred. A water
or water/glycol (for freeze protection) circuit is used to Maintenance requirements for the thermal wheel need to
transfer heat from the warm extract air to the cooler supply be taken into account, since they can be difficult to clean
air (or vice versa in summer) (see Figure 2.20). An expansion (Hamilton, 1986), as do the additional energy penalties due
tank is required to allow fluid expansion and contraction. to the drive (although these are usually low).
Overall heat transfer efficiencies are relatively low, as it is a
two-stage heat transfer process, and pump energy (in Cross-contamination occurs by carryover and leakage.
addition to the fan energy penalty) and maintenance costs Carryover occurs as air entrained within the wheel is
need to be taken into account. However, the system is transferred to the other airstream. A purge section can be
flexible in application, as it places no constraints on the installed where recirculation is undesirable. Leakage occurs
relative location of the two airstreams and can be extended due to the pressure difference between the two airstreams.
to include multiple sources and uses. They are suitable for This can be minimised by avoiding large pressure
applications where contaminants in the exhaust airstream
prohibit recirculation.
Exhaust
Exhaust
Thermal
mass Purge
matrix
(a) (b) Supply Supply

Counter-flow heat exchanger; Cross-flow heat exchanger;
theoretical heat transfer 100% theoretical heat transfer 70%
Figures 2.19 Heat recovery devices: (a) counter-flow and (b) cross-flow
(from Guide to Ventilation (AIVC, 1996) reproduced by kind permission of Figure 2.21 Thermal wheel (from Guide to Ventilation (AIVC, 1996)
AIVC)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
reproduced by kind permission of AIVC)
Systems 2-33
differences, providing an effective seal and placing the fans On damper changeover, the exhaust air contained within
to promote leakage into the exhaust airstream. Hygroscopic the damper, accumulator and exhaust ductwork reverses
media may transfer toxic gases or vapours from a and becomes supply air. The length of exhaust ductwork
contaminated exhaust to a clean air supply. should be minimised to limit this cross-leakage. The time
required for damper changeover should be kept to a
Modulation control is commonly achieved either by the minimum using high torque dampers. Cross-leakage can
rotational speed of the wheel or by bypassing the supply air. range from below 1 per cent on well-designed systems to up
Heat recovery efficiency increases with wheel speed but is to 5 per cent and above. Typical face velocities are 1.5 to
ultimately limited by carryover. This consists of a revolving 3.0 m·s–1. Reducing the velocity will reduce the pressure
cylinder packed with a coarse mesh of metal or other highly drop, but will have only a limited heat transfer benefit, as
conducting medium. The cylinder passes through the efficiencies are normally high anyway.
extract and supply streams with the metallic medium
passing heat from one to the other (see Figure 2.21). Some 2.3.4.4 Advantages and disadvantages
thermal wheel media are designed to absorb moisture thus
enabling latent heat as well as sensible heat recovery.
Thermal wheels are usually used in large building systems. Advantages
—— Heat recovery efficiencies of up to 90 per cent
Heat pipes means that a substantial proportion of lost heat
from ventilation systems can be recovered. For this
The heat pipe is a passive heat exchanger of which there are reason, significant importance has been attached to
two main types: heat recovery systems.
—— horizontal: in which a wick within the tubes transfers —— Flat plate heat exchangers are very reliable.
liquid by capillary action —— Performance is best for very cold climates.
—— vertical: in which heat from the warmer lower duct —— Thermal wheels can be used to recover latent heat
is transferred to the cold upper duct by means of a and can therefore have valuable applications in air-
phase change in the refrigerant (see Figure 2.22). conditioned spaces.
—— Run-around coils enable complex configurations to
Finned tubes are mounted in banks in a similar manner to
be considered. Also exhaust heat can be used for
a cooling coil. Face velocities tend to be low (e.g. 1.5 to
other purposes such as the pre-heat of water or
3.0 m·s–1) in order to improve efficiency. Modulation
connection to a heat pump.
control is normally achieved by changing the slope, or tilt,
of the heat pipe. —— Properly sized systems can equal the efficiency
performance of other system types.
Regenerator
Disadvantages
A regenerator (see Figure 2.23) consists of two accumulators —— Buildings need to be very airtight since infiltration
(or a single unit split into two halves) with a damper adds to the overall air change rate and heat loss
arrangement to cycle the supply and exhaust airflows through infiltration is not recovered. This can
between the two. In the first part of the cycle, the exhaust adversely affect overall heat recovery performance.
air flows through and heats one of the accumulators. The In addition, the quality of airtightness must be
dampers then change over so that supply air flows through maintained throughout the operational lifetime of
and absorbs the heat from that accumulator. The second the building
accumulator acts in reverse to match, heating the supply air
in the first part of the cycle and absorbing heat from the
exhaust air in the second. The changeover period is First part of cycle
normally of the order of one minute. Accumulator heats
Intake air supply air Supply air
Claimed sensible efficiencies for these systems can be quite

high at 85 per cent. Latent efficiencies are normally
significantly lower and vary with flow velocity and accumulator
material. Modulation of the heat recovery efficiency can be
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
achieved by regulating the changeover period. Exhaust air Extract air

Accummlator absorbs
heat from exhaust air
Vertical heat pipes
Second part of cycle
Accummlator absorbs
Intake air heat from exhaust air Supply air
Supply Fresh
air air
Extract Exhaust
air air
Exhaust air Extract air

Accumulator heats
Fins to assist heat transfer supply air
Figure 2.22 Vertical pipe heat arrangement Figure 2.23 Regenerator
—— The building must be mechanically ventilated; Duct design must balance the need to minimise energy use
heat recovery does not work with natural ventilation. and noise generation against space availability and the costs
of materials and installation, whilst providing adequate
—— There are extra costs associated with installation, means of access for installation, cleaning and maintenance.
operation and maintenance. Materials, equipment and construction methods should be
—— Leakage can occur between the supply and exhaust chosen with respect to the whole-life cycle cost of the
air in the case of thermal wheels. This can be installation. This is particularly important for new
reduced by including a purge zone. installations for which Part L of the Building Regulations
(NBS, 2013a) sets down strict requirements for maximum
fan power. The developing sustainability agenda is
2.3.5 Duct systems imposing new constraints on system performance and
therefore designers need to look carefully at energy-
efficiency issues.
2.3.5.1 Background
Users of the environmental space serviced by the ductwork
The purpose of duct systems is to convey air to and from will require:
spaces as part of a ventilation or air-conditioning system.
—— sufficient air volume for ventilation
Designers will need to ensure that the design criteria
chosen for ductwork systems, associated air pressurisation —— sufficient air volume delivered and removed to
devices and other in-line equipment can meet the provide either comfort conditions or conditions
requirements of Part L of the Building Regulations (NBS, that satisfy the requirements of the process being
2013a). Any fire safety issues must also be considered to served
meet the requirements of Part B of the Building Regulations
—— satisfactory temperature of delivered air
(NBS, 2013g). It is necessary, by law, to pass on all design,
installation and actual position details for any fire protection —— satisfactory noise levels within the occupied space
under regulation 38 of the Building Regulations 2010 due to the ductwork installation
(TSO, 2010).
—— visual impact of the ductwork in keeping with the
internal environment and décor
This section is intended to be used by practising designers
who hold a basic knowledge of the fundamentals of building —— that on entry to the space, the air is well diffused
physics. As such, rigorous mathematical derivations of and does not cause draughts
formulae are not given. Chapter 4 of CIBSE Guide C: —— satisfactory air quality
Reference data (2007) provides detailed information on
pressure drops in ducts and duct fittings. The quantitative —— access to fire-protection systems and equipment,
data apply to the flow of clean air in ducts, but these may such as fire dampers for cleaning and maintenance;
also be used for vitiated air where the concentration of under the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order
contaminant gas is low. The airflow data should not be (RRFSO) (TSO, 2005), records need to be kept of
applied to the conveyance of particulates in ducts. all such positioning, how to clean and maintain and
records of such maintenance.
Constructional aspects of ductwork are not covered in
detail. For the UK, reference should be made to the Classification of ductwork
ductwork specifications published by the Building
Engineering Services Association (BESA). Ductwork systems for ventilating and air-conditioning
applications can be divided into low-, medium- and high-
The designer must first fully map the design process that is pressure systems.
being undertaken. The process for each application will be
unique, but will follow the general format, as follows: High-pressure systems permit smaller ductwork but result
in greater friction pressure drop, requiring the fan to
—— problem definition
generate higher pressures and noise generation. They are
—— ideas generation more expensive to install and, because of their greater input
power requirements, are more expensive to run. This has
—— analysis led to a trend towards lower design pressures in systems.
—— selection of design solution.
Table 2.14 sets out the classification of ductwork systems
followed in DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork
Ductwork types and components are described in detail in (BESA, 2013a). The table also gives air leakage limits (see
section 2.6.7. ‘Air leakage limits’ in section 2.3.5.2).
2.3.5.2 Strategic design issues The duct air velocity is not a major factor in the
constructional specification of ductwork. Recommended
velocities for particular applications using these three
Background system classifications are given in Tables 2.16 and 2.17.
The aim of this section is to provide a source of information It is permissible to operate these systems at velocities
on current practice in the design of ductwork for ventilation higher than the recommended values. DW/144: Specification
and air-conditioning systems. The information is intended for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a) limits are up to
to provide an overview of design criteria and application 10 m·s–1, 20 m·s–1 and 40 m·s–1 in the cases of conventional
requirements. --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- low-, medium- and high-pressure systems respectively.
Systems 2-35
Table 2.14 Maximum positive and negative pressures and velocities for low, medium and high-pressure ductwork
System classification Design static pressure / Pa Maximum air Air leakage limit per m2 of duct
velocity / m·s–1 surface area* / litre·m–2
Maximum positive Maximum negative
Low pressure (Class A) 500 500 10 0.027 × p0.65
Medium pressure (Class B) 1000 750 20 0.009 × p0.65
High pressure (Class C) 2000 750 40 0.003 × p0.65
High pressure (Class D) 2000 750 40 0.001 × p0.65
* where p is the static gauge pressure in the duct (Pa)
However, since pressure losses go up by square of velocity, —— the shape of the building
thus impacting substantially on fan power, the use of higher
velocities than those recommended is not likely to be —— the number and location of plant rooms
economic, and the trend is towards lower air velocities. —— the provision of space for distribution.
Two factors influence velocity selection. First, for a given
In large buildings or industrial plants a choice between a
volume flow, velocities should fall as the size of the duct is
single distribution system and multiple smaller systems
reduced, to avoid increasing pressure gradients. Second,
may arise. Large distribution systems and their plant can
noise generation increases rapidly with increases in velocity
have the advantage of lower operating costs but require
at grilles, bends and other fittings where the flow separates
more floor space for vertical shafts. In general, very long
from the walls, leaving turbulent eddies in its wake. The
runs of ducting should be avoided to prevent undue heat
noise generated at grilles and terminals is of particular
losses or gains, excessive leakage and difficulties in
importance. High-velocity systems require noise control by
balancing during commissioning. Also, the pressure losses
using sound-absorbent units between the duct system and
in long runs are likely to be higher, and a more expensive
the room outlets and inlets.
class of ductwork may be needed. Multiple smaller
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
distribution systems may be more expensive in capital and

Systems with design pressures outside the values given in operating costs but they avoid long runs, large ducts and
Table 2.14 or where the mean duct velocity exceeds 40 m·s–1 vertical shafts, and this may reduce overall building costs.
should be treated as special and the designer will need to
refer to the original references or other source material to
confirm the appropriate design parameters. Spatial requirements
Layout Provision of sufficient space for ductwork is essential and

must be addressed at an early stage in the design process of
In most installations, the constraints imposed by the the building.
building or other structures (e.g. single or multiple plant
rooms, split systems based on tenancy arrangements etc.) Laying out the space required for ductwork is, to an extent,
and the siting of fans, plant items and terminals can lead to an amalgam of experience, skill and three-dimensional
the adoption of an overall duct layout that is not ideal. visualisation. Adequate space must be provided for
Room must be given for the installation of fire dampers at installation and maintenance of the ductwork and
compartment boundaries. This should also allow for access associated equipment, such as fire dampers at compartment
for maintenance. The performance of a system can also be boundaries. The designer should ensure that ductwork is
adversely affected by a lack of care and thought in the co-ordinated with the other engineering services to be
arrangement and detailing of the ductwork. The designer accommodated in the same space, particularly in false
and installer should be aware of the characteristics of ceiling voids and riser spaces where there may be several
airflow in ducts and fittings so that the objectives of the distribution systems vying for restricted space.
design are compromised as little as possible by the
constraints imposed and by space restrictions. In general, Branches from vertical risers to serve horizontal distribution
good design should ensure that the air velocities are routes should be considered with care, as this is likely to be
relatively uniform across the duct section and that the the most congested area of the service core. If the service
generation of eddies in ducts is minimised. core is enclosed on three sides (e.g. by a lift shaft and an
external wall) the horizontal distribution from the core will
The site will often dictate the main routing of ductwork be extremely difficult, with little space for installation and
systems but in general the design should seek to make the maintenance.
layout as symmetrical as possible; that is, the pressure loss
in each branch should be as nearly equal as possible. This The area served by a single riser will dictate the size of the
will aid regulation and may reduce the number and variety horizontal branch duct. The depth selected for a branch
of duct fittings that are needed. duct will have a significant influence on the false ceiling or
raised floor depth. It will also affect the overall floor-to-
The number of duct fittings should be kept to a minimum floor heights and hence have significant influence on
and there should be a conscious attempt to achieve some building costs.
standardisation of types and sizes. Increasing the numbers
and variety of fittings in a system can markedly raise its The depth of the horizontal element is a function of the
overall cost. number of vertical risers, generally:
The shorter the ductwork length, the lower is the pressure —— maximum number of vertical risers equates to
drop. Distribution lengths are influenced by: minimum horizontal element depth
—— minimum number of vertical risers equates to used for heating, four air changes an hour may be required
maximum horizontal element depth. or six air changes or more for an air-conditioned space.
Dividing this flow rate by the velocity given in Tables 2.16
Adequate space must be allowed around ducts for fitting of and 2.17 (in ‘Duct air velocities’ in section 2.3.5.3) gives the
insulation, hangers and supports during installation and duct cross-sectional area required. For conventional
for access during subsequent maintenance. Access will also systems, the aspect ratio (long side to short side) of
be dependent on the clearance from adjacent objects such rectangular ducting should not exceed 3:1.
as structural items and the type of jointing method. Suitable
allowances are given in Appendix 2.A2, which also shows
Interaction with structure/building form
examples of common problems associated with ductwork
access.
Because ductwork is likely to be the most space-intensive
service provided, it is important that the ductwork design
Adequate space must also be allowed at compartment
is fully co-ordinated with the design of the building
boundaries for the installation of fire dampers using a
structure to minimise the number of bends and other
tested installation method. The fire damper installation
fittings, each of which will increase the resistance to airflow.
method to be used should be clearly defined as part of the
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The selection of the AHU is also critical (see section 2.6).

ductwork/supporting construction design, so that it meets
This is particularly important for new installations for
the fire classification of the boundary.
which, for example, Part L of the Building Regulations
(NBS, 2013a) sets down strict requirements for maximum
Ductwork clearances can be reduced with care, providing
specific fan power. The structural design may have reached
jointing, insulation and maintenance of any vapour barrier
beyond an outline design and shape by the time that
is achieved. Consideration should also be given to how the
ductwork design commences.
ductwork will be tested and how it will eventually be
replaced.
Provided they are allowed for early in the design, it is
usually possible to accommodate vertical ducts of any
Further information is available in Design and Maintenance
desired size without great difficulty from both structural
Guide 08: Space requirements for plant access, operation and
and planning viewpoints. Horizontal ducts present more
maintenance (DEO, 1996), BSRIA TN 10/92: Spatial
problems; if they are located between floors, headroom will
Allowances for Building Services Distribution Systems (1992)
be restricted and there will be limits on the floor area that a
and BS 8313: 1997: Code of practice for accommodation of
horizontal duct can serve. Early checks should be carried
building services in ducts (BSI, 1997).
out to ensure that the vertical main ducts enable horizontal
distribution without compromising the performance of the
Aesthetics installation or the available headroom and that structural
members allow branch ducts to leave the main ducts.
Where ductwork is hidden in risers, ceiling voids and
below the floor it will not have an effect on the visual Distribution of the engineering services within a building
environment. In some situations, ducts can be large (e.g. are likely to follow a pattern associated with the main
1–2 m in diameter) and difficult to locate within the overall building circulation route, which represents the main
building design. In such circumstances the ductwork may functional pattern of the building. This may not be the
be exposed and possibly made an architectural feature. The most efficient route for the ductwork. The large space
design, including the shape, location and visual appearance, requirements for ductwork mean that it can be desirable to
will need to be addressed to ensure sympathy with the locate plant close to the areas they serve.
visual environment.
Sufficient space needs to be provided for ease of fitting the
Shopping centres, airports, auditoria, display galleries and ductwork. Providing access for maintenance is also
large office complexes are possible examples where exposed important since it will be expensive to install retrospectively,
ductwork may be used. Installation standards and sealing whether ducts are horizontal or vertical. Space should also
systems for such ducts may require more attention to the be allowed for additions and alterations. This should
final appearance of the duct system than with ducts in include space to fit fire dampers that are suitable to any
concealed spaces. supporting construction used. The requirements of Part B
of the Building Regulations (NBS, 2010g) should be
followed. Details of fire damper installation methods are
Approximate sizing given in DW/145: Guide to Good Practice for the Installation
of Fire and Smoke Dampers (BESA, 2010) and Fire Dampers
Because ductwork can be large, it will often be necessary to (European Standards) (‘the ASFP Grey Book’) (ASFP, 2010).
assess the size of individual ductwork in critical locations,
particularly where horizontal branches leave the main Co-ordination of the engineering services should ensure
vertical risers. It is often possible to adjust the size of the that the area for removal of access panels and covers and
vertical space well into the detailed design. Horizontal entry into the ductwork is free of services and readily
branches, however, cannot encroach on the necessary accessible without obstructions.
headroom.
To make a preliminary estimate of a branch size, calculate Zoning

the airflow rate required in the area served by multiplying
the zone volume by the number of air changes per hour and Loads due to mechanical ventilation of a space are likely to
divide by 3600 to obtain the zone flow rate in m3·s–1. Two be constant, and zoning, if appropriate, should be based on
air changes an hour may be appropriate for offices with a siting plant as centrally as possible to minimise the distance
separate heating system for fabric losses. Where the air is that the air has to travel. Strategic issues such as availability
Systems 2-37
of space for multiple plant rooms or the need for separate Leakage from ducted air-distribution systems is an
systems to service different tenants in the building may important consideration in the design and operation of
determine the zoning arrangements. ventilation and air-conditioning systems. A ductwork
system having air leakage within defined limits will ensure
The ductwork system may be providing heating, cooling or that the design characteristics of the system can be
air conditioning, in which case the load will change due to maintained. It will also ensure that energy and operational
factors such as solar gain, occupancy and the use of lights. costs are not greater than necessary.
If the loads throughout a building vary together (i.e. are in Leakage from sheet metal air ducts occurs at the seams and
phase), or the variations are not large enough to cause the joints and is therefore proportional to the total surface area
internal conditions to drift outside the acceptable limits, a of the ductwork in the system. The level of leakage is
single zone can be adopted. However, if different areas similarly related to the air pressure in the duct system and,
experience load changes that are out of phase, supply air whilst there is no precise formula for calculating the level
must be provided at a rate or condition appropriate to each of air loss, it is generally accepted that leakage will increase
zone. in proportion to pressure to the power of 0.65.
Most deep-plan buildings require division into perimeter The effect of air leakage from high-pressure ductwork is
and internal zones. The depth of perimeter zones mainly critical in terms of system performance, energy consumption
depends on the penetration of sunlight and daylight, which and the risk of high frequency noise associated with leakage.
is determined by orientation, external shading, shape and These problems are less critical with medium-pressure
size of windows, characteristics of the glass and the type systems, but should be considered. Low-pressure ducts
and pattern of use of blinds. The depth of a typical perimeter present the lowest risk in terms of the effect of leakage on
zone is 3–6 m. the effective operation of the system.
For a typical multiple-zone system with heating and cooling It is important that ductwork should be made as airtight as
application, the following should be noted. possible. Conventional sheet metal ductwork is formed by
—— For a constant volume flow rate to be maintained to seaming sheets and jointing sections; these seams and
each zone, the system must be capable of supplying joints, penetrations made by damper spindles, control
air at various temperatures at any one time; this sensors, test holes, access doors etc. all give rise to air
may involve simultaneous heating and cooling of leakage. The designer should accept that some leakage will
supply air. occur in conventional ductwork and make an assessment of
the acceptable level in a given system. In some cases it may
—— All rooms with similar solar gain patterns can be not be important, for example for a general extract system
zoned together provided that other variables are in where the ducting is all in the space being served. In others
phase. However, the number and position of the it may be very important, for example where obnoxious or
zonal sensors will be important. Corner rooms pose hazardous contamination is being handled. In the latter
further problems. case a completely airtight system may be necessary, where
—— North-facing rooms experience less variation and fully welded ducting with airtight enclosures at all
can be grouped with internal zones for cooling penetrations could be the basis of a special specification,
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provided that heating is dealt with by other means. outside the scope of DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal
Ductwork (BESA, 2013a).
—— Gains through poorly insulated roofs are similar to
gains on south-facing surfaces but, if adequately For most ventilating and air-conditioning applications,
insulated, they may be treated as intermediate compliance with the construction and sealing requirements
floors. of DW/144 (BESA, 2013a) will ensure acceptably low
leakage rates. For sheet metal ductwork, the specification
The success of an air-conditioning system depends largely requires sealant to be applied to all longitudinal seams
on appropriate zoning and careful positioning of sensors in (except spirally wound, machine-made seams) and cross-
relation to the sources of heat gains. joints; for plastic and resin bonded, glass fibre ductwork,
similar sealing requirements are specified. The sheet metal
Air leakage limits specification also gives details of an air leakage test
procedure. Recommended acceptable leakage rates in l·s–1
It is recommended as good practice that all significant per square metre of surface area are given in Table 2.14.
installations (e.g. those with a fan capacity greater than
1 m3·s–1) should be tested in accordance with DW/143: Appendix 2.A3 shows these limits for a range of duct static
Guide to Good Practice: Ductwork Air Leakage Testing (BESA, pressure differentials. These rates are in accordance with
2013b). Air leakage testing is required by Part L2A of the the comparable classes in BS EN 12237 (BSI, 2003a) and BS
Building Regulations (NBS, 2013a). Air leakage testing of EN 1507 (BSI, 2006a) but these provisional European
high-pressure ductwork is mandatory. Refer to BESA Standards do not cover the full range of high-pressure
(2013b) for details of the testing procedure. Air leakage ductwork.
limits for the four classes of ductwork are given in Table
2.14. The leakage factors given for classes A, B and C are Whilst leakage occurs at seams, joints and penetrations, the
those for the classes similarly designated in European purpose of giving acceptable leakage rates in terms of
Standards BS EN 12237: 2003: Ventilation for buildings. surface area of ductwork is to require that the airtightness
Ductwork. Strength and leakage of circular sheet metal ducts is of a consistent standard for air leakage test systems. It
(BSI, 2003a) and BS EN 1507: 2006: Ventilation for buildings. does not follow that the total leakage of a system that meets
Sheet metal air ducts. Requirements for strength and leakage specified leakage requirements will always be a set
(BSI, 2006a). percentage of the total flow rate; the percentage leakage
from short runs can be substantially less than that from Variable pressures in systems
long runs. The design therefore plays a very important part
in the likely total leakage loss from ductwork systems, since Designers can achieve significant cost savings by matching
long runs not only provide more crackage and penetration, operating pressures throughout the system to constructional
but also require higher working pressures to operate. Where standards and appropriate air leakage testing. The practice
limitation of air leakage is important, the designer should of specifying construction standards for whole duct systems
first ensure that the duct runs are as short as possible, that based on fan discharge pressures may incur unnecessary
the operating pressure is as low as possible, that the number costs on a project.
of seams, joints and penetrations is kept to a minimum and
that there is adequate room around the ducts for site-made For example, some large systems could well be classified for
joints to be effectively sealed. leakage limits as follows:
—— plant room risers: Class C
Items of equipment and plant installed in ductwork systems
can also leak, and particular attention should be paid to the —— main floor distribution: Class B
sealing of these items. Where leakage testing is required, —— low-pressure outlets: Class A.
the designer should ensure that suppliers of these items can
demonstrate that their equipment meets the required
Further information on air leakage is given in section 2.5.4.
airtightness standards. The designer should make adequate
allowance in the fan selection for some air leakage so that
the completed installation can meet its intended purpose Fan power energy requirements
without subsequent adjustments to the fan(s) and motor(s).
Table 2.15 gives some recommendations for margins that Fan energy requirements are commonly specified in terms
should be included for complete installations (i.e. ductwork of specific fan power (SFP) which is defined in Building
and equipment). Regulations Approved Document L (NBS, 2013a) as ‘the
sum of the design total circuit watts including all losses
through switchgear and controls such as inverters, of all
System leakage loss fans that supply air and exhaust it back to outdoors (i.e. the
sum of supply-and-extract fans) divided by the design
There is no direct relationship between the volume of air ventilation rate through the building’.
conveyed and the surface area of the ductwork system. It is
therefore difficult to express air leakage as a percentage of Energy-efficiency requirements invariably specify maxi
total air volume. Operating pressure will vary throughout mum SFP values of typically of 2.0 W/litre·s–1 or less. Actual
the system and, since leakage is related to pressure, the maximum SFP values should always be checked against the
calculations are complex. However, it is generally accepted relevant current regulations such as Part L of the Building
that, in typical good-quality systems, the leakage from each Regulations (NBS, 2013a).
class of duct under operating conditions will be in the
region of: The formula for calculating fan power is:
—— low pressure (Class A): 6 per cent
Δp q
—— medium pressure (Class B): 3 per cent Pef = ηt v (2.2)
o
—— high pressure (Class C): 2 per cent
—— high pressure (Class D): 0.5 per cent. where Pef is the fan power (W), ∆pt is the difference in total
pressure around the air circuit (Pa), qv is the volume flow
(m3·s–1) and ηo is the overall efficiency (%).
Designer’s calculations
The selection of a fan type is primarily determined by the
The designer can calculate with reasonable accuracy the application and, where a choice is available, the most
predicted total loss from a system by: efficient should be chosen. Fans should be sized as close to
the actual demand as possible in order to keep capital and
—— calculating the operating pressure in each section of running costs to a minimum. Motors should not be
the system significantly oversized, as efficiency and power factor will
—— calculating the surface area of the ductwork in each reduce. Dependent on the fan type selected, the motor may
corresponding pressure section be located within or external to the duct. Motors within the
duct can increase the air temperature.
—— calculating the allowable loss at the operating
pressure for each section of the system (see above In general, centrifugal fans are more efficient, more
for indicative leakage figures). controllable and quieter. Backward-curved centrifugal fans
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Table 2.15 Recommended air leakage margins for design figures

Margin Value of margin for stated class of system / %
Low pressure Medium pressure High pressure
System total pressure loss margin: +10 +5 +5
(a) allowance for margin on volume flow rate +10 +5 +5
(b) allowance for uncertainty in calculation +10 +10 +10
(c) combined system total pressure loss margin (sum of (a) and (b)) +20 +15 +15
Systems 2-39
have high efficiency (up to 80 per cent) with aerofoil installing the ductwork and associated equipment, which
backward curved fans providing even higher efficiency. may not be in exact accordance with the original design
Maximum efficiency for axial flow fans is about 75 per cent. routing. Measures to reduce installation effects at the fan
With all fans the efficiency varies with flow rate, so the inlet and outlet include the following.
chosen fan needs to have an operating point close to the
point of peak efficiency. This is covered in more detail in (a) Fan inlet:
section 2.6.
—— Ensure that air enters axial fans without spin by
improved inlet design or a by installing a splitter.
Fan characteristics should be matched to the chosen
method of control of volume. This can be achieved by —— Include turning vanes where there is a duct bend
various means, such as variable speed motors to optimise close to a fan inlet.
fan performance at part load. Inlet guide vanes, disc
—— Include a transition piece where the duct size
throttles and dampers are not generally recommended for
reduces.
energy efficiency due to the ‘throttling’ effect.
—— Ensure flexible connections are correctly fitted
In theory, fans can operate at better than 80 per cent without offset or slack.
efficiency but in practice less efficient units tend to be
—— Where fans are installed in plenum chambers,
specified to save money or provide a safety margin. The loss
ensure the fan inlet is a minimum of one diameter
of efficiency (termed ‘fan gains’) is dissipated as heat. This
from the plenum wall with no obstructions.
can result in an air temperature rise of up to 2 K, which can
make the difference between a comfortable building and
(b) Fan outlet:
one that is too warm. Heat will also be dissipated into the
ductwork from fan motors located in the duct. —— Ensure a minimum of two diameters of straight
duct.
Significant energy savings can be achieved by reducing —— Where bends are close to the outlet, ensure that
unnecessary pressure drops in the system by careful sizing, radius bends with splitters are used.
routing and detailing of ductwork. In particular, pinch
points in index runs require higher pressure drops than —— Axial and propeller fans should preferably be fitted
much of the rest of the system. with guide vanes to provide energy recovery.
(Where guide vanes are not fitted, air swirl will
Variable flow control of air systems, which can be used on significantly increase system resistance, i.e. pressure
most distribution systems, can give considerable savings in drop. This can be corrected by a carefully designed
fan energy. Variable flow control VAV systems have cross-piece.)
potentially greater air distribution savings over other
central plant systems, provided that pressures are well Fan connections are considered in detail in section 2.6.1.
controlled and air-handling plant and drives are
intrinsically efficient. Environmental issues
Variable speed drives also allow rapid matching of fan For a typical air conditioned and mechanically ventilated
duties during commissioning and will provide significant building, fan energy can consume up to 8 per cent of the
savings compared with manual regulation dampers. Typical electrical consumption and therefore every effort must be
energy savings are 20 per cent at 90 per cent flow and 40 per made to ensure that the ductwork installation is energy
cent at 80 per cent flow, dependent upon characteristics. efficient.
Damper control increases system resistance and therefore
energy savings are reduced. Cleaning of ductwork must be taken into account in the
design and installation stages by ensuring adequate and
Energy can be reduced in ventilation systems by: safe provision is made for access. Clear guidance is given in
—— avoiding unnecessary bends BS EN 15780: 2011: Ventilation for buildings. Ductwork.
Cleanliness of ventilation systems (BSI, 2011b).
—— using bends instead of mitred elbows
—— having a ‘shoe’ on the branch fittings for tees Filter removal and replacement must be considered by
ensuring sufficient space and means of access is provided.
—— avoiding reduced duct size (i.e. maintain cross- Noise in ductwork can be contentious, particularly where
sectional area) the system or components (e.g. intake, exhaust, AHU etc.)
—— minimising duct length produce a noise nuisance to the building occupants,
neighbours or passers-by. Noise is generated where eddies
—— minimising the length of flexible ducting are formed as flow separates from a surface. The generated
—— good inlet and outlet conditions either side of fan noise level is particularly sensitive to the velocity. See
(see fan inlet and outlet below) section 2.5.2.3 and section 2.6 for further details.
—— using equipment with low pressure drops (i.e. The visual effect of ductwork can be an environmental
filters, attenuators, heat exchangers). issue because of its physical size and location. Whilst
ductwork may be hidden in risers, ceiling voids and below
Poor inlet and outlet conditions can cause poor fan the floor, there will be occasions where it is exposed and
performance, and hence inefficient operation, often referred possibly made an architectural feature. The design,
to as ‘installation effects’. These can alter the aerodynamic including the shape, location and visual appearance will
characteristics of the fan so that its full potential is not need to be addressed to ensure sympathy with the visual
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,``
realised. This can be the result of practical difficulties environment. Where ducting is exposed, the installation
standards may require additional attention, particularly to Additional restrictions may be specified for the duct in
jointing and sealing. terms of leakage or insulation.
To demonstrate performance, fire-resisting ducts should

Fire issues
been tested to BS EN 1366-1: 2014: Fire resistance tests for
service installations. Ventilation (BSI, 2014a) and classified to
The ventilation system will have fire safety requirements,
BS EN 13501-3: 2005 + A1: 2009 (BSI, 2005b) or tested as
mainly at compartment boundaries.
a minimum to BS 476-24: 1987: Fire tests on building materials
and structures. Method for determination of the fire resistance of
Where a standard ventilation duct passes through a
non-loadbearing element of construction (BSI, 1987c).
supporting construction (wall or floor) designed as a fire
compartment boundary, that penetration is required to be
Further protection may be made by the use of fire dampers
protected. This is achieved by using a fire damper
at the end of fire-resisting duct runs.
specifically tested using an installation method to suit the
particular wall (masonry, blockwork, dry wall partition,
Further information on fire-resisting ductwork is available
etc.) or floor that is being used. The classification of the fire
in Fire Rated and Smoke Outlet Ductwork (‘the ASFP Blue
damper should meet that of the supporting construction
Book’) (ASFP, 2000).
being penetrated by the duct. Fire dampers selected to
protect escape routes and areas of sleeping risk are required
Where fire doors are used for ventilation, held open by
to act in response to a smoke alarm signal, not just their
magnetic catches that release on the receipt of a smoke
integral fusible links. They are also required to have an ‘ES’
alarm, it must be checked that the equipment meets the
classification. To achieve this fire dampers have to have
required standards and that all closers are correctly tested
been tested to BS EN 1366-2: 2015: Fire resistance tests for
and set up. All fire doors, frames and associated ironmongery
service installations. Fire dampers (BSI, 2015a) and classified
should be installed using the methods defined by the
to BS EN 13501-3: 2005 + A1: 2009: Fire classification of
manufacturer. It is recommended that approved installers
construction products and building elements. Classification using
are used. It should not be assumed that double-leaf doors
data from fire resistance tests on products and elements used in
have the same fire resistance as single-leaf doors and that
building services installations: fire resisting ducts and fire dampers
the inclusion of glazing has been tested; this should be
(BSI, 2005b). ES-classified fire dampers are generally
checked.
known as fire and smoke dampers.
Further information of fire doors is available from the
Fire dampers in other areas should have a minimum ‘E’
British Woodworking Federation (BWF) and the Guild of
classification (BS EN 1366-2 (BSI, 2015a) and BS EN
Architectural Ironmongers (GAI).
13501-3 (BSI, 2005b)) and may close simply under the
action of a fusible link.
Guidance to the building regulations with regard to fire
safety is given in Part B of the Building Regulations (NBS,
In the case where all fans are to be turned off in the event of
2013g), supported by BS 9999: 2008: Code of Practice for fire
fire, dampers tested to BS 476-20: 1987/BS 476-22: 1987
safety in the design, management and use of buildings (BSI.
(BSI, 1987a/b) may be allowed. Note, however, that fire
2008a). The latter document generally replaces the BS 5588
dampers tested to these standards cannot be classified ES,
series. This is supported by CIBSE Guide E: Fire engineering
so they must never be used to protect escape routes.
(CIBSE, 2010).
In all cases fire dampers shall be installed following the
Consideration should also be made of the RRFSO (TSO,
methods provided by the fire damper manufacturer in line
2005). This states what is required for a building user to
with their testing. Care shall be taken to make sure that
certify their own fire safety. This is generally done by risk
there is room to do this and that there is adequate access to
assessment, but requires full records of design, selection
the damper for maintenance and cleaning, inside and out.
and maintenance. Supporting this is Part J of the Building
Regulations (NBS, 2013f), which requires that all infor
Further information on fire dampers is available in and Fire
mation related to fire safety should be passed on the client/
Dampers (European Standards) (‘the ASFP Grey Book’)
building user. This is represented by, but not limited to,
(ASFP, 2010) and DW/145: Guide to Good Practice for the
information such as required maintenance schedules, as-
Installation of Fire and Smoke Dampers (BESA, 2010).
built drawings etc. A building regulation is a legal
requirement.
Where fire-resisting ductwork is used, care must be made
that this is installed in the supporting construction using
Note: It is now required that any fire-resisting products
the method of installation recommended by the manu
used are subject to third-party certification and are CE
facturer.
marked.
Where fire-resisting ductwork is used to protect fire
compartments, the junction where it passes through a Smoke control
supporting construction (wall or floor) designed as a fire
compartment boundary, the method of sealing the Smoke control is a much broader subject, but it must be
penetration must be made using the method of installation noticed that, in the same way as normal ventilation ducts,
recommended by the manufacturer. This should be proven fire compartments should not be compromised.
by using a fire-resisting duct specifically tested using an
installation method to suit the particular wall (masonry, Smoke control design requires specialist advice using fire-
blockwork, dry wall partition etc.) or floor that is being engineered solutions for the most part. Reference should be
used. The classification of the fire-resisting duct shall meet
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made to Approved Document B with supporting
that of the supporting construction being penetrated by it. documentation being provided from other sources. CIBSE
Systems 2-41
Guide E: Fire engineering (CIBSE, 2010) gives further —— when using rectangular ductwork, maintaining the
guidance. A range of other guides are also available from aspect ratio as close as possible to 1:1 to minimise
the BRE, ASFP and the Smoke Control Association (SCA). duct friction losses and initial cost; this can also
avoid problems with ‘difficult’ elbows.
—— BRE Report BR 186: Design Principles for Smoke
Ventilation in Enclosed Shopping Centres (BRE, 1990).
2.3.5.3 Design criteria
—— BRE Report BR 368: Design Methodologies for Smoke
and Heat Exhaust Ventilation within Atria (BRE,
1999a). Introduction
—— BRE Report BR 375: Natural Ventilation in Atria for The primary function of a ductwork system is to convey air
Environment and Smoke Control: An Introductory between specific points. In fulfilling this function, the duct
Guide (BRE, 1999b). assembly must perform satisfactorily within fundamental
—— BRE Project Report 213179: Smoke Ventilation of performance characteristics. One of the most important
Common Access Areas of Flats and Maisonettes performance characteristics is energy efficiency. This aspect
(BD2410): Final Factual Report (BRE, 2005). is particularly relevant because changes to Part L of the
Building Regulations (NBS, 2013a) imposed new
—— Fire Rated and Smoke Outlet Ductwork (‘The Blue performance constraints on air-moving systems and
Book’) (ASFP, 2000), European version. equipment. Early in the process, designers need to ensure
—— Guidance on Smoke Control to Common Escape Routes that their design can meet the overall performance
in Apartment Buildings (Flats and Maisonettes) requirements of Part L. The energy-efficiency standards of
(HEVAC, 2012). Part L should not be regarded as an absolute target. In
many situations, an improved level of performance may be
—— Design of Smoke Ventilation Systems for Loading Bays beneficial in terms of whole-life cost and/or as a means of
and Coach Parks (HEVAC, 2010). providing a trade-off opportunity to offset against another
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aspect of the design where achieving the required standard
Any and all equipment used should be checked to confirm of energy efficiency is more difficult or more costly.
compliance with the latest European Standards.
Elements of the assembly include an envelope (e.g. sheet
Note: It is now required that any smoke control products metal or other material), reinforcement, seams, joints,
used are subject to third-party certification and are CE support hangers and, possibly, insulation. Performance
marked. limits must be established for:
—— dimensional stability
Weight of ductwork
—— containment of air
The weight of ductwork, including insulation where —— vibration
applied, is normally insignificant in relation to the
structural support capability of the structure. In some types —— noise generation and containment
of buildings the weight of the ductwork may be important —— exposure to damage, weather, temperature extremes
(e.g. lightweight retail, storage and factory structures).
Examples of the types of problems are insufficient support —— support
centres from which to hang the ductwork and lightweight —— emergency conditions, e.g. fire
purlins that are unable to support the weight of the installed
ductwork. Sufficient structural support for fans must be —— heat gain or loss to the airstream
provided. Information on the weight of ductwork materials —— adherence to duct walls of dirt and contaminants.
is given in ‘Weight of ductwork’ in section 2.3.5.2.
Due consideration must be given to the effects of differential
Testing, commissioning, cleaning and maintenance pressure across the duct wall, airflow friction pressure
losses, dynamic losses and air velocity leakage, as well as
It is essential for duct systems to be commissioned, kept the inherent strength characteristics of the duct
clean and regularly maintained. These issues are considered components. Ductwork installations can account for a
in relation to HVAC systems in general in section 2.7.1. significant proportion of the cost of mechanical services.
Ducts should be sized and constructed in accordance with
recognised sources of data and standards of construction.
Controlling costs
Lower first costs can be achieved by: Duct air velocities
—— using the minimum number of fittings possible; The velocity of air flowing through a duct can be critical,
fittings can be expensive and the resulting pressure particularly where it is necessary to limit noise levels. The
loss is far greater than for straight duct sections duct air velocity is not a major factor in the constructional
specification of ductwork.
—— ensuring ductwork is sealed to minimise air
leakage; this allows reduction in both equipment
and ductwork size Recommended velocities for particular applications, using
the BESA system classifications, are given in Tables 2.16
—— using round ductwork where space and initial costs and 2.17. These figures are a general guide and assume
allow because it offers the lowest duct friction loss reasonable distances between the fittings (e.g. four times
for a given perimeter or given velocity the duct hydraulic diameter). Higher velocities may be
used if additional attenuation is employed. Maximum equipment (e.g. filter housings) for inspection,
velocities, as stated in DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal maintenance and cleaning.
Ductwork (BESA, 2013a) are given in Table 2.14.
—— During installation: by ensuring that the ductwork
can be installed safely and securely.
Table 2.18 gives recommended maximum air velocities for
rectangular and circular ducts in risers and ceiling spaces. —— During building operation: that maintenance and fire
Table 2.19 gives recommended velocities for supply and protection are maintained.
return air openings.
Fibrous materials were often used as duct linings to provide
Legislation sound absorption. However, they are not now generally
used because:
No legislation has been produced that relates specifically to —— they can contribute to mould growth
ductwork. The general requirements of the Health and
Safety at Work etc. Act (HMSO, 1974) and the Construction —— fibrous materials degrade with time
(Design and Management) Regulations 2015 (TSO, 2015) —— fibres can erode from the surface and be carried in
will apply during all the stages of design, installation, the air
commissioning, operation, maintenance and finally
demolition and disposal. Part L of the Building Regulations —— fibrous materials are difficult to clean.
(NBS, 2013a) includes limitations on specific fan power.
These are described in ‘Fan power energy requirements’ in Suitable alternative sound-absorbing proprietary materials
section 2.3.5.2. Part B of the Building Regulations (NBS, such as acoustic foam are now used and have the advantage
2013g) gives full details on fire-safety issues with regard to of not requiring facings or edge treatment.
ductwork and fire dampers. Building Regulation 38 requires
that all information on all aspects of fire protection,
2.3.5.4 Airflow in ducts
installation, positioning, maintenance etc. be passed on to
the building owner. The latter is the law.
General
Health and safety
Air in ducts follows natural laws of motion. While the
Health considerations will be addressed if a good inspection, detailed prediction of flow behaviour is very difficult, good
maintenance and cleaning regime is applied. Further design should ensure that the air follows the line of the
information on cleaning is provided in section 2.7.2.3. duct with uniform velocities and that excessive turbulence
is avoided. Ductwork fittings cause major pressure losses
and good design is essential, particularly where higher
Three aspects of safety concerning ductwork need to be
velocities are used. Bad design in relation to airflow can
addressed:
lead to vibration of flat duct surfaces, increases in duct
—— During design: that there are safe and secure means pressure losses, unpredictable behaviour in branch fittings
of access to the ductwork and associated plant and and terminals, and adverse effects on the performance of
Table 2.16 Recommended maximum duct velocities for low-pressure ductwork systems where
noise generation is the controlling factor
Typical applications Typical noise Velocity / m·s–1
rating (NR)*
Main ducts Branch Run-outs
Domestic buildings (bedrooms) 25 3.0 2.5 <2.0
Theatres, concert halls 20–25 4.0 2.5 <2.0
Auditoria, lecture halls, cinemas 25–30 4.0 3.5 <2.0 Table 2.17 Recommended maximum duct
Bedrooms (non-domestic buildings) 20–30 5.0 4.5 2.5 velocities for medium and high-pressure systems
Private offices, libraries 30–35 6.0 5.5 3.0 Volume flow Velocity / m·s–1
General offices, restaurants, banks 35–40 7.5 6.0 3.5 in duct
Medium-pressure High-pressure
/m3·s–1
Department stores, supermarkets, 40–45 9.0 7.0 4.5 systems systems
shops, cafeterias <0. 1 8 9
Industrial buildings 45–55 10.0 8.0 5.0 0.1–0.5 9 11
* See CIBSE Guide A (2015a), Table 1.16 0.5–1.5 11 15
>1.5 15 20
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 2.18 Guide to maximum duct velocities in risers and ceilings

Duct location Duct type Maximum air velocity / m·s–1
Table 2.19 Maximum velocity for supply and
for stated room type
return air openings (grilles and terminals)
Critical Normal Non-critical
Supply or Permitted air velocity / m·s–1
Riser or above plasterboard Rectangular 5 7.5 10 return air
Critical Normal Uncritical
ceiling Circular 7 10 15
Supply 1.5 2.5 3
Above suspended Rectangular 3 5 6
ceiling Circular 5 7 10 Return 2 3 4
Systems 2-43
installed plant items such as fans and dehumidifying coils. where tad1 is the air temperature in the upstream end of the
It is much cheaper to get the design right than to try and duct run (°C) and tad2 is the air temperature in the
correct abnormal flow situations on-site. downstream end of the duct run (°C).
Behaviour of air flowing through a duct The duct surface area is given by:
In normal circumstances the flow of air in ducts is turbulent

with the flow generally in the direction of the duct axis. As = P × l (2.5)
Eddies and secondary motions will result in energy
dissipation due to internal fluid friction. Streamlines will
not be parallel to the duct centre-line. In unobstructed where As is the duct surface area (m2), P is the perimeter of
straight ducts, eddies give rise to only relatively small the duct cross section (m) and l is the length of the duct run
transverse components of the duct velocity and the flow (m).
velocities are symmetrical about the duct axis.
The heat gain or heat loss rate given by equation 2.3 is
Disturbance to the flow arising from obstructions, duct equal to the heat gain or loss rate from the air in the duct,
fittings or other components has two major effects: which is given by:
—— the eddies can be significantly larger in size and
their velocities much higher
Φ = c Aρ cp ∆ tad × 103 (2.6)
—— the flow velocities across the duct become
asymmetrical, i.e. much higher velocities can occur
in part of the duct section, whilst in other parts
where c is the velocity of the air in the duct (m·s–1), A is the
even reverse flow may occur.
cross-sectional area of the duct (m2), ρ is the density of air
in the duct (kg·m–3), cp is the specific heat capacity of air in
From the point of view of duct design the important aspects the duct at constant pressure (kJ·kg–1·K–1) and ∆tad is the
of the effects of disturbance to airflow are: temperature difference between the ends of the duct run
—— increased pressure loss due to creation of eddies (K).
—— increased pressure loss as high-velocity air mixes
∆tad is given by:
with low-velocity air
—— noise generated by the interaction on eddies with Δ tad = tad1 – tad2 (2.7)
the inner surfaces of the ducts.
More information on the flow characteristics through duct Equating equations 2.2 and 2.5 and rearranging gives:
components and fittings is given in section 2.6.
U P (tad – tas ) l
Heat gains or losses Δ tad = (2.8)
c A ρ cp 103
In a duct system, the air temperature change can be
significant, e.g. when passing through an untreated space.
This has the effect of reducing the heating or cooling or:
capacity of the air and increasing the energy input to the
system. The heat transmission to and from the surrounding
space can be reduced by insulation of the ducts. The
following notes give guidance on the estimation of 4 U (tad – tas ) l
Δ tad = (2.9)
temperature changes in ducted air due to heat gains or c ρ cp dh 103
losses.
The heat gain or loss rate through the walls of a run of air where dh is the hydraulic mean diameter of the duct (m).
ducts is given by:
The hydraulic mean diameter is given by:

Φ = U As ( tad − tas ) (2.3) dh = 4 A / P (2.10)
where F is the heat exchange (W), U is the overall thermal For air at 20 °C, ρ = 1.2 kg·m–3 and cp = 1.02 kJ·kg–1·K–1.
transmittance (W·m–2·K–1), As is the surface area of the duct Hence, by substituting these values and combining the
run (m2), tas is the ambient temperature outside the duct numerical factors:
(°C) and tad is the temperature of the air inside the duct (°C).
U ( tad − tas ) l
The temperature of the air inside the duct is given by:
∆ tad = (2.11)
306 c dh
tad = 1/2 (t ad1 + t ad2 ) (2.4)

--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Ignoring the thermal resistance of the duct material, the Hence the change in air temperature per metre of duct run
U-value of the insulated duct is given by: is:
1 ∆tad = 0.0005 × 20 = 0.01 K·m–1

U= (2.12)
(1 / h si + ln / λ n + 1 / h so )
For an uninsulated duct, from Table 2.20:
where hsi is the heat transfer coefficient of the inside surface ∆tad / l (tad – tas) = 0.004 m–1
of the duct (W·m–2·K–1), ln is the insulation thickness (m),
λn is the thermal conductivity of the insulation Therefore:
(W·m–1·K–1) and hso is the heat transfer coefficient of the
outside surface of the duct (W·m–2·K–1). ∆tad = 0.004 × 20 = 0.08 K·m–1
The value of hsi is a function of the Reynolds number and Since this method assumes that ∆tad is small, some error
an approximate value is given by: will be introduced if the length of ductwork is considered
large, and the smaller the value of (dh × c), the larger the
error. A maximum length of 10 m is recommended. It may
hsi = 3.5 (c0.8 / dh0.25) (2.13) be noted from Figure 2.24 that as the value of (dh × c) falls
below 1.5, the rate of temperature drop in the ducts with
50 mm or less insulation increases considerably. For small
For most typical applications, hsi may be taken as ducts and low air velocities, the insulation thickness should
37.5 W·m2·K–1. The value of hso also depends on the be at least 50 mm. BS 5422: 2009: Method for specifying
conditions surrounding the duct. A typical value for thermal insulating materials for pipes, tanks, vessels, ductwork
unvented building voids is 10 W·m–2·K–1, but this can be and equipment operating within the temperature range –40 °C to
influenced by reflective facing materials on the insulation +700 °C (BSI, 2009b) gives guidance on the assessment of
and by draughts. Estimated values of U for insulated ducts the economic thickness of duct insulation. However, in the
with these values of hsi and hso are given in Table 2.20. absence of such assessment, BS 5422: 2009 recommends
insulation thicknesses for ducts carrying chilled and warm
The temperature change in an insulated duct can be air as shown in Tables 2.21 and 2.22 respectively. For
estimated from equation previous 2.11 and Table 2.12. For detailed information on the thermal insulation of ductwork,
insulation with thermal conductivity of 0.045 W·m–1·K–1 see BS 5422: 2009 and BS 5970: 2012: Thermal insulation of
values of (∆tad / l (tad − tas)) are given in Figure 2.24. The pipework, ductwork and other industrial installations in the
approximate values for an uninsulated duct are also shown temperature range –100 °C to +870 °C. Code of practice (BSI,
in Figure 2.24, for typical still locations, but these 2012b).
temperature changes could be underestimated by about 20
per cent if the duct is in draughty conditions. 2.3.5.5 Condensation and vapour barriers
Example 2.1 Condensation of water vapour within air occurs whenever
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the temperature falls below the ambient dew-point. This
For a 600 mm × 500 mm duct with 50 mm of thermal can occur on the outside of the cold duct when the
insulation (λn = 0.045 W·m–1·K–1), an air velocity inside temperature of the duct air causes the duct itself to have a
the duct of 9.5 m·s–1 and an air temperature tad = 10 °C, temperature below the dew-point of the surrounding air.
passing through surroundings at tas = 30 °C, the change in Even when the ductwork is insulated, this can occur due to
air temperature per metre run is calculated as follows. diffusion through the insulation of the more humid air
external to the duct. In turn this can lead to corrosion of the
ductwork as well as diminishing the thermal resistance of
Cross sectional area of duct:
the insulation, leading to more condensation.
As = 0.6 × 0.5 = 0.3 m2
Vapour sealing will be required where the temperature of
the air within the duct is at any time low enough to promote
Perimeter of duct: condensation on the exterior surface of the duct and cause
moisture penetration through the thermal insulation. In
P = 2 (0.6 + 0.5) = 2.2 m this case the most important requirement is to limit
penetration of the seal. The vapour barrier must be carefully
Hydraulic diameter of duct: installed to ensure the seal is continuous with no routes for
penetration of humidity.
dh =(4 × 0.3)/2.2 = 0.55 m
BS 5970: 2012 (BSI, 2012b) warns of the risk of condensation
Hence: within the layer of insulation, which is primarily used to
avoid condensation on its outside surfaces. With a suitable
dh c = 0.55 × 9.5 = 5.23 m2·s choice of insulation material and thickness, the surface
temperature of the ductwork can be raised sufficiently
From Figure 2.24: above the ambient dew-point temperature to avoid surface
condensation on the duct.
∆tad / l (tad – tas) = 0.0005 m–1
The extent of any vapour sealing of ductwork thermal
insulation and the support method to be used should be
clearly specified in advance by the designer.
Systems 2-45
Table 2.20 Estimated U-value for insulated ducts

Thermal conductivity of U-value (/W·m–2·K–1) for given thickness of
insulation insulation / mm
/ W·m–1·K–1
25 38 50 75 100
0.025 0.89 0.61 0.47 0.32 0.24
0.03 1.04 0.72 0.56 0.38 0.29
0.035 1.19 0.82 0.64 0.44 0.34
0.04 1.33 0.93 0.73 0.50 0.38
0.045 1.47 1.03 0.81 0.56 0.43
0.05 1.6 1.13 0.89 0.61 0.47
0.055 1.72 1.22 0.97 0.67 0.51
0.06 1.84 1.32 1.04 0.73 0.56
0.07 2.07 1.49 1.19 0.83 0.64
0.08 2.28 1.66 1.33 0.94 0.73
0·1
0·05
0·02
Un
in
su
la
te
d
0·01
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0·005
25
[td / l (tad – tas)] / m–1
m
m
38
m
m
50
m
m
0·002 75
m
m
10
0
m
m
0·001
0·0005
0·0002
0·0001 Figure 2.24 Temperature change

0·1 0·2 0·5 1 2 5 10
along insulated ducts for various
dh c / m2·s thicknesses of insulation
Table 2.21 Recommended minimum thickness of insulation on ductwork carrying chilled air (see BS 5422: 2009 (BSI, 2009b))
Minimum air temp. Minimum thickness of insulating material (mm) for stated thermal conductivity λ / W·m–1·K–1 and external surface emissivity ε
inside duct/°C
λ = 0.02 λ = 0.025 λ = 0.03 λ = 0.035
ε = 0.05 ε = 0.44 ε = 0.9 ε = 0.05 ε = 0.44 ε = 0.9 ε = 0.05 ε = 0.44 ε = 0.9 ε = 0.05 ε = 0.44 ε = 0.9
15 15 8 5 18 9 6 22 11 7 25 13 8
10 26 10 9 32 17 11 39 20 13 45 23 15
5 37 19 12 47 24 15 56 28 18 64 33 21
0 48 25 16 60 31 20 72 37 24 84 43 27
Minimum air temp. Minimum thickness of insulating material (mm) for stated thermal conductivity λ (/W·m–1·K–1) and external surface emissivity ε
inside duct/°C
λ = 0.04 λ = 0.045 λ = 0.05
ε = 0.05 ε = 0.44 ε = 0.9 ε = 0.05 ε = 0.44 ε = 0.9 ε = 0.05 ε = 0.44 ε = 0.9
15 29 15 10 32 17 11 36 18 12
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
10 52 26 17 58 29 19 64 33 21
5 75 38 24 83 42 27 92 47 30
0 96 49 31 108 56 35 120 61 39
Notes: (a) assumes ambient conditions of 25 °C still air, 80% relative humidity, dew-point temperature 21.3 °C; (b) thicknesses calculated in accordance
with BS EN ISO 12241: 1998: Thermal insulation for building equipment and industrial installations (BSI, 1998) based on 0.6 m vertical flat surface of
rectangular duct but are also adequate for horizontal surfaces; (c) Thermal conductivity values of insulating materials quoted at mean temperature of
10 °C.
Table 2.22 Indicative thickness of insulation for ductwork carrying warm air to control heat loss (based on BS 5422: 2009: (BSI, 2009b))
Surface Thermal conductivity of insulation (mm) Maximum
emissivity for stated thermal conductivity λ (W/·m·K) permissible heat
loss / W·m–2
λ = 0.020 λ = 0.025 λ = 0.030 λ = 0.035 λ = 0.040 λ = 0.045 λ = 0.050
Low (ε = 0.05) 17 21 25 29 33 38 42 16.34
Medium (ε = 0.44) 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 16.34
High (ε = 0.90) 22 27 33 38 44 49 54 16.34
Notes: (a) heat loss relates to specified thickness and temperature; (b) insulation thickness in this table has been calculated according to BS EN ISO
12241: 1998 using standardised assumptions: horizontal duct at 35 °C, with 600 mm vertical sidewall in still air at 15 °C, emissivity of outer surface of
insulated system as specified.
The thickness of insulation to prevent surface condensation From a psychrometric chart, for a dry bulb temperature of
can be determined from the following approximate 35 °C and 85% RH:
equations governing solid state heat transfer:
tds = 32.1 °C
For rectangular ducts:
Taking hso as 10 W·m–2·K–1, using equation 2.14, the
required thickness is:
(2.14) (32.1 – 12 ) × 0.045

ln = ———————— = 0.030 m = 30 mm
(35 – 32.1) × 10
where ln is the insulation thickness (m), tds is the ambient
dew-point temperature of the air outside the duct (°C), tad is Table 2.21 recommends an insulation thickness of 50 mm.
the temperature of the air inside the duct (°C), λ is the Hence the glass wool thickness required for vapour
thermal conductivity of the insulation (W·m–1·K–1), tas is resistance is less than that recommended for thermal
the ambient temperature outside the duct (°C) and hso is the insulation and surface condensation should not arise under
heat transfer coefficient of the outside surface of the duct these operating conditions.
(W·m–2·K–1).
Vapour barriers
Example 2.2
In normal circumstances the insulation thickness for heat
resistance is sufficient to prevent surface condensation, but
Calculate the thickness of glass wool (λ = 0.045 W·m–1·K–1) in extreme conditions the insulation thickness for vapour
to prevent surface condensation on a circular duct of resistance may be larger than that for heat resistance. When
diameter 0.8 m, carrying cooled air at 12 °C, exposed in a cold ducts pass through areas of high dew-point, carefully
ceiling void at 35 °C with relative humidity of 85%. selected vapour barriers should be applied externally to the
Systems 2-47
insulation. Well-installed vapour barriers with sealed joints are avoided. This is not normally a significant problem
will minimise vapour penetration and combat the risk of because ∆t is often small.
internal condensation in the insulation. It is good practice
to provide ‘nominal’ vapour barriers to cold ducts or to use A common problem is that accidental damage to barriers
thermal insulation with a low value of permeability, even caused by maintenance workers is subsequently not
when the insulation thickness for vapour resistance is less rectified.
than that which is recommended for thermal resistance.
Although polystyrene foam provides a high resistance to
vapour transfer, other thermal insulation materials, for 2.3.5.6 Duct and plenum design
example rock wool, have minimal vapour resistance (see
Hayden and Parsloe (1996), Table 3.49). Air terminal devices will only perform as intended if the
approach velocity is even. If the duct connections and/or
There are three main types of vapour barrier: volume flow regulators created eddies at the terminal,
the following problems may arise:
—— rigid barriers: such as reinforced plastics and sheet
—— unpredictable throw, spread and drop
metal, which are erected by mechanical means with
sealed joints and suitable protection to resist impact —— breakdown of Coanda effect
damage
—— high noise levels
—— membrane barriers: such as metal foils, plastic films
and coated papers, which are easier to install and —— balancing is difficult or impossible.
are in many cases available as backing material with
heat-resisting insulation but are more easily Design procedures for duct and plenum connections to
damaged various types of air terminal are given elsewhere
(HEVAC, 2000); also see section 2.6.8.
—— coating barriers: which are usually available as paints,
hot melts, pastes or powders with chemical If the ceiling is to be used as an exhaust plenum, it is
hardeners. important to create a uniform negative pressure
throughout the whole ceiling void to ensure even exhaust
Vapour barriers need to be effective and continuous. The throughout all terminals. This is particularly important
slightest leak will permit water vapour to diffuse throughout where exhaust is by means of air-handling luminaires,
the insulation. It is therefore imperative that cracks in the performance of which varies with airflow rate. Ceiling
vapour barriers due to poor workmanship or thermal forces voids should be made as large as possible and, if
4000 Pressure drop / Pa Figure 2.25 Comparison of high,

0 300 600 900 1200 1500 medium and low-velocity
3500
Total electricity cost / (£ per year)
systems (Action Energy, 1997);

Attenuation
(a) electricity costs (b) capital
3000 Heater costs
High
2500 Fans velocity
2000 Filtration Medium
velocity
1500 Dampers Low
Louvres velocity
1000
Air terminals
500
Ductwork
0
High Medium Low 0 400 800 1200 1600 20000
System velocity Electricity cost / (£ per year)
(a)
30000
AHU casing
Attenuation
24000
High
Heater
Total capital cost / £
velocity
18000 Fans Medium
velocity
Filtration Low
12000 Dampers velocity
Louvres
6000
Air terminals
Ductwork
0
High Medium Low 0 400 800 1200 1600 20000
System velocity Capital cost / £
(b)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

obstructed by luminaires, ductwork etc., exhaust stub ducts Ductwork noise is considered in more detail in sections
should be provided to ensure even exhaust over the full 2.5.2.3 and 2.6.7 and CIBSE Guide B4 (CIBSE, 2016c).
ceiling area.
Noise
2.3.5.7 Ductwork and system velocities
Noise should be prevented from getting through to the
Optimising duct design is essential for achieving energy occupied spaces. Design features in support of this objective,
efficiency. For optimum energy efficiency ductwork should which largely correspond to those required for energy
have as large a cross-sectional area as possible to produce efficiency, include the following:
low-velocity systems and reduce system pressure drops.
—— a low air velocity in the ductwork
Figure 2.25 which is based on Jackman (1990) and Good
Practice Guide GPG 257 (Action Energy, 1997) illustrates —— the use of round ducts
the running and capital costs for systems having different
design air velocities. These figures show how the running —— the use of bends with large internal radii
costs are reduced for low-velocity systems and how some —— smooth transitions and changes in flow direction
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
components become more expensive while others become
cheaper. The benefits of the energy-efficient (i.e. low- —— the use of low-noise control vanes
velocity) system include a reduction in electricity costs of —— low air leakage.
approximately 70 per cent, while the additional capital cost
is recovered in under five years.
2.3.6 Ventilation control systems
The basis of the comparison is as follows:
—— all systems supplying 2 m3·s–1 of air 2.3.6.1 General
—— all systems supplied by a centrifugal fan operating
Control systems are essential to maintain air quality,
at an efficiency of 70 per cent
thermal comfort and energy efficiency. Increasingly, a wide
—— pulley and motor efficiencies of 90 per cent and 80 variety of controls are becoming available that are
per cent respectively appropriate for both mechanical and natural ventilation
systems. Controls incorporate a variety of sensors and
—— electricity cost: 10 pence per kW·h actuators that enable optimum operating conditions to be
—— annual run time: 3000 hours maintained.
—— noise levels less than 40 dBA. In designing a control system the following should be taken
into account.
In a low-velocity system, the AHU face velocity would
typically be less than 2 m·s–1 with the main duct velocity —— Ensure fairness and consistency of control by
less than 3 m·s–1. In a medium-velocity system these figures avoiding occupants being unduly affected by
would become 2–3 m·s–1 and 5 m·s–1 respectively. In a high- controls from which they do not benefit.
velocity system the AHU velocity would typically be greater —— Provide rapid acting controls that give feedback to
than 3 m·s–1 with the main duct velocity at 8 m·s–1. occupants to demonstrate response.
Air leakage from ductwork should be minimised to prevent —— Make sensible decisions with regards to the choice
the wastage of fan power. Ductwork should be insulated of manual versus automatic control (manual
accordingly and runs through unoccupied spaces should be overrides should be provided where practical); any
minimised. Testing of ductwork air tightness should be automatic change in state should happen gradually
undertaken (see DW/143: Guide to Good Practice: Ductwork to avoid feelings of discomfort.
Air Leakage Testing (BESA, 2013b)). —— Remove unnecessary complexity by providing
controls that are simple and well labelled.
Good duct design should achieve airflow that is as uniform
as possible throughout the ductwork run to reduce the Further guidance on these issues can be found in Bordass et
pressure drop. To achieve this: al. (1995, 1999).
—— changes to the direction of the flow should be
minimised 2.3.6.2 Sensors
—— where possible 2–3 diameters of ductwork should
be allowed either side of components before Typical sensors for automatic control may include:
changing direction —— CO2 sensors for occupant generated pollutant
—— radius bends should be used in preference to right- —— gas sensors to monitor specific gasses that may be
angled bends present in a space
—— Y-junctions should be used in preference to —— humidity sensors
T-junctions
—— passive infra red (PIR) sensors to detect the presence
—— turning vanes should be used wherever appropriate of occupants
—— for rectangular ductwork, the aspect ratio should be —— temperature sensors to control thermal comfort and
as close to unity as possible. natural cooling
Systems 2-49
—— solar gain sensors for feed forward control to sequence where a number of vents serve a common zone.
increase ventilation when gains are high. Operation should be a function of prevailing weather
conditions as well as the required ventilation rate since
In addition, sensors for natural ventilation include: these will influence the driving forces. Wind speed override
may be required to prevent excessive ventilation under
—— wind-speed sensors to throttle back vent openings windy conditions.
at high wind speeds
—— rain sensors to indicate potential driving rain Manual control is the most common form of control. It
problems provides occupants with increased personal control over
the environment in their workspace, a factor often
—— wind direction sensors to optimise vent opening associated with increased occupant satisfaction. Control
(Willis et al., 1995) should be:
2.3.6.3 Sensor location —— territorial, positioned locally and, ideally, affect a
single person
The positioning of sensors to obtain representative readings
is very important. Important considerations are outlined —— intuitive
below. —— accessible.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CO2 and gas sensors 2.3.6.4 Control of volume airflow rate
These should be placed to provide a representative value of Volume airflow rate control may be achieved by the
room space conditions. In a well-mixed mechanically following means:
ventilated space sensors may be placed at the extract where
they can provide direct feedback to the supply air. It is —— Damper: normally of the butterfly or multi-leaf type
important not to locate the sensor directly in the breathing and capable of controlling the volume. The main
zone where a distorted reading can be obtained. Typically a distribution dampers are located to fine balance
CO2 sensor might be set at about 1000 ppm. Inevitably airflows through legs of the ductwork (assuming
some flexibility in operating range must be acceptable such that the ductwork has been sized on static regain
that, for example, this threshold is maintained on average principles). Typically these dampers are required to
but can be allowed to drift, for example, to 1400 or provide a pressure drop across the damper of
1500 ppm. The outdoor concentration needs to be checked between 50 and 100 Pa. If the pressure drop is
and allowance made by setting the threshold proportionately higher, there will be a tendency to generate excessive
higher if the outdoor concentration is above approximately noise, which will require the introduction of a
400 ppm. Typically 400 ppm is the concentration in open downstream silencer. Normally these dampers are
country but it could exceed 500 ppm in city centres. supplied as separate components for direct
installation in the ductwork and not as part of an air
terminal device. With multiple air terminal devices
Temperature sensors on a duct leg dampers can also be supplied as
integral accessories on the rear of the air terminal
Internal temperature sensors should not be too close to device to provide a final terminal balance; typically
windows as incoming fresh air may not have mixed with in this application the dampers provide 10 to 40 Pa
the room air and the sensed condition may not therefore be pressure drop. Due to the energy inefficiency of
representative. Again, for mechanical ventilation control, damper control, dampers should no longer be used
exhaust air temperature should be included in the control as a primary method of fan duty control. In both
loop. External temperature sensors should not be placed on applications, final adjustment is carried out
sunny walls that can absorb solar radiation and elevate the manually on-site.
sensor reading throughout the 24-hour cycle.
—— Pressure regulating valve: an assembly consisting of
In view of the vertical temperature gradients associated one or two rows of shaped blades, the size of which
with displacement ventilation systems (see section 2.8.2), changes when volume adjustment is required.
the room air temperature sensor is best placed at about Because of the particular blade shape, the device
head height in a location free from significant draughts. gives volume adjustment up to pressure drops of
about 600 Pa without generating excessive noise,
however a downstream silencer may still be required
Humidity sensors for a low-noise environment. The majority of
dampers are set on-site, but they can be controlled
Humidity sensors and associated controls are typically from a static pressure-sensing element. Such units
located in ‘wet’ zones to control humidity levels and prevent are generally supplied as a separate component for
humid air from reaching other parts of a building. They are direct installation in the ductwork and not as part
also used to control humidity levels in air-conditioned of a terminal unit.
buildings where they are linked to humidifiers and
dehumidifiers as necessary. This is covered in detail in —— Mechanical volume controller (air terminal unit): a unit
CIBSE Guide B3 (2016a). that is self-actuating and capable of automatically
maintaining a constant pre-set volume flow rate
through it independent of upstream duct pressure.
Actuators The minimum pressure drop across the air terminal
unit depending on size varies from 100 to 50 Pa and
Automatically controlled openings could be modulated, typically up to a maximum of about 500 Pa. As the
open/shut, have intermediate fixed positions or open in supply air pressure increases, most devices of this
type tend to close the airway progressively by means temperature. However this approach will need to be
of a butterfly, single or multi-blade damper in the integrated with heating system controls to avoid
airway. As such an air terminal unit achieves the two systems fighting each other. Other control
volume reduction by reducing the airway, there is a parameters may be required as well as temperature.
tendency to generate noise, particularly when
working at high air pressures. For this reason, the —— Wind sensors: wind speed sensors (anemometers)
air terminal unit is generally supplied either with can be used to reduce window opening as wind
additional acoustic cladding and a separate speeds increase in order to maintain a nominally
secondary silencer or the air terminal unit has these constant ventilation rate. They may also be used in
features integrated into a single factory-supplied conjunction with rain sensors to give an indication
unit. It is factory pre-set to pass a specific volume of potential ingress of driving rain. Wind direction
and, when installed, will automatically give a pre- sensors can be used to shut exhaust vents on the
balanced air distribution system up to and including windward side of a building and simultaneously
the air terminal unit. It can be adjusted on-site if open leeward vents in order to avoid back-draughts.
required. With the addition of a sensing system and —— Solar sensors: solar sensors (pyranometers) can be
an actuator, this type of air terminal unit can be used to indicate periods of high solar gain. The
used for variable volume applications where the sensor must integrate the gain over a certain period
flow supplied at the dictates of the sensing system is to avoid hunting during periods of patchy cloud.
again independent of upstream duct pressure.
—— Rain sensors: windows and vents may need to be
2.3.6.5 Control of temperature closed during periods of rainfall to prevent ingress
of water. Typical sensors include the ‘tipping
This may be achieved by the following means: bucket’, which collects rainfall and tips over at a
certain level. Each tipping action generates a pulse,
—— Blending: two separate airstreams, one warm and the frequency of which can be used to determine
one cool, are supplied to a zone and mixed in a the intensity of the rainfall. An alternative approach
terminal unit to produce a supply air temperature is to use a device whereby the capacitance changes
that offsets the zone cooling or heating loads. as the area of moisture on its surface increases. The
—— Reheat: controlled reheat of a pre-conditioned, low sensor is heated to dry off the surface when the rain
temperature air supply by means of hot water, stops.
steam or electric coils, may be used to give a —— Air-quality sensors: several approaches to measuring
resultant supply air temperature that will satisfy the air quality have been used. These usually rely on
zone requirement. taking a particular pollutant as indicator for the
overall air quality. CO2 and humidity sensors have
2.3.6.6 Control options for natural been most commonly used; the former in
ventilation openings commercial buildings and the latter in residential
buildings where condensation is a bigger problem.
Control options for natural ventilation openings should be —— Occupancy sensors: infrared sensors that detect
specified with the needs of the occupants in mind. Control movement have been used to identify the presence
mechanisms for natural ventilation opening include the of occupants and adjust ventilation rates (and
following. lighting etc.) accordingly. Further details on the
application of these sensors can be found elsewhere
Window/damper actuators (Oughton and Wilson, 2015).
A number of different actuator types are available for Air conditioned buildings will have quite complex control
window control. These are electrically driven and include mechanisms to ensure optimum operation. When various
chain, helical cable, piston and rack and pinion type areas to be air conditioned have differing heat gain patterns
actuators. Because of their linear action, the last two types with respect to time, these can be met from a central plant
suffer some disadvantage because they protrude into the in which either the temperature or volume (or both) of the
space. The actuator will have to cope with the weight of the air supplied to each area is varied to meet the particular
window and with any wind forces. The use of vertically requirements of the area. Such temperature or volume
pivoted windows minimises the effect of the weight of the control may be carried out in ductwork serving a number of
window but they are less efficient as ventilators. If dampers rooms or zones, or may be carried out in the terminal units
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are used, conventional control mechanisms (pneumatic or feeding individual rooms. Control strategies include the
electric actuators) can be considered. More details are following.
provided in CIBSE AM10: Natural ventilation in non-
domestic buildings (2005).
2.3.6.7 Control options for mixed-mode
ventilation
Sensors
In the case of a mixed-mode system, it is also important to
Any automatic control system must be regulated in response
remember that the control characteristics of windows differ
to signals from appropriate sensors. Equipment to be
from the ‘designed’ characteristic of HVAC dampers and
specified includes the following:
coils. The control authority of a window is low and non-
—— Temperature sensors: room temperature sensors may linear or proportional, hence the use of sophisticated
be sufficient to indicate excessive ventilation rates control algorithms will not bring greater accuracy. Given
because of the influence of ventilation on room the pulsing effect of the wind or natural ventilation,
Systems 2-51
continuously correcting automatic controls should be can be automatically controlled to maintain a

avoided and the control’s response slowed. constant difference between the room air
temperature and supply air temperature.
The reactions of the occupants to the control systems must
also be allowed for in terms of: —— Variable supply air temperature: this form of control is
not as effective in displacement ventilation systems
—— the provision of intuitive user interfaces and control as it is in mixed-flow systems because the supply air
strategies temperature required to maintain an acceptable
—— adverse reactions to systems that appear to operate mean room air temperature is not so directly related
in a capricious manner noticeable by changing to internal heat gains.
noise levels or creating a draught
Using a control system to maintain substantially constant
—— giving occupants the ability to override automatic thermal conditions within a room requires a temperature
controls manually and the impact on system sensor located in a position that provides a reading that is
performance representative of the occupied zone. In view of the vertical
—— providing a rapid response to a requested control temperature gradients associated with displacement flow,
action. the room air temperature sensor is best placed at about
head height in a location free from significant draughts.
Elements of the following control sub-strategies may be
included: 2.3.6.9 Energy-efficient control of mechanical
—— Normal working day control: where mechanical ventilation systems
cooling is switched on when a predetermined
temperature is exceeded. Increased system efficiency, i.e. reduced specific fan power,
can be achieved by the following measures.
—— Seasonal control: where, for example, the building is
sealed in peak winter and summer conditions under —— Select efficient fans (see section 2.6.1).
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mechanical operation but runs freely during spring

and autumn. —— Select appropriate attenuation, filtration and heat-
recovery devices to reduce system pressure drops
—— Top-up/peak lopping control: where mechanical (see sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.4).
cooling is switched on only at times of peak load.
—— Choose appropriate ductwork and system velocities
—— Pre/post-occupancy space conditioning: where selected to reduce system pressure drops (see section 2.3.5.3).
areas prone to overheating may be cooled outside of
working hours to ensure that the space temperature —— Vary the volume of air through the system, e.g.
is the minimum acceptable at the start of the through the use of two-speed or variable-speed fans
working day. (as covered, for example, by Part L of the Building
Regulations (NBS, 2013a) for fans rated above
—— Overnight cooling: where the building thermal mass 1100 W. This can be achieved through variable
is utilised either through natural or mechanical speed drives or inlet guide vanes. (The latter
means, see section 2.4.2.4. technique is not recommended due to its relative
—— Moisture control: where exposed direct cooling such inefficiency.) Further information on variable speed
as chilled ceilings or chilled beams are used. fans is available in GIR 41: Variable Flow Control
(Action Energy, 1996).
—— Ventilation control: where carbon dioxide (CO2)
sensors are used as a surrogate indicator of —— Ensure local extraction by the appropriate location
occupancy levels to switch on mechanical of plant in order to minimise duct runs and hence
ventilation when the level exceeds a pre-set value fan power.
and occupants have not elected to open windows.
—— Use intelligent zoning to avoid the system operating
to suit the needs of one small area.
2.3.6.8 Control of displacement ventilation
systems —— Switch off systems when they are not in use or not
required. Systems may run for longer than intended
The main forms of control are as follows. for a various reasons, e.g. controls may have been
overridden and not reset afterwards; automatic
—— Constant supply air temperature, constant airflow rate: controls (e.g. frost thermostats or hidden hardware
in which the supply air temperature is maintained or software interlocks) may have switched on
at a constant design value selected to be at least 1 K systems unnecessarily as a consequence of poor
below the required zone mean air temperature. setting, calibration or programming. Suitable fault
Variations in heat gain will affect the temperature detection should be incorporated, e.g. by reporting
gradient within the space so that, provided the the running hours of devices and systems during
maximum heat gain does not create a temperature periods when they are programmed to be off.
gradient in excess of comfort limits, acceptable
conditions will be maintained. —— Appropriate coverage of a building by mechanical
ventilation, i.e. using natural systems where
—— Constant supply air temperature, variable airflow rate: applicable (mixed-mode approach) (see section
the supply airflow rate may be adjusted to 2.3.2.4).
accommodate higher variations in heat load and
maintain a substantially constant temperature —— Control fan operation according to occupancy in
gradient within the occupied zone. This adjustment both variable and constant volume systems.
—— Log hours of operation of systems to identify if selection approach is presented in Figure 2.26. From this
systems are operating unintentionally, particularly the designer will make a choice between a natural or
outside the occupied period. Anticipatory systems mechanical system and identify zones that may be suitable
(e.g. for optimum start or night cooling) are prone for mixed-mode ventilation.
to such behaviour.
—— Take care to avoid parasitic loads that may increase 2.4.2 Designing for natural
energy consumption. Examples include heat-
recovery systems that break down unnoticed (or ventilation
continue to operate when cooling is required);
‘free-cooling’ control systems that introduce the In the case of natural ventilation important factors relating
wrong proportions of outside air; and unnecessary to the driving forces and the configuration of openings
heating of air intended for night cooling. Ideally, must be considered. Full guidance is given in CIBSE
the performance of such systems should be AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings (2005).
automatically monitored against the design
intentions. Alternatively, systems can be designed A key issue to consider is the need to take into account all
deliberately to allow such technical problems to operational regimes—winter and summer, as well as night
become noticed. ventilation and passive cooling if required. Ventilation
strategy should be considered on the basis of the whole
—— The supply of air to a space can be controlled by a building rather than just room by room, although each
number of manual or automatic means. The most individual room case needs close attention to ensure the
popular options are: efficiency of the proposed design. Circulation areas such as
—— CO2 sensing: useful in buildings where there stairwells or corridors can be used as plenums or supply
are wide variations in the ventilation ducts, although care must be taken to avoid these routes
requirement, e.g. bingo halls, cinemas, acting as ‘short circuits’. Compliance is also needed with
theatres and meeting rooms fire and smoke regulations as outlined in section 2.5.3.
—— temperature sensing: useful where it may be Consideration must be given to where the fresh air will be
advantageous to increase the flow of air brought from (see section 2.6.5), for example it may be
when conditions are favourable to take beneficial to draw the air from one side of the building to:
advantage of free cooling
—— avoid noise and traffic fumes from a busy road
—— humidity sensing: fresh air rates can be
increased when internal humidity levels are —— maximise benefit from wind velocities.
too high, an option used for example in
areas where moisture is produced, e.g. Guidelines for minimising the ingress of external pollution
kitchens and bathrooms are given in Kukadia and Hall (2011).
—— occupancy sensing: this enables systems to be The magnitude and pattern of natural air movement
switched off when rooms are not occupied. through a building depends on the strength and direction
of the natural driving forces and the resistance of the flow
2.3.6.10 Fire damper control systems path as described in section 2.3.2.2.
There is a variety of additional systems that give control to Fresh air requirements are based on occupant needs (see
fire dampers, either as simple systems to close them on section 2.2.3) and/or pollutant loads (see section 2.2.2).
alarm or more sophisticated systems that allow smoke and Airflow rates for cooling will normally be based on a
heat exhaust or area pressurisation. These need to be summertime temperature prediction using some form of
considered as part of the design process and the latter thermal analysis and also on thermal gains such as from
systems need a very clear cause-and-effect schedule to make processes and equipment use (see section 2.2.4).
sure they achieve what they have been designed to do.
2.4.2.1 The BREEAM requirements for natural
ventilation
2.4 System design In addition to the guidelines on natural ventilation, given
in section 2.3.2.2, BREEAM (2014) also gives guidance
aimed at achieving an excellent environmental rating. A
2.4.1 Introduction range of supporting guidance documents are being released
and the BREEAM website should be consulted. BREEAM
This section is not intended to provide step-by-step design
is an internationally recognised rating scheme covering the
guidance but to summarise the key issues and performance
environmental performance of buildings, which sets
targets that need to be addressed during design. The
performance criteria for installed ventilation systems. In
guidance contained in this section should be read in
the case of the natural ventilation of office-type buildings,
conjunction with CIBSE Guides A (2015a) and F (2012).
the criteria state that: natural ventilation strategy
For details of refrigeration methods, see CIBSE Guide B3
performance must be demonstrated via either of the
(2016a).
following.
System design starts with decision making, taking into (a) The openable window area in each occupied space
account the needs of the occupier and any planning is equivalent to 5 per cent of the gross internal floor
requirements. Energy and environmental impact also play area of that room/floor plate. For room/floor plates
an important part of the decision-making process. A typical
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7–15 m in depth, the openable window area is on
System design 2-53
opposite sides and evenly distributed across the the required thermal comfort conditions and ventilation
area to promote adequate cross-ventilation. rates.
(b) The design demonstrates (by calculation, using
ventilation design tool types recommended by 2.4.2.2 The design process
CIBSE AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic
buildings) that the natural ventilation strategy The design of a natural ventilation system should take
provides adequate cross flow of air to maintain account of the following steps.
required thermal comfort conditions and
ventilation rates. —— Assess the potential for natural ventilation (see
Figure 2.26). Factors include:
For a strategy that does not rely on openable windows, or
that has occupied spaces with a plan depth greater than —— availability of fresh air
15 m, the design must demonstrate (by calculation in
—— minimising problems associated with
accordance with requirement (b) above) that the ventilation
outdoor noise
strategy can provide adequate cross flow of air to maintain
—— suitability of building.
Start
No
Are Can Is
max. heat re-design Is seasonal
Yes No No
gains more than reduce gains to occupancy mixed-mode
30–40 W.m–2? 30–40 W.m–2? transient? acceptable?
Yes
Yes Yes Can capacity

No effects absorb
swing in temp.
No
and IAQ? Yes
Yes No Is
Yes
this a peak
season?
Yes
Can See also
Does Is zonal
No courtyards or No AM13:
the building mixed-mode
atria reduce width Mixed
have a narrow acceptable?
to less than mode
plan?
15 m? No ventilation
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Yes Is
Yes Yes
Yes this a
perimeter
zone?
Are
noise and No No
pollution levels
acceptable?
Yes
Can Is
occupants Is tight
No temperature Yes close control Yes
adapt conditions of RH required?
with weather control required?
( 1 K) (better than
changes? 10%)
Yes No
No
Is
No humidification
required in
winter?
Yes
Natural Mechanical Mechanical Comfort Full air
ventilation ventilation ventilation and cooling conditioning
humidification
Figure 2.26 Decision-making process (from CIBSE AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings (2005))
—— Determine ventilation rates required for fresh air Table 2.23 Relationship between design features and heat gains
(see section 2.2.3). Design features Total heat gains* / W·m–2 floor area
—— Determine the requirements for cooling needs (see 10 20 30 40
section 2.2.4). Minimum room height/m
—— Based on local weather data consider the optimum 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1
driving forces (wind, stack or combined) for the Controllable window Essential Essential Essential Essential
building. opening (to 10 mm)
—— From fresh air and cooling need calculate the size Trickle vents for Essential Essential Essential Essential
and location of openings. Initial estimates can be winter
determined from the calculation equations given in Control of indoor air May be May be Essential Essential
CIBSE Guide A (2015a) and CIBSE AM10: Natural quality required required
ventilation in non-domestic buildings (2005). More Design for daylight to May be Essential Essential Essential
detailed analysis using multi-zone, computational reduce gains required
fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling or wind tunnel and
Daylight control of May be May be Essential Essential
flume scale modelling may be required for complex electric lighting required required
buildings (see section 2.4.6).
100% shading from May be Essential Essential Essential
—— Plan the use of windows, vents, passive stacks and direct sun required
wind towers. Cooling by daytime Essential Essential Problem Problem
—— Plan interaction building form, e.g integration with ventilation only
thermal mass (see section 2.4.2.4). Cooling by day and Not May be Essential Essential
night ventilation necessary required
—— Identify a control strategy (see section 2.3.6).
Exposed thermal mass Not Not Essential Essential
—— Plan flexibility for future needs including mixed- necessary necessary
mode ventilation and mechanical cooling.
* i.e. people + lights + office equipment + solar gain
2.4.2.3 Meeting thermal comfort and cooling

needs control insulated damper, heating coil and internal
grille system.
If the internal heat gain rises above approximately
40 W/m2, natural ventilation on its own may be inadequate It should be recognised that not all parts of a building need
and a strategy involving mechanical assistance may be to be treated in exactly the same way. Different natural
required (BMI, 1999). Table 2.23 illustrates how the design ventilation strategies may be applied to different parts of a
of the building fabric might be adapted to meet this target building as appropriate.
(BMI, 1999). However, this table is indicative of a scale only
and will vary depending on the characteristics of the
2.4.2.4 Interaction with building form and
particular building and on the freedom or otherwise
fabric
allowed to the designer to maintain thermal comfort within
acceptable limits using these design features. If natural
ventilation is to be used for comfort cooling, control of heat The interaction between building form and ventilation
gains into the occupied space is a prerequisite. Thus strategy is important. Natural ventilation relies on the
measures must be taken to reduce solar and internal heat building envelope (rather than any mechanical system) to
gains during warm periods in order to maximise periods of provide the primary environmental control (air quality and
thermal comfort. Advantage needs to be taken of adaptive thermal comfort). The building form will need to facilitate
thermal comfort criteria to enable a temperature spread to the airflow strategy. Particular consideration should be
be applied. given to the following.
—— Building spacing and orientation and their impact on
The ability to open windows to provide increased air building shading and wind effects: increasingly this is
movement can provide a beneficial cooling effect in summer being analysed by wind tunnel and numerical
(see chapter 1 of CIBSE Guide A (2015a)). However, the methods (sections 2.4.6.6 and 2.4.7.8). Some
high ventilation flow rates associated with summer guidance is given in Kukadia and Hall (2011).
conditions can cause nuisance draughts that may disturb
papers etc. This can be reduced by specifying that the —— Planning the width/floor-to-ceiling height ratio to
openable part of the window to be above desk height. achieve effective ventilation: as air flows across the
zone a sufficiently high ‘stratification height’ is
The minimisation of draughts is a particular issue for required to lift heat and contaminants above the
natural ventilation systems in winter. The potential downstream occupied space (see CIBSE AM10:
problem can be reduced in a number of ways such as: Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings).
—— providing multiple trickle ventilators (or similar) —— Achieving good solar control by sensible choice of glazing
ratios and by shading provision: buildings with their
—— using specially provided ventilation openings
main façades facing north and south are much
positioned so that the air is warmed before reaching
easier to protect from excessive solar gain in
the occupied space (e.g. behind a radiator or in a
summer (see CIBSE AM10: Natural ventilation in
floor void with a suitable convector heater)
non-domestic buildings). Note that a balance must be
—— using a separate natural ventilation system that can
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
achieved in allowing appropriate natural lighting
pre-heat the air such as a combined weather louvre, levels.
System design 2-55
—— Openings in the external façades to provide airflow root of both temperature difference and height
paths: classical single-zone and multi-zone airflow between upper and lower openings. When wind
models as well as CFD techniques can assist in and stack effect are of the same order of magnitude,
optimising opening configurations. These models their interaction is complicated. However, for the
are discussed in more detail in (section 2.4.6.5 and simple case illustrated, the actual rate, to a first
in CIBSE AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic approximation, may be taken as equal to the larger
buildings). Manufacturers also have a range of of the rates for the two alternative approaches,
programs available to allow review of selection of considered separately. This is shown in Table
external, transfer and exhaust units. 2.24(c).
—— Use of exposed thermal mass to aid passive and night
cooling: thermal modelling techniques are available Measurements (Braham et al., 2001) have shown that, with
to assist design and check with energy performance normally sized windows, the magnitude of the resulting
requirements. single-sided ventilation, while smaller than cross-
ventilation with similar areas of opening under comparable
—— Airtightness: to minimise energy losses and cold conditions, can be large enough to contribute to natural
draughts in winter and to assist the controllability cooling. Table 2.25 provides formulae that enable ventilation
of natural ventilation. rates to be calculated for wind and stack effect. It is
suggested that calculations be carried out using both
2.4.2.5 Empirical guidelines for sizing formulae and the larger value taken. The formula for wind-
openings and calculating natural induced infiltration represents a minimum, which will be
ventilation rates enhanced up to threefold for certain wind directions and
windows with openings that tend to deflect inwards the
Detailed guidance on calculating driving forces, the size of impinging wind.
openings and natural ventilation rates is presented in
CIBSE Guide A, chapter 4 (2015a) and CIBSE AM10: Ducted or under-floor pathways
Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings (2005).
In order to improve air distribution into deeper spaces, it is
Some empirical equations for the conditions are available possible to use ducted or under-floor ventilation pathways.
to assist in obtaining approximate guidance on opening This can provide ventilation to internal spaces or a
sizes. These are taken from BS 5925: 1991: Code of practice perimeter zone local to a pollution source (e.g. a busy road).
for ventilation principles and designing for natural ventilation Because of the low driving pressures with natural ventilation
(BSI, 1991). The assumption that ventilation openings can (<10 Pa), it is important to design the supply duct for very
be represented by orifice flow equations (see section 2.4.6) low pressure drops. Problems could occur if incoming air is
enables the estimation of ventilation rates using standard cooled to below the condensation temperature since this
formulae for simple building layouts. These layouts and will result in condensation in the duct, thus leading to
associated formulae are shown in Table 2.24 for a simple microbiological contamination.
building with airflow through opposite sides and in Table
2.25 for a situation with openings in one wall only. Both More advanced calculation techniques are available for
wind-induced and temperature-induced ventilation are detailed design and evaluation. These are described in
given. more detail in section 2.4.6 and include:
The values of area (A) used in the formulae should be taken —— zonal models
as the minimum cross-sectional area perpendicular to the
—— CFD
direction of the airflow passing through the opening.
—— combined thermal and ventilation models.
The formulae given in Table 2.24 illustrate a number of
general characteristics of natural ventilation, as follows. A simple design tool and guidance is included in CIBSE
—— The effective area of a number of openings AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings (2005).
combined in parallel, across which the same
pressure difference is applied, can be obtained by 2.4.2.6 Other design considerations
simple addition.
—— The effective area of a number of openings Measurement techniques for evaluating natural
combined in series (across which the same pressure ventilation systems
difference is applied) can be obtained by adding the
inverse squares of the individual areas and taking For complex buildings it may be necessary to commission
the inverse of the square root of the total (see Table laboratory or other measurement studies to understand
2.24(b)). flow behaviour. Measurement methods are covered in more
—— When wind is the dominating mechanism the detail in section 2.4.7.
ventilation rate is proportional to wind speed and
to the square root of the difference in pressure Minimising problems associated with outside noise
coefficient. Thus, although ΔCd may range between
0.1 and 1.0, this will result in a ratio of only about 1
Noise from outside sources can present a major problem to
to 3 in the predicted ventilation rates for the same
natural ventilation designs. Solutions include sound
wind speed.
insulation, acoustic vents and the location of openings
—— When stack effect is the dominating mechanism away from sound sources. These methods are described in
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the ventilation rate is proportional to the square more detail in section 2.5.2.
Table 2.24 Standard formulae for estimating airflow rates for simple building layouts (openings on both sides) (reproduced from CIBSE Guide A)
Conditions Schematic Equations
(a) Wind only vr
Qw = Cd Aw vr (ΔCp) 0.5
A1 A3
1 1 1
—— = ————— + —————
Aw2 (A1 + A2)2 (A3 + A4)2
Cp1 Cp2
A2 A4
(b) Temperature difference only
( )
2 Δq ha g 0.5
θo θi
Qb = Cd Ab ––––––––
–
θ +273
1 1 1
ha —— = ————— + —————
Ab2 (A1 + A3)2 (A2 + A4)2
(c) Wind and temperature difference together vr
θo θi
Qt = Qb for (vr / √Δt) < 0.26 (Ab/Aw) (ha / ΔCp)0.5
Cp1 ha Cp2
Qt = Qw for (vr / √Δt) > 0.26 (Ab/Aw) (ha / ΔCp)0.5
Table 2.25 Standard formulae for estimating airflow rates for simple building layouts (openings on one side only) (reproduced from CIBSE Guide A)
Conditions Schematic Equations
(a) Wind only
Q = 0.025 A Vr
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
( )( )
(b) Temperature difference only: two openings e √2 Δq ha g 0.5
Q = Cd (A1 + A2) ——————— ———– –
(1 + e) (1 + e2)0.5 q+ 273
θo A1 θi
where e = (A1 / A2)
ha
A2
( )
(c) Temperature difference only: one openings Δq ha g 0.5
Q = Cd (A/3) ———–
–
q+ 273
θo θi
If opening light is present:
( )
Δq ha g 0.5
A ha Q = Cd (A Jf /3) ———–
–
q+ 273
where Jf is given by Figure 4.15 in CIBSE Guide

A (2015a)

System design 2-57
External noise should not normally present a significant openings for independent control by occupants internally
problem unless opening windows face busy main roads or and at the perimeter respectively. This may require
are within 100 m of a railway line. A partially open window actuators on the high-level openings operated by a remote
typically has a weighted sound reduction index of 10–15 dB controller (that could also be used as part of an automatically
compared with 35–40 dB for thermally insulating double controlled night-cooling regime).
glazing (BSI, 2014b). Measures to improve acoustic
performance include:
Intuitive manual control will not necessarily lead to
—— the use of acoustic baffles windows or ventilators being opened at the optimum time
of day. The instinctive reaction is to open windows to
—— siting the opening windows on a quiet side of a increase ventilation as indoor temperatures increase later
building in the day, whereas higher ventilation rates may be more
—— the use of acoustic ventilators (as opposed to beneficial earlier in the day, when ambient temperatures
windows) are lower.
—— placing buffer zones (e.g. a circulation space)
adjacent to the noise source. Night cooling
As well as the ingress of external noise, consideration also
needs to be given to internal acoustic design issues If night cooling is under manual control, windows will
including: either be closed or left open for all the unoccupied hours
resulting in either:
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—— conflict between partitioning for acoustic privacy
and provision of air paths —— inadequate pre-cooling, with overheating the
—— that exposed thermal mass increases the number of following afternoon, or
hard surfaces (see section 2.4.2.4).
—— overcooling, with cold discomfort problems the
Solutions include perforated sound-absorbing tiles and next day (or a need for heating).
acoustic baffles. Acoustics is dealt with in detail in section
2.5.2. These problems can be avoided by some form of automatic
control of window or ventilator opening or by provision of
a separate mechanical night ventilation system (see section
Climate variability
2.3.6 on controls).
In both the long and short term, local climate will vary. It is
therefore important that the ventilation design takes this Security
into account. In particular, wind and temperature will vary
on an hourly basis thus there could be as many as 8760
combinations of driving force in a year. Although If a ventilation strategy relies on opening windows
rationalisation is possible by taking into account prevailing (especially if they are left open overnight for night
winds and typical temperature ranges, extreme conditions ventilation), particular thought needs to be given to the
also need to be considered. Simple calculation methods are security implications. Movement of ventilation openings at
useful for performing multiple calculations but they may night and entry of birds through openings can cause
not have the accuracy of more time-consuming complex problems with movement detection security systems.
methods. Weather sequences must also take into account Stacks and wind-tower configurations, combined with
climate trends. controlled mechanical vents, provide a more satisfactory
means for providing night ventilation because they can
offer weather and intruder protection and can be kept
Flexibility under a constant control regime
Flexibility should be provided to cope with changing
occupant requirements over the life of the building. Systems Rain
can be designed to be capable of relatively simple upgrading
(and downgrading) so that extra cooling systems can be
added when and where required. Contingency planning is The large ventilation openings that may be needed to
required at the design stage to provide: deliver the required airflow should be designed to avoid
rain entering the building, taking account of the effects of
—— space for any subsequent installation of additional driving wind, splashing etc.. Particular thought needs to be
equipment given to ventilators left unattended during night ventilation.
—— sufficient floor-to-soffit height to enable additional
servicing to be routed through floor or ceiling voids
Fire safety
—— breakout floor zones that could form future service
risers.
The ventilation strategy must comply with fire and smoke
regulations. More details are presented in section 2.5.3.
Multiple occupied spaces Solutions include zoning and the use of intumescent vents.
See BS 9999: 2008: Code of practice for fire safety in the design,
Problems may arise if a single opening is required to management and use of buildings (BSI, 2008a), Part B of the
provide ventilation for a group of occupants. This can be Building Regulations (NBS, 2013g) and RRFSO (TSO,
minimised if the window unit has high- and low-level 2005).
2.4.3 Mechanical ventilation design —— temperature differential between the room and
supply air
2.4.3.1 Introduction —— quality of the supply air
—— position of the air supply terminals
Decisions relating to mechanical ventilation must take into
account many aspects including: —— room shape and geometry, including projections
—— system size (fresh air and recirculation capacities) —— position, size, and shape of all sources and sinks for
heat and contaminants
—— system type (displacement and mixing)
—— temperature of any heat sources and sinks
—— requirements of individual zones
—— rates of evolution and sorption of contaminants
—— room air distribution system design
—— other factors influencing air movement, such as
—— location of exhaust terminals movement of the occupants and machinery, and air
infiltration.
—— installation configuration (incorporation of
ductwork)
As discussed later, if terminal devices are poorly selected or
—— filtration design positioned this can result in draughts, stagnation, poor air
quality, inappropriate mixing, large temperature gradients
—— integration with heating and cooling plant. and unwanted noise. The terminal type and layout may be
affected by architectural or structural considerations, but
These design aspects are summarised in this section. conversely particular room air diffusion requirements
should form part of the integrated/co-ordinated building
2.4.3.2 System size design and/or structure (e.g. floor supply).
Ultimately the system must be sized to meet the fresh air The occupants’ perception of the effectiveness of the system
requirements for the intended number of occupants (see will normally be determined by:
section 2.2.3). Also it must be sized (and designed) to ensure —— the velocity of air adjacent to any uncovered or
that process pollution or pollution from any other sources lightly covered skin (e.g. neck and ankles)
is maintained at a safe concentration. In a building without
mechanical cooling the ventilation system must provide —— temperature of airstream in relation to that of still
sufficient fresh air ventilation for cooling purposes (see air adjacent to other parts of the body
section 2.2.4). Where space heating and cooling is provided —— the level of activity taking place
by the ventilation system the additional recirculation air
also needs to be determined —— the occupants’ clothing
—— the quality of air in the breathing zone
2.4.3.3 System type —— the individual’s susceptibility and acclimatisation
An early decision needs to be made about the type of —— the appearance and positioning of any ventilation
mechanical system. This includes choosing between devices or openings
displacement and mixing ventilation (section 2.2.8) as well —— the noise emitted.
as the choice of heating and cooling system.
The above are discussed in detail in section 1.4 of CIBSE
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2.4.3.4 Requirements of each zone Guide A (2015a).
Individual zones will need to be separately sized to meet BS EN ISO 7730: 2005 (BSI, 2005a) recommends that,
requirements. Plans for adaptation are also necessary to during cooling, the mean air velocity should be less than
cope with any subsequent redesign of the building layout 0.25 m·s–1 for moderate thermal environments with light,
mainly sedentary, activity and that, in winter, it should be
less than 0.15 m·s–1. No minimum velocity is suggested,
2.4.3.5 Room air distribution system design although stagnant zones could result in temperature
gradients between the ankle and the neck greater than the
Room air diffusion: criteria for design 3 K recommended. It is likely that sufficient air movement
will be generated by other means.
Air diffusion is the main interface between the system and
the occupants. If the air diffusion is not well designed the The occupied zone can be defined as a region, the outer
system will fail, no matter how accurately building loads limits of which are described by an envelope 1.8 m from the
have been modelled and how carefully the plant and floor and 0.15 m from the walls. However, in the case of
equipment have been selected. low-level supply terminals, the occupied zone is any region
where the occupants are likely to linger for significant
periods. In the case of desk terminals, this definition does
The effectiveness of all ventilation and air-conditioning
not apply. For desk terminals, mixing occurs over the desk
systems depends on the method by which supply air is
surface and for seatback terminals, mixing occurs in the
introduced to, and vitiated air removed from, the space.
regions above and between the seats.
The parameters that influence the quality of the air at any
point in the room are:
An assessment of predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD)
—— air supply velocity (BSI, 2005a) for a wide range of activity levels, clothing,
System design 2-59
body temperatures and velocities shows that, even at low cases it will be necessary to allow for on-site adjustment of
activity levels, velocities as high as 1.0 m·s–1 can be airflow pattern, either during commissioning or operation
acceptable in offsetting high temperatures. This technique by the occupant (e.g. desk-mounted terminals).
has been applied to the concept of spot cooling in some
industrial applications (Hwang et al., 1984) whereby heat
stress in the workers is avoided by keeping the local Air diffusion terminology
conditions below an agreed value of wet-bulb globe
temperature. BS EN 12792 (BSI, 2003) gives definitions and standard
terminology used in connection with air movement. Some
of the more important parameters are listed below.
Air terminal phenomena
Many studies of jets and their effect on room air movement Throw
have been undertaken. A detailed account and review is
presented by Awbi (2003). Figure 2.27 shows the predicted A free jet having a given momentum on discharge will
airflow patterns for various types and positions of air establish velocity profiles known as isovels, the shape of
terminal device (ASHRAE, 2009). which depends on the geometry of the terminal, the
temperature of the jet and any other disturbing influences.
It should be noted that these patterns are based on stylised The velocity decays with increasing distance from the
terminals. For predictions of air movement appropriate to terminal. Throw is defined as the distance from the terminal
specific air terminals the manufacturers’ data must be (measured perpendicular or parallel to the face of the air
consulted. For non-standard situations it may be necessary terminal device depending on the predominant direction of
to model room air movement using a mock up. In many flow) to the 0.5 m·s–1 isovel.
SECTION SECTION
Stagnant
Stagnant
Cooling Heating Cooling Heating

(a) High sidewall outlet (b) Ceiling outlet
SECTION SECTION
Stagnant Stagnant
Stagnant Stagnant
Cooling Heating Cooling Heating
(c) Outlet in or near floor, non-spreading jet (d) outlet in or near floor, spreading jet
SECTION SECTION
Stagnant
Cooling Heating
(e) Outlet near floor, horizontal discharge (f) Outlet in floor, spreading vertical jet with twist
SECTION
SECTION
Figure 2.27 Predicted airflow patterns (adapted from ASHRAE, 2009)

(g) Outlet in seat back, non-spreading vertical jet
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(h) Personal adjustable desk outlet
Normally lower velocities are required for air entering the Therefore the mass flow rate, and hence the cost of air
occupied zone, typically 0.25 m·s–1 for cooling, 0.15 m·s–1 handling, will depend upon the temperature difference
for heating. Reference should be made to manufacturers’ chosen by the designer. This decision will also be influenced
literature for throw data and recommended mounting by the evaporator temperature and the level of control of
distances from solid surfaces and neighbouring terminals. humidity. For example, a displacement system with low-
level input can supply air at 18 °C with a temperature
The maximum throw for an air terminal device depends difference of about 10 K. This can be achieved with high
upon the characteristics of the device, the mounting height evaporator temperatures and correspondingly low compres
and the influence of neighbouring devices. sor power. However, high-level humidity control will suffer
unless the supply air is overcooled and reheated, normally
an undesirable combination at peak load. Alternatively, a
Spread permanent bypass around the cooling coil can be provided
and, if motorised dampers are incorporated at the coil face
The spread of a horizontal jet is defined as the width of the and in the bypass, part load control supply temperature can
0.5 m·s–1 isovel. Note that most manufacturers give the be achieved by damper modulation.
width of the 0.25 m·s–1 isovel, which is generally of more
use to the designer. For comfort applications, air change rates are unlikely to
exceed 10 ACH, corresponding to a cooling temperature
differential of 8–12 K. A free horizontal jet from a
Drop rectangular grille is likely to create down draughts if
providing more than 8  ACH with a cooling temperature
The drop is defined as the vertical distance from the centre- differential greater than 8 K.
line of the terminal to the bottom edge of the 0.25 m·s–1
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isovel. A maximum cooling differential of 10 K can be applied

when either:
Entrainment, mixing and boundaries —— the presence of the Coanda effect (see below) is
assured, or
Frictional forces cause a momentum transfer to take place —— for a free jet, mixing of supply air with room air
between the jet and adjacent room air, which draws the outside the occupied zone can be assured without
room air in the same direction as the jet. The jet expands promoting discomfort.
with distance from the terminal as it entrains adjacent
room air. Hence kinetic energy is expended in creating Table 2.26 gives general guidance on the maximum air
turbulence, which transfers thermal energy and assists the change rates that can be achieved using various air terminal
dilution of contaminants. This process of diffusion may be devices supplying air with a cooling temperature differential
enhanced by the introduction of a rapidly expanding jet of 10 K.
and still further by imparting a swirling motion to the jet.
If sufficient mixing between terminal and occupants cannot
A jet that is constrained by the walls of a room, such as a be guaranteed (e.g. with low-level supply) then the
full width slot, will entrain less room air and expand more minimum supply temperature of 18 °C applies, with a
slowly than a free conical jet (Awbi, 2003). temperature differential in the occupied zone of 4–5 K.
However, the cooling temperature differential is ultimately
Effect of temperature differential determined by the maximum exhaust air temperature
(Sodec, 1984) (see Table 2.27).
Figure 2.27 above shows that a jet that is not influenced by
The larger temperature differential indicated for high
the proximity of a solid surface follows a path that is a
ceilings is possible due to the smaller influence of ceiling
function both of velocity and temperature. A warm jet
temperature on the mean radiant temperature experienced
tends to rise until it attaches itself to a horizontal surface,
by the occupants.
whilst a cold jet falls. Care must be taken to ensure that this
does not lead to unacceptable temperature gradients in the
Downward discharge is generally only satisfactory for very
occupied zone during heating and excessive air velocities
high air change rates, and hence small temperature
during cooling. The terminal must be mounted such that
differentials, or where room convection is not significant
the 0.25 m·s–1 isovel does not enter the occupied zone.
(see below). An exception is the specific case of split air-
conditioning systems, where temperature differences can be
The difference in temperature between the supply and as high as 20 K. Particular care is therefore needed in their
return air may be greater than that between the supply air specification, see CIBSE Guide B, Chapter 3 on air
and the occupied zone, particularly with a low-level supply conditioning.
designed to encourage high-level stratification. This
temperature difference is related to sensible heat gain and High-level supply jets must overcome the buoyancy forces
supply air mass flow, as follows: in the room air generated by heat emitters, solar gain,
occupants etc., whereas low-level input cultivates these
qs = m Cph ∆T (2.15) forces to assist the supply jet. For this reason, low-level
supply is most satisfactory for applications with high room
where qs is the total sensible heat gain (kW), m is the mass gains and high ceilings. For low ceilings the radiant heating
flow rate of supply air (kg·s–1), Cph is the specific heat of the effect of the ceiling itself may be significant. This may also
air and water vapour mixture (kJ·kg–1·K–1) and ∆T is the be a problem where the ceiling void is used as an exhaust
room air to supply air temperature differential (K). air plenum, carrying air heated by air-handling luminaires.
System design 2-61
Table 2.26 Typical maximum air change rates for air terminal devices Table 2.27 Typical cooling temperature differentials for various
applications
Device Air change rate / h–1
Application Maximum temp. differential / K
Side-wall grilles 8
High ceiling (large heat gains/ 12
Linear grilles 10
low-level input)
Slot and linear diffusers 15
Low ceiling (air handling 10
Rectangular diffusers 15 luminaires/low-level input)
Perforated diffusers 15 Low ceiling (downward discharge) 5
Circular diffusers 20
Swirl diffusers 20-30
Free descending jets are not recommended for normal use, —— the width of jet exposed to surface
since the low velocity approaching the occupied zone would
cause instability. This could result in localised high —— the velocity of the jet
velocities due to deflection by convective forces elsewhere —— the presence of projections and other disturbing
in the room (see Figure 2.28). An exception is the case of influences.
laminar downflow cleanrooms (BS EN ISO 14644 (BSI,
1999–2013)) where an even velocity across the full area of The importance of these influences for side-wall terminals
0.4 m·s–1 should be maintained from ceiling to floor. with various aspect ratios, velocities and temperature
However, even in these circumstances, sources of extremely differences is discussed elsewhere (Awbi, 2003). The most
buoyant upflow should be avoided. important factor is temperature difference, i.e. buoyancy
effects. For the usual range of temperature differences for
Coanda effect cooling of 8–12 K, the opening should be within 300 mm of
the surface to guarantee attraction. For systems designed to
make use of the Coanda effect, provision should be made
When a jet is discharged from a terminal device adjacent for on-site adjustment of the jet.
and parallel to an unobstructed flat surface, the jet entrains
air from one side only resulting in deflection of the axis of
When a jet adheres to a surface, dust particles will be
the jet towards the surface. This phenomenon, known as
deposited on the surface leading to staining, hence supply
the Coanda effect, is due to frictional losses between the jet
air cleanliness is of paramount importance. Cleanliness of
and the surface.
the exhaust air is difficult to control and some staining of
surfaces near to exhaust openings is inevitable.
The effect diminishes with distance from the terminals as
increasing volumes of air are entrained from the room-side Techniques exist (Awbi, 2003) for predicting the influence
of the jet, resulting in a reduction of jet velocity. However, of projections, such as downstand beams and surface-
the Coanda effect is maintained despite temperature mounted luminaires, on a jet flowing across an otherwise
differences between the jet and the room air. It is a critical smooth surface. An obstruction may cause the jet to separate
factor influencing the selection and positioning of supply completely from the surface, hence destroying the Coanda
air terminals, particularly for rooms with low ceilings, effect, or it may separate and join some distance downstream
which have little space above the occupied zone in which of the obstruction.
mixing can occur.
The critical distances at which these phenomena are likely
If the Coanda effect is not present the maximum throw for to occur depend on the depth and shape of the obstruction
any terminal is reduced by approximately 33 per cent. The and size of the supply opening. The influence of supply air
main factors that influence whether or not the Coanda to room air temperature differential is small but depends
effect will occur are: upon the extent to which mixing has occurred before the jet
—— the distance between terminal and surface meets the obstruction.
Figure 2.29 shows the effect of a horizontal surface on a jet

rising close to the vertical surface. The Coanda effect is
maintained after the change in direction provided that the
Suspended
velocity is adequate, particularly in the case of cooling jets,
ceiling and that the temperature differential between supply and
room air is not too large. Guidance for selecting optimum
supply velocities and temperature is given elsewhere (Awbi,
2003).
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Interaction between jets

Heat source
Figure 2.30(a) shows possible room air velocity patterns for
two jets directed towards each other along a 3 m high
Zone of ceiling. The individual velocities of the two airstreams
increased must not be greater than 0.25 m·s–1 at the boundary
velocity otherwise discomfort may occur due to excessive down
Figure 2.28 Effect of room convection currents draughts.
SECTION SECTION
Possible
downdraught
problems
(a) Opposing jets
PLAN
Figure 2.29 Effect of horizontal surface on a jet
The envelopes of two converging jets may also interfere Converging axis
with each other, combining to form a single, wide jet with a
maximum velocity at the new axis between the two jets (see
Figure 2.30(b)). A similar phenomenon occurs with two
jets moving in tandem (see Figure 2.30(c)). The downstream
jet entrains and accelerates the decaying upstream jet and
forms a wider jet with an axis further from the neighbouring
surface. The cumulative effect of a series of single-way jets
can result in a deep jet that intrudes into the occupied zone
resulting in unacceptably high room velocities.
Figure 2.31 shows examples of possible layouts for ceiling (b) Converging jets
diffusers. The main problems likely to be encountered are
those described above. Down-draughts may be encountered SECTION
in areas marked ‘X’ and this problem may be eliminated by
avoiding terminals with excessive throw, particularly in
large spaces where stagnation between terminals is unlikely
to occur. The layout shown in Figure 2.30(c) may cause
convergence problems with long rooms.
Possible
For side-wall applications, the spacing of diffusers should draught
be in accordance with manufacturers’ recommendations. problems
However, in the absence of such recommendations, Table
2.28 may be used in conjunction with throw and deflection (c) Three jets in series
data to determine the diffuser spacing. For a terminal Figure 2.30 Room air velocity patterns; interaction between jets
mounted close to a wall, spacing should be halved to give
the minimum distance from the centreline to the wall.
Table 2.29 (Sodec, 1984) indicates typical turndown limits
for various types of fixed air terminal device.
Positions that should be avoided are:
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2.4.3.6 Location of exhaust terminals —— within the zone of influence of a supply air terminal
since this allows conditioned air to pass directly to
The positioning of the opening has little influence on the exhaust without first having exchanged heat with
airflow pattern in the space because the zone of localised its surroundings; this results in very low ventilation
high velocities associated with exhaust openings is very efficiency
close to the opening.
—— close to a door or aperture that is frequently opened
Exhaust terminals may be sited to advantage: since this leads to the exhaust handling air from
outside the conditioned space
—— in a stagnant zone where supply jet influence is
limited —— in a position that causes contaminated room air to
be drawn through the occupants’ breathing zone.
—— close to a source of unwanted heat and/or
contamination, e.g. above a luminaire
2.4.3.7 Installation configuration:
—— close to an excessively cold surface to increase its incorporation of ductwork
surface temperature and thereby reduce radiant
losses and cold draughts
Considerations of layout are discussed in section 2.3.5.2.
—— at a point of local low pressure, e.g. the centre of a Ductwork is covered more generally in sections 2.3.5, 2.4.5
ceiling diffuser. and 2.6.7.
System design 2-63
Table 2.28 Data for determining spacing of ceiling diffusers

Deflection / deg. Spacing / m
0 0.20 Lx 0.33 Ly
22.5 0.25 Lx 0.50 Ly
45 0.30 Lx 1.0 Ly
Note: Lx = throw (m) where axial velocity has decayed to 0.25 m·s–1;
PLAN Ly = throw (m) where axial velocity has decayed to 0.5 m·s–1
Table 2.29 Turndown limits for types of fixed air terminal device
(Sodec, 1984)
Type of outlet Maximum turndown/%
Ceiling mounted:
— not using Coanda effect 50
— using Coanda effect 40
(a) Four-way ceiling diffusers, symmetrical layout Floor mounted outlets:
— perforated plate and fixed bar grille 60
— free jet outlets 50
— outlets with swirl 40
Desk outlets:
— linear type 50
— ball type 50
— outlets with swirl 40
PLAN
2.4.4 Mixed-mode ventilation design
Mixed-mode ventilation will incorporate both natural and

mechanical design requirements and therefore it is
important to refer to the previous two sections. In the case
(b) Four-way ceiling diffusers, off-set layout of the mixed-mode approach, however, dominance often
falls on natural ventilation with the mechanical systems
being as simplified as possible. In the design of a mixed-
mode system the issues described in this section also need
to be considered.
2.4.4.2 General design issues
The range of circumstances encompassed by the term

‘mixed-mode’ system is extremely broad. It encompasses,
PLAN
for example, a building that is almost entirely naturally
ventilated except for areas of high heat or moisture
production served by mechanical systems, to one that is
entirely served by air conditioning with the intention that
this might in the future be converted to natural ventilation.
Hence the guidance provided here must be considered in
the light of the specific strategy, or its derivative, as
determined in section 2.3.2.4. Furthermore, this section
cannot be treated in isolation but read in conjunction with
(c) One-and two-way ceiling diffusers, contra-flow layout sections 2.4.2, 2.4.3 and CIBSE Guide B3 (CIBSE, 2016a),
which consider the principles of the individual operating
Figure 2.31 Supply terminal layouts for open plan spaces
modes.
Building fabric
Further information on spatial allowance for ductwork is
available from Design and Maintenance Guide 08: Space Mixed-mode is a term describing servicing systems that
requirements for plant access, operation and maintenance (DEO, combine natural ventilation with any combination of
1996), BSRIA TN 10/92: Spatial Allowances for Building mechanical ventilation, cooling or humidification in a
Services Distribution Systems (1992) and BS 8313: 1997: Code strategic manner. In common with buildings that are solely
of practice for accommodation of building services in ducts (BSI, naturally ventilated, this approach requires that benefit be
1997). obtained from the building fabric.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,

The presence of mechanical systems means that a balance —— areas with dense occupation or high equipment
needs to be drawn, using value engineering principles, heat loads that may require comfort cooling or
between investment in the relatively long-lived fabric and close-control air conditioning such as meeting
expenditure on the shorter-lived (and easier to modify/ rooms, electronic data processing rooms, dealer
replace) building services, components of which can rooms etc.
subsequently be added when and where necessary.
—— atria.
Although the building services in a mixed-mode system
should usually cost less than in a fully mechanically Flexibility
serviced building, some additional investment may be
needed to improve their efficiency, responsiveness, control Flexibility is of particular concern with contingency
and adaptability. The initial cost of the mechanical services systems where future change is taken into account. This
and the openable windows or vents combined can be greater requires the provision of a building fabric with a stated
than that for a sealed building. indoor environment control performance and a defined
strategy for subsequent adaptation through the addition
Obviously, the greatest economies are made if the and omission of either centralised or localised
improvements to the fabric allow the building services supplementary mechanical systems. The extent to which
system to be completely eliminated from part or all of the systems are initially installed, or allowance made for them,
building. For example, reducing fabric and internal heat will depend upon the context but the decision must be
gains may allow mechanical cooling to be avoided. A highly taken in the light of the ease and speed of subsequent
insulated and airtight fabric with low-powered mechanical installation and the likely extent of upgrades, sub-tenancies,
ventilation (and heat recovery) may allow both mechanical or critical areas.
refrigeration and perimeter heating to be avoided. The
effective use of external night-time temperature differentials Plant rooms
can permit any excess heat built up during the day to be
removed at night, using natural and/or mechanical It may be possible to include space for plant rooms that can
ventilation, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for be put to alternate use until it is required for ventilation or
mechanical cooling during the daytime (see ‘Night cooling’ cooling purposes, for example as storage or car parking.
in section 2.4.2.6) and see CIBSE Guide B, Chapter 3 on air External flat roof and undercroft locations may also be
conditioning. suitable. Plant room locations should preferably allow
mechanical plant containers to be installed. A further
In the particular case of zoned systems, a consideration option is prefabricated plant rooms that can be obtained on
may be to introduce ‘localised’ fabric enhancements to hire and ‘plugged in’ with minimum site disruption. These
reduce heat gain, e.g. additional treatment of the roof fabric can subsequently be disconnected for reuse elsewhere when
to ameliorate solar heat gains or additional solar shading of a tenancy terminates.
selected windows. A further option might be to introduce
‘assisted passive’ measures before employing full mechanical
systems. This might take the form of a fan in selected Distribution routes
natural ventilation ‘stacks’ for use under peak conditions or
on days when inadequate external forces are available or The availability of space for routing services to and around
possibly simple desk fans. individual rooms often determines the overall level of
flexibility. The recommended heights of exposed ceiling
soffit slabs to facilitate natural ventilation can often provide
Combining natural and mechanical systems effectively adequate space for a future suspended ceiling void or
bulkhead, capable of accommodating a wide range of HVAC
Within complementary systems, the balance between the systems. A suspended floor may also allow direct expansion,
operation of the natural and mechanical system elements chilled water and condensate pipes to be routed to any
needs to be optimised. This requires a ‘trade off ’ between potential ‘hotspot’. With appropriate initial sizing the floor
the extent of passive and active features, for example the void also has the potential to become a floor supply plenum,
number and location of the openable windows will depend from which rooms or larger areas can be supplied with air.
upon the extent of mechanical ventilation. The processes
by which this balance can be achieved are given in CIBSE It is important to ensure continuity of the routes between
AM13: Mixed mode ventilation (2000a). the various parts of the system. A clear route without
constrictions is needed from the spaces designated for main
In the case of zoned systems, it requires an understanding plant, via the risers, to the tertiary run-outs. Care should be
of the problem areas that will require mechanical assistance. taken to avoid inadequate space for connection between
These might include: risers and the floors they are to serve.
—— zones facing inferior environmental conditions, Room must be given for the installation of fire dampers at
such as top floors, corner rooms, internal areas, compartment boundaries. This should also allow for access
areas local to non-openable façades, or areas where for maintenance. See notes on fire safety in ‘Fire issues’ in
partitioning inhibits bulk air movements section 2.3.5.2 if fire doors are to be used as part of the
—— toilet areas route.
—— areas where heat- or odour-producing equipment is

located such as areas containing photocopiers or Choice of HVAC system
drinks machines, tea rooms or cleaners’ cupboards
The choice of HVAC system will depend upon the client’s
—— restaurants or kitchens functional requirements (see section 2.2.1). In the case of
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System design 2-65
zoned or contingency systems the choice between 2.4.4.5 Performance assessment

freestanding or centralised systems is dependent upon:
—— the size and distribution of the zones to be treated Some aspects of mixed-mode design may be difficult to
resolve or to optimise using normal calculation methods
—— planning restrictions on the use of the façade and rules of thumb. More detailed simulation may be
—— the availability of space for logical horizontal and desirable in:
vertical distribution routes. —— appraising options
—— developing new concepts and testing their
2.4.4.3 Energy-efficient operation of mixed- robustness under all foreseeable conditions
mode systems
—— demonstrating the capabilities of an option to
The principles for achieving energy-efficient operation in clients
mixed-mode systems are a combination of those applied to —— refining a chosen approach.
buildings operating in either natural or mechanical ven
tilation modes. Prioritisation of these principles depends
upon the extent to which mechanical systems for ventilation, Appendix 2.A6 considers the techniques of dynamic
cooling or humidification have been installed. thermal simulation and air movement analysis. In applying
them specifically to mixed-mode systems the designer must
consider:
Additionally, consideration needs to be given to the
following points. —— the full variety of potential (often overlapping)
—— Mechanical systems should be used only when and operational modes and control variables
where required. The specific fan power increases —— the trigger points for each control strategy element
with air change rate. Furthermore, as the air change
rate increases, the occupants are more likely to —— the potential actions of occupants
notice the difference between when the system is
—— uncertainty concerning the actual operation of the
operating and when it is not. This may reinforce
building compared with the intent and the
the tendency for it to be left running unnecessarily.
consequent robustness of the solution
The use of zoned mixed-mode systems helps to
overcome the need for whole systems having to —— possible differences between parts of the building
operate in order to service small demands. and areas of particularly demanding localised
—— Natural and mechanical systems should not conflict conditions that place particular demands on the
in their operation, e.g. mechanical systems ventilation system
competing with air coming in through the windows, —— possible adverse interactions between adjacent
or simultaneous humidification and dehumid zones in different operating modes
ification. Such situations can be reduced through
making users aware of the rationale behind the —— possible adverse effects of facilities designed for one
operation of the system and having suitable trigger mode and operating in another, e.g. facilities
points for changeover operation. The state and designed for summertime ventilation and cooling
performance of the system should be monitored may not work well in cold weather, possibly leading
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and system conflicts reported. to draughts or excessive heat losses.
—— Systems should not default to a non-optimal state, The selection of appropriate weather data and treatment of
e.g. switched on when they could be switched off or, heavyweight buildings within thermal models is discussed
at least, operating at reduced output. This risk can in Appendix 2.A6.
be minimised by avoiding over-complex design.
2.4.4.4 Control 2.4.5 Ductwork principles of design
The control strategy for mixed-mode systems is context 2.4.5.1 General

dependent, but aims overall for energy-efficient operation,
maximum staff satisfaction and ease of building General background information on this topic is provided
management. This is achieved through: in section 2.3.5.2. Design is concerned with duct layout,
—— maximisation of the natural operating mode sizing minimising pressure loss and fire safety. For further
fire safety information see section 2.5.3.3.
—— integration of natural and mechanical systems to
avoid system conflicts, wasteful operation and
discomfort 2.4.5.2 Duct layout
—— simple and effective control for occupants that is
non-presumptive In most installations, the constraints imposed by the
building or other structures (e.g. single or multiple plant
—— simple and effective controls for the building rooms, split systems based on tenancy arrangements etc.),
management that are easy to commission and and the siting of fans, plant items and terminals, can lead to
operate on occupation of the building. the adoption of an overall duct layout that is not ideal.
Room must be given for the installation of fire dampers at
The general principles of a good control strategy are given compartment boundaries. This should also allow for access
in section 2.3.6. for maintenance
Considerations of duct layout design are discussed in detail Further information on spatial allowance for ductwork is
section 3.5.2. available from Design and Maintenance Guide 08: Space
requirements for plant access, operation and maintenance (DEO,
1996), BSRIA TN 10/92: Spatial Allowances for Building
2.4.5.3 Spatial requirements Services Distribution Systems (1992) and BS 8313: 1997: Code
of practice for accommodation of building services in ducts (BSI,
Provision of sufficient space for ductwork is essential and 1997).
must be addressed at an early stage in the design process of
the building.
Laying out the space required for ductwork is, to an extent, 2.4.5.4 Interaction with structure and
an amalgam of experience, skill and three-dimensional building form
visualisation. Adequate space must be provided for
installation and maintenance of the ductwork and
associated equipment such as fire dampers at compartment Because ductwork is likely to be the most space-intensive
boundaries. The designer should ensure that ductwork is service provided, it is important that the ductwork design
co-ordinated with the other engineering services to be is fully co-ordinated with the design of the building
accommodated in the same space, particularly in false structure to minimise the number of bends and other
fittings, each of which will increase the resistance to airflow.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ceiling voids and riser spaces where there may be several
distribution systems vying for restricted space. This is particularly important for new installations where
Developments in building information modelling (BIM) requirements apply to maximum fan power levels. The
(ASHRAE, 2013) should be considered for this type of task. structural design may have reached beyond an outline
design and shape by the time that ductwork design
Branches from vertical risers to serve horizontal distribution commences.
routes should be considered with care, as this is likely to be
the most congested area of the service core. If the service
core is enclosed on three sides (e.g. by a lift shaft and an Provided they are allowed for early in the design, it is
external wall) the horizontal distribution from the core will usually possible to accommodate vertical ducts of any
be extremely difficult, with little space for installation and desired size without great difficulty from both structural
maintenance. and planning viewpoints. Horizontal ducts present more
problems; if they are located between floors, headroom will
The area served by a single riser will dictate the size of the be restricted and there will be limits on the floor area that a
horizontal branch duct. The depth selected for a branch horizontal duct can serve. Early checks should be carried
duct will have a significant influence on the false ceiling or out to ensure that the vertical main ducts enable horizontal
raised floor depth. It will also affect the overall floor-to- distribution without compromising the performance of the
floor heights and hence have significant influence on installation or the available headroom and that structural
building costs. members allow branch ducts to leave the main ducts.
The depth of the horizontal element is a function of the

Distribution of the engineering services within a building
number of vertical risers, generally:
are likely to follow a pattern associated with the main
—— maximum number of vertical risers equates to building circulation route that represents the main
minimum horizontal element depth functional pattern of the building. This may not be the
most efficient route for the ductwork. The large space
—— minimum number of vertical risers equates to requirements for ductwork mean that it can be desirable to
maximum horizontal element depth. locate plant close to the areas they serve.
Adequate space must be allowed around ducts for fitting of
insulation, hangers and supports during installation and This should include space to fit fire dampers that are
for access during subsequent maintenance. Access will also suitable to any supporting construction used. The
be dependent on the clearance from adjacent objects such requirements of Part B of the Building Regulations (NBS,
as structural items and the type of jointing method. 2013g) should be followed. Details of fire damper
installation methods are given in DW/145: Guide to Good
Suitable allowances are given in Appendix 2.A2, which also Practice for the Installation of Fire and Smoke Dampers (BESA,
shows examples of common problems associated with 2010) and Fire Dampers (European Standards) (‘the ASFP
ductwork access. Grey Book’) (ASFP, 2010).
Ductwork clearances can be reduced with care, providing

jointing, insulation and maintenance of any vapour barrier Sufficient space needs to be provided for ease of fitting the
is achieved. Consideration should also be given to how the ductwork. Providing access for maintenance is also
ductwork will be tested and how it will eventually be important since it will be expensive to install retrospectively,
replaced. whether ducts are horizontal or vertical. Space should also
be allowed for additions and alterations.
Adequate space shall be allowed at compartment boundaries
for the installation of fire dampers using a tested installation
method. The fire damper installation method to be used Co-ordination of the engineering services should ensure
should be clearly defined as part of the ductwork/supporting that the area for removal of access panels and covers and
construction design, so that it meets the fire classification entry into the ductwork is free of services and readily
of the boundary accessible without obstructions.
System design 2-67
2.4.5.5 Duct sizing branches, however, cannot encroach on the necessary

headroom.
Background
To make a preliminary estimate of a branch size, calculate
the airflow rate required in the area served by multiplying
Duct sizing and pressure loss calculations are normally the zone volume by the number of air changes per hour and
carried out as a combined exercise to quantify the ductwork divide by 3600 to obtain the zone flow rate in m3·s–1. Two
dimensions and provide data for specifying the fan duty. air changes an hour may be appropriate for offices with a
The duct sizing process and pressure loss calculations separate heating system for fabric losses. Where the air is
require the specification of system requirements, including: used for heating, four air changes an hour may be required
—— system type, i.e. low, medium, high pressure or or six air changes or more for an air-conditioned space.
industrial Dividing this flow rate by the velocity given in Tables 2.16
and 2.17 gives the duct cross-sectional area required. For
—— volume flow rates in all parts of the ductwork conventional systems, the aspect ratio (long side to short
—— positions of fans, other plant items, supply-and- side) of rectangular ducting should not exceed 3:1.
extract terminals
—— special operating requirements, e.g. minimum Manual duct sizing method
conveying velocities in extract systems
Simple design methods include:
—— ductwork type, i.e. circular, rectangular, flat oval
—— velocity method
—— layout of the duct runs, including fittings, dampers
and plant items —— constant pressure drop (or equal friction loss)
method
—— duct material.
—— static regain method.
The purpose of duct sizing is (i) to determine the cross-
sectional dimensions of the various parts of the duct system, The most common method is based on delivering constant
and (ii) to ensure a balanced system that delivers design pressure drop per unit length for a duct run, with maximum
conditions. Furthermore the system, fans and other plant duct velocities as set out in Tables 2.16 and 2.17 for low-,
items should be: medium- and high-pressure systems.
—— economical in installed and operating costs These methods are simple procedures that use ductwork
—— compatible with the space limitations imposed by data charts to determine duct dimensions. The overall cost
the structure and other services effectiveness, ease of system regulation and noise can be
taken into account by imposing limits on some of the
—— sufficiently quiet in operation design parameters. It is recommended that the calculated
—— easily regulated after installation to achieve the duct size is rounded to the nearest recommended duct size
design airflow at each terminal. (see Appendix 2.A1) before the pressure drop calculations
are carried out. A brief description of these methods is
In practice, duct sizing seeks to obtain an economical and given below.
practical solution to these objectives by either simplified
manual procedures or computer programs. The computer Velocity method
programs can vary in complexity from computerisation of
manual procedures to overall design including optimisation, This method is based on the selection of duct velocities by
damper settings and noise assessment. the designer using limiting noise generation and/or
pressure drop. In a typical system the velocity at the fan
Before commencing duct sizing, a schematic of the air connection is chosen and velocities are also chosen for
distribution system must be prepared. This should indicate subsequent duct runs with the aim of progressively reducing
the airflow directions and contain the following velocities from the fan to the terminals. Tables 2.16 and
information: 2.17 give some guidance on suitable maximum air velocities.
—— system identification for each section In practice, this is only used on simple layouts or sections
of systems, as the procedure depends on experienced but
—— air volume flow rates in each section subjective judgements. It is difficult to produce a coherent
—— the length of all straight sections selection of sizes for a complex layout on this basis. In
industrial systems where minimum transport velocities are
—— descriptions of fittings, dampers, plant items and required this method may be employed more frequently.
terminals.
Constant pressure drop (equal friction loss) method
An example schematic is shown in Figure 2.32.
The basis for this method is to select a constant pressure
Approximate sizing loss per unit length for the duct runs and then to size the
ducts at this rate using Figure 2.33 below. This method is
Because ductwork can be large, it will often be necessary to used for sizing very simple low-pressure supply-and-extract
assess the size of individual ductwork in critical locations, systems, some medium-pressure systems and also for VAV
particularly where horizontal branches leave the main systems. For low-pressure systems, typical values used for
vertical risers. It is often possible to adjust the size of the the constant pressure loss rate are in the range 0.8–1.2  Pa·m–1
vertical space well into the detailed design. Horizontal
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with duct velocities not exceeding 10 m·s–1. At large volume
V1 V4
D1
3 (1·2) 3 (0·2)
H J
15 (1·2) I 4 (1·0) 4 (0·6) K 0·4 (0·4) N
L
M 20 (0·4)
4 (0·4)
D2 P
G W Q
F
2 (1·2)
V2 V5
E
5 (0·2) 5 (0·2)
D (0·72)
C 3 (0·48) 3 T
X R
B S
1 (0·48)
A A, B, C etc: component designation
V3 V6
1, 2, 3 etc: duct length (m)
(0·48), (0·72) etc: volumetric flow rate (m3·s–1)
Figure 2.32 Example schematic of ductwork layout, showing lengths (m) and flow rates (m3·s–1) (see Appendix 2.A5 for calculation procedure)
flow rates in low-pressure systems the 10 m·s–1 duct velocity is to size ducts between branch take-offs so that the recovery
limit should override the constant pressure loss rate chosen, in static pressure after one branch take-off due to reduction
leading to somewhat lower pressure loss rates in the large in velocity is equal to the static pressure loss due to friction
ducts. and fittings in the subsequent duct run. The method seeks
to equalise the static pressures at the branch take-offs, and
The sizing process involves: where these take-offs serve high-pressure terminals an
inherently balanced system can be achieved.
—— the selection and use of a vertical constant pressure
loss line in Figure 2.33, appropriate to the design The static regain method is used primarily for those parts of
requirement a high-pressure system where the initial duct velocity
—— reading off the circular duct diameter for the actual pressure is sufficient to give static pressure regain without
volume flow rate unnecessarily low duct velocities at the end of the run. In
practice, only the duct mains serving multiple terminal
—— if a rectangular or flat oval duct is required, taking branches are sized by this method, while the smaller branches
the dimensions from Tables 2.A1.1 or 2.A1.2 (see to terminals are sized by the equal friction method (see
Appendix 2.A1), as appropriate, for the equivalent ‘Constant pressure drop (equal friction loss) method’ above)
circular diameter. to minimise their size and cost. High-pressure terminals on
the same system normally all have roughly the same pressure
The friction loss method gives a reducing velocity from the loss. If this value is high compared with the branch duct
fan to the terminals. Adopting different pressure loss rates pressure loss, then variations in the latter between different
for the individual branches of a system can be used to branches arising from the use of the equal friction sizing
produce a more nearly equal resistance to each duct run and method will not significantly unbalance the system. The
so assist balancing the system. This modification can be static regain method uses duct static pressure losses rather
introduced during the pressure loss calculation. than total pressure losses in the sizing procedure.
Initially, all parts of the system should be sized to the same The static regain is due to the drop in velocity pressure.
pressure loss rate and the adjustments to individual branch However it must be emphasised that there is still a drop in
sizes only carried out after the pressure losses in the initial total pressure ∆pt , due to friction. For the branch shown in
system design have been computed. These adjustments are Figure 2.34, subscript ‘c’ denotes ‘combined’ flow, subscript
most quickly and conveniently carried out by computer. ‘b’ denotes ‘branch’ flow and subscript ‘s’ denotes ‘straight’
flow.
Static regain method
c s
When the velocity in a duct is reduced without excessive b
losses occurring, the static pressure increases. In high-
pressure systems, this increase can be significant and is the Figure 2.34 Schematic
basis for the static regain duct-sizing method. The principle of duct branch
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

System design 2-69
Pressure drop per unit length, (∆p / l) / Pa.m–1

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
200 200
100 100
/m
80 ,d 80
ter
me 3.0
60 Dia 60
2.8
2.6
40 2.4 40
2.2
2.0
1.8
20 20
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
10 1.2 10
8 1.1 8
1.0
60
55
6 0.9 6
50
45
0.8
40
4 4
35
0.7
Ve
30
lo
Volumetric flow rate, qv / m3.s–1

Volumetric flow rate, qv / m3.s–1
cit
25
y,
0.6
c
20
/m
18
2 2
.s
16
0.5
–1
14
5
0.4
12
0.4
10
1 1
8
5
0.8 0.3 0.8
6
0.6 0.3 0.6

5
4
5
0.4 0.2 0.4
3
0.2
2
0.2 0.2
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.15
0.1 0.1
0.08 0.08
0.1
0.06 0.06
75
0.04 0.0 0.04
1
0.02 0.02
5
0.0
0.01 0.01
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4
8 10 6 20 40 60 80 100
Pressure drop per unit length, (∆p / l) / Pa.m–1
Figure 2.33 Pressure drop for air in galvanised circular ducts (ρ = 1.2 kg·m–3; T = 293 K)

option under Part L of the Building Regulations (NBS,

Pressure drop across the branch is given by: 2010a), which limits specific fan power to 2 W/l·s–1.
Similar considerations apply for high-pressure systems but,

Δ pt = ptc – pts = ζ c–s 1/2 ρ cc2 (2.16) because of the higher potential loss of velocity pressure and
the greater need to equalise static pressures at terminals (to
avoid generation of noise at terminal dampers), there will
where ∆pt is the loss of total pressure across the branch be more occasions when the static regain method is
(Pa), ptc is the total pressure on the upstream side of the worthwhile. The additional cost of ductwork will probably
branch (Pa), pts is the total pressure on the downstream side be less than 1 per cent.
of the branch (Pa), ζc–s is the pressure loss factor for the
branch, ρ is the density of air (kg·m–3) and cc is the air
velocity on the upstream side of the branch (m·s–1). Calculation of system pressure loss
Static regain is given by: The pressure loss in a ductwork system is made up of the
pressure losses at plant items and terminal equipment, the
friction loss in the straight ducts plus the losses due to duct
ps – pc = 1/2 ρ (cc2 – cs2) (2.17) fittings.
The losses due to both straight duct and fittings are directly
The air velocities are given by: related to the duct sizes, so that the determination of the
system pressure loss follows the duct sizing process. The
cc = qc / Ac (2.18) calculation as described, using data given in section 4.10 of
CIBSE Guide C (2007), gives the ‘total pressure’ loss and
this can be used to assess the required fan total pressure for
the system. The total pressure loss of plant items and
cs = qs / As (2.19) fittings is related to the static pressure loss as follows:
where qc and qs are the flow rates on the upstream and Δ pt = Δ p + pvi – pvo (2.20)
downstream sides of the branch respectively (kg·s–1), Ac
and As are the cross-sectional areas of the inlet to and outlet
where ∆pt is the total pressure loss (Pa), ∆p is the static
(straight flow) from the branch respectively (m2).
pressure loss (Pa), pvi is the inlet velocity pressure (Pa) and
pvo is the outlet velocity pressure (Pa).
(In general, Ac = As, but the cross-sectional area could
increase between inlet and outlet if required.)
In the case of plant items and fittings where the inlet and
It must be emphasised that the fan must produce a rise in outlet connection areas and flow rates are equal, then pvi =
total pressure equal to the drop in total pressure of the pvo and the total and static pressures are identical. The
ductwork system. The deliberate use of ‘static regain’ does advantage of using total pressure losses is that the friction
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
not directly influence this, except that the downstream and fitting losses are such that the total pressure always
duct sizes are larger than might otherwise have been the decreases in the direction of airflow so that the losses can
case. simply be added. The total pressure loss of the terminals
must be included in the overall total system pressure loss.
The value of air pressure in the duct (‘static pressure’, p) is
only of consequence in duct air leakage calculations, and The calculation of pressure loss is essential in identifying
for ensuring approximately equal pressures behind any air the fan total pressure, as well as for balancing the system. It
outlets immediately on the duct itself. Sizing ductwork by is very important to note that the total pressure loss along
the static regain method is normally carried out using a each duct run will always be the same. A system will always
computer program. naturally balance itself so that the total losses in each run
are the same. The duct sizing procedures outlined above
will not normally deliver a balanced system, that is, the
Choice of duct sizing method total pressure loss along each duct run will not normally be
equal following the design process. Thus, it is crucial that
Use of the static regain method on low- and medium- the pressure loss along each run is equalised in order to
pressure systems is limited, and its worth depends on the deliver the design conditions, and this is normally achieved
equivalent length of the index run; the shorter the index by adding dampers to balance the system.
run, the more favourable the case for the static regain
method. This is because in a low-pressure system the loss of
The required fan total pressure for the system is then equal
velocity pressure is small and in a large installation its
to the total pressure loss along one of the runs (which is, of
recovery is not significant in comparison with the friction
course, the same as the total pressure loss along all the other
loss in the system.
runs) but it is prudent to allow a margin on the calculated
total pressure loss to take account of:
The equal friction loss method is easier to use in design and
results in smaller duct sizes. Ducts sized using this method —— differences between the design concept and the
can cost up to 8 per cent less than those sized by the static actual installation
regain method. However, the savings will be at least partly
offset by higher commissioning costs, especially where the —— the effect of system leakage on the fan duty.
index run is relatively short but with numerous branches
and outlets. This reduction in duct size may not be an Suitable air leakage margins are given in Table 2.15.
System design 2-71
The second step is to compute the index run total pressure The areas served by the risers are likely to dictate the size of
loss. This calculation should (for a supply system) typically the horizontal branches. The depth of horizontal ductwork
include pressure losses at the following items: will also have a significant influence on the depth of false
ceilings or floors and the overall floor-to-floor height.
—— entry: intake opening, louvres, bird screens
—— suction duct: straight duct sections, duct fittings, The depth of the horizontal element is a function of the
control and fire dampers, mixing chambers number of the vertical risers:
—— maximum number of, or space in, vertical risers
—— plant: filters (dirty condition), heaters, cooling equates to the minimum horizontal element depth
coils, humidifiers, eliminators, attenuators
—— minimum number of, or space in, vertical risers
—— fan: inlet vanes, inlet duct connection, outlet duct equates to the maximum horizontal element depth.
connection, flexible connections
It is essential that ductwork is sized correctly for air velocity,
—— supply duct: straight duct sections, attenuators, duct particularly to avoid noise. Where noise is likely to be a
fittings, balancing and fire dampers, zone plant problem, providing two smaller ducts in parallel (rather
items, control boxes, flexible ducting, terminals. than a single large duct) will reduce the air velocity and
hence the noise. However, energy can be wasted by reducing
Extract systems will probably include many of the same the duct size since this will result in increased fan power. A
items, but in a different order. Where the connections to worked example of the duct sizing process is provided in
equipment are different in size, or where multiple Appendix 2.A5.
connections occur, the manufacturer’s pressure loss data
should be checked to ensure that they are the total pressure
losses. Computer-based sizing methods
The next step in the manual calculation of the total pressure Computer programs have been produced that cover one or
loss in a system is to identify the ‘index’ duct run. This is more of the following design aspects:
the duct run that has the greatest total pressure loss when —— duct sizing
using the duct sizing method described above: the duct
sizing calculations will normally deliver a different total —— pressure losses in ductwork systems
pressure loss for each run and the index run is the largest of —— total fan pressure
these calculated pressure losses. Normally the index run
will be that which links the fan and the most distant —— duct heat losses or gains and terminal temperatures
terminal. However, this is not automatically true because it —— acoustic analysis, with attenuation calculations
is possible for shorter runs to have higher pressure losses if from fan to terminals
they contain plant items, high-pressure loss terminals or a
high proportion of duct fittings. —— leakage analysis.
Users of computer-based sizing methods are advised to

The final step is to balance the system and here it is
ensure that the reference data and equations used by the
necessary to put in dampers to equalise the total pressure
computer program are data provided in CIBSE Guide C
losses along each duct run, alternatively it may be necessary
(2007).
to consider resizing the duct to take out excess pressure.
This ensures that the diameters chosen in the duct sizing
process deliver the required design conditions; if dampers 2.4.6 Ventilation design calculation
are not added the system will self balance and the flow rates
in the ducts will depart from those originally chosen. techniques
2.4.6.1 Summary and introduction

Ductwork sizing process
Reliable calculations are essential for good design.
Duct sizing is an iterative process following identification Ventilation and airflow calculation methods are increasingly
of the duct runs. It requires the determining of the airflow needed to evaluate the performance of ventilation design.
requirements in the main ducts and subsidiary branches to To some extent they are able to replace expensive and time-
assess the size of each. These then need to be checked consuming field tests and provide a comprehensive range
against the original design parameters. A balance needs to of test conditions. Often, calculation methods can lead to
be obtained between the duct sizes required to achieve the an improved understanding of flow behaviour and provide
design outputs and the space allocated for the ductwork confidence in design. They are especially important for
system. Within an overall ductwork installation, there may making preliminary evaluations of complex ventilation and
be different ductwork standards, resulting in a mixture of airflow strategies.
high-, medium- and low-pressure systems. Proper sealing
of ductwork will mean reduced air leakage and therefore There are many calculation techniques available to predict
reduced ductwork size. ventilation and related airflow parameters in buildings.
The main difficulties concern ease of use and providing
Materials, equipment, fittings and construction methods suitable input data. Many advances have developed in the
need to be chosen with respect to whole-life costs, not just commercial field, especially in the areas of user-friendly
the initial or installation cost. It can be beneficial and cost access and embedded databases. As these developments
effective to standardise the types and sizes of the ducts and continue, the ease with which calculation techniques may
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fittings used in the installation. be applied is steadily improving.

In general, the designer is faced with a set of fixed conditions Further methods are necessary to evaluate the strength of
relating to the environment in which the building is natural driving forces. These include:
located. These include climate, pollutant sources (e.g. from
traffic and adjacent buildings etc.) terrain characteristics —— wind pressure calculation
and the shielding presented by surrounding buildings. —— stack pressure calculation.
Calculation techniques form part of the process of matching A summary of calculation methods and applications is
design variables (e.g. building layout, approach to presented in Table 2.30.
ventilation etc.) with the various design constraints to
achieve an optimum ventilation. Reliable results are The rate and pattern of airflow throughout a building is
dependent on a good working knowledge of techniques and uniquely defined by:
data. More detailed calculation guidance is presented in
CIBSE Guide A (2015a). CIBSE AM11: Building performance —— the distribution and airflow characteristics of all
modelling (2015c) also provides important guidance on the flow paths (openings) that penetrate the building
integration of energy and environmental modelling for envelope and that link individual rooms; these
buildings. paths include constructional cracks and gaps,
intentionally provided air vents and any open
windows or doors
2.4.6.2 Applications
—— the pressure difference acting across each opening;
Typical applications for which numerical methods are this is developed by the combined effect of naturally
needed include: and mechanically induced driving forces.
—— estimating air change rate induced by air infiltration Additionally, the pattern of air movement within any
and ventilation individual space is further influenced by the:
—— calculating the influence of parameters such as
—— locations of all sources of incoming air
climate and building airtightness on air change rate
—— determining the rate and direction of flow through —— temperature, velocity and turbulence of incoming
purpose-provided and air infiltration openings air at each source
—— calculating the rate of airflow between rooms —— location and flow rate of all sources of outgoing air
—— calculating the pattern of airflow within individual —— distribution of flow obstructions (e.g. partitioning,
zones or rooms (ventilation efficiency parameters). furnishings and fittings)
—— distribution and strength of all thermal sources and
Subsidiary calculations, based on knowledge of airflow and sinks
ventilation prediction, include:
—— thermal characteristics of all surfaces.
—— determining the energy impact of ventilation
—— predicting pollutant concentration (indoor air These extra needs can make the prediction of airflow
quality analysis and pollutant removal effectiveness) patterns in enclosed spaces an extremely complex exercise.
—— estimating the transfer of pollutants between zones In reality, it would be a formidable task to identify the flow
or between the outside and inside of a building characteristics, driving forces, size and location of every
—— calculating room and building pressures for back- opening. Instead it is necessary to introduce a number of
draughting or cross-contamination assessment simplifying assumptions that allow the main physical
concepts of airflow to be represented without compromising
—— the sizing of ventilation openings (to optimise results. It is the degree to which the flow mechanics are
ventilation performance) simplified that identifies the type of model, the detail of
—— cost and energy performance analysis (e.g. to data needed and the range of applicability of results.
compare alternative ventilation strategies) Generic forms of calculation method used for the prediction
of ventilation and airflow patterns in buildings include:
—— thermal comfort analysis (temperature and draught
risk). —— estimation from building airtightness data
Table 2.30 Summary of calculation techniques and applications

Application Calculation type
Empirical/look-up Single-zone models Multi-zone models Computational fluid
tables dynamics
Initial design average infiltration rate *
Hourly infiltration and whole-building ventilation rate *
and contaminant concentration
Hourly room airflow rate and contaminant concentration *
Airflow and contaminant flow between rooms *
Airflow distribution within rooms *
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Room ventilation efficiency *
System design 2-73
—— ‘simplified’ theoretical methods leakage distribution and using simplified wind and stack
pressure equations to determine the driving forces. The
—— network (zonal) models result is an estimate of total air change rate for the space.
—— computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
Advantages
2.4.6.3 Estimation from building airtightness
—— It is a fairly simple spreadsheet calculation
data: estimation of average air
procedure.
infiltration rate for basic loading
design —— It can be used for hourly ventilation calculations
taking into account airtightness, local shielding
The simplest method for estimating air infiltration rate is and ambient driving forces.
by inferring it from airtightness data. For small buildings
such as dwellings, the wholly empirical rule of thumb has
been to divide the air change at 50 Pa (see ‘Building Disadvantages
airtightness’ in section 2.4.7.2) by 20 to obtain the average —— The building is treated as a single zone only.
annual infiltration rate. This however is very sensitive to
building size. The method is further developed in section —— It calculates an air change rate only; there is no
4.6 of CIBSE Guide A (2015a) to take account of building information about inflow and outflow directions
size through a series of design tables and figures such as through openings.
that illustrated in Figure 2.35.
2.4.6.5 Network (zonal) models
Advantages
A network model is one in which a building is represented
—— It is easy to apply using both measured or design by a series of ‘zones’ or ‘cells’ interconnected by flow paths.
data. Each ‘zone’ typically represents an individual room, while
flow paths represent individual or amalgamated flow
Limitations openings. These models thus provide a more rigorous
incorporation of flow theory and can be used to estimate
—— It is only a very approximate solution for preliminary the flow rate and flow direction through defined openings
design purposes only. Final losses will usually need in the building fabric. They can also incorporate air leakage
to be determined as part of a whole-building data, specific natural ventilation openings and flow rates
thermal analysis. induced by mechanical ventilation systems. Wind and
—— This approach largely ignores the driving forces stack (buoyancy forces) are taken into account as well as
that vary considerably over time, so time varying wind shielding.
changes to air change are also ignored. Therefore
this is not suitable for short-term use, since the The pressure due to wind, stack and mechanical driving
instantaneous rate of ventilation can differ forces is calculated for each opening in the flow network.
considerably from the ‘average’ value. The corresponding flow rate through each opening is
determined by applying a standard power law or quadratic
law flow equation (see CIBSE Guide A (2015a)). The
2.4.6.4 Simplified theoretical models average pressure inside each zone is then iteratively ad
justed until a flow balance between incoming and outgoing
A much improved approach that incorporates the effects of airflow is achieved. Zonal models can also be used to
airtightness and natural and mechanical driving forces has calculate steady-state contaminant concentrations within
been developed (Sherman and Grimsrud, 1980). This adds zones for given concentration sources.
to airtightness data by including the driving forces of
ventilation (both natural and mechanical) as well as local There are two configurations of these models: single zone
shielding conditions that can affect wind pressure. It can and multi zone, discussed below.
thus be used for calculating hourly air change rates. The
method is based on making a basic assessment of the
Single zone
25 This treats the building as a single open zone of uniform

indoor pressure. Calculation of flow balance is relatively
20 easy and an algorithm listing is given in Appendix 4.A3 of
CIBSE Guide A (2015a).
15
Divisor
10 Multi zone
5 Each room in a space is treated as a separate zone, thus the

flow rate into each room can be determined. This involves
0 a much more complex solution procedure since the flow
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 rate into each zone as well as the whole building itself must
Volume of enclosed space / m3 be balanced. A popular open source algorithm is CONTAM
Figure 2.35 Approximate ACH at 50 Pa; divisor to obtain average annual (NIST, 2010) developed at NIST in the US. An alternative
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
air infiltration rate program is COMIS (AIVC, 1990).

Advantages —— pollutant removal effectiveness

—— Network methods are used to calculate the rate of —— temperature distribution
airflow through individual openings. Thus, this
—— air-velocity distribution (for comfort, draughts etc.)
technique represents some of the closest of approxi
mations to the true system of ventilation and —— turbulence distribution
infiltration airflow.
—— pressure distribution
—— By calculating the rate and direction of flow through
each flow path, it is possible to evaluate virtually —— fire and smoke movement
every ventilation-related parameter. Applications —— airflow around buildings (for wind-pressure
include the calculation of: distribution).
—— air change rate as a function of climate and
building air leakage Simulation approach
—— ventilation and air infiltration rate
(mechanical and natural) The space to be simulated is ‘discretised’ into a set of control
volumes or elements. Typically, the enclosure may be
—— the rate and direction of airflow through divided into 500 000–2 000 000 control volumes or more;
individual openings therefore each element represents only a fraction of the
—— the pattern of airflow between zones total enclosure volume. The system of discretisation can be
non-uniform so that clusters of elements can be located at
—— internal room pressures areas of greatest interest. Flow, energy propagation and
—— pollutant concentration contaminant spread are represented in each of the control
volumes by a series of discretised transport equations. In
—— pollutant flow between zones and between structure, these equations are fundamentally identical but
the inside and outside of the building each one represents a different physical parameter. Direct
solution techniques are not available, so iteration is applied.
—— back-draughting and cross-contamination
Parameters are initially given arbitrary values from which
risks.
the iteration can commence. These values are then adjusted
until each of the transport equations balances. The process
Limitations of reaching a balance is referred to as ‘convergence’.
Considerable computational effort is normally necessary,
—— The driving forces need to be quantified and all
with the result that processing times can be lengthy,
openings in the structure of the building need to be
sometimes taking many hours.
accurately accounted for.
—— It assumes that air and pollutant in each zone is
Key parameters
uniformly mixed.
—— As with the preceding methods, this approach does Key parameters calculated as part of a CFD analysis include:
not provide information on pollutant distribution
—— Pressure distribution: airflow is driven by the pressure
within the individual zones.
distribution, therefore the pressure field is
—— It does not handle wind-driven single-sided flow. fundamental to the whole flow process. Pressure is
maintained by a combination of driven air or forced
convection and by buoyancy forces or natural
2.4.6.6 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
convection. Forced convection is driven by
mechanical ventilation or the natural flow of air
Often, knowledge is needed about the pattern of airflow through openings. Free convection is driven by
and the distribution of air temperature and pollutants buoyancy forces created by imbalance in
within an enclosed space. This may be especially important temperature difference.
to check the performance of a ventilation system, to verify
comfort conditions or to predict thermal transport and —— Velocity field: air movement is a vector having
smoke and fire spread prediction. In the past, design has components in both speed and direction. To
been based on scale-model analysis and measurements of determine the air velocity distribution, airflow
airflow patterns in full-size buildings. More recently, the must usually be represented by three transport
application of CFD mathematical models representing the equations.
flow field has become increasingly popular. These are
—— Temperature field: the temperature field is sustained
numerical methods that approximate the enclosure by a
by thermal sources and sinks distributed about the
series of ‘control’ volumes or elements. Airflow in each
enclosure. Sources can include heat emitters, solar
element must follow the fundamental laws of physics
gain and surfaces warmed by radiation. Sinks can
covering motion, energy transport and conservation of
include chilled ceilings and cold surfaces such as
mass.
windows or uninsulated walls. Buoyancy forces and
free convection currents are generated by the
Specific applications include the simulation and prediction
temperature field. Temperature is a scalar quantity
of:
acting only on the vertical component of velocity
—— room airflow field through a gravitational term.
—— airflow in large enclosures (atria, shopping malls, —— Turbulence: turbulence is the random fluctuation of
airports, exhibition centres etc.), air change the airstream from its mean flow direction. It
efficiency --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
contributes to the rapid mixing of air and pollutants
System design 2-75
in the space and thus has a major impact on the flow —— Turbulence can be difficult to represent, thus
field and pollutant distribution. The representation risking erroneous results.
of the turbulence of room air currently presents a
challenge to the credibility of CFD techniques.
Turbulence must be accurately represented but the 2.4.7 Ventilation design
representation of turbulence is usually highly
empirical. This is because the scale length of
measurement techniques
turbulence is usually much smaller than the grid
size that can practicably be used in a CFD simulation. 2.4.7.1 Introduction
Modelling turbulence has, therefore, become an
important area of research and is an area that is
most likely to lead to erroneous results. Modern Measurement methods for airflow and related parameters
techniques are increasingly adopting a large eddy are essential for commissioning, diagnostic analysis, design
simulation (LES). In this method the most and research. Many techniques have been developed with
significant scale of turbulence is represented by each having a specific purpose. The intention of this section
grid size. However considerable computing capacity is to present a summary of measurement methods,
is needed. principally for design, and to provide guidance on the
selection of techniques according to application.
—— Boundary layer flow: airflow close to surfaces is Comprehensive information on measurement techniques is
subjected to boundary layer effects in which the published by Charlesworth (1988) and Roulet (1991). In
rate of flow is influenced by surface friction. This addition, a simplified discussion is presented in AIVC
further adds to the complexity of flow modelling. Guide to Energy Efficient Ventilation (Liddament, 1996) on
which the following discussion is based. Typical
Advantages measurement requirements cover:
—— It can be used to calculate steady-state and transient —— building airtightness

airflow patterns within a space.
—— duct airtightness
—— It can also be used to calculate associated pollution
distribution and ventilation effectiveness para —— ventilation rate
meters.
—— ventilation effectiveness
Disadvantages —— airflow characteristics and air movement
—— It is often difficult to validate results.
—— airflow through terminal units and ducts
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—— Complex calculation techniques require meticulous
setting up. —— pressure distribution and airflow around buildings.
Figure 2.36 Airtightness testing: (a) blower door and (b) trailer fan (reproduced courtesy of BSRIA Compliance)
2.4.7.2 Measuring airtightness movement of smoke emitted from a smoke stick or puffer.
This approach is very effective and easy to undertake. The
The main objectives of an airtightness test are to: smoke source is gently moved in the vicinity of potential
sources of leaks during the course of the test. Sometimes
—— determine the leakage rate of air through a building leak locating and sealing may be undertaken while
component or duct at a specified test pressure conducting a routine pressurisation test. Ideally, the
—— determine the relationship between air leakage and building or room should be pressurised at positive pressure
pressure over a typical operating pressure range. so that the flow of smoke, from inside to outside, can be
clearly identified.
Building airtightness
Thermography
In the UK airtightness requirements for building are
covered by Part L of the Building Regulations (NBS, Leaks may also be located by thermography. Testing may
2013a). Testing usually requires a whole-building be undertaken from either the inside or outside of the
pressurisation test to determine the air leakage at a reference building. For indoor testing, the building or room is
pressure of 50 Pa. This is the average pressure between the depressurised to permit the ingress of cold outdoor air. An
inside and outside of the building. The conduction of the interior thermographic scan will indicate the location of
test is covered by a protocol as described in CIBSE TM23: fabric leaks.
Testing buildings for air leakage (2000c). The 50 Pa reference
pressure is selected on the basis that results will not be Alternatively, scanning can be undertaken externally, in
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adversely affected by wind and stack pressures under calm which case the building is pressurised and the sources of
conditions but is not sufficiently high for the generated exfiltrating hot air are located. This may be undertaken on
pressure itself to distort leakage openings physically (either a cold night when it is possible to locate air leaks and
by opening or closing them). Despite this there is invariably location of excessive fabric heat loss arising from inadequate
a difference in results between pressurising and depres or poorly installed insulation.
surising a building as a consequence of the behaviour of
leaks. Limitations
Measurements are made using a ‘blower door’ (Figure —— Leak detection does not quantify the infiltration
2.36(a)) or, in the case of very large buildings, a ‘trailer fan’ loss but only identifies the source of leaks.
(Figure 2.36(b)) to create incremental pressure differences
—— Infrared thermography is costly and experience is
between the inside and outside of a building in the ±100 Pa
needed to interpret results.
pressure range. For each pressure increment, the
corresponding airflow rate through the fan is measured.
The relationship between induced pressure and flow rate is 2.4.7.4 Measuring ventilation rate
then plotted. From this, the air leakage rate at 50 Pa is
determined by interpolation as well as the pressure flow
characteristics. The flow characteristics are commonly The tracer gas technique
described by the power law equation as described in CIBSE
Guide A (2015a). Fresh air ventilation rate is commonly determined using
the ‘tracer gas’ technique. This tends to be a specialist task
By carrying out multiple pressure tests between zones, the rather than routine and therefore requires specialist
airtightness of individual rooms and leakage across party contractors. A tracer gas is ideally an inert gas that is non-
walls can be determined. toxic, measurable at low concentrations and not normally
present in the atmosphere. In the past, nitrous oxide and
sulphur hexafluoride were commonly used. However,
Duct airtightness neither of these would probably now be acceptable where
occupants are present. Also SF6 is a substantial greenhouse
In the UK it is recommended as good practice that all gas and its general use has largely been banned. The
significant installations (e.g. those with a fan capacity remaining choice is carbon dioxide, which is generated by
greater than 1 m3·s–1) should be tested in accordance with people (metabolic CO2—see section 2.2.2.4) or is otherwise
DW/143: Guide to Good Practice: Ductwork Air Leakage readily available and is perfectly safe at transient
Testing (BESA, 2013b). Duct testing is also a requirement of concentrations up to 5000 ppm.
Part L of the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013a) in England
(and related requirements for Scotland, Wales and Northern To make a measurement, tracer gas is emitted into the space
Ireland). to be tested and is well mixed using mixing fans. These fans
are then switched off and concentration behaviour under
normal room conditions is observed. Various emission
2.4.7.3 Leak detection
configurations are possible including:
Simple leak detection methods are necessary to track design —— Concentration decay: the tracer gas injection is
faults and poor workmanship. Suitable methods are switched off and the decay in concentration over
outlined below. time is monitored. For a uniform ventilation rate,
the decay is logarithmic with respect to time and
the air change rate is proportional to the log
Smoke methods
gradient.
Leaks may be detected by fan pressurising a building or an —— Constant concentration: gas is injected at a
individual room within a building and observing the sufficient rate to maintain a constant concentration.
System design 2-77
The ventilation rate is proportional to the gas Arguably, if the objective of the measurement is to estimate
injection rate. This test requires sensitive feedback the average pollutant dose received by occupants in a space
controls and actuators, thus adding to complexity. resulting from a constant emitting pollutant source (e.g.
furnishings and fittings), this method provides a reliable
—— Constant emission: the tracer gas is discharged at a result. However, it can ignore the benefit of ventilation for
constant rate. Air change rate can be determined transient pollutant emissions (e.g. airing for washing and
from the corresponding time varying room cooking) and underestimate ventilation-related thermal
concentration. Eventually a steady state may be losses (especially through open windows).
reached, at which point this test corresponds to a
constant concentration test. At all times the
concentration of tracer gas must be carefully 2.4.7.5 Measuring ventilation effectiveness
monitored to ensure that the safe concentration of
tracer gas is not exceeded. Ventilation effectiveness is a measure of how well air is
mixed in a space (see section 2.2.8). This can be measured
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In all cases, tracer gas blends with incoming air that is not using the tracer gas technique. Gas is discharged in the
treated with tracer gas. This could be fresh outdoor air or it occupied zone and the concentration is measured at key
could be infiltrating air from adjacent rooms. To determine points including the extract grille and occupant
the fresh air ventilation rate into a space the following workstations. Key characteristics are as follows.
options must be considered.
—— A similar concentration in the occupied zone and
—— The entire enclosure must be tested as a single extract grille indicates perfect mixing.
entity.
—— A lower concentration in the extract grille than the
—— The constant concentration method is used in occupied space indicates short circuiting, i.e. the
which all adjacent rooms are held at the same supply air reaches the extract grille before mixing
concentration as the test room. The injection rate in the space.
in the test room will therefore be proportional to
the unseeded outdoor air. —— A higher concentration in the extract grille than at
individual occupant workstations indicates
Airflow between rooms can be determined by using successful displacement ventilation. The lower the
multiple tracers. workstation concentration, relative to the extract
grille concentration, the better the displacement
flow.
‘Passive’ tracer gas techniques
A variation on the tracer gas technique is the ‘passive’ tracer 2.4.7.6 Airflow distribution in a space
gas method. This technique is used to estimate the average
air change rate into a building over an extended period of Monitoring of airflow in a space may be necessary to
time. It is a method that was pioneered by Dietz and Cote evaluate a system of identify faults. Primarily this is a
(1982). It is based on the use of volatile perfluorocarbon research and development tool. It may also be used in
tracers (PFTs), which may be detected in the air in minute conjunction with CFD analysis (see section 2.4.6.6).
concentrations within the parts per trillion range. The
tracer gas is gradually emitted over a period of time within Applications include the:
the test space. An exposed sample tube is used to adsorb the
gas over the same time period. Air change rate is calculated —— measurement of flow velocity and air turbulence
from the amount of gas emitted and collected by the throughout a space
emission and sample tubes respectively. Analysis of the —— evaluation of diffuser performance
sample tubes is undertaken in a laboratory using gas
chromatograph and electron capture detection. Recent —— response to thermal parameters and flow obstruction
developments are described by Upton and Kukadia (2011). to airflow patterns.
The concentration of tracer is so small that it is regarded as Methods are based on qualitative visualisation approaches
having no toxic impact. It may therefore be used in occupied and quantitative anemometric techniques as outlined
dwellings, offices or other buildings. Test periods can vary below.
from a few hours to several months. By using more than
one test gas, it is also possible to use this method to analyse
airflow between zones. This method is inexpensive and Visualisation techniques
unobtrusive. It may easily be applied to occupied spaces
and may be conducted by relatively unskilled operators. A qualitative assessment of airflow pattern and turbulence
can be made by applying a number of visualisation
There are various limitations to this approach, including techniques. These are based on developing a two-
the following. dimensional sheet of bright light, which is directed across a
section of room. Smoke or small bubbles are used to
—— This method is only accurate if air change remains highlight the flow pattern. These may be photographed or
reasonably constant over the measurement time. recorded using a video camera.
—— This approach provides insufficient weighting to
peaks in air change, such as those associated with Limitations
airing, door opening or transient high infiltration
driving forces, i.e. transient changes in conditions —— Qualitative methods are fairly easy to perform but
are not ‘seen’. provide only visual information.
Anemometry (hot wire) Limitations

—— Flume models require considerable laboratory
Anemometry is used to give quantitative evaluation of space, thus restricting this approach to the
spatial air velocity and turbulence distribution. laboratory.
Anemometers must be very sensitive and are usually based
on ‘hot wire’ techniques. A resistance wire (the anemometer —— Primarily this method provides an aid to assessing
element) is heated while the current through the wire is the impact of stack-induced airflow. The wind
monitored. Air speed fluctuations rapidly change the regime is more difficult to predict, since it is not
temperature and, therefore, the resistance of the wire. The usually possible to incorporate surrounding
resultant current change provides a measure of instan obstructions.
taneous air speed (turbulence). Hot wire anemometers are
used in ‘test’ chamber studies where ‘traverses’ are made —— It is not really practicable to represent infiltration
across sections of the chamber to build up a complete or other openings resulting from construction
pattern of airflow information. technique or poor site practice.
2.4.7.7 Airflow through terminal units and

Limitations ducts
—— Quantitative (anemometric) techniques are
complex and time consuming and therefore tend to Flow measurements through individual ventilation
be restricted to research or product (diffuser) openings are needed to ensure that the airflow rate and flow
development applications. direction conform to design requirements. They are also
needed to balance ventilation systems as part of servicing
—— Measurements give snapshot results only. In reality, or commissioning. Examples include:
the pattern of airflow will vary depending on the
—— monitoring the flow through passive ventilation
location of obstructions and the balance between
stacks
forced and free convection forces.
—— monitoring the performance of mechanical
—— Small changes to conditions can vastly influence ventilation systems
airflow pattern.
—— measuring naturally or mechanically driven airflow
through air inlets and outlets.
Flow distribution: flume models
Basic anemometry systems are straightforward to use but
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Flume models provide a method by which air movement, might not be as accurate as more complex methods.
pollutant transport and temperature distribution can be
predicted using scale models inserted in a water flume. Techniques are based on standard airflow measuring
They have been used to assist in the design of a variety of instrumentation and include those listed below.
buildings and to predict the transient pattern of airflow.
Specific applications include:
Orifice plates and nozzles
—— predicting the role and pattern of airflow and
pollutant transport through defined openings These are calibrated devices that are fitted in series with
ductwork and have a known relationship between airflow
—— predicting flow patterns through a building rate and pressure drop relationship. The flow rate is
determined by measuring the pressure drop across the
—— predicting flow and pollutant distribution in device. Long, straight lengths of duct are needed both
individual rooms. upstream and downstream of the system while the constric
tion imposed by the orifice or nozzle can impede flow.
A 1:20 to 1:100 scale model of the building is constructed
using transparent Perspex. This model is necessarily
simplified but the essential features controlling the Pitot-static traverses
ventilation process, including envelope openings and
openings between individual rooms, are retained. This Air velocity at a specific location is commonly measured
model is completely immersed in a glass-sided water using a pitot-static tube. Duct airflow can be measured by
channel such that the pattern of flow can be observed using inserting the tube into a prepared opening and measuring
a video camera. Buoyancy-induced flow (density strati the air speed at several depths across the cross-section of
fication) is represented by sources of dense salt solution to the tube. The total flow rate is determined by integrating
which a tracer dye is added. The model and video camera the results.
are inverted so that the salt solution appears to rise. Cooling
is similarly simulated using a less dense alcohol water Several types of anemometer are used to measure the flow
mixture. Quantitative measurements of flow velocities are rate through ducts and openings; these include vane
made by measuring samples of salt solution taken from anemometers and hot wire anemometers. The vane
within the model. Automated image processing of the video anemometer is the most likely device for use in servicing
film allows the measurement of dye intensities to give the and commissioning since it is robust and is satisfactory for
instantaneous temperature distribution throughout the measuring relatively high airflow velocities. Hot wire
building, while flow velocities can be measured by particle anemometers are delicate, precision devices for measuring
tracking. Mixing and diffusion processes may also be very low flow rates and turbulent fluctuations (see
quantified. ‘Anemometry (hot wire)’ in section 2.4.7.6).
Other design considerations 2-79
Wind tunnel testing provides detailed information on

spatial pressure distribution. It can also be used to assess
airflow patterns around buildings and air intake contam
inant ingress risks.
A scale model of the building and immediate surroundings

is produced that can fit within the working section of a
boundary layer wind tunnel. Pressure taps connected via
plastic tubing are placed on each face of the model so that
the pressure distribution can be determined. The model
needs to be placed on a turntable so that pressure can be
analysed for the complete spectrum of wind direction.
Wind speed is determined with respect to a specific datum
height, normally corresponding to the height of the
building. Upwind roughness is normally developed using
an array of cubic blocks. Smoke combined with photography
is often used to provide visualisation of the flow regime.
An ‘environmental or boundary layer’ wind tunnel that can

accurately represent the lower levels of the Earth’s turbulent
boundary layer and accommodate reasonably sized scale
models of the building and surrounding environs is
necessary. These are restricted to laboratory applications on
scale models. A typical minimum scale for analysis of wind
pressure distribution is 1:50. Models must also incorporate
an accurate representation of the surrounding environment.
CFD is also used to assess wind pressures on buildings with

several commercial models being available. In all instances
Figure 2.37 Flow hood (reproduced courtesy of BSRIA Compliance) care needs to be taken to ensure proper validation in order
to obtain accurate results. Typical problems relate to the
choice of turbulence model and selection of the correct grid
Flow hoods size and layout.
Anemometers can disrupt or impede the flow of air through

an opening, thus introducing error, especially if the flow
rate is low. One device specifically designed to overcome 2.5 Other design
this problem and to monitor the direction and rate of
airflow through an opening is the flow hood. Developed in
considerations
conjunction with the Netherlands Organisation for Applied
Scientific Research (TNO) (Phaff, 1988), it is an active 2.5.1 Introduction
device containing its own calibrated fan, which is operable
over a flow range of between 0 and 225 m3·h–1. The funnel In developing ventilation strategies there are other
opening of the flow hood is placed over the opening through important design considerations that need to be addressed.
which the flow rate is to be measured, forming an airtight These are covered in this section and include:
seal. The internal fan speed is adjusted until there is zero
pressure difference across the opening. The resultant flow —— noise
rate through the device is equivalent to the undisturbed
—— fire and smoke protection
flow rate through the opening. The impact of the
measurement system on the rate of flow is therefore —— air leakage.
substantially minimised. An example of a flow hood is
shown in Figure 2.37. Energy and carbon performance considerations are
discussed in 2.1.4.
Tracer gas injection
2.5.2 Noise
Sometimes, tracer gas injection is used to measure airflow
rate. Tracer gas is injected into the duct at a constant known Both natural and mechanical systems can present noise
rate. The flow rate of air through the duct is proportional to problems. General guidance on acceptable noise levels can
the tracer concentration measured in the duct. be found in CIBSE Guide A (2015a). The following provides
information on noise sources and abatement. More detailed
information is covered in CIBSE Guide B4 (2016c).
2.4.7.8 Pressure distribution and airflow
around buildings
2.5.2.1 Outdoor noise
The wind pressure distribution is needed to calculate the
flow rate through building envelope openings. Accurate Local noise sources can be continuous, such traffic,
design requires knowledge relating to a particular building industrial processing and low-flying aircraft; other sources
shape and location. The following method may be used. might be regular, such as playgrounds or entertainment
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

and sports venues; while other sources might be random, 2.5.2.2 Indoor noise sources
such as construction sites and road maintenance or noise
from adjacent buildings. In each case, noise levels should As well as the ingress of external noise, and noise generated
be assessed and incorporated in the ventilation design. from mechanical systems, consideration also needs to be
External noise can be a particular problem in the case of given to internal acoustic design issues including:
natural ventilation when windows face busy main roads or
are within 100 m of a railway line. A partially open window —— conflict between partitioning for acoustic privacy
typically has a weighted sound reduction index of 10–15 dB and provision of air paths
compared with 35–40 dB for thermally insulating double —— that exposed thermal mass increases the number of
glazing (BSI, 2014b). Measures to improve acoustic hard surfaces (see section 2.4.2.4).
performance include:
Indoor noise can be generated by:
—— the use of acoustic baffles
—— occupants
—— siting the opening windows on a quiet side of a
building —— equipment
—— mechanical ventilation systems.
—— the use of acoustic ventilators (as opposed to
windows)
2.5.2.3 Noise from ductwork and HVAC plant
—— placing buffer zones (e.g. a circulation space)
adjacent to the noise source. Noise generation increases rapidly with increases in
velocity at grilles, bends and other fittings where the flow
Outside noise is of particular concern in schools. Acoustic separates from the walls, leaving turbulent eddies in its
Design of Schools (EFA, 2004) contains detailed design wake. The noise generated at grilles and terminals is of
guidance on minimising noise impact). particular importance. High-velocity systems require noise
Table 2.31 Noise-reduction methods for various noise sources and transmission paths
Path Description Noise-reduction measures
(a) Direct sound radiated from sound source to ear Direct sound can be controlled only by selecting quiet equipment.
Reflected sound from walls, ceiling, and walls Reflected sound is controlled by adding sound absorption to room
and to location of equipment.
(b) Air- and structure-borne sound radiated from casings and Design ducts and fittings for low turbulence; locate high velocity
through walls of ducts and plenums is transmitted through walls ducts in non-critical areas; isolate ducts and sound plenums from
and ceiling into room structure with neoprene or spring hangers.
(c) Airborne sound radiated through supply and return air ducts to Select fans for minimum sound power; use ducts lined with sound
diffusers in room and then to listener by path (a) absorbing material; use duct silencers or sound plenums in supply
and return air ducts.
(d) Noise is transmitted through plant/equipment room walls and Locate equipment rooms away from critical areas; use masonry
floors to adjacent rooms blocks or concrete for equipment room walls and floor.
(e) Building structure transmits vibration to adjacent walls and Mount all machines on properly designed vibration isolators; design
ceilings from which it is radiated as noise into room by path (a) equipment room for mechanical dynamic loads; balance rotating and
reciprocating equipment.
(f) Vibration transmission along pipe and duct walls Isolate pipe and ducts from structure with neoprene or spring
hangers; install flexible connectors between pipes, ducts, and
vibrating machines.
(g) Noise radiated to outside enters room windows Locate equipment away from critical areas; use barriers and covers to
interrupt noise paths; select quiet equipment.
(h) Inside noise follows path (a) Select quiet equipment.
(i) Noise transmitted to diffuser in a room into ducts and out Design and install duct attenuation to match transmission loss of
through an air diffuser in another room wall between rooms.
(j) Sound transmission through, over and around room partitions Extend partition to ceiling slab and tightly seal all around; seal all
pipe, conduit, and duct penetrations.
Noise source Transmission paths
Circulating fans; grilles; diffusers; registers; unitary equipment in room (a)

Induction coil and fan-powered mixing units (a), (b)
Unitary equipment located outside of room served; remotely located air handling (b), (c)
equipment, such as fans and blowers, dampers, duct fittings and air washers
Compressors and pumps (d), (e), (f)
Cooling towers; air-cooled condensers (d), (e), (f), (g)
Exhaust fans; window air conditioners (g), (h)
Sound transmission between rooms --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- (i), (j)
control by using sound-absorbent units between the duct See also CIBSE Guide E: Fire engineering (2010) for general
system and the room outlets and inlets. guidance on fire protection.
Noise in ductwork can be contentious, particularly where Information on fire-resisting and smoke-control ductwork
the system or components (e.g. intake, exhaust, AHU etc.) is given in the Fire Rated and Smoke Outlet Ductwork (‘the
produce a noise nuisance to the building occupants, ASFP Blue Book’) (ASFP, 2000). Fire-resisting ductwork is
neighbours or passers-by. Noise is generated where eddies tested to BS EN 1363-1: 2012: Fire resistance tests. General
are formed as flow separates from a surface. requirements (BSI, 2012c) and classified to BS EN 13501-3:
2005 + A1: 2009: Fire classification of construction products
The generated noise level is particularly sensitive to the and building elements. Classification using data from fire
velocity (see CIBSE Guide B4 (2016c)). resistance tests on products and elements used in building service
installations: fire resisting ducts and fire dampers (BSI, 2005b).
The velocity of air flowing through a duct can be critical, Fire-resisting ductwork may also be tested under BS 476-
particularly where it is necessary to limit noise levels. 24: 1987: Fire tests on building materials and structures. Method
Recommended velocities for particular applications, using for determination of the fire resistance of ventilation ducts (BSI,
the BESA system classifications to control noise, are given 1987c) but this does not allow classification to BS EN
in Table 2.16. 13501-3 (BSI, 2005b). Smoke control ductwork may be
tested under BS EN 1366-8: 2004: Fire resistance tests for
Table 2.31 lists noise-transmission paths for a variety of service installations. Smoke extract ducts (BSI, 2004) and BS
sound sources and suggests appropriate methods of noise EN 1366-9: 2008: Fire resistance tests for service installations.
reduction (SMACNA, 2006). Single compartment smoke extraction ducts (BSI, 2008b) for
single and multiple compartment applications respectively,
for classification to BS EN 13501-4: 2007 + A1: 2009 (BSI,
2.5.3 Fire and smoke protection 2007c). CE marking is now mandatory.
Information on fire dampers is given in Fire Dampers

2.5.3.1 General
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(European Standards) (‘the ASFP Grey Book’) (ASFP, 2010)
and DW/145: Guide to Good Practice for the Installation of
Building Regulations in the UK require that buildings be Fire and Smoke Dampers (BESA, 2010). Fire dampers are
subdivided, with fire-resisting construction depending on tested to BS EN 1366-2: 2015: Fire resistance tests for service
size and use, to inhibit the spread of fire within the building. installations. Fire dampers (BSI, 2015a) and classified to BS
Advice on the degree of compartmentation and fire- EN 13501-3 + A1: 2009: (BSI, 2005b). There is a product
resisting periods are given in Part B of the Building standard and this is BS EN 15650: 2010: Ventilation for
Regulations (NBS, 2013g). buildings. Fire dampers (BSI, 2010b). CE marking is now
mandatory.
In addition, Part J of the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013f)
has specific legal requirements: In some cases fire dampers may be tested to BS 476-20:
1987/BS 476-22: 1987 (BSI, 1987a/b) should all the fans be
38.—(1) This regulation applies where building work— turned off in the event of a fire alarm. This does not allow
(a) consists of or includes the erection or extension of a relevant
classification to BS EN 13501-3: 2005 + A1: 2009 (BSI,
building; or
(b) is carried out in connection with a relevant change of use of a
2005b).
building,
and Part B of Schedule 1 imposes a requirement in relation to Fire dampers protecting escape routes and in most cases
the work. areas with sleeping risk must have an ES classification to
(2) The person carrying out the work shall give fire safety BS EN 13501-3 + A1: 2009 (BSI, 2005b) and this is not
information to the responsible person not later than the date of possible for a fire damper tested to BS 476-20: 1987/BS 476-
completion of the work, or the date of occupation of the building 22: 1987 (BSI, 1987a/b) alone.
or extension, whichever is the earlier.
(3) In this regulation—
(a)“fire safety information” means information relating to the
In all cases fire-resisting products should be installed as
design and construction of the building or extension, and the tested, otherwise fire-resistance performance is not
services, fittings and equipment provided in or in connection guaranteed. This does mean separate fire test reports for
with the building or extension which will assist the responsible different wall and floor constructions. Some assessment
person to operate and maintain the building or extension with may be available, but this is rare for dampers tested to BS
reasonable safety; EN 1366-2: 2015: Fire resistance tests for service installations
(b)a “relevant building” is a building to which the Regulatory (BSI, 2015a).
Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 [RRFSO, 2005] applies, or will
apply after the completion of building work;
The following notes summarise the main fire precautions
(c)a “relevant change of use” is a material change of use where,
after the change of use takes place, the Regulatory Reform (Fire
issues relating to the design and installation of ductwork
Safety) Order 2005 will apply, or continue to apply, to the systems. Advice on fire-protection systems is laid down in
building; and Approved Document B and supplemented in BS 9999:
(d)“responsible person” has the meaning given by article 3 of the 2008: Code of practice for fire safety in the design, management
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005. and use of buildings (BSI, 2008a).
The RRFSO (TSO, 2005) makes each building user, via a Fire and smoke containment and hazards are factors that
responsible person, liable for all fire safety within a influence the design and installation of ductwork systems.
building. However, in passing over the information,
liability is not devolved from a designer, installer or A design that is required to perform a particular action as
manufacturer and remains in place. part of a fire strategy is likely to combine electrical,
mechanical and builders’ work components, which would 2.5.3.2 Main areas within a building where
be influenced by the normal day-to-day operation ductwork should be fire protected
requirements. Some of the more common components are:
—— ductwork Agreement for these areas should be sought from the
building control officer responsible for the building.
—— fire dampers Reference should also be made to the current Building
—— smoke extract fans. Regulations.
Ductwork is often required to transmit heat and smoke Smoke extract systems
from the fire zone to the outside. The layout, jointing and
potential expansion in the ductwork must be designed to If the ductwork incorporated in a smoke extract system is
withstand the calculated temperatures while maintaining wholly contained within the fire compartment, it must be
integrity (to ensure containment of smoke and possibly capable of resisting the anticipated temperatures generated
heat) and insulation (to prevent spread of fire by radiation through the development of a fire. This may be demonstrated
at high temperatures). The need for fire protection should by testing to BS EN 1366-8: 2004 (BSI, 2004) and BS EN
be based on compartmentation requirements and calculated 1366-9: 2008 (BSI, 2008b) or BS 476-20: 1987 (BSI, 1987a).
smoke temperatures. Where the fire-resistant ductwork BS 476-24: 1987 (BSI, 1987c) also requires that ductwork
passes through a wall or floor, a penetration seal must be that is intended as a smoke extract must retain at least 75
provided that has been tested and/or assessed with the fire- per cent of its cross-sectional area within the fire
resisting ductwork to the same fire rating as the compart compartment. If the ductwork penetrates a fire-resisting
ment wall through which the fire-resisting ductwork passes. barrier, it must also be capable of providing the same period
Where the fire-resisting ductwork passes through the fire of fire resistance as the barrier.
compartment wall or floor, the ductwork itself must be
stiffened to prevent deformation of the duct in a fire to:
Escape routes covering stairways, lobbies and corridors
—— maintain the cross-sectional area of the duct
—— ensure that the fire-rated penetration seal around All escape routes must be designed so that the building
the duct is not compromised. occupants can evacuate the building safely in the case of
fire. Ductwork that passes through a protected escape route
Fire dampers are provided in ductwork for fire containment must have a minimum of 30 minutes’ fire resistance and be
by preventing flow when a predetermined temperature is at least equal to the fire compartment through which the
reached. The operation is usually activated by a fusible link ductwork passes, either by the use of fire dampers or fire-
that releases the damper at 72 °C. Generally they are resisting ductwork. Any fire dampers used should have an
required where ducts penetrate walls or floors that form fire ES classification to BS EN 13501-3: 2005 + A1: 2009 (BSI,
compartments. The damper assembly should have a fire- 2005b). The performance of the penetrated partition must
resistance rating equal to that of the fire barrier it penetrates. also be maintained.
It should be fire tested as detailed above.
Fire dampers would not normally be specified in ductwork Non-domestic kitchen extract systems
used for smoke transport, although they may be required as
part of the overall fire strategy in other ductwork. These Where there is no immediate discharge to atmosphere, i.e.
would become smoke control dampers. Various types of fire the ductwork passes to atmosphere via another
damper are available: simple E classified integrity only compartment, fire-resistant ductwork must be used.
units and ES classified fire dampers with reduced leakage Kitchen extract ductwork presents a particular hazard, as
for fire and smoke control. Details are given in DW/144: combustible deposits such as grease are likely to accumulate
Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a) and on internal surfaces; therefore, all internal surfaces of the
DW/145: Guide to Good Practice for the Installation of Fire and ductwork must be smooth. A fire in an adjacent compartment
Smoke Dampers (BESA, 2010). through which the ductwork passes could lead to ignition
of the grease deposits, which may continue through the
Electrically controlled dampers are required in some ductwork system possibly prejudicing the safety of the
circumstances to control the flows, depending on the kitchen occupants. For this reason consideration must be
location of the fire and the control system logic as given to the stability, integrity and insulation performance
determined by the requirements of the fire strategy. Fire of the kitchen extract duct which should be specially tested
dampers responding to smoke alarms are required to to BS EN 1366-9 (BSI, 2008b) or BS 476-24: 1987 (BSI,
protect escape routes and areas with sleeping risk (BSI, 1987c) for a kitchen rating.
2008a).
Particular points to note are as follows:
Smoke extract fans must be selected to ensure reliability at
the design temperature and length of exposure as predicted —— Access doors for cleaning must be provided at
by the fire engineering calculations. These should reflect distances not exceeding 3 m.
performances as detailed in BS EN 12101-3: 2015: Smoke —— Fire dampers must not be used.
and heat control systems. Specification for powered smoke and
heat control ventilators (Fans) (BSI, 2015b). —— Use of volume control dampers and turning vanes
are not recommended.
Natural smoke ventilators should reflect the requirements
of BS EN 12101-2: 2003: Smoke and heat control systems. Further information on kitchen extract systems is contained
Specification for natural smoke and heat exhaust ventilators
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- in DW/172: Specification for Kitchen Ventilation
(BSI, 2003b). Systems (BESA, 2005).
Enclosed car parks that are mechanically ventilated —— Ductwork arrangements: good working practice must
be employed in the layout of the ductwork system.
Car parks must have separate and independent extract The system must be designed for correct operation
systems, designed to run in two parts, each extracting 50 of the pressurisation system, not simply to fit the
per cent of the design load. Fans are required to be rated at building constraints.
300 °C for a typical period of two hours and the ductwork —— Position of air intake: if at roof level, the intake
and fixings constructed from materials with a melting point should be positioned so that it is unlikely to be
not less than 800 °C. Full details of the requirements are affected by smoke and should be lower than any
given in Part B of the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013g). shaft or duct that may discharge smoke in the event
of a fire. Changes to plant layout during construction
Due to the fire risks associated with car parks, these systems should not compromise the air intake position.
should be treated as smoke extract systems and therefore
maintain a minimum of 75 per cent cross-sectional area —— Position of discharge: for buildings over three stories
under fire conditions in accordance with BS EN 1366-8: in height there should be a discharge grille for every
2004: Fire resistance tests for service installations (BSI, 2004) or three floors.
BS 476-24: 1987: Fire tests on building materials and structures
(BSI, 1987c). Fire dampers must not be installed in extract Hazardous areas
ductwork serving car parks.
There are other areas within the building where the
Basements building control officer could state a requirement for fire-
resisting ductwork, for example areas of high fire risk,
Ductwork from basements must be fire rated except for car boiler houses, plant rooms, transformer rooms.
parks as above. If basements are compartmented, each
separate compartment must have a separate outlet and have 2.5.3.3 Methods of fire protection of
access to ventilation without having to gain access (i.e. ductwork
open a door to another compartment). Basements with
natural ventilation should have permanent openings, not There are three methods of fire protection related to
less than 2.5 per cent of the floor area and be arranged to ductwork systems as given in Approved Document B
provide a through draft with separate fire ducts for each supported by BS 9999: 2008: Code of practice for fire safety in
compartment. See Part B of the Building Regulations (NBS, the design, management and use of buildings (BSI, 2008a).
2013g) for full details. These are described in Appendix 2.A4.
Pressurisation systems Fire resistance and BESA DW/144
Pressurisation is a method of restricting the penetration of It should be noted that ductwork constructed to DW/144:
smoke into certain critical areas of a building by maintaining Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a) has no
the air at higher pressures than those in adjacent areas. It tested fire resistance. General purpose ventilation/air-
applies particularly to protected stairways, lobbies, conditioning ductwork and its ancillary items do not have
corridors and fire-fighting shafts serving deep basements, a fire rating and cannot be either utilised in or converted
as smoke penetration to these would inhibit escape. As the into a fire-rated ductwork system unless the construction
air supply providing pressurisation must be maintained for materials of the whole system (including supports and
the duration of a fire, fire dampers cannot be used in the penetration seals) are proven by test and assessment in
ductwork to prevent spread of fire. Any ductwork accordance with BS EN 1366-1: 2014 (BSI, 2014a) or BS
penetrating fire-resisting barriers must be capable of 476-24: 1987 (BSI, 1987c).
providing the same period of fire resistance.
In the case where galvanised sheet steel ductwork is clad by
Good practice in such systems requires the following. the application of protective materials, the ductwork
—— Holes in compartment walls and floors: all builders’ construction must be type tested and comply with the
work openings through the compartment walls and protective material manufacturers’ recommendations, for
floors surrounding the pressurised space (e.g. example gauge of ductwork, frequency of stiffeners and
penetrations for building services) must be made non-use of low melting point fasteners or rivets. Sealants,
good and sealed. gaskets and flexible joints should be as tested at the same
time and certified in accordance with BS EN 1366-1: 2014
—— Builders’ shafts: if constructed of brick or blockwork, (BSI, 2014a) or BS 476-24: 1987 (BSI, 1987c) and comply
the inside surfaces of shafts used as part of the with the manufacturers’ recommendations.
system should have a smooth rendered finish to
ensure low resistance to airflow and provide a good Methods of fire protection for galvanised steel ductwork are
seal against leakage. The shafts must be pressure given in Appendix 2.A4.
tested and be proven to have a leakage factor of less
than 10 per cent.
Design considerations
—— Correctly sized shafts and ducts: since most systems
use a very basic shaft layout with simple spigot Where ducting penetrates a fire wall or barrier, it is usual to
connections to discharge grilles, it is important to install a fire damper that has the same fire rating as the wall
size the shafts and ducts for relatively low air itself. An alternative in some circumstances is to use fire-
velocity to ensure that correct air distribution is rated ducting provided this does not link two different fire
achieved at each grille. zones. For example, it is not permitted to install fire
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

dampers in kitchen extract ducting and, once the ducting Building Regulations (NBS, 2013a) now imposes air
has left the kitchen area, it will have to be fire rated up to tightness requirements for buildings in order to reduce
the point of discharge from the building. No openings into unwanted air infiltration and reduce energy consumption.
the duct will be permitted nor connections to other areas, Once airtightness is increased much more emphasis is
not even another kitchen. needed on the development and durability of ventilation
systems to ensure that air quality is not compromised.
In instances where ducting links an escape route to an
adjacent area, a fusible link fire damper will not be 2.5.4.2 Duct leakage
sufficient. There will be the possibility that ‘cool’ smoke
will fail to melt the fusible link and thereby enter the escape Leakage from ducted air distribution systems is an
route and render it unusable. In these instances an important consideration in the design and operation of
additional mechanism will be required that will close the ventilation and air-conditioning systems. A ductwork
damper on a signal from the building fire detection system. system having air leakage within defined limits will ensure
The dampers may be reopened manually or mechanically. that the design characteristics of the system can be
Where the damper is not within easy reach, or where there maintained. It will also ensure that energy and operational
are a significant number of them, motors will be used. In costs are not greater than necessary.
planning the design, adequate space for the installation and
maintenance of these items must be allowed. Leakage from sheet metal air ducts occurs at the seams and
joints and is therefore proportional to the total surface area
It is usual to route ducting along corridors with branches of the ductwork in the system. The level of leakage is
into the treated area, as this has advantages from the point similarly related to the air pressure in the duct system and,
of view of maintenance access, potentially deeper ceiling whilst there is no precise formula for calculating the level
void, proximity to risers etc. However, where there is a need of air loss, it is generally accepted that leakage will increase
for a large number of dampers that are released by the fire in proportion to pressure to the power of 0.65.
alarm system, the designer may consider it better to run the
ductwork through the treated area in order to reduce the The effect of air leakage from high-pressure ductwork is
complication and cost of numerous dampers on several critical in terms of system performance, energy consumption
branch ducts. and the risk of high frequency noise associated with leakage.
These problems are less critical with medium-pressure
Fire-resisting stability systems, but should be considered. Low-pressure ducts
present the lowest risk in terms of the effect of leakage on
Where ductwork is required to be fire resisting, it is the effective operation of the system.
classified according to stability, integrity and insulation.
Stability is the ability of a duct to stay in place for the It is important that ductwork should be made as airtight as
specified period of time when exposed to a fire. Ductwork possible. Conventional sheet metal ductwork is formed by
supports must match the stability of the ductwork. This seaming sheets and jointing sections; these seams and
can be achieved by oversizing them or by applying a joints, penetrations made by damper spindles, control
protective covering. In all cases, fire-resisting ducts and any sensors, test holes, access doors etc., all give rise to air
associated supports shall be installed as tested. Integrity is leakage. The designer should accept that some leakage will
the ability of the duct to prevent the passage of fire either occur in conventional ductwork and make an assessment of
into or out of the duct. Insulation is usually called for if the the acceptable level in a given system. In some cases it may
building control officer believes that a duct carrying hot not be important, for example for a general extract system
smoke may become sufficiently hot to compromise an where the ducting is all in the space being served. In others
escape route. it may be very important, for example where obnoxious or
hazardous contamination is being handled. In the latter
Fire-resisting ductwork can be either single or double skin. case, a completely airtight system may be necessary, where
Double-skin ducting is used to encase insulation where fully welded ducting with air-tight enclosures at all
this is required, though the more usual alternative is to add penetrations could be the basis of a special specification,
insulation to a fire-resisting duct. It is important that outside the scope of DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal
adequate space is allowed if a duct is to be insulated. Site Ductwork (BESA, 2013a).
modifications to fire-resisting ducts are much more difficult
than to normal ducting, as the duct and fittings are often For most ventilating and air-conditioning applications,
manufactured off-site and site changes may well compro compliance with the construction and sealing requirements
mise the classification. Any alterations being made to of DW/144 (BESA, 2013a) will ensure acceptably low
existing ductwork should be installed as tested, with special leakage rates. For sheet metal ductwork, the specification
care being given to any strengthening at compartment requires sealant to be applied to all longitudinal seams
boundaries. Any holes needed for pitot tube measuring (except spirally wound, machine-made seams) and cross-
instruments need to be cut at the manufacturing stage as joints; for plastic and resin bonded glass fibre ductwork,
site drilling is not allowed. similar sealing requirements are specified. The sheet metal
specification also gives details of an air leakage test
procedure. Recommended acceptable leakage rates in
2.5.4 Air leakage l·s–1/m2 of surface area are given in Table 2.32.
Appendix 2.A3 shows these limits for a range of duct static

2.5.4.1 General pressure differentials. These rates are in accordance with
the comparable classes in BS EN 12237: 2003: Ventilation for
Air leakage in buildings and ductwork has a critical impact buildings. Ductwork. Strength and leakage of circular sheet
on ventilation and energy performance. Part L of the metal ducts (BSI, 2003a) and BS EN 1507: 2006: Ventilation
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

for buildings. Sheet metal air ducts with rectangular section. Designer’s calculations
Requirements for strength and leakage (BSI, 2006a) but these
European Standards do not cover the full range of high- The designer can calculate with reasonable accuracy the
pressure ductwork. predicted total loss from a system by:
(a) calculating the operating pressure in each section

Whilst leakage occurs at seams, joints and penetrations, the
of the system
purpose of giving acceptable leakage rates in terms of
surface area of ductwork is to require that the airtightness
(b) calculating the surface area of the ductwork in each
is of a consistent standard for air leakage test systems. It
corresponding pressure section
does not follow that the total leakage of a system that meets
specified leakage requirements will always be a set
(c) calculating the allowable loss at the operating
percentage of the total flow rate; the percentage leakage
pressure for each section of the system (see above
from short runs can be substantially less than that from
for indicative leakage figures).
long runs. The design therefore plays a very important part
in the likely total leakage loss from ductwork systems, since
This is illustrated in the duct sizing example shown in
long runs not only provide more crackage and penetration,
Appendix 2.A5.
but also require higher working pressures to operate. Where
limitation of air leakage is important, the designer should
first ensure that the duct runs are as short as possible, that Variable pressures in systems
the operating pressure is as low as possible, that the number
of seams, joints and penetrations is kept to a minimum and Designers can achieve significant cost savings by matching
that there is adequate room around the ducts for site-made operating pressures throughout the system to constructional
joints to be effectively sealed. standards and appropriate air leakage testing. The practice
of specifying construction standards for whole duct systems
based on fan discharge pressures may incur unnecessary
Items of equipment and plant installed in ductwork systems costs on a project.
can also leak, and particular attention should be paid to the
sealing of these items. Where leakage testing is required, For example, some large systems could well be classified for
the designer should ensure that suppliers of these items can leakage limits as follows:
demonstrate that their equipment meets the required
airtightness standards. The designer should make adequate —— plant room risers: Class C
allowance in the fan selection for some air leakage so that —— main floor distribution: Class B
the completed installation can meet its intended purpose
without subsequent adjustments to the fan(s) and motor(s). —— low-pressure outlets: Class A.
Table 2.15 gives some recommendations for margins that
should be included for complete installations (i.e. ductwork 2.5.4.3 Duct air leakage testing
and equipment).
General
System leakage loss
It is normal practice for leak testing to be a requirement for
all or part of high-pressure ductwork installations, but it is
There is no direct relationship between the volume of air not a regular practice for medium- or low-pressure ductwork
conveyed and the surface area of the ductwork system. It is installations. It is recommended as good practice that all
therefore difficult to express air leakage as a percentage of ductwork installations of significant size (e.g. with a fan
total air volume. Operating pressure will vary throughout capacity greater than 1 m3·s–1) should be leak tested in
the system and, since leakage is related to pressure, the accordance with DW/143: Guide to Good Practice: Ductwork
calculations are complex. However, it is generally accepted Air Leakage Testing (BESA, 2013b). It should be noted that
that, in typical good-quality systems, the leakage from each air leakage testing of low- and medium-pressure ductwork
class of duct under operating conditions will be in the is not obligatory under DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal
region of: Ductwork (BESA, 2013a); this will therefore be an individual
contractual matter. However, in the case of low- and
—— low pressure (Class A): 6 per cent medium-pressure ductwork, the relevant country’s
Building Regulations should be checked for additional
—— medium pressure (Class B): 3 per cent requirements.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
—— high pressure (Class C): 2 per cent. Factors that should be taken into account in deciding
whether leak testing of all or part of a ductwork installation
is necessary are:
Table 2.32 Ductwork air leakage limits
—— whether adequate supervision of the installation
Ductwork pressure class Air leakage limits / l·s–1 per m2
of duct surface area
can be provided and whether a final detailed
examination of the system is feasible
Low pressure (Class A) 0.027 × p 0.65
—— whether some sections need to be checked, because
Medium pressure (Class B) 0.009 × p 0.65
access will be impracticable after the installation is
High pressure (Class C) 0.003 × p 0.65 complete
High pressure (Class D) 0.001 × p 0.65
—— safety hazards that may arise from leakage of
Note: p = differential pressure / Pa contaminated air
—— whether special circumstances make necessary significant installations (e.g. with a fan capacity greater
more stringent control of leakage than is given in than 1 m3·s–1) should be tested in accordance with DW/143:
the existing specification Guide to Good Practice: Ductwork Air Leakage Testing (BESA,
2013b).
—— the cost to the client of the leakage testing and the
delays caused to the completion of the installation.
Respecting both the cost and programme implications
associated with testing ducts for leakage, the designer may,
The need for leak testing and the extent to which it is for example, indicate that a particular system is tested as
carried out should be assessed and, if judged to be necessary, follows:
this requirement and its extent should be included in the
designer’s ductwork specification. —— high-pressure ducts: all ductwork to be tested.
—— medium-pressure ducts: 10 per cent of the ductwork
Where it is decided that leak testing is required as part of
to be selected at random and tested
the commissioning process, the ductwork designer should
specify which sections of the ductwork system should be —— low-pressure: ductwork does not need to be tested.
tested and the test pressures and leakage criteria for those
sections. DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork In the case where a random test is selected for medium-
(BESA, 2013a) describes an appropriate leak testing pressure ducts, the following clause from DW/144 (BESA,
procedure and gives test pressures and leakage criteria 2013a) is suggested for inclusion by the designer:
appropriate to high-, medium- and low-pressure ductwork.
These leakage rates are given in Appendix 2.A3. The designer shall select at random a maximum of 10 per cent of
the duct system to be tested for air leakage. The duct shall be
To ensure that the ductwork is sufficiently airtight for the tested at the pressure recommended in Table 22 of DW/144 for the
needs of the design, it is recommended that: classification for the section of the ductwork that is to be tested.
—— ductwork is sealed in accordance with the design The tests shall be carried out as the work proceeds and prior to
and construction specification the application of thermal insulation. In the event of test failure of
the randomly selected section, the system designer shall have the
—— a visual check is made during erection, with right to select two further sections at random for testing. Where
particular attention to site-made joints successive failures are identified there shall be a right to require
the contractor to apply remedial attention to the complete
—— where leakage testing is required, the ductwork is ductwork system.
tested in sections as the work proceeds, and the
measured air leakage rate for each section checked The ductwork contractor shall provide documented evidence of
against the leakage criterion (the sections so chosen the calculations used to arrive at the allowable loss for the section
should be sufficiently large that the maximum to be tested and the client, or his agent, shall witness and sign the
permitted leakage from the sections can be results of the test.
accurately measured with the test equipment)
—— joints between test sections that need to be remade Special cases
can be visually checked
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
—— non-ductwork items (such as attenuators, coils, fire There may be situations where special consideration needs
dampers) should be visually inspected, as the to be given to containing air losses, for example a long run
leakage from these is not covered by the relevant of ductwork may incur a disproportionate level of air loss.
BESA specification. In such cases the designer can specify an improved standard
of airtightness, for example 80 per cent of allowable loss for
Class B ducts. The designer should not specify a Class C
Ductwork constructed and installed in accordance with
test at Class C pressure for a Class B duct. For more
DW/144 (BESA, 2013a) should provide a level of air leakage
information refer to section A6 of DW/144: Specification for
that is appropriate to the operating static air pressure in the
Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a).
system. However, the environment in which systems are
installed is not always conducive to achieving a predictable
level of air leakage; it is therefore accepted that designers Testing of plant items
may require the systems to be tested in part or in total.
Items of in-line plant will not normally be included in an
It should be recognised that the testing of duct systems air leakage test. The ductwork installation contractor may
adds a significant cost to the installation and incurs some include such items in the test if the equipment has a
extra time within the programme. certificate of conformity for the pressure class and air
leakage classification for the system under test.
Duct pressure
2.5.4.4 Building and component leakage
Ductwork constructed to DW/144 (BESA, 2013a) will be
manufactured to a structural standard that is compatible
Introduction
with the system operating pressure, i.e. Classes A, B, C
and D.
Airtightness requirements for building are covered by
Building Regulations. Testing usually requires a whole-
Specifying air leakage testing building pressurisation test to determine the air leakage at
a reference pressure of 50 Pa. This is the average pressure
As previously stated, it is recommended as good practice between the inside and outside of the building. The
(and now required by UK Part L legislation) that all conduction of the test is covered by a protocol as described
Equipment 2-87
in CIBSE TM23: Testing buildings for air leakage (2000c) and section 2.3.2.3 and in CIBSE Guide F (2012). Fan types and
by the Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Association characteristics are considered in this section.
(ATTMA, 2010). The 50 Pa reference pressure is selected
on the basis that results will not be adversely affected by
2.6.1.2 Fan types and components
wind and stack pressures under calm conditions but it is
not sufficiently high for the generated pressure itself to
Table 2.33 provides a summary of fan types.
distort leakage openings physically (either by opening or
closing them). Despite this, there is invariably a difference
The following definitions should be used in relation to
in results between pressurising and depressurising a
fans.
building as a consequence of the behaviour of leaks.
—— Casing: those stationary parts of the fan that guide
air to and from the impeller.
Whole-building leakage testing by fan pressurisation
—— Guide vanes: a set of stationary vanes, usually radial,
Measurements are made using a ‘blower door’ (see Figure on the inlet or discharge side of the impeller,
2.36(a)) or, in the case of very large buildings, a ‘trailer fan’ covering the swept annulus of the impeller blades
(Figure 2.36(b)) to create incremental pressure differences (or wings). Their purpose is to improve the recovery
between the inside and outside of a building in the ±100 Pa of the energy contained in the helical whirl of the
pressure range. For each pressure increment, the cor airstream and thus raise the performance and
responding airflow rate through the fan is measured. The efficiency of the fan. Inlet guide vanes are intended
relationship between induced pressure and flow rate is then to pre-rotate the air entering the impeller and
plotted. From this the air leakage rate at 50 Pa is determined therefore alter the performance of the fan.
by interpolation as well as the pressure flow characteristics. —— Impeller: that part of a fan that, by its rotation,
The flow characteristics are commonly described by the imparts movement to the air.
power law equation, as described in CIBSE Guide A (2015a).
By carrying out multiple pressure tests between zones, the Important fan types
airtightness of individual rooms and leakage across party
walls can be determined. (a) Axial-flow fans
Axial-flow fans comprise an impeller with a number of

Whole-building leakage testing using building blades, usually of aerofoil cross section, operating in a
HVAC system cylindrical casing. The fineness of the tip clearance between
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
impeller blades and casing has a marked effect on the
Testing has sometimes been conducted using the building’s pressure development of the fan and, in turn, its output and
own HVAC system. In this case the building is pressurised efficiency. The blades may also have ‘twist’, i.e. the pitch
using the building supply fans. Return air and extract fans angle increases from tip to root to equalise the work done
are switched off and all dampers are closed. along the blade length. As the pitch angle is increased, flow
rate and impeller power demand increase. The tendency for
Component airtightness testing flow separation from the blade surface (stall condition) also
increases, limiting the maximum operating pressure. The
The air leakage of individual components may also be hub is used to support the blades, generally incorporates a
measured by pressurisation. Sometimes this is undertaken means of adjusting the blade angle and acts as a fairing for
by the manufacturer to check compliance for rain the motor. Large hubs and short blades characterise a high
penetration. In this case the component is installed in a test pressure-to-volume ratio and vice versa. Refinements
rig such that the pressure difference can be created across include guide vanes to correct whirl at inlet or discharge
the component and the leakage versus airflow rate measured. and fairings and expanders to recover a greater proportion
Components can also be tested in situ by constructing a of the velocity head in the blade swept annulus.
pressure chamber across the component.
Axial-flow fans are of high efficiency and have limiting
power characteristics, but as the highest pressure single-
stage axial-flow fans develop only about one fifth of the
pressure produced by a forward-curved (multi-vane) fan,
2.6 Equipment they are best suited for high-volume/pressure ratios.
However, axial-flow fans may be staged or placed in series
2.6.1 Fans and when fitted with guide vanes the aggregate pressure
developed is proportional to the number of stages for a
given volume. A two-stage fan can be contra-rotating, and
2.6.1.1 General without the use of guide vanes the pressure developed may
be up to 2.75 times greater than that of a single stage.
Fans consume a large proportion of the total energy in
mechanically ventilated buildings. A high priority should (b) Centrifugal fans
therefore be given to achieving energy-efficient fan
operation. To achieve this there is a wide selection of fan Centrifugal fans comprise an impeller that may (depending
types, each of which is designed to perform specific on type and application) rotate in a diffusing casing that
functions. Fan selection is critical for ensuring the correct has an expanding radial dimension (referred to as a volute
performance of mechanical ventilation systems. or scroll casing). The air flows into the impeller axially,
Consideration must be given to optimum fan flow volume turns through a right angle within it and is discharged
rates and the minimisation of pressure drops as outlined in radially by centrifugal force. The scroll acts as a collector
Table 2.33 Summary of fan types

Fan type Efficiency / % Advantages Disadvantages Applications
Static Total
1. Axial-flow (without guide vanes) 50–65 50–75 Very compact, straight- High tip speed. Relatively All low-pressure
through flow. Suitable for high noise level atmospheric air
installing in any position comparable with type 5. applications.
in run of ducting. Low-pressure
development.
2. Axial-flow (with guide vanes) 65–75 65–85 Straight-through flow. Same as type 1 but to lesser As for type 1, and large
Suitable for vertical axis. extent. ventilation schemes such
as tunnel ventilation.
3. Forward-curved or multivane 45–60 45–70 Operates with low Severely rising power All low- and medium-
centrifugal peripheral speed. Quiet characteristic requires pressure atmospheric air
and compact. large motor margin. and ventilation plants.
4. Straight or paddle-bladed 45–55 45–70 Strong, simple impeller. Low efficiency. Rising Material transport
centrifugal 60 (non- Least likely to clog. Easily power characteristic. systems and any
shrouded) cleaned and repaired. application where dust
burden is high.
5. Backwards-curved or backwards- 65–75 65–85 Good efficiency. Non- High tip speed. Relatively Medium- and high-
inclined blade centrifugal overloading power high noise level compared pressure applications
characteristic. with type 3. such as high-velocity
ventilation schemes.
6. Aerofoil-bladed centrifugal 80–85 80–90 Highest efficiency of all Same as type 5. Same as type 5 but higher
fan types. Non-overloading efficiency justifies use for
fan characteristic higher power
applications.
7. Propeller <40 <40 Low first cost and ease of Low efficiency and very Mainly non-ducted
installation. low pressure development. low-pressure atmospheric
air applications. Pressure
development can be
increased by diaphragm
mounting.
8. Mixed-flow 45–70 45–70 Straight-through flow. Stator vanes are generally Large ventilation
Suitable for installing in highly loaded due to schemes where the higher
any position in run of higher pressure ratios. pressures developed and
ducting. Can be used for Maximum casing diameter lower noise levels give an
higher pressure duties is greater than either inlet advantage over type 2.
than type 2. Lower blade or outlet diameters.
speeds than types 1 or 2,
hence lower noise.
9. Cross-flow or tangential-flow — 40–50 Straight across flow. Long, Low efficiency. Very low Fan coil units. Room
narrow discharge. pressure development. conditioners. Domestic
heaters.
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Equipment 2-89
that permits vortex flow to the casing outlet and converts (d) Cross-flow or tangential fans
some of the high velocity pressure at the blade tips into
static pressure. There are several variations of the basic These resemble a forward-curved centrifugal type impeller
form (see below) and the impellers may be arranged as but with greatly increased blade length and the conventional
single-inlet types or double-inlet, double-width types inlets blocked off. The impeller runs in a half casing with
(DIDW), essentially two single inlet impellers running back conventional discharge but no inlet. Air is scooped inwards
to back in parallel. through the blade passages on the free side, but at the
opposite side of the impeller, due to the influence of the
—— Forward-curved or multi-vane: the impeller has a casing, the air obeys the normal centrifugal force and flows
relatively large number of short, forward-curved out of the impeller and through the fan discharge.
blades. The air is impelled forward in the direction
of rotation at a speed greater than the impeller tip The principle of operation relies on the setting up of a long
speed. For a given duty, this type of fan is the cylindrical vortex stabilised within the impeller, which,
smallest and least noisy of the centrifugal types. It being much smaller in diameter than the impeller, rotates
operates with the lowest tip speed and is often at high angular velocity. This in turn drives the main
referred to as a low-speed fan. As the velocity of the airstream past the blades of the fan with higher velocity
air does not decrease within the blade passages, the than the peripheral speed of the blades themselves. In effect
efficiency is not high (although it is generally the air flows ‘across’ the impeller, almost at right angles to
equivalent to other types at low operating pressures) the axis. Because this fan is so different from other types,
and the motor can easily be overloaded if the system direct comparisons are not valid. A serious disadvantage of
resistance is overestimated (i.e. the fan power this type is that it cannot be operated at shaft speeds widely
increases as system resistance is decreased). This different from that for which it has been designed.
type can only be used within a scroll housing. Consequently it obeys the fan laws only within narrow
—— Straight-radial or paddle-blade: the impeller has a few limits of speed change. It operates with a high discharge
(typically six) straight blades, which may be fixed velocity and an expander is desirable when connected to
by the roots to a spider or may have a back-plate and ductwork, especially as the efficiency (which is rather less
shroud-plate. This is the simplest, and least efficient than that for the multi-vane fan) peaks at near-free delivery
of fan types but is well suited to applications where conditions. The discharge opening is characteristically
airborne material is present, as the blades are narrow so the fan is not easily applicable to ducting but is
unlikely to clog. The impeller is of high mechanical well suited to fan coil units and electric space heaters.
strength and is cheap to refurbish. Renewable
blades or wear plates are often fitted. (e) Mixed-flow in-line fans
—— Backwards-curved blade: the air leaves the impeller Mixed-flow fans comprise an impeller with a number of
at a speed less than the impeller tip speed and the blades, often of aerofoil section, similar to the axial flow
rotational speed for a given duty is relatively high. fan. The hub is of conical shape such that the passage of air
The impeller has from 10 to 16 blades of curved or through the impeller has both axial and radial components,
straight form, inclined away from the direction of hence the term ‘mixed flow’. Mixed-flow fans are of high
rotation. Because the blades are deep, good efficiency and can be designed for higher pressure duties
expansion within the blade passages takes place and than axial flow fans. To remove the swirl generated by the
this, coupled with a relatively low air speed leaving passage of air through the impeller, stator guide vanes are
the impeller, ensures high efficiency and a non- fitted downstream. These vanes are generally highly loaded
limiting power characteristic. This fan type may be due to the high-pressure ratios. If the inlet and outlet
operated without a scroll diffuser and has become flanges are to be of the same diameter, a change in casing
popular for AHU applications as a ‘plug’ fan, where profile is necessary in the region of the guide vanes.
its compact axial dimensions are beneficial. Separation of airflow can occur if the conditions for which
the fan was designed are not maintained in practice.
—— Aerofoil blade: a refinement of the backwards-curved
fan in which the impeller blades are of aerofoil (f) Bifurcated fans
contour with a venturi throat inlet and fine running
clearance between inlet and impeller. The casing is Bifurcated fans handle atmospheres normally detrimental
compact and the volumetric output is high. It has to the life of the fan motor, including saturated and dust-
the highest static efficiency but is a relatively high- laden atmospheres, heated air, hot gases and corrosive
speed fan due to the low-pressure development. fumes. They are normally direct drive with the motor
isolated from the system airstream. These fans are generally
(c) Propeller fans of the axial flow type, but similar ‘motor out of airstream’
concepts are well established for centrifugal types.
Propeller fans comprise an impeller of two or more blades
of constant thickness, usually of sheet steel, fixed to a centre 2.6.1.3 Fan performance
boss and are designed for orifice or diaphragm mounting.
They have high volumetric capacity at free delivery but
very low-pressure development. However, this may be Definition of terms
increased by fitting the fan in a diaphragm, which in turn
may be installed in a circular or rectangular duct of area Fan performance is expressed in terms of fan size, air
greater than the blade-swept area. The conventional delivery, pressure, speed and power input at a given air
efficiency of propeller fans is low, but in their typical density. Efficiency will be implied or specifically expressed.
application of moving air across a partition, their specific
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- The size of a fan depends on the individual manufacturer’s
fan power may be acceptable. coding but is generally expressed as, or is a function of,
either the inlet diameter or the impeller diameter. Other —— Inlet volume flow rate: the methods of flow
terms are defined in BS EN ISO 5801: 2008: Industrial fans. measurement in this International Standard lead to
Performance testing using standardized airways (BSI, 2008c) a determination of the mass flow rate (qm). In the
and BS EN ISO 13349: 2010: Fans. Vocabulary and definitions absence of leakage, qm is constant throughout the
of categories (BSI, 2010c). airway system. The inlet volume flow rate can be
expressed as the volume flow rate under inlet
—— Standard air: for the purposes of rating fan stagnation conditions, i.e:
performance, reference air is taken as having a
density of 1.200 kg·m–3; this value corresponds to

atmospheric air at a temperature of 293.15 K, a (2.25)
pressure of 101.325 kPa, relative humidity of 40 per
cent and a gas constant (Rw) of 288 J/kg·K (section
12.1 of BS EN ISO 5801: 2008 (BSI, 2008c)).
where:
—— Fan inlet area (A1): the surface plane bounded by the
upstream extremity of the air-moving device. Note: (2.26)
fan inlet area is, by convention, taken as the gross
area in the inlet plane inside the casing.
—— Fan outlet area (A2): the surface plane bounded by where Q is absolute temperature.
the downstream extremity of the air-moving device. —— Fan air power (Pu): the product of the inlet volume
Note: fan outlet area is, by convention, taken as the flow rate (qVsg1), the compressibility coefficient (kp)
gross area in the outlet plane inside the casing and the fan pressure (pf) given by the following
—— Fan pressure (pf): the difference between the equation:
stagnation pressure at the fan outlet (psg2) and the
stagnation pressure at the fan inlet (psg1) given by Pu = qm Wm = qVsg1 pf kp (2.27)
the equation:
where Wm is fan (static) work per unit mass.
pf = psg2 – psg1 (2.21)

Note: it is possible to refer the fan air power to the

Note: when the Mach number is less than 0.15, it is installation category A, B, C or D (see below); fan
possible to use the relationship: air power is expressed in watts when qm is in kg·s–1
and Wm is in J·kg–1; fan air power is expressed in
pf = ptf = pt2 – pt1 (2.22) watts when qVsg1 is in m3·s–1 and pf is in Pa.
—— Fan static air power (Pus): the product of the inlet
where ptf is the fan total pressure. volume flow rate (qVsg1), the compressibility
coefficient (kps) and the fan static pressure (psf); kps

Note: it is possible to refer the fan pressure to the is calculated using r = p2 /psg1:
installation category A, B, C or D (see below).
—— Stagnation pressure at a point (psg): pressure that Pus = qm Wm = qVsg1 kps ps (2.28)
would be measured at a point in a flowing gas if it
were brought to rest via an isentropic process.
Note: it is possible to refer the fan static air power to
the installation category A, B, C or D (see below);

Note: Ma is the Mach number at this point; for the fan static air power is expressed in watts when
Mach numbers less than 0.122 obtained for standard qm is in kg·s–1 and Wm is in J·kg–1.
air with duct velocities less than 40 m·s–1, the
—— Impeller power (Pr): the mechanical power supplied
stagnation pressure is virtually the same as the total
to the fan impeller, expressed in watts.
pressure.
—— Dynamic pressure at the fan outlet (pd2): conventional —— Fan shaft power (Pa): the mechanical power supplied
dynamic pressure at the fan outlet calculated from to the fan shaft, expressed in watts.
the mass flow rate (qm), the average gas density at —— Motor output power (Po): the shaft power output of
the outlet and the fan outlet area: the motor or other prime mover, expressed in watts.
—— Motor input power (Pe): the electrical power supplied

(2.23) at the terminals of an electric motor drive, expressed
in watts.
—— Fan static pressure (psf): this is defined as the fan —— Fan impeller efficiency (ηr): this is defined as fan air
pressure minus the fan dynamic pressure corrected power (Pu) divided by the impeller power (Pr) as
by the Mach factor (fM2) as given by the following follows:
equation:
(2.29)
psf = psg2 − pd2 fM2 − psg1 = p2 − psg1
(2.24)
Note: it is possible to refer the fan impeller efficiency
to the installation category A, B, C or D (see below);

--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,
Note: it is possible to refer the fan static pressure to fan impeller efficiency may be expressed either as a
the installation category A, B, C or D (see below). proportion of unity or as a percentage.
Equipment 2-91
—— Fan impeller static efficiency (ηsr): this is defined as it is always important to identify the precise scope of the
the fan static power divided by the impeller power, term being considered. This has become a pertinent issue,
given by the equation: as the need to identity, quantify and verify products in
terms of their energy efficiency has become very important.
The Ecodesign of Energy-using Products (EuP) Directive
(2.30)
2005/32/EC (EC, 2005) was recast as the ErP (Ecodesign of
Energy-related Products) Directive 2009/125/EC (EC,
2009), expanding its scope from products that require
Note: it is possible to refer the fan impeller static
energy to perform their primary function to include
efficiency to the installation category A, B, C or D products that influence energy use. The European
(see below); fan impeller static efficiency may be government has sought to apply energy-labelling schemes
expressed as a proportion of unity or as a percentage. (Energy Labelling Directive 92/75/EEC (EC, 1992)) to a
—— Fan shaft efficiency (ηa): this is defined as the fan air wider variety of products, and fans are now included in this
power divided by the fan shaft power given by the exercise.
equation:
Because of the wide variety of fan types and their specific
(2.31) operating characteristics, there has been a great deal of
work necessary to establish fan product groups and then to
determine appropriate efficiency measures and levels for

Note: fan shaft power includes bearing losses, while each type. The approach that has been adopted is to
fan impeller power does not; it is possible to refer consider each fan type when operating at its peak efficiency
the fan shaft efficiency to the installation category point. (On a fan performance curve, there is one operating
A, B, C or D (see below); fan shaft efficiency may be point that corresponds to the intended design conditions
expressed as a proportion of unity or as a percentage. — for all other duty points the fan efficiency levels are not
optimised.)
—— Fan motor shaft efficiency (ηo): this is defined as the
fan air power Pu divided by the motor output power There are also issues of physical scale to be considered, as
Po as given by the equation: impeller details such as blade thickness and running
clearances do necessarily scale with the principal
(2.32) dimensions of the impeller. This generally means that
larger impellers are more efficient.

Note: it is possible to refer the fan motor shaft The result of this exercise has been to establish a range of
efficiency to the installation category A, B, C or D fan/motor efficiency grades (FMEG) appropriate to each fan
(see below); fan motor shaft efficiency may be type, which are related to the fan input power (BSI, 2015c).
expressed as a proportion of unity or as a percentage. The grades are applicable to fans with input powers in the
range 0.125 kW to 500 kW. The minimum efficiency target
2.6.1.4 Fan installation category when plotted against fan input power is constructed such
that two curves are defined for the ranges 0.125–10 kW and
According to BS EN ISO 5801: 2008: Industrial fans. >10–500  kW. Depending on the fan type and the
Performance testing using standardized airways (BSI, 2008c), appropriate installation category, efficiency grades may be
fans should be tested using a method that is to some extent based on static or total pressures. The FMEG came into
representative of their intended installation type. The effect in the EU from 2013.
standard contains extensive definitions of the various test
ductwork arrangements, and the difference in performance An example efficiency curve set is illustrated in Figure
levels achieved can be considerable, and should be included 2.38.
in any assessment of fan suitability.
The work has led to the publication of BS EN ISO 12759:
The four categories of installation are as follows: 2015: Fans. Efficiency classification for fans (BSI, 2015c),
—— category A: free inlet, free outlet which specifies:
—— category B: free inlet, ducted outlet ‘requirements for classification of fan efficiency for all fan types
—— category C: ducted inlet, free outlet driven by motors with an electrical input power range from
0.125 kW to 500 kW. It is applicable to (bare shaft and driven)
—— category D: ducted inlet, ducted outlet. fans, as well as fans integrated into products. Fans integrated into
products can be measured as stand-alone fans.’
In the above classification, the terms should be taken to
have the following meanings. Free inlet or outlet signifies
that the air enters or leaves the fan directly from or into the 2.6.1.6 The fan laws
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
unobstructed free atmosphere. Ducted inlet or outlet

signifies that the air enters or leaves the fan through a duct For a given system in which the total pressure loss is
directly connected to the fan inlet or outlet respectively. proportional to the square of the volume flow, the performance
of a given fan at any changed speed is obtained by applying
the following three rules (the air density is considered
2.6.1.5 Fan efficiency unchanged throughout).
The various definitions of impeller efficiency given in the —— Rule 1: The inlet volume varies directly as the fan
section on terminology (section 2.6.1.3), demonstrate that speed.
70
FMEG
Optimum efficiency (best efficiency point) / %
60
60 55
50
50 45
40
40
35
30
30
20
10
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Motor input power / kW
Figure 2.38 Efficiency curves for different fan/motor efficiency grades
—— Rule 2: The fan total pressure and the fan static The two approaches used to regulate the amount of energy
pressure vary as the square of the fan speed. used by fans (within the EU), have their basis in the Energy
Performance in Buildings Directive (2002/91/EC) (EC,
—— Rule 3: The air power (total or static) and impeller 2002) and the EuP Directive 2009/125/EC (EC, 2009).
power vary as the cube of the fan speed.
The specific fan power (SFP) is a measure of ventilation
It should be noted that the pressure loss characteristics of system performance that unifies the various elements of
several common system element types (e.g. filters, heat system design and has been widely adopted in regulations.
exchangers) do not conform to this pattern. Where such It integrates the effects of active components such as fans
elements represent a significant proportion of the overall and AHUs, and the passive (in airflow terms) elements such
system resistance, use of these calculations can lead to as filters and ducting.
inaccurate results.
The calculation methods and uses of SFP in ventilation
For changes in density the following rule is applied. system design and validation are extensively covered in
European standards, for example BS EN 13779: 2007:
—— Rule 4: The fan total pressure, the fan static pressure Ventilation for non-residential buildings. Performance require
and the fan power all vary directly as the mass per ments for ventilation and room-conditioning systems (BSI,
unit volume of the air, which in turn varies directly 2007a).
as the barometric pressure and inversely as the
absolute temperature. In its simplest form, the SFP is the result of dividing the
total input power to the ventilation system (i.e. including
For geometrically similar airways and fans operating at the loads due to controls and ancillary items) by the
constant speed and efficiency the performance is obtained delivered air volume flow rate and may be considered at the
by applying the following three rules (the air density is unit, zone or building level.
considered unchanged throughout).
—— Rule 5: The inlet flow rate varies as the cube of the Consideration should be given to over-sizing parts of the
fan size. system to reduce pressure drops, for example by increasing
the AHU cross-sectional area, as components such as heat
—— Rule 6: The fan total pressure and the fan static recovery devices, filters and cooling coils are likely to be
pressure vary as the square of the fan size. responsible for the majority of the losses.
—— Rule 7: The air power (total or static) and impeller Equipment and ductwork dimensional selections may be
power vary as the fifth power of the fan size. optimised for both whole-life cost and minimum energy
use, with the resulting designs differing principally in
terms of capital costs. Selection should favour the more
2.6.2 Air control units efficient fan types and try to ensure that the fans will be
operating at peak efficiency.
2.6.2.1 General
In ventilation systems for spaces where occupancy levels or
type of use varies, efficient means of volume flow rate
Fans consume a large proportion of the total energy in control should be incorporated to meet varying levels of
mechanically ventilated buildings. A high priority should demand. This may be at the dictates of temperature,
therefore be given to achieving energy-efficient fan pressure or air-quality sensors. Flow control may be
operation. Fan volumes and pressure drops should be achieved by a number of means including:
minimised by good design. Benchmarks for fan volumes
and pressure drops are provided in CIBSE Guide F (2012). —— on/off, multi-speed or variable speed operation
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Equipment 2-93
—— varying the blade pitch (during operation) for axial Mechanical volume controller
fans
—— inlet guide vanes. This is a device that is self-actuating and capable of
automatically maintaining a constant pre-set volume
through it, provided that the pressure drop across it is
These types of demand-controlled ventilation can have a
above a minimum of about 120 Pa and below a maximum of
very significant effect on the energy required to operate the
about 250 Pa. As the supply air pressure increases, most
system — in terms of both fan power and the heating and/
devices of this type tend to close progressively by means of
or cooling loads. There are additional benefits in terms of
a flexible curtain or solid damper — a multi-orifice plate
reduction in system noise levels, maintenance requirements
fixed across the complete airway of the unit. As such a unit
and improvements in overall system longevity.
achieves volume reduction by reducing the airway, there is
a tendency to generate noise, particularly when working at
Control is particularly needed when various areas to be air high air pressures. For this reason, the volume controller is
conditioned have differing heat gain patterns with respect generally supplied in an acoustically treated terminal unit.
to time; these can be met from a central plant in which It is factory pre-set to pass a specific volume and, when
either the temperature or volume (or both) of the air installed, will automatically give a pre-balanced air distri
supplied to each area is varied to meet the particular bution system up to and including the terminal unit. It can
requirements of the area. Such temperature or volume be adjusted on-site, if desired.
control may be carried out in ductwork serving a number of
rooms or zones, or it may be carried out in the terminal
units feeding individual rooms. Pressure regulating valve
2.6.2.2 Volume flow control This is an assembly consisting of one or two rows of shaped
blades, the size of which changes when volume adjustment
is required. Because of the particular blade shape, the
Fan speed control device gives volume adjustment up to pressure drops of
about 630 Pa without generating excessive noise.
Of the methods mentioned, fan speed control is the most
widely adopted, and today’s ventilation systems have the The majority of dampers are set on-site, but they can be
advantage of the availability of very effective motor control controlled from a static pressure-sensing element. Such
technologies. units are generally supplied as a separate component for
direct installation in the ductwork and not as part of a
Two control families tend to dominate fan applications. terminal unit.
First, speed control by variable frequency device (inverter)
applied to essentially standard three-phase AC induction
motors (suitably rated and constructed). These devices Damper control
allow a speed control range of approximately 30 to 100 per
cent (over-speed operation is also possible where sufficient A damper is normally of the butterfly or multi-leaf type and
motor capacity is available) and offer a variety of interface capable of controlling the volume, providing the pressure
options for building management system (BMS) and other drop across the damper does not exceed about 40 Pa. If the
control system integration. pressure drop is higher, there will be a tendency to generate
excessive noise. Normally the damper is supplied as a
The second and, more recently, popular speed control type separate component for direct installation in the ductwork
is referred to as ‘EC’ technology in reference to the electronic and not as part of a terminal unit. Final adjustment is
commutation applied to a high efficiency permanent carried out manually on-site.
magnet DC motor. Power supply conversion is generally
provided on the motor itself, allowing direct connection to
the AC mains supply. Again, a range of interface options is Dampers, while essential for airflow balancing in branched
available. systems, waste fan energy and should not generally be used
for primary air volume control. See GIR 41: Variable Flow
Control (Action Energy, 1996) for further information on
AC induction motor designs have reached good levels of
volume control.
efficiency, particularly in larger sizes, and European
legislation (IEC, 2014) for minimum motor efficiency levels
extends down to approximately 80 per cent at 0.75 kW. The 2.6.2.3 Control of temperature
best EC-type motors are capable of reaching these efficiency
levels in motors with output ratings down to approximately
200 W. The control of temperature may be achieved by:
—— blending: two separate airstreams, one warm and

It is important for the system designer to understand that one cool, are supplied to a zone and mixed in a
control elements (both electrical and mechanical types) terminal unit to produce a supply air temperature
have an inherent power conversion efficiency that is less that offsets the zone cooling or heating loads
than unity and that their use may also have a detrimental
effect on the base motor efficiency. —— reheat: controlled reheat of a pre-conditioned, low
temperature air supply by means of hot water,
These effects need to be assessed and compared with the steam or electric coils, may be used to give a
potential energy savings with full knowledge of the modes resultant supply air temperature that will satisfy the
of system operation. zone requirement.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

2.6.3 Mixing boxes 2.6.4.2 Terminal and diffuser types
A mixing box is a plenum in which recirculated and fresh Types vary according to need, and it is important to select
air are mixed before entering an AHU. It may be part of the the correct component. Common types are described in
ductwork installation, a builder’s work chamber or a more detail below (REHVA, 2003; Jackman, 1990).
standard module attached to packaged plant.
Pure displacement terminals
Mixing boxes must be designed to provide sufficient mixing
so that freezing outside air does not stratify below warm Pure displacement terminals aim to get air into the room
recirculation air on entering the filters. If in doubt, a frost with a minimum of eddies, room air mixing and temperature
coil at the air intake should be provided. Motorised dampers pick-up before it reaches the occupants. Hence there is a
should be located and set to promote mixing of the very small temperature difference between the supply air
airstreams. Parallel blade dampers may assist mixing. Air and that of the occupied zone.
blenders/baffles can also be used. To improve the range
ability of a motorised control damper, the face velocity Induction-type diffusers
should be increased to 5–6 m·s–1 by adjusting the duct size
or by blanking off an appropriate area of the duct at the Induction-type diffusers are intended to promote various
damper. Damper quality is critical; play in linkages and levels of eddy mixing of the room air at the diffuser face.
pivots should be minimal and leakage on shut-off should be This allows lower supply air temperatures and hence
less than 0.02. marginally greater displacement cooling capacity. They
have a larger approach temperature, generally require some
The use of high velocities and the other methods mentioned mechanical cooling and impart a higher turbulent intensity
to promote improved mixing does have consequences in with potential discomfort. Induction type diffusers for
terms of system operating power and of noise generation. displacement ventilation require a substantial diffuser open
area to obtain low velocities. Without this the discharge,
velocity will be too high to support displacement ventilation
2.6.4 Air terminal devices: diffusers (see section 2.2.8.2).
and terminals
Swirl-type diffusers
Swirl type diffusers introduce air into a space with a
swirling rotational discharge. This results in a rapid
An air terminal device is needed to ensure the correct induction of room air into the primary air stream causing a
discharge of air from a ventilation system into the ventilated quicker reduction of primary air velocity and temperature
space. Air can be supplied to the space in a number of ways differential than in the case of conventional square or
(HEVAC, 2015), the principal division being between circular diffusers.
diffusers and perpendicular jets. Airflow patterns for both
types are strongly dependent upon the presence or absence
of the Coanda effect (see ‘Coanda effect’ in section 2.4.3.5). 2.6.5 Ventilation air intake and
Table 2.34 summarises the types of air terminal devices and discharge points
provides information on typical face velocities (based on
any local control devices being fully open) and noise levels. Outdoor air is drawn into a mechanical ventilation system
through an air intake and discharged into the atmosphere
The location of terminal devices is also an important from the ventilation system through a discharge terminal.
consideration. A floor-based supply is usually selected if
raised floors are in place as might be common for IT systems. Each intake and discharge point should be protected from
Floor-based systems allow the ceiling mass to be exposed. the weather by louvres, cowls or similar devices. Any space
They may however restrict the furniture layout unless any behind or under louvres or cowls should be ‘tanked’ and
under-floor units or distribution grilles are designed for drained if there is a possibility of penetration by, and
easy relocation. Access for maintenance is, in theory, easy. accumulation of, rain or snow that could stagnate and give
Displacement system diffusers are normally floor based or rise to unpleasant odours within the building. Bird screens
floor mounted. Alternatively, diffusers may be ceiling and insert mesh should be used to prevent entry by birds or
based. This allows greater flexibility of furniture layout and other large objects. Intake points should be situated to
also allows heat to be more efficiently extracted from light minimise pollution from potential sources (existing and
fittings. Supply terminals may also be incorporated into planned) including:
wall (high or low level), desktop, seat back or under seats.
—— traffic
Further guidance can be obtained from HEVAC (2015).
Conventional mixing systems are typically ceiling based. —— boiler flues and exhausts from standby generators
(or combined heat and power engines)
Diffusers may be radial, part-radial or linear and normally —— cooling towers and other heat rejection plant
utilise the Coanda effect and or/swirl to reduce the risk of
excessive room air movement. A perpendicular jet is formed —— vents from plumbing, oil storage tanks etc.
by discharging air through grilles, louvres, nozzles or any —— ventilation exhausts from fume cupboards,
opening that allows perpendicular flow. Direction and kitchens, toilets, car parks, print rooms
spread adjustment can be provided using blades and/or
swivel adjustment. --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- —— stagnant water (e.g. on flat roofs)
Equipment 2-95
—— roosting ledges for birds (droppings can be a source Locating system discharge and intake points close together
of biological contamination) facilitates the use of some heat-recovery strategies. However,
it will also increase the risk of ‘short circuiting’. Even
—— gardens or areas of vegetation (sources of fungal extract systems from ‘normal’ occupied areas will contain
spores or pollen) pollutants generated by internal sources. These may not
represent a health hazard but may still result in an odour
—— areas where leaves or other litter might accumulate nuisance if recirculated. The more remote the intake from
the discharge point, the less the risk of short circuiting.
—— radon gas. Locating the intake and discharge on different façades can
also help to reduce the risk. However, wind forces on the
Because traffic is generally a ground-level pollutant, there two fan systems (which will be balanced for openings on
is normally a reduction in pollutant concentration with the same façade) may affect fan performance and cause flow
height, so that concentrations are lower at roof level. instabilities, particularly where fan pressures are low. The
Vehicle loading bays can be subject to traffic pollution. influence of wind pressures can be reduced by:
—— positioning openings within a zone of minimal
Whilst wet cooling towers give rise to the greatest health pressure fluctuation
concern because of the potential risk of legionella, other
heat rejection equipment can also affect system performance —— providing balanced openings that face in two or
by elevating the temperature of the intake air and increasing more opposite directions or an omni-directional
the cooling demand on the system. roof-mounted cowl.
Table 2.34 Types of air terminal device

Type Application Location Core velocity / m·s–1 Description and remarks
Quiet Commer-
cially quiet
1. Perforated or stamped lattice Supply, Ceiling, side Up to 3 Up to 6 Simple form of grille with small free area.
extract, wall, floor Alternatively can be used as supply diffuser with high
transfer air entrainment allowing large quantities to be
diffused. For low-level ‘laminar flow’ panels to give
displacement ventilation, a velocity of 0.25 m·s–1 is
used.
2. Aerofoil blades Supply, Ceiling, side 4 8 Frequently used grille with large free area. Directional
(one row adjustable) extract wall, desk top control in one plane only for supply applications.
3. Aerofoil blades Supply Side wall 4 8 As type 2 but with directional control in two planes.
(two rows adjustable)
4. Fixed blade Supply, 4 8 Robust grille with limited free area. Some directional
extract control possible using profiled blades.
5. Non-vision Extract, Side wall 3 8 Low free area. Designed to prevent through vision.
transfer
6. ‘Egg crate’ Extract Ceiling, side 4 8 Generally largest free area grille available.
wall
7. Fixed geometry diffusers Supply, Ceiling, floor, 4 8 Radial discharge diffusers offer good air entrainment
extract desk top allowing diffusion of large air quantities. Square or
rectangular diffusers can provide 1-, 2- or 3-way
diffusion. Angled blades can be used to apply twisting
motion to supply air.
8. Adjustable diffusers Supply Ceiling 4 6 As type 7 but offers horizontal or vertical discharge.
Can be thermostatically controlled.
9. Slot and discharge, Supply, Ceiling, side 4 8 Offers vertical or horizontal single or multiple slots.
linear diffusers extract wall, desk Care must be taken with design of plenum box. Desk
top, under top units may incorporate induction of room air.
window
10. Air handling luminaires Supply, Ceiling 4 8 As type 9 but single slot only. Normally used in
extract conjunction with extract through luminaire.
11. Ventilated ceiling nozzle Supply, — — Void above ceiling is pressurised to introduce air at
extract low velocity through many single holes or through
porous panels. Air entrainment is restricted and
natural air currents may affect room air distribution.
12. Nozzles, drum and Supply Ceiling, side — — Adjustable type can be rotating drum or swivelling
punkah louvres wall, under ball, with or without jet for long throws and personal
window, seat air supply or ‘spot’ cooling. Fixed multiple nozzles are
back used for high-induction applications. Velocities
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
depend on throw, noise and induction requirements.
Measures that should be considered to minimise re-entry In the case of chemical or biological contamination,
from contaminated sources include (ASHRAE, 2009): cleaning and filtration of the exhaust will be necessary.
—— grouping exhaust to increase plume rise due to the Typical examples of extract hood are illustrated in Table
greater momentum of the combined exhaust 2.35 below. For each hood the table also gives the equations
—— placing inlets on the roof where wind pressures will for air volume flow rates through overhead canopies for
not vary greatly with direction to ensure greater both cold and hot processes (Stewart, 1985). Appropriate
stability control velocities and convective heat transfer rates are
given in Tables 2.36 and 2.37 respectively.
—— avoiding locating exhaust outlets within enclosures
or architectural screens that may hold contaminants Table 2.38 shows the effects of adjacent surfaces on the
within areas of flow recirculation basic form of hoods and canopies. However, specific
processes may require other hood arrangements not shown
—— discharging exhausts vertically in either Table 2.35 or 2.38. A publication by the American
—— locating wall exhausts on the upper third of a façade Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH,
and intakes on the lower third to take advantage of 2013) provides a wide range of empirically based design
normal wind separation on a building façade data sheets for many common industrial processes, which
(although consideration should be given to flow should always be consulted before proceeding with the
recirculation that can occur on a leeward façade) design of a local exhaust system.
—— avoiding locating inlets and exhausts near edges of The size, aspect ratio, position and number of openings
walls or roofs due to pressure fluctuations. used depend upon:
—— the size and nature of the source (opening must
Toxic and hazardous exhaust must not be discharged in a overhang source if possible)
manner that will result in environmental pollution. The
local authority environmental health officer should be —— the dynamics and rate of evolution of contaminant
consulted to ensure that the proposed discharges will be —— the access needs and position of the operator
acceptable. European Directive 80/779/EEC (EC, 1980)
gives mandatory air-quality standards for smoke and —— the prevailing room air currents (side baffles should
sulphur dioxide (see also section 2.2.2). A vertical discharge be provided if possible).
stack, capable of imparting a high efflux velocity to the
exhaust, may be required. If so, provision must be made for 2.6.6.2 Overhead canopies
handling rainwater and avoiding corrosion. Industrial
processes resulting in polluting emissions to air, water or Overhead canopies are only appropriate for hot processes
land come under the requirements of the Environmental that cannot be kept covered and must not be used if the
Protection Act (HMSO, 1990). CIBSE Guide A (2015a) operator is likely to lean over the process or if strong cross
provides guideline values for pollutants. Reference should draughts are likely to occur. Baffle plates can be incorporated
also be made to CIBSE TM21: Minimising pollution at air into larger hoods to ensure an even velocity across the
intakes (1999) for more detailed guidance on pollution opening, whilst very large hoods should be sectioned, each
sources and assessment methods. section having its own off-take.
2.6.6 Process exhaust hoods 2.6.6.3 Lateral exhaust
For processes in which the emission momentum is small or

2.6.6.1 General tends to carry the pollutant horizontally away from the
source, horizontal slots or hoods at the edge of a work
Exhaust hoods are required to collect stale or contaminated surface or tank may be used. Slots may be arranged one
air from processes for safe discharge into the atmosphere. above the other (see Figure 2.39) or facing each other along
Exhaust
Work gives off vapour after Height slot
removal from tank to suit
work Pressure slot
or nozzels Qe H
Qs 0 = 10°
Figure 2.39 Open surface tank with drying facility, single side exhaust
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 2.40 Push-pull hood W
Equipment 2-97
Table 2.35 Air volume flow equations for hoods and canopies
Type of opening Equation Notes
Canopy Cold source: If D > 0.3 B, use equation for hot source. Canopy
should overhang tank by 0.4 D on each side.
Q = 1.4 P D v
Hot source, exposed horizontal surface: Q is progressively underestimated as D increases

above 1 m.
Q = 0.038 As 3
h D + 0.5 ( A − As )
D
Canopy should overhang tank by 0.4 D on each
side
Hot source, exposed sides and top: Q is progressively underestimated as D increases
B above 1 m. Canopy should overhang tank by 0.4 D
Q = 0.038 As 3
(h A D) / A
t s + 0.5 ( A − As ) on each side
Plain slot   Aspect ratio R should be not less than 10

Q=Lv 4 X X /W +W
 
W
L
Flanged slot   Aspect ratio R should be not less than 10.

Q = 0.75 L v 4 X X /W +W
 
If × > 0.75 W, use equation for plain slot
Plain opening   Aspect ratio R should not exceed 5; equation may

Q = v 10 R X 2 + A be used for R > 5 but with loss of accuracy
 
W L
Flanged opening   Aspect ratio R should not exceed 5; equation may

Q = 0.75 v 10 R X 2 + A be used for R > 5 but with loss of accuracy
 
If × > 0.75 W, use equation for plain opening
Symbols:
A = area of hood/opening (m2) D = height above source (m) W = width of hood/opening (m)
As = horizontal surface area of source (m2) L = length of hood/opening (m) X = distance from source (m)
At = total exposed heated surface area of P = perimeter of source (m) h = rate of convective heat transfer (W·m–2)
source (m2) Q = volume flow rate (m3·s–1) v = control velocity (m·s–1)
B = breadth of source (m) R = aspect ratio (L/W)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

opposite long edges, depending upon the vertical distance water or land come under the requirements of the
of the source above the rim of the tank. If the most remote Environmental Protection Act 1990 (HMSO, 1990)
part of the source is less than 0.5 m from the slot, a single
—— prevent re-entrainment where they may become a
exhaust slot along the longer edge is adequate, otherwise
health or safety hazard in the workplace
two slots, on opposite sides of the source, are required.
—— reclaim usable materials
2.6.6.4 Jet-assisted hoods —— permit cleaned air to be re-circulated
—— prevent physical damage to adjacent properties
Jet-assisted hoods are non-enclosing hoods combined with
compact, linear or radial jets. They are used to separate —— protect neighbours from contaminants.
contaminated zones from relatively clean zones in working
spaces. They prevent contaminated air from moving into Circular ductwork is normally preferred, as it offers a more
clean zones by creating positive static pressures, typically uniform air velocity to resist the settling of material and
in the form of an air curtain. can withstand the higher pressures normally found in
exhaust systems. Design velocities can be higher than the
minimum transport velocity but should never be
2.6.6.5 Push-pull hoods significantly lower. Fans (or other air-moving devices) and
duct materials and construction should be suitable for the
For sources larger than 1 m across, a push-pull hood temperatures, abrasion and corrosion likely to be
arrangement should be used (see Figure 2.40) in which a encountered. Fans should normally be located downstream
slot or row of nozzles is used to blow air across the source. of the air cleaner to reduce possible abrasions and create a
Design data for the hood illustrated in Figure 2.40 are given negative pressure in the air cleaner so leakage will be
below. inward. However, in some instances the fan may be located
upstream from the cleaner to help remove dust.
Exhaust air quantity:
Exhaust stacks must be designed and located to prevent the
Qe = (0.5 to 0.75) × A (2.33) re-entrainment of discharged air into supply system inlets
(see section 2.6.5). Toxic and hazardous exhaust must not
where Qe is the exhaust airflow rate (m3·s–1) and A is the be discharged in a manner that will result in environmental
area of open surface (m2). pollution and the local authority environmental health
officer should be consulted to ensure that the proposed
The value of the numerical factor depends on the discharges will be acceptable.
temperature of the liquid, presence of cross-draughts,
agitation of liquid etc.
2.6.7 Duct equipment
Supply air quantity:
2.6.7.1 General
Qe
Qs = ——– (2.34) Ducting is generally available in rectangular, circular and
w×E flat oval sections, although other sections may be made for
special situations. The majority of rectangular ductwork is
where Qs is the supply airflow rate (m3·s–1), w is the throw made to order and available in any reasonable dimensions.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
length (m) and E is the entrainment factor (see Table 2.39). Ductwork with less than 0.0225 m2 cross-sectional area
(e.g. 150 mm × 150 mm) will generally be more economic if
Height of exhaust opening: made from circular section.
H = 0.18 w (2.35) The designer should consider the full range of sections
available and combine them to suit the specific location.
where H is the height (m) of the exhaust opening. Recommended sizes for rectangular, circular and flat oval
ductwork are given in Appendix 2.A1.
Width of supply opening:
2.6.7.2 Types of duct
size for a supply velocity of 5–10 m·s–1.
The input air volume is usually about 10 per cent of the Rectangular ducting
exhaust volume and the input air should be tempered to
avoid frost damage. The source must not be placed in the Rectangular ducting is most common for low-pressure
input air path since this could result in deflection of the systems because:
contaminant into the workspace. If necessary, baffles or
screens should be used to deflect cross draughts. —— it is readily adapted to fit into the space available
—— it can be readily joined to such component items as
2.6.6.6 Equipment selection principles and heating and cooling coils and filters
integration —— branch connections are made more easily.
Industrial extract equipment may be selected to: For overall economy and performance, the aspect ratio
—— conform with emissions standards; industrial should be close to 1:1 since high aspect ratios increase the
processes resulting in polluting emissions to air, pressure loss, the heat gains/losses and the overall costs.
Equipment 2-99
Table 2.36 Control velocities for hoods

Condition Example Control velocity / m·s–1
Released with practically no velocity into quiet air Evaporation from tanks, degreasing etc. 0.25–0.5
Released at low velocity into moderately still air Spray booths, intermittent container filling, low speed 0.5–1.0
conveyor transfers, welding, plating
Active generation into zone of rapid air motion Spray painting in shallow booths, conveyor loading 1.0–2.5
Released at high initial velocity into zone of very rapid air Grinding, abrasive blasting 2.5–10
motion
Note: the higher values apply if (a) small hoods handling low volumes are used, (b) hoods are subject to draughts, (c) the airborne contaminant is
hazardous, or (d) hoods are in frequent use.
Table 2.37 Convective heat transfer rates for horizontal surfaces Table 2.39 Entrainment factors for push-pull hoods
Surface temperature / °C Rate of heat transfer / W·m–2 Throw length / m Entrainment factor
100 580 0–2.5 6.6
200 1700 2.5–5.0 4.6
300 3060 5.0–7.5 3.3
400 4600 >7.5 2.3
500 6600
Circular ducting is preferable for high-pressure systems

Table 2.38 Effect of side walls and adjacent surfaces and for systems operating at high negative pressures, due to
Type of opening Baffle Effect its high inherent stiffness. Additional stiffening rings may
be necessary at high negative pressure.
Canopy, cold Side walls Reduces effective perimeter, hence
source flow rate Q is reduced
Pressed and fabricated fittings can be made of metal or
Canopy, hot Side walls Reduces cross draughts but minimal
plastic and fitted with push fit gasketed connectors for
source effect on flow rate Q
simple fitting and good airtightness.
Plain slot Long side on  
flat surface Q = L v X 2 X /W +W
 
Flat oval ducting
Plain opening Long surface For R ≤ 2:
on flat surface 
Q = v 5

(2 / R) X 2 
+ A

Flat oval ducting provides an alternative to circular ducting
principally where there is a limitation on one of the
dimensions in the space available for the duct run (e.g.
For 2 < R ≤ 5:
depth of ceiling space). It combines the advantages of

Q = v 5

(R / 2) X 2 
+ A

circular and rectangular ductwork because it can fit in
spaces where there is insufficient room for circular ducting
and can be joined using the techniques for circular duct
Flanged slot or Long side (not For X > 0.75, calculate flow assembly. Flat oval ducting has considerably less flat surface
opening flanged) on flat rate Q for plain arrangement and that is susceptible to vibration and requires less
surface multiply by 0.75 W reinforcement than the corresponding size of rectangular
Symbols: duct. Flat oval duct is suitable for both positive and negative
A = area of hood/opening (m2) v = control velocity (m·s–1)
pressure applications within the limits defined in DW/144:
L = length of hood/opening (m) W = width of hood/opening (m) Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a).
Q = volume flow rate (m3·s–1) X = distance form source (m)
R = aspect ratio (= L/W)
Other sections
However, ducts with a 1:1 aspect ratio require a deep service Other sections may be used, such as triangular sections to
area and are therefore rarely used in ceiling zones due to pass through roof trusses. Such sections present difficulties
space limitations. in the provision of fittings and connections to standard
plant items and are likely to be more expensive than
Rectangular ducting should not be the first choice for high- traditional sections.
pressure systems, as it requires strengthening of the flat
sides and needs to be sealed to make it suitable for this
application. 2.6.7.3 Bend and duct fitting components
Circular ducting Background
Machine-formed, spirally wound ducting and a standard In normal circumstances, the flow of air in ducts is
range of pressed and fabricated fittings makes circular turbulent, with the flow generally in the direction of the
ducting more economical, particularly in low-pressure duct axis. Eddies and secondary motions will result in
systems having a relatively small proportion of fittings. It is energy dissipation due to internal fluid friction. Streamlines
likely to be easier to install, particularly for the main runs will not be parallel to the duct centre-line. In unobstructed
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,
of ductwork. straight ducts, eddies give rise to only relatively small

transverse components of the duct velocity and the flow Mitred elbows (with turning vanes)
velocities are symmetrical about the duct axis.
Rectangular duct bends with either dimension greater than
Disturbance to the flow arising from obstructions, duct 200 mm should have properly designed turning vanes. The
fittings or other components has two major effect. angle of the turning vane should be the same as that of the
bend. Information on the structural requirements of
—— The eddies can be significantly larger in size and turning vanes is given in DW/144: Specification for Sheet
their velocities much higher. Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a). The advantage of this type
—— The flow velocities across the duct become of bend is that it should not significantly distort the velocity
asymmetrical, i.e. much higher velocities can occur profile, so that other duct fittings or components can be
in part of the duct section, whilst in other parts placed closer to the outlet, provided the inlet conditions to
even reverse flow may occur. the bend are uniform. If the flow is not uniform at the inlet,
this non-uniformity may persist downstream of the bend.
From the point of view of duct design, the important Optimum design of turning vanes, with careful positioning,
aspects of the effects of disturbance to airflow are: should provide a bend with less resistance to airflow than a
—— increased pressure loss due to creation of eddies good design of radiused bend, but this may not be achieved
in practice. This is because the inside and outside corners
—— increased pressure loss as high-velocity air mixes of the bend are usually not rounded, and internal and side
with low-velocity air fixings provide some obstructions. The pressure losses may
then be a little higher than those in a good design of
—— noise generated by the interaction on eddies with radiused bend, particularly in the case of small duct sizes.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the inner surfaces of the ducts. Eddies will be formed where air separates from the outside
surface of a turning vane causing this type of bend to
Bends generate more noise than radiused and splitter bends.
Figure 2.41 illustrates common bend types; their influence Research by the American Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning
on the airflow is described below. Bends may be Contractors’ Association (SMACNA, 2006) on a 600 mm
characterised as ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ according to whether the square elbow with blades of 114 mm radius shows the
change of direction is in the plane of the longer or shorter optimum spacing to be 82 mm. When the length of the
side of the cross section, respectively (see Figure 2.42). blades is greater than 900 mm, it is preferable to use double
thickness turning vanes to add stiffness, but there is a
penalty due to increased pressure drop.
Radiused bends
Mitred elbows (without vanes or splitters)
The air will flow to the outer surface causing high velocities
at discharge on the outside with much lower velocities on This type of bend is not recommended for bends with
the inside. In addition, the centrifugal effect will cause a angles >30° because the flow becomes both distorted and
higher static pressure at the outer surface, leading to some very turbulent. The flow leaves the bend with higher
transverse flow towards the inner surface, and hence velocities on the outside surface, and separation occurs at
producing a spiral motion at the outlet. If the bend is too the inside sharp edge, leading to severe eddying. The one
tight (i.e. r/w <1), flow will readily separate from the inside advantage of this eddying is that it will lead to mixing of
surface with subsequent eddying and increased pressure temperature-stratified air but the pressure loss will be high,
loss. In practice, radiused bends should have an r/w value of with large pressure losses resulting (see section 4.11.2.4 of
1.5; for low pressure-loss situations r/w should be increased CIBSE Guide C (2007)). For low-velocity systems, mitred
to 2. They should have a downstream straight duct of at elbows can produce useful sound attenuation due to a
least five equivalent diameters to allow the flow to stabilise reflection effect. Other fittings should not be placed close to
again. As a general rule, the formation of an offset in a duct the elbow.
layout is better achieved using two angled bends (<90°)
rather than two right-angled bends.
Branches
(Note: in this Guide, r is taken as the mean radius of the
bend to the centre-line of the duct; DW/144: Specification There are many designs of branches and junctions in use.
for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a) relates r to the The important features are that the flow should be divided
throat radius of the duct.) (or combined) with the minimum interference and
disturbance, and that changes in duct sizes should not be
made at the branch but at a short distance downstream (or
Splitter bends upstream).
These are tight radiused bends that use internal splitters to Examples of good and economic branch design are shown
improve the airflow (see Figure 2.43). Standard settings for in Figure 2.44. A good branch design cannot be effective if
splitters are given in Table 2.40, which is taken from BESA the flow entering the branch is not uniform across the
(2013a). The flow in the air passages is as described for the section. For some of the BESA recommended tee designs,
radiused bend, but because multiple streams emerge at no experimental data are available for the pressure loss, but
discharge, the outlet velocity profile will be more uniform the designer should consider their use. Chapter 4 of CIBSE
than for a plain radiused bend. Hence the minimum Guide C (2007) provides useful information. Note that the
straight length of downstream duct may be reduced to addition of a small shoe on the branch tee can reduce
about four equivalent lengths. pressure loss in both the branch flow and the straight flow.
Equipment 2-101
Figure 2.41 Common types of

bends: (a) 90° radius bend
without vanes, rectangular, (b)
short radius bend with vanes (any
angle), rectangular, (c) mitred
elbow without vanes (any angle),
(d) 90° mitred elbow with vanes
r
r h
h
90o α
w
w
(a) (b)
h
h
w w
h
(c)
(d)
c
b
a
Hard Soft
Figure 2.42 ‘Hard’ and ‘soft’ bends
DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, Minimum throat

radius = 100 mm w
2013a) suggests appropriate shoe dimensions for various
sizes of duct. Figure 2.43 Short radius bend with splitters; position of splitters
(reproduced from DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA,
2013a) by permission of BESA)
Change of section
Table 2.40 Short radius bends with splitters; position of splitters (BESA,
Expansion 2013a)
Dimension w Number of Splitter position
A tapered expansion of a duct causes an appreciable pressure / mm splitters
A B C
loss due to the tendency of the flow to break away from the
sides and form eddies. The greater the total included angle 400–800 1 w/3 — —
of divergence, the greater the pressure loss, especially for 800–1600 2 w/4 w/2 —
large changes in area. 1600–2000 3 w/8 w/3 w/2
The cheapest form of taper for rectangular ductwork is to Note: splitters not required for bend angles less than 45°
maintain the same plane for three sides and incline the
fourth side only (see Figure 2.45). In any diverging section,
when the plane of any side changes by more than 22.5°,
DW/144: Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA,
2013a) recommends the inclusion of splitter vanes, which introduction of such vanes. Certainly the inclusion of
should bisect the angle between any side and the duct splitters would not seem worthwhile when the change in
centre-line (see Figure 2.46). However, it is not clear by section (A2 /A1) >4. Further information can be found in
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
how much the friction pressure drop is reduced by the CIBSE Guide C, chapter 4 (2001).
2.6.7.4 Duct support and fixing components
General
Supports are an essential part of the ductwork system and

their supply and installation are normally the responsibility
of the ductwork contractor. The choice between available
methods of fixing will depend on the type of building
Shoe structure and on any limitations imposed by the structural
design. Unless the designer has specified the requirements
in detail, the load to be carried will be understood to be
(a) (b) limited to the ductwork and its associated thermal and/or
acoustic insulation. However, where the duct is large
enough to allow human access for cleaning, the duct and its
supports should be sufficiently strong to withstand the
additional load and the type and location of access
components should allow the person carrying out the
cleaning to enter and exit the duct. The range of supports
available includes an increasing range of proprietary types.
With a proprietary device, unless the designer has specified

the requirements in detail, it will be the responsibility of
the ductwork installer to ensure that it meets the
(c) requirements, with a sufficient margin of overload, and that
it is installed in accordance with the manufacturers’ recom
mendations.
Fixing to building structure
The fixing to the building structure should be of a strength

and durability compatible with those of the ductwork
support attached to it. A fixing to concrete or brickwork
must be made in such a way that it cannot loosen or pull out
through normal stressing or through normal changes in the
building structure.
(d) (e)
Figure 2.44 Examples of good duct design; (a) 90° swept branch, Horizontal ductwork
rectangular, (b) 90° branch tee with shoe, rectangular, (c) 90° radiused
twin bend, rectangular, (d) 45° branch tee, circular, (e) 90° conical branch The hanger is normally mild steel plain rod or studding or
tee, circular flat strap, pre-treated by hot-dip galvanising, sherardising,
electro-deposited zinc plating or other acceptable
Contraction anticorrosion treatment. Other materials, such as multi-
stranded wire, may also be acceptable. Provided the
Relatively little pressure drop is caused by a contraction. integrity of the ductwork is maintained, hangers may be
The designer should not feel constrained in choosing the attached to the corners of either the flanges or stiffeners, as
taper angle for a contraction. No splitter vanes are needed an alternative to the use of a bottom bearer. Details of the
for a contraction. construction of supports are given in DW/144: Specification
for Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a).
Other fittings Where horizontal ductwork passes through a compartment
boundary such as a wall, fire dampers should be used to
As a general rule, fittings should avoid abrupt changes in maintain fire integrity
direction and sharp edges that cause the flow to separate
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and form eddies, which in turn increase pressure loss and

noise generation. A fitting such as a damper can create Vertical ducts
vortices, which will result in a greater pressure drop than
normal in a subsequent downstream fitting. Separation The design of supports for vertical ducts is dictated by site
between the fittings by a minimum length of 5 equivalent conditions and they are often located to coincide with the
diameters is recommended. individual floor slabs. The designer must specify the
particular requirements if the spacing exceeds four m.
In the case of bends in rectangular ductwork, the Vertical ducts should be supported from the stiffening
combination of two bends in close proximity can give a angle or the angle frame or by separate supporting angles
lower pressure drop than two that are far apart. Further fixed to the duct.
information can be found in CIBSE Guide C, chapter 4
(2007). This is not the case for two segmented circular ducts Where vertical ductwork passes through a compartment
in close proximity, but the effect of close coupling is not boundary such as a floor, fire dampers should be used to
significant. maintain fire integrity.
Equipment 2-103
Splitters
Figure 2.45 Change of section for a rectangular duct; one side only
inclined
The support bearer, which, depending on duct/structural

opening size, could be either channel or angle section, may Figure 2.46 Change of section for a rectangular duct with splitters
be utilised in any of the following arrangements:
—— Fixed directly to duct skin with sealed fixings (flat Heat transfer
face only of either rectangular or flat oval ductwork).
—— Supporting the underside of a flat bar clip in halves It is not normally necessary to make special arrangements
(circular or flat oval ductwork). for the limitation of heat transfer via the duct supports.
However, there may be special cases where the temperature
—— Supporting the underside of either the stiffening difference justifies a heat barrier to conserve heat or to
frame or the flanged joint of any duct section. prevent condensation. Such requirements must be specified
—— Supporting either a stiffening frame or a flanged by the designer.
joint below using drop rods/studs.
Fire-resisting ductwork
Insulated ducts with vapour sealing
Ductwork supports illustrated in DW/144: Specification for
Vapour sealing may be required where the temperature of Sheet Metal Ductwork (BESA, 2013a) cannot be used on fire-
the air within the duct can fall low enough to promote rated ductwork systems. Oversizing can be an acceptable
condensation on the exterior surface of the duct. This can method of achieving fire rating of supports.
cause moisture penetration through the thermal insulation.
Fire-resisting ductwork may be required to meet the
In this case, the most important requirement is to limit requirements of either European or British standards.
penetration of the seal by the support. The extent of any Further comprehensive information may be found in the
vapour sealing of ductwork thermal insulation, and the Fire Rated and Smoke Outlet Ductwork (‘the ASFP Blue
method to be used, must be clearly specified in advance by Book’) (ASFP, 2000). Additional information may also be
the designer. found there for smoke control ductwork.
2.6.8 Ductwork connections
2.6.8.1 Fan connections

Good Good
The fan performance figures given by manufacturers in
their catalogue data are based on tests carried out under
ideal conditions, which include long uniform ducts on the
fan inlet/outlet. These standard test conditions are unlikely
to occur in practice. An objective of good ductwork design
should therefore be to ensure that, as far as practicable, the
fan performance will not be de-rated by the system.
Ensuring that the fan inlet flow conditions comprise
uniform axial flow velocities with low levels of turbulence
can help to achieve this.
Passable Just
passable
(a) (b)
Bad Bad
Figure 2.48 Centrifugal fan, swirl to impeller rotation: (a) swirl in same
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 2.47 Outlet connections to centrifugal fans direction as impeller, (b) swirl in contrary direction to impeller
15°
Good Good
Good
Passable
2d
d 2d
Passable Just
passable
Passable Bad
Figure 2.49 Centrifugal fans; inlet connections Bad Bad
Figure 2.50 Axial fans; inlet connections
Where the outlet duct is larger than the fan discharge

connections, there should be a gradual transition as
illustrated in Figure 2.47 with a following section of straight
duct having a length equivalent to three duct diameters.
Figure 2.48 also gives examples of good and bad centrifugal
fan outlet connections, which apply equally to axial flow
Splitters required Splitters required fans.
if > 22·5° Good if > 22·5°
The design of the fan inlet connection must be carefully
considered to avoid swirl in the airstream. When the air
spins in the same direction as the impeller, the performance
and power consumption of the fan are reduced. When the
air spins in the opposite direction to the impeller, the power
consumption and noise will increase with hardly any
pressure increase. Airstream swirl is usually induced by
large variations across the fan inlet eye caused by the air
passing round a tight bend immediately before the eye. The
two forms of connection to centrifugal fans likely to cause
swirl are shown in Figure 2.47.
For any condition in which a centrifugal fan is located

within a free inlet the clear distance between the suction
opening and the nearest wall should not be less than the
diameter of the inlet. If two fans with free inlets are
positioned within the same chamber their adjacent suction
openings should be at least 1.5 diameters apart. Examples
of good and bad practice in duct inlet connections to
centrifugal fans are shown in Figure 2.48 and to axial fans
in Figure 2.50.
Passable Very bad
Figure 2.51 Plant connections
2.6.8.2 Plant connections
Airflow across air treatment components such as filters,

heat exchangers and humidifiers will be influenced by the
pattern of the approaching airstream and, if unsatisfactory
conditions are created, the performance of the components
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Equipment 2-105
2d
0·3 d
H 0·25 d
0·5 d
0·75 d
d d d
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Bad Passable Good
Figure 2.52 Discharge cowls; good and bad design
100 25
80 20
70 Reference air
permeability
60 15
50 12·5
40 10
30
27 6·75
Air permeability related to length of opening joint / (m3.h–1).m–1
Class 1
20 5·0
Air permeability related to overall area / (m3.h–1).m–2
10 2·5
Class 2
9 2·2
8 2·0
7
6
3 0·75
Class 3
2 0·5
Class 4 Figure 2.53 Classification of

doors and windows by air
permeability (reproduced from
BS EN 12207: 2000: Windows and
Doors. Air permeability.
1 0·25 Classification (BSI, 2000) by
10 50 100 150 300 600 permission of the British
Pressure / Pa Standards Institution)
will be reduced. Examples of good and bad practice are Table 2.41 Reference air permeabilities at 100 Pa and maximum test
shown in Figures 2.51 and 2.52 below. pressures related to overall area and length of opening joint
Class Reference air permeability at 100 Pa and maximum test pressure
2.6.8.3 External louvres and cowl Related to overall area Related to length of opening joint
connections Permeability Max. test Permeability Maximum test
/ (m3·h–1)·m–2 pressure / (m3·h–1)·m–1 pressure
Recommendations on the clearance that should be provided / Pa / Pa
between a cowl and an external vertical duct opening are 0* — — — —
illustrated in Figure 2.52 (see also sections 4.11.2.31– 1 50 150 12.50 150
4.11.2.35 of CIBSE Guide C (2007)). Where adequate
2 27 300 6.75 300
clearance cannot be provided, fitting an inverted cone
deflector under the cowl can reduce the resistance. 3 9 600 2.25 600
4 3 600 0.75 600
2.6.9 Natural ventilation equipment * Not tested
2.6.9.1 Openable window design shape and thickness of the window frame. Figure 2.55
illustrates that the effective open area of a window may not
BS EN 12207: 2000: Windows and doors. Air permeability. increase very rapidly until the opening angle is quite large.
Classification (BSI, 2000) classifies window and door
performance according to their permeability (see Table 2.41 Impact on comfort
below). Reference air permeabilities are recorded for each
class of window related to the permeability of both the
The position of the room air inlet will have an effect on
overall area and of the opening joint. These are defined at a
comfort factors such as draughts. Air entering the space at
test pressure of 100 Pa. BS EN 12207: 2000 (BSI, 2000)
the occupied level can improve comfort in summer, when
describes how limits can be defined for other test pressures
the air movement will provide a cooling benefit. In winter
and how windows are subsequently classified according to
when the entering air is much colder, the same opening
the relationship between the two permeability assessments.
may result in discomfort from draughts. Consequently,
separate winter openings may be preferred (either separate
Figure 2.53 shows the upper limits of each class, which are high-level windows or trickle ventilators). To avoid high
derived from the reference air permeabilities at 100 Pa summer ventilation rates (causing papers to be disturbed),
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
related to the area and length of opening joint, see Table the height of that part of the window where air enters the
2.41. space should be above desk level.
General information on window design and selection is
available from other CIBSE/SLL publications such as SLL Thermal contact
LG10: Daylighting — A guide for designers (SLL, 2015) and
CIBSE AM10: Natural ventilation in non-domestic In strategies utilising night cooling and thermal capacity,
buildings (2005). There are a number of important criteria, the ventilation air needs to be able to make good thermal
which are outlined in the following sections. contact with the fabric in order to effect good heat transfer.
Ventilation capacity Security
The ventilation capacity is the amount of air that will flow The implications of open windows, particularly in night
through a given window area of different designs. It ventilation mode, need to be considered. Some window
depends on the ratio of the effective open area to the façade designs can be lockable in a part-open position, which
area of the window unit. Ventilation capacity will be allows adequate night ventilation rates but minimises the
maximised by increasing the vertical separation and risk of intruders gaining access to the building.
magnitude of those open areas. This will in turn depend on
the way the window opens (i.e. side, top/bottom, centre
pivot, sliding etc.), and the distribution of the open area Integration with solar control strategies (particularly
over the vertical height of the window. Figure 2.54 shows blinds)
the open areas for a horizontal centre pivot window
compared with a side-hung window. A typical pressure The blind and window opening may interact in a number
gradient caused by inside–outside temperature differences of ways including:
is also shown. The centre pivot window has a much higher
—— the movement of the window may be restricted by
ventilation capacity because the open area is concentrated
an independent internal (or external) blind; this is
at regions of high pressure difference. In contrast, much of
mainly a problem for pivoting windows
the open area of side-hung windows is in a region of small
pressure difference. —— with pivoting windows and mid-pane blinds, there
is the impact on shading performance when the
Adjustability angle of the blind louvres to the incident radiation
changes as the window is opened
Good control at small openings is particularly important —— the effect of the blind in providing a resistance to
for winter comfort. The flow characteristic is influenced by airflow; the blind elements (unless they are mid-
the mode of opening the window and factors such as the pane) will provide an obstruction to the free area of
Equipment 2-107
the opening (this is independent of window type, opening is, the summer ventilation will either
see Pitts and Georgiadis (1994)). provide cooling to the occupant and poor thermal
contact with the ceiling, or vice versa. Top hung
windows can act as scoops for warm air rising up
Window specification the outside of the building (e.g. from convection
currents generated by solar gain on building
Information on the performance characteristics of various surfaces).
window types (see Figure 2.56) is given below. The effect of
these different characteristics should be assessed with —— Side-hung windows: these are similar in performance
reference to the criteria listed above. terms to vertical pivot windows. Because of the
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
greater distance from window edge to pivot (and
—— Horizontal pivot windows: these have a high venti
hence greater turning moment), they are more
lation capacity because large open areas are created
susceptible to being blown by gusts of wind. Inward
at a separation equivalent to the window height.
opening windows can cause clashes with furniture
With single-sided ventilation, air will enter at the
positions. The combination of top-hung winter
lower level and exit via the top of the window. An
ventilators and side-hung summer windows (with
opening of 22° is usually considered the norm for
effective weather stripping) provides good all-
‘fully open’; for example for a typical 1200 mm wide
round performance. The top hung winter ventilator
by 1600 mm high window this results in an effective
can also provide a secure opening for summer
open area of 0.66 m2. They are easily adjustable to
ventilation that, in combination with the side-hung
provide control of the ventilation rate. Maximising
opening, will enhance stack effect.
the height of the top of the window in the room will
help exhaust warmer air at ceiling level when —— Sliding windows (including sash): depending on
operating in single-sided ventilation mode. Glazing whether they are vertical sliding (sash) or horizontal
at high level will also promote good levels of natural sliding windows, these will have similar ventilation
light deep into the space. When operating in wind- characteristics to the horizontal and vertical pivot
driven cross-ventilation mode, air will enter at the window respectively. Sliding windows can provide
top and bottom of the window. The air entering good control over summer ventilation. Sash
through the top gap will be directed upward and windows allow the stack effect to be controlled
this can improve thermal contact with exposed through adjustment of the opening size at both the
ceilings for effective night ventilation. Solar top and bottom of the window. However, ensuring a
radiation striking the opaque surfaces of the wall or good seal in the closed position requires particular
the ground adjacent to the façade can generate attention. This is important in terms of reducing
rising convection currents. These can be deflected draughts and energy losses in winter. Recent
into the room if the outward projection of the designs have significantly improved the
window extends beyond the window reveal. performance of sliding windows in this respect.
—— Vertical pivot windows: because the opening is dis The design of sash windows needs to be such as to
tributed uniformly over their height, these windows facilitate easy opening of the upper sash.
have a lower ventilation capacity. For the same 22° —— Tilting top vents: these provide smaller opening areas
opening, the effective open area is reduced by 40 than the other systems, because the opening portion
per cent relative to the horizontal pivot. Vertical
pivot windows can act as a form of ‘wind scoop’ for
wind directions parallel to the face of the building.
Because they have a large vertical opening, they are
more likely to allow rain into the building. Carefully Top hung window
designed weather stripping is required for both
horizontal and vertical centre pivot windows to
achieve a good performance in winter.
—— Top/bottom hung windows: as ventilators, these are
less effective still, since all the opening area is
Effective opening
concentrated at one end of the window height. The
effective open area is about 35 per cent of the
horizontal pivot type. Depending on where the Figure 2.55 Effect of a sill on the
Deep external sill relative open area of a window
Open areas
Maximum ∆P
Minimum ∆P
Figure 2.54 Ventilation capacity

of different window
Horizontal centre pivot Side hung Pressure gradient configurations
occupies only a proportion of the window height. Trickle ventilators are usually designed to provide the
However they can provide good draught-free required minimum fresh air rate, particularly in winter.
ventilation, especially in cross-ventilation mode. If For England and Wales, Part F of the Building Regulations
the vent is bottom hung and opening inwards (the (NBS, 2010b) should be consulted for further details of the
‘hopper’ window), the natural flow pattern may requirements, and the Technical Handbook (Scottish
encourage good thermal contact with the ceiling. Government, 2015) for requirements in Scotland.
However, care must be taken to protect the opening
from driving rain. Draughts, especially those occurring at ankle height, can be
avoided by directing the incoming air upwards, or
—— Tilt and turn windows: these are a combination unit
positioning the ventilators at high level, e.g. > 1.75 m
offering bottom- and side-hung options (although
above the floor. This allows incoming air to mix with the
the side-hung mode is mainly intended for cleaning
warmer room air before reaching floor level. Alternatively,
purposes). A study of several buildings by Willis et
air can enter through wall ventilators positioned behind
al. (1995) suggests that the tilt setting provides too
heaters. The form of the ventilator should promote rapid
much ventilation in winter and insufficient
mixing with the room air to minimise cold draughts.
ventilation in summer. The turn mode can cause
General guidance on the use of trickle ventilators has been
clashes with furniture.
published by BRE (1998).
Whereas windows perform many functions, sections 2.6.9.2
Added to this is the daily ‘reservoir’ effect of the trickle
to 2.6.9.8 describe openings in the façade whose sole
vents that purge the room overnight and provide a room
purpose is to provide ventilation. Note that any such
full of fresh air ready for the following day’s occupants. The
devices should offer a very low resistance to airflow, as the
larger the room volume, as with the higher ceilings in
driving forces for natural ventilation may only be in the
naturally ventilated rooms, the longer this reservoir effect
region of 10 Pa. Further guidance on product development
will last during the occupied period. As trickle vents are
and natural ventilation design tools is available from BRE
intended to promote background ventilation only, their
(1999c).
main application is for fresh air supply in the winter
months. Twenty-four-hour use of trickle ventilation can
2.6.9.2 Air bricks and trickle ventilators provide a reservoir of fresh air that may be sufficient to
maintain air quality throughout the day. With higher
Air bricks incorporate no provision for control of pollutant loads, rapid ventilation by opening windows for
infiltration rate. Automatic ventilators, which provide short periods or by mechanical ventilation might be
nominally constant infiltration under variable wind required. For this reason, trickle ventilators are usually
velocities, should be considered as an alternative. The used in conjunction with other types of ventilation opening.
concept of ‘build tight, ventilate right’ is increasingly
recognised as the basis of good design for ventilation. This Trickle vents can be in the window frame, part of the glazed
relies upon an airtight fabric and the provision of a means unit or independent of the window (usually above it).
of controlled background ventilation. In a naturally Various refinements on the basic trickle ventilator are
ventilated building this is often provided by trickle available. Acoustic trickle ventilators are available that
ventilators with higher rates of ventilation provided by reduce noise, but they bring a penalty of increased pressure
other means such as the window or specific controlled drop.
damper devices.
Control options available include the following.
—— Basic (uncontrolled): consisting of a series of holes or
slots that are covered to give protection from the
weather. No control is possible, hence positioning
and appropriate selection are very important.
—— Standard controllable (including ‘hit and miss’): closure
may be possible through the use of a manually
(a) (b) (c)
operated slide that covers the openings. Occupants
need to understand the operation of such devices.
—— Humidity controlled: mostly used in kitchens and
bathrooms within dwellings, as the scope for use in
offices is limited with moisture not being the
dominant pollutant.
(d) (e) (f)

—— Pressure controlled: generally used in offices; inside/
outside pressure difference is one possible control
strategy.
—— Pollutant (e.g. CO2 , CO, smoke controlled): used in
schools, theatres, shopping malls etc. and sometimes
in dwellings. Practical use for offices is limited as,
except for CO2 (where considerable drift has been
reported), these are not normally the dominant
(g) pollutants.
Figure 2.56 Window types: (a) horizontal pivot, (b) vertical pivot,
(c) top/bottom hung, (d) side hung, (e) sliding, (f) tilting top vent, The ventilation performance of trickle ventilators is
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(g) louvre traditionally specified in terms of ‘free air space’ or ‘open

Equipment 2-109
area’. Acoustic effectiveness is considered in the light of the 2.6.9.7 Dampered openings with louvres
‘effective area’ or ‘equivalent area’. This is considered in
detail in BRE guidance (BRE, 1998). There are dampered openings available that are fixed to the
outside building façade and protected from water ingress
Effective area is also considered to be a more realistic by a suitable weather-protective louvre. Such systems take
measure of airflow performance. It is defined as the area of advantage of either the stack or mixed-mode principle and
a single sharp-edged hole (in a thin plate) that passes the manufacturers have developed decorative internal cover
same volume airflow rate and at the same applied pressure grilles if the opening is within the occupied space and even
difference as the vent being tested. It requires to be allowed for low-pressure hot water (LPHW) coils to be used
measured on an airflow test rig. Most trickle ventilators in conjunction with these to temper the incoming air for
with the same equivalent area will have similar airflow winter conditions and prevent cold slugs of air entering
performance, even though their free areas might differ. directly into the room.
Consideration of effective area is now required in Part F of
the Building Regulations (NBS, 2013b). 2.6.9.8 Acoustic dampers with silencers
Internally where the air passes through the building

2.6.9.3 Louvres exchanging from room to room or room to atrium, an
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
acoustic damper (Figure 2.57) may be required as a control

These are usually constructed of either glass or aluminium point for the design of the system. This may require
blades. Security bars can be fitted inside the louvres and additional silencers to perform to the relevant space-
this enhances their potential application in the night required noise standards but the dampers with acoustic
ventilation mode. Versions incorporating acoustic atten properties should be reviewed for their initial performance.
uation are also available. Whilst providing good control
over summer ventilation, adjustable louvres usually present 2.6.9.9 Shafts and ducts
the greatest crack length for a given opening. However,
conventional hinged louvres are usually difficult to seal Many ventilation strategies rely on shafts to take air
when closed, making it difficult to limit infiltration losses. vertically through a building. Similarly, ducts (including
floor voids) are used to provide horizontal distribution.
The criteria for sizing these airways are very different to
2.6.9.4 Roof ventilators
those used in sizing conventional mechanical ventilation
systems in order to keep pressure drops within the range
In combination with low-level openings in the fabric, roof available from natural driving forces. This means that
ventilators can be used to take advantage of summer stack adequate space must be allowed to incorporate these larger
effect, particularly for tall spaces. However, they must be ducts or shafts. A second crucial issue is the requirement to
specified to have low crack leakage or wind-induced keep the inlet ducts clean to minimise air-quality problems.
draughts will cause discomfort in winter. This will typically require inlet screens and access for
cleaning.
For maximum effect the outlet should be on the ridge of a
pitched roof and the cap should project sufficiently above By definition, shaft outlets are at high level and therefore
the ridge to minimise the influence of turbulence arising are in a region of higher wind speed. This means that the
from wind blowing up the slope of the roof. Natural magnitude of the wind pressure acting on the shaft is likely
ventilation openings should try to avoid being installed on to be large. Wind effects will probably dominate the
the slope of a roof and avoid being located in high-pressure pressure distribution through the system except at very low
areas of the building environment, where down-draughts wind speeds. It is therefore vital that outlets are designed to
are likely to occur. create wind pressures that reinforce the intended flow
direction. Usually this means creating a negative pressure
coefficient at the top of the shaft, the exception being the
2.6.9.5 Fixed lights wind scoop.
Orme et al. (1994) provide information on the above roof

Crack leakage from roof lights should not be relied upon to pressure coefficients. For isolated buildings with no local
provide ventilation even though minor leakage may arise flow interference, the minimum height of the stack above
along the crack length of the perimeter. roof level to avoid back-draughts is given by:
h = a [0.5 + 0.16 (θ – 23)] (2.36)

2.6.9.6 Dampers
where h is the height above roof level (m), a is the horizontal
Dampers are usually used for applications where automatic distance between the outlet and the highest point of the
control is required. In the context of natural ventilation, roof (m) and θ is the pitch of the roof (degrees).
this is usually for air inlets, both side-wall mounted above
and below false floor level and at main exhaust points (e.g. For roof pitches of less than 23°, the height of the outlet
roof vents). Again, the key performance criterion is the must be at least 0.5 m above the roof level. These simplified
ability of the damper to provide an airtight seal when closed relationships represent a minimum stack height; greater
to minimise energy losses. If effective control is required heights may well provide higher suction pressures. This
then a significant proportion of the available pressure can be beneficial since it is possible to generate a suction
differential must occur across the damper in order to greater than that generated on an opening on the leeward
provide control authority. vertical face of the building.
Insect mesh should be reviewed to check performance criteria are met

2 layers of with this method.
self-extinguishing Ventilation flap
fire retardent
nylon mesh In climates where the balance of driving force varies
Linear grill
between wind and temperature, the flow patterns become
complex and these devices can perform both as wind towers
and chimney stacks according to the net driving force (see
Overhanging sill to section 2.4.6). In terms of mathematical analysis, the
prevent direct Fixed opening heights, dimensions and orientation can be treated
passage of sound divider in exactly the same way as any other natural opening as
described in chapter 4 of CIBSE Guide A (2015a) and
Acoustic infill glued section 2.4.6. Modern designs focus on reducing the
to aluminium casing
aerodynamic resistance and pressure drops across
Radiator components. In critical cases, performance data should be
80 mm cavity independently evaluated by laboratory testing. Flow
insulation
resistance usually restricts the depth of penetration to two
stories. As with chimneys and atria, they can be used to
Ground level assist in deep-plan natural ventilation.
External roof-mounted terminals have been developed to

take advantage of the wind-tower principle and allow a
constant airflow relating to wind-driven forces. These
Figure 2.57 Ventilation opening with acoustic protection, based on an terminals take the form of an exposed, roof-mounted, four-
illustration from BB93 (EFA, 2004)
sided louvre screen with appropriate weathering properties
and suitable roof section. The internal section of the louvre
More information on pressure coefficients over roofs is is split into four separate sections across the corners of the
given in BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005 + A1: 2010: Eurocode 1. terminal to allow wind to penetrate at least one side of the
Actions on structures. General actions. Wind actions (BSI, face of the terminal positively and allow air to enter the
2005c). For complex roof profiles or where surrounding building and pressurise the room below positively. This
buildings or other obstructions disturb the wind, model creates a negative pressure on the opposite side of the
testing would be advisable. terminal, allowing exhaust warmer air to be evacuated and
replaced with the fresh air supplied. These terminals are
As well as the position of the roof outlet, the geometry of multi-directional.
the outlet will also affect the pressure coefficient. The outlet
should prevent rain entering the stack and can provide flow 2.6.9.12 ‘Passive’ stacks
acceleration local to the outlet to further reduce static
pressures. Stack ventilation can be enhanced by using passive stacks
(see Figure 2.59). These are vertical ducts that are typically
100–150 mm in diameter. The lower end terminates in the
2.6.9.10 Transfer grilles ventilated space at or close to ceiling level. The upper end
penetrates the roof and is ideally located in the wind-
Transfer grilles may be required as a minimum to allow air
movement across a building if cellular accommodation has
been provided. The resistance of these transfer grilles must
be included in the design calculation when sizing the façade
unit sizes.
Wind direction
2.6.9.11 Wind towers
Wind towers are variously referred to as windcatchers and

wind scoops. These are derived from ancient Middle East
‘badgir’ systems in which a rectangular cross-section
chimney is divided by diagonal quadrants into four ducts.
Each is exposed to its own opening at the top of the chimney
and to a diffuser at its base (see Figure 2.58). Depending on Separated
4 m duct
wind direction, positive pressure drives air through the
wind-facing quadrants while suction pressure extracts air
through the remaining quadrants. In desert regions this
took advantage of high-level wind while minimising the
risk of sand being driven into the building, as would occur
through low-level openings. These devices are multi- Damper and
directional and function irrespective of wind direction, as diffuser
any of the four faces can allow supply air to be introduced
and to pressurise the room below, with the opposite louvre
face achieving a negative pressure and acting as an exhaust
louvre. Various manufacturers have developed modern Figure 2.58 A roof mounted wind tower, reproduced from AM10:
versions of this system. Specific manufacturers’ details Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings (CIBSE, 2005)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Commissioning, operation and maintenance 2-111
generated suction region so that ventilation can be driven extract fans in the stack to pull air through the building.
by both wind and stack-driving forces. Make-up air is However, the fan should not provide a significant resistance
provided by trickle ventilators. The essential requirement to flow when the chimney is operating in natural draught
is for the air in the chimney to be warmer than the ambient mode and noise should be carefully considered (see section
air. In dwellings, stacks are placed in ‘wet’ rooms and ‘dry’ 2.3.2.4).
air is drawn from the living and bedrooms.
The analysis on stack ventilation often makes the
Standard passive stack ventilation (PSV) systems have a presumption that the air in the stack is at building
simple inlet grille to the duct. Humidity-sensitive vents are temperature and outside air is at a lower temperature. A
available that can provide increased flows when humidity is steady reverse-flow pattern, with outdoor airflow down the
high. Acoustic treatment may be required to reduce ingress stack, is possible if the stack was to assume the outdoor
of external noise. Fire dampers are required where ducts rather than indoor temperature. This can occur, for
pass through a fire-separating floor. example, if the building has been allowed to cool during
unoccupied periods (e.g. weekends or over night). Reverse
For guidance on sizes and available products, manufacturers flow should be avoided in cold weather but it can be used to
will be able to advise on the maximum and minimum duct advantage at night in the warmer seasons where free cooling
sizes to handle the required airflow through the stack or may be available due to the night-time drop in temperature.
chimney. Manufactures can calculate driving forces and This allows air to be drawn into the building at lower than
select suitable equipment to achieve the desired results and occupant comfort temperatures thus allowing the building
prove this system will be able to cope with the required to cool significantly prior to the next day’s expected elevated
specification. temperatures. More technical information on reverse flow
in stacks is published by Li (2002).
It is possible to enhance the stack pressures by means of
absorbing solar gain (the so-called ‘solar chimney’)
introduced via glazed elements. Location of the solar stack
on the sunny side of the building in order to capture the 2.7 Commissioning,
solar radiation will generally result in cooler air being operation and
drawn in from the opposite shaded side. Solar performance
requires careful thermal analysis because it relies on a rapid maintenance
rate of heat transfer from the solar heated components to
the raising ventilation airstream.
2.7.1 Testing and commissioning
Care should be taken to ensure that there is a net heat gain
into the chimney during cooler weather, i.e. the solar gain 2.7.1.1 Introduction
must be greater than the conduction loss. In cold weather,
the conduction heat loss will result in low surface All ventilation systems and associated ductwork systems
temperature for the glass that may be sufficient to generate should be tested and commissioned, and those of significant
down-draughts inhibiting the reverse of the general upward size (e.g. with a fan capacity above 1 m3·s–1) should also be
flow through the chimney. The wind-driving pressures can leak tested. The needs of on-site regulation should be
be enhanced by careful design of the roof profile and/or the planned and provided for in the design stage, otherwise
chimney outlet configuration. balancing the system within acceptable limits may not be
possible. The designer must accept the implications of the
As a means of providing adequate ventilation on very hot commissioning procedures to which the air distribution
and still days, consideration should be given to installing system will be subjected. Inadequate commissioning will
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4·0 m3/s
6·0 m3/s
2·2 m3/s
3·6 m3/s
Office Drawing 28 W/m2

studio
Cavity
Auditorium wall
85 W/m2
Concourse
Laboratory 75 W/m2 85 W/m2 Figure 2.59 An example of a
75 W/m2 (peak
External design using a passive stack
air system to enhance natural
Cavity ventilation; Queens Building, de
wall Classroom Classroom Cavity Montfort University
wall (reproduced courtesy of Short
Ford Architects)
result in poor environmental performance, energy wastage, —— commissioning

draughts and noise. The designer’s objectives must be to
—— confirming compliance
design an air distribution system where arrangements of
ductwork and the selection and disposition of the —— certification
components, particularly the means of air regulation, will
promote a balanced and stable airflow. In the UK commis —— building log book (CIBSE TM31: Building log book
sioning is explicitly included in the Building Regulations. toolkit (2006c))
—— system handover.
The measuring, regulating and apportioning of airflow in a
distribution system are a means to an end. The objective is Building Regulation 38 (TSO, 2010) requires the handing
to ensure that the performance of the commissioned over of all design, installation positioning and maintenance
installation is adequate to maintain the specified environ information for any and all fire safety items.
mental conditions of the space with optimum efficiency.
Procedures for commissioning air-handling systems are 2.7.1.3 Design provisions to facilitate
given in CIBSE Commissioning Code A: Air distribution commissioning
systems (2006b) and BSRIA AG 3/89.3: Commissioning Air
Systems (2001). Table 2.42 shows a summary of the flow- Introduction
measuring techniques recommended by BSRIA for various
ducts and terminals. Consideration should be given to access for commissioning,
inspection, maintenance and cleaning. Openings need to be
Before system regulation starts, the building needs to be safe and have sealed panels/covers designed so that they can
complete, with windows and doors open or shut according be easily removed and refixed. Multiple setscrews are not
to their normal state. The air distribution system needs to recommended, and self-piercing screws are not acceptable
be complete, with leakage testing satisfactorily concluded. as a method of fixing. Safety restraints should be connected
A reasonable standard of system cleanliness should be to access panels located in riser ducts.
achieved before system start up.
A sufficiently large area, free of services and other
Each system should be considered on its own merits and a obstructions, is needed around panels and covers to allow
detailed commissioning method statement produced and them to be removed.
agreed prior to commissioning. It is important that the
designer provides full information on all relevant aspects of An access panel is required to be adjacent to items of in-line
the design, particularly VAV systems, in sufficient detail for equipment that require either regular servicing or intermittent
the commissioning specialist to produce a comprehensive access. The openings need to be sized as a minimum to allow
method statement. The commissioning specialist should hand and/or arm access. The designer should specify the size
review the recommendations of the equipment suppliers and location of the panels where larger dimensions are
with regard to the inclusion of their equipment in the required. In these cases the panels should not exceed
commissioning process for the air distribution system. 450 mm ×  450 mm. It may be more practicable to use
removable duct sections or flexible ducts/connections.
Successful commissioning and building operation depends
on the following design considerations. An inspection panel should be provided adjacent to items
—— Avoid long duct runs, since these can create of in-line equipment that need only visual inspection of
balancing difficulties in commissioning. internal elements from outside the ductwork. Such
inspection openings should have a minimum size of
—— The use of variable speed fans allows rapid matching 100 mm × 100 mm for rectangular ducts and 100 mm
of fan duties during commissioning. diameter for circular ducts.
—— Ensure there are sufficient dampers and access
panels to reduce commissioning time. It will be the responsibility of the insulation contractor to
‘dress’ the insulation to the edges of the access openings
—— The setting of the automatic control system should without impeding the functionality of the panel, cover or
be finalised by the controls specialist in liaison with door.
the commissioning specialist.
Provision of access panels
2.7.1.2 Legislation
Access panels should be provided for the inspection and
CIBSE Commissioning Code M: Commissioning management servicing of plant and equipment; Table 2.45 provides
(2003) provides an overview of the management guidance. However, the ductwork system designer may
arrangements for commissioning required to ensure choose to demonstrate that adequate provision has been
compliance with Parts F (NBS, 2013b) and L (NBS, 2013a) made for access, such as by reference to a ductwork cleaning
of the Building Regulations. Steps include: specialist.
—— design for commissioning
In addition, the following should be noted.
—— co-ordination of the commissioning process
—— Fire/smoke dampers: panels should be located to
—— installation quality assurance give access to both the blades and the fusible links.
On multiple assembly units it may be necessary to
—— pre-commissioning
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`
provide more than one panel; the need for such

—— preparation access may be determined by the external access
Table 2.42 Flow measurement techniques (reproduced from BSRIA AG 3/89.3: Commissioning Air Systems (2001) by permission of the BSRIA)
Position Measurement technique Instruments
Main duct (total flow at fan) * Velocity traverse in duct Pitot tube with micromanometer
† Wilson flow grid Micromanometer
Branch ducts * Velocity traverse in duct Pitot tube with manometer
Terminal connecting ducts * Velocity traverse or single point reading in duct Pitot tube with micromanometer or mini-rotating vane
anemometer where velocity < 4 m·s–1
Grilles * Velocity traverse across face Rotating vane anemometer
* Hood Rotating vane anemometer or integral hood assembly
Ceiling diffusers * Flow hood Rotating vane anemometer or integral hood assembly
* Velocity in connecting duct Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
* Static pressure in connecting duct Diaphragm pressure gauge or pitot tube
† Average peripheral velocity and area Mini-rotating vane anemometer or thermal anemometer
Slots and linear diffusers * Face velocity (for slots of equal width and same Mini-rotating vane anemometer or thermal anemometer
louvre setting)
* Flow hood Rotating vane anemometer or integral hood assembly
† Velocity in connecting duct Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
Perforated ceiling * Velocity in connecting duct to ceiling void Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
Perforated panel diffuser * Velocity in connecting duct Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
* Flow hood Rotating vane anemometer or integral hood assembly
† Face velocity (no deflection) Rotating vane anemometer or integral hood assembly
Decorative terminals * Velocity in connecting duct Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Induction units * Static pressure in nozzle plenum Diaphragm pressure gauge

High velocity nozzles * Jet velocity Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
* Static pressure in connecting duct; previous Diaphragm pressure gauge
calibration or maker’s data
Fan coil units * Velocity in connecting duct Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
Extract openings (grilles) * Face velocity Pitot tube/manometer or electronic hood
Slots, perforated panels, * Velocity in connecting duct Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
decorative openings
Combined lighting units, * Manufacturer’s recommended technique Pitot tube/manometer or mini-rotating vane anemometer
adjustable exhaust valves
* Velocity in connecting duct
Note: * indicates preferred measuring technique for stated location
† indicates second choice (i.e. more difficult to use in practice or subject to a greater possibility of error)
conditions and the internal reach to the blades and manufacturers’ discretion but kept to a minimum
their fusible links. and made as small as practicable. The hand-hole
cover should be sealed and securely fastened.
—— Heating/cooling coils and in-duct fans/devices: the
panel should be located on the air entry side i.e.
upstream. Cleaning of ductwork must be taken into account in the
—— Filters: panel should be located in the air entry side design and installation stages by ensuring adequate and
i.e. upstream (note: dimensions of access may need safe provision is made for access.
to be changed to suit filter elements of the front
withdrawal type).
Filter removal and replacement must be considered by
—— Inspection covers: inspection covers should be ensuring sufficient space and means of access is provided.
provided adjacent to regulating dampers where
either the control linkage is mounted internally
within the airstream or if a multi-bladed unit is an
integral part of the ductwork run. It is not necessary Good ductwork design
to provide inspection covers adjacent to either
single blade regulating dampers or flanged damper
The duct sizing procedure (see section 2.3.5) should take
units.
into account the requirements of system balancing. The
—— Hand holes: hand holes to permit proper jointing position and number of regulating dampers included in the
of duct sections should be provided at the design should be sufficient for this purpose.
Table 2.43 Information to be provided in schematic drawings Provision and siting of volume control dampers
Items of system Information to be provided
Fans Fan total pressure Note: it is important to have a means of recording the
positions of volume control dampers that have been set
Volume flow rates
during commissioning; spray paint over the quadrant is
Motor current effective for smaller sizes of dampers.
Plant items Type and identification numbers from equipment
schedules
Low- and medium-pressure systems
Volume flow rates
Pressure losses Manually operated balancing dampers are generally
}
Dry-bulb temperatures
For coils and needed:
Wet-bulb temperatures humidifiers
Humidity as appropriate (a) in the main duct downstream of the fan
Dampers (including Identification numbers from equipment
motorised) and fire schedules (b) in the branch or zone ducts
dampers Location
(c) in sub-ducts serving four or more terminals
Volume flow rates
Main and Location (d) at terminals not covered by (c) above.
branch ducts Dimensions
Volume flow rates Dampers integral with terminals should only be used for
final trimming of air volumes, or noise and air distribution
Terminals Identification numbers from equipment
schedules
problems may result. Dampers should not be used for
primary duty control
Location
Dimensions
Volume flow rates and velocities High-pressure systems
Operating pressures
Where pressure reduction in a high-pressure system is
Test holes and Location essential, it is recommended that:
access panels
Controllers Set points
—— throttling dampers should not be used in high-
pressure and high-velocity sections because of duct
Notes: leakage and noise problems; if this cannot be
(1) Fan total pressure is the difference between the total pressure (static avoided then additional attenuators and external
pressure + velocity pressure) at the fan outlet and the total pressure sound barrier mats may be needed at the damper
at the fan inlet.
and downstream to limit noise break-out
(2) Where volume flow rates are variable, maximum and minimum
values should be provided. —— orifice plates or proprietary pressure-reducing
valves should be used as first choice in main
branches
Communication —— where dampers are required they should be confined
to areas of relatively low duct velocities; iris type in
The designer should pass on the design intent to the circular ducts, streamlined blade construction in
commissioning engineer by indicating which parts of the rectangular ducts.
system are high, medium and low pressure, and by
providing: Variable volume systems
—— relevant parts of the specification Rather than using throttling dampers in the main duct,
system static pressure control in VAV systems should be
—— schematic drawings as listed in Table 2.43 (see also effected by:
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Figure 2.60 below, which shows a basic schematic

for system regulation including damper positions) —— variable speed motors on the fan(s) or
—— inlet guide vanes with centrifugal fans or
—— equipment schedules
—— variable pitch blades on axial-flow fans.
—— controller and regulator schedule
Motorised dampers
—— fan performance curves
Motorised dampers for throttling airflow should be
—— wiring diagrams for electrical equipment, including
opposed-blade type opening through a full 90°; for mixing
interlock details
purposes they should be parallel-blade type opening only
through 60°.
—— manufacturers’ operating and maintenance
instructions.
Throttling dampers should be sized to have an authority of
5–8 per cent of the fan total pressure. Mixing dampers
The information listed above should also be included in should be sized to have a face velocity of 4–10 m·s–1. To
the building’s log book. obtain maximum benefit from outside air cooling, fresh air/
recirculation air dampers must have a good shut off; this For safety reasons, the manufacturer should incorporate
means they should: means to prevent personnel being trapped inside the duct,
for example by providing access doors with operating
—— be rigid with accurate square connections handles both inside and outside the duct.
—— be provided with end and edge seals of flexible
material 2.7.1.5 Test holes
—— not be distorted during fitting.
General
2.7.1.4 Instrument connections
Except in special circumstances, it is not usual practice to
install airflow measuring devices permanently in air ducts.
Instrument connections should be provided at locations
The normal procedure is to make velocity traverses across
determined during the design process.
the duct at appropriate locations using a pitot tube. The
small test holes for using a pitot tube are usually made by
Openings required for other purposes the commissioning specialist.
It is the designer’s responsibility to specify the location and Test holes for in-duct measurement are needed on the main
size of any openings required other than those covered in duct following the air-handling plant. The basic locations
this section. In the case of hinged access doors it is the for siting test holes for flow measurement are shown in
designer’s responsibility to indicate on the drawings the Figure 2.61 as ‘principal measuring points’. If there is
location and size of hinged access doors required, ensuring insufficient space, an alternative is to provide test holes in
that there is an area free of services and other obstructions principal branches so that the total flow from the fan can be
to enable the door to be satisfactorily opened. Unless obtained by summation. These points are shown in Figure
otherwise specified by the designer, openings should not be 2.61 as ‘secondary measuring points’.
larger than 1350 mm high and 500 mm wide. Doors should
open against the air pressure. Both the opening in the duct Test holes for in-duct airflow measurement are required:
and the access door itself need to be adequately reinforced —— on both sides of the fans and heating and cooling
to prevent distortion. A suitable sealing gasket should be coils (for pressure drop measurement)
provided, together with sufficient clamping type latches to
ensure an airtight seal between the door and the duct. —— in the main ducts
AHU no.
Fan no.
Total flow (m3.s–1)
Flow (m3.s–1)
Increase in total pressure (Pa)
Static pressure (Pa)
Pressure drop (Pa)
Motor current (A)
D – D D
Intake
+
D
Section Section
D Dimensions (mm) Dimensions (mm)
D Return Flow (m3.s–1) Flow (m3.s–1)
Exhaust air
unit Total pressure (Pa) Total pressure (Pa)
D D
D D
D D D D D D
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Grilles Diffusers
Terminal no. Terminal no. Figure 2.60 Basic schematic for
system regulation showing
Flow (m3.s–1) Flow (m3.s–1) damper positions (reproduced
Face area Size (mm) from BSRIA AG 3/89.3:
Commissioning Air Systems (2001)
Design velocity (m s ) . –1 Flow factor
by permission of BSRIA)
—— in all branches Main air

handling unit
—— in centrifugal fan drive guards opposite the end of
the fan spindle, for speed measurements. Intake
The number and spacing of holes at a particular location Return

are given in BSRIA AG 3/89.3: Commissioning Air Systems Exhaust air
(2001); these recommendations are summarised in Table unit
2.44 and Figure 2.62.
The location chosen for the measurement point should be:

—— at least 1.5 duct diameters upstream of sources of
turbulence such as dampers and bends; if this is not Principal measuring point
possible then well downstream of these sources
Secondary measuring point
—— where there is enough space around the duct to
insert the pitot tube and take readings Figure 2.61 Basic test hole positions for flow measurement in duct
systems (reproduced from BSRIA AG 3/89.3: Commissioning Air Systems
—— where the duct has a constant cross-sectional area. (2001) by permission of BSRIA)
Minimum distances of test holes from sources of turbulence The whole ductwork installation should be inspected and,
are given in Figure 2.62. where necessary, cleaned before handover. The preferred
cleaning method should be specified in the handover
Test hole specification documents, including guidelines on access to all points to
be cleaned.
The main test hole locations are shown in Figure 2.61.
Usually the installer will not have drilled the test holes, this During installation the installer should ensure that dust
being left to the commissioning specialist. However, the and debris are prevented from entering the ductwork
designer and the installer should have taken account of the system to ensure that the installation is clean prior to
location of test holes to ensure access. It is sometimes commissioning. The commissioning process should
appropriate to use re-sealable test holes, included in the include an inspection of ductwork cleanliness. Where this
ductwork prior to installation. is not the case, it may be necessary to employ a specialist
ductwork cleaning company. The commissioning should
Figure 2.62 shows the minimum distance of test holes from not commence until cleanliness has been inspected and
sources of turbulence. Figure 2.63 gives the dimensions of certified. The installation should be in a clean state at
a standard test hole for a pitot tube for in-duct measurement. handover.
For rectangular ducts, the number of test holes depends on Inspection of the ventilation system will usually start with
the duct dimensions. For circular ducts, a single test hole is a visual check of the outside air intake, which can be a
required for ducts less than 150 mm in diameter, and two source of pollution and contamination. A smoke test can
holes spaced at 90° are required for larger ducts. The quickly determine if outside air is entering the system.
appropriate position, number and spacing of test holes are Further items to check will be dampers, protective devices
given in BSRIA AG 3/89.3: Commissioning Air Systems against weather, insect and rodents, the hygiene of coils,
(2001). fans and insulation, the presence of water and condition of
condensate drain pans and humidifier reservoirs.
2.7.1.6 Cleanliness of new ductwork and
components Checking the need for cleaning should be done periodically.
Eurovent includes recommendations on indoor air quality
The designer should specify the requirements for: (IAQ) (Eurovent, 1999).
—— cleanliness levels for ductwork leaving the factory

—— protection during transit
2.7.2 Maintenance and cleaning
—— protection during site storage
—— protection of ductwork risers
—— inspection and cleaning during installation and Over time, the performance of ventilation systems will
before handover. deteriorate. The designer should be aware that the air
distribution system may become a major odour source. It is
TR/19: Guide to Good Practice: Internal Cleanliness of possible, with regular cleaning and maintenance, to
Ventilation Systems (BESA, 2013c) provides for three grades eliminate nearly all the odour emissions from the system,
of pre-commission cleanliness. The designer should in both new and renovated buildings.
determine which is appropriate for the specific installation
and state this in the design specification. Components will need regular servicing and replacement
to prevent failure. In addition, contaminants such as
In manufacturing ducts, attention should be paid to the bacteria, fungal spores, skin scales, dust and moisture could
grease used in production. The ductwork should leave the contaminate the ductwork and clog filters. Regular
factory as clean and dry as possible. Any remaining grease maintenance and cleaning are therefore needed to ensure
film is a potential base for microbial growth. the correct and efficient operation of the ventilation system.
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

10 d 10 d d
d1
10 d
10 d1
d2
10 d2
10 d
d
d
Figure 2.62 Minimum distance

5d of test holes from sources of
3d turbulence (reproduced from
BSRIA AG 3/89.3: Commissioning
Air Systems (2001) by permission
Battery or filter Battery or filter of BSRIA)
Table 2.44 Test hole positions; special requirements for the

measurement of total airflow from the fan (reproduced from BSRIA AG
Rubber or plastic
3/89.3: Commissioning Air Systems (2001) by permission of BSRIA) blind grommet
Type of fan Position of test holes*
Upstream Downstream
Centrifugal 4d 10 d
15 mm
Axial:
— single stage 4d Not advised
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
— single stage with 4d 10 d Figure 2.63 Dimensions of

guide vanes Insulation cut standard test holes (reproduced
back 15 mm
— two-stage, contra- 4d 10 d from BSRIA AG 3/89.3:
around test hole
rotating Commissioning Air Systems (2001)
by permission of BSRIA)
* d = diameter (equivalent diameter for non-circular ducts) of duct
following the fan
Steps include:
2.7.2.2 Legislation
—— repeating commissioning exercises
The EU Workplace Directive has been implemented in the
—— cleaning
UK by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
—— scheduled replacement of components (filter etc.) Regulations (HMSO, 1992). The Health and Safety
Commission’s Approved Code of Practice and guidance
—— identifying and rectifying faults. L24 (HSE, 1994) states that: ‘Mechanical ventilation
systems (including air-conditioning systems) should be Design for cleaning

regularly and properly cleaned, tested and maintained to
ensure that they are kept cleaned and free from anything To enable cleaning to be carried out safely and efficiently, it
which may contaminate the air.’ This has applied to all is important that the air distribution system is designed
workplaces since January 1996. Additionally, provision for and installed so that all internal surfaces and components
access space for maintenance of the ventilation systems will can be accessed.
need to be considered at the design stage. Inspection
requirements are also enshrined in the European Energy
Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) (EU, 2010). A comprehensive standard for access installation is
provided by BS EN 12097: 2006: Ventilation for buildings.
Requirements for ductwork components to facilitate maintenance
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 (TSO, of ductwork systems (BSI, 2006b).
2005) requires a responsible person to implement risk
assessments on all areas for fire. In addition, they should
maintain all fire safety installations and keep records about Components (for example dampers, sensors, airflow
all such items.) See also Building Regulation 38 (TSO, measuring devices) should be installed so that they can be
2010). cleaned in situ or removed for cleaning. If removal is not
possible, service access should be provided according to
Table 2.45. Access should be provided that is not obstructed
2.7.2.3 Maintenance by suspended ceilings, electric cables, lighting, pipes or
other ducts.
Cleaning Abrupt bends, area reductions and sharp objects, such as

projecting screws, inside duct joints should be avoided to
Ventilation components and ductwork systems should be prevent injury to maintenance and cleaning personnel.
clean on completion (see also BS EN 15780: 2011: Ventilation Stiffeners and other equipment inside the ductwork should
for buildings. Ductwork. Cleanliness of ventilation systems (BSI, not obstruct the cleaning process. Access doors and covers
2011b)). TR/19: Guide to Good Practice (BESA, 2013c) says should be easy to open and be constructed and installed to
that where specific verifiable levels of internal cleanliness match the type and location of any thermal, acoustic or fire
are required it will be the responsibility of the designer to insulation.
specify the inclusion of a specialist cleaning contractor.
A ductwork component that can be dismounted for cleaning
During use over a number of years, a slow build-up of can also be regarded as an access door on condition that its
deposits can occur, particularly at points where the air dimensions are in accordance with Table 2.46 or sufficient
velocity reduces. More rapid build-up of dirt will result for the specified and documented cleaning method. Access
when filters are faulty or damaged, poorly installed or badly to duct-mounted components should be provided in
maintained. accordance with Table 2.45, unless the component is easily
removable for cleaning or can be cleaned through the
See ‘Testing, commissioning, cleaning and maintenance’ in ductwork without obstructions.
section 2.3.5.2 for information on ductwork cleaning
methods. The location of and distance between openings depends on
the quality of supply-and-extract air and also on the defined
or available cleaning method. Unless the cleaning method
Special requirements apply to cleaning and maintenance of
is known or can be fixed at the design stage, the distance
ductwork in applications such as food preparation (see
between the openings should not exceed 10 m or not be
DW/171: Standard for Kitchen Ventilation Systems (HVCA,
more than two ≥ 45° bends.
2000)), process industries and plant rooms. Detailed
maintenance requirements for ductwork are set out in
SFG20: Standard Maintenance Specification for Building Designers should take specialist advice and stipulate their
Services (BESA, 2012). requirements for the periodic internal cleaning and
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
maintenance of ductwork.
When undertaking maintenance work within ducts, it is
essential that sensor probes are withdrawn to protect them Table 2.46 Openings for ducts; recommended minimum dimensions
from being damaged. Duct type and size Access opening size
A / mm B/mm
Table 2.45 Requirements for access to duct-mounted components Circular ducts (diam. d /mm):
Component Location of access opening(s) — 200 < d ≤ 315 300 100
Dampers Both sides — 315 < d ≤ 500 400 200
Fire dampers One side — 500 < d 500 400
Heating/cooling coils Both sides — inspection opening 600 500
Circular sound attenuators One side Rectangular (side length s/mm):
Rectangular sound attenuators Both sides — s < 200 300 100
Filter sections Both sides — 200 < s ≤ 500 400 200
In-duct fans Both sides — s > 500 500 400
Airflow control device Both sides — inspection opening 600 500
Air quality and health issues additional access doors are needed after or before such
obstacles, which then can be cleaned carefully. Requirements
The air quality within a building is influenced by for location of and distance between access doors are
contaminants in the form of particles and gases that are presented in BS EN 12097: 2006: Ventilation for buildings.
generated within the building envelope and those brought Requirements for ductwork components to facilitate maintenance
in from outdoors. Contaminant particles may enter the of ductwork systems (BSI, 2006b) and BS EN 13779: 2007:
building with the outdoor air. These can include carbon Ventilation for non-residential buildings. Performance require
produced by combustion and vehicles, and particles of ments for ventilation and room-conditioning systems (BSI,
biological origin. Contaminant gases produced within a 2007a). Note that it is important that access panels should
building include the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) themselves be reasonably accessible for future maintenance
emitted by some construction materials, fabrics and operations.
adhesives, and fumes emitted by photocopiers and laser
printers. Gases admitted from outdoors include vehicle
exhaust gases. Biological agents such as bacteria, fungal Cleanliness quality classification
spores and pollen grains can enter the building from
outside. Particles generated indoors can include human The designer should specify the requirements for the
skin scales, bacteria, viruses and fungi, faecal matter from cleanliness quality class to be achieved (see Table 2.47).
the house dust mite, textile fibres, building materials and
paper dust. Settled deposits in ductwork may cause The cleanliness quality classification allows the specifier to
contamination of air supply by release of chemicals such as set measurable maximum acceptable dust accumulation
odorous VOCs, produced either microbiologically or levels, as benchmarks for acceptance.
chemically.
Annex F of BS EN 15780: 2011: Ventilation for buildings.
Designers do not normally consider the health effects of Ductwork. Cleanliness of ventilation systems (BSI, 2011b)
microbes in ductwork systems, since their focus is the provides further guidance on protection, delivery and
attainment of specified operating conditions, generally for installation procedures.
comfort purposes. It is important to be aware of the
potential health issues arising from microbial material in
ductwork. There are currently no environmental health Existing ductwork
criteria setting safe microbial exposure. Possible harmful
health effects on the occupants of buildings from microbial The normal operation of ductwork systems will introduce
growth within the fabric include allergies, infection and dirt both from the external air brought into the system and
toxicosis. Further information about these is provided in from re-circulated air containing dust and other particles.
CIBSE TM26: Hygienic maintenance of office ventilation
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The filtration system (where provided) should be designed
ductwork (2000b). to remove dirt and dust. However, the level of filtration, the
standard of filter medium used and the adequacy of seals
Ultraviolet (UV) light can be very effective in deactivating and fittings around the filtration equipment can all lead to
pathogens and other airborne bacteria, viruses and moulds. increased levels of dust and dirt. These in turn can have an
Where a high-quality air supply is required, such as in effect on plant performance such as reducing the efficiency
health-care facilities and situations where there is a high of the fan and heat transfer equipment. The function of the
occupation density, UV lamps can be installed in the air movement system and the cleanliness quality class of
ductwork. Medium-pressure lamps, e.g. 3.5  kW and the building and installation can determine the
300 mm in length, run very hot and must be switched off requirements for cleaning. Certain process applications, for
when the fan is not operating. Provision of UV lamps will example food and pharmaceuticals, are likely to have
also have implications for maintenance. considerably higher standards of ductwork cleanliness than
those serving a warehouse.
New ductwork construction
BS EN 15780: 2011: Ventilation for buildings. Ductwork.
According to BS EN 15780: 2011 (BSI, 2011b), in the Cleanliness of ventilation systems (BSI, 2011b) provides
handover documents the cleanliness quality class, benchmark measurement levels to define acceptable
cleanliness criteria and measurement methods should be cleanliness levels for each of the three cleanliness classes
specified; recommendations for cleaning methods and and for supply, recirculation and extract.
guidelines for reaching the points to be cleaned should also
be given.
Dust deposition in ductwork
The design information should give consideration to the
expected cleaning method. Where the system has been Dust will generally be deposited mainly over the lower
designed to be cleaned by wet cleaning methods, warnings surfaces of air distribution ducts, with the deposition
regarding conditions and restrictions of use should be increasing with distance from the AHU. There may be
given. For example, wet methods are applicable only where additional deposition where the local flow of air is slowed.
ducts are sufficiently moisture-tight, internal surfaces are This will happen at points where there is a resistance to the
smooth and slope and drainage arrangements have been flow of air including the filters, heating and cooling coils,
provided so that fluid and contaminant can be evacuated. corner vanes and changes in the direction of ducting,
changes in cross-sectional area and at surface imperfections
A sufficient number of access doors should be provided in and jointing cracks between duct sections. Once it is
the ductwork. Special care should be taken regarding deposited, a physical disturbance or a change in the flow
obstacles to cleaning, such as dampers, sound attenuators speed would be required to re-entrain significant amounts
etc., which are mounted in the ducts. In many cases, of the dust into the air.
Table 2.47 Typical applications of cleanliness quality classes (reproduced Local exhaust ventilation may be intended to control
from Table A1 of BS EN 15780: 2011: Ventilation for buildings (BSI, 2011b) substances hazardous to health, including biological agents.
by permission of the British Standards Institution) The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) recommends
Quality class Typical examples examination and testing of such systems at least every 14
months and more frequently for certain processes (HSE,
Low Rooms with only intermittent occupancy, e.g. storage
1998).
rooms, technical rooms
Medium Offices, hotels, restaurants, schools, theatres, residential Ventilation ductwork may be inspected optically using
homes, shopping areas, exhibition buildings, sport visual inspection instruments (e.g. borescopes) or by remote
buildings, general areas in hospitals
control inspection vehicles using closed-circuit television
High General working areas in industries, laboratories, (CCTV) to record the internal condition of the ducts. Visual
treatment areas in hospitals, high-quality offices inspection (e.g. video) should be combined with quantitative
methods of measuring dirt or microorganisms.
Moisture Special attention should be given to the cleanliness of:
It is important to take precautions to avoid the generation —— air filters
or ingress of moisture, as the presence of moisture or free —— sound attenuators
water droplets on the surfaces of ducts is well known as a
potential cause of microbial contamination. This is —— humidifiers
normally avoided by the system design and control, but —— components for measurement or control.
unwanted moisture can arise under some circumstances,
for example: The condition of all these items is generally a good indicator
—— where the metal duct surface temperature falls of the need for cleaning. It is recommended to start
below the dew-point of the air flowing through it inspection from these components. After cleaning, all these
components should be inspected to ensure that no damage
—— downstream of cooling coils operated below the has occurred and the cleanliness and functionality are as
dew-point (a spray eliminator is usually installed intended.
downstream of cooling coils used for dehumidi
fication, but ‘normal’ cooling coils may also operate The need for cleaning following an inspection of the
unintentionally under these conditions) ductwork will depend on the level of dirt identified at the
—— where there is a leak of water from a heating or inspection and the particular requirements of the building,
cooling coil or from water pipework outside the air including the specific operations undertaken within the
duct facility. Some buildings will be more sensitive to a build up
of dirt and dust in the ductwork and are likely to need a
—— as a (temporary) residue from any wet cleaning more frequent inspection regime and subsequent cleaning.
process
—— by ingress of rain water. Checking the results of cleaning should be combined with
checking the functions of the system after cleaning, and
See section 2.7.2.5 for cleaning methods. readjustments made where required.
In order to maintain ductwork hygiene, both the supply

Fire-resisting products and re-circulated airstreams should be clean (see TR/19:
Guide to Good Practice (BESA, 2013c)). Access must be
All fire-resisting products and smoke control items need to available for cleaning to minimise the build up of microbial
be checked regularly and records maintained—see growth on ductwork, fan blades or coils (see CIBSE TM26:
Appendix V and Appendix W of BS 9999: 2008: Code of Hygienic maintenance of office ventilation ductwork (2000b));
practice for fire safety in the design, management and use of the latter can result in loss of performance. There is also a
buildings (BSI, 2008a) and the requirements of the RRFSO need for regular inspections. To minimise pressure drops
(TSO, 2005). caused by filtration, the airflow entering a filter should be
uniform, requiring the filter surface to be as large as
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2.7.2.4 Inspection for cleaning possible. A manometer should be installed across each filter
bank to ascertain when filters need changing and access
doors should be provided for ease of filter replacement.
Inspection of the ventilation system will usually start with
a visual check of the outside air intake, which can be a
source of pollution and contamination. A smoke test can 2.7.2.5 Cleaning methods
quickly determine if outside air is entering the system.
Further items to check will be dampers, protective devices There are several methods by which cleaning contractors
against weather, insect and rodents, the hygiene of coils, can remove dust, debris and other surface contaminants:
fans and insulation, the presence of water and condition of
—— vacuum
condensate drain pans and humidifier reservoirs.
—— steam
Checking the need for cleaning should be done periodically.
—— compressed air
Eurovent includes recommendations on indoor air quality
(IAQ) (Eurovent, 1999). —— rotary brush.
Figure 2.64 provides a schematic flowchart for procedures Cleaning methods are more fully described in TR/19: Guide
to maintain cleanliness of ventilation systems. to Good Practice (BESA, 2013c) and BSRIA Technical Note
Control and maintenance

of cleanliness of air
Commissioning Periodic inspection
Y
Visually
clean?
Y
Clearly
unclean?
Objective measurements
Acceptable N
cleanliness Cleaning
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
level
Documentation Verification
Figure 2.64 Schematic flowchart for procedures to maintain cleanliness of ventilation system (reproduced from BS EN 15780: 2011: Ventilation for
buildings (BSI, 2011b) by permission of the British Standards Institution)
TN 18/92: Ventilation System Hygiene: A Review (1996). Dust resulting from cleaning, particularly that which may
Methods will vary according to the air distribution system. contain biologically active material, should be disposed of
On the basis that the contaminants are dry, dry methods of safely.
cleaning are adequate for supply air and general extract
systems. Wet methods are needed for air ducts in commercial When cleaning is complete, the ductwork system may
kitchens and similar installations where extract air contains require rebalancing. Most cleaning contractors leave
smoke, grease and other impurities. dampers and other control devices in their ‘as found’
positions. Based on system performance, the property
The cleaning process involves loosening dirt adhering to operator will then need to decide whether rebalancing is
ductwork surfaces and its subsequent removal. The required. It is recommended that a commissioning
loosening can be remotely by compressed air or rotary specialist be appointed to undertake this task.
brushing equipment in conjunction with removal by
industrial vacuum collector. Dust may alternatively be
removed directly by a technician crawling along the ducts
using a hand-held vacuum cleaner. When cleaning within
ducts it is essential that sensor probes are withdrawn to
prevent them from being damaged.
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--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Table 2.A1.1 Recommended sizes for rectangular ductwork, including equivalent diameter, hydraulic diameter, cross sectional area and perimeter (based on BS EN 1505)
Provided by S&P Global

Longer Parameter* Shorter side / mm Parameter*
side / mm
100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200
150 de 134 165 de
P 0.5 0.6 P
dh 120.00 141.55 180.82 dh
A 0.015 0.0225 0.03 A
200 154 190 220

de de
P 0.6 0.7 0.8 P
dh 133.33 171.43 200.00 dh
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from S&P Global

A 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 A
250 de 171 212 246 275 de
P 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 P
dh 142.86 187.50 222.22 250.00 dh
A 0.025 0.0375 0.05 0.0625 0.075 A
300 de 185 231 269 301 330 de
P 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 P
dh 150.00 200.00 240.00 272.73 300.00 dh
A 0.03 0.045 0.06 0.075 0.09 0.12 A
400 de 211 264 308 346 387 441 de
P 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 P
dh 160.00 218.18 266.67 307.69 342.86 400.00 dh
A 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.16 0.2 A
500 de 291 341 385 424 492 551 de
P 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 P
dh 230.77 285.71 333.33 375.00 444.44 500.00 dh
A 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 A
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
600 de 316 371 419 462 537 603 661 de
P 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 O
240.00 300.00 352.94 400.00 480.00 545.45 600.00
Not for Resale, 10/20/2022 05:10:40 MDT

dh dh
A 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.3 0.36 0.48 A
Appendix 2.A1: Recommended sizes for ductwork
800 de 421 477 527 616 693 761 881 de

P 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.2 P
dh 320.00 380.95 436.36 533.33 615.38 1538.46 800.00 dh
A 0.2 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.64 A

1000 de 527 583 683 770 848 984 1101 de
P 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.6 4.0 P
dh 400.00 461.54 571.43 666.67 750.00 888.89 1000.00 dh
A 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 A
1200 de 632 741 837 924 1075 1205 1322 de
P 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 P
dh 480.00 600.00 705.88 800.00 960.00 1090.91 1200.00 dh
A 0.36 0.48 0.6 0.72 0.96 1.2 1.44 A
* de = equivalent diameter / mm; P = perimeter / m; dh = hydraulic diameter / mm; A = cross sectional area / m2
Appendix 2.A1: Recommended sizes for ductwork 2-127
Table continuees
Table 2.A1.2 Recommended sizes for circular ducting (based on BS EN

1506)
Parameter*
Diameter, Perimeter, Hydraulic diameter, Cross sectional

dh
dh
dh
dh
de
de
de
de
0.168 A
1.92 A
2.16 A
2.4 A
3.6 3.8 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 P
4.0 4.2 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 P
6.0 P
6.4 P
d / mm P/m dh / mm area, A / m2
side / mm 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200
63 0.198 63 0.004

80 0.251 80 0.006
622.22 736.84 840.00 1018.18 1166.67 1292.31
640.00 761.90 872.73 1066.67 1230.77 1371.43
782.61 900.00 1107.69 1285.71 1440.00
800.00 923.08 1142.86 1333.33 1500.00

100 0.314 100 0.010
0.14
1.6
5.6
1.8
6.0
2.0
Shorter side / mm
794 898 992 1118 1299 1427
843 954 1054 1231 1385 1523
1006 1112 1256 1465 1612
1053 1166 1365 1539 1695

125 0.393 125 0.156
Table 2A1.1 Recommended sizes for rectangular ductwork, including equivalent diameter, hydraulic diameter, cross sectional area and perimeter (based on BS EN 1505(A1.1)) — continued
150 0.470 150 0.023

160 0.502 160 0.026
200 0.628 200 0.040
0.112
1.28
1.44
250 0.785 250 0.063
5.2
5.6
1.6
315 0.990 315 0.099
355 1.115 355 0.126
400 1.257 400 0.160
450 1.413 450 0.203
0.84
0.96
1.08
4.8
5.2
1.2 500 1.571 500 0.250

560 1.760 560 0.314
630 1.079 630 0.397
710 2.229 710 0.504
800 2.512 800 0.640
0.7
A 0.8
4.6
A 0.9
5.0
A 1.0
900 2.826 900 0.810

1000 3.142 1000 1.000
1120 3.517 1120 1.254
1250 3.927 1250 1.563
A 0.56
de
dh
de
dh
DW/144 provides detailed guidance on duct sizing and

should be referred to. The revised DW/144 (2013) includes
provision for reducing the thickness of the sheet metal used
* de = equivalent diameter / mm; P = perimeter / m; dh = hydraulic diameter / mm; A = cross sectional area / m2
in some sizes of ductwork and supersedes previous

de
dh
de
dh
guidance.
References
Parameter*
BESA (2013) Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork DW/144 (Penrith:

BESA)
BSI (1998) BS EN 1505: 1998 Ventilation for buildings. Sheet metal air ducts
and fittings with rectangular cross-section. Dimensions (London: British
Standards Institution)
BSI (2007) BS EN 1506 Ventilation for buildings. Sheet metal air ducts and
fittings with circular cross section. Dimensions (London: British Standards
Institution)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
P
P
Longer
1400
1600
1800
2000


Appendix 2.A2: Space allowances 2-129
Appendix 2.A2: Space allowances

2.A2.1 Space allowances for ductwork demountable to facilitate access for removal and replace
ment of filters, fans, motors or the complete unit, if
Figure 2.A2.1 shows the recommended space allowances necessary. Access should be provided which is at least equal
for rectangular, circular and flat oval ductwork (BSRIA, to the full plan dimensions of the unit (including control
1992). Figure 2.A2.2 shows recommended space allowances and commissioning valves) plus a minimum allowance of
for vertical risers, both insulated and uninsulated (DEO, 100 mm on all sides.
1996). Access to ducts is governed by the space required to
install and insulate the ductwork and this is determined by
2.A2.2.3 False ceilings and raised floors
the clearance from firm objects, the jointing method, and
whether or not the ducts are to be insulated after installation.
Table 2.A2.1 shows typical floor-to-floor heights and the
See BS 8313(2.A2.3) for details.
heights/depths of typical false floors/ceilings (Burberry,
Duct clearances can be reduced with care, providing correct 1996). Figure 2.A2.5 illustrates some specific points.
jointing, insulation and maintenance of vapour barriers is
achieved. Consideration should also be given to how the
ductwork will be tested and, eventually, replaced. See also
BSRIA Technical Note TN10/92: Space allowances for References
building services distribution systems (BSRIA, 1992). BSI (1997) BS 8313: 1997 Code of practice for accommodation of building
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
services in ducts (London: British Standards Institution)

BSRIA (1992) Space allowances for building services distribution systems —
2.A2.2 Ductwork access: common detail design stage BSRIA Technical Note TN10/92 (Bracknell: Building
problems Services Research and Information Association)
Burberry P (1996) Architects Journal 26 February 1986
2.A2.2.1 Fire dampers DEO (1996) Space requirements for plant access, operation and maintenance
Defence Estates Organisation (Works) Design and Maintenance Guide 08
Access to fire dampers must not be obstructed by other (London: The Stationery Office)
services. Clear access must be ensured for inspection and
testing. Figure 2.A2.3 illustrates two common problems.
2.A2.2.2 Ceiling-mounted terminal units

X W S S W X
A typical installation is shown in Figure 2.A2.4. The ceiling X

grid immediately beneath the terminal unit should be
600 mm
A 600 mm
600 mm
If W less than or equal to 1000 mm: X = 200 mm, S = 400 mm

B B B
If W greater than 1000 mm: X = 400 mm, S = 600 mm
(a)
(a) Insulated ducts
X W S S W X
600
X
500
Clearance space / mm
ce (B )
Side c learan
400
300 600 mm
Top and bottom clearance (A) 600 mm

200 500 mm
100
0 If W less than or equal to 1000 mm: X = 100 mm, S = 300 mm

0 250 500 750 1250 1500 1750 2000 If W greater than 1000 mm: X = 300 mm, S = 400 mm
Width (or diameter) of duct / mm (b) Uninsulated ducts
(b)
Figure 2.A2.2 Space allowance for rectangular, circular and flat oval
Figure 2.A2.1 Space allowance for rectangular, circular and flat oval ductwork; (a) insulated, (b) uninsulated (reproduced from MoD Design
ductwork (a) schematic, (b) recommended clearances (reproduced from and Maintenance Guide 08; © Crown copyright material is reproduced
BSRIA Technical Note TN10/92 by permission of the Building Services with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and Queen’s Printer for
Research and Information Association) Scotland)
FCU or VAV
terminal unit
Duct Fire damper Problem:
fire damper
access door
obstructed
by pipework
Ceiling grid
demountable for
access for removal
of FCU or VAV
Figure 2.A2.3 Common problems with access to fire dampers terminal
(reproduced from MoD Design and Maintenance Guide 08;
Figure 2.A2.4 Typical ceiling-mounted terminal unit (reproduced from
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the
MoD Design and Maintenance Guide 08; © Crown copyright material is
Controller of HMSO and Queen’s Printer for Scotland)
Duct Fire damper reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and Queen’s
Fire damper Printer for Scotland)
access door
Table 2.A2.1 Typical floor-to-floor heights and heights/depths of typical false floors/ceilings (Burberry, 1996) for offices
Office type Problem: Typical floor-to-floor Typical false ceiling Typical false floor
tee bar height / m height / m depth* / m
should not
Average quality office, refurbished office; average obstruct 3.6–3.8 0.5– 0.6 —
requirements for it and engineering services removal of
access door
High quality office, minimal perimeter systems; above 3.9– 4.2 0.8–1.0 0.4– 0.6
average requirements for it and engineering services
* Option to reduce false ceiling height
VAV terminal unit or FCU

Main duct run-outs
Structural zone
7
4
50 mm deflection + tolerance
HVAC duct or terminal unit
50 mm support + tolerance
Sprinkler zone 50 mm + 150 mm
150 mm lighting zone
Sprinkler
Access Access
3 5 2 1 600 mm x 600 mm
Headroom
Floor box Cable tray
Access 6 Access Access
Raised floor
Supply duct for floor supply system or terminal
1 Ensure clear access to all fire dampers for inspection and testing
2 Clearance of 1·5 times the luminaire depth to facilitate removal of the fitting
3 Demountable ceiling grid to permit access to the ceiling mounted terminal unit and removal
4 Clear access to the terminal unit for removable of the recirculation air filter (FCUs), cleaning of coil and condensate tray
5 Additional vertical space to be allowed for condensate drains and their fall (FCUs)
6 Access to raised floor shown for the situation where all floor tiles may not be removable
7 Provision should be made for permanent access to all commissioning and control valves
Figure 2.A2.5 False ceilings and raised floors (reproduced from MoD Design and Maintenance Guide 08; © Crown copyright material is reproduced with
the permission of the Controller of HMSO and Queen’s Printer for Scotland)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Appendix 2.A3: Maximum permissible air leakage rates 2-131
Appendix 2.A3: Maximum permissible air leakage rates

BESA specification DW/144 (2013)w Table 22 provides
maximum permissible air leakage rates. Figure 207 in
Reference
DW/144 shows the permitted leakage at various pressures. BESA (2013) Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork DW/144 (Penrith:
BESA)
Appendix 2.A4: Methods of fire protection
The following information is taken from BESA specification supported with suitably sized and designed hangers, which
DW/144 (2013), which should be referred to for further reflect the reduction in tensile strength of steel in a fire
information. condition, i.e.:
— fire resisting ductwork rated at 60 minutes (945 °C):
tensile strength is reduced from 430 N·mm–2 to 15
2.A4.1 Protection using fire dampers N·mm–2
The fire is isolated in the compartment of origin by the — fire resisting ductwork rated at 120 minutes (1049
automatic or manual actuation of closures within the sys °C): tensile strength is reduced to 10 N·mm–2
tem. Fire dampers should, therefore, be sited at the point of — fire resisting ductwork rated at 240 minutes
penetration of a compartment wall or floor, or at the point (1153 °C): tensile strength is reduced to 6 N·mm–2.
of penetration of the enclosure of a protected escape route.
Where the fire resisting ductwork passes through a fire
Fire dampers should be framed in such a way as to allow for compartment wall or floor, a penetration seal must be
thermal expansion in the event of fire, and the design must provided which has been tested and/or assessed with the
provide for the protection of any packing material included. ductwork to BS 476: Part 24, to the same fire rating as the
compartment wall through which the fire resisting
Standard types of fire dampers and frames are described in ductwork passes. It should also be noted that where the fire
section 22 of DW/144. resisting ductwork passes through the fire compartment
wall or floor, the ductwork itself must be stiffened to
prevent deformation of the duct in a fire to:
2.A4.2 Protection using fire resisting
— maintain the cross-sectional area of the duct
enclosures
— ensure that the fire rated penetration seal around
Where a building services shaft is provided through which the duct is not compromised.
the ventilation ductwork passes, and if the shaft is con
structed to the highest standard of fire resistance of the
structure which it penetrates, it forms a compartment
known as a ‘protected shaft’. This allows a complicated References
multiplicity of services to be transferred together through a
shaft transversing a number of compartments and reaching BESA (2013) Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork DW/144 (Penrith:
remote parts of the building, without requiring further BESA)
internal divisions along its length. The provision of fire
dampers is then required only at points where the BSI (1987) BS 476: Fire tests on building materials and structures; Part 24:
1987: Method for determination of the fire resistance of ventilation ducts (British
ventilation duct leaves the confines of the protected shaft.
Standards Institution) (1987)
However, if there is only one ventilation duct and there are
no other services within the protected shaft, between the
fire compartment and the outside of the building, no fire
dampers will be required.
2.A4.3 Protection using fire resisting

ductwork
In this method of fire protection, the ductwork itself forms
a protected shaft. The fire resistance may be achieved by the
ductwork material itself, or through the application of a
protective material. This is provided that the ductwork has
been tested and/or assessed to BS 476: Part 24 (1987) with a
fire resistance, when tested from either side, that should not
be less than the fire resistance required for the elements of
construction in the area through which it passes. It should
also be noted that the fire resisting duct work must be --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Appendix 2.A5: Example calculations

2.A5.1 Ductwork sizing and pressure air handling unit (ahu). The main air supply has a winter
design temperature of 30 °C.
drop calculations
For initial estimates only, the discharge diffusers will be
Ductwork sizing is so inter-related to pressure drop that assumed to give a pressure drop of 20 Pa for a flow of
the two calculations must be handled together, as will be 0.2 m3·s –1.
seen in the following worked example. The ductwork sizing
example is in four parts, as follows: It is anticipated that the interior of the building will have a
— The first part leads through the ductwork with positive pressure of 15 Pa to allow exhaust air to be extracted
explanations of the reasons for the first choice of naturally.
size for each section of ductwork. Some of the sizes
could or should be changed later in the light of
subsequent calculations. The simple example, see 2.A5.1.2 Preliminary sizing and
Figure 2.A5.1, is designed to incorporate several explanation
different components and illustrate the con se
quences and choices which can be made. Only the From CIBSE Guide C (A6.1), Appendix 4.A1, properties of air
supply ductwork is shown. are as follows:
— The second part includes the calculations of pres — at 10 °C: r = 1.24 kg·m–3; h = 17.63 × 10–6 kg·m–1·s–1; cp
sure drop, using data contained in CIBSE Guide C = 1.011 kJ·kg –1·K–1
(2007), section 4. A separate but similar calculation
would be required for the return ductwork. — at 30 °C: r = 1.16 kg·m–3; h = 18.55 × 10–6 kg·m–1·s–1; cp
= 1.030 kJ·kg–1· K–1.
— Amendment of some duct sizes in the light of the
pressure drop calculations. The minimum size of ductwork is constrained by acoustic
— Consideration of the outdoor air supply duct. considerations which limit air speeds. Otherwise life cycle
costing should be the important factor. Thus, the limiting
air velocities used as a starting point for duct sizing are as
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
follows:
2.A5.1.1 System design data
— at external louvres: air velocity, c = 2.5 m·s–1 (from
Figure 2.A5.1 illustrates a simple supply system to a suite of CIBSE Guide C, Table 4.12)
six private offices, each requiring 0.2 m3·s –1 of air. The main
— in the ahu: air velocity, c = 2 m·s–1 (face velocity; see
ductwork will be in the ceiling void of the corridors.
Table 2.16)
Branches will be in ceiling voids within the offices. Outdoor
air will constitute 40% of the total air being treated in the — in main duct: air velocity, c = 6 m·s–1 (Table 2.16)
V1 V4
D1
3 (1·2) 3 (0·2)
H J
15 (1·2) I 4 (1·0) 4 (0·6) K 0·4 (0·4) N
L
M 20 (0·4)
4 (0·4)
D2 P
G W Q
F
2 (1·2)
V2 V5
E
5 (0·2) 5 (0·2)
D (0·72)
C 3 (0·48) 3 T
X R
B S
1 (0·48)
A A, B, C etc: component designation
V3 V6
(0·48), (0·72) etc: volumetric flow rate (m3·s–1)
Figure 2.A5.1 Duct layout with lengths (m) and flow rates (m3·s–1)
— in branch duct: air velocity, c = 5.5 m·s–1 (Table 2.16) Before continuing with the next item of ductwork, it is
necessary to look ahead to the requirements of the air
— in final duct: air velocity, c = 3 m·s (Table 2.16)
–1
handling unit (E).
External louvres and mesh (A) This will be handling airflow rate, q = 1.2 m3·s–1. Life cycle
costing studies recommend a maximum face velocity of 2
The pressure drop through louvres can be considerable. m·s–1 for an air handling unit. Hence:
CIBSE Guide C, Table 4.35, recommends a maximum Amin = q / c = 1.2 / 2.0 = 0.6 m2
velocity of 2.5 m·s–1 through the free area in a ‘normal’
situation. Provisionally assuming a 90% free area, this For this cross-sectional area, Appendix 2.A1, Table 2.A1.1,
implies a maximum face velocity of 2.25 m·s–1. suggests a rectangular duct measuring 1000 mm × 600 mm,
giving c = 2.0 m.s–1.
For a total required airflow rate of 1.2 m3·s–1, 40% of which
is outdoor air, the airflow rate at the inlet is: In anticipation of the tee at D, requiring 1000 mm × 600
q = 0.4 × 1.2 = 0.48 m ·s3 –1 mm, an expansion taper is included at C. (Clearly there
would be a case both for simplicity and a lowering of face
Hence: velocity if the louvre size had been chosen as 1000 mm ×
600 mm in the first place.)
Amin = q / c = 0.48 / 2.25 = 0.213 m2
After the ahu, the air has a temperature of 30 °C, for which
From Appendix 2.A1, Table 2.A1.1, a rectangular duct r = 1.16 kg·m–3.
measuring 500 mm × 500 mm has a cross-sectional area, A
= 0.25 m2.
Expansion (C)
Substituting back into the previous equation gives velocity,
c = 1.92 m3·s–1 BESA specification DW/144 (2013) suggests a maximum
taper included angle of q = 45°.
(a) External louvres
For expansion from (500 × 500) to (1000 × 600):
CIBSE Guide C, section 4, gives tentative guidance on the A2 / A1 = (1.0 × 0.6) / (0.5 × 0.5) = 2.4
friction factor for louvred duct entries. Pro vision
ally
assuming louvre ratios, as defined in Guide C, of (hi / h) = 0.7
and (x / x1) = 0.9, and louvres with vertical flat ends (case a), For such small expansions the angle of the taper is not very
Guide C gives the pressure loss factor, z = 4.8. important, so a value of q = 45° is chosen.
The deter mination of z is quite complex. For a quick

After selection of an appropriate louvre, the correct figure
calculation, a speculative value might provisionally be
for pressure drop should be obtained from the manu
taken from the table, especially as this is not a large
facturer.
expansion. Nevertheless a full calculation is demonstrated
here. A typical winter temperature of 10 °C is chosen, but
For a typical winter day, outdoor air might have a tempera this is not critical.
ture of 10 °C, hence r = 1.24 kg·m–3.
Based on 500 × 500, dh = 500 mm (from Appendix 2.A1,
(b) Bird mesh Table 2.A1.1). At (C), the airflow rate is: q = 0.48 m3·s–1.
Hence, velocities before and after the expansion taper are:
Provisionally assume a free area of 70%. CIBSE Guide C c1 = 1.92 m·s–1 and c2 = 0.8 m·s–1. The Reynolds number is
suggests pressure loss factor, z = 0.58. then given by:
Re1 = r c d / h = (1.24 × 1.92 × 0.5) / 17.63 × 10–6
Outdoor air inlet damper (B)
= 0.68 × 105
Provisionally assuming for the moment that it will be an
opposed blade damper with 3 blades, CIBSE Guide C Approximately, taking A2 / A1 = 2, and Re = 1 × 105, Guide
suggests pressure loss factors based on the value of C, Table 4.79 gives z = 0.330. (More accurately, by graphical
parameter x, given by: interpolation, z = 0.50.)
x = n w / [2 (h + w)]
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Tee, with shoe on the branch (D)

where n is the number of blades, and w and h are the duct
width (m) and height (m) respectively. Hence: Note that for all tees, the value of z is to be used with the
velocity pressure of the combined flow. The velocity for the
x = (3 × 500) / [2 × (500 + 500)] = 0.75 combined flow is given by:
cc = 1.2 / (1.0 × 0.6) = 2.0 m·s –1
For the damper fully open (q = 0°), Guide C gives the
pressure loss factor z = 0.52.
For converging flow, the ratio of straight flow rate to
combined flow rate is:
After selection of an appropriate damper, the correct value
should be obtained from the manufacturer. qs / qc = 0.48 / 1.2 = 0.4
From CIBSE Guide C the pressure loss factor for straight The outlet velocity is:
flow is: z s–c = 0.22.
c2 = q / A2 = 1.2 / (0.4 × 0.5) = 6.0 m·s–1
Assume that the branch, carrying 0.72 m3·s–1, has a size 300
mm × 400 mm; hence c = 6 m·s –1. Therefore, ratio of branch Bend, with splitter vanes (H)
flow rate to combined flow rate is:
qb / qc = 0.72 / 1.2 = 0.6 CIBSE Guide C section 4.11.4.2 applies. For 400 < w < 800,
Table 2.40 (based on BESA specification DW/144)
(Note that without a shoe, CIBSE Guide C, section 4.11.4.12, recommends a single splitter vane. The BESA standard
shows that the pressure loss factor for straight flow would radius for bends is r = w, and this radius will be used.
have 0.46, i.e. twice that for a tee with a shoe on the branch.) Hence:
h / w = 500 / 400 = 1.25
Air handling unit (ahu) (E)
From CIBSE Guide C, Table 4.112, z = 0.05.
The air handling unit, including heater battery, filter and
fan, may be regarded as a ‘black box’ which must provide a Note that this value is considerably less than would have
pressure rise, external to itself, equal to the total pressure been the case without the vane.
drop around the whole air circuit, supply and return.
Typical branch (I–D1–V1)
Control damper, opposed blade, 3 blades (F)
The ‘index run’, i.e. the pipe run likely to give the highest
As a first estimate, using CIBSE Guide C, section 4.11.4.18 pressure loss, would appear to be the run from G to R to V6.
(see above, section A6.1.2.2), parameter x is given by: In reality, it would depend upon the route taken by the
return duct from the room supplied at V6.
x = (3 × 0.6) / [2 × (0.6 + 0.6)] = 0.75
For the damper fully open (q = 0), hence z = 0.52. Thus at the next few tees, it is necessary to consider only
the pressure loss factors for straight flow, z c–s. Since the
After selection of the damper, the correct value must be pressure drop incurred by tees depends upon the relative
obtained from the manufacturer. size of the branch, it is worth digressing at this point to
consider the branches to the final run outs.
Duct (G–H–I) In this example, each final branch has the same flow. It is
more convenient for the branches to be circular, especially as
For a building containing private offices, Table 2.16 gives it is convenient to make the final connection to a diffuser by a
the maximum permitted velocity in a main duct as 6 m·s–1. flexible duct. However the length of such flexible ducts
This also accords with figures derived from life cycle should be kept to a minimum as their pressure loss is high.
costing.
Taking a typical branch, I–D1–V1, assumed now to be
Again, using the expression A = q / c, the required cross- within the office space, noise is the most important
sectional areas of the duct is: criterion, therefore velocity c < 3 m·s –1 (see Appendix 2.A1,
A = 1.2 / 6.0 = 0.2 m2 Table 2.A1.1). Generally, even lower velocities are used, a
velocity c = 2.5 m·s –1 will be assumed. Hence, the branch
Appendix 2.A1, Table 2.A1.1, suggests either 600 mm by duct area is:
400 mm, or 500 mm by 400 mm ductwork. For this example A = q / c = 0.2 / 2.5 = 0.08 m2
500 mm by 400 mm is chosen, and the orientation such as
to make the following bend (H), an ‘easy’ bend, i.e. w = 400 For a circular duct, this gives a minimum diameter dmin =
mm, h = 500 mm. 319 mm. This is so close to a standard size of 315 mm that
the difference might be considered trivial. Furthermore
From the same table, the equivalent diameter is: this is a branch which provides an air route of minimum
de = 492 mm length and resistance. It is tempting to have the smaller
diameter for this first branch and larger branches for the
others, but this might lead to confusion for the installers.
Contraction (G) As the branch ducts are short it might be thought that the
pressure drop will be small. However, the use of a short
For reduction from (1000 × 600) to (400 × 500), the ratio of length of flexible ductwork for the final connection to the
cross-sectional areas is: diffuser can add a disproportionate pressure drop. For these
A2 / A1 = (400 × 500) / (1000 × 600) = 0.333 reasons, d = 315 mm is chosen for the branch diameter.
The maximum taper recommended in BESA specification For db = 315 mm, the branch cross-sectional area is Ab =
DW/144 is an included angle q = 45°. 0.0779 m2. Hence, the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the
branch to that of the main duct flow is:
CIBSE Guide C, section 4.11.5.2, shows that for contractions Ab / Ac = 0.0779 / (0.5 × 0.4) = 0.390
the included angle is not important and z is small. Note
that z is to be used with the outlet velocity, c2. An included The air velocity in the branch is:
angle of 45° is chosen hence, from CIBSE Guide C by --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
interpolation: z = 0.055. cb = qb / Ab = 0.2 / 0.0779 = 2.57 m·s –1.

Tee (with shoe) (I) Duct (L–M–Q)
For the rectangular main duct (500 × 400): Ac = 0.2 m2, qc This main branch could tolerate velocities up to 5.5 m·s –1.
= 1.2 m3·s –1, hence cc = 6 m·s–1 The ductwork could conveniently be circular.
Hence, for q = 0.4 m3·s –1:

For the circular branch (d = 315 mm): Ab = 0.0779 m2, qb =
0.2 m3·s –1. Amin = q / c = 0.4 / 5.5 = 0.0727 m2
Hence: dmin = 304 mm
Ab / Ac = 0.0779 / 0.2 = 0.39 A diameter of 315 mm could easily be chosen here, but
since this is the index run, it is advisable to minimise
qb / qc = 0.2 / 1.2 = 0.166 pressure losses along this run as this will make subsequent
qs / qc = 1.0 / 1.2 = 0.833 balancing easier. Therefore the next size up is selected:
d = 355 mm.
(Note that the pressure drop to the branch is less than it Hence:
would be without the shoe, but is still considerably greater
Ac = 0.100 m2
than that for the straight, which is to be expected.)
Contraction, rectangular to circular (L)

Branch (J–X)
For reduction from rectangular (500 mm × 400 mm) to
This is required to carry 0.4 m3·s–1 with a limiting speed of circular (d = 355 mm), with a maximum taper angle of q =
5.5 m·s –1. This implies a diameter of 304 mm. There would 45°, CIBSE Guide C, section 4.11.5 applies.
seem little option but to choose circular ductwork the next A2 / A1 = 0.1 / 0.2 = 0.5
size up, i.e. 315 mm, though rectangular ductwork 300 mm
× 250 mm could be chosen. Segmented bends in close proximity (M)
Ducts (I–J and J–K) CIBSE Guide C, section 4.11.2.5 applies. Separation of
bends, l = 400 mm, so (l / d) = 400 / 355 = 1.1; (r / d) = 1
The straight runs I–J and J–K are short enough not to for each bend. The Reynolds number is given by:
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
justify the complication of reductions in size, so, for Re = r c d / h = 1.16 × 4.0 × 0.355 / (18.55 × 10–6)
convenience, the duct dimensions will remain the same as = 0.888 × 105
for ductwork run (G–H–I), i.e. 500 mm × 400 mm.
90° segmented bend (N)
Tee (with shoe) (J)
By interpolation, from CIBSE Guide, Table 4.119, for
For the rectangular main duct (500 mm × 400 mm): (r / d) = 1, Re = 0.9 × 105, d = 355 mm:
Ac = 0.2 m2, qc = 1.0 m3·s–1, hence cc = 5 m·s–1. z = 0.305
For the circular branch (d = 315 mm): Ab = 0.0779 m2, qb = Fire damper (P)
0.4 m3·s–1.
This should have a totally clear area when open, presenting
Hence: a small resistance. Provisionally, until manufacturer’s data
are available, assume z = 0.12.
Ab / Ac = 0.0779 / 0.2 = 0.39
qb / qc = 0.4 / 1.0 = 0.4 Tee (without shoe) (Q)
qs / qc = 0.6 / 1.0 = 0.6 For the circular main duct (dc = 355 mm): Ac = 0.10 m 2, qc
= 0.4 m3·s –1.
Tee (without shoe) (K)
For the circular branch (db = 315 mm): Ab = 0.0779 m 2, qb
For the rectangular main duct (500 mm × 400 mm): Ac = = 0.2 m3.s –1.
0.2 m2, qc = 0.6 m3·s –1, hence cc = 3 m·s–1. Hence:
For the circular branch (d = 315 mm): Ab = 0.0779 m2, Ab / Ac = 0.0779 / 0.10 = 0.78
qb = 0.2 m3·s –1. qb / qc = 0.2 / 0.4 = 0.5
Hence: Duct (Q–R)

Ab / Ac = 0.0779 / 0.2 = 0.39
Logically, the diameter could be reduced to 315 mm.
qs / qc = 0.4 / 0.6 = 0.667 However, since this is the index run, it is better to minimise
pressure loss, therefore it is better to maintain the duct closing damper D1, which could cause additional noise
diameter as 355 mm until after the final bend R. generation. Furthermore, the system pressure drop will con
sequently always be greater and incur constant additional
fan power and energy costs. Consideration should always
90° segmented bend (R)
be given to the alternative solution of reducing the pressure
loss in the index run by increasing the duct size along the
The air velocity is given by:
‘problem’ runs. To illustrate this, the duct size from L–S
c = q / A = 0.2 / 0.1 = 2.0 m·s –1 could be increased to the next size up.
Hence, the Reynolds number is: Table 2.A5.3 illustrates the effect of increasing the diameter
Re = r c d / h = 1.16 × 2.0 × 0.355 / (18.55 × 10 )
–6 of duct run (L–S) from 355 mm 400 mm. The effect is to
reduce friction pressure drop by 10.8, some 16% of the total
= 0.44 × 105 pressure drop, which would be worth achieving.
Symmetrical contraction (S) Table 2.A5.4 gives a break-down of the pressure drop
incurred along the index run to V6 with the increased duct
For reduction from d1 = 355 mm to d2 = 315 mm, ratio of sizes. The drop in total pressure is now 59.7 Pa.
cross-sectional areas is:
Before finally accepting these design sizes, it is worth
A2 / A1 = (315 / 355)2 = 0.79 checking on the pressure drop incurred by the airflow along
the shortest duct run, namely E to V1, see Table 2.A6.5.
CIBSE Guide C, section 4.11.2.8 applies. For an included
angle q = 45°, CIBSE Guide C, Table 4.57 gives, by Note that the pressure drops along the index run (see Table
extrapolation: z = 0.055. 2.A5.4) and along the shortest run (see Table 2.A5.5) are
now almost in balance, being 59.7 and 61.2 Pa respectively.
The outlet velocity is: This is due to the decision to employ larger size ductwork
c2 = q / A2 = 0.2 / 0.0779 = 2.57 m·s –1 along the index run, and also to the fact that flow round to
the branch at tee I is considerably more than along the
straight, despite the shoe. Normally the control damper D1
90° segmented bend (T) would need to provide an additional pressure drop, but in
this instance it is not necessary. Similar calculations should
The Reynolds number is given by: be carried out for each air route.
Re = r c d / h = 1.16 × 2.57 × 0.315 / (18.55 × 10 –6)
Assuming that all the air flow runs can be adjusted to have
= 0.51 × 105
the same loss of total pressure, the ‘design flow rates’ should
then occur. Note that the total pressure drop for the circuit is
Diffuser (V) only that for one circuit as all the routes are in parallel.
Provisionally, take: At this stage the return ductwork has been neither designed
D p = 20 Pa nor sized. The exercise is similar to the above calculations
for the supply ductwork. In this example, only 60% of the
total air flow is to be recirculated. The pressure drops
2.A5.1.3 Calculation of pressure drop calculated would in general be very similar, except to note
that the pressure drop through an extract grille will, or
For each duct fitting, along what is believed to be the index should be, considerably less than that through a supply
run, the pressure drop is given by: diffuser. For the purposes of this example, a return airflow
D pt = z 1/2 r c 2 of 0.72 m3·s –1 is assumed, incurring a pressure drop of 50 Pa.
This would give rise to a total pressure drop for the circuit
Appropriate values have already been obtained in section of (60 + 50) Pa = 110 Pa.
2.A5.1.2 above, and a table of the calculations is shown as
Table 2.A6.1. Note that a cost–benefit analysis of enlarging duct L–S
might not in isolation justify such enlargement. However,
For the straight lengths of duct, Figure 2.33 is used to the ‘knock-on’ effects should not be overlooked; i.e. the
obtain the pressure drop per unit length. The calculations pressure drop on the other four air routes would be affected
are shown in Table 2.A5.2. such that dampers in non-index run routes might require
less trimming. It has already been shown that, for example,
The pressure drops obtained in Tables 2.A5.1 and 2.A5.2 damper D1 will require no measurable trimming.
are summed to give a drop in total pressure of 70.4 Pa.
The final duct layout using the amended duct sizes is shown
in Figure 2.A6.2.
2.A5.1.4 Amendment to duct sizes to improve
balance
2.A5.1.5 Outdoor air supply
Although the duct sizing has, by normal criteria, been on
the generous side, the pressure drop along the index run is Note that, up to this point, the effect of the outdoor air inlet
nevertheless dominated by the pressure drop along G–I and has not been considered because it does not constitute part
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,
L–Q. If the design is left as it is, then branch run (I–D1– of the main airflow loop. A few assumptions will now be
V1) will require considerable additional resistance by made to illustrate the effect.
Suppose that the air leaks from each room to the external air 15.0 Pa. This needs to be 35 Pa so that the right quantity of
resulted in the air within each room having a pressure of 15 outdoor air is drawn in. This can be achieved either by
Pa above the pressure outside the building. The pressure closing down damper B considerably, or by selecting a
drop in the return ductwork (D pt) was found to be 50 Pa (see smaller louvre and mesh screen.
section 2.A5.1.4). Thus, the total pressure just before the air
handling unit (E), will be (–50 + 15) Pa =–35 Pa.
These considerations of the outdoor air supply duct have
no bearing on the fan selection which follows.
Table 2.A5.6 draws together the fresh air inlet duct
calculations from Tables 2.A5.1 and 2.A5.2. This shows
that, for the design flow of outdoor air, the pressure drop is
Table 2.A5.1 Calculation of pressure drops for fittings in the index run of supply ductwork (E–V6)
Item Description Guide C Appropriate Air velocity (1/2 r c2) Pressure loss Pressure drop,
table ref. air velocity / m·s–1 / Pa factor, z D p / Pa
A1 Louvre 4.104 — 1.92 2.29 4.8* 11.0
A2 Mesh screen 4.102 — 1.92 2.29 0.58 1.3
B Outdoor air inlet damper 4.78 — 1.92 2.29 0.52* 1.2
C Expansion taper 4.79 c1 1.92 2.29 0.33 0.8
D Tee, shoe, converging 4.88 cc 2.0 2.48 0.22 0.5
(straight flow)
D Tee, shoe, converging 4.89 cc 2.0 2.4 1.03
2.5
(branch flow)
E Air handling unit (ahu) — — — — — —
F Damper 4.78 2.0 2.32 0.52* 1.2
G Contraction taper (rect.) 4.80 c2 6.0 20.9 0.055 1.1
H 90° bend with vane (rect.) 4.63 — 6.0 20.9 0.05 1.0
I Tee, shoe, diverging 4.108 cc 6.0 20.9 0.012 0.3
J Tee, shoe 4.108 cc 5.0 14.5 0 0
K Tee 4.108 cc 3.0 5.22 0.045 0.2
L Contraction taper 4.80 c2 4.0 9.28 0.055 0.5
(rect. → circ.)
M Double bend 4.122 — 4.0 9.28 0.58 5.4
N Bend 4.119 — 4.0 9.28 0.305 2.8
P Fire damper — — 4.0 9.28 0.12* 1.1
Q Tee 4.133 cc 4.0 9.28 0 0
R Bend 4.119 — 2.0 2.32 0.35 0.8
S Contraction (circ.) 4.126 c2 2.57 3.83 0.055
0.2
T Bend 4.119 — 2.57 3.83 0.36 1.4
V6 Diffuser — — — — — 20.0*
Total (E –V6):
36.0
I Tee (branch flow) 4.108 cc 6 20.9 0.83 17.3
* provisional value to be replaced with manufacturer’s data following selection of equipment
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Note: items A, B and C have not been added into the total, as the outdoor air supply is not in series with the return ductwork and will have to be
considered separately later. Similarly, although the pressure drops across tee D have been illustrated, this would constitute part of the calculations for
the return air ductwork.
Table 2.A5.2 Calculations for straight ductwork in the index run of supply ductwork (E–V6)
Run Air velocity, Duct length Flow rate, Dimensions Equiv. diam., D p / l Pressure
c / m·s–1 / m q / m3·s–1 / (mm × mm) de / mm Pa·m–1 drop, D p / Pa
A–B 1.92 1 0.48 500 × 500 545 0.09 0.1
C–D 0.8 3 0.48 1000 × 600 848 0.01 0
E–G 2.0 2 1.2 1000 × 600 848 0.01 0
G–I 6.0 15 1.2 500 × 400 492 1.0 15.0
I–J 5.0 4 1.0 500 × 400 492 0.75 3.0
J–K 3.0 4 0.6 500 × 400 492 0.29 1.2
K–L 2.0 1 0.4 500 × 400 492 0.13 0.1
L–Q 4.0 20.4 0.4 — 355 0.6 12.2
Q–S 2.0 5 0.2 — 355 0.16 0.8
S–T 2.57 3 0.2 — 315 0.34 1.0
T1–T2 2.57 0.4 0.2 — 315 8 × 0.35* 1.1
Total (E–T2): 34.4
* Flexible duct giving estimated pressure drop of 8 times that of smooth duct
Note: pressure drops along A–B and C–D have not been added into the total, as the fresh air supply is not in series with the return ductwork, and will
have to be considered separately later.
Table 2.A5.3 Effect of a increasing diameter for duct run L–S

Item Description Length, D p / l Pressure loss (1/2 r c2) New pressure Old pressure Reduction
l / m Pa·m–1 factor, z / Pa drop, D p / Pa drop, D p / Pa / Pa
L–Q
Duct 20.4 0.28 — — 6.1 12.2 6.1
Q–S Duct 5 0.075 — — 0.4 0.8 0.4
L Contraction — — 0.055 5.88 0.3 0.5 0.2
M Double bend — — 0.532 5.88 3.1 5.4 2.3
N Bend — — 0.28 5.88 1.6 2.8 1.2
P Fire damper — — 0.12* 5.88 0.7 1.1 0.4
Q Tee — — 0.05 5.88 0.3 0 –0.3
R Bend — — 0.282 1.47 0.4 0.9 0.5
S Contraction — — 0.055 10.4 0.2 0.2 0
Total saving:
10.8
Table 2.A5.4 Table of final calculations for ductwork and fittings in the index run (E –V6)
Item Description Dimensions Length, D p / l Air vel., (1/2 r c2) Press. loss Press. drop,
/ (mm × mm) l / m / Pa·m–1 c / m·s–1 / Pa factor, z D p / Pa
E–G Duct 1000 × 600 2 0.01 2 2.4 — 0
F Damper 1000 × 600 — — 2 2.4 0.52* 1.2
G Contraction taper (rect.) — — — 6 20.9 0.055 1.1
H 90° bend, with vane (rect.) 500 × 400 — — 6 20.9 0.05 1.0
G–I Duct 500 × 400 15 1.0 6 20.9 — 15.0
I Tee, shoe, diverging 500 × 400 — — 6 20.9 0.012 0.3
I–J Duct 500 × 400 4 0.75 5 14.5 — 3.0
J Tee 500 × 400 — — 5 14.5 0 0
J–K Duct 500 × 400 4 0.29 3 5.22 — 1.2
K Tee 500 × 400 — — 3 5.22 0.045 0.2
K–L Duct 500 × 400 1 0.13 2 2.32 — 0.1
L Contraction taper 400 — — 3.18 5.88 0.055 0.3
(rect. → circ.)
M Double bend (circ.) 400 — — 3.18 5.88 0.536 3.1
N Bend (circ.) 400 — — 3.18 5.88 0.282 1.6
P Fire damper (circ.) 400 — — 3.18 5.88 0.12* 0.7
L–Q Duct (circ.) 400 20.4 0.3 3.18 5.88 — 6.1
Q Tee, without shoe (circ.) 400 — — 3.18 5.88 0.05 0.3
R Bend (circ.) 400 — — 1.59 1.5 0.282 0.4
Q–S Duct (circ.) 400 5 0.075 1.59 1.5 — 0.4
S Contraction (circ.) 400 Æ 315 — — 2.57 3.96 0.055 0.2
T Bend (circ.) 315 — — 2.57 3.96 0.36 1.4
S–T Duct (circ.) 315 3 0.34 2.57 3.96 — 1.0
T–T Flexible duct (circ.) 315 0.4 2.8* 2.57 3.96 — 1.1
V6 Diffuser — — — — — — 20.0*
Total (E–V6): 59.7
I Tee (branch flow) 315 — — 6 20.9 0.83 17.3
Table 2.A5.5 Final pressure drops for shortest run (E–V1)

2.A5.2 Choice of fan or air handling
Item Description Length, Dimensions Pressure
unit (ahu) l / m / (mm × mm) drop,
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
D p / Pa
2.A5.2.1 Fan specification D–G Straight duct 2.0 1000 × 600 0
G–I Straight duct 15.0 500 × 400 15.0
The air handling unit will be required to provide, external I–V1 Straight duct 3.0 + 0.4 315 (diam.) 2.1
to the unit, an increase in total pressure of 110 Pa for a G Contraction — — 1.1
volumetric airflow rate of 1.2 m3·s –1. H Bend — 500 × 400 1.0
I Tee (branch flow) — 500 × 400 17.3
The question of margins or safety factors sometimes arises. T Bend — 315 (diam.) 1.4
There is little point in adding a margin to both the air flow F Damper — 1000 × 600 1.2*
and to the pressure drop since an increased air flow in the D1 Damper — 315 (diam.) 2.1*
V1 Diffuser — — 20.0*
calculations automatically causes a larger pressure drop.
For low pressure ductwork, air leakage is likely to be trivial Total (supply run) (E–V1): 61.2
so there is no need to add a safety margin. However, * provisional value to be replaced with manufacturer’s data following
although the accuracy of the pressure drop data has selection of equipment
V1 V4
D1 1
(500 x 400)
3 3
0·4
H (250 Ø) (250 Ø)
(400 Ø)
15 I 4 4 K N
L
(500 x 400) (500 x 400) (500 x 400) M 20
(400 Ø)
4
(315 Ø)
D2 P
G W Q
F
2 (600 x 600)
V2 V5
E 5 5
(315 Ø) (400 Ø)
D
(300 x 400)
3
C 3 (600 x 600) (250 Ø) T
X R
B S
1 (500 x 500)
A V3 V6
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A, B, C etc: component designation

(500 x 400) etc: rectangular duct dimensions (mm)
(315 Ø) etc: circular duct diameter (mm)
Figure 2.A5.2 Final duct layout with lengths (m) and sizes (mm)
improved considerably over recent years, the published 2.A5.2.2 Specific fan power
values are not precise. Therefore a margin of 10% could be
added. Building Regulations Approved Document L imposes a
limit on ‘specific fan power’. This is defined as the sum of
If a margin of 10% is added to the estimated pressure loss the design total circuit-watts, including all losses through
calculation of the ductwork, the air handling unit would be switchgear and controls such as inverters, of all fans that
supply air and exhaust it back outdoors (i.e. the sum of the
required to provide a rise in total pressure of 121 Pa for a
supply and extract fans), divided by the design ventilation
flow of 1.2 m3·s –1. rate through the building.
Within the air handling unit there will be a considerable For ac/mv systems in new buildings, the sfp should be no
pressure drop through the filter and through the heat greater than 2 W·s·litre –1, i.e. 2 kW·s·m–3.
exchanger (also know as the ‘heating coil’). However, for
packaged units it is the responsibility of the supplier to
select the fan so as to meet the pressure drop of the Table 2.A5.6 Pressure drops for outdoor air supply (A–E)
components within the unit and the ductwork. Item Description Length, Dimensions Pressure
l / m / (mm × mm) drop
If the fan is selected independently of any packaged air Dp / Pa
handling unit, then it is to be hoped that matching the A–B Straight duct 1.0 500 × 500 0.1
system characteristic to the fan performance characteristic C–E Straight duct 3.0 1000 × 600 0
will result in an operating point somewhere near the point A Louvre/mesh screen — 500 × 500 12.3
of maximum efficiency. If not, further amendments to the
B Outdoor air inlet damper — 500 × 500 1.2
duct sizes might prove advisable. If the estimated level of
C Expansion taper — — 0.8
the fan noise is found to be excessive, then the inclusion of
sound attenuators may be necessary; this would add D Tee, shoe, converging — — 0.5
(straight flow)
appreciably to the pressure drop and may require a different
fan to be chosen. Total (A–E): 15.0

It is impossible at this stage to predict the electrical power p = pt1 – 1/ 2 D p – 1/ 2 r c2 (2.A5.2)

consumption of the ahu, which has yet to be selected.
However, since the total outside air requirement is 1.2 m3·s – where p is the mean pressure in the duct (Pa), pt1 is the total
1
, the sfp will limit the consumption to 2.4 kW. pressure at the beginning of the duct (Pa), D p is the pressure
loss along the duct (Pa), r is the density of the air in the duct
To illustrate the consequences, the following assumptions (kg·m –3) and c is the air velocity in the duct (m·s –1).
will be made:
The drop in total pressure along the supply air ductwork is
— fan total efficiency, hf = 80%
59.7 Pa (see section 2.A5.1.4). This means that the total
— fan motor efficiency, hm= 85% pressure at the exit from the ahu will be 59.7 Pa above that
— pressure drop across the filter and heat exchanger = of the room. That is the starting point for the calculations
200 Pa shown in Table 2.A5.7. However, to illustrate the procedure,
the leakage from duct run J–K is calculated as follows.
From section 2.A5.1.4, the pressure drops for the supply
and return ductwork are 60 Pa and 50 Pa, respectively. Surface area of duct = duct length × perimeter. Hence:
Therefore, the total pressure rise (including 10% margin) As = 4 × [2 × (0.5 + 0.4)] = 7.2 m2
required is given by:
The pressure loss up to and just past tee J is the sum of the
[(D pt(supply) + D pt(return)) × 1.1] + Dpt(other components) first eight items of Table 2.A5.4, i.e.:
= (110 × 1.1) + 200 = 321 Pa D p = 21.6 Pa
The air power required is: Total pressure at start of duct run J–K is the total pressure
q D p = 1.2 × 321 m ·s ·Pa = 385 W
3 –1 at E minus the pressure drop up to tee J:
pt1 = 59.7 – 21.6 = 38.1 Pa
Total electrical power required for fans:
Pe = (q D p) / hf hm = 385 / (0.8 × 0.85) = 0.566 kW From Table 2.A5.4, 1/ 2 r c2 for duct run J–K is 5.22 Pa. The
pressure drop halfway along J–K is (0.5 × 1.2) Pa. There
Specific fan power: fore, using equation 2.A5.2, the mean static pressure half
way along duct run J–K is:
sfp = Pe / q = 0.566 / 1.2 = 0.472 kW·s·m–3
p = 38.1 – 0.6 – 5.22 = 32.3 Pa
This is well within the limit imposed by Approved
Document L2, as would be expected for the very simple Hence, using equation 2.A5.1, the air leakage is:
system used in the example. A larger, more realistic system, qL = 0.025 × 7.2 × 32.30.65 = 1.72 l·s –1
with more tortuous duct runs and sound attenuators, would
incur much greater pressure losses, necessitating a more In Table 2.A5.7, note that although the value of total
powerful fan and motor, and thus lead to a higher specific fan pressure has been dropping consistently along the duct, in
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
power. this portion of duct J–K, the actual pressure of the air is
greater than in the preceding section. This is due to an
accidental element of ‘static regain’. At tee I, the main duct
2.A5.3 Air leakage section has not changed although less air flows along the
main duct after the branch. Thus in this section the air
Up to this point, only total pressure and drops in total velocity, and thus the value of ( 1/ 2 r c2), has diminished. This
pressure of the air have been considered. However, air occurs at every tee, as shown in Table 2.A5.7 for runs K–L
leakage depends upon the actual pressure (static pressure) and Q–S.
of the air in the duct relative to that outside the duct. It is
impossible to predict this value, though it can be measured Table 2.A5.7 suggests that the maximum leakage would be
after installation. The following illustrates the calculation 20.8 l·s –1. Therefore the permissible fraction lost through
of the permissible air leakage. air leakage is 1.7% of the original flow rate of 1.2 m3·s–1 (i.e.
1200 l·s –1). This does not justify specifying a higher flow
Air leakage is given by:
rate, nor a recalculation of the pressure drop.
qL = C As p0.65 (2.A5.1)
Note that the air in much of the return ductwork will be
where qL is the air leakage rate (litre·s –1), C is a constant found to have negative static pressure, i.e. the pressure in
(litre·s –1·m–2·Pa–0.65) and p is the static pressure in the duct the duct will be lower than the surroundings, so there will
relative to the air outside the duct (Pa). be air leaks into the ductwork.
For low pressure ductwork, C = 0.025 litre·s –1·m–2·Pa– 0.65.

2.A5.4 Drop in air temperature along
It is possible to calculate the leakage progressively along the
duct in accordance with the change in pressure of the duct
the duct
air. However, for simplicity, the pressure at the mid-length
position only of each length of duct will be considered. 2.A5.4.1 Uninsulated ductwork
The mean pressure in a duct will be approximately equal to Table 2.A5.8 shows the calculation of heat loss from the index
the pressure half way along the duct, and is given by: run assuming uninsulated ductwork having a ther mal
transmittance (U-value) of 7.89 W·m–2·K–1. The air From Table 2.21, the recommended thickness for a duct
temperatures inside and outside the duct are: carrying air at a temperature 10 K greater (or less) than the
surroundings, and for a thermal conductivity l = 0.035
— temperature of air inside the duct at beginning of W·m–1·K–1, is 50 mm. From Table 3.7, the overall thermal
run, tad1 = 30 °C transmittance is U = 0.64 W·m–2·K–1.
— temperature of air surrounding the duct, tas = 20 °C.
For simplicity, it is assumed that the temperature drop
Table 2.A5.8 shows that, along the index run E–V6, the heat along a section is trivial.
loss is 4.98 kW, possibly being dissipated into a region that
Taking duct run I–J as an example:
does not require heating. If the ductwork were situated in
ceiling voids, which consequently became over-heated, then Surface area of duct = duct length × perimeter. Hence:
the heat loss would be less due to the higher temperature
outside the duct. Of greater importance is that the As = 4 × [2 × (0.5 + 0.4)] = 7.2 m2
temperature of the air at the end of the run will be signifi
The thermal transmittance is related to the surface area of
cantly below the desired supply temperature of 30 °C. Table
the ductwork, not to the outer surface area of the insulation.
2.A5.8 shows that the temperature of the supply air to zone
The air has already cooled such that at (I) its temperature is
V6 will be 23.5 °C, which will be inadequate. Clearly, it is 29.85 °C. In the first instance, it is assumed that this remains
recommended that ductwork carrying heated or cooled air constant through I–J. Hence, using equation 3.2, the heat
should be insulated. loss is given by:
f = U As (tad – tas) = 0.64 × 7.2 (29.85 – 20) = 45.3 W
2.A5.4.2 Insulated ductwork
The temperature drop along duct run I–J is:
Table 3.8 gives recommended thickness of insulation for
ductwork depending on the thermal conductivity (l) of the tad1 – tad2 = f / (qm cp ) = f / (q r cp)
insulation material. In the following example, l = 0.035
where tad1 is the temperature at the beginning of the duct
W·m –1·K–1. The duct air temperature is nominally 30 °C run (°C), tad2 is the temperature at the end of the duct run
and the temperature of the surrounding air is 20 °C, i.e. (tad1 (°C), f is the heat flux (W), qm is the mass flow rate (kg·s –1),
– ta) = 10 K. cp is the specific heat capacity of air (J·kg –1·K–1), q is the
Table 2.A5.7 Leakage calculations for the supply duct along the index run
Item Length Dimensions Duct surface Total pressure Pressure loss, (1/ 2 r c2) Mean static Leakage,
/ m / (mm × mm) area, As / m2 at start of run, D p / Pa / Pa pressure, qL / l·s–1

pt1 / Pa p / Pa
(a) Main duct run
E–F 2 1200 × 600 7.2 59.7 0 2.4 57.3 2.50
G–I 15 500 × 400 27 57.4 16 20.9 29.8 5.96
I–J 4 500 × 400 7.2 41.1 3.0 14.5 25.1 1.46
J–K 4 500 × 400 7.2 38.1 1.2 5.22 32.3 1.72
K–L 1 500 × 400 1.8 36.7 0.1 2.32 34.3 0.45
L–Q 20.4 400 25.6 33.2 7.7 5.88 23.5 4.98
Q–S 5 400 6.3 24.5 0.4 1.5 22.8 1.20
S–V6 3 315 2.97 23.5 1.0 3.96 19.0 0.50
(b) Branch duct runs
I–V1 3 315 2.97 24.1 1.0 3.96 19.6 0.51
Similar calculations for remaining branches 1.51*
Total:
20.79
* Notional value for sum of air leakage from remaining branches, for purposes of example calculation
Table 2.A5.8 Heat loss calculations for uninsulated supply duct along the index run (U = 7.89 W·m–2·K–1)
Item Length Dimensions Flow rate, Duct surface Temp. at start Temp. diff. Heat flux, Temp. diff.*
/ mm / (mm × mm) q / m3·s–1 area, As / m2 of run, tad1 / °C (tad – tas) / K f / W (tad1 – tad2) / K
E–F 2 1000 × 600 1.2 6.4 30 9.83 496 0.34
G–I 15 500 × 400 1.2 27 29.66 8.95 1917 1.33
I–J 4 500 × 400 1.0 7.2 28.33 8.14 464 0.32
J–K 4 500 × 400 0.6 7.2 28.01 7.70 437 0.61
K–L 1 500 × 400 0.4 1.2 27.40 7.33 69 0.15
L–Q 20.4 400 (diam.) 0.4 25.6 27.25 5.77 1210 2.52
Q–S 5 400 (diam.) 0.2 6.3 24.73 4.30 214 0.89
S–T 3 315 (diam.) 0.2 3.0 23.84 3.64 87 0.36
T — — — — 23.48 — — —
Totals: 4984 6.52
* Temperature difference between beginning and end of duct run --`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

volumetric flow rate (m3·s –1) and r the density of the air — duct system 5: q = 0.6 m3·s–1; D p = 20 Pa
(kg·m –3).
— damper D: q = 0.2 m3·s–1; D p = 10 Pa
Therefore:
From the above design requirement, the fan must produce
tad1 – tad2 = 45.3 / (1.0 × 1.16 × 1.030 × 103) = 0.04 K a pressure rise of 70 Pa for a volume flow of 0.6 m3·s–1.
The temperature at (J) is: We can use the approximate simplification that the pres
ta2 = 29.85 – 0.04 = 29.81°C sure drop of the system is proportional to the square of the
velocity, and thus proportional to the square of the flow
Hence, mean temperature in duct I–J = 1/ 2 (29.85 + 29.81) rate. (Note: not true where there are hepa filters in the
= 29.83°C. system). Thus pressure drop at any flow rate is easily
obtained using:
In principle, the heat loss f should be re-calculated at the D p µ q 2 (2.A5.3)
mean temperature, but in this instance the difference is
trivial and may be ignored. where D p is the pressure drop (Pa) and q is the volumetric
flow rate (m3·s–1).
Note that though the heat loss from the next duct run J–K
is the same (i.e. 45 W), the temperature drop is greater (0.06 Hence, from such values the ‘system characteristic’ can be
K as opposed to 0.04 K). This is because, although the air constructed as shown in Figure 2.A5.4.
temperature in the duct is almost the same, the airflow
through section J–K is appreciably less (i.e. 0.6 m3·s –1 as A fan would be chosen such that the intersection of the fan
opposed to 1.0 m3·s–1). characteristic and the system characteristic gives the design
requirement, as shown, of 0.6 m3·s–1 and a total pressure
In summary, Table 2.A5.9 shows that the total heat loss from drop D pt of 70 Pa.
the index run is 522 W, the temperature drop is 0.83 K and
the supply air temperature to V6 is 29.2 °C. This is suffi The following illustrates what happens to the flow in the
ciently close to the required supply temperature at V1 of various branches of the system when the resistance of one
29.8 °C for there to be no significant control problems. branch is changed as a result of closing damper D.
However the delivered heat to zone V6 is reduced by 8%,
therefore there is a case for increasing the design outlet The problem can be resolved using either circuit resis
temperature of the air handling unit from 30 °C to 30.5 °C. tances or capacities. Since valve manufacturers always give
valve capacities, the following uses the capacity method for
consistency. (See also Guide C, section 4, Appendix 4.A5.)
2.A5.5 Effects on airflows when
closing down one branch Capacity K is given by the relationship:
q = K D pp (2.A5.4)
Figure 2.A5.3 shows a simplified duct network where boxes
1, 2 and 3 represent the ductwork circuits for supplying where K is the capacity (m3·s–1·Pa–0.5)
three zones. Box 5 represents the return ductwork. D is a
damper which is initially open, but which will be closed Using equation 2.A5.4, the capacity of each leg of the
down. network can be calculated, as follows:
The design conditions are as follows: K1 = q1 / D pp1 = 0.2 / ÷70 = 0.02390 m3·s –1·Pa –0.5
— duct system 1: q = 0.2 m3·s–1; D p = 70 Pa K2 = q2 / D pp2 = 0.2 / ÷50 = 0.02828 m3·s –1·Pa –0.5
— duct system 3: q = 0.2 m3·s–1; D p = 40 Pa K4 = q4 / D pp4 = 0.4 / ÷20 = 0.08944 m3·s –1·Pa–0.5
Table 2.A5.9 Heat loss calculations for insulated supply duct along the index run (U = 0.64 W·m–2·K–1)
Item Length Dimensions Flow rate, Duct surface Temp. at start Temp. diff. Heat flux, Temp. diff.*
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
/ mm / (mm × mm) q / m3·s–1 area, As / m2 of run, tad1 / °C (tad – tas) / K (f / W (tad1 – tad2) / K
E–F 2 1000 × 600 1.2 6.4 30 9.99 41 0.03
G–I 15 500 × 400 1.2 27 29.97 9.91 171 0.12
I–J 4 500 × 400 1.0 7.2 29.85 9.83 45 0.04
J–K 4 500 × 400 0.6 7.2 29.81 9.78 45 0.06
K–L 1 500 × 400 0.4 1.2 29.75 9.74 7 0.02
L–Q 20.4 400 0.4 25.6 29.73 9.56 157 0.33
Q–S 5 400 0.2 6.3 29.40 9.32 38 0.16
S–T 3 315 0.2 3.0 29.24 9.20 18 0.07
T — — — — 29.17 — — —
Total: 522 0.83
* Temperature difference between beginning and end of duct run
0·2 m3·s–1 It is now necessary to ascertain the proportions in which

1
this total flow is apportioned between supply legs 1 and 2.
0·2 m3·s–1
4 2
Knowing the flow through leg 5 (being either the return
0·2 m3·s–1 ductwork, or extract to the outside and inlet from the
D 3
outside), the pressure loss through leg 5 can be calculated
0·6 m ·s 3 –1
using equation 2.A5.4:
5
Figure 2.A5.3 Simplified duct network

0.55 = 0.13416 ÷D p5
Hence:
With damper D closed, no flow will pass through leg 3. D p5 = (0.55 / 0.13416) 2 = 16.8 Pa
K2 and K4 are in series, giving an effective capacity of K2,4 , The remainder is the pressure drop existing across leg 1,
i.e: and across leg 4/2:

1
–––– 1 1
= ––– 1
+ –––2 = ––––––– 1
+ ––––––– D p1 = D po – D p5 = 117.7 – 16.8 = 100.9 Pa
K 2,4
2
K 2
2
K 4
0.02828 2
0.08944 2
The flow through leg 1 can now be determined using

Hence: equation 2.A5.4:
K2,4 = 0.02696 m3·s–1·Pa–0.5 q1 = 0.02390 ÷100.9 = 0.2401 m3·s–1
K2,4 and K1 are in parallel, i.e: The rest of the flow passes along leg 4/2, i.e:
K1,2,4 = K2,4 + K1 q4 = qo – q5 = 0.516 – 0.240 = 0.276 m3·s–1
= 0.02696 + 0.02390 = 0.05086 m ·s ·Pa 3 –1 – 0.5
The flow rates resulting from closure of damper D are
The total system capacity K0 is the result of K1,2,4 in series shown on Figure 2.A5.5.
with K5, i.e:
It should be noted that, although the supplies to legs 1 and
–––1 1 = –––––– 1
+ ––– 1
= ––––––– 1
+ ––––––– 2 were initially equal, this is no longer the case once any
K 0
2
K1 1,2,4
2
K 5
2
0.05086 2
0.13416 2
change is made to any other branch.
Hence:
K0 = 0.04756 m3·s–1·Pa–0.5 0·24 m3·s–1
1
Had the capacity been calculated for the original system, it 0·276 m3·s–1
would have been found to be 0.0717 m3·s–1·Pa–0.5. 4 2
0 m3·s–1
A new system characteristic can now be determined from D 3
equation 2.A5.4 using the calculated value of Ko, e.g. for q = 0·516 m3·s–1
0.55 m3·s–1: 5
D p = (0.55 / 0.04756) 2 = 133.7 Pa

Figure 2.A5.5 Duct network with damper D closed
With the damper closed, the system has a new system
characteristic, see Figure 2.A5.4. The intersection with the
fan characteristic now gives a flow of 0.516 m3·s–1 and a References
pressure drop of D p = 117.7 Pa.
CIBSE (2007) Reference data CIBSE Guide C (London: Chartered
160
Fan BESA (2013) Specification for Sheet Metal Ductwork DW/144 (Penrith:
140 BESA)
characteristic Damper
Pressure drop, ∆p / Pa
closed
120 NBS (2013) The Building Regulations 2000 Approved Document L:
Conservation of fuel and power (London: The Stationery Office)
100
80
Damper
open
60
40
0·4 0·45 0·5 0·55 0·6 0·65
Volumetric flow rate, q / m3·s–1
Figure 2.A5.4 System characteristic for simplified duct network; (a)
characteristic with damper D open and (b) characteristic with damper D
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
closed
Appendix 2.A6: Techniques for assessment of ventilation
2.A6.1 General normal weather peaks. A more robust choice will often be
to analyse the building in relation to appropriate national
There are a number of assessment techniques available to UK data and to make simple corrections to suit the
calculate ventilation and cooling requirements and to look differences between this and the site data; e.g. August
in detail at air movement. This appendix provides an average temperature and diurnal swing and August 2.5%
overview of some of these techniques. CIBSE AM11 (2015a) exceeded peak temperature and the associated diurnal
and AM10 (2005) provide more detail on dynamic thermal swing.
simulation and assessment techniques for natural
ventilation respectively. Loads and system performance often depend on more than
one weather variable. Cooling and humidity conditions
will be a function of wet bulb as well as dry bulb temperature.
2.A6.2 Ventilation and cooling The performance of natural ventilation systems in
particular can be affected by solar and wind conditions as
Section 2.2 includes airflow rate requirements for ven well as temperatures, as these are often used to drive the
tilation purposes. Airflow rate requirements for cooling ventilation. Design conditions for the individual weather
purposes are normally based either on restricting peak variables will rarely coincide.
summer temperatures in passive buildings or to meet the
peak cooling load. Analyses may start by looking at peak Controls used in the thermal model should reflect what can
temperatures to evaluate of the building’s potential without be expected to occur in practice. This is a particular issue in
mechanical cooling. These would assess the ventilation natural ventilation systems with manual control. Account
rates (natural and/or mechanical) and passive measures should be taken of the way occupants use windows. Data
needed to meet summer temperature limits. Where cooling are available on occupancy effects on natural ventilation,
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is to be provided, the cooling needed to maintain the primarily based on the domestic sector. This work is
temperature limits would be assessed. Airflow rates may summarised in AIVC Technical Note 23 (Dubrul, 1988).
then be calculated to deliver this cooling to the space.
Thermal mass should be modelled with appropriate surface
There is a range of analysis methods available to suit heat transfer values and representation of heat flow within
different applications and stages in the design process. the mass. High thermal mass buildings must be allowed to
Design charts based on parametric analysis may be used come to their natural thermal equilibrium by having a
(e.g. the BRE’s Environmental Design Guide, 1998), although lengthy period of simulation prior to the period over which
the user can work only within the range of variables covered the modelling results are reported and compared; 15 days is
by the charts. Section 5 of CIBSE Guide A (2015b) provides usually enough for this ‘pre-conditioning’ period, although
design information on the use of thermal dynamic models a few buildings require longer. This can be tried first with 10
for calculating peak summertime temperatures and peak and 20 days and the results compared to check for significant
space cooling loads. Simple (dynamic) models (e.g. the differences. If a hot spell is being simulated, peak weather
admittance procedure) may be used to assess cooling loads data should not be used throughout, as this will under-value
and the probability of overheating. These approaches are the heat-absorbing benefits of the thermal mass. Instead,
based on a 24-hour design cycle and are suitable for pre-conditioning with average weather for the season
mechanically cooled buildings with a repetitive diurnal concerned can be undertaken, followed by a step change to
operating cycle. However, where this is not an accurate the peak weather sequence — which in the UK seldom lasts
reflection of building operation due to thermal mass or more than 5 days. The design day is typically the third in
passive operation, dynamic thermal simulation may be the peak weather sequence.
used.
Appropriate consideration should be given to issues of 2.A6.3 Air movement

weather data, control and thermal mass depending on the
application. Selection of appropriate weather data is Analyses of air movement may be needed, particularly for
discussed in CIBSE AM10 (2005). Different data will be natural ventilation applications and air movement in large
required for different purposes. For example, to estimate spaces such as atria. These provide information on air
energy consumption, average weather data for the region velocity, movement and temperature; volume flow rate;
will usually be the most appropriate. Data, including more and optimal opening sizes, shapes and positions. Techniques
extreme conditions, will be appropriate to test the ability of available include computational fluid dynamics (cfd),
the building to accommodate various levels of internal heat physical models and air flow models. For room air
gain and predict peak temperatures. Site-specific weather distribution, performance is sometimes critically dependent
data can be of interest, but may have been collected over a
on details of equipment design, and full-scale mock-ups
relatively short period and may not necessarily be
may be required.
representative. It is frequently impossible to use such data
to construct meaningful statistics to identify the percentage
of time a specified internal temperature would be likely to 2.A6.3.1 Computational fluid dynamics (cfd)
be exceeded. There is also a danger that the design may lack
robustness, being tailored to a unique weather sequence cfd is a technique for predicting air movement that can
and reacting in a different and unpredicted way to more address questions such as stratification and local air
Appendix 2.A6: Techniques for assessment of ventilation 2-145
movement. It therefore has particular application to

consideration of large spaces such as atria. cfd methods can
References
predict temperature and velocity distributions in a space CIBSE (2005) Natural ventilation in non-domestic buildings CIBSE
and can be applied to assessments of comfort involving Applications Manual AM10 (London: Chartered Institution of Building
more of the influencing parameters than is possible in zonal Services Engineers)
models. Because of the extensive nature of the computations
and the time varying nature of the natural driving forces, CIBSE (2015a) Building energy and environmental modelling CIBSE
cfd is normally only used to generate ‘snapshots’ of how Applications Manual AM11 (London: Chartered Institution of Building
the design would work at a given point in time. Services Engineers)
CIBSE (2015b) Environmental design CIBSE Guide A (London: Chartered

Another potential application for cfd is external flows
around the building. The purpose is to generate the wind
pressure coefficients needed by all models to predict natural
Dubrul C (1988) Inhabitant’s behaviour with regard to ventilation AIVC
airflow rates. Technical Note 23 (Coventry: Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre)
Feustel H E and Dieris (1991) A Survey of air flow models for multi-zone
2.A6.3.2 Physical models
structures (Berkeley, CA: Earnest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory)
Physical models are especially useful for giving the non-
technical members of the client and design team a good Kendrick J (1993) An overview of combined modelling of heat transport and air
visualisation of airflow behaviour. By their nature, physical movement AIVC Technical Note 40 (Coventry: Air Infiltration and
models are implicit design tools; assumptions need to be Ventilation Centre)
made then tested. The two main techniques relating to
natural ventilation design are the salt bath technique and Liddament M W (1996) Air Infiltration Development Algorithm (AIDA)
wind tunnel testing. Appendix 3 in A guide to energy efficient ventilation (Coventry: Air
Infiltration and Ventilation Centre)
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Salt bath Rennie D and Parand F (1998) Environmental design guide for naturally
ventilated and daylit offices BRE Report BR 345 (Garston: Building Research
Establishment)
The salt bath technique is used to test stack driven
ventilation strategies. Stack-driven flows are analysed at
small scale in the laboratory using a model of the building
immersed in a perspex bath containing saline solutions of
different concentrations. The method models fluid flow,
not surface heat transfer, and therefore cannot predict local
effects such as solar patching on the floor of an atrium. Like
the cfd technique it provides only a snapshot of
performance.
Wind tunnel
Wind tunnel testing is the main source of information on

wind pressure coefficients. It is not a method for proving
the design of a natural ventilation system, since it only
deals with external flows around a building.
Air flow models
Air flow models may be used to analyse natural ventilation

air flow rates based on driving pressure differences and
openings. These range from single zone models to more
complex multi-zone models. Single zone models
(Liddament, 1996) are appropriate where the building is
open plan and there is no temperature stratification in the
space. Building types that approximate to these
requirements are dwellings, many industrial buildings and
small open plan office buildings. Multi-zone models
subdivide the building into a number of individual spaces,
substantially increasing the complexity of the analysis
(Feustel, 1991).
Software combining multi-zone flow models with thermal

simulation analysis is also available. This software can
provide an integrated analysis the internal temperature
distribution and the stack induced natural ventilation flow
rates (Kendrick, 1993).
Index airflow
around buildings 2-55, 2-79
ceiling diffusers 2-60, 2-61, 2-61 to 2-62, 2-63
ceiling-mounted terminal units 2-130, 2-131
calculations 2-72, 2-72 to 2-75, 2-145 to centrifugal fans 2-38 to 2-39, 2-87, 2-88, 2-89
Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures; page 2-146 connections to ductwork 2-103, 2-104
numbers in bold refer to tables distribution in a space 2-77 to 2-78 chimney-driven ventilation see stack-driven
in ducts 2-42 to 2-44, 2-78 to 2-79 ventilation
access doors and panels 2-112 to 2-113, 2-115, measurements 2-77 to 2-79, 2-113 circular ducting 2-99, 2-118, 2-129
2-118, 2-119 test holes 2-115 to 2-116 cleaning 2-113, 2-114 to 2-121
acoustic dampers 2-109, 2-110 models 2-146 cleanliness quality classification 2-119, 2-120
acoustic design 2-57, 2-80, 2-80, 2-109 through openings 2-73, 2-74 Climate Change Levy 2-3
see also noise through terminal units 2-78 to 2-79 climate variability 2-57
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
acoustic trickle ventilators 2-108 throughout a building 2-72 CO2, metabolic 2-9
actuators 2-49, 2-50 see also room air diffusion; volume airflow CO2 emissions 2-3
adsorption filters 2-27, 2-29 rate control CO2 sensing control 2-52
aerofoil blades 2-88, 2-89 air-quality sensors 2-50 CO2 sensors 2-49, 2-50
aesthetic considerations 2-36, 2-39 to 2-40 airtightness 2-3, 2-6, 2-7, 2-55 Coanda effect 2-61
air bricks 2-108 classification of doors and windows 2-105, comfort cooling 2-54, 2-145
air change rates 2-106, 2-106 commissioning 2-111 to 2-116
calculation 2-73 definition 2-3 computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 2-74 to
definition 2-3 domestic mechanical ventilation 2-22 2-75, 2-79, 2-145 to 2-146
domestic mechanical ventilation 2-22 ductwork 2-76 condensate traps 2-22
and draughts 2-60 estimating air infiltration rate 2-73 condensation 2-10 to 2-11, 2-44, 2-46, 2-103,
ductwork sizing 2-36, 2-67 testing 2-75, 2-76, 2-86 to 2-87 2-120
measurement 2-76 to 2-77 see also air leakage condition-based maintenance 2-28
natural ventilation 2-55, 2-56 anemometry 2-78 constant pressure drop 2-67 to 2-68
typical for types of terminal unit 2-61 assessment techniques 2-145 to 2-146 contaminant removal efficiency 2-3
air cleaners see filtration systems atrium ventilation 2-15 to 2-17 contaminants see airborne contaminants
air conditioning 2-10, 2-19, 2-50, 2-60 axial-flow fans 2-39, 2-87, 2-88 contractions in ducts 2-102, 2-103, 2-135,
air control units 2-92 to 2-93 connections to ductwork 2-104, 2-104 2-136
see also fans; volume controllers control systems 2-48 to 2-52
air discharge 2-94 to 2-96 backwards-curved blades 2-88, 2-89 air conditioning 2-50
minimising re-entry 2-96 basements 2-83 displacement ventilation 2-51
pollution control 2-96 bends in ductwork 2-100, 2-101, 2-102 energy efficiency 2-51 to 2-52
position of 2-83, 2-95 pressure loss 2-135, 2-136, 2-137, 2-138, fire dampers 2-52, 2-82, 2-84
air distribution methods 2-11 to 2-12 2-139 mixed-mode ventilation 2-50 to 2-51, 2-65
air entrainment 2-60, 2-98, 2-99 bifurcated fans 2-89 natural ventilation 2-50, 2-57
air flow see airflow biocides 2-27 temperature control 2-50
air handling units (AHUs) 2-135, 2-139 to bird mesh 2-134 volume airflow rate 2-49 to 2-50, 2-92 to
2-140 blending (temperature control) 2-50, 2-93 2-93, 2-114
air infiltration 2-3, 2-73 blinds 2-106 to 2-107 cooker hoods 2-21
see also airtightness see also solar shading cooling load 2-12, 2-54, 2-145
air intakes 2-94 to 2-96 blower doors 2-3, 2-75, 2-76, 2-87 cooling temperature differentials 2-60, 2-61
minimising re-entry 2-96 branches in ductwork 2-100 to 2-101, 2-102 cost considerations 2-3, 2-41, 2-47, 2-48
position of 2-83, 2-94 to 2-95 pressure loss 2-134 to 2-135, 2-135 to 2-136, cross-flow fans 2-88, 2-89
pressure loss 2-134, 2-137 to 2-138, 2-140 2-138, 2-139 cross-flow ventilation 2-17, 2-18, 2-53, 2-107
air jet flow 2-59 to 2-62 BREEAM 2-52 to 2-53
air leakage 2-84 to 2-87 building design considerations 2-36, 2-41, 2-66 dampered openings 2-109
calculation 2-141, 2-142 building fabric 2-6, 2-7, 2-54, 2-63 to 2-64 dampers
detection 2-76 building location 2-6 fan volume flow control 2-49, 2-93
limits 2-37 to 2-38, 2-38, 2-84 to 2-85, 2-85, building orientation 2-6, 2-54 inspection covers 2-113
2-132 building shading 2-54 natural ventilation openings 2-50, 2-109
as a percentage of total air volume 2-85 building spacing 2-54 pressure loss 2-134, 2-135, 2-138, 2-139
in relation to air pressure 2-84, 2-86 building structure and form 2-6, 2-36, 2-41, provision and siting of 2-114 to 2-115
testing 2-37, 2-76 to 2-77, 2-85 to 2-86 2-54 see also fire dampers
air pollution control 2-96 pressure distribution and airflow around decision-making process 2-53
air quality see airborne contaminants; indoor buildings 2-79 demand-controlled ventilation 2-92 to 2-93
air quality; outdoor air pollution building log books 2-114 depth of plan 2-17 to 2-18, 2-37, 2-53
air supply 2-58 Building Regulations design calculation techniques 2-71 to 2-75
air terminal devices Part B 2-34, 2-81, 2-83 design criteria 2-4 to 2-12
access provision 2-130, 2-131 Part C 2-11 design options 2-53, 2-64 to 2-65
airflow measurements 2-78 to 2-79 Part F 2-10, 2-20, 2-22, 2-108, 2-112 design process 2-53 to 2-54
duct and plenum connections 2-47 to 2-48 Part J 2-21, 2-40, 2-81 diffusers 2-19
flow phenomena 2-59 Part L 2-3, 2-34, 2-38, 2-41, 2-51, 2-70, ceiling mounted 2-60, 2-61, 2-61 to 2-62,
large building ‘balanced’ mechanical 2-76, 2-84, 2-112, 2-140 2-63
ventilation 2-19 buoyancy-driven ventilation see stack-driven pressure loss 2-137
location and layout 2-60 to 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, ventilation types 2-94, 2-95
2-94 dilution ventilation 2-3, 2-11
maximum air change rates 2-61 calculation techniques 2-71 to 2-75, 2-133 to discharge air see air discharge
types 2-94, 2-95 2-144 discharge cowls 2-105, 2-106
see also diffusers; volume controllers canopies 2-96, 2-97, 2-99 discharge grilles 2-83
air volume control see volume airflow rate capital allowances 2-3 discharge stacks 2-96, 2-98
control car parks 2-83 displacement ventilation 2-3, 2-11 to 2-12,
airborne contaminants 2-25, 2-119 carbon dioxide see CO2 2-19, 2-51
calculation of concentrations 2-73 carbon emissions 2-3 doors
control 2-8 to 2-9 CE marking 2-81 classification by air permeability 2-105
Index 2-147
clearance beneath 2-22 FMEG (fan/motor efficiency grades) 2-91

see also openings EC-type motors 2-93 forward-curved centrifugal fans 2-88, 2-89
DOP (di-octylphthalates) 2-27 electrostatic air cleaners 2-29 fresh air supply rates 2-9 to 2-10, 2-10
double façade natural ventilation 2-17, 2-56 employees performance 2-4 friction loss method 2-67 to 2-68, 2-70
draught rating (DR) 2-11 energy efficiency 2-3
draughts 2-11, 2-18, 2-60, 2-62 control systems 2-51 to 2-52 gas sensors 2-49
reduction 2-54, 2-106, 2-108 ductwork 2-38, 2-39, 2-47, 2-48 glazing 2-6
see also room air diffusion heat recovery systems 2-31, 2-31 to 2-32 see also openable windows; windows
drawings 2-114 mixed-mode ventilation 2-65 glazing ratios 2-54
ductwork 2-34 to 2-48, 2-130 Energy Labelling Directive 2-91 guide vanes 2-39, 2-87
access doors and panels 2-112 to 2-113, Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
2-118, 2-119 2-3, 2-92 hand holes in ductwork 2-113
air leakage 2-84 to 2-86 enhanced capital allowance scheme 2-3 handover 2-116, 2-119
calculation 2-141, 2-142 ErP (Ecodesign of Energy-related Products) hangers 2-102, 2-132
limits 2-37 to 2-38, 2-38, 2-84 to 2-85, Directive 2-91 hazardous areas 2-83
2-85, 2-132 escape routes 2-82, 2-84 hazardous substances 2-120
as a percentage of total air volume 2-85 evaporator temperature 2-60 health and safety 2-42, 2-119
in relation to air pressure 2-84, 2-86 exhaust air see air discharge heat gains and losses
testing 2-37, 2-76 to 2-77, 2-85 to 2-86 exhaust hoods 2-21, 2-96 to 2-98, 2-97, 2-99 building design features 2-54, 2-54
air velocities 2-41 to 2-42, 2-42, 2-48 exhaust stacks 2-96, 2-98 ductwork 2-43 to 2-44, 2-45, 2-141 to 2-142,
airflow in ducts 2-42 to 2-44, 2-78 to 2-79 exhaust terminals 2-62 2-142, 2-143
airflow measurements 2-78 to 2-79 expansions in ducts 2-101, 2-103, 2-134 internal heat gains 2-7
anti-microbial coatings 2-27 exposure limits 2-9 heat pipes 2-31, 2-33
basements 2-83 external louvres 2-106, 2-109, 2-134 heat recovery systems 2-30 to 2-34
bend and duct fitting components 2-99 to external noise 2-55, 2-57, 2-79 to 2-80 access panels 2-113
2-102 external pollution 2-6, 2-8 to 2-9, 2-18, 2-119 advantages and disadvantages 2-33
building design considerations 2-36, 2-41, definition 2-3
2-66 false ceilings 2-130, 2-131 domestic mechanical ventilation 2-22, 2-23
car parks 2-83 fan/motor efficiency grades (FMEG) 2-91 efficiency 2-31, 2-31 to 2-32
classification 2-34 to 2-35, 2-35 fans 2-87 to 2-92 mechanical extract ventilation 2-21, 2-23
cleaning 2-113, 2-114 to 2-121 connections to ductwork 2-103 to 2-104 types 2-31, 2-32 to 2-33
cleanliness 2-116 efficiency 2-38 to 2-39, 2-91, 2-92 hoods see exhaust hoods
commissioning 2-111 to 2-112, 2-114, 2-116 fan laws 2-91 horizontal ductwork 2-102
condensation and vapour barriers 2-44 to fire rating 2-82, 2-83 horizontal pivot windows 2-107
2-47 industrial extract equipment 2-98 horizontal sliding windows 2-107
connections 2-103 to 2-106 installation categories 2-91 hot wire anemometry 2-78
cost considerations 2-41 mechanical extract ventilation 2-20 to 2-21 humidity control 2-10, 2-21, 2-60
design criteria 2-41 to 2-42 mechanical supply ventilation 2-21 to 2-22 humidity controlled vents 2-108
design issues 2-34 to 2-41 outlet pressure 2-90 humidity sensing control 2-52
domestic mechanical ventilation 2-22 performance 2-89 to 2-91 humidity sensors 2-49, 2-50
duct and plenum design 2-47 to 2-48 sizing 2-139 to 2-140 hybrid ventilation see mixed-mode ventilation
duct pressure and air velocity 2-34 to 2-35, specific fan power (SFP) 2-38 to 2-39, 2-70,
2-35 2-140 to 2-141 impeller power 2-90
energy efficiency 2-47, 2-48 terms and definitions 2-89 to 2-91 impellers (fans) 2-87
in escape routes 2-82, 2-84 types and components 2-87 to 2-89, 2-88 indoor air quality 2-119
fire protection 2-40, 2-81, 2-82 to 2-84 fibrous materials 2-42 see also airborne contaminants
fire resisting 2-40, 2-81, 2-82, 2-84, 2-103, filtration systems 2-25 to 2-30 induction-type diffusers 2-94
2-132 access panels 2-113 industrial extract equipment 2-96 to 2-98
health and safety 2-42 application and selection 2-27 to 2-28 inlet guide vanes 2-51, 2-87
heat gains and losses 2-43 to 2-44, 2-45, classification 2-25 to 2-27, 2-26, 2-27, 2-29 inlet volume flow rate 2-90, 2-91, 2-92
2-141 to 2-142, 2-142, 2-143 gas and vapour removal 2-27 inspection for cleaning 2-120
industrial extract equipment 2-98 installation 2-30 inspection panels 2-112 to 2-113
installation 2-116 maintenance 2-28, 2-30, 2-39, 2-119, 2-120 instrument connections 2-115
instrument connections 2-115 particulates removal 2-25 to 2-27, 2-28 insulation 2-6, 2-44 to 2-46, 2-45, 2-46, 2-84,
insulation 2-44 to 2-46, 2-45, 2-46, 2-84, pressure drops 2-30, 2-31, 2-32 2-103, 2-142 to 2-143
2-103, 2-142 to 2-143 specification data 2-30 intake air see air intakes
kitchen extract systems 2-82 terms and definitions 2-25 internal heat gains 2-7
layout and spatial requirements 2-35 to testing 2-25 to 2-27 interstitial condensation 2-10 to 2-11
2-36, 2-65 to 2-66, 2-130 fire dampers 2-22, 2-40, 2-66, 2-81, 2-82, 2-83
maintenance 2-39, 2-114 to 2-121 to 2-84, 2-132 jet-assisted hoods 2-98
natural ventilation 2-55, 2-109 access panels 2-112 to 2-113, 2-130, 2-131
noise 2-39, 2-48, 2-71, 2-79 to 2-81 control systems 2-52, 2-82, 2-84 kitchen extract systems 2-82, 2-84
performance requirements 2-41 in escape routes 2-82
pressure loss 2-67 to 2-71, 2-133 to 2-137, pressure loss 2-136 latent heat recovery 2-3, 2-31, 2-32, 2-33
2-138, 2-139 fire doors 2-40 lateral exhausts 2-96, 2-98
pressurisation systems 2-83 fire protection 2-40, 2-57, 2-81 to 2-84, 2-118, legislation 2-42, 2-112, 2-117 to 2-118
section types 2-98 to 2-99 2-120, 2-132 life cycle costs 2-4, 2-8
sizing 2-36, 2-67 to 2-71, 2-128 to 2-129, fire-resisting ductwork 2-40, 2-81, 2-82, 2-103, lighting system 2-7 to 2-8
2-133 to 2-137 2-132 log books 2-114
support and fixing 2-102 to 2-103, 2-132 fire-resisting enclosures 2-132 louvres 2-106, 2-109, 2-134
test holes 2-115 to 2-116, 2-117 flat oval ducting 2-99
visual inspection 2-120 flexibility of design 2-57, 2-64 maintenance 2-114 to 2-121
dust collectors 2-28 floor-to-ceiling height ratio 2-54 access doors and panels 2-112 to 2-113,
dust deposition 2-119 flow hoods 2-79 2-115, 2-118, 2-119
--`,`,`,,``,,`,,``,````,,```,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
dusts see particulates flume models 2-78 ductwork 2-39, 2-114 to 2-121
filtration systems 2-28, 2-30, 2-39, 2-119, protected shafts 2-132

2-120 occupancy controlled ventilation 2-92 to 2-93 pure displacement terminals 2-94
heat recovery systems 2-32 occupancy heat gains 2-7 push-pull hoods 2-96, 2-98, 2-99
manual control 2-49, 2-57 occupancy sensing control 2-52
maximum penetration depth 2-17 to 2-18 occupancy sensors 2-50 radiused bends 2-100, 2-101, 2-101
measurement techniques 2-55, 2-75 to 2-79 occupant comfort 2-10, 2-54, 2-58 to 2-59, rain and openings 2-57
mechanical extract ventilation 2-20 to 2-21, 2-106 rain sensors 2-50
2-82, 2-84 see also thermal comfort raised floors 2-130, 2-131
mechanical supply ventilation 2-21 to 2-23 occupant controls 2-8, 2-51, 2-57 rebalancing 2-121
mechanical ventilation 2-18 to 2-23 occupant performance 2-4 recirculation 2-3
advantages and disadvantages 2-19 to 2-20 office equipment heat gains 2-7 rectangular ducting 2-98, 2-118, 2-128 to 2-129
definition 2-1 openable windows recuperators 2-31
displacement systems 2-19 adjustability 2-106 regenerators 2-31, 2-33
domestic ‘balanced’ 2-22 design 2-6, 2-106 to 2-108 reheat 2-50, 2-93
large building ‘balanced’ 2-19 height of 2-54 risk assessments 2-10, 2-20, 2-40, 2-118
room air distribution design 2-58 to 2-62 integration with solar control 2-106 to roof lights 2-109
sizing 2-58 2-107 roof pressure coefficients 2-109 to 2-110
strategies 2-18 to 2-19 noise penetration 2-57, 2-80 roof ventilators 2-15, 2-109
system design 2-58 to 2-63 required area 2-52 to 2-53 roof-mounted terminals 2-110
mechanical volume controllers 2-49 to 2-50, security considerations 2-57, 2-106 room air diffusion 2-11, 2-58 to 2-62, 2-72,
2-93, 2-114 sizing 2-55, 2-56 2-77
metabolic carbon dioxide 2-9 types 2-107 to 2-108 see also draughts
microbial growths 2-27, 2-119, 2-120 ventilation capacity 2-106 run-around coils 2-31, 2-32
mists 2-28 openings
mitred elbows 2-100, 2-101 flow rate calculations 2-73, 2-74 salt baths 2-146
mixed-flow in-line fans 2-88, 2-89 sizing for natural ventilation 2-55, 2-56 sash windows 2-107
mixed-mode ventilation 2-23 to 2-25, 2-63 to orifice plates and nozzles 2-78 to 2-79 sealants 2-37, 2-84, 2-103
2-65 outdoor air pollution 2-6, 2-8 to 2-9, 2-18, security considerations 2-57, 2-106
control systems 2-50 to 2-51, 2-65 2-119 sensors 2-48 to 2-49, 2-50
definition 2-1 outdoor air supply see air intakes shading 2-6, 2-54, 2-106 to 2-107
energy efficiency 2-65 outdoor noise 2-55, 2-57, 2-79 to 2-80 shaft outlets 2-109
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performance assessment 2-65 overhead canopies see canopies sheet metal ductwork 2-37
mixing boxes 2-94 overheating risk 2-8, 2-18 side-hung windows 2-107
mixing ventilation 2-3, 2-11 see also summer cooling load side-wall terminals 2-61
models 2-146 over-sizing 2-38, 2-92 single-sided natural ventilation 2-17, 2-56
moisture 2-120 sizing
see also condensation paddle-blades 2-88, 2-89 ductwork 2-128 to 2-129
monitoring systems 2-52 parasitic loads 2-32, 2-52 fans 2-139 to 2-140
most penetrating particle size (MPPS) 2-26 particulates sliding windows 2-107
motor input power 2-90 characteristics 2-25, 2-28 small power loads 2-8
motor output power 2-90 particule size 2-30 smoke dampers 2-82, 2-112 to 2-113
motorised dampers 2-114 to 2-115 settling rates 2-28 smoke extract systems 2-82
MPPS (most penetrating particle size) 2-26 typical amounts 2-30 smoke methods (leak detection) 2-76
multiple occupied spaces 2-57 see also filtration systems smoke protection 2-40 to 2-41, 2-81 to 2-84,
see also zoned systems passive stack ventilation (PSV) see stack-driven 2-83
multi-vane centrifugal fans 2-88, 2-89 ventilation smokes 2-25, 2-28
percentage persons dissatisfied (PPD) 2-3, solar chimneys 2-111
natural ventilation 2-12 to 2-18 2-58 to 2-59 solar gains 2-7, 2-8
advantages and limitations 2-18 perfluorocarbon tracers (PFTs) 2-77 solar sensors 2-50
control systems 2-50, 2-57 performance requirements 2-5, 2-5 to 2-7 solar shading 2-6, 2-54, 2-106 to 2-107
cooling load 2-145 photo-catalytic oxidation 2-27 to 2-28 space allowances for ductwork 2-130
definition 2-1 physical models 2-146 specific fan power (SFP) 2-3, 2-38 to 2-39,
design process 2-53 to 2-54 pitot-static traverses 2-78 to 2-79 2-70, 2-92, 2-140 to 2-141
distribution routes 2-55, 2-64 plan depth see depth of plan speed control 2-93
equipment 2-106 to 2-111 plant rooms 2-64 splitter bends 2-100, 2-101, 2-101, 2-135
night cooling 2-57 plate heat exchangers 2-32 stack-driven ventilation 2-12 to 2-15, 2-17
noise issues 2-55, 2-57, 2-80 plenum design 2-47 to 2-48 atrium ventilation 2-12 to 2-15
options and maximum recommended PMV (predicted mean vote) 2-3 combined with wind-driven ventilation
depths 2-18 pollutant controlled vents 2-108 2-15, 2-16
sizing of openings 2-55, 2-56 pollutants see airborne contaminants; indoor passive stack design 2-110 to 2-111
smoke ventilators 2-82 air quality roof ventilators 2-109
system design 2-52 to 2-57 pollution control 2-96 ventilation rates 2-55, 2-56
ventilation rates 2-55, 2-56 PPD (percentage persons dissatisfied) 2-3, stacks see discharge stacks
see also openable windows; stack-driven 2-58 to 2-59 stagnation pressure at a point 2-90
ventilation predicted mean vote (PMV) 2-3 standard air 2-90
network (zonal) models 2-73 to 2-74 pressure controlled vents 2-108 static regain method 2-67
night cooling 2-57 pressure loss 2-67 to 2-71, 2-91, 2-92 straight-radial blades 2-88, 2-89
noise 2-12, 2-79 to 2-81 bends in ductwork 2-100, 2-101, 2-102 summer cooling load 2-54, 2-145
air terminal units 2-50 calculation 2-133 to 2-137 supply air diffusion 2-58 to 2-62
ductwork 2-39, 2-48, 2-71, 2-80 to 2-81 filtration systems 2-30, 2-31, 2-32 supply air temperature 2-12, 2-51, 2-60
external 2-55, 2-57, 2-79 to 2-80 pressure regulating valves 2-49, 2-93 swirl-type diffusers 2-94
plant 2-80 to 2-81 pressurisation systems 2-83 system design 2-52 to 2-79
reduction methods 2-80 pressurisation tests 2-3, 2-76, 2-87 mechanical ventilation 2-58 to 2-63
see also acoustic design process exhaust hoods 2-96 to 2-98 mixed-mode ventilation 2-63 to 2-65
noise rating (NR) 2-42 propeller fans 2-88, 2-89 natural ventilation 2-52 to 2-57
Index 2-149
system options 2-53, 2-64 to 2-65 ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) to 2-93
2-27, 2-119 see also variable air volume (VAV)
tangential fans 2-88, 2-89 under-floor natural ventilation 2-55, 2-64 volume controllers 2-49 to 2-50, 2-93, 2-114
tapered expansions in ducts 2-101, 2-103, upgrading systems 2-57, 2-64
2-134 user controls 2-8, 2-51, 2-57 whole-life cost 2-4, 2-8
task ventilation 2-3 UVGI (ultraviolet germicidal irradiation) width/floor-to-ceiling height ratio 2-54
temperature control 2-22, 2-50, 2-93 2-27, 2-119 wind effects 2-54, 2-55, 2-56, 2-95, 2-109
temperature differential 2-12, 2-58, 2-60 wind pressure on buildings 2-79
temperature sensing control 2-52 vapour barriers 2-46 to 2-47, 2-103 wind sensors 2-50
temperature sensors 2-49, 2-50 variable air volume (VAV) 2-39, 2-51, 2-114 wind towers 2-110
test holes 2-115 to 2-116, 2-117 see also volume airflow rate control wind tunnel testing 2-79, 2-146
testing 2-111 to 2-116 variable flow control 2-92 to 2-93 wind-driven natural ventilation 2-12, 2-15,
air leakage 2-37, 2-76 to 2-77, 2-85 to 2-86 variable pressures 2-85 2-107
airtightness 2-75, 2-76, 2-86 to 2-87 variable speed fans 2-39, 2-51 combined with stack-driven ventilation
filtration systems 2-25 to 2-27 variable supply air temperature 2-51 2-15, 2-16
thermal comfort 2-10, 2-54, 2-58, 2-106 VAV see variable air volume (VAV) window control 2-50
thermal mass 2-6, 2-55, 2-145 velocity method 2-67 windows
thermal wheels 2-31, 2-32 ventilation effectiveness 2-3, 2-77 classification by air permeability 2-105,
thermography 2-76 ventilation options 2-6, 2-53, 2-64 to 2-65 2-106, 2-106
tilt and turn windows 2-107 to 2-108 ventilation purposes 2-4 see also openable windows
tilting top vents 2-107 to 2-108 ventilation rates see air change rates work performance 2-4
top/bottom hung windows 2-107 vertical ducts 2-102 to 2-103
tracer gas techniques 2-76 to 2-77, 2-79 vertical pivot windows 2-107 zonal models 2-73 to 2-74
transfer grilles 2-22, 2-110 vertical temperature gradient 2-12, 2-58, 2-60 zoned systems 2-24, 2-36 to 2-37, 2-58, 2-64,
trickle ventilators 2-108 viscous impingement units 2-29 2-143 to 2-144
turning vanes 2-100 visualisation techniques 2-77
volume airflow rate control 2-49 to 2-50, 2-92
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Index 2-151
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Copyright Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers

CIBSE Guide B2: 2016

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

© May 2016 The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers London

Registered charity number 278104

ISBN 978-1-906846-75-6 (Print)

Design, layout and typesetting by CIBSE Publications

Note from the publisher

Copyright Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers

Structure of the Guide

2.2 Design criteria 2-4

2.3 Systems 2-12

2.4 System design 2-52

2.5 Other design considerations 2-79

Copyright Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers

2.7 Commissioning, operation and maintenance 2-111

Appendix 2.A1: Recommended sizes for ductwork 2-127

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2 Ventilation and ductwork

2.1 Introduction Section 2.3 reviews the principal methods of providing

Example items Outline design process Typical activities

Statutory requirements Involve the client and

Establish the design

Acoustics that could be applied

Can the system No

Produce revised schematic Identify the preferred

Figure 2.1 Outline of the ventilation design process

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—— Latent heat recovery: a process by which latent heat

—— Specific fan power: the electrical energy used to drive

Provided by S&P Global Licensee=The Fire Service College/7133957001, User=Filer, Sophie

2.2 Design criteria 2.2.1.1 Purpose of ventilation systems

In designing any ventilation system it is necessary to

Table 2.1 Purposes of ventilation

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Table 2.2 Establishing performance requirements

Provision of controls Individual, local, team, zone or centralised basis.

Average occupancy density and any areas of high or low density.

Anticipated diversity of internal loads.

Investment criteria Constraints imposed by ‘letability’ requirements.

Security Restrictions on size and location of any openings.

Aesthetic considerations The need for system concealment.

Procurement issues Time constraints.

Table 2.3 Issues affecting the choice of ventilation

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accordingly. Interaction with the lighting system

Small power loads, arising from IT and other office-type

2.2.1.6 Provision of controls: end-user —— construction dust

Increasing concern about outdoor emissions has resulted in

2.2.2.3 Exposure limits European Standard BS EN 13779: Ventilation for non-

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Copyright Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers

2.2.8 Air distribution

2.2.8.1 Mixing (or dilution) ventilation

Mixing ventilation is based on the air being supplied into

Figure 2.2 Supply/extract arrangements for ventilation: (a) mixing,

A combination of near-floor temperatures below 22 °C and

Extract mode Supply mode

(g) Atrium ventilation (h) Double facade ventilation

A combination of near-floor temperatures below 22 °C and