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Electrodynamic wave-theory of physical f

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ELECTRODYNAMIC WAVE-THEORY OF
PHYSICAL FORCES
VOLUME II

NEW THEORY OF THE AETHER Definitely establishing

The Cause of Universal Gravitation, Magnetism, Electrodynamic Action, Molecular,

Atomic and Explosive Forces, etc., including a notable improvement in the
Foundations of the Wave-Theory of Light, and discovery of the
Cause of Acoustic Attraction and Repulsion, which is

especially suitable for illustrating the invisible

Processes of Gravitational Attraction.

In Seven Mathematical Memoirs Reprinted from the Astronomische

—
Nachrichten, 1920 1922; to which are added two Mathematical
Memoirs on the Earth, and one on the Sun and Variable Stars.

By

T.J.J. SEE,
A. M., Lt. M., Sc. M. (Missou.); A. M., Ph. D. (Berol.);

Professor of Mathematics, U. S. Navy, Formerly in Charge of the 26-Inch Equatorial Telescope

of the U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C, More Recently in Charge
of the U. S. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, California.

O Qedg del ysw/j.^TQet — Plato.

1922.
Astronomische Nachrichten, Kiel.
I. Hermann, Paris. Thos. P. Nichols & Son Co., Lynn, Mass., U. S. A.

Wheldon & Wesley, London.

IT-
 DEDICATED
TO MY BELOVED WIFE

FRANCES GRAVES SEE

WHOSE STEADFAST SUPPORT
MADE POSSIBLE THE COMPLETION
AND SUITABLE PUBLICATION
OF THESE DISCOVERIES IN THE
NEW THEORY OF THE AETHER.
"Eti Toi'pvv, e'^T], Tcdfifieyd n elvai avTo, xal fj^idg otxelv Tovg

li'^XQi' ^HqaxXsioiv arriXmv and Wdaidog ev OjjuixQm tivI fiioqCw, coc neQ
negl z^Xfia iivQfirixuq fj /SatQaxovg, tcsqI ttjv S-dXazTav olxovvrac,
xal aXXovg dXXox)-i noXXovq iv noXXolci, toiovtoii; tonoig olxslv.

elvav yaQ navTa^i] neql T'qv yijvnoXXd xozXa xal navcodund xal
Tag ld£ag xal id /j,eya^rjj «V a '^vvsQ^vrjxivai to %s vdwQ xal ttJv
ofiCxXriv xal top d^qa. avTrjV Si Tijv y-ijv xa-d-aqdv ev xa-d-aqco
xelad-ai Tfo ovoavw, iv w nif) Igti, rd darga, dv drj ald-fqa
ovofid'Qsiv Tovg noXXovg zcSv negl rd ToiavTa siwd-OTdov X^ysiv. ov
drj vnooTdd-fiiriv Tavia elvai. xal ivQ^slv del elg rd xolXa ttJc yijg.

IJXaTwv, OaCdiav, 109.

I believe that the earth is vety vast, and that we who dwell

in the region extending from the river Phasis to the Pillars of

Heracles inhabit a small portion only about the sea, like ants
or frogs about a marsh, and that there are other inhabitants of
many other like places; for everywhere on the face of the earth
there are hollows of various forms, and sizes, into which the
water and the mist and the lower air collect. But the true earth
is pure and situated in the pure heaven there are the stars —
also; and it is the heaven which is commonly spoken of by us
as the Aether, and of which our own earth is the sediment
gathering in the hollows beneath. Plato, Phaedo, 109. —
 Introduction.

During the past six years several of the most venerable Scientific Societies in Europe have been
considerably occupied with the Theory of Relativity, —
without, however, taking the usual philosophic
precaution to inquire whether such a theory is at all. necessary to our understanding of the Physical
Universe. The introduction of unnecessary complications into our processes of Scientific Thought always
has been viewed as an evil, great in proportion as it is indefensible.
Thus in his Rules of Philosophy (Principia, Lib. Ill) Newton lays down the following as the
First Rule:
„We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and
sufficient to explain their appearances".
„To this purpose the philosophers say that Nature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain
when less will serve; for Nature is pleased with simplicity, and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes".
Accordingly, whilst many investigators were debating the mystical Theory of Relativity, with —
Four-dimensional Time-Space manifolds, Geodetic Curves, the Curvature of Space, and similar devices
for adding hopeless complexity to our geometrical and physical conceptions, —
I took refuge in Newton'^

rule of maximum simplicity, and developed the New Kinetic Theory of the Aether, which showed
that the Theory of Relativity is entirely devoid of physical foundation.
In fact, early in the year 1914, I entered upon the development of The Electrodynamic Wave-
Theory of Physical Forces, in the hope of illuminating the unsolved problem of the Cause of
Universal Gravitation. Now that eight years have elapsed, and the memoirs of these two volumes are
published, it may interest the reader to learn that in November, 1914, when the present researches were
still in a primitive stage, I sent the first outline of them to the Royal Society, —
in the belief that any
definite light on the Cause of Universal Gravitation, which Sir Isaac Newton had not been able to
obtain, ought first to be communicated to that illustrious Society.
At that time, however, the War was very disturbing to European investigators. And if my
preliminary Paper was studied attentively by the Referees of the Royal Society, it is probable that they
did not understand it, — possibly because several of the leading physicists in England already were
proposing to do away with the Aether. Yet, whatever cause operated to obscure the start which had
been made, it is a fact that fifteen months elapsed before any report from the Royal Society was made
to me (May, 1916). Meanwhile my researches had been renewed and much extended, and in due time
were published under the title: Electrodynamic Wave-Theory of Physical Forces, vol.1. Quarto,
171 pages, Boston, London, Paris, 1917.
This was, however, only the first part of the New Theory of Physical Forces, and the
subject therefore has been extended and greatly improved during the past four years. These later
discoveries in the Kinetic Theory of the Aether, which the Editor of the Astron. Nachrichten
has done me the honor to publish in that celebrated Journal, 1920-22, already are widely known to the
Scientific Public.
Perhaps it may not be inappropriate to point out also the failure of the Royal Astronomical Society
and several more of the oldest Scientific Societies in Europe. Sagacious observers have regretfully re-
marked how they have wasted both time and precious resources in fruitless speculations on the mysticism
of the Theory of Relativity, with no other result than to confuse the public mind.
(v)
VI

In view of the definite results here brought forth, the student of sound Physical Science may
find it interesting to contrast the barren discussion of the abandoned Theory of Relativity based —
on the inadmissible Gerber formula, equation (1) below, now clearly shown to violate the Conservation
of Energy, —with the Kinetic Theory of the Aether, which has led to the Cause of Universal
Gravitation, and the Wave-Theory of the various Physical Forces.
Thus it occurs to me that it would be a convenience to many investigators if these Memoirs
were collected into a volume. Accordingly, with the kind permission of the learned Editor, Professor
Dr. H. Kobold, I am enabled to offer to investigators the Second Volume of the Electr odynamic
Wave-Theory of Physical Forces, 1922.
Although these Memoirs have been published serially only a short time, it appears that they
have awakened no ordinary interest among investigators who are inclined to examine the Physical Causes
underlying the Phenomena of Nature. Until this fundamental work is carried much further than has
yet been done, we shall not be able to make satisfactory progress in dealing with even the simpler
natural phenomena.
And as for the more intricate phenomena, the methods of research heretofore in use, based —
so largely on undiscerning if not blind empiricism, thus utterly ignoring the physical properties which
Transcendental Physics always was capable of correctly assigning to the Aether as a Monatomic Gas
689321600000 more elastic than Air in proportion to its density, —
were of course hopelessly inadequate.
The first prerequisite of progress was therefore a valid Kinetic Theory of the Aether, deduced di-
rectly from observed phenomena, and thus capable of furnishing a secure foundation for the Science
of Dynamics.
The strange proposal recently made in certain quarters to do away with the Aether, is of course
inadmissible and indefensible, because the elementary principles of Mechanics show us that there must
be a Medium pulling towards the Sun, to overcome the centrifugal force of a planet's orbital motion,
with Tension equivalent to the breaking strength of millions of immense cables of the strongest steel.
Such an unauthorized proposal merely illustrates the need of profounder researches into the foundations
of Natural Philosophy. The physical necessity for the Medium was so fully recognized by Newton and
by Maxwell that to the competent investigator it requires no defense.
In his letter to Bentley, Febr. 25, 1692-93, Sir Isaac Newton remarks: „That gravity should be
innate, inherent and essential to matter, so that one body may act upon another at a distance through
a vacuum, without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be
conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity, that I believe no man who has in philo-
sophical matters a competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it. Gravity must be caused by an
agent acting constantly according to certain laws; but whether this agent be material or immaterial, I
have left to the consideration of my readers." In Newton's discussion the Aether evidently is taken to
be immaterial, which conforms to modern views in Physical Science.
In his Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, London, 1748, p. Ill,
Maclaurin says:
„He (Newton) has plainly signified that he thought that those powers (of Gravitation) arose from
the impulses of a subtile Aetherial Medium that is diffused over the Universe, and penetrates the
pores of grosser bodies. It appears from his letters to Mr. Boyle that this was his opinion early; and
if he did not publish it sooner, it proceeded from hence only, that he found he was not able, from

experiment and observation, to give a satisfactory account of this medium and the manner of its operation
in producing the chief phenomena of Nature."
What Sir Isaac Newton ascribed to the Impulses of a subtile aetherial medium, we now define
as Waves; and in the New Theory of the Aether, we make known the manner of the operation of
these wave-impulses in producing the chief phenomena of Nature. The leading objection to the Theory
of Gravitation, in Newton's time, — that it introduced into philosophy occult qualities, —
no longer will hold
in our day, because wave-impulses in the Aether are universally recognized by modern Physical Science.
 :

vu

In the Preface to the Second Edition of Newton's Principia, 1713, his celebrated pupil Coates
combats the reasoning of that time as follows:
„But shall gravity therefore be called an occult Cause, and thrown out of philosophy, because
the Cause of Gravity is occult and not yet discovered?" „Some there are who say that gravity is
. . .

praeternatural, and call it a perpetual miracle. Therefore they would have it rejected, because praeter-
natural causes have no place in Physics."
In view of such reasoning, we can well understand the statement of Voltaire, that although the
great Newton outlived the publication of the Principia by more than forty years, yet at the end of that
time he had not over twenty followers outside of England. Indeed, since Newton had clearly shown
the nature of the planetary forces, and the laws they obey, and the beautiful Science of Celestical
Mechanics was thus developed for two centuries —
only to be contradicted recently, by the strange
claim that „Gravity is not a force, but a property of Space" (De Sitter, Monthly Notices, Oct. 1916,
p. 702) — we may more justly regard it as a miracle that any progress can be made and sustained in
Physical Science as recently cultivated.
The difficulty of making progress would be much less than it is, but for the state of confusion
which has arisen in Physics from certain mystical speculations, now at length recognized to be both
vague and chimerical. For example, there can be no defense for a Theory based on Gerber's formula
for the Potential (Zeitschrift fur Mathematische Physik, Band XLIII, 1898, p. 93-104),

„ k-mm' k^mm'i 2 dr 3 /dr\' 1

,,
i_l^V r [ c dt c-\dt
( c dt)

which contradicts the great principle of the Conservation of Energy. For this formula differs from
the Potential of Weber's Law, long ago shown by Maxwell to be valid and conformable to the Conser-
vation of Energy (cf. Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, section 856). This Weber
Potential is:

and therefore essentially different from the Gerber formula. Accordingly, since it conforms to the Con-
servation of Energy, the Weber Potential alpne is admissible in a valid physical theory of the Universe.
Incidentally it may be noted that the Weber Potential corresponds to a wave-field, and thus points to
the Electrodynamic Wave-Theory of Physical Forces.
Recently the writer was asked by an astronomer how he came to take up the New Theory of
the Aether. The answer was that such hopeless confusion existed in this vital subject that a valid
clearing up of the foundations was necessary to our progress; and as others had not been able to carry
it out, the labor finally was devolved upon the present author. It will therefore be allowable to trace

a few features of this progress which appear to me somewhat remarkable.

In view of the many researches heretofore carried out in the theory of wave-motion, it will
always seem very extraordinary that earlier investigators were not led to the simple relationship between
the mean velocity (») of the Corpuscle of a Monatomic Gas and the Velocity (V) of a wave in the Gas,
namely (cf. AN 5079, p. 234)
V=^/,7tV. (3)

Yet reaching this Theorem it was not sufficient merely to notice the geometrical ratio theoretic-
in

ally existing between the paths of oscillating particles describing a semi -circumference while the wave
traverses the diameter, which is 72?^: on the contrary, it was deemed necessary, as a physical pre-
caution, to confirm the ratio from the best experimental data of six actual gases, with the following
results:
Vlll
 IX

there exists greater degree of rarefaction, or the consequence of the impulsive force
a
of some medium."
fluid
This is a good summary of Newton's conception that the Aether is heterogeneous, which we now
establish by definite mathematical and physical demonstration, (AN 5044), showing that in tri-dimensional
space waves propagated or reflected from the particles of matter necessarily produce such outward in-
crease of density, a =
vr, owing to the law of Amplitude A =
k/r, with the central force /== k^/r^.

Accordingly, the Potential of Gravitation (Oeuvres Completes de Laplace, Tome X, p. 348)

r r r a dx dy dz r r radxdydz
y ~J ~J J
, ,

J J V{x- x'y+if-yy+iz-zf J r

varies as the reciprocal of the Aether Density, as centrally thinned outby wave-action. The Potential
is thus shown to be an accumulated state of stress incident to the triple integration for
the superposed Wave-Amplitudes of the various Atoms, Ai^=ki/ri.
Comformably to Newton's impression, Arago points out that the Aether tends to move towards
the planetary bodies, yet under the increased amplitudes of the receding waves encountered towards
these centres, it is so churned up or thinned out, that it does not really move —
only exerts a steady
stress in that direction, thus yielding an energy flux or gravitative force proportional to the energy of
the vibrating Aetherons and therefore proportional to the square of the Amplitude A^ = k^/r^. The only
way to decrease this central stress is to remove the matter of the planet on which the waves depend, —
the motion of the Aetherons in Collision with the Atoms in some way generating the receding waves, or
renewing them from the incoming waves already existing and incessantly propagated from the other
bodies of the Universe. The infinitude of vibrating Atoms in each of an infinite system of bodies renders
the wave-field infinitely complex; but from any one planetary mass, the receding waves pursue paths of
Least Action, and the state of the central gravitative stress therefore is perpetual.
It will always appear wonderful to investigators that the brilliant Maxwell should have made the

unaccountable slip of imagining Gravitation due to a pressure in the direction of the force, and an equal
tension angles thereto (cf. AN 5048, p. 163-164).
at right It appears that prior to the publication of these

Papers, English physicists never questioned Maxwell's erroneous assumption; and thus they handed down
his errors for half a century, when the truth of the matter could have been noticed and verified by any
good student of Mechanics. For Maxwell's postulated stresses were dynamically impossible; and although
the learned Professor Minchin of Oxford, in 1886, found that they would not explain Gravitation, he
did not suspect the error underlying them, nor remove it.
The learned Editors of Maxwell's Scientific Papers, in the two imposing volumes published
by the University of Cambridge, 1890, equally failed to notice what was required to balance the centri-
fugal force, —
as simply and clearly explained by Huyghens and Newton over two centuries before.
The mischief thus done came in time to be spread over the entire world, and vividly illustrates the
perversion of thought which may arise from the slip of a great authority. The slowness of our progress
under these circumstances is less remarkable than it might seem at first sight.
Looking to the future, for valid and simple conceptions of the Cause underlying Gravitation, we
consider the new explanation of Acoustic Attraction (AN 5130, p. 342) to be especially suitable for dis-
closing vividly the unseen wave-processes operating from star to star, in straight line minimum paths,
throughout the immensity of the heavens. This wave-field of Gravitation is dealt with more fully in the
Sixth Paper, and fully illustrated by plates admitting of one interpretation and only one. Thus we establish
the Cause of Universal Gravitation by necessary and sufficient conditions. The proof therefore is
absolute and always will remain incontestable (AN 5140, p. 95-127).
It appears that the discovery of the Cause of Gravitation now rests on six classes of phenomena:
1. The Fluctuations of the Moon's Mean Motion, Dec. 10, 1916, (cf. AN 5048, p. 159).
2. The New and Direct explanation of Acoustic Attraction, in which the wave-process is rendered
visible to the eye, 1916, (AN 5130, p. 341-42, AN 5140, p. 98-100, plate 7).
 3. The Proof
of the Cause of the Distortion of the Equipotential Surfaces, about two equal Stars,
1917, at lengthsomewhat more fully developed in the Sixth Paper, 1921, (AN 5140, p. 95-127).
4. Majorana's Physical Experiments on the Absorption of Gravitational Wave-Action by a layer

of Mercury, 1919, (cf. Philosophical Magazine for May, 1920, also AN 5079, p. 301-302).

5. The experiments by Dr. Chas. F. Brush of Cleveland, Ohio, (Proc. Am. Philos. Society,

Philadelphia, vol. LX, no. Jan. 1922) showing that under conditions otherwise identical the Earth's at-
2,
traction exerts a different grip on pendulums of different metals —
a Bismuth, pendulum gaining rapidly
on one of Zinc. In discussing the Kinetic Theory of Gravitation Dr. Brush adopts the view that the
energy of the Aether is in wave- form, in other words, the Wave-Theory.
6. It has long been recognized that Earth Currents, Aurorae, etc., recur periodically with certain
Solar disturbances. The writer has now (Sept., 1921) obtained a Aether waves
new and direct proof that
upwards of 2400 meters in length are continually received upon the Earth from commotions in the Sun.
These are long enough to pass through the solid body of the Earth with but slight refraction, dispersion
and absorption. And as wireless waves of corresponding length are bent around the globe by the re-
sistance of this solid body, (cf. AN 5044, p. 71), we thus have observational proof that Gravitational waves,
such as are modified by our globe to produce the Fluctuation of the Moon's motion, do really exist,
and can be experimentally studied in Radio-telegraphy.
Accordingly our. present proof that the Cause of Gravitation is to be found in Wave-Action is
most ample: and we may safely predict that further investigation will only confirm the results indicated
by the sextuple proof above cited.
The Wave-Theory of Magnetism outlined in the Third Paper is treated with greater rigor in the
Seventh Paper. The Harmonic Law there developed Magnetism of the Earth with
definitely connects the
Universal Gravitation. Extending Gauss' method for calculating the amount of Magnetism in the Earth,
we compute the amount of Magnetism in the Sun! It appears that Magnetic Action is conveyed not in
right lines, like Gravitation, but along the Curved Lines of Magnetic Force; and thus the new Law
of Nature very appropriately becomes a geometric tribute to the memory of the great mathematician Gaussl
In the Fourth Paper, AN 5085, will be found the Correction of a fundamental difficulty in the Wave-
Theory of Light which has stood for a full century. Poisson's Geometrical Theory of the nature of the
vibrations in the Aether is and harmonized with the most refined optical phenomena.
fully confirmed,
The longitudinal component shown to be utterly insensible to observation, ^
in Light is I (66420- 10*), = :

(cf. AN 5085, p. 427-428, footnote). The removal of this longstanding difficulty in the Wave-Theory of
Light, and its harmonization with the Theory of Sound, as Poisson always held should be possible, is
a triumph of no ordinary character.
Attention should be called to the simple explanation of the Michelson-Morley experiment of 1887,
by means of the Kinetic Theory of the Aether, (AN 5048, p. 181-183). No change is required in the
dimensions of moving bodies, and such assumptions as Fitzgerald's Hypothesis are shown to be un-
authorized. As the Aetherons move with the velocity of 471000 kms the state of the wave-field is
instantly adjusted to any state of steady motion; and thus there is no such thing as the Earth
moving through the Aether. At all times the Earth carries its wave-field with it, adjusted to perfect
Kinetic equilibrium; and thus the Michelson experiment is perfectly explained, without any Theory of
Relativity whatever. The outstanding motion of Mercury's perihelion is explained by an absorption of
wave-energy, like that noticed in Majorana's experiments, and harmonizing still better since Grossmann
has shown, (AN 5115), that the outstanding motion is less than 43", between 29" and 38" per century,
with 14:'5 still to be deduced for the propagation in time, according to Weber's Law (cf. AN 5048, p. 137).
Accordingly, in the Second Paper, (AN 5048),we show that the whole Theory of Relativity is a
foundation laid in Quicksand. A discerning investigator who has studied this new aspect of the Kinetic
Theory of the Aether, with the resulting abandonment of the Theory of Relativity, could now say
with Laplace, in dealing with another matter: „I have no use for this Hypothesis".
 XI

In removing the mystery of the Michelson- Morley experiment, without the hypothesis of the
Earth moving through the Aether, and therefore without Relativity, we solve at the same stroke of the
pen the historical difficulty of the Aberration. The solution of the difficulty of the Aberration is simply
the parallelogram of motions, and thus as clear as any theorem in Geometry (cf. AN 5048, p. 183).
The problem of the density of the Aether is found to be capable of direct and simple solution
by the following process. It is fully established by precise Laboratory experiments that Hydrogen pro-
pagates Sound four times faster than Oxygen, which is a gas 16 times denser. The Cause of the rapid
velocity of Sound in Hydrogen is therefore the lightness and high molecular velocity of the molecules
of that gas.
Now the Aether propagates wave motion 217839 times faster than Hydrogen, when the latter
is corrected for a Monatomic constitution. Therefore Hydrogen is (217839)^ times denser than Aether,
or the Aether has 1 : 47453880000 of the density of Hydrogen, making the Aether's absolute density
1888.15-10-18 (cf. AN 5079, p. 236).
The argument here developed from exact experimental data in the Theory of Sound thus settles
the question, without raising any other perplexing problem. For just as the four times slower propagation
of wave motion in Oxygen, compared to Hydrogen, indicates that the Oxygen is 16 times heavier; so also
the Hydrogen must be held to be (217839)^ denser than Aether, which propagates waves 217839 times faster.
In view of the simplicity of this reasoning, it is strange that the Aether should have been spoken
of by certain electronists as 2000 million times denser than lead! No such result is authorized by the laws
of experimental Physics; and all such inference is as mischievious as it is contrary to our Common Sense.
Out of this New Theory of the Aether, in which each body carries with it a wave- field, requiring
adjustment every time the velocity changes, has grown a new theory of Inertia, Momentum etc. The
adjustment of the wave-field is treated of briefly at the end of the Third Paper, (AN 5079, p. 299); and
as it explains Inertia, Momentum, worthy of the attention of natural philosophers.
etc., it is especially
In the Fifth and Sixth Papers we have dealt with Molecular and Atomic Forces. These Forces
are traced to short waves in the Aether, by an argument from the theory of Physical Continuity which
will be found difficult to evade. If wave-action be the Cause of one of these forces, it will also be found
to be the active agency in the others. Thus we have been able to throw much light on the secret of
Capillarity and of Vital Forces, and have worked out the source of the awful power noticed in Explosive
Forces, and in the mysterious forces of Chemical Affinity and of Cohesion which bind together the
Molecules of an Elastic Solid. This view is strikingly confirmed in a recent development of the New
Theory of the Aether, 2"'' Postscript to the Sixth Paper, and is so notable that I forbear to enter into
elaborate comment.
But we may point out that the Sextuple Integral defining the Molecular Strength or power of
resistance of a solid body to molecular displacement is given the form

i2= CUr^-hr^+k)dr+cY^-Jds=\^-^+kr+C^^-s. (^)---(5)

As the integration is to be extended from r^ to ri, and over the whole of this range the functions are both
finite and continuous, we may subdivide the range into parts for the entire region of stability, r^ to r^, thus:

a -r 7- -hkr-hC (6)
5 4

see by the accompanying (see p.xii) Fig. a, from the 2"'' Postscript to the Sixth Paper that
Now we
some of these areas are positive, as in the whole region between r^ and r^. These positive areas correspond
to the accumulation of attractive forces. When the molecular distances accord with this region, and
the oscillations do not carry the particles beyond the range r^-r^, the wave action only binds the mole-

cules more solidly together. This is a state of entire stability, as in typical elastic solids such as Stone,
Steel, Diamond, etc.
Xll

But if the parts of the molecules come into

close contact and so oscillate as to range from r4 to r^,

repulsive forces begin to assert themselves quite pow-

erfully; yet the stability may be secure, at least until
a distance r, smaller than r^ is approached, — at which
the repulsive forces rapidly become infinite.

This region of excessively close contact, r^-r-^,

is the danger zone, because the repulsive forces in-

crease asymptotically. Thus when the molecule has

its parts suddenly rearranged, and they come into such

close contact, the stability it dissolved and the reaction

gives a wide oscillation beyond r^, so that evaporation
or an explosion maySuch sudden outbursts
follow. Fig. a. Illustration of the curve of molecular forces 8 Wldr=f,
the unessential parts outside the limits fi-r^ being
may occur from waves of Heat, or the waves of an indicated by pointed lines.
electric current, or when the Atomic Structure of cer-
tain molecules is geometrically rearranged, thus breaking down in becoming more compact. The reaction
incident to this sudden exertion of repulsive forces yields of course a tendency to a violent explosion
—
the degree of violence depending on the closeness of the contact in the molecular rearrangement.
As the explosive force increases asymptotically at small distance, we see that the most terrific
concentration of power resides in certain atomic and molecular structures. This power comes from the
Aether itself, as already explained in paragraph (iii) of Section 5, of the Sixth Paper. Yet the evaluation
of the Sextuple Integral for i2, in the Z""* Postscript, has given us a better grasp of the extreme power
of Molecular and Atomic Forces, because we see from the Curves why the integration, giving the ex-
plosive action, rapidly becomes infinite.

Viewing the Aethereal Medium in its larger aspects, chiefly as the vehicle for propagation of

waves, it appears surprising that heretofore only three authors have investigated the elastic constant:
1. Newton, Optics, 1721, p. 326 e= 490000000000.
2. Sir John Herschel, Familiar Lectures, 1867, p. 282 e = 1148000000000.
3. See, AN 5044, p. 62 £=
689321600000.
In this Elastic Constant of the Aether rests the power of the stresses exerted through this medium
in the form of Physical Forces; and the interactions of the waves in traversing the various bodies give
them their molecular and other physical properties. Maxwell had developed the Theory of the Medium
to an enormous extent in electrical and magnetic phenomena; and he even concluded that the forces
observed in Nature are due to stresses in the Aether. But owing to his premature death at 48 years of
age he had not formulated any modus operandi as to how such stresses could arise in the Medium,
nor studied the Elastic Constant of the Aether, s 689321600000. =
Accordingly we have labored to extend and to improve the work of Newton and of Maxwell,
and endeavored to give a working theory of the chief Forces observed in Nature.
In conclusion it only remains to call attention to the two Memoirs on the Earth, and especially
the Memoir on the Sun and Variable Stars. This latter investigation is so very remarkable that it can
scarcely fail to be of the widest interest. It is not often that one can bring to light the true physical
cause of so many great mysteries of three centuries since the age of Kepler and Galileol
The author's most grateful acknowledgements are due above all to Mrs. See, for the loyal support
of an unfailing faith in the outcome of
very extensive investigation to Professor Dr. H. Kobold, for
this ;

his indefatigable labor and care in supervising the publication, admidst many difficulties to Mr. W. S. Trankle, ;

who has aided so greatly in completing the work, between the numerous engagements of the public service.
Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, 1922 May 8. T.J.J. See.
 :

Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. Nr. 5044

(Band 2H — April 1920)

New Theory of the Aether By T. y. y. See.

(First Paper.)
I

I. The Medium of the Aether is necessary for isno intrinsic difficulty in either view, but at present
Jeonveying Physical Action .across Space. no method is known by which we may hope to dis-
A superfine medium associated' with the stars and with criminate between them. The whole subject of the ether
the light of day, known as the Aether [Aidt'jQ), has been is in that state of uncertainty and apparent confusion, which
universally recognized since the time oi Homer (Iliad, XV, 20, in other branches of science has usually preceded some great
and XVI. 365). During the last three centuries the greatest advance in knowledge*.
natural and mathematicians, from Huyghens,
philosophers Such an attitude as the above, by physicists of recognized
JSfewton, and Euler to Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and Poincari, authoritative connections, is confusing enough; but an even
have regarded this aetherial medium as a necessary condition more bewildering doctrine has been put forth by Eiitstem,
for the action of physical forces across space. In his Me- and quite widely adopted in England, though it generally
''.eanique Celeste 4-54 1> 1896, 7zwcra»(/ expresses the general is rejected in America. The english observers of; the total
opinion thus: solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, found some evidei^ces of a
deflection of the light of stars by the field of the sun, but
»Les theories les plus recentes de la physique donnent
it was by no means conclusive, and the weakness of the
-lieu de croixe que les attractions des corps celestes ne peuvent
whole Theory of Relativity was impressively pointed out by
Be transmettre a distance que par I'intermediaire d'un milieu,
sans doute I'ether. Mais on ne connait rien encore sur ce mode
'Dr. Silberstein, (Observatory, November 1919, p. 396-7), who
de transmission. II parait probable que le meme milieu sert
showed that Einstein'?, theory not account for the re-
will
finement of moving perihelia, and would even permit a planet
de vehicule a des actions electriques ou electromagnetiques«.
or comet to move in a straight line, under the gravitative
Notwithstanding the very secure foundation for a valid
action of the sun. In view of these facts Dr. Silberstein justly
theory of the aether erected by the labors of the most eminent
says that the Einstein theory stands or falls by the Evershed
iSeometers and natural philosophers since the age of Newtqn,
and St John spectral observations, which are ample, yet do
a strange tendency has arisen within recent years, for aban-
not confirm the theory.
doning the aether as an unnecessary hypothesis. Whether
In an interview at Chicago, Dec. 19, 1919, Professor
this reactionary tendency is based upon adequate grasp of
A. A. Michelson, the eminent authority on light, openly rejects
the geornetrical ^nd physical considerations involved may be
Einstein's, theory, because it does away with the idea of light
doubted by the more experienced natural philosophers of
traveling by means of vibrations in the aether which is sup-
today. At any rate we leave this to the judgement of those
posed to fill all space, t Einstein thinks there is no such thing
investigators who follow the argument here developed.
as aether«, remarked Michelson. »He does not attempt to
In their treatise on Magnetism and Electricity, London, account for the transmission of light, but holds that the aether
igi2. Brooks and Poyser, who were inspired by the electronic should be thrown overboard*
Aleories emanating from Cambridge, express themselves thus In view of the confusion of thought introduced by
»In this book, we have implicitly assumed the existence the electronists, on the one hand, and by the Einstein pure
rf a medium, which is the seat of the phenomena denoted mathematicians, on the other, — both extremes leading to
by the terms electric and magnetic lines of force. It may, ideas not appropriate to the facts, which Dr. Whewell, History
however, be mentioned that at the present moment the various of the Inductive Sciences, 1847, I.8i, showed was the cause
questions associated with the ether give rise to problems of of the failure of the physical sciences among the greeks —
great complexity and difficulty. The experimental knowledge it seems highly important to enter upon an account of certain

acquired during the last twenty years, taken in conjunction unpublished researches on the aether made by the present
'with recently acquired knowledge regarding the .electron' writer during the past six years, omitting so far as possible
and the constitution of matter, leads to apparently irrecon- the results already available in volume I of the Electrodynamic
and the real nature of the ether — if it
cilable results, Wave-Theory of Physical Forces, Boston, London and Paris,
word — must be regarded
exists at all in the old sense of the 1917.
:as absolutely unknown. For instance, if the ether is in- And first we shall show that the aether is necessary
compressible, as it is usually assumed to be, we are driven, for holding the planets in their orbits, from the established
by one line of argument, to the conclusion that it is 2000 law of the centrifugal force. This centrifugal motion must
jmillion times denser ^) than lead and possesses enormous be counteracted, otherwise a planet can not be made to
energy of internal motion. On the other hand, if it is com- curve the path at every point and thus revolve in a Keplerian
pressible, it may be much rarer than the rarest gas. There ellipse with the sun in the focus.

^) In a future paper a conclusive criterion will be given for rejecting this claim of a large density for tlie aether.
 :

52
5044
-^'
It is well known that the centrifugal force is given the universe which it displays.
physical Sir /s-ff^t "'j'
could oc(^
by the expression,
f =z mv^lo (i) himself denounced those who believed action
across empty space as not having a
competent faculty |

where m is the revolving mass, v is the instantaneous velocity,

In his letter to Benn
and q the radius of curvature of the orbit. As the planetary thinking in philosophical matters.
orbits and the orbit of the moon are not far from circular, 1692-3, Febr. 25, he says:
»That gravity should be innate,
mherent and essentj
we may with sufficient approximation calculate the centrifugal upon another at|
to matter, so that one body may act
force for circular orbits. In the case of the earth's attraction of anythj]
vacuum, without the mediation
distance through a
for the moon, it suffices to take the earth's weight in metric and force may
else, by and through which their
action
tons, the moon's mass == 1/81.45, and the distance of the absurd
another, to me so great an
rtioon 60 terrestrial radii, so that the weight at the earth's
conveyed from one to is

that I believe no man who has in

philosophical matter
surface is to be reduced by the divisor 3600. Then, as Gra
thinking, can ever fall into it.
competent faculty of
gravity balances this centrifugal force, we have for the at-
traction of the earth on the moon must be caused by an agent acting constantly according
immateri:
certain laws; but whether this agent be material or
/= (s.9S6292Xio")/(8i. 45x3600)
I have left to the consideration of my
readers*.
= 20.3137 X lo^'' metric tons. (2)
In a paragraph cited below, Maclaurin tells us t
This enormous tension would require for its support the Newto?! held gravitation to be due to impulses of the aethi
breaking strength of a weightless solid circular column of
could not make out exactly how they arose; and f
full
but
steel 645 kms in diameter, when the steel has the tensile
passage shows that Newton did not regard this medium
= 6.4
aj';

strength of over 30 metric tons to the square inch

ordinary material.
sq. cms, and such a small bar of steel would thus about lift a) It is shown below that the elasticity of the aeth
a modern battleship of the largest type. The tensile strength
is 689321600000 times greater than that of our air in p
of the above single column, 645 kms in diameter, would portion to its density:it has therefore enormous power
be equivalent about 5000000000000 columns of such
to
contraction, if any natural process be at work to cause
weightless each of one square foot cross section, g2 2
steel,

sq. cms, or about one such column to each area 16x16 = to collapse.
b) It is in the Electrodynamic Wave-Theory
shown I

256 sq. feet of a hemispherical cross section of the earth. Phys. Fore. 19 17, that between any two sources, as t
I,
So much for the stresses which control the moon's motion. sun and earth, the waves so interpenetrate, with rotatio:
But the gravitational attraction of the sun upon the
in opposite directions, as to decrease the stress and cau;
earth is , very much more powerful than
that of the moon.
collapse of the medium between the sun and the earth; a
The attraction of the sun upon the earth is of course equal this therefore develops an enormous tension, with njaximu]
to that of the earth upon the sun, which is easily seen to be stress in the right line between the bodies, while beyo:
/=
332750/(23445)^x5. 956292X10" them there is corresponding increase of stress and thus
3.60572X10^^ metric tons (3) external pressure also overcoming the effects of the centi
where the number 332750 represents the sun's mass, in units fugal force, and compelling the pldnet to follow the Kepleri
of the earth's mass, and 23445 is the sun's mean distance, ellipse about the sun in the focus.
in units of the earths radius. c) It is shown in section 7 below, that the potential
This attraction of the sun on the earth is equivalent is simply an expression for the total accumulated stresS(*l-1

to the tensile strength of 1 000000000000 weightless cir- due to the waves from all the individual atoms of a body, ^
cular pillars of steel, like that discussed above, but each each wave following the law of amplitude, ;

having a diameter of 30 feet, about 9 metres. This is A = klr (I

equivalent to the tensile strength of a forest of weightless and giving an element of force, as in gravitatipn, ,
}.
steel pillars, each 11 inches or 28 cms in diameter, on
each square foot of a hemispherical cross section of the earth;
Accordingly we see that Laplace's, definition of the potential,
so that the surface of the globe would be almost covered
1782, points directly to the wave-theory:
with these cables of steel.
Such calculations of the enormous gravitative power
of the heavenly bodies were first brought to my attention d) Therefore it is natural to hold that gravitation
by Professor Joseph Ficklin, of the University of Missouri, a wave phenomenon in the. aether, and to dismiss all oth
about },?> years ago, and have never been overlooked in my
subsequent studies of the cause of gravitation. Now with
hypotheses
physical cause.
as not fulfilling conditions
This wave-theory oi gravitation
essentia] to a
will give
tri
I
these concrete figures before us, we see that the cause as- new ground for the deflection oi the light of stars when tl

signed for gravitation must be adequate to sustain these tre- paths, of their rays pass through the gravitational field
mendous forces, miraculously pulling like stupendous cables the sun, as indicated in the eclipse of May 29, and reporte
Society and. Royal Astronomic;
of steel,, imagined as weightless as spider webs, yet stretched at the meetings of the Royal
to the utmost limits of their tensile strength across the Society, Nov. 6, 1919- ,

celestial spaces, for holding the planets in their orbits. e) It be shown below that both the density an
will
increases as we go outward from th
Accordingly Einsteini, proposal to do away with the rigidity of the aether
the laws
aether is chiefly remarkable for the lack of understanding of sun, according to
 53 5044 54

D= —
'

vr E=.v'r. ,(7) very miriute, half of it being o"87S, as against 2000" in

Accordingly the velocity of the waves remains approximately our atmosphere, or about 2300 times smaller.
constant, (Electrodynamic Wave -Theory of Physical Forces j) Since, according to the report of the observers of ;

;l.'i4-i57, 1917) the eclipse of May 29, 1919, this minute deflection disappears,

V= CV.{ElD) = CV[v'rlvr). (8)

when the sun moves out of the path of the light from the
stars lying behind it, such a temporary, effect cannot properly
But experience alone can determine whether this condition
be attributed to » a warp of space*, but only to the refractive
holds with geometrical rigor, or whether along the actual path,
action of the sun's envelope.. When Newton observed the
containing :dififuse coronal matter, the stationary condition,
refraction of light by a prism' he had no thought of attributing
(5jd. =o (9) the effect tp »a warp of space«; and one cannot but reflec^

may not lead to a sm^H deflection of the original path of light.

how fortunate it is that the physical theory of astronomical
refraction was perfected by Newton, Laplace and Bessel before
f) Such an increase of density in the aether, as we
such confusing terms as »fourth- dimension -time -spice-
recede from the sun was suspected by Newton in 172 1,
manifolds*, were introduced into science.
,

(3"* edition of Optics, p. 325). It is of authentic record that

k) It cannot be held that Einstein's theory enlightens
Newton hAi&yeA gravitation arises from the impulses of a
us on the motion of mercury's perihelion, because af least
subtile aethereal medium, but he»was not able, from ex-
half a dozen explanations, some of them approved by Newton,
periment and observation, to give a satisfactory account of
Hall, Newcomb and Seeliger, are already known; and another
this mediiAn, and the manner of its operation, in producing
simple one, involving no mysticisrtf and no rash assumptions,
the chief phenomena of nature*, [Maclaurin, Account of
but following from definitely established physical laws, will
TV^z^z/wz's ^.Philqsophical Discoveries, London, 1748, p. in), be brought oufc in the present investigation.
and thus he left the problem of the. cause of gravitation to
future investigators. 2. New Law of the Density and Rigidity of
g) The observed deflection of the rays of stars passing theAether.
near the sun, amounting to about i''7 5, may be most na- To deduce the law of the wave amplitude (4) in tri-
turally explained by the action of the gravitational and mag^ dimensional space, we proceed as follows. The displacement
netic wave -fields, under the influence of coronal matter, of any particle of a medium due -to wave motion, of a given
varying as the inverse fourth power of distance, and the wave length, is independent of the periodic time, and since
arrangement of the density and rigidity of the aether, near the oscillatory orbits of the particles are described in equal
the sun. An arc of i" at the sun's mean distance corresponds times, under continuous' flow of the waves, these "orbits will
to an absolute space of 725 kms, i''7S to 1269 krns. In the be proportional to the displacements or other homologous,
presence of the sun's strong gravitational and magnetic fields, lines pertaining to the. periodic paths of the particles. Let

and the magnetized faint coronal matter pervading that wave- the velocities of the' moving particles be v, and m their mass;
agitated region, it is probable that a central refraction or
- then their kinptic energies will be represented by ^l^m v^.
deflection of the light, of this magnitude, somewhat analogous In the spherical expansion. of the aether waves, there will
to an unsymmetrical Z^ifwa«-effect, may be. anticipated. The
'
be no loss of energy in free space hence on two successive
;

rotation of .the beam of polarized light by magnetism, in sphere surfaces of thickness Ar^ the energies are equal,' so.
Faraday's experiment of 1845, would lead us to expect some that we have: , .1

action in the sun's coronal wave-field. 47rr' V. ^

\nr- ^]iin v''^
h) As Einstein's predicted displacement of the spectral (ip);
lines towards the red coiild not be confirmed by Evershed The kinetic energy of the vibratirig molecules varies
and Stjohn, who had ample telescopic pbwer to make this inversely as the square of the, distance. But the velocity
shift-effect at least 50 times the probable error of their varies also as .the ampUtude,
simple harmonic motion:
in
measures, it cannot be presumed that the deflection of star- therefore, for the, amplitudes A' and A"j corresponding to
light passing near the sun is a confirmation of a purely the radii r' and r", we have by taking the sqtiare root in
mathematical theory. The deflection of the light must rather equation (10) ., m, '

-.A" == r" /
,r , I \
A' :
(11)
be explained by the physical propsrties of the aether, inter-
,

spersed with faint coronal matter, varying as the inverse A" = A'r'lr" = //'>" ,(12)

fourth power of the distance, in the region of intense wave- Accordingly.' the amplitude or side displacement becomes,
agitation about the sun. A = klr. (13)
-i) meeting of the Royal Society and Royal
At the joint
And V = Mir =
Astronomical Society, Nov. 6, 1919, no one attempted to
answer the weighty objections brought forward .by Dr. Silber-
= lll{alV\[x-x'Y^[y-y'Y + [z-z'Y\\iixAy^z (14)

stiin, who had made a careful study of Einstein's theory, which is the law of the potential used by Laplace in first

and thus pointed out the bizarre conclusions drawn by some ,1782. Thus it appears that if there be aether waves pro-
pure mathematicians who are prone to forget that the de-
,
pagated Outwardly from any molecule of matter, the amplitude,
flectionof starlight near the sun is as purely a physical or.maxirtium displacement of the oscillating particles of the
problem as the refraction of light in the earth's atmosphere. aether, will vary inversely as the radius of the spherical
Now the sun's deflection of light is similar to refraction, but wave-surface.
 ! «

55 5044 56

A development somewhat like this is given in

partial stupendous forces required for holding the planets and stars
certain treatiseson physics, such as Wullner's, Experimental in their orbits.
Physik, 1.784, and Mitchie's, Elements of Wave Motion, p. 11, possible only if the aether is
7) But this will be
but no importance is attached to the result, as in my Electro- arranged according to the law of density (S= vr; which
dynamic Wave-Theory of Physical Forces, 1.14-157, 1Q17. in turn will follow if electrodynamic waves recede from the
So accurately is this true, that when I brought this simple sun, having amplitudes A =
k/r. For the amplitudes in-
formula for the wave amplitude, A kjr, before the Aca- = creasing towards the sun's centre insures a decrease of density
demy of Sciences of St. Louis, in a public address, Sept. 21, of the aether about that centre, owing to the increasing wave-
1 9 17, great the simplicity of the formula was
surprise at agitation near the sun's surface.
expressed by such experienced investigators as Professor F. E.
8) Now mutual arrangements, favorable to
all these
Nipher, and President E. A. Engler. Thus it is necessary to
the wave-theory, would not exist, unless that theory repre-
develop the subject a little more fully in the present paper,
sented a law of nature. Because not only are all facts of
since no adequate discussion of the problem appears to be
the aether harmonized, but also all the forces brought under
available in existing works on physical science.
the principles of the conservation of energy,' and of least
Let us now consider the arrangement of the density
action. Thus nature not only acts simply, but also by the
of the aether about the sun.
most uniform processes throughout all space. It is not there-
i) Suppose we consider carefully the amplitude of the
fore admissible to hold any theory of the aether other than
waves from the sun in any solar spectral line, such as that
that it is an infinite aeolotropic elastic solid, with the density
of sodium, V- It is evident that if we disregard all other
arranged about the heavenly bodies to increase directly with
radiations, and fix attention upon this sodium light alone,
the distance. And the wave amplitudes varying inversely as
then as the wave amplitude varies inversely as the distance
from the sun's centre, this amplitude of our vibrations con-
the radius, A =
kjr, supports this theory, by geometrical
considerations, which exclude every other theory of the
stituting sodium light will be 219 times greater at the sun's
medium for the interpretation of the forces operating through-
surface than at the surface of the earth — since the earth's
out the physical universe.
mean distance is 219 solar radii.
g) In the course of the article Aether (Encyclopedia
2) Similar reasoning will hold for the waves of light
Britannica, Qth. ed., 1877), Maxwell calculates the density
of the spectrum of such elements as strontium, barium, boron,
calcium, hydrogen, carbon, iron, nickel, cobalt, copper, ti-
as ^ = 1.07X10""'^'', thus implying homogeneity, and speaks

Thus elements conform

of this medium as »a vast homogeneous expanse of isotropic
tanium, etc. all the light waves of all

to the law : A = kjr.

matter.
But it is obvious on reflection that this medium cannot
3) All these chemical elements also radiate heat waves
be homogeneous ^) for in that case there would be no stresses
which follow the same law of amplitude. And for both light
;

in the medium for generating the forces which govern the

and heat the above law holds rigorously true. If there be
mutual interaction of bodies throughout space. The mutual
any other type of waves in the aether, the same law will
actions between bodies is an observed fact. In motion the
hold for these undulations also.
bodies are everywhere found to describe ellipses, parabolas
4) Now magnetism and gravitation have been referred
or hyperbolas about one another. Nothing but forces, due to
to electrodynamic waves, in the author's work on physical
tension between the bodies, and increase of pressure beyond
forces, 19 1 7. If these waves exist, they also will follow the
same law A =
kjr; and that they do exist is shown by a
them, could possibly produce this remarkable power for
holding the planets in their orbits.
variety of phenomena, which admit of no other interpretation.
For example, the electrodynamic action of a current of elec- 10) Thus forces imply waves, and waves lead to forces,
tricity is due to waves: thus arise electrical forces: also mag- when the mutually interpenetrating waves are so directed as
netic forces, gravitational forces, etc. to undo one another, and cause the collapse of the medium
in the right line between the bodies. As the gravitational
5) Gravitation admits of
no other explanation, while
on this explanation we have animmediate insight into the forces are of enormous intensity, it follows that the elastic
fluctuations of the moon's mean motion, which so long proved power of the aether has to be tremendous, in order to generate
utterly bewildering to astronomers. And there must be not the forces actually observed.
only a cause of gravitation, but a simple one, harmonizing 1 1) Accordii)gly, the existence of forces implies stresses
with electrodynamic action, in the generation of electrical in the the stresses imply waves
aether : the waves imply :

forces, magnetic forces, etc. The electrodynamic wave-theory heterogeneous density in the medium, which must vary with
alone fulfills this necessary and sufficient condition, for the '
the radius from any mass according to the law a vr. =
following special reason. There is no other view of the aether which can be held.
6) The aether is shown to have an elastic power Homogeneity of density would imply no stresses no stresses ;

689 321 600000 times greater than that of our air in pro- would imply no forces; no forces would imply an inert
portion to its density. Hence it will have practically, unlimited universe; which is contrary to observation and thus wholly
power of contraction, and thus be able to generate the inadmissible.

In the Baltimore Lectures, 1904, p. 265, under date of Nov. 16, 1899, Lord Kelvin says: »We have strong reason to believe that
')

the density of etheris constant throughout interplanetary and interstellar space'. This error is very widespread, and its persistence shipwrecks
physical research
 57 5044 58

12) The aether is therefore arranged about the sun with Accordingly, this observational fact requires us to hold
the density foirowing the law, a =
vr, which results from that E
increases in about the same ratio a's D, so that our
wave-agitations having amplitudes, kjr A
The energy of = law of V for the heavenly spaces becomes,
the forces generated by these waves is proportional to the
square of the amplitude, and therefore we have for the force,
V= CV[v'rlvr) (17)
and therefore E ^= v' r. Thus both the elasticity and rigidity
/-^V (is) of the aether increase directly as the radius from the sun,
which explains all the pbserved effects of gravitation, mag- or other heavenly bodies.
netism, etc. The reason for this remarkable law is this: namely,
13) Now quite aside from the simplicity and continuity the viscosity of a gas depends upon th^ friction of the mole-
of the process of reasoning here outlined, it remains a fact cules projected from one layer of gas into the adjacent layer,
that the wave-theory is adequate to explain all the observed and vice versa. In the case of the aether the viscosity
phenomena of nature. The simple law of density of the becomes rigidity. And with the increase of >the density of
aether here imagined may therefore be admitted to really the aether particles there should be more molecules projected
pervade the universe. So far from being homogeneous, the into the adjacent layers mutually, by the ordinary kinetic
aether is really very heterogeneous. Indeed, it is a gas, exchange, in strict proportion to the density. Thus the
behaving as an elastic solid — an infinite aeolotropic elastic rigidity of the aether increases directly as the density, as in
solid — fulfilling the law of density, d = vr, and of wave the stbove formula.
amplitude, = A kjr, and therefore yielding forces following It may be noted by the formula of Newton, an
that
the law, f ^ k'^jr^, as required by Newton in 172 1, for increase of the density by the factor 2ig, without change
explaining the cause of universal gravitation. in E, would lead to a reduced velocity of only about V15'''
At the earth the density of the aether is 2ig times of the original. No such enormous difference, in the velpcity
what it is at the sun's because the earth's mean
surface, of light as determined by observations of Jupiter's satellites,
distance is 219 times the solar radius. But Newton formula s, and that found by terrestrial experiments, is admissible; and
for the velocity, v= CV\EJD] (r6) thus the above law of rigidity of the aether is approximately
verified by the comparison of celestial and terrestrial obser-
would give a change of velocity if the density alone increased,
while the elasticity remained constant.E vations. But a more exact test of the value of V, from
eclipse observations of Jupiter's satellites, taken as directly
Now the v^ocity of light across the planetary spaces
was originally found by Rdmer, 1675, from the eclipses of as possible across the diameter of the earth's orbit, for com-
and subsequently confirmed by the elaborate parison with the experimental value found by Michelson, is
Jupiter's satellites,
highly desirable.
researches of Delambre, on the motions of these satellites
(cf. C. d. T. 1788, and Astronomic Theorique et Pratique, 3. The Relation between the Mean Molecular
1814). By discussing a thousand eclipses of the i^' satellite Velocity of a Gas and that of a Wave transmitted in
Delambre fixed the constant of aberration at 20^255, while such a Medium.
Michelsons velocity of light, near 300 000 kms., and the The Philosophical Magazine for June and September,
solar parallax SfSo makes the aberration about 20^48. 1877, contains two important articles on the theory of gases
Thus V is about the same for the aether acros^ the by Dr. 5. Tolver Preston, and also notes on the conclusions
diameter of the earth's orbit, and for the aether of the terres- then reached by the celebrated Professor y. Clerk Maxwell,
trial atmosphere, in which the velocity has been investigated with whom Preston was in correspondence. In the first of
experimentally by Cornu, Michelson, Newcomb and others. these papers, p. 452, § ig, Preston reaches- the following re-
markable conclusion »That the velocity of propagation of a
:

wave (such as a wave of sound) in a gas is solely determined

by, and proportional to, the velocity of the molecules of the
gas; that this velocity of propagation of the wave is not affected
by density, pressure, or by the specific gravity of a gasj or by
anything else excepting the velocity of its molecules*.
In the second Postscript, p. 453, Preston states Maxwell's
conclusion as follows:
» Professor Clerk Maxwell, to whom this paper was com-

municated, and who has taken a kindly interest in the subject,

has worked out mathematically the velocity for a wave or
impulse propagated by a system of particles moving among
each other according to the conditions of equilibrium in-
vestigated in the first part of this paper —
the diameter of
the particles being assumed so small as to be negligible
compared with their mean distance, and the particles being
further assumed spherical, so that there is no movement of
Fig. I. Diagram showing graphically the decrease of the
rotation developed- at the encounters (which would involve
density of the aether towards the sun, o\ving to
the asymptotic increase in wave amplitude. loss of velocity)*.
 59 5044 6o

» Under
these premises, the velocity of the wave was undertook the mathematical verification and physical test of
found to be Ys 1^5 (or 0.745) into the mean velocity of the this Preston- Maxwell theorem quite recently'; and, as my
particles. In most gases the velocity of sound is slightly results differ slightly from those of Freston and Maxwell, I
less than this. This is referable to the movements of rotation will give the process of test and verification employed.
developed at the encounters of the molecules (which cal- In order to confirm this theory I have compared the
culably would delay the wave to a certain extent). In vapour observed velocity of sound for the four leading gases which
of mercury, according to the determinations of Kundt and are best determined, with their mean molecular velocities,
Warburg, the velocity of sound is exactly ^/g "I/5 into the and firjd the following indications of experiment, without
molecular velocity*. , regard to the Preston- Maxwell theory. In the experimental
According to these announcements, the corpuscles of data there remains a little uncertainty. For the older values
the aether, viewed as a monatomic gas, should have a mean of V and k^ the table yields for the corrected ratio a mean
molecular velocity of 3/ v's F • = 1.34 F, where F =: of 1.64, which is 0.07 above the theoretical value of 1.57.
3Xioi''cms, the velocity of light. A conclusicfti of such The newer by Jeans, Dynamical Theory of
data, preferred
great importance, which received the approval of the lumi- Gases, 2°*^
1916, p. 9-13 1, give a- mean value of
edition
nous mind 6f Maxwell, is entitled to profound attention. 1.57, though the discordance between the results for the
Thus I have had it before me for some five years, but only individual gases is somewhat increased.

Gas
 : :

6i 5044 62

operations of the physical universe. Moreover, since light, V= V{{s-/tG/B)-k-{i-i-at)] =

heat, chemical affinity, etc.,
have long been referred to such = 808X0. 76X
l/[(9. ooi293).(i. 405) (i-Ha/)]
13. 59/0.
waves in the aether, the more general electrodynamic wave-
theory thus gives complete continuity to our theories of
= 331.8m 1/(1-1-0.003665/) at /° C. (19)

physics, thereby
This shows that the velocity of light is 904268 times swifter
confirming the: correlation of all natural
than sound. Squaring this number, and dividing, the result
forces, and giving new physical grounds for the doctrine of
the conservation of energy. by 1. 666/1. 405 =^ 1. 18624 we, get the immense number
.

689 32 1 6000Q0; which shows how much the elasticity of the

In the closing paragraph to his celebrated Treatise on
aether, regarded as a monatomic gas, exceeds that of the air
Electricity and Magnetism, 1873, Maxwell justly says that
in proportion to its density^).
In the Optics, 3"'^ edition, 17 21,
»'whenever energy is transmitted from one body to another
p. 326, Newton makes this number 490000000000, which
in must be a medium or substance in which the
time, ther^
is 7'i per cent correct.
energy it leaves one body and before it reaches
exists after
In view excessive elasticity of the aether, in
of this
the other*. This also points to wave action, such as Gauss
proportion to very small density, compared to that of air,
its
was considering in 1835, and of which Weber gave the
we can understand the almost inconceivable velocity of light.
fundamental law in 1846, Newton's \a.^ of 1686 beiftg a
It is also necessary to bear in mind this enormous elasticity
special case corresponding to circular orbits.
in order to understand why the aether is practically incom-
In the Prop. 48, Sir Isaac Newton
Principia, Lib. 2, pressible. When
wave begins to be generated, the distur-
a
deduces the formula for the velocity of waves or pulses bance is propagated away so rapidly that the wave amplitude
propagated in an elastic medium, such as waves of sound necessarily is small compared to the wave length. In the
in the air, ^= CV{£/£>) y . calculations of section 5 we have taken the wave length as
This is now written 101.23 times its amplitude, which Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and
F= V{{i^/ia/n)-ii+at)}
Larmor consider a safe basis in all numerical determinations.
The incompressibility of the aether is due to the very
_= 33 1-76 m 1/(1-1-0.003665/) ,
(18)
high mean velocity of the aether corpuscles, 47 12 39 kms per
where t is the temperature; o: is a coefficient, 0.003665; second, and their enormously long free path, 572959 kms:
^ = acceleration of. gravity, 98 1 cm; A = normal barometric which makes the medium behave as an elastic solid for quick
pressure, ,76 cm; cr = 13.6, density of Mercury; D .=== the acting forces, but enables the corpuscles to hiove out of the
density of air, 0.001293; ^"d A ^1.4050 (cf: Wiillner's way of the swiftest planets with a 10000-fold, greater speed.
Experimental Physik, S-SS^) is the ratio of the specific heat Owing to its enormous elasticity, the aether instantly adjusts
of air under constant pressure to that under constant volume,, itself to any state and thus this medium
of steady motion,
introduced^ by> Laplace for harmonizing Newton theoretical s,
offersno resistance whatever to uniform celestial motions..
formula with the observed velocity of sound in air. This circumstance fully explains a grave difficulty which
In many investigations it is "possible to determine the has been felt from the age of Newton, and hitherto appeared
velocity withwhich waves are propagated, but it is not always" utterly bewildering to natural philosophers. In connection
possible to determine independently the elasticity or density with such extraordinary physical conditions in the medium,
of the medium -^ we can only find the ratio EJD. This is it may^ be useful to recall an account of the interior con-
partly true of thp aether, for-example, which transmits light stitution of the sun given by Professor Newcomb in the En-
waves or electrodynamic waves with the speed of 300000 kms cyclopedia Americana, 1904:
-per second, but gives no process of fixitig the elasticity of »Yet another unknown factor is the temperature of the -

this medium except by an independent calculatiori of the interior, it may be

. . 1 000000 degrees. As the highest
density, which, however; may be made by the process first temperature which it is possible to produce artificially pro-
used by Lord Kelvin in 1854, (Baltimore Lectures, 1904, bably does not amount to 10 000 degrees, it is impossible to
p. 261-263), and afterwards adopted hy Maxwell, Scientific say what effect such a temperature would have upon matter.
Papers, 2.767. Thus we have two opposing causes, the one an inconceivable
In section 5 below we find, by the process here de- degree of heat, such that were matter exposed to it on the
scribed,, that at the sun's surface the density of the aether surface of the earth, it would explode with a power to which

is ^ = ^Xio'"-^*
and the rigidity 1800. Using these con- nothing within our experience can be compared, and a
stants Newton's formula, we tnay verify the observed velocity
'm_ pressure thousands of times any we can produce, tending to
of wave propagation condense and solidify this-intensely heated matter. One thing

V^ 'l^{n/D) = l/{ 1800/(2 X io~^^)} ^= 30 000 000 000 cms' which we can say with confidence as to the effect of these

= 3X,io^°, the velocity of light.

causes is that no chemical combinations can take place in
,

matter so circumstanced. The distinction between liquid and

To compare a perfect monatomic gas like the aether gaseous matter is lost' under such conditions. 'Whether, the
with diatomic gases like the air, we use the formula for the central portions are compressed into a solid, or remain liquid;,
velocity of sound it is impossible to say.«'

'-) In his thoughtful Familiar Lectures, on Scientific .Subjects, 1867, p. 282, Sir John Herschel- ^<i^% this figure as i 148000000000;
but he omits altogether the ratio 1.66 which applies to the aether as a monatomic gas. This correction is verified both by theory and by
observation on such monatomic gases as Mercuryvapor, Helium, Argon, Krypton, Neon, Xenon.
 63 5044 64

In the writer's Researches on the Physical Constitution

and Rigidity of the Heavenly Bodies, 1904-5, he reached 2/JT = 0.63662.
the conclusion that the confined solar matter must necessarily o
be gaseous, though acquiring the property of a highly rigid Accordingly we thus arrive at the following
solid under the enormous pressure and high ten\perature to
Table of Constants of the Aether:
which the matter is subjected. In fact it was found by cal-
culation that the layers of the sun's globe have an average 1. Constant of solar radiation, found by Bigelow from ob-
rigidity of over that of steel, (AN 4104, equa-
2000 times servations, R = 3.98 fa.
tion while the average rigidity of the matter,
22, p. 384), 2. Assumed ratio of amplitude to wave length AJl =
accumulated with increasing density in the interior layers, j/ioi.23, which is nearly the same as was used by
may be 6000 times that of Nickel steel (AN 4104, equa- Maxwell, so that = 271/101.23 == 1/16.115.
Ap
tion 38, p. 392).
3. Energy per cubic centimetre = at the sun's surface
Such a globe must be viewed as bursting internally
with pent up explosive energy, yet kept in equilibrium by
(0.63662)^ F^^/)^ = 4-41455 ergs.

4. per
Greatest tangential stress cm sq. at the sun's surface
the accumulating pressure of the surrounding
confined matter is gaseous, yet rigid to the highest degree,
layers: the
= Q V^'(Ap) = 111.1713 dynes.
and in such confinement must have the property of a solid 5. Coefficientof of rigidity the aether:
of enormous rigidity. at = V^ = 1800,
the sun's surface q .;

Now the rigidity of the aether is variable with the 219^ F^ = 394200.
at the earth's surface
•*;

radius vector drawn to the sun's centre, but generally less 6. Density =
of the aether at the sun's surface q 2Xio~^*.;i
than that of solids such as glass, which is about lo*^^. Yet
7. Density ^ 21Q0
of the aether at the earth's surface q'
with such liigh elasticity, due to the enormous molecular
velocity 471239 kms, we see that it cannot be rent or
= 438X10"^*.
Mean of
velocity == 47 123900000
the aetheron, v cms.
cracked, as Lord Kelvin once suggested, (Popular Lectures
and Addresses, 1. 33 6), by any forces at work in nature. Molecular weight [ff =
of the aetheron, i)

The only artificial forces yet found capable of setting up = 15.56X10-12

waves in the aether were the extremely quick explosions of Average length of mean free path, at the sun's surface,
dynamite used by Professor Francis E. Nipher of St. Louis.
^= 572959 kms.
5. Table pf the Physical Constants of the Number of corpuscular collisions per second, at the
Aether. sun's surface, C^ 0.82246.
The general method employed for detfermining the Radius of aether corpuscle = 3.346X10— '^'^,
or 1/4005
physical constants of the aether based on the process for
is'
of the radius of a Hydrogen molecule.
calculating the mechanical value of a cubic mile of sunlight
devised by Lord Kelvin, 1854, and first published in the The radius of a molecule of Hydrogen is taken as

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, (cf. » Me- 1. 34X10"*, and the density assumed equal. In computing
chanical Energies of the Solar System*, 1854, and Baltimore the molecular weight of the aetheron in 9 above, we dis-
Lectures, 1904, p. 261-265). This method was adopted and regard the so-called ,Electrical mass' because Professor Sir
somewhat improved by Maxwell, 1875, ii^ '^^ Article Aether, y. y. Thomson, (Electricity and Magnetism, 4* ed., 1909,
Ency. Brit. 9'*" ed. Some further improvements have been p. 521), and Crowther, (Molecular Physics, 19 14, p. 70), and
introduced by the present writer, especially in those constants other authorities, admit that this ,Electrical mass' resides in
of the kinetic theory of the aether, which were never calculated the aethereal medium itself, which we are investigating. This

by Kelvin or Maxwell. These are due entirely to the recent subject will be more fully discussed in a future paper.
investigations, and are here outlined for the first time. It may be
noticed that the aether gas, is endowed with
We adopt the constant of solar radiation recently found enormously high molecular velocities and excessively long
by Bigelow, namely, 3.98 ca., 19 19. (Supplement No. I to range of mean free path, so that the highly elastic aether
the Treatises on the atmospheres of the sun and the earth. is very different from .the ordinary terrestrial gases. This is
Four fundamental formulas for discussing the observations forcibly brought out in the following table; yet the similarity
made with various types of pyrheliometers, F. H. Bigelow, with the other gases is also notable, even for such an extreme
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York,
19 19, p. 4). case as the aether. It is this enormous mean molecular
A certain factor in the kinetic theory of the energy velocity and the long free path which causes the aether to

of the aether waves coming from the sun was taken by Lord vibrate as an elastic solid for rapidly acting forces, but easily

Kelvin as between Y2 ^ind i, (Baltimore Lectures, p. 263, gives way to slow motions. It is worthy of notice that the

§ 5), and by Maxwell as 72- Working out the problem

particles of the aether move out of the way ten thousand times
somewhat more Lord Kelvin has done, thus taking
fully than more rapidly than the swiftest planets revolve in their orbits.
account of the inclinations of all the wave elements in plane, The constants for the
tables assembled below were
circularly and elliptically polarized light, I find that this
,
drawn originally from.O.
E. Meyer's Kinetic Theory of Gases,
factor for the total energy should be a little greater than but in the final revision I have adopted the mean of the
one half, namely: values cited by yeans, Kinetic Theory of Gases, 2""^ ed. 19 16.
 6s 5044 66

Table for Comparing the Physical Properties of the Aether with well known Terrestrial Gases.

Gas
 67 68
5044

past each other. In this way, the experiments on diffusion molecule of Hydrogen be taken to have a radius
If the
have given us the viscosity of air and other gases. of I.34X^o~'^ that of the aetheron becomes
The mean free path, for example, follows quite accu- ^= 1.34X10-74°°° = 3-346 Xio-^^ nearly. (24)
rately the law.
i^^^^i^^ (20) To form a convenient picture of the small size of the
where x is the viscosity of the gas, and v the mean velocity aetheron compared/to the Hydrogen molecule, we may recall
of the molecule in cms per second, and q the absolute density. the trifling height of a mountain a mile high compared^ to
the immense radius of the earth. If other molecules be larger
Itimportant to notice that in the case of the aether,
is
than Hydrogen, as is generally supposed to be true, then the
by a process of reasoning fully
viscosity passes into rigidity,
aetheron will be a small globe of the size of a moderate
explained in Daniell'i, Principles of Physics, ^^ ed., i8gs,
mountain peak loooo feet high; so that the various molecules
p. 227. In calculating the mean free path of the aetheron,
will resemble Venus and the earth, Uranus and Neptune, Jupiter
we use the rigidity of the aether at the solar surface, 1800,
and Saturn. • ' .

because both the density and rigidity of the aether vary with
the distance firom the sun, as already explained in section 2:
To fix upon a more familiar everyday image of this
world structure, we may imagine a box filled with large
Thus for the aetheron the mean free path is 57 2959kms. /= oranges, and the finest dust, like that of lime, or smoke
It is a fundamental doctrine in the kinetic theory of
from a cigar, penetrating the relatively vast spaces between
gases that all gases have an equal number of molecules in unit
the.oranges, which however should not be in contact, but
volume, under like conditions of temperature and pressure; but
in rapid motion.' If now the cigar smoke, or the particles
'

it is not yet possible to decide on the absolute value of this

of lime dust, be imagined to have stupendous velocity, flying
number, different estimates being indicated by various eminent
hither and thither with inconceivable speed, and thus moving
authorities: iV^^igXio^^ [Maxwell], iV^= rooo X lo^*
with; the utmost freedom in the open spaces betweeii the ,

[Crbokes], i\^ == 6000X 10^^ [Kelvin).

oranges, as outside of them, we shall have a very
as well
About all we can say is that the number of molecules goocj image of the behavior of the aether in respect to matter:
in a cubic centimetre of gas at the ordinary temperature and The aether not only penetrates all matter freely,- but
pressure probably is not smaller than that assigned by Maxwell,
even waves in it pass through all physical bodies, with only
7\^=igXio^^, the latest determination being 27X10^^ (cf.
the hindrance incident to. refraction and dispersion such as
Crowther, Molecular Physics, Phila., 1914, p. 3).
we see in light. The refraction is due to the unequal re-
Using the value for the aether, sistance offered by matter to the advance of the wave front,
v^ :^ 47 I 239000 m and the dispersion to unequal resistance to various wave
and for Hydrogen, »i = 1859 m
'

lengths. Shorter waves encounter relatively more resistance,

we have by the principle first enunciated by Maxwell (Scient. because their oscillations are more rapid,' and thus the aether
Pap. 2.365), that »on the average every molecule great or yields and adapts itself less easily to the resisting molecules

small will have the same energy of motion*, the equation: in the path of the waves, when the waves are short, and
the changes, due to their advance, extremely rapid.
V2'«i?'i^= ^Um^^'i (21)
which 'gives 7. The geometrical and physical significance
iiii =;«i(i859 *))7(47 1 239000)^= 15.56232 X 10"^^. (22) of the potential.
In the Memoires of the Paris Academy of Sciences for
Thus it follows that an aetheron has a mass of 15.56 millionths
1782, p. 113, Laplace introduces the use of the analytical
of a millionth of the mass of a Hydrogen molecule. This is
expression since known as the potential, from the designation
equivalent to 2.7389X10"^ of an electron, or about one
first used in 1828 by the English mathematician George Green
thirty-six millionth of an electron.
(Essay on the application of mathematical analysis to the
we take the density of
If the aetheron as equal to that
theories of electricity and magnetism, Nottingham, 1828).
of the Hydrogen molecule, we find by calculation that the
The potential is defined thus:
radius of the aetheron
r =
is equivalent to

1/4005. 36-iy
V = Mir =
or one four-thousand-and-fifth of the radius of a Hydrogen
(23)
= JJJ{'^/^[(*-^')'-^(>-/)'+(^-^')']}d^cbdz. (25)

molecule. This explains why the aether so readily penetrates This expression has come into the most extensive use in all

all bodies,even the most solid. It makes the size of an the physical sciences, and been of the highest service in the

aetheron to a molecule of Hydrogen as a globe two miles mathematical theory of gravitational attraction, magnetism,
in diameter is to the earth. Between masses as large as our electrodynamic action, and also in theory of static electricity.
terrestrial globe or larger, globes two miles in diameter would But it is very remarkable that up .to the present time
freely penetrate in great numbers, even if the larger globes an expression of such universal use has not been given a
were in contact, which of course is not the case with any clear geometrical or physical interpretation. The difficult}
solid or liquid, and still less is this true of a gas, in which doubtless arose originally from beliefs like that expressed b}
the molecules are separated by distances relatively immense Laplace, in the opening paragraph of the Mdc. eel. I,
1799
in comparison with the diameters of the molecules. that the »nature of force is now and always will be unknown*

*) jfoule's value of molecular velocity of Hydrogen, which makes the aetheron perhaps a little too large.
 : : :

69 5044 JO

In the state of darkness, relative to the invisible aethereal since the element of mass dm adxdydz can be made so = '

medium, existing at the close of the Laplace iS'*" century, small as to apply to every single particle or atom.
doubtless considered it sufficient to deal with expressions At first sight the mere fact that the potential V as thus
which give the forces acting on the planets, without inquiring defitied follows the law of wave amplitude in tridimensional
into, the geometrical nature and physical mechanism involved space strikingly suggests that the wave-theory represents the
in the generation of these forces, which were then believed order of nature. To find out by exact calculation what is
to lie beyond the reach of the investigator. the probability of such a coincidence occurring by mere
After the development of Faraday's Experimental Re- chance, we may proceed as follows.
searches in Electricity, and Maxwell's mathematical inter- Taking the expressions for two independent curves,
pretation of these results, be
very- different views came to the amplitude and the potential, we have
entertained by geometers and natural philosophers. Yet it A=y = klx, V=y = M/x. (27)
was only the developments brought out in the »Electrod. It be noticed that they belong to the same geometrical
will
Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc.<<, which seemed to justify definite species — both being rectangular hyperbolas referred to their
expectations of. forming clear geometrical and physical' con- asymptote.s —
and can be made identical throughout,, from'
ceptions of the mechanism involved in the action of the ^ == o to X =
00, by introducing a summation 2, such
magnetic and the planetary forces across space. Recently that 2^ — M.
these conceptions have been verified and extended, and appears that by the mere variation of
Accordingly it

therefore we shall here attempt to give a geometripaL-and a parameter the curves are made to coincide rigorously, point
physical, interpretation of the potential which so long proved by point, from x ,0 to x =
c)o. ^
Therefore the chances
bewildering to the physical mathematician. against such a rigorous coincidence accidentally occurring
= =
,

In the »Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc.«, 1Q17, throughout infinite space, x o to x 00, becomes in-
p. 134, it is waves be the basis of physical
pointed- out that if finity to one, or, 00
action across space, then the amplitude of such waves when C=Jdx = oo (28)
propagated spherically and without resistance, in tridimensional o
space, will be given by the equation and thus its actual occurrence points unmistakably to. a true
A = k\r . (26) law of nature.
In an address to theAcademy of Sciences of St. Louis, seems therefore certain and incontestible that the
It

potential represents geometrically and physically the total-

Sept.- 2 1,1917, I gave this simple formula and pointed out
its geometrical and physical significance. Professors F. E. accumulated stress due to the whole mass under the average
Nipher, E. A. Engler and other physicists were present and wave amplitude of the field about the attmcting body in question.
showed great interest in the results announced, from which Itbe noticed also that physically our definition
is to
of the potential confirms this conclusion'.In free space there
it would appear that this law had Jargely or entirely escaped
is no cause to alter the spherical distribution of the waves,
the notice of earlier investigators.
as they expand with 'increase of r. But in or near the shadows
Now
,

by comparing this expression (26) with that in

of the earth, as shown in the »Electrod. Wave-Theory of
(25) above, we notice that the wave amplitude has the same
Phys. Forc.«, a circular waves will
refraction of .the sun's
form as the potential defined by Laplace in 1782. The
necessarily occur. The even at a
sun's potential varies,
question thus arises Can the coincidence in form be due
:

constant distance, near the shadow of the earth; and owing

to chance, or is the potential in fact an analytical expression
to -this refraction, fluctuations of the moon's motion should
for the total aether stress due to the superposition of waves
arise near the time of, lunar eclipses, as fully explained in
from all the atoms, each of the waves being of the average
this work of 19 17. This circular refraction of the electro-
wave amplitude, appropriate to the coordina.tes in the field
dynamic wayes in passihg t'hrough the earth's mass changes
of force about an attracting mass? To get at the truth in
the potential or total accumulated stress due to the integration
this interesting inquiry, we notice that Laplace's formula of
of the waves from all the atoms, under the average w^ve
1782 integrates the mass of every particle of the attracting
amplitude and distribution of the waves in the space near
body, divided by its distance, which corresponds to a sum-
the shadow of the earth: and therefore also the sun's forces
mation of the effects due to the superposed wave amplitudes
acting on the moon.
and thus increases directly as the mass, each set of waves
Partially released from the sun's control, by the inter-
superposed from the atoms in any element a Ax&y Azlr,^
position of the body of the earth, with its refractions of the
being independent of all the rest, but the triple integral
-

sun's wave-field, the moon

tends to fly the tangent while
including the accumulated wave action of the whole mass
of the shadow cone, and thus arise
region
V Mjr == = traversing the
the fluctuations of the moon's mean motion, connected with
^lll{alV{[x-x'Y^[y-y'Y+[z~z'Y\]AxAy^z. (25) lunar eclipses, which long perplexed Laplace, Hansen, Newcomb,

represent the
' Hill, Brown and other astronomers.
The elements under the integral signs
individual potentials of every partick, and thus the potential Explanation of the Propagation of the Wire-
8.

increases directly as the mass whose wave-effects are inte- less Waves around the Earth.
grated. This conforms rigorously to our conceptions of the In the unpublished manuscript sent by the writer to
Newtomaxi law of attraction, and involves no approximation, the Royal Society in November, 19 14, which was the first
 71 5044 72

outline of the »Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc.« the It appears that the earth also conducts the signals, so that
following figure was used to illustrate the propagation of wire- wireless apparatus may be installed and used in deep mines,
less waves around the earth. which would enormously increase the power of signalling in
case of accidents interrupting communication by the shafts

and tunnels,
It is probable, however, that the irregularity in the
structure and conducting power of the earth's strata would,
somewhat handicap such iinderground signalling, yet not
prevent the successful development of the method of signalling
through the earth to the limited depths at which miners work.
-
The problem of explaining the propagation of wireless
waves about the earth has hitherto challenged the ingenuity
of the foremost mathematicians. It has been unsuccessfully
attacked by Professor H. M. Mac'donald (Proc. Roy. Soc. 1903
and Phil. Trans, igio). Lord Rayleigh and Prof. H. Poincaiii\
(Proc. Roy. Soc. 1903). See aXso.Foincard's Lectures of 1908
(La Lumiere filectrique, vol. 4, 2"^ series, Nov. 28, Dec. 5,
12, 19, 1908, especially p. 323). Professor A. Sommerfdd
(Ann. der Phys., vol. 28, p. 665, 1909) has shown that a
surface wave should exist; and Professor J. W. Nicholson
Fig. z. Illustration of the refraction of 'the wireless wave about the (in the Phil. Mag., March, April, May, 1910) has dealt with
earth,and of light in a prism, owing to slower propagation certain problems of the exponential factor of the wave am-
of waves in dense masses.
plitude, but none of these eminent mathematicians arrived at

It is a sufficient explanation of this figure to say that any satisfactory theory of wave propagation about the globe.
itcorresponds exactly with' the propagation of light through In his well known work on the Principles of Electric';
a glass prism, as shown in the figure of the prism above. Wave Telegraphy and Telephony, London, 3"^ editiori, 19 16,
The wireless waves travel faster in air than through the solid p.826-851, Professor J. A. Fleming gives a full and accurate
earth. The enormous elasticity of the aether, as set forth account of the difficulty experienced by these and other
in section 4, prevents bodily rupture of the medium; and mathematicians. revised edition of 1916, Fleming
In this
this secures continuity of the wave front,
by beriding the gives the General conclusions as to the mode
following: »

surface backward near the globe, to correspond to the slower of propagation of long electric waves round the earth «.
propagation in that dense mass. The retardation of the waves »Summing up the conclusions so far reached by radio-
propagated straight through the earth causes the wave front telegraphists we may say tfiat the effect produced by a radio-
to be bent and held back near the curved surface of the telegraphic transmitter at a great distance, say 2000 or 6000
earth, and thus the wireless wave is refracted around the miles over the surface of, the earth, is a complex one in
earth by the much greater resistance encountered in that which several different actions play a part«.
solid mass. » There first, a propagation through the aether of
is,

The correct theory of the bending of the wireless wave a true space electromagnetic wave which is difiracted round
about the globe is thus the same as that of a ray of light the earth. The extent to which this contributes to the whole
by a prism, as sHown in the accompanying figure. The speed effect is,' perhaps, greater than was formerly supposed, but
in the air is 4, but in the glass only 3, and thus there is is yet an undetermined quantity. Some mathematicians are
a bending of the wave front through the angle. 6 when the now inclined to attribute to it the major portion of the
light enters the glass, and also when it leaves the glass, as transmission by day«.
long recognized by physical investigators. »Then in the next place there is undoubtedly a con-

The explanation of the refraction of light in a prism tribution made to the effect by waves which have suffered
is directly confirmed by Foucaulf% celebrated experiment on a refraction equivalent to a reflection by ionized air at high
the relative velocity of light in air and in water, (Annales de altitudes, and a very small due to the decrease
effect in
Chim. et de Phys. Ser. 3, t. 41, 1854), which has always been refractive index of air as we ascend upwards*.
recognized as a crucial test of the wave theory of light, and These causes tend to make the ray follow round the
»

which finally led to the total rejection of the emission theory. curvature of the earth and so assist as it were diffraction.
The simplicity of the above explanation of the propa- It is to this variable ionic refraction that we must attribute

gation of wireless waves about the globe is thus remarkable. the diurnal and annual variations in signal strength, and also
But it is also confirmed experimentally by observations made the greater signalling distance by night as well as the irre-
by officers of the American Navy, upon wireless waves sent gularities attending the transition times of sunrise and sunset«.

from Mare Island to San Diego, California, and received by »Then in addition we may inquire how far any con-
submarines lying on the bed of the sea, through a depth of tribution is made by a surface wave of the type investigated
some 30 metres of sea water. In some experiments with the by Sommerfeld, which is equivalent to an electric wave pro-
receiving apparatus underground the same effect was observed. pagated through or along the earth «.
 '

S044 74

has been definitely proved that we can receive

»It When the aetheron is so small, and moving so rapidly,
signals from stations hundreds of miles away without any the generation and propagation of waves in the aether is

high receiving aerial, but merely by connecting one terminal intelligible. The refractive dispersion, by the resistance to
of the receiving circuit to earth, and the other terminal to the waves from the much larger molecules of ordinary matter,
any large well -insulated mass of metal, whether inside or is easily understood; and thus refractive dispersion implies
outside of a house does not matter*. in common matter, coarser granules than those of the mediurn
If I understand the difficulties so lucidly outlined by itself, but yet points to the moving aetherons as easily deranged
Fleming, they will be found to have proceeded from the by the resistance of the waves dispersed.
~

inadequate theory of the aether heretofore in use, the dis-

•
be shown hereafter that resistance soon changes
It will
cussion being based upon diffraction around the earth, in- the form of the wave, and causes it to break up into two
stead of upon refraction and dispersion within the denser distinct parts, the larger having increased amplitude, and
mass of the earth, and thus a bending of the wave front. shorter length, hence encountering more resistance than the
This will sufficiently justify this quotation, since it is essential original wave. It is certain therefore that we not only have
that the difficulties heretofore encountered should be autho- retardation in the propagation through the earth, but also
ritatively described. The reader can then judge aS to whether dispersion of the fragmentary waves, and absorption of some
a simpler and more practicable solution of this problem has of their .energy as heat.
been obtained.
9. Outlines of the Wave-Theory of Magnetism,
As to the feebleness of wireless transmission by day, with explanation ofthe mechanism of Attraction
I have reached the settled conviction that it results from
and Repulsion.
the magnetic wave field of the sun. When this storm of
For the sake of completeness the present investigation
waves fills our air by day, the wireless waves have great requires a brief notice ofthe cause of attraction and repulsion
difficulty in getting through, — just as any system of regular
in magnets, and in electrodynamic action, as first outlined
water waves in a lake, used for signalling across it, would
in the vol. i, Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, 1917.
be almost lost in distinctness, owing to the surface chui;ning Accordingly we begin with magnetism, which the celebrated
of the lake under the violence of a wind storm. The trans- English physicist Maxwell had been so long engaged upon,
mission is more difficult with the distance, and, after a certain
but had--failed to solve at the timeof his death 40 years ago.
distance, entirely fails. At night the sun's magnetic wave field
The accompanying figure from the work of 1917 will
is largely absent, and thus wireless transmission is much better.
illustrate to the eye, the essential character of a magnet, as
only remains to add that the celebrated argument
It conceived in the wave -theory, of physical' forcfes. A large
of Cauchy, to the effect that refractive' dispersion of light magnet A is exhibited in the same field with two smaller
necessarily implies a granular structure in the transparent magnets, B. In the first case unlike poles are presented, and
matter, is equally valid for showing that the aethereal mediurn we have mutual attraction. In the second case the poles
itself is corpuscular. In his Popular Lectures and Addresses presented are like, with the well known result of mutual
1. 190, Lord Kelvin has modified Cauchy theory of refractive
1.
repulsion. But how does this attraction and repulsion come
manner. It is believed that the
dispersiori in his usual lucid about?. What mechanism is involved, and in what medium .

considerations adduced in this paper will render the arguments does it work? Obviously the medium is the aether, because
of both Cauchy and Kelvin sornewhat more definite and an electric current produces a magnet from a piece of steel
interesting. wound in a solenoid, and because also the electrodynamic
action of a current travels with the ve-
locity of light, as was first inferred by
Maxwell, and afterwards proved by ex-
periment.
a) In the case of attraction, it will
be seen that the waves from the small
-o.--T> o '"^f^gvi'''' B have the elements ofthe aether
'/ /<> Q .
Q
'-
.,jj.

rotating in the opposite direction to the

more fully outlined waves
rotations in the
l»»TBI.i.|»». i. ijg„-., from the magnet A. The plane waves
from A are to be imagined, for the sake
of simplicity, in the central plarje, or
equator, and travelling away with the ve-
locity of light, —
for the reason just as-
signed in electrodynamic action, by which
magnets are produced.

f^^iS^Srfi^
'/ Plane W«vo Morton I(/,
As shown graphically by the curve
traced just above the heavy waves in the
figure,the amplitude of these receding
theory of magnetic attraction and repulsion. waves decreases according to the law:
 . , '

75 5044 76

A = kjr (29) mystery of gravitation, and could not make a successful

attack

and as the force due to -svave action is- siiown, in works on upon this most difficult problem.
physics, to be proportional to the square of the ampHtude, In fact no considerable progress as to the cause of
has been made by other investigators since the
we have for the force': ^72/2
f=Plr^ 1
(30)
\'
gravitation
As the subject of 'gravitation is immense,
time of Newton.
which is the form of law for gravitation, magnetism, and' all we must not enter upon it here, except to say that the evidence
similar forces of nature obeying the law of the inverse squares. is most conclusive that it is a wave-phenomenon, closely allied
to that of magrietism-, but differing from magnetism which
Now let the waves from magnet B interpenetrate the
has a parallel arrangement of the atoms and what Airy calls
waves from magnet A, It will be seen that at every point
(Treatise on Magnetism, 1870, p. 10) a duaHty of powers
-
of space the rotations of the elements of the two sets of —
two poles while gravitation is a central action only, owing
waves are exactly opposite: the result is that the rotations
to the haphazard arrangement of the planes of the atoms.
from magnet B undo as far as possible the opposite rotatit)ns
It 'is well 1822 Ampere first made
known that about
from. magnet A. Accordingly the stresses in the medium due
electro-magnets out of by means of an electric
common steel,
to rotations of the aether, in the field between A and B,
current sent through a solenoid. The way in which the wire
and also beyond A and B, are reduced the medium is thus :

IS wound about the bar' being magnetized suggests, and, in

everywhere less agitated than before, and shrinks, so as to
fact,proves that the wire bearing the current has a wave-field
collapse or contract between A and B. But a collapse of
about it. There is proof that the waves are flat in the planes
the aether is equivalent to a contraction, and thus the two
through the axis of the wire: this conception harmonizes' all.,;:
bodies attract as if held together by a stretched mass of
the known phenomena of magnetism, in relation to electro-
India rubber. This is a simple and direct explanation of
dynamic action, and also harmonizes Ampire'% theory of ele-
attraction. Nothing is postulated except waves like those
mentary electric currents about the atoms with the waVe-theory
known to exist in light and heaj, but here seen to be ex-
of magnetism above set forth.
actly parallel and somewhat differently 'directed from those
;

of light and heat, which usually have their planes tilted in

The wave-theory of magnetism explains all the phe^ •';

nomena of terrestrial magnetism, in relation to the periodic

haphazard fashion.
influences of ,the sunand moon, such as magnetic storms,
B) The cause of' repulsion is similar to that of at-
and the semi-diurnal magnetic tide
earth. currents, the auror-a,
traction, but in this case the poles presented are like; and
depending on the moon, of which ho other explanation is
if we examine above diagram, we discover that when
the
known. For the dependence of magnetic storms on sunspots
the waves from magnet B, 2°'' case, interpenetrate the waves
consult a paper by the author, in the Bulletin Society Astr.
from magnet A, the rotations at every point will be con-
de France, November, igi8.
formable and in the same direction. The medium therefore There has been such' a bewildering confusion of thought
at every point is more agitated than before. The amplitudes connected with the whole subject of physical action across ,

of the waves are thereby increased, and hence

disturbed •
space that necessary to bear ii> mind clearly the fun-
it is
there is an increase of stress; and under the elasticity of
damental principles of natural philosophy. In the well knoWn
'

the aether the result, is an expansion, of the medium, which

.

article on attraction, (Scientific Papers, vol. 2.487), Maxwell

gives a miitual repulsion of the two bodies. '

points out that in the Optical Que'ries included in the third

This is a simple explanation of repulsion, and it had edition of the Optics, 17 21, Newton shows that if the pressure
never been worked out prior to the researches published by of the aether^al medium
neighborhood of dense
is less in the
the writer in, igiy. Maxwell waS unable to conceive of any bodies than at great distances from them dense bodies will
mechanism for the explanation of attraction and repulsion be drawn towards each other, and if the diminution of
- of' magnets, though he found that mathematical stresses of pressure is inversely as the distance from the dense body,
a certain type, yielding tension along the lines of force and the law will be that of gravitation. Maxwell considers that
,

pressure at right angles thereto, thus dynamically equivalent Newton's conception rests largely on the idea of hydrostatic
to, those outlined above, would account for the phenomena pressure, as in incompressible liquids. But we have shown that
of magnetism. the' amplitude of the waves, A =:kjr, with forces f^k^lr^,
It is true that Maxwell believed that there are rotations fulfills the condition which ^Newton held to be essential.
around the Faraday lines of force, as Lord Kelvin had also
Integration of the General Differential
10.
rendered probable as early as 1856; but neither A'^&m nor
Equations of an Elastic Solid, *hich applies to the
Maxwell had seen that this would arise from the type of Aether, when this Medium is viewed as an Infinite
waves here outlined, though Faraday'^ experiment of 1845,
Aeolotropic Elastic Solid propagating Waves.;
on the rotation of the plane of a beam of polarized light,
— As is usual in the theory of an elastic solid, let m
when passed along the line of force, through a dense,
— denote a function of the bulk modulus k, and of the rigidity
medium such as lead glass, should have suggested the ' «,

'correct theory of the magnetic, waves to Kelvin and Maxwell,

«"=1^ that ni^k + ^l^n., (31)
as it did to me in ig 16. Then k =^ m — '^j^n, and this bulk modulus measures the
As Maxwell was unable to unlock the Secret of mag- elastic force called out by, or .the elastic resistance against,
netism, with both attraction and repulsion, it will not greatly change of volume. On the other hand the »compressibility« ^

surprise us to learn that he was utterly bewildered by the is measured by

i/^ = il{m-^Un) (3 =
 : . :

n 5044 78

Let «, /J, ;' be the component displacements experienced by a particle, so that when undisturbed the coordinates
are x, y, z, and when disturbed x-^a, y-^fi, z-hy. Then a strain of any magnitude is specified by six elements:

A
da 8a
Vy Oz \^-^'
dy ):dz
M 8^/9^
dy \dz
z ^

B = (|)'*(|+0'*(87)'
_da(<da
~ dz \ Ox J dz dx Oz ) dx
(33)

''da \8«
dx ^dy
) dy dy
dx dv
All particles in an unstrained state, which life on a spherical surface:
rx'== ^I'+Vi'+^i' (34)-

will, in a strained state,- lie on an ellipsoidal surface

(3S)
Accordingly, if the external forces at P (x y n) along the axes of x, y, 1 be X, y, Z, per unit of mass, and the
internal stresses be.:
dpxx dpyx dpz
dxdy dz = dF dU dT
I dx dydz
(
j
dx dy dz dx dy dz
dpxy
dx
dpyy
dy
—
dz
) d* djv d2 = (
dJ7
dx dy
dS_
dz
\ dxdy dz {^(^)

d5££ dpz. A = /dT dS_ ±r:

-
j dxdy dz '
\ dx dy dz
dx \dx
'

dy dz dy dz
Then the equilibrium of all the forces, internal and external, leads to the following equation
(dpxx dpja dpzx
= d^. dU dT =o
qX\ dxdy dz
('
\ \ H ' qX j dx dy dz
\ dx dy dz dx dy dz
^Pxy dpzj,
= (' dU d(2 dS_
=o
i
qY]\ dxdydz l
"
qY) dx dydz (37)
\ dx dy dz dx dy dz
( dpxz d^ dpzz
-
qZ
\
I d^cdjf d^ = AdT I
dS
h "
qZ ) da;djv dz ^ o-.
\dx dy dz dx dy d^
These are the general equations of equilibrium of an elastic solid, when subjected to strain by any system of
and external.
forces, internal
For an isotropic solidj the equations become much simplified. Using m k-^^J^n, as in {31), we find the well =
known formulae for an elastic solid, of density q per unit volume, (cf. Thomson and Tait, Treatise on Natural Philosophy,
edition 1883, § 6g8)
d (da
da; V8x
 :

79 5044 8o

an infinite elastic solid (cf. Cambridge and Dublin Mathe- if dXldx-^dYldy-^dZldz — 47iq'{m->t-n) =o ISoJ
matical Journal, 1848). defined by the expression:
or the density is
It may be
noted that the density of an isotropic solid,
which does not vary with the coordinates {x,y,z), is expressed Q = jlUn{m+n)]-{dXldx^dYldy^dZldz) .
(51)

by the ratio, This specifies the density throughout space of the infinite

Q = [(wH-«) vM]/(dX/da:+dy/dj'+dZ/d^)'. (43)

isotropic solid, that of the finite solid body in (41) being
unity per unit of volume.
But by Foisson's equation we have
To reach Lord Kelvins result most directly, we let R
^'^V-^^ng^o q=~V'^Vl4n (44) denote the resultant of the forces, X, Y, ,Z, at any point
or e=- -(i/47r)(92F/8a:2-H92^/9/-t-92f7822). (45) [x, y, z], at the distance r =
V[x^-^y^-\-z^) from the oriigin,
By comparing (43) and (45), we find'^that if a mass whether discontinuous and vanishing in all points outside
of density, some finite closed surface, or continuous and vanishing, at all
^ =
.
i/[47r(OT-+-« -.I-"-!-----!--—)
\ d^ djc ds /
46)
infinitely distant points with
Rr
sufficient convergency to make
converge to o as r increases to 00. Then the con-
be distributed throughout space, we may conclude that its vergency of Xr, Yr, Zr to zero, when r is infinite, clearly;
potential at [x, y, z) will be identical with the dilatation of makes F=ofor all infinitely distant points. Accordingly,-
'

the elastic solid substance if 5 be any closed surface round the origin of coordinates,

d = 9a/9;c+9/J/9j/-i-9;'/9^. (47)
everywhere infinitely distant from it, the function ((5— V] is
zero for all points of it, and satisfies the equation V" (d— V).

it the
For
first
if we
of (44),
divide (42) by [m-i-n),
we get:
and subtract from = o for all points within it. Therefore d V throughout = ,

the infinite isotropic solid.

V- 6-^[AXlAx-^dYlAy-h&ZlAz)l{m+n) -h Now let X', Y', Z' denote the values of X, Y, Z at any
— V^f^— 47T? =o (48) point [x,y, ^), and by a triple integration throughout all space,

which gives V^(d— V) = o (49) we shall have for the potential V or dilatation 6:
-+-OD -HOO -4-00

(J = i/[47i:(ot-i-«)],-J
J ^{dX'ldx^-^Ay'ldy'-^AZ'lAz')lV[[x-x'Y-^{y-y'Y-h{z-z'Y]-dx'dy'ds'. (-52)
— 00 — 00 — 00
For the element of the mass is p =i= i/[47r (ot-h«)] •
(dX/d^'-t-dy/dy-HdZ'/dz') (53)
and- the mutual distances of the elements of mass filling the element of space dx dy dz is

r^V[[x-x'Y+[y~yY+{^-z'Y]- "
•,,(54)'
These expressions may be, rendered more convenient by integrating by parts, and noticing the prescribed con-
dition of convergence, according to which when x' is infinite, '

-+-00 -4-00

J ^X'jV[[x-x'Y+[y-y'Y+{^-z'Y]-Ay'dz' =o 155)
-00 — CX3
And, therefore, for the three components of finite value, resolved along the coordinate axes, ' and integrated throughout
'

all space, we have: -t- 00 -t- 00 -1-00

'
d=ilUn[m+n)]-^ J .^ [X {x-x')+ Y' {y-y')+Z' [z-z')]l V[[x-x'YHy-y'Y'+{^- e'Y]-Ax' dy' dz' .
(56)
-co — cso ^00
We may integrate each of the equations (38) in the same way, for a, /J, y respectively. The result for these
displacements is: a ^= u-\- U • ^ = v-hV y = w-¥W (57)
where u, v, w, U, V, W denote the potentials at [x, y, z) of distributions of matter through all space of densities respectively
(m/4TTn]Sd/dx {m/47tn)dd/dy {m/4nn)dd/dz Xj^nn Yj^nn Zj^nn. (58)
In other words the functions are such that throughout all space
...; :^<: ^^u-h{m/fi) dS/dx =o '^/'U-hX/n =o V^v-h{m/n] dd/dy =o ^^V^YJn =o
\'-w^{mln) dd/dz =o V" W-hZjn = o .
(S9)

Accordingly, if X", Y", Z" denote the values oi X, Y, Z for a point [x", y", z"), we find
-hoo H-CO -hoo
a = (i/47r«)J ^ {m-dd"ldxf' + X")IV[[x-x"Y+{y-y"Y+{z-z"Y]-dx/' dy" dz"
—-CXD —J00 00
-f- 00 -h 00 -f- 00

fi = [ilAnn)l J l[fn-^d"ldy"+Y")IV[[x-x"Y + {y~y"Y + [z-z"Y]-dx"dy"dz" (60)

00 00 00
-hoo -+-00 -t-oo

r = (i/4/r«)J J ^[m-dS"ldz"+Z")IV[[x-x"Y+[y-y"Y+[z~z"Y]-dx"dy"dz"
-00 — 00 00
 : : .

8i 5044 82

By substituting for <J" its value in (56), we obtain expressions for a, /S, y depending' on the sums of a sextuple
integral and a triple integral, the integrations having to be performed from —00 to -Hoo:

I r r r x'{x"—x') ¥'{/'- -.')

A2YI,
dx' d/ dz'-hX" dx" dy" dz''
Ax 47r \m +n)J J J [{x"-xr (y -/)'-+- (2" -^')^]
47in
Iff -

V[(x-x')''+(y-y')^
X'{x"-x')-+-Y'[y"—y')-
dx' dy' dz'-t- Y"\ dx" dy" dz"
dy 4TC \m •T7jff [[x"-x'Y + [y"-y'Y + (6ry
Iff
\

47tn
V[[x-x'Y-^{y-y'Y-\-{z-z'\
•X' {x"-xf)-+- y {y"~y')-hZ'{z"- dx' dy' dz'- -Z" \dx"dy"dz".
dz (m +n)j j j [{x"-x'Y-^{y"-y'Y
47Tn
Iff \_47T

Viix-x'Y'^'.y-y'Y-^i^-^'Y]
-{z"-z'Y]'l'

Lord Kelvin shows how to simplify these sextuple integrals, and obtains the following general solution for the
displacements produced by any distribution of force through an infinite elastic solid filling all space (limits of integration
as before —00 and -t-00):
2 (2/«-l-3«) X'
2 4Tin\m- /// V[[x-c 'Y+{y-yY+[^-^r]
— m [[x- -x')'^+[y-y'Y^[si-z'Y] d X'(x-x')-hY'{y-y')-hZ'
^l dx'dy'dz'
dx [{x- -{y-y'Y ,-z'Y]''' J

= 24nn[m-\-n) -3«; r
-«
JJ J \/[{x-x'Y-h{y-y'Y-^{z-z'Y]
d_ X'[x-x'Y Y'iy- -Z'{z~z')] (6.
-m[{x-.x'Y-^{y-y'Y-^{ dx' dy' dz'
^Uy [{x~x'Y- -(y-y'YM^-^n'' i

/ =
2 (2m-\~ ^n) Z'
24nn \m- JSS V[[x-x'Y+[y-y'Y-
— m[[x — x')'^+{y—y']
-[z-z'Y]
d_ X'[x- Y'[y- )-hZ'(z-~z']
dx' dy' dz'
»'121»/.
^

dz [[x—x'Y-i-{y—y'Y'^{z'
This wjiole investigation is based upon the integration following equations are satisfied
of the general equations for an infinite isotropic elastic solid dy dz (d^j/djc) dx—XSx 6y dz
which implies' that the density throughout all space shall be dz dx (dp/dy) dy — Ydx dy dz (6S)
equal to q as defined by (46). •

of X, Y, Z as any arbitrary
dx dy {dp/dz) dz — Z dx dy dz =o ;

Lord Kelvin's definition

which give the necessary and sufficient condition for the
functions whatever of [x, y, z), either discontinuous and va-
equihbrium of any fluid mass:
nishing at points outside some closed surface, or
all

continuous and variishing at all

finite
infinitely distant points with Apjdx =X . dpjdy =Y dp/dz =Z .
(66)
sufficient convergency to make the product of their resultant From these equations we obtain immediately
Ji = V(X^-i- Y^-hZ^), by the distance dp == dp/dx-dx-^r dp/dy -dy-hdpjdz-dz
r= viix-x^Y-^iy-yy-^i^-^T] = giXdx-i-Ydy-hZdz) .
(67)
namely Kr, converge approaches infinity, implies
to zero as r This equation shows that Xdx-h Ydy-i-Zdz is the completed
that the density ma!y vary through changes in the differential differential of a function p (x,y,z) of three independent va-
elements dX/dx-hdYJdy-hdZ/dz (63) = y^W riables, or may be made so by a factor. Physically this is
as shown below. equivalent to concluding that the pressure in the fluid is along
But no other changes than those ^^JV, the Laplacian in the lines of force, and thus a series of surfaces exists which cuts
operation on the potential can occur; and even this is chiefly the lines of force at right angles. belong to If the forces

at the boundaries of solid bodies. Accordingly it becomes a conservative system, say when a
mass has gravitational

advisable to investigate these possible changes a little more attained a state of internal equilibrium, as in the theory of the
closely. figures of the heavenly bodies, no factor is required to render
the differential complete, and we may put
12. Geometrical and Physical Conditions which
the Forces generated must satisfy.
Xdx-i-Ydy-+-Zdz= -dV (68)

Suppose X, Y, Z to denote the components of the forces or by (67) d^3 = -QdV. (69)

acting on an element of the soli'd dm^

qdx dy dz, temporarily This expression shows that the pressure p is constant over
imagined to be fluid at [x, y, z), reckoned per unit of the the equipotential surfaces,
mass. Then the difference of the pressures on the two faces Q = -dp/dV (70)
dydz of the rectangular parallelopiped of the .fluid is
and the density also is a function of the potential V. This
6y dz {dpjdx) dx (64) condition arises when the density of the body is uniform,
and this fluid element will be in equilibrium when the over the equipotential surfaces, for the distribution of force
 : :

5044 84

to which the components {F, Q, R) belong — corresponding the potential V. This gives a geometrical and physical sig-
to a homogeneous elastic solid, or amass of incompressible which hitherto has been entirely
nificance to the potential, .

liquid held in a rigid vessel, with the density so distributed lacking, and long proved bewildering to the geometer and
as to 'be in equilibrium. The second equation of (67) is the natural philosopher.
satisfied by this condition, and we have, 2. If this were not true, the general equations for an
AXJAx+AYldy+dZldz = \/^W (71)
have been integrated by Lord
infinite elastic solid could not

Accordingly by (42) we have the original equation of an Kelvin as outlined above (cf. Cambridge and Dublin Mathe-
matical Journal, 1848). But as this celebrated geometer ef-
elastic solid ? + «) V-^+V^ff'= o (72)
fected such an integration for the general equations of an
^—
'

which is satisfied by the assumption d lV/{m-i-n).

infinite isotropic elastic solid, without giving a physical inter-
The Aether as an Infinite Elastic Solid. pretation to the solution found, we see that Lord Kelvin'i

Hence if this analysis anapplies to the aether, as mathematical genius builded better than he knew, and natural
infinite elastic solid,, the density of the medium must be philosophers are now enabled for the first time to interpret
arranged so as to give a potential augmenting about each physically one of the sublimest results in the whole range
mass of' matter embedded in it, as shown in my Dynamical of mathematical science.
Theory of Globular Clusters, 19 12. This latter condition of Newton surmised that if the density of the aether varied
the potential is described analytically as follows directly as the distancefrom the centre, it would press towards
Q dx dv dz f'dm , the centre so as to develop the force of gravitation. Maxwell
^///,T/[(;c-;c')^-t-(j'-j'r+(^p?] ^ j
,

T ^"^ holds that Newton conceived this action as analogous to

hydrostatic pressure, but we have shown that the reaction of
and the inference, from Dynamical Theory, that the potential
is greater towards the centres of matter, finds obvious physical
the waves with amplitudes A =
kjr produces this arrangemeiiit
of density and would generate an effect similar to mere
illustration in the accumulated arrangement of globular clusters,
hydrostatic pressure (cf Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore.,
with the starlight increasing in brightness till it attains a
I-I34, 1917)-
perfect blaze near the centre, in such splendid globular clusters
as 47 Tucani and w Centauri. Why the Forces between the Sun and Planets
This increase in potential towards the centres occupied Operate in Right Lines: Weierstrassian Theory of
by matter can only be attributed to centripetal stresses in the Resulting Least Action.
the aether: the medium is thus filled with waves receding «) Imagine, waves propagated from the sun and earth
from these masses, and the density in the agitated medium as shown in the accompanying diagram: and lePthe velocities
is inversely as the wave amplitude or directly as the radius of the mutually interpenetrating waves from the centres ^
(cf Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore. 1. 134, 157-8, 1917). and E be V^ and V^.
Since the dilatation
d = da/dx-hd/S/dj-hdy/dz (74)
is required to fulfil the equation
VHd-V) = a*) (7S)
where F is the potential, we see at once that the dilatation
throughout the aether is similar to the potential. The potential
is merely an expression for the total accumulated stress based

on average amplitude of the waves, A kjr, and the density =

a=vr, and the attractive force /= P/r^ = i^ V/dr^ —Mjr^-
This proves the Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, to
represent the true order of nature.
Accordingly, we have the following table for the dis-
placement or wave amplitude, density, potential and force:
Displacement or amplitude A k/r /--

Density of the aether a vr, = i/k :dV/dr=-M/r

Potential = V ^ Mjr
V==8=A. Fig. 4. Illustration of the interpenetration of waves between the sun and
Since the direction of the force always is central, and earth, which gives maximum tension along the line SE, where
the interpenetration is with double the velocity of
the waves react .towards the origin at the centre of gravity, light.

we conclude from this whole investigation: The problem arises as to the effect of the relative inter-
I. That the aether behaves as an infinite aeolotropic penetration of the waves, the velocities V-^ and V^ being
elastic solid, with displacements everywhere identical with equal, but the amplitude and direction of propagation different'^
the electrodynamic wave amplitude d and also identical with at every point of space. r

*) By referring to fig. I, section 2, we see the physical meaning of this equation: the aether has dilatation, ^ V, near, the sun, =
owing td the increasing amplitude of the waves. This dilatation and decreased density of the medium exists about every star and
planet.
 : .

5044 86

/S) It is obvious that between the bodies in the right ri) That the waves exist is obvious from several con-
line S£, we shall have for the relative velocity of the wave siderations :

interpenetration S}. ^: y^-^ y^ = 2 V (76)

a) Forces can only result from maximum tension in the

But on either side of the line SjE the value of Hi will be

line SE, and this implies interpenetration of waves ; for
no other cause could produce this effect, whereas waves
less than in that line, where iil becomes a maximum, double
certainly would do so.
the velocity of light. For the two radii vectores q^ and q,
b) Waves also make gravitational forces conform to other
meet at an angle /, and the relative velocity of the inter-
physical forces, according to the recognized law of con-
penetration in general will be
servation of energy,
i2>= F1+F2COS/. (77) c) When a kriown general cause exists, it must be held to
;') It is only between the bodies in the line S-E that be the true cause, in default of any other known cause.
cos/= I, and the velocity of the relative interpenetration d) The probability is infinity to one that no cause other
is a maximum. When the radii vectores meet at right angles, than a true one could fulfill all the geometrical conditions
the angle /^. 90°, and cos/= o, so that i3; = V^, only, of gravitational forces without resting on the true laws
or V2 only, as the case may exceeds qo°,
be. If the angle / of nature.
the addition in (77) becomes negative, and the value of Hi
6) As the wave-theory harmonized all gravitational
is less than V^, or V^ separately. And when cos/= 180°, phenomena under the recognized criteria of least action, and
the addition gives O- =: Vi— V^ ^^ o (78) .
without the introduction of any mystical hypothesis, it must,
d)From this reasoning it follows .that: from geometrical and physical laws, be held to represent the
i) If themedium contracts owing to the mutual interpene- true order of nature.
tration of waves, the contraction will be a maximum in In closing this first paper it remains to add that the
the right line SE where i2,- is a maximum. second paper will deal with, the Fourier solutions of the j;ele-
b) The contraction will be zero when 180°, and thus 1= brated- equation oi Poisson (Traite de Mdcanique, 2.697, 1833).
the tension in the medium is wholly between the bodies, d^ (DlAf = a- V'® O [x, y, z, t)
or on' either side of the line connecting them. It is zero
where ® is a scalar quantity, and a Ihe velocity of wave
in the line 5£ prolonged, but as the waves here superpose,,
propagation. This applies to wave motion in normal gases,
the pressure or stress will increase externally. As
the aether, and an elastic solid. the aether is a gas, but
This accords with experience in gravitational, mag-
e) under such elastic forces, that it behaves as an elastic solid
netic, and electrodynamic forces, etc. And.^as. the theoryof for quick acting forces, and is of infinite extent, while on
least action is recognized to hold generally in nature, this ,
the other hand Lord Kelvin's, integration of the general equa-
geometrical plan of the contraction of the medium, under tions of an infinite elastic solid likewise confirms this con-'
mutual wave interpenetration, must be held to conform to elusion, the deductions thus brought out will establish the
the rigorous criterion of least action or maximum wave inter-; wave-theory with the required geometrical rigor. The out-
penetration. This function attains the maximum with least standing motion of the perihelion of Mercury, and of the
action of the forces thereby developed ; and according to the lunar perigee, together with the lunar fluctuations, under the
geometrical methods of Weierstrass, this points to a rigorous Newtonian law, as generalized by Weber in 1846,; will har-
mathematical law. monize every known celestial phenomena without the intro-
f) It is not accidental that the mutual wave inter- duction of any mystical hypothesis.
penetration should be a maximum between the bodies, in the In the third and fourth papers I hope to give a sim-
\\n& SE, a minimum in the lineSE prolonged. For as the plified view of certain outstanding electrical problems and
aether is under an elastic power of 698321600000 times of Michelson and Lodger's experiments, and throw a very
greater than that of air in proportion to its density, the unexpected, but searching light on the nature of molecular
medium always contract to the maximum extent possible,
will forces. Thus the several fields covered will lead us to apply
and thus pull in the right line connecting the' two bodies SE. the wave-theory to such varied phenomena of nature, that
Hence if the postulated waves exist, the waves superposed it maynot be without interest to both the geometer and the
being accumulated with the mass, they will fully explain the natural philosopher.
stupendous gravitational forces which govern the motions of I am indebted to Mr. W. S. Trankle, for efficient aid

the planets. in completing these researches.

Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri 19^0 Jan. 14. T. y. y. ^if^.

Zusatz. Am 25. April sandte Herr Prof. See telegraphisch folgende Nachricht: »Have discovered from wave
theorynew method for determining density of aether, only advance since Lord Kelvin's method 1854. Now find density
472X10^-'^ against 438X10"^^ by Kelvin's, method. See.'-'- •
 Abdruck aus den Asir. Nachr. Nr. 5048
(Band 211. — Juni 1Q20.)

I. Gravitational Action propagated with the From the celebrated letter oi Gauss \o Weber, March 19,
Velocity of Light. 1845, [.Gauss, Werke 5-629) we learn that as early as 1835
In the first paper on the New Theory of .the Aether, Gaztss looked upon physical action across space as conveyed
AN 5044, we have showii that the existence of this medium ^in time, and was trying to formulate a law of this action,

is a necessary condition for conveying physical action from but put it aside temporarily, .and only recurred to it when
one body to another across the celestial spaces, and have Weber had formulated his fundamental electrodynamical law,
given the elements of the kinetic theory of the aether -gas published in 1846:
as the subtile vehicle of energy. Maxwell had a very clear / = [mm'lr'^) { r -(i^^) (dr/d/)- + (2;-/^2) dV/d^^} ^ (j)
conception- of this medium 47 years ago,when he pointed The first term of formula is Newton's law of gravitation,
this
out, in the closing paragraph of the celebrated Treatise on 1686, whilst the other terms take account of the effects of
Electricityand Magnetism, 1873, vol.11, p. 493, that * whenever induction in the relative motion of the two bodies m and m'.
energy is transmitted from one body to another in time there The minor terms thus give the energy effects of the velocity
must be a medium or substance in which the energy exists and acceleration or change of under wave action,
velocity,
after it leaves one body and before it reaches the other«. in the direction required by the
of the radius vector, as
No better description can be given of the aether, as present author's Electrodynamic Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore,
the vehicle than that just quoted.. And since
of energy, vol. I, 1917.
Maxivell says that the energy must exist in the medium, In the work here cited (p. 143-149) I have calculated
after it has left one bo.dy, but before it has reached the other, the eff'ects of Weber's law upon the progressive movement of
owing to the propagation in time, we see that this energy the perihelia, periplaneta, and periastra of the best known
obviously must be conveyed through the agency of waves bodies of the solar system and of the sidereal universe. The
travelling with the velocity of light, just as radiant heat from tabulated 6^ is the progression of the orbital perihelia in
the sun and electrodynamic action travel with the same ve- a Julian century, owing to the propagation of gravitation
locity, 300000 kms per second. with the velocity of light.

Progression of Perihelia in a Julian Century, Weber's Law.

Planets Satellites
Mercury i4"Sii Jupiter: V 4*233655
Venus 2.9125 I 1. 8212385
The Earth 1.2964 II 1-14345°
Mars 0.45619 III 0-715544
Jupiter 0.02 104 IV 0.40508
Saturn 0.0046 13 VI 0.068685
Uranus 0.00080395 VII 0.064658
Neptune 0.00026 I 5 VIII 0.034681
IX 0.034128
Satellites
The iSIoon (Earth) 0.00637 Saturn : Mimas 1.2403
Phobos (Mars) o,.o2 65 I Enceladus 0.966394
Deimos » 0.0 1 1098 Tethys 0.78066
Ariel (Uranus) 0.18439 Dione
Umbriel »'
0-13 23 s
Titariia » 0.080504
Oberon - » 0.060339
 : : «

139 5048 140

above effect of Weber's law removes i4"5 of the total amount^), he adds, »how absurd my doctrine would appear, I long
leaving outstanding about 2%"i instead of the 43" assumed hesitated whether I should publish my book, or whether it
in Einstein's, Theory of Relativity. The outstanding 2 8"5 can were not better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans
be explained by the transformation and absorption of wave and others, who delivered their doctrines only by tradition
energy from the atoms on the opposite side of the sun, and to friends*.
yielding a law of attraction of the very form approved by
The Effect of Resistance is to break up Long
2.
Newton in the Principia, 1687: into Shorter Ones and actually to increase the
Waves
/ == ;;i,„'/^20000001046 _ (2) Amplitude of the Principal Cotnponent, as noticed
This explanation of the motion of Mercury's perihelion in Breakers the Sea Shore.
at
is more fully discussed below. Such a result was long ago In his work on Tides and Waves, Ency-
celebrated
anticipated by Newton, and in 1894 carefully examined and clopedia Metropolitana, 1845, Sir George Airy obtained one
proposed by ffall, and subsequently used by Newcomb and^ of the most comprehensive and useful theories of wave motion
Seeliger. It therefore has the sanction of the most eminent ever developed. Airy's theory has the advantage of being
astronomers, and as it rests upon a known physical cause, it intensely practical, because it applies to wave motion in a canal,
involves no vague and chimerical reasoning such as underlies water being the chief liquid found upon the earth, and nearly
Einstein's mysticalTheory of Relativity. incompressible. The formula for the periodic time of the
Towards the end of this paper, we develop a new view
of the experiments of Michelson and Morley, 1887, and of
waves is ^, ^ (2^;^/^)
(^4"-^/^+ i)/(^4'i^A_ i) .
(3)

It may be shown analytically that when the wave length

Sir Oliver Lodge, 1891-97, which results from the kinetic
is shortened, as by resistance to the movement of the fluid,
theory of the aether, originally outlined by Newton, 1721,
approved \yY Maxwell &r\AS. Tolver Preston, 1877, and recently the exponential expression ^4'^'^' increases, and thus the

developed by the present writer, as shown in the first paper. amplitude increases^). This change has been much discussed
This new view of the chief physical experiments on which in various treatises and memoirs, and we shall not attempt

the theory of relativity so largely rests may well claim the to add to it here, except in the practical application of the

attention of natural philosophers. As bearing on the same result to physical problems.

question we treat carefully of the outstanding rnotions of the Now Airy finds (art. 201-2 10). the following theoretical
perihelion of Mercury and of the lunar perigee; and show curves for the breaking up of water waves in rivers, considered
that neither phenomena lends the slightest support to non- as straight canals, with smooth banks. After explaining his
Newtonian mechanics. analysis of these theoretical waves in water. Airy interprets
In fact, although the theory of relativity has occupied the results as follows
much space in scientific literature, and many treatises, memoirs, »(2oi). To represent to the eye the form of the wave
and other papers have appeared on the subject, it is impossible produced by the combination of the two terms, we have con-
for a careful observer to escape the conviction that the whole structed the curve in figure q. The horizontal line represents
development heretofore brought out is false and misleading, the level line of the mean height of water: the elevation
— a veritable foundation laid on quicksand — and that some or depression of the (on an enormously
curve represents
day philosophers will wonder that such an improvised ab- exaggerated scale) the elevation or depression above the mean
surdity ever became current among men. Among the most height, given by the expression above. The value of x' is
pernicious of these temporary doctrines is FitzGerald's hypo- supposed to increase from the left to the right : on which
thesis,which under the kinetic theory of the aether is wholly supposition the quantity mvt—mx', representing the phase of
untenable. the wave, diminishes from the left to the right [fnvt being
A considerable number of persons are much impressed constant).*
.with the admissibility of any doctrine which becomes current »(202.) To exhibit to the eye the law of the ascent
among contemporaries, yet. the study of the history of science and descent of the surface of the water at different points
shows that truth is neither dependent upon popularity, nor dis- of the canal, the figures 10, 11, 12, and 13 are constructed.
covered by majorities, but by the few individuals who think The first of these is intended for the point where the canal
carefully and frequently in complete isolation, and who thus communicates with the sea the others for points successively
:

attain superior vision into the deeper mysteries of nature. more and more distant from the sea. The horizontal line
In promulgating his new System of the World, 1543, is used as a measure of time, or rather of phase mvt — mx':

Copernicus describes his reasoning in daring to depart from in which, for each station, x' is constant: the elevation or
the opinion of the majority: depression of the corresponding point of the curve represents
»Though I know«, he says, »that the thoughts of a the corresponding elevation or depression of the water above
philosopher do not depend on the judgment of the many, its mean height, as given by the expression above.

his study being to seek out truth in all things as far as that »An inspection of these diagrams will suggest the,
is permitted by God to human reason: yet when I considered*. following remarks

') In the Monthly Notices for April, 1917, p. 504, Dr. Silberstein treats at some length of the Einstein calculations, based on Gerber's
formula (Zeitschr. Math. Phys. 43.93-104, 1898) in which for the Newtonian potential Mir is put Jflr{i —
i/c-drldtY, and concludes: "As far
as T can understand from fefrey's investigation, (MN 77.1 12- 11 8), it would rather alleviate the astronomer's difficulties if the sun by itself gave
only a part of these 43 seconds." Accordingly this is all the more reason for adopting Weber's law, though I reached it from a different point of view.
*) This increase of amplitude will prove of high importance in the new theory of molecular forces, to
be dealt with in a future paper.
 «

141 5048 142

Airy's graphical illustration of the breaking up of waves under resistance.

The canals considered are connected with the sea and of uniform width.
9. Theoretical form of tide-wave in a shallow river, to second approximation, mx = o, first station, the sea;
mx = ^ second station, mx ^ 8t ^ third
471 station.
-13. Theoretical curves for different stations on the
tidal river. lo = first station at mouth of river, 11 ^ second,
12 = third, 13 ^ fourth station.
14. Theoretical form of tide- wave in a shallow river to third approximation with large tide.
15. The same with small tide.

»(2 03.) When the wave leaves the open sea, its front Again, in our electric stoves and heaters, the electric
slope and its rear slope are equal in leligth, and similar in current, made up of very long waves, first develops heat, so
form. But as it advances in the canal, its front slope becomes that the resisting wire acquires a dull glow, then a red heat,
short and steep, and its rear slope becomes long and gentle. and finally becomes incandescent, with light of shorter and
In advancing still further, thisremarkable change takes place shorter wave length the longer the action continues. The
in the rear slope : it is not so steep in the middle as in the transition here sketched is therefore known to be a reality
upper and the lower parts: at length it becomes horizontal in dealing with the transformation of electric energy into
at the middle and, finally, slopes the opposite way, forming
: heat and light, under conditions observed daily 'in every part
in fact two waves (figure g).* of the world.
»(204.) At the station near the sea (see figure 10), The analogies here cited are so obvious and familiar
the time occupied by the rise of the water is equal to the to us in when waves pass into breakers
the changes noticed
time occupied by the descent: at a station more removed at the sea shore, seems impossible to deny the validity
that it
from the sea (figure 11) the rise occupies a shorter time than of the conclusion above drawn from every day experience,
the descent: the rise is steady and rapid throughout, but the and fortified by the profound researches on tides and waves
descent begins rapid, then becomes more gentle, then becomes produced by one of the greatest mathematicians and natural
rapid again: at stations still farther from the sea (figures 12 philosophers of the past age.
and 13) the descent, after having begun rapid, is absolutely
checked, or is even changed for a rise, to ^hich another
To those who hesitate at the contrast between water

rapid descent succeeds in this case there will be at that

:
and aether, we point out that it is true that water is heavy

and inert, and sluggish in its movements, whereas the aether

station two unequal tides corresponding to one tide at the
is excessively rare, with density at the earth's mean distance
mouth of the canal.
equal to 438X10"^*, and having an enormous elastic power,
This numerical and practical discussion by Airy, with
68g 321 600000 times greater than that of our air in pro-
is more
curves for illustrating the results satisfactory than
portion to its Thus the light and electric waves in
density.
any purely theoretical analysis of the effects of resistance,
the aether travel 902000 times faster than sound waves in
and thus all we need to do is to point out, that, just as
the air, and about 200000 times faster than sound in water
water waves in canals degenerate and break up into partial
at 30° C, which travels 4.54 times faster than in air, owing
waves, under the action of a variable resistance, depending
to the high incompressibility of the water.
on the depth of the water, and its distance up the river from
the sea : so also in the aether, the long waves encounter There isdiff'erence between the speed of
thus tnuch
resistance which progressively is more and more disintegrating waves and in water, even if the dense water,
in the aether

on their existence, kinetic stability, and continuity. Ac- like the rare aether, be highly incompressible. But notwith-

cordingly we may be sure that long waves in the aether standing this difference, due chiefly to the extreme rarity of
will undergo corresponding changes by disintegration into the aether, water being in comparison, with aether 2 2 8Xio-'-^

shorter waves, and that the chief component will have in- times denser, there is a substantial physical basis for com-
creased amplitude. parison of the actions in the two media.

There are various physical illustrations of this effect Our reasoning therefore is not speculative or hypothe-
which may be cited, as when the sun's radiation impinges tical, but purely practical, since it rests upon facts definitely
on the earth, and the longer invisible infra-red rays, so much determined by experience, anH verified by careful observations
studied hy Langky, pass into heat waves of shorter wave length. of recognized phenomena of the physical universe.
 : s :

143 5048 144

In order to bring out the practical bearing of the wave- 3. Explanation of the outstanding Motion of
theory upon the motion of the perihelion of Mercury, and the Perihelion of Mercury, based on the Electro-
the lunar fluctuations, discussed below, we notice that as long dynamic Wave-Th"eory of Physical Forces.
ago as 1901, Professor Planck of Berlin supposed that in all Aside from the investigation of the amount of the out-
matter there were a great number of »resonators« of every standing motion of Mercury's perihelion, by Leveiricr, 1859,
possible period (Ann. d. Physik, 4.556, 1901). Thus matter and by Newcomb, 188 1, duly noted below, we cite the following
would receive and emit vibrations of all possible periods, as researches as offering various explanations of the phenomenon :

postulated in the Electr. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore. 1.85-88, 1. Untersuchungen iiber die Bewegung des Planeten
1 9 1 7 . The lunar fluctuations occur where the sun's gravita- Merkur, and other notices of researches by Dr. Jl Bauschinger,
tional waves have to traverse the solid mass of the earth, AN 109.32.
and thus the action on the moon is decreased near the time 2. tJber die Bewegung des Merkurperihels, by P. Harzer,
of lunar eclipses; and the moon partially released from the AN 127.81, 1891. Harzer investigates the effects of unequal
sun's control, thus tends to fly the tangent. This gives rise moments of inertia of the sun about polar and equatorial axes,
to disturbances in the mean motion which Neivcomb declared and of the matter in the corona, and finds these hypotheses
to be the most enigmatical phenomenon presented by the admissible.
celestial motions. 3. A Suggestion in the Theory of Mercury, by A. Hall,
Now the lunar theorists were unable to find the perio- AJ 14.49, 1894. Hall adopts the suggestion oi Newton that
dicities required to explain the lunar fluctuations, until I the law is not exactly that of the inverse squares, and puts
discovered the obstructing cause at work, near the shadow of /=;„;,//^2.00000016^ (5)
the earth, to modify the sun's gravitative action on the moon.
4. Hypothesis, that gravitation towards the sun is not
If this explanation of the fluctuations of the moon be exactly as the inverse square of the distance, Astronomical
conceded, a similar cause will have to be admitted to act Constants, p. ii8, by S. Newcomb, 1895. Newcomb adopts
on the planet Mercury, which renders our sun gravitationally Hall's,hypothesis, with very slight modification
unsymmetrical or lopsided, as if a small part of the matter
/=,«^2'/r2<'000001574, (g)
on the opposite side of the sun were removed, or ineffective,
owing to the interposition of the sun's huge globe in the
Uber die empirischen Glieder in der Theorie der
5.

path of gravitational action. In other words, owing to re-

Bewegung der Planeten Merkur, Venus, Erde und Mars. VJS
fraction, dispersion, absorption, large masses of matter exercise
41.234-240, by H. Seeliger.
Das Zodiakallicht und die empirischen Glieder in der
a slight screening effect.
Bewegung der inneren Planeten. Sitz.-Ber. d. Kgl. Akad. d.
Wiss. zu Miinchen, 36.595-622, by H. Seeliger.
Seeliger assumes the matter of the zodiacal light to be
.

distributed in two ellipsoids, an outer one and an inner one,

which will Mercury's perihelion, as observed, without
effect
disturbing the other planets. He gets a very perfect agreement
Jl with observations, fully as good as that supplied by Einstein fi

theory, without the vagueness of relativity. Seeliger'?, chief

results are
Seeliger'

Mercury e dn = -i-8"64
sinzdft = H-o.6i
Fig. 2. Illustrating the absorption and circular refraction of some
of the waves from part of the matter in the side of. the sun
d/ = -1-0.38
opposite to Mercury, as if parts of the Sun's niass had been Seeliger'i theory applies equally well to Venus, the Earth
removed, and the globe thus rendered slightly lopsided. and Mars.
Compare also Fig. 3, in section 5 below.
6. A Memoir on the outstanding anomalies of the
Mercury therefore is less attracted than if the strict celestial motions, by Professor E. W. Brown, Amer. Journ. of
law of inverse squares established by Newton held, and thus Science, 29, in which various hypotheses, including the effects
we have the feebler law of force explained below: of the magnetic fields of the earth, sun and moon, are examined
/= ,„,„'/^2.ooooooio4.i =3 [nim'lr'') (
i/^o.ooooooioiej
(^^ and rejected. See also Report of British Association for 19 14,
whence unexplained progression of Mer-
arises the hitherto for Prof. Brown's Address to Section A, p. 31 1-32 1.
cury's perihelion, by 28''44 per century, which has proved so 7. Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, 1916, in
bewildering to geoiiieters and astronomers ever since Leverrier which this author uses the value (JcT =: -1-43", and deduces
discovered the difference in 1859. the term of Gerber'% formula:

very much simpler than any here-

This explanation is V=[Mlr)[i-xlc-ArlAt)-'- (7)
tofore offered, and
harmonizes the motion of Mercury
as it required to be added to the law of gravitation to make this
with the motion of the moon, under well established physical difference between theory and observation disappear. By using
laws, without introducing any vague and chimerical hypotheses, the value 6^ =
+43" per century, and deducing a very
it would seem difficult to deny its essential physical truth. exact agreement based on this difference, instead of the
 « : :

145 5048 146

difference 28*44, which results from Weber's, law, Einstein sect. IX, Prop. XLV, Prop. XXXI, cor. I), but considered the
adds to the improbability of his theorj'. observed approximate fixity of the planetary perihelia a strong
It has long been remarked that among the outstanding proof of the accuracy of the law of the inverse squares. His
motions of the solar system recognized by astronomers during final view evidently is expressed in the General Scholium to
the past sixty years, and of which geometers have sought a the Principia, 17 13, where he says that in receding from the
valid explanation, none is more justly celebrated than the sun gravitation » decreases accurately in the duplicate pro-
excessive/progression of the perihelion of Mercury, announced portion of the distances as far as the orb of Saturn, as
bv Leverrier to the Paris Academy of Sciences, Sept. 12, 1859, evidently appears from the quiescence of the aphelia of the
(CR 49.379)- planets; nay, and even to the remotest aphelia of the comets,
Leverrier' announcement of an outstanding motion of 38"
s, if these aphelia also are quiescent*.
per century in Mercury's perihelion seemed to find almost im- In the Mecanique Celeste, 1799, Laplace likewise con-
mediate confirmation in Dr. Lescarbaulfs supposed observation cluded that the law of gravitation holds accurately for the
of an intra-mercurial planet named Vulcan; and this anomaly satellites as well as for the planets, (Liv. II, ch. I, § 6). In
therefore was made the basis for the provisional elements Liv.XVI, chap. IV, however, Laplace investigated more fully
assigned to the new planet. the effect on certain terms of the flioon's motion of some
If on the one hand later observational researches, during assumed changes in the Newtonian law of attraction, but
many total solar ecHpses, have shown no signs of an intra- from his remarks it is evident' that he did not consider it

mercurial planet, it may be noticed, on the other, that the probable that there is a departure from the strict law of the
fullest confirmation of Leverrier's analysis of the planetary inverse squares.
motions, 1859, been obtained by later investigators,
has Thus, up to the time of Leverrier''!, researches on the
especially by Newcomb, who used all the observations of motion of Mercury, 1859, there were no well established
the transit of Mercury from 1677 to 1881, and deduced an deviations from the Newtonian law which might be made
outstanding motion in excess of that found by Leverrier, the basis of observational inquiry, so as to serve as a crucial
namely about 43" per century. (Astron. Pap. of the Amer. test of the accuracy of that law.
Ephem.,' 1.367-484, 1881.) In his paper of 1894, however. Professor Asaph Hall
Accordingly, Leverrier spoke conservatively in the sagaciously remarks
original announcement of his discovery, when he said »If the Newtonian law of attraction is not a rigorous law
»The necessity of an increase iri the secular motion of nature, or modified slightly under certain conditions,
if it is

of the perihelion of Mercury results exclusively from the probably this lack of rigor would become apparent first among
transits over the disc of the sun. The ex-
of the planet the swiftly moving bodies of our solar system, such as our
actitude of these observations is beyond doubt. moon and the planet Mercury* (AJ 14.49).
The anomalous motion of Mercury's perihelion thus Our moon indeed does not move so swiftly, but owing
established by Leverrier and Xewcomb, has been widely dis- to its great proximity to the earth and the eclipse records'

cussed in natural philosophy, and in fact combined with extending over nearly 3000 years, the motion is very ac-
the Michehon- Morley experiment of 1887, for laying the curately known, —
both by observation and by theoretical
foundation of a Theory of Relativity, on which already many research and calculation, —
so that the smallest disturbances
treatises have appeared, without, however, thus constituting may become sensible to observation (cf. Electr. Wave-Theory
a simple and consistent physical doctrine which commands of Phys. Fore, 1917), which
1. 113, doubtless is the chief
universal assent. point Prof Hall had in view.
There are, I think, grave reasons for doubting the whole That Leverrier'% researches on the motion of Mercury,
Theory of Relativity, as now developed, on grounds which will 1859, set in motion several hew lines of inquiry of great
be more fully outlined in treating of the Michehon- Morley theoretical importance is shown by two investigations de-
experiment. For the present it must suffice to allude to the veloped within the next fifteen years.
unsatisfactory theory resulting from Leverrier^ discovery of 1. The researches of Tisserand on the motion of a
an outstanding motion in Mercury's perihelion, and the growth planet under fF^^^r's electrodynamic law, communicated to
in natural philosophy of a doctrine which many regard as the ParisAcademy of Sciences, Sept. 30, 1872, by the eminent
both vague and chimerical. geometer Bertrand, who had inspired these investigations.
In 1894, Prof Asaph Hall of Washington outlined a 2. The problem proposed in 1873 by Bertrand to the
new view of the anomalous motion of Mercury's perihelion Paris Academy of Sciences, (CR 84), to find the closed curve
(at 14.49), based on the hypothesis that for some unknown described by a planet when the forces have the form of an
reason the Newtonian law of the inverse squares might not unknown function R = O {x,y) of two independent variables
be strictly correct. X and y, and the differential equations of motion are
Already 1686, while preparing the Principia, (Lib. I,
in
m-A^-xJAt' = -Ji-xjr m-A'^ylAt"^ = - R-yjr (8)
sect. IX), Newton had considered such a possible
Sir Isaac
modification of the law of attraction; and even included some
it being required to find the function R whatever be the
initial values of the coordinates x^, y^, and of the components
computations, in which he assumes that the central force
of the velocity
departs a little from the inverse square of the distances.
Newton found that the perihelia would move forward x^' =- (d^/d/)o
'

j'o' = (dj)'/d/)o .
(9)

under such a modification of the law of attraction (Lib. I, The solution of this problem showed that this function
 : « . : : :

147 5048 148

always takes the form R ^ m r", where m is the mass of or a progression of the apsis line at each revolution of 10 48 ,
the planet, and r the radius vector. which is so large a quantity as to be totally inconsistent with
It was Bertrand's theoretical improvement in the treat- observation. Without further examination of the effects of
ment of Newton's problem of a moving perihelion which led changing the exponent in Newton's law (cf. Principia, Lib. I,
to Hall's hypothesis of 1894, for explaining the excess in Prop. XLV), we recognize that the change in the exponent
the motion of the periheHon of Mercury. Since Hall's hypo- must be extremely small. This case has been considered by
thesis has been further developed by the writer's recent Prof. Asaph Hall, who has applied the hypothesis to the
researches in the Electr. Wave -Theory of Phys. Fore, it is motions of the planets and of our moon.
(2) Hall's hypothesis of 1894, that the law of
necessary to treat bf these successive steps for attaining an attrac-

Electrodynamic Theory of the motion of Mercury's perihelion. tion may he f =^ mm'lr'^'^'' where j' 0.00000016. In
, ^
Bertrand' s so\n\.\on oi Newton's "pxdhltm of finding
(i). A.J. No. 319, June 3, 1894, Prof. Asaph Hall remarks that
the central force for a moving perihelion. As propoS)ed to on applying Bertrand's formula to the case of Mercury —
the Academy of Sciences, in 1873, Bertrand's prdble.xn reads with Newcomb's value of the outstanding motion of the peri-
(CR 77) heHon, or 43" per century — he finds that the perihelion
»We
consider a planet attracted by the sun under a would move as the observations indicate by taking
force of which the intensity depends only on the distance. «= — 2.00000016 (16)
We suppose known this one fact: that the planet describes the difference of the expo"hent from the law of Newton being
a closed curve, whatever be the magnitude and direction of
its velocity. We "have to find the law of attraction from this
V = 0.00000016. '

The change in the law of attraction required for pro-

single datum.
ducing this progression of the line of apsides is therefore
Bertrand remarks that as the force is central, the motion very minute. we
use Weber's law, as in the author's Elect.
If
takes place in a plane through the centre of the sun, and
Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, and Newcomb's value of the out-
Kepler's law of equal areas in equal times holds true. If
standing motion of Mercury's perihelion (Astr. Pap. of the
the force have the form ^
^^ ffir" (10) Amer. Ephem. 1. 473); namely, dc7 =
42^95, we shall obtain
it is found that there result just two formulae an outstanding motion of 2 8''44 per century, which is to be
i?2 =^ '"/''^ accounted for by modification of the exponent in the law
(11)
of attraction.
Rx= mr (12)
Law of attraction indicated by the outstanding
(3)
And these are the only two laws of attraction which permit
motion of Mercury's perihelion. As the motion of Mercury's
a planet to describe a closed curve, whatever be the initial
perihelion offers the principal difficulty in modern celestial
data (the velocity being nevertheless below a certain limit).
mechanics, we take the law of attraction to have the form
And if we suppose the attraction zero at an infinite distance,
there remains only one formula (11), or the law oi Newton, f=mm'lr^+' [fJe^loo = +28^44 (i?)

which could thus be deduced from the sole fact of obser- and determine v by the condition that the outstanding cen-
vation that any planet whatever describes a closed curve,
:
tennial motion of the perihelion shall be -H 28^44.
without our being able to know the nature of this curve If the perihelion shifts 28"44 in 100 years, it will shift

(cf. Tisserand's Mecanique Celeste, 1. 48, 1889). 0^2844 in one year; and as there are 4.1521 revolutions
Resuming Newtoris problem of a moving perihelion, of this planet in a year, the shift will be o;'o684956 in a
Bertrand derives a perfectly general formula 'for the arc © single revolution, and therefore, ©"0342 47 8 in a half re-
swept over by the planetary radius vector between the mini- volution of Mercury.
mum value ifx) and the maximum value (^2) By
Bertrand's formula (13) above, we notice that when
0= [7r/l/(«-H3)]x the orbit considerably eccentric, as in the case of the planet
is

Mercury, the term depending on [{r2---ri)j[r2-^r-i)Y == e'^

[l+V24(«-l)(«+2)[('-2-n)/(^2+'-l) (13)
becomes sensible. In fact in this formula depends on the
He remarks that when r^ — r^ tends towards zero, we
products of two series as follows
Theorem of Newton, 1686:
have in the limit the

Lim© = 7r/"l/(«-i-3) (14)

= n/V{n-i-^)x
{i+V24(«-i)(« + 2)[(r2-ri)/(r2+ri)]2H
which applies to an orbit almost circular described by a = Tt/V(i-v)-{i-h^/2i(3-^v)ve^-\ }
}

planet under the influence of a central force proportional to =^ n{i+y,p+%v'+- }{i-^y^ve^+^/,,v'e'} (18)
a power of the distance.
If for the motion of a planet around the sun, we take
with Newton, n= —
2, R =
mjr^, the relation (14) gives
= 7r{ 1+^(1/2 + V8^^)- (19)

Q =n, which is rigorous. Thus it only remains to find

Accordingly, our equation of condition is:

what will happen when we modify slightly the exponent 2 — [l+»^(V2 +V8^^)+---}
in the Newtonian law of gravitation. = 180° o' 0^0342478 =^ 648000^0342478. (20)
If, for example, we supposed n =
— 2.001, it follows As the coefficient of the term involving p in the case
that we should have: of Mercury becomes (V2 + V8f^) =0.5052839, we find from
lim ^
jtj V[i —0.00 1 ) =n (i-f- Y2°-°°i -<-•••) (20) by calculation that
= 180" s'
24" USJ v = 0.0000001045977 (21)
 : :,

149 5048 ISO

And the modified Newtonian law becomes:

(1/297 — 0.00 34): (1/296. 3 -0.001734) (25)
/=
1 7
,;2;«'/^2.0000001046_ ,
J^^) and become: {da/dt)i =: -i-6:'38 .
(26)
Applying law of attraction (22) to the eight prin-
this From these data it follows that the annual motion of
cipal planets of the solar system we have the following table the lunar perigee for an oblateness of would be
i :.2g8.3
of centennial progressions for their perihelia: (8cT/8/), = -t-6:'32. (27)
The above values by Brown, as thus reduced to an
Mercury 28*44 Jupiter 0^577448 oblatenessof i 298.3, are confirmed by the part of the
:

Venus 11. 1341 Saturn 0.2325307 motion of the lunar perigee depending on the ellipticity of
The Earth 6.8496 Uranus 0.0815288 the earth's figure calculated by Dr. Hill, in his supplement
Mars 3-6418 Neptune 0.0415681 io Delaunay's Theory of the Moon's Motion, Astron. Pap. 3.334,
The progression of the perihelia here calculated from namely: (8oj/9/), = -h6:'82 .
(28)
the modified Newtonian law are not contradicted by any
This however, refers to Hill's oblateness of
value,
known phenomena. The exact position of the periheHon of
I 287.71, and must be reduced to correspond to the ob-
:

Venus is not well defined by observations, owing to the lateness of I 298.3; which leads to a result differing only
:

great circularity of the orbit; and some slight uncertainty

o'oi from that found by Brown and cited above. Hill's
also attaches to the position of the perihelia of the earth
value for this reduced elHpticity of the earth therefore is
and of Mars.
It willbe seen that the change made in the Newtonian
(8c7/8/), = +6:'33. (29)
Hence we conclude that this value of the annual per-
law is exceedingly minute. For the change in the exponent
turbation of the lunar perigee depending on the eUipticity
the ratio is
of the figure of the earth is very accurately known. The
^Uv -= 1046/20000000060= 1/19120459 (23) difference in these two authorities would be only 0^0124
a little less than one nineteen-millionth of the whole. Such per annum, or i"24 in a century, which is below the limit
an infinitesimal alteration in the resulting attractive force of determination in the present state of science.
would give no sensible effect in a single revolution, but as Prof. E.W.Brown also gives data to show (MN 75.514),
the change 6^ accumulates with the.lapse of time, it finally that when the theoretical secular acceleration of the perigee
becomes very sensible, and we are obliged to take account is determined with the highest accuracy, it is 16" per century
of the secular progression of the perihelion. smaller than the observed centennial motion of the perigee.
This cumulative effect is very similar to the alteration This is for an ellipticity of the earth of i 297. By changing :

in the moon's mean longitude which results from the secular the ellipticity to i 294 Broivn reduces this value from 16"
:

acceleration of the moon's mean motion, first explained by to 3'; and by taking an ellipticity of i 293.7, the outstanding :

Laplace in 1787, under forces which are insensible for short difference entirely vanishes.
intervals, but by continuing for long ages in the same direc- Such a large value of the oblateness, however, seems
tion, finally become sensible and have to be calculated in to be quite inadmissible; and thus on calculating the excess
the formation of tables of the moon designed for use over in the actual motion of the perigee over the theoretical motion,
many centuries. for an oblateness of 1:298.3, I'find it to be 2if9, or say
22" per century. If we admit this ellipticity of the earth ^),
4. The Modification of the Newtonian Law
indicated by the outstanding Difference between
— which is decisively indicated by the four best methods —
namely
the observed and Calculated Motions of the Lunar
i) Pendulum observations of gravity, as discussed by Helmert
Perigee.
and the U. S. Coast Survey,
Just as the motion of Mercury's perihelion is the chief
2) Geodetic measurements of arcs on the earth's surface,
means throwing light on the form of the law of attraction
for.
3) The lunar inequality in latitude,
for the planets of the solar system, so also the motion of
4) The fluid-theory of the earth, isostasy and Laplace & law
the lunar perigee affords the best criterion for the form of
of density;
the law of attraction operating on the motion of the satellites.
then it will follow incontestibly that the moon has an
As the subject has been but little discussed heretofore, we
outstanding motion of its perigee of about 22" per century,
shall briefly outline the results of astronomical research on
almost exactly one half the outstanding motion observed
this interesting problem.
in the perihelion of Mercury.
In the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical To form a better idea ofthe accuracy heretofore attained
Society 74-396, 19 14, Prof. E. W. Brown gives the anriual in these calculations, of the centennial motions of the lunar
motion of the lunar perigee depending on the ellipticity of perigee, we recall the results of Hansen and Brown:
the earth as follows: O—C
Observed Calculated
Authority Diff.
{diH/dt)^ ^ -l-6;'4i, for an oblateness of 1:296.3. (24) [dn7/d4o= 14643560" 14643404" +I56'^T81'4!';.'"34T''
He adds that for an oblateness of 1:297, the value would
be reduced by the factor
[dsT/d4o= 14643520" 14643504" + ,e"^'-'"""'^^fl^^'

, ') In the writer's "Determination of the oblateness of the terrestrial spheroid", begun in 1904, but not yet published, this question
las been carefully examined, and the value I 298.3 shown to be the most probable of the various values heretofore proposed.
:
 151 5048 152

As above pointed out, the difiference of 16° per century be assigned to these extreme- values, we can only take the
here indicated by J^rown's calculation of the theoretical motion simple mean of the two outstanding motions of the perigee,
of the perigee becomes 22" when the elKpticity of the earth and thus we have: [(807/8/)^]^^ +89". (30) =
is reduced to i 298.3. :
It is to our researches on
be observed also that in
It is also to be noticed that the observed centennial we found
of Mercury's perihelion,
the outstanding motions
motion of the lunar perigee used by Hansen is 40" larger
the exponent of Newton's law should be modified from 2 to
than that used by Brown. It would seem that very little
doubt could attach to the increased accuracy of Brown's
2-i->', where x' = 0.0000001046.
calculate the resulting outstanding motion for the
To
observed motion, though owing to the fluctuations in the
lunar perigee we notice, in the' first place, that the effect of
mean longitude the value 14643520" for the observed cen-
the time of propagation of gravitation by Weber's law, as
tennial motion of the perigee may yet admit of some im-
shown in the table of section I above, is almost insensible,
provement, if any of the observational equations should prove
to be vitiated by troublesome cause.
this
(3c7 = 0*00637
per century. Thus we need consider only
the effect of the exponential change for a body having a
Indeed, it little difficult to understand why feo
is a
mean motion 3.219763 times greater than that of Mercury.
considerable a difference as 40" per century should exist in
the observed centennial motion of the perigee used by two
And since the unexplained motion of Mercury's perihelion
is 2 8"44, we get for the corresponding motion of the lunar
such very modern authorities as Hansen and Broivn. For
perigee
the position of the perigee is given with considerable accuracy
from the eclipse records of the Greeks, and the calculations [(8WH}oo=+28:'44X3.2i9763 = +9i-S7. (0--C) (31)
of Hipparchis and Ptolemy; and as about 226 revolutions This calculated value is so very near the mean of the
of the perigee would occur in 2000 years, the motion of values found by Hansen and Broiun as to appear worthy of
the perigee ought to be quite accurately fixed by the eclipse attention. If for example, Hansen's value O C -+-156"' — =
records of the Greek astronomers. The above difference of were 65" too large, leaving — -+-91", while Brown's 0=
40" per century, increasing as the square of the time, in were as much too small, yielding O — 2 2"-t-65"== -f-87", 0=
20 centuries would accumulate to 16000", nearly four and the two values would be quite reconciled. And since Hansen
a half degrees, or about nine times the diameter of the moon. and Brown disagree as to the value of the observed centennial
The difference of 100'' between the above calculated motion of the perigee to the astonishing extent of 40", the
centennial motions of the perigee is less striking than it possibility of such unknown errors in their several results is

otherwise would appear, but such differences warn us not not to be wholly excluded.
to overrate the accuracy attained. Accordingly, for some hitherto unsuspected reason,
It seems remarkable that the eclipse records of the Hansen's value of the observed centennial motion of the
Greeks would leave the position of the perigee open to so perigee may be substantially correct, namely:
much uncertainty. Besides, in the modern observations of the [(8n7/8/),]oo = -+-14643560". (32)
moon since 1750,- which are quite accurate,an uncertainty
In this case, would suffice to assume an error of 18"
it
of even 20" per century, or an accumulated difference of
per century in Brown's calculated motion of the perigee.
5 7"8, in the interval of 170 years, ought not to exist. Still
Unfortunately Prof. Brown even proposed to adopt an
more intolerable is the difference of iisl'6, based on the
oblateness of the earth of i 293.7, as if to avoid a modi-
difference of 40" per century! But Hansen was unaware of
:

fication of the form of the Newtonian law ^) and hence it

the fluctuations in the moon's mean longitude; and as the
;

seems not wholly improbable that an error of 18" per century

fluctuations affect the node as well as the longitude, it may
in the calculated centennial motion of the perigee may have
also have vitiated sensibly his calculation of the observed
been introduced, through some step based upon the tacit
centennial motion of the perigee.
assumption of the strict rigor of the Newtonian law.
It is worthy of notice that Hansen's outstanding diffe-

rence between the observed and calculated centennial motion Under the circumstances, since Hansen's value of the
of the lunar perigee is O — C =
-(-156"; while Brown's values outstanding residual in the centennial motion of the perigee
make this difference O—C = +22". The mean of these apparently was obtained without prejudice, it should not be
two values is O — C = +89". rejected, till Brown's values are independently tested and

Now, in default of definite knowledge it is not quite found to be not only the more accurate, but also wholly
safe to assume that Hansen's values are wholly wrong, and free from possible prejudice due to assumed rigor in the
Brown's entirely right, notwithstanding the preeminence of Newtonian law, or other systematic cause which might thus

the latter's exhaustive researches in the lunar theory. Both unexpectedly creep in.
investigators may be somewhat in error, for one reason or Under the present circumstances, it follows that if the
another, or for several reasons combined. Thus, apparently the outstanding residual in the centennial motion of the perigee
safest thing is to assume that the truth lies between -Hi 5 6", be [(5cj/8^)j]p(, =
-)-pi»j7 the exponent of the law of attrac-
as found by Hansen, and -1-22", which results from Brown's tion for the moon would be the same as that for the planet
calculations. And as we do not know what weights should Mercury, namely: ^^ jj^jj^'l^i.wowQ\^\& \
f (

')In his address to the British Association in Australia, 1914 p. 316, Brown estimates that the exponent in the Newtonian law does
not differ from 2 by a fraction greater than i 400000000: =
0.0000000025 but the present discussion shows that this prediction probably
;

overrates the accuracy we are justified in claiming, from 10 to 42 times.

 :

153 5048 154

In conclusion,
would appear from this investigation
it to see how new periodicities can be produced; the periods
that the change
exponent for the law of attraction may
in the should be combinations of those already present in the moon's
be the same for the moon and for Mercury. But if future motion. The sixty to seventy years fluctuation stands out in
researches should develop a smaller difference in the observed this respect, because its period is not anywhere near any
and calculated centennial motions of the lunar perigee, such period present in the moon's motion or any probable com-
as 2 2" per century, which seems to be the minimnm value bination of the moon's periods. Indeed Dr. Bottlinger'' curve 1,

now admissible; then there would be a smaller value of v shows this: there is no trace of the fluctuation*.
in the exponent of the modified law of Newton. The value From this citation it is evident that Bottlinger not only
22' per century leads to a value about one-fourth of that had not convinced Brown of the reality of the fluctuations
found for the planet Mercury, as may be seen from the depending on the interposition of our globe in the path of
following considerations. the sun's gravitative action, but also that Brown felt that
The moon makes 1336. 85126 revolutions in a century, an explanation of the 60-year and 275-year periods in the
and therefore: i I'/iSSS.Ss 126 = o!'oo82283 ig the amount observed fluctuation could not be based on the theory of
of this secular progression of the perigee in half a lunation. gravitational disturbances depending on the known cycles of
The equation of condition; tlie moon's motion, in relation to the eclipse periodicities.

B "= n{\ -i-Ya'^"^ • • • } ^ JT {1-1-0.0082283/648000} (34) Notwithstanding this confidence of Professor Brown,
therefore gives v == 0.000000025396. resulting from his great experience in the lunar theory,
I was

But although there can be no assurance that this modi- fortunate enough to discover such long period inequalities
fication of the exponent for the earth would be the same as for in the moon's motion, bearing the closest analogy to. the

the sun — the earth being so different in density, size, and forces acting in the great inequality of Jupiter and Saturn,

physical constitution from the sun — yet at present apparently of which the physical cause was discovered by Laplace in
we are not justified in using this smaller value, because in 1785, — after Euler and Lagrange had searched in vain for
the existing state of our knowledge there are no definite the mystery underlying the celebrated 900-year inequality
grounds to authorize it. of these great planets.
Without attempting account of these
to give a detailed
Accordingly for the sake of simplicity and uniformity
researches in the lunar theory, we
endeavor to outline
shall
the value of v applied to the motion of the perihelion of
briefly the leading points, because this advance of 1917 bears
Mercury is preferable also for the motion of the lunar perigee.
very directly, on the wave-theory, above applied to the motion
Outline of the Cause of the Fluctuations of
5. of the perihelion of Mercury and of the lunar perigee.
the Moon's Mean Motion. It is shown from an extension of Maxwell's, theory of
In the Electrodynamic Wave-Theory of Physical Forces, circular refraction in the eye of a fish (Cambridge and Dublin
vol. 19 1 7, it is shown that the previously unexplained fluc-
I., Math. Journal, vol. XI), that a similar circular refraction of
tuations of the moon's mean motion, discovered by Ne.tOcomb gravitational waves occurs when the path of these waves is
in 1909, after a study of the moon's motion extending over through the solid mass of the earth. For in the earth, as
more than forty years, (1867— 1909), is due to the refraction, in the eye of the fish, the concentric shells are each of
dispersion, and perhaps absorption of the sun's gravitational uniform density, but with the density increasing from layer
waves through the solid globe of the earth. The
in passing to layer towards the centre. Thus a circular refraction of
result is a slight decrease in the sun's gravitative action upon the sun's gravitational waves will occur in propagation through
the moon when near the shadow of our globe in space, by the globe of the earth, and also of the moon's gravitational
which, near the time of Lunar eclipses, the moon is slightly waves in passing through the same globe, owing to the con-
released from the sun's control, and in the tendency to »fiy centric layers of which it is made up. The accompanying
the tangent*, has certain long period disturbances introduced figure 3 (pag. 156) illustrates the refraction of the sun's waves
into its mean motion. in passing through the earth.
An
attempt to find such disturbances in the motion By virtue of this circular refraction of the gravitational
of the, moon depending on
the 18 -year period, had been waves in passing through the globe of the earth, it, follows
made by Dr. K. F. Bottlinger, in a crowned prize Inaugural that^ the mutual interpenetration of the waves from the sun
Dissertation, at the University of Munich, Die Gravitations^ and moon are not the same when the earth interposes its
theorie und die Bewegung des Mondes, (Freiburg i.B., 1912). solid mass in their path of action.
Bottlinger .deduced some evidence of an 18-year period, but The result is a weakening of the sun's gravitative action
in the case of the longer disturbances (61.7006 years, and on the moon; and, when our satellite is thus partially released
2 77-59 years respectively) he was not able to find the slightest from the sun's control, it tends to »fly the tangent«, as near
indications of the required periods; so that in his address on The outcome is a series of dis-
the time of lunar eclipses.
the moon's motion at the meeting of the British Association turbances in themoon's mean longitude depending on the
in Australia, 1914, p.319, Prof. .£. ^. j9r(7z^« spoke as follows motions of the perigee and node of the lunar orbit, with
»The shading of gravitation by interposing matter, e. g. respect to the Saros or eclipse cycle.
at thetime of eclipses, has been examined by Bottlinger. For The principal eclipse cycles, incessantly repeated in

one reason alone, I believe this is very doubtful. It is difficult the theory of the moon's motion, are the following^):

') Cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, l.ibi-102.

 155 5048 156

1. The Saros, made up of 223 synodic months

= 6585.32 days, discovered by the Chaldeans and used
at Babylon for predicting the return of eclipses, in con-
junction with the eclipse year of 346.62 days.
2. The
eclipse year of 346.62 days, the average
time sun in passing around the heavens from
of the
the moon's node and returning to the same node again
as it retrogrades under the sun's disturbing action in
18.6 years. Nineteen of these eclipse years make
6585.78 days, almost exactly equal to the cycle of the
Saros given above, which is 6585.32 days.
The difference in these two periods is only 0.46
of a day, and therefore after 18 Julian years 10.82 days
(o'?46 less than ig eclipse years) the Saros of eclipses
is very nearly repeated, except that the location on the

terrestrial globe is o"?32 =^ 7''4o"48^ further west in

longitude.

3. The nodical or draconitic month made up

of 2jl2i2-22: and thus 242 X27'?2i222 = 6585'?357.
"Tliis again is of almost the same length as the 223
synodic months and ig eclipse years defined in para-
Fig. 3 Refraction of the sun's gravitational waves in passing through .

graphs I and 2 above.

the earth's 'mass, by which the moon is slightly released from
4. The anomalistic month made up of 2 7'?5 546o; the sun's control near the time of lunar eclipses.
and thus 23qX27'?5546o =
6585'?549. Accordingly, after 223
months the moon not only returns very closely to its original
position in respect to the sun and node, but also in respect
to the line of apsides of the moon's orbit; so that the pertur-
bations near perigee, during the interval of the difference in
these two cycles, 6585'?549 — 6585432 = 0422Q = 5''2g"?8
are so small as to modify but very slightly the return of the
cycle of eclipses composing the Saros.
Accordingly, these four fundamental lunar cycles recur
in the following periods:
1. The Saros ===223 synodic months ^ 6585'?3 2

2. 19 eclipse years of 3 2 6'?62 each = 6585.78

3. 242 nodical or draconitic months of
27'?2i222 each = 6585.357
4. 239 anomalistic months of 27^55460 each = 6585.549
Now the Saros = 6585'?32 :^ 18 Julian years 10.82
days, or 18.0293 sidereal years of 365'?2563582 {ifansen). -7 — <^o

Fig. 4. Illustration of the progress of the moon's perigee

And according to JVezson the period of the circulation of the
in respect to the node, in the 61.7-year fluctuation.
lunar perigee is 8.855 years. In the 10''' edition of his (3ut-
lines of Astronomy, 1869, p. 472, S\t ^oM Ifersc/ie/ uses the (i) Determination of the period of the 60 -year ^Vlc-
=
,

period 3232^575343 8.85031 Juhan years,. which is only tuation.

slightly -different from the value cited above. It is very easily shown that owing to the relative
Accordingly, the forward motion of the perigee will magnitudes of these direct and retrograde revolutions the
carry it twice around the heavens in 17.71 years, while the angular conjunctions will tend to recur in the regions of 360°,
node revolves in the retrograde direction in 18.6 years. Thus 240°, 120°, like the actual conjunctions of the planets Jupiter
if we call Q, the yearly motion of the node, and the cor- ^ and Saturn in the theory of the celebrated 900-year ine-
responding motion of the perigee, we have quality which was first theoretically explained by Laplace in
j; = -i9?35484 = 360718.6 , the year 1785. Here, too, as in the theory of Jupiter and
ta= -H4o?655o = 36078.855. l3SJ
Saturn, the conjunction lines move forward. The amount of
From the above data, it follows that thenode will retro- the displacement 36?! 83 in 18.6 years; and in 3.31648
is
grade through 360° in 18.6 years, but in the same time the
=
such periods, 3.3 1648 X r8. 6 years =
61.7006 years, the
lunar perigee will progress through an angle of 7 56? 183 angular conjunction which started out at the angle 360° will
7 2o''-i-36?i83; so that after an interval of 18.6 years the revolve forward through 120°, and the cycle of angular con-
perigee is displaced forward by 36? 183 in respect to the junctions atall three points will begin over again, exactly
restored node. as in the great inequality of Jupiter and Saturn. This leads
 157 5048 58
at once to the second long inequality in tHe moon's mean the perigee goes through symmetrical phases in respect to
motion, which, without suspecting the cause, Newcomb esti- the earth's orbit in 18 years, asshown by the above diagram.
mated at » 60 years,, more or less«. His judgment of the
period was surprisingly accurate; and as he concluded that
the coefficient might be about 3^0, here again his value
could be adopted.
(2) Determination of the period of the great fluctuation
in 277.590 years.
In the case of the great fluctuation in the moon's mean
motion, of which Newcotnb estimated the period at about
275 years, the calculation of the period is somewhat similar
to that just cited, but also somewhat different. It is physi-
cally obvious that the modification of the sun's gravitation
in passing through the body of the earth will depend on
the relative shifting of the line of angular conjunctions
node-perigee.
Now itfound by calculation that the angles
is easily
of the node-perigee in angular conjunction, on a line
are
ii?67o in advance of the original conjunction, after an
interval of 17.9971 years. For in this time the perigee pro-
gresses over an- arc of 47r-l- 1 i?67o, and the nqde retro-
grades over an arc of 2 71— i i?67o, and meet exactly at the
conjunction line specified.
The problem thus arises to find the Interval in which
this seculardisplacement of the angular conjunction line will
complete the cycle in the moon's motion due to the reduction
of gravitation near the shadow of the earth. In each period
Fig. Illustration of the progress of both node and perigee for
of 17.9971 years, the node retrogrades through the angle in 5.
producing the moon's great fluctuation in 277. 59. years.
in respect to the shifting mean position of the perigee, and'
in the same interval the perigee progresses through the double This diagram also illustrates the secular progress of
of this angle, 45T, in respect to the retrograding mean node; the line node-perigee, the restoration to parallelism in this
so that on the average their opposite motions amount to iin conjunction advancing by ii?67o every 17.9971 years,
line,
in IT .qg-j i years. and requiring 277.590 years for completing the full cycle
As the physical effect of the reduction of gravity near of a semi-circumference.
the shadow of the earth is the same whether the shifting We mayexpress this result also by observing that
conjunction line node-perigee refer to ascending or descending physically decrease of gravitation near the shadow of
the
node, we perceive that this advancing conjunction line need the earth will take place with equal effect whether the eclipse
only sweep over the angle tt to give the required interval be near the ascending or the descending node; and this
for completing the cycle due to the changes of gravitation decrease will always correspondingly affect the moon's mean
near the shadow of the earth. longitude. Therefore, the 18-year movement of node-perigee
Now i8o°/ii?67o =
15.422, and _ therefore in an conjunction line over the arcs i, 2, 3 •«, where n
• • 15.422' =
interval 15.422 X 17.997 1 years
of =
277.590 years, the at 180°, will comprise all possible combinations of the con-
cycle of- the changes of gravitation near the shadow of the junction line node-perigee for modification of the sun's gravity
earth will be complete. on the moon when near the shadow of the earth.
This is the period of the great fluctuation in the moon's (3) Determination of the 18-year period of the Saros
mean longitude which Newcomb estimated at 275 years, from cycle.
the modern observations, and used in calculating the secular cycle is so well known that we need scarcely
The Saros
acceleration from the eclipse records extending over 2 600 years add that a minor disturbance in the moon's mean longitude
since the era of the Babylonians. will recur in this period of 6585.32 days =
18.0293 years.
The diagram in Fig. 5 presents to the eye a continuous In this period the symmetrical eclipse cycle of 223 lunations
representation of the changes in node (outside circle) and is complete and the eclipses begin to repeat themselves, with

perigee (inside circle) during 18 years. At the end of 18 years the moon very near the same relative position with respect
they both are in conjunction at i, near the original line of to the sun and node, and also with respect to the line of
conjunction, 360°, but ii?67o further forward. In each of apsides or perigee. This Saros cycle of the Chaldeans gives
these periods of 18 years the nodes turn to every part of rise to a minor disturbance in the moon's mean longitude,

the heavens, so that eclipses occur all around the earth's with period of 18.0293 years, and a coefficient of about I'o.
orbit, with the earth and moon at all possible distances from It is the smallest of the moon's sensible fluctuations, yet

the sun. In this interval the lunar perigee revolves twice, indicated by the researches of Newcomb and Bottlinger, and
and the node once; so that the effectof the progression of illustrated graphically by the accompanying Fig. 6 (p. 159).
159 5048 i6o
 i6i 5048 162

in addition to the mystical one offered by Einstein, which Maxwell then proceeds to remark (§ 105) that if the
isdevoid of physical basis ^and finally the natural and simple action of E^ on E^ is effected, not by direct action at a
explanation based on the wave -theory, and outlined above distance, but by means of a distribution of stress in a medium
in section 3. extending continuously from E^, to E^, it is manifest that if
On the other hand, the lunar fluctuations, which are we knew the stress at every point of any closed surface s
vastly more complicated than the motion of Mercury's peri- which completely separates E^ from E^, we shall be able to
helion, admit of but -a single known explanation, namely, determine completely the mechanical action of E^, on E-^^.
that discovered by the present writer in 19 16. It is therefore Accordingly, he concludes that if it is possible to account
with some reason that the, most experienced physical mathe- for the action of E^, on E^ by means of a distribution of
matician at Cambridge wrote me, Jan. 28, 1917: stress in the intervening medium, it must be possible to
»1 wish the perihelion of Mercury could be resolved express this action in the form of surface integrals extending
similarly (to the new work on the lunar fluctuations). Other- over the surface s, which completely separates one system
wise we have an unlimited number of ingenious kinds of from the other.
relativity on our hands; which will be remarkable for self- Maxwell then develops the solution at some length,
contradiction of the principle that everything is relative*. and obtaining the required mathematical expressions,
after
It is just such confusioti as this that I have labored (§§ 105-110), remarks (§ in): »I have not been able to
to get rid of, and now my theory of the motion of Mercury's make the next step, namely to account by mechanical con-
perihelion is found to conform to the wave-theory, and to siderations for .these stresses in the dielectric. I therefore
correspond to the ideas of Newton, 1686, that the law of leave the theory at this point.*
gravitation in certain cases differs a little from the exact law Itcan be shown that the action of waves, flat in planes
of the inverse squares — the difference being explained by normal Hnes of force will explain the mechanical dif-
to the
the wave-theory, and the nature of the aether. ficulties here noted by Maxwell. For in his work on Matter,
Aether and Motion, Boston, 1894, Prof. A. E. Dolbear describes
6. Gravitational Action is propagated by an experiment of the following kind :

Stresses due to Waves in the Aether, but MaxweU's

»If a dozen disks five or six inches in diameter are
conception that the Stress is based on Pressure in
set loosely an inch apart upon a spindle a foot long, so that
the Direction of the Line of Force and on an equal
they may be rotated fast, yet left free to move longitudinally
Tension in all directions at tight angles thereto
upon the crowd up close together, as
spindle, they will all
is not admissible.
the pressure is less between them than outside. If one can
From the electrod. wave-theory of gravitation, outlined imagine the spindle to be flexible and the ends brought
in the writer's work of 1Q17, it follows that gravitation is opposite each other while rotating, it will be seen that the
propagated by stresses in the aether due to the interpene- ends would exhibit an apparent attraction for each other,
tration of waves, and the action across space therefore travels and if free to approach, would close up, thus making a
with the velocity of light. This mode of action is already vortex ring with the sections of disks. If the axis of the
outlined also in the first paper on the new theory of the disks were shrinkable, the whole thing would contract to a
aether, AN 5044. Forty-seven years ago in the celebrated minimum would be determined by the rapidity of
size that '

Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 1873, '^ol. i. Chap. V, the rotary movement, in which case not only would it be
§§ 103-116, Maxwell gave a remarkable theorem for the plain why the ring form was maintained, but why the dia-
stresses between two electrically charged material systems, meter of the ring as a whole should shrink. So long as it
as producible by a distribution of stress over closed surfaces rotated it would keep up a stress in the air about it. So far
about these systems. as the experimental evidence goes, it appears that a vortex
He takes two electrical systems, namely, Ei, with ring in the air exhibits the phenomenon in question.*
volume density q^, of the element whose coordinates are The behavior of the flexible spindle in this experiment
*i> yii ^1 s^nd similarly for the other system, E^, Q^, Xo, y^, «2-
;
is analogous to that of the lines of force, which Faraday
Then the x-oomponent of the force acting on the element of
long ago observed had a notable tendency to shorten them-
.£1, owing to the repulsion of the element of E^, will be: selves. The gaseous medium of the air between the disks is
dX =^ Qi Q2 {xi
— X2)/r^ •
d*i dji d^ij dx^ dj/2 d^g thinned out, by the effect of the centrifugal force, just as the
^2= (.^l-*2)^-|-(j>'l-J)'2)^-|-(%'-22)^ (36)
aether itself is near a magnet, owing to the rotations ') of
the wave elements about the lines of force. Hence the lines
^^^ J J J J J J(^i
—^2)/f^'QiQ2dxi d ri dzidx2 dj/j dz^
of force tend to shorten themselves, as Faraday observed in
This is as in the theory of action at a distance, and his experiments with magnets and electric currents.
the integrals will not be altered by extending the limits In view of this experiment it is not remarkable there-
from —00 to -4- 00. fore that the lapse of time has confirmed MaxwelV's, stresses

-
') We
hold the lines of force to be filaments of the aethereal vortices, due to rotations of the wave elements, as the waves recede
from a magnet. Am be the element of aethereal mass in rotation, and the z-axis coincide with the axis of the magnet, the angular momentum
If
•of an element in the plane of the magnetic equator will be: .4 = —
^&m{yAxlAt x-iyjAi). This momentum of masses of aether S dw, about
the axis of the line of force, tends to beat back the aether in the equatorial plane, and causes it to press in on the two ends, parallel to the
z-axis. Hence we see the inevitable tendency of the lines of force to shorten themselves. Cf. Maxwell, On Physical Lines of Force, 1862,
Scientific Papers, Vol. i, p. 508.
 : :

i63 5048 164

for shown on the other hand that the

electrical action, yet tional stress intensities at any point P and finds the com-
stresses conceived by him for gravitation are invalid, because ponents to be
in this latter case he conceived the pressure to be in the A = -R^ISny B= E^jSny C= Ji'^IZny (37)
direction of the lines of force.
where E the resultant force intensity, and y t^^ gravitation
is
MaxweU'i, conclusion as to gravitation is announced in constant. These expressions show that the three principal
the article Attraction (Scientific papers, vol. 489): »To 2, p. stresses are equal. The component A
along the line of force,
account for such a force (gravitation) by means of stress in is, by Maxwell's hypothesis, a pressure, and the other two
an intervening medium, on the plan adopted for electric and components are tensions.
magnetic forces, we must assume a stress of an opposite kind Apparently Prof. Minchin never seriously suspected the
from that already mentioned. We must suppose that there fallacy underlying Maxwell's assumption, that pressure in the
is a pressure in the direction of the lines of force, combined the radius vector of a planet could make its
medium along
with a tension in all directions at right angles to the lines where in fact a tension, corres-
orbit curve about the sun,
of force. Such a state of stress would, no doubt, account of stupendous cables
ponding to the full breaking strength
for the observed effects of gravitation. We have not, however,
of steel, required to be exerted for holding a planet in its
is
been able hitherto to imagine any physical cause for such The nature of the curvature of the elliptic
elliptical path.
a state of stress.*
orbit was established by Kepler from the observations of
It seems remarkable that Maxwell himself should not Tycho, 1609, and first explained by Newton from the law of
have seen the error underlying this reasoning. When we gravitation, 1687.
whirl a stone by a string, it is the tension of the cord which After a very learned discussion, Prof. Minchin only
holds the stone in its circular path, thus overcoming the reaches the conclusion that since on trial, the mathematical
centrifugal force. If the string breaks, the stone goes flying conditions specified by the stress analysis are not fulfilled,
away, alonpthe tangent to the instantaneous path at the — »either gravitation is not propagated by the Maxwellian
moment \^'eTi the tension of the string is released.
stress, or the aether is not of the nature of a solid body.«
Innumerable examples of this central tension or pulling, This
• is aexample of a false premise,
good historical
necessary to overcome centrifugal force, should have occurred on which much ingenious mathematical effort was spent,,
to Maxwell, as perfectly analogous to the forces which hold without detecting the physical error underlying the hypothesis.
the planets in their orbits. It will forcibly remind natural philosophers of Einstein'^
It was seven years after the death of Maxwell (i St g) bizarre proposal to do away with the aether, without sub-
before the mathematical test required to overthrow the validity stitutingany medium or substance in the planetary spaces'
of his 'gravitational stresses was given by Prof. George M. which might exert contractile power for holding the planets,
Minchin in his Treatise on Statics, Oxford, 1886, Vol. II, and stars in their orbits.
pp. 448-455. Minchin calculates the Maxwellian gravita- It is scarcely necessary to add that if the signs of
Maxwell's stresses given above be changed, sO'

as to give a component of tension in the line

of force, and two equal pressures at right
angles thereto, thus
A = -^Ji^lSny B= -Ji^Sur
C= -R^ISny
(38)

gravitational phenomena would be explained.

In the Electrod. wave -theory of Phys.
Forces, 1917, pp. 131-133, will be found an
explanation of why the aether tends to con-
tract between any two bodies, as the sun
and This may be made a little more
earth.
obvious by the following diagram, in which
each body is shown surrounded by a wave-
field, the aether
near either -body being so
agitated by the waves from
its own atoms as
to be of less density towards either centre than
in the remoter spaces between the masses.

We
are to conceive the waves from either
centre, by interpenetrating with those from the
other centre, undoing the wave stress, depen-
Fig. 8. Illustration of the development ofstress between the sun and earth, owing
ding on the other mass, and thus causing a con-
to the of the waves, rotating in opposite directions, from
interpenetration
these two independent wave-fields, thus causing a tendency to collapse, in
stant tendency of the aether to collapse, which
the medium between the two bodies, which furnishes the tension required maximum tension along
results in pulling with
to hold the planets in their orbits. the right line connecting the two bodies.
 : : : ::

165 5048 i66

This gives us a very simple and direct grasp of the

mechanism underlying the planetary forces, which is not very d® = dO/Sx-dx-hdW/dydy-hdW/ds-dz ^^^'
different from those operative in electricity and magnetism,
d0 being an exact differential, to which Poisson (Traite de
except for the essentially haphazard arrangement of the planes
Mecanique, 1833, Tome II, p. 697) and Cauchy have given
of the atoms in the heavenly bodies. These bodies are only so much attention, in the period immediately preceding and
slightly magnetic, —
this power depending on the lining up
following the development oi Fourier' & analysis, (1807-182 i).
of a srriall fraction of their atoms, in planes which are mutually This method finally appeared in the celebrated Theorie Ana-
parallel, as in common, magnets; while the great mass of the
lytique de la Chaleur, 182 i. Besides the above reference to
atoms are tilted haphazard. The resulting action yields the Foisson's Mechanics, we cite the important memoirs indicated
central force called gravity, instead of the duality of powers below ^).
noted by Airy (Treatise on Magnetism, 1870, p. 10) for the Foisson usually treats his differential equation in the form
magnetic attraction directed towards two poles. 820/8^2_^2(92Q)/a^2^_g20/9^2 + 922>/a^2) =^
Sextuple Integration, under Fourier's Theorem,
7. Thus O is any solution of the equation (39), which involves
for solving Foisson's Partial Differential Equation three variable coordinates, x, y, z, atid the time, /.
82(p/8^2-_^2y2Q) fo rthevelocity- potential, in amedium By a well known form of Fourier's theorem we have:
like the aether, capable of freely propagating waves. -f-00 -l-OO

We consider the partial differential equation for the P.{x) = i/2n-^ J/^-^)^V(-i).^(g).d5dA. (40)
velocity-potential in wave motion — 00 — 00
And as this will apply to the several variables, we get by three successive integrations between the limits — 00 and -1-00
0^n{x,y,z,i)=^ ( i/87r3)
JJJJJJ,^l/(-0.i3( J, ^,C,^)-d§di?dUAd;(td^. A= (^-x) X + {^-y) (.^i^-z) v. (41)
If now we substitute the derivatives of this result in (39), observing by the form of A, in (41), that we have
upon actual derivation:
(32/8^2^.82^9^2+82/8^2) ,^l/(-i) = ,^l/(-i) (_p_^2_„2) (^3^
we have for the solution of the original equation involving the four variables
d^(D/dt^-aHd^<D/dx'^-{-d^O/dy^-hd^(D/dz^) = o

O = Q{x,y,z,t) = {'ilZn'^)llllll /'^<-'^^'-{^''l'dt''-^a'{r^-^l,''-^v'')\9.[t,riX,t)-d%dridldldiidv = o (43)

(limits of integration ~oo and +00). This equation will be satisfied, if i3 (J, »/, X>, i) is determined so as to satisfy the equation:

^•'9.{t,riX,t)l-dfi+a^[l''+l>,'' + v'')9.(t,7iX,t) = 0. (44)

We therefore integrate this differential equation, and in place of arbitrary constants, we introduce arbitrary func-
tions y^i and i//i of J, ri,
"Q- Accordingly our solutions yield the following particular integrals

9.[-%,riX,t]^eB^'^^-'^'vA%,ri,l) S2(l V. ^, ^) = ^~^''^^~'^ ^Piil V. i)

F= {P+f^'+v'Y" .
(45)
If now we substitute the first of these in (41), and include the integration factor i/Stt^ in the arbitrary function,
we have (limits of integration —00 and +00):
® =- n{x,y;z,t) = JJJJJp(^+^^')^(- ')^Pi(g,^,C)-d?d^dCdAdf.d,^. (46)

This is a particular integral of equation (41), and the second value in (45) would lead to an identical result,
as may be proved by actual substitution. Thus it only remains to complete the solution from such particular solutions.

Let dydx^-hd^dy^-i-dydz^ = y/ t = e^ (47)

so as to reduce the given equation to the symbolical form: ®— [^/D(D — i)]
«^^- ® = o (48)
where 8/89 = D. Then the transformation: O ^ ^— 6.8j(/8e = S^/S/ (49)
will give: / — [^/D(D- .i)],29.^ (S°)
which is of the same form as the equation for © in (48).

') I. Fourier. Oeuvres de Fourier, Tomes I et II, publiees suos les auspices du Ministere de I'lnstruction Publique par les soins de
Gaston Darboiix, Paris, i888.'
2. Poisson: a) Memoire sur la Theorie des Ondes, Dec. 18, 1815; M^m. de I'Acad., T. I.
b) Memoire sur I'lntegration de quelques equations lineaires aux- differences partielles, e;t particulierement de I'equation
generale du mouvement des fluides ^lastiques. Juill. 19, 1819, Mem. de I'Acad., T. III.
c) Memoire sur le Mouvement de Deux Fluides l^lastiques Superposes. Mars 24, 1823, Mem. de I'Acad., T. X.
d) Memoire sur I'^^quilibre et le Mouvement des Corps ijlastiques. Avril 14, 1828, Mem. de I'Acad., T. VIII.
-

e) Memoire sur I'Equilibre des Fluides. Nov. 24, 1828, Mem. de I'Acad., T. IX.
f) Memoire sur la Propagation du Mouvement dans les Milieux Elastiques. Oct. 11, 1830, M^m. de I'Acad., T. X,
g) Memoire sur I'J^quilibre et le Mouvement des Corps Crystallises. Oct. 28, 1839, M^m. de I'Acad.j T. XVIII.
3. Cauchy: a) Theorie de la Propagation des Ondes a la surface d'un Fluid Pesant d'une Profondeur Indefinie, 1815.
b) Sur I'lntegration d'Equations Lineaires. Exercises d' Analyse et de Physique Math^matique, T. I, p. 53.
ci Sur la Transformation et la Reduction des Integrales Generales d'un Systeme d'Equations Lineaires aux differences
<''•
partielles, ibid. p. 178.
 : :

167 5048 i68

thus follows that / admits of expression in the form (46),

It and therefore by merely changing the arbitrary

function, we have (limits of integration and -hoo): —00

X = Sr{x,y, z, f) - 8/8/
SSS^S^
,(^+^/'') Vi- .
y/, (l^, C) • d? di} d^ d^ d^ d^ 151)

get the complete integral from these independent particular integrals (46) and (51), we
To add the two solutions
by arbitrary constants, (cf. Hattendorffi edition of Riemann% Partielle Differentialgleichungen, 1882,
multiplied p. 100),
which may be included under the sextuple integral signs (limits of integration —00 and +00 :

-C2I I52i

= mill Z^^^'^')!^^-')- y^i(?, n, n-d?d, dU^d/*dr

+8/8/ /^+^^') 1^(- ') nh • d? dri dC d;i dft d^ . (53)
llllll [I, n>

/=oo
These sextuple integrals admit of reduction to double
integrals leading to a form of solution originally obtained Accordingly, at the time 4 there are :oo of
by Poisson\ but Cauchy has made this reduction by means 1=1
of a trigonometrical transformation. The only essential pre- these concentric wave surfaces, all moving with the velocity c,

caution be taken is to avoid processes by which the

to which is the velocity of light. But the time / also flows on,
functions to be integrated become infinite within the limits.

The above equation belongs to the general form and if there be i intervals, the summation ^, i = 00 will

92(D/8/2 = ^© (54)
2=1
the double integration of intervals and wave?:
where ^ is a function of the derivatives with respect to the
yield for

coordinates 9/8jc, 8/8j)/, 9/8z. For

such equations the all

method above outlined furnishes directly a solution expressed

by sextuple integrals, which are reducible to the Poisson- z= I /^ I
Cauchy double integrals, if A
is homogeneous and of the which corresponds to all the points in an infinite plane.
second degree, as in the case of a sphere surface, with radius Imagine another system of coordinates (?/, rji, ^i), with
increasing uniformly with the time its origin at the centre of gravity of mi {^htTju, ^h,^i), to which
^2-i-y-(-^2 = f2/2 (ss) the moving waves are referred at i times, so that for the n
where c is the parameter representing the velocity of light. bodies we have:
As was long ago pointed out by Fourier, Poisson and For the Bodies. For the Waves emitted.
Cauchy, integrals of this type are peculiarly appropriate for Wl (xi,J'i,Zi,/i)
the expression of those disturbances involving the transmission W22 [x2,y-i,Z2,ti)
of energy in a medium, as in the steady flow of waves, whether m^ (••«3iJ>'3,^S,4) m ['ihi— h.i, rihi—rihi, ^hi — t,hi, h) (56)
of sound, light, heat or electrodynamic action. These wave
disturbances are propagated through the medium in question mn [Xn,yn, Zn, h) mn {^I„i—^hi, 'TjI^i — ^Iu, ^I„i—^hi, ti) .

with a finite and unless the waves are regularly

velocity,
Then, -from the preceding investigation it will follow
renewed the original disturbance leaves no trace behind when
it has passed by; so that the upkeep of the energy flow
that the solution of Poisson's. equation d^0/di^ = a^y^fl) for
the velocity-potential and transmission of energy of wave
involves periodic renewal of disturbances for maintaining the
motion, in the case of in bodies will be similar to that already
steady flow of waves. In his Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur,
found for a single wave centre, except that as the waves from
182 I, ./^(?z^rzVr continually emphasizes the incessant movement
the several bodies are everywhere superposed, the velocity-
of heat.
potentials ®i, 02, 0^- 0„
from' the several centres must be
Solution of Poissons equation for the velocity- added together to get the total effect, 0i-h02-h0g-\ h ©„
potential O in wave motion from n bodies. = 0, when the waves from the n bodies mutually interpene-
Let there be n bodies emitting waves wzi with coor- :
trate, giving maximum tension in the right lines which connect
dinates [xi, }\, Zu t-j) surrounded at the instant t^ by an the bodies in pairs, andmaximum pressure in the prolongation
infinite series of wave surfaces, which for simplicity we may of these lines beyond the inasses.
suppose to be spherical Accordingly, if we introduce the amplitude of the waves
x-^^-^yi'+Zi_^-Ci^ti^= o from each mass, Aii =
kuj V[hi^-^riii^-^lu^) and retain the
Xi'^-\-y<i'^'^Z2'^ — Ci^t-i^ = o amplitude /-^-^-^'^'')y(— for deteriorating wave changes,
under resistance, we shall find for the general solution the
XI' '

/,
2 =o . expression (all integrations between the limits —00 and -+-00):

= 0u{mi) + 0.2,{m2)-+-0^,[7n^)-^ (»„, (;«„) 57;

®«, [mn] = llllllKil !/[(?/„- %u [^i-Ui?] -Mn+^nKh) l/(- 0. ?p-„( J„^ ^„_ Q dj„ d^„ dCn dl„
.
dfl„ dv,

iWi- ^hi)-]-e^-^>'^'^nKf^) V(- 0.. yj„Cs„, nn, U dS„d^„ dl^ndlndllndVn-

•
 : : : . :

169 5048 I/O

This solution of Foisson's equation for" the velocity- sometimes at rates depending on the wave conductivity along
potential O is well calculated to show the complexity of the certain axes, but always at a rate defined by the time/.
problem of explaining the forces which govern the operations *

If the medium be gaseous, as in the kinetic theory of

of the physical universe. The velocity-potential is essentially the aether, ©must
be the velocity-potential ^). Accordingly,
a function of the elasticity in a gas, condensation alternating
we outline the equations of such a medium:
with rarefaction,
maintained
by which wave motion once generated is
points of space, and at velocities suitable
at
d 0) — 8 ®/8x da; -+- f/j/8j. •
dj' -+- 9 ® /Ss •
d^
all

to the elasticity and density of the medium at these points.

^= uAx-^v Ay + w Az (s^)

Thus wherever waves penetrate the velocity -potential rhust u = doldx 'v'= dw/dy w = 8®/8c
also exist. where u, v, w are the component velocities.

And we domain penetrated by

see not 'only that the
The general equation of equilibrium is:

the waves includes from minus infinity to plus

all space, ,

infinity, in a sextuple integration, which corresponds to an whence X=dvldx Y= d v/dy' Z = d V/dz .

^^"^^

integration connecting every point of space with every other

point; but also that it must be continuous, that is, repeated
Now put J(i/^) dp = P; and we have the well known
relations
for every pair of points two and two.

The -waves from atoms are infinitely

the individual
( I
/e) 8//9^.
= SF/c>x 0/q) dpjdy = dpjdy
more complex still, and in fact cannot be given except by {i/Q)Sp/dz = dFldz 60

an integral like the foregoing, infinitely extended. This in- y-j^ = dO/dt-^y,[{dW/dx)^ + {d(D/dyY + {d(D/dzY] . (61)
finite integral could be written out analytically, yet its con- And the equation of continuity
templation would aid us but little in grasping the infinitely
complex phenomena of nature.
dQ/dt^d/dx[Q-d0/dx) + d/dy(Q-da)/dy) + d/dz{Q-d0/ds) = o. (62)
For an incompressible fluid the second expression in
In suffices to remember that from every
practice it
(62) vanishes:
body an complex system of waves goes forth, to
infinitely
interpenetrate and combine with the like infinitely complex
d^CD/dx^+d^e/dy^ + d^Wfdz^ =o .
(63)
But the aether is not incompressible, and this equation there-
wave systems going forth from all other bodies. The sum-
fore does not apply to any gaseous medium.
mation of all these disturbances is an infinite intjegral pf the
eifects of small commotions, the final result of which is the In general the exact form of the wave surface cannot
system of forces operating throughout the physical universe. be defined, owing to changes in the density and elasticity

Props.VI-VIII and Prop. XXIV)

of the bodies penetrated by. the advance of the wave front.
In thePrincipia (Lib. Ill,
If the medium 'be symmetrical in, respect to three axes at
Sir Isaac Newton the gravitative force due to
points out how
right angles, as in the case of certain Crystals, then the wave
one- body may penetrate into the regions occupied by any
surface,, from a disturbance at the centre of such a mass,
other body or system, just as if the other body or system
will pass, from the spherical form:
did not exist; so that each body or system acts independently
of the others, yet the final effect is a combination of the x^-hy^^z^-c^f' =o (64)
separate efi'ects. an interpenetrating
Gravitation, therefore, is and take the form of an ellipsoid Of three unequal axes
power —
just such an influence as would arise from waves x^/a^-hy^/fi^-^zyr' c' f (65)
propagated from the several centres, and extending throughout where the axes denote the conductivities along the
a, /J, ;'
all parts of the system of the world.
axes of the ellipsoid, and ct= i, at any stage of the progress
with the -wave surface in the form of the ellipsoid:
8. Geometrical Conditions fulfilled by the
Velocity-potential®, expressions for the molecular x^/a^+yy/S^-hzyr^ == I .
(66)
velocity and condensation at any distance from It follows therefore that the problem of wave motion
the source of disturbance, with an indication of involves the solution of Poisson % equation
the energy due to the waves of various lengths Z-^Ol^f = «-''(82a)/8^2+8-'®/8/-H82(Z)/8^2) (67)"
observed in nature. where a is wave propagation (cf. Poisson,
the velocity of the
.solution of the problem of vibrating cords runs
The Traite de Mecanique, 1833, tome II, p. 663—720; or Lord
back Daniel Bernoulli and D'Alembert, but the method
to Rayleigh'i Theory of Sound, vol. II, chapter XIII).
of analysis was generalized by Lagrange, and Poisson has Let u, V, w be the component velocities parallel to
greatly improved the theory for application to all classes of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz of an element of mass dm, at the in-
waves. The energy in the wave function depends on three stant t, so that,
coordinates, it, and the time /,,, because when a distur-
bance
«r,

^originates
J)/,

in a medium it spreads in all directions. X— a:' = J«d/ y-y' ^= ^'I'dl z — s' ^ ^wdt. (68)

') If for any part of an elastic fluid mass A^ == uAx-^vdy+wiz = o be a perfect differential at. one moment, it will remain so

for all subsequent time. When <& is siiigle valued, the integral round any closed circuit vanishes, I d<I> = o. This is- the irrotational condition

of hydrodynamics. Hence, with condensations and rarefactions alternating, and of equal intensity, in wave motion, the above condition I d"!" =0
is met by the plane wave * = /4 cos[2ic/X-(x—a^)], which is typical of the velocity-potential in general.
 : . . : : :

171 5048 172

writer's
we squares of the dW/dx, de /-« which affords an unexpected verification of the
If
dojdy, dO/dz, and put z/
neglect the
= w =^ O become
o, o,
velocities
will a
:

formula for the amplitudes of the aether waves, A kjr, =

function of x and t only also derived from the kinetic theory, but by a different

820/8^2 = ^2 820/8^2 process. It thus appears that Poisson had such a result for
the waves of sound 87 years ago, and neglect for nearly
O = ii[x,t) = Acoi[2nlX-[x-at)\^). a century remarkable.
is
its

The solution obviously is an' undulation of flat wavelets As Lord Rayleigh points out in his Theory of Sound,
parallel to the axis of x, traveling with velocity a. 2°'' edition, 1896, vol. II, p. 16: the rate at which energy is

Let f be the velocity in the direction of the radius transmitted across unit area of a plane parallel to the front
vector, so that the resultant of a progressive wave may be regarded as the mechanical
t, = V{u^-^V^-i-W^) (70) measure of the intensity of the radi'ktion. This is the basis
of Lord Kelvin's celebrated paper of 1854, »On the possible
then since for spherical disturbances
density of the luminiferous medium, and on the mechanical
x^-hy'^-\-z^ = r'^ xdx-hydy-^zdz == rdr
value of a cubic mile of sunlight*, (Trans. Roy. Soc, Edinburgh,
u = t, = Zy/r
x/r V w = t, z/r
(70
1854), which we have used, in our first paper on the new
^~w£—g£i- udx-\-vdy-\-wdz = l^dr ^ = dO/dr (72) theory of the aether, for calculating the density of this medium.

d(D/dx ==d(D/dr-x/r d(D/dy = d(D/dr-y/r The energy transmitted, in the direction of the three coordinate
dojdz = dO/dr-z/r. (73) axes, O
being taken successively as a function of x (and t),
y (and t), z (and /) only, is given by the approximate equations:
Differentiating a second time, we have 320/8^2 = ^2 820/8^2
. 82®/8/2 = «2 .
82(J,/8j,2
d^W/dx^ = d^0/dr^-x''/r^-hd0/dr-{y^-hz^)/r^ 82a)/8/2 = «2. 82(0/822
(8c)

d^ai/dy-i =d^0/dr'^-yyr^-i-d(D/dr-(z^-i-x^)/r'* (74) which are expressed in (75) above.

82(0/822 = d^OJdr^- z'^/>''^-^d0/dr-(x^-i-y'')/r'^ .
In case the gravitational wave transmission occurs within
By means of these values, Poisson's equation, a mass of density q, we have Poisson's equation for the potential
82a)/8/2 = a^d-^'m/dx^-^-d^O/dy^-hd^O/dz'^) d^^VJdx^-^'d^Vldy-'+'d^Vl^z^+ATt Q =o (81)
becomes = aHdi0/dr^-h2/r-dW/dr)
d^cp/df^ (75) instead of the equation of Laplace
This is the same as d-^V/dx^-hd^V/dy^-i-d^V/clz^ =o . (82)
d^rO/dt^ = a^d^rW/dr^) (76) And thus within an elastic solid the equation (80) would
the complete integral of which is become
r(D =/{y-hat)-hF(r — ai) (77)
82®/8^2 = a^.[^^(D/^x^-^-^^0/^y^-^-^^0/^z^-^-4^TQ) (83)
which is of the form adopted by Riemann, for the induction
where / and J^ are two arbitrary functions.
memoir presented to the Royal
in the
of electric currents,
By extending his analysis (Traite de Mdcanique, 1833,
vol. II, p. 706) Poisson shows that since X = dOjdr, we have
Society of Gottingen in 1858, but subsequently withdrawn,
and after the death of the author, published in Poggendorff's
I = ilr.f[at-r)-hilr'-f{at-r) Annalen I31. 237-263, 1867.
s = ijar-f'[at—r)
(78)
This investigation o{ Riemann was examined by Clausius
Accordingly, Poisson concludes that at a great distance (Poggendorff^'s Annalen 135.612) who doubts the validity of
from the centre of this disturbance we may neglect the the mathematical processes for the phenomenon of electric
second terms of the values of t^, which are divided by r\ induction, chiefly on the ground that the hypothesis that
in comparison with the first, which are divided by r. Thus for potential is propagated like light, does not lead either to the
the whole duration of the movement we get for the conden- law of Weber or to the other laws of electrodynamics.
sation or dilatation 5 ^ = 'Qja .
(79) In our Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, however,
By equation therefore, the velocity of the mole" it is not held that potential is propagated like light; on the
V = f[x,y,z,^,
(78),
cules in a gaseous medium decreases inversely as r, just as contrary that the potential is a function is

in theamplitudes of the waves postulated in the kinetic fixed in space, yet depends on the total accumulated stress

theory of the aether. The condensation or dilatation varies .y

due to wave amplitudes of all the matter involved. Hence this

as the velocity in the direction of the radius vector, which criticism is not valid against the wave-theory here dealt with.
itself varies inversely as r; and also inversely as a, the velocity Moreover, we use Poisson's equation for the potential,
of wave propagation. Accordingly, for a highly elastic me- S7^V-^4TCQ =
o, only within solid masses, Laplace's equation
dium, s is small, and decreases very rapidly; which confirms V^^^ o applying to all free space. Thus we adopt a
our view that the amplitudes of the aether waves are very transition between^ these two equations at the boundary of
minute, and decrease inversely as r in receding from the sun. any mass of matter, as long recognized by geometers and
In finishing this paper, Febr. 19, 1920, I am surprised natural philosophers.

to notice Poisson % sagacious remark (p. 706): »La vitesse The physical meaning of the transition is the sharp
propre des molecules d'air decroitra alors en raison inverse difference in velocity of propagation for all aether waves at

') Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. II, p. 15-16, a""* edition, 1896.
 :

173 5048 174

the boundary of a mass of matter; and moreover the decrease Now, according to the researches of Prof. Flanck on
in accurmilated stress due to the aether waves from all
total thermodynamic radiation, the energy E of wave length X
the atoms, as the moving point J>(x,y,z) enters the body of is given by the rather complex expression

density q, and leaves behind a part of the mass, — the aether

waves coming from the atoms of this shell from all directions
Ex^l = {klFTl)l{e^l^^'^'^-i)-?.nFTl-^Al (84)
which admits of integration within certain limits.
just balancing in a homogeneous sphere. But whatever the
law of density or form of the body, there is a change in In this formula, F and T
are the gas -constant and
the sum of the second differentials of the potential at the absolute temperature, k = hV, V
being the velocity of light,
boundary of the body, from Laplace's to Foisson's, equation and h is Flanck's new constant, h 6.55 X io~^' ergs sees,=
so that if the wave frequency be j', A Vjv and =
x = klRTl = hvJFT. (85)
And fundamental equation for the quantum
Flanck's
of energy of v frequency is
e = fiv .
(86)
By the use of Planck's formula therefore
^^dA = 87rJ?rA-* [*/(«*- i)]dA. (87)

This integration, to take account of the various wave lengths,

could be carried out, but the subject is iii too primitive a con-
dition to be undertaken at present.

9. A Definite Criterion for deciding between

the Great and Small Densities claimed for the Aether.
In Section I of the first paper on the new theory of
Fig. 9. Curve of the potential function V, showing its
the aether, we have cited the claim put forwardby certain
asymptotic decrease with the distance, and the electronists, that, on the hypothesis of incompressibility^ the
tendency to an asymptotic increase towards the aether has a density 2000 million times that of lead. In
centre; but owing to finite dimensions of the
his Aether of Space, 1909, p. 91-105, Sir Oliver Lodge finds
mass, a gradual decline to zero.
froni electrical theory that the density of the aether is 10^^,
This difference between Laplace's equation of the po- a million million times that of water.
tential for free space, and Foisson's corresponding equation It is only fair to point out that as the aether transmits
for space filled with matter of density q, owing to the inter- waves, as in magnetism, electrodynamic action,
light, heat,
vention of boundary conditions, is distinctly favorable to the and radio telegraphy, of the most varied length, and of
wave-theory of physical forces. We therefore presented the various amplitudes, it is not conceivable that it should be
treatment of the wave equation of Foisson S'^0/di'^ (jr^yag) ^ incompressible, so that the dilatation is zero in the equation:
for free space, by the general method of integration based
8 = da/dx-hdji/dy-i-dyjdz = o
'

(88)
on Fourier's theorem.
where a, fi, y, are the displacements, and
This solution will hold for waves of any initial wave
length, propagated with the velocity of light, from n bodies,
in all parts of space, and everywhere mutually interpenetrating by equation (63). For this would make the wave velocity
so as to generate maximum tension in the right lines con- infinite,which is contrary to observation. Accordingly,_whilst
necting the n bodies in pairs, in accordance with the observed the aether is highly incompressible, owing to the enormous

phenomena of universal gravitation. velocity of the aetherons, and the resulting kinetic elasticity,
from which this medium certainly is not incompressible.
If the solution will hold for separate bodies,
spherical waves are emitted, obviously will hold also for
it
In the article Aether, Encyclopedia Britannica, ii'^'ed.,

separate vibrating particles, within a single body; but here igii, Prof. Sir Joseph Larmor is more poised and cautious
the mathematical difficulty is increased, by virtue of the than the writers previously cited, but his faith in the older
unequal conductivity which heterogeneous solid bodies offer theories is so shaken, that he intimates that the ratio of the

to wave propagation; so that the expression of the effects

amplitude of the waves to the wave length,' taken by Maxwell
of the waves from the atoms would be infinitely complex. and Kelvin at about io~^, may be enormously overestimated.
Yet the above equation (57) gives the approximate repre- Larmor adds: »It is not impossible that the coefficient of
ultimate inertia of the aether is greater than the coefficient of
sentation of the propagation of wave energy from atoms,
inertia (of a different kind) of any existing substance*; which
which may be useful in certain problems of molecular physics.
shows his tendency to an abandonment of the older theory,
The solution in (57) already an infinitely
involves
under the teachings of the electron theorists.
complex integration, repeated «-times for the n bodies of the
It thus appears that the excessively small density, found
universe. To include the initial waves of all possible lengths,
by Kelvin and Maxwell, namely, about lo""^*, or my own
we should have to integrate this complex expression for (P
value at the earth's mean distance 438X10^^^ is opposed
between the limitsi A o; A= =
co, involving all possible
by the modern teaching in favor of an enormous density,
periodicities, the number of which is: « ^ [^/^]>.=o •
about 10^'^, as stated by Sir Oliver Lodge. The difference
 175 5048 I 76

between the two results presents an en6rmous contrast, name!)' Now if any good ground can be adduced for decreasing

the almost unlimited factor: the ratio of the amplitude to the wave-length, I am willing
F- 10 with the value of Kelvin and Maxwell; to consider such a modification in the belief of the most
--.. .-.
,

(89)
,

eminent physicists, —
such as Kelvin, Maxwell, Larmor —
== 0.0023 X 10,80'- with See'i value.
but it should be pointed out that to make the reconciliation
Accordingly, progress is nearly impossible with this irre- of the extreme values complfete, the ratio of the amplitude
concilable difference of opinion among the learned. Brooks to the wave- length will have to be lowered by the enormous

p^
'

and Poyser, as representatives of the opinion of the electronists, factor ,0^30 (g2)
state: »There is no intrinsic difficulty in either view, but at
present (19 12) no method is known by which we may hope so that AlX now taken at io~^, would become
to discriminate between them.«
^'A = Io-3^ (93)
The present writer has therefore labored to develop a
The difficulty of this extreme step is so great that I
criterion for the rejection of one of tTiese competing values,
dismiss it Until new evidence, resting
as quite inadmissible.
which would leave the other in possession of the field. Besides
the ''above criticism, that the finite velocity of wave propa- on ground more secure than mere assumption, is available
it must be held that Sir Oliver Lodge's attempt to reply to
gation excludes the incoropressibility of the medium, I have
this criticism completely breaks down. For even if we took
given in the Observatory, Nov. 19 18, p. 411— 412, a brief
discussion of the consequence of the intolerable disagreement All = 10-=, or .4/1= 10-''
(94)
in the values of the •aether density.
— which are values looo or loooo times more extreme than
A simple calculation has enabled me to exclude Lodge'i
appealed to the experienced judgements of Lord Kelvin, Max-
density as wholly inadmissible, because if true the energy of ivell and Lannor, —
the required factor would scarcely be
the waves from the sun'falling upon a single square centi- reduced in a sensible degree; and practical experience in
metre of the earth's surface would be able to yaporize the physical science certainly would not justify us in exceeding
entire terrestrial globe in less than one minute of time, when
the limit of lo"''
'
we use Bigeloiu'% value of the constant of solar radiation, arid
As a final argument against the electrical theory,
Kelvin and Maxwell's density.
assigning the aether a density of2000 million times that of
The mass of the earth is 5956292000000000000000
metric tons. If we take the average specific heat of the globe lead (namely: i 1.352 X 2000000000 =
22704000000000
at 0.2, and the vaporizing point of its average matter at times that of water!), we may recall the fainiliar experience
3000° C, the total amount of heat required to reduce it to of a man swimming in water. Here the swimmer is immersed
vapour —
the interior being assumed to be without heat — in an inert liquid of about the same density as his body;
would be yet to move about a strong exertion is required of the most,
H= 5.g56292X lo--'- (0.2 X 3000) X 1 000000 calories, powerful muscles, completely under the control of the will.

= 6X 5.956292 X 10^" = 3.6 X 10^", nearly. (90) If the had the density of quicksilver, the swim-
liquid

Now Bigelow\\'^\\\t of the solar constant is 3.98 cal. mer would scarcely sink down to his boot-tops, and his
per minute, or 0.0663 cal. per second; and, as Lodge's value muscles would be altogether too feeble to displace such an
of the density of the aether is about 10^° that above cited inert and heavy liquid, if he were required to move through
from Kelvin sxiA. Maxwell, and 0.0023X10'*'' times my own it: yet he could walk over such a magma, by great effort,
value,^ we have for the effect of such an increase in density analogous to that required when we walk in very yielding
the raising of the solar radiation by the factor lo'"':
volcanic ashes.
H=^ 0.0663X 10'" = 6.63X 10^^, Kelvin 2.ud Maxwell Now the density of mercury (13.6) is a little greater
(9^
or ZT^^ (0.0663X0. oo23)x 10^", with Sees value than that of lead (11.352), but the moment we consider an
The first of these values would vaporize the earth in' aether 2000000000 times denser than lead, we perceive the
54 seconds of time, the second in 0.277 of a day. But in culmination of absurdity Even if it penetrated all bodies
1

nature this vaporization does not occur, and thus we conclude and gave equal pressure on all sides, still
quite perfectly,
that the density of the aether stands at a value near that some displacement of the particles would be required when
fixedby Kelvin and Maxwell many years ago, but slightly
we move about in it, as in the case of water displaced by
improved in the writer's new theory of the aether.
a swimn^ier. Obviously no living physical body would be
In the Observatory, for Dec, igi8, p. 446, Sir Oliver capable of displacing such a dense medium; and we see
Lodge has attempted to reply to my criticism by pointing
that even the strongest stars, planets and comets would be
out that the energy of the solar radiation depends on the
dispersed to atoms under the changing resistance such a
amplitude of the wave, compared to the wave length, which
with Kelvin and Maxwell I took at io~^, a value pronounced
medium would interpose to their variously accelerated mo-

by Sir Joseph Larmor (in the article Aether, p. 292) »a very tions. The electrical theory assigning the aether a density
safe limit*. Lodge also adds: »many facts have suggested 22704000000000 greater than that of water
is therefore

that the amplitude of the most brilliant light is exceedingly the best possible illustration of a physical Reductio ad Ab-
small compared with its wave length*. surdum, and we know that either some premise some
or
 : ;

177 5048 178

link in the chain of reasoning eventually will not bear in- the molecules of larger size than footballs, — as shown
vestigation "). by Lord Kelvin in his well kiiown researches on the size
In the article Aether, Encyclopedia Britannica, ii'*'ed., of atoms.
19 1 1, Prof. %vs: Joseph Larmor concludes that we must treat But it will be said that the aether penetrates all bodies,
the aether as a plenum. Under the influence of electrical theory, and thus we cannot sensibly displace it, as we can water,
he even speaks as if the aether were not molecular. In dis- oil, alcohol or ether. We reply that it is -perfectly true that
cussing the transparency of the celestial spaces, — to which the aether penetrates freely all bodies, even the dense and'
much attention was given by Cheseux and Olbers, W. Herschei highly elastic or rigid masses sun and stars,
of the earth,
and W. Struve — (cf. Etudes d'Astron. stelL, St. Pdtersbourg, almost as molecular structure were absent: yet we
if their
1847) — Larmor first recalls the well known transparency learn from the phenomena of refraction and diffraction in
of space shown by astronomical research, and then adds our laboratories, that light waves in the aether are very
»If the aether were itself Constituted of discrete mole-
, perceptibly retarded in their motions through transparent
cules, on the model of material bodies^ such transparency bodies; and in our investigation of celestial phenomena, we
would not be conceivable. We must be content to treat the find from the investigation of the motion of the moon that
aether as a plenum, which places it in a class by itself; and the sun's gravitational 'waves, though of such length as to
we thus recognize that it may behave very differently from pass through the earth, are yet sensibly Refracted; and perhaps
matter, though in some manner consistent with itself, a — dispersed or partially absorbed at the time of total eclipses
remark which is fundamental in the modern theory:* of the moon, — whence arises the fluctuations of the moon's
The first part of this reasoning apparently implies that mean motion established by Newcomb in 1909, and explained
the aether not molecular, at least »on the model of ma-
is by the present writer in 19 16, (cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory
.terial bodies«. This may be correct in part, because no one of Phys. Forces, vol. i).
would suppose the aether to be made up of complex mole- From these considerations it appears that we have both

cules, underlaid by a finer medium, such as the aether is to terrestrial and evidence that the aether is mole-
celestial

the more complex masses of common matter. On the other cular, but of such excessively fine grained structure that no

hand there is not the smallest objection to an aethereal finer "rnedium whatever underlies it: thiis it penetrates all

medium made up of spherical perfectly elastic monatomic bodies freely, under an elastic power, or expansive tendency,
elements, so called aetherons, having a diameter of I:4oo5'^ 68932 1600000, tirries greater than our atmosphere exhibits
of a hydrogen molecule, and a mass of 15.56 millionths pf a in proportion to its density, as more fully shown in the first

millionth of such a molecule, such as we show do really exist. paper, sect. 4.

As no medium would underly such a monatomic

finer
10. The Kinetic Theory of the Aether accords
aether, it not dissipate the energy of wave motion,
coiild
with the Views o{ Newton, 1721, and oi Maxwell, 1877.
»on the model of material bodies*, and thus it would fulfill
In order to further illuminate the above discussion we
Larmor's condition of a plenum. This would give such an
may recall the earlier though little known views of Newton
excessively fine monatomic molecular structure that the me-
and Maxwell, on the physical constitution of the aether.
dium would penetrate all material bodies, but waves in such
an aether would be very noticeably retarded in solid or a) Views of Sir Zr««(:iVi'2<'2'^z, Treatise on Optics, 3''''ed.,

liquid bodies, and much less so in gases, in accordance with 172 325 et seq. ^)
I, p.

physical experience. »Qu. 20. Doth not this Aethereal Medium in passing
That the aether must necessarily be molecular Tollows out of Water, Crystal, and other compact and dense Bodies,
into empty Spaces, grow .denser and denser by degrees,, and
at once from our every day experience with such granular
bodies as fine gravel, grains of corn, sand, shot or mustard by that means refract the Rays of Light not in a point,
but by bending them gradually in curve, lines? And doth
seed. If we fill a glass vessel with such coarse granular
not the gradual condensation of this Medium extend to some
masses, and insert the fingers or any solid body, such as a
distance from the Bodies, and thereby cause the Inflexions
rod, into the granules, we perceive that they are thrust aside
to make way for the hand or solid rod. If we fill the vessel
of the Rays of Light, which pass by the edges of dense

with water, oil, alcohol, ether, or any similar liquid, our Bodies, at some distance from the Bodies-?«

experience in such displacement is the same. The liquid is »Qu. 21. Is not this Medium much rarer within the
visibly thrust aside and this holds even when the molecular dense Bodies of the Sun, Stars, Planets and. Comets, than in
structure is relatively so fine that a drop of water might be the empty celestial Spaces between them? And in passing from
magnified to the dimensions of the earth without exhibiting them to great distances, doth it not grow denser and denser

') In the Optics, 1 721, pp. 342-3, Netvion discusses the very problem here treated of in the fbllowing manner: "The resistance of
water arises principally and almost entirely from the vis inertiae of its matter; and by consequence, if the heavens were as dense as water,
they would not have much less, resistance than water; if as dense as quick-silver, they would not have much less resistance than quick-silver
if absolutely dense, or full of matter without any vacuum, let the matter be never so subtile and fluid, they
would have a greater resistance
than quick-silver. A solid globe in such a medium would lose above half its motion in moving three times the length of its diameter, and a
globe not solid (such as are the planets) would be retarded sooner. And therefore to make way for the regular and lasting motions of the
arising from
planets and comets, it's necessary to empty the heavens of all matter, except perhaps some very thin vapours, stea,ms or effluvia,
the atmospheres of the earth, planets and comets, and from such an exceedingly rare aethereal medium as we described above.
A dense fluid
can be of no use for explaining the phaenomena of nature, the motions of the planets and comets being better explain'd without it."
'')
Quoted at length, because (his edition is very inaccessible to the modern reader.
 « : « :

179 5048 i8o

perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of those great times less than that of Water. And so small a resistance
Bodies toward one another, and of their parts towards the would scarce make any sensible alteration in the Motions
Bodies; every Body endeavouring to go from the denser of the Planets in ten thousand years.*
parts of the Medium towards the rarer ? For if this Medium
In Newton' % views above quoted, Qu. 20, dating from
be rarer within the Sun's Body than at its surface, and rarer
172 1, it will be noticed that he not only held the aether
there than at the hundredth part of an inch from its Body
to be a superfine gas, of enormous elasticity, but also cal-
and rarer there than at the fiftieth part of an inch from its culated this elastic power to be ^7 490000000000 times =
Body, and rarer there than at the Orb of Saturn; I see no greater than that of air in proportion to its density. By the
reason why the increase of density should stop anywhere, most careful calculations that can be made today, we find
and not rather be continued through all distances from the this relative elastic power to be «<? =
689321600000; which
Sun to Saturn, and beyond. And though this Increase of shows that the value found by Newton two centuries ago was
density may at great distances be exceeding slow, yet if the percent correct, — a wonderfully accurate result, even for
7 I
elastick force of this medium be exceeding great, it may Newton\
so incomparable a geometer as
suffice to impel Bodies from the denser parts of the Medium
His remarks in Qu. 22 have been raisconstructed by Sir
towards the rarer, with all that power which we call Gravity.
(9/zwr Z^4fr (Introduction to his » Aether of Space «, 1909),
And that the elastick force of this Medium is exceeding great,
in an effort to make it appear that Newton held the aether
may be gathered from the swiftness of its Vibrations. Sounds
to have a large density, but the context shows the miscon-
move about 1140 English feet in a Second Minute of Time,
struction involved in this claim. When Newton says that
and in seven or eight Minutes of Time they move about one
there is "less resistance (to the planets) in the aethereal
hundred English Miles. Light moves from the Sun to us in
about seven or eight Minutes' of Time, which distance is
medium than in any fluid which fills all space adequately
without leaving any pores, and by consequence is much denser
^bout 70000000 English Miles, supposing the horizontal
than quick-silver or gold?«, he means that the aether is very
Parallax of the Sun to be about 12". And the Vibrations
fine grained, more so than any material fluid like quick-silver
or Pulses of this Medium that they may cause the alternate
Fits of easy Transmission and easy Reflexion, must be swifter
or gold, which has pores. He thus held the aether to be
so fine grained that it could truly act as a plenum, yet as-
than Light, and by consequence above 700000 times swifter
signed this medium excessively small density. »Maynotits
than Sounds. And therefore the elastick force of this Medium,
resistance be so small as to be inconsiderable ? For instance
in proportion to its density, must be above 700000 times
If this aether (for so I will call it) should be supposed 700000
700000 (that is above 490000000000) times greater than
times more elastic than our air, and above 700000. times
the elastic force of the Air in proportion to its density.
For the Velocities of the Pulses of elastic Mediums are in
more rare« —
which shows clearly that Newton's value of
the density of the aether is
a sub-duplicate Ratio of the Elasticities and the Rarities of
the Mediums taken together.* a= Y7 0.ooi293><Cio~^ = 0.000000001849 (95}
»As Attraction is stronger in small Magnets than in that of water == or c = 1/700000,
i, of ^ that air i.

great ones in proportion to their bulk, and Gravity is greater

b) Views of Maxwell, 1877.
in the surfaces of small Planets than in those of- great ones
and small Bodies are agitated In the article Aether, Encyclopedia Britannica, 9'*^ ed.^
in proportion to their bulk,
much more by than great ones; so the
electric attraction p. 572, 1878, Maxwell speaks as follows regarding the mole-
cular constitution of the aether: »Mr. i". Tolver Preston (Phil.
smallness of the Rays of Light may contribute very much
Mag., Sept. and Nov., 1877) has supposed that the aether is
to the power of the Agent by which they are refracted.
And so if any one should suppose that Aether (like our Air) like a gas whose molecules very rarely interfere with each

may contain Particles which endeavour to recede from one other, so that their mean path than any pla-
is far greater

another (for I do not know what

this Aether is) and that
netary distances. He
has not investigated the properties of
exceedingly smaller than those of Air, or such a medium with any degree of completeness, but it is
its Particles are
easy to see that we might form a theory in which the mole-
even than those of Light: The exceeding smallness of its
cules never interfere with each other's motion of translation^
Particles may contribute to the greatness of the force by
but travel in all directions with the velocity of light; and
which those Particles may recede from one another, and
if we further suppose that vibrating bodies have the power
thereby make that Medium exceedingly more rare and elastick
of impressing on these molecules some vector property (such
than Air, and by consequence exceedingly less able to resist
the motions of Projectiles, and exceedingly more abl6 to press
as rotation aboutan axis) which does not interfere with their
motion of translation, and which is then carried along by
upon gross Bodies, by endeavouring to expand itself.
the molecules, and if the alternation of the average value
»Qu. 22. May not Planets and Comets, and all gross
of this vector for all the molecules within an element of
Bodies, perform their Motions more freely, and with less
resistance in the Aethereal Medium than in any Fluid, which volume be the process which we call light, then the equations
fills Space adequately without leaving any Pores, and by
all
which express this average will be of the same form as that
consequence is much denser than Quick-silver or Gold ? For which expresses the displacement in the ordinary theory.
instance; If this Aether (for so I will call it) should be Accordingly it will be seen that the present paper is
supposed 700000 times more elastic than our Air, and 700000 a development of the reasoning sketchtd by Newton, 1721,,
times more rare; its resistance would be above 600000000 and again briefly outlined by Maxwell in 1877.
 . :

I8i 5048 182

The vector property, such as rotation about an axis, The path of the light, from a terrestrial source, is thus
which Maxwell supposes might be impressed on the aether made and perpendicular to the direction of the earth's
parallel
molecules, will be furnished by the wave motion in the aether, orbital motion and the two half beams mutually inter-
;

when the waves are taken to be flat in the planes of the changed for observation of the relative displacement of the
equators of ordinary atoms. This is shown in the theory of interference fringes.
magnetism outlined in the first paper, and will be treated In his work on Light Waves and their Uses, 1903,
of more fully in the third paper, in connection with a cor- p. 158, Michelson sums up his experience thus:
rection to the fundamental conceptions of the wave -theory
»It was found that there was no displacement of the
of light.
interference fringes, so that the result of the experiment was
negative and would, therefore, show that there still is a dif-
II. Under Theory of the Aether
the Kinetic
ficulty in the theory itself; and this difficulty, I may say,
Michelsori% Celebrated Experiment of 1887 should
has not been satisfactorily explained*.
yield a Negative Result. New Theory of Stellar
Aberration based on the Motion of Light relatively By the reasoning given below, in describing Fitzgerald^^
hypothesis, sect. 12, it is shown that the effect sought is
to the moving Earth.
very small, depending on the square of vjc i/ioooo, the =
In. tke Philosophical Magazine for ,1887, Prof Michelson ratio of the velocity of the earth in its orbit to the velocity
describes the famous experiment which he devised to detect of light, and thus of the order of i 100 000 000. But :

the effect of a supposed aether drift past the earth, due to Michelson estimates that by his improved apparatus he could
an assumed effect of the earth's orbital motion. In this see fringe displacements of i part in 4000000000 if they
experiment a beam of light, from a terrestrial source, is split existed;and thus the precision of the apparatus exceeded the
into two parts, one of which is sent to and fro across the magnitude of the fringe displacement sought by forty fold.
line of the supposed aether drift, while the other is 'sent
On repeatedunder favorable conditions, everything
trial,
along the line of the aether drift.
behaved exactly were stagnant. Michelson
as if the aet"her
A is employed
semi-transparent mirror set at a 45° angle
therefore suspected the difficulty to be in the theory itself;
to split the beam,and a pair of normal and ordinary mirrors and we shall now examine into this question, to see if any
set perpendicular to the two half beams, are employed to
ground for this impression can be found.
return the half beams whence they came, thus enabling them
Owing to the translatory motion of the earth, we may
to enter the observer's eye through a telescope.
change the fixed Newtonian coordinates to correspond to
uniform motion in the direction of the x-axis:
W\ N
x' = X — vt y' =y z' == z f ^ t (96)

At the initial epoch = t o, we may equate these coor-

dinates to zero, and our transformations, owing to the motion
/' // f/ / / of the earth, become:

ai [X- vt) y = 3^y^ g' = CiZi. (97)

Since the velocity of light is the same in reference to

the fixed and moveable systems of coordinates, at the instant
t ^f= o, we .
get for identities of the spherical wave sur-
faces propagated from the moving source of light

x^^y^-^z'^ = c'^e x'^-hy'^-^z'-^ = c^ f^ (98)-

where c is the velocity of light.

Under the kinetic theory any heavenly body carries an

electrodynamic wave-field about its Centre of figure, in perfect
kinetic equilibrium. The amplitude of the waves and there-

beam fore the density of the aether is arranged as shown in the ac-
Fig. 10. Illustration of the paths of the split
of light in Michelson'i experiment of 1887, companying diagram (p. 183), where the two stars may have the
one part traveling along the direction of independent motions indicated by the vectors. The motion
the earth's orbital motion, the other at right of either star automatically carries with it that star's own
angles thereto.
wavefield, and each field is independent of the other, just as
The apparatus was mounted on a stone support about the field of light waves emitted by any star is independent
4 feet square, and one foot thick, and this stone in turn of that propagated from any other star. Hence owing to the
mounted on a circular disk of wood which floated in a tank earth's orbital motion we have the phenomenon of stellar
of mercury. The resistance to rotation of the floating disk aberration, as if the aether were really stagnant, because the
is very small, and a slight pressure on the circumference wave -field has no motion relatively to the earth, though
enables the observer to turn it around in say five minutes, the earth itself moves, and thus generates the aberration,
with practically no oscillation. as follows:
 « .

183 5048 184

wave-field in kinetic equilibrium, moves with

the earth, and the gravitational potential de-
pends on the integration of all these wavelets
between the limits —00 to -Hoo.
Thus the triple integral for the potential'
corresponds to a trebly infinite system of
wavelets due to stresses decreasing with the
distance, yet superposed at. all points of space,
but the potential for any body itself is finite,
as in the theory of action at a distance.

./ <

Xdx djf dz (99)

Some of the individual wave surfaces

from any one particle become,-
Fig. 1 1
.'
Illustration of the proper motion of two stars which carry with them con-
centric wave-fields in perfect kinetic equilibrium, just as they carry their
spheres of gravitational influence due to these waves. There is thus no
x"^-hy"''-
such thing as a motion of the aether past the earth, in the sense imagined
by Young, 1803, who compared the aether, supposed to be streaming
through the earth, to the wind blowing through the tops of trees.
r9 2^2= f2/-2.

The light from a distant star travels independently of The wave surfaces have a common and
individual
the motion of Jhe earth and of its moving aether wave-field. parallel displacement in space,, v dsldt 30 kins, owing =
Hence to take account of the earth's forward motion, in to.the orbital motion of the earth.
respect to space, we may imagine the parallel rays of light Yet the stress of the aether, in kinetic equilibrium, is
from the star to be given a backward motion Si identical determined by the compounding of the effects of the waves
with the forward motion of the earth, £/. This is the true emanating from the earth. This fixes the density and rigidity
motion of the light relatively to the moving earth, and by of the aether, which is arranged symmetrically about the
this simple device, stellar aberration is perfectly explained. vibrating particles of the globe. Accordingly, under the
The light actually comes from the direction ^5, and a re- kinetic theory, the aether is stagnant in respect to the moving
fractive medium in the path will have no effect whatever. earth, precisely as found by Michelsop in his celebrated
experiment of 1887.
Hence no theory but the kinetic theory, with the par-
ticles moving 1.57 times faster than light, can be admitted.
This follows at once from our investigation of the enormous
elasticity of the aether, which gives the physical cause of
the observed velocity of 300000 kms per second, for the

Fig. 12. A and simple explanation of the phenomenon

direct wave motions constituting light and electricity.
of stellar aberration, based on the motion of light Thus
only remains to state clearly the kinetic hypo-
it
relatively to the moving earth.
thesis underlying thewave-theory of physical forces, naraelyr
rThe reasoning o^ KUnkerfues, about the refractive index We conceive all atoms of matter to receive and to emi.t waves,
of the medium in which the light penetrates, does not deal without regard to the motion of these atoms relatively to
-with the motion of the light relatively to the moving earth, other atoms, just as we know the stars emit their typical
and thus has no bearing on the subject. And likewise Airy^ spectral lines in spite of their proper motions in space.
observational experiment, with the zenith telescope tube 36 Accordingly, as the Aether corpuscles have the enormous
inches long, filled with water (Greenwich Observations, 187 i, velocity of 471000 kms per second, this medium is taken to
p. 1-16), is misapplied ingenuity^). The negative results ob- be in kinetic equilibrium about the moving earth, which will
tained by these authorities is proof of the correctness of the secure the law of density a ^v r, and of wave amplitude
simple view here set forth. A == k/r. For the .aether has an elasticity 689321600000
Accordingly, just as each star carries its own wave-field times greater than that of our air in proportion to its density,
with it, so also, each particle of vibrating matter in the and if any lack of perfect kinetic equilibrium existed, it
earth, sends out its system of spherical waves, and the whole would disappear from the aethereal envelope of the earth
'

') Though I have examined many authorities I can find no satisfactory explanation of the aberration. They are all confused, by some
such reasoning as the following, from Michehoji's Light Waves and their Uses, 1903, p. 151; »The objection to this explanation [Bradley's)
was, however, raised that if this angle (so'.'s) were the ratio of the velocity of the earth in its orbit to the velocity of light, and if we filled
a telescope with water, in which the velocity of light is known to be only three-fourths of what it is in air, it would take one and one-third
.times as long for the light to pass from the center of the objective to the cross-wires, and hence we ought to observe, not the actual angle,
of aberration, but one which should, be one-third greater. The experiment was actually tried. A telescope was filled with water, and obser-
vations on various stars were continued throughout the greater part of the year, with the result that almost exactly the same value was found
for the angle of aberration.
 « .

i85 5048 186

in an infinite!}' small fraction of a second, owing to the do not appreciably carry the ether with them. Their motion
mean velocity of the aetherons being 47 1000 kms per second. does not seem to disturb it in the least.
12. Sir Oliver Lodged Experiments for detecting »The presumption is that the same is true for the
the Viscosity of the Aether, 1891-97, and Fitzgerald'^ earth; but the earth is a big body — it is conceivable that
Hypothesis of a contraction of the dimensions of so great a mass may be able to act when a small mass would
bodies in the direction of their motion. fail. 1 would not like to be too sure about the earth — at

.In the Philosophical Transactions, 1893-97, Sir Oliver least, not on a strictly experimental basis. What I do feel
Lodge describes elaborate experiments with revolving steel sure of is that if moving matter disturbs ether in its neigh-

disks, about a meter in diameter, which he had spun with borhood at'all, it does so by some minute action, comparable
the highest possible speed, in close proximity to a split beam in amount perhaps to gravitation, and possibly by means of

of light, arranged as in Michelson's experiment of 1887, in the same property as that to which gravitation is due — not

the hope of discovering a relative displacement of the fringes, by anything that can fairly be likened to etherial viscosity.
due to viscosity of the aether. The experiment was well So far as experiment has gone, our conclusion is that the
conceived, and executed with great skill, but it failed to give viscosity or fluid friction of the ether is zero. And that is

the smallest indication of a displaicement such as viscosity an entirely reasonable conclusion.*

of the aether would be supposed to yield. The results were In view of our theory of a kinetic medium, we may
entirely negative, and Lodge, like Mickelson, could only con- now go further than Fresnel, Mickelson and Sir Oliver Lodge,
clude that the aether behaves as if it were absolutely stagnant- and declare that as the corpuscular aether, readjusts itself
Let us now consider why the negative results oi Mickelson instantly to any state of steady motion, it follows that the
and Lodge follow, if the aether be a kinetic medium such as motion of the earth can in no way disturb it. There is
Newton, Maxwell and Dr. ^. Tolver Preston conceived it to be, planetary induction indeed, from the wave-effect due to the
and such as we have found it to be by exact calculations. relative motion of the sun and earth, but this is observable

If the aether be corpuscular, the particles having a only by magnetic instruments, and not by means of other ,

velocity 1.57 times that of light, it is obvious that it will apparatus used in physical experiments.
adjust itself instantly to any state of steady motion, and that If, as is definitely proved by calculation, the aether

this kinetic equilibrium will be obtained more rapidly than has an elasticity 689321600000 times greater than that of-
even the propagation of light. And when Sir Oliver Lodge's our air in proportion to its density, it is obvious that it not
moving disk is revol-^ing steadily, the aether will act as if
only penetrates all bodies, but even the- electrodynamic waves
it were absolutely stagnant. in the aether may traverse the body of the terrestrialglobe
with only a small resistance, giving merely refraction, dis-
persion, and perhaps absorption, of part of the energy, as we
have shown iri the theory of the lunar fluctuations (Electrod.
Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. I, 1917). It not only follows ,

that this adjustment of the aether to any state of steady motion

will occur, but also that no power in the universe could
prevent such, a kinetic adjustment, in theall-pervading medium,
under the above stupendous elastic power which it exerts
against itself. "It is thereby .rendered almost incompressible,
the waves traveling with a velocity of 300000 kms per second.
The meaning of such rapid propagation of.
physical
waves is this: When a wave begins to be generated, the
disturbance speeds away very rapidly, so that the- movement
is not cyclicly complete until a wave length X has been

traversed.. As the amplitude a is very small, compared to /.,

.

— as Lord Kelvin, Maxwell and Larmor have shown, — it

follows that the aether is nearly incompressible, though the
density at the sun's surface is only
Fig. 13. Illustration of Sir apparatus for effecting a dis-
Olive?- Lodge's,
placement pf the aether, owing to viscosity, by the rapid rotation (T ^ ^.oX io~^* .

of disks of steel, near which a split beam of light is passed.

These last considerations also show why we cannot
Hence the conclusion reached by Sir Oliver Lodge disturb the aether by revolving. disk experiuients.
Accordingly
(Aether of Space, p. 82), as to the revolving disk experiments, it is remarkable that Prof F. E: Nipker, of St. Louis,
not
was natural enough and quite justified in the premises, when has ^succeeded in disturbing the aether only by means of
he declared: »I do not believe the ether moves. It does not explosions of dynamite, an explosive of enormous power and
move at a five-hundredth part of the speed of the steel disks. excessively quick action. This not only shows the futiliiV
'

Further experience confirms and strengthens this estimate, of viscosity "experiments, with comparatively slow, steady
and my conclusion is that such things as circular -saws, motions, as when the revolving disks, a meter in diaineter,
flywheels, railway trains, and all ordinary masses of matter make 66 rotations in a second -^j, but also confirms the
_') This is only i 12356195 of the velocity of the aetheron, 471239000 m per second.
 « «

5048 ;88

extremely rapid readjustment of the aether when disturbed. such an alteration in dimensions is' consistent with sound
Therefore it follows that our theory of a kinetic medium, physical laws.
with the particles traveling 1.57 times faster than light, is By this hypothesis of Fitzgerald, the end-on-dimensions
in accordance with all the established facts of observation. of a moving body is shortened

After giving a summary of all the known effects (Aether

of Space, 62-63), Lodge concludes that the aether behaves
p.
under experiment as if it were stagnant with respect to the
earth. »Well then, perhaps it is stagnant. The experiments
1 have quoted do not prove that it is so. They are equally
consistent with its perfect freedom and with its absolute Fig. 14. Illustration of Fitzgerald's liypothesis that the
stagnation, though they are not consistent with any inter- dimensions of a body, moving freely, uniformly,
mediate position. Certainly, if the aether were stagnant and without constraint, is decreased in the di-
rection of the motion.
nothing could be simpler than their explanation.
aether as a kinetic medium as shown in the figure. This hypothetical change is not
The new theory of the
sought by Michelson and Lodge,
stagnant quality postulated for the starting of a body in motion — where
gives the
yet it preserves the »perfect freedom* with which the ex- its figure might be changed in overcoming inertia, when
the forward velocity is being developed — but for a body
periments are consistent.
already in uniform rectilinear motion, and thus so far as is
Accordingly, the aether being a perfectly elastic cor-
puscular medium, always adjusting its internal stresses with
known subjected to no strain of its linear dimensions.
Newton's first law of motion (Principia, Lib. I, Axioms)
at least the velocity of light — the individual particles having
»Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform
a velocity of 1.57 times greater yet, — it follows that around
is:

a body moving with uniform velocity there could be exerted

motion in a right line,, unless it is compelled to change that
state by forces impressed thereon.
no sustained forces, impressed or acting upon the atoms, to
» Projectiles persevere in their motions, so far as they
alter the linear dimensions of the uniformly moving body;
are not retarded by the resistance of the air, or impelled
and hence we reject Fifzgerald'% hypothesis as altogether
misleading.
downwards by the force of gravity. A top, whose parts by

'Hypothesis, that the linear dimen- their cohesion are perpetually drawn aside from rectilinear
i^/fe,f<'ra/flf's
motions, does not cease its rotation, otherwise than as it
sions of bodies are altered by motion relative to
the aether, superfluous and misleading. is by the air. The
retarded greater bodies of the planets
and comets, meeting with less resistance in more free spaces,
In Nature for June 16, 1892, Sir Oliver Lodge mentions
preserve their motions both progressive and circular for a
a conversation with the late Prof. Geo. F. Fitzgerald, (cf. also
much longer time.«
Lodges Aether of Space, igog, p. 68) to the effect that the
If these axioms were obvious to Sir Isaac Newton, it
dimensions of material bodies are slightly altered when they
will no doubt be equally obvious to us that a body may
are in motion relative to the aether. The negative result of
have its dimensions altered in acquiring a velocity, as —
the Michelson- Morley exYttnxae-ni of 1887 was the occasion
when a ball is struck by a bat — yet the elasticity of the
which called forth Fitzgerald's hypothesis.
body immediately assert itself, so that the figure will
will
If V
be the velocity of the earth's orbital motion, c the
oscillate about its mean or undisturbed form; and after a
velocity of light, / the length of path traversed by the beam
cert^n time the original figure will become restored. And
of light divided in Michelson's experiment; then, one of the
thereafter there will be no permanent change of figure. This
two portions of a split beam of light should make its journey
is. a fact of universal experience, and may be verified ex-
in less time than the other by the interval V^ljc^, if the
perimentally 'in our laboratories by all manner of actual
aether be motionless, as Michelson supposed.
itself This
measurements.
difference, however, would be compensated if the arm of
The most careful physical experiments show that bodies
the apparatus pointed in the direction of the earth's motion
placed under constraint, tend very rapidly to restore their
were shorter than the other by an amount Y2 V^ljc"^, which
figures of equilibrium. Accordingly it follows that bodies
would follow if the linear dimensions of moving bodies are
having uniform motion of long duration in any direction,
contracted in the direction of their motion in the ratio of
could not undergo changes of figure, in virtue of uniform
(i-V,FV) to !.
motion, without physical constraint, which in turn would call
Now for the earth the ratio in question is: forth the power of restitution, at the instant of release.
F/c = 3okm/sec: 300000 km/sec = i/ioooo (loi) Hence in uniform unrestrained motion no alteration in' the
and the square V'^jc'^ == i/i 00000000 (102) figure of equilibrium appropriate to a state of rest would be

which shows that the alteration in dimensions — namely possible, and Fitzgerald's contraction hypothesis is contrary
to the order of Nature.
6l={^l,V^'lc']l (,03)
is only one two hundredth millionth. (The minuteness of In concluding this second paper, it is scarcely necessary
this hypothetical observed effect would make detection by to point out that prior to the
development of the kinetic theory
experiment extremely difficult, even if a valid method could of the aether, experiments like those made by Michelson and
be devised. But let us consider, on other grounds, whether Morley and Sir Oliver Lodge led to the idea of a stagnant.
 i89 5048 190
aether. There are indeed profound reasons why the aether bracing the untenable speculations of Einstein when the facts
should act as
were absolutely stagnant, whereas the
,
if it of observation themselves are insecurely established.
particles really move 1.57 times faster than Hght, and thus
.
And as for the overdrawn statement of Prof. Sir J. J.
the medium instantly adjusts itself to any state of steady Thomson, President of the Royal Society, that the supposed
motion, whatever it may be; because the motion of the larger value of the solar deflection of light indicated by the
aetheron is 10000 fold.fastej than that of our swiftest planets, eclipse observations of May 2g, .1919, »is,the most important
and over two millions of times faster than any steady result obtained in connection with the theory of gravitation
artificial motions which we can make experimentally, as in. •imch- Newton'^ day, and it- is fitting that it should be an-
the researches of Sir Oliver Lodge with rapidly revolving nounced at a meeting. of the society' so closely connected
disks of steel. with him«, it suffices to call attention to the unfortunate
On the old hypotheses the Michelson-Morley experiment impression thus conveyed to investigators, who remember on
of 1887 was admirably adapted to detect the effect of the the one hand the historical fact that the Royal Society in
earth'smotion through the aether. Little did these eminent 1686 refused to publish 1) Newton's Principia, and thus it had
experimenters dream that the earth carried its wave-field of
-
to be issued at the private expense of Dr. Edmund Halley
aether with it, — aU infinitelyextended and adjusted in (cf Brewster's Life oi Newton, 2 vols., 1855), and on the
perfect kinetic equilibrium. This wave-field has decreased other. hand the vast development and perfection of the theory
density towards the centre, of the increased am-
in virtue of gravitation since made by Euler, Clairault, Lagrange,
plitudes of the waves emanating from the atoms, and thus Laplace, Poisson, Bessel, Gauss, Hansen, Leverrier, 'Airy, De-
is truly stagnant about the moving earth in respect of waves launay, Adams, Tisserand, Gylden, Hill, Newcomb, Foincard,
of light from distant stars, in the phenomenon of aberration. Darwin, and several eminent geometers still living.
Accordingly, whether the components of the split beam In contradistinction to the singular spectacle thus pre-
of light, from a terrestrial source, as used by Michelson, travel sented in the Royal Society, it is a relief to find a much
in the. direction of the earth's orbital motion, or at right
. more cautious attitude in the Monthly Notices for Nov;, 19 19,
angles thereto, no shift of the fringes is theoretically possible, p. 23, where Prof. Newall gives good reasons for rejecting
because of the perfect kinetic equilibrium of the wave-field Einstein's theory of the deflection of Hgbt in the sun's field,
of the aether about the earth and extending away from it in favor of optical refraction.
indefinitely;. In the Nineteenth Century Magazine, for Dec, 19 19,
For similar reasons Fitzgerald' % hypothesis rests on a Sir Oliver Lodge likewise is skeptical; for he reasons that if
false premise, and only beclouds the reasoning in this dif- we accept Einstein's theory in death knell
its entirety,' »the
ficult subject. The fundamental condition required for real of the aether will seem been
sounded, strangely
to -have,
progress is a valid kinetic theory of the aether, such as efficient properties will be attributed to emptiness, and
Newton first outlined two hundred years ago, and Maxwell theories of light and of gravitation will have come into
approved in 1877, but left very incomplete, owing to the being unintelligible on ordinary dynamical principles*. Such
premature death of this great mathematician. protests would indicate that the" Newtonian philosophy still
Since the difficulties connected with the motion of the has. some supporters in England, but apparently they are not
perihelion of Mercury and of the lunar perigee, as well as aware of the of their cause, as now brought to
real strength
the lunar fluctuations, which Newcomb pronounced the most light in the New Theory
of the Aether.
enigmatical phenomena presented by the celestial motions, ' Accordingly, in view of the comprehensive results al-
are fully overcome, without any mystical doctrine such as ready reached in the New Theory of the Aether, the 'defenders
Einstein introduces, it is evident that the whole theory of of the Newtonian mechanics could hardly wish for a more
relativity, as heretofore developed, is shaken to its founda- complete triumph. And it is gratifying to realize that it is
tions, and will no longer deserve the serious consideration based upon the original conceptions of Sir Lsaac Newton
of natural philosophers. himself, after the simple and elegant theory of this great
For several years experienced investigators in all parts philosopher had been almost completely abandoned by his
of the world have wondered at the strange sight presented countrymen.
by British men of science in unjustifiably abandoning the I am indebted to my young friend Mr. E. L. Middleton,

established natural philosophy of Newton, and hastily em- for valuable assistance in the completion of this investiga.tion.

Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, 1920 Febr. 19. T. J. J. See.

') known delay of 14 years (1807-1821) in the publication oi Fourier' % mathematical researches on the theory of heat seems
The well
Academy of Sciences in an equally unfortunate light. In the Eloge Historique of Fourier delivered by Arago, blame is
to place the Paris
placed on the commissioners of the Academy —
Lagrange, Laplace and Legendre '— for poisoning the pleasure of Fourier's, triumph, which
Lord Keivin has also criticized. As no commissioners could be more competent than the three geometers just cited, history often is witness
to the weaknesses of the highest acadtemies of sciences; and hence, in his very original Researches in the Lunar Theory, 1877, Dr. G. W. Hill
had recourse to private publication, which probably was better than the fate accorded to Newton and Fourier.
 1 ,

Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. Nr. 5079.

(Band 2 12. — Dezember 1920.)

New Theory of the Aether. By T. J. J. See.

(Third Paper.) (With 3 Plates.)

I. Two Remarkable Theorems on the Physical the aether based on an extension of recognized processes
Constitution of the Aether. in As the only method for attacking
the theory of sound.
In the year o Professor E. T. Whittaker published,
i q i the problem of the density of the aether heretofore known
under the auspices of the Dublin University Press, a valuable is by Lord Kelvin in 1854, this new method
that invented
» History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity* from willprove extremely useful as an independent check on the
the age of Descartes to the close of the ig'*" century. The numerical values attained in these recondite researches; and
title of this useful treatise and the general usage of science be found the more valuable because it is absolutely decisive
recognizes that there is some connection between aether against the doctrine of a large density for the aether, which
and electricity, yet in spite of the great learning shown in has recently exerted in science an influence both baneful
Whittaker'% work, the nature of that connection remains pro- and bewildering.
foundly obscure, and the modern investigator therefore labors (i) The new theorem v,= ^j^n V, connecting the mean

in vain to obtain any clear light upon the subject. molecular velocity of a monatomic gas with the velocity of wave-
If we could prove, for example, that an electric current propagation, by means of half the Archimedean number, exactly
is nothing but a series of waves of a certain type propagated confirmed by observation in case of oxygen and nitrous oxide.
in the aether along and from the wire which bears the current, Since finishing the first paper on the New Theory of
and also connect these waves with magnetism and light, the Aether, Jan. 14, 1920, I have had occasion to discuss
by an extension of the reasoning thus laid down, it would the new theorem
add so much to our understanding of the processes under- v = y^_nV (i)

lying the unseen operations of the physical universe, as to connecting the mean molecular velocity of a monatomic gas
be worthy of almost any effort. Indeed, it would be worth and the velocity of wave-propagation, by means of half the
hazarding any chance offered by the conscientious contem- Archimedean number n, with the celebrated English physi-
plation of known phenomena. And thus I venture to add cist Sir Oliver Lodge, on the occasion of a public address
some considerations, which, without exhausting the subject, at San Francisco, April 11, 1920. And as Sir Oliver Lodge
may open a new field to those who have the independence, kindly showed a great interest in this theorem, regarded it
practical energy and firm resolution to ptlrsue pioneer paths as very important, and urged me to extend the use of the
in science. These untrodden paths alone offer the hope of theorem, I have searched for other gases to which it might
'important discoveries in the physical universe. be accurately applied,
And first we must confirm a new and important theo- The observed data given in the following supplemen-
rem on the velocity of wave-progagation in monatomic gases, tary table are taken from IViillner's, Experimental-Physik
announced in the first paper, and also make known a new Band i, p. 804, and were accidentally overlooked in the pre-
and very remarkable method for determining the density of paration of my earlier table.

Gas F(Air V observed rnolecular wt. »/,r(observed) r'/v-V(kJk2

Oxygen, O 0.9524 [Dulong] ^ 316.2 m 461.0 m 32.0 1.402 .458 5893

Nitrous-Oxide, NO2 0.7865 [Dulong] = 281. 393-0 44.0 I-29S 398 5858
The last column gives the observed ratio vj V as cor ! all of which molecular consti-
are of comparatively simple
rected for a monatomic constitution, or tution, we may regard it by experiment
as fully established

vlV-V[hlk,) = i.z& (2)

that such a physical law governs the motions of waves in
monatomic gases, and that the velocity of wave motion is
which verifies with great accuracy the use of half the Archi-
solely dependent upon the mean velocity of the molecules.
medean number n, in the theorem,
V = l/jTT V But in addition to the argument thus built up, for a-
high wave velocity, where- we have a rare gas of enormous
connecting the mean molecular velocity with that of wave-
molecular velocity, we may use the observed velocity of
propagation in monatomic gases. wave-propagation generally to throw light upon the molecular
As this theorem is now minutely verified for the six weights of all gases whatsoever. In the reference above given
best determined gases, namely: to M'ullner's Experimental-Physik, Band i, p. 804, we find
1. Air 4. Carbon dioxide CO-^ that the velocity of sound in hydrogen was found by Dulong
2. Hydrogen 5. Oxygen to be 3.8123 times that and by Regnault, 3.801 times
in air,

3. Carbon monoxide CO 6. Nitrous oxide NO^ that in air. The mean of the two values is 3.80665. Now
 !35 5079 236

the velocity of sound in oxygen found by Dulong was 0.9524 in hydrogen has a velocity 3.80665 times greater than in
times that in and on multiplying this by 4, we get
air; air,this is equivalent to 237550 times the velocity of sound
3.8096 for the theoretical velocity of sound in hydrogen. in hydrogen. But hydrogen is a biatomic gas with the ratio
But since oxygen is supposed to have only 15.98 times k^ =1. 40 1, while aether is monatomic, with the ratio
the molecular weight of hydrogen, we should use the square ki =1.666; and therefore to reduce the motion in hydrogen
root of this number, or 3.9975, instead of 4, for the multi- to the basis of a monatomic gas, we have to divide this
plier, which gives 3.8072; an almost exact agreement with number by V[kilh)'r= 1.090477, which leads to the num-
the mean of the velocities of sound in hydrogen found by ber 217839. This is the ratio of the velocity of light in a
Dulong and Regnault. monatomic aether to that of sound in a hypothetical mona-
It follows, from these considerations, that the velocity
tomic hydrogen, yet with density 0.0000896.
of wave motion in similar gases varies inversely as the square This result is based on the wave theory of sound as
roots of their densities. The fourfold increase in the velocity given by Sir Isaac Newton in the Principia, 1686 (Lib. II,
of sound in hydrogen compared to oxygen gives
that in Prop. XLVIII), which was corrected by Laplace in 18 16
us a definite law which may be applied directly to
all com- (cf. Mecanique Celeste, T. V. Liv. XII, p. 96, and Ann. Phys.

parable gases, and even to monatomic gases by the use of etChim., T. Ill, p. 288), to take account of the augmentation
the faktor V[h\k:^. of speed due, to the ratio of the specific heat of a gas under
constant pressure to that under constant volume. As above
(ii) New method for determining the density of the
used the formula for the propagation of sound is further
aether from the velocity of light and electric waves com-
corrected to take account of the increase in velocity in a
pared to that of sound in terrestrial gases.
monatomic gas, first inferred theoretically by Clausius about
Up to the present time only one general method has sixty years ago, but since verified experimentally for mercury
been available for calculating the density of the aether, and krypton. The formula
vapor, argon, helium, neon, xenon,
namely, that devised by Lord Kelvin for determining the thus becomes for aether and hydrogen, as reduced to a
mechanical value of a cubic mile of sunlight, and first monatomic elasticity:
published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh for May, 1854 (cf. Baltimore Lectures, 1904, p. 260). VxlV. = V{£xa2/£,ai) = 217839. (3)

This method was somewhat improved by the subsequent Under identical physical conditions at the surface of the
researches of Lord Kelvin, Maxtvell, and the present writer, earth, .£1 = £2, and thus
as duly set forth in the first paper on the New Theory of
the Aether (AN 5044, 211.49), yet the principle underlying
K1/F2 = l/(o-2/(ri) = 217839
or
it remains largely unchanged.

As would be very desirable

^1 = ^l"/f^2^ = CzM = (217839)^ = 47453880000 (4)
it to have a second in-
which is the density of hydrogen in units of that of aether.
dependent method for determining the density of the aether,
I have held in mind this great desideratum while occupied
To get the density of water in units of that of aether,

with the researches on the wave-theory, and finally it occurred

we take
to me to attack the problem from the point of view of the ^Vg = 7V"i/o. 0000896 = 529619000000000. (5)
velocity of sound in gases. For we have now shown that Accordingly the absolute density of the aether at the
the aether is a gas, with particles traveling 1.57 times swifter earth's surface becomes:
than and this general, theory is again confirmed by
light;
i/i\^2 == (r== 1888.15 -lo-is.
the discussion above given for waves of sound in oxygen (6)

and nitrous oxide. • should be noted that Lord Kelvin's method of 1854,
It

which we used in the first paper on the New Theory of the

Owing to its extreme rarity, the aether is the one ab-
Aether, is not strictly valid, because although it gives the
solutely perfect gas of the universe; and we may even use
density at the earth's mean distance, in units of the assumed
the velocity of light in the aether to calculate the density
density at the sun, this latter value itself cannot be found
of this medium. be shown, especially in the fourth
It will
by Kelvin's method, because of the decrease in the aether
paper, that there is much less difference between the waves
density near the earth, not heretofore taken account of.
of sound and light than we have long believed. In his lumi-
nous but neglected memoir of 1830, the celebrated French Let (Ts be the density at the neutral distance,
Qg, where
geometer Poisson, showed and thrice repeated, in spite of the sun's gravitational intensity is just equal to that
of the
the earlier repeated objections oi Fresnel, that in elastic media earth. Then, since at the solar surface the
mean gravity is
the motions of the molecules, at a great distance from the 27-86555 times terrestrial gravity (cf. AN
we have: 3992),
source of disturbance, are always normal to the wave front,
27-86555/(219)2= 1/^32 (7)
as in the theory of sound. And we shall show later how
optical and magnetic phenomena are be reconciled with
where Qg =
distance at which solar and terrestrial gravity

this incontestible result of Poisson's, analysis.

to
will just balance. This gives by calculation Qs 41.4868 = '

terrestrial radii, about of the moons distance.

V3 The
From the data paper on the New
given in the first following table gives the results of similar
calculations for
Theory of the Aether it follows that the velocity of light the absolute density of the aether at the
surfaces of the sun
is 904268 times swifter than that of sound in air. As sound and principal planets of the solar system.
237 5079 238

Table
 «

239 5079 240

tlieoretical value of wave propagation from the use of the Let u denote the displacement of the aether particle
ratio V[kijki). And if the velocity of the wave-propagation from vertical position of equilibrium, as on the surface
its

be observed in both cases, and we desire to determine the of still water. Then we have for a flat wave in the plane
relative density of one of the gases, we may effect this as xy the wellknown equation
in the above case of the aether, which absolutely excludes z^
= asin(27r-//T+-/) = asin(27r-Jc/A-+-/) (15)
the possibility of a large density. As the aether is a gas of
where u represents the displacement at right angles to the
excessively small density, therefore compressible, as length, and / the
a;-axis, a is the amplitude, X the wave
it is

previously inferred, but only by powerful, quick-acting forces. from which the revolving vector of radius a is
phase angle,
The study of the aether as a gas, in accordance with measured. Such a flat wave represents motion like that pro-
the views entertained hy Newton in 17 21, and approved by pagated along the surface of still water, and the movements
Maxwell in 1877, thus opens new possibilities, and introduces are given in detail by figure i, Plate 4, which is slightly
criteria of the utmost value to physical science. modified from that used by Airy in his great treatise on
Tides and Waves, 1845.
Geometrical and Physical Outline of the
2.
It will be noticed that each particle of water undergoes
Relationship between Light, Magnetism and the
Electrodynamic Action of a Current. an oscillation about a mean position, shown by the centres
of the circles, in this very accurate figure, while the wave
In the 3'^'*
edition of the celebrated Treatise on Op-
form moves on, in a direction corresponding to the axis of
tics, 17 2 1, Query 28, Sir Isaac Newton treats of Huyghens'
X in equation (15). Thus the particles undergo not only a
theory of double refraction in Iceland spar, on the hypo-
vertical oscillation, as the wave passes, but also a longitudinal
thesis of two several vibrating mediums within that crystal,
oscillation. This is typical of all waves in water.
for refracting the ordinary and extraordinary rays, but says
that Huyghens was at »For pressions
a loss to explain them. Now usual fo take (15) as the equation of the
it is

or motions, propagated from a shining body through an motion of the aether in light, and to call u the light vector,
uniform medium, must be on all 'sides aliise; whereas by and to describe this light vector as revolving, when the wave
these experiments it appears, that the rays of light have dif- advances. The motion u in (15), however, is simply a side
ferent properties on their different sides. displacement normal to the x-axis, which may be produced
by the revolution of the radius a in the circles, as in
proof of this confession of failure, by Huyghens,
In
our figure modified from Airy's analysis of water wave-
Newton from the Traitd de la Luraiere, 1690, p. qt,
cites
motion. The real motion of the aether particles should be
the words: »Mais pour dire comment cela se fait, je n'ay
somewhat elliptical, but much like those of the water par-
rien trouve jusqu'ici qui me satisfasse.«
ticles, about ^ mean position of radius a. Equation (15) then ''

Newton then argues effectively against the explanation will give only the side displacement, normal to the x-axis;
of Huyghens, and points out the improbability of two aethereal
and to get the whole motion of the particles we have to
media filling the celestial spaces, which has been emphasized take the components v and w normal to the jv-axis and z-axis
in recent times by Maxwell, who declared it unphilosophical
respectively. Then the three components of the directed
to invent a new aether every time a new phenomenon was
magnitude, which represents the oscillation of the particle
to be explained. about its mean position, will be
In the early days of the modern wave theory of light,
= acos[2Tf
u t/r-i-p)
the properties of polarized rays were carefully investigated
by Fresnel and Arago, and subsequently verified by Sir Joh7i
=V b coh[2TT.
tlz-^q) (16)

Herschel and Airy, who fully confirmed Newton's conclusion

w = 005(271 t/z-hr)
c •

that such rays have sides with dissimilar properties on op- {u/aY+{v/l>Y+(«^/cr = ^ (17)
posite sides. The account of JFresnel's progress given by
Arago in his filoge Historique, July 26, 1830, is -very in-
It will be proved hereafter that there is a fundamental
structive, since Arago was associated with many of FresneTs
error in the wave-theory of light, handed down by tra-
as
discoveries. Besides the able analysis in the celebrated and
dition from the days of Young and Fresnel; and that in a
comprehensive article Light, Encyclopedia Metropolitana, 1849,
ray of common light the aether particle not only has trans-
Sir John Hers cheTi, Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects,
verse motion, but also a corresponding longitudinal motion,
1867, are valuable, in showing his mature conclusions.
depending on the small ratio of the amplitude a to the wave
It being thus recognized that a ray of polarized light length X. After polarization these natural free motions of the
has sides, with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, it aether are restricted, by the resistance impressed upon natural
remains for us to forrn.a clear image of such a ray of light, light, in the surface action of reflection, or transmission
and to examine the phenomena of magnetism and electricity, through transparent bodies, crystals, etc., and by unsymmetrical
to ascertain if a relationship to light can be established. transparency in different directions, as in tourmaline, which
The late Professor Paul Drudes comprehensive Lehr- forces half the light into one plane and destroys the other
buch der Optik, Leipzig, iqoo, may be consulted for a modern half. Originally the general path of the aetheron was elliptical,
analysis of purely optical problems ; but, as our object is to and although now transformed into oscillations near one plane
outline relationships not heretofore developed, we shall make the vibrations in most cases still are narrow ellipses, because
the optical treatment very brief. it is proved by the reflection of plane polarized light from
 «

241 5079 242

a silver surface that an almost circular polarization results, Faraday'% discoveries. He found that, if heavy glass, bisul-
whereas that reflected from galena has very narrow ellipses. phide of carbon, etc., are placed in a magnetic field, a ray
This could not well result unless the polarized light before of polarized light, propagated along the lines of magnetic
reflection from these metals described narrow ellipses, which force, suifers rotation. The laws of the phenomenon were
are not exactly straight lines. carefully studied by Verdet, whose conclusions may be summed
Now the elliptical paths established by equations (16), up by saying that in ,a given medium the rotation of the
(17), (18), are similar to those" analysed by Herschel in plane for a ray proceeding in any direction is proportional
Section 618 of his great article Light, 1849. Suppose we to the difference of magnetic potential at the initial and
consider the part of these waves which in a polarized ray final points: In bisulphide of carbon, at 18° and for a
have only right-handed rotations. Then if such a selected difference of potential equal to unit C. G. S., the rotation of
beam traveling along the ^-axis be looked at flat on, from the plane of polarization of a ray of soda light is 0.0402
a point on the 2-axis, the paths of the aetherons would minute of angle.
resemble the motions of the particles of water in Airy's figure »A very important distinction should be noted between
given as fig. i, except that the aetherons may have paths more the magnetic rotation and that natural to quartz, syrup, etc.
highly elliptical than are shown by At'ry. This is the simplest In the latter the rotation is always right handed or always
form of the oscillations in the new wave-theory of light, left handed with respect to the direction of the ray. Hence
which will be developed in the fourth paper: and we shall now when the ray is reversed the absolute direction of rotation
see if it is possible to find corresponding oscillations in the is reversed also. A ray which traverses a plate of quartz
field of a magnet and of an electric current. in one direction, and then after reflexion traverses the same
In the year 1845 Faraday made a celebrated experi- thickness again in the opposite direction, recovers its original
ment in which he passed a beam of plane polarized light plane of polarization. It is quite otherwise with the rotation
along the lines of force; and discovered that when the light under magnetic force. In this case the, rotation is in the
travels in a material medium such as heavy lead glass, carbon- same absolute direction even though the ray be reversed.
disulphide, etc., the plane of polarization is twisted by the Hence, if a ray be reflected backwards and forwards any
action of the magnetic field. Not only is the plane of number of times along a magnetic force, the rotations
line of
polarization rotated, but the rotation increases in direct pro- due to the several passages all accumulated.
are The non-
portion to the length of path traversed; and even when the reversibility of light in a magnetized medium proves the
light is reflected back and forth many times the twisting of case to be of a very exceptional character, and (as was
the plane of polarization is always in the same direction argued by Sir W. Thomson) indicated that the magnetized
like the helix of a circular winding stairs, as was long ago medium is itself in rotatory motion independently of the
noted by John Herschel.
Sir propagation of light through it.«
In the Wave-Theory, Encyclopedia Britannica,
article Now if I understand this subject aright and my per- —
<f^ edition. Lord Rayleigh describes this rotation of the plane sonal correspondence with the late Lord Rayleigh shows
of polarization by magnetism as follows: that he concurred in the present writer's views we must —
»The possibilityinducing the rotatory property
of conceive a line of force, circhng around between the poles
in bodies otherwise free from it was one of the finest of of a rnagnet, to be the axis of rotation in magnetic wave-
motion, as shown by figure 2, repeated
from the first paper on the New Theory
of the Aether.
If this interpretation be admissible,
we see that just as plane polarized light
has sides, — with dissimilar properties on
o-''0'O-'O /rVr-t^i^-H^.za-''^'' 0PP°^''^ sides, as remarked by Newton,
Fresnel, Arago and Sir John Herschel, —
so also there are plane waves receding
from magnets with exactly the same sides,
with dissimilar properties on the opposite
sides. It is these sides with oppositely
directed rotations in the waves of the
aether which gives poles to magnets.^)
Magnetic polarity is thus directly
connected by similarity of the rotations
in the plane waves with plane polarized

Wav M Hon , ,t,

light. And just as the amplitude of light
waves decrease inversely as r, the distance
The wave-theory of magnetism, which gives a direct and simple
explanation of both attraction and repulsion, and harmonizes the
from the radiating centre (cf. Drude,
known phenomena of magnetism, optics and electrodynamic action. Lehrbuch der Optik, 1900, Teil II, Kap. II)
') » Newton came to the conclusion that each of the two rays (qf polarized light) had two sides; and from the analogy of this two-

sidedness with the two-endedness of a magnet the term polarization arose" —

Gage's Principles of Physics, 1897, p. 404.
 243 5079 244

so also in magnetism, the wave amplitudes follow the law: of the sun, the light of a candle, the light of a glow-worm.
A = kjr, giving the force / =^ k'^jr^, as observed in the Take away from the world electricity, and light disappears;
actions of magnetism and universal gravitation (cf. Electrod. remove from the world the luminiferous ether, and electric
Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, Vol. i, 19 17). Accordingly, and magnetic actions can no longer traverse space* (cf. Hertz,
the connection between magnetism and light is obvious, the Miscellaneous papers, p. 313).
moment we do not restrict our conceptions of light to the Hertz was not able to make out the details of the
side displacement in (15) relationship sought, but the experiments which he devised to
u ^^ asm{2n-x/k-hp) (ig) show waves are refracted, reflected and interfere,
that electric

but regard light as a disturbance involving a circular or like light waves,marked an epoch in the development of
ellipticaldisplacement of the particles about a mean position, radiotelegraphy, and have long since become classic. Yet
as the vector a representing this displacement in the case when others took up the work, after Hertz's premature death,
of a circle, revolves in a plane, which may be tilted at any whilst they verified and used his results, they did not add

angle relative to the coordinate axes. to the theory of the aether, which Hertz considered essential

In his celebrated article Light, 1849, Sir ^eAn Herschel to scientific progress. Hence the need still remained to tra-
shows, by carefully considered reasoning, that in the elliptical verse the lofty summits not yet explored [Hertz, 1. c, p. 327),
paths of the aethereal vibrations constituting light, the motion and to make out geometrically the nature of the displace-
of the aetheron is about the centre of the ellipses, just as ments involved in these waves.
is the path of a vibrating conical pendulum, which may also
Accordingly we have gone into the nature of light and
change the path of its motion under the steady application electricwaves in such a way as to illuminate this relation-
of small impulses. ship. Hertz remarks that to many persons Maxwell's electro-
Suppose the undisturbed position of an aetheron be magnetic theory is a book sealed with seven seals. Thus
taken as origin, and let two radii vectores, drawn from the the breaking of the seals, that we may read the details of

centre of the elliptical path to the disturbed aetheron, be o the illuminated pages, would alone give us a direct view of

and q'\ then we have the wellknown equations nature's secrets, and justify any treatment which would throw
== x'2+y2- light on obscure subject and
this confirm the doctrine of
.-vr^+_y^ o'2

qq' cos 6 = xx'-^yy' + zz'

continuity in natural philosophy.

cos© ^ cosa cosct'-Hcos/J cos/S'-Hcos/ cos;'' , , 3. Elder's Defective Theory of Magnetism has

cos^a + cos-/J + cos^;' = cos^ct'-Hcos^jS'-i-cos^;'' = i .

misdirected Thought in Modern Science: Simple
Explanation of Induction, and of the Dynamo on
The angle 6 measures the motion of the light vector
y'
the Wave-Theory.
in the plane of the ellipse, while the angles a, /J, y, a', /S',

are fixed by the direction cosines of the revolving radius (i) Elder's theory of aetherial circulation, and its per-

vector at any time. sistence since 1744.

It now remains to examine the disturbances taking Nothing could better illustrate the unsatisfactory state
place about a wire bearing an electric current flowing from of the traditional doctrines of electricity and magnetism, than
south to north, as in Oersted's experiment of i8ig. Here the old conception of a magnet, first outlined by Eulcr at
we notice that if the needle be suspended beneath the wire, Berlin, 1744, and since handed down,
with very slight
the north pole is deflected to the west by the action of the changes, and thus copied, with the original defects of sym,-
current. If the needle be suspended above the wire, under metry, into hundreds of works on physics used by the prin-
like conditions, the north pole is deflected to the east. cipal nations of the world.
It thus appears that just as magnets have plane waves It is authenticated, that in his university career at
— plane polarized light rotating in one direction,
like those of Basel, Euler had studied both anatomy and physiology. As-
and thus having dissimilar properties on opposite sides — an outcome of this anatomical research he was familiar with
so also an electric current has plane waves with sides, and the circulation of the blood in the human body. Thus he-
with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, as shown by understood the valvular structure in the arteries, which secures-
the study of Oersted's experiment of 18 19. This follows the flow of the blood in one direction only, as the heart
also from the production of magnets from common steel beats to expel the blood through the arterial system.
under the electrodynamic action of a solenoid, as in Amflrcs Accordingly when Euler attempted, twenty years later,.
experiment of 1822. to develop a theory of magnetism, which should reconcile
The correct theory of an electric current is that it is all the known facts, including the attraction of unlike and

made up of plane waves, flat in the plane through the axis the repulsion of like poles, he assumed a flux of the aether,,
of the wire, as shown in figure 12, section VI, and more fully along the axis of the magnet, inward at the south pole and
in figure 18 (PL 6), section IX, below. outward at the north pole, as shown in figure 3 Plate 4 .

In his celebrated address on the relations between ivom Euler' s work (Dissertatio de Magnete, 1744, published
light and electricity, Sept. 20, 1890, Herts tried to illu- in Euler's Opuscula, vol. Ill, Berlin, 1751, Plate I).
minate the connection previously recognized by Maxwell, and This remarkable figure has been handed down by tra-
distinctly referred both light and electricity to the aether. dition for 176 years, and its validity apparently seldom or
»I am here«, he says, »to support the assertion that light of never questioned, though it probably is less used of late
every kind is itself an electrical phenomenon the light — years than formerly. It appears in the physical treatises of
 :

245 5079 246

allcountries, and has vitiated even the mathematical theory To be sure that no injustice was done to Euler, I took
of Maxwell (Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. II., a small magnetic needle, suspended by a thread accurately
p. 28, § 404). fastened to its centre, and found by actual trial how this
Maxwells reasoning is as follows small magnet behaved when substituted for the soft iron wire
»The magnetic force and the magnetic induction are described above.
identical outside the magnet, but within the substance of the We find by trial that the suspended needle also is
magnet they must be carefully distinguished.* drawn from the equator of the magnet towards either pole,
»In a straight uniformly magnetized bar the magnetic exactly as in the case of the soft iron wire above used. The
force due to the magnet from the end which points
itself is deflection of the supporting thread from the vertical direction
north, which we call the positive pole, towards the south of gravity, shown by the glass marble suspended in the
end or negative pole, both within the magnet and in the centre of the field, under actual trial, shows this clearly and
space without.* unmistakably.
The lack of symmetry and of appropriate physical seems therefore absolutely certain that Euler'% de-
It
basis to this reasoning is so truly remarkable as to occasion fective theory of magnetism, with fatal lack of essential sym-
genuine surprise that it should have been used by Maxwell. metry, yet copied in all the works on physics for the past
He continues: 176 years, was an oversight due to the partial blindness of
»The magnetic from
induction, on the other hand, is that great mathematician, and thus excusable. But what shall
the positive pole to the negative and
outside the magnet, we say of the careless reasoning of physicists, which has
from the negative pole to the positive within the magnet, enabled this unsymmetrical and unnatural figure to be handed
so that the lines and tubes of induction are reentering or down unchanged through nearly two centuries, or else mended
cyclic figures.* by strained reasoning like that used by Maxwell above?
This and unnatural theory is outlined in the
artificial It may perhaps
be allowed that the above experimental
accompanying see Fig. 4 PL 4.
sketch, Fig. 5 PL 4 illu- result definitely the electrod. wave -theory of
establishes
strates the usage oi Euler's Circulation Theory of a Magnet magnetism, set forth in the Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys.
in various modern works. The figure above, on the left is Fore, vol. I, 1917. Accordingly, since we have attained a
from Millikan and Gale's First Course in Physics, 1906; that natural point of view, based on recognized symmetry, for the
to the right is from Gazebrook's Electricity and Magnetism, theories of electricity and magnetism, we shall see how fully
1903; the sphere below is from CrystaU's article on Magnetism, the new theory, is confirmed by definite phenomena which
Encycl. Brit., g Ed., 1875; while the figure to the right, below, are simple and easily understood.
is from Drude's Physik des Aethers, 1894.
(ii) Maxwell's, difficulties overcome by the wave-theory.
It appears that Maxwell adhered to Eztler'% conceptions

so far as induction is concerned, but added to it to explain

But, first of all, we call attention to the fact that in his

magnetic force.
paper On Physical Lines of Force (Scientific Papers, vol. I,

The anomaly of imagining the magnetic force to oppose p. 468) Maxwell searched diligently but in vain for the answer
to the question: »what is an electric current?*
the induction within the body of the magnet, but not with-
out, is striking, and probably due to the habit of referring »I have found great difficulty,* he says, »in conceiving
all actions to that of a unit north pole. of the existence of vortices in a medium side by side, re-

On the other hand the much simpler conceptions of volving in the same direction about parallel axes. The con-
the Wave-theory, 19 17, need no emphasis. We there imagine tiguous portions of consecutive vortices must be moving in

the stress in the aether to be due to waves from all the opposite directions; and it is difficult to understand how the

atoms, so that the lines of force —

which are the axes of motion of one part of the medium can coexist with, and even
rotation of the receding waves —
tend to shorten themselves, produce, an opposite motion of a part in contact with it.*
as Faraday had observed, and as we have explained me- »The only conception which has at all aided me in
chanically in the second paper on the New Theory of the conceiving of this kind of motion is that of the vortices
Aether. being separated by a layer of particles, revolving each on
It is very difficult to account for the defective theory its own axis in the opposite direction to that of the vortices,

of 1744 except by remembering that Euler had injured so that the contiguous surfaces of the particles and of the
eyesight, which did not enable him to detect the true sym- vortices have the same motion.*
metrical nature of magnetism, by experiments with soft iron, »In mechanism,when two wheels are intended to re-
•or with smaller magnetic needles, as shown in the accom- volve in the same direction, a wheel is placed between them '

panying photograph, see Fig. 6 PL 4, of an experiment so as to be in gear ^yith both, and this wheel is called an
made by the present writer, 19 14. ,idle wheel'. The hypothesis about the vortices which I have
Soft iron paper fasteners freely suspended by threads to suggest is that a layer of particles, acting as idle wheels,
are used to indicate the pulling from the equator towards is interposed between each vortex and the next, so that each
either pole of the magnet. The lines of force thus visibly vortex has a tendency to make the neighbouring vortices
tighten and shorten themselves by the aetherial suction into revolve in the same direction with itself.*

either pole; and Euler % defective theory of an inward flow The difficulty here described by Maxwell is immediately
at the south pole and an outward flow at the north pole is solved by the wave-theory, for when a continuous series of
disproved by observations which any^one can make for himself waves are flowing, the rotatory motions of all the particles
 247 5079 248

of the medium are same direction, as we see from

in the magnetic metal is at relative rest, but the moment any relative
the above Fig. i, from Airy, and no such antagonism
PI. 4, motion takes place, the wave-field penetrating the non-magnetic
as Maxwell mentions can arise. Surely this removal of metal undergoes change, and this change of the wave-field
Maxwell'?, difficulty, along with the complicated structure of disturbs the equilibrium of the aether in the non-magnetic
»idle wheels«, which he devised for the stationary aether metal, and the result is induction, or the generation of electric
vortices, in default of wave-motion, must be considered a very waves in the metal, which becomes temporarily magnetic.
remarkable triumph of the wave-theory. The metal therefore emits waves with whirls or rotations
In 1914 I found by careful experiment that a suspended opposite to that of the inducing magnet.
magnetic needle is bodily attracted to a wire bearing a current, Now in our demonstration of the cause of magnetism,
owing to the interactions of the waves from the wire and the 1Q17, it is shown that the reason why opposite poles attract,
needle. But it appears from Maxwell's, address on Action is that the opposite rotations in the waves from such poles
at a Distance, (Scientific Papers, vol. II, p. 317) that he did cause an undoing of the stress of the medium, so that it

not look upon an electric current as bodily attracting ^) a collapses, and this tendency to contract is what we call
suspended magnetic needle. attraction. In the same way the relative motion of a com-
»We have now arrived at the great discovery by Oersted pass needle over a metal plate induces in it opposite polarity,
of the connection between electricity and magnetism. Oersted with opposite rotations in the waves emitted therefrom; and
found that an electric current acts on a magnetic pole, but then the temporary magnetism induced in the plate by the
that it neither attracts it nor repels it, but causes it to move relative motion of the needle, calls forth attraction between
round the current. He expressed this by saying that ,the the needle and the metal. Accordingly, this induction acts
electric conflict acts in a revolving manner'.* as a drag on the vibrations of the needle, and brings it to
»The most obvious deduction from this new fact was rest sooner than would be the case if the vibrations were
that the action of the current on the magnet is not a push- over wood, which is almost devoid of inductive effect, because
and-pull force, but a rotatory force, and accordingly many it is non-metallic.
minds were set a-speculating on vortices and streams of aether (iv) Arago'% rotations and the dynamo explained.
whirling round the current.* i

Soon Gambey' % observation in 1824, the subject

after
And I have not been able to find any clear statement :

was investigated by Arago, who found that a copper plate

of the proved attraction of needle to a wire bearing a current, |
under the needle was most effective in damping its vibrations.
in later writers they all evade it, by arguments as to the
;
| On rotating the copper disc in its own plane beneath the
behavior of a unit north pole, when no such single pole needle, he found that the needle M'as dragged around by
exists. In the theory of magnetism it is no more pertinent an invisible friction and when the magnet was rotated near
;

to discuss the actions of half of a magnet than it would be the copper disc, the disc was dragged by the rotating magnet.
in human physiology to treat of one side of our bodies only, This action was spoken of for a time, as a sort of magne-
when the whole body is perfectly symmetrical, and not to tism of rotation, but in 1831, Faraday discovered induction,
be split up into halves, and cannot act as such. One leg, and showed that Arago'% rotations depend on this cause.
one arm, one side of the brain and spinal column performs
According "to Faraday a magnet moved near a solid
no functions alone and all such discussion is unscientific and mass or plate of metal, induces in it disturbances which
a very imperfect makeshift.
result in when they are properly directed, as from
currents
(iii) Induction due to motion of a magnet explained a dynamo. they are not directed through a circuit, they
If
by the wave-theory. flow from one point to another, and the energy is frittered
In the year 1824 it was observed by Gambey that a down into heat, but meanwhile the electromagnetic forces-
compass needle oscillating in its box came to rest sooner act as a drag on the rotations taking place.
if the bottom were made of metal than if of wood. What Fig. 7, PI. 5, illustrates the eddy currents long re-
is the reason of this dragging action of the metal? In the cognized in such experiments. But from our electrodynaraic
Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, we have explained wave-theory of magnetism, we recognize these whirls as the
induction by wave-action, and shown that when waves having, elements of rotations in waves receding from the magnet.
say, positive rotationsuddenly penetrate a metallic substance, If we spin the disc of copper as shown in fig. 7, and
the effectof these positive whirls is to generate negative lead off the disturbances by a circuit of wire connecting the
metallic whirls, in virtue of the disturbances of the aether. points a and b we get the current generated by a dynamo,,
That is to say, no such permanent disturbances will which was also invented by Faraday.
occur when both the magnet emitting waves and the non- The above explanation of the generation of a current

') Wkeivell, History of the Inductive Sciences, 3rd ed. 1857, vol. Ill, p. 73, expresses himself in about the same way: »0n attempting
to analyse the electro-magnetic phenomena observed by Oersted and others into their simplest forms, they appeared, at least at first sight, to be
different from any mechanical actions which had yet been observed. It seemed as if the conducting wire exerted on the pole of the magnet

a force which was not attractive or repulsive, but transverse; —

not tending to draw the point acted on nearer, or to push it further off, in
the line which reached from the acting point, but urging it to move at right angles to this line. The forces appeared to be such as Kepler
had dreamt of in the infancy of mechanical conceptions; rather than such as those of which Newton had established the existence in the
solar system, and such as he, and all his successors, had supposed to be the only kinds of force which exist in nature. The north pole of the-
needle move.d as if it were impelled by a vortex revolving round the wire in one direction, while the south pole seemed to be driven by an.,
opposite vortex. The case seemed novel, and almost paradoxical."
 249 5079 250

by a dynamo is new. It is so simple that it constitutes, a the subject, which would be altogether beyond the scope of
remarlcable proof of the wave-theory. The old doctrine of these papers.
cutting lines of force, by the revolution of a commutator, In the secorld paper, section 6, we cited Dolbear'%
between the poles of an electro-magnet, is good enough as experiment with circular discs set loosely but revolving on an
a working rule of thumb, but gives no insight into the axis and thus expelling the air by the centrifugal effects of
mechanism underlying electrodynamics. the rotation, so as to tend to shorten the resulting vortex,
As set forth in the first paper on the New Theory of as was observed by Faraday for, his lines of force. This
the Aether, Maxwell was greatly occupied with the nature valid dynamical model and its known mechanical effects,
of magnetism; but although he was able to show that certain combined with other phenomena, especially Faraday's experi-
stresses admitting of mathematical formulation will account ment of 1845, o'l the rotation of polarized light by magneitism,
for magnetic phenomena, he was unable to conceive of any enabled us to concur in the conclusions of Lord Kelvin and
natural mechanism from which it could arise. Having out- Maxwell, that around a magnet the elements of the aether
lined the wave-theory very briefly in the first paper, we have are in rapid rotation. And we gave for the angular momen-
here examined the foundations of this new theory somewhat tum (Z), of an element of mass dm, of the aether, in the
more in detail —
without, however, in any way exhausting plane of the equator, taken as that of xy:
Am = a dx dy dz
Z == ^^ dm [y dxjdt— x djv/d/)= \\\a{ydxldt—x-dyldi)dxdydz (22)

This expression holds for small regions of space in brought to light in the writer's Electrod. Wave-Theory of
the equatorial plane of the magnetic field, and the develop- Phys. Fore, where the undulatory character of the current
ment may be made general by proper extension of the action is shown to be probable in the highest degree. But even
to any region of the space [x, y, z). a decisive illumination of this difficult subject needs further
development, if it be possible to find an element of electric
4. Direct Proof of the Un.dulatory Character
dimensions which is perfectly simple, in the electromagnetic
of an Electric Current deduced from the ratio be-
and electrostatic systems, and thus might disclose the true
tween the Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Units,
mechanism of a current.
LlT=v.
Notwithstanding the? enormous development of modern To this end we choose the' element known as resistance,
it appears that the true physical character of
which in the electromagnetic system has the dimensions
electrical science,
an electric current has remained a great mystery. It seems LIT=v, a velocity, and appears in the electrostatic units
in the dimensions TLr^, the diiference v^ being an expression
to have successfully challenged the ingenuity of the foremost
of work done or electric energy transformed by the resistance
geometers and natural philosophers. For in his comprehen-
to the progress of the waves along the wire.
sive Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 3"^ed.,
1Q15, Dr. y. H. Jeans acknowledges that no progress has 2. appears by the table given below that in electro-
It

been made: magnetic units, resistance is always expressible as a velocity,

(a) »We have even obtained formulae for the stresses V == Lj T, and therefore must be a measurable effect, dissi-
and the energy in the ether. But it has not been possible pative in character, due to the motion of waves in the aether,

to proceed any further and to explain the existence of these traveling along a conductor with very nearly the velocity of

stresses and energy in terms of the ultimate mechanism of light. All electric currents, as is well known, involve some
the ether* dissipation of energy, in form of heat and light, and
the
485). (p.
(b) the other hand the ultimate mechanism with
»0n electric circuits usually are arranged so as to ofier small

which electromagnetic theory is concerned is that of action resistance, in order to give minimum loss of electric energy.

in the ether, and we are in utter ignorance of the ultimate When light is to be produced the conversion of energy into
laws which govern action in the ether. We do not know light takes place only in the filaments of the lamps, and
the heating of the rest of the electric circuit is kept at a
how the ether behaves, and so can make no progress towards
explaining electromagnetic phenomena in terms of the be- minimum.
haviour of the ether* (p. 486). 3. Now, although the modern theory of electric oscil-

(c) »In nature, there are certain acts which we can lations has been developed to a vast extent, and the process
perform (analogous to the motion of other ropes), but the used in radio-telegraphy, yet it appears that a clear under-
ultimate mechanism by which the cause produces the effect standing of the nature of a steady electric current is not
is unknown. For instance we can close an electric circuit yet attained by electrical investigators. By means of alter-
by pressing a key, and the needle of a distant galvanometer nators, in a circuit containing both capacity and inductance,
may be motion. We infer that there must be some
set into with low Ohmic resistance, these electric oscillations have

mechanism connecting the two, but the nature of this me- been made to reach frequencies of from loooo to 15000
chanism is almost completely unknown* (p. 486). per second, and in some cases even 120000. More recently
I. The only tenable explanation of the mechanism of the oscillations have been made to exceed 1 0000000 per
an electric current heretofore put forth
i)
seems to be that second, the minimum wave length being only 0.4 cm 4 mm. =
^) Crowther's earlier theory that an electric current consists in the flow of electrons is discussed in Section 12, (ii), below, and shown
to be untenable.
 «

251 5079 252

But we should look into the history of the subject is. released, as in the discharge of a Leyden jar. If only

since the earliest experiments, eighty years ago, in order one of these inductance or capacity, were present,
factors,
to get a connected view of the whole subject of electric
'
but not both, the disturbance would rise and fallaccording
oscillations. to some exponential function of the time, yet without regular

4. In 1842, Professor Joseph Henry was occupied with oscillations.

the study of the discharge of a Leyden jar, and reached the When both inductance and capacity are present, as in

conclusion that what appears to the naked eye as a single allmetallic systems, the disturbance calls forth both elasticity
spark, »is not correctly represented by the single transfer of and inertia, because the electric disturbance is physically
an imponderable fluid from one side of the jar to the other. impeded and the aether is set into wave motion of the kind
»The phenomena,* he adds, » require us to admit the ex- above described.
istence of a principle discharge in one direction and then Q. So long as difference of potential is maintained at
several reflex actions backward and forward, each more feeble the two ends of a circuit this electric wave oscillation is
than the -preceeding until equilibrium is obtained. ^Henry'^ maintained along the wire. As in the case of the Leyden
conclusions were drawn from observations of the irregular jar, so also for a battery; the oscillatory discharge begins
magetizations of steel needles when Leyden jar discharges the moment the circuit complete, and continues to flow
is
are directed through a coil, as in Savory's experiments. as a steady current. Since there is finite but small loss of
Henry's conclusions were mathematically confirmed
5. wave energy through the body of the whire, owing to its
in 1853 by Lord Kelvin, who reached the formula for the physical resistance to the free movements of the aether, the
time of these oscillations: wave disturbance envelopes the wire cylindrically, traveling
T— 2nlV[ilKL-Ji'^I^L^) (23)
more rapidly in the free aether outside; but the wave front
continually bent inward towards the metallic cylinder, just
where K is the capacity of the condenser, now usually ex-
is

as the wireless .wave is bent around the globe, by the greater

pressed in Farads; L the inductance, now usually expressed
in Henrys; and H the resistance, in Ohms. If .^ = 0.01 resistance to the motion of the radio wave in the solid globe

Microfarad, L = 0.0000 1 Henry, and R = o, the time of

of the earth..
The above explanation of the waves propagated from
an oscillation will be found to be i : 503000, or the fre-
a conductor gives a very satisfactory account of the phe-
quency of the 503000 per second. They may be
oscillations
made as rapid as 1 0000000 per second, or even of higher nomena from a physical standpoint. But it is advisable to

frequency; yet we cannot make them as rapid as the waves look into the matter also from the historical point of view,
in order to perceive the drift of research during the past
of light, because our physical apparatus is not of atomic
sixty years.
dimensions.
6. When 'Ji^j ^L^ is so small as to be negligible com- 10. In the celebrated Treatise on Electricity and Magne-
pared to iJKL, the time of oscillation becomes like that of tism, 1873, § 77 I et seq.. Maxwell
brought out the funda-
first

undamped simple harmonic motion: mental difference between electromagnetic and electrostatic
units, and showed that the ratio is always equal to Lj T=v, 3.
T= 2nVKL. (24)
velocity. Upon this basis Maxwell erected the foundation of
But \i H^l /^L"^ is small, yet not wholly insensible, the discharge
the electromagnetic theory of light, which has come into
is oscillatory, for under the damping due to resistance, the
general use, though the mystery of the connection between
period is altered, and the time of oscillation becomes of the
light and electricity was not fully cleared up. For example.
form used in radio telegraphy:
Lord Kelvin never could see how it helped the wave-theory
T= 2V[n^+l^)-VKL (25) of light (Baltimore Lectures, IQ04, p. q).
where / is the logarithmic decrement. As already pointed out, it will be seen from the table
7.1858 Feddersen experimentally confirmed Lord
In given below, that the dimensions of resistance; in electro-
Kelvin's theory of the oscillatory character of the Leyden jar magnetic units, isZr-^, which represents a velocity. This
discharge, by photographing the imiage of the spark in a is a very remarkable fact, having profound physical signifi-
rotating mirror, and found that the image of light was drawn cance, which may well claim our attention. Is it possible
out into a series of images, due to sparks following each that the resistance felt in all conductors, and obeying Ohm's
other in rapid succession. The illustration of this oscillatory law, is an indication of the motion of electromagnetic waves
discharge in Fig. 8, Plate 5, was obtained in 1904 by Zenneck, along the wires, by which the resistance is generated? If
who used a Braun tube as an oscillograph. so, the dimensions in electromagnetic units should be v^ times

8. Now in the case of a steady electric current, the that in electrostatic units, as actually observed.

conductor connects points having difference of potential: 11. In his celebrated discussion of the electric medium
this difference tends to adjust itself, by the electric contact, Maxwell showed how could be determined experimen-
sz;*

resulting from the conductor, and thus the, aether is set in tally. In fact, Weber and Kohlrausch as early as 1856, 17
oscillation and the waves travel along the wire, just as water years before MaxwelFs treatise appeared, had already carried
runs down from higher to lower gravitational potential,
hill out a numerical determination, and obtained the approximate
and in this transfer sorhe dissipation of energy results. value v =
310740000 metres per second (PoggendorfTs Ann.,
Inductance is present in the wire, and as it has also 1856, Aug., pp. 10-25).
capacity, the contact yields electric oscillations, when energy This constant has since been determined by many
 .

253 5079 254

investigators, working along lines indicated "by Maxwell, with ments. It to confine our attention to a physical
suffices
very accordant results, the latest and no doubt the best being explanation of the results obtained, but apparently not yet
that by Professor. E. B. Rosa and N. E. Dorsey of Washington, clearly understood by natural philosophers.
1Q07, Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol. 3, nos. 3 On comparing the dimensions of the electromagnetic
and 4, p. 601, namely: units with those of the electrostatic units, we find that there
V = 2.997 1°,10 is always a uniform difference depending on the common
12. As these publications are universally accessible, factor LIT=v, or L'^JT^ = v^, as shown in the following
we shall not go into the details of these electrical experi- tables.

13. Table of the equivalent dimensions in the two theoretical systems of units.
Electrostatic Electromagnetic
1. Charge of electricity
2. Density M^I'Z-'l'
T-'^
3. Electromotive force E i/v Z'l'
M'-l^
4. Electric intensity R {X, Y, Z) j^V" ^-V» 7^-1= ^Vs xv= r-^ i/v M'l'Z'I'T-^
5. Potential V
6. Electric polarization P{f,g,h) M'''Z-'I' r-i = M'i'Z-'I'-i
7. Capacity C L Z-i T^'
8. Current i j^-^h i)h 7—1
9. Current per unit area (u, V, w) M"l' L-'l' r-2 M^'^Z-'f^T-^
10. Resistance R = Zr-i-i^2 ZT-^
11. Specific resistance T, T = Z^T-^-i/v''
12. Strength of magnetic pole m
13- Magnetic force H («, ^, ;-) M'l' L'l' r-2 = M'I'Z-'I'T-'I'-v j/'/s z-'/a 7—1
1.4. Magnetic induction B {a, b, c) = M'l'z-^i' r-1 •
ijv M'l' z-'i' r-i
IS- Inductive capacity K I :=Z-^T^-v' Z-^T^
16. Magnetic permeability
Table of practical units in the two systems. For simplicity, suppose a condenser is charged with elec-
Measure in tricity, and let its quantity, Q, be measured in electrostatic
Measure in
Quantity Name of Unit electrostatic units units, by determining for instance the repulsion which a given
electromag. units
(2/=3-io"CGS)
J

proportion of the total charge produces in a torsion balance

10,—1
Q
Charge of electricity Coulomb 3"i°
of known dimensions.
Electromotive force I

Let the condenser be again charged to the same extent,

Electric intensity \ Volt 10 1/(3 and be discharged through a ga:lvanometer. By measuring
let it
Potential J
-9 the deflection produced, the constants of the instrument being
Capacity Farad i o' 9•
-15 known, we may determine the quantity of electricity which
Capacity Microfarad i o' 9- lO"
-1 deflected the galvanometer. This gives by direct observation
Current "
Ampere
Ohm
10
10'
3- I0«
(2(e.m.)/<2(e.s.) = C-3.o-io"/C= 3.0- iqI"
Resistance
It will be seen from the element, resistance, no. 10,
1/(9
•

= of
velocity light.

in the above table, that to establish equivalence, the electro-

16. The process may be numerically illustrated in the
following way. The e. m. f of a Daniell's cell may be measured
static unit must be divided by {TZ~^Y or by v^, which is
the square of the dimensions in electromagnetic units.
by such an instrument as Lord Kelvin's absolute electrometer,
This
indicates that electromagnetic waves resisted by a conductor
and found to give in electrostatic units of potential say 0.0036.
do work depending on the square of the velocity with which
The same difference of potential measured in electro-
magnetic units will be found to have the value
they travel, which conforms to general experience in all
physical problems where energy is expended. i.o88.- 10® = 0.01088 • io"-3/3 = 0.00.36- (3.0- 10^")

14. It thus appears that the ratio between the two Hence the ratio of the electromagnetic to the electrostatic
sets of units is uniformly Z/7'== v, in the first or second units is 3.0 10^" == velocity of light.
-

power, and thus v undoubtedly represents a velocity, as first The electrostatic quantity s.)Q (e.
is the quantity of

clearly set by Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and

forth electricity which attracts or repels another equal quantity at
Magnetism, § 771 et seq. Fortunately it happens that this a distance of i cm, with a force of a dyne. The electro-
ratio can also be determined experimentally, from a current magnetic quantity Q (e. m.) is the quantity of electricity
of electricity in motion, and from an identical electrostatic which traverses the wire of the galvanometer in a second
charge, at rest: thus v admits of electric measurement, in- when the current set up by the discharge has unit intensity.
dependently of any theory of light. But as the value of z' is the 17. The ratio between the units is always of the
.

same as the velocity of light. Maxwell naturally concluded dimensions of a velocity, and as it holds under the con-
that the electric medium is identical with theluminiferous aether. dition that the centimetre is the unit of length, and the
The following is an outline of the method of measurement. second the unit of time, we see by experiment that the
 .

255 5079 256

ratio is the actual velocity of light, 3.0- lo^", which establishes the wave spreads outward, and only rdw varies, the cylin-
the identity of the electric medium with that of the lumini- drical sector thus increases like the circumference of a circle,
ferous aether. 2nr, perpendicular to the axis of the wire. The expansion
This was also shown by Hertz in the celebrated ex- of the radius of the circle thus determines the increase in
periments which led to the development of wireless telegraphy, the area of ds, the elementary area of the cylindrical sur-
and thus the subject requires no further treatment at present. face, in which the electrical waves must expand.
We merely call attention to the elgctrodynamic waves about 4. Now
the area of the circular cylindrical sector varies
a wire bearing a current as diagrammed in the author's work as rdco or as the radius, dco being constant in a fixed element
of IQ17, Fig. 12, below, and now somewhat better represented of the sector. And as the waves thus become less crowded,
in Fig. 18, Plate 6. in the direct ratio of the distance, r, it follows that the in-
18. This picture shows clearly that an electric current tensity of the wave action decreases, varying inversely as r.
is nothing but a certain type of aether waves propagated This is a direct and simple view of the geometrical basis
away from the wire. Accordingly, when such a current is of Bwt and Savart's law, heretofore apparently little studied
set up in the aether, through the waves generated and main- by natural philosophers.
tained by the e. m. f. of the battery, it is obvious that the 5. This remarkable law of Bwt and Savart thus has
electromagnetic measure of this electric action should involve the simplest of explanations: namely, the elementary cylin-
the motion of the waves or velocity; while in the case of drical surface ds increases directly as r, and the resulting
the electrostatic action no velocity is involved, but only a electrical action therefore decreases inversely as r. The law
stationary difference of potential. thus follows at once from the restricted freedom. of the waves
This theory completely accounts for the difference v propagated from the wire: and as it was confirmed by experi-
in the units, and harmonizes all known electrical phenomena, ments of Bzot and Savart, 1820, the law in turn establishes
and is an especially satisfactory termination of a half century the dependence of current action on electrodynamic waves.
of scientific discussion of the relation between electromag-
•
No other agency than waves could produce this result, be-
netics and electrostatics. It is not by chance that only v cause waves involve expansion, and the agitation has to follow
and v^ appear in the above table. the geometrical inverse law of the increase of space.
If the actions of the medium involved something besides
6. By extetiding the above reasoning, we see that if
say induction, where v appears, or resistance, where v'' appears,
the waves from a body can spread in all directions, they
it should be expected to find v in perhaps the third or
will fill a sphere surface, s ==^ ^n r^, and hence the law of
fourth powers; but no such powers are established by obser-
decrease of the intensity for the action varies inversely as r^,
vation, which confirms the above interpretation.
namely: f=m\r'^, which holds for universal gravitation,
5. The Geometrical and Physical Significance magnetism, and other physical forces of nature.
of Biot and Savarfs Law for the Intensity of a Cur- 7. As the coincidence between the requirements of
rent on a Straight Wire, and of Ohm's Law for the waves and the spa'ce expansion is rigorous, from jc o to =
Resistance. a: =^ 00, the chances against such a mere accidental con-
1 The law of fiiot and Savart for an electric current formity, without physical cause, are infinity to one. Accor-
on a straight wire has the simple form {^Biot et Savart, Ann. dingly, Biot and
law furnishes direct proof of the
Savart's,
Chim. Phys., 15 p. 222, 1820): utmost rigor that waves underlie electrodynamic action, as
I=KHlr (26) well as gravitation, magnetism, etc.

where .AT is a constant, and / the intensity of the electric

There has been such a bewildering confusion of thought
connected with the whole subject of physical action across
action which varies inversely as the distance r from the wire,
space that it is necessary to bear in mind clearly the fun-
and directly as the current strength H.
damental principles of natural philosophy. To this end we
2. We shall give a simple geometrical basis for Biot
need obvious proofs of the causes underlying physical action,
and Savart's law of the inverse distance. In the Electrod.
under the simplest of nature's laws. T^e simple laws exclude
Wave-Theory of Physic. Fore, we have shown that the action
the largernumber of complicating circumstances, and enable
of an electric current is due to flat waves, with their planes
the cause involved to stand out in such a way that we may
of rotation containing the axis of the straight wire, the ro-
recognize it.
tation of the wave elements being around the lines of force,
Very different indeed is the confusion of thought carried
which are circles about that axis. All points of the wire
on in certain scientific circles. At a discussion of the Theory
emit waves, but the waves are so conditioned as to expand
of Relativity, as reported in the Monthly Notices for De-
in the form of a cylindrical surface, thus spreading as a
cember, 19 19, Sir Oliver Lodge yjiStlY complains that Professor
circular cylinder around the wire, but not in the direction of
Eddington thinks he understands it all. »To dispense with
the wire. The element of cylindrical surface becomes:
d.f = dlrdw (27)
a straight line as the shortest distance between two points,
and to be satisfied with a crazy geodesic that is the longest
where rdco an element of the circles of expansion, in-
is distance between two points, is very puzzling. « »The . . .

creasing as the radius r, and d/ is constant, along the length whole relativity trouble arises from giving up the ether as
of the cylinder. the standard of reference —
ignoring absolute motion through
3. Now since the element of length d/ is constant, as the ether — , rejecting the ether as our standard of reference,
 . : . : :

257 5079 258

and replacing by the observer. By putting the observer

it investigators, who thus exhibit a feeble grasp of the most
in the forefrontand taking him as the standard of reference essential conditions of geometrical and physical research.
you get complexity. If you describe a landscape in terms Accordingly, since this Gerber formula is invalid, when
of a man in a train looking out of the window, the descrip- applied to a homogeneous sphere, or a spherical mass made
tion is necessarily complicated. The surprising thing is that up of concentric layers of uniform density like the sun, its
this theory has arrived at verifiable results.* . . »The theory general admissibility must be wholly denied. In fact it has
is not dynamical. There is no apparent aim at real truth. neither geometrical nor physical validity; and its use in con-
It is regarded as a convenient mode of expression. Relativists temporary journals and the transactions of learned societies
seem just as ready to say you are rising up and hitting the is a bizarre performance, in vague and chimerical reasoning,
apple as that the apple is falling on you. It. is not common little to the credit of our time.
sense, but equations can be worked that way.«
1 2 We have now to consider the geometrical and phy-
8. It is quite remarkable that heretofore the law of sical significance ,of the law of electric resistance discovered
Biot and Savart should have been so little studied by in- by Dr. George Simon Ohm (Ann. d. Phys. VI, 1826, p. 459):
vestigators. A law of such simplicity (compare Fig. g, Plate 5)
has enormous advantages over any complex law, especially
I=HlR (30)

when it comes to searching for the causes which produce the

where R is the resistance, H the electromotive force, and /
the intensity, as measured at any point by a suitable appa-
phenomena observed in nature. Thus it is preeminently these
ratus,such as a galvanometer. This law of Ohm likewise is
simple laws, which admit of one interpretation and only one,
remarkably simple, and quite similar to that oiBiot and Savart
that should claim the attention of natural philosophers.
above explained. Accordingly let us see what connection, if
9. In the closest analogy with what Biot and Savarfs
any, exists between Ohm's law and that of Biot and Savart.
law puts before us, for the intensity of an electric current,
a) In Biot and Savarfs law we vary the distance, with
on a straight wire, the Newtonian gravitational potential, for
fixed electromotive force, and observe the change in the in-
a homogeneous sphere or a heterogeneous sphere made of
tensity : the observed result confirms the wave-theory.
concentric layers of uniform density, presents to us the ex-
cessively simple formula b) In Ohm's law we also deal with a current in a wire,

V=Mlr (28) or wires, and when the electromotive force is fixed, we study
the law of resistance [R], or intensity of action (/), at a
-which we have already interpreted in terms of waves freely
fixed distance, where the needle of the galvanometer may
expanding in tridimensional space.
be located.
Any other interpretation than that given for the New-
tonian potential function in these simple cases seems abso- c) Thus Biot and Savarfs law, with a fixed steady
lutely excluded, by virtue of the simplicity and directness of
current, serves for calculating the varying intensity at any
the most obvious special relations, as when the waves expand distance, in accordance with the requirements of the wave-

outwardly from a spherical mass such as the sun. , theory. In the same way, Ohm's law, when is constant, H
but with varying resistance, R, serves for calculating the in-
10. Any modification which renders these formulae
tensity at a fixed distance.
complicated or non-homogeneous is to be viewed with pro-
found suspicion. Thus the substitution oi Gerber's formula: 13. Accordingly it appears that these two laws are

V = M/r{i-i/c-dr/dt)^ (29)
mutually supplementary. For all the effects, in the field of
electrodynamic waves about a wire, should include both those
for Newton's as cited in equation (28) above, is unjustifiable
occurring at a fixed distance, as calculated by Chris law,
and indefensible; yet in the perverse search for complexity and those occurring at a varying distance, as calculated by
instead of simplicity, such bewildering confusion goes on. the law of Biot and Savart. The two laws are thus brought
Dr. P. Gerber first published this unauthorized formula into immediate and necessary relationship, and both conform
in the Zeitschrift fiir Mathematische Physik, Band XLIII, to the wave-theory.
1898, p. 93-104, and the exploitation of it since made by We may write Biot and Savart's law in the form
Minstein and his followers ignores the fundamental fact that
by introducing the second power factor, ;'^ = (i — ilc-drjdtY I=KHlr (31)

in the ^ivisor, the dimensions of the equation are changed,

and Ohm's law in the form
which is physically inadmissible and equivalent to violating l=HlR. (32)
the essential mathematical condition of homogeneity for the Accordingly on combining the two expressions which
equation for the potential. Such an objection is fatal ^), since we may do by equating the identical intensity at any point,
it rests upon both geometrical and physical grounds; and
thus .we witness the adoption of a mere convenience, in
we obtain
^^/^ _ ^/^ ^^ K^^rJR. (33)
violation of recognized scientific principles. Therefore, we find on substituting for K its value, for

1 1 The fact that the Einstein speculations involve this any value H and r,

fatal contradiction seems to have been overlooked by. previous I = rHJRr = HJR (34)

^) This by noticing what would happen if the exactly analogous formula

may be made a little clearer for the velocity, V= LjT,
had a Such an arbitrary modification of the expression for the potential
factor Y^ introduced into the divisor T. is purely a change de con-
Tenance, and not permissible on mathematical or physical grounds
 s :

259 2 6o
5079

which again yields Ohm's, law, in the form which holds for tangential to the lines of force, which are circles normal to
any fixed distance. the axis of the wire;
14. These two laws therefore confirm the wave-theory now, without other circumstances being altered, the
If
direction of the current be changed, the two poles of the
of the entire field about a wire bearing a steady current.
Ohm\ law implies a cylindrical wave field the resistance — needle immediately interchange at all points about the wire
and intensity being the axes of a rectangular hyperbola The south pole is deflected to the west when beneath the
referred to its assymptotes — Biot and Savarfs law also wire, and to the east when above the wire. And in general,

every point in the orientation is exactly reversed.

represents a rectangular hyperbola of the same type, but with
r varying instead of R (compare Fig. 10, Plate 5). What can be the meaning of this phenomenon in which
These two laws give thecomplete theory of the electro- the current act-s as if it has sides, when reacting on the
dynamic wave-action, in the whole field about a wire bearing magnetic needle? We shall see that just as the magnet has

a steady or variable current, and thus greatly simplify the two poles of opposite properties, so also the current has two
theory of the electromagnetic field. sides, due to waves which appear to be righthanded rotations
when viewed from the opposite point.
6. 0^«/fa?'s Experiment, 1819, y^ra^c's Experiment Consider the case first cited above, with the current
with copper wire, 1820, and the Magnetic whirl from the positive copper plate of the battery flowing north
shown by iron filings near a conducting wire all and the needle suspended beneath the wire, but with the
confirm the wave-theory, which also agrees with north pole deflected to the west when the current flows.
Ampere's, theory of elementary electric currents cir-
This means that the waves descending below the wire have
culating about the atoms. vortices rotating righthanded, as shown in the following figure,
In the Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, we have from the writer's work of 19 17.
given a simple and direct explanation of the deflection of
the magnetic needle first observed by Oersted in 18 19, the
adherence of iron filings to copper wire conducting a cur-
rent, first observed by Arago in 1820. We also explained
the circular whirl assumed by iron filings near a conducting
wire, and finally were enabled to harmonize the wave-theory
with Amplre'% theory of elementary electric currents about
the atoms (comp. Fig. 11, Plate 5).
Such an illumination of the obscure subject of the
magnetic field is too remarkable to rest on mere chance;
and thus we shall describe the argument briefly, as the best
means of unfolding the true order of nature. The electro-^
dynamic waves propagated from the wire bearing the current
lie in planes through the axis of the wire, and are of the type

5 =« sin(2 7rjc/A-H^) , •,

= asin(2 7r_)'A-t-/)
^^^'

where x and y are interchangeable, owing to the symmetry

of the waves about the z axis, which is taken as the axis
Fig. 12. New theory of Oersted's aijd Arago'
of the wire. Owing to cylindrical symmetry the axes of x experiments, 1819-20, and of induction.
and y might be rotated about that of z without any change
It means also that the rotations of the waves receding
in the expressions for the waves receding from the wire
under the action of the current. from the south pole of the needle have the opposite direction
of rotation, as shown in the figure.
But as we have already pointed out the amplitude a
1. For it is found by experiment that the needle is
decreases as in Biot and Savart's law, inversely as
r = 1/(^2 +_y 2)
bodily attracted to the wire, by the action of the current,
_

and hence the waves from the wire must undo the "opposite
(i) Oersted's Experiment of 18 19. rotations in the waves from the needle. Accordingly the
In the experiment of 18 19, it was observed by Oersted medium tends to collapse, and by this contraction of the
that if the magnetic needle be below the wire, and the current volume of the medium the needle is drawn to the wire.
from the copper positive pole of the battery directed north, 2. In the works on electricity and magnetism which
all
the deflection of the north pole would be to. the west. I have seen including Maxwell's great treatise, this question is
If the needle be above the wire, but the other circum- somewhat evaded by the claim that the north pole tends to wrap
stances unchanged, the deflection of the north pole was ob- itselfaround the wire, in on? direction, while the south pole
served to be towards the east. The needle might thus be tends to wrap itself around the wire in the opposite direction;
revolved in a circle about the wire, without any change of and that this actual bending of the needle would occur if
the relative position in relation to the axis of the wire. the needle were flexible. I proved by direct experiment in
Accordingly 'it appears that the axis of the needle, sets itself 19 14, that the needle is bodily attracted to the wire in
 .

26l 5079 262

every possible position it may take, but I cannot find so 6. It is worthy of note that since the lines of force
simple a statement of this essential fact in any earlier work about a magnet are rentrant vortices, —
the filaments within
on electricity and magnetism. the axis of the magnet rotating in exactly the opposite direc-

3. The usual discussion about the tendency of the unit tion to those in the magnetic equator, for example, the —
north pole is very unsatisfactory, because while the tendency waves emitted by the conducting wire in Oersted's and Arago's
thus outlined is fairly accurate, it conveys the impression experiments, described above, will have their elements rotating
tViat all power centred in the pole, rather than in all the
is
in perfect agreement with the vortices inside the body of
particles, — notwithstanding the fact that if we break the the magnetic needle. The waves from the wire thus support
get as many separate magnets as we have frag- the physical oscillations withinthe more resisting body of
magnet we
inents, and since this subdivision may be extended to mole-
the needle, and by rendering the sum total of the mutual
we know the theory actions a minimum, the balanced needle is in equilibrium in
cular dimensions, that of pole action
is altogether misleading, yet such vague teaching continues the position observed by Oersted, 18 ig.

to be handed down from generation to generation, and 7. It is now easy to reconcile Ampire's theory of

eminent scholars have often remarked how difficult it is to elementary electric currents about the atoms of a magnet
'

get rid of the most obvious errors, when entrenched in with the wave-theory. The formula for a plane wave is
authority by the lapse of time. .f = <3;sin(2;r;c/^+/) (36)
4. Further proof of the above theory of the action of And as we may shift the point of the revolving vector,
an electric current upon a magnetic needle might be deduced by altering the phase angle /, we see that by changing p
from the fact that in nature physical actions always are from 0° to 2 7r, we should have a complete oscillation of the
mutual. Thus if the needle is attracted to the wire, the wave. This would correspond to the movement of the electric
conducting wire obviously is equally attracted to the needle current once about the atom; and abo to the advance of
— otherwise action and reaction would not be equal, as the wave along the ^-axis by one periodic oscillation. The
proved by universal experience. Accordingly, no other con- wave-theory is therefore in perfect accord with Ampere's
clusion can be held than that waves of the kind outlined theory of elementary electric currents about the atoms of
proceed from the needle and also from the wire, and by matter.
their interpenetration develop forces of the kind observed in 8. If it be imagined that the atoms probably have a
nature. not enough that waves proceed from one body,
It is'
smaller circumference than a wave length X of the wave
but not from the other: there undulations must proceed from emitted from the atom, all we need to do is to point out
both bodies incessantly, and travel with the velocity of light. that we do not know the mechanism by which waves originate,
This is proved by observation, for the wave actions pro- and it does not follow that the wave length in the aether
pagated along the wire, and thence inferred also for the should correspond to that of the atom. An undetermined
waves of a magnet itself, though the velocity of the waves multiplier probably is involved here, but at present we cannot
from a natural magnet have never been directly measured. fix it with any accuracy.
Yet since magnets are made by the action of a current upon
(iii) Nature of atomic vibrations con.sidered.
a bar of steel inserted in a solenoid ^) it follows that the ,

For in the case of sound, the dimension of the Helm-

velocity of the two classes of waves, one from the current
holtz resonators is not closely related to the length of the
and the other, from the magnet, must be the same, and in
corresponding sound waves received and emitted by the
both cases identical with the velocity of light, i/==3.o- 10^" cms.
elastic oscillation of the resonator. And even if this could
(ii) Arago's Experiment of 1820. be found in air, it would not be the same in hydrogen,
5. As to Arago's experiment of 1820, it is obvious oxygen, nitrogen, or other gases, but depend on the pro-
that copper wire conducting a current will give a wave field perties of these media, as well as on the physical properties
about it similar to any other wire. If iron filings be near of the resonator, its shape, mass, elasticity, rigidity, etc.
such a conducting wire, it is obvious that
they should adhere to it, since each filing
will become a temporary magnet, the ends
having opposite. poles, owing to the nature of
the whirl of magnetic waves about the wire.
Accordingly Arago's, experiment is simply a
verification of Oersted's experiment, but ren-
dered more general by the use of a copper
wire, and soft iron filings, which therefore
fall off when the current stops, and the wave Pig j^. Ampere's theory of elementary electric currents about atoms
field about the copper wire disappears. reconciled with the wave-theory.

') As far back as 1820 Ampere showed that if a wire be wound into a solenoid, delicately pivoted' in mercury contacts, and a current

passed through it, it behaved as a magnet, with a north and south pole. Hence Ampere was impressed with the solenoidal character of magnets;
and imagined that the elementary currents about the atoms mutually destroyed each other within the body, and remained effective only in the
-surface layer of the magnet, which was thus viewed as a shell. But Ampere's reasoning is equally useful for proving that there are waves pro-
-ceeding from the wires bearing the current, and that they arc flat in the plane through the axis of the wire.
 263 5079 264

So aiso within the aether, the vibrations of the atoms 3. On the outside of the two wires, on the other hand,
are determined by causes which at present are but little the rotations of the wave elements will be in the same
understood and we can only infer that the atomic dimensions
; direction, the stress or agitation of the medium will there-
are not directly related to the wave length, or wave lengths fore be increased, so that it expands: which will tend to
.

emitted, though there probably is some correspondence which press the wires together from the outside. Hence the wires
may be made out in time. will be made to attract both from the internal and the ex-

9. It appears from the researches in spectroscopy ternal wave actions. Accordingly, we have a simple and

heretofore made that the atom of a single element may natural explanation of the mutual attraction of currents flowing
emit a complicated series of spectral lines, which means in the same direction. And it is based upon the same con-

a very complicated series of vibrations, some of which are ceptions as are involved in the attraction af magnets pre-
connected by the formulae of Balmer and other investigators. senting unlike magnetic poles. In fact by the suspension
Now most of the vibrations of the visible spectrum are below of magnetic needles close to the two conducting wires, the
the resolving power of the microscope, and thus the waves same conclusions follow: for unlike poles are presented in

are so short that such vibrations do not penetrate solid or proximity, which means attraction.
even transparent fluid bodies to any appreciable depth. But 4. Now the direction of one of the currents be
let
we know by the transmission of the sun's rays through such reversed. Iteasy to see that between the wires the ro-
is

a medium as the terrestrial atmosphere that longer waves tations of the wave elements will appear to be in the same
have increased penetrating power. And since Langley extended direction, as viewed from the east of the meridian and thus ;

the length of the solar spectrum to some 20 times that ob- the agitation of the medium will be increased, the medium
served by Newton, without finding any indication of an end, will expand, and the wires be forced apart, so that the action
it is natural to hold that the waves upon which gravitation, leads to repulsion, just as when like poles are presented by
magnetism, electrodynamic action, etc., depend must be of two magnets.
comparatively great length, otherwise they would not penetrate 5. On the outside of the two wires, however, the ro-
solid masses as they are observed to do in actual nature. tations of the waves, flowing in opposite directions, will each
10. It thus appears that the shorter atomic waves there- tend to undo the other: in the external region the medium
fore do not produce forces acting across sensible spaces, and will tend to collapse, which will allow the wires to be forced
in dealing with the long range forces of the universe we must apart, so that repulsion from the region between the wires
look to waves of considerable length, which have the required will be accentuated by this external tendency of the medium
penetrating power, and are least delayed in propagation to collapse. Accordingly mutual repulsion will be observed
through solid masses. Such waves will explain gravitation, whenever two currents flow in opposite directions.
magnetism, electrodynatnic action, and are the only means 6. This is equivalent to the mutual repulsion of two
of making inteUigible the correlation of forces and the con- magnets which present like poles the interpenetration from
:

servation of energy, since light and heat certainly are due opposite directions of waves with like rotations caused the
to waves in the aether. Unless the other energies be due medium to expand between the bodies, and to collapse beyond
to waves also there would be violation of the doctrine of them, so that repulsion immediately follows. Accordingly
continuity, which is so fundamental in natural philosophy. the whole theory of the attraction and repulsion of electric
(iv) The wave-theory establishes the attraction of currents currents flowing in the same and in opposite directions re-
flowing in the same direction, and the repulsion of currents spectively, is analogous to the mutual actions of two magnets,
flowing in opposite directions, and therefore assigns the true and the causes are one and the same. And as the outcome
physical cause of these electrodynamic phenomena. greatly simplifies our theory of electrodynamic action, so also
1. From the foregoing discussion it follows that when we are correspondingly assured that the results conform to
from the east of the meridian we look at a positive current the true laws of nature. The harmony of so many distinct,

flowing to the north (from the copper terminal of a battery) we phenomena would not be possible unless based upon the true
find the elements of the waves propagated away to be rotating causes involved : for the probability of such an accidental
righthanded (clockwise) beneath the wire, but lefthanded outcome approaches zero.
(counterclockwise) above the wire (cf. Fig. 18, Plate 6). This
7. Weber'% Law indicates that Gravitational,
follows also from the relative positions taken by the freely
Magnetic, and Electrodynamic Actions are all due
pivoted magnetic needle, which presents to us a south pole
to Waves traveling with the Velocity of Light; thus
when beneath the wire, but a north pole when above the wire.
explaining the Semidiurnal Tide in the Earth's
2. Now
suppose we have two such independent currents
Magnetism depending on the Moon, which Newton'?,
flowing north: what will be the mechanical effects of the
Law will not account for.
mutual interactions of their waves? If we imagine one wire
As we have previously pointed out, Weber's funda-
above the other, for conformity to the wave picture just
mental law of electrodynamic action, published in 1846,
outlined in paragraph i, we perceive that between the wires,
has the form:
the wave elements from the two conductors will rotate in
opposite directions: which will cause the undoing of the /= {»i»t'lr^){i~{ilc^){^rldtY+[2rlc^)-d^rldt^}. (37)
separate wave stresses, and a collapse of the medium, and The term of the second member is identical with
first

the result of this contraction will be attraction. Newton% law of gravitation, 1686, and of course gives the
 265 5079 266

principal part of the force which regulates the motions of but of such length- that they may be propagated through
the heavenly bodies. But there are slight effects resulting solid masses' without very great loss of energy.
from the second and third terms, which were first numerically 2. The wave is taken to be flat in the etjuator' of the

investigated by Tisserand m
1873 (cf Tisserand's Mecanique atom, so that in this plane, the waves are perfectly plane
Celeste, Tome IV, last chapter), but the theory was rendered waves, while in the two hemispheres of the atom the rotations
more complete in the present writer's Electrodynamic Wave- give righthanded or lefthanded helices, as actually observed
Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. I, 1917, where tabular data will in polarized light when propagated through certain crystals.
be found for the planets, satellites, comets and binary stars. This specification most necessary optical re^
fulfilled the

The chief effect of the minor terms of equation (37) quirements, and thus presented no difficulty from the point
is to give the perihelion a small progressive motion, which of view of light or electricity.
in the case of the planetMercury amounts to (3to -i-i4!'5i = 3. The magnetic requirement, that common steel should
in This reduces the anomaly in the out-
a Julian century. be capable of magnetization by the action of an electric
standing motion of that perihelion to about two-thirds of its current, was met by the theory of Ampere that before mag-
value, namely from dcJ :^ -i-42;'g5 to <3z3 -i-28"44, but = netization the planes of the atoms lie haphazard, with their
does not obliterate the anomaly, which is more exhaustively equatorial planes tilted indifferently in all directions. The
investigated in the second paper on the new theory of the action of the electric current, with waves flat in the planes
aether. through the axis of the conducting wire, will yield electric
It was in his celebrated paper of 1864, A Dynamical oscillations in the form of plane waves, oriented at right

Theory of the Electromagnetic P'ield, that Maxwell reached angles to the axis of a bar of steel under magnetization in
the conclusion that the velocity of electrodynamic action is a solenoid. Hence these electric oscillations or plane waves
identical with that of light, as already indicated by Xohlrausch's, due to the current, will force the atoms of the steel bar to
experimental determination off, in 1856. But although such tilt around, so as to make their vibrations conform to those

a conclusion followed from Kohlrausch's experiments, and due to the current in the solenoid; and when the magnetized
from MaxweWs theory of the electromagnetic field, it was steel bar is cooled suddenly, by plunging into water or oil,

necessary to form a more definite conception of the nature the result will be a permanent electromagnet of the type
of the action, than was then available, before the use of v first made by Amplre about 1822. Thus the atoms of the
could be introduced as a working hypothesis. magnet are set in planes at right angles to the axis through
MaxiveU's electromagnetic theory of- light was put in the poles, and all vibrate in concert.
such shape that the existence of electric waves was rendered Accordingly, we find a direct
4. relation between mag-
probable, but not directly verified by any tangible experiment, netism and electrodynamic action, and as dynamic electricity
till Herizs discovery of the electric waves (1887-94)" which is found by experiment to travel on wires with nearly the
bear his name, along with a method for investigating their velocity of light, it is impossible to doubt that the waves
properties, including an experimental demonstration that they emitted by natural and artificial magnets travel also with the
travel with the velocity of light. same speed. In fact it follows that before magnetization the
This practical development of the theory of electric steel emitted waves of the same type as after action by the
oscillations, with experimental determination that the velocity electric current, yet prior to the action of the current through
of the electric waves is identical with that of light, left no the solenoid the orientation of the atoms was a haphazard
doubt of the identity of the electric medium with the lumini- one. The act of magnetization consists in forcing the equators
ferous aether. Otherwise it is inconceivable that the two of the atoms into parallel planes, so that they may vibrate
velocities should be identical. The previous and subsequent in concert, which explains the great strength of magnetism

determinations of v have confirmed this conclusion, so that in comparison with the feeble force of gravitation.
such a result has now been accepted for about a quarter of 5. This brings us directly to the problem of cosmical

a century. It remained, however, to form some demonstrable magnetism and of gravitation. In steel magnets of good
physical conception of magnetism and of gravitation, which quality all or nearly all the atoms are forced into parallelism
would justify the claim not only that electric waves travel by the agitations of the current through the solenoid. Now
with the speed of light, but also that magnetic and gravi- the heavenly bodies contain some iron, nickel and other
tational forces are due to a similar cause, which Tvas the magnetic elements, but much of their matter, of a stony or
aim of the writer's researches, 1914-1917. glassy character, exhibits magnetic properties in a very feeble
T. was necessary to show that a physical theory
First, it degree. Moreover, the planets are subjected to no very
of magnetism may be based on the mutual action of waves-'), strong solenoidal action other than that due to the sun's
and to disclose the nature of these waves, which must meet magnetic field. It is not remarkable therefore that they are
certain requirements in electrodynamics, and cosmical mag- only partially magnetic. Their magnetism may have been
netism, so as to be adaptable to the more hidden problem acquired or- considerably modified by the secular action of
of universal gravitation. This requirement was met by the the sun since the formation of the solar system.

theory of waves from atoms, shown to conform to Ampire's 6. Accordingly, Faraday's, great discovery that under
theory of elementary electric currents about these particles. current actionall bodies are more or less magnetic, while

") The fact that waves will explain the attraction and repulsion of magnets, under the observed laws of magnetism, must be regarded
as ii very notable triumph. As no other explanation is known, the simple cause thus assigned must be held to be the true cause.
 .

267 5079 268

nickel, iron, steel, etc., are the most perfectly adaptable to magnetic attraction backward and forward in the line from
the process of magnetization, would lead us to expect co3- the Red Sea to Hudson's Bay* (Treatise on Magnetism,
mical magnetism to be a very general phenomenon, but 1870, p. 206).
always somewhat feebly developed, in accordance with actual 10. This semidiurnal tide inthe earth's magnetism
observation. Herein lies the connection with universal gra- depending on the moon's action shown to be coperiodic
is

vitation, which Maxwell found so difficult to conceive. When with that of gravitation (cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys.
the .equators of the atoms are not lined up in parallel planes, Fore, 1917, pp. 50-53)- And on examining Lloyd's analysis
so as to oscillate in concert, they naturally are tilted hap- in the Philosophical Magazine for March, 1858, I have shown
hazard, and do not lead to poles, as in a magnet, which— it to be vitiated by a subtile error, in that he retained the

Airy describes as exhibiting a duality of powers, but to — hour angle 6 instead of the 29 which occurs in the ex-
the central action called gravitation. As the heavenly bodies pressions for the tide-generating potential. Apparently he did
are partially magnetic, this means that they have feeble not suspect that there could be such a thing as a magnetic
magnetic poles, in addition to the powerful central gravitational tide, and thus his mode of analysis simply begs the question,
action, and thus two independent wave fields are developed and the resulting error is repeating in many later works.
about them, one due to the atoms lined up and acting in For example, in his Mathematical Theory of Electricity and
concert, called magnetism, and the other to gravitation (cf. Magnetism, 1916, p. 402, Jeans asserts that the daily vari-
Fig. 14, Plate 6). ation of the earth's magnetism is not such as the heavenly
7. It is impossible to hold any other view of the bodies could produce —
thus repeating Lloyds error of 1858.
interlocked magnetic and gravitational fields observed about Of course not true, for a careful examination of the
this is

a planet. In the case of the earth Gauss fouad that about problem shows that the larger part of the terrestrial mag-
I 1380''' part of the matter acts as if it were magnetized
: netism is constant, as depending on the arrangement of
(AUgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, 1838, p. 46), while 1/1380"' of the atoms of the globe, whilst the variable effects
the remainder, 1379:1380*^, should give the central action are superposed by the actions of the sun and moon. Thus
of gravitation. By the observations taken at Mt. Wilson all the known periods of the terrestrial magnetism are shown
Solar Observatory the sun's magnetic field appears to be to follow from those of the heavenly bodies.
some 80 times stronger than that of our earth. Whether this 11. Now it is found that Newton's law will explain all
is due to the heat of the sun, and the resulting greater con- gravitationalphenomena, but not the phenomena of the
ductivity of wave action through its matter, so that the magnetic tide depending on such a body as the moon. For
action on the planets produce a larger secular effect upon as Airy points out, this implies attraction backward and for-
their atoms, or to some unknown
cannot at present cause, ward, in the line from the Red Sea to Hudson's Bay, which
be determined. The strength of the sun's magnetic field has is along the line of force of the earth's magnetism. The
no doubt added to the cosmical magnetism of the planets, intensity of the earth's magnetism thus varies in semidiurnal
though the changes are excessively slow. periods, just as the direction of the vertical varies under
8. It is more than probable that the secular changes the gravitational attraction of the moon, and in similar
in the earth's magnetism should be ascribed to the working periods.
of the sun's strong magnetic field, which is not equally power- 12. Accordingly, the attraction to the earth's magnetic
ful at all times, but varies appreciably with the sunspot cycle, pole is a true tide in the earth's magnetism,
subjected to
the relative position, and seasonal tilt of the earth's axis, and can only be explained by Weber's law, which takes
etc. As the magnetic storms are definitely shown to be account of induction under the changing distance of the
related to the cycles of the sunspots, as is also the aurora, partially magnetized matter of the globe, the lines of force
and the earth currents, these related phenomena deserve a towards the magnetic pole being subjected to the same ebb
more detailed investigation than they have yet received. The and flow as the central forces called gravitation. This con-
periodic phenomena all appear to depend on the sunspots, nects magnetism with gravitation, by direct observation: for
with their magnetic fields uncovered, and thus are more active the earth has with magnetic lines of force
feeble polarity,
with the maximum of the spot cycle. directed magnetic poles, as well as the much more
to the
9. For many years a great difficulty existed in accounting powerful central lines of force producing the phenomenon
for the semidiurnal magnetism of the earth,
tide in the of gravitation, Now the phenomenon of local gravitational
depending on the action of the moon. This was first detected change, due to the moon's action, is indicated by the os-
by Kreil at Prague in 1841, but independently discovered cillations of the sea, while that due to the moon's magnetic
by John Allan Broun, 1845. ^ "^^ry accurate analysis of the action is felt only by magnetic instruments which show the
observations at Dublin was published by Dr. Lloyd about variation of the northward component of the earth's magnetism.
1858, which showed that the magnetism of the earth had 13. When the tide-generating potential is developed in
the same semidiurnal period as the tides of our seas. Ac- hour angle h^ (westward), longitude / and latitude I of the
cordingly Airy declared that there is »a true lunar tide of place of observation, declination of the moon (5, the com-
magnetism, occurring twice in the lunar day, and showing ponents of the gravitational attraction are shown to be :

V= {^l.,ma^lr^) { — ^)-f-V2(V3 — sinU)}

^Acos^A cos^d cos2(/%o -/) sin2Asindcosdcos(/^o (38)
Westw. Comp. =dF/acosMl = ^/2{m/M){a/r] '{cosAcosMsin2(/%o— + sinAsin2dsin(,^o —
0} ^) (39)
Southw. Comp. = -dv/adX = ^U{mlM){a/rY sin 2I cos^ cos 2 (/^ — /) — 2cos 2 A sin 2 d cos(/%o — + sin 2 A( ^ 3 sin^J)
(}
/) i } (40)
 269 5079 270

It will be noticed that the westward component is made

up of two periodic terms, one going through its variations

twice and the other once a day, while the southward com-
ponent undergoes like periodic oscillations^ as illustrated by
the following figure, from Sir George Darwin's Tides and
Kindred Phenomena of the Solar System, 1899.

16^

154
 . : ,

271 5079 27-

have their equatorial planes any angles in respect to

tilted at of volume d-r = djcd^dz, and integrate throughout the volume
the coordinate axes. The plane waves above
outlined would bounded by a closed surface S
apply to the midplane of a perfect magnet, but it is necessary
JJJ(82<Z)/8^2)dT= «^Jj'J{82(»/9x2
+ 8^®/8y + 92®/8^^)d^ =
to consider the most general case.
Now the equation of a plane passing through the origin = -«^JJ(8(P/8«)d^. ,

(53)
of coordinates is 7^_i_„,„_i_^„ A 5 a sphere of radius r with its
1
If the surface is
'

centre at the point P, we may proceed as follows :

If thewave be flat in this plane it will travel with the
velocity a and at the end of the time /, will have spread -JJ(8®/8«)d.S=JJ(8(Z)/8r)rMa, =rn9/9^)JJa>rdco (54)
to a distance at. Accordingly, the argument
where <Dr denotes the value of O
at points on the surface of
5 = Ix-^my + nz — at (45) the sphere of radius r, about the centre P.
will represent themotion of the disturbance with velocity a. When we introduce polar coordinates into the first
But s is of a plane whose normal has
the equation member of (5,3) we obtain:
the direction cosines /, 7n, n, and whose distance from the
origin is at-^s. It is inferred that the plane is therefore (9V9^')JJJ®dT = (92/8/2)JJd(«(ja)rr^dr) . (55)
o
traveling in the direction of its normal with the velocity a;
but it is equally logical to say that a wave originating in On differentiating the right member relative to r, we
get from the original equation (48) by means of (53):
the plane is traveling in all directions with this velocity, and
at the end of time t, the sphere. surface [aiY x^-\-y'''-\-z^ = /2(82/8/2)JJa),dM = «2(8/8^) (r2(8/8^)JJ®,d«) .
(56)
would be this distance {at-\-s) from the original centre of
Yet the surface integral
J J
Or dw which appears in
disturbance. Thus instead of considering the plane to travel,
both members of (56) is ^n times the mean value of the
we may consider the wave to travel and carry a plane
s-^at =
Ix-^my-^nz, with it parallel to the plane in (45). function Or on the surface of a sphere of radius r. Suppose
The directions cosines of the plane fulfill the law this mean value be denoted by Or\ then since jj®rda»
/2-H;«2 + »2 = I .
(46) = ^n Or we have
Now with the value of .f in (45), we may take the r2(82®,/8/2) == «2(8/8^)(^2.8^^/8r). (57)
equation g) = O (/.t-h.;zj/H-«2-«^) (47)
On differentiating and dividing by r, we may put
this in the form:
and derive the following
dOl'bx =
I O' (s)
results by simple differentiation
dW/dy = m O' [s)
:

82(r®,)/8/2 = ^2 82(^0^)/8,-2 .
(58)

dw/ds = n O'
U7a) We may now
d(D/df = -a(D' introduce two new variables u und v,

^ Q.
8-'a)/8^2 1-2
[s]

(^) d'-at/dy-' = „r O' [s)

[s]
as follows: u ^= at-hr v = at—r.- (59)

= n^ O"
eaffj/ggS d-^QJdf a^W"
17 b)

Therefore, by addition of these terms we find

d'-(D/dx--^d-^(l)ldy^-hd-^0/dz'- =
= v'-O) = (/-'-i-ot2+«'-) O' [s) = ®" (.r) . '

(47 c)
And hence by the last of the above second differen-
tials we obtain 820/9^2 =fl2^-'a) (48)
which is Poisson^ celebrated equation of wave motion. (Sur
I'intdgration de quelques equations lineaires aux differences
partielles, et particuli^rement de I'equation generale du mouve-
ment des fluides elastiques,« Memoires de I'Academie Royale
des Sciences, Tome III, Juillet ig, 18 19.)
If u represents the displacement of the particles above
considered, in the direction of the a;-axis, we may derive a Fig. 16. Illustrating the Wave Theory of Poisson
less general but more obvious form of Poissorii, equation, as in reflected Light.
which was applied by Euler to the theory of sound.
Put u = ^v!\[nt—kx] n == 2nal). k.^ 2tc\X .
(49)
Then if, for brevity, we put rOr = ip we have for
the derivatives:
And then we may derive immediately:
8^/8^- = ^^p/^u^ul^t-h^^,/^v^vj^t = a [dipjdu dxp/dv)
8«/8/ = nQ.Oi{nt^kx) dujdx = —Acos{nt — kx) (50) 8 ip/dr = dip/du du/dr drp/dv dvjdr = df/du
-+- dip/dv
(60)^
(61)'
82^/8^2 =_„3^ d^u/dx^ = -hk^i( (51) d'^ip/dt^ = [82^/8^2+
«2 2d^iijjdudv-i-d-iifj/dv']
whence 8^9/^ =- {n'/k') d'-u/dx'- (52) 82,///8,-2=82,^/8«2_ 2 d-^ip/dudv-hd'-ip/dv'- .
(62)

{63)
In the use of Poissoris equation of wave motion By equation(58) we have through the addition of the
terms of the right of (62) and 63
we may multiply both sides of the equation by the element d-yj/dudv ;== o .
(64)
 , : . :

273 5079 274

This equation yields the general solution: Suppose, for example, that initially and do/dt are O
-ip
=/iW+/2W (6s)
both zero, except for a certain region P, whose nearest point
is at a distance i^i from P, while the remotest point lies at
where /i and f^ are perfectly arbitrary functions of their
arguments. a distance ^2.

If r ^ o, the left member vanishes:

Then so long as 4 <ri/a the mean value of O on
the sphere of radius because the waves from the
at, is zero,
o =/iHh-/2 («/). (66) nearest point have not yet reached P. After an interval
And as this holds for all values of /, it follows that t.,>r.2/a there will be no more waves and dO/dt will again
the functions /i and/2 are not independent, but one is the be zero at P.
negative of the other, namely
Mat) =- -Mat) .
(67)
by (66), whatever be the value of the argument at.

Accordingly we now put

/i =/ h=-f (68)
and then we have
rQir=^ f{at^r)-f{at-r). (69)
When \ye differentiate relative to r, we get:

(Dr+rClOr!(lr ^ f{at^r)+f'{at—r) .
(70)
And on putting r == o, this leads to

Or= f 2 [at) (71)

= Op, when r =o .
(72)
On differentiating (6g) relative to r and t, we get Fig. 17. Illustrating Poisson'% Tlieory of Waves.
successively:
Accordingly disturbances will prevail only in the time
(9/ar) [rOr) = f [at+A +/' [at-r) (73) rxla<t<r.ila and the power of disturbance, or velocity po-
(8/3^)(r®,) = [f[at+r)-f[at-r)]
a .
(74) tential O, is propagated in all directions with the velocity a.

Accordingly, by addition, we obtain By using polar coordinates Poisson has obtained a more
direct solution, because O then becomes independent of the
8(r®.)/8r+(i/fl)-8(r®.)/8/= 2f'{at+r). (75) angular coordinates. Equation (48) becomes:
And for / =o o'^Ol'df- = «2 (820/9^-2+ 2/^. 90/a^) (gj)
[8(r®.)/8r+(i/«)-8(r®.)/84^^ = 2f'[r) .
(76) or d\rO)l'df- = d\rO)\dr''
a'- (82)
When we use the original value of ®r =^ ( t-I A^t)
\
\ Or doo A solution of this equation is

it thus appears that we obtain rO=f[at-r) (83)

2/'{r)=[{d/dr){r/47f^^(Dr<iw} which yields:
q) _^(^,_^)/^_ (g^)
-+-(i/«)W47r-JJ(8a)./3/)d«a^^. (77) Thus for all points of space, and all times for which
Now suppose that at the initial instant, t o, the = at —r
has the same particular value we have the same value
values of O
and its time derivative 8(D/8/ are given in func- r O, as the particular value of O
travels outward with the

tions of the coordinates of a point in space: velocity a.

= J'(x,y,z) [dOldt\^^==f[x,y,z).
It should be noted that the value of is inversely O
[(I>l^^ (78)
proportional to the distance r traversed. And although the
Then by (77) we have analytical form (84) makes O infinite when r = o, yet in

2f[r) = (9/8^) {(r/47r)JJi^.d(«} + (r/47r«)JJ/,dw. (79) reality thiscondition does not occur, because physical limi-

But when r =
at, we have by (72) 2f'[ai) = Op at
tations imposed by the structure of matter excludes the value
r = and O is always finite.
o,
the centre, and thus finally we obtain:
Following the method of Poisson, Lord Rayleigh and
Op = (1/471) [(9/8«/) (a/JJiVtdw-t-/JJ/a, d«)] (80) other writers on sound are accustomed to take the velocity

which is Poissoii's, general solution of the equation (48), for

potential:
^ ^ o(,^., t) = Aco^{2nll-[x-at)\ (85)
wave motion. which fulfills the irrotational condition of hydrodynamics
From this solution, it follows that the value of O may
^= '\^[uAx+vdy^wAz) = o.
'\^AO
be computed for every point P if we know the mean value (86)

of do I'd f at a time earlier by the interval at, for all points But it is a fact of great importance, which will be
on the surface of a sphere of radius at about P, as well as discussed at length' in the fourth paper on the new theory
the rate of the variation of the mean value of O as the of the aether, that Poisson never concurred in the theory 'of
radius of the sphere changes. This is the typical condition transverse vibrations for light. Poisson's, dissent from FrcsneTi,
specified in wave motion. assumptions was based on the mathematical theory of waves
 « «

275 5079 276

in an elastic fluid. Besides the celebrated memoir of 18 19, distance, ces ondes sont sensiblement planes dans chaque
already cited, Poisscn treated the matter in another able paper, partie, d'une petite etendue par rapport k leur surface entiere;
presented to the Academy of Sciences, March 24, 1823, et alors, la vitesse propre des molecules est, dans tous les
Memoire sur la Propagation du Mouvement dans les Fluides cas, sensiblement normale k leur plan tangent. Mais on peut
under the title Sur le Mouve-
filastiques, finally published : aussi considerer directement la propagation du mouvement
ment de Deux Fluides filastiques Superposes (Memoires de par des ondes infinies et planes dans toute leur etendue.
rinstitut. Tome X) in which this celebrated geometer con- Or, on va voir que la vitessedes molecules sera encore
firmed the conclusions previously reached, namely, that perpendiculaire a ces sortes d'ondes en mouvement:
whatever be the direction of the original disturbance, the Accordingly, in his most mature memoirs, after re-
vibratory motions of the particles finally become normal to searches on the theory of waves extending over 25 years,
the wave front. Poisson confirmed the conclusion that in elastic media, of
When Fresnel and his followers objected to Foisson's the type of a gas, the motion of the molecules is always
processes founded on mathematical abstraction, though
as like that of sound. This result willbe found to have great
deduced from the assumption of contiguous elements, the significance when we come to deal with afundamental error
celebrated geometer returned to the subject in a series of in the wave-theory of light, in the fourth paper on the New
later memoirs, as follows: Theory of the Aether.
1. Mdmoire sur I'fiquilibre et le Mouvement des Corps
filastiques, Avril 14, 1828. Me'moires de I'lnstitut, Tome VIII, 9. Rejection of Thomsons Corpuscular Theory
of an Electric Current, because of the Small Velo-
PP- 357-627.
2. Memoire sur I'fiquilibre des Fluides, Nov. 24, 1828. city thus attainable: Theory of a Magneton also
Tome IX, 1-88. rejected because of its Inconsistency with Electro-
3. Memoire sur la Progagation du, Mouvement dans
dynamic Action: observed High Velocity of Electron
les Milieux filastiques, Oct. 11, 1830, Tome X, pp. 549-605. under Charge explained by Acceleration due to

Memoire sur I'fiquilibre et le Mouvement des Corps Aether Waves.

4.
Crystallises, Tome XVIII, pp. 3-152. (i) Thomson and other electronists hold that an electric
current is due to the motion of electrons.
In all of these memoirs the earlier conclusions of
1823 are confirmed and emphasized, that whatever the pri- In his Corpuscular Theory of Matter, 1907, Sir y. J.
mitive disturbance may have been, 'at a great distance the Thomson put forth the view that an electric current consists
motion of the molecules finally becomes perpendicular to in the motion of the electrons. »0n the corpuscular theory
the wave surface. This is deduced in the memoir of 1830, of electric conduction through metals the electric current is

pp. 570—571, by an argument which cannot well be evaded, carried by the drifting of negatively electrified corpuscles
and announced in these words; against the current.* . . . »The corpuscles we consider are

»I1en resulte done qu'i mesure que Ton s'eloigne du thus those whose freedom is of long duration. On this view
centre de I'ebranlement primitif, la vitesse dupointj/approche the drift of the corpuscles which forms the current is brought
de plus en plus d'etre dirigde suivant son rayon vecteur r, about by the direct action of the electric field on the free

et qu'k une tr^s-grande distance, oh I'onde mobile peut ^tre corpuscles.* (p. 49.)
regardee comme sensiblement plane dans une grande dtendue, »As, however, the mass of a corpuscle is only about
on doit, en m^me temps, considerer le mouvement des mole- 1/1700 of that of an atom of hydrogen, and therefore only
cules qui la composent, comme perpendiculaire k sa surface, about 1/3400 of that of a molecule of hydrogen, the mean
quel qu'ait ete I'dbranlement primitif. value of the square of the velocity of a corpuscle must be

On pages 574-5 of the same memoir of 1830, Poisscn 3400 times that of the same quantity for the molecule of
deduces the formula ® i/r-xp{r—a(, =
k) and passes to fj,,
hydrogen at the same temperature. Thus the average
the case a(> r-i-s, velocity of the corpuscle must be about 58 times
W=^ i/r-lHfv,X) that of a molecule of hydrogen at the temperature
(87)
of the metal in which the molecules are situated^)..
where we should have
At 0° C. the mean velocity of the hydrogen molecule is
s= j/a'--d(Dldt=o. (88) about 1.7-10'' cm/sec, hence the average velocity of the
»I1 de cette discussion que dans le cas oil la
rdsulte corpuscles in a metal at this temperature is about 10^ cm/sec,
formule udx -^ vdy -^ wdz ne satisfait pas a la condition or approximately 60 miles per sec. Though these corpuscles
d'intdgrabilite, les, lois de la propagation du mouvement, k are charged, yet since as many are moving in one direction
une grande distance de I'dbranlement, ne different pas essen- as in the opposite, there will be on the average no flow of
tiellement de celles qui ont lieu, lorsque cette condition est electricity inthe metal. Although the change produced in
remplie, ainsi que je I'avais suppose dans mon ancien memoire the velocity of the corpuscles by this force is, in general,
sur la theorie du son.« very small compared with the average velocity of translation
»Le mouvement imprimd arbitrairement k une portion of the corpuscles, yet it is in the same direction for all of
limitee d'un fluide homogtoe se propage toujours en ondes them, and produces a kind of wind causing the corpuscles
spheriques autour du lieu de cet dbranlement. A une grande to flow in the opposite direction to\he electric force (since
*) The spacing-out of the concluding sentence is mine — not in the original.
 « «

277 5079 278

the charge on the corpuscle is negative), the velocity of the Again, (p.Crowther adds: »These electrons, if
140)
wind being the velocity imparted to the corpuscles by the no electric force be will be moving in all directions,
acting,
electric force '^).« so that if we take any cross section of the metal the number
Thomson's calculations of the velocity of 60 miles per of electrons qrossing it in one. direction will be the same
second are based upon the formulae cited in Section 12, as the number crossing it in the opposite direction, and so
below, which I had made before I found the above state- the total transference of electricity across Ithe section will
ment. Thomson does not dwell on the inadequacy of this be zero.«
velocity of 60 miles per second to explain the transmission however, we apply an electric field to the body
»If,
of electric signals on wires, which have a velocity only there be a force on each electron urging it in the
will
slightly less than that of light. direction of the field. Thus in addition to the irregular motion
On page 68, however, he points out that in a Rontgen- due to the heat energy of the body, there will be a steady
ray-bulb giving out hard rays the velocity of the corpuscles drift of the electrons as a whole in the direction of the elec-
in air may be about 10^" cm/sec, or 10^ times the velocity tric force.
of those in the metals. This discussion, like that of Thomson, admits that an
It is held in the theory
of ionization of gases by electric field is necessary so set the electrons in motion, but
X-rays, that the positive and negative parts of the atoms are the nature of the electric field itself is not explained, beyond
separated. »The positive ions are attracted to the negative the general phrase that difference of potential is involved.
electrode and the negative ions to the positive electrode, This almost as unsatisfactory as the failure of the elec-
is
and the movement of these electric charges constitutes a tronists to account for the high velocity of. electric signals
current,* says Duff's, Text Book of Physics, (ed. 19 16, on wires.
p. 4q8). This is used at the University of California, and
(ii) Experimental tests of the velocity of electric waves
this discussion was written by Prof. Ji. K. McClung of the
on wires.
University of Manitoba, who is a Doctor of Science of the

University of Cambridge, England, and thus speaks with The problem of the velocity of the electric waves along
authority. wires has been much and formulas given in such
discussed,
Likewise,Crowther says on p. 139 of his Molecular works Problems*,
as Cohetii, »Calculation of Alternating Current

Physics: »We
have now come to connect electricity with whilst the propagation of waves in metals has been treated
electrons, and hence an electric current is a flow .of electrons theoretically by Drude, Lehrbuch der Optik, 2, Chap. IV,

from a place of high to a place of low potential. We may and by other authorities.
regard a conductor, then, as a substance containing electrons But when we come to deal with concrete measure-
which are free to move under the action of an electric field, ments of actual velocities, such measurements do not seem
while in non-conductors the electrons are fixed and unable to be plentiful: yet we note a few values in the following
to follow the impulse .of the field. table.

Observed V Authority Remarks

463i33Km. Wheatstone, Phil. Trans., 1834 Duration of Electric Spark Method.
310475 Kirchhoff, G^aw^^'s Physics § 796 Theoretical Calculation from the Measurements of Constant Electric Currents.
179890 Fizeau and Gounelle Signals on Copper Wire.
99938 Signals on Iron Wire.
230500I Siemens and Frolich, Poggend.
Observations on Telegraph Wires of Iron, 23372 Kms. long.
256600 J
Ann. Bd. CLVII.
241800 Observations on Telegraph Wires 7352 Kms. long.

These measurements, which are of very unequal value, W. Duane, and published in the Philosophical Magazine foi-
give a mean of 254618 Kms., which would not seem im- 1895, '^ol. 40, p. 211. They used a pair of parallel short
probable, in vievif of the fact that the Siemens- Frolich series, wires,58.6 metres long, but determined the duration of the
apparently by far the best, give a mean 242966 Kms. for electricoscillation in the wire very accurately by photo-
electric waves on iron wires. As the electric disturbances graphy of the sparks in a rapidly rotating mirror. The wave
should travel with the velocity of light, 300000 Kms., except length was 56.77 m, and the duration of the spark was found
for the resistance of the wires, it would thus appear that to be 1.8907 10""' second. The mean value of the velocity
the velocity is reduced about Vs"" or Ve"" of 'he whole. The of the wave on the wire came out V=
3.003 10^" cm/sec.; •

resistance causes the disturbance to travel slower in the wire which slightly exceeds the adopted velocity of light.

and thus the waves around the wire envelope it, and ne- But a much more thorough direct comparison of the
cessarily follow it as a conductor. velocity of electric waves on wires with light itself was
A more modern investigation of the velocity of electric quite recently undertaken by the French physicist C, Gutton,
waves on wires was made by Prof. John Trowbridge and Journal de Physique, 1912 (5), vol. 2, p. 41. This experiment

^) I quote at length from the chief authorities, in order to feel sure that the views of the electronists are correctly cited. As I con-
sider the electron theory to be greatly overrated, this precaution is deemed necessary, in justice to their researches, which I might find difficulty
in accurately condensing into any briefer statements.
 279 5079 28o

•was arranged with great ingenuity, and the apparatus so therefore the disturbances are spread along in space, when
designed as to show a small difference in the two velocities, we deal with a wire on which the disturbance travels, so
if such difference existed. The first observations showed that that the oscillations diagrammed on the left are repeated
the two velocities were nearly identical, yet not rigorously throughout the wire.
the same. The of any element of the aether wave out-
reflection

Under the delicate and dependable means of adjust- side the wire given double effect by the surge from the
is

ment used Gutton discovered that the velocity of the electric opposite surface of the wire, as shown in the diagram. And
wave on the wire was a little less than that of light. And thus the wave rotations take the reversed directions shown
he found that the difference thus very accurately determined above and below the wire. This is the wave field we in-
amounted to' about one-half of one percent. Accordingly for and find to follow Biot and
vestigate in Oersted's experiment,
the velocity of electric waves on wires Guifons values would be: Savarfs law, as already explained in Section 5.
Electric waves V ^^ 298500 Kms. Accordingly the delay in propagation through the wire
Light V= 300000 Kms. causes a slight whirling of the aether particles against the
wire, then a rebound, with rotations in the opposite direction
This retardation of the electric waves by wires is small, — in waves which are propagated away as shown in the
but fortunately the experiment of GuHon was so well de.-
diagram of the wave field. In regard to such reflection from
signed that no doubt can attach to the reality of the difference.
metallic surfaces, Prof Fleming says: »This electrical radia-
We mt,st therefore admit that the electric waves on wires tion (waves of length approaching 4 cms.), penetrates easily
are slightly retarded by the resistance in the wires. This
through dielectric bodies. It is completely reflected from
has been probable on general principles, and indicated by
metallic surfaces, and is also more or less reflected from the
the older experiments, and it now takes its place as an
surfaces of insulators* (p. 411).
established fact of observation.
(iii) Rejection of the theory of a magneton as con-
The result is similar to that reached in the first paper
trary to electrodynamics.
on the New Theory where we showed that
of the Aether,
wireless wawes more slowly through the solid mass
travel We now pass to the discussion of the so - called

of the earth, and the wave front is thus bent around the magneton.
globe, —
which explains the observed fact that the wireless 1. appears that the existence of the so-called mag-
It

wave travels around the earth. This propagation of the neton is It was at first admitted, with
purely hypothetical.
wireless wave around the globe had proved very mysterious, some hesitation, as a possible corpuscle, in magnets, analogous-
to the electron in the problems of electricity. This idea
and no satisfactory explanation of it had been forthcoming.
seemed logical in terminology, and the name appeared in
As we have now definite proof of the retardation of
certain papers of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
electric waves by the resistance encountered within a metallic
Society, and it has since come into more general use.
wire, we see that the wire is surrounded by an envelope of
waves in the free aether tending to proceed with the velocity 2. But the above described terminology apparently
of light, yet held back by the resistance within the wire, overlooks the fact that magnets are produced by the action
and thus the advancing wave envelopes and is made to follow of an electric current. If therefore electrons be active in
•the wire. Is it not probable that we have here the true
a current, and the current generates a magnet, it is more
explanation of the nature of a conductor? natural to explain magnets by the effects of electrons, and
Of course a conductor must be metal, which has both
to do away with the magneton as superfluous.
the power of inductance and capacity, —
otherwise the electric 3. In the present author's work, however, waves are

disturbances would not take the form of waves, thus expen-

made the basis of the generation of a magnet out of steel
by the lining-up action of an electric current. It is thus-
ding the energy due to difference of potential. Yet, there
illogical to introduce fictitious corpuscles imagined to have
must be another physical cause at work to rnake the distur-
rotatory properties, when simple waves in the aether suffice-
bance follow the wire. It is this, that the wave in the free
for all practical purposes.
aether travels more rapidly than within the dense resisting
4. In the Principia, Lib.
1686, Newto7i lays down:
Ill,
wire, and owing to this resistance, the waves follow the wire,
being bent towards it on all sides, as shown in the inner
as the first rule of philosophy: »We
are to admit no more
causes of natural things than such as are both true and suf-
part of the Fig. 18, Plate 6.
ficient to explain their appearances.* »To this purpose the
The discharge spark of a Leyden jar is due to the
philosophers say that nature does nothing in vain, and more-
oscillations of the invisible aether, rendering particles of air
is in vain when less will serve; for nature is pleased with
luminous by the agitation; and when this spark is photo-
simplicity, and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.*
graphed in a rapidly revolving mirror, the oscillations are
shown as indicated on the axis of the wire to the left. We 5. Under the circumstances, there is no need for the

must therefore assume electric surges from one side of the wire hypothesis of a njagneton, and thus we reject it because its-
use in inconsistent with electrodynamic phenomena as ex-
to the other, just as in a Leyden jar. Moreover, as the aether
compressible, this compressibility contributes to the develop- plained by the wave-theory.
is

ment of waves. (iv) Velocity of the electron made to approximate that

It be noted that the oscillations photographed

is to of light by the action of electric waves.
in the mirror have their phases spread along in time, and In his later researches on the ratio of the charge to-
 ! «:

28l 5079 282

the mass of cathode ray particle, Thomson devised a method them that have led to the great advances in molecular physics
for exactly balancing the electric and magnetic forces, and which we are about to describe. Particles having this velo-
was able determine the ratio elm, and get V from the
to city are shot out in large numbers from radioactive bodies.
ratio of the strength of the electric field X
to the strength To anticipate a little we may say that the o;-particles from
of the magnetic field H, both of which could be measured. radium consist of atoms of helium shot out with a speed of
In this way he found V=
2.8- 10^ cms. per second, or this order of magnitude, and bearing a positive charge.
about one-eleventh of the velocity of light. Thus it is that a single a-particle is able to cause a flash
This value was found to be not quite constant, but to of light when it strikes upon a screen covered with a suitable
vary somewhat with the potential in the. tube, yet the value material.*
elm was found to be 1.7 10', and shown to be independent
•
The view that the high velocity attainable by the elec-
of the nature of the gas used in the tube. The greatest tron due to the action of
is electric waves is suggested by
value of elm known in electrolysis is for the hydrogen ion, Crowther's further remarks
and comes out whence it was concluded that the value
10*, »The a-particles consist of helium atoms only. Velo-
for the cathode particle
is 1700 times that for the hydrogen cities approaching that of the a-particles can be given to
ion. As the charge e carried by the cathode particle was atoms and molecules of other substances by passing an
found to be the same as for the hydrogen ion, it was held electric discharge through them iri the gaseous state at very
that the mass of the cathode particle is 1/1700 of the low pressures. The phenomena of the discharge tube have
.

hydrogen ion or atom. indeed afforded the best means of investigating the properties
It will be seen that notwithstanding the great ingenuity of moving electrified particles, and we shall proceed to their
displayed by Thomson and his pupils, this whole subject is consideration immediately.
involved in considerable uncertainty. Perhaps it may fairly Accordingly it seems that the electron researches strongly
be asked whether any of these phenomena are yet inter- support the wave-theory as the only means of generating the
preted on their final basis. No doubt the experiment as velocity of the electron found by observation^). If helium
described s'upporfs the result found, but it is always difficult atoms or a-particles can be given such high velocities by
to feelsure that some .entirely different view of these matters electric charges, more may electrons, in view of their
still
may not develop hereafter, owing to further experimentation, very small be given the high velocities approaching
size,
or improvement in the theory of the aether. i/io* that of light. For as helium gas is monatomic but
The net result is therefore as follows: twice as heavy as hydrogen, the electron is about 6800 times
1. Viewing the electron as a corpuscle of a gas, it lighter than helium, and under gaseous laws a velocity of
would attain a velocity of only about 98 kms. (60 miles) over 80 times that of a helium atom might be expected for
per second, or i 3000''' of the velocity of light. This is
: the electron, if equal energy were concentrated in a single
very insignificant compared to the velocities observed in light corpuscle. This gives arnpje power to account for the ob-
and electric waves. served velocity of projection of the electron, and the high-
2. Under the action of impulses in the tube not yet velocity therefore is naturally attributed to wave-action.
fully understood, but generated under considerable electric It is worthy of note that, with Crowther's estimate that
tension, the velocity of the charged particle may be augmented the electrons attain a velocity of i : is'*" of the speed of
nearly 300 fold, so as to become a little less than a tenth light, the aetherons have a speed 15-1.57
. = 23-55 times
of the velocity of light and electric waves. that of the swiftest corpuscle heretofore recognized. The
3. The mass of the corpuscle is considered to be due New Theory of the Aether thus bids fair to give quite an
wholly to the charge, but too little is yet known to justify impetus to the study of high velocities.
this claim, and it cannot be admitted. Apparently wave
action alone could produce the velocity of the electron, 10. The Identity of the Velocity of Electric

2.8- 1 o^ approaching one tenth that of light, because the Waves with that of Light shows that the Aether
aetherons move 1.57 times faster yet. underlies both Classes of Phenomena: the Formal
4.- In his work on Molecular Physics, p. 7-8, Crowther Public Discussions on doing away with the Aether
describes how much energy may be given to a small mass by recently held before the Royal Societies in London
increasing its speed to about 1/15''' of the velocity of light. striking Evidence of the General Bewilderment.
»Such particles, however, actually exist, and it is the (i) The physical significance of the identity of the
discovery of these particles and the measurements made upon velocity of electric waves with that of light.

') In his History of the Inductive Sciences, Whewell bestows high praise on Roemer, —
who lived about a century in advance of
his contemporaries, so that his discovery of the velocity of light was accepted, by very few, chiefly by Newton and Huyghens, because this —
celebrated discoverer noticed that the eclipses pf Jupiter's satellites were delayed in time in proportion to the distance of the earth from Jupiter.
Thus when Jupiter was near opposition, the eclipses came about 16 minutes earlier than, when the earth was on the opposite side of the sun;
and Whewell remarks on the highly philosophic character of Roeme?'!, argument for the gradual propagation of light across space, which no
one before him had suspected from the earliest ages.
Now in our time the researches of the electronists have occupied great prominence, but without any inquiry, so far as I know, being
instituted by them to account for the known velocity of electric waves on wires and radio waves across free space. This neglect greatly weakens
the position of the electronists, and when they propose to do .away with the aether, without accounting for the propagation of light and elec-
tricity, they add presumption to carelessness; and therefore if Roema^s course was highly philosophic the course adopted by the electronists
has been just the reverse —unphilosophic and indefensible
 ,

283 5079 284

The early evidence deduced by Maxwell, in 1864, and simply waves of different length and type in this all-per-
his successors during the next quarter of a century, to the vading medium.
effect that electrical actions travel sensibly with the velocity
Accordingly, as Sir Oliver Lodge correctly says,
(ii)
of light, received a remarkable confirmation from the physical
Einstein not done away with the aether, but simply
has
discoveries of Hertz, who devised methods for investigating
ignored it, and thereby shown a remarkable lack of under-
electrical wfives of the type since used in radio-telegraphy.
standing of the physical ilniverse.
And the progress of radio-telegraphy has been such that the
In a public address at San Francisco, April 11, 1920,
velocity of these waves between Paris
and other parts of
Sir Oliver Lodge dealt with the physical properties of the
France, and between Paris and Washington, has been measured
aether, as the vehicle of energy, and emphasized the view
as accurately as is humanly possible in the determination of
is capable of exerting
that although totally invisible, the aether
intervals of time less than a fiftieth of a second.
the most stupendous power throughout space, and thus is
We cannot say indeed that the measurements between
the medium or vehicle which transmits the forces which
Paris and Washington give incontrovertible experimental proof
govern the motions of the planets and stars in their orbits.
that the electrical waves travel with exactly the velocity of
Not only is the aether necessary for conveying the
light. Perhaps the velocity of propagation is involved in say
light of the sun and stars across space, but also for con-
five percent of uncertainty; yet all the observations are con-
veying the stresses to generate the planetary forces, which
sistent with the speed of light. And in view of the accuracy
are equivalent to the breaking strength of gigantic cables
V, by such methods as were employed
of the determinations of
of steel stretched between the sun and planets. These stu-
by the American Bureau of Standards in 1907, we must hold
pendous gravitative mechanisms are wholly invisible, and yet
that the radio-waves between Washington and Paris travel
from the observed operation of centrifugal force, we know
with the observed laboratory velocity, which appears to be
them do really exist.
that the gravitative forces for balancing
exactly identical with that of light.
Under the circumstances, as Sir Oliver Lodge pointed out,
The fact that approximately the same speed is attained
we cannot hold that appearances correspond to reality. We
by light and radio-electric waves, reduces us to the necessity
know of the aether chiefly from its transmission of wave
of admitting:
action, which in free space travels with the velocity of light.
1. Either the two classes of waves travel with precisely
Accordingly, after tracing the physical properties of
the same velocity.
the aether, Sir Oliver Lodge justly exclaimed: »You have
2. Or we miist assume the existence of two media with
heard of Einstein, and probably know that he has no use
slightly different elastic powers, yet giving waves of practi-
cally the same velocity.
for the aether. He has, however, not done away with the
aether, but simply ignored it.«
Maxwell long ago protested against the unphilosophic
This concise statement covers the case exactly; but in
habit of inventing a new medium every time we have a new
view of the fact that Einstein shuts his eyes to the unseen
•phenomenon to explain and fortunately in this case measure-
;

operations of the physical universe, which Newton attributed

ment supports Maxwell's contention, by showing more and
to impulses in the aethereal medium, it is not remarkable
more conclusively that the two velocities are identical. The
that the many sagacious investigators of natural phenomena
difference between the velocity of electric waves in free
are obliged to reject the mystical and misleading doctrines
aether and light is now so small as to be within the probable
of Einstein.
error of the, separate determinations; and it is difficult to
To turn away from a mechanical explanation of the
decide which method affords the greater accuracy of measure-
world, and attempt to account for phenomena by mere
ment. We must therefore wholly reject any claim for two
formulae reposing on the supposition of action at a distance,
media, and acknowledge that light and dynamic electricity
— and to further complicate the reasoning by the assumption
depend on one and the same medium the aether. And
we have discussed the physical character of that medium,
of the curvature of space, • — when such an hypothesis is

and fixed the constants with such great accuracy that when
unnecessary and purely fictitious, —
not a sign of pene-
is
tration, but of lack of experience in natural philosophy.
the density is calculated by a new method, in the present
It is just such unwarranted procedure which Newton
paper, it is found to be
or = 1888.15- 10-" denounces as resting on »vainfictions*, in the second sentence
of the discussion following the statement of Third Rule of
as against the other value, now no longer admissible, as
Reasoning in Philosophy: »We are certainly not to relinquish
shown above in section I
the evidence of experiments for the sake of dreams and
a = 438-IO-1* vain fictions of our own devising; nor are we to recede
yet found in the first paper by the method invented by from the analogy of nature, which uses to be simple and
Lord Kelvin in 1854 and since improved by Kelvin, Maxwell always consonant to itself* (Principia, Lib. III).
and the present writer. It appears from Newton's discussion that electrical actions

The physical significance of the identity of the velocity conveyed along wires and across space, as in radio-telegraphy,
of light and electricity is therefore unmistakable; namely, and found by actual experimental measurements to be trans-
electricity in motion consists of waves in the aether, and mitted with the velocity of light, are the very kind of »evi-
as they travel with the same velocity as light, we know that dence of experiments* which that great philosopher says we
electricity and light both depend on the aether, and are are not to relinquish for the sake of dreams and vain fictions
 285 5079 286

of our own devising; yet Einstein and his followers have true relation; in a crowd of ideas there is not one truth:
Newton% Third Rule of Philosophy, in
thus plainly violated he becomes a man after being a spirit of light.*
proposing to do away with the aether. Without this medium The results brought out in the first and second papers
the phenomena here cited are not explainable, so that even on the New Theory of the Aether, show the worthless cha-
a child can see the necessity for the aether. The sun and racter of the whole theory of relativity. We'%re justified in
stars are the perpetual witnesses to the existence of the aether, saying it is a foundation. laid in quicksand, when a foundation
and all who live and behold the light, as Homer says, thereby of granite was near at hand. And therefore the whole
recognize this superfine medium {^idrjq). theory of relativity, as heretofore taught, is now shaken to
its foundations, and thus no longer deserves the serious con-
(iii) The formal discussions on the theory of relativity
sideration of natural philosophers.
before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec, iQig, and Royal
As throwing some historical light upon the unprofitable
Society, Feb. 5, 1920, wholly unprofitable, in default of a
kinetic theory of the aether.
subtleties of the theory of relativity, and the vague and chi-
merical discussions which the Royal Astronomical Society
In view of the above unnecessary to
criticisms it is
and the Royal Society have inflicted upon a bewildered and
emphasize the unprofitable character of the formal discussions
long suffering public, we recommend an attentive reading of
held before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec, 191Q,
the latter part of the first volume of WhewelTs History of
and the Royal Society, Feb. 5, 1920. But the fact that two
the Inductive Sciences. Whewell dedicated this justly celebrated
of the oldest scientific societies in Europe did not refuse
work to Sir John Herschel, and it ought to be familiar to
to waste their time and resources of publication on the vague
every modern investigator.
and chimerical theory of relativity thereby still further— WheweU's, luminous discussion of the » Indistinctness of
confusing the public mind, already bewildered by the mis-
Ideas in the Middle Ages* » Collections of Opinions*
;
sin- ;

application of mathematics which rests on no .physical basis,

distinctness of Ideas in Mechanics*; » Indistinctness of Ideas
when the problem is primarily a physical one — may well
in Architecture*; » Indistinctness of Ideas in Astronomy*;
deserve our attention.
»Indistinctness of Ideas shown by Skeptics*, (pp.253-268)
A report of these meetings will be found in the Monthly is especially worthy of study.
Notices, and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and In opening the treatment of » Indistinctness of Ideas
other journals, such as the Journal of the British Astrono- shown by Skeptics* Whewell remarks:
mical Association,for Nov., 19 19, and Jan., 1920, which »The same unsteadiness of ideas which prevents men
appear a month or so late. We may conden.se the discussion from obtaining clear views, and steady and just convictions,
as an American physicist summarized a similar discussion on special subjects, may lead them to despair of or deny
held in Washington about ten years ago: the possibility of acquiring certainty at all, and may thus
»When we got through, we did not know any more make them skeptics with regard to all knowledge. Such
thariwhen we started.* skeptics themselves men of indistinct views, for they
are

Now we submit that such methods are not those by could not avoid assenting to the demonstrated
otherwise
truths of science; and, so far as they may be taken as spe-
which science is advanced. And when the proceedings of
learned societies the form of unprofitable debates, on
take cimens of their contemporaries, they prove that- indistinct
mere subtleties, on reasoning which rests on false pre-
or ideas prevail in the age in which they appear. In the sta-

mises, — such as a mere mathematical foundation, tionary period, moreover, the indefinite speculations and un-

when a physical foundation is required, — it is a sign profitable subtleties of the schools might further impel a man

of the mysticism which usually accompanies intellectual de- of bold and acute mind to this universal skepticism, because
they offered nothing which could fix or satisfy him. And
cadence. There can be no defense for the policy of exploiting
thus the skeptical spirit may deserve our notice as indicative
Einsiein'% theory without first considering the kinetic theory
of the defects of a system of doctrine too feeble in demon-
of the aether, which renders such mystical doctrines unnecessary
stration to control such resistance.*
and wholly inadmissible.
Accordingly, from the considerations here advanced,
To cite an example of historic interest, the chimerical
it follows that the recent formal discussions before the Royal
character of Kepler'^ early speculations is judiciously pointed
Society and Royal Astronomical Society of the theory of
out by Laplace (Precis de I'Hist. d'Astron., p. 94):
which is both vague and chimerical, have confused
relativity,
»I1 est affligeant pour I'esprit humain de voir ce grand rather than clarified the subject in the public mind; and
homme, m6me dans ses derni^res ouvrages, se complaire
thus in the cause of truth I have felt obhged to protest
avec ddlices dans ses chimeriques speculations, et les regarder
against the misuse of the powers of these learned societies.
comme Time et la vie de I'astronomie.*
II. Rejection of the Theory of Electrical
Delambre is even more severe, and subscribes to the ,

judgement of Baill'y in regard to Kepler (Astron. du moyen Mass' except for Small Particles of Common Matter
1819,
expelled under Electric Charges: the so-called, Elec-
4ge, p. 358):
trical Mass' thus not applicable to the Aetherons,
» After this sublime effort (discovering the planetary
or Corpuscles of which the Aether is made up.
laws, is xa&araX) Kepler replunges hirnself into
.
the relations
(i) Description of the so-called ,electrical mass'.
of music to the motions, the distance, and the eccentricities
of the planets. In all these harmonic ratios there is not one Of late years a number of physicists occupied with
 . .

28; 5079 288

experiments involving the ejection of small charged particles', by the particle, and a is the radius of the spherical space
in an electric field of very considerable intensity, have occupied by the charge. The .electrical mass' is not quite
laid much stress upon the so-called ,electrical mass', and constant for all velocities, but the above formula holds ap-
even gone so far as to entertain the view that all mass is elec- proximately for moderate speeds.
trical (cf. Cretvther, Molecular Physics, 1914, pp. 67-85). (ii) The rejection of the theory of the so-called , elec-
It is true no doubt that under the charges involved in these
an effect of the aether due to the systematic
trical mass', as
experiments there is an ,electrical mass' because the small
arrangement of the waves, justified by Thomson's views of
mechanical mass is thereby thrown out of electric equihbrium
the motion of a corpuscle through an electrical field.
with its surrounding field.
In his Elements of Electricity and Magnetism, 4'*^ ed.,
But when we deal with the aether as an all-pervading
medium, we have to do with the motions of the aetherons 1909, p. 521, Prof. Sir y. y. Thomson indicates that if m
only, afid as common matter is not involved, we have to
be the mass of an uncharged sphere, the kinetic energy of
such a sphere with charge e, magnetic-permeability /*, and
reject the ,electrical mass' as applied to the aether, for
radius of action a, is
the reason that the aetherons make up the field, and nor-
mally are in kinetic equihbrium, so as not to be subjected E = ^Im + ^l.e-'laW . (91)
to any forces except those due to passing waves in the The eff'ect of the charge is to increase the mass of
aether, involving concerted displacement of neighboring the sphere by ^j^i^e'la. This is a resistance called the
aetherons. ,electrical mass', and the questionshould be
arises whether it

It is well known that Newton was quite aware of the regarded as an increase of mass, as described by Thomson,
effect of the resistance of a medium upon the motion of a or an effect of the field in whigh the sphere moves, as de-
sphere or other body projected through it. In the Optics, scribed by Newton in the discussion above cited from the
1721,1pp. 342—3, Newton discusses the very problem here Optics, 1 7 2 I

treated of in the following manner: Sir y. J. Thomson compares the motion of a corpuscle
»The resistance of water arises principally and almost through an electrical field with that of a sphere through a
entirely from the vis inertiae of its matter; and by conse- liquid, which he says leads to art increase in the effective
quence, if the heavens were as dense as water, they would mass, because the moving sphere drags some of the liquid
not have much less resistance than water; if as dense as along with it. Thus when a sphere moves through a liquid it
quick-silver, they would not have much less resistance than behaves as if the mass were increased from m to m-^'^j^m',
quick -silver; if absolutely dense, or full of matter without where m' is the mass of the liquid displaced by the sphere.
any vacuum, let the matter be ever so subtile and fluid, Again, when a cylinder moves at right angles to its axis
they would have a greater resistance than quick-silver. A through a liquid, its apparent mass is m-^m', where m' is'the
solid globe in such a medium would lose above hiass of the liquid displaced by the cylinder.
half its motion in moving three times the length »ln the case of bodies moving through liquids«, says
of its diameter, and a globe not solid (such as are Thomson, »the increase in mass is due to the motion of the
the planets) would be retarded sooner. And therefore body setting in motion the liquid around it, the site of the
to make way for the regular and lasting motions of the planets increased mass is not the body itself but the space around
and comets, it's necessary to empty the heavens of all matter, it where the liquid is moving. In the electrical problem, we
except perhaps some very thin vapours, steams or effluvia, may regard the increased mass as due to the Faraday tubes
arising from the atmospheres of the earth, planets and comets, setting in motion the ether as they move through it» (p. 522).
and from such an exceedingly rare aethereal medium as we This reasoning concedes that the so-called .electrical
described above. A dense fluid can be of no use for ex-
mass' depends not on the sphere itself, but on the field about
plaining the phenomena of nature, the motions of the planets
it; in other words the ,flectrical mass' is an effect due to
and comets being better explain'd without it.«
the surrounding and not inherent in the body itself
field,
In this passage we have spaced the sentence especially For that reason necessary to consider carefully whether
it is
applicable problem of the ,electrical mass', which
to the the ,electrical mass' in the larger mechanics, ought not to
is Let m be the ordinary mechanica;l
explained as follows. be rejected altogether as fictitious, and due to disturbances
mass of the moving particle; then the ordinary kinetic energy in the aether filled with wavesand thus polarized, the ar-
due to its motion becomes rangement of the waves exerting the force called the ,elec-
E= ^l^mv\ (89) trical mass'.
But electrical experiments on small particles ejected (iii) Theory of y. A. Crowther, 19 14.
under considerable charge, show that there is in addition a
In his Molecular Physics, 19 14, p. 70, (Philadelphia,
quantity of energy due to that charge. The total energy is
Blakiston's Son & Co.), J. A. Crowther, also of the Cavendish
found to be made up of the two parts shown in the right
Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, points out that the extra or
member of the following equation:
mass is due to the fact that the particle carries
E=
,electrical'
^lomv^+^ke^v^la = ^kW + ^ke^la] v^ (90) a charge. Crowther even says^ that if the ,mechanical' mass
the firstterm yielding the mechanical energy depending on m be zero, the .electrical' mas's will still persist. Analytically
m, and the second that depending on the so-called ,elec- this follows from the above formula (91), but physically
trical mass', ^/ge^/a, where e is the electrical charge .borne there is no proof that such an ,electrical' mass can exist
 « : :

289 5079 290

independently of matter, and thus Crowther's, claim cannot (iv) We therefore conclude that the ,electrical mass
be admitted. depends wholly upon the aether.
Crowther announces his final conclusions thus (pp. 70 As the ,electrical' mass admittedly depends on the
and 71): aether, and the influence it exerts depends on the wave mo-
»Since thiselectrical' mass is really that of
,
tion in this medium, it is better for most purposes to reject
the magnetic field surrounding the particle, it the doctrine of a so-called ,electrical mass' as fictitious, and
resides not in the particle itself but in the medium consider separately the common Newtonian mass m, and the
surrounding it, that is, in that mysterious fluid influence exerted by the field in which m is moving.
which we call the ether ^). As soon, however, as we In case of the , electrical mass'
attempt to alter the motion of the particle this energy flows £=%fie'vya (92)
into it from all sides, so that, as far as experiments upon
where a is the radius of the space occupied by the charge,
the particle itself are concerned, the results obtained are the magnetic-permeability of the medium, e the charge,
and jtt

precisely the same as if it resided permanently there.*

it is thus obvious that JS becomes truly a drag exerted on
'

»To make somewhat novel idea a little clearer

this the moving mass wz. It is evident that this effect ought to
we may consider a close and very servicable analogy, where depend on e'^, and v^, since the induction due to the waves
the mechanism of the extra mass is a little clearer than in is thus developed like ordinary mechanical work done.

the electrical case. If any body is moving through water, For it must be remembered that there are waves in the
or any viscous fluid, it carries with it a certain amount of field, produced by the bodies and charges of the universe,

the liquid through which it is moving. In the case of a and also waves, or Faraday tubes of force, produced by the
sphere, for example, the qiiantity carried along by the motion moving corpuscle itself, with charge e. Since the charge e
body amounts to half the volume of the sphere itself.
•of the- is a: measure of the electrification of the corpuscle, the field

A long cylinder moving at right angles to its own length about it necessarily will have a corresponding condition, but
will carry with it a quantity of fluid equal to its own volume. negative in character, and the interaction of the charged
On the other hand, if it moves in the direction of its own corpuscle on the field will be measured by the product of
length the fluid entangled is practically nil. Thus, in order these charges, and thus by e^.
to set the body in motion with a velocity v, ^e have to This explains the nature of the formula (92),- except
•supply to it energy enough to give this velocity, not only the divisor a. And Crowther (pp. 162-3) shows that the
to the sphere itself, but also to the mass of fluid wbich it total energy in the field is the integral of the total magnetic
<;arries with it. That is to say, if M
is the mass of the energy between two spheres, of radius r arid r-hdr, when
sphere itself, and M' the mass of the attached fluid, the taken from the surface of the electron of radius a to in-
work done in starting the body is ^l^i^M-^M'^v^- In other finity, becomes:

words, the body will behave as if its mass were increased

by the mass of the fluid entangled by it. Just as in the
-E^ ^l-ifie^v^Sdrjr^ = ^/sij,e^v^/a (93)
electrical case, this extra mass resides in the sur-
From this line of investigation it appears that we are
Tounding medium.
justified in rejecting, and even required to reject, the elec- ,

Accordingly, it clearly appears, from Thomson's and

trical mass' for the aetherons, which pervade the universe, and
Crowther's arguments, that the ,electrical' mass ^/ge^/a depends
by their vibrations render the aether the vehicle of energy.
wholly on the field in which the charged corpuscle is moving,
Accordingly our conclusions are
not upon the body itself, and changes when the motion
1. It appears that Prof. Sir y. j^. Thomson's argument
through the field is altered. All that the arguments can be
for the , electrical mass' is an extension of that given by
said to prove therefore is that the aether in a magnetic field,
Netvton, but is likely to be misapplied, unless the specific
exerts an influence on bodies moving through it. This shows
condition of non-electric equihbrium underlying the experi-
that the aether really exists, is polarized near magnets and
ments with small particles is clearly borne in mind.
electric wires bearing currents, and acts physically according
2. The doctrine of the ,electrical mass' has therefore
to definite laws.
a very limited field of validity. On page 81 of the work
This is a-reason therefore why the theory of the aether above cited Crowther says that most physicists cherish the
cannot be rejected, as some superficial writers have held. belief at the bottom of their hearts that all mass is electrical
The other reasons for admitting the aether are as convincing in origin, »but it cannot at present be said to be much more
as stupendous cables of steel would be if we could actually than a pious hope.«
see them stretched from the sun to the several planets for
holding these huge masses in their orbits. For the centri- (v) The nature of the X-rays investigated.

fugal force of the planets has to be balanced and the be recalled that for a long time great mystery
It will

aether is the medium which sustains the tremendous forces attached to the nature of the X-rays. Soon after these rays
required to curve the paths of the planets at every point, were discovered by Rontgen, in the winter of 1895-6, three
and enable them to describe Keplerian Ellipses about the different theories were formed of their nature: (i) Electrified
sun as the focus. material particle^ projected with great speed from within the

^) The spacing-out is mine.

 «

291 5079 292

bulb quite through the walls of the glass tube; (2) the Ultra- actual passage of such short waves through these resisting
violet theory, which supposes the energy to be aether-wave masses. If so, the facts of experience would lend a strong
motion of the same character as light, but of only about support to the wave-theory since it might be much easier to
I 1 0000"' part of the wave length of visible light;
;
the evoke vibration of appropriate length than for such short waves
(3)
longitudinal aether-wave theory, at first favored by Rontgen, to actually pass. The waves evoked by agitation of the aether
Jaumann and others, which ascribed the observed effect to would show crystalline structure, and even the diffraction of
longitudinal motion in the aether waves. X-rays, quite as well as the passage of X-rays waves.
Probably something could still be said in favor of each In confirmation of this view that the X-rays observed
of these theories, and it is not yet certain that the nature are waves evoked by we quote from Duff's Text-
agitation,
of the X-rays is understood. In the usage of men of science Book of Physics, 641:
1916, p.
however, the ultra-violet wave-theory has found most favor. »Glass is opaque to waves shorter than 3500 Angstrom'
In 19 1 2 the Swiss physicist Dr. Laue first made use units, and longer than about 30000 Angstrom units. Quartz-
of X-rays to investigate the structure of crystals, and from is transparent between the wave-lengths 1800 and 70000,

this beginning has grown a resourceful method for attacking and for some longer waves rock salt is transparent between
;

the problem of molecular arrangement in crystals, which may 1800 and 180000, and fluorite, one of the most transparent-
even throw light on the internal structure of the atoms them- substances, will transmit ultra-violet waves from about A =^
selves. An article on this subject by Prof W. L. Bragg, on 1000 to 1 =
95000.
» Crystal Structure*, will be found in Discovery, Feb., 1920; A similar argument has also been adduced by Prof Sir
and a review of the subject appears in the Journal of the y. y. Thomson to the effect that X-rays depend on collisions-
British Astronomical Association for March, 1920, pp. 199 by negatively charged particles. They are evoked by the
till 200. somewhat irregular agitation of the wave-field, the disturbance
The following table gives an outline of- the different produced being due not so much to regular continuous wave
types of waves, expressed in Angstrom units, or tenth-metres. motion, as to isolated wave impulses, which travel throughout
I m 10 Duff'% Physics, p. 640: the neighboring aether, and set free the corpuscles from the
atoms. Such X-rays could not well interfere, and their dif-
Gamma rays o.
' fraction, if observed, would be of the type photographed by
X-rays I
Laue in crystals, corresponding to short waves, probably
Shortest ultra-violet waves 600
produced by the degeneration and breaking up of longer
Shortest visible waves (violet), about 3800
aether impulses of no considerable regularity of movement.
Violet, about 4000
Blue This puts the ultra-violet theory in a new light, in line-
4500
Green 5200
with the wave-theory,and at the same time explains the
Yellow mechanically injurious effects of X-rays in surgery^) as due
5700
to the irregular wave impulses, which regular ultra-violet
Red 6500
Longest visible waves (red) waves could hardly produce. And it explains also why cal-r
7500
Longest waves in solar spectrum, more than cium tungstate may render the X-rays capable of casting
53000
Longest waves transmitted by fluorite shadows visible to the eye. For the irregular impulses would
95000
Longest waves by selective reflection come with sufficient rapidity to give an effect which optically

from rock salt is apparently continuous. When observing the X-ray through
500000
calcium tungstate I have noted an appearance of rapid
from potassium chloride 612000
Longest waves from mercury lamp flickering, as in the case of rapid but irregular electric
3140000
sparks, or lightning flashes in quick succession but at un-
Shortest electric waves 4ooooooo=^4mm.
equal intervals.
It is very difficult to understand how such very short In connection with this subject
it is well to bear in
waves as X-rays are supposed to be, on the ultra-violet theory, mind that magnetism, which in the
wave-theory depends on
could penetrate so easily through the human body and other polarized waves of perfect regularity, can penetrate thick
semi-solid substances, as they are found to do in practice.
plates of glass or any other substance, but the action seems
The experiments of Laue, Bragg and others in crystal photo- to. take a little time. Probably the polarized character of
graphy show the extreme fineness of the X-rays, and their magnetic waves and their length makes this penetration
great penetrating power. possible, whereas it is possible for the confused waves of
But it is perhaps possible that what appears to be a light only within fixed limits. Thus we hold that the ir-
passage of X-rays through resisting structures is rather a regular impulses in X-rays correspond to long waves, which
general agitation of the aether by which the atoms emit under degeneration call forth the very short ones used for
waves ^) which can impress the photographic plate, than an the newer investigations in crystals.

This idea is suggested by Rdnigen'% original experiment of cutting off all cathode rays with black card
^)
board, yet noting that some
crystals of barium platino-cyanide in the darkened room were rendered luminous by the general agitation in the aether
^) A dispatch from Paris, May 26, quotas M. Daniel Berthdot as reporting,
May 25, to the Academy of Sciences a new method for
protecting operators against the injurious effects of X-rays, which are neutralized by a simultaneous application '

of infra-red rays This use of

infra-red rays to counteract the X-rays confirms the theory here developed; unless the agitations underlying the
X-rays were long, the long
infra-red rays could hardly afford the protection reported. —
Note added. May 26, 1920.
 : « « «

293 5079 294

13. The acknowledged Failure

of the Electron method of confessing ignorance. If we suppose that the
Theory, which represents Subordinate Phase of a positive electricity is distributed uniformly over a sphere of the
Scientific Progress: The Larger Problems of the size of the atom (a hypothesis which lends itself very readily
Universe can only be attacked through the Wave- to mathematical treatment), the author's result would indicate
Theory based on the Kinetic Theory of the Aether. that the number of electrons in an atom is almost exactly
(i) The acknowledged failure of the electron theory. three times its atornic weight. That is to say, the number

In his interesting but unconvincing work on Molecular of electrons in a hydrogen atom would be three. ^) .

If we go the other extreme, and suppose that the positive

Physics, Philadelphia, 1Q14, Crowther treats of many mole-
electrification is a sort of nucleus at the centre of the atom,
cular phenomena from the point of view of the electron
theory. Including the effect of the electrical mass, and that the electrons revolve around it somewhat after the
^j^e^v^ja,-
Crowther concludes (p. 81) that the mass of an electron is manner of the rings of Saturn, the number of electrons in
a hydrogen atom works out at unity, the number in any
8.8 10^^* gms., while the value of the charge it carries is
•

other atom being equal to its atomic weight. The assigning

1.57 io~^" units. Thence he deduces for the radius of the
•

electron 1.87 io~^^ cms.'-)•

of unit atomic weight to hydrogen would then have a very
definite physical significance, as it would be the lightest atom
Calling attention to the conclusion that the radius of
which could possibly exist. In either case the number of
an atom is of the order of io"~^* cms, he adds a comparison
electrons in an atom is only a very small multiple of its
which I give spaced «
atomic w'eight. We cannot, therefore, assign any appreciable
»We may now say that small as, the atom is, fraction of the mass of the atoms to the negative electrons
the electron is so much smaller that the electron
it contains.
bears to the atom which contains it very much the
» There still remains, of course, the possibility that the
same relation as a pea to a cathedral.* mass is electrical, but that it resides in the positive portion
»We have
seen that the whole of the mass of the of the atom. If the mass be exami-
forjnula for the electric
electron due to the charge which it carries. The thought
is
ned, it will given charge the mass is
be seen that for a
at once suggests itself: Are there indeed two kinds of mass inversely proportional to the radius of the sphere upon which
or is all mass electrical in its origin? Probably most physi-
.
it is concentrated. If we suppose
the positive charge on
cists cherish this belief at the bottom of their hearts, but the hydrogen atom be concentrated upon a sphere of
to
it cannot at present be said to be much more than a pious
V1700 of the size of the negative electron, its mass would
hope. The mass of a negative electron is about V1700 part be 1700 times as great, that is to say, equal to that of the
of the mass of a hydrogen atom. Neglecting the positive hydrogen atom. Our perfect ignorance of the nature of
charge of the atom, of which we know practically nothing, positive electricity renders the suggestion not untenable, though
it would require 1700 electrons to make up the mass of evidence for it is sadly lacking.
a single hydrogen atom. This of course is not a priori an This is a very frank confession of a failure of the
impossible number considering the smallness of the electron; electron theory, for two chief reasons.
and speculations along these lines were for a time freely 1. In size the electron bears to the atom about the
indulged In this case, however, experiment failed to con-
in. ratio of a pea to a cathedral.
firm bold conjecture. The number of electrons in the
the 2. The number of such electron peas to the atom
atom has been determined at any rate approximately, and cathedral is very small, either i or 3 for hydrogen, and
affords no support for such a theory. always a small multiple of the atomic weight. Hence the
Crowther then examines at some length the question important conclusion »We cannot, therefore, assign any ap-
:

of the number of electrons in an atom, and after admitting preciable fraction of the mass of the atoms to the negative
the obscurity of positive electrification, finally concludes, electrons it contains.*
pp. 83-84 as follows: Accordingly it is not surprising that Crowther admits
» Unfortunately, we are not yet acquainted with the that »for the present our belief in the electro-magnetic nature
nature of positive electricity. Prof.' Sir J. y. Tnomson's ex- of mass remains an expression of our faith that all the
all

periments on the positive rays, brilliant as they have been, varied phenomena with which, we have to deal are mani-
have not at present thrown much light upon this exceedingly festations of some single principle or essence which under-
difficult problem. For the present the term ,positive electri- liesthem all.«
fication' remains for the physicist very much what the term Another important and much more elaborate work,
,catalytic action' is for the chemist — a not too humiliating »The Electron Theory of matter «, by Prof. O. W. Richardson

^) Another proof of the great uncertainty attaching to the theory of the electron is afforded by conflicting deductions as to the absolute

dimensions of this little mass.

1. Crowther, pp. 81-165, g'ves for the radius of the electron 1.87' io~'' cm, and for the radius of a hydrogen atom i.ai-io "cm.
Thus the hydrogen atom has about 66000 times greater diameter, yet it has only 1700 times the mass of the electron, which makes the electron
relatively very heavy for its small diameter. If of equal density with the hydrogen, this mass would make the hydrogen atom have a diameter
11.93 times that of the electron.
2. But the diameter of the electron itself must be very uncertain. In Phys. Rev. vol. 114, pp. 247-259, Sept. 1919, A. H. Compton,
who had previously estimated the diameter to be 2-io~"cms, now finds it to be (1.85+0.005)- io~"' cms, or r 0.925 lo"'" cm. This is = •

about 2000 times larger than Crowthei's value so that apparently no confidence whatever can be put in these results.
;

^) The spacing-out is mine.

 :

295 5079 296

of King's College, London, appeared under the auspices of containing electrons which are free to move under the action
the University Press, at Cambridge, 1Q14, pp. 1-6 12. We of an electric field, while in non-conductors the electrons are
cannot attempt to describe the treatment, except to say that fixed and unable to follow the impulse of the field.*
it is similar to Crowther^s work, but less experimental, and »How are these electrons set free? In the first place
sets forth the mathematical theory in greater detail. it tnay be noticed that the only good conductors of elec-
In spite of the elaborateness of this treatise, Richardson tricity are metallic, tfiat is to say, electro-positive in character,
is obliged to admit the short-comings of the electron theory. substances which we know from other phenomena readily
On page 592 the author admits that »we cannot be sure part with an electron under the slightest provocation. Now
that the mass of the electrons is not appreciably different in a solid such provocation may well be supplied by the
in different substances.* Accordingly it would appear that close propinquity of the neighbouring molecules. It is well
the mass of the electron is definitely fixed only in particular known that a charged body will attract light uncharged sub-
substances which have been experimentally investigated. It stances. The attraction of a well-rubbed stick of sealing wax
is acknowledged that nearly all the atomic problems are for small pieces, of paper is generally our first introduction
clouded in great obscurity. to the science of electricity. The attraction is of course
Under the head of General Conclusions, p. 600, we read: mutual, the force on the charged body being equal to that
»A review of the preceding discussion shows that the on the uncharged paper. Hence an electron in one atom
electron theory is not in a position to make very definite is attracted by a neighbouring uncharged atom, and under
assertions about the nature of gravitational attraction. It favourable circumstanRs, and especially in the case of an
seems likely that the Newtonian law of attraction between atom only too ready to part with its electrons, the attraction
elements of matter is one between elements of mass or con- •

may well be sufficient to enable make its escape.*it to

fined energy and that it is of a very fundamental character. obvious without further discussion that this theory
It is

It isdoubtful^) if it can be replaced by a modified is so very defective that it cannot be seriously entertained

law of electrostatic force between electrons or by investigators who are familiar with the propagation of
elements of electric charge, unless the modified electric and radio -telegraphic waves and light across free
law includes the associated mass explicitly. Even space. For, in the first place, it claims to account for dis-
so, the case does not appear very simple.* turbances along conductors, which cannot be done with
In closing Richardson concurs in the opinion of Lorentz electrons of the recognized mass. And, in the second place,,
that gravitation m^y be an electrodynamic effect propagated the electron theory gives no explanation of light and radio-
with the velocity of light, like that since developed in greater telegraphic waves across free space, where the aether alone
detail by the present writer. is involved.
(ii) The electrons usually assumed to be more or less Accordingly the electron theory cannot explain the
,bound' to and
atoms, set free chiefly in metals (conduc- phenomena of the aether, and it must be admitted that the
tors), to make up an electric current: but this will not subject of the electron involved in great obscurity.
is still

explain the propagation of electric disturbances with the So far as we can judge
can only be cleared up by the
it

velocity of light, and thus the electrons cannot replace the further development of the wave-theory, deduced from the

aether. new kinetic theory of the aether.

It is well known that the electrons usually are taken For although the mass of the aetheron given in the
to be more or bound' to the atoms, with which they
less ,
firstpaper on the New Theory of the Aether, will have to be
are associated. A vast amount of discussion has arisen as multiplied by about 4.31 to take account of the increased
to the setting free of the electrons, by heat and electric absolute density of the aether, found by the new method
disturbances. It will be noted therefore: of section I above, after Lord Kelvin's method was shown
1. The electrons are not taken to be entirely free, to be invalid: yet the total change in the mass of the
to pervade all space and all bodies, like the aetherons, which aetheron is comparatively slight, namely: molecular weight
travel with a velocity. 1.57 times that of light, 471238 kms. = 67.077 10^^^.
2. The speed of the electrons is not taken to be in Accordingly the general mass and dimensions of the
any case greater than one third that of light. As the mass aetheron are but slightly altered, yet the size of this corpuscle
of the electron is considerable, though only about ViJoo is somewhat increased and becomes
of that of a hydrogen atom, this smaller velocity, of say 1. The radius of the aetheron = V246I.2 of that of a
1 00000 kms. is very intelligible. hydrogen molecule.
The hypothesis of Crowther, and others, (Molecular 2. This radius is equivalent to 5.44- lo""^^ cms., that.
Physics, p. 139), that »an electric current is a flow of electrons of hydrogen being taken as 1.34- io~'' cms.
from a place of high to a place of low potential* cannot (iii) The electron theory like that of radio-activity is

be admitted, because the observed velocity of 300000 kms. a subordinate phase of scientific progress.
for light and electricity could not be attained by such heavy The electron theory developed during the last quarter
masses as electrons. of a century by a considerable group of experimental physi-
Crowther states this electron theory as follows: cists led by Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson and others, has now
»We may regard a conductor, then, as a substance acquired such definite form and shows such defects, that we--

^) The spacing-out is mine.

 :

297 5079 298

are safe in considering

it a subordinate phase in scientific 9. Accordingly, it hardly seems possible that the alpha-,
progress. should prove to be an ultimate development,
If it beta-, gamma-particles, so much studied in the electron theory,
apparently this can only be owing to the more fundamental can be other than a temporary phase in the progress of
wave-theory, which underlies the electron-theory and gives a science. Important as the results attained are, they do not
physical basis for the phenomena of electrons. disclose to us any workable theory of the universe. Even
1. The gamma-rays, recently so much
alpha-, beta-, the ejections of small charged bodies must rest on the wave-
observed, are held to give
experimental proof that small theory: there is no -other possible way in which we can
particles, under electric charges of greater or less intensity, explain the ejection of these corpuscles,, and their enormous
are ejected from certain bodies with velocities which may velocities, whereas the wave-theory makes their ejection na.-
be one third that of light. tural and requires it to be at high speed.
2. It is very difficult to understand how alpha-, beta-, 10. Incidently, the electron theory renders the corpus-
gamma-particles can be ejected with this enormous speed cular theory of the aether more probable than it otherwise
unless commotions incident to wave action underlie the would be. It all implies excessively rapid motion for very
ejections. For electrodynamic waves travel with the velocity small bodies. Unless there be waves traveling with the
of light, and material particles caught up by a combination velocity of light, it is impossible to explain the phenomena
of such waves might travel more slowly than light, but yet of radio-activity.
with so great a speed as to approach that speed or a large To show the difficulty of reconciling these results, we
fraction of it.
add a few calculations. Let us assume in the first case that
3. inconceivable that velocities approximating one
It is
the free electrons behave as a gas, and thus follow the law
third that be generated without some asso-
of light could announced by Maxwell, that all molecules have equal kinetic
ciation with the release of elastic action in the aether, which energy, which is verified by experience for many actual gases.
speeds on with the -enormous velocity of 300000 kms per Then, if m and v denote respectively 'Ca,t mass and the ve-'
second. Even in solid bodies the aether waves advance at locity of a molecule of hydrogen, while m! and v' denote
a rate which is a large fraction of that in free space. corresponding quantities for an electron, we have
4. Now
molecular and atomic velocities are very small
^Umv^=^l^m'v'K (94)
indeed compared to that of light. Hence it is apparent that
no ordinary molecular collisions or disturbances could eject
Accordingly if v ^
i6g6 ms, and m' == Vstoo of a
hydrogen molecule, which contains two atoms, we find
particles with these enormous speeds. But if invisible electro-
dynamic waves underlie these ejections their speeds are easily v' =V 2,^00 -v = 58.31-1696 ms ^98.893 kms. (95)
accounted for. Under oscillating electric charges the par- This is a comparatively small velocity, a little over
ticles might be carried along from the surface or even into the 60 miles per second; and thus we find the electron as a gas
interior of a solid anode or cathode, or similar terminals. particle could not attain a sensible fraction of the velocity
5. In the author's work of 19 17, p. 20, we have ex- of light, 300000 kms. Different authorities give different
plained the nature of an electric current, and illustrated the velocities for charged particles: Crowther (p. 76) considers a
waves about a conducting wire by a figure (cf. fig. 12, p. 260, particle moving with one tenth of the velocity of light, and
above) showing the rotations which make up the waves. The Millikan has asserted the probability of a speed of one-third
waves act in concert, the elements whirling everywhere in that of light. Such high velocities are wholly impossible, on
the same direction. If therefore, there be a particle small the kinetic theory of gases; but as expelled under electric
enough to be ejected, yet observable, it might be carried charges they might be possible, if carried along by the
away with great speed. wave action traveling at 300000 kms per second. But the
6. But in a Geissler-tube, or similar rarified gaseous acceleration of the velocity appropriate to a gas, under the
medium, we have rarified gas itself for the conductor or kinetic theory, would have to be very great.
discharge of the electric strain at the terminals. In such a For the above value 98.893 kms is less than Vsooo'*'
good conducting partial vacuum, it apparently would be much that of light; and if we take Millikan' 1, estimate of '/s the
easier for a small particle to be ejected with great speed velocity of light charged particles, ejected,
for the swiftest
than from any conductor of metallic constitution. the above kinetic velocity will have to be accelerated a
7. Thus, in all the phenomena of electric discharges thousand times its calculated value, or receive energy aug-
through rarified gases, on which Prof. Sir y. y. Thomson has mented by the factor (1000)^ =^ loooooofold.
experimented for so many years, the indications are that the Now in view of our ignorance of molecular physics,
observed velocities of the ejected particles are attained under it is difficult to say upon what forces such an acceleration

wave influences or releases of electric stresses, by commotions may depend but I know of nothing adequate except waves
;

in the aether traveling with the velocity of light. traveling with the higher velocity of 300000 kms per second.
8. Since the -rarified gas acts as a conductor Prof. — A particle having a speed of Ys V, would have only
John Trowbridge of Harvard University having found that Yg'*^ of the energy of a particle traveling with the velocity V.
rare air is a more perfect electric conductor than even copper It looks therefore as if waves passing by with much greater

wire —
, we should in fact expect certain solid particles to velocity might have given the particle a velocity which is
be transported along with a large fraction of the velocity of a considerable fraction of the velocity of light.
light. Thus the electron phenomena are not remarkable, but On p. 81, Crowther attributes the whole mass of the
naturally follow from the wave-theory. electron to the charge which it carries. We can not admit
 299 5079 300

such a supposition, for reasons already given; yet if the kinetic energy depends on the aether; for the formula for
charge exerts a drag on the aether in which the waves the kinetic energy
are traveling, the velocity attained will be reduced to a £= t/^mv^ = ^j^mdh/dt^ (96)
fraction of that of light, in accordance with observations. involves only mass m, which is constant,and the velocity v,
No other hypothesis than that here adopted will explain the any change in which is resisted by the moving wave-field
phenomena; and it seems certain that the electron pheno- about the body, exactly as in the case of inertia.
mena are explicable by means of the aether, but not without 4. As Newtotis laws of motion, Principia, Lib. i, are
much
this finer medium. concerned with motion, which involve chiefly changes of
(iv) Explanation of inertia, momentum, the laws of velocity, we perceive that these laws have their recognized

.motion and of static electricity. form in virtue of the kinetic medium of the aether; and
that all changes of motion involve changes in the aether
Ever since the formulation of the Newtonian philosophy
wave-fields about bodies, and are thus proportional to the
in the Principia, 1686, the problem of inertia, momentum
forces acting, and produce effects in the direction of these
and the laws of motion have appeared to natural philosophers
forces, or stresses, in the aether.
as phenomena requiring elucidation; yet for a long time no
5. It only remains to point out that as we ascribe
solid progress could be made in this inquiry, because there
dynamic electricity, or electric currents, to waves of the
was no adequate theory of the aether. Now that a kinetic
aether in motion, so also we ascribe static electricity to a
•theory of the aether is outlined, and the properties of the
non-equilibrium of the wave-field of the aether due to the
medium somewhat understood, we consider it advisable to
escape of certain waves, under friction or other disturbing
suggest an explanation of the chief mechanical actions which
causes, which facilitates the escape faster than restoration
underlie natural philosophy.
takes place, and thus leads to the development of charges
1. Since the aether is filled with waves and presses
of static electricity. Thus it is easy to throw the universe
symmetrically upon bodies at rest, or in uniform motion, —
out of electric equilibrium, and develop electric stresses.
and all bodies carry their wave fields with them, whatever — 6. As a charge of static electricity is not permanent,
their state of rest or motion, we perceive that the high elasti-
but accompanied' by a gradual discharge, it is natural to hold
city of the aether makes it impossible to move a body at
on which the electric stress accumulates
that the insulators
rest, or alter the velocity of a body in motion, without ex-
do not allow of an adequate flow of aether waves to main-
pending energy upon it. For in every case the wave-field
tain the electric equilibrium in the local field of the universe.
about the body must be readjusted, and under the elastic
Hence static charges accumulate, and may be discharged by
power of the aether, this involves work, —
just as the aether
various causes.
waves of solar radiation, for example, do work when arrested
This may involve gradual restoration of the equilibrium,
in their motion at the surface of the earth. , The kinetic
by wave dissipation through the air or other media, or a
theory of the aether therefore accounts for inertia, which
sudden restoration, when metallic contact is made by a con- •

represents the energy to be overcome in readjusting the

ductor connecting the so-called positive and negative charges,
wave-field about any body.
and a motion of aether waves along the wire restores com-
2. To make this a little clearer we recall a remark plete equilibrium.
of Tyndall in his work on sound, 3'''* ed., 1896, p. 73: It will be seen that the views set forth in this paper
»A certain sharpness of shock, or rapidity of vibration, and maintained with vigor are very different from those
is needed production of sonorous waves in air. It
for the previously current among investigators. In the search for
is still more necessary
in hydrogen, because the greater mo- truth we do not enter upon such new paths from any mere
bility of this gas tends to prevent the formation of con- love of novelty, but only from the hope of finding a way out
densations and rarefactions.* of the general confusion heretofore recogniEed to exist.
In further proof of Tyndall'^ remark as to the increased If it be thought somewhat audacious to depart from
difficulty of starting waves in hydrogen compared to air, we these old ways of thinking, in extenuation thereof I must
cite the fact that heretofore Prof F. E. Nipher of St. Louis point to the triumph of the theory of a very small density
is the only experimenter who has been able to generate for the aether, after a density of 2000 million times that of
waves in the aether by mechanical means. To this end Nipher lead had been held by the electronists, as outlined in the
used dynamite, which generates tremendous forces acting first paper. The small density now appears to be established
with extreme quickness —
exactly as Tyndall points out should on an unshakable basis, by the discovery of the new method
be the case for a gas having very great mobility of its for determining the absolute density of the aether. And in
molecules. This confirms the kinetic theory of the aether -
general when nothing is hazarded in the hope of the dis-
and the cause assigned for inertia by an experimentum crucis. covery of new truth, history shows that important discoveries
3. In the case of momentum, the physical cause in- cannot be made.
volved is the same as that assigned for inertia,' for very Thus I think it infinitely better to venture upon paths
obvious reasons. For momentum is the product of mass by which promise progress rather than to hold to lines of mere
velocity, mv, and as the mass does not change, the change conservatism, which return to some part of the old dark
can only occur in v, the velocity, and thus momentum and labyrinth, without leading out to real light under a clearer
inertia are identical as to physical cause. and brighter sky. If others are able to add to the develop-
We may even go a little further, and say that all ment here brought forth I shall heartily welcome their ad-
 30I 5079 302

vance ; and
ask no more of others, in respect to following
I But various corrections must be applied. These include the
the new path herestruck out in the hope of discovery, than I attraction of the mercury on the counterpoise, and on the
voluntarily exact of myself, in the search for light, more light! beam, and on other parts used. The greatest admissible
As this paper is somewhat lengthy I shall defer going error for asymmetry of the mercury is ifco.oooog mgm.
into further details of static electricity, till we come to deal The net effect after the application of these corrections is

-with the phenomenon of lightning and the molecular forces. (0.00098^:0.00016) mgm. The author next considers other
I am indebted to Mr. E. L. Middleton, Mr. G. L. Haley, possible causes of error, such as electrostatic or magnetic
and especially Mr. W. S. 2 rankle, for facilitating the com- action, radiometric or electromagnetic action, heat effects, and
pletion of this paper. mechanical perturbation. He considers these effects negligible.*
Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, »The value found for k is 6.73 -ro"^^ On applying
1920 May 8. T. y. y. See. these results to the sun, the author considers the sun's true
density to be 4.27, which is three times as great as that
Postscript: believed in by astronomers.*
Since this paper was finished,. I have just received This remarkable result seems so striking as to be worthy
Science Abstracts, No. 270, June 30, 1920, with notice of of careful attention. It may be recalled that in the Electrod.

the Theoretical and. Experimental Researches on Gravita- Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. i, 1917, p. 155, para-
tion by Prof. Q. Majorana, of Rome (Phil. Mag., vol 39, graph 18, I pointed out that »up to the present time the
researches of astronomers throw but little light on the amount
pp. 488—504. May, 1920), who raises the question as to
the absorption by a dense medium of the energetical flux of matter within the heavenly bodies. They have simply
which is supposed to proceed from all matter and cause calculated the amount of matter within these masses which
gravitative attraction. may make itself effective by external attraction; and the
Mr. P. E. Shaw gives the following account of Majo- amount of matter actually there may be considerably larger
randi, researches: than we have heretofore believed.*
»A mass Afn would put forth a flux kAm. If-
particle of Perhaps it may appear premature to claim that my
this flux passes through distance of a dense medium, having
.a; prediction of 19 17 is already definitely verified by Majorana' 1,

quenching factor H, the flux at the end would be kAm e~^^. • researches, but as his experiments were well planned, and
Here His proportional to the density of the medium == h^v executed with such care as to command approval in the
Now, suppose the particle of mass Am to be' a particle inside highest scientific circles, the evidence certainly indicates the
a sphere, the author finds that the total flux emerging from detection by delicate physical experiment of a screening effect
all points in the sphere is in the action of universal gravitation which I first discovered

i?= knd^E''Ulp-il2p'^^e-^P[il i/2/B)i from the fluctuations of the moon's mean motion, Dec. 10,

where 9v ^ density of the sphere, R = radius of the sphere,

19 16, as recurring with the eclipse cycles, and thus depending

and p = RH.
Let Ma=
the apparent mass of the sphere.
on the interposition of the solid globe of the earth in the
path of the sun's gravitative action on the moon.
This is than the true mass Mv on account of this ab-
less
sorption effect. Let Ma. My-ip ^
^./gnd^R'^rp, where = The course of this celestial-terrestrial progress is the
more remarkable, because Prof. E. W. Brown, the leading
lunar theorist, had pronounced against the theory, after Bott-
The relation of ^ to i// is shown graphically. The case of linger and Seeliger had been unable to confirm the interception
the sun is specially considered. The astronomical density of of part of the sun's gravitation near, the time of eclipses.
the sun is 1.4 1. This is the apparent density. On certain It would now seem that Majorand% experiments open a new
hypotheses we can arrive at a value for the true density, and line of attack on the nature of gravitation, which can scarcely
from this deduce the values of rp, p, and If successively. be interpreted except in terms of the wave-theory.
The values of xp, p, and H
the, author draws up in a table,
If so, it will no longer be admissible to speak of
giving a range of hypothetical density from 1.41 to 20.0. action at a distance, when the sun's action on the moon
For a material of density i.o the value of is h. This H is shown to be partly cut off by the interposition of the
factorh is supposed to be a universal constant of value earth's mass near the time of lunar eclipses, while terrestrial
between io~^? and io~-'^-'.« gravitation can be sensibly reduced by the layer of mercury
»In order to find the value of h, the author has per- made to surround one of two delicately balanced lead spheres,
formed the following experiment. From a delicate balance in Majorana'^ laboratory experiments.
in vacuo hangs a lead sphere, counterpoised by a similar
It may be noted also that the explanation of the pro-
sphere. One lead sphere is hung in a chamber surrounded
gression of the perihelion or mercury given by me in AN
by one which can be used empty or filled with mercury, so
5048, p. 143, seems to be triumphantly and that too
verified,
as to surround the lead symmetrically. The lead has mass
without resorting to relativity or the theories of Einstein, which
1274 gm, the mercury has mass 104 kg. By means of a
I from the laws of nature, because they
believe to depart
mirror, the balance, and a distant scale it is possible to
are both lacking in physical basis. It is not by accident
estimate the mass to V1700 tngm on each reading. On trying
that Majorand'i experiments confirm my lunar researches of
the experiment, the author finds that in all cases the weight
19 1 6, and the simple explanation of the outstanding motion
of the lead is reduced when it surrounded by mercury.
is

effect by the mercury. The

of Mercury's perihelion given in 5048. AN
This indicates an absorption
observed decrease in weight is (0.00209 +
0.P0007) tngm. 1920 August 18. T. y. y. See.
 o^n^^etne TafeT

Fig. 1. Ai/y's illustration of the motion of the particles in a wave of water. Each particle moves
about a mean position, which is shown by the centre of the circles and the radius vector
;

drawn from the centre, shows the water vector at various phases of the oscillation.

'/^'jnri/£B'/t:-^^

3
Fig.3-
En/er'sTheory of Magne-
tism, 1744, which concei-
ved a magnet as having
valves in the "Arteries"
along its axis, permitting
the aether to flow in one
direction only, from the
South to the North Pole,
AB. This misleading prin-
ciple hasbeen used in near-
ly all works on magnetism
A^ .^^ for the past 176 years,
though it sometimes is a-
m^A dapted to modern thought
by the round about and
~^-^^-::m^z. complicated processes of
Maxwell.
A-v

vrf
 . ;

Ast^iium. "Wtcliiiditen Ed. 212.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 8. Photograph of the oscillatory character of the dis-

charge of aLeydenjar, taken in i <)04 hy Zenneck,
who used a. Braun tube as an oscillograph.

Fig. 7. "Diagram of the Eddy Currents induced in a disc of

metal by motion relative to a magnet, and thence the
generation of a current, as in a dynamo.

-r\—^
• Of.-.'i taw.,".

Fig. 9. Illustrationof the restricted amplitudes of the waves Fig. 10. Illustration of Biot and Savart's law, 1820, where
receding-from a straight wire, under Biot and Savart'% we measure the intensity / as the distance r varies
law, which permits space expansion, and thus decrease and of Ohm's law, 1826, in which at a constant
of amplitude, varying inversely as the square root of distance and with uniform electromotive force we
the distance ? measure the resistance B, or current strength /.

'^k.

f\\}. 11. IlKstration of a magnetic whirl about a wire, with Wave-theory of this whirl,
on tXe right. Each little piece of iron filing becomes a small magnet, and
drawn together by the attractions of their opposite poles.
an (^11(111, llilWWIl,ULUII JJU. II ^r

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 14. Illustration of the Wave-theory of the Earth's magnetism, showing the magnetic forces directed
towards either pole. The annexed diagram on the right shows the rotations taking place in the
field as the magnetic waves recede, while above it is the figure of a small magnetic needle
pointing along the line of force, which is the rotation-axis of the waves. The magnetic field is
found by Ga-uss to depend on about I 1380''' part of the atoms, while the remaining 1379 1380'hs
: :

of the atoms, under haphazard orientation, give the central action of gravitation.

Fig. 18. Illustration of the Wawe-field about a wire bearing a steady current. The oscillatory discharge diagrams on the left are
'™&0m FlSfKHg'^ Fl"tllLi|Jles »( Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony, 1916. As the wire has both inductance and
capacity, the discharge along^Hf is oscillatory, and the wave-field develops as drawn. It is illustrated in Oersted's, experi-

ment of 1819, and in ^ra^c's asperiment with copper wire, 1820.

/
 -

Abdruck aus den Astr, Nachr. Nr. 5085.

(Band a 1 2. — Februar 1921.)

New Theory of the Aether. By T. y.y. See.

(Fourth Paper.) (With 3 Plates.)

By way of introduction, we remark at the outset that and reprinted in Lloyd^^ Miscellaneous Papers connected with
this Fourth Paper is occupied chiefly with the foundations Physical London, 1877, pp. 19-148. It will be
Science,
of the wave-theory of light. The subject is presented from remembered thatZ/^y^ had experimentally confirmed Hamilton''^
a new point of view, in harmony with the electrodynamic theoretical prediction of conical refraction, and therefore speaks
wave-theory of magnetism, to which I have been led by the with authority.
researches on electrodynamic action and universal gravitation After the appearance of /fczw^/z's memoir of 18 19, the
outlined in the preceding papers. French acaderhicians were divided into two groups: the geo-
As be remembered by those familiar with the
will meters, led by Laplace, Poisson, Lami, contending that at
historical development of the wave-theory of light, Newton, great distances from the source of disturbance the vibrations
Huyghens and Euler had not considered the modern theory of the particles are in the direction of the radius, as held
of vibrations confined to the plane of the wave-surface, normal by Newton, Huyghens, Euler, and Lagrange; and the physical
to the direction of propagation. Indeed these great founders group, led by Fresnel, Arago, and Cauchy, claiming that in
of the physical sciences did not discriminate between the light the vibrations are transverse to the direction of pro-
nature of the molecular oscillations which produce sound and pagation, and thus exactly opposite to those recognized in the
those which produce light. But about 1 8 1 7 Dr. Thomas Young, theory of sound.
in England, and Fresnel and Arago, in France, were led to This celebrated philosophical controversy extended over
assume that in light the molecular motions of the aether are some twenty years, but never led to any satisfactory con-
normal to the direction of the ray, like the lateral vibrations clusion. The mathematical genius of Cauchy came to the
of a stretched cord. This view seemed like a very start- rescue of Fresnel'^ experiments, by showing the possibility
ling hypothesis, and thus for a time it encountered great of a medium transmitting transverse waves. Yet neither' Cauchy
opposition. nor Fresnel showed how such transverse waves could arise;
At a somewhat earlier period both Poisson and Cauchy and after the death of Poisson, in 1839, there was a gradual
had been occupied with profound researches in the mathe- acquiescence in the doctrine, witkout any theoretical expla-
matical theory of wave-motion, and each of these eminent nation Of the origin, of the transverse waves in light. Since
geometers presented a number of brilliant memoirs to the 1840 there has been no change in the theory, though it
Paris Academy of Sciences, chiefly between the years 1810 often has appeared far from satisfactory to eminent investi-
and 1840. When the first of these researches were presented gators who expect unbroken continuity for the whole body
to the Academy the venerable Lagrange, who died in 18 13, of wave-phenomena in nature.
was still numbered among its most honored members; and In his lucid article on Light, Encyclopedia Americana,
Laplace continued to take a deep interest in the wave-theory 1904, Prof Chas. S. Hastings, of Yale University, states the
till his death in 1827. crucial difficulty more recently encountered by the wave-
It thus appears that Lagrange died before Young and theory of light as 'follows:
Fresnel brought forward the theory of transverse vibrations »This great work oi Fresnel was looked upon, as indeed
(1817) for explaining the interference and polarization of it well deserves to be, as one of the greatest monuments to
light; but Laplace lived to witness this development for ten the human understanding —
comparable to Newton's doctrine
years ; and, with his pupil Poisson, always held to the historical of imiversal gravitation —
and it long remained of almost
views of wave movement handed down by Newton, Huyghens unquestioned authority. Ultimately, however, one of its fun-
and Euler, that distance from the source the
at a great damental postulates, namely, that the vibrations are always
vibrations of the aether are largely in the
of the particles at right apgles to the direction of the motion of the light,
direction of the radius drawn from the center of disturbance, began to give rise to difficulties. The fact also that the
as in the theory of sound. theory could not determine specifically whether the direction
,

From these circumstances, and the new physical ex- of vibration of plane-polarized light is in the plane of polari-
periments of Young, Fresnel and Arago, on polarization and zation or perpendicular to it was not only a manifest in-
interference, there arose a celebrated controversy on the wave- completeness, but it was a constant stimulus to a critical
theory of light, which occupies a prominent place in the
,
inspection of its. premises. The more these points were studied
Memoirs of the Paris Academy, 181 9- 1839. A brief but the more insoluble the difficulties appeared, until there came
lucid review of these papers as they successively appeared to be a tolerably widespread belief that the theory was not
is given hy Lloyd in his contemporary Report ori the Pro- only incomplete, but that in some way it must be essentially
gress and Present State of Physical Optics, made to the in error.*
British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1834, From the development given below it appears that
 i87 5085 388

after considerable uncertainty, extending over a full century, aether already unfolded we have been able to confirm the
the New Theory of the Aether now makes it possible -to work of 1917^ by Majorana! % experiment of 19 19, —
— as

reconcile the difficulties which so perplexed the illustrious and. also obtain a much simpler view of magnetism, electro-
geometers and physicists of the Paris Academy of Sciences. dynamic action and universal gravitation, there is plain —
This greatly simplifies our view of the wave-theory of light, indication that we should attempt to harmonize the wave-
without introducing any arbitrary hypotheses. And as the theory of light with this theory of the aether.
new wave-theory connects the theory of light directly with In venturing upon this new line of thought, in accor-
the theory of sound, according to the views oi Poisson, 1830, dance with the views oi Poisson, 1830, it is of course under-
it must be considered not the least fortunate solution of a stood that investigators should welcome suggestions for im-
problem lyhich greatly bewildered some of the most illustrious provements which have not yet been made, owing to diffi-
academicians of France. culties in the old point of view, as handed down by tradition

1. As the Aether is a Gas, and thus Isotropic from the d^ys of Young, Fresnel, Arago, and Cauchy.
in all Directions for Ordinary Terrestrial Distances, In preparing the third paper we discovered a new method
it Fundamental Error in the Wave-Theory of
is a for determining the absolute density of the aether, and '

Light to deny Radial Motion, in Order to hold to developed a process by which we were enabled to calculate
the Doctrine of Vibrations almost wholly transverse this density at the surfaces of the sun and planets of the

to the Direction of a Ray. solar system. This new method was found to be applicable

It is fully realized that the modern wave-theory of light to any stellar or sidereal system, where the force of gravity
is so vast a subject that . any treatment, even of the foun- is known by observation, and thus may be extended through-
dations merely, necessarily is much more incomplete than out the immensity of space.
those given in standard treatises '^)
on light. Yet even a partial The method has proved to be of great importance in
discussion of the foundation principles, provided it unfolds confirming and definitely establishing the small density of the
a new aspect of the theory of light, may be welcome to aether, in accordance with the views of Newton, Herschel,
investigators who seek the laws of nature. Kelvin, This not only does away with the
and Maxwell.
Thusdeem it worth while to present the results at
I strange by electronists that the aether
claim put forward
which I arrived. Under no other principles have I been able to may have an immense density (estimated to be 2000 million
bring the varied phenomena of light into harmony with those times that of lead!), but also definitely establishes the com-
of magnetism, and gravitation.
electricity, pressibility of the aether when powerful forces act quickly,

And of Rome, in the Philoso-

since Prof. Majorana, as in the explosions of dynamite, which was successfully
phical Magazine, vol. 39, May, 1920, pp. 488-504, has been employed by Prof. Francis E. Nipher of St. Louis, to disturb
able to confirm experimfntally the conclusion respecting the quiescence or the medium.
gravitation to which I was led in 1917, (Electrod. Wave- Since the aether therefore is a gas, with properties
Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. i, p. 155) that the amount — which make this medium approximately isotropic for ordinary
of matter within the heavenly bodies is much greater than distances at the surface of the earth, though aeolotropic in
we heretofore have believed, actually making the sun's true respect to the heavenly bodies, as distant centres of wave-
mass three times that accepted by astronomers, we see — agitation, we perceive that the doctrine of the wave-theory
evidence of a coming transformation of doctrine in physical of light, that the wholly transverse to the
vibrations are
science, greater than .any which has occurred since the age direction of the ray, rests on a fundamental
error, and a
of Kepler, Galilei, and Newton. The new theory of the lunar correction is required to take account of the gaseous character
fluctuations, motion of Mercury's perihelipn, and of the pro- of the aether, and its equal compressibility in all directions.
blems of the aether treated of in AN 5044, 5048, seems to Thus, contrary to the assumptions of Green, and others, who
have triumphed incontestably. get rid of the longitudinal component by arbitrarily making
Under the circumstances it will not do to shut ^ur that component of the velocity infinite, there is a longitudinal
eyes to new conceptions just because they have not been component in light, as in sound; but it is very small, because
handed down by traditions. When so many difficulties have it depends on the ratio of the amplitude to the wave-length

arisen in the wave-theory of light, which can not be over- AIX =io~*, due to the very slight compressibility of the
come on the old theory, it seems to be a sign of error in aether. The longitudinal component thus becomes A =
the assumed foundations of the theory itself; and the need {A/1)-q, where q the spherical projection factor, about
is

for a modification of the theory is therefore urgent, not only ViO) deduced ("rom Fig.i, Plate 7 so that the longitudinal com-
;

in the hope of winning new truth, but also of attaining har- ponent probably does not exceed 1/4006000 '). According
mony and simplicity. to the very accurate experiments described by Prof. Hastings,
If by following the principles of the new theory of the in section 5 beldw, Huyghens' construction for the extra-

^) Among the great standard treatises on light, that by Sir John Herschel, Encyclopedia Metropolitana, 1849, 'is to be especidly
commended for its comprehensiveness, and because it reflects the state of the subject just after the epoch of Young, Fresnel and Ardgo. Drude'%
Theory of Optics, translated by Mann and Millikan, (Longmans, Green & Co., London and New York, 1917) is the best recent treatise with
which I am familiar. Lord Jiayleigh's. article Wave-Theory, Encyclopedia Britannica, i)^^ ed., 1887, presents a masterly survey of the subject,
based on great personal experience, and may be unreservedly recommended.
^) Compare the later calculation in the notes of Sept. 12 in section 4, and in section 8, below, which indicate that this
component
is about I : (66420- 10"). , .
 .

389 5085 390

ordinary wave surface certainly is accurate to 1:10^, which 1-857, pp. 332-333, Dr. Whewell (^oX^'i, the remarks oi Fresnel
therefore lends a remarkable support to the new theory of »M. Young, more bold in his conjectures and less confiding
transverse waves in light. in the views of geometers, published it before me, though
Finally, remains to point out that although in our
it perhaps he thought of it after me. « And from personal in-
new theory of the aether we usually speak of the waves as formation of the progress of the theory of transverse waves
resembling the waves on the surface of still water, — which Dr. Whewell adds:
convey to the mind the image of particles revolving in cir- »And M. Arago was afterwards wont to relate, (l take
cular or elliptical paths, while the wave .form moves on, — -the libertyof stating this from personal knowledge) thai
yet, ^as in of sound, it is allowable, in many
the theory when he and Fresnel had obtained their joint experimental
phenomena, conceive the oscillations of the particles to
to results, of the non-interference of oppositely-polarized pencils,
take place in such narrow ellipses as to be practically recti- and when Fresnel pointed out that transverse vibrations were
linear, normal to the wave front, according to Poisson's
in the the only possible translation of this fact into the undulatory
theory of 1830. Such approximate rectilinear motion always theory, he himself protested that he had not the courage tc
is referable to simple harmonic motion, according to the publish such a conception; and, accordingly, the second part
ordinary theory of uniform motion in the circle of reference. of the memoir was published in Fresnel^ name alone. What
Thus our theory is not restricted in any way, but is appli- renders this more remarkable occurred when M.
is, that it

cable to any possible elliptical oscillation of the particle, Arago had in his possession the very letter of Young (Jan.
from a circle on the one hand, to a straight-line ellipse on 12, 1817), in which he proposed the same suggestion.*
the other, as in the displacements referred to simple harmonic From the circumstances here reported it will be seen
motion in the theory of sound. that Fresnel and Arago did not feel very secure^) in their
In the third paper on the new theory of the aether position, under the criticisms of Laplace, Poisson and theii
(an 5079), near the end of section 8, equations (86) to (88) followers. Accordingly Fresnel and Arago were more than
and beyond, we have carefully cited the reasoning oi Poisson, glad to have the mathematical support of Cauchy, in favoi
who devoted over 25 years to the mathematical theory of of the possibility of transmitting transverse waves, if once
waves, and in his last papers (1819-1839) maintained that they existed. But that was all that Cauchfs analysis proved.
at a great distance from the source of disturbance the motion It did not indicate how such transverse waves would arise

of the molecules always is sensibly normal to the wave front, in nature, nor did Fresnel and his followers throw any light
as in the theory of sound. on this difficult problem.
Thus Poisson never concurred in the views of Fresnel, Accordingly it appears that the origin of the transverse
Arago, and Cauchy, which were gradually adopted in the vibrations in light has never been explained on a satisfactory
traditional wave-theory of light. And it must be plainly basis; and for that reason it is hoped that the simple theory
pointed out that Fresnel's doctrine of purely transverse waves in section 4 below may commend itself to geometers and
was an assumption pure and simple, which offered a needed natural philosophers. ,

explanation of the interference of polarized light. Another difficulty of quite fun^mental character in
It is a matter of authentic record that at first Fresnel the wave-theory of light has been before me for many years.
and Arago hesitated to take such a radical departure as to We commonly have offered to us for illustration of transverse
postulate transverse waves (cf. Arago's Eulogy on Fresnel, waves the vibrations of a single stretched cord: this looks
English translation, Boston, 1849, PP- 212-213). obvious and convincing, when we deal only with a single
In regard to the reluctance of the early investigators cord free to vibrate in empty space.
to admit a lateral vibration in light, it may be pointed out But in the theory of light we should have to imagine
that Huyghens, Newton, and Euler had held to the view of all space, in the. sphere V=
^/^rc r^, r^o,
r=^r, about
oscillations chiefly in the line of the rays, though 'Euler'i, the source of light, filled entirely full of such cords, which
equations involve no necessary restrictions as to the direc- would thus mutually crowd each other on every side; so
tion of vibration, being of the same" general form as in the that no one of them would have the assumed freedom of
theory of sound, the single cord used in our class-room illustrations. The

dVd/2= -<:'-9VS*^ u.= a%m{2nll-[Vt-x)\. (i) surface of the sphere has the area S^
Anr"^, and for a
spherical shell of thickness dr, the volume is ^nr'^dr, and
But at length, Young began to entertain the idea that
the molecules of the aether might oscillate in parallel direc-
the integral of volume is V.^ 47t\r^dr
tions transverse to the direction of the ray, though he thought Now by no possibility can the sphere surface S= 4nr^
that longitudinal vibrations might exist also. Fresnel inde- be increased. Accordingly no one cord can be moved side-
pendently reached the idea of transverse vibrations, but like wise, in transverse vibration, without crowding all the other
Young he could not account for it dynamically. cords extending outward from the centre, unless we assume
In his History of the Inductive Sciences, vol. II, 3''^ ed.. simultaneous motion of all the cords in the same direction

') In another place, Hist, of the Induct. Sciences, vol. II, p. 350, Dr. Whewell,. explains the embarrassment oi Arago as follows: lA. Arago

would perhaps have at once adopted the conception of transverse vibrations, when it was suggested by his fellow-labourer, Fresnel, if it had
not been that he was a member of the Institute, and had to bear the brunt of the war in the frequent discussions of the undulatory theory,
to which theory Laplace, and other leading members, were so vehemently opposed, that they would not even listen with toleration to the argu-
ments in its favour. I do not know how far influences of this kind might operate in producing the delays which took place in the publication
of Fresnel' s papers."
 . : :

391 5085 392

for the spherical shell ^nr^dr. The chances are infinity "to And as Foisson's equation of wave motion is

one against this occurring. '

82a)/8/2 = a2y2(p (8)
These consideratioris alone show that the did wave-theory we see that V^® = o, excludes the existence of waVes, if
of light i^ inadmissible. The satrie difficulty does not arise this condition held rigorously for the time d^.
in Foisson's, theory of 1830, which makes the" vibrations Wherefore we conclude that in traversing the surface
normal to the wave front, as in sound, and thus allows vi- S, the condition in (6) will hold for the wave from the
brational increase of space equal to dV = ^nr'^dr, where centre at the beginning and also at the end of the time df,
dr is the amplitude of the oscillations. With the new theory corresponding to the propagation of a wave through all its
as to why the waves are rhainly transverse, more fully set phases, over the wave-length A, which represents a complete
forth section 4> below, it is believed that the last out-
in oscillation of the fluid.
standing difficulty iri the wave-theory of light has been re- But for shorter intervals, the equation (6) will not
moved. But before quitting this subject, we may state the hold rigorously; so that temporarily, over an interval less
expansive diffictilty pointed out above with sortlewhat greater than the wave frequency, t 27t/v = =
A/ F, there is both
mathematical rigor. If <Z) be the velocity-potential, we have slight compressibility and a flow of the fluid across the boun-
the usual differential expression dary S= 47rr^; and, for dt<T we have:
dCD = udv+vdy+wdz . (2) (8/6f){^/s7Tar^) = ^^d^/dn-dSdi = ±dm (9)
Now it is well known that the line integral of the
where dm is the total fluid temporarily lost, an infinitesimal
component velocity around any closed curve of a
tangential
mass positive or negative.
moving (incompressible) fluid remains constant throughout
Accordingly, in the wave motion of the aether, there
all time; so that when d® is a complete differential, the
is slight compressibility, and a minute temporary radial motion
circulation Id® is zero, just as in the obvious case when of the fluid does take place. Hence we cannot have purely
the fluid is at rest: transverse motion, as assumed in the traditional form of the
d\dO ^ 6\{udx-^vdy+wdz) == o .
(3)
wave-theory of light due to Fresnel and Cauchy.
During the last half century these problems have been
When the fluid incompressible this integral round
is
discussed by many eminent natural philosophers Lord Kelvin, —
a closed circuit is evanescent, and the momentum, like the —
Maxwell, Lord Rayleigh, Larmor, Glazebrook, etc., but
circulation, is zero; but for a compressible fluid, the existence
whilst they give up Green's views, they do not reach satis-
of a velocity-potential Q) does not imply evanescence of the
factory accord in their views of the aether. A useful sum-
integral momentum round a closed circuit (cf. Lord Rayleigh,
mary of their reasoning given in Darnell's Principles of
is
Theory of Sound, 2°'^ ed., 1896, vol. 2, pp. 8-g).
Physics, 3'^'^ edition, 1895, Si°- Under the circumstances
P-
In the case of the aether, however, the fluid is so we have felt that the older views must be entirely abandoned,
nearly absolutely above theorems
incompressible that the and the waves in the aether treated as in Foisson's Theory
will hold, and we may take d(D to be essentially^ an exact of 1830. There is no experimental evidence of different
differential; so that me velocity in any direction is expressed velocities for compressional and distortional waves, and no
by the corresponding rate of change of ®, and therefore such assumptions are authorized by the existing state of bur
.du\dx^dvldy^dwldz 82a)/8a:2-f-92a)/3j;2-H82Q)/922 = _
(4) knowledge.
Let us now consider any closed surface, such as that
Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory of Light
of the sphere already spoken of, S 471 r'^. Then the = rate
rests
2.
on Vibrations wholly transverse to the Direc-
of flow of the fluid outward, across the element d^, becomes
tion of a Ray, and thus in View of the above Con-
dS-d0/dn. siderations the Electromagnetic Theory also must be
And when the density is constant, the total loss of rejected as not based strictly on the Laws of Nature.
fluid in time di is given by the double integral Wehave just outlined the geometrical and physical
{6/6i){is7i<rr^)-.= JJda>/d«-d5d/ (5) difficultyencountered by FresneVs classical conception of
where the integration is to be extended over the entire sur- vibrations wholly transverse to the direction in which light
face S= 471 r^ is propagated; and have shown how waves flat in the equators

of the a,toms, under haphazard arrangement of the atomic

Now when the sphere surface S is full both at the
planes, would be equivalent to the uniform spherical distri-
beginning and at the end of d/, the loss of fluid vanishes,
bution of the elliptical vibration paths exhibited to the eye
so that
[d/dt] iisTiar^) = JJd®/d« • dSdi = o .
(6)
in Fig. I, Plate 7. This new principle in
of light gives two remarkable results:
the wave-theory

The equation of continuity, for an incompressible fluid

I. From any spherical source of light, or luminous mass,
deduced from the spacial element dx dy dz under , this con-
where the number of atoms is large, it would lead to vibrations
dition of no loss of fluid across the boundary, is
so nearly transverse, that the longitudinal component pro-
•
d'-(D/dx^-hd^<D/dy^-hd^(D/dz^ == o »• .
bably would not exceed the value 1/(4-10''), and thus be
or briefly 72m
V'® =o .
(7)
insensible^) to observation in optical experiments.

*) A much smaller value 1/(66420-10*), is reached in section 4 below, Sept. 12, 1920.
 « «

393 5o85 394

-
2. It makes the molecules oscillate primarily in the disturbance perpendicular to both. It seems to me that when
direction of the normal to the wave-front, as, held hy Ifuyghens, we have an electromagnetic theory of light, we shall see
Newton, Eukr, Lagrange, Laplace and Poisson, prior to the electric displacement as in the direction of propagation, and
theory of lateral vibrations of the stretched cord introduced simple vibrations as described by Fresnel with lines of
by Young, Fresniil and Cauchy. Thus we have at once a vibration pel-pendicular to the line of propagation, for the
vindication of the profound wave-theory of Poisson, 1830, motion actually constituting light.
without need for recourse to the artificial and dynamically If Lord Kelvin had such difficulty in understanding
inadmissible theory of Fresnel, that the vibrations are wholly the electromagnetic theory of light, it undoubtedly is very
transverse. allowable for the present writer to attempt to put the theory
The above citations from Whewell show that Young, of light on a simpler basis.
Fresnel and Arago were loth to entertain the theory of purely The figure from Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and
lateral vibrations,which they could not account for dynami- Magnetism, vol. 11, p; "439, "cited below, will put before our
cally, as contrary to the views of geometers since the age minds the electric vibrations, conceived to be
and magnetic
,

o{ Newton. Apparently it never occurred to Young and Fresnel in planes at right each other, and thus calling
angles- to
that a theory of projection for Poisson % normal elliptical paths, forth the above severe criticism by Lord Kelvin, who was
such as is shown in Fig. i, Plate 7, multiplied by the small long an associate and friend of Maxwell. It seems to be
ratio A\X, would give mean vibrations almost normal to the certain that Lord Kelvin was very much bewildered by the
ray, without the strained and unnatural theory of lateral motion unnatural complications of the electro-magnetic theory, and
appropriate to a stretched cord. thus it proved of little or no value to him.
The theory of lateral vibrations, drawn from the example In his filectricite et Optique, 190 1, p. 73, Poincari has
of the stretched cord, is approximately correct, as respects pointed out the difficulties and contradictions he found in
the smallness of the longitudinal component, but it is wholly following Maxwell's processes. »I1 ne faut pas attribuer k
lacking in physical basis, as shown above in section I. More- cette contradiction trop d'importance. J'ai expose plus haut
over it introduces an unfortunate and unnecessary conflict en effect les raisons qui me font penser que Maxwell ne
between the doctrines of experimental physics and geometry. regardait la thdorie du deplacement electrique ou du fluide
The eminent experimenters, Fresnel and Arago, and the great inducteur que corame provisoire, et que ce fluide inducteur
analyst Cauchy, were thus arrayed against Laplace, Poisson, auquel il cons'ervait le nom d'electricite, n'avait pas a ses
and Lami; yet apparently it was not possible for these illu- yeux plus de r^alite objective que les deux fluides de Coulomb, i-

strious academicians to settle the controversy which thus The importance of having a perfectly clear under-
arose, because the premises in their reasoning departed from standing of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory is so great that
the order of nature. we quote his reasoning in full. It is not very long, and the
If the theory above traced be admissible, it follows deductions will justify it (pag. 438-39-40).
that the claims of geometers since the days of Newton and »79o. Let usnow confine our attention to plane waves,
Euler, as put forth by Laplace and Poisson, certainly were the fronts of which we shall suppose normal to the axis
correct, that at a great distance from the source of the of z. All the quantities, the variation of which constitutes
disturbance the molecular oscillations are normal to the wave such waves, are functions of z and t only, and are indepen-
front. On the other hand, the average vibration in light dent of X and y. Hence the^ equations of magnetic induction,
is nearly normal to the ray, owing to the effect of the (a), Art. 591, are reduced- to
spherical projection from the variously tilted elliptical paths
Ac'
a = -6.GlAz b'=AFldz c =o [13] (10)
at the source of the light, and the smallness of A\X.
or the magnetic disturbance is in plane of the wave.
the
cordingly we are impressed with the necessity of the most
This agrees with what we know of that disturbance which
crucial test of the premises underlying our reasoning in natural
constitutes light.
philosophy.
»Putting (la, }ij3 and fiy for a, 6 and c respectively,
In order to outline this defect clearly, we shall now
the equations of electric currents, Art. 607, become
treat of the difficulty of the electromagnetic theory of Max-
well, which will also show the unwarranted assumptions 471 fiu = —AbJAz = —d'^FJdz^
underlyitig the- Fresnel- Cauchy wave-theory. 47Tfiv = da/dz = —d^G/dz'^ L14J
»If I knew,« says Lord Kelvin, (Baltimore Lectures, ^nfjiw^ o .

J904, p. 9)»what the electromagnetic theory of light is, I »Hence the electric disturbance is also in the plane
might be able to think of it in relation to the fundamental of the wave, and if the magnetic disturbance is confined to
principles of the wave theory of light. But it seems to me electric disturbance is con-
one direction, say that of x, the
that it is rather a backward step from an absolutely definite fined to the perpendicular direction, or that of .j'.?.
mechanical motion that is put before us by Fresnel and his electric disturbance in an-
»But we may, calculate the
followers to take up the so-called electromagnetic theory of components of
other way, for if /, g, A, are the electric dis-
light in the way it has been taken up by several writers of
placement in a nOn-conducting medium,
may
say that the one thing about it that
late.
seems
In passing, I
me, I do not think is admissible. What
intelligible to
u = d/ldt v = dg/dt w = dA/dt. [15] (li)

I mean is, that there should -be an electric displacement

,
»If P, Q, R are the components of the electromotive
perpendicular to the line of propagation and a magnetic intensity.
 . .

395 5085 596

/=KUn-P g=Kj4n-Q h = K\A,n-R '[i6](i3) 2. It appears that Maxwell did not regard the electric
and since there is no motion of the medium, equations (B), or magnetic vibrations as having any kind of vortical rotation
Art. 598, become as the wave form moves on, because he expressly states,

P= -AFJAt |(2=-d(?/d/ £= -Affldi, [17] (14)

near the close of section 791, that »this corresponds to a
ray of plane-polarized light,* which in the orthodox classical
Hence ,
„ „
,

theory of Fresnel is conceived to be direct linear vibrations,

v = -XU7fd^Gldt^ w=-KUn-A^Hldt\ [18] (is) at right angler to the direction of the ray, as shown in Max"
wells figure.
Comparing these values with those given in equation [14], After much investigation, we have reached t-he con-
3.
clusion that such suppositions are pure hypotheses, not justi-

d'Gldz^ = Kl^-d'G/di' o=\Ki^-d^HldfA ^"'^ ^^^' fied

to
by anything in nature. For we cannot hold the aether
be a superfine gas, the aetherons having all the degrees
»The
and second of these equations are the equa-
first of freedom appropriate to Poissoris equation
tions of propagation of a plane wave,
of the well known form
and their solution is ^820/9/1! = «2(82(2)/9;c^ + 82a)/8,,2+82a)/922) (19)
and admit three component motions depending on
F = Mz- Vt)+Mz+ Vt)
X,
fail

y and
to
z.
G =- Mz- Vt)+f^{z+ Vt)
[20] (17)
There was a celebrated controversy on this point
4.
The solution of the third equation is between Poisson and Fresnel and their followers, in the In-
H= A-hBt [21] (18)
stitute of France, (18 19-1 839), but to the end Poisson held

where A and B are functions of r. H is therefore either

to
normal
the conclusion
to the
that
direction
in general
of the
the vibrations
Fresnel himself held
ray.
are not

constant or varies directly with the time. In neither case

such views, in virtue of the necessity of explaining pplari-
can it take part in the propagation of waves.*
zation, interference, etc.; and Cauchy's mathematical researches
g I It appears from this that
» 7 .

seemed to indicate that if vibrations existed normal to the

the directions, both of the magnetic
ray, they could be propagated in the aether.
and the electric disturbances, lie
5. There
no doubt that any kind of vibrations, once
is
in the plane of the wave. The
established in the aether, may be propagated in that medium;
mathematical form of the distur-
but this does not show that the actual vibrations in polarized
bance therefore agrees with that
light are of this type. Here is a fundamental error in the
of the disturbance which consti-
wave-theory of light, which the wave-theory of magnetism
tutes light, being transverse to the
has enabled us to correct.
direction of propagation.*
»If we suppose G= o, the
6. We hold that light must have a longitudinal com-
ponent depending on the ratio of the amplitude to the wave
disturbance will correspond to a
length, which is small but finite. In the Philosophical Maga-
plane-polarized ray of light.*
zine for Sept., 1896, Fitzgerald has a thoughtful and useful
»The magnetic force is in
this case parallel to the axis o( y
paper on this subject, beginning as follows:
and equal to i/fi-dF/dz, and the most investigations on the propagation of light;
»In
electromotive intensity is parallel attention has been concentrated on the transverse nature of
to the axis of x and equal to the vibration. Longitudinal motions have been relegated to
— dFJdt . The magnetic force the case of pressural waves, and investigators have devoted

is therefore in a plane perpen- themselves to separating the two as much as possible. In

Sir George Stokes's classical paper on Diffraction, and in Lord
dicular to that which contains Fig. 2 = Maxweirs Fig. 67.
Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures, the existence of a longitudinal
the electric intensity.*
component is mentioned; but it is mentioned only to show
»The values of the magnetic force and of the electro-
that it very small and that the motion is mostly trans^
is
motive intensity at a given instant at different points of the
ray are represented in Fig. 67, (cf. Fig. 2), for the case of
verse. Now the longitudinal component is no doubt gene-
rally small, except in the immediate
neighbourhood of a
a simple harmonic disturbance in one plane. This corresponds
source; but by no means follows that, as a consequence,
it
to a ray of plane-polarized light, but whether the plane of
the actual direction of motion is transverse at all points in
polarization corresponds to the plane of the magnetic distur-
a wave. In every complicated wave there are points and
bance, or to the plane of the electric disturbance, remains
often lines along which the transverse component vanishes,
to be seen.*
and at all these places the small longitudinal component
Critical Analysis of Maxwell's Processes. may be, and often is, of great relative importance, so that
I. Maxwell conceived the vibrations to be entirely in the actual motion is largely in the direction of wave-pro-
the wave-front, normal axis of z, and thus wholly
to the pagation at these places.'^ (cf. Fitzgerald's Scientific Writings,,
dependent oh x and y. This is a pure assumption, in accor- 1902, p. 418.)
dance with the orthodox theory, but indefensible, as is more 7 The principle of the dependence of the longitudinal
fully shown hereafter. component in light on the ratio of the amplitude to th6
 « :

397 5o85 398

wave lenght, A = Ajl-q, will enable us on the one hand On page ^22 Rayleigh had already indicated the lirni-
to reconcile the views of Poisson, on wave propagation, with tations of the elastic-solid theory:
those of Fresnel and Cauchy; and on the other hand to »For these and other reasons, especially the awkward-
correct a fundamental defect in the wave-theory of light, ness with which it lends itself to the explanation of dis-
which has stood for nearly a century.
persion, the elastic-solid theory, valuable as a piece of purely
8, Thus it will be seen that Maxwell's figure above dynamical reasoning, and probably not without mathematical
given has handed down the defect of lack of rotation of analogy to the truth, can in optics be regarded only as an
/ the Wave elements, whatever be the amplitude, and therefore illustration.*
does not represent nature. No wonder that Lord Kelvin and
Inorder to set forth this difficulty somewhat more
others have failed to understand the electromagnetic theory.
clearly we shall outline the mathematical theory of plane waves
As given by Maxwell it is contrary to the profound and in homogeneous elastic solids. The new theory of magne-
conscientious researches of Poisson, which were critically tism, in relation to light, recently developed, requires for
examined by Laplace and Fourier, and not at all authorized comparison a definite outline of the theory of plane waves
by the researches of Cauchy. With Poincari, therefore, we in a homogeneous elastic solid. It is only in this way that
dismiss MaxweW^ electromagnetic theory as ,provisoire', not
we can decide whether the waves from a magnet are similar
deduced from, the laws of nature, but from certain arbitrary to those of a solid, or are of a somewhat different nature.
assumptions, and therefore fundamentally defective.
The following very brief outline is founded on Lord
The Cauchy- Fresnel Theory of wholly Trans-
3. Kelvin& article Elasticity, Ency. Brit, g'*^ ed., p. 824-5; but

verse Vibrations dynamically Inadmissible for a is accord with the researches of Cauchy, Rankine, Green,
in
Gaseous Medium of High Elasticity and practically Lord Rayleigh, Love, and many other eminent authorities.
Incompressible, whether Isotropic or Aeolotropic. (i)' Let the rectangular axes OX, OY, OZ
Definitions.
In his celebrated on the Wave-Theory, Ency-
article be so oriented that OX
is perpendicular to the wave front,
1 clopedia Britannica, g'*" ed., the late Lord Rayleigh often and OY, OZ in the plane of the wave front. Then if a,
points out the weakness of the wave-theory of light, and /S, ;' be the displacements of a particle of the solid, whose

shows that although we may adopt- it as a working hypo- undisturbed coordinates are [x, y, z] we have for any time
thesis, we are not to trust the theory as a representation of the disturbed coordinates x a.,y-\-^, z-i-y +Accordingly .

: nature. Thus on pp. 422-445-446, he points out Green'?, as- the displacements a, fi, y are functions of x and /, and this
i sumption that the longitudinal component has infinite velocity, is the definition of wave motion.

in order to get rid of this difficulty; but it is evident that There is therefore a simple longitudinal strain J in the
; Lord Rayleigh regarded procedure as a somewhat violent
this direction of OX, and two differential slips, 7/ parallel to
hypothesis, scarcely justified by any known phenomenon. OY, and ^ parallel to OZ, which are simple distortions,
Rayleigh says: in the shear of planes of the material one over the other.
»The idea of transverse vibrations was admitted with The values are
reluctance, even by Young and Fresnel themselves. A perfect
fluid, such as the ethereal medium was then supposed to be,
I = da/dx tj = V2-dfildx t, = V2-dyldx. (20)

is essentially incapable of transverse vibrations. But there (ii) Calculation of the work done to produce strain.
: seems to be no reason a priori for preferring one kind of If JV denote the work per unit volume required to
vibration to another; and the phenomena of polarization prove produce this strain, the stress quadric becomes:
conclusively that, if luminous vibrations are analogous to those IV= ^l2[A'§''-^B'ri^-¥Cl-+2L>-^t, + 2El;t-^2Ftri) (21)
of a material medium, it is to solids, and not to fluids, that which is an ellipsoidal surface. A, B, C, D, E, F being
we must look. An isotropic solid is capable of propagating moduluses of elasticity of the solid.
two distinct kinds of waves, —
the first dependent upon
If /, q, r be the three components of the traction
rigidity, or the force by which shear is resisted, and the per unit area of the wave front, we shall have the linear
second analogous to waves of sound and dependent upon
equations connecting the strain and slips with the modu-
compressibility. In the former the vibrations are transverse
luses of elasticity
to tte direction of propagation, that is, they may take place
in any direction parallel to the wave front, and they are
p = Al^Fri-^El
thus suitable representatives of the vibrations of light. In
qV^U= Ft-^Bii^Dl (22)

this theory the luniiniferous ether is distinctly assimilated to rV^i =Et+D^^Cl.

an elastic solid, a;nd the velocity of light depends upon the Now let it be further assumed J, iq, t, fulfill linear relations,
rigidity and density assigned to the medium. with the moduluses of elasticity in the three directions:
»The possibility of longitudinal waves,
-displacement perpendicular to the wave-front, is an objection
is
in which the
'M1= Al+Fti^El
to the elastic-solid theoty of light, for there is nothing known
Mri=^ F%+Bri+Dl (23)

in optics corresponding thereto. If, however, we suppose Ml = E%-^Dri^Cl_.

.with Green that the medium; is incompressible, the velocity The resulting determinantal cubic gives three real posi-
©f longitudinal waves becoipes . infiriitp, and the objection is tive values for M, which define the ways in which the solid
dn, great degree obv,iated.« may be 'strained. If we substitute any one of these valiies
 : .

399 5o85 400

in (23), we may derive the ratios ?:«/:£; and the^ compo- 1. A

compressional wave, like that of sound in air,
nents of the traction yield or other elastic fluid, with the motion normal to the wave

/ = M-AaJAx q = M-A^JAx r = M-dy/dx . (24)

front. This corresponds to the conclusion reached by Poisson
in his celebrated memoir of 1830, and holds for any elastic
The three components of the whole force due to the
medium.
tractions of the sides of an infinitesimal parallelepiped dx Sy 8z
2. A transverse wave, with the motion parallel to the
of the solid obviously are:
wave front. This wave depends on the assumed properties
dp/dx- 8x Sy dz dq/dx- dx dy 6z drjdx-Sx 6y dz (25) of an elastic solid, which resists sbear4«g roobon, as when
.

Now these component forceis are in equilibrium with the one layer slides over another.
mass Q in the same element of .space; and hence we have
(v) The sirnplest case of waves in an incompressible
the resulting equations:
aeolotropic or isotropic.
d^a/d/^ -Qdxdydz = dpjdx 8x 6y 8z solid,

When the solid is incompressible Green has shown

d^/3/d/^ Q 6x6y dz = dqjdx -Sxdy 6z (26)
from equation (21) above, that the modulus of elasticity
d^y/di^ -Q dx dy dz = dr/dx 6x dy dz .
A = 00; and hence the displacement along the .x-axis va-
(iii) Equations of motion for waves in an elastic solid. nishes, or a o, ^ ^ =
o. Therefore (21) becomes simply

Without regard to the space of the element, therefore, W= B-f^CX'-^'^Dn'^- (32)

the equations of motion are And the first of (23) vanishes, leaving merely:
d//d« = Q-d^'a/dt^ dgjdx = p-d^d/^ , >
B7i-^D-Q = M-q D7i + Cl = M'Z. (33)
dr/d« = ^-dVcl^'- This restriction of the oscillations to the plane of ?/ ^,
Substituting the values of '§, rj, t, from (20), in (23) gives a determinantal quadratic instead of cubic, yielding two
and integrating in respect to x, we get wave velocities and two wave modes. The velocity along
Aa^{F$-^EY)V2 = Ma the axis of .x is thereby taken to be infinite and a disappears;

J^a-h(B/3-hDy)V2 = M^y2
leaving the two velocities:

£a-^{I)/3-hCy)V2 = MyV2.
(28)
F2 = V[M^lq) = V(M,/q)
Vs .
(34)

The three roots of his determinantal cubic may be called

And in the case ^
Vg, as in (31), and J/^
of isotropy, V^
and Mg are principal moduluses, each equal to the modulus
Ml M^ Mi
, , and the corresponding values of the
;
ratios
of rigidity.
/5/a, yja, determined by (28), may be denoted by b^; Ci,
As Lord Kelvin points out, M^
is a mixed modulus
hi ^1 hi ^3-
of compressibility and rigidity —
not a principal modulus
Accordingly the complete solution of (27), subject to
generally, because the distortions by differential motions of
(28), becomes of the form:
planes of particles parallel to the wave front give rise to
tangential stresses orthogonal to them, which do not influence
the wave motion.
= OfiH-C2a2+C3«3
y Ci
(vi) Conclusion applicable to the elastic medium of
«i = fA=c+tV{M,lQ)] + FAx-tV{M^lQ)] (20)
the aether gas.
a2 = f2[x+tV{M^lQ)]+F^[x-tV[M,lq)\ This outline of the theory of plane waves in homo-
Ui =Mx+tV[MslQ)]+Fi[x-tV{MilQ)] geneous elastic solids enables us to form a fair idea of the
(iv) Three different wave velocities inferred. possible types of motions of waves in the aether. When the
motion of the aether wave is not through ponderable bodies,
In the above equations f\,fi,f%, F^, Fi, F3 are arbi-
it is free of most restrictions, and follows rectilinear paths':
trary functions. Owing tp the form of these expressions it
if through ponderable masses, the action always follows
therefore inferred that there are three different wave
.

is
Fermat's, minimum path, defined by Hamilton's stationary
velpcities, namely:
Fi = V[M^Iq) V^ = V{M,lq) V, = V{MJq) (30)
condition, dldj'=o.
Accordingly we learn from the above analysis that
and three different kinds of waves, determined by (28), and
most any kind of motion may be transmitted by the waves
depending on the aeolotropic character of the solid. The
of an elastic solid: and the question to be discussed is
waves are therefore very complex, but are much simplified
therefore not the type of waves which may be transmitted,
in an isotropic medium.
but rather the type of waves which actually exist in nature,,
Simple «ase of waves in an isotropic solid. and have therefore to be transmitted by the aetherial;mediunij
Let the solid be isotropic, and then the moduluses of This is mainly an observational question, and the
elasticity reduce to the Form: observations should therefore be extended to the phenomena
B= C D = £ = F=^ o ,. of magnetism and gravitation as well as to those of light
Mi^A M2=M3 = £. ^^^'
and heat:

Accordingly, the above three different kinds of waves I. Since the aether is a gas, and therefore compressible,

with three different velocities now reduce to just two: Com- by extremely powerful quick-acting forces, it follows from
pressional or Longitudinal. the kinetic theory, that even if the propagation of waves-
 .

40I 5085 40 2

by means of vibrations wholly transverse to the direction Scientific Writings p. 418), and by Professor
of Fitzgerald,
of a ray of light be a geometrical possibility, and Cauchy Chas. S. Encyclopedia Americana, 1904, article
Hastings,
showed, and Airy and Herschel confirmed by independent Light, quoted in section I above, where it is pointed out
researches, it is physically inadmissible to assume transverse that the conviction has grown that the wave-theory is in some
displacements, and deny corresponding longitudinal displace- way wrong.
ments, such as was implied in the theory oi Foisson, 1830, 9. It is obvious that waves of the types imagined by
and suggested by Fitzgerald'^' paper on the Longitudinal Cauchy and Fresnel could be transmitted by the perfectly
Component in Light, i8q6. elastic aether if they existed —
as is correctly held by Herschel
2. For such an arbitrary restriction would give the and Airy —
but the question of fact remains: Do they in
aether gas anisotropic properties, —
symmetrical as respects general exist?
the but unsymmetrical in respect to the ^-axis,
«j>'-plane, 10. This important question must be answered in the
along which the light is propagated, for no assignable — negative. For in magnetism we recognize, from Faraday's,
physical reason, except that the light is propagated along rotation of a beam of polarized light, 1845, the rotations of
the 2-axis. the elements of the aether, the atoms having their equators

3. Andunsymmetrical anisotropy would change

this lying in parallel planes. In common luminous bodies, on the
its direction change in the direction of
in space with the other hand, no such parallelism in the atomic planes can be
the ray of light, or the mere rotation of the axis about assumed: indeed this parallelism must be emphatically denied.
the origin of coordinates; and hence we see that the hypo- 11. And as we cannot have luminous bodies, with the
thesis is physically inadmissible. Such a physical doctrine atomic planes all parallel, as in magnetism; so also we can
that the property of the aether changes with the direction not imagine these atoms so tilted as to send rays to us only
of the ray can no more hold a place in natural philosophy from their combined poles. Hence the wave-theory of light
than can an established reductio ad absurdum in geometry. as heretofore taught is physically inadmissible.

4. If we view the aether in free homo-

space, as 12. We must hold that the waves of light in general
geneous and isotropic, except as rendered heterogeneous and are flat in of the equators of the atoms, and
the planes
aeol'otropic at great distances, as of the celestial bodies, — these planes tilted at all possible angles, as explained below
as shown paper on the New Theory of the Aether,
in the first in Section 4. If the axis of z be in the plane of the equator
AN 5044, —
we cannot admit that its vibratory motion of the vibrating atom, be of the plkne
the oscillation will
is different in different directions, and changing with the wave type commonly shown. hes in the
If the axis of z
direction in which the light is allowed to travel. northern hemisphere of the atom, the approaching waves, as

5. Therefore if we admit a series of transverse dis-

we look at them, will seem to rotate left handed, in the form
placements of the aether particles for making waves of the of a left handed helix. If the 2-axis lies in the southern
type imagined by Fresnel, Cauchy, Sir John Herschel, Airy, hemisphere of the atom, the waves received will seem to
Kelvin and Maxwell, we must admit also corresponding longi- rotate right handed, like the coils of a right handed helix.

tudinal displacements of the aether in the direction of wave Geometrical Reasons why the Vibrations
4-
propagation —
thus giving rise to rotations about mean of Ordinary Light are mainly Transverse.
positions, or true waves of the type imagined by Foisson.
If we contemplate the hemisphere presented to our
6. of the special polarized waves imagined
Instead view by a luminous spherical source of light, such as the
by Maxwell of the type described in section 2 above, and sun, it is evident that the waves propagated towards the
implying merely a rectilinear side oscillation of the particles, observer will cover a surface of area
like that of a stretched cord, we should therefore irriagine
A =^ 271 r'^ (36)
waves of the Foisson type, referable to simple harmonic motion
as illustrated by the modified figure of Airy for ;the surface
And inorthogonal projection this area will be reduced by
one half, and become merely the area of a single great circle
of still water.
The geometrical conditions are fixed by the equations: of the sphere A' n r^ ^ (27)
Thesphere surface seen by us in projection is enor-

.= ^C0s(2^/^ + ^_y^^,^^,^^,y (35)

mously fore-shortened and contracted in area at the border,

W = CCOS[2 ^)
7t t/T-i-rj
while at the centre no decrease in apparent area takes place.
If therefore the atoms emit waves which are flat in the
7. It is therefore evident that in adopting Cauchy's planes of their equators, and a haphazard arrangement of
ideas of vibrations similar to that of a stretched cord, Her- the atomic planes holds true, as should occur in a non-
schel was misled, and he in turn misled Airy and others
— magnetic sphere, it follows that the beam of light emitted
substituting a mere geometrical abstraction, and practically a by the sun should have its vibrations so largely peripheral
physical impossibility, for the valid physical theory of Foisson, that, with Ajl very small, it will present practically the
which makes the vibrations of the aether similar to those appearance of transverse vibrations, as long taught in the —
of sound, but A/X very small. wave-theory of light.
8. The been a traditional false teaching in
result has In order to examine into this subject somewhat more
the wave-theory of light, as hinted at by Fitzgerald in the critically we may proceed as follows. Let Fig. 3, Plate 7,
memoir »0n the Longitudinal Component of Light,* (The represent an orthogonal projection of the sun's hemisphere,
 403 5085 4^4

with the centre at O, and the coordinate axes and OX OY

as shown in the diagram. Then, if we subdivide the quadrant
of the circle into 20 parts, -corresponding at the centre to
an angular distance of 4?s between the small circles about
that point O as a pole, we may plat a curve along the radius
OX which will represent a section of the visible surface of
the hemisphere, as if the area were not decreased by the
orthogonal projection. The equal distances along the radius
OX will represent equal values of the sine of the polar
distance, 6,equal values of the cosine of the latitude
or
reckoned from the base of the hemisphere here represented
by the lower circle.
The curve may be drawn from a table of natural sines
or cosines by taking y proportional to this function, so that
the change will make a curve of the kind indicated in the
Fig. 3, Plate 7, which is repeated on both sides of O, in order
to show to the eye the enormous condensation of surface
near the circumference of the projected hemisphere. In fact
the double curve on both sides of (9 is a semicircle, drawn
about F
as a centre, and thus exceedingly simple.

The coordinates of the curve, to four places of decimals,

and the surface integral / for the component of Foissotis
radial wave motion in line of sight, equation (38), are:

Angle Bi
 «

405 5o85 406

»For the general explanation of these experiments, and the very conclusion announced by Airy, in the above passage,
for the accurate investigation of most of the phenomena to that there is not the smallest trace of visible fringes of inter-
be hereafter described, it is indifferent whether we suppose ference due to the longitudinal component, which of course
the vibrations constituting polarized light to take place parallel has to come from the light near the centre of the canopy.
to the plane of polarization', or perpendicular to it. There Airy personally repeated the experiments which he described
are reasons, however, connected with the most profound in- and reduced to mathematical expression: so that his con-
vestigations into the nature of crystalline separation and into clusions have been widely accepted by natural philosophers.
the nature of reflection from glass, etc., and confirming each It is by virtue of Airy's careful experimentation and
other in a remarkable degree, that incline us to choose the analysis of the wave-theory of light, following the indepen-
latter: and thus:« dent and profound analysis of Sir Jo/in Herschel, in the great
»When we say that light polarized in a particular
is treatiseon Light, Encycl. MetropoL, 1849, that we adopt
plane, we mean that the vibration of every particle is per- Airy'% presentation of the subject as authoritative. Our con-
pendicular to that plane. clusions therefore are as follows:
»Thus, in the undulation constituting the ordinary ray 1. About 71.4 percent of the sphere surface is in-
of Iceland spar, the vibration of every particle is perpen- cluded within the elevation of 45° 34' 30" from the base of
dicular to the principal plane of the crystal: in that con- the hemisphere. This part of the sphere is a zone so near
stituting the extraordinary ray, the vibration of every particle the circumference as to appear to the observer to be essen-
is parallel to the principal plane. When light falls upon tially peripheral. Hence the origin of the belief, in view of
unsilvered glass at the polarizing angle, the reflected wave the smallness of the ratio AlX, that the vibrations are actually
is formed entirely by vibrations perpendicular to the plane transverse, and the integral for the longitudinal component
of incidence: the transmitted wave is formed by some'vibra- insensible to the experimenter.
tions perpendicular to the plane of incidence, with an excess 2. Light vibrations coming from this periphery would
of vibrations parallel to the plane of incidence.* appear essentially as transverse waves; and by proper optical
»The reader will perceive that it is absolutely necessary appliances could be polarized into right handed, left handed,
to suppose, either that there are no vibrations in the direc- circularly polarized or elliptically polarized light, as seen in
tion of the wave's motion, or that they make no impression that transmitted through crystals.
on the eye. For if there were such, there ought in the ex-
As only 28.6 percent of the sphere surface remains
3.
periment of (98) to be visible fringes of interferences: of in the larger zone, near the pole, and a considerable part
such however there is not the smallest trace.* of the vibrations on that polar surface could be resolved
If we examine the figure, we find from the integral
likewise into circularly or elliptically polarized light, we see
in the plane xy, that the total light emitted is given by the
that in ordinary light, the average vibration is described as
expression x made up of elliptical vibrations {Airy, Undulatory Theory
L=-^ydx (39) of Optics, 1866, p. 156).
o 4. In discussing experiments leading up to Lloyd's
To derive a corresponding expression for the Foisson waves observations on conical refraction, .Airy notes, in regard to
emitted radially from the sphere surface, we put polarization of light, tTiat »if common light be incident,
X = s\nB y = i^cosB dx^^^cos^dS. (40) (which not improbably consists of successive series of waves
And we integrate for 6. between the limits o and ^l^n, polarized in every conceivable plane) rays will be formed

and, for the surface generated by revolving the axis of x, directed to every point of the [Newton's]ring, each ray having

we use CO between the limits o and 2n Thus we have as .

the polarization proper to its point of the ring; and a conical
the surface integral of the hemisphere sheet of light will be formed within the crystal* (Undula-
tory Theory of Optics, p. 106). Again, summarizing the

Z' = J
l(i — cos0)cos0d&d(B = 27r. (41)
description
clusions: (i)
of ordinary polarization, Airy draws, three con-
»If from common light we produce, by any
o o
known contrivance, light that is polarized in one plane,
To find the light in a beam we calculate the reduction
there always produced at the same time light more or
is
of area by orthogonal projection.
less polarized in the plane perpendicular to the former*
If now we integrate for the light distributed over a
(p. 89).
more limited surface S ^^ f{6, (o), we shall find the value
On
of the integral so trifling, that till 6 = 44° 25' 30", x = 0.7,
»The
5.
first
this first conclusion Airy comments as follows:
leads at once to the presumption that polarization
only 28.6 percent of the light will be included in the cen-
is not a modification or change of common light, but a
tral canopy. Moreover the average factor for the part of
resolution of it into two parts equally related to planes at
the Foisson radial wave motion in the line of sight is only
and that the exhibition of a beam
Yioi and the ratio A/k io~^, making^) = right angles to each other;
of polarized light requires the action of some peculiar forces
^ = A/k-Q=j/{4-io<^). (42) (either those employed in producing ordinary reflection and
Accordingly one would expect experimenters to reach refraction or those which produce crystalline double refrac-

') The calculations made Sept. 12, 19*20, as given in the note to section 8, below, make Aj^- i = : 1660508000, which would make
I : (66420- 10^) —a Value hopelessly beyond the range of observation. —
Note added, Sept. 12, 1920.
 407 5085 4o8

tion) which
will enable the eye to perceive one of these point of the ring, each ray having the polarization proper
parts without mixture of the other. This presumption is to its point of the ring.«

strongly supported by the phenomena of partially polarized

7; To view this reasoning graphically, imagine a series
light. If light falls upon a plate of glass inclined to the
of planes drawn through the centre of the sphere and fixed
ray, the transmitted light, as we have seen, is partially po-
at equal intervals normal to a meridian of the circumference
larized. If now a second plate of glass be placed in the
having its pole in the observer's eye. Then imagine the
path of the transmitted light, inclined at the same angle as about the pole through
whole set of fixed planes rotated
the former plate, but with its plane of reflection at right
the observer's eye, and stopped at successive intervals of
angles to that of the former plate, the light which emerges
the circumference equal to those between the fixed planes.
from it has lost every- trace of polarization; whether it be
The equatorial portions of the hemisphere will thereby be
examined only with the analyzing plate B, or by the inter-
divided into rectangular compartments with areas equal to
position of a plate of crystal in the manner to be explained
^-^cosAdAdft), were « is the angle about the pole, and ^ is
hereafter (145). This seems explicable only on the suppo-
the latitude. To get compartments of equal areas in higher
sition that the of the first plate of glass was to
effect
latitudes, the revolving system must stop al intervals equal
diminish that part of the light which has respect to one
plane (without totally removing it), and that the effect of
to dw/cosA = {2 nIn) seek. From these considerations we
perceive that in higher latitudes the number of rectangulav
the second plate is to diminish in the same proportion that
corripartments decreases rapidly; and if the number of flat
part of the light which has respect to the other plane; and
wavelets of light are proportional to the rectangular areas
therefore that, after emergence from the second plate, the
on the sphere, the wave disturbance in light will be almost
two portions of light have the same proportion as before.
wholly peripheral, or transverse.
On considering this presumption in conjunction with the
second and third conclusion, we easily arrive at this simple 8. Small as is the amount of light depending on the

hypothesis explaining the whole* :

vibrations in or near the line of vision, our sphere shows

Common that the central great circles distributed in haphazard fashion,

» light consists of undulations in which the
vibrations of each particle are plane perpendicular
in the
do not lie in the line of vision, but pass around it on all
sides; and hence we perceive that the disturbance necessa-
to the direction of the wave's motion. The polarization of
rily is rotational in character, and nearly transverse to the
light is the resolution of the vibrations of each particle into
direction of propagation.
two, one parallel to a given plane passing through the direc-
tion of the wave's motion, and the other perpendicular to 9. From considerations based on polarization, ten- —
that plane; which (from causes that we shall not allude to ding to show that in the ordinary ray of Iceland spar the
at present), become in certain cases the origin of waves that vibration of every particle is perpendicular to the principal
travel in different directions. When we are able to separate plane of the crystal, while in that constituting the extra-
one of these from the other, we
say that the light of each ordinary ray, the vibration of every particle is parallel to
is polarized. '

When the resolved vibration parallel to the the principal plane —

the polarized light in both cases being
plane is preserved unaltered, and that perpendicular to the already systematically resolved by the action of the crystal
plane is diminished in a given ratio' (or vice versa), and not — Airy concludes in article 10 1 of his Undulatory Theory
separated from it, we say that the light is partially pola- of Optics, that there is not the smallest trace of visible fringes
rized.* of interferences.
6. In view of the considerations here deduced by Airy, 10. If the considerations on the spherical distribution
we see why the spherical distribution of waves from atoms of the planes of the flat wavelets above deduced be valid,
in every conceivable plane will" give rays directed to every Airy's results could be true, and yet give us an unlimited
point of the circumference of the end of a beam of light; number of component flat wavelets not originally normal
just as in Airfs, discussion of the polarization in Newton's- to the direction of the wave propagation, but inclined to it

rings, it is held that the waves »are polarized in every con- by the angle e, as in the electrodynamic formula oi Franz
ceivable plane«, and »rays will be formed directed to every Neuma?m, 1845:
M= //'JJi/r-cosfd^d/ = — xz'JJ(IA•)(dx/dJ•dx'/d/-+-d_J'/d5•d//d/- -Azl&s-dz'lds')dsds' (43)

cosf == cos a cos a' -t- cos /S cos /S' + cos/ cos/ = cos(7, /'
(44)
and yielding the general formula for electrodynamic action in universal gravitation, or Ampire's theory of elementary
electric currents about the atoms:

"= JJJJJJ^^' ^°^(^' ^') [(*-*')'+(^-/)'+(^-^T]-''M* dj. d^ d;.' dy d0' (45)

Thus the difficulties of reconciling the wave-theory 5. Other Fundamental Objections to FresneVi
of light with the electrodynamic theory disappear. The Theory that Light Waves are purely Linear Trans-
resolved waves in polarized light are largely normal to the verse Motions^
direction of propagation, but their original component flat (i) Certain circumstances favorable to the old wave-
wavelets were not, being in atomic planes inclined at all theory of light permitted it to progress but did not establish
angles. it on a permanent basis.
 : ;

409 5o85 410

In his memoir of 1830 Poisson showed that in
1.
string a shrillsound arises, owing to the rapidity of the wave
elastic media waves propagated from a centre are essentially along the string, —
giving high pitch to the sound. Owing
like sound waves, and at great distances the molecules move to its higher elasticity, waves travel say ten times more rapidly
mainly in the direction of the normal to the wave front. along the string than through the air.
^"cX Poisson died in 1839, while Cauchy lived on till b) .Now it is easy to see that this is analogous to
1857;
and moreover the deceptive argument drawn from the vibra- Green's, unauthorized procedure, which amounts to assuming
tions of an elastic cord misled Herschel and Airy, who failed a » stringy* condition of the aether in any direction in which
to perceive that the underlying premise implies anisotropy light is sent. And the chance that the assumed longitudinal
in the medium. component would not manifest itself in some way is very
2. As Poisson never concurred in the theory of vibra- slight, since the aether, with excessively small density, is
tions normal to the direction of the ray, Fresnel and Arago naturally taken to be a gas, and the velocity of the aetheron
sought comfort in the analytical results of Cauchy. And » ^ 47 1000 kms.
because such waves are theoretically possible when once they 8. Again,, in his work on Sound, (p. 73), Tyndall s\iows-
are generated, it was inferred that light has such motion as that a sharpness of shock, or rapidity of vibration, is neces-
is observed in the vibrating cord.
sary for producing sonorous waves in air. »It is still more
3. Cauchy s analysis seems
have proved that if waves
to necessary in hydrogen, because the greater mobility of this
normal to the direction of propagation be started, they could light gas tends to prevent the formation of condensations
be propagated by such transverse motion; yet he did not and rarefactions.*
explain how they would arise, or would be started normal Therefore the aether should present enormous difficulties
to the direction of propagation. Nor did his associates see in the generation of waves therein, and such is observed
the anachronism implied in a medium with anisotropic pro- to be a fact. By way of experiment Prof. Nipher alone has
perties along X, y, z, —z being in the direction of the ray, generated disturbances in the aether; and to produce them
whatever that may be. he had to use dynamite, which gives intense forces quickly,
4. After a visit from Arago, 18 16, Young began to exerted. Observation thus verifies the high velocity of the
form a theory of waves with motions normal to the direction aetheron, and will not permit us to assume different velocities
•of propagation. They were held to be similar to undulations of the aether wave' in different directions.
carried along a stretched cord, as stated in a letter April 29, (ii) Purely transverse vibrations in light would imply
18 18, (cf. Whittaker\ History of the Aether, p. 122). This only transverse undulations in magnetism and electrodynamic
•example of the vibrating cord gave a physical analogy which action, which is contrary to observation.
•was afterwardsadopted by Fresnel, Herschel, Airy and others,
The theory of transverse waves was first admitted some-
but it was really an anachronism; for it implied a »stringy«
what reluctantly by Young and Fresnel in the early part of
condition in the aether, in any direction the wave might
the \<f^ century, (1802-1829). But under the celebrated
travel, but not in other directions. The ^-component of the
experiments on diffraction, double refraction, polarization and
vibration along the ray vanished, which made ^ o, and =
interference, conducted by Fresnel and Arago, the theory
therefore == '^^'^'^if) becomes confined wholly to the
.f
became a new means of discovery. This apparent experi-
^wave surface.
mental triumph of the undulatory theory aroused such interest
5. As we have seen above. Green took the velocity of that a long series of brilliant mathematical researches were
the longitudinal component of the waves to be infinite; which -entered upon by the eminent natural philosophers then resi-
left the finite motion wholly in the wave surface. In the •

dent at Paris —
Navier, Poisson, Cauchy and Lam6.
case of a gaseous aether of course there is no authority for It is true that these mathematicians were by no means
this procedure; and thus it simply Ijegged the question, by agreed among themselves as to the details, yet their work was
offering an arbitrary hypothesis. mathematically so impressive that it created great interest in
6. Hamilton'^ prediction of. conical refraction (conf. other countries, more especially in England, and was adopted
Whitfaker's, History of the Aether, p. 131) only showed by Airy, Hamilton and Herschel, and subsequently by Green,
Presnel's ideas of the theory to be correct in general, but Thomson (Lord Kelvin), Stokes, Maxwell, and Rayleigh: In this
• -was not an accurate test in all details. The theory above way the undulatory theory as now taught came into wide use
•outlined will explain conical refraction equally well. Accor- .and yet it was always suspected to be somewhat defective,
dingly in the absence of definite objections, the old wave- and we shall now point out some additional reasons why the
theory triumphed by default, at least temporarily; yet the traditional view can not be valid.
assumptions made to get rid of the longitudinal component 1. The theory of purely transverse waves in light is
never were satisfactory, and could not be justified, because directly inconsistent with the rotations actually known in
based on an arbitrary hypothesis. magnetism, and with the electrodynamic action of a current
7. The physical inadmissibility of Green's postulate' on a magnetic needle, in such phenomena as Oersted's ex-
that the longitudinal component has periment of 18 1 9.
infinite velocity [Green'%
•Collected Papers, p. 246) is easily shown by the following 2. For if the motion of the aether is linear and trans-
considerations verse in light, it would beconclude that it must
logical to
a) In his work on Sound, Chap. V, Tyndall shows that be of the same type in the waves by which electrodynamic
-when the bow of a violin is given a stroke along the violin action is propagated across space. Indeed, experiment proves
 « :

411 5o85 412

that both actions have the same velocity,and take place in as held by Fresnel. He was essentially a specialist in light,
the same medium. And we have no grounds for assuming rather than a mathematician and all around natural philo-
a difference of wave type. sopher, like Poisson, who never did believe that in nature
3. Yet we know by actual observation that in Oersted's, the aetherial vibrations could be as Fresnel imagined. The
experiment of 1 8 1 9 the magnetic needle not only is directed temporary scepticism of the illustrious Poisson is now verified
in a definite way, depending on the direction of the current, from a new point of view, after the lapse of nearly a century.
but also attracted to the conductor by the action of electro- 10. It is remarkable that such a palpable perversion
dynamic waves propagated from the wire, as first pointed as the theory of wholly transverse vibrations gained currency
out by the present writer in 19 14. in science through the misdirected reasoning of the followers
4. Now
the electrodynamic waves discovered in 19 14 of Cauchy. They seei]ji to have been misled by beautiful
can not be wholly transverse, as held by Fresnel and his general formulae, valid enough as applied to wave motion
followers in the wave-theory of light; for in that case there in crystalline media, but utterly deceptive as applied to the
•
could be no actual attraction on the needle. On the con- simple case of the aether itself, viewed in free space- as a
trary. Maxwell held (Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, uniform isotropic medium, which furnishes the general basis
3'^ ed.,'
§ 793) that such transverse waves exert a slight re- for the undulatory theory of light. This outcome is the more
pulsion, and on the premise employed" it is difficult to refute remarkable and unfortunate, since Poisson was a greater and
his conclusion. more sagacious physical philosopher than Cauchy, who was
5. In order to exert the observed attraction, the electro- chiefly a pure mathematician.
dynamic waves must have rotations somewhat like those ob-
(iii) Difficulties in the wave theory of light as outlined
served in water waves and the needle must so orient itself
;

by Prof. Chas. S. Hastings.

that the elementary Ampfere-currents of electricity about the
atoms coincide in direction with those in the electrodynamic In a letter to the present writer, dated Aug. 17, 19 16,
waves propagated from the wire. Prof. Hastings speaks as follows

6. The observed attraction of the magnetic needle to »That light vibrations necessarily are transverse only
the wire therefore is inconsistent with FresneVs, doctrine of is proved in many ways —
perhaps most obviously by the
purely transverse waves, as taught in the theory of light and fact that complete polarization is possible.*

adopted by Maxwell in his electromagnetic theory. Now »If light waves fall normally on a refracting surface,
magnets themselves have circulation of currents about their any free element of volume in the first medium is sustained
atoms, as first shown by Ampire's experirnents with currents in permanent transverse vibrations of definite period, but if
in 1822; and these currents about the atoms give rise to it is attached to an element of the second medium as at
the rotations about the Faraday-lines of force, thus forming the interface, the second medium having either a greater
the waves propagated outward from magnets. It is only in density or a greater^ rigidity, it will not (although necessarily
this way that we can imagine how magnets presenting un- retaining the same period) move so far from its positioii of
like poles attract; and, when like poles are presented, repel, equilibrium. Just at this region, therefore, so far as the first

by a mechanism at last disclosed to our vision. medium concerned, we must add a system of waves of
is

7.Therefore the magnetic needle is attracted to a opposite phase and of an amplitude easily calculable from
conducting wire by the electrodynamic waves propagated the ratio of light velocities in the two media this con- —
outwardly from it; and magnets themselves also attract by stitutes the reflected light.
sending out waves defined by the well known rotations about »Now consider the refracted light. The element of
the Faraday-lines of force. Accordingly it follows that all volume below the interface has the same
just period and
such waves must necessarily involve rotations in the aether amplitude as the attached element above; it is therefore a
to make up the waves; and the waves incontestably are not portion of a system of waves propagated in the same direc-
wholly transverse, but only transverse in somewhat the same tion as the incident waves but with a velocity determined
way that water waves are transverse. very simply by the density and rigidity.*
8. The Fresnel theory of purely transverse, light waves »It is when we cop-
thus again is definitely disproved, and we may reconcile the sider oblique incidences
varied mathematical researches of Poisson, Cauchy, and LatnL that we get into diffi-
It should be noticed, however, that Cauchy^ reasoning had culties. Fresnel assumed
no physical basis, to control the legitimacy of the hypotheses that the same condition
underlying it, except the artificial analogy with the vibrating held in these cases also,
cord. Poisson and Lami on the other hand never were fully but, as you can readily
convinced that the motion in light is wholly transverse. The see from the diagram,
theory outlined in section 4 above probably had never oc- there could exist a stable
curred to them. state of vibrations at the
9. Accordingly there are real weaknesses in the tra- Fig. 4. Professor Hasting' s diagram of the
surface only when there
path of light at the interface.
ditional wave-theory of light; and the difficulties noticed by is a system of compres-
the earHer investigators have never been satisfactorily over- sional waves also proceeding from the interface in a direction
come. The objections here pointed out appear to be new, and of an intensity easily calculable if the ratio of volume-
and absolutely fatal to the theory of wholly transverse waves elasticity to rigidity is known. Now no such system of
 « «

413 5o85 4x4

longitudinal waves exists under any circumstances, because measurements (the first made since Huyghens'^ but failed in
the energy carried by the reflected and refracted wave systems attaining adequate precision. Finally I demonstrated (Amer.
taken together always equals the energy carried to the re- Jour. Sci. somewhere) that Huyghens' construction is certainly
fracting surface by the incident wave system. (This, by the accurate to 1:1 o~^.
way, is the direct answer to your principal question. 1 might »More recently Kelvin, who was especially desirous of
stop here but the fixed habit of an old teacher leads me getting a defensible elastic-solid theory of light, proposed a
to add: ) —
In order to get rid of the obvious difficulty zero volume-elasticity, or a collapsible ether. This gives
Fresnel assumed that the volume-elasticity of the ether, both zero velocity for compressional waves and hence no energy
free and associated with matter, is infinitely great, in which is carried away from the interface. Kelvin apparently left
case the velocity of the longitudinal wave system would be his readers to imagine an outer boundary condition which
infinite and it would carry no energy with it. Aside from would prevent the ether-universe from collapsing.
the fact that absolute incompressibility is difficult to conceive
there are other serious difficulties in the theory connected 6. Outline of the General Theory of the Waves

with the phenomena of double refraction.* from' any Body, whether due to Light, Magnetism,
Stokes is said to have invented an elastic-solid theory,
•»
Electrodynamic Action or Universa,l Gravitation.
which, however, carried with it as a necessary consequence (i) Results of Foisson's analysis for wave motion.
the proof that Huyghens' construction of the extraordinary As we have seen, in the third paper, Poisson reduces
wave surface in Iceland spar is slightly erroneous, say in the (Memoir of 1830, p. 556) the sextuple integral for the pro-
fourth decimal. Fitzgerald attempted to test this by accurate pagation of waves to the double integral:
71 IT.

<D =\\l /i,Tc]\ \F{x-v-atQ.o^6 , y-^at'sm.6€\r\(x), z+at^xnA co5w]ts\.-a.6 6.6 Aw

.(46)
+(i/47r)(d/d^) I \ n {x -h at cos ^, jv-Ha/sini^ sinw, z-hatsin^ cos(o)tsm& dS doo .

Now the equation increase with at; and the disturbance, in the plane of the
I x-hmy-hn z =o (47)
flat wave, in the equator of the atom, will travel away with
the velocity at, and remain parallel to the original in all
And
represents a plane through the origin.
x-^my-i-nz — {at-hs) =o parallel planes. Thus lx-\-my-\-nz — [at+s) =o represents
I (48) the disturbance in the equatorial plane of the flat waves from
represents a plane with perpendicular / ^ (at-i-s) from the any atom, propagated in every direction parallel thereto.
origin. Our integration should include the disturbances along
Ifplane waves proceed from the equator of an atom, these planes in which the waves are flat. Accordingly, for
the radius of the spherical wave surface about the atpm will the waves from any atom we have

(D = (i/47r)f ^F{l{x-hatcos6)-i-m{y-hatsm^ sm(o)-hn(z-i-atsin6 cosw) — (at-f-s)} tsin^ d^ d(o

(49)
-l-(i/47r)(d/d/) f \n {l{x-hatcos6)-hm{y-hatsm6sinw)-hn[z-hatsm6 cos w) — (at -hs)} tsin^ dS dm .

o o

And if we integrate this expression for the waves'|from all the atoms of a body, we shall have
r TZ 2TC 71 27T

0= r r f(o'/47r) f ^F{l(x-i-atcosS)-i-tn{y-hatsin6s\nw)-^-n(z+atsm6cos(jo),— (at-hs)}r^sm&drd6dwtsin6d6dco

000 00
(
^-^ )
?- 51 27C It 2Jt '

-H f f r(o'/47i:) (d/d/) r ^n{l(x-i-at cos6)+m(y-^at sin^ sinw)+n(z-hatsin6 cosw) — (at-hs)} r^sinS drd^ dm tsmS dS d(o .

000 00
This equation may be simplified somewhat by a transformation employed by Poisson in his Memoir of 18 19, p. 127.
In this we put: i^^-p^^^^i ma= psm6' smto' na=psiii6' cosoo' (si)

and then the second terms under the integral signs become of the form

^{cosi^'cosi^-l-cos((B — (B')sini^'sini^} = ^cosi/* di3 = sini^ d^ dw

and therefore ?- tc 27c 7t 27t

(D =^^ ^((i/4Ti)^ {F{lx-hmy-hnz — (at-hs)+tcos-ip} r^sinS drdS dwfs'mS d6 dm

000
?- n 27t 7t 271
(S3)

-^ ^ {{(r/4n){d/dt)^ ^II{lx-hmy-hnz—{at-hs)-+-tcos^p]r^sinlSdrd6dmtsin6dSdm.
 .

415 5o85 416

(ii) Simplified expressions for all the elements of a spherical surface with motion making any angle with the radius.

Accordingly, when we have equations of the type found in Poissotii expression (Memoir of 18 iq, p. 127):

P= f/(^cos«H-/4sin«sin«'+.^sin«cosz/)sin«dz<;dy
r (54}

we may put
g = p cosu =/sin«'sin2'' /^ = / cosf' ,5 sin«' (S5)
and thus obtain:
/" = J f/{/>[cos«'cos« + cos{i' — i/)sin2<'sin«]} sinadwdy (56)

By using the simplifying formulae:

COS!// = cosa' cos«+cos(i' — v')smu' sinu do) = sinwdz^df (57)
this reduces to

P==JJ/(/cos?/;)d«, (5.8)

»Thus this quantity P represents the sum of all the elements of the spherical surface, multiplied each by a given function
of the cosine of the angle cornprised between its radius and a radius determined in position.*
A wave flat in the equator of the atom is defined by
Ix-hmy-hnz — {ai-hs) =o . (48)

The coordinates for the spherical propagation of the wave are

x-\-atcosS jy-f-fl/sin^ sinw + a/sin^ cosw (jg)
Hence
= (1/4^:) I \p{/(x-haicosS)-hm{y-i-atsin&smoo)-hn{z-i-aisin6cos(o) — (at+s)}^smSd^doa
°° ;t2Tt (60)

+ ( 1/471) (d/d/) I l77{/(^+ffl/cos^)+OT(_)'+a^siii(^ sinft>)-i-«(z-f-a/sini^ cosm) — (a/-t-.f)} /sini^ d^ dw ,

These solutions are general for wave motion in light, coordinates of the disturbed molecules at any time t, will be
magnetism or similar natural phenomema; and thus it remains found in a sphere surface: («/)^= [x — x'Y'^{,y — y'Y'^[^~A^
to examine certain expressions in Gauss' Theory of Terrestrial
x — x' = rcos^ = co%6at
Magnetism, to ascertain if these phenomena are consistent
with the wave-theory. But before entering upon magnetic
_V— y= r sin^ sinca = a^sind sino) (61)

phenomena, we summarize the hypotheses underlying Poisson's z — z' =r sin 1^ cos u) = at cos w sin 6 .

analysis as briefly as possible. Accordingly at the time t the coordinates of the

disturbed molecules will be:
(iii) The equations for waves propagated spherically in
an elastic medium. x-k-at cosS j)'+a/sini^ sinft) z+a/'sin^ cosco . (62}
Consider a system of waves propagated spherically, And Poisson's solution yields the integral over the sphere
from any point, whose coordinates are x, y, z, t. Then the surface [at, &, (o):

(D = (i/47r)J \^F{x+atco's.&, y^-at%m& ^VD.<a, ^-+-«/sini^ cosw} /sini^ d^ dw

° ° 11271;
(63)
-H(i/47r)(d/d/)J ^n [x^ at zo%& ,
j'+a/sini^ sinw, z-i-a/sin^ cosm} ^sini^ di^ dco .

And the equation of wave motion is:- (iv) Gauss' theorem that the sum total of positive and

82(P/6/2 = «2(82a)/9a:2-+-92C)/9j,2 + 92®/822) .

(64)
negative magnetic fluid in any magnet is zero confirms the
wave-theory of magnetism.
The fundamental equations In his Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, 1838,.

du/dt=a^ds/dx dv/dt=^a^ds/dy dw/dt^^ a^ds/dz p. 2 1,Gauss has shown that the sum total of positive and

ds/dt = du/dx-hdv/dy-^dw/dz s = [i/a^] d0/dt

(65) negative fluid in the entire earth is zero, so that

lead to the components of the velocity of any molecule

Jd/i =o .
(67)
The expression for the potential, due to the magnetic mass n,
u = d(D/dx+[/ v^d0/dy+-V w=d0/dz-hW (66) V= -]iJQ-dii
is^

(68)
where U, W V, are arbitrary functions of x, y, z, in accor- where the integral to be extended over the whole magnet,,
dance with the conditions laid down by Lagrange in the and Q denotes the distance of the element of magnetic mass.
Mecanique Analytique. djU. from the point acted on [x', /, /).
 : :

417 5o85 418

In rectangular coordinates we have: of the sun on the earth's atoms is equivalent to the action

Q = V[{x-x'Y+(y-yY + (z-z'y] (6q)

of the earth on the sun's atoms :

and, in the spherical coordinates used by Gauss,

P^ m\dX\%va.udu\[alq)r'^dr (74)
e = l^{^^-'-''o^— 2r^-o[cosz<!COS2^o-'-sinasin«oCos(^ — ^)]} (70)
00 o
27C 7t r
u and Uo being polar distances, r and ro being radii of the
= M\dX\imudu\[alq) r^ dr. (7 5)
earth,
be used
Xq a fixed longitude,
in extending the
and X a variable longitude,
integration throughout the mass.
to
00 o
And both of these expressions are zero, in accordance with
Thus and
(67) (-71); for if in the case of the earth's magnetism
F= -Ji/^-dju. = -JJJ(<r/(.) dxdj^dz involving Vis's'*" P^""' °f *he atoms, I d/* ^ o, which means
= — JJ J dr-rd«-rsinz^dA.(cr/^)
(71)
I I \{\lq)adxdy dzii' co%(i,i') ^= o; so also in the case of

Accordingly when we extend Gauss' theorem to the electrodynamic action depending on all the atoms, it follows
entire terrestrial globe we have the expression for the potential ^'^^^
Jd^/^ = JJJ(i/?) ii' cos(z, i')adxdydz =o (76)

if the integration is rigorously restricted to the limits speci-

F'= — \jdl\smudu\{alQ)r''dr. (7 =
fied in (74) and (75).
Now ithappens that the actions between two globes
This will give the potential at any point [rg, uq, Iq) which Jlf and m are not restricted
to their centres as seen from
may be outside the earth, as in the moon or sun. each other; but the globes subtend measurable angles 2ft),
2ft)', and the atoms are correspondingly dispersed. When the
(v) Extension of this theorem to the electrodynamic
mass is concentrated at the centre, suppose it restricted to
action between two spheres, as the earth and sun.
a minute measurable area of unit size; then the actual ex-
Imagine electric currents to circulate around the atoms panded bodies will be larger than this minute area in pro-
of two globes: required to consider the resulting electro-
it is
portions of V and v' times. If the action on unit rnass in
dynamic action. We have the sextuple integral the minute area be one unit, the action of all the mass in
P = ^S^SS^i i/q) i i' cos{i,i') ffdx dy dz (f dx' dy dz' .
(73)
M will be j'o' times that powerful; and that of all the mass
in m will be v'a'. Hence the necessity of integration over
The two masses may be called M and m, the latter being
every area however small and however minute the density.
the sun.
(vi) The wave action positive as in the observed case
1. The coordinates of the sun (ro, u^, Xq) may be of gravitation.
taken as fixed, while the integration is being extended over
If the concentration of the action of the distant body
the earth.
in the centres Af and m be indicated by integration with
2. In the same way the coordinates of the earth as rigidly fixed limits, 2 7r in the case of X, and n in the case
seen from the centre of the sun may be. regarded as fixed of u, — which restricts the mutual action to a single minute
while the integration is being extended over the sun's mass. area —
we may write two integrals for the whole action
3. The two masses as> respects each other are thus one with no spacial distribution, and the other variable
reduced to weighted points of mass Af and m. The action throughout 'the solid angles 2 m, 2 ft)':

P = \}\\j\{ I /?) z z' cos (z, z') adxdydz (f dx' dy'',dz'

2^ 1Z r 271 71 r
= j
I i I
j j
(
I /p) z z' cos (z, z') ar^ drdXsinudua'rQ^ dr,, dX^ sin u^ du^
000000
2(0 2tO r 2(0' 2(0 177J

i
j
I I
j j
(i/p) zz' cos(z', z') (Tz-^d^dA sinz^dz^crVo^dro d^o sinz^o dz^o = A.
The latter expression A is positive, because all the factors (i) Mechanical analogies are convincing.
depending on the cosine, z z' cos (z, z') are positive — the total I. We have found the aether to be enormously elastic,
angles of integration being in excess of a whole or s^i- so that when any pencil of the medium is filled with a beam
circumference by the amounts 2ft), 2ft)'. This last expression which consists of waves tilted at all angles and
of light,
(77) explains why gravitation always appears as a positive flowing on in almost infinitely rapid succession, the pencil
force, though the electrodynamic action on a point vanishes, may be viewed as maintaining its figure by the elasticity of
— because also it emits no waves. Both bodies fill measurable the medium and the rapid succession of the waves. If the
space, and the angular overlap is 2 ft), 2 ft)' when the action pencil of light strikes a solid or liquid surface, the speed of
of all the atoms in both bodies is considered. the wave motion is suddenly checked, and reaction on the
7. Why Reflected Light is Polarized in a equilibrium of the pencil at the boundary takes place: so
Plane at Right Angles to the Plane of Incidence that the vibrations in certain directions are altered by the

and Reflection: Confirmation of Fresnefs Views. contact with the solid or liquid surface.
 .

419 5085 420

2. To judge by a tangible and familiar experiment, as pencil of light the aether particles describe ellipses not —
to what may happen to a pencil of light, we may compare straight lines, as often stated, in the theory of polarization.
it to the stream of water flowing from the nozzle of a garden 7. It has been shown by the recent researches of
hose. The cross-section of the stream of water is assumed Heiberg that Archimedes used mechanical means of proving
to be circular, and we recognize that the forces which keep his theorems, at least in the first instance, and then made
it so, are chiefly the forward motion and surface tension, them rigorous by improving the geometrical demonstration.
— the attraction of the water for itself. In the case of the Accordingly, in dealing with polarization, we are justified
pencil of light, the equilibrating forces depend on the elastic in adopting similar methods. And the only question is one
power within the aether, and thus are diiferent; but the effect of devising a valid model which aff'ords a true analogy. To
produced is very similar, for any slender cylinder- filled with this end we rely upon the evidence of experiments, in phe-
a flow of waves. nomena easily understood and admitting of but one inter-
3. Now we know by daily observation, that when a pretation.
round stream of water is thrown by a hose against a solid 8. a reflected stream of water above
The model of
wall, the cross-section of the stream ceases to be circular, outlined certainly mechanically valid. And it may be con-
is

and becomes highly flattened, so that the new cross-section firmed and extended by considering the instantaneous forced
of the stream becomes an ellipse, having its longer axis nor- form of a series of rubber balls, in such close succession
mal to the plane of incidence and reflection. The flattening as to be united into a solid tube, like the stream of water,
of the reflected stream of water is easily seen by the most yet not actually touching prior to reflection. At reflection
careless of observers: and thus analogy leads us to expect each ball would be flattened by the resistance of the reflector,
a similar flattening of the vibrations in a beam of reflected so that the vibrations of the aether in the pencil take the

light. It is true that the flattened stream of water is not same form, as observed in polarized light.
vibrating like the aether, yet the reflected stream is flattened, g. When liquid drops are formed, in the breaking of
and tends to retain that figure, with elliptical cross-section. a jet, flash-light photography shows them in rapid vibration,

4. has been proved by flash-light photography that

It owing to surface tension. They form, and vibrate up and
when liquid drops are forming and falling, the detached down, under gravity; but the waves of the aether pencil
spherules oscillate about a mean figure, —
being alternately would vibrate normal to the plane of polarization, when they
prolate, then spherical, and finally oblate. In the case of are reflected. The vibrations in a plane at right angles to
drops therefore the particles of the fluid oscillate about a the plane of polarization thus from the
necessarily results

mean position, under the influence of surface tension. The reflection ofwaves in an elastic medium.
figure of the drop is drawn out of shape at the instant of 10. Accordingly, on the basis of actual experience,
detachment, and in falling the action of surface tension in well defined phenomena, it is impossible to imagine any
restores the normal figure, and carries it beyond, so that the kind of vibrations in reflected light other than that at right
globules oscillate about their mean form, which is spherical. angles to the plane of polarization.

Now in the same way, when a pencil of light is If we adopted the Maccullagh- Neumann theory of vibra-
5.
reflected from a solid or liquid surface, the act of reflection tions, in we should have to expect
the plane of polarization,
brings into play, for an infinitesimal time d/, certain forces mechanically a similar effect when a circular stream of water
which tend to flatten the beam, as reflected, in a plane normal is reflected by a smooth solid wall. No such effect is ob-
to the plane of incidence and reflection. Considering merely served. And as reflection is equivalent to a blow against

the relative motion of the beam in respect to the solid or the round moving stream, renewed at every instant, at infini-
liquid, we may regard the circular pencil as struck by the tesimal intervals d/, we see clearly that the distortion of the
solid or liquid in the act of reflection. Owing to its elasticity, vibrations should take place, with the longer axis of the

each element of the pencil rebounds like a rubber ball — new elliptical motion at right angles to the plane of polari-
flattened in the plane normal to that of polarization, as we zation. No other result is mechanically possible.
see in the actual behavior of rubber balls in collision. Since (ii) Analysis of light vibrations.
each element of the pencil is elastic, there is incessant re- Let the three components of the revolving light vector be:
covery from the flattening eff'ect —
so that the pencil con-
bV+iw =1
+ ^J
tinues to vibrate, but by relative crowding of the vibrating ) [u a)'-\-[v cV , „,
.=3C0S3... I

aetherons it has lost its circularity of cross-section, and

W = C 005(2 71 t/T-+-yj
.LV(lw+Jr '
^''^

become elliptical, owing to the restricted freedom imposed

in the process of reflection. The
fourth of these equations indicates that the path
described by the end of the light vector is an ellipse; and
6. In Fig. 6, Plate 8, we may imagine equal amplitudes
the fifth equation gives the displacement relatively to the
of vibration, in all directions from the centre of the incident
equilibrium position of the aether particle at any- time.
beam as shown above; but after reflection the resistance thus
encountered forces the circle into the ellipse, as shown. The
By altering the angles through ^JiTi — d, we are enabled
to use sines in the place of cosines:
mutual crowding towards the centre, owing to restricted free-
dom at the instant of reflection, forces the pencil as a whole sin(27r//VH-/)=a/a=sin(27r/'/T)cos/-(-cos(27r//T)sin/
out at the sides, and thus it takes on a very elliptical form An{2TitlT-i-q) = vlb^^%\n[2ntl%)coig-hco%[2ntlx)smq (yq)
for the cross-section. In spite of a notable flattening of the sin(27r//T-Hr) = 2<//c=sin(27r^/T)
cosr-i-cos(27r //zr) sin?-
 421 5085 422

The
quantities u, v, w, represent the rectangular coor- Except for the phase difference (5, these components
dinates end of the revolving light vector; and the
of the become identical with those in by rotating the coor-
(79),
equation for the path, quite independently of the time, may dinate system through 90°, about the z-axis. Accordingly,
be obtained by eliminating
from equation (79), by the
/ we have by taking the sums of the components, thus geo-
following process. If we multiply the expanded form of these metrically compounded:
equations by sin(^— r), sin(r— /), and sin(/ ^) respectively, — u-^1^= A'^ = A''^B''-+-2ABco%{6 + q-p)
y^v' = B'^ = A^-hB^- 2ABcos{d+p-q)
and add them, the right hand members will be found to
(88)
vanish, and we get:
W-hW
(ula)%m[q — r) + {vlh)%\n{r—p)-^[w\c)%m[p — q) = o. (80)
2C^
By simple addition we have from (86) the following
-cos (5)

This linear equation connects which are the u, v, w,

geometrical composition of the components of the light vectors:
rectangular coordinates of the end of the light vector; and
hence we see that the path described by it lies in a plane y = ^'2-)-^'2-f-C'2 (89)
passing through the origin. The path of the vibration there- which is equivalent to
fore a plane curve.
is y= 2y-H2C2cos(J — 4^^sindsin(^-/). (90)
To
get the path as projected on the coordinate planes, But found by experiment that we have sensibly
it is
we use two of the equations (79). Thus from the first two
of these equations we obtain:
y= 2y, or the intensity of the compound ray is equal to
the sum of the intensities of the separate rays, and inde-
sin(27r//T)(cos/sin^ — cos^sin/)= [uld)smq—{iijlb)imp , > pendent of the phase difference 6. Hence it follows that
cos(2 7r/'/T)(cos/ sin^ — cos^ sin/) == — (z(:/a)cos^H- (z//i5)cos/. the second and third terms in (90) are so small as to be
insensible to observation. Therefore we conclude that within
If we square and add these two expressions; we get

sm^[p-q) =
u^la'-}-v^lb^-2{ula)[vlb) cos{p-g) (82) .
the limits of observation:
C=o p — q=o. (gi)
And we see that this equation is that of an ellipse whose
That is, in polarized light the radius vector is sensibly
principle axes coincide with the coordinate axes when
p—q = V2^. so that only the first terms of the right mem-
perpendicular to
and the motion therefore sensibly
the direction of propagation
transverse.
of the ray,
Also from
ber remain, and the left member is unity:

I = 2,2/^2 + t, 7^2 _
(§3)
equations (82) or (85) it follows that the particles vibrate
sensibly in a straight line.
This represents elliptically polarized light, in which a and b From this analysis, it follows that rays which have
may have any ratio. suffered double refraction or reflection at the polarizing angle
If we put w= o , a = b , p— q= ± ^IiTC, we have the are plane-polarized, and thus consist of vibrations which are
conditions for circularly polarized light: sensibly transverse. We use the term sensibly transverse,
« =a sin(2 7r//T) v^ a coi\[2Tttl't) (right handed) , , instead of absolutely transverse, in order to reconcile other
u = a sin (27T //?:) v = — a cos (271 //t) (left handed) .
facts of observation with mathematical theory.
It is shown by experimental research that when plane
When the vibration ellipse reduces to a straight
line, or in practice approximately so, tv o, o, ^^ p—q = polarized
convert
light is reflected
into elliptical polarization,
from metals,
—
the effect
the degree of the
is to

or p — q^TC, we have by taking the square root of (82):

it

depending on the direction of the incident ray,

ula±v\b =o .
(85)
ellipticity
and on plane of polarization, as well as on the nature
its
In wave motion, the intensity of the action, or the energy of the reflecting metal (cf Ganofs Physics, 14''' ed., 1893,
of the disturbance, is proportional to the square of the § 672, p. 656).
amplitude. Hence we add, for the geometrical sum, the When the plane-polarized light is reflected from silver,
squares of the component amplitudes y^,^, C, and thus obtain; the resulting polarization almost circular
is probably be- —
y= ^2-+-^^-4-C^ (86) cause silver is so perfect a conductor of electric or aether

We now
apply this composition theorem to po-
shall
wave motion, normal tendency to elliptical motion
that the
is largely But if the plane-polarized light be re-
restored.
larized light. It is well known that such light is free from
flected from galena, a lead ore of low electric conductivity,
interference, when polarized in planes mutually inclined at
the resulting polarization remains almost plane.
right angles, but always gives an intensity equal to the sum
of the intensities of the separate rays.
Now since elliptically polarized light never vanishes,
when examined in a Nicol prism, though at alternate posi-
(iii) Analysis of the composition of polarized light
tions it becomes fainter, such elliptical motion in light must
compared with the evidence of observations.
be considered the general type of vibration of the aether
Let us superpose upon the ray defined by equations particle. If therefore plane-polarized light, by reflection from
(79) and- traveling along the z-axis, a ray of equal
intensity,
metallic surfaces, is rendered decidedly more elliptical in its
but polarized at right angles to it. If the components of motion, it would seem to follow that in plane-polarized light
this new ray be u' , v', w', and the phase difference be 6\ the motion is never strictly rectilinear; on the contrary such
then we shall have light always has in its motion a slight elliptical element,
u' ^ Bs\n{2n tJT+q-^d) v' = — A s.m[2n tjr-^p-^ 6) which permits of notable restoration, by reflection from silver
(87)
w' == Csin(27r//7r-i-r-i-<5) and other high conducting metals.
 .

423 5085 424

It is for these reasons that, in our discussion of the similar reasoning will hold true for elliptical paths of any
above equations, (82) to (qi), we admit the plane-polarized kind, and hence the here shown are true for every
results
vibrations to be only sensibly transverse, not rigorously trans- kind of vibrations in polarized light.
verse, in rectilinear paths. It will be noticed that the rays consist of plane waves

This conclusion from the combination of experimental with amplitude A and wave length k, and the ratio AJX is

research with mathematical analysis fully sustains our view comparatively small, but here drawn on a scale large enough
that there necessarily is a longitudinal component in light. to enable us to see the rotation of the elements of the wave
Any other view than that here set forth is contradicted by at every point. are imagined to be fiat in the
The waves
well established facts of observation, which appear to admit plane of the and hence they have a longitudinal
paper,
of but one interpretation. component depending on the amplitude A.
8. The Undulatory Explanation of the Phe- 4. The adjacent diagram of light and dark bands shows
nomenon of Interference in Polarized Light con- the interference effects, and is seen to have strips of darkness
forms to Poissoii's, Theory of the Elliptical Vibrations and of light, where the motions of the split rays are such as
of the Aether Particles mainly in the Direction to destroy the rotation, or augment it by the superposition
of the Normal to the Wave Surface. of the separate effects. If, for example, the wave travel along
(i) Explanation of interference when the particles de- the .*:-axis, the displacement of the particle parallel to the

scribe ellipses. j'-axis IS rj, and J parallel to the «-axis:

We have shown in section I and 4 above that the 1] = asm {znx/k-ha) = dy

traditional theory of the transverse vibrations in light is not 5 = acos(27Tx/X-ha) = dx (92)
strictly rigorous, but requires rational revision, to take account
of the geometrical conditions specified by Poisson, and the
s === =
V^(^^-+-J^) a, in circular motion,

related electrodynamic waves from each atom, which underlies

Now a detailed treatment of the leading phenomena
of interference is beyond the scope of this paper; yet we
the theory of magnetism. Thus- it is advisable to reexamine
the bearing of these results on the theory of interference of
may sketch briefly the wave-theory of this subject, in order
to show that in spite of the defect above pointed out in the
polarized light.
1. The ordinary explanation of interference handed
form of the wave-theory of light handed down by Young,
Fresnel, Arago, and Cauchy, this defect does not invalidate
down from the days of Young and Fresnel is based upon an
the explanation of interference.
assumed analogy with the side vibrations of an elastic cord.
This theory allows disturbances given the cord to travel along (ii) Theory of the light and dark' bands.
it, while the particles of the cord have only a transverse An
adequate treatment of diffraction phenomena would
motion. But we have seen that this explanation begs the require a mathematical discussion oi Fresnel & integrals {Drude's
question, in that it practically assumes a »stringy« condition Theory of Optics, pp. 188-196), which have the form:
of the aether, whereas Poisson's theory of elliptical vibrations,
with their major axes in the direction of the normal to wave ^\ sin ^liTCv'^ dv
surface, gives an almost identical result, without physical
5 ^J cos Ys nv'^ dv V .
193)

premises involving the anisotropy of the medium, or geo-

These functions may be thought of as the rectangular
metrical postulates of purely lateral motion which cannot be
coordinates of a point in the light plane J^. Accordingly,
admitted.
from (93) we have at once;
Accordingly, the analogy of the waves conveyed
2.

along a twisted cprd seemed so plausible to those who did

dj = dvcos^linv"^ dri = dwsinV25Tt/^ (94)
not study the problem deeply, that it came into general use, d5=T/(d?2-Hd»/2) = dz.. (95)
and still holds its place today. Yet a more mischievious And when the spacial length ? is measured from the
doctrine seldom has been introduced into science, because
although plausible, it is dynamically and geometrically un-
origin, we have ,s = v (96)
The
functions g, ij 'are illustrated by the following fig.
9
sound in principle.
{Drude'% Theory of Optics, p. 192), which has been calculated
For why is the aether, in. the traditional form of the
by the method originally due to C^r«« (jour, de Phys.,3, 1874).
wave-theory, assumed to be capable of a transverse motion
Fig. 9.
of appreciable dimensions, but incapable of an equally large
Diagram of the double spiral
longitudinal motion ? The chief reason for this hjrpothesis
— for it is merely a convenient hypothesis —
is the problem
oiFresnel'a integrals, forthedif-
fraction of light. The curve coils
of explaining interference, and polarization. It is known about the. two asymptotic points
from modern research that diffraction only requires that the Fz,ni F' where v. =
-t-oo, and

length of the waves shall be small compared to the dimen-

v= —cx>. The maxima and mi-
^1 nima of intensity lie approxima-
sion of the aperture. tely at the intersections of the
3. Fig. 8, Plate 9, shows how a split beam of plane- line FF' with the spiral curve.
polarized light may produce interference fringes when they If the free intensity be I, the

differ inphase by ^j^'^. maxima are^j^ 1. 34,^2= 1.20,

^3= 1 1 6; the minimay,=o.78,
.

For reasons of simplicity in construction the oscillations ^2=0.84, 73=0.87 {ctFresnel

of the particles in the figure are taken to be circular, yet Oevres Completes, 1, p. 322).
 . ;

425 5085 426

It is shown by Cornu's method that for the asymptotic
points F and F' we have

?f
=J cos V2 TTz/^ Av rjF =Jsin Vs nv"^ dv ,
(97)

These integrals may be evaluated by putting x, y as

the rectangular coordinates of a point F, x^-\-y'^ r"^, where =
r is the distance from the origin. If, therefore, we put:

Je -^'da; =M ^ e~y'' Ay =M (98)

o o
we get for their product the double integral:
00 00

(99)

Accordingly d:*: djy may be looked upon as a geome-

trical surface element in the xy plane; and the problem is
to evaluate FresnePs integrals for the diffraction. It is shown
that the asymptotic point F has the coordinates

?f ^J cos ^l27tv^ Av V2 ^F ^J sin ^/2nv^dv =^ Y2

with corresponding integrals for the point F', whose coordi-

nates are negative.
In the more general problem of diffraction we have
the two integrals:

C=jcos[/(x,y)]A(J S=^sm[/{x,y)]Aa
Here the function
H i/^q) [x''' cos^ y+J^ (102)
and ff a small opening of any form in a screen of infinite
is

extent, while the radii vectores

y = angle of ^-axis with ^1 cos(»^o) = — cos(ra(ii)=cosy 03)

Near a straight edge ^) these functions C and 5 become

C^ j
• I Ax Ay cos {{7i/1)(i/qi-+- i/(>o) [«^cos^y-l-jc^]}
— CX3

i/Qo)[x^^cos^<p-i-y^]}
 427 5o85 428

amplitude of the oscillation in these waves could not be greater height of the wedge. In the diagram the direction offirst

than 0.06 of a millimetre. the height of the wedge, for the phase of the separating

Now in case of/'^ there are 2784 vibrations per second, wave by V2^> would have to be imagined horizontal, and
and the length of the wave, under a velocity of 332000 mm the light returned along a path parallel to its emission.

per second, is therefore 120 mm. If the amplitude be

CA
0.06 mm, as found by Lord Rayleigh, it follows that the wave
length is 2000 times the amplitude. As a concrete example in terfprencfi

of the molecular oscillations which produce musical sound,

re etiforcoment
this result is quite remarkable.
In the case of light we can determine the wave length
•/ interference
very accurately, but we cannot measure the amplitude of the re-vnfonement
aether waves by any direct process-'). Yet if the length of
typical musical waves be some 2000 times their amplitude, interference
it will from the nature of the similar cause involved,
follow,
re-en Corcement
that for so elastic a medium as the aether the waves should
also be enormously longer than their amplitudes much — interferefice
greater than 100 times, as assumed by Kelvin, Maxwell,
and Larmor. This value oi AJX =
io~^ is a relatively small
re-enforcement

amplitude, but it gives a longitudinal component 20 times

larger than that noted in the sound wave above cited.
Accordingly there is reason to believe that in the case Fig 1 1. Familiar illustration of interference and reenforqe-
of so highly elastic a medium as the aether the amplitude ment, wl)en the light of a candle falls upon a glass
A is less than 1 looooo''' of the wave-length, or at least
:
wedge {Millikan and Gale). This gives bright and
dark bands, parallel to the edge of the wedge,
1000 times smaller than Kelvin, Maxwell, and Larmor as-
exactly as in the case of Newton-rings about the
sumed. This would make the ratio in the case of the very centre, in the case of a lens.
was observed by Lord
elastic aether fifty times smaller than
Rayleigh for typical musical sound in our air. Such a value (iv) Integral expressions for the kinetic and potentiaF
as 1:10^ certainly is not too large, but it may be that the energy of the medium when filled with waves.
ratio should be considerably smaller yet. ^ be the rectangular coordinates of a particle
Let ?, »/,
The following figure 1 1 illustrates the interference at the then the differentials dj, drj, df will denote
time /,

phenomena observed when light passes through a glass wedge, the component velocities of a particle in the medium which
with the sides mutually inclined at a small angle. is propagating the waves. The particle is oscillating periodi-
This too represents interference, much like that of cally about a mean position, at any time t, and thus has
polarized light shown in the preceding discussion, but it both a velocity of which the components are dj, Atj, df,
exhibits the phenomena more in detail; and the phenomena and a distortion from its mean position, or displacement;
exhibited are consistent with rotating elements in the waves It is well known that in wave motion half the energy is

like those in the first diagram. The wedge of glass explains kinetic, half potential: therefore
energy due the kinetic to-

why the waves interfere in bands at right angles to the the component velocities of the particles becomes:

r= V8W?r)JJJ[(d5/d/)2+(dVd^)2-^(dC/d^)2]d«djdz. (105)

For the potential energy due to the distortion of the elements of the medium we have:
W= [il4nK)^l^[[A^lAy-&rilAzY+[dtldz~dlldxY+[drildx-A^ldyY] Ax Ay dz . (106}

In these equations the component velocities of the wave disturbances are AiJAt, Aij/dl, d^/dl, and the distortions of the
form of the elements (Ji = AUdy — dij/Az, 62 = AS/Az — A^/dx, 63 = Atj/Ax—d^/dy give the displacements of the elements,
of the medium along the coordinate axes;
The total energy in the medium at any point is the sum of these two energies: T-h TV ^ ii , or

/2 = (i/47r)JJJ{V2^[(d?/d/)2+(d,/d/)^+(dC/d/)2] + i/^.[(dC/d7-dVd^)2+(df/d^-dC/d;.)2+(dVdx-d5/d7)2]}d^djd;^ (107)

which illustrates the agitation of a medium filled with waves.

^) Since writing the above paragraph, it has occurred to me that we may calculate the theoretical ratio
of the amplitude to the wave-
length of the aether by the following process. We
have proved that the aether is s =
689321600000 times more elastic than air in'proportion
to its density. And it is this elasticity which gives the aether waves their enormous velocity; and, as compared to air, the amplitude should
be smaller in proportion to the square root of this number. For when a wave in the aether begins to be generated it speeds away so rapidly,
under the enormous elasticity, that the amplitude is small in the same proportion that the velocity v is great. Now from the above value we
find that Ve =
830254; and as the ratio in air furnished by Lord Jiayleigh's experiments is I 2000, we have for the aether the relative ratio: :

1/830254-1/2000= 1/1660508000, or 830254 times smaller than the ratio of the amplitude to the wave-length in the musical sound investi-
gated of l^oTiRayleigh. The true ratio thus appear to be 16605 'i™es smaller than that indicated above, and should be ^/X i :(i66o5- lo*} =
= I : (1.660508- 10"), which makes h. = {AjX)p= I ; (66420- lo*^. — Note added Sep. 12, 1920.
 . :

429 5o85 430

The wave-theory Indicated by all the phenomena of papers on the New Theory
of the Aether, I believe we niay
nature. safely conclude notwithstanding the very extraordinary
that,

In concluding this discussion we draw attention to the physical properties of the aether, in a certain sense it behaves
indications of nature from the widest survey of physical as aq elastic solid for quick acting forces: namely, that the
phenomena:' aether will faithfully transmit any kind of vibration com-

1 In the whole domain of mathematical physics, modern

municated to it, whether it involve dilatation of volume or
mere change of form of any element d^ dy Az
investigations lay great stress on boundary problems. Now .

boundary conditions naturally would have great importance Unless we grant this extraordinary power of trans-
niission of wave motion, we can scarcely reconcile the
.
if natural forces are due to the action of waves; because
new theory, including the extreme velocity of the aetheron
at the boundary of solid or liquid bodies the velocity of
propagation is changed very suddenly by the resistance, and
v^ i/jTir J^ =
471239 kms per second, with the known
the tendency to refraction and dispersion.
extreme elasticity of the aether, which is f = 689321600000
times greater than that of air in proportion to its density.
2. In his celebrated article on light, Encycl. Metrop.,
It is evident that the aether is so different from air, in
1849, section 561, Sir Herschel shows that the forces
jl^oAn
respect to the higb velocity of the aetheron, and the enor-
producing refraction are such as »may be termed infinite*.
mous elasticity of the medium, that no movement of any
It is now recognized that these powerful actions appear in
kind can occur in it without the most perfect response to
dispersion and diffraction, as well as in refraction, and give
whatever waves arise.
rise to molecular forces, which in a future paper will
the
In this sense I regard the aether as an infinite aeolo-
"be referred to wave motions, thus confirming the great im-
tropic elastic solid; but I do not assume that all the physical
portance of the wave-theory for all the phenomena of nature.
restrictions of the ordinary elastic solid, which we can sub-
3. Now quite aside from the physical considerations ject to experiment in our laboratories, necessarily hold for
of particular phenomena, we have general mathematical the aether. Some of these physical restrictions, which we
methods for trea.ting partial differential equations, invented ascribe to molecular forces in solids, may be and probably
by Fourier, Poisson, Cauchy and other geometers about a •

are missing in the aether, — owing to the absence of the

•century ago. Thus in our time practically all the equations complex molecular structure known in solids, and to the
of mathematical physics turn on the treatment of partial enormously greater rapidity of the motion of the aetherons.
differential equations, as in sound, heat, light, electrodynamic
Our conclusions therefore are as follows:
action, magnetism, etc. And these general mathematical
1. Any movement
whatever given to the aether will
methods, so largely devised by Fourier and Poisson, point to
be faithfully transmitted, —
owing to the extremely high
waves in the aether as the underlying cause of physical forces.
velocities of the aetherons, which gives the medium both
4. Accordingly, the importance of boundary conditions, extremely great elasticity and high rigidity, yet the medium —
in problems of the transmission of energy through matter is not like ordinary solids, in that it has an extraordinarily
imdergoing sudden transition of property, by virtue of fixed small density.
domains of discontinuity, and thus requiring the methods of
2. The most of the wave trans-
aether, therefore, has
partial differential equations for their exact treatment, seemed
mitting properties of will transmit any
ail elastic solid —
to be so remarkable an argument for the wave-theory that
kind of wave; yet always with one velocity only, a uniform
should engage the attention of geometers and natural
velocity /^= 3- 10^" cms, which is somewhat different from
it

philosophers who aim at extending the researches of Fourier

what is attributed to ordinary elastic solids, with two different
and Poisson.
velocities, of the following kind, namely:

9. Theory of the Propagation of Wave Energy, (C) A compressional wave in an extended mass,
under Poisson'?, Equation d'^OJ^t'^ =
a?'^'^0, in a Conti- say of steel, depending on both the compressibility k and
nuous Elastic Solid, with an Analysis which shows the rigidity n
Waves traveling in Different Directions. Vc = ^ 655000 cms per second
y^i^-^^/s^) , .

In the New Theory of the Aether (AN 5044, S°48) « = o.95-ioi2 i=i.84-ioi2. ^'°^'

we have calculated the mean molecular velocity of the aetheron

(T) a purely transverse distortional wave (with-
to be » = ^li^V^ 471239 kms per second, and shown
out change of volume) expressed by the simpler formula:
the aether obeys certain laws of density and rigidity
that
not heretofore suspected. The length of the mean free path
Vd = V{nl(s) = 348000 cms per second (109)

is about 573000 kms, and in free space less than one col- in the case ofan extended mass of steel, ff^ density 7.85 = .

lision per second occurs between the free aetherons, under Thus for steel the former value is nearly twice the
normal motion. Owing to the decrease of density and rigi- latter, which renders the theory doubtful, in view of the

dity towards large bodies like the sun and earth, all our old non-separation of the earthquake waves of these two classes.
analogies with the traditional elastic solid have to be care-, 3. In certain respects the aether is more like a. gas
fully revised, and adapted to the new theory with extreme than a solid, and up to this time it is probable that ex-
caution. periment has not fully established the two velocities theoreti-

After very careful consideration of these problems, iii cally predicted for an elastic solid by Poisson, Cauchy and
the light of the data contained in the first, second, third other mathematicians. In his Tides and Kindred Phenomena
 ,

431 5o85 432

of tlie Solar System, 1899, pp. 261-2, Sir George Darwin 5. Accordingly, it appears that the actual propagation

remarks in regard to earthquake phenomena: of waves in solids deserves further study. Our premises so
»The vibrations which are transmitted through the frequently are false that the actual facts, in regard to solids
earth are of two kinds. The first sort of wave is one in both homogeneous and heterogeneous, deserve more statistical
which the matter through which it passes is alternately com- inquiry, in cases where a definite decision may be attained.
pressed and dilated; it may be described as a wave of In his article on Light, Encycl. Brit., 9'^ ed., § 19, p. 446,
compression. In the second sort the shape of each minute the late Lord Rayleigh says that in such bodies as jelly the
portion of the solid is distorted, but the volume remains velocity of the longitudinal vibrations is a large multiple of
unchanged, and it may be called a wave of distortion. These the velocity of the corresponding transverse vibrations. No
two vibrations travel at different speeds, and the compressional doubt there is some assumed evidence for such a statement,
wave outpaces the distortional one. Now the first sign of a besides the calculations above given, but as no authorities
distant earthquake is that the instrumental record shows a for conclusive experiments of this type are known to me,
succession of minute tremors. These are supposed to be due I think a result, of such delicacy should be received with
to waves of compression, and they are succeeded by a much great caution.
more strongly marked disturbance, which, however, lasts only 6. A few cases, however, even if true, are not enough
a short time. This second phase in the instrumental record to establish general conclusions; and in view of the difficulty
is supposed to be due to the wave of distortion.* of conceiving how the two classes of waves can be actually
»If the natures of these two disturbances are correctly separated in nature — one set of waves inevitably tending
ascribed to their respective sources, it is certain that the to run into the other — the only safe course is to appeal
matter through which the vibrations have passed was solid. to a variety of experiments, under conditions which may lead
For, although a compressional wave might be transmitted to an experimentum crucis.
without much loss of intensity, from a solid to a liquid and Notwithstanding this uncertainty as to the true order
back again to a solid, as would have to be the case if the of' nature —
the theory being not certainly verified by.
interior of the earth is molten, yet this cannot be true of experiment, —
it seems best to examine briefly the chief
the distortional wave. It has been supposed that vibrations mathematical conditions imposed by the propagation of waves
due to earthquakes pass in a straight line through the earth; in an elastic solid. In an elastic solid, the equation of Foisson
if then this could be proved, we should know with certainty 82a)/9/2 = a^v^CD (no)
that the earth is solid, at least far down towards its center.*
is satisfied by the dilatation and three components of rotation
This reasoning implies that this eminent natural philo-
sopher was in doubt as to the validity of the two-velocity
as follows:
= 8«/8;c+8^/9y+8y/8^
d (n,)
theory, in practice, with actual masses like the earth. »i = 'h{hlh-N^fi) W2 - 'lA^aldz-dxIdy)
In studying earthquake seismographic records and dis- = '/,mdx-dy/da)
(Os
,^''''
cussions I find the disturbance to rise very gradually and
a, /J, ;' being the displacements at any point p [x, y, z)
die down equally gradually. Thus I have not been able to
In the elastic solid solutions, the components of rotation
verify the assumption of two distinct types of waves: we
merely find that at a great distance from the source of Wi, (»2, to-i are connected by the well known relation:

disturbance the earthquake waves are spread out like a 8(Oi/8a:-H 8(82/87+ SftJs/^a =o (113)
spectrum. This spreading out might be due to varying and only two of the three sets of solutions are independent.
resistance to waves of one type, but of different length, Combining these with the solution for 6, we have, in all,
as in optics. three sets of independent solutions.
On purely physical grounds it seems difficult to imagine Take a rectangular volume of the elastic substance
the distortional wave being actually separated from the com- x^ o, X =a, jv o, jv /J, = o, z = y. Then at= ^
pressional wave. That actual nature would effect this ideal any time f=o, O ^
<Dq; and by Fourier's theorem the
separation seems very doubtful. And so far it is not sup- value of (Do for any point within a j3 y may be expressed
ported by earthquake- phenomena admitting of verification by the following triple summations, which include all positive
by observation on the propagation of waves through our globe. integral values of /, m, n from o to oo;
1=00 m^oo n^oo
^.Aimn cos{lnx/a) cos{mny//3) C0Sl«7r2 /y)

/=oo m^oo n = <x> llI4/

-+-
^ ^ ^
/=o « = o ri^o
Bimn sin [inxja] cos {m 7iy//3) cos [n nz/y] -h • .

(cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, 2°"^ ed., 1896, p. 70).

The full set of eight coefficients, for all possible arrangements of sines and cosines, are given by the integral
expressions:
^^^^ ^ (S/a^^-lJJJOo zoi[lnxla)co%[mnyl^) zo^[nnzlY)-^x^y ^z (115)

Bimn = Ja)o
(8/«/J;')J J sin((/;ra:/a)cos(OT7rjc//S)cos{;z7r2r/^)-d*djt'd0 .(116)
 : I

4300 5085 434

Qmn = (S/afiy)^
^ J^Wq
cos{ljTx/tt) s\-n{m7ty//3) cos{nrcz/y)- dx dy dc (n?)
-Dimn = [S/cc
^y)^ ^ ^(Dq sm{l7tx/a) siD{mny/^) cos[n7rz/y)-dx dy dz (118)

£imn^ {?>lafiy)^\^^(D(^cos{lnxla)co5{mnylfi)s,\n{nnzly)-dxdydz (119)

J^imn == {?>l<xfiy)^^^Oosm{lnxla)cos{mnyl^)s\n[nnzly)-dxdydz (120)

(?;mn = {^lnfiy)^^^O,)C05[lTTxla)s,m[mnylfi)s\n{mizly)-dxdydz (121)

-^;mn = (8/a,5j')J
JJ
©0 sin(/7r«/a) sin(w2 7rji'/jfi)sin(«7r0/j')-d«d>'d2 .
(122)

As ® is a scalar quantity, we may suppose the rate of increase at any time t= o, to be denoted by dO^/di,
which may be expanded in series similar to that in (114), but with accented coefficients, A'lmn, B'lmn, C'lmn, etc.
Knowing the initial values of ® and 8(P/9/, we may at once write down the complete solution of (no), which is
easily seen to be: ^=^ „^_^ „_^
<P = X, X yjCOs{l7tx/a)cos{mny/^)cos{nnz/y)(AimnCos_pt-i-A'imnsinpi)
/=o
(123)

t-^> y'^ y^ sm{l7Tx/a) cos{»iny/fi) cos (nnz/y) [Bimn cospi- B'lmn - sinp/j-

In order to satisfy (no) we must have: pagated with different speeds. The two equations of Poisson
V,2
«2^2(/V«-+»zV/5'+«Vr')- (124) thus become:
We may now combine terms which have the same values of ay = V[k^%n) d^OJdf^ = «iV^CD
/, m, n in (123), and thus we find that ® can be expressed compressional wave;
for the
as a sum of terms of the form fl2 = V{nla) d^OJdfi = ^aV^O
126

for the distortional wave.

=^ ^ Kcos{pt±lnxla±mnyl fi±nnzly— e) (125)
With mostsolids the latter velocity a^ is considerably
^vhere the summation be extended to all values of +/,
is to smaller than ai, the velocity of the compressional wave. In
+ m, ±n, and the constants and e are of course differentK the numerical example of steel above cited, '«! is nearly twice
for each set of values. as large as a^, but it still is uncertain to what extent a real
Put in this form, it is clear, as yeans remarks (Dynamical separation of the two kinds of waves takes place. In other
Theory of Gases, 2""^ ed., p. 383, 1916}, that the solution words, the two kinds of waves are distinct and should "be
represents sets of plane waves traveling in different directions. separated, in theory; but it is quite uncertain whether this
But from (124) it follows that all the waves are propagated occurs in actual practice, owing to the limitations of freedom
with the same velocity a, as in the luminiferous aether. of movement in such material bodies as we find in nature.
If the elastic solid has continuous character, its par- There is only one velocity of waves in the aether.
ticles have dynamically all the degrees of freedom appro- In the case of earthquake waves, there is no evidence
priate to the aether, which is an absolute continuum, the of separation of the two kinds of waves, — all the seis-
finest molecular or atomic structure in the universe. A me- mographic records being explicable by the unequal velocities
dium so constituted has the capacity to transmit waves from incident to mere wave-length, and thus having different speeds
any direction. And in case the medium is the ultimate of propagatior;.
medium underlying the physical universe, no energy can be It true that the earth's crust is a very complex
is

lost ia the movement of the waves, which move incessantly structure, and the movement incident to an earthquake in-
from one body to another, and in free space travel with the volves release of strain, and thus consists of a series of ad-
velocity of light. justments of the quasi-solid lava beneath faulted and mutually
When the Velocity of the waves is retarded, energy is crowding blocks of granite some 20 miles thick. Perhaps
expended, and pressure developed by the retardation of the we could not expect distinct separation in such a mass of
wave front. Forces of a more intricate kind arise when refrac- tremors, partly direct and partly reflected, by the faulted
tion, dispersion, diffraction, etc., develop, as in the encounter blocks of the crust.
with particles or bodies in which the velocity is suddenly Yet if the two classes of waves actually separated in
changed^ and the wave-field redistributed, so that the density practice, we ought
to perceive two distinct shocks from earth
and local internal pressure of the aether is altered. But we waves incident to explosions, as of powder magazines, masses
can only treat of .this topic when we come to deal with of T.N.T., and other high explosives, which are powerful
molecular forces, which heretofore have defied explanation, enough to be felt at a great distance, but do not involve
owing to lack of a kinetic theory of the aether and the un- complex direct and reflex actions in the crust, as in the lava
developed state of the wave-theory. adjustments due to earthquakes.
Usually itis assumed that in an elastic solid both So far as I have been able to ascertain there is no
compressional and distortionaf waves co-exist, though pro- well established record of double waves from such explosions
 : : : :

435 5o85 43<3

above ground and thus the experimental evidence would seem

;
the form of the function depending / on the arrangement
to point to a merging of the two classes of waves into one. of the parts of the medium.
In the case of the aether it is certain that only one Making use of this value of z/ in (133) we obtain

class of waves is observed, which in free space travel with

dT = Jli/z') [dxd8x-^dyd8y+dzddz)lds
uniform velocity, as in the case of sound in gases. Accor-
dingly the aether certainly behaves as a gas, yet its elasticity -^(j/v^) ds [dv/dhSX-hdv/dx-dx-hdv/dydy-^dvldz-dz) (135)
is so great that waves of any kind may be transmitted, as or St ^ [{i/v){dx/ds-8x-i-dy/ds-6y-hdz/ds-8z)]
in an elastic solid, but apparently the velocity is uniform,
- (?Aj(i/f ') dt^/d;i-d.y - 6x^{i/v^) dv/dx-ds
whether the waves involve a rigidity, with sliding of one layer
over another, or compression, as in gases. -dy^{i/v-^)dv/dyds-6z^{i/v^) dv/dz-ds .
(136)

10. Geometrical Theory of the Transmission The last three (135), under Hamiltori^
integrals of

of Light and other Physical Forces along Fermaf's, stationary condition, vanish, because the fixed terminal points

= dl ijvAs = o. make 8x, dy, 8z each equal to zero. The rest of the ex-
Minimum Path, 6t
pression depends on the terminal points of the path, and on
(i) The problem of refraction in the rhinimum path. the wave-length only.
For any path in space, with radius of curvature q, and These conditions therefore lead to four equations
curvature i :
p, we have for the length of the curved path s Sj:ISx = {i/v) dx/ds dz/Sy = {j/v) dy/ds . ,

and the curvature Sr/dz = [i/v) dz/ds St/si = - ^{ilv'')dvldhds .

^'"'
s = QX ^/q = <ix/<^^ (127)
Now the tangent to the curved path ds is defined by
where x is the angle between the osculating tangent planes,
the three differential direction cosines, fulfilling the condition 1

and d.f
curvature,
is the element of the curve, and q the radius of
for the osculating circle passing through three
{dxldsY+{dylAsY-i-[dzldsY = i (138)

consecutive points. And therefore if we square and add the first three equations

The curvature for any path is of (137) we shall obtain

i/p== V[{d^x/ds^Y-h{<i'y/ds^Y-h(dh/ds^Y]. (128) {8TldxY + {di:l8yY-^{8rl6zY = i/v\ (139)

And the direction cosines of the radius of curvature (ii) Geometrical conditions fulfilled by Hamiltori^

yi = Qd^x/ds^ Yi =^ Qd^y/ds^ y-i

^= Qd''z/ds^. (129) characteristic function.
In 1823, when only eighteen years of age, Hamilton
Now in refraction, the path must be consistent with
obtained insight into his method, and gradually introduced \
the principle of least time, and also conform to the principle
the consideration of a characteristic function A defined by
of least action. The principle of least time was recognized
the following differential equation for a single particle of
by the Greek geometers at Alexandria, about 300 B.C., in
unit mass,
the constructions of Euklid, (cf.- Electrod. Wave -Theory of

Phys. Fore, vol. I, 1Q17, pp. 63-66), but the principle of 8A — {dxldt- dx^dyldt- 8y^dzldt- 6z]

the minimum path, in simple refraction, was discovered by — [dx^ldt dxo -+- dj)'o/d t-8y(,-h dz^jdt •
(?^o ) + 8H ^ (140)
Fermat (1601-1665), who found the actual path to conform where H is the constant of the total energy If = T-^ V
to the law: % = l^v-^-^l^vn (130) If the moving particle be entirely free, the seven
where the second member is made up of the sum of two variables in the right member
of (140) are independent of
terms, each a product of the length of path, /, by the velo- one another; and thus the characteristic function A fulfills
city in that path, v. the following reniarkable differential equations
In gradual refraction, such as that of light in the dAJdx = dxjdt dA/dxo = -dxo/dif
atmosphere, the direction of the ray changes at every point,
chiefly because of the varying density. And thus if t be the
dA/dy = dy/dt dA/dyo = -dyj/dt

time of passage, we have the integral

dA/dz = dz/di dAJdso = -dzo/di
.. (141)

dAldH=t.
i^^ilvds. (131)
Therefore we have at once
[dAJdxY + i^AldyY+ipAld,^^ =
And Fermafs condition of the minimum path becomes

di = d\jjvds = o .
(132) = {dx/dtY-h{dy/diYMd2/dfY = = 2{JI- V) 2/^ (142)

To bring out the geometrical conditions of the theory [dAldx,Y+{^Aldy,Y+[dAldz,Y =

of the minimum path, we have to develop the subject some- = (d*o/d/)^+(dVd^)= + = = 2[H- (d«o/d^)^ vo^ V,) (143)
what as outlined in the author's work of T917. Now it is obvious that if physical forces be due to
By the method of the Calculus of Variations, equation wave-action, these forces also will conform to the remarkable
(131) yields
^v = Ji/.-dd.-Ji/.^-d.d.. (133)
geometrical properties of Hamilton's characteristic function,
and his analysis will be applicable alike to the propagation
A be the wave-length, it is obvious that the velocity
If of light,electrodynamic action and universal gravitation.
would be defined by the functional relation Since the characteristic function A satisfies the partial
V =f{X,x,y, z) (134) differential equation
 : . . :

437 5o85 438

{dj/dxY+{dA/dyY+{dj/d2Y 2{H- V) =v'=(144) that the second members also represent the same thing. Ac-
itfollows that the partial differential coefficients with respect cordingly the proposition stated after equation (r44) above
to the coordinates represent the components of the velocity isestablished, and obviously applies equally to light, electro-
in a motion possible under the forces whose potential is V. dynamic action and gravitation.
And as V
is the potential energy of the system, this result
(iii) The physical interpretation of Hamiltori's, analysis
is veryremarkable; for it assimilates the propagation of points to wave-action.
wave disturbances, such as light, and electrodynamic action,
We have now to consider the physical interpretation
to the action, of universal gravitation, which also fulfills the
of Hamilton's aijalysis, and we note first that the celebrated
same condition.
function A was invented by Hamilton for the treatment of
By partial differentiation of (144) with respect to the
light. Yet if all physical forces depend on waves due to
co-ordinates we have —
vibrations in atoms, with equatorial planes lying hap-
8^/8^ 92^/8a:2+8^/8_j; 82^/8x 8j,;-+- 8^^/82
• • = •
o'^Al'dx'dz hazard, or mutually inclined at varipus angles, it will —
= -dV/dx = X = dVd/^ = (d/d/) (da:/d/) apply also to magnetism, gravitation, and all kinds of electro-
8^/8* d^A/dxdy-t-dA/dy d^j/dy^-^-dA/de d^A/dydz =
• dynamic action. Hamilton's characteristic function A is there-
= ~dv/dy = Y= dVd/2 = (d/di){dy/dt)
(145) fore above all a wave-function, equally applicable to all the

dA/dx S^A/dxdz-hdA/dy -d^AJdy dz-hdA/dz = •

d^A/dz''
forces of the Universe.

= -dv/dz = Z = dh/di^ = (d/d/) [dz/dt)

To interpret the above analysis, for the path of light,
through a physical medium like the lurainiferous aether, we
Also, differentiating in respect to we have f,
resume the equation
dx/dt-d^A/dx^H-dy/di-d^A/dxdy-i-dz/dt-d^-A/dxdz =
[8'€/6xY+[6T/dyY+[dT/6zY= i/vK (152)
= (d/d/) (8^/8;c)
And we see that if we can obtain a complete integral of
dx/dt-d'^A/dxdy-h-dy/di-dU/dy^'-hdz/di-d^A/dydz = this equation, containing therefore two arbitrary constants
= (d/d/) {dA/dy)
(146)
a, fi, in the form
dx/dt- dU,'dxdz-hdy/dt- =
d^~A/dy dz-hdz/dt-d^A/dz'- t = F[x,y,z, I, a, /S) (153)
= (d/d/) (8^/85) then the derived equations
On comparing equations (145) and (146), we find that d-v/da = cl_F(x, y, z, 1, a, /3)/Sa = a'

d*/d/ = 8^/8* dj'/d/ = dA/dy dz/'di = dA/dz (147) dr/dfi = dF{x, y, z, A, a, j3)/dj3 = fi'
llS4)

satisfy simultaneously the two sets of equations. will represent two series of surfaces, whose intersections give
If now we be constants which may com-
take a, /S to the path of the light in the medium.
bine with JI to give the complete integral of (144), it follows As a' and /S' are also arbitrary constants, the four
that the corresponding path and the time of its description constants «, fi, a', /S' are necessary and sufficient for the
are given by the equations purpose of making the two intersecting surfaces each pass
dA/da = a^ dA/S/3 = ^i dA/dff = f-he (148) through any two given points /o('*0) yo, 4) and p{x, y, z).
These Hapiiltoman considerations, on simple refraction
where a^, fix, e are three additional arbitrary constants.
in non-homogeneous media, show, as was originally found
By complete differentiation of~(i48) with respect to /,
by Fermat, that the actual path is that of least time,
through the three coordinates x, y, z, we have at once
as well as that of least action.
d^A/Sxda-dx/di-i-d^A/dyda-dy/di-h '
Now in the case of light the physical cause of such
+ 82^/82 8«.d^/d/= o
action is known to be waves in the highly elastic aether,
dUjdxdfi dxjdt -^d^A/dy d/3 dy/dt-f- and propagated with unequal velocities, in different media,
=o
,

[49)
-hd^A/dzdfi dz/dt according to 'density, effective elasticity, and wave-length.
d^A/dxdB--dx/di-hd^A/dydJI-dy/di-h Increase of density, due to the presence of ponderable matter,
-+-d'^A/dzdH-dz/dt= o. hinders the progress of the wave of given length, while in-
crease of elasticity under thinning out of the matter accelerates
Similar differentiation in respect to «, /S, H, respec-
it. And in general decreasing the wave-length increases the
tively, gives:
retardation in velocity.
82^/8« dx-dA/ctx+diA/da dydA/dy-h Equiactional surfaces, orthogonal to the path of light,
-hd^A/daSz-SA/dz = are so distributed that the distances between them, for geo-
d^A/dj3 dx dA/dx-i-d^A/dj3 dy dA/dy-h metrical reasons, are always inversely as the velocity in the
-^8^A/dfidz-dA/dz = o
(150)
corresponding path.

d-'A/SJidx dA/dx-hd^A/dJIdy dA/dy-h Now [it is clearly shown in the third paper on the

-i-d^A/dlldz -dA/dz =
New Theory of the Aether (AN 5079), that electrodynamic
i .

action is conveyed by waves, traveling in free aether with

On comparing these two sets of equations, we find
the velocity of light, and therefore these waves will follow
dx/di = 8^/8^ dy/di = 8^/8jv dz/df = dA/8z . (151) the same general laws as the waves of light. Such a physical

And as the first members of these equations represent the cause necessarily takes the path of least time and of least
moving follows action, which is also that of least resistance to the distur-
components of the velocity of the particle, it
 439 5085 440

bances of the medium. And as the motions of the planets are bent in the same direction; and thus it is evident that
conform to these principles, the question may properly be if waves be of unequal length, they will encounter unequal
asked whether any other cause than electrodynamic wave- resistance, —the shorter waves, owing to their more rapid
action could be imagined to produce the attractions of the oscillation, being relatively more resisted than the longer
heavenly bodies. ones. The result of this unequal resistance is that the waves
This question has been dealt with at some length in are dispersed, as in the spectrum, the longer waves being
the second paper (AN S°48), and from the additional dis- least refracted, while the shorter waves, in normal dispersion,
cussion included in section 12 below it would seem to follow suffer maximum refraction, thereby producing the spectrum
incontestably that no cause other than wave- action could effect of dispersion, as in a grating.
explain the phenomena of universal gravitation. Now however, many separate waves enter a refracting
medium, the refractive action on each vibration occurs as
The New Wave-Theory of Light accounts
II.
the other vibrations did not exist: thus we have not merely
Known Optical Phenomena — Refraction,
if
for all
refraction but also dispersion. In fact dispersion, depending
Dispersion, Anomalous Dispersion, Diffraction,
on difference of wave length, seems to imply that the sepa-
Interference, and the Aberration of Light from the
rate atoms, same atoms, are emitting not only their own
or
Fixed Stars.
distinct waves, but in most cases each atom gives quite a
(i) The problem of refraction. _ variety of these waves, as we see by comparing the table
It now remains to survey briefly the leading optical of wave-lengths for the different elements, as sodium, calcium,
phenomena, to see if the new wave-theory of light will hydrogen, iron, titanium, etc.
explain the observed phenomena as well or better than the The observed phenomenon of dispersion is therefore
old wave-theory,which assumes vibrations entirely normal favorable to the new wave-theory; for we realize from the
motion of a stretched
to the direction of the ray, as in the known phenomena of the spectral lines that each atom has
cord, but does not assume vibrations flat in the planes of its own several periods of vibration; and thus dispersion,
the equators of the atoms. or unequal refraction depending ^on wave length, ought to
And, first, the phenomenon of simple refraction presents occur.
no difficulty. For the bending of the always is due light As for anomalous dispersion the problem is more
to the unequal' resistance oifered to the two sides of the complex, because the substances giving this phenomenon ex-
wave front, —
the one which is more resisted being held hibit extremely variable effects. But as each atom of a given
back in its advance and the other therefore propagated more substance emits its own characteristic waves, there is no reason
rapidly, and thus turning the direction of the ray of light why the effect of a given refractive medium should affect
towards the denser medium. This reasoning holds for re- atoms of the different substances in the same way. The
fraction in water, a prism of glass, or such a slightly hetero- proportion of energy absorbed changes with each substance,
geneous medium as the earth's atmosphere, where the -air and the resistance to each color is a function of the wave-
is nearly homogeneous for small distances, yet in the larger length, but not the same for all wave-lengths, owing to the
problems of the globe arranged in concentric layers, with variable molecular reaction on the passing light waves.
increased density and refractive power towards the earth's Accordingly just as refraction depends on the wave-
surface. length, for homogeneous waves of one color, so also anomalous
On the old wave-theory of light this explanation has dispersion must depend on different resistances for different
always been considered satisfactory; and on the new wave- colors or wave-lengths, —
due either to the absorptive effects
theory it is equally valid, because we consider a beam of of the substance, by which different wave lengths are un-
light to be made up of an infinite number of independent equally affected, with the thinning out of particular wave-
waves from the separate vibrating atoms. And as each wave lengths, or to the increased resistance of the substance to certain
is transmitted independently of the rest by the superfine waves, thus causing them to crowd over into an adjacent
medium of the aether, —
just as on a telephone or tele- part of the spectrum.
graph wire large numbers of independent messages may be In the well known case of fuchsine, with the abnormal
sent at the same instant — it follows that in transmitting deviation of the violet rays, by which this color is less deviated
the infinitely complex waves of common light, each atomic than the longer red rays, we may suppose the fuchsine to
wave will be refracted exactly as if the others did not exist, have an inherent attraction for the violet rays great enough
and the integral effect after traversing a distance ds will be to shorter wave length as compared to the red.
offset its
that all the waves will be refracted in the same direction, Kund{% careful observations on anomalous dispersion
owing to the greater resistance on the same side of their showed that it was common in bodies having surface color
common wave front. — or a different shade by reflected light from that given
Accordingly, the explanation of refraction remains un- by transmitted light. Now since in reflection we perceive
changed, while that for dispersion is improved, as shown the colors which are not absorbed, it follows that bodies
below. presenting surface color, different from that shown by light
(ii) The phenomena of dispersion, including anomalous transmitted through them, must absorb the colors which they
dispersion. do not transmit. And therefore in transmission the spectrum
In ordinary refraction, as we have seen, all the rays is deficient, — certain waves being absorbed or taken up by
depending on the waves emitted by the individual atoms, the vibrating molecules, — so as to make possible the ob-
 441 5085 442

served deviation of the remaining waves from their arrange- (iv) Stokes' investigation of 1845 harmonizes with the
ment in the normal spectrum shown by a grating. new theory of stellar aberration.
It would appear from these considerations that the In the Phil. Mag., 1845, 27. Q, Sir Gabriel Stokes at-
phenomenon of anomalous dispersion highly favorable to
is tempted to examine the theory of aberration so as to find
the wave-theory. "Unless all molecules emitted and absorbed out what distribution of velocity may be imparted to the
waves appropriate to their own molecular structure, according aether about the earth, without changing the path of the
to Kirchkoff's, law, it does not seem possible to account for rays of light in space. As the new kinetic theory of the
the actual results of observation. The theory that each mole- aether (AN S°44) was
not yet developed, Stokes was unwilling
cule or atom vibrates in its own period, so as to absorb cer- to accept the view that the earth could pass freely through
tain waves in transmission, but reflect others from the surface the aether whithout setting it in motion; and, he tried to find
of a body so constituted, seems to harmonize all known facts the conditions which would leave the observed aberration
in a simple way. unchanged.
If c be the velocity of light in the stagnant aether, in
(iii) The problern of diffraction, interference, stellar
aberration. a direction whose direction-cosines relative to axes fixed in
space are m, n, and the components of the supposed
/,
The phenomenon of diffraction consists in the bending
velocity of the aether at any point are u, v, w; then prior
of the waves through small apertures and at sharp corners,
by which light is spread around and gathered into fringes
to the development of the new kinetic theory, with v ^j^n V, =
the velocity of the ray in space at the point in question
which become distinct. The wave-theory accounts for the
phenomenon, under, the hypothesis that the waves are very
would be y= |.^lJ^^„y^„.J^_ (j^^)
short, which is fully verified by actual .measurements. In Fermat's minimum path and Hamilton's principle of
fact for a given width of slit, different colored light gives stationary time, as applied by Stokes, would lead to the geo-

an appreciable change in the position of the fringes, depending metrical condition

on the length of the waves in the light used which obviously :
St = d\ds/[c-^lu-i-mv-hnw) = o .
(156)
confirms the wave-theory, not only as heretofore taught, but To quantities of the first order in {u, v , w)lc, this is

also as now modified to take account of waves flat in the equivalent to

planes of the equators of the atoms. The theory of the waves ^r = (5 I ds/c—d I {i/c^)-[u dx-i-v dy-+-w dz) = o .
(157)
from the individual atoms therefore does not add to the
difficulty of the problem of diffraction in any way.
If the medium
hydrodynamically irrotational
fulfills

conditions, without whirling motion of the parts en mass,

as
In the matter of interference, the conclusion
we have already found in section 8 above.
This is natural,
is similar,
so that d® =
u dx-^v dy-i-w dz o is a perfect differential,=
the second integral will depend on the values of u, v, w
since the waves from each atom are by hypothesis independent
at the terminal points, and thus will be independent of the
of those from the other atoms; and whatever the positions motion in the aether about the earth. When this hydrodynamical
of the equators, each wave is transmitted by the aether in- condition is satisfied, the path of the ray of light, between two
dependently of the waves from the other atoms. Inter-
points whose velocities ave given, is determined wholly by the
ference thus takes place in the modified theory just as in
values of these velocities and does not depend on the motion
the older theory, except for the detailed changes already of the aether between these points in the path of the light.
described.
If the terminal points be Xf,, y^, Zq, and x^, y\, ^z^,
In AN 183, we have given a new and simple
5048, p. — and the intervening medium be filled with a unifoi'm
•explanation problem of stellar aberration. It is sp
of the
stream of aether flowing with a uniform velocity whose com-
very direct and simple as to be remarkable. In view of the ponents are u, v, w , then we shall have —
difficulty felt since Bradlefi, discovery in 1727, which has
^1 y\ ^1 -^1 >'i ^1
been increased rather than decreased by the investigations
d%^8\ilc-ds—6\T.\c'''-{udx-^vdy-\-ivdz)^^o (158)
of the last half century, it is surprising that this simple
analysis of the problem of stellar aberration has not been
developed before. It presents no difficulty from the old or
^1 y\ %
the new point of view of the wave-theory, but rests wholly on
= d\^ds-6{\lc-{u[xx-x^^v{y^-y^^w[zx-z^)W .
(159)
the motion of the earth relatively to the independent motion -^0 y^ ^0

of the rays of the star, in the moving wave-field carried along But by hypothesis the second term of the right member
of this last equation is zero, and therefore we have
with the earth in its orbital motion about the sun.
All that we need consider is the independent motion
of the rays of light relatively to the moving earth. We there- (?i: =d jdj- =o . (160)
fore give the parallel rays of light a common backward motion
exactly equal and opposite to the forward motion of the earth Accordingly the path s obviously is a straight line, in
in its orbit. The diagonal of the parallelogram '.gives the the free aether, from (.^ojjfo; -^o) to (^ijjCi, %), which are the
true motion of light relatively to the moving earth; and by terminal points of the path. Stokes found that the differenti-
drawing this diagonal of the parallelogram we have a direct ally irrotational condition would be fulfilled if the aether
and perfectly satisfactory explanation of the stellar, aber- beha\'TSS like a perfect fluid for the slow motion of material
ration. bodies through it.
 443 5o85 444

Now in our new theory of tlie aether (AN 5044, 5048) easily explained on the old conceptions of waves wholly
we have shown that the aether particles fulfill the law of transverse to the direction of propagation.
mean velocity v =^ ^j^jx:V= 471239 kms/sec. 3. The external conical
refraction mathematically pre-
Accordingly, the earth's motion is only i 15708''' part :
dicted by Sir IV. R. Hamilton about 1832, and soon after-
of the mean velocity of the particles. And since the velocity wards experimentally verified by Lloyd for aragonite was
of the earth is very small and nearly uniform, owing to the found to be definite and decisive. Yet in examining the
circularity of the orbit, it follows that our plailet experiences cusp-ray refraction Lloyd found that the » boundaries were
no secular resistance from the aether. no longer rectilinear, but swelled out in the form of an oval
Moreover, the earth carries its aether wave-field with curve« —showing a very gradual diffusion, due to appre-
it, all arranged in perfect kinetic equilibrium, with law of ciable of light (cf. Lloyd\ Miscellaneous Papers
scattering
density and wave amplitude Connected with Physical Science, London, 1877, p. 14,
a = vr A = kjr (161) figures i and k).

extending away from it indefinitely. Thus a ray of light from 4. Nearly all the very exact measurements on polarized

a fixed star enters the earth's aether wave-field as if this light by Lord Rayleigh, Drude, Jamin, and others bring out
medium were absolutely stagnant. And under the relative residuary phenomena which show a sensible- departure from
motion of the rays of light and the moving earth, the stellar the classic undulatory theory (cf. Glazebrook, Physical Optics,
aberration discovered by Bradley, 1727, really takes place, London, 1914, pp. 3SS~387)-
just as in the emission theory of light. 5. In the domain of electro-optics, the Kerr phenomenon
For the ray of light from the star pursues a straight directly points to the wave-theory, including the rotation of
line in the earth's wave-field, and the identical component the plane of polarization by magnetism; and all this is even
of the earth's motion forward, but directed backward, may more consistent with the new wave-theory than with the old.
be transferred to the moving rays of light before they reach If the of an electro-magnet are polished, and plane
poles
our globe. Thus, relatively to the moving earth, the rays of polarized light is reflected therefrom, it is found that when
light really come from the direction in which the stars appear, no current passes the plane of polarization is not rotated.
and ds is a straight line. If then the current flows in one direction, there is a cor-
This explanation of stellar aberration is therefore geo- responding rotation of the plane of polarization ; and the
metrically rigorous and perfectly satisfactory. And since in moment the current flows in the opposite direction, and thus
the new wave-theory of light, no change is made in a ray changes the pole to opposite polarity, the plane of polari-
of light as respects velocity and direction, but only as regards zation is rotated in the opposite direction. This is very
the internal tilting of the planes of the vibrations from the definite proof of the wave-theory, both for optics and mag-
individual atoms, we perceive that the explanation of aber- netism, for the Kerr and Zeetnan phenomena.
ration leaves nothing to be desired.
6. The production of elliptically polarized light by
Accordingly it follows that in respect to aberration
letting a polarized beam fall upon a transparent insulator,
not the smallest difficulty encountered in the confirmation
is
such as glass, liquids or gases, under, strong electric stress,
of the new wave-theory of Such entire agreement, in
light. — the region being filled by electric waves rotating in definite
such diversified optical phenomena, can have no other mea- direction, as in a magnetic field —
was first discovered by
ning than that the new wave-theory of light accords with Kerr, and confirmed by Becquerel, Kundt, Rontgen, Quincke,
the order of nature. Lippich, Du Bois, and others. When the medium is connected
Other phenomena examined under the new wave- with the poles of an electric machine, the waves constituting
theory of light. the discharge make it possible to produce double refraction,
In addition to the above general phenomena there are as in a crystal, and in Zeemaris phenomena, where the spec-
many special phenomena which might be used to investigate tral lines are doubled. All these phenomena are found to
the nature of light. With have looked
this object in view I harmonize with the new wave-theory, quite as well as or
into a variety of observed data to ascertain if any contra- better than with the classic theory of Fresnel.
diction of the new wave-theory could be established, or even
rendered probable. No such result could be brought out, The Wave-Theory of Gravitation towards
12.

though I have gone over the principal phenomena in optics a SingleBody extended to the Case of Waves from
and electro-optics. Two Equal Bodies by means of the Geometrical
Polarization in crystals, which presents complex and
Theory of Confocal Conies, in Conformity with the
1.

phenomena, and would be likely to

Observed Motions of Planets and Comets under the
intricate interference
Newtonian Law.
offer a contradiction if any existed in nature.
2. Brewster's law, « ^ tgy, where n is the index of
(i) Why the aether remains heterogeneous and presses

towards a single body like the sun.

refraction, the angle of polarization by reflection. The
and (f

partial failure of this law discovered by jfamin and others, I. In our theory of the emission of light and heat
when (f differs from 55° 35' 30", seems to point to the new waves from the sun, (AN 5044), we have shown that under
the spherical expansion of the wave surface
theory rather than the old. It appears that the outstanding in free space,
residuary phenomena, not in conformity with this law, but the amplitude of the waves follows the law

yielding maximum polarizing effects when n Xg(p, is not ^ A = kjr (162)

 445 5085 446
and the force towards the centre due to the receding waves 5. In Drude's, Theory of Optics, 1917, pp. 179-180,
is therefore as the square of the amplitude: (English translation by Mann and Millikan), a very remar-
f=A^ = k^-lr^- (163) kable theorem is drawn from the rigorous formulation of
which has the form of the law of gravitation observed Huyghens' principle, as follows:
in
nature. »When the origin lies within the surface S,

2. The mere existence of waves, as of light and heat, 47r5o =^^\^{s[t—rlV)lr\l'dr-cs>'s>{nr)

— which certainly radiate from the sun with tremendous -{ilr)ds{t-rlV)IM^S. [35] (165)
energy, — thus necessarily operates to make the aether »This equation may be interpreted in the following
heterogeneous, according to the law a vr. There is no = way: The light disturbance ^o at any point /q (which has
doubt of this law holding for light and heat waves; and if
been taken as origin) may be looked upon as the super-
gravitational and magnetic waves exist, they too will follow
position of disturbances which are propagated with a velocity
this same law. It appears that ,Magnetic Storms' and ,Mag-
V toward /q from the surface elements d^ of any closed
netic Tides' are referable only to waves, as shown in my
surface which includes the point F^ For, since the elements .

work on Physical Forces, 191 7; and aside from the con-

of the surface integral [35] are functions of the argument
nection of electrodynamics with gravitation previously shown
t—rjV, any given phase of the elementary disturbance will
to exist, it is fair to ask the broad question: exist at /q rj V seconds after it has existed at AS. «
What the probability that the force
is A"^ Pjr'^ f= = ,

A=
6. It thus appears
would givf an appropriate wave amplitude kjr, unless that disturbances emana-
gravitational waves also exist? No such coincidence could
ting from /o towards dS
occur by mere, chance In fact the chances against such a
!

in a conical solid angle

coincidence occurring for all the atoms of a body in the
dw, may be ascribed to
potential
disturbances from the
^= JJJ[(^-^r+(j'-/)'+(^-2r]-'''-ffd^dyd^ (164) element d^S of the same
conical solid angle dw,
is at least infinity of the third order [00^] to i.
from any closed surface
Moreover, since electrodynamic action certainly is due
about Ft). Just as the
to waves, and these exert a mechanical action like magnetism
integral of the outflowing
and gravitation, what is the chance that there is a sudden
waves gives ^nso, equa-
break in the continuity of natural forces at the boundary
tion (165), so also the in-
which is assumed to divide electrical action from universal
tegral of the energy of
gravitation? Evidently the probability is zero. For we find
Fig. 12. Diagram of the disturbance the inflowing disturbances
by experiments on all the forces of nature that the doctrines j,,

reflected from the surface S are equal, and oppositely

of the correlation of forces and the conservation of energy about the point Pqi *"<1 thus directed, which proves
are valid. Thus it is impossible to separate gravitation from maintained in perpetuity.
the proposition.
the other forces of nature, whose electrical character is so
well established. 7. The integral of the vibrations in the separate sources
of the inflowing disturbances dS
has to be taken over the
3. The aether is thus thinned out by wave agitation,
whole closed surface, and thus the calculation
is complicated,
towards all single masses; and as the aetherons have a velo-
involving a surface integral at the interval dt over the solid
city of
ticity, e=
471239 kms per second, we perceive
689321600000 times
that the elas-
greater than that of our
angle on =
^n about the point /q And in order to main- .

tain the action the integral has to be renewed at infinitely

air in proportion to its density, would secure an instant
short intervals, di, corresponding to surface thickness
homogeneity of the aether everywhere but for the incessant
if
action of the receding waves. Accordingly the world is filled
dr, dV-- 47T r 'Jd, [66)
with waves, constantly received and constantly emitted from
all atoms. The waves are in some way due to the motioijg
of the aetherons, which collide with and are reflected by the But as these renewed integrals have the same value
reactions of the atoms. for the interval df, we may take d F constant,
dr
4. Thus on the one hand, the receding waves would
give by reaction the central pressure of gravitation ; and dV=, 4nr^\dr = c (167)
on the other, the resulting heterogeneity of such an elastic o
kinetic medium also implies the same central pressure. Owing owing to the uniformity of the propagation of light.
to the enormously rapid motions of the aetherons they tend Accordingly, if the aetherons were once heterogeneous,
powerfully to become equally distributed, and thus make the in spacial distribution, they would always rush inward, and
medium homogeneous, but as they are reflected violently perhaps generate waves even if they did not already exist.
from the atoms, —
the collisions and reflections keeping up But once existing, and emitted as light, heat or other like
the waves incessantly —
the medium remains heterogeneous, radiation, the heterogeneous density of the aetherons will
with the energy of the central inrush of the aetherons just always exist. Hence the wave-field about a body like the
balancing the loss of energy by the waves receding away. sun depends on the kinetic exchange of the rapidly moving
 : .

447 5085 448

aetherons, under the steady outflow of waves, and is there- a conic section, by giving it an initial velocity equivalent?

fore eternal like matter itself. to the integrated of the two bodies from infinity, (the'
effect

8. This explains rigorously the central pressure of smaller being now removed from the simplified problem).

gravitation. If waves exist, the density thereby becomes Accordingly if the influence from the other focus be cut off,
a = vr; and since the waves of light and heat fulfill this at the instant of starting, yet its integrated effect be included
we have the motion in conic sections
law, the waves of magnetism and of gravitation also necessa- in the initial velocity,
for a single body as laid down by Newton. There are in-
rily conform to it.

The moon's fluctuations show that gravitational waves finite systems of hyperbolas, parabolas, ellipses, which may
really exist, and are long enough to traverse the earth's mass, be described, depending on the initial conditions, as more
just as similar gravitational waves traverse the bodies of fully set forth below.

Jupiter, Saturn, etc. It also follows that the aether is ex-

cessively line grained, otherwise these refractive phenomena
would not be distinctly realized, so as to become sensible
to observation in the effects they produce on the moon's
motion.
9. The above mathematical theorem, relative to the
inward propagation of the disturbances from a closed con-
centric surface S, with velocity V, eqital to the velocity of
the waves traveling outward from the centre /q, will be ful-
filled by the energy flow conveyed through the aether by
the individual aetherons from any spherical surface S= ^nr^
MMmm
It is not necessary that the disturbances Sa from the elements
of the enclosing surface AS be waves; they may be stresses
due to the energy of the individual aetherons produced by
the heterogeneity incident to the receding waves, and thus ^^***^

converging to the centre whence the waves come.

Accordingly, the above integral (165) rigorously fulfills
the geometrical condition for a heterogeneous aether: it is

kept to the law of density a= vr by the receding waves,

and the aetherons always pressing inward, by virtue of
this very heterogeneity, and the enormous elasticity e =
68932x600000 times greater than that of our air in pro-
portion to its density. 4-^
(ii) Physical illustration of the effects of waves from
the two foci of an ellipsoid, corresponding to a double star
with equal components.
The accompanying wave plate Fig. 13 {Guillemin, Les
Phdnomfenes de la Physique, i86g, p. 182) represents a faint
system of confocal conies due to waves receding from two
equal centres, such as a double star of equal components
(a) The confocal hyperbolas represent the reacting
pressures at the ellipsoidal boundary, if reflection were to
take place there, or the inwardly directed stresses fulfilling
the above equation for Ansi^, under Huyghens' principle for
this more complex system of two bodies, instead of the one
Fig. 13. The upper figure is a diagram of the waves pro-
central mass already considered.
pagated from two equal foci. As reflected from
(b) Each wave from any centre as it reaches the hy- the enclosing ellipsoidal surface, they produce
pothetical ellipsoidal boundary is met there by a wave from the confocal hyperbolas normal thereto. The
the other centre ; and in reflection the reaction from the entire system of confocal conies 'is made more
distinct in the lower figure.
assumed bounding surface is in the direction of the hyper-
bolas, as shown in the figure. The reflection is perpendicular (d) These novel considerations throw a new light on
to the surface of the bounding ellipsoid; and, whether re- dynamical problems, and bring the laws of celestial mecha-
flected or not, the stresses are along the hyperbolas shown. nics into harmony with the wave-theory. They are therefore
(c) If one of the bodies be nearly insensible in mass, of deepest interest in the theories of the motions of bodies.
it is obvious that the other will emit practically all the waves, Every possible motion in a system of two bodies is ac-
and the reaction or reflection would be central, as in the counted for, by the effects of perfectly simple waves, and
case of a spherical body like the sun. When there is a single the resulting stresses in the aether, towards central masses.
centre of waves, a comet may be made to move about it in Celestial mechanics thus acquires a hydrodynamical basis,:
 449 5085 45°
the aether being always subjected to stresses, owirig to the effects for the two centres are combined as shown by the
waves receding from the stars and other bodies of the phy- system of confocal hyperbolas. The system of confocal conies
sical universe. shown in the accompanying illustrations is thus of the highest
A very remarkable comparison may now be made be- dynamical interest.
tween the waves from two foci reflected from an enclosing
ellipsoidal surface, and that above given for waves reflected
(iii) The wave-theory rigorously extended to a system
of two bodies, by means of the geometrical theory of con-
from a spherical surface enclosing a single centre.
focal conies.
1 We
have seen that if the waves emanating from a
single centre be reflected from the enclosing spherical sur-
We have just investigated the physical theory of waves
propagated from the two foci of an ellipsoid, and shown
face S=4nr^, we have the equation (165).
that very remarkable phenomena may thus arise. As the
2. From this equation it follows that if we imagine a
theory thus outlined may have great dynamical importance,
wave -field established, in kinetic equilibrium, about a radi-
it is necessary to examine the problem somewhat more criti-
ating star, and suddenly enclose that star by a perfectly cally from the point of view of geornetrical rigor.
reflecting surface, 5 = 471 r^, the energy near the centre will
Perhaps not immediately obvious what all the
it is
flow outward, till reflected at the enclosing boundary, while
physical phenomena would be
in a wave-field about two equal
that near boundary will as steadily flow inward,
the to
stars. Yet there obviously is ample assurance that should
restore the energy lost by the central spherical shells,
the wave-theory triumph for a pair of equal binary stars, it
r
would necessarily hold for triple and quadruple stars, and
411 Xr'-' dr
sidereal systems of higher order such as we find in the
o
globular clusters. These splendid sidereal systems are so
3. And as the velocity of propagation V is constant, crowded with stars in their inner spherical shells as to attain
we have -ir R—A.R a perfect blaze of starlight towards the centre, and thus the
47rjr^dr = 47i\r^dr. [168 glory of globular clusters, like M.13 in Hercules, w Cen-
R tauri, 'and 47 Toucani, is unrivaled by any other objects in

Accordingly, the loss of wave energy from the centre and its the starry heavens.
perfect restoration goes on without ceasing, and the motion Accordingly we recall briefly the geometry of confocal
of the waves thus confined is eternal. conies, in thehope of illuminating the wave-fields in sidereal
systems of high order, so much studied by the elder Herschcl.
4. Now in the same way, let us imagine waves ema-
nating from two equal foci, as in the case of a double star
The equation of a system of confocal conies in the
with equal components, and suppose both foci suddenly
.«j/-plane is ^2/(^2_^;^)_f.j,2/(^2_^^) ^ ^ (j^^)
enclosed by a perfectly reflecting, confocal, concentric, ellip- And for the more general system of confocal conies, in tri-

soidal surface: dimensional space, the corresponding ^equation is

x^/(a^-hX)-hy^/{6^-+-k)-hzy{c^-^-X) (169) x''\[a}-+-l)^y^l{P-^l)-^z'l{c-'-^l) = I . (i6g)

Then the waves from either focus will return to the From the forms of these equations, perceive that, what we
other in an interval of time dt, corresponding to the distance applies to the plane of xy, will apply also to the system of
2ffl, traveled before and after reflection, in any plane section confocal conoids in xyz. Thus for the sake of simplicity we
of the ellipsoidal surface; and thus the wave-field about either shall consider the system of confocal conies chiefly in the
focus will be perpetual. And just as the wave-field reflecte(^ plane xy, as sufficiently general for the requirements of our
for restoration is perpetual, so also the inward stress, from present problem in tri-dimensional space.
the aether outside the surface, is equal to the radiant energy If X is positive in the equation, the resulting curve
constantly reflected, and thus also eternal. This is the foun- is an ellipse; but if X is negative the curve becomes an
dation of celestial dynamics, resulting from the new theory hyperbola. The transition from the ellipse to the hyperbola
of the aether. is explained as follows.

5. The inwardly directed system of confocal hyper- From the form of (170) we perceive that the principal
bolas indicate the direction of the wave stresses sustained by axes of the curve will increase as X increases, and their ratio
will tend more and more to equality as X increases. Accor-
the ellipsoidal reflecting surface. And since if we remove
the surface, the waves will proceed into infinite space, we' dingly a circle of infinite radius, {a ^^^ d = 00), gives the
limiting form of the elliptical confocals.
recognize that a wave-field about the two radiating foci must
have its equilibrium sustained by the inward stress of the On the other hand, when X is negative, the principal

external aether, which is therefore at every point normal to

axes will decrease as X increases; and the ratio

the enclosing ellipsoidal surface. The external aether thus g = {/,^+X)/{a^+X) (171)
exerts its stress along the tangents to the systems of con- will also decrease as X increases. The becomes
ellipse thus
focal hyperbolas. flatter and flatter, until X is equal to — ^^ when the minor
This geometrical description conveys to our minds
6. axis vanishes, l>^-\-X = o; and the major axis is equal to
a very clear dynamical illustration of the behavior of the the distance between the foci. The curve thus -narrows down
aether about a system of two equal stars. The inward stress to the line-ellipse joining the foci, which is a limiting form
is no longer directed to each centre separately, but the total of one of the confocals.
 . , '

451 5085 45:

If the process continue till ^^-hZ =— 7^, a small ne- x'V(a-'+i)+yW-+}^) = I (173)
gative quantity, the transverse axis of the hyperbola is very To find the solution for this condition, we remember
nearly equal, to the distance between the foci and the com- ;
that b^=^a^-a-e\ and put p-hl ,/ a--a'' e--h). = =
plement of the line joining the foci is a limiting form of the and thus obtain from (173)
hyperbola. This limiting form of the hyperbola is the narrow
hyperbola shown in the figure at the right and left respec-
tively. When ^--t-^ == — ?/ is a larger negative quantity, the
or ^'i^,-i'(x''-+y"-a'-e-')-a'-e^y- = o. ^'^'^^

This is a quadratic with two roots, both real,but of opposite

hyperbola spreads its branches more widely and the vertex
signs, and thus there are two conies, b^-hl = -\-ij' being
becomes more distant from the foci on the horizontal axis,
as shown in the central part of the figure. As X becomes the ellipse, and i^-h?. —if being ^ the corresponding

greater and greater, the angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
hyperbola increases, and in the limit both branches coincide (b) One conic of a confocal system and only one will

with the axis of y. touch a given- straight line.

Accordingly, we perceive that by making / approach From the equations
— b'^, we narrow up the confocal ellipses into a straight line Ix+my-i =o x'-l{a^+l]+y'-l[b^+l) = i (175)
joining the foci. And when the change continues still further,
we find for tangency:
b'^-\-'). =: —ij, & very small negative quantity, the curve passes

from the straight line joining the foci into another straight
{a'-^l)l^Mb'- + X)m''= 1 (176)

line running from either focus to infinity, which give the which \nl, and yields one value of A, correspon-
is linear

line-hyperbola, corresponding to the internal line-ellipse. The ding to one confocal conic, and only one, bounding the
point describing the line-ellipse thus ceases to move between given straight line. This might be tangent to the ellipse,
the foci, and returns to the other focus through infinity, or to the hyperbola, but not to both at the same point, be-
when the limiting elliptical confocal passes into the limiting cause the hyperbolas always are at right angles to the ellipses
hyperbolic confocal. When X is negative and numetically at their intersections.

greater' than a^, the curve is imaginary. By subtraction we have from the two equations

Let us now return to the above figures, and imagine ^2/^2+^2/^2 =, J ^2/(^2 + 2) -Hy/(^2-+- A) = I

two equal wave centres, as from a double star of equal com- x'-^IW-[a^- + X)]+y'^l[b^[b-'+l)] = o .
(177)
ponents, like y Virginis then obviously we have two equal
;
And as the condition of tangency is
wave-fields, one about each focus, with the double system
of confocal hyperbolas, as shown in the above figure. The
xx'/a--hyy'/b^' = I x x'l{a''-hX)^-yy'/{b^-hX) = i (178)
we see that (178) shows the rectangularity of the curves at
entire solid angle about the centre of the confocal ellipses
is Si = 47r.
their intersections.

Application of the
But we may split the system of confocal hyperbolas (v) theory of confocal conies to

into two equal parts, on either side of the median plane, the motions of comets, as under the wave-theory of physical
each equal to ^/iSl 271. = forces. I

Referring to the figure given above for the waves from

It will be evident on reflection that all the hyperbolas
two equal stars, we notice that the boundary there represented
about the lower focus will curve about the right star /, just
is one of the confocal ellipses; others of greater oblateness
as in the case of comets revolving about our sun: and all
are shown nearer the centre of the figure, but the approxi-
about the upper focus will curve about the left star /' And
mations to the line-ellipses very near the centre are omitted,
these infinite systems of hyperbolas will include curves of all
for reasons of clearness.
possible eccentricity, with a perihelion distance less than a,
It will be found that the spherical waves propagated
half the distance between the two foci.
from these two centres give the confocal ellipses, and also
The waves propagated from two equal stars by ge-
the confocal hyperbolas, as clearly outlined in this figure.
nerating a doubly infinite system of confocal conies the — The independent circles about the two foci are at distances
ellipses cutting the corresponding hyperbolas at right angles
ail at^ at^ ... atn
— fix the paths of infinite varieties of comets about either
, , ,

At the boundary the waves from the two foci are re-
focus, as will be more fully discussed below.
flected, with reaction in the direction of the perpendicular
(iv) Geometrical properties of confocal conies. to the surface. Hence we
see that the normals at these points
(a) Two conies of a confocal system pass through any of reflection give the
confocal hyperbolas. Accordingly, if
given point — one an the other an hyperbola. After
ellipse, waves were traveling with uniform velocity from both foci,
the above outline this almost obvious, without further
is and reflected at the confocal elliptical boundary, there would
discussion, for if the equation of the original conic be thereby result stresses in the aether directed along the con-
focal hyperbolas at the intersections of these two systems.
«v-t-y/*'=i (172)
This result of the intersecting system of confocals is very
the equation of the confocal conic is
remarkable, since it will hold for every point of infinite
space, and thus for ellipses and hyperbolas of every possible
And it is obvious that this curve will pass through form, mutually intersecting at right angles, as shown in the
the given point [x'/), if figure.
 45; 5o85 454
It was established by the researches of Prof. Stromgren, might be greatly extended, but we shall not enter upon
of the Royal Observatory, Copenhagen, about 1910-11, that it here.
all the comets heretofore observed describe ellipses about it only remains to add that in the fifth
In conclusion,
the sun in one focus. It had previously been supposed that and hope to throw some light on the obscure
sixth papers I
the orbits of certain comets were hyperbolic, yet greater physical cause underlying molecular and atomic forces. The
refinement of research proved the elliptical character of calculation of the wave-stresses at the boundary of a liquid
all these orbits; so that they return to our sun, and thus globule, such as a rain drop or a drop of dew, will lead
are relics of our primordial solar nebula, as set forth in us to the cause of surface tension, constantly acting for the
my Researches on the Evolution of the Stellar Systems, generation of minimal surfaces throughout natufe.
vol. II, 19 10. It is not by chance that all liquid drops take the
If the comets had greater than the parabolic velocity spherical form! The geometer may discover therein a great
of movement relatively to our sun, v>kY{\-+-m) ^(i/r), the secret of the physical universe!
paths would be hyperbolas such orbits, however, are not
; If so, advance will illuminate also the difficult
this
yet of record. It is obvious that we can now interpret the problem vof which has already engaged the at-
capillarity,
j

physical significance of the system of confocal conies, in \

tention of so many eminent geometers. Whence wp hope
conformity with the observed laws of celestial mechanics, to attack the subject of cohesion and adhesion, and even
and the indications of the Wave-Theory of Physical Forces. of explosive forces, which heretofore have appeared even
For example, if a comet with zero velocity were to more bewildering.
cross the boundary to enter the field about the two foci, in Mr. IV. has laid riie under lasting obliga-
S. Trankle
the above wave-figure, the instantaneous stresses to the foci, tions by completion of this fourth paper.
facilitating the
on the line of the reflected waves, would cause the comet And Mrs. See^% sympathetic interest in these researches has
to pursue the indicated hyperbola, passing through the point lent a support which often proved so invaluable as to be
(x, y). Under slightly modified conditions this reasoning beyond all praise.

Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Mo., 1920 Sept. 6. T. J. J. See.

 T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

|M4 ^1
-
I

't,. '
S
.0
<.^ &

Fig. I. Illustration of the effect of orthogonal proiection, by which molecular motions, in Foisson's
elongated ellipses normal to the wave front, at of a sphere surface, become
different parts
mainly transverse to the direction of the ray, at a great distance from the source. The outer
circle is magnified to distinct visibility, so as to render the cause of the transverse vibrations
in light more obvious to the imagination, as shown also by the darkened areas of the enlarged
ray at the centre of the figure.

Fig. 3. Graphical illustration, 'by means of the shaded portion, of the enormous concentration of light
vibrations in the periphery of a beam, under orthogonal projection of the sphere, with /'iJzjjoh's
elliptical paths for the molecular oscillations along the radii from the centre, and, by means
of the small factor A'K, thus making nearly all the vibrations transverse to the direction of
the ray.
Astronom\^achrichten Bd. 212.
Tafel
^. J. y. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 5. General view of the magnetic field about the earth, with a specimen of the waves to which the
fieldis due, shown on the right. The magnetic needle lies in the hollow of the waves, and
thus we see why it points to the north. Gauss' Theory of the Earth's magnetism corresponds to
the wave-theory for the part of the atoms which are lined up in parallel, to produce the earth's
magnetic field, about 1/1380^^ of the whole. The rest of the atoms, 1379/1380^113 of the whole,
give the central action called gravift.tion, but the gravitational wave field is too complex to be
shown in the diagram.

^- /
Astronoi^Nachrichten Bd. 212.
T/J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether. Tafel 9.

Fig. 7.
Illustration of light polari-
zed by reflection from the
blue sky. The vibrations
are normal to the plane
of polarization passing
through the sun and the
zenith, andthepolarization
attains a maximum at a
point equally distant from
the zenith.

f e.U.x'J L.«K

^iB_i_ltu«^fraf-':;y ^"^

Fig. 8.
Undulatory explanation of the interference
of polarized light, when the paths of the
aefherons are circles. It will hold for
ellipses, and even for straight lines, but
such restrictions are not necessary. In
the upper part of the figure the wave
phases differ by ^/g^; in the lower part
the phases concur, and give double in-
tensity. The light and dark bands above
correspond to the present position of the
wave, indicated by the heavy line, while
the arrows show the advanced position
of the wave when it has moved to the
right after an interval d^.

Fig. 10.
Illustration of the diffraction fringes due
to a rectangular aperture, with the corre-
sponding visibility curve above it, on
slightly different scale {Michelson). The
central band of light is nine times more
intense than the first secondary maxi-
mum, while the higher orders of bands,
all parallel to the sides of the rectan-
gular slit, are still fainter.

C. Schaidt,
^^Ufafi^
 Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. Nr. 5130
(Band 214, — Nov. 1921.)

New Theory of the Aether. By T. 7. y. See.

(Fifth Paper.) (With 2 Plates.)

I. Outlines of a New Theory of Molecular »A long endeavored in vain to determine

while ago, I
Forces based on Wave-Action, which is also indi- the laws of attraction whichwould represent these phenomena;
cated by Laplace's Celebrated Criterion that these but some late researches have rendered it evident that the
Forces become sensible only at Insensible Distances. whole may be represented by the same laws, which satisfy
Since the renaissance of physical science in the age of the phenomena of refraction; that is, by laws in which the
Galileo natural philosophers have labored patiently for the dis- attraction is sensible only at insensible distances; and from
covery of the great laws of nature; and thus for about three this principle we can deduce a complete theory of capillary
centuries they have extended their investigations by means of attraction.*
delicate experiments and the most exact methods of mathe- » Clairaut supposes that the action of a capillary tube
matical analysis. Yet, notwithstanding this brilliant record of may be sensible upon the infinitely thin column, which passes
achievement, it remains a somewhat remarkable fact that through the axis of the tube. Upon this point I differ wholly
molecular forces have not yet been assigned to any known from him, and think, with ILawksbee and other philosophers,
physical cause. Accordingly in modern works on physics we that the capillary attraction is, like the force producing re-
still search in vain for an intelligible explanation of the me- fraction, and all chemical affinities, sensible only at insensible
chanism underlying these forces. The subject therefore has distances. Hawksbee observed that in glass tubes, whether the
remained very obscure, and continues to challenge the in- glass is very thick, or very thin, the water rises to the same
genuity of both the geometer and the natural philosopher. height, if the interior diameters are the same. Hence it follows

The history of physical science shows that when that the cylindrical strata of glass, which are at a sensible
the
distance from the interior surface, do not aid in raising the
solution of a great standing problem at length is attained,
it seldom is true that the first attack was wholly successful. water, though in each one of these strata, taken separately,
the fluid ought to rise above the level. It is not the inter-
Indeed, most of our final solutions of difficult problems result
position of the strata, which they include between them, which
from successive processes of approximation. And thus it may
prevents their action upon the water; for it is natural to sup-
be doubted whether the solution of the problem of molecular
pose that the capillary attraction, like the force of gravity,
forces now in sight is quite complete.
is transmitted through other bodies; this attraction must there-
But even if the new
only opens the way towards
effort
fore disappear solely by reason of the distance of the fluid
the final solution, still it may be
of the greatest service to
from these strata; whence it follows that the attraction of the
science. For pioneer effort always has to precede the perfect
glass upon the water is sensible only at insensible distances.*
development of science, just as somewhat rude specimens of
sculptureand architecture preceded the perfect development Laplace justly lays stress upon Hawkshees observation
of Greek art in the age of Ictinus, Phidias aud Praxiteles. that in glass tubes, whether very thick or very thin, the water

Accordingly, having arrived at an efficient physical cause rises to thesame height, if the interior diameters are the same.
'

of molecular forces which seems to be in general operation This indicated to Laplace that the interior particles of a thick
throughout nature, we deem it desirable to set forth the results, tube of glass exerts no sensible action on the adhering fluid.
because the suggestions which this development may convey Though never suspected heretofore this reasoning of
to others are likely to prove fruitful. Laplace affords the most conclusive evidence that molecular
(i) Laplace's criterion, that molecular forces become sen- forces really are due to wave-action. It will be shown hereafter

sible only at insensible distances, seems to point to wave- that experimental researches by Rticker and others on the
action as the underlying physical cause. thickness of soapbubbles, at the critical instant of rupture,
In the introduction to his celebrated Theory of Ca- make the radius of action of these molecular forces so small
(Mecanique Celeste, Tome IV, 1806, with supplement
pillarity, that they correspond to the wave-lengths of the ultra-violet
to the theory issued in 1807) Laplace ex&mines the theories region of the spectrum, a fact which may be regarded as an
of his predecessors with characteristic sagacity. experimental confirmation of the wave-theory of these physical
At the very outset of the discussion he alludes to the forces.

refractive power exerted by bodies upon light, and says that It appears that Laplace himself came near to this line

this force is the result of the attraction of their particles, yet of argument, for in explaining the processes adopted, in the
he holds that the law of attraction cannot be determined introduction to the theory of capillary attraction, he says that
because »the only condition required is that it must be in- it is evident that »the distance at which the action of the
sensible at sensible distances.* He then proceeds to deal tube ceases to be sensible is imperceptible; so that, if by
with capillary attraction, in which extensive use is made of means of a very powerful microscope, we should be able to

this same hypothesis. A part of his reasoning is as follows: make it appear equal to a millimetre, it is probable that the
 «

28- 513° 284

same magnifying power would give to the diameter of the to physical problems. These two independent circumstances
tube an apparent length of several meters. The surface of seemed to me an overwhelming argument for the wave-theory

the tube may therefore be considered as very nearly a plane as representing the true order of nature, which we see exhibited
surface, for an extent which is equal to that of the sphere most simply in the refraction of light.
of its sensible activity; the fluid will therefore be elevated In the New Theory of the Aether we have dwelt on
or depressed near that surface, in almost the same manner the equation of wave motion developed by Poisson:
as if it were a plane. Beyond this point the fluid will be d^O/dt^ {d"'0/dx'-hdi(D/dy2-^d^(D/dz')
subjected only to the force of gravity and its own action on
its particles; its surface will be very nearly that of a spherical
Likewise Courier's Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur,

segment, of which the extreme tangent planes, being those 182 1, leads to the similar expression:

of the fluid surface at the limits of the sensible sphere of 920/9^2 ^ ^2 (920/9^3_^a-20/9_j,2 + 920/922)
activity of the tube, will be very nearly, in the different tubes, Q=/[x.y,z,t); = /{x,y, = o O s), i

equally inclined to their sides; whence it follows that all

which holds propagation
for the of and wave heat, other motions.
segments will be similar. The comparison of these results
For constant temperature, 80/9/ = and o, therefore

820/9;c2-H820/9y2+920/8a2 = o
gives the true cause of the elevation, or depression, of fluids,
.
(3)
in of their diameters.
capillary tubes, in the inverse ratio ><

»Therefore the attraction of a capillary tube has no For the disturbances in the theory of sound, Poisson
usually writes for the velocity-potential cp, thus:
other influence upon the elevation or depression of the fluid
which it contains, than that of determining the inclination
of the first tangent planes of the interior fluid surface, situated d^cp/dt^ = a^\J^(f\ <p =f[x,y,z), i= o .

very near to the sides of the tube; and it is upon this in-
In the theory of light, the same differential equation
clination that the concavity or convexity of the surface
arises (cf. Drude, Theory of Optics, Parti, Chapter III, § 3)
depends, as well as the magnitude of its radius.
92^/8/2=, ;72(92^/a^2_^a2^/9y2_^92j/922)
(ii) The wave-theory
of Fourier and Poisson, ^)
underlies the mathematical analysis
based on the solution of partial
92^/9/2 = V^V'''s; s =f[x,y,z), t = o.
^^^

differential equations. In the theory of waves we have for plane waves along
In the Fourth Paper, near the end of Section 8, I have the a:-axis :

called attention to the great importance attached to boundary y =^ A%\n[2nll-[Vt—x)^a\ (6)

conditions by modern investigators in theoretical physics, and But in tri-dimensional space, the disturbance spreads in all
have also pointed out the prominent part played by partial directions with the velocity V at {atY =
x'^+y^+z^ =
differential equations in the mathematical methods applicable and from any point P{x,y, z), the sphere surface becomes:
{atY = («-i-a/cosi^)^-+-(_y-f-a/sini^ sinft)) -atsina coso) (7)

which we have treated in previous papers.

In the treatment of Poissons equation of wave motion,
92(D/9/2 = «2(9-'a)/8.v- + 92a)/8_)'2-(-92cD/822) «Z) =n (x,y,z), / =o
we have found (AN 5048) that for three variables

W = S2 [x,y, z) = (i/87r=) ^j^j'^^ -^ (?, V' ^ cos'§[x-l) cosi/ [y-/.!,) cosZ{z-v) d'§ dr/ dj dl d/u, di

in which §, rj, £ and /, ,((, v extend from —00 to -1-00

This may be transformed into

ffi = Si {x,y, z] = (i/87t3) ^^^^^'^^ si il fj, t) cosA (§-.«) cos/* [ij-y] cosv{t.-z) d?di; d^dldijudv (10)
— CXD
H-CX3

= (i/8;r3)JJJJJJi->(S,,,,n.[^^^-^)^l^(^-^)-^^(?-^a^-MSd,dU*dj.d. (i.)
— 00
By including the factor i/Stt^ in the arbitrary function, this may be written in the well known form of the expression
for any time /,

In developing the new theory of the aether I found Poisson's Analytical Theory ofWave Motion, (1815-1839) so extraordinarily useful
')

that I to apply to M. Baillaud, Director of the Observatory of Paris, for an authentic portrait of this unrivaled physical mathematician.
was led
The portrait proved to be somewhat difficult to obtain, but as it reached me on the day this paper is finished, it seems appropriate to
acknowledge M. Baillaud's kindness, and at the same time do honor to Poisson's memory and a service to geometers generally by using the
portrait as a frontispiece to this Fifth Paper.
In his eulogy of Poisson, Arago relates that one day the venerable Lagrange remarked to the brilliant young geometer: »I am old,
and during my intervals of sleeplessness I divert myself by making numerical approximations. Keep this one; it may interest you. Huyghtns
was thirteen years older than Nnplon, I am thirteen years older than Laplace; D' Alembert was thirty two years older than Laplace, Laplace is thirty
two years older than you." —
which was Lagrange's delicate way of intimating to Poisson his destined place in the Pantheon of mathematical fame.
 ;:

285 5130 286

a>=o(.,,,,,,)=jjjjjj,<iA^Bhi)^—! y^i(?, r/, pdJdi/dCdZd/td)^.

And finally, in the Fourth Paper, (AN 5085), we have reached Foissotts double integral:
O == ©'-4-®"

= (i/47r)J ^F{x-\-atcosd, y-^-atimSamm, ^H-a/sin^ cosw} 2'sini^ d^ dcu

o o
TT: 271 I13J
+ (1/471) (8/9/) J ^Il{x^atco56, j' + fli'sin^sinw, ^-Haz'sini^ cos w} ^-sin^ d^ do

This expression for the velocity-potential O, will hold rigorously for the waves emanating from any mathematical
F[x,y,z) and traversing all space from that centre of disturbance. But in nature the waves proceed from all atoms
^o\xii
of a mass, and thus we must extend the integral of Foisson by taking the triple integral for the volume and density
r 7t 2Tt: tc 2TC

<5 = J J J
(o'/47r)
J
\^F{x-\-at(io^d, jj/^az-sini^ sinco, zH-ai'sim^ cosm} r^ sin^ dr d^ dw i'sin^ d^ do)

J4j
-hJ J J(ff/47r) (8/8/) JJjIjxH- a/cosi^, >H-fl/sin ^ sin ft), z-\-at?kn6 cosft)} r^ sin^ dr d^ dw -/sini^ Ad do) .

000 00
This is a double quintuple integral, and by referring to the 2. The Recogni zed Refraction and Dispersion,
equations (g) or (12) above we see that (14) corresponds to of Light ina Drop of Rain shows the Cause of the
a single non-nuple integral in the original form of these Rainbow, and suggests Similar Molecular Effects
equations, because the disturbances must be conceived to when the Source of Light is extended by Double
proceed from each atom of the mass, Integration to the Surface of the Entire Celestial
Sphere.
;« ^ j I I crr^ sini^ dr d^ dft) .
(15) (i) Outline of the theory of the rainbow, as an in-
000 troduction to the wave-theory.
Now such independent gravi-
in the physical universe, Let the circle in Fig. i represent a section of a spherical
tational waves must be imagined proceed from the several to rain-drop. As water is liquid and yields to the forces acting
atoms of all bodies whatsoever, just- as light waves do from on the surface this hypothesis of sphericity implies that there
each atom of the self-luminous gases of the stars. Accordingly are constantly acting forces at work to maintain this figure
such integration has to be extended to the waves from all and we know from the researches of Lord Rayleigh (Proc.
masses severally; and as there is an infinitude of bodies, the Roy. Soc, May 5, 1879, no. 196), on the oscillation-periods
result is an integral infinitely repeated, or an infinite integral, of globules of liquid, that the forces at work are quite powerful,
though the value of the disturbance remains finite at every otherwise the oscillations of the drops of distorted form would
point of space. not be so rapid as they are observed to be.
And not only is there a double infinite or infinite infinite
system of interpenetrating waves, but also the resistances —
with refraction, dispersion and interference at the boundaries —
of all solids and liquid bodies. It is these resistances —
refractions, dispersions, diffractions, and other wave trans-
formations — which give rise to molecular forces. They
usually are very powerful at the surfaces of bodies, and by
their mutual interactions on contiguous atoms and molecules
cause cohesion, adhesion, capillarity, and chemical affinity,
and other phenomena heretofore utterly bewildering to the
natural philosopher.
Now it is our purpose to outline a preliminary theory
of these forces, in the hope that the light thus shed on a
very obscure problem may induce others to extend these
researches. It is obvious that the preliminary theory must
necessarily remain very incomplete till the phenomena are
carefully studied under a criterion which may operate as an
Fig. 1. Path of the sun's rays in the theory
experimentum crucis. But these verifications can only be of the rainbow. The large circle
deduced by investigators of great experience in the several represents the magnified raindrop,
branches of physical science. and 05 the direction of the sun.
 :

287 5130 288

As our theory of molecular forces is based upon the action be in such position that the light entering them will have
of waves of various lengths, we must be careful not to assume undergone minimum deviation, and send to the observer a
that waves other than those of the visible spectrum are absent, relatively large amount of light, on a darkened background.
yet in the problem of the rainbow bur reasoning of course This simple theory briefly outlines the foundation of the
relates to the visible spectrum. It is believed thatwaves shorter rainbow, but the dispersion of colors is still to be explained.
than the visible spectrum give rise to chemical affinity, capil- We shall now include the effects of refraction and re-
larity, etc., while the waves of the infra-red region, having flection, so as to take account of dispersion. As the sun's
enormous wave-lengths, generate heat through breaking up into rays inlude all the wave-lengths of the spectrum, we must
shorter and shorter wavelengths. consider the production of color in the rainbow. It is ob-
In figure i the circle represents a section of a spherical vious that if the source of light were a point and there were
rain-drop, with parallel rays of sunlight SiAf^, and thus monochromatic light, the luminous band would be reduced
internally refracted along the pa.th MiJ?i, whence it is reflected to a mere line of one color circling about the anti-solar point.
along the path HiNi, and then outwardly refracted along But when light of the whole spectrum is incident upon the
the path NiF^. The line from the centre OM^ makes an drops, the violet rays are deviated more than the average;
angle of 59° with the path of the incident light, which, at moreover the width of the source of light lets the waves fall
this small circle 6 about J/ as a pole, is less deviated by at slightly different angles, and hence the inner side of the
two refractions and than is the light incident at
reflection, cone has an angle % of about 40°. The rainbow is thus a
other small circles about M.
appears that the surface ofIt conical band, about 2° wide, with the red band about 42°
the rain-drop is divided into different zones about the pole from the anti-solar point.
M, and the path within depends on the polar angle 6, and In addition to the primary rainbow thus briefly ex-
also on the wave-length of the light. plained, there is a secondary rainbow due to light which has
It will be found that for rays of the visible spectrum, been twice reflected within the drop, as shown in figure 2.
the light incident in the narrow zone or surface
2TC

d.f =r di^ ;' sin ^

J
Am = 2 7T^^ sini^ di^, 6 ^ 59° (16
o
operates to form a parallel pencil N^ P^ when the rays have
undergone their last refraction in leaving the raindrop.
In
another smaller zone, as M-:^, nearer the pole, the incident
light forms a divergent pencil No, /s, when the originally
parallel rays have departed. The direct illumination of the
hemisphere of the drop turned towards the sun thus yields
successive zones about the pole M
'If \ % -1

2ni"\ sini^ di^ = 27r r' \s\n.6 -Jsin^di?- -Jsir )d^ >i7) Fig. 2. Explanation of the primary and secondary rainbow, tlie latter

o (o 9,,
by a reversed double reflection within the raindrop.

To understand the illumination of the sky noted in a

rainbow, we notice that in the case of an emitted parallel
pencil, the only decrease of the light with the distance depends
on the absorption in the raindrop as a medium, which is
small. But with the divergent pencil the case is very different,
because the rays are spread over a greater and greater area
as they recede from their point of intersection; and hence
the illumination rapidly decreases.
Accordingly, in viewing such a raindrop from a distance,
we should receive a considerable amount of refracted light
in looking along the conical surface P^ N, but very little
when we look along any other conical surface about the
anti-solar point.
After passing through the falling raindrops the light of
Fig. 3. General outline of the theory of the rainbow given in
the sun thus becomes redistributed in the sky, and a luminous
Newton's Optics, 1704.
band appears, corresponding to the rays which emerge as
parallel pencils; but in the other zones there is relatively Owing to the reversed nature of the reflection, from
increased darkness, owing to the divergence of rays cor- below upward, we perceive that the colors in the secondary
responding thereto. bow should be reversed. Thus whilst the primary bow gives
It will be seen from the lower part of the figure the red above and the violet below, the secondary bow has
that the angle N'iP2X' ^/ is 42°; and hence all raindrops the violet above and the red below. And the angles % of
on the surface of the cone 42° from the anti-solar point will the cone are about 54° for the violet, and 5 1° for the red.
 :

289 5130 290

The secondary rainbow is therefore wider than the primary Herschel'?, analysis of the intensity of the forces producing
bow, and fainter, while the colors are exactly reversed. refraction is so worthy of careful study that we quote it as
From
the reasoning here outlined, it follows that there follows
are two zones for producing the rainbows: »Whatever be the forces by which bodies reflect and
refract light, one thing is certain, that they must be in-
I. The Primary Bow,
comparably more energetic than the force of gravity. The

d^ = 27Tr^ \ sini^ di^, xi = 40°, ^2 42" (18)

attraction of the earth on a particle near its surface produces
a deflexion of only about 16 feet in a second; and, therefore,
in a molecule moving with the velocity of light, would cause
2. The Secondary Bow, a curvature, or change of direction, absolutely insensible in
-I we must consider first, that the time during
that time. In fact,
dS 2nr^ ^sin^di ^3 = S'"- Xi = 54° ^iQj which the whole action of the medium takes place, is only
that within which light traverses the diameter of the sphere
where Xi> X2. Xs, Xi ^re the angles of the cones from the of sensible action of its molecules at the surface. To allow
anti-solar point. so much thousandth of an inch for this space is beyond
as a
all probability, and this interval is traversed by light in the
Now consider what would be the result for greater
changes in wave length than we have considered. Obviously 1/12672000000000 part of a second. Now, if we suppose
the deviation produced by refraction to be 30°, (a case which
the width of these luminous zones would be increased, and
frequently happens) and to be produced by a uniform force
they might attain any width appropriate to the range in
acting during a whole second; since this is equivalent to a
wave-length. Thus if the range of wave-length be multiplied
linear deflexion of 200000 milesXsin3o°, or of looooo miles
say tenfold, the zone of light might become quite wide.
Finally, we should consider the effect of increasing the
= 33000000X16 feet, such a force must exceed gravity on
width of the luminous source, as by putting additional suns
the earth's surface 33000000 times. But, in fact, the whole
effect being produced not in one second, but in the small
to radiating, side by side. Obviously each sun will generate
fraction of it above mentioned, the intensity of the force
its own rainbow, without regard to that due to the other sun;
operating it (see Mechanics) must be greater in the ratio of
and thus we should have a superposed, or accumulated in-
the square of one second to the square of that fraction; so
tegral effect on the background of the sky. If there be suns
side by side, from w 0° to w = =
360°, where w is the
that the least improbable supposition we can make gives a
mean force equal to 4969126272X10^* times that of ter-
azimuth, the circular string of suns near the horizon, would
restrial gravity. But in addition to this estimate already so
fill the heavens with rainbows superposed three or more layers
enormous, we have to consider that gravity on the earth's
deep, and the whole lower part of the sky would become very
surface is the resultant attraction of its whole mass, whereas
luminous. And if the elevation of the ring of suns be in-
creased, from the horizon to the zenith, z go°, z 0°, = = the force deflecting light is that of only those molecules im-
mediately adjoining to it, and within the sphere of the
where z is the zenith distance, we should fill the whole
deflecting forces. Now a sphere of i/iooo of an inch dia-
heavens several times over with the light of rainbows.
meter, and of the mean density of the earth, would exert
These conceptions, drawn from our theory of the rain- at its surface a gravitating force only
bow, as extended by integrating the entire celestial sphere,
(i/iooo)x(i inch/diameter of the earth)
will perhaps prove of value when we come to deal with the
wave theory of molecular forces. of ordinary gravity, so that the actual intensity of the force
exerted by the molecules concerned 'cannot be less than
(ii) argument that in refraction the
Sir y^oAn fferscAel's
(1000 -earth's diameter)/ 1 inch (== 46352000000)
mechanical forces exerted must be termed infinite, may be
extended also to dispersion, and the hardness of bodies, as times the above enormous number, or upwards of 2 • 10**

in section 10 below. when compared with the ordinary intensity of the gravitating

In his celebrated article on Light, Encycl. Metrop., 1849,

power of matter. Such are the energies concerned in the
Sect. 561, Sir Jo/m Herschel has calculated the intensity of
phenomena of on the Newtoftmn doctrine. In the un-
light
dulatory hypothesis, numbers not less immense will occur;
the refractive force in comparison with the force of gravity
nor is there any mode of conceiving the subject which does
at the earth's surface. Whilst his result is obtained on the
not call upon us to admit the exertion of mechanical forces
Neivtoman emission theory, and not precisely applicable to
which may well be termed infinite.*
the problem before us, yet this reasoning, as Herschel remarks,
is well calculated to show the greatness of the power of 3. Outline of New Theory of Surface Tension

molecular forces. This enormous force we now assign to and of Capillarity based on Wave-Action.
waves action, and explain by the very high elasticity of the (i) From the small radius of activity of the molecular
aether, which is £ =
689321600000 times more elastic than forces observed by Quincke in 1869, — namely 50 micro-
our air in proportion to its density; and yet this enormously millimetres, corresponding to a wave-length of only one half

elastic aether not only has the wave surface refracted, and that of the shortestwave ever measured — it follows that these
thus suddenly bent into a new position, at the boundary of forces depend on waves in the invisible chemical spectrum.
solids and liquids, but also suffers an unequal refraction or In Poggendorff's Annalen, 1 37, 1869, Quincke gives

dispersion of the waves according to their length. certain results of his observational researches on capillarity
 .

291 5130 292

and similar phenomena, and is led to the conclusion that From the above reasoning we may suppose this value or
the molecular attraction becomes sensible at a distance of Tx< 250/1/1.
about 50 micro-millimetres, ore 0.000050 mm, one millionth 2. Now Langley found by his explorations of the in-

of a millimetre i//|(( o.oooooi mm. = fra-red spectrum, by means of the bolometer, that the heat
Reinhold and Riicker have strikingly confirmed Quincke's spectrum was about 20 times the length of the visible spectrum
conclusions by their researches on soap bubbles. They found observed by Newton, which runs from A =
]i,q.4fi^i: to

that the black film always formed before the stable bubble K= 393.38 iit/t, and terminates quite suddenly at zop.ojjp,
breaks, and that it has a uniform or nearly uniform thickness according to Cornu. Thus the heat spectrum, made up of
of 1 1 or I 2 micro-millimetres, (Proc. Roy. Soc, June
2 i, 1877 ;
long waves irregularly distributed over a wide space, is of
and Roy. Soc, Apr. ig, 1883).
Phil. Trans. enormous extent, ending in the other direction bej'ond the
In his well known Address on Capillary Attraction red, at say 7340|((/(.

Lord Kelvin remarks that the abrupt commencement and the Magnetic and gravitational waves are supposed to be
3.

permanent stability of the black film bring to light a pro- considerably longer than the heat waves, but an instrument
position of fundamental importance in molecular theory: to determine their length is not yet available. Thus the
namely the tension of the film, which is sensibly constant planetary forces undoubtedly depend on long waves, while
when the thickness exceeds S°W') diminishes to a minimum, the molecular forces depend on very short waves.
and begins to increase again when the thickness is diminished 4. It is observed that the longest wave-length of light

to 10 i^ijj,. It is not possible, Lord Kelvin concludes, to explain yet measured is 2^00 n^h, and the shortest electrical oscil-
this fact by any imaginable law of force between the different lation yet measured is some 600000 /tjit. And we know from

portions of the film supposed homogeneous, and we are the phenomena of waves in water of the sea and other fluids
forced to the conclusion that it depends upon molecular that long waves may be broken up into shorter ones by
heterogeneousness. resistance. Accordingly, we conclude that by resistance long
electric waves generate heat waves; and an additional breaking
the molecular structure and sustaining
Accordingly,
up of heat waves gives the still shorter light waves; while
forces depend on distances of these dimensions, as if the
a still further disintegration of the light waves, gives the
forces are due to waves in the chemical spectrum. This
chemical waves of the invisible spectrum beyond the ultra-violet.
reasoning is based on well established observational data on
5. This transformation by breaking up of the waves
the radius of action of molecular forces; and thus it may
appears to be the order of nature. It is exhibited constantly
also throw light on the cause of these forces in such phenomena
as capillary attraction. Here is a suggestive summary, in which
in the surface motions of the sea. And by turning on an
electric current, — which -was shown in the author's work
the micro-millimetre is the unit
of 1Q17, to be aether waves of a certain type — the dis-
1. Wave length of Z)-line of sodium ^go fi/j,
turbance is observed to heat a wire till it becomes red, by
2. Maximum of chemical action in the solar spectrum 400 »
the resistance opposed to the motion of the longer electric
3. Invisible spectrum begins 300 »
waves. Further operation of the electric current makes the
4. Shortest wave-length ever measured 100 »
resistance wire glow with the brilliancy of the electric spark
5. Qicincke observes molecular action effective 50 »
or arc, which is filled with violet light, like that of the sun.
6. Reinhold ^ndi. Riicker rupture soap bubbless at thick-
Still higher action of the current causes the vaporization of
ness of lo »
the luminous film of the electric light, and thus the generation
It has long been known that chemical action is con- of chemical waves, as in the light of the sun and stars.
fined chiefly to the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. And 6. The waves producing chemical affinity are thus held
now it appears from this table that the molecular forces, if to be so short as to be invisible to the human eye. This
due to wave action, are chiefly developed in the totally in- whole process therefore confirms the following view:
visible spectrum, the violet ^and A' lines of the solar spectrum (a) All short waves in nature come from the breaking
corresponding to about 400 ,((//. Lord Kelvin estimates the up of longer waves in the aether.
radius of action of the molecular forces as less than 2 50|«./i.,
(b) All molecular forces operative in chemical affinity,
and on the wave theory this result is confirmed. capillarity, cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, etc., are due
The question arises: How are we to interpret the de- to very short waves in the aether, which lie beyond the ultra-
velopment of these short waves? In any new theory there violet, in the region from 10 to 2 5o/(.|it.
is much which still remains obscure, but the following outline
7 The maximum of the chemical activity in the solar
enables us to interpret most if not all of the known phenomena: spectrum, about 400 /i/t, is due to the greater agitation in-
I. In Za//««'s theory of capillary attraction, based on cident to the longer waves, which effect the greatest changes,,
the theory of molecular forces sensible only at insensible while the shorter waves exert the greater forces of a steady
distances, he putsy'(r) as the unknown function of the forces, character.
and takes 8. If this conclusion be admissible it confirms Laplace\-
00
theory of capillarity, which is mathematically expressed by
y (') =^ l/(r)dr =o (20) the formula:

or the action of the forces is insensible beyond a small 5pW = J/Wd;- = o. (20)
limiting distance 7\, which is the lower limit of the integral.
 .

293 5^30 294

And it indicates that different substances will exert different forces, according to their resistance or their trans-
mission of the wave-lengths, X^, Aj, /Is,
• X,; li<r^:
r=X_[ r=ki
y [r) = K, J/(r) Ar+X, J/ (r) dr^ -K; lf[r) dr-^ hAVxJ/ W dr (21)

where Ki,K2,K^,K/^,- Ki—^ are coefficients OPconductivities,

•
forms two separate waves, the rear wave being shorter and
or resistance for the particular wave-length, the resistance being having the smaller amplitude.
the reciprocal of the conductivity. (b) The longer of 'the parts of the broken wave becomes
Direct proof that boundary pressure due to waves
(ii) actually of larger amplitude than the original wave. And
is the cause of molecular forces. when subdivision again occurs, the same tendency arises —
After the foregoing discussion of the general principles
1
more waves, and of larger amplitude. This conclusion of
Airy is verified by the tide heights observed at San Francisco
underlying the wave-theory, we now enter upon certain pro-
cesses of exact calculation. The observational data are in-
and at Mare Island the — tides at Mare Island being higher
complete, yet the processes disclosed will prove very instructive.
by the factor 1.26, which is a noticeable increase of amplitude
in traveling 25 miles from the Golden Gate.
In treatises (cf. DanieU% Principles of Physics,
on physics,
3"^ edition, 142) we find the conclusion that the
1895, p. (c) In considering waves transformed by resistance we
Kinetic Energy due to a steady flow of waves is have to sum up the pressure due to all lengths, and the

e = '^liQv^' (22)
effects of their different amplitudes, which requires an in-
tegration of all the variable elements.
where q is the density of the medium and v the velocity
of the waves. If n be the index of refraction, the refractive action
4.

2. Now for simple harmonic motion in a circle of

at theboundary will be [tr' i), —
and the wave pressure
exerted on the boundary of the fluid will be, in dynes per
radius a, which corresponds to a wave-amplitude a, we have:
square cm or ergs per cubic cm:
V = inalt, v^ ^jfTc'^ a^jfi = ^n"^ a^ v"^ (23) Sj = («^—
where v = ijt is the wave-frequency.
But it is well known
27i;^fl^ (»

and n are related, though not in

that v
v^ i) (25)

Using these values in (22) we obtain for the pressure

a very simple way. According to the celebrated researches
due to the steady flow of waves; of Caicchy on the refraction and dispersion of light,
Jo = ^I'iQv'^ = 2 7r^ a^ Q v^ (24) n =
A^Bl-'^^Cl-^ A+Ev'^^Cv'' =
(26)
dynes per square centimetre, or ergs per cubic cm. where A, B, C, are coefficients, and X is the wave length,
V the corresponding wave frequency. This formula (26) holds
3. When the waves are short, r is increased, and thus
quite accurately for the range of the visible spectrum.
the pressure z^ is increased, unless the amplitude a is cor-
respondingly decreased. This raises the question as to whether 5. Accordingly, for a given wave-amplitude, wave-length,
retarded waves have greater or less amplitude than the original and aether density, we have
unchanged waves. Investigation shows: ^ = 271' a^ Q v"^ [n^ — i) , ,

(a) The long waves break up into shorter waves, by = 2jT''a^QvmA-^By''+Cv''y^-i].

^^'^'

a process fully outlined for water waves by Sir George Airy, But as the amplitude a, density q, and wave-frequency v
Tides and Waves, Encycl. Metr., 1845, (cf. Second Paper on are variable, when waves are resisted by matter and thus
the New Theory of the Aether, AN 5048, pp. 141-142)- transformed, we must take the triple integral for these three
It is shown that the wave front becomes steep, owing independent elements, in order to get a rigorous calculation
to resistance, and the crest breaks into two parts, and finally of the pressure at the boundary of the fluid;

« p V

a = 27T^ jrj2adfld^ [2Av^+?>A Bv + 6 {B^--hA C) v^-i-i6BCv''+iov^ dv 28

6. It is to be remembered that the elasticity s and But it is evident that the resisting forces, which transform
density q are both variable in Mwim's formula, for the waves, would also invalidate the use of this differential equation.
velocity of a wave in free space; In practice we have to rely, for moderately homogeneous

V= X V{s/q) = K V(re/yQ) (29)

waves, on equation (27) or on equation (28) when any process
exists by which the triple integral may be evaluated. The
so that the velocity V does not sensibly vary in planetary difficulty of effecting the integration for the action of waves
space (an 5044). What may occur within transparent bodies increased by the circumstance
coming from all directions is
is not definitely known, but it is usually assumed that
both
that they are so short as to be wholly invisible, and the
the density and elasticity varies. If the presence of corpus-
frequency v thus indeterminate. Hence the amplitude also
cular matter did not interfere with the wave propagation, the
is indeterminate, and the effects must rest mainly on ar-
Newton\z.x\ formula V"^ = IC~ sJq (30) guments of probability drawn from a true cause recognized
would give ^^^ [^^2/(2^W/«)].(pde-ed?). (31) to pervade the physical universe.
 .

295 513° 296

4- Physical Theory of the Globular Form of ratio of 4 : 3. Within the drop, therefore, the waves are
Liquid Drops. shorter than without, in the same ratio, because the same
Least action leads to minimum deviation and therefore
(i)
number are crowded into a less space s' = ^\i,s, as shown
minimum dispersion in the passing waves, the paths for which in the figure 4.

are here illustrated for raindrops in the case of the rainbow. 2. After reflection at the opposite boundary of the
If the direction of an incident beam of light passing drop, the path returns, and the light emerges as shown in
through a prism, with section in the form of an equiangular the figure. It'may be noticed that just as the velocity and
or isosceles triangle, be such that the path within the prism wave-length are decreased on entering the raindrop, in the
be parallel to the base, it is well known that both the deviation ratio of 4:3, so also, on leaving the water, the velocity is

and dispersion will be a minimum, and the external path of increased at the boundary of the raindrop in the same ratio
the transmitted light will be as nearly as possible identical 3:4. And just as the retardation of the waves entering the
with that of the incident ray. This result is the outcome of drop gives a pressure of the aether against the surface
the principle of least action, which may be briefly outlined rrs =-\-2n' a'' .,2 —
i), here indicated by the arrow; so

as follows. also, on leaving the drop, the sudden acceleration at the

In the case of simple refraction the law of Snellius, boundary, by reaction, gives an equal backward or negative
1620, is sin 2 ^«sin^ , ,
pressure eJT =
- ztc^ «^ ^ v'' [n^— i) These forces, depending
.

(32) on waves from all directions, applied all over the drop, give
sinr "= i/n-sim
. .
/
.

rise to surface tension, which is really a central pressure

To find the least action along the actual path, we operating through the stress generated in the aether at the
remember that this action is for lengths of path A, 4) 4" 'A- '
boundary of the liquid, by the sudden change in the velocity
A = [vi 4 -hv2 4 -^vg 4 + • • •
-^^i ^>) •
(33) of the waves.
And the condition for the minimum of this action is (ii) The action of passing waves rounds up small masses
dA/ds = 4H-t/2
(8/8 j-) (yj =o
4-i-2'3 4-+- • •
+-vili) of liquid into spheres or spheroids of minimum oblateness;
= 8/8j (4 -H 4 H- 4 I /;zi
• =o
1/»2 • -+- •
i/«,'_i •
4) . , ,
Definite geometrical proof based on a theorem of Archimedes.
d, = dt V[{dx/dsy+{dy/dsY'+(dz/dsy]
^^^> 1 The researches of ancient and modern geometers on
= di V[{dx/diY-i-{dy/dt)^-h{dz/dtY] .
isoperimetric problems, more especially those of Eider and
Lagrange, Weiersirass and Schwarz, have shown that a circle
The action or work is a minimum along the actual path,
has maximum area for a given perimeter; so that for a fixed
and there is no change for a small variation in the path:
area, the circle, of all possible geometric figures, has the
or, in Hamilton^ phrase, the action is stationary.
If X be the wave-length, the velocity v f{x,y, z], = minimum perimeter.
Many years ago Weiersirass placed the Calculus of
and the time of passage becomes
Variations on a basis of strict rigor; and following his methods,
t^l^lvAs = l[ilf[l,x,y,z)\-ds .
(35) Schtvarz has dealt extensively with the general problem of
And for the minimum path our stationary condition is minimal surfaces. Of these surfaces the sphere is the simplest,,
and it is easily shown that it has maximum volume for a
6% = dJ \^\f[l, x,y, z)\ ds=o (36)
fixed surface; or for a fixed volume has the minimal surface.
2. The globular form of liquid drops of water is-
^i>'i =1
illustrated by the rainbow, where the smallest deviation from
The solution shows that the time of passage is defined
the spherical figure in the water drops would destroy the
by the function
observed arrangement of colors. Mercury, molten metal, molten
T^=F[x,y,z,X,a,^) (37)
glass, suspended globules of oil, and other liquids, have a
where a and /S are con- similar form; and we are naturally led' to inquire why nature
stants of integration. adopts what mathematicians call minimal surfaces for such
We may obtain a bet- masses of liquid.
ter geometrical and phy- 3. If r be the radius of a sphere, the volume becomes^
sical grasp of these actions
by considering the follow-
V' = %nr'. (38)
And volume of an oblate spheroid, produced by
for the the
ing sketch of the waves
revolution of an ellipse about its minor axis, we have
of light, in passing through
the raindrop for the pro-
V=%na-'-b = %na''V[^-e'') (39)
where e is the eccentricity of the sections through the shorter
duction of the rainbow.
axis b. For equal volumes, V= V,
the surfaces S>S', or
I. The waves are of
the surface of the spheroid S is always larger than that of
velocity V= 3-io-^''cm
the sphere S', as may be proved by the following analysis.
in the air, before entering Fig. 4. Illustralion of the sudden change The differential expression for the length of a curve along
the spherical drop; then at of wave-length X and wave-velocity
the a:-axis is
the boundary of the drop, V at the boundary of a raindrop,
the velocity F'= V—q, by which inward pressure is exer- 6slix= V[i^{dyldxY+[dzldxY] (40).
ted at the surface of the fluid, as and the integral:
which for water gives a the waves are both coming and
decrease of speed in the going. s = lV[i-^{dyldxY-\-{dzldxY] Ax. (41)
 — :

297 5130

4- And for an oblate spheroid we have v' to V. Wave energy is thus given up on entering the liquid,
ds = (n-^*xVfl'^/)'''d„r .
(42)
owing to internal retardation. On leaving the liquid, the waves
are no longer retarded, but actually accelerated, and thus-
If the surface be 5 we shall have by calculation:
drawing new energy from the unlimited reservoir of the
S=27T^xds=2n-eayb'^-^[y^e^-i)/e''-hl>^/a^e^YI'dx (43) aether they react, or »kick back« correspondingly.
the solution of which is: It has long been recognized that a ray of light follows

S = 2na^-hna^[{i-e^)/e]-\og,[{i-he)/(i~e)] ,
,
the path of least resistance; electric disturbances follow the
same law and generally throughout nature all physical operations
;

take place according to the principle of Least Action. There-

where loge denotes the natural or Neperian logarithm.
fore if an infinite variety of waves from all directions enter
5. For a sphere surface we have the much simpler
and leave the globule of liquid, the action and reaction of
algebraic expression:
their passage will be such as to make the total resistance a
S' = 47r r'^ = 4fi a'' .2V/»
US J minimum. This can happen only when the figure of the
where the radius r =(7(1—^^)''°, is for the sphere of the globule is spherical or ellipsoidal, with minimum oblateness.
equal volume with the spheroid. 10. Up to the present time we know but little of these
6. To apply these formulae to a numerical example, waves, yet they appear to correspond to the forces of surface
we take the case of the earth with equatorial radius a = \, tension, which are superficial in their character and power.
and the oblateness 1/298.3; which gives for the eccentricity Chemical affinity is known to depend on very short waves,
of the terrestrial meridian as in ultra-violet light, which cannot perletrate solids, through

1:298.3 = i-T/(i-^2) even the thinnest layers. Such waves can hardly penetrate
e.= 0.0818133 .
^40j solids at all, and pass with difficulty through transparent

By the second term of the formula

liquids, and gases. Thus it is natural to attribute the forces
for the surface, we find
= 6.070567
V2(i-i?^)A .
(47)
of surface tension to waves, chiefly of the ultra-violet spec-
trum, and they may be of even shorter wave-length.
log — = 0.0712213
[(i -\-e)l[i e)] Owing to lack of penetrating power these short waves
[{i+e)j{i—e)] = 0.1639933
loga (48)
could not come directly from the interior of the globe, yet
And ^ 6.2831852,
since 27r second the term, with they could come from the stars in the immensify of space,
the factors depending on becomes:the eccentricity, the particles of the air, on all and from the surface
sides,

27r V2 (i— 'f^)/«-log6[(i+«)/(i— = 6.2551140 ^)] • (49)

of the- solid earth in the hemisphere below every drop of
liquid. The resistance, on entering the liquid, and the reaction
7. On adding the first term, we get for the whole sur-
on leaving it, are equal, according to the theory of light,
face of the oblate spheroid S, and of the equal sphere S':
1849, § 561). The
S = 12.538299 , ,
{Sir Ifersc/ul's article. Light, Enc5fcl. Metr.,

S' = 12.538270 .
^SoJ
total effect of the waves is as if the drop were pressed in
on all sides, by central forces. This is our explanation of
The difference between the surfaces of the spheroid and sphere: surface tension, and the globular figures noticed in drops
^ S' = 0.000029 .
(51) of liquid.
Accordingly, it thus appears that for small oblateness, 11. Now
waves coming and going in all directions,
there is very little diiference between the surface of the will do work against the globule when its figure is
least
spherical. For a sphere is a minimal surface, and thus gives
spheroid, and the surface of a sphere of equal volume. In
least chance of collision with the moving aetherons. And
case of the earth's oblateness, 1/298.3, the difference in the
surfaces only 29 parts in 12538270, or one part in 432000.
is
when collision occurs for the waves, the spherical figure yields
the shortest average path for the waves which enter the mass
8. This example proves that the spherical surface is a
minimum, because it is the figure to which the oblate spheroid of liquid. This spherical figure corresponds therefore to the
principle of least action for all the waves of the universe;
approaches nearer and nearer as the oblateness is made
but the truth of the principle can be made clearest by an
smaller than any assignable quantity.
illustration.
In the theory of capillarity and similar surfaces, in

three dimensions, the surface has the general form:

12. Archimedes showed, —
in a famous theorem which
he desired engraved on his tomb, and which was actually
S = ^V {iMH'^xY-^{dzldyY} Axdy .
(52) found there by Cicero when he was consul at Syracuse, 140
Yet for spheroidal drops of liquid of perfect symmetry the years afterwards —
that the ratio of the volume of an in-

above simpler method of solution is sufficient, and we shall scribed sphere to that of the circumscribed cylinder is as
not go into more complex surfaces. 2:3. Thus, if waves enter the cylinder at the end they will
g. For from a physical point of view, we must remember encounter exactly ^/g as much resistance from the liquid sphere
that waves are propagated more rapidly in air than in liquids, as from a continuous cylinder of the same liquid.

such as water, oil, mercury, etc., as shown by the observed As the sphere is a minimal surface, and symmetrical
refractive indices and electric resistances. Thus, in passing in all directions, it is sufficient to consider the waves entering

through liquids, the waves encounter sudden resistance at the the end of the cylinder from any direction. Let the sphere
boundary, and the velocity in the liquid decreases from v to v'; be imagined to have an expansible but unelastic surface, and
as the waves leave the liquid, the velocity increases from after expansion let the surface be punctured, to allow exchange
 «

299 5130 ;oo

of the fluid. Under these conditions the enclosed and en- 5. New Theory of Lightning, based on the
closing incompressible fluid may adapt itself to any alteration Accumulating Stress of the Aether at the Boundary
of the spheroidal volume. Then the altered surface will be of Coalescing Raindrops, and the Oscillatory
greater than the original sphere surface, though the cylinder
Discharge.
would still contain all the liquid. The distorted closed surface (i) General remarks on the phenomena of atmospheric
electricity and lightning.
would thus fill more than ^/g of the circumscribed Archimedean
cylinder; and the total resistance to all the waves within the In Ganot's Physics, translated by Atkinson, 14"' ed. 1893,

inner mass of liquid would exceed Vs of the total resistance § 995, we find that the treatment of the causes af atmo-
spheric electricity begins with the following suggestive ad-
due to the liquid cylinder alone. That is, the surface of the
mission that these operations of nature are clouded in im-
sphere would be increased by d^, so that if the original
sphere surface be S =
471 r^ the expanded surface would
penetrable darkness:
Although many hypotheses have been propounded
become S' =
JJ+d^S == 4nr'^-hdS\ and the original volume
to
»

explain the origin of atmospheric electricity, it must be

V= Va^^^ would become
confessed that our knowledge is in an unsatisfactory state.
V = V-hdV= \!srcr^^dy. (53) Many accordingly detailed, but the
observations are

From this application physical cause at work completely hidden from our
is so

of the Weierstrass-Schwarz view that no intelligible conclusion can be drawn.

mathematical theory of mi- In the wave-theory of molecular forces, we hold that
nimal surfaces to a fixed all such forces as surface tension are boundary effects of
volume of liquid confined wave-action; and as the boundaries change rapidly, when
within the Archimedean the small drops are coalescing into larger ones, there is
sphere and circumscribed change of aether stress at the surface of the drops. This
cylinder, it follows there- is called an electric charge on the raindrops, and as the
fore that waves passing from process goes on throughout the cloud, the derangement of
all directions through small the electric equilibrium becomes so pronounced that a dis-
masses of liquid of any charge occurs, which is called lightning.
figure whatever, but w ith For in the condensation of the drops, the capacity for
greater resistance than air, the enlarged drop to hold the collected charge varies only
necessarily will give least as the radius r, whereas the amount of electricity accumulating
action, when the figures of under the condensation is proportional to the number of
the liquid masses are sphe ri- drops collected together or the total volume of water, ^/gnr^,
cal. If the liquid globes be and thus varies as the cube of the radius, which is kr^
of appreciable size, the ac- times faster than stable electric equilibrium will support.
Fig. 5 Illustration of a sphereand circum-
tion of gravity on the figures
scribed cylinder, with volumes in Thus the tendency discharge increases as kr^.
to
of the liquid will resist the the exact ratio of 2 3. The il-
: It is remarkable that surface tension of a drop does

tendency to globular form; lustration is here introduced to not increase with the size of the drop, which shows that it
tension prove that if the cylinder be filled
for the surface is is a boundary effect, exactly the same whatever be the radius.
with an incompressible liquid, and
superficial only, while gra- the sphere surface be dilated This is very unusual with the forces of nature, and implies
vity penetrates a mass, and into 47i7-^-+-d6' above or below, at a tendency to a decrease of the central action in proportion
the result is a correspon- any parts where the two geometrical as the surface increases, or as 471: r^. Hence if surface tension
figures are not in contact, the con-
ding spheroidal figure. be an electric phenomenon, and the drops be condensing to
tinuous fluid within the distorted
These figures of fluid sphere surface S' = 47. r^-^d^S will
larger size, the tendency to rupture the electric equilibrium
drops evidently will be of offer more than 2:3 as much at the boundary by oscillatory discharge will increase as kr^.
minimum oblateness, or resistance to the passing waves as This corresponds with the known development of lightning
but does the whole cylinder of liquid.
maximum sphericity,
The Archimedean Theorem
when the droplets coalesce into raindrops.
be determined by the ba- thus yields a rigorous proof that If the
electric tension or aether stress at the boundary
lance of forces betwee^ of all possible forms, a distorted of a drop attains too high a value, it breaks away in the
gravity on the one hand drop of liquid may take, the sphere form of oscillations, as in the discharge of a Leyden jar.
offers minimum resistance to the
and surface tension on the Different drops and different parts of the cloud are under
whole body of waves from all
other. By equating the ob- directions; and as nature converts unequal electric tension. And as the cloud of moist air
served compression due to falling globular drops into perfect (filled with drop-Leyden-jars, so to speak) is a conductor
gravity to the calculated spheres, this physical fact is a proof having both capacity and inductance, the discharge neces-
that waves incessantly traverse the
wave action in the surface sarily is oscillatory in character. A flash of lightning is thus
universe in all directions.
tension, we may be able a series of waves like that shown by photography from an
to study the power of the wave action in the case of particular oscillograph in our laboratories.
fluids. This method is somewhat analogous to that used by If electrodynamic forces control the motions of the
Quincke in his researches on surface tension and needs not planets, shown in the author's work of 19 17, and in
as
be further discussed at present. AN 5044, 5048, it follows that all bodies are centres of
 ^OI 5130 302

waves propagated from their atoms. Thus every star or planet cause these disastrous inductions, which travel with the speed
is a great centre of waves; and the waves are in the medium of light, 902000 times faster than sound in the air. The
of the aether, under an elastic power * 689321600000 = lines so burnt out are interrupted and out of service at the
times greater than that of our air in proportion to its density. instantwe see the flash, but the shock to the earth is felt
In the First Paper, AN
5044, it is shown that the somewhat later, owing to the slow propagation of the earth
gravitational potential introduced by Laplace, 1782, wave and the air waves, both of which travel with com-
^= lll\[^-A'+{y-y'Y+[^-m-''''iAocAyi.z (54)
parati\'ely
We
low speed.
conclude therefore that the terrific power shown in
represents the accumulated stress under the corresponding the action of lightning has its source in the strain of the
amplitudes of waves from the mass enormously elastic aether, and its sudden release, through a
M=lll(SAxAyAz (SS)
series of long waves like those of an oscillograph. This
causes the whole aether-field of the earth to oscillate, in a
thus making the potential have the simple form
series of waves long enough to penetrate solid bodies. The
V=Mlr. (S6) series of physical oscillations thus set up jar the very earth
In the same way all electrical forces depend on wave- violently where the lightning strikes.
action. In the Third Paper on the new theory of the aether, (ii) The molecular forces operating in raindrops are due

(an 5079) we have shown that an electric current is nothing to waves traversing the world, and thus lightning depends on
but waves of a certain type about a conducting wire; so such accumulating aether stresses at the boundary of the drops.
that aether and electricity are directly connected in a way In many treatises on the atmosphere it is noted that
which can scarcely be denied. Hence as an electric current clouds are in general electrified, usually positively, but some-
is simply ordered waves in the aether, arranged in a certain times negatively, and only differ electrically from the earth
way about a wire, and traveling away from it with the in their higher or lower potential. The formation of a
velocity of light, it is natural to inquire into dynamic and positively electrified cloud is by some authorities attributed
static electricity as we see it in the clouds. to the vapor disengaged from the earth. Our view, however,
covering a wide field we
In electrical investigations is that the waves which give rise to molecular forces are
find that steady waves maintained along a wire may operate always traversing the world, but the state of the cloud, or
as dynamic electricity. Electric current, for example, is gene- vapor above the earth, by condensation of droplets, may
rated by a dynamo out of the magnetic field of the earth, vary the resistance to the passing waves, and thus give rise
which always exists. Hence as the lightning represents dynamic to difference of electric potential between the cloud and earth.
electricity, due to discharge under accumulating aether stress It is well known that the electrical capacity of a drop

at the surfaces of raindrops, we should study it in connection is equal to the radius; which shows that large drops have
with the wave-theory as a whole, which includes the earth's an increasing capacity, but it augments slowly, as the cube
magnetic wave-field. root of the mass. For if in be the mass, we have
A valid theory of the lightning, conforming to the wave-
theory of physical forces, is therefore a most urgent desideratum = Vs^rr^
m '
^OTi = Vs^r^r.-^ (57)
of science. And until this is outlined, in accordance with the
Z= I Z=I
^ =
theory of electric waves and oscillations, the mystery of the and the capacity -,X[3/^OT/7r] .
(58)
lightning cannot be intelligently attacked.
After condensation the raditts of the large drop becomes
Now since the aether has an elastic power s == 3 /z oo = 3 /z=-oo z'-=oo
689321600000 times greater than that of our air in proportion
to its density, we see that lightning is a luminous effect of
wave oscillations in this enormously elastic corpuscular me-
^ =V
z= I
2 ^'/^'"''^^
i^= I i= I
=V 2 '' =2 '-'
• (59)

dium, which accounts for the violence of the electric shock Now when billions of such droplets coalesce, the
to material objects of the world. The aether vibrations resul- capacity of the drop increases as the cube root
resulting
ting from lightning as an electric-wave agitation, naturally of the sum of their masses; but the quantity of the electric
produce waves in physical bodies, which are then conveyed stress accumulating at the surface of the coalescing drops

from the scene of the thunderbolt to other parts of the earth by is merely added. Hence we have:
vibrations in the air, and thus only travel with the speed Capacity z'^oo
of about 1 100 feet per second. 60
This view that lightning is oscillatory is proved also
by experience in high power telephone lines, which so fre-
Ratio of accumulating total charge to capicity
quently have their terminals burnt out by the waves induced = oo
z

by lightning. These injuries to the terminals are great sources

of loss to telephone companies, and electric engineers thus
nr.R = %ny]rl'':R = kr^ (6:

labor to relieve such inductions in their lines in the hope z= I i^ I

of saving their terminals as much as possible. where r is the radius of the average droplet.
Nothing but a series of electric waves, invisible and Accordingly, for equal drops, under the same charge,
3-

generally unsuspected, yet generated in the aether by the the tendency to rupture the electric equilibrium is equal to
successive discharges of parts of the cloud in lightning, could kr"^, or increases as the square of the radius.
 303 5130 304

From this discussion it follows that the electric tension As a of lightning may be several kilometres in
flash
on the surface of the droplets of water increases as the drop- length, itobvious that the electric stress accumulates on
is

lets increase in size, in general as the square of the diameter the cloud as a whole, in respect to the earth below, which
of the drops. The coalescence of the droplets to form rain- is separated by the dielectric of the atmosphere. Friction,
drops is therefore the one chief condition requisite to the condensation of droplets, and similar causes tend to disturb
development of lightning. the electric equilibrium of the earth and clouds in the sky.
In the wave-theory of molecular forces, it is held that The battery power of a large cloud in respect to the earth
the retardation of the waves entering the drops, and their may correspond to 3500000 cells, as long ago shown by

corresponding acceleration on leaving the drops, gives rise De la Rue and Muller for a lightning flash a mile in length.
to^ aether stress in the boundary of these globules. This This enormous electric power accumulating in the con-
surface stress of the aether at the boundary is the cause densing droplets makes the electric tension too high for the
underlying surface tension. When the aether is so stressed relatively decreasing capacity of the drops, and tends to
at the boundary, and the droplets are coalescing, there rupture the electric equilibrium relative to the earth below.
usually is a changing electrical state, and thus the cloud This indicates that some very active physical agency is at
is electrified. work; and in view of the electro-dynamic wave operations
of nature as a whole, is difficult to refer lightning to any
If we consider the infinitely complex aether wave-field it

about the earth, which we can form some conception of cause other than waves. This physical cause alone would
from figure 14 of the Third Paper (AN 5079), illustrating make possible this accumulation of aether stress at the boun-
the earth's magnetic field, we shall easily perceive that it dary of the globules of the clouds, because at this boundary
is not possible for droplets to coalesce without changing the the wave movement changes suddenly, and the result is
electrical resistance or total tension in the aether due to the electric tension released as lightning.
passing waves. In an address before the Western Society of Engineers
at Chicago, 1920, Dr. Chas. P. Steimnets, the eminent elec-
Before condensation this resistance, in modifying the
trical engineer,has discussed the older and the newer theories
free wave movements of the aether, is proportional to the
of lightning. He says that experience proves that not over
total space occupied by the droplets of water, or to be cube
I percent of the electrical discharges take place between the
of their radii. Yet the capacity of a drop to hold a fixed
charge is proportional to its electrical capacity, or simply to
clouds and the earth —
the other 99 percent being between
parts of the cloud.
the radius. In condensation, therefore, whereby many droplets
coalesce into a single drop, the wave resistance remains
He concludes that flashes from one to two miles in
proportional to the space filled with water, F= ^/mTT 7?^,
length are progressive in their nature. They start with the
puncturing of a short space between groups of drops out of
or R^; but the capacity for maintaining electric equilibrium
electric equilibrium, 20 or 30 feet apart, and spread until
only increases simply as 7?.
the potentials are equalized to a value corresponding to the
Thus from the relatively inadequate capacity (7?) of
voltage required to maintain the discharge in the damp air.
the growing drop, compared to the relatively rapid growth
The period of the discharge is from 0.0000 1 to 0.25 second,
of mass [R'*) there arises a tendency to rupture the electric
for the slower-acting flashes of more uniform potential dis-
equilibrium, proportional to R^ This
occurs on every raindrop,
tribution. Steinmetz concurs in th"e view above expressed
so that the whole cloud becomes electrically charged, with
that only small fraction of the lightning disturbances are
a
the condensation of the droplets; and as the process proceeds
due to direct strokes, —
the vast body of the breaks and
at unequal rates in different parts of the cloud the increasing
burnouts being due to electrical waves with induced voltages
electric stress (7?^) finally leads to the development of oscil-
of from 500000 to 1000000.
latory discharge or lightning. This happens as soon as the
According to the report in the Literary Digest of Nov. 20,
conductivity of the air permits an oscillatory release of the
»the method of accumulating a charge of 50000000 volts or
increasing electric stress on the surface of some of the raindrops.
possibly twice this value on a cloud was explained as in-
For observation shows that dry air is a non-conductor volving an initial charge on small particles of condensed
of electricity, and therefore when the atmosphere is devoid moisture, the initial charge being due to the position of the
of moisture, a discharge is difficult, except in the form of cloud with respect to the earth. It was explained that the
sheet lightning, so often observed in dry weather. Accordingly, earth was surrounded by an electrostatic field with a gradient
it will not surprise us to note that lightning develops chiefly
outward from the surface. Moisture condensing at a distance
during rain, especially if there be an atmospheric commotion, of one-half mile from the earth would be in a field at a
or storm, for changing rapidly the coalescence of the droplets, potential of 1 00000 volts to earth and would assume a charge
which also may lead to the freezing of some of them into corresponding to this potential. By collecting into larger
hail. It is well known that hail usually accompanies most particles the charge would be accumulated until values of
violent thunderstorms.
50000000 volts or more would be reached when drops of
(iii) Under condensation of globules with the electric rain were finally formed. Inequalities of i or 2 percent of
tension increasing as kr"^ a cloud or part of a cloud becomes this value, between sections of a cloud quite
close together,
charged and forms with another part of the cloud, or with would suffice to cause a local discharge which would result
the earth below, a condenser, — the intervening air being in a redistribution of potentials and probably
in an extended
the dielectric. flash. From the effects of direct strokes it has been estimated
 «

505 5130 3o6

that the flow of current may be anywhere from 1000 to the refractive index of water, and glass, and thus the wave
1 00000 amperes, these estimates being based on the size of velocities in thetwo media, are accurately known.
the conductors that have been melted during the discharge If, the adhesion of the water to the glass
therefore,
of a stroke to the ground. The illuminating effect of lightning be due to wave action, we shall be able to enter upon the
was used to estimate that the light energy of a flash might analysis of the forces with some degree of confidence. In
be equivalent to ten horse-power-hours. figure 7 we show a cross-section of a windowpane, with a

The discharge is a release of electric tension in the drop of rain adhering to it. And we remark that in glass,
aether at the surface of the drops, but it has to occur through
water, and air, waves of light would have velocities in the

the medium of the atmosphere, in which the cloud floats. ratio of 10, 12, t6: for the refractive indices are inversely

As in Geissler-tube experiments, the velocity is great, but as the velocities, and the approximate values of these indices are
less than that of light; and as the electric resistance changes Air-water, n = 1.33^= ''Vis
with the discharge, owing to induction in the clouds and Air-glass, n = i.6o°= "/lo .

other masses, the path may appear zigzag, as shown by actual Accordingly, the following figure is very suggestive; for
flashes. Accordingly, although the electric tension is in a fixed we see immediately the forces generated, in the propagation
direction, the direction alters with partial release, induction of light. It thus becomes
and redistribution of electric tension, so as to give the actual ^ clear that in passing
zigzag paths presented by lightning. from air to water, waves
It must be understood, in viewing these discharge of light are decreased in

phenomena, that the electric tension is developed between velocity by Vie or Vi-
In passing from water to
the earth and cloud, or rather between billions of billions
glass the velocity likewise
of raindrops in different parts of the cloud. Therefore as the
discharge, in a group of drops, proceeds from one part of
1,. c..< changes from ^^le to '°/i6)
the cloud towards the earth, or towards an adjacent part of
which is Vs- The wave
the cloud, the local tension is released, and redistributed as motion thus changes velo-
city and generates a strain
the flash advances; this gives rise to a very sudden rear-
in the layer of aether and
rangement of the electric stress, and as the resistance along
matter containing the sur-
the path also changes, by the release, the zigzag path naturally
face of the water, and
results.In some cases parts of electrified clouds are so situated,
likewise at the surface
that two or more discharges join together and we have
between the glass and
forked lightning.
the water.
Now in the case of the Leyden jar discharge, we have
The tension of the
seen that it is oscillatory, consisting of a series of waves or
molecules due to the
surges in the medium, coming with such rapid succession as
Fig. Illustrationof the adhesion of a aether Stress of the sur-
to leave no impression on the eye, yet capable of being
7.
raindrop to a windowpane, and of face of the water is cal-
photographed by a rapidly rotating mirror called an oscil- the sudden change in the velocity jgj surface tension; that
lograph. In like manner, the lightning is an oscillatory of the waves at the boundary of „.„
between the„ water andj
, . .,
, , J. • ,
discharge, of the very same kind; and if we could see the the three media, air, water, glass,
,

upon which the adhesion depends, glass IS called adhesion,

surging of the medium, we should perceive a very rapid
and makes the water
movement to and fro in this agitation of the aether along
adhere to the windowpane. From the above figure we per-
the path, which thus becomes luminous because of the violent
— ceive that light waves passing from the air to the raindrop
agitations of the particles of the atmosphere, the length
are delayed at the outer boundary of the drop, and thus the
from the cloud to the earth being so great as to make
wave on the water, so as to give the surface
front presses in
lightning one of the most impressive and terrifying of the
tension observed. On
passing on into the glass there is a
phenomena of nature (see fig. 6, plate 2).
second delay of the wave front at the boundary of the glass;
6. Wave-TheoryAdhesion of a Rain-
of the and this aether stress or pressure over the surface between
drop to a Outline of the Cause of
Window Pane: the water and glass causes the adhesion by which the water
Capillarity and of the Perfect Sphericity of Soap adheres to the glass.
Bubbles. The raindrop, however, adheres to itself somewhat more
(i) Wave-theory of the adhesion of a raindrop to a strongly than to the glass; because if the glass be inclined
window pane. and jarred, the water will run down and fall off as a drop,
often give us the most light
leaving merely a thin layer of moisture on the glass. This
The simplest phenomena
recognized and obvious effect will hold for waves passing
on the invisible causes underlying the operations of nature;
from the air to the glass, as shown in the upper half of
and thus we shall examine somewhat carefully why a rain-
the above figure.
drop adheres so securely to a windowpane. No .phenomenon
could be better known than this fact of every day observation. But we must consider waves from all directions, and
It is everywhere observed, and fortunately we are in a
position thus we ask what -will happen if the waves move in the
to attack the problem presented by this phenomenon, because
opposite direction, and have already traversed the glass, and
 307 513° ;o8

are leaving it to enter first the water, than the air? In this than glass, this fluid will be repelled by the glass tube, and
case the effect will be as shown by the arrows in the lower the column of this liquid will be depressed, whereas water
part of figure 7. As the velocity in glass is small, the waves and similar fluids are elevated.
will speed up on passing from glass to water, and again on This explanation is not so very different from that put
passing from water to air. And in both cases they will react forth by Laplace in his theory of capillarity a century ago;
or »kick back«, giving an aether stress or adhesion of the for this great geometer explained the forces acting on mercury
water to the glass, and at the outer boundary a surface tension relative to a glass tube as negative, and by his analysis of
next to the air. Accordingly, whether the waves come from the forces be sensible only at insensible distances,
assumed to
the air or from the glass they will give the aether stresses obtained a very satisfactory theory of the depression of mer-
due to change of velocity, and result in the molecular forces cury in capillary tubes. The present theory based on wave
observed. action is, however, more logical, and has the advantage of
The theory here briefly traced enables us to understand showing why the forces are negative, and can act only at
the adhesion of the rain drop to the windowpane. It is beyond insensible distances.
doubt a wave phenomenon, because if the aether be filled with If mercury will sensibly intercept long gravitational
waves moving in all directions, these forces will necessarily waves, as Majorana shows, still more will it resist and
result. This will hold true for light waves of the visible quench the shorter waves active in capillarity.

spectrum, or for waves of shorter length which are found to The illustration, fig. 9, pi. 3, of the increasing depression
correspond to the radius of action for capillarity, as observed of a mercury column with decreasing diameter of the tube may
by Rucker, Reinhold, Kelvin and others. be regarded as direct proof of the close similarity of the
(ii) The case of mercury, which gives a depressed forces which produce elevation of water in capillary tubes
column in a tube, ' and apparently is repelled by the glass. with those which depress the corresponding column of mercury.
For in both cases the phenomena observed become more
The above explanation of the adhesion of a raindrop
to a windowpane outlines briefly the wave-theory of capil-
extreme with the narrowing of the column the water —
rising higher and the mercury sinking lower, relatively to
larity, but a mercury which does not wet the
liquid like
the level of the general free surface.
glass must be examined.It will be found that the wave-

theory will hold for the case of mercury as well as for that This effect is well shown in figure 9, plate 3, slightly
of water, but it is necessary to assume great resistance to the modified from a work on Practical Physics, by Black and
aether waves in the mercury, which is what should hold in Davis, the MacMillan Co., New York, 19 17, p. 74. Such a
the propagation of these waves through this dense medium. contrast in elevations of liquid columns would seem totally

For in his experiments at the Physical Laboratory in Turin, inexplicable without a simple and direct theory like that here

igiQ, Professor Q. Majorana found that even the long waves presented. And if we can prove that with the narrowing of

of gravity are sensibly intercepted by a layer of mercury, the tubes, wave action may increasingly elevate the height
(cf. Philosophical Magazine, May, 1920, pp. 488-504).
of water in capillarity,
it will automatically establish the same

cause for the depression of the level of mercury, in similar

tubes, which is observed to become more pronounced with
the narrowing of the tubes.
About two centuries ago it was observed by Hawksbee
that if two vertical windowpanes be accurately set at a small
angle of mutual inclination in a basin of water, the water
line rises inthe -form of a rectangular hyperbola, showing
that in such capillarity the lifting force varies inversely as-
the diameter or weight of the column to be lifted. I have
recently made some observations on the form of the curve
of depression for mercury, and confirmed the same law of
the rectangular hyperbola referred to its asymptotes. Wherefore
it seems impossible to doubt the wave-theory of these capillary
phenomena, the cause of which long remained enigmatical
and even bewildering to natural philosophers.
Fig. 8. Illustration of ordinary capillary phenomena, for water and mercury.
In Atkinson- Ganofs Physics, p. 1003, it is shown that
All we need to do adhesion of
to explain the negative the conductivity of mercury for electrical waves is low, 1.6,.
mercury to the glass tube is to take the velocity of propagation while for silver it is as high as 100.00, and for copper 99.9.
of the waves in the several media approximately as follows: Likewise, (p. 707), we learn that glass offers more electrical
air 16, water 12, glass 10, and mercury about half that of resistance than air and other dry gases, while water is a
glass, or s.-') These numbers are approximate only, and in conductor offering much less resistance than either air or glass-
the case of mercury the value is assumed, yet they are Accordingly, if waves of aether, inclined to the level
sufficiently exact for our present purposes. And thus we see surface are to pass through water, in contact with glass on
that if mercury offers more resistance to the passage of waves one side and air on the other, it will follow that the level
^) On the scale here used the figure for mercury ought to be not larger than i, if we judge by the electric resistance of mercury.
 309 513° lO

of the water should be raised in contact with the glass and The celebrated argument made by Maxwell, Treatise
be lowered on the side towards the air, in accordance with on Electricity and Magnetism, 1870, §§ 792-793, and the
observation. We shall go into this at greater length in dealing well known experiments of Nichols and Hull and Lebedew,
with capillarity, and at present only dwell on it long enough 1 90 1, shows that aether waves do exert pressure against any

to point out the verification of the wave-theory. surface on which they impinge. Yet in order to have an
(iii) The perfect sphericity of soap bubbles explained objective proof of this important theorem drawn directly from
by least action
to passing waves, which makes the two nature, by observations which we can easily verify, it is ad-
concentric sphere surfaces also minimal surfaces. visable to go into this reasoning somewhat more carefully.
Just as the Archimedes-Weierstrass-Schwarz theory of We therefore consider the form and action of a series of
minimal surfaces, under wave action, will explain the molecular steady waves in the sea.
forces which give spherical or spheroidal forms to small 1. It is well known that when the waves of the sea
masses of liquid; so also will it explain the molecular action approach the shore, where the water is shallow, the motion
of films in such phenomena as soap bubbles. of the base of the wave is retarded, while the top of it
For a soap bubble is made up of two concentric sphere tends to move on as before. The result is the formation
surfaces — the outer surface and the inner surface. The of breakers the base of the wave is so held back that the
:

pressure of the cushion of air within the bubble prevents it top becomes steep, and finally curls over till the wave breaks
from collapsing; and the waves traversing the outer surface in a whirling rush of foam.
act in the same way as in the case of a solid drop of liquid,
2. Now this delay of the movement of the base causes
and thus round up the mass from without. the wave to exert a pressure against the shore which resists
On the inner surface there is an analogous wave pressure its advance. Accordingly we may thus verify Maxwell's con-
directed towards the liquid and thus acting in an outward waves exert pressure against resisting objects.
clusion that
direction. This is not from the confined air, which is a
We see also the effects of such resistance in the wearing
•
discontinuous cushion, but from the infinitely fine network of
away of the sea shore when exposed to the dashing inrush
passing waves. The resistance to the waves through the entire
of the waves. Sand and soft earth are carried bodily along
bubble, with the double liquid wall, is least when the path with the waves, and even solid rock is slowly worn away
in the water is the shortest; that is, when the waves go as
by the incessant beating of the waves.
near the centre of the hollow sphere as possible, as may be
3. In order to make an experimentum crucis directly
shown by mathematical analysis. But it may be seen immediately
applicable to the problem now in hand, we shall imagine
from the geometrical indications of the accompanying figure.
an island table-land in the open sea covered by the water
Just as the film of
to a depth comparable to the length of the waves which
water is pressed together
pass over it. Under these circumstances the waves will be .

into a thin layer, by the

retarded as they enter upon the submerged table-land; and
inward passage of the
in advancing across it they will be shorter and steeper as
waves from the outside,
shown in figureii. This is similar to the vertical surging
so also will the thickness
of the surface, in a stream, which thus shows where rocks
of the bubble as a whole
are in the bed; for the resistance of underlying movement
be compressed by inside
manifests itself in alterations of the surface, so that the fluid
wave pressure everywhere
is thrown into surface irregularities.
directed towards the out-
4. Accordingly, we perceive that as the resisted waves
side. For as the waves
advance over the submerged table-land, which is not taken
near the tangent to the
to be near enough to the surface to form breakers, they are
inner boundary of the
shorter and steeper than the original waves as they come
fluid they react against
Fig. 10. Magnified cross section of a soap in from the deeper sea.
the adjacent liquid, owing
bubble, showing minimum thick- Now what will happen when the resisted waves at
to the greater resistance ness of liquid film at the centre,
waves pas- length depart from the table-land, and again enter the deep
along these adjacent and least resistance to
sing in that direction, which ex- sea on the opposite side?
paths.
plains the central contraction and First, it is evident that the waves will take on greater
By this reaction on symmetrical form of a soap bubble. speed in the deeper water; they will therefore become longer
the inner walls the liquid
in the freely yielding deep sea, just as they become shortened
is pressed to itself from both sides, and the layer between
by resistance as they ran over the shallow water.
the outer and inner surfaces made ^s thin as possible. As
the waves keep the confined layer of liquid symmetrically
compressed on both sides, rupture of the soap bubble is not
very easy. In time it comes about, however, owing to the
water trickling down under its own gravity, and thus rounding
up into a liquid sphere or spheroid formed right on the
lower side of the soap bubble, as it becomes unsymmetrical.
(iv) Direct proof of wave pressure at the boundary Fig. II. Illustration of the pressure exerted by sea-waves
against a submerged island plateau.
of a drop.
 311 5130 312

Second, as the longer waves, moving more freely into

the deep sea, have the elements of their rotations accelerated,
this more rapid whirl of the water will exert a backward
pressure against the submerged table-land. Accordingly there
is not only a pressure against the resisting land on approaching
it, but also on leaving it.

5. We may easily satisfy ourselves of the correctness

of this conclusion by the following independent experiment.
Suppose an athlete standing on a spring board, and imagine
the whole foundation carried along at a uniform rate, as if

moving speed on a railroad track. If the athlete

at a fixed
wishes to accelerate his speed temporarily he will have to
jump forward, by the exertion of his muscles, which will be
sustained by the elastic rebound of the springboard. In other
words, to give the athlete a greater velocity, forward, he must
kick back against the foundation on which he is transported
along. This is analogous to sea waves speeding up on leaving
the submerged table-land: action and reaction are equal and
opposite, and this general law is applicable to all nature.

6. Now consider the waves of light entering the raindrop

and leaving it by the paths shown in the foregoing figure 4.
Then, we know from MaxweW's, reasoning, and these practical
experiments, there is an inward pressure against the
that
surface water at the point of entrance, and a cor-
of the Fig. 12. Illustration of the disturbance of the wave-

responding reaction against the surface at the point of emer- front when raj'S pass from air to water
and glass in contact, giving rise to the
gence, because there is a sudden change of wave velocity
observed capillary forces.
at both points. This is the physical basis of our theory of
surface tension. This change of the wave front from a plane surface
3.

7. If waves fill the world having all directions and into a convex surface will occur right at the surface of the
wave lengths, it will follow that at the boundary of liquid water and glass. The ray r will spread in two directions,
drops, there is a sudden transition: the waves enter from all and its progress is most resisted by the glass and less resisted
directions, but they also leave, in all directions, along various by the water at its contact with the glass. The water is fluid,,
paths. And in every direction within the drop the speed is while the glass is solid; and thus if the wave front is to
less than the original speed. There is thus a surface reaction remain continuous, the fluid rnust so adopt itself to the glass
towards the centre, owing to the decrease of action at the as to secure continuity — that is the level of the water
boundary, but coming and going. must rise around the glass.

The Fundamental Facts of Observation ap- 4. Maxwell showed (Treatise on Electricity and Mag-
7.
netism, 1870, § 793) that all waves exert pressure against
pear furnish
to Criteria for a Wave-Theory of
Capillarity.
a surface on which they fall. Hence
if there be pressure
against the liquid surface, thereby be carried up around
it will
(i) Detailed examination of the distortion of the wave- the glass which is solid. Thus it is easy to see why waves-
front and reaction of the waves in air, water, glass. make the liquid film rise around the
observed in glass, as
Consider waves traversing the universe, in all pos-
1. the phenomenon of capillarity. The above argument
and
sible directions, and of any required length. What will happen illustration will apply to all cases where the waves descend.
when the waves pass from air to water and glass respectively? For if they emerge on the opposite side of the glass, the
Take the refractive index of water at « 1.33, and of glass = reaction of the waves will carry the water up on that side
at about 1.60; then it is evident that the velocity of waves also, as shown by the heavy line on the right.
of light or chemical activity will be swiftest in air, next Let us now consider the case in which the waves
5.
swiftest in water, and slowest in glass. The relative velocities ascend, as shown by the arrows in the lower part of figure 12,
in the media air, water, glass are as 16, 12, lo respectively. of a cross-section of the wave front.
2. Case I, waves passing from air to water and glass. This figure shows what will happen in all cases of
Let figure 1 2 represent a section of plate glass partly ascending waves, propagated more rapidly in air, less rapidly
surrounded by water: the ray will traverse the successive in water, and least rapidly in glass. On the right the reaction
media, air-water-glass, and the wave surface will suffer dis-, of the emerging wave front will force the level of the water
tortion as shown in the figure. As the ray spreads out, up about the glass, by the reversed wave pressure
/.
under the effects of refraction, and the velocity is decreased (ii) Detailed study of the distortion of the wave front
both in the water and in the glass, the wave front will take when the waves are propagated in air, glass, mercury.
the convex form shown by the heavy line. I. In the first instance suppose as before that the
 313 5130 314

waves descend from above, then the cross-section of the 2. Waves from below would act as shown in the central
wave front is shown by figure 13, plate 3. part of figure 13, plate 3. In all cases the level of the mercury
(a) If the resistance to the waves in mercury be greater is depressed.
than in air and glass, then the refractions and reactionary (a) On the left, the speeding up of waves leaving the
pressures to the wave surface as it advances will be of the mercury for the air and glass, gives a reaction with negative
type here pictured: the waves escaping from the mercury pressure, — /, and the mercury
forced back, or lowered is
and speeding on more rapidly in the glass than in the around the glass, were repelled by the glass.
as if the fluid
mercury will by the rebound, —
/, press the fluid back from (b) On the right, the increased resistance due to the
the glass, on the left. On the right, the increased resistance mercury, when the waves emerge from the glass into the air
to the waves due to the mercury, as the waves leave the or mercury gives a direct action or positive pressure, forcing
glass and travel more slowly in the liquid mercury, will the mercury away, the reaction at the corner giving the most
push that liquid away with a positive pressure H-/. decided downward pressure. Thus the level of the fluid is
(b) The result is a forcing of the fluid downward, by lowered, whether the waves descend or ascend; and, as the
rebound, on the left and forcing of it forward by equal
; waves come from every direction, the apparent repulsion of
direct pressure on the right. In both cases therefore the the mercury from the glass is symmetrical, as found by
mercury is pressed away from the glass. The mercury therefore observation.
seems to attract itself more than it does the glass: which is 3. The change of level in the case of a column of
the usual explanation of the negative capillarity of mercury. mercury depressed in a tube is due to the above causes
But we must also consider why the tube of mercury is below also. For when the mercury is acted upon powerfully on
the normal level of the liquid, and hence we proceed to all sides, the action conforms to Laplace's integral (Mecanique

\'iew the action of ascending waves. Celeste, Liv. X. supplement 2)

4= V2^JJd.rdjv{8[/(i-H/'+?2)-''1/8.«H-8[?(i-H/'-)-?')-''1/8j>'} = ^UBccostS (62]

where c denotes the circumference of the tube, and the angle en isa constant found by observation.
To explain this formula, we remark that U u=f{x,y,g) be the equation of the spherical surface of radius of cur-
vature r touching the capillary surface at any point,
dr = [[duldxY-^[duldyY^-^{duldzY]-'l'du .
(63)
The 2-axis is vertical, and 'duj'dz = i; du/dx = —p\ ciuj^y = —q (64)
drjdz [i + (e«/9x)2+(9«/8_;.)2]-'/= = (1+^2+^2)-'/. (6s)
dr/Sx= [;
-(8«/8x)2+(8«/8_y)2]-V=8«/8^= _(i+^2+^2)-V=^ (66)
dr/dj = {
I (9«/8;c)2-h(8«/8j')2]-''8«/8j)/= -(i-h/^-h^^)-'/^^ .
(67)

Accordingly, if ^ due to gravity,

be the acceleration Let us now recur to the theory of the rainbow, and
C the density of the fluid, and V the volume elevated by note the shortening of the waves within the drop shown in
the force of capillarity, we get Laplacei, equation, founded the foregoing figure 4. As the velocity of the aether waves
on the above integral: is changed suddenly at the boundary, both on entering and

g(sV= 1/2^^ cos CT. emerging from the drop, the pressure exerted at the boun-
(68)
dary is obvious.
After deriving the above double integral and this for-
(iii) Method of calculating the kinetic pressure when
mula Laplace remarks: »Thus the mass of the fluid elevated
the waves are resisted.
above the level by the capillary action is proportional to the
A mass of water m, which waves are advancingin
circumference of the section of the inner surface of the tube.«
with the velocity corresponding kinetic energy
v, has the
That is, the lifting force is proportional to the extent of
the glass surface acting on the fluid, — which again very
^l2inv'^ =£After a certain amount of resistance, suppose
.

the velocity of the waves becomes y^ then the kinetic energy ,

strongly points to wave-action, exerting sensible influence

becomes less, as vy<v, and we have:
only at insensible distances. The tube of glass is solid and
E^^^imi\^ (6g)
cannot be raised, and the reaction simply sinks the central
Therefore the loss of energy due to retardation of
column of mercury as if repelled by the glass. Hence the
marginal depression of the fluid is also accompanied by a velocity of wave motion becomes:
lowering of the central column below that in the exterior E-E^ = ^km {v'^-vi_^) .
(70)
basin of mercury. Accordingly, since a decrease of depth delays the

4. From these sketches of the wave fronts taken by propagation of sea waves, and constantly reduces the velocity,
liquids of various power of resistance, under wave action we infer that so long as the waves of the sea beat upon the
from all directions, we perceive that the fundamental facts shallow shore, there is decrease of energy in the waves. Part
of capillarity established by observation agree qualitatively of the energy is lost by the dashing of the water against the

with the wave-theory. A better concordance probably could shore. But any action which delays the speed of the water
equivalent to holding back; and when the rush of the
not be expected, and it is difficult to imagine such conformity is it

water hold back exerts a steady pressure against the

in theory without a true physical cause underlying the observed
is it

resisting shore.
laws of nature.
 . : .

315 5130 3i6

If the shore were made by an artificial platform of ^liQv'^ ^ 271^ a^ QV^ (73)
boards, under water, the inrush of the waves would tend to where q is the density of the medium, v the frequency,
sweep the platform away; and observation shows that on the a the amplitude of the waves.
sea shore vast banks of sand, and loose gravel are hurled When the waves are resisted at the boundary of a solid
inland by the whirling of the inrushing waves against the or liquid body, the refractive action «^— i enters as a factor
resisting sea beach. These phenomena are well known, and and the loss of energy must be introduced. Thus on entering
are familiar to all observers of nature. and on emerging from such boundaries the energy of the
Let us now consider what will happen when aether wave motion becomes
waves in the form of light, heat, electric current, etc., fall E =^ 271"^ a^' Q v"^ [n"^
— -i)
(74)
upon a medium in which the velocity is less than in air.
as already found in section 2.
As the aether waves travel less rapidly in the fluid than in
air, there must be an arrest or stopping of the velocity of 8. Geometrical Criteria for the Types ofMinimal
the wave motion at the surface of the denser medium. Here Surfaces possible in Nature, and their Physical
we have a definite physical boundary, where the velocity Significance under the Wave-Theory.
changes suddenly. In any two media, the velocities are (i) The geometrical criteria for minimal stfrfaces recog-
directly as the refractive indices: thus in air-water n ^/a,
= nized by Schivarz.
and we know by FoucauUi, experiment of 1853, that the In his Gesammelte Mathematische Abhandlungen, vol. i,
velocity in air is to that in water about as 4 to 3. i8go, Berlin, pp. 325-329, Prof. H. A. Schwarz, the eminent
But the energy of the wave motion is as the squares geometer of the University of Berlin, has condensed the
of the velocities; and hence for air-water n ^/a, we have = resultsof his extensive researches on minimal surfaces. It
rr = '"/g, and n^—i =
'/g^ Accordingly, when the aether is not practicable to develop his results in any detail here,
waves pass from air to water, they are so retarded at the but we remark that the final equations resemble those of
boundary as to suddenly surrender '/g'*" of their kinetic Laplace for the surface of the fluid elevated in capillary
energy to the molecules constituting the boundary of the tubes; and that the criteria were begun by Euler and have
liquid. This loss of energy at the boundary been improved by later geometers Laplace, Gauss, Roberts,—
«2_i = £-JSi = y,m{v^-v,'-) =- Ve (71)
Riemann, Jellett, Weierstrass, Schivarz.
Let X, y, z denote the rectangular coordinates of any
is incessant.
point of the minimal surface. The coordinate z may be
Along with the loss of energy as the ray enters the
considered as a function of the two other coordinates x, y,
drop, there is refraction, dispersion, etc., such as we see in
as in the capillary formula of Laplace above explained.
the rainbow. In his celebrated article Light, Encycl. Metr.,
Moreover for symmetry and simplicity we put
§ 561, Sir yoAn Herschel dwells on the fact that the forces
p = q = 'dzl'dx, Bg/Sr,
producing refraction or dispersion are of practically infinite
= 8^8x2, = dh/dxdy,
, ,

'== ^7 5)
, s t dhldy''
intensity. For the light not only is retarded in its forward
motion, but also turned out of its rectilinear course, and the
waves have increasing dispersion with decreasing wave-length.
Moreover, since on leaving the liquid drop for the air ~2pgs-^-{i-\-p'^)t\ l77J
again, the velocity of the waves increase from about 3 to 4, 1= -pF-x[i-^p^ + g^YI'
this increases the energy in the aether waves in the ratio of (78)
V -qP-y[i-^f ,2V/2
so that the waves outside, in virtue of speeding away
(*/g)^,
with an energy measured by n^, have «^— i more energy
AS= {i+p'^ + g^)'!'-dxdy (79)

than those within the drop. Hence the receding waves react S =: JJ(I-^-/2-^-^2)V2.dxdJ; (80)
on the boundary of the liquid drop with an energy amounting In this double integral the integration for the surface
to Yo of \^iA. they have in free space. is to be extended to all its elements. Under these suppositions
Taking the refractive index as the most certain of we have the differential equation for the minimal surface:
physical data, we have: glass, n^
1.608; water, 1.336;
{mdx+drildy)AxAy= PiilR^^ilR^) AS- 2dS
air, 1. 000.
(81)
of which the integral becomes:
Thus the wave disturbances travel 1.608 times faster
in air than in glass; and 1.336 faster in water than in air. '^ =
JJ^(i/^i + i/A) dS+J(// d^+Jdj-) . (82)
The progress in water, however, is also faster than in glass
The double integral is to be extended over the entire
by the differences:
surface considered, and the single integral over all elements
Air-Glass 0.608 = v— v^ of the boundary taken in the sense indicated by the derivation
Air-Water 0.336 = » (72) of the formula.
Water-Glass 0.272 = »
Schwarz remarks that if we apply the formula thus given
Accordingly, from these data on the refractive indices, by Jellett in
1853, (Sur la surface dont la courbure est constante,
and the easily verified phenomena presented by sea waves, we see Liouville's Journal de Math. pur. et appl.,
Tome 18.163-167)
clearly that the inward pressure of the aether waves at the to minimal surfaces, the theorem indicated in equation (8z)
boundaries of liquids and solids cannot be denied. This will hold true. Yet another proof may be derived
by the
pressure is easily shown to be in dynes per sq. cm.: following process.
 317 5130 3iS

We take the normals as drawn from every point of the surface, and lay off thereon on the same side of the surface
the length h. Let the volume thus arising be denoted by V, and we have

F= yJ^+Vs^'JJliM+i/ifs) AS+%h^ll[^\R^R,) d.V .

(83)
But there is another expression for this volume as follows:
V= %AS+ysA^^-P{i/J?i+i/J?2) d^^ V3^'JJ(^/^i^2) d5+ Vs^'J'J(iM + i/i?2) d5+ Vs^'JJiiM-ff.) d^+

In this equation X, Y, Z denote the cosines of the

angles which the normals to the surface make with the
directions of the coordinate axes, and the quantity
P=^ Xx-\-Yy^Zz. (8s)
The double integrals are to be extended over
elements all

of the surface, while the single integrals are to be extended

over all elements of the boundary line.
By comparison of the coefficients of the terms in (83)
and (84) multiplied by h and /5^ respectively, we find the
equations:

X YZ
25 = JJp(i/^i-+-i//i'2)d5+ X y z 86
dx Ay ds

r r PAS X
d5=
//(i- R,.
 : :

319 5130 ;20

solids by the application of high temperatures. The perfect For the disposition of the molecules in the required
8.

sphericity of figure for the globules implies that the waves films involves the arrangement of an infinite number of these
come and go in every direction, that the pressure of the molecules in perfect order, in three dimensions, and thus the
entering and the reaction of the departing waves on the observed coincidence of the liquid films with the geometrical
average is exactly central. minimal surfaces, becomes at least an infinity of the third
2. Hollow spherical globules, such as soap bubbles, order (oo^) to one, that the observed coincidence rests on a true
which have the liquid enclosed between two concentric sphere physical cause, which therefore can be nothing but wave-action.
surfaces. These fluid films are perfectly symmetrical about 9. The fact mentioned by Poincari (Capillarite, p. 66,
the centre and tend to become thinner by the external and 189s) that Schwarz concluded from geometrical considerations
internal wave pressure at the boundaries. The compression what form a certain helicoidal type of surface should take,
of the liquid layer on the two surfaces of the bubble increases and on the basis of this geometrical prediction it was shown
the elastic power of the aether and matter enclosed between by experiment to really exist, is a very remarkable example
the concentric surfaces of fluid, and thereby gives the film of the laws of geometry being used to fulfill the process of
a certain tensile strength, as observed in soap bubbles. physical discovery. It is only established laws, founded on
3. The next most natural class of minimal surfaces the true order of nature, which may thus be used to guide
would be those which fulfill the condition ifj?-i-i-r/j?2 °. = the explorer of the physical universe.
as first given hj Mic/iael Jioierts [hionviWe's Journal de Math. 10. There are many examples of theoretical discovery
pur. et app., 1 1. 300-312). iP^^^rz*/ paper bore the title: Sur handed down in the history of science. In all the celebrated
les surfaces dont les rayons de courbure sont egaux, mais cases they rest on the mathematical application of true laws
diriges en sens opposes. At the time of his investigation no of nature. Laplace, who used this method to discover the
one had the slightest idea why the curvature had to be equal cause of the great inequality in the mean motion of Jupiter
but opposite at every point. and Saturn, 1785, regarded the confirmation of mathematical
4. Now, under the wave-theory, we see that if waves theory by observation as the sublimest of triumphs. Similar
come from every direction, and therefore also depart in every views have been held by the successors of the illustrious
direction, after traversing the layer of fluid, in the minimal author of the Mecanique Celeste, as in the theoretical dis-
surface, it would be necessary for the curvature to
be exactly covery of Neptune by Adams and Leverrier, 1846, and^ of
equal and opposite at every point, —
otherwise an unsym- external conical refraction by Sir W. R. Hamilton, 1833.
metrical tendency in the liquid film would result, from the (iii) The concluded cause of the minimal surfaces
direct pressure of the entering and the reaction of the de- observed in nature.
parting waves. From the above discussion of the minimal surfaces found
5.This type of minimal surfaces is actually observed, in nature we conclude that the observed surfaces all fulfill
and as the mathematical criteria are rigorously fulfilled, the rigorous and very remarkable mathematical criteria. They
question arises whether any other cause except wave action present either the minimal closed surface for a given volume,
could fulfill these geometrical laws of minimal surfaces. We as in the globules of rain, dew, quicksilver, and other fluids
may hold that no cause other than wave action could conform which confront us on all sides; or an unclosed surface of
to these rigorous criteria, because of the infinite order of double but opposite curvature fulfilling the geometrical con-
accuracy involved in the theory and found by observation dition I /i?i -I- I /j?2 = o.
to be fulfilled by liquid films in actual practice. easy to show that if the minimal surface be closed,
It is
6. Thus we conclude that under wave action the only — like that of a globule of dew, with a single spherical
two chief types of surfaces which could result are surface, or the soap bubble, with two concentric spherical
(a) Solid spheres or drops of liquid, with the modi- surfaces, —
the action of waves from all directions will
fication (b). generate actions and reactions at the boundaries which will
Bubbles, symmetrical about a centre, or other double
(b) physically round up the figure of the fluid, and render the
sheeted films symmetrical about an axis, on which the surface surfaces true minimal surfaces.
is extended. Symmetry is a fundamental condition of stability, Of all the possible forms which mass of fluid may take,
as when a sheet of soap suds is stretched on a plane ring, the sphere has minimal surface for given volume, or maximum
symmetrical on the two sides. volume for given surface. It is not by accident that in all
Minimal surfaces fulfilling the geometrical criterion
(c) liquid drops nature presents us with a never-failing recurrence
of equal and opposite curvature at every point, ij Ri-^-ijJi.^ =0. of this beautiful and wonderful symmetry of figure. Accor-
7. A profound argument could be drawn from the theory dingly we naturally conclude that the observed law can rest
of probability to the following effect on no cause other than wave-action.
(a) The rigorous conformity of the complicated surfaces For the chances are infinity to one that an infinite
which would theoretically result from wave action with the multitude of drops of one fluid would not attain this figure
surfaces fulfilled by liquids in actual nature, cannot possibly except by the steady action of a true physical cause. And
be due to mere coincidence. as the same law holds for an unHmited series of natural
(b) In view of the extreme rigor of these geometrical liquids the chances that a true cause is at work are again
criteria, as applied to actual liquids, the chances against any indefinitely increased.Finally, as the globular form for liquid
theory of mere accidental coincidence is more than infinity drops observed to hold for every solid rock, metal, and
is
to one. other solid compound of the crust of the globe, when rendered
 ;2i
5^30 32:

molten, by an infinite series of changing temperatures, and

9. Historical Survey of the Researches of
pressures,we see another independent infinite probability that Geometers on the Cause of Capillarity.
the assumption of the globular figure depends on a true
(i) References to the older scientific literature of capil-
physical cause, which can be nothing but wave-action.
larity, 1500-1804, A. D.
Accordingly the compound probability of all these The literature of this subject is so extensive that a
several events, everywhere recurring constantly, is not less brief descriptive summary alone will enable the reader to
than the maximum infinity of the third order, equivalent to appreciate the successive steps in our progress.
all the points in space to one, namely: In an extensive examination of the history of the subject,
OOOOCX3 quoted by Maxwell, Poggendorff held that Leonardo da Vinci
^= JJJd^d^d^ = <^'- (92) (1452-1519) must be considered the discoverer of capillary
000 phenomena. But the scientific observations on capillarity
We therefore dismiss the subject, and consider the cause of practically have all been made since the age of Newton, and

the globular figure proved incontestably by the most varied begin with Hawksbee.
phenomena of nature. I. Haivksbee, Physico-mechanical Experiments, London,

AVhen we come to the minimal surfaces of equal but 1709, pp. 139-169: also Phil. Trans., R. Soc, 1709-13.
opposite curvature, jJR^ -+- =
i/j?.^ o, we see that the problem
(a) Hawksbee ascribed capillarity to an attraction bet-
is physically less simple, yet the cause involved is of the ween water and the glass tubes or plate; and observed that
same general type, because the surface is kept taught by the effect is the same whether the tubes be thick or thin,

stretching, just like the rubber layer of a toy balloon. As and thus held that only those particles of glass which are
the surface tends incessantly to contract, it follows that it very near the surface have any sensible influence on the
must be acted upon by forces tending to make its extent a
phenomenon. This early observation of Hawksbee thus laid
minimum, in the case
of globules the foundation of the celebrated hypothesis afterwards developed
as of liquid under the
surface tension due to wave- action. by Laplace that molecular forces are sensible only at insensible
distances.
Thus as the tension, in the surfaces fulfilling the geo-
metrical condition i/j?i-l- i/i?, = o, is similar to that in (b) Dr. yz/wz, in the Phil. Trans., i 7 18, no. 355, p. 739,
liquid globules, it follows that in this case also the effect and 17 no. 363, p. 1083, extended the observations on
19,
is due to wave-action. capillarity, and discovered the law that the height to which

Moreover, the waves come equally from all directions, the same such as water, rises in tubes is inversely
liquid,

and thus the opposite curvatures of the surfaces necessarily proportional to

radii. This is easily verified by the
their
curve taken by the surface of water between two vertical
are equal. Any lack of perfect symmetry, in the distribution
of the wave-action from the opposite directions would render
panes of glass, set mutually inclined at a smallangle, which
is a rectangular hyperbola referred to its asymptotes, as shown
the surfaces unsymraetrical; so that they would not fulfill the
required Euler- Weicrstrass-Schwarz geometrical condition. The
on the left of the foregoing figure 9.
fact that Schwarz could predict a theoretical form of minimal (c) We may calculate the capillary elevation by Jurin'?,

surface, which was subsequently verified by experiment renders method as follows. Let r denote the radius of the tube, o
these laws capable of use in discovery. the density of the liquid, a the angle of contact reckoned
The wave-theory of physical forces thus approaches the from the downward vertical, T the tension of the surface
degree of accuracy characteristic of the theory of gravitation, film, and h the mean height to which the fluid is elevated.

in the celebrated case of the planet Neptune, discovered by Then the vertical component of the whole tension round
Adams 1846; or the dependability of the wave-
a.nA Leverrier, the edge of the film obviously balances the weight of the
theory of light, which enabled Sir W. R. Hamilton to predict liquid column, and we have the equation
the external conical refraction, observed by Lloyd for crystals n r^ hqg = 2nr Tcosa .
(93)
of arragonite, 1833.
This gives for the mean height h and surface tension T
After careful consideration of these recondite researches
of Schwarz on minimal surfaces, which we have now applied
= 2Tcoialrqg h (94)

to the wave-actions incessantly going on in nature, we are of T = ArQg/2Cosa .

(95)
the opinion that few more useful results have been obtained In the case of water the density ^ ^ i, while the
since the foundation of modern mathematico-physical science; angle a = cos a =0°, and by observing i, A, and r we
and thus in view of their usefulness these researches on minimal may calculate T directly.
surfaces deserve to rank with the most celebrated discoveries In the 5''' edition' of the Properties of Matter, 1907,
in astronomy and natural philosophy. p. 265, Professors Tait and Peddie give the following table ^)

^) It will be noticed that in Quincke's, table the surface tension T is quite large for mercury: 540 in air, 418 in water. Thus in air
mercury has a surface tension which is nearly 7 times that of water. Considering the high reflecting power of mercury and its great resistance
to an electric current, which is simply ordered wave motion, such a result was to be expected, and in fact strikingly confirms the wave-theory.
This result also conforms to Majoi-ana's celebrated experiments at Turin, as communicated to the Ace. dei Lincei, Rome, 19 19, in
which it is shown that gravitational waves are sensibly intercepted by a layer of mercury placed symmetrically about a weight in one arm of
a delicate balance. The present results for molecular forces, as well as Majorana's experiments of 1919, thus confirm the writer's discovery of
1916, that the fluctuations of the moon's mean motion are due to the interposition of the solid body of the earth in the path of the sun's
gravitative action, near the time of lunar eclipses, (cf. Elect. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. I, 1917). (Continuation see p. 323.)
 323 5130 324

of T from observations by Professor Quincke:

 )

325 5130 326

Laplace'^ celebrated hypothesis that the capillary forces of the bounding surface. This is usually known as ,Laplace's
are sensible only at insensible distances, leads to the formula A'. Laplace's own
of its value in water is given
estimate
for zero forces at all distances greater than r: (with the caution ,Une aussi prodigieuse valeur ne peut pas
6tre admise avec vraisemblance') as the weight of the water

V (^) = J/('') d'-

(97)
which would fill a tube of unit section whose length is
loooo times the distance of the earth from the sun: i. e.
where r is the radius of molecular activity, shown by ex- something like lo-^^ tons weight per square inch. This was
periment of (2«/wi:,f, 1869, to be r<50|U,|it, somillionths of based on the corpuscular theory of light, the numerical data
a millimetre. being the refractive index of water and the speed of light.*

In consequence of the first hypothesis in equation (96) would be easy to show from practical experience, —
It

the molecular forces admit of a potential as in human

diving, and from the survival of fresh water and
marine life, in such delicate animals as fish, which have
—
r= ^V in 9 {r) (98)
bladders filled with air, etc., — that the view of an enormous
internal pressure for water is not valid. If these views were
true we could not dive without having our lungs crushed,
with the components for unit mass at x,y, z under the action and the bladders of the fish could not operate as they ac-
of the mass m: tually do; for the fish not merely survive, but are not injured
X= 9 Vi'dx, Y= 8 Vjdy, Z='dV\'dz. (99)
when taken from the water a short time.

whole of the attracting molecules form a volume,

If the Laplace's final expression for the pressure in the interior
the expression of the potential becomes, for the density ^: of a fluid has the form

Owing high incompressibility of liquids, Laplace

to the
Here K
is the assumed constant pressure, in that theory

very large, which however does not influence observed capil-

adopts in effect the hypothesis that the density q is constant.
In his Nouvelle Theorie de I'Action Capillaire, 183 i, Poisson
lary phenomena, H
is another constant on which all capil-

larity phenomena depend, and i?i and P^ are the radii of

rejects Laplace's hypothesis; likewise Poincare remarks that
curvature of any two normal sections of the surface at right
Laplace's assumption is illegitimate, because it is probable
angles to each other.
that the density is not the same at a distance less than the
radius of molecular activity from the surface as at a distance
above formula we put i/Pj-i- i/P^
If in the o in ^
the second term of the rightmember, as in minimal surfaces,
greater than this radius.
we see that within such films the pressure / would be equal
But whatever be the exactitude of Laplace's hypothesis,
it leads to the expression for the potential
to K
only, which shows the connection between such films
as soap bubbles, with double surface tension, and capillarity.
V= q \.\\ ^1 {r) A.X d.y &z . ( i o i
6. Gauss, Principia generalia theoriae figurae fluidorum
And if (> = I in the liquid considered statu aequilibrii, 1830, (Werke, V. p. 29).

V= \\\ (f [y]
Ax Ay diZ . (102) Gauss forms the force-function for the potentials of all
the pairs of particles in their mutual action. With the sign
The only other point in this theory to which we shall
reversed he thus obtains the potential energy of the system.
K, (Mec. <Z€\., Liv. X,
call special attention relates to Laplace's
Gauss treats the problem of the forces urging the fluid with
Suppl. a la Theorie de I'Action Capillaire), which implies that his usual lucidity, in three parts: the first depending on
in every liquid there is a great internal pressure. Near the gravity; the second, on the mutual attraction between the
end of this supplement Laplace derives the formulae for this particles of the fluid; and the third, on the action between
internal pressure,
„2-i=4X/F2 (103) the particles of the fluid and the particles of the solid or
fluid in contact with it.
,^Klg=[n''^-AV''lAg (104)
where T= velocity of light, n^— i = ''j^, the refractive Gauss makes this aggregate expression a minimium:

action, and g = acceleration of gravity, .r = length of the S2 = —gc\ zds+^/^cc \ \ ds ds' f [ds ds')
column of water equal
of pressure, in units of the sun's distance. (106)
= 12000, -hccf^dsdSWidsdS) .

This gives i approximately, or a column of water

over 1 0000 times longer than the distance from the earth to In this formula g = the force of gravity, z = elevation
the sun. Laplace himself adds that »une aussi prodigieuse valeur above the base plane H, c ^
density, taken as uniform in

ne peut pas ^tre admise avec vraisemblance«, so that he the spaces s and s' C =
density of the solid, or fluid of
,

apparently did not regard the value of ^.r as probable. ^= different kind; and the spaces j and s! are filled by the

Accordingly it will not surprise us to find modern physicists mobile fluid, and 5 by the solid or fluid of different kind.
rejecting it. In his Properties of Matter, 1899, p. 244, Taits&ys: With this explanation of Gauss' fundamental equation, made
up of three terms, it only remains to add that the potential
»In some statical theories of molecular action, especially
so constituted is a minimum, and therefore for such a level
that of Laplace, one of the most striking deductions is that
surface, the sum of the space differentials vanishes:
there must be a very great internal pressure in every liquid
mass: —
a pressure wholly independent of the form and size 89. = (9i2/8x) dx + ^9.\'dy) dy^^nl'bz) dz =o . (107)
 327 5130 328

In deriving more general conditions for the free surface 8. Maxwell's article on capillary action, Encycl. Brit.
than Laplace had done, Gauss thus improved the theory. At 9"^ed., 1875-
the close of his paper he recommends the method of Segner In concluding this section it only remains to point
and Gay-Lussac, which Quincke has since extensively applied, out the last great contribution to the whole theory of capil-
by measuring the dimensions of large drops of mercury on a larity, in recent times, the article on capillary action by Maxwell,
horizontal plane, and those of large bubbles of air or other Encyc. Brit., g'** ed.,reprinted in Maxu'ell's Scientific Papers,
gases, in transparent liquids resting against the under side of vol. II, pp. 541-591. Though written about half a century
a horizontal plate of a substance wetted by the liquid. ago, it is still the most extensive and accurate survey of the

7. Poisson's Nouvelle theorie de Taction capillaire, Pari.s, subject yet available. On page 589 he gives a table of
1831, pp. 1-300. Quincke's experimental results much more elaborate than that
Poissoni new theory of developed
capillary action is quoted above.
with such geometrical elegance, that it must always. occupy The more recent contributions by Lord Kelvin, Lord
a prominent place in any survey of the subject. But it is Rayleigh, and other investigators, have added to the extensive
justly remarked that although Poisson adopts processes diiferent literature already cited; but Quincke's researches will long
from those employed by Laplace, yet in general the conclusions remain the chief source of experimental data.
are identical, except in respect to uniformity of the internal 10. New Theory of Cohesion and Adhesion.
density of the liquid, explained in equations (100) and (loi)
(i) Refraction and dispersion of waves at the surface
above. At the close of paragraph 5 above we have indicated
of solids, may produce hardness.
reasons for adopting Laplace's view that q may be taken from
under the integral signs in equation (100). Gauss' procedure
Up to this point we have treated with special attention
the cause underlying surface tension and capillarity, -"because
accords with this view also, as we see by his principal equation
we have felt that if these causes could be definitely assigned,
for ii above.
it would not be very difficult to pass over to the related
Poisson's criticism that Laplace's theory makes the con-
cause of cohesion and adhesion.
stant pressure K very whereas it must be in fact very
large,
In fact adhesion is directly related to capillarity, for
small, is undoubtedly from considerations already pointed
valid,
when liquids rise in tubes the fluid always wets the tube,
out in treating of Laplace's theory. Thus Poisson reached
so as to adhere to it, and lift the column upward by the
results in general accord with those of Laplace, but did not
force of surface tension. And when
confirm the great constant pressure K
in liquids, and added
but depressed in the tubes, as in the case of mercury,
is
the liquid does not rise,

the claim of a rapid variation of density near the surface,

there no adhesion, but rather repulsion, or as is commonly
is
which does not admit of experimental determination.
said, a greater attraction of the liquid for itself than for the
The theory developed in the present paper, that the
solid. Thus the molecular forces in adhesion are the same
wave stress undergoes sudden change at the surface of Hquids
as in capillarity; and cohesion is similar to the attraction
appears to reconcile these several difficulties; for whilst it
of liquid particles for one another, except that the cohesive
assigns to this surface tension the globular form of drops,
force depends greatly on temperature, and thus becomes
and the elasticity of the film of soap bubbles, it does not
much more powerful in solids.
give a great internal pressure for liquids, but only the some-
what feeble surface stress noticed in oscillating drops and
Two centuries ago, in the 3"^ edition of the Optics,

elastic films.
172 I, p. 365, Newton discussed the mystery of the molecular
forces as follows:
In dealing with the Segner- Young contribution to the
»And how such very hard particles (in solids) which
theory of capillarity, 17 51-1804, we noted the fact that they
are only laid together and touch only in a few points, can
successfully explained capillarity by surface tension, and thus
stick together, and that so firmly as they do, without the
it appropriate for us to draw attention to the rather feeble
is
assistance of something which causes them to be attracted
intensity of the surface tension of various liquids, as deter-
or pressed towards one another, is very difficult to conceive.*
mined by Quincke, and given briefly in the above table.
For water in air, the surface tension, T= 81, by the
Accordingly, it appears that Newton
baffled in his efforts to conceive of the cause
was very much

T=
formula which underlies
hrqglzzosa .
(95) cohesion and adhesion, more especially in solids. The difficulty
Here a is the angle of contact reckoned from the in liquids was no doubt almost equally great, but our treat-
downward vertical. For water in contact with glass, cosa= i, ment of it is already outlined, and we shall therefore deal
and T is found from the radius of the tube r, and observed chiefly with cohesion and adhesion as exhibited by solids.
height of column h. For mercury in air the value of 7^=540, In the wave-theory we hold that no refraction of the
but in this case «:^ 12 8° 5 2', so that the cosine is negative wave front can occur without the expenditure of energy,
and the column depressed. drawn from the general reservoir of the aether; therefore as
The dyne is the force producing an acceleration of waves move more slowly in solids than in free space, there
one centimetre per second in a gram mass, and in view of necessarily is wave energy exerted against the solid owing
the feebleness of these forces of surface tension, we see why to derangement of the wave front at the boundaries
of such
we cannot explain capillarity by such a feeble force, and at the masses.
same time admit the enormous constant fluid pressure foimd Moreover, the refraction of waves usually is associated
by Laplace's theory. with dispersion, or separation of waves, owing to the unequal
 . ! ;

329 513° 330

refraction.Both of these changes in the wave field involve powers of diamond hence the extraordinary radiance of the
;

work done at the boundaries of solid bodies, and the result gem, both as regards white light and prismatic Hght.«
is wave stresses and reactions which give rise to cohesion ^) Tyndair% remark that all the light incident from two
and adhesion. complete quadrants, or 180°, in the case of the diamond,
The full development of this theory of cohesion and is condensed by refraction to an angular space of 47° 2 2',
adhesion involves the complicated problem of wave trans- 47?37/i8o° = 1/3.8, contains the germ of the secret of the
formation and separation in a medium 689321600000 times most powerful molecular forces, such as those which produce
more elastic than air in proportion to
its density. This hardness. For just as the rays in a plane angle are thus
problem is new in science, and as has not yet been
it condensed, so the rays from the solid angle of a whole hemi-
treated exhaustively, we first outline the physical considerations sphere are condensed into 1/3.8 of their original distribution;
which must be borne in mind. so that on any area the concentration of energy increases as

When the square of 3.8 and becomes 14.44 times greater. As the
1 a ray of light enters a drop of water, with
refractive index n =
^/g, the so-called refractive action is
dispersion is in about the same proportion, the combined effect

n^—\ = Vs- The wave velocity is diminished or accelerated

of refraction and dispersion is magnified some 200 times. ^)
Considering the tendency to rupture the aether by this sudden
at the boundary by Vs ; and Vd of the energy is exerted
discontinuity at the boundary of the diamond, it is not remar-
against the surface layer of the drop. This slowing down
kable that the actions and reactions of the more powerful
of the wave speed or its acceleration thus exerts a pressure
invisible waves give the cohesion underlying the hardness
against boundary of the drop: for long ago Maxwell
the
of diamond. It is evident that the hardness of diamond and
recognized, (Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, §§ 781-793)
other crystals, the great tenacity of steel and other wires,
that partial stopping of wave motion leads to the exertion of
depend oh wave-action and -reaction at the surface; and
pressure on the surface obstructing the progress of the waves.
therefore the strength of such a solid depends on some such
If waves leave the drop for free space, there is corresponding
combination as the following:
reaction of the free aether at the boundary, and thus a similar
1. Refractive action, («^— i), which depends on the
development of central pressure.
density of the solid, c, and the changing wave-length X and
2. Moreover, it is evident that in proportion as these
thus on some unknown function, n [ajl] ;

wave actions and reactions are sudden and violent at the 2. The violence of the incessant bending of the wave-
boundary of a body, so that the refractive action n^—i is front, for waves coming from all directions, (f (/S)
large, in the same proportion the related dispersive action
3. The violence of the incessant dispersion of these
also is large. Accordingly, as diamond has the greatest of
known refractive indices, n =
2.49, and is so powerful in
incident waves, tpid);
4. The combination
of systematic stresses due to the
the dispersion of colors as to yield the unapproached lustre arrangement of the atomic planes with the effects
crystalline
which gives the great value to this crystal, it ought theoreti- of the two latter violent tendencies, thus leading almost to
cally to be the hardest of bodies, and is so found by ex-
the disruption of the medium, x (^)
periment. The enormous power ofreflection with very slight
5.
»Six Lectures on Light«, second edition. New
In his absorption of energy, at the surface, ^ (q e"") ;

York, 1886, p. 20, Tyndall lucidly explains total reflection, 6. The great central pressure due to the integration
the hmiting angle for which in water is 48° 30'; for flint- of the steady action of the sheath of partially disrupted
glass 38°4i'; for diamond 23°4i'; thus rapidly diminishing waves always enveloping the solid, ^ (w).
with increase of the refractive index. Accordingly if the condition be imposed that the
»Thus all the light incident from two complete quadrants, normal elastic power of the aether is not greater than unity,
or 180°, in the case of diamond, is condensed into an angular which is e ^
689321600000 times that of our air in pro-
space of 47"22' (twice 23°4i') by refraction. Coupled with portion to its density, then we shall have (cf. Todhunter's,
its great refraction are the great dispersive and great reflective Integral Calculus, edition 1910, § 277, p. 262):
a/X P 6 xpr-«u)
x{x) d [q e-") s(m) •
d(a/l) dfi dS dx d(^ e-") dw ro8)
0000 00
In his "Aether of Space, 1909", p. 109, Sir Oliver Lodge treats of cohesion in a very similar way to that here adopted:
')

the whole of a rod should follow, when one end is pulled, is a matter requiring explanation; and the only explanation that
"Why
can be given involves, in some form or other, a continuous medium connecting the discrete and separated particles or atoms of matter."
»When a steel spring is bent or distorted, what is it that is really strained? Not the atoms —
the atoms are only displaced; it is

the connecting links that are strained —

the connecting medium —
the aether. Distortion of a spring is really distortion of the aether. AH

stresses exist in the aether. Matter can only be moved. Contact does
not exist between the atoms of matter as we know them; it is doubtful
if a piece of matter ever touches another piece, any more than
a comet touches the sun when it appears to rebound from it; but the atoms are
connected, as the comet and the sun are connected, by a continuous plenum
without break or discontinuity of any kind. Matter acts on
matter only through the aether." ,

Should the other variable elements indicated below increase in about the same proportion as the two well known elements here
times the value otherwise effective. And as there are sudden
calculated the result would be an increase of stress of the order of 8000000
solid, owing no doubt to closeness of contact of the molecules of the
discontinuities in the physical state of bodies, as in passing from fluid to
solid, — assumed less than the wave-lengths to which the forces are due
to be —
the whole wave-action in the aether seems ample to account

for the hardness of the diamond.

 331 513°

But although the nature of the wave function producing

solidity and rigidity is thus recognized, yet we cannot at
present evaluate the resulting sextuple integral, because the
part contributed by each variable is ill defined.
(ii) The assigned cause of the hardness in diamond
suggests a similar origin of tenacity.
The theory of the hardness of diamond here outlined
will also explain tenacity, or the great breaking strength of
such substances as steel '), which attains maximum power
in pianoforte wire.
1. It is a remarkable fact of observation, drawn from
experience from the early ages of history, that tenacity is
increased through drawing and rolling, by which the metal
is given a smoother and more compressed surface. For
example, we make strong wire ropes by first drawing the
metal into fine wire, each strand being given a compact
and compressed surface large compared to the cylindrical
content of the solid wire, and then twisting the wire into
a rope, which thus becomes not only strong, but also flexible.
2. The fact that in fine wire there is rapi4 increase
of surface compared to the cylindrical content, when the wire
is shows that the large amount of smooth surface is
small,
the essential element of strength, and points to waves in the
aether as giving the force of cohesion. The relation of surface
to volume in a circular cylinder of length h and radius r
is easily found, thus:

Volume of cylinder V ^ n r^ h , ,

no doubt very perfectly equilibrated

Curved surface of cylinder S = in rh \ ^i
at all times in Dr. Wallastori%
As the gold leaf was in similar sheets
ductility experiment.
Ratio of Sj V ^ 2nrjn r^ = xjr ^ 1] . (no) while being hammered the conditions also were favorable
Accordingly, as r diminishes the ratio tj rapidly in- for malleability,without disruption of the molecular forces
creases, according to the curve for a rectangular hyperbola holding the gold leaf together.
referred to its asymptotes. Notwithstanding these favorable conditions it is a little
3. On account of the finite dimensions of the molecules remarkable that gold and platinum, with their very high
of the wire, and the finite but greater length of the light atomic weights, should prove among the most continuously
waves, it is of course not possible to decrease the radius of yielding of metals. This gradual yielding of metals is directly

the wire below a certain limit, without the metal losing the opposed to hardness, which leads to rupture.
power of cohesion and breaking. Along with this property, Glass threads drawn by Dr. Boys have been reduced
by which a finite radius is required for strength in a metal, to a diameter of about i :looooo of an inch, or three times
goes also the closely related problems of malleability and that of the diameter of the minimum platinum wire above
ductility. mentioned, with strength however approaching that of steel
(a) Gold is the most malleable of metals, gold leaf wire, which shows that surface wave-action probably has

having been reduced to a thickness of 1/300000''' of an increased the strength greatly.

inch, or 1/11800 of a millimetre. •
S- It is noticed in modern metallurgy that the pure

(b) Platinum is the most ductile of metals. By coating metals generally are softer than their alloys. Both hardening
a platinum wire 0.0 1 inch in diameter with silver till the and increase of strength may be effected, however, by the
thickness of the whole was 0.2 inch, Dr. Wallaston drew the admixture of a small percentage of certain other metals.
cylinder out into a wire as fine as possible, and by boiling Nickel and vanadium are used in the manufacture of hard
with dilute nitric acid, he removed the silver coating and steel and such compounds as phosphor bronze, and aluminium
:

obtained the platinum wire alone with a diameter of ap- bronze, have greatly increased tenacity. We may explain all
proximately i/ioooo mm
nearly the same thickness as the these effects by the wave-theory, the molecular forces being
thin gold leaf described in (a) above. augmented not merely at the boundary, but throughout the
4. The metallic coating used to draw the platinum wire mass. This same reasoning applies also to the internal strength
into such fineness was of which is the most perfect
silver, and structure of crystals, such as diamond, quartz and other
of all electrical conductors, and thus the wave-action was substances.

') Steel is a mechanical mixture of a very fine matrix of carbon in iron, and as diamond is cristallized pure carbon, it would seem
that the great strength of steel, over iron, must depend in some way on such wave-transformations as refraction, dispersion,
etc., to which the
non-conducting carbon contributes at the boundary of the wire. It surely is not accidental that the strength of steel
depends on the same
element, carbon, which in crystallized form gives diamond its unparalleled hardness.
 333 5130 334
6. The metals increase in hardness somewhat in the them. The result is a full pressure of the waves without, not
following order: lead, tin, aluminium, gold, silver, platinum, perfectly balanced by the diminished pressure within, so that
zinc, copper, iron, steel. These results may be explained by the floats are drawn together as if by an attractive force.
the assumption of molecular properties varying from metal
4. Now it is very remarkable that nature should be
to metal, but on the whole depending on the grip of the
filledwith such a multitude of minimal surfaces: raindrops,
waves about the atoms and molecules, under their state of
drops of dew, globules of mercury, iodine, or any chemical
condensation, and electrical conductivity or non-conductivity.
liquid which does not adhere to the supporting surface. All
Lead, for example, is loosely held together, and yields easily
melted metals, such as leaden shot, take the same figure,
to powerful forces. It somewhat resembles pitch, which is a
and so also of molten rock of any and every description.
viscous fluid, or solid for quick acting forces, while the lead
Accordingly, globules of liquid, with minimal surfaces, actually
is an easily yielding solid.
are universal in nature. What is the cause of this universal
In the same way hardness is measured by the fol- tendency to minimal surfaces? must be related to the
It
lowing scale. coalescence of contiguous small drops into larger ones, as
1. Talc 6. Feldspar in the phenomena of rain, accompanied by lightning.
2. Rock Salt 7. Quartz
5. It has long been held, first by Maupertuis, Eider
3. Calc Spar 8. Topaz and Lagrange, and subsequently by Hamilton, yacobi, Kelvin,
4. Fluorspar 9. Corundum Helmholtz, Tait, Poincari, Larmor, and many other eminent
5. Apatite 10. Diamond. mathematicians, that nature always follows the principle of
Newton's problem of cohesion may be solved by
(iii) Least Action. Fermats principle was of earliest date, and
noticing that waves which have difficulty in passing through gave the first indication of the more general theorem of
between two compact masses will naturally take the path of Least Action devised by Maupertuis and confirmed by Euler
Least Action around them, and thus force them together. and Lagrange. It is known that the forces governing the
1. So long as two bodies are not near together the mechanical operations of material systems obey the principle
waves from the atoms of each mass, as well as from the rest of Least Action, and correspond to the wave-theory of physical
of the universe, will easily pass between and around the two forces. Can it be possible that the figures of globules of fluid
masses. Each mass will have its own wave field, and they masses and elastic surfaces would exhibit minimal surfaces,
will not sensibly interfere. But when the two bodies are without also depending on waves which are resisted in their
brought very near together, each obstructs the waves from progress at the border, and thus transform the liquid into
the other, and the wave fields become entangled. When they minimal surfaces?
are brought very near, so as to form a smooth contact, the 6. In this wave-theory, we find a direct and simple
whole wave action is so much less, when they are pressed explanation of adhesion, cohesion, capillarity, surface tension,
tightly together, that nature adopts this method for Least chemical affinity and even of explosive forces. The waves
Action, and forces them as solidly together as possible. This cannot but offer different resistance in their penetrating power
gives us a general idea of the cause of cohesion, which so when different substances are in contact; and moreover they
much puzzled Newton that he had extreme difficulty in con- are refracted unequally in passing through liquid, whence
ceiving the cause at work. we may explain at once adhesion and capillarity. Cohesion
2. In order to make the contact efiective and powerful, is somewhat different: the particles of solid bodies offer least

it must be very close indeed, so that the molecules are not resistance when the particles are closest together.

whole wave-lengths apart. The fact that observation shows 7. If the particles are separated appreciably some of
that the contact must be close, appears to point directly to the waves pass between them, and on the whole the two
the wave-theory. What explanation other than the wave-theory separate bodies offer greater resistance to passing waves than
is The problem is like the hypothesis underlying
possible? would be offered by one mass made by a solid union of the
Laplace theory of capillarity, that the molecular forces become
s two particles firmly together. This offers a simple theory of
sensible only at insensible distances, which as we have shown, the great difficulty discussed by Newton in 1 7 2 1 Surface .

can point to nothing but wave-action. tension has already been explained in describing the ray of

The measurements of Rucker show that the ultra- light entering a drop of water; but we may have to include
3.
waves are of the reqtiired order of magnitude, and we
violet
waves both longer and shorter than those of light, to com-
know that their working at small distances, in a medium plete the general theory. Experiment shows that chemical
affinity is greatly promoted by ultra-violet light, and this
689321600000 times more elastic than air in proportion to
its should produce very great power of attraction,
density, confirms the wave-theory of physical forces. Thus, it only

since the path of Least Action usually is around the outside

remains to say a word about explosive forces, which are
related to chemical affinity, and of which no suitable theory
of solid masses, and thus they are forced together by reaction
of the whole wave field. has been put forth heretofore.

This gives us a very tangible conception of the practical 8. It appears to me that in the molecules of explosive

working of the wave-theory when applied to molecular forces. bodies there is a certain resistance to the passing waves, as

We may verify the conclusion here drawn by observations the atoms are then arranged; but if the atoms mutually are

on the dashing of water waves upon two floats anchored so so readjusted as to come closer together suddenly, and re-

close together that the waves do not pass freely between arranged into a molecule of maximum symmetry and conden-
 . :

335 5130 ;36

sation of its parts, there will suddenly be much less resistance it will experience with the condensation of drops an ac-

to the passing waves. The great energy of the waves always cumulating stress on the surface of the globules. The waves
passing through the aether, is thus released or set free by will flow from the earth and celestial spaces at the old rate,

the readjustment of the atoms in the molecule; and this but the resistance to their passage at the surfaces of the
suddenly available energy is so powerful, in view of the enlarged drops is decreased with the condensation of the
aether's enormous elastic power, which is 689321600000 — drops. A positive state of the rain cloud results, and aug-
times that of our air in proportion to its density, and thus ments rapidly as the rain drops grow.
much more powerful than our air in any readjustment of the (c) The result is accumulation of such a strain in the
wave field, — that when the release occurs by a sudden electric medium, or the aether, that lightning develops for
readjustment, a violent oscillation of the molecular structure restoring the electric equilibrium.
results, —
which disruption and new combination of the
in If so terrific a power as lightning can result from the
oscillating atoms takes place. changing electric stress or resistance of the enlarging drops
This new theory derives the store of explosive energy
g. to the waves traversing the universe, it naturally will be easy
from the elastic power of the aether. This power is shown to imagine that explosive forces and similar atomic powers
to exist by the enormous observed speed of the propagation of incredible magnitude may have their seat in the elastic
of light and electricity, 300000 km per second. We cannot power of the aether, and the changes in the equilibrium of
deny the observed fact of such a velocity for waves in the this medium.
aether. Accordingly, theenormouselasticpower, 68932 1600000 Geometrical Conditions fulfilled by an In-
II.
times greater than that of air in proportion to its density, finite System of Waves coming from all Directions
necessarily follows. And if the universe be filled with waves, and passing through a Liquid Sphere under Least
of various lengths, from the short waves, most effective in Action
chemical affinity, to the longer waves of light, heat, and Geometrical conditions of minimum action.
(i)
radio-telegraphy, it naturally will follow that sudden change
in the power of resistance of bodies incident to the re-
1, We consider a sphere of fluid, whose surface is
->
'>-(] III
arrangement of the atoms into a new and more compact,
less resisting molecular structure, would generate vast stores The part of a right line intercepted between any two points
of energy hitherto latent. /' [x', y, z'), p"(x", y", z") in the sphere surface, is equal to

1 o. This is best illustrated by the new theory of the the length of the chord
cause of lightning, a phenomenon which has been equally J,
= y[[x'-x"Y-^[y--y"Y + [z'-z"Y]. (112)
mysterious and bewildering to natural philosophers. Here is Now
waves passing through the fluid sphere, after re-
what occurs in lightning: fraction and dispersion at the boundary, follow' some of the
(a) First, water exists in the atmosphere in the form systems of chords from every point of the surface in every
of invisible vapor. Lowering temperature, usually with currents possible direction; so that the paths of minimum action
of colder air, produces a cloud, which is visible, because the within the surface are along the infinite system of chords
light does not pass through it. At first the cloud is made up drawn from every point of the surface, and therefore doubly
of very minute particles of water microscopic in size — — infinite in number.
but if the cooling and tendency to precipitation continues, 2. For if we suppose waves to originate within the
the particles of water grow in size, and decrease in number. sphere, it is clear that they will be propagated spherically,
(b) When the separate water globules coalesce, into along these chords, and no deviation from rectilinear motion
fewer but larger globules, their resistance to passing waves will occur till the wave front reaches the boundary of the
is decreased. And if the region of the earth and atmosphere liquid sphere. Refraction and dispersion will take place at
previously was in electrodynamic equilibrium the aether — the boundary when the wave
going outward, exactly the is

waves of this region departing at the same rate that they reverse of what occurs in so that from one coming inward;
SO as to give rise to no accumulating aether strain — of these motions the other can be calculated.

3. In AN 5048, p. 165-6, it is shown that the wave function ii[x,y,z,t) has the velocity potential O
O \.x,y, z,t)- (i/8;r^)
U^n^'-^^^""'^^^ (?' V, C, /) d^d,/ A-Q Al df, Av
A = [t-x)l + [ji-y)n,-^{t,-z)v .
(113)

And Poisson has reduced this sextuple integral to the double integral:

O =^ (i/47r)J
J
i^(a:-Ha/cosi^,jc-)-a/sin^sin(B, z-l-a/sini^cosw) /sini^d^dft)

-l-(i/47r) (8/9/)
J J /Z(x-+-a2'cosi^,_)'-i-«^sini^sin(B, z-Ha/sini^ cosw) /sini^ d^ dw . t4)

5. These integrals are rigorous for the wave disturbances from any point, so long as the movement remains within
the liquid sphere, and they will hold true right up to the boundary. In the fourth paper, section 6, (AN 5085) we have
extended the integration so as to include the waves from every atom within the boundary of the sphere [r, &, w).
 337 5130 338
r n 2T: tz 2rz

<P = J }} (o'U't)
^ ^ J^ [I [x-hai COS 6) -i-m{y -hat sin ^ sin 00) -i- n (z -i- at sin S cos w)— [at-hs]] r^ sini^ dr d(^dft) /sim^di^dft)
000 o o
r n 2Tt n 2n
-+-^
^^ {(T/47i)(d/di)
^ f nU{x-hafcos6)-hm{y-haisin6 sinw) ~\-n [z -h at sin ^ cos 00) — [at -i-s)]x
Xr^ sin6 dr d^ da) t sinS d^ d(o . (115)

6. As wave disturbances emerging from all atoms

the determined as functions of two independent variables u and v,
-will yield a perfect reverse image of those coming in from of the general type:
all directions, it suffices to find the geometrical condition
under which the velocity potential yields minimum action.
This condition obviously is attained when the mass of fluid
^ u \ F{x,y, x^,y^, dxjdt, dy^jdi) dt (i iS)

to

dx/dt = =
is perfectly spherical; for it may be shown that any departure
where xi, dy/dt y^, are equations of condition,
from perfect sphericity yields a resulting action by all the
each involving two variables, as x and y.
-waves greater than the minimum. If the total wave action
For the minimal surfaces, then, we have not a single
be given by
but a double integral of the form:
S2 = ^^^ Oar^sinSdrdSdo) (116)
Si = J^{x,y,z, dx/du, dyjdu, dz/du, dx/dv, dy/dv, Sz/Sv)x
JJ
then it will follow that for a sphere only is the action a Xdu dv iq)
. (i
minimum:
Dr. Hancock's Lectures on the Calculus of Variations,
dii = dSi/dx-dx-hdSi/dydy-hdo/dz-dz = o . (117)
(cf.

Cincinnati, IQ04, p. 209.)

We may reach a similar conclusion also from the wave- In the problem of inolecular forces now before us we
theory of gravitation, by noting that the force of gravity is are concerned chiefly with which for a given
the sphere,
due to waves receding from the centre of mass. The effect volume has the minimal surface. The problem of the sphere
of the accumulating aether stress is the central force, which is therefore one in maxima and minima, corresponding to that

gives a body like our sun a sensibly spherical figure. This of the circle, originally due to Zenodor us, (150 B.C.), who
conclusion from the wave-theory is confirmed by observation, sought the plane figure with minimum perimeter. A treatment
which shows that the heavenly bodies would be perfectly spheri- of it will be found in Dr. Hancock's Lectures on Maxima and
cal except for rotations about their axes. The oblateness of the Minima, p. 92. In the same work, p. 75, there is a solution
sun is found to be wholly insensible, and the oblatenesses of the problem: To determine the greatest and smallest cur-
of the different planets correspond severally to their respective vature at a regular point of a surface F[x,y,z) o. =
rotatory motions. That the sphere is a minimal surface
obvious is fairly

Accordingly, in the case of immense masses the receding without any elaborate mathematical treatment. In the more
gravitational waves generate the central aether stresses which general surface of double curvature, the fundamental condition
produce globular figures of the sun and planets; whilst in Qi~^Q2 =° always hold true. For in the case of twisted
will

the case of small liquid drops the globular figures are main- surfaces obvious that the curvature must be opposite on
it is

tained by the minimum action of the passing waves. the two sides; and every point of the surface must be about

Geometrical criteria for the theory of minimal a centre of curvature lying in the principal planes.
(ii)

surfaces as applied to liquid masses and films. Now imagine a physical surface, like a film of liquid,
to depart from the minimal surface; then obviously our
In our previous discussion we found that in general
a minimal surface is a surface of double curvature, such that
condition would be (»i-+-(i2 «, so that q^ = Q2'^<^- = —
And therefore the curvature in different planes would not
the fundamental condition fulfilled is that
be the same on opposite sides at the same point. The result
i/i?i-l-i/i?2 = Qi-^-()2 = (91) of this condition would be that the film could not be of
where ^1 and Q2 are the radii equal thickness or equal tension in different directions at
of the curvature of the two prin- any point. This obviously would not be a minimal surface;
cipal sections at any point of for it could be stretched and somewhat thinned out at the
the surface. The radii of cur- point, without altering the curvature on one side.
vature are equal but of opposite In fact the mathematical condition
sign, as shown
as those of a saddle, a
in such figures
mountain
Qi = — p-y-i-a
-Q2-
would imply a swelling in the physical surface, or a sheet
pass, the surface of a glove bet-
of unequal thickness. If this inequality existed, it would
ween thumb and forefinger, etc.
gradually augment, under wave action, and the lump of liquid
The two principal sec- Fig- i9- Sketch of the radii of
curvature for a minimal would tend to increase to a drop. But this would disrupt
tions lie in different planes, but
surface. the liquid surface.
may be projected as shown in
p^
Hence the condition of physical stability is
figure 19.

The theory of minimal surfaces involves the treatment Qi.-^Q2 =o

stable so long
of functions of three quantities I'(x,y,z) which may be and a liquid sheet fulfilling this condition is
 339 5130 340

as the tendency to a drop does not develop under gravitational

action on the fluid. V-- = ^OT;('/(r)dr l<r 8 F/8r ^ Molecular forces:

A drop is and may be slightly unsymmetrical,

a load, i=i \ Chemical affinity, Surface tension. Capillarity,
so that it leads to instability; the more it is augmented the Cohesion, Tenacity, Adhesion.
more unstable it becomes till the liquid film is disrupted. \ i=i
For in passing the waves tend to make the drop round by
/J 3 \
-^mi^/{r)dr T^J') 8 F/8^ = Light and heat.
everywhere decreasing its surface, and thus they operate to
i^ I ''i
disrupt the film, by drawing in the liquid on all sides. These
inferences are easily verified by actual experiments with soap Magnetism, Gravi-
bubbles and other films of soap water containing enough ff(r),r (^>y 8F/8.= tation, etc.
glycerine to make the surfaces elastic. z = I *)

Now view of the above reasoning we see why a

in
liquid surface of soap water may stretch and hold taut, as ...j>Wd. (^;J;) 8^/9. = ^,,,,„.
fElectrodynamic
(,,,^
a rninimal surface, even when it is a surface of double cur-
vature. It may take the form of a saddle, and yet be perfectly
This table gives us an inspiring view of an immense
stable, because on the two sides of the film Qi-i-Q^ == o,
subject, and may enable us to understand the types of waves-
enables the passing waves from all directions to traverse the
liquid film with minimum resistance. If, however, Qi_-^Q2 ct, = effectivein the various operations of nature. The first region
of wave length here outlined, Aq to Aj, is undoubtedly the
the integral for the action of the passing waves from all
region of very short range molecular forces. It could be
directions is not a minimum; and the principle of least action
further subdivided, in the order indicated on the right:
is violated.

Accordingly we conclude: (Chemical affinity,

V -y»J}{r]dr (^>^) 8r/8^=
1. That minimal surfaces correspond to the principle jiLi J-' ' ^ '
V <^a/ (Explosive forces.
of least action for all passing waves.
2. Any departure from minimal surfaces renders the
wave action greater than the least possible, and therefore is -
y^mi\/{r)dr I ,") 8 F/9r = Cohesion, Tenacity.
not mathematically admissible, nor will it occur in physical z= I '^a

nature. i=i Xy

nearly
3. Therefore drops of liquid always take a form as
globular as possible; and liquid films follow the
^mi^f{r)dr {^"Jf)
^ '^Z^'' = Adh esion
i= I X^
mathematical law of minimal surfaces so as to make the
i=i Xs
physical action of the passing waves a minimum. \ Capillarity, Surfa(«e
4. The instant a liquid film departs mathematically -^nnlf[r)dr (^^^ 8 F/8.
[tension
from the minimal form Qi-^Q2 = o, as by the partial develop- 2^1 Xy
(123)

ment of a drop, the inequality rapidly augments, and the In a general scheme of this kind,
it is obvious that
surface is disrupted. if the forces pointed be due to waves similar in type
out
(iii) Examination of the wave-lengths appropriate to but of different lengths, the corresponding actions in many
the several forces. phenomena will somewhat overlap, and be more or less
From the theory of physical forces resulting from the merged together. Thus chemical affinity is a maximum in
new theory of the aether it follows that waves of different the ultraviolet spectrum, which is very slightly visible as-
lengths give rise to different physical effects. In a general light. And in the same way the infra-red spectrum investigated
way we know the chemical forces correspond to the
that by Langley is of such immense extent that in all probability
ultra-violet region of the spectrum; there also probably will the magnetic and gravitational waves will overlap at least
be found the waves producing surface tension, capillarity, part of this region. But these questions must be left to the
cohesion, adhesion, etc. Next in order of increasing wave future, in the hope that greater experience will enable us to
length comes light, then heat, with the infra-red rays in- illuminate problems which still remain quite obscure. For the
vestigated by Langley, twenty times longer than the space present, suffice it to say that magnetic and gravitational waves
covered by the visual rays known to Newton. must be long, otherwise they would be lacking in power of
In an earlier section above, we have found the general penetration; so that the sun's action on the moon would be
expression for the potential of the molecular forces: almost wholly cut off at the time of lunar eclipses, which is
z=^z £=z' r i—i 00 contrary to observation in the lunar fluctuations.
F=^Wi<p(r) =^OTi J/(r)dr-+-^OT,-J/(r)d/- (121) (iv) New theory of acoustic attraction and repulsionr

;=I i=\ o i=i r Confirmation of the wave-theory of gravitation.

the second integral of which becomes zero when the distance In the New Theory of the Aether, AN
5044, 5048,.
r exceeds the radius of activity of the molecular forces 5079, 5085, we have treated of the waves between two bodies
at work. and shown that in the process of mutual interpenetration by
Accordingly, we could make a table of wave lengths the independent waves from each centre the medium is thinned
with their corresponding forces somewhat as follows: out most in the straight line joining the bodies. As the kinetic
 ,

341 5130 342

exchange tends to keep the aether of uniform den-

sity, the tension is thus a maximum in this line,
•while the increase of stress or pressure is a maximum
beyond the two masses. This could be otherwise
expressed by saying that under the wave-action some
of the aetherons are worked out from between the
bodies, and transferred beyond them, as will be readily
understood from the double wave field shown in
Fig. 8, AN
5048, p. 163.
In order to illuminate this subject still further
by well established physical data from known gases,
we now ^) treat very briefly of acoustic attraction
and repulsion, which has been experimentally in-
vestigated, but not correctly explained by the fol-
lowing authorities.
1. The Philosophical Magazine, for April,
187 I, p. 283, where Prof. Challis cites the experiment
of Clement and considers hydrodynamical conditions.
2 The Philosophical Magazine for June, 1 8 7 i
.

with experiments on acoustic attraction and repulsion

^'?.- ^°- when sound waves advance
Illustration of the progress of the wave-front
by^ Guyot, Schcllbach, Guthrie, and Sir W. Thomson
,
-^
7 \
through the air with velocity i and through a baUoon containing carbon
,

^ijOrCl Js.elvin]t dioxide, with velocity 0.78. Any phase of the sound wave thus reaches
These experiments, as understood by physicists, the rear of the balloon by going around through the air quicker than
have led to the conclusion that the vibrations of an directly through the CO^ of the balloon, and the reaction on the rear
^'^=''<= membrane of the balloon impels it towards the source of the
elastic medium attract bodies which are specifically
sound, which explains the observed acoustic attraction.
heavier than itself and repel those which are speci-
fically lighter, (cf. Ganofs Physics. 14'*' English edition,
by E. Atkinson, 1893, p. 274). In proof of this view it is
pointed out that a balloon of goldbeater's skin filled with
carbonic acid gas is attracted towards the opening of a
resonance box, bearing a vibrating tuning fork; while a
similar balloon filled with hydrogen gas and tied down by a
string is repelled. Experimenters have found that this result
always follows, even when the hydrogen balloon is made heavier
than air by loading it with wax, or other substances.
This last remark leads me to see in these experiments, not
& law based on the relative specific densities of the bodies, but one
based on their rate of conductivity of the sound vibrations.
In studying the phenomena of attraction and repulsion, fc„ na ww i

due to electrodynamic action, we are placed at great disad-

vantage by the enormous speed of such action, which conceals
from our view the nature of the process involved. It is
therefore well to consider the slower processes which may
be more accessible to investigation by laboratory experiments,
chiefly in sound.
It is well known that as hydrogen has the greatest

molecular velocity of any of the gases, it conducts sound

vibrations more rapidly than any other gas. The following
data are taken from the table in Wullner's Experimental-
Physik, Leipzig, 1882, Vol. I, p. 804.
Gas Density Velocity of Sound in

Fig. 21. Illustration of the enormously rapid advance of the sound

wave-front in a balloon with hydrogen,
filled V^ 3 -81. The
internal advance of the sound wave is so rapid that the wave
front reverses itself before the centre of the balloon is reached,
and the elastic reaction against the surrounding air thus repels
the balloon from the source of the sound. This accounts for
the observed phenomenon of acoustic repulsion.

for balloons of carbon dioxide and hydrogen, was developed

i)
This eiqjlanati^n, based on the wave-theory, with the following plates
year 1916, but publication has been deferred till the present
time.
in the
 343 513° 344

It appears from the numbers here given that in the The aether is of decreasing density in the direction of
very light gas hydrogen sound has 3.81 times the velocity a central mass such as the sun, and when a body like the
that it has in air; while ammonia, a gas with relative den- earth is also introduced, with decreasing density towards its

sity of 0.60, has a velocity of 1.25 times that in atmosphere. centre, — thus giving two independent decreases of density
The facts thus support the view that a balloon filled with incident to the waves from each centre — it follows that
ammonia would be noticeably repelled by the sound
also the actual density between the bodies is less than if the

waves emitted from a resonance box bearing a vibrating other body were absent. There is also increase of stress or
tuning fork. pressure beyond the bodies. The result is the incessant pulling
If this phenomenon of repulsion were due to the smaller between the masses — which we call planetary
in the right line
average density, it would not persist after the balloon was forces. We could view either body as operating by its wave-
loaded with wax, or other material, as has been found by action to agitate and expel some of the aetherons from the
observation in the case of hydrogen. It therefore must be region between the masses, and increase them beyond so
due not to the relative lightness of the body floating in the is a minimum along the line sun-earth.
that the density
air, but to the great velocity of the sound vibrations in the General Considerations on the Wave-
12.
hydrogen, the waves of which are conducted through the body Theory in Relation to Planck'^ Quantum Theory,
of the balloon more rapidly than through the air about it. with an extension oi Planck's views, 1913.
It is obvious that the rapid advance of the sound waves
(i) Tendency to geometrical forms explained by the
through the better conducting hydrogen gives a reaction against
wave-theory.
the surrounding air before this enveloping gas is agitated by
the waves coming through the atmosphere alone; the effect
The plausibility of the wave-theory appears from the

of this advance agitation through the hydrogen is an elastic fact that if and heat it, we get a glowing
we take a solid

reaction of the hydrogen balloon against the greater part of

mass with predominant waves of heat, — leaving the action-
of the shorter waves of the molecular forces weakened, but
its as yet undisturbed envelope. It thus rebounds against the

inert air, and is repelled from the resonance box, as found

still largely intact. If we still further increase the heat, the

by observation. solid fuses into a liquid — the increasing agitation of the

long heat waves have so far overcome the shorter waves
In the light of this explanation, which is the only one
underlying molecular forces that the molecules become released
admissible, we readily see also why a
by the above table
balloon with carbon dioxide should be attracted to the
filled
and the fluid is thus free to flow about. Still higher tem-
perature will vaporize the liquid and convert it into a gas,^
resonance box. For the density of carbon cJioxide is 1.529,
with particles flying about with high velocities.
and its conductivity (jf sound only 0.78 that of air. The
sound waves on entering such a balloon will be appreciably Now when we consider
such transitions of the state
outrun by those in the surrounding atmosphere; thus the of matter through temperatures and crucial states,,
various
outside air will give an advance elastic reaction against the with predominant aether waves of various lengths, what ex-
enclosed sluggish balloon of carbon dioxide. * planation of the discontinuity in physical conditions is so
Viewed kinetically it is obvious that some of the lighter plausible as that afforded by the wave-theory ? Rising temperature

and more rapidly moving molecules of the air, under sound liquifiesand vaporizes all bodies; decreasing temperature and
agitation, are thus transferred beyond the heavy mass of CO^ increasing pressure has enabled the experimenter to liquify
;

and as the air between the balloon and the sounding box is and solidify all bodies, including the most permanent gases,,
thus somewhat thinned out, the increase of external pressure such as oxygen, hydrogen, helium. The wave-theory is directly
and internal tension incident to this kinetic transfer of some involved in all temperature problems, and we have showrv
of the air particles to the space beyond the balloon, causes how molecular forces depending on short waves develop and
it to be attracted to the sounding box.
become effective when the long heat waves are withdrawn.

I find on examination that all the other phenomena of

Is not such a general indication in nature significant of the
acoustic attraction and repulsion, which are reported by the underlying cause?
eminent experimenters above named, can be satisfactorily has long been recognized that the raindrops are
It

explained in the same way; so that it is natural to infer spherical,but far too little attention has been directed to
that we have here a remarkable general law of nature. As the question of this exact sphericity of figure, how it —
the experiments are definite and decisive, it would seem that arises and how maintained. Molecular forces indeed
it is

there is no escape from this conclusion, and the resulting are the assigned cause of the sphericity, but as nothing is-
law must therefore be taken as fundamental. known as to the laws of these forces, or how they act, the
These well established experiments on acoustic attraction current assumptions are admissible only in default of a better
and repulsion, in the air, which we can experiment with in explanation. Under the circumstances it becomes advisable
our laboratories, confirms our theory of gravitational attraction to inquire into the
degree of sphericity of figure actually
through the aether, with particles moving 1.57 times faster maintained, with a view of throwing Hght on the cause of
than light. For in the fourth paper, (AN 5085), we have molecular forces.
shown from the confirmation of Poisson% researches, how I. It is generally agreed that the colors of the rain-
intimate is the connection between the theories of light bow are well separated, except for the overlap of images,-
and sound, as correctly held by that illustrious geometer due to the finite dimensions of the sun, which renders the
a century ago. spectrum impure. So far as one can see, therefore, the drops.
 345 5130 346

of rain are exceedingly spherical; and no departure from

perfect sphericity can be inferred from the observed colors
of the rainbow, or from the conical form of that splendid
arch of light.
2. Noris there any evidence indicating noticeable

oscillation of figure in the drops which produce the rainbow.

Oscillations of figure would render the refraction and reflection
irregular and variable so that the angle of the cone of the
;

rainbow from the anti-solar point would be variable. It is

true that the rapidity of the oscillation would render the'
phenomenon difficult of detection; yet if a great number of
drops, enough of them to constitute a considerable fraction
of the whole, were incessantly in oscillation, it seems certain
that the separation of colors along the conical outline would
be blurred, and the rainbow appear as an overlapping hazy
arch of light, devoid of distinct colors.
3. Now this is not observed in the sky when
hazy arch
natural rain is falling. We
cannot say that this absence of
a noticeably hazy border to the rainbow proves that no drops
depart from the true spherical figure; but only that such
departure from very perfect sphericity, if they exist, are ex-
ceedingly few or of excessively short duration for any indi-
vidual drop, and thus the corresponding oscillations of figure
exert no sensible diffusion of coloration, in comparison with
the integral effect of the light from all the spherical drops.
In the Proc. Roy. Soc, May 5, iSyg, no. 196, the late
Lord Rayleigh has devised a means of determining the time
of vibration of a dew drop. Lord Kelvin found the formula
for the period of vibration to be

x = ^/^fl"'^ second (124)

where a is the radius of the sphere of water measured in
centimetres. For a radius Y4 cm the period is Vs2 second;
and hence the table:
r
 « «

347 5130 348

forces of nature. This relationship is shown in the theory the energy in a certain way, because each atom represents
of the correlation of forces, and the doctrine of the conser- a determinate quantity of matter, which can move only as
vation of energy, which have become fundamental in modern a whole. Also in the light and heat radiation, although it
science. But there are some difficulties to be overcome, and is quite immaterial in its nature, there must be certain pro-

heretofore a method of attacking them has not been developed, cesses in action that retain the energy in determinate quantities
even by the most eminent authorities. It seems likely that and retain them the more powerfully as the waves are shorter
most of the supposed difficulties of the wave-theory will and the vibrations more rapid.*
disappear the moment we attribute the forces of nature to This outline of Planck's theory assures us that the trans-
wave action; for then we may use the forces of nature to formation of energy waves into shorter and shorter wave-
study the waves by which the forces are produced, and also length would lead one to expect »that the whole energy of
investigate the forces observed with a view of inferring the the radiation would finally be confined to the ultra-violet part
type of waves from which they might arise. of the spectrum. Now, not the slightest trace of any such
Accordingly, after this sketch of the wave-theory, we phenomenon can be discovered in nature. The transformation
have now to consider the views announced by Professor reaches, sooner or later, a perfectly clear and well defined
Planck. In his address as Rector of the University of Berlin, limit, and after this the state of the radiation is stable in
Oct. 15, 19 1 3, reported in the Revue Scientifique, Paris, all respects.*
Feb. 14, 19 14, Planck gives a summary of his chief con- It should be pointed out that molecular forces furnish

clusions, to the effect that neither motion nor physical force evidence of such shorter and shorter waves, at least up to
is strictly continuous in character, but each of them made a certain limit hitherto quite unknown. And it is found from
up of small jumps or sudden alterations in value. This quantum the observed thickness of soap bubbles, just before their
theory probably is not identical with the wave-theory, yet rupture, that this length corresponds to the wave-length of
it has enough elements in common to be worthy of careful the ultra-violet spectrum and beyond. Accordingly, it seems
examination, on the probability that the two theories may to me that Planck has not drawn all the admissible con-
be reconciled by future developments. clusions. For if we concede that molecular forces be due to
Planck's, theory is described very briefly in the follo- waves, the evidence is that shorter and shorter waves really
wing account: exist, at least to atomic and perhaps electronic dimensions.
»Suppose a mass of water in which violent winds have Nature therefore presents to us a book of mysteries
produced a train of very high waves. After the wind has which is not yet opened, but securely sealed, as with seven
ceased, the waves still maintain themselves and go from one seals. As' we have to explain cohesion, adhesion, hardness,
shore to another. Then takes place a characteristic change. tenacity, etc., we cannot yet truthfully say what is the limit
The energy of motion of the longer and larger waves gradually of the shortness of the waves, unless this is finally set by
changes, especially when they meet the shore or other solid the dimensions of the atoms and electrons.
objects, into that of shorter and smaller waves, until finally In the last paragraph of the above quotation Planck
the waves become so small as to be quite invisible. This is describes the smallness of the masses as fixing limits to the
the well-known change of visible motion into heat, of mass shortness of waves, because such small masses can only move
movement into molecular movement.* as a whole. He does not show how these elementary quanta
»But this process does not go on indefinitely; it finds of matter vibrating as a whole are represented, but the in-
a natural limit in the size of the atoms. The larger the atoms ference is that no source is able to give out energy till the
are, comes the end of this subdivision of the
the sooner energy has reached a certain value, by natural sympathy of
total energy of movement. the vibrating system or otherwise, as in Helmholtz's, resonators,
»Now suppose a similar process with undulations of with which the atoms have many properties in common.
light and heat; suppose that the rays emitted by a powerfully (iii) Discontinuities in the quantum-theory naturally
incandescent body are concentrated into a closed cavity by accounted for by the wave-theory.
mirrors and there continually reflected to and fro. Here also It is chiefly by the differences of wave-lengths in the
willtake place a progressive transformation of the radiant integrals for the molecular forces that we explain the different
energy into shorter and shorter waves. According to classic forces of nature. The bolometer-researches of Z««^/«y on the
theory we should expect that the whole energy of the radiation solar spectrum, showed that the wave-lengths are quite irre-
should finally be confined to the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. gularly distributed over the infra-red region. If therefore the
»Now, not the slightest trace of any such phenomenon operations of heating, at different temperatures t^ and 4 should
can be discovered in nature. The transformation reaches, bring into prominence the part played by waves of lengths
sooner or later, a perfectly clear and well-determined limit, between Ai and l^, it might be possible to account for the
and after this the state of the radiation is stable in all respects.* discontinuities noted by Planck.
»To make this fact agree with the classic theory the For as changing resistance breaks up electrical waves
most diverse attempts have been made; but it has been shown from longer to shorter wave-length, and at the same time
that the contradiction penetrates too deeply inta the roots heat waves appear from this disintegration, it is very probable
of the theory to leave them intact. So the only thing to do that in summing up the effects of waves over a great range
is to overhaul the foundations of the theory.* of wave-lengths many special phenomena would appear suddenly
»In the case of the water-waves the subdivision of their at certain temperatures. This probable connection between
energy of motion came to an end because the atoms retained the quantum-theory and the wave-theory seems to make in-
 «

349 5130 35°

telligiblea great body of phenomena involving sudden tran- that it can not fail to become an object of research among
sition,which heretofore have been quite obscure to the natural philosophers, as to why these physical laws exist.
philosopher. It is necessary to have some mental picture of It appears that Plato saw in the nearly circular orbits
the cause of the apparent discontinuity, and at present this of the planets, and in the spherical figures of the sun and
can only be supplied by the wave-theory. moon and all fluid globules the geometrizing of the Deity
Professor Planck describes the apparendy discontinuous — Seo5 del y^^oiiitqei.
and explosive character of certain natural phenomena as follows: But Newton, Clairaut, and Laplace showed that the
»In any case the hypothesis of quanta has led to the theory of universal gravitation fully accounts for the figures
idea that there are in nature changes that are not continuous, of the heavenly bodies. And recently it has been recognized,
but explosive. I need only remind you that this represen- from the writer's Researches in Cosmogony igo8-io, that
tation is made
acceptable by the discovery and close study the observed roundness of the orbits of the planets and
of radioactive phenomena. The hypothesis of quanta has so satellites, which had so profoundly impressed both Newton
far enabled us to obtain results in better accord with existing and Laplace, is due to the secular action of the nebular
measurements of radiation than those of all preceding theories.* resisting medium formerly pervading the solar system.
»But there is something further. If it is a point in Thus, to complete the solution of the problem of the
favor of a new hypothesis that it is verified even in regions Greek philosophers, it remained to account for the perfect

to which it was not expected to apply, at the outset, the sphericity of figure of liquid drops. This production of perfect
hypothesis of quanta may surely claim an advantage. I desire liquid spheres in nature we have now explained by the wave-
to call attention here only to a single striking circumstance. theory, which yields minimal surfaces with very remarkable
Since we have succeeded in liquifying air, hydrogen and geometrical properties. The proof deduced from the Archimedt^n
helium, an abundant and new field of experimentation has theorem. Fig. 5, section 4, that spherical drops of liquid are
opened to research in the domain of the lower temperatures, true minimal surfaces, for the whole of the waves traversing
and already a whole series of new and extremely surprising the universe in every direction, doubtless will be of more
results have come to light. than ordinary interest to geometers and natural philosophers.
»To heat a piece of copper from —250° to —249°, I am not aware of any previous use of this beautiful theorem,

that is, by one degree centigrade, not the same quantity of in physical investigations, since the days of Archimedes.

heat is from 0° to i", but about thirty

required as to heat it In this paper no considerable outline of the wave-theory
times less. If we an initial temperature still
started with of chemical and of explosive forces has been attempted.
affinity,

lower, we should find that the corresponding quantity of heat That is I hope to deal
reserved for a sixth paper, in which
was still smaller, without assignable limit. This is directly also with the living forces. These vital processes long have
contrary not only to all customary statements, but also to been considered electrical in character, and yet beyond the
the requirements of the classic theory, for although we learned reach of research so long as molecular forces could not be
more than a century ago to distinguish strictly between tem- definitely referred to wave-action. The problems, of crystallo-
perature and quantity of heat, we have nevertheless been led graphy likewise are many and promising, and I have left
to the conclusion that even if these magnitudes are not the wave-theory of the hardness of diamond incomplete, yet
exactly proportional, they vary at least in some parallel way.« sufficiently outlined to be suggestive to others.

of quanta has completely cleared up

»The hypothesis It only remains to add that Maxwell, Boltzmann, and
this and moreover has furnished another result of
difficulty, other eminent natural philosophers, have taken the molecular
high importance, namely, that the forces which provoke heat- forces to vary inversely as the fourth or fifth power of the
vibrations in a solid are precisely the same as those that distance /(r) ==
or f[r)
-A'/r*, =
K'jr'^, which will be found

produce elastic vibrations. We may thus now calculate from to accord well with the wave-theory. According to LMplace's
the elastic properties of a monatomic body its heat energy hypothesis these forces are sensible only at insensible dis-

at temperatures a service that the

different classic theory tances, and thus manifest themselves chiefly in the immediate
has never been able to perform.* proximity of physical matter, where the refractions, dispersions,
diffractions, interferences, etc. appear separately or conjointly
The researches heretofore made are too incomplete for
us to affirm that these phenomena of quanta can all be and in unknown intensity.

explained by the wave-theory; yet the indications of a hitherto If, on the average, about two or three of these in-

unsuspected connection are so plain that the cause underlying fluences be at work near physical bodies, — the intensity

the observed phenomena will necessarily become an object of each being as the inverse square of the distance r, the —
of attention in future investigations. Heretofore the phenomena compound effect of their joint action would be approximately
of quanta have appeared as deep mysteries. (p [r) = X/r^ \p [r] = A''/r'', or % [r] = K"lr^ .
(125)
(iv) Conclusion to the fifth paper on the new theory This conclusion accords well with observations, but as
of the aether. the distances at which phenomena are noted are nearly in-
From the foregoing comprehensive but necessarily in- sensible, we must not expect great observational accuracy,

complete survey of an extensive subject, it appears that the nor attach much importance to the theoretical agreement
wave-theory of molecular forces is overwhelmingly indicated with the wave-theory.
by the minimal surfaces pervading nature. The tendency to After outlining this new theory of molecular forces, it

perfect sphericity of figure is so remarkable a phenomenon only remains to call attention to certain definite steps in the
 :

351 5130 352

theory of the rainbow, the study of which, under the un- this great arch of light so splendidly spanning the heavens
dulatory theory of light, has now enabled us to assign the during rains and thunderstorms now becomes nothing less
cause of molecular forces. than a triumphal arch of discovery. By the study of the
1. About the year 13 11 A. D. the first analysis of the illumination of this glorious arch we are enabled to penetrate
colors of the rainbow, with correct explanation of the refractions the much deeper mystery of atmospheric electricity and of
producing the primary and secondary bows, was made by the lightning, which in all ages has spread fear and terror
Theodorich (cf. Venturi, Commentarii sopra la storia e le in those who rejoiced to behold the splendor of the rainbow.

teorie dell'ottica, Bologna, 18 14), who was a contemporary 6. Accordingly, if mankind should hereafter be able
of Dante, and thus flourished in the darkest period of the to view the rainbow, and the lightning so frequently associated
Middle Ages. But TheodoricK^ researches were not published with it, calm reassurance that both phenomena depend
in
until 1814, —
after a delay of 503 years! so that they — on the all-pervading aether and represent the same wave-order
first became known early in the 19'^ century. in nature, it ought to aff'ord some consolation to philosophers

2. Meanwhile about the year 1591, the celebrated to realize that their fesearches, beginning with Theodorichh
Antonius de Dominis, Archbishop of Spalato, independently pioneer effort in the age of Dante, subsequently extended by
discovered and experimentally demonstrated the origin of the Antonius de Dominis, Descartes and Newton in the 16* 17'''
colors of the rainbow. In his Treatise on Optics, 1704, and 18''' centuries, have finally brought to light an even
p. 126, Newton says: greater secret of the universe. Under the circumstances a
bow never appears but where it rains in the
»This torch-bearer of the Greeks, who had brought down the
sunshine, and may be made artificially by spouting up water lightning, as the most dazzling flash of the aether of the

which may break aloft, and scatter into drops, and fall down skies, doubtless would have exclaimed with Aeschylus:
like rain. For the sun shining upon these drops certainly NaQdtjxoTi?.')] QCOTov Si OtiQiSfiai nvQog
causes the bow to appear to a spectator standing in a due Ilrjyrjv xXonaiav, SiSdaxaXoi; Tsxvrjg
>/

position to the rain and sun. Hence it is now agreed upon ndajj(; /SgoToic ns^prji's xal fifyac noQoc.
that this bow is made by refraction of the sun's light in Prom. Vinct. log.
drops of falling rain. This was understood by some of the »I brought to earth the spark of heavenly fire,
ancients, and of late more fully discovered and explained Concealed and small, but spreading soon
at first,
by the famous Antonius de Dominis, Archbishop of Spalato, in Among the sons of men, and burning on,
his book De Radiis Visus et Lucis, published by his friend Teacher of art and use, and fount of power.*
Bartolus at Venice, in the year i6n, and written about
Very grateful acknowledgements are due to Mr. W. S.
twenty years before. For he teaches there how the interior
Trankle for facilitating the completion of this paper.
bow is made in round drops of rain by two refractions of
the sun's light, and one reflexion between them, and the StarlightonLoutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, 1920 Dec. 10.
exterior by two refractions and two sorts of reflexions bet- T. J. J. See.
ween them in each drop of water, and proves his explications
I. Postscript. Since finishing the above paper it has
by experiments made with a phial full of water, and with
occurred to me that the nature of the wave-action in main-
globes of glass filled with water, and placed in the sun to
taining the oscillations of a globule of liquid might be examined
make the colours of the two bows appear in them.«
somewhat more critically. When a drop is disturbed from
3. It is well known
Newton's experiments on
that the spherical form itsfrom a prolate to an
figure oscillates
colors, with the decomposition and recomposition of white oblate ellipsoid, or vice versa. Thus it may be worth while
light by means of prisms, were begun in 1666, but not to consider these extreme spheroidal forms of the globule.
published in full until 1704, when the celebrated Treatise
1. The Prolate Spheroid. The equation of the meridional
on Optics appeared. Since Newton's day there has been no
section is
material change in the_theory of the colors of the rainbow.
Having had examine the theory of
occasion to
which gives
4.
the rainbow with much attention in the year 1Q16, I was The differential element of the volume is
led to conceive that the waves entering and leaving the
drops would exert a pressure towards the centre, and thus
Av = „[Pla^)[a^-x^)dx (r)

to form a new theory of molecular forces depending on

which by integration gives
wave-action. At length, after several years of research, I have v = n[Pla'')^{a^~x^)Ax (<5)

been able to outline a proof that heretofore we have recog-

nized only a small part of the wave secrets of nature.
= [Pla^)[a^x-^l^x^) +
7t c [e]

If we calculate volume from

the plane the passing
x =
Accordingly,
v =
5. it appears that the study of the rain-
through the centre, we have iox
and o, o, there-
bow has finally led to the cause of molecular forces,
the phenomenon of lightning, which so long proved
including
terrifying
fore also c = o. Hence between x = x = the limits o, a,
we have 1/ „, „
to mankind, and utterly bewildering even to the most learned
natural philosophers. The rainbow itself is beautiful, but its V = a ^/sTC b^ .
^^^

wave origin was suggestive of deeper secrets of nature. In As nb"^ is the area of the circle described on the
fact, if our new theory of molecular forces be admissible, conjugate axis, and 2 a is the transverse axis, and the volume
 ;

353 513° 354

perceive that there is not only an alteration of figure, from

a prolate spheroid a sphere, and from a sphere to an
to
oblate spheroid, or vice versa, but also that an alteration of
volume would be expected to occur except for the incom-
pressibility of the fluid under the slight force of surface tension.
The incompressibility of liquids, however, imposes the condition:
Obi. Spher. = Prol. Spher. = Sphere
i/^na^b = ^/sTib'' '/sn>
or r= V[aH) = i^{a' b'^) [v]

This requires that for an oscillating globule the axes

a and b in the two spheroidal forms must take successively
appropriate values, yet when the form of the spheroid has
alternated, the axes are not identical in the two cases, and
should be written as in equation [v].
4. If we consider the resistance to the waves, due to
the fluids in the prolate and oblate spheroids, when the axis
of the circumscribing cylinders coincides with the major axis
of the prolate and the minor axis of the oblate spheroid, it
is evident from the above equations that the Archimede&n
theorem hold rigorously true for these two orthogonally
will
coincident axial positions, just as in the case of the sphere
treated in Fig. 5 above. In these cases the resistance to the
waves due to the fluid spheroids is exactly of that due %
Fig. 22. Theory of wave-action on oscillating drop of to the whole cylinder of fluid.
liquid, alternately prolate and oblate, the circum- But when the axes of the fluid spheroids are oblique
scribing cylinder having axis oblique, and being
or inclined at any angle to the axis of the circumscribed
somewhat variable in form and dimensions, which
however for the sake of simplicity is not re- cylinder, this theorem of the ratio for the resistance of%
presented in the figure. the passing waves will not hold. In the oblique position of
the axes the section of the cylinder is not circular, but really
of the circumscribed cylinder therefore 2nb^a, it follows that
the volume of the prolate ellipsoid is to that of the circum-
elliptical. And even if the circumscribing cylinder be ellip-
tical,the wave resistance due to the enclosed obliquely tilted
scribed cylinder as 2:3, which is a remarkable extension
spheroids will be less than Vs of that due to the whole cylinder.
of the celebrated theorem of Archmiedes illustrated above
in Fig. 5.
(a) The wave pressure at the two ends of the spheroids,
parallel to the polar axes, is relatively greater than from the
2. The Oblate Spheroid. In this case we have obviously
Av = TC x^ dy . («/)
various oblique directions.
(b) Whilst the axes of the spheroids remain fixed in
And on substituting for x'^ its value from the equation of
position the sides of the figure are thus forced in or out,
the ellipse, namely:
as the case may be, till the motion is checked by inertia
balancing momentum, as the globule maintains its vibration
we get in like manner: and this oscillation, heretofore attributed to unknown molecular
V =n [a^lb^]
J [b^-y') dy =n [a'/b') (^V" Vs/) +^ • (')
forces,
lating at
is reallydue to the unequal wave pressure accumu-
the boundary of the fluid in the different directions.
And between the proper limits, this expression for v becomes
(c) The above figure will convey some impressions of
Vs M this oscillation in a typical case, but the enclosing cylinder
which is another remarkable extension of the celebrated
must be conceived as somewhat variable in figure and di-
theorem of Archimedes illustrated in Fig. 5 above.
mensions. These additional considerations show that the wave-
If we compare the volumes of the two spheroids here theory may be adapted to the behavior of drops in oscillation
considered, we find: as well as to those which have settled down to the figure of
Obi. Spheroid : Prolate Spheroid ^= a:b . [l] equilibrium, which when free from external forces, is that
It thus appears that the volumes of the two spheroids of a sphere.
are as their greater and lesser axes respectively. Accordingly, IQ2I Feb. 19. T. y. y. See.
the volumes of the cylinders orthogonally circumscribed about
them would also be in the ratio ol a:b. And the Archmede3.n 2. Postscript.

theorem on the ratio of the volumes of the spheroids to the Theory of the Flow of Waves in Right Lines through
orthogonally circumscribed cylinders in each case is ^j^. any Conical Space ro, and of the Change of the Double
other Integral of the Waves over any Closed Surface S, when Re-
3. Now when we consider a drop of water or
liquid oscillating about its mean figure, which is spherical, we fraction occurs within the Enclosed Space ^).

') Written about 3 years, but not heretofore published.

 :

355 513° 356

In the theory of the brightness of the stellar universe, a closed surface, we may, as in the fundamental proposition
under an equal distribution of the stars as conceived by of potentials, take the double integral over the surface:
Herschel, W. Struve shows that for a small solid angle w,
the number of stars Av included in the cone thus defined JJ diijdn d5
• = - 47r Ao (7}

between the distances r and r-hdr is given by the expression •where Ao is the sum of the values of the light A,- from the

dv ^ A wr' dr (i)
several sources lying within the surface.
to the closed surface sends
in which ^
As every source external
is a constant.
in light and thus leaves the wave-
which goes out again,
As determined by the accumulated
the total light is
unchanged, while the light
distribution in the cones of space
effect of the stars at their several distances, the whole amount
from the internal source goes wholly out, we perceive that
of light received from such a cone will be found by inte-
the amount of light lost through the surfacp per second for
grating this expression between the limits o and oo;
each unit source is 47T, the total area of the unit sphere
surrounding the source. Hence we verify the above formula
y^{,/n^)dri = (7), that for all the internal sources the integral is the sum
of the several sources of radiation A;, and thus equal to 47rAo. —
=^ A =^ kw \
[ijr^)r^ dr =k (o \ dr = kwoo {2) Nowconsider light waves flowing in conical streams
from the objects of the material universe in every direction.
In practice this expression is finite and less than the
It is easily seen that the light received from a uniformly
brightness of the sun's disc, and thus either the universe is

or an absorption
illuminated plane surface, when the normal is inclined at
finite, of light by cosmical dust in space
the angle 6, is represented by the double integral:
is considered probable.
Let X be the flow of light in straight lines, from a ^ = |J(i/r2)cos^d5. (8}

luminous point, under constant wave velocity; then if r be It may be shown that for a closed surface, which has
the distance of the luminous point, the intensity, or quantity no inside source of light, this integral vanishes, because the
of light which passes through unit of surface perpendicular original wave distribution in the cones of space is unchanged.
to the ray in unit of time, will be proportional to the il- And for ail shells of equal uniform brightness whose edges
lumination of steady intensity defined by the equation lie on the same cone its value is constant.

l=llr^ (3) This theorem, that when propagated in right lines, the
If the surface illuminated be inclined at an angle 6 expression for the light passing through the closed surface
to the ray, we have for the intensity of the illumination of vanishes for all external sources, is of the highest significance:
such a tilted area: /'= (1/^2) ^ cos ^ .
(4)
it an experimentum crucis as to the flow of light
affords
from all sources in spherical cones in which the light distri-
In the article Light, Encycl. g'*" Tatt points
Brit., ed.,
bution remains homogeneous —
free from refracting or
out that these two intensities are exactly similar to the fol-
dispersing disturbances —
and any other kind of flow gives-
lowing expressions: Equation (3) is the expression for the
this integral a finite value different from zero. Hence in
gravitational force exerted by a particle of mass ). on a unit
general we have
of matter at distance r; and (4) for the resolved component
of this force on a given direction. This is an additional JJdi3/d^-d5 = JJ(i/r2)cos^d6'= -47tAo-+-^. (q)
indication that gravitation and light are both due to waves. Toapply the above theorems to capillarity and other
Accordingly, if there be any number of separate sources molecular forces, it suffices to enclose the fluid at the point
of light, we may employ, for calculation
of the effect, an under investigation [x,y,z), with a spherical surface of con-
expression exactly analogous to that of the gravitational or venient radius, so that the waves from external sources are
electric potential, namely: redistributed by refraction, dispersion, etc., within the sphere
surface.
(a) We
may neglect the collective actions of the waves-
Z=I originating from the particles within the enclosing spherical

= ^^[[x-x'Y+{y-yY+{z-z'y-]-'l'adxdydz. (s)
surface: such aggregate action yields the expression

And the differential of this expression with respect to r JJ di3/d;^-d>S= -471: Ao . (10)

As the enclosed matter, by hypothesis, is not a chief source

dS!Jir,= ^[ilr,')>.,= of radiation, we know that Aq is small, and of the order of
intensity seen in gravitative forces, which are always very feeble.
(b) Thus we are
mi x'Y^[y-y'Y + {z-z'Y]-^ adxdydz (6)
consider the effects of the
left to
waves passing through the sphere surface enclosed about
will give the total radiation due to any number of separate the fluid and solid at the point {x,y,z). These waves are
sources when the waves are propagated in right
of light, refracted, dispersed, and unequally resisted by the matter in
lines, cones composing spheres, separately homogeneous
in the paths of the cones which make up the surface ^n of the
in wave distribution, about the several centres of radiation. unit sphere. If no refraction, dispersion or resistance occurred,,
Moreover, if n be the external normal at any point of the integral of these passing waves would be zero:
 .

357 5130 358

JJ(i/r2)cosdd5= o. (11) 1. For an internal point

But under the refractions, dispersions, retardations, etc., JJdi3/d^-d5= -47r;.o
actually occurring along the paths of certain cones, the integral 2. For an external point
does not vanish, but always reduces to a finite quantity:
JJ ( i/r 2) cos ^d5= o .

S^{x/r^)cosSdS=A (12) These celebrated theorems (Allgemeine Lehrsatze,

1.

This failure of the integral over the closed surface to vanish, § 22, Gauss's Werke, Bd. V, p. 224) are based upon rectilinear
implies that the aethereal medium is stressed by the refractions, actions in nature which follow the law of the inverse squares,
dispersions, etc., along the paths of certain cones, thus de- as specifically pointed out by Gauss in his introductory
veloping forces, which may become quite large in certain cases. remarks, §§ i, 2.
It is upon this integral (12) that the molecular forces 2 If, therefore, there be in nature forces due to waves, —
depend: and as the integral for the effects of the redistributed which suffer refraction or dispersion when the wave path is
waves over the closed surface is not zero, the wave-principle through heterogeneous matter, as when a fluid is in contact
of Least Action always makes the integral for the sum total with a solid or of such shape as to cause refraction or dis-
of the action of the waves along all their actual paths a persion, —
these theorems of Gauss cease to hold rigorously true.
minimum. Thus the residue A in (12) is made as small 3. It is upon such principles that the fluctuations of
as possible. the moon depend. And in a different way, the stress arising
Accordingly there are physical limitations imposed by from wave action gives rise to molecular and atomic forces
nature upon the geometrical conditions underlying Gauss's (cf. section 7 above).
theorems that in the theory of the potential: 192 I July 4. r. y. y.See.
 Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 214.
Tafel 2.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 6. Upper figure, Lightning flash photographed at Kansas City, Missouri, 1915 Aug. 5, 6 30™ p. m. by Mr. Donaln P. Beard.
Lower figure, an extremely terrific lightning flash photographed at Spokane, Washington, 1914 July 13, 2''3o'" a. m.
by C. R. Lewis.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 21 Tafel 3.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

AstrciioirL.NacliiiciLterL Bd.215.

;/

<^A^AJ-^ fi-o-j^ /W^

jyUAy ..^.^i^ac ^l^e'Tv^^'i^

,vg4
 «

Abdriick aus den Astr. Nachr. Nr. 5140

(Band 215 — Januar 1922).

New Theory of the Aether. By T. J. J. See.

(Sixth Paper.) I^With eleven Plates.)

Part I. The Wave-Theory phenomena of dissociation. Lectures on Theoretical Chemistry

of Chemical, Explosive, and Vital Forces. University of California, 1904, p. 146:
»In the study of the so-called ,abnormar vapour den-
I. The Lawsof Nature indicate that Chemical
sities we have already found that some molecules, for instance
Affinity and Explosive Forces depend on Wave-
those of ammonium chloride, are split up into two (or more)
Action .

simpler molecules on raising the temperature. This process

General introductory remarks. In the fifth paper is called dissociation. The laws of dissociation were first
on the new theory of the aether (AN 5130) we have treated studied by St. Claire Devzlle. Dissociation is a so-called rever-
of the principal molecular forces —
such as surface tension sible process, i. e. on lowering the temperature the products
(which gives the globular figures to all liquid drops), adhesion, of dissociation re-combine. A chemical equilibrium exists
capillarity, cohesion, the tenacity of solids, etc. —
but reserved between the original molecules and the products of their
for the sixth paper a more detailed study of the theory of
decomposition, and the study of the laws of this equilibrium
chemical affinity, explosive forces, and the so-called living may be effected by the help of thermodynamics. This study
forces, which depend principally upon chemical action. It has been very fruitful for theoretical chemistry, and we will,
has long been believed by chemists that chemical affinity is therefore, consider the phenomenon of dissociation a little
an electrical phenomenon. ^) Accordingly, if this could be more in detail.*
proved it would follow also that explosive forces and the »The simplest case [of dissociation is that presented
chief vital forces are electrical in character, depending in
by the molecules of iodine, which at low temperatures are
some way upon the action of waves in the aether.
composed of two iodine atoms and at higher temperatures
On account of the great importance of the problem of are split up into simple atoms, as the molecular weight deter-
atomic forces and the profound obscurity in which it has minations by Victor- Meyer (Ber. 1880, I'3.3g4) and Crafts,
been veiled, we have labored first to make out the nature (Compt. rend., 1880, 90.184), have made evident.
of the molecular forces. This course was chosen in the hope Arrhenius thus distinctly points out that when elements
of finding principles deduced from phenomena under actual are dissociated, one of the most effective modes of uniting
measurements of small distances, as in the thickness of soap them into molecules made up of more than a single atom is
bubbles, which might enable us to penetrate into the still to lower the temperature. In this way, when the longer heat
smaller and more invisible mechanism of the atoms. waves are withdrawn, the atomic forces, depending on the
Without elaborate argument it would seem fairly obvious shorter waves, become powerful enough to group the atoms
that if we could definitely refer such molecular forces as into pairs or higher combinations as molecules.
surface tension, capillarity, cohesion, to wave-action, another Following the same pinciples, all the so-called permanent
step in the same chain of reasoning should enable us to grasp gases have been liquified or solidified under combinations of
the still finer mechanism on which the atomic forces depend. very high temperatures with very great pressures. Air, oxygen,
For experience shows that nature is moderately con- hydrogen, and finally helium have been reduced to the liquid
tinuous in her processes; and, judged by the distances at or solid state, by a process similar to that above outlined
which they act, it is but a step from the molecular forces by Arrhenius as applicable to chemical .bodies generally.
to the atomic forces. Accordingly the best preparation for In view of these considerations, it is evident, on physical
a study of the forces operative in the structure of the atoms grounds, that the great processes of nature are essentially
is the wave-theory of the molecular forces already outlined uniform and continuous. we withdraw heat —
If therefore,

in the fifth paper. Admitting the probability that the proofs which is a phenomenon of long wave-action — to enable
there given of the wave-theory of molecular forces are perhaps the atomic forces to assert themselves for the formation of

yet to be somewhat we hold nevertheless

perfected, that so molecules of two or more atoms, it is natural to infer that
powerful an array of evidence as we have presented justifies the cause of the molecular and atomic forces is similar to

our adoption of the wave-theory as a working hypothesis. the heat waves by which they are overcome. It would be

So powerful an argument drawn from such a variety of remarkable if heat-waves should release forces not due to
phenomena, all mutually confirmatory in character, it seems waves of any kind.
upon' the basis of substantial physical
only rest Accordingly, we are led directly to the wave-theory of
to me, can
truth. But in order to strengthen the evidence already adduced
molecular and atomic forces. And it is very difficult to see
we cite the great authority of Arrhenius, in the chemical how so obvious and simple an argument can be evaded.
action in the primitive experiments of Galvani, Bologna,
i)^Voltaic or dynamic electricity was excited by the force of chemical
at

1790, and their immediate development at Pavia,

by Volta, who made use of plates of zinc and copper, as in modern batteries.
 «

51 5140 52

As Mossotti says at the close of the introduction to his owing chiefly to the finite size of the atoms of matter. Have
celebrated memoir Sur les forces qui regissent la constitution we not here an indication of the short waves which act to
interieure des corps, Turin, 1836: prevent compression of solids?
»C'estun argument qui me parait meriter beaucoup 1. As we have seen in AN
5048, p. 140-41, resistance
d'interet, parce que la decouverte des lois de Taction mole- breaks up long waves into shorter ones. Now if the process
culaire doit conduire les geom^tres k construire sur un seul of wave disintegration finally stops, as Planck says it does,
principe la mecanique moleculaire, comme la decouverte de there must be an influence at work to counteract the breaking
la loi de I'attraction universelle les a conduits a eriger sur up of the waves.
une seule base le plus beau monument de I'intelligence 2. This can only be the limiting wave lengths corres-
humaine, la mecanique celeste. ponding to the dimensions of the atoms. To make the waves
In alluding thus to Mossotti ^ theory of molecular and shorter would tend to disrupt the aether between the atoms.
atomic forces, published 85 years ago, we think it well to And as the forces required for the disruption of a medium
point out that this theory has some similarity to the wave- 689321600000 more elastic than air in proportion to its
theory, but also very notable differences which we cannot density, would be nearly infinite in magnitude, vast stresses
now go into, except very briefly. always are at work between the atoms and molecules, both
As the particles of material bodies are not in actual attractive and repulsive.
contact, Mossotti supposes that each is surrounded by an 3. The central stress yields enormous power of cohesion,
atmosphere of the aethereal medium, which he conceives to and thus the hardness of diamond and the tenacity of steel
be electricity. ^) He assumes that the atoms of the medium become intelligible. On the other hand, the finite dimensions
repel one another, that the particles of matter also repel one of the atoms limit the reductionof the wave lengths, by
another, but with less intensity; and thus there is a mutual forces equally powerful, and hence the incompressibility of
attraction between the particles of matter and the atoms of solids and liquids.
the medium, under forces which vary inversely as the square As Laplace was careful to point out, these molecular
of the distance. ^)
and atomic forces are sensible only at insensible distances,
From this theory it follows that when the material which suggests that wave-action under the enormous elasticity
molecules of a body are inappreciably near to one another, of the aether as the source of the power.
they mutually repel each other with a force which diminishes (i) As chemical affinity is shown by laboratory ex-
rapidly as the mfinitely small distances between the molecules periments to be promoted and increased by the action of
augment and at last vanishes. When the molecules are still ultra-violet light, this fact oif observation must be held to be
farther apart, the force becomes attractive. At an intermediary a proof that it depends of wave-action.
distance the repulsive and attractive forces balance, so that We cite the following experiments as well calculated to
if we try to press the particles nearer the repulsive forces
illustrate this subject. In each case the interpretation appears
resist our attempt, while if we try to break the body, the to be simple and unique, and thus the experiments are well
attractive forces predominate and hold them together. adapted for disclosing the nature of the chemical changes
The wave-theory presents to our contemplation quite involved.
a different picture of the physical world. All forces are Decomposition of chloride of silver or nitrate of
(a)
attributed to stresses in the aether due to wave-action, and by
silver photography. This is a very familiar phe-
light in
we seek to under what conditions the stresses or
inquire nomenon and has been known since the days of Daguerre,
forces arise; and we
find that boundary conditions exercise Talbot, and Herschel, who first developed photography over
the largest influence in changing the velocity and direction
80 years ago. In this experiment, the chloride of silver, either
of waves, and thus give rise to adhesion, cohesion, capillarity, recently formed or carefully protected from the shorter waves
chemical affinity, and the other molecular and atomic forces. of light, is exposed to the action of common light, which
In his address as rector of the university of Berlin, contains the waves of the whole visible spectrum. As is well
Oct. 15,1913, quoted in the fifth paper, section 12 (ii), ( ANs 130), known a partial decomposition of the silver chloride results
Professor Planck points out that in the breaking up of the from the action of the light; and the action of the short
aether waves a limit of smallness or length is finally attained. waves is so much more powerful than that of the long waves,

»It has long been an hypothesis among philosophers that electricity is the agent
which binds the particles of matter together We
are totally Ignorant of the nattire ot electnc.ty, but it ,s generally supposed to be an aethereal
fluid in the highest state of elasticity
every particle of matter" -
Mrs. Somerville, Connexion of the physical sciences, 6th edition, ig^^^
surrounamg
^isLicity furrounding
p.. 120.
Sir Isaac Newton held somewhat similar views, but could not work out the
causes involved to his entire satisfaction vPt h^ HiH
•

foresee the possibility of the kinetic theory of the aether, and clearly held that universal
gravitation is due to impulses of this subtile aefhereal
medium. As we now are able definitely to establish the cause of universal gravitation, by following the aetherea
saeacious sr^stlnn. If 7^. ,
onlyiust to include the portrait of this most illustrious philosopher as a 'frontispiec'e t'o this
-) '.Professor Mossoth has recently shown by a very able analysis, that there
^^IvZ^^lT^^:^^::^^,^::^;:,^.^^^^
are strong grounds for belkvinir that not onlv th. !^nW„Lr
molecular
forces which unite the particles of material bodies depend on the electric fluid, but that even
sun to sun, can no longer be regarded as an ultimate principle, but the residual portion of rir^ro^
gfavitatiL itself whifh^, f/^ T
^^I^f^' flt^UeteZb^^^^^^^^^^^^^
agent which pervades creation.« -
Mrs. Some?-ville, Connexion of the physical sciences, 6th
edition, 1842 p i-'i
^ ™'^'^ oy tnat energetic
It will be noted that in these papers, we have not treated of the
repulsive forces of the 'n»rtiVI«c\^f ^.!*, r j j ,-,

'° ™^'^ *^' "^ '-^- '° -'-'"^^ probabi;r/ent Ttz trzzt7t:t^. z
stotu^reVL^dur^^^'
 53 5140 54
that when
a plate has been exposed "and is not yet developed
alkaline earths, in the first decade of the ig'"^ century-. We
or fixed by the action of the hyposulphite of soda we may shall attempt to show the relationship of these experiments
examine the plate under a light transmitted through red glass, to the wave-theory, and thus make somewhat clearer the
which allows only the longer waves to pass. The hyposulphite nature of the chemical forces, which Davy overcame in these
of soda dissolves readily chloride, bromide, and iodide of
celebrated discoveries, by means of the action of the electric
silver, and has been generally used in photography since
the current.
days of Daguerre, 1840. When Davy began his career, the discovery of the
By the action of the shorter waves of light on the film decomposition of chemical substances by voltaic electricity
containing the salt, AgCl, the chlorine is separated and the had already begun to excite the interest of men of science;
silver partially precipitated, so that a change of color from
but although Davy developed the method most powerfully,
white to blue occurs in the film; and as the change over the and achieved brilliant discoveries, and more than a century
plate is proportional to the action of the light on that part, has since elapsed, we still have no mechanical or dynamical
photography gives_ the shades, or aspects of objects about as theory of Davy's process of electrolysis.
they appear to the eye in common vision. In the third paper on the new theory of the aether
The very chemical change which we use in photography we have proved that an electric current consists in a series
we utilize in our- vision; but the retina of the eye, being a of waves, usually quite long in character. Now if such waves
living film, has its power of reaction renewed by certain natural be intense, the resulting rapid and violent agitation should
processes, and only the images are transmitted
to the brain, obviously be well suited to separating or breaking up the
with the chemical changes continually in progress. Thus if molecules of a compound into its constituent elements. This
chemical action be electrical, it is undoubtedly true, as Sir is exactly what Sir Humphrey Davy did.
Oliver Lodge remarks, (Aether of Space, igog, p. 25) that He had at his command a battery of 400 five inch
» Sight is probably a chemical sense «. Hence the eye is sen- plates, and one of 40 plates a foot in diameter. With these
sitive to aether waves of a certain length, and capable of batteries were conducted his experiments on the alkaline earths,
transmitting their chemical or mechanical effects, in producing which resulted in the discovery of potassium and sodium.
images, to the brain. In 1805 Davy began to use also very high temperatures,
(b) A considerable variety of chemical solutions are and in 1806 found that electro-chemical phenomena were
used in photography, but the general effect is always the same, explicable by one general law, the acids appearing at the
and hence we content ourselves with the simplest outline of positive, the bases at the negative pole. He generalized his
the changes, without going into further details. In his thoughtful conclusions by stating that hydrogen, the alkalies, earths,
work on the Correlation and Conservation of Physical Forces, metals and certain oxides are attracted by negatively, and
p. 115, (New York, 1883) the English physicist Professor repelled by positively electrified metallic surfaces.
W. R. Grove, of the Royal Institution, London, gives the He then proceeded to investigate the law of electro-
following account of the effects of light upon bodies: chemical action, and concluded that electro-chemical com-
»The effect of light on chemical compounds affords us binations and decompositions depend on electric attractions
a striking instance of the extent to which a force, ever active, and repulsions; and that both » chemical and electrical at-
may be ignored through successive ages of philosophy. If tractions are produced by the same cause acting in the one
we suppose the walls of a large room covered with photo- case on the particles, in the other on the masses. « The
graphic apparatus, the small amount of light reflected from discovery of potassium and sodium was made by electrical
the face of a person situated in its centre would simultaneously decomposition, in October, 1807.
imprint his portrait on a multitude of recipient surfaces. Were Since we have already shown that an electric current
the cameras absent, but the room coated with photographic consists of an ordered system of waves of various lengths,
paper, a change would equally take place in every portion we may now be able to throw some new light on the com-
of though not a reproduction of form and figure. As other
it, position and decomposition of bodies.
substances not commonly called photographic are known to 1. When the long electric waves are powerful and
be affected by light, the list of which might be indefinitely aided by partial breaking up into the shorter waves of heat,
extended, it becorries a curious object of contemplation to the wave agitation of appropriate length may become great
consider how far light is daily operating changes in ponderable enough to ejeot parts of a compound molecule to such distance
matter, how far a force, for a long time recognized only in that the atomic forces no longer can retain it in stability; in
its visual effects, may be constantly producing changes in the the rapid successions of the oscillations, some of the atoms
earth and atmosphere in addition to the changes it produces fly away, anywhere along the line of the electrolysis, but

in organised structures which are now beginning to be exten- with opposite elements appearing at the poles for the reason
sively studied. Thus every portion of light may be supposed set forth in paragraph 6 below.

to write its own history by a change more or less permanent The atoms which are of one type, by their perio-
2.

in ponderable matter.* dicitiesbearing a certain resonance to the waves, will naturally

(ii) The experiments of Sir Htimphrey Davy in the collect at one pole of the battery; those of very different

decomposition of the alkaline earths under the action of periodicities and having a different resonance, will naturally

electric currents explained by the wave-theory. gather at the opposite pole, in accordance with observation.
A great epoch in the history of experimental chemistry 3. It isonly when the electric waves, which are ordered
was made by Sir Humphrey Davy's, decomposition of the in a certain way along the line of the current, become of a
 . )

55 5140 56

certain intensity, aided by the shorter haphazard agitations trickles down, the amount being exactly equivalent to that
called heat, that electrical decompositions can be expected decomposed by the original current.
to occur. Otherwise the shorter and more powerful waves Accordingly, by this experiment we learn that violent
which cause chemical forces are predominant. long wave agitation due to a current, may produce decom-
4. It is to be observed that in electrolysis the electrolyte position of water into its elements hydrogen and oxygen. And
acts as a conductor, the circuit being completed by the wire when the gases are carefully collected, and mixed, an electric
connecting the poles. Around the wire the amplitude of the spark, by the action of its short waves may again unite them
electric waves follow Biot and Savart's law into water.
/- = £:i/r A= VI = V[Kilr) (
i
If any free hydrogen is present in the atmosphere light-

ning operates to form from it with free oxygen a small quantity

5. This makes the amplitude greatest next to the wire,
of water vapor. It is supposed that by the combustion of
and as the poles are terminals of the wire, it naturally follows
telescopic meteorites, billions of which are burnt up daily
that decomposition occurs where the wave agitation is a
in the higher parts of the atmosphere, sorne free hydrogen is
maximum, at the poles of the battery.
diffused in the air; and the action of lightning thus replenishes
6. And as the waves lie flat in the planes through the
to some extent the water lost by permanent absorption in the
axis of the wire, the separation will go on according to the
rocks of the earth's crust. Whether the new water formed by
rotation in the wave flow — one pole emitting the waves,
lightning is equal to that lost from our oceans by absorption
the other receiving them — and thus the elements are sifted
and crystallisation in the rocks of the earth's crust is not yet
by the movement of the waves, according to poles. In the
known; but it is supposed that during the historical period
fifth paper, section 10, we have explained tenacity by increased
the two tendencies approximately balance each other, so as to
surface effects due to wave-action at the boundary. Thus we
maintain a nearly constant quantity of water on the earth.
have also solved the problem of cohesion of like elements in
(iv) Priestley's experiments for producing mercuric oxide
electro-plating, heretofore so difficult to natural philosophers.
[HgO] and the separation of these elements by the use of
Decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen
(iii)
higher temperature illustrates the wave-theory.
gases by the action of an electric current; these elements
On Aug. I, 1774, Priestley discovered that the red oxide
again united by the action of short waves.
of mercury [ffgO] evolved a gas when heated to a considerable
If we put the two poles of a battery arranged to ter-
temperature. The gas was oxygen and the residue left behind
minate in platinum wire or sheet, into water slightly acidulated
was metallic mercury.
with sulphuric acid [JliSO^), so as to render the liquid a
In these celebrated experiments it was found that when
good conductor; and let the battery act we shall immediately
metallic mercury in contact with air heated to a temperature
is
perceive small bubbles of gas accumulating at each pole.
just below its boiling point, it gradually becomes covered with
When the experiment is arranged as shown in Regnaulfs a red scale of mercuric oxide. And when this red scale is
Elements of Chemistry, (Philadelphia, i86o,
collected and subjected to considerably higher temperature,
p. no), each pole being inserted in a
the result is the separation of the oxide into its constituent
tube which collects the liberated gas, it
elements, oxygen gas, and metallic mercury.
is found that the volumes of the gases
Now this experiment in the coniposition and decom-
released by electrolysis are in the ratio of
position of a well known metallic oxide is typical of many
2 to 1, two volumes of hydrogen to one of
oxides, and similar compounds.
oxygen, as shown in the cut.
1. When heat or molecular wave agitation is applied
It found that the gas disengaged
is
in not too violent a form, chemical combination results.
at the positive pole, is oxygen, that at the 2. But when the molecular agitation is made much
negative pole hydrogen —
the volumes of more extreme, by the use of higher temperatures, the com-
gas developing in the precise ratio of 2 pound is broken up. This is because the chemical affinity,
to I, as shown in the figure. Thus one under short wave action, is able to form combinations, when
volume of oxygen serves for two of hydrogen the heat agitation due to the longer waves is not too violent.
in the formation of water, ^^2 O. But the moment the longer wave agitation becomes more
If now when thehas de-battery , extreme, the atomic hold is released, and the elements fly
composed the water intocon- ^'S''- ^/^'"P"''''""
its two asunder, to form vapors and gases.
,, ,
01 water into
,
stituent gases, we collect the separated gases oxygen and hy- It is difficult to imagine a more convincing illustration
in one vessel, without any admixture of drogen by the of the wave-theory than that here presented to our contem-
air or other foreign gases, the separate action of an
plation. The chemical processes appear to be simple, and
electric current.
molecules of hydrogen and oxygen will we can see the combination taking place, by moderate wave
be present in just the proportion to form water. And when agitation, but released by the more violent form
of molecular
the gases have become equably mixing, an
diffused, after agitation incident to higher temperature.
electric spark generated within the vessel from the wire as This rule, for using changes of temperature for effecting
terminals of a battery, not quite in contact, where the gases chemical combinations and resolutions, has been
so widely
are freely mixed, yields the sudden impulse for the union of recognized by chemists that it may be said to
be the most
the atoms of hydrogen with those of oxygen to form water general process of that science. When a
chemical body is
vapor. It collects as drops on the walls of the vessel, and to be broken up, we first try change
of temperature. If that
 57 5 14° 58

does not succeed, we try the electric current. And frequently stages: first, the molecule O3 is converted into Cg-HC; and
we use both high temperature, and the electric current, or second, the two free atoms of oxygen form two molecules
some form of electric furnace, as developed about 30 years of ozone, thus:
'

n ^rj\
ago by the celebrated French chemist Moissan. 2a<, (4)
Of years electro-chemistry has become a distinct
late
branch of practical science, of the greatest importance in the Oxygen has considerable affinity for itself in the form
arts, and industry. If the above line of reasoning
be admissible, of common oxygen, O^, but relatively little for the third atom
it follows that electro-chemistry depends on wave-action, by of oxygen, in the form of ozone. Hence ozone is a great
which artificial combinations of metals are effected usually oxidizer. The separation of the atoms of the oxygen molecules
under the joint action of a powerful current and a high from each other involves 29600 heat units for 32 grammes
temperature. The molecular, structure of the atoms is so of oxygen; but in the breaking up of ozone Of, into O^-^O
interwoven that when such mixtures as phosphor-bronze, only a small amount of energy is required.
aluminium-bronze, nickel-steel, or vanadium-steel are effected, 3. This use of heat for the formation of new bodies
they are found on cooling to have extraordinary strength, was first recommended by Robert Boyle, in the Sceptical
and therefore become extremely useful in the mechanical arts. Chemist, 1661. The modern science illustrates this theory
by hundreds, yea, thousands of examples, of which we cite
(v) Other examples of chemical combinations under the
merely simple types. But it is only since the epoch oi Lavoisier
action of spongy platinum, or of ultra-violet light, which has
that the nature of combustion and the part played by oxygen
short wave length.
'has been understood.
1. It is well known that metallic platinum, especially
It follows from the modern doctrine of energy, that if
the black or spongy platinum, condenses gases upon its surface,
we can determine the heat evolved in combustion or any
and furthermore the condensation is attended by the develop-
similar process, we have a numerical measure of the energy
ment of heat. This material is celebrated for occluding hydrogen
which must be expended to effect the corresponding decom-
or oxygen; and it has been inferred from the development
position of the elements previously united. Yet sometimes
of heat noted, that the spongy platinum by its cavernous
this energy may be made effective in one way, sometimes
structure acts to cause partial combination of hydrogen and
in another.
oxygen similar to that noted in flame or ordinary combustion:
4. As back as 1775 Torhern Bergman of Upsala
far
that the spongy platinum probably does not itself directly
wrote a on elective attractions, as he called
dissertation
produce the chemical combination, but that as the molecules
affinity, and set forth that the compounds formed by the ad-
of the gases are absorbed in the cavernous metallic structure,
mixture of reagents depended on the sum of their attractions.
their mutual reactions are complex and condensation of the
It was Lavoisier (i 743-1 794), however, who gave a new
elements of the gas results. Probably this raises the temperature
spirit to chemistry, by devising methods for throwing new
somewhat, —
the result of the confined molecular agitation
light on processes long known, but never before clearly under-
when the inrush of gases is first effected, and then the — stood. His theory of oxygen was not indeed adopted by
power of absorption of the platinum increases with the rise Berthollet (1748-18 2 2), yet it finally prevailed after the
of temperature. establishment of the mechanical theory of heat.
2. The experiments in thermo-chemistry by Berthelot
5. The discovery by Faraday, in 1834, that the de-
show that heat usually develops in chemical combinations. compositions effected by the voltaic current indicate the quantity
It is found that ozone is formed in small quantities by weight in which the elements combine, or the weights of
when water is decomposed by the electric current. It is formed
the atoms according to the atomic theory, at once increased
in by lightning discharge, or near a frictional electric
the air the probability of the hypothesis that the same operations are
machine. In the conversion of oxygen into ozone, the volume at work in both chemical and electrical phenomena. Out of
of gas contracts by one-third, three molecules of oxygen fur- this theory of electrolysis grew important developments in
nishing two molecules of ozone thus: electro-chemistry. And when it was shown by Laurent that
Oxygen Ozone hydrogen may be substituted by an equivalent of chlorine
1,0^ o. (2)
or bromine, and the dualistic theory of positive and negative
When again converted into oxygen, which
the ozone is elements was shaken, Berzelius and others tried to reconcile
may be done by heat, —
the decomposition at 200° C. being this substitution of an electro-positive for an electro-negative
very rapid —
the original volume is restored. The use of element, by certain modifications of the dualistic theory, some
heat to break up ozone into oxygen, perfect decomposition compounds of oxygen as a fourth element being both an oxide
occurring before 300° C. is reached, shows that the triple and a chloride. The primitive distinctions for simple elements
molecule C3 is rent asunder by the long wave agitation due thus become modified for compounds.
to high temperature. (vi) Chemical affinity under wave-action related to ex-
According to Berthelot no less than 29600 units of plosive forces.
heat are evolved from 32 grammes of oxygen in the reaction: We now consider the chemical action of light and heat,
2(93 ==3(92. (3) which represent shorter waves than are present in the electric

amount of energy must be expended current.

And a corresponding
in the formation of ozone from ordinary oxygen. The con- I. It is noted that hydrogen does not spontaneously
version of ozone into oxygen, however, takes place in two enter into reaction with any of the elements, though it has
 . ); .

59 5140 6o

a powerful affinity for some of them, such as oxygen. Accor- has long been recognized by chemists that the atoms
It

dingly when hydrogen and oxygen are mixed nothing occurs in certain moleculesoccupy definite relative positions. This is
but if a burning taper or a heated wire be applied, or still inferred partly from the chemical formulae of the substances,
better an electric spark, a violent explosion follows, and the partly from the forms of the corresponding crystals, the study
gases are united to produce water, 2 H^-^O^^ =^ 2 H^O. of their symmetry and the isomorphisms, both of special and
2. As energy is thus given out in the formation of of general physical properties, as tested by optical and magnetic
water, it will naturally follow that energy must be expended methods. Indeed the study of crystallography is a very exten-
on water to dissociate it into its constituent gases, whether sive branch of science, and much improvement has become
by violent heat or the wave agitations of an electric current. possible of late years, since the Swiss physicist Laue began
This composition and decomposition of water thus beautifully the use of X-rays for exploration of the internal structure
illustrates the wave-theory. of crystals.

3. Again, chlorine gas C/2, and hydrogen gas LI^, are This subject is now so extensive that only a general

each biatomic, and without action upon each other in the outline of results is permissible in a paper on the aether.

dark. But if the mixed gases be exposed to a bright light, We shall give therefore merely a sketch of the method by
especially a beam of ultra-violet light, or violently agitated which the problem is attacked.

by the passage of an electric spark, the gases unite with In the paper on the new theory of the aether we
fifth

explosive violence to form hydrochloric acid. The reaction were enabled to throw light on the powerful refractions,
is shown to be: dispersions, and other disturbances experienced by the aether
H^ + Ck = HCl-\-HCl ( 5 at the boundaries of bodies, by which this medium is placed,
under extraordinary stress, and we made it probable that the
Evidently the formation of hydrochloric acid gas is
resulting reactions produce the observed hardness and tenacity
preceded by the separation of the two atoms of the chlorine
of bodies.
molecules, and of the two atoms of hydrogen in the hydrogen
molecule, from each other; which calls for the expenditure 1 It was shown in the first paper that the aether is

of some energy; then follows a greater evolution of energy 689321600000 more elastic than air in proportion to its

in the formation of LfCl, or of II2O in the case of water density. Accordingly, if the waves traversing the universe be
considered above. concertedly distributed, by a systematic arrangement of the
atoms within the molecules, and of the molecules within
4. The general result is that more energy is given out
in the formation of the more stable compounds. The atoms
crystalline bodies, — such a medium is well calculated to-

give crystals not only special and geometric forms, but also'
of hydrogen have less affinity for themselves than for chlorine,
great hardness and other physical properties which have long
and the chlorine has less affinity for itself than for hydrogen.
caused crystals to be associated with magnetism, as offering
Hence under wave agitation the mixed gases undergo the
extraordinary molecular, optical, magnetic and other physical
changes shown by the formula:
ff^-hCL = 2HCI. (6)
properties.

2. We
have also seen that magnetism depends upon
As soon as this change is started in a few molecules, the
concerted wave-action, ^) and shown the physical and geo-
agitation thus set up spreads to the whole mass, and all
the molecules are transformed into new chemical bodies, — metrical relationship of the waves to the electric current.
And it is evident that if such powerful actions and reactions,
namely water vapor, as described in paragraph 2 above, or
which we can control in magnetism and. electrodynamics, are
hydrochloric acid gas, paragraph 3.
due to concerted wave-action; then a corresponding, though
In the wave-theory of physical forces it is believed that differently arranged, stress of the aether should exist about
the energy exhibited in chemical reactions is drawn from the crystals, in view of the atomic arrangement long recognized.
unlimited storehouse of the aether everywhere pervading the to exist, and made evident to the senses by Lane's X-ray
universe. The chemical reactions therefore involve simply an photographs of crystalline structure.
exertion of this unseen power when the atomic rearrangement
3. We may say that crystals, so far as optical and
occurs, and the resistance to the passing waves
suddenly is
physical properties are concerned, should present to our con-
changed. The result is the exertion of unseen and unsuspected
templation a kind of generalized magnetism. And this we
forces which frequently are explosive in character and often
find to be a fact, as shown by the elaborate researches of
extremely terrible, as in dynamite, and other forms of nitro-
crystallographers such as Voigt, Laue, and others. The crystals
glycerine, the tri-nitrotoluenes, and other high explosives.
have various axes of symmetry, and physical, optical and
2. Geometrical Arrangement of the Atoms as magnetic properties corresponding to the geometrical form
conceived by Regnaidt and others for explaining of the crystals.
Crystals. 4. It is true that crystals of different substances, with
(i) The forces underlying the crystalline forms referred the same geometrical form, have different physical, optical,
to the aether. and magnetic properties. This difference doubtless depends
In the outline of the wave-theory of magnetism, and electro-dynamics,
') AN
5044, p. 73-74, we refer to the collapse or expansion of
the medium when the waves interpenetrate. The balance of the kinetic equilibrium of the medium at the same time involves vast exchange
of the aetherons. This essential condition of the kinetic equilibrium is there assumed, but it should be borne in mind by those who may be
inclined to overlook the foundations of the kinetic theory, which rest on incessant molecular exchange.
 6i 5140 62

on the molecules which make up the crystalline structure. lays the foundations of physical chemistry since more fully
Molecules in which the atoms are held together by powerful developed by Berthelot, Moissan, Ostwald, Van' t Hoff, Arrheiiius
affinities will naturally give rise to hard crystals; and thus, and others.
as some substances have great affinities between their atoms
This is not the place to go into the details of chemical
and molecules, strong resistance by the crystalline mass does theory, but we may properly reproduce the sagacious outline
not surprise us.
of crystalline structure by Regnault, and since
conceived
5. If the crystal is easily dissolvedby heat, we should elaborated, from different points of view, by Voigt and his
infer that increased by these long waves tend to
agitation followers, and recently confirmed by the photographic X-ray
throw the atoms and molecules beyond the range of the researches of Laue and the numerous investigators who have
shorter waves holding the atoms to the molecules, and the taken up his new methods for exploring crystalline structure.
molecules to one another, for the make up of the crystal. Regnault begins his theory of crystals by the discussion
If the crystal be difficult to dissolve by heat, then the opposite
of divisibility, and shows that however fine the mechanical
conclusion may be assumed. division may be carried, it falls short of molecular and atomic
6. Accordingly, the study of the physical properties of sizes. In this connection it is well to recall Newton'^ remarks
crystals will throw light on the properties of the molecules, in the Optics, 172 i, p. 365, »that it is difficult to conceive
and vice versa. Optical and magnetic properties bear similar of the agency by which attraction is produced, when two
relationships, but as yet they are little understood. smooth bodies are in very close contact, yet really touch or
approximately touch only in a few points«. In the fifth paper
on the new theory of the aether we built up a theory of
molecular forces based on wave-action sensible only at in-
sensible distances, because the waves are very minute.
After examining very profoundly the six systems of
crystalsand working out the numerical relations, often ex-
tremely simple, which exist between the faces, axes, and
dimensions of the crystals, Regnault comes finally to the
hypothesis of molecular decrements, (p. 44).
Regnault' % reasoning quoted in detail:
»The laws of symmetry which exist between all the
crystalline forms of the same substance, are very easily ex-
plained by starting with certain hypotheses on the form of
the crystalline molecules and their mode of grouping. It is
useful to study, at this time, these hypotheses, not only because
they give us, as it were, material explanation of these laws,
but also because, under their guidance, Haily discovered, by
induction, the laws of crystallography, which he afterwards
verifiedby measurement. Let us take a mineral substance,
as galena, which crystallizes according to the regular system,
and assumes many forms of this system. Let us, in the first
case, examine a cubic crystal of galena (fig. 3a, plate i). If
we endeavour to fracture it by violence, or by applying a
cutting edge, in various directions, we shall soon find that
the crystal cleaves, very readily, in three directions parallel
to the faces of the cube, whilst it resists all others. The
fragments thus detached from the cubic crystal, as well as
the remaining nucleus, have all the forms of rectangular
Fig. 2. Illustration of the Laue Radiograph of the arran- parallelopipedons. This mechanical division may be carried
gement of molecular structure in calcite (Iceland- very far, for the little fragments may be further divided, and
spar), from an article by R. IV. G. Wyckoff, Amer.
the microscope will show the most minute dust to be com-
Jour, of Science, Nov. 1920, p. 321.
posed of rectangular parallelopipedons. We are naturally led,
(ii) Exhibition of the theory of crystalline structure by induction, to infer that the ultimate crystaUine particles,

conceived by Regnault. that is, those which resist cleavage, will affect the same form.

The celebrated French chemist Henry Victor Regnault These particles are therefore called integral crystalline molecules,
was one of the most careful and exact investigators of the each one of which is formed of a great number of chemical
middle of the ig"" century. His Elements of Chemistry, in molecules, separable, perchance by other mechanical means,

two volumes, (English translation by ^f/^^«, Philadelphia, i860), and grouped together by means of forces hitherto unexplained.*
not only is a model treatise on chemistry, but also contains »Let us now take an octahedral crystal of galena (fig. 3b,
very profound and sagacious remarks on the physical pro- plate i). If we endeavour to cleave it in a direction parallel

perties of all elements and their compounds, —

so that it to its faces, we shall not succeed. We obtain, on the contrary.
 « « «

63 5I40 64

a very ready cleavage in the direction of planes equally »By supposing the cubicmolecules to be infinitely
inclined toward the four faces comprising the solid angles small, the asperities arising from the subtraction of the rows
of the octahedron. By effecting these successive cleavages will disappear, and the faces of the dodecahedron will become
at all the solid angles, we
soon destroy its octahedral
shall perfectly plane. We may therefore say, rhombic
that the
form and obtain a nucleus in the form of a rectangular dodecahedron is derived from a cube by the decrement, on
parallelopipedon, which continued cleavage will diminish, but the faces of the cube, of a row in length and a row in height.
not alter its cubical form. We therefore conclude that the (iii) Jiegnat/lt's theory of the removal of rows of ele-
crystalline molecules of the octahedric crystal, as well as mentary particles.
those of the cubic crystals, are small rectangular parallelo- »Let us now suppose that from each new stratum we
pipedons.« remove 2, 3, or 4 rows of elementary particles; it is evident
»Let us that we shall produce, on each face of the cube, 4-sided
select, in the last place, a crystal of galena
presenting the form of rhombic dodecahedron pyramids, of which the elevations will be V2. Vs. or V4 of
(fig. 3c, plate i).
We shall again find that this crystal
the axis of the cube, and that we shall obtain the various
does not cleave in a
direction parallel to its faces. The only natural cleavages
tetrahedrons (fig. 3d, plate i) mentioned in the paragraph

are in the direction of planes equally inclined toward the above. We shall thus have effected a decrement of i row
in height, and 2, 3, or 4 rows in length.*
faces of the 4-sided solid angles A. If we effect successive
cleavages on the six- 4-sided solid angles, we shall destroy »Let us now take a large cubic crystal (fig. 4c), and^
the faces of the dodecahedron, and obtain nuclei having the starting from the centre of one of its edges, and symmetrically
form of rectangular parallelopipedons, resembling in appearance as regards its conformation, remove a molecule from the
first upper stratum, 2 from the second, 3 from the third,
and the physical properties of their faces the nuclei we ob-
tained from the cubic and octahedric crystals. We are there- we shall obtain a tangent truncation of the solid angle of
fore led to conclude that the crystalline molecules composing the cube. Repeating the process on each of the angles, we
the dodecahedric crystal have the same form of rectangular shall have a regular octahedron (fig. 4d) formed by the

parallelopipedons as those of cubic and octahedric crystals.* decrement of a row in length, and a row in height on the-
angles of the cube.«
»But what is the ratio of the lengths of the sides
»Let us now return to our cube abcdef[iig. 4e),,
of this primitive parallelopipedon? We will observe that the
and add to its faces additional strata of cubic molecules;,
three directions of cleavage which lead to this parallelopipedon
but let us make, following the edge fe, a decrement of
present no feature distinguishing them from each other they :
2 rows in length and i in height, and, following the edge
are equally easy,and the faces they produce have the same
fd, a decrement of i row in length and 2 in height, we-
lustre. We are induced to admit that the three
therefore
shall obtain the pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 4e). We have
dimensions of the parallelopipedon are equal, and that it is
omitted in this figure the lines of separation of the small
consequently a cube. The
crystalline particles of galena are
elementary cubes; but these lines are seen in the fig. 4f,
therefore cubes, and, induction has not deceived us, we can
if
which represents, on a larger scale, the anterior portion of
reproduce, by the juxtaposition of these small elementary cubes,
fig. 4e. The pentagonal dodecahedron is a hemihedral form,,
the cube, the octahedron, the rhombic dodecahedron, and,
a hemi-tetrahexahedron (Fig. 3d): the other hemihedral forms-
in short, all the crystalline forms of galena. We are about to of the regular system are obtained in the same manner, by
show that this can be readily effected.
unsymmetrical decrements on similar edges.
«In order to render the fact more apparent, we shall »It will be easily seen, without multiplying examples,
greatly exaggerate the dimensions of the small elementary that we can reproduce, by analogous additions or subtractions,,
cubes. This we may do without invalidating the accuracy of all the figures of the regular system.*
the demonstration, for we only consider the tangent planes, »It can be shown that all the forms of the second
the directions of which remain the same, whatever may be the system of crystallization may be constructed with crystalline-
dimensions of the integral crystalline molecules, provided molecules having the figure of a right parallelopipedon, with
that their forms and mode of grouping be the same. The a square base, but of which the elevation is not equal to
cubic crystal will be directly formed by the juxtaposition of the length of the sides of the base; the ratio between this-
the elementary cubes. Let us place, on the several faces elevation and the sides of the base being always identical
of the cube a b c d e f, (fig. 4a, plate 2), strata of cubic in the same substance, but differing in different substances.*
molecules, arranged as they are in the cubic crystal itself; »Let us take a crystal having the form of a right prism
but suppressing, in each stratum, a row parallel to each side of with a square base, and add to its base strata of crystalline
the face of the cube, so that each new stratum shall contain, molecules, with a decrement of a row in length and a row
on each side, one row less than the preceding. It will be in height in the direction of the sides of the base: we shall'
readily seen that we thus obtain the rhombic dodecahedron obtain a square-based pyramid, of which the elevation will
(fig. 3c, plate i). Fig. 4a proves this fact: in order not to present, to the sides of the base, thesame ratio as the homo-
complicate this figure and destroy its general aspect, we have logous lengths of the crystalline molecule. Treating the in-
suppressed the lines which mark the separation of the juxtaposed ferior base of the prism in the same manner,
we shall obtain
elementary cubes; but we have indicated them on fig. 4b, , a right square-based prism, terminated by two pointings,
plate 2, which represents, on a greater scale, one of the which, united by their bases, form a square-based octahedron.
solid angles of the new formation.* Assuming this octahedron as the primitive octahedron of the
 «

65 5140 66
substance, its dimension will immediately indicate those of »If we effect a decrement of 1 row in breadth and i
the integral crystalline molecule.*
in height, we should
obtain a scalenohedron which, with the
»We may construct on the same base other 4-sided same secondary axes, would have a principal axis double of
pyramids by making decrements of 1 row in length, and that of the primitive rhombohedron.
2, 3, or 4 rows in height. We shall thus have octahedrons »In the fourth, fifth, and sixth systems of crystallization,
with square bases, more and more acute, of which the ele- the integral molecule will be a parallelopipedon, of which
vations will be 2, 3, or 4 times as great as that of the the elements may be
determined, from those of the octahedron,
primitive octahedron. If, on the contrary, we make a decre- chosen as the principal. At one time, the small generating
ment of only I row in height, and
2, 3, or 4 in length we solids will be the integral molecule itself; at others, they
shall obtainoctahedrons more and more obtuse, of which the will be formed by definite aggregation of these molecules.
elevations will be V2, Vs, or Fig. 4i is an example of the angular decrement of one of
Vi of that of the primitive
octahedron. We can therefore construct, with the same integral the complex generating solids abcdefg. The faces thus
molecule, an indefinite series of obtuse and acute octahedrons formed, either on the edges or on the angles, will have
of the same class, but which will all possess this property, different inclinations, which may be indefinitely varied, by
that, when referred to the same base, their elevations will be varying the mode of composition- of the generative solids
to each other as the very simple numbers i : 2 : 3 4 • • themselves: but all these faces will present this common
or i:V2:V3:V4---.« character, that the lengths included by them on the homologous
(iv) Regnault shows that other forms axes will be proportional to whole numbers. This is the general
result in a similar
manner. law proved by observation, and to which we have already
frequently referred.*
Regnault next considers a right prism, with a square
base, and finally shows that a similar mode of generation is
(v) The wave-theory of crystalline structure and forces
illustrated by the phenomena exhibited by a grating.
applicable to the hexagonal and even the most complex
The above reasoning of Regnault has been dwelt upon
systems of crystallization.
at length, because seemed simple and well calculated to
it
»Starting from a point in one of its vertical edges, and
bring to light the molecular conditions and forces operative
symmetrically as regards this edge, let us subtract i row
in crystalline arrangement.
from the first stratum, 2 from the second, 3 from the third,
There is another familiar illustration which may now
and so on; in short, let us operate on this prism, as we did be used to illuminate the effect of crystalline structure. We
upon the cube to obtain the regular octahedron. We shall refer to the grating. It is to be borne in mind that crystals
thus obtain an octahedron which will be the octahedron of are productive of the most beautiful exhibitions of optical
the second class of the primitive octahedron, and of which phenomena. Thus it is desirable to point out the analogy
the faces will have the direction of the edges of the latter. with the grating, by which classified wave arrangement is
By subtracting a row in length and 2, 3, or 4 rows in height, produced, according to special distribution and wave length,
we shall have the series of acute octahedrons of the second because this, with the molecular structure already described
class. Lastly, we will obtain a series of obtuse octahedrons will explain the color phenomena in crystals.
of the second class, by subtracting i row in height and 2, A grating consists of a metallic surface ruled in parallel
3, or 4 rows in length. lines by means of a very fine engine, which will enable the
»In the entire, or holohedral forms, of the hexagonal lines tobe drawn exactly parallel and on equal distance apart.
system, we must take the regular 6-sided prism as the integral The finest gratings heretofore made are those constructed by
crystalline molecule. By means of this same prism, we can, Rowland at Baltimore and Michelson at Chicago. To carry
by suppressing the decrements according to a certain law, out this work with the desired accuracy Rowland had to
construct the hemihedral forms of the same system. It is, produce a very perfect screw, for use in setting the diamond
perhaps, more easy to consider these last forms as constituted point for making the fine lines, from loooo to 20000 to
by integral molecules, hemihedral themselves, and having, the inch.
for example, the form of the primitive rhombohedron. We The grating is thus modeled on the principle of parallel
shall merely show how scalenohedrons may be derived, in groves, ruled by a fine point. If the metal surface were set
this manner, from the primitive rhombohedron having the up at the proper angle, it would present the aspect of a side
same lateral edges. Fig. 4g represents this mode of generation of a pyramid as conceived by Regnault, for the theory of
of the scalenohedron (fig. 3e) of carbonate of lime: this crystals outlined above. There is thus a close analogy between
scalenohedron has a principal axis treble of that of the primitive the grating and its diffraction phenomena, and the structure
rhombohedron having the same lateral edges, and is frequently of a crystal.
found in this substance. It is enough to place, on each face Now in the theory of the grating we have first, second,
of the primitive rhombohedron abcde, strata of molecules and higher order spectra, and in each spectrum the maximum
similar in form to this rhombohedron, by effecting on its and minimum for the different wave-lengths are arranged as
lateral edges a decrement of 2 rows in breadth and i row shown in the accompanying illustrations (fig. 5, p. 67).
in height. The lines of separation of the elementary rhombo- I. In the upper illustration, apertures are used instead
hedrons are not seen in fig. 4g, but they are clearly exhibited of reflection from furrows in the grating. The image formed
in fig. 4h, which shows, on a larger scale, the upper courses when the lower telescope is directed normally upon the
of fig. 4g.« grating gives the » central image«.
 I40 68
67

the molecular structure is so arranged as to

make the rulings —
are extremely complex.
It is no wonder that a variety of optical, and
physical phenomena develop, and give the cry-
stals many wonderful properties. This necessarily
results from the wave-theory.
3. The Wave-Theory explains the
Hardness of Diamond and the Growth
of Crystals by Accretion along Axes.
The Views of Heddle and other Crystal-
lographers cited in some detail.
(i) The extraordinary hardness of diamond

due to extremely violent wave-refractions and

wave-dispersions at the boundary, which tend
to disrupt the medium, but thereby result in
maximum powers of cohesion for the hardest
•of known crystalline bodies.
As we examine the problems of crystal-

lography with some care, we first call attention

to the extraordinary refraction and dispersion

of light in diamond. This violent wave action
tends to disrupt the medium at the boundary,
but only draws around the crystal such an
elastic sheath of stressed aether as to give rise
to the extraordinary hardness of the diamond.
In the fifth paper, section 10, we have
c iJilTraction Pattern.
dealt with this question in some detail, and
Fig. 5. Illustration of the formation of the diffraction pattern by refraction whilst we have not fully solved the problem,
or by reflection, the wave arrangement of which presents certain
we did separate the elements on which the
analogies with crystalline structure.
hardness depends, so as to lay bare the causes
2. As the telescope axis P moves to left (or to right) at work. We have there pointed out that in the case of
we encounter other secondary maxima of light. The first diamond all the light incident from two complete quadrants,
intense illumination on either side will occur when is DE or 180°, is condensed by refraction into an angular space
equal to as many wave lengths as there are spaces on the of only 47" 22' =
47?37/i8o° 1/3.8. It appears that this
grating, for then CB
be equal to one wave length, and
will enormous concentration of wave energy is the secret of the
the light from each aperture will reach the surface m. AD most powerful molecular forces^). For on any area of the
precisely the same phase. The light concentrated at P gives crystal the concentration of wave energy is as the square of
the » spectrum of the first order«. 3.8, or 14.44; and if the dispersive effect be about equally

3. On either side, at greater angular distance from the combined effect of the refraction and
powerful, the dispersion
centre, higher orders of spectra occur. The formulae are: becomes magnified 200 times.
+
For bright band (a ^)sini^== 2« A/2 Now the effect of such extremely violent concentrations
For dark band (a-+-^)sini^ (2«-t- 1)2/2 = , and dispersions of wave energy is a tendency to disrupt the
where a-^d denote the distance between the slits, a being medium, but as this cannot be done, owing to the more rapid
the width of slit, and d of the bar, and n is the order of motion of the aetherons, v =
^j^n- V, the result is the deve-
the spectrum. lopment about the crystal of a stressed envelope or sheath,
4. When the light is not normal to the plane of the which binds the diamond like a shell of steel. As the waves
grating, but inclined at an angle /, we have the correspon- go into the diamond the movement is concentrated; as they go
ding formulae: out an equally violent reaction, scattering, and diffusion occurs.
[a-^d) (sin^H-sinz) = 2^2/2 From a study of this stressing of the aether about the
(a-i-fl') (sini^ + sin/) ^ (2^-1-1)2/2 .
diamond, we concluded that as the aether is £ = 68932 1600000
This brief discussion shows that the phenomena of more elastic than air in proportion to its density, the tendency
diffraction, reflection and refraction, in a crystal — where to the disruption of such a medium would develop forces

') It will be noted that our theory of the hardness of diamond rests largely upon the cause of the tenacity of wire, shown to be
traceable to stresses in the sheath of aether about the wire by the equation fl Sj ^ V =
Kjr, which indicates that the tendency to rupture the
aether at the boundary must be the source of the power when the metal is drawn into wire with relatively more surface. If the cause of tenacity
in drawn wire is correctly referred to boundary stress in the aether —
a conclusion from which I can see no escape, in view of the results
of observation agreeing with the above formula —
then the cause of the hardness of diamond also follows incontestably. This conclusion is
to be taken in connection with the above considerations on the wave oscillations and the resulting forces which resist compression liquids in
and solids.
 oy 5140 70
correspondingly larger than would arise in the air. In many physical experiments
and natural phenomena, such as cyclones,
the power_ of the air forces are impressively exhibited to our
senses. These phenomena leave no doubt as to the possible
concentration of power in nature.
Thus we concluded that the strength of a solid such as diamond would depend on the sextuple integral:
a/X p S K p e—" CO

^Q-e-'')zu{w)d((!/l)d^d8dxd(Q-e-'')dm
0000 o o
(7)

where the elements involved may be described as follows. In the Optics, 1721, p.365, Newton pointed out that
Fig. 6. Stresses in the aether at great power of adhesion is obtained when two solid plane
the boundary, owing to surfaces fit with extreme closeness. In this sixth paper, our
refraction and dispersi-
line ofargument is to show that this same wave-power, based
on of waves by diamond.
1. As the waves enter they on the enormous elasticity of the aether, operates above all
are condensed into about in chemical combinations, where the distances are ultra-mi-
I 14.44 of their former
:
croscopic in smallness.
spherical distribution,
In the case of carbon we have the small molecular
which is equivalent to
an intense contraction weight of 12, and the element moreover crystallizing into
of the enclosed aether. diamond, probably under very high pressure, as in the ex-
2. When the waves emerge, periments of Moissan and others in the production of arti-
they undergo an equally
ficial diamonds, —
and thus with such smallness of molecular
powerful spreading out,
and this expansion of the
weight, and under conditions of the closest
crystallization
wave-front leads to a re- possible molecular contact, the resulting solid crystal ought
action in the medium to be the hardest of known substances.
also equivalent to a con-
This theory of the hardness of diamond follows at once
traction of the envelope
about the diamond.
from Newton^ remarks, all known experience, and the resulting
3. Thus whether the waves wave-theory of molecular and atomic forces. In our discussion,
enter or leave the dia- to be sure, we usually refer to the refractive index appro-
mond, there is violent priate to light, but this is only for the sake of definiteness.
stress in the envelope of
aether at the boundary,
We hold the chief atomic forces to depend on waves shorter
and when the molecules than the ultra-violet, and thus the theoretical cohesive power
have crystalline arran- is always much greater than would follow from the theory
gement in a solid, the of light waves of the visual spectrum.
hardness results.
(ii) Views of Professor M. F. Heddle, on the growth of

1. Refractive action, («^— i), which depends on the crystals by accretion along axes.
density of the solid, a, and the changing wave-length X and In the celebrated article on Mineralogy, Encycl. Brit.,
thus on some unknown g'*^ ed.. Professor M. F. Heddle gives an interesting outHne
function, Tv(a/X);
2. The violence of the incessant bending of the wave- of the supposed mode of growth of crystals by dominant
front, for waves coming from all directions, y (j8) ;
accretion along axes. Heddle'?, argument runs thus:
3. The
violence of the incessant dispersion of these »As regards mere geometric measurement, there are
incident waves, ip{S); several directions in which axes may with nearly equal ad-
4. The combination
of systematic stresses due to the vantage be projected. For example, in the cube (fig. 7 b,
crystalline arrangement of the atomic planes with the effects plate 3) they may be drawn from the centres of opposite
of the two latter violent tendencies, thus leading almost to faces, as lettered 0\ or from opposite solid angles, as lettered
the disruption of the medium, x (**) >
C; or from the centres of opposite edges, as letteredD. There
5. The enormous power of reflection with very slight is abundance of evidence that each of these directions must
absorption of energy, at the surface, ^{Q-e~''); be regarded as lines of dominant accretion of molecules*.
6. The great central pressure due to the integration »But the accretion, may be not only dominant but over-
of the steady action of the sheath of partially disrupted waves whelmingly so in one only of these directions in certain cases,
always enveloping the solid, ^[co). or existent along one set of axes alone in certain others.
Accordingly, although we recognize the validity of the In a specimen of native silver from Alva in Scotland (fig. 7 a),
above integral, in the present state of our knowledge, we can along O this is so much the case that the concreting mole-
evaluate it only very approximately. If the other variable cules have done little more than delineate the form of an
elements increase in about the same proportion as the energy octahedron, and this they have only been able to do by
in refraction and dispersion, which we can calculate, the result aggregating themselves in lines of minute crystals of the very
would be an increase of stress of the order of 200X200X200 = shape of which they were projecting the skeleton form. More-
8000000 times the value otherwise effective. In view of the over, a polar aggregation at the terminal ends of these octa-

sudden discontinuities in the physical state of bodies, as in hedral axes is here shown by the amount of concreting and
solidification, etc., it seems certain that the wave-theory is crystallizing material being larger at the terminations of these

ample to account for the hardness of diamond and other axes than elsewhere. In the hollow-faced cube again (fig. 7 b),
crystals, as well as the tenacity of steel and similar substances. an aggregation of molecules in the direction of the lines D
 « «

71 5MO 72

and C has filled the edges and solid angles, while none have with the crystals which fall to be considered in all the other
been deposited along O. This occurs in crystals of salt. In systems. So different is the hardness of the various portions
the hollow-faced octahedron again (fig. 7 c), there has been of these, so diverse the appearance of their parts in lustre,
no deposition of matter along the line C. Cuprite often shows colour, polish, etc., so varying the amount of the recoil of
this form; and it as frequently occurs in hollow-faced dode- these when struck, so unequal their power of conducting heat,
cahedra, wherein the vacuity is in the direction of Da so dissimilar their power of resisting the agencies of decay,
»In the specimen of pyrite from Elba (fig. 7d), a de' and so irreconcilable their action upon transmitted light, that
position along D
and C would ultimately have erected the we cannot but conclude that the molecules which build them
scaffolding of a hollow cube, in twelve lines of minute com- up are packed with greater force, if not in greater number,
binations of the cube and octahedron. Such directional in certain directions in. preference to others. There thus

arrangements may, moreover, not only be intermittent but remains no question that these nature-indicated sets of axes
often alternate. The pyrite from Traversella
(fig. 7 e) is an are those along which there has been a specially selective
illustration of the first. A
pentagonal dodecahedron
large or ,polar' arrangement.*
having been completed, a new accession of material has been (iv) In crystals, as in wire, the relative increase of
attached, not uniformly spread over the pre-existent crystal, surfaces gives maximum hardness.
to enlarge it, but locally arranged, in equal amount, at the From
the above quotation it will be seen thai Heddk'i
poles of O. But here the special method of the arrangement views on crystals coincide with those reached in the fifth
has determined the formation of a number of small crystals paper on the new theory of the aether. As we had not
of the same form as that originally projected. examined Heddle'^ article when that paper was finished, we
»An alternation, as is shown in such
it were, in plan may regard the concurrence of views as remarkable. When
a crystal of calcite as that in Here a scalenohedron
fig. 7 f. Heddle says: »It may be laid down as a general rule that
is seen in the centre of the figure; then a rhombohedron the edges of crystals are harder than the centres of their
has been perched upon its summit, and lastly both have faces, and the solid angles harder than the edges. This is
been sheathed in a six-sided prism with trihedral summits. markedly the case in the diamond.* it almost seems as —
Different as these three forms are, it is found that they all if he is outlining the wave-theory as treated in the 10*
here stand in a definite position, one to the other; that section of the fifth paper.
definite position is the relation which they bear to one of For be remembered that we explained the hard-
it will
the sets of axes, and this set may be assigned, not only to ness of diamond and similar bodies as due to wave action
all the three combined, but also to all the
crystals here at the boundary, where there is enormous and violent refraction
crystals belonging to the same mineral, wherever occurring. and dispersion, with various tendencies to disrupt the aether.
This general applicability constitutes one of the respects in And these tendencies to enormous stress in the
naturally
which one special set of axes is, in each of the systems, aether would be a maximum at the edges and corners of
preferred to the others. crystals, where there is minimal solid content of the crystal
Coherence of particles not equal in all directions.
(iii) in proportion to its surface, so the surface effect is increased
Having indicated by the reasoning of Regnault and as much as possible.
Heddle how crystals are built up by molecular arrangement, We found from the study of drawn wire that the curve
embodying various geometrical forms along certain axes, it will for the relative increase of surface, r] ^ SJV, defined by
not surprise us to learn that the coherence of the particles the equation:
is not equal in all directions. The contacts of the particles ^^^jV^klr (8)

are closer in some directions than in others, and thus the shows that the strength of wire will increase
with the decrease
forces depending on wave action yield more readily in some of the radius of the wire r, so long as the diameter of the
directions than in others. Crystals thus have planes of cleavage, wire is not made so small as to approach the diameters of
and sometimes may be easily split along these planes, because the molecules. From this law of the asymptotic increase of

the contact of the particles is not close, and the coherence strength, with decreasing r, we justly inferred that wave action

of the particles not powerful. at the boundary of the wire must be the secret of the strength
of drawn wire.
Professor HeddWs discussion of this subject is as follows:
» Another respect is the intensity with which the molecules Now likewise for crystals, in the above general rule,
cohere in the different parts of the crystal, as referred to
Heddle lays it down that the edges and corners offer maximum
these axes, and the resultant hardness of certain
different
hardness — evidently because the surface effect is there a
parts of crystals. be afterwards found that this obtains
It will
maximum.
in a very limited manner in the crystals which belong to the Hence we have the following remarkable induction
first of the following systems, on account of its regularity and relative to laws of nature not heretofore suspected.
sameness as a whole. It may be laid down as a general 1. Wire attains maximum strength or tenacity when so
rule that the edges of crystals are harder than the centres drawn as to make the ratio of the surface to the volume a
of their faces, and the solid angles harder than the edges. maximum, as long as molecular dimensions are not approached.
This is markedly the case in the diamond. But, apart from Crystals likewise present maximum hardness at edges
2.
this, there is no distinctive hardness in any one part, side^ and corners, where the ratio of the amount of surface to
or end of the crystals of the first system. It is otherwise volume is a maximum —
just as in the case of drawn wire.
 73 514° 74

If therefore wave action at the boundary will explain paper. These properties were known over two centuries ago,
tlie tenacity of wire, it will also explain the hardness of and Sir IsaacNewton himself conjectured that diamond is a
crystals. Any other conclusion seems wholly excluded. Thus substance of peculiar nature. Sir David Brewster % discovery
the observed properties of crystals confirm the wave-theory that many diamonds show may be
traces of double refraction
of physical forces. explained by the extreme internal pressure or stress due to
(v) Study of the crystallization of the diamond, which the wave action at the boundary, which gives the diamond
most strikingly confirms the wave-theory. such extraordinary hardness.
Investigation shows that diamond always occurs in The numerous internal reflections of the light, total when
crystals belonging to the tesseral or cubical system, usually the angle is above 2 3° 41', makes the diamond extraordinarily
in the octahedron, or double four-sided pyramid (fig. 8a, plate 4), brilliant, and fills the crystal with maximum dispersion of
the rhombic dodecahedron, with twelve faces (fig. 8 b); the prismatic light, whence the value of the crystal as a gem.
triakis-octahedron, 3-sided pyramids superposed on the octa- In view of modern studies on radio-activity, it is re-
hedron form (fig. 8 c); or hexakis-octahedron, 6-sided pyramids markable that as early as 1664 Robert Boyle noticed that when
superposed on the octahedron form (fig. 8d). exposed to the light of the sun diamond has the property of
The crystallography of the diamond is thus remarkable shining in the dark, or phosphorescing. This was before the
for the symmetry and compactness of the forms taken. Indeed combustibility of diamond was established by the Florentine
it is noted that the faces of these symmetrical crystals often
academicians, 1694-5, by means of a series of experiments
are curved, and many of the crystals thus become so round with a powerful burning glass, in the presence of Cosmo III,
as to be almost like spheres, which we may readily under- Grand Duke of Tuscany. Lavoisier found by similar experiments
stand from the above figures 8 b and d. that the chemical product of the combustion was carbon
Now it is remarkable that carbon as an element has dioxide, CO^.
extraordinary properties, as follows: 4. The Development of Heat in Chemical
1. In the case of elements other than carbon the number Reactions a Proof of the Wave-Theory.
of atoms directly associated together in a molecule of the com- (i) Heat applied to certain mixed atoms will frequently
pounds is very small, probably seldom or never exceeding five. bring about their union: but greater heat leads to instability.
2. Carbon compounds on the other hand frequently It has long been noticed that when atoms are combining
contain a relatively very large number of carbon atoms; and to form new substances, heat is the immediate product of
from the behavior of these compounds, it is inferred that chemical affinity. The invariable rule is that in chemical
the included carbon atoms are in direct association with combination heat is produced. Some half a century ago
each other. Berthelot devoted great attention to the determination of the
3. Whilst none of the remaining elements are known to heat developed in various combinations, thereby developing
furnish more than a single stable compound with hydrogen, thermo-chemistry into an important special branch of that
the number of stable compounds of carbon with hydrogen great science.
found by chemists is counted by the hundreds. Berthelot'?, researches should be studied in his Essai de
4. Wherefore it is concluded that carbon has two dis- mecanique chimique fondee sur la thermochimie, Paris, 1879.
tinctive properties: first, that of uniting with itself to an almost The formulae for the energy given up in chemical changes
unlimited extent, in comparison with other elements; second, may be written
that of combining with hydrogen in numerous proportions.
5. Carbon is thus capable of uniting with the same 2 T, "
=y,['kmv,'^-^kmv^) (9)

element in a multiplicity, of proportions, thereby furnishing where v is the velocity attained and v^ the original velocity.
a great variety of compounds, which probably exceed in Here 2T(, is the work done while the system passes
number those of all the remaining elements taken together. from the first to the second state. If 2Ti is the work done
Carbon is thus the whole basis of organic chemistry! or energy given up in another transformation, we should have
6. In view of these remarkable chemical properties it
will now be obvious why crystals of carbon take the form
2^1 =^['kmv^^-^Umv^) (10)

nearest approaching that of the sphere. The chemical affinity and therefore for the difference we get
acts with great equality from all directions, and builds up
crystals of the tesseral form, often with curved faces, resembling
2^kmv,^-^'kniv^=^T^-^n. (11)

a sphere. Accordingly, for any state whatever, we have for a

found that the cleavage of diamond is parallel to
It is system subjected to no exterior cause, independent of its

the face of such crystals as the octahedron: which shows actual coordinates
that the hardness of coherence of the atoms is least in the
^V2«2^l'-^^l .V 27nvt,
2_ y.: c
direction normal to the face of the crystal. In this respect
diamond is a typical crystal, rather brittle, but the hardest where C is the constant quantity which Rankine calls the
of all known substances. energy of the system.
dispersive power of the diamond
The high refractive and The general equation of dynamics was given by La-
been dealt with in the lo"" section of the fifth grange in the usual rectangular coordinates:
has already

dVd/2) (5;;-+-(Z-?«-dVd/2) dz\ =o (13)

 :

5140 76
75

or in the more common form

^m{d^xldt^ dx-hd^y/di^ dy- d^z/df^-dz) -2 (Xdx-i-Ydy-^Zdz) (h)

Now the left member of this equation yields:

^m{d^x/dt^-dx-\ -d^y/dt^-6y-^dh/dt^-dz) =
(d/d^) ^^m{dxldt-dx dyl'dt-dy+dz/dt-d. -<5{V.
V« [{dxldtY+{dyldtY- -[dz/dtY]} .
(is)

When we put j' = 'k^m [{dx/di]^ (dy/dtY+{dz/di)'] V2 m v^ and U' =^(XSx- Ydy-hZdz) (16)

we get from (14) (d/dt)yjm{dx/di-da dyldt-6y + dz\dt-6z) = dT+U' (171

whence we derive Hamilton ^ principle for a conservative system

'I

(i5
J((?r+£/')

But molecular and atomic systems undergoing change

are not conservative, since invariably there is development
of heat due to chemical combination. Parts of the system
pass from the free state to the bound state, and in the rapid
adjustment of the velocities of the molecules and atoms, there
is such rearrangement of their moving wave-fields, that heat

is developed. The work done thus naturally has largely the

form of aether waves, which tend to diffuse the heat of
combination.
Accordingly, in chemical systems the principle o{ Hamilton
will not hold, and equation (18) takes the form:

l[6T+U') =Q (19)

where is the number of heat units developed or absorbed

by the chemical combinations taking place in the system

during the interval 4— A)-

If the change of temperature be immense and violent,

as by the application of external heat, molecular structures,

stable at lower temperature, may become unstable and the
combinations break up, because the agitation due to the
longer waves predominate over the shorter waves on which
chemical affinity mainly depends. This fact confirms the
wave-theory.
The following tables include some of the principal
results found by the researches of Berthelot, Thomsen and
others. The first table
 n 5140 78

Professor Armstrong then adds a more detaile'd discussion, chemistry as developed by Berthelot, Thomsen, and other
Avhich for lack of space we are obliged to omit, proving the modern investigators.
general theory here outlined. Several other tables are cited by In discussing chemical changes, W.R. Grove (Correlation
Professor Armstrong, those derived from the chemical in- and conservation of forces,
153) says: p.
vestigations of Thomsen of Kopenhagen being highly impor- »It may be a question whether in this case, the force
tant; but the results are too elaborate to be cited here. which occasions the motion of the mass is a conversion of
The related chemical problem of the number of units the force of chemical affinity, or whether it is not, rather, a
of heat developed or absorbed per molecule when salts are liberation of other forces existing in a state of static equilibrium,
dissolved in water could be discussed with profit. And we and having been brought into such state by previous chemical
might go into the problem of atomic heat, with average value actions; but, at all events, through the medium of electricity
of about 6.3; but it involves too much chemical detail for a chemical affinity may be directly and quantitatively converted
discussion of the cause underlying physical forces. into the other modes of force. By chemical affinity, then, we
It must suffice to point out that the heat developed or can directly produce electricity; this latter force was, indeed,
absorbed is proof positive of the vast stores of energy drawn said by Davy to be chemical affinity acting on masses: it
upon in the combinations of matter into molecular bodies appears rather to be chemical affinity acting in a definite
familiar to chemists. Free or temporarily free atoms are direction through a chain of particles; but by no definition
combined into molecules of greater or less stability; and in can the exact relation of chemical affinity and electricity be
the commotion incident to the change of state, energy is set expressed; for the latter, however closely related to the former,
free, mainly in the form of heat. yet exists where the former does not, as in metallic wire,
It would be possible to imagine that the energy comes which when electrified, or conducting electricity, is never-
from within the atoms themselves; bat such a view has great theless,not chemically altered, or, at least, not known to
improbability for three reasons: be chemically altered.*
1. We cannot conceive how the energy can be stored » Volta, the antitype of Prometheus, first enabled us
in the atoms, since it is characteristic of energy to expend definitely to relate the forces of chemistry and electricity.
itself with very great rapidity. When two dissimilar metals in contact are immersed in a
2. There is no apparent reason why different atoms liquid belonging to a certain class, and capable of acting
should have such different energy, in respect to other atoms chemically on one of them what is termed a voltaic circuit
or molecules, if energy be inherent in matter. is formed, and, by the chemical action, that peculiar mode of
3. This theory would place all the energy in the common force called an electric current is generated, which circulates
matter and leave none in the aether, —
which is infinitely from metal to metal, across the liquid, and through the points
improbable, since the aether is perfectly elastic and thus the of contact.*
vehicle of all energy. Therefore it is improbable, almost in- »Let us take, as an instance of the conversion of chemical
conceivable, that energy can really reside in matter as such. force into electrical, the following, which I made known some
Accordingly, we reach the conclusion that so far from years ago. be immersed in hydrochloric acid, no
If gold
residing in matter, the energy resides in the aether
itself, but chemical action takes place. If gold be immersed in nitric
only exhibits its power in connection with matter, because acid, no chemical action takes place; but mix the two acids,
matter operates to transform the waves, owing to sudden and the immersed gold is chemically attacked and dissolved:
changes of movement at the boundaries. Hence the main this is an ordinary chemical action, the result of a double
function of matter is the transformation of wave energy; and chemical affinity. In hydrochloric acid, which is composed of
naturally the effects are different with different substances. No chlorine and hydrogen, the affinity of chlorine for gold being
other theory will explain the chemical energies evolved in less than its affinity for hydrogen no change takes place; but
combinations which often are so extremely powerful. when the nitric acid is added, this latter containing a great
(ii) Heat developed by chemical affinity attributed to quantity of oxygen in a state of feeble combination, the affinity
transformation of molecular and atomic motion, but when the of oxygen for hydrogen opposes that of hydrogen for chlorine,
liberated energy is confined, and new gases formed in the and then the affinity of the latter for gold is enabled to act,
disturbance of the system, their expansive power may give the gold combines with the chlorine, and chloride of gold
motion to projectiles. remains in solution in the liquid. Now, in order to exhibit
The main distinction between chemical affinity and the this chemical force in the form of electrical force, instead of
physical attraction seen in molecular forces, consists in the mixing the liquids, place them in separate vessels or compart-
fact that the action of chemical affinity is accompanied by ments, but so that they may be in contact, which may be
chemical changes, whereas purely molecular forces do not effected by having a porous material, such as unglazed porcelain,
change the internal structure of the molecules. Agitation of amianthus, etc., between them. Immerse in each of these liquids
the molecules generates heat, by the rearrangement of the a strip or wire of gold: as long as these pieces of gold remain
surrounding wave-field, and when the parts of molecules or separated, no chemical or electrical effect takes place; but the
atoms are violently agitated and reconnected, as in chemical instant they are brought into metallic contact, either imme-
changes, it is natural that heat should be evolved. This rearran- diately or by connecting each with the same metallic wire,
gement of the parts of the molecule, with dissociation and chemical action takes place —
the gold in the hydrochloric
regrouping of atoms, under the wave energies of the universe, acid is dissolved, electrical action also takes place, the nitric
thus leads to heat, and lies at the foundation of thermo- acid is deoxidised by the transferred hydrogen, and a current
 :

79 5140 8o

of electricitymay be detected in the metals or connecting »As heat, light, magnetism, or motion, can be produced
metal by the application of a galvanometer or any instrument by the and as
requisite application of the electric current,
appropriate for detecting such effect.* this is produced by chemical action, we get these
definitely

»There are few, if any, chemical actions which cannot forces very definitely, though not immediately, produced by
be experimentally made to produce electricity: the oxidation chemical action.*
of metals, the burning of combustibles, the combination of (iii) Adolphe Wurfz's theory of chemical affinity.
oxygen and hydrogen may all be made sources of electricity.
etc., In his well known History of chemical theory, from the
The common mode which the electricity of the voltaic battery
in age of Lavoisier to the present time, (1869), the celebrated
is generated is by the chemical action of water upon zinc; French chemist Adolphe Wurtz reached the conclusion that
this action is increased by adding certain acids to the water, chemical phenomena depend for their cause on the diversity
which enable it to act more powerfully upon the zinc, or in of matter. As stated in the work above cited (translation by
some cases act themselves upon it; and one of the most Watts, London, 1869) pp. 193-194, Wurtz's theory is as
powerful chemical actions known, — that of nitric acid upon follows
oxidable metals —
is that which produces the most powerful »We have seen the progress of ideas following closely
voltaic battery, a combination which I made known in the on the march of discovery, and arriving, through many variations,
year 1839; indeed, we may safely say, that when the chemical at the same fundamental idea, that, namely which consists in
force is utilised, or not wasted, but all converted into electrical seeking the first cause of chemical phenomena in the diversity
force, the more powerful the chemical action, the more power- of matter, each primordial substance being formed of atoms-
ful is the electrical action which results.* endowed with a certain energy, and with a peculiar aptitude
Again, in describing the voltaic battery. Grove says: for expending that energy. These two properties of atoms,
»Now a voltaic battery, which consists usually of alter- distinct from one another, render an account of all chemical
nations of two metals, and a liquid capable of acting chemically phenomena, the former measuring their intensity, the latter
upon one of them, has, as we have seen, the power of producing denoting their manner. Affinity and atomicity are, therefore,
chemical action in a Hquid connected with it by metals upon the two manifestations of the force which resides in the atoms,
which this liquid is incapable of acting; in such case the and this hypothesis of atoms forms at present the foundation
constituents of the liquid will be eliminated at the surfaces of of all our theories, the solid base of our system of chemical
the immersed metals, and at a distance one from the other. knowledge. It gives a striking simplicity to the laws relating
For example, if the two platinum terminals of a voltaic battery to the composition of bodies; it enables us to look into their
be immersed in water, oxygen will be evolved at one and intimate structure; it intervenes in the interpretation of their
hydrogen at the other terminal, exactly in the proportions in properties, reactions, and transformations; and will doubtless,
which they form water; while, to the most minute examination, at some future time furnish points of support for the science
no action is perceptible in the stratum of liquid. It was known of molecular mechanics.*
before Faraday^ time that, while this chemical action was »It was, therefore, a grand idea that was originated by
going on in the subjected liquid, a chemical action was Dalton, and it may with good reason be asserted, that amongst
going on in the cells of the voltaic battery; but it was scarcely all the advances that chemical doctrines have made, since the

if at all known that the amount of chemical action in the one time of Lavoisier, this is the most important.*
bore a constant relation to the amount of action in the other. It thus appears that Wurtz attributed all chemical
Faraday proved that it bore a direct equivalent relation: that manifestations of force to affinity and atomicity, and held that
is, supposing the battery to be formed of zinc, platinum, and the support for a science of molecular mechanics must be
water, the amount of oxygen which united with the zinc in based thereon. He considered every primordial substance to
each cell of the battery was exactly equal to the amount be » formed of atoms endowed with a certain energy, and
evolved at the one platinum terminal, while the hydrogen with a peculiar aptitude for expending that energy*.
evolved from each platinum plate of the battery was equal The wave-theory from Wurtz's view chiefly in
differs
to the hydrogen evolved from the other platinum terminal.* attributing all energy to the aether, while the atoms receive,
» Supposing the battery to be charged with hydrochloric transform, and emit wave energy suitable to their atomic
acid, instead of water, while the terminals are separated by properties and periodicities. This is a simpler conception than
water, then for every 36 parts by weight of chlorine which Wurtz's and it gives to the atoms the properties of resonators,.
united with each plate of zinc, eight parts of oxygen would — all energy being inherent in the aether itself, which has
be evolved from one of the platinum terminals: that is, the an elasticity 689321600000 greater than that of air in
weights would be precisely in the same relation which Dalton proportion to its density.
proved to exist in their chemical combining weights. This The phenomena of radio-activity and the kindred pheno-
may be extended to all liquids capable of being decomposed mena of phosphorescence enable us to see that the wave-
by the voltaic force, thence called electrolytes: and as no theory offers the simplest and most general explanation of
voltaic effect is produced by liquids incapable of being thus radiation, whatever be its form. In 1664, Boyle observed that
decomposed, it follows that voltaic action is chemical action a diamond glows in the dark
having been exposed to
after
taking place at a distance, or transferred through a chain of the direct action of sunlight. This was probably the earliest
media, and that the chemical equivalent numbers are the ex- observation of the persistence of luminous vibrations after the
ponents of the amount of voltaic action for corresponding exciting cause was removed. If the carbon atoms crystallized
chemical substances.* in diamond may persist in their vibrations it is after all not
 «

61 HO 82
5

such a long step to radio-activity, where the radiation continues In fact there is no doubt that there is in general one
almost indefinitely. Thus radium differs from diamond chiefly arrangement which will give minimum stability and another
in the much greater duration of the radiation emitted and will give maximum stability of the atomic arrangement. It
the violence of the waves given out. But carbon has an is upon this strength that the stability of the structure of the
atomic weight of only 12, while radium has an atomic weight molecule depends.
of 205, over 17 times greater.
In the case of diamond, we have noted that the tendency
As bearing upon world-radio-active phenomena, we may is form crystals as nearly spherical as possible; and we
to
cite the Aurora Borealis, which occasionally adds to the have pointed out the probabiHty that the hardness of diamond
luminosity of our atmosphere by waves emitted from sunspots, depends upon the indefinite possibility of combinations of
and so transformed in the earth's atmosphere as to give light. carbon with carbon, just as the multitudinous combinations of
On May 14, 1921, we witnessed at Mare Island the most carbon with hydrogen give rise to the immense groups of
brilliant aurora ever noted in California.^) At 9''3o'"p. m.. hydrocarbons, and thus form the principal basis of organic
Pacific Standard Time, the auroral streamers extended from chemistry. On this point, dealing with the properties of carbon,
the northern horizon to the zenith and beyond; the colors we quote the impression of the eminent French chemKt Adolphe
displayed included red, orange, yellow, green, and bluish Wurtz, (History of chemical theory, 1869, pp. 159— 160):
purple. The streamers showed rapid formation and dissolution,
»Why, indeed, do the atoms of carbon exhibit this sin-
and at about to o'clock a canopy of light, like that often gular tendency to accumulate in large numbers in organic
reported in Norway and Lapland, formed near the zenith, molecules? Because they possess the property of combining
sixty degrees wide. It afterwards scattered, and appeared as together, of riveting themselves one to the other. This impor-
luminous clouds in many parts of the sky. tant property gives to the innumerable compounds of carbon
For many years the aurora has been known to be a peculiar stamp, and to organic chemistry its physiognomy,
periodic,and to follow the curve of the sun-spot develop- its mode of being. No other element possesses this power in
ment. As an unusually large spot was near the central meridian the same degree. Doubtless hydrogen can combine with itself,

of the sun, this display verifies the electromagnetic wave-theory as recognized by Gerhardt; but, as an atom of this body
published by the writer in 1917, and further verified in a exhausts combining capacity by its union with a second
its

paper communicated to the Astronomical Society of France atom, no other element can be added to this couple, the
in November, 1Q18. saturated molecule of which is reduced, as it were, to its
From researches covering a very wide field it seems simplest expression, being formed of two atoms.*
absolutely certain that electrical forces control the physical »The polyatomic elements expended
alone, after having
world, and that both magnetism and gravitation are wave- part which resides in them in
of the combining capacity
phenomena, depending on stresses in the aether, a new riveting themselves one to the other, can retain another part
mathematical-physical theory of which we have developed to fix other elements. This power is possessed by the atoms
during the past seven years. of carbon, and likewise by the atoms of oxygen.
It appears that the geometrical, mechanism underlying
5. The Geometric Basis of the Atomic Arran-
gement Wave-Theory of Molecular Structure
in the molecular and atomic forces is somewhat obscure, yet there
also points to the Source of Power in High Ex- can be no doubt that different arrangement of the component
plosives. part may be made so as to give greatly different degrees of
compactness and therefore of stability. The subject of the
(i) The resistance of a given molecular structure to
geometrical figures and their possible combinations has been
passing waves depends upon the atomic arrangement. It may
treated of by many authors, beginning with Kepler'^ Mysterium
vary between forms which yield maximum to minimum
Cosmographicum, 1596- Among recent works we shall only
resistance.
allude to two:
In our wave-theory of the hardness and tenacity of
1. Growth and Form, by D'Arcy W. Thompson, Cam-
bodies, in the fifth paper on the new theory of the aether, we
bridge University Press, 191 7.
found overwhelming evidence that these properties of bodies,
by which they have enormous physical strength, depend on 2. Fundamentals of the Cosmos, by Colonel ^ohn Millis,

wave transformations and the resulting stresses in the aether U.S.A., 1918, (Science, Oct, 11, 1918).
at the boundaries of these bodies. Boundary conditions are The work by Thompson has reference to the development
all-important in fixing the physical properties of gross bodies, of organic bodies, and thus is of interest in biology. The
because the transformation of waves with the resulting stresses work by Millis of wider application, and involves »a simple
is

in the aether occur at the boundaries. geometrical principle and its possible significance in connection
with general physical theory.*
Now just as the boundary transformations of waves may
^

generate enormous stresses about and throughout a large body The principle stated by Millis is that: »In any ag-
made up of an infinite number of atoms, so also this boundary gregation of an indefinite number of equal spherical bodies
condition, when reduced to the problem of geometrical figures, an arrangement giving minimum total volume occupied and
may give molecules and atoms properties of greater or less perfect symmetry throughout is impossible*. Millis recognizes

strength and stability. that in every case there is an arrangement giving maximum

') This section slightly rewritten on May 16.

 83 5 HO 84

condensation and geometrical symmetry, yet the density with spaces, as in the stable geometrical figures found by Mayer
the spheres in contact is not a maximum. He summarizes for groups of floating magnets.
his conclusions thus: These floating magnets are illustrated in the figure 10,
»The only possible arrangement or grouping of equal plate which probably convey to us as good an outline of
s,

spheres in contact that gives perfect symmetry as a fixed con- the molecules or atoms as any known models.

dition throughout for a group of an indefinite number is the The chief difference we suggest in the model molecule
cubical system, and this does not give maximum density; while is that in nature we do not have magnets surrounded by

the only possible arrangement that gives maximum density as polarized groups of waves, but waves filling the universe, and
a fixed condition throughout such a group is the rhombic affecting the atoms from every direction, so that the molecule
is the symmetrical arrangement of least resistance to the
dodecahedral, but does not give universal symmetry.
this
There is no arrangement possible giving both maximum den- passing waves.
sity and universal symmetry.* This involves a different cause for the forces known
to be at work, but the geometrical forms which result will
be very similar; and under certain conditions of temperature
or wave agitation forms are stable. Yet under other
the
conditions there a rupture of the stability, and the mole-
is

cule breaks up, with inevitable rearrangement of the atoms

or parts, in their mutual relations may be compared
which
to the parts of Mayer's floating magnets.
The picture here given is the simplest and most direct
outline of the wave-theory of molecular and atomic structure.
When the number of atoms is large a good many geometrical
forms may be assumed; but, with diverse properties to the
atoms, the combinations frequently are unstable, or stable
only within narrow limits, as in the above model floating
magnets devised by Mayer.
The symmetry of these magnets and their analogy with
cross sections of crystals is too obvious to escape the notice
of the sagacious observer. In fact Mayer's magnets i8a and
1 8b strikingly resemble the form of crystallization taken by

diamond, the purest form of carbon, where the molecular and

atomic forces, due to wave-action have unrestricted freedom
of operation in arranging the parts to give the best symmetry
and maximum hardness.
In contemplating the above figures of Mayer's floating
magnets, we should remember that all the elements are in
one plane —
the level surface of the water, —which we may
call xy. But in the theory of atomic and molecular structure
we have to view the atoms or parts of the molecule as lying
in tridimensional space, xyz. Thus many more geometrical
forms are possible for atoms in the structure of the molecule
than is shown above in Mayer's figures.
(iii) Instability of the geometrical arrangement in mole-

cular structure may lead to rearrangement, under disturbance,

and thus the mystery of explosive forces finds explanation in
the release of energy due to the elastic power of the aether.
Fig. 9. Forms of arrangement for compact spheres in
From the theory of molecular and atomic structure here
contact, {Millis).
outlined, it follows that very different degrees of stability

There are other suggestions regarding symmetry and should exist. In general molecular structure is broken up by
arrangement of forms for spheres or particles of bodies, but excessive heat, because under the agitation of the heat waves,

we shall not go into them beyond the suggestions conveyed which are of greater length, the atoms are likely to be driven
by the illustrations (Fig. 9.) from the paper of Colonel Millis. beyond the range of action of the atomic forces due to the
shorter waves. Thus heat or electric current may lead to
(ii) The atoms are separated in the molecules like the
dissociation, and the separation of the elements, as in Sir
parts of Mayer's floating magnets.
Humphrey Davy's celebrated experiments on the alkaline
It now remains to point out that in the wave-theory the earths, about 1807.
groupings above represented, and an infinity of other groupings, Now just as heat and the electric current may produce
are possible for the atoms, but the atoms making up the dissociation, by driving the constituent atoms beyond the range
molecule are to be conceived as separated by relatively large of action of the atomic forces, so also when the form of
 85 5140 86

atomic arrangement is not very stable, a quick disturbance after a study of the wave-theory of lightning, without reaching
may so derange the geometric figure as to cause molecular the conclusion that the source of power in the two cases is
collapse of the existing structure of the atoms, and rearran- one and the same. And as lightning, with all the destructive
gement into other figures, usually more but sometimes less stable. power of the thunderbolt, is definitely referred to wave-action
This gives us a clue to the secret of explosive forces, incident to the release of aether stress at the surface of rain
which heretofore has challenged the ingenuity of natural drops, we must also hold that explosive forces derive their
philosophers. , stupendous power from the release of stresses in the aether
If we consider the great body of high explosives, we incident to rearrangement of molecular structure. Hence the
recall the well known fact that many of them are highly instability of all high explosives.
unstable, and will not bear any violent shock. It only remains to point out that as tBere is yielding
Thus nitroglycerine is exceedingly unstable, and the and collapse of the molecular structure in an explosion, it
same is true of nearly all the latest and most powerful ex- follows that such collapse of the original structure will lead
plosives, such as the trinitrotoluenes. In fact, we might almost to the atoms being carried not only into a state of greater
state as a general principle, that in proportion as an explosive compactness, but also to a rebound from this unnatural state
is powerful, and its destructive effect great, in the same of compression. This is the molecular structural oscillation,
proportion is it unstable, so that its stability has to be in- under the stress of the passing aether waves, which calls
creased by mixture with an inert s.ubstance, as when dynamite forth the terrific exertionof force witnessed in explosions.
is made from nitroglycerine by the addition of silicon material. The almost infinitely elastic, and nearly in-
aether is

Now the only way we can conceive this explosive power compressible. Therefore when the stresses incident to the
to arise is from the aether. It cannot come from the substance waves binding together the parts of the molecule are released,
of the explosive itself. But if the aether be 689321600000 the yielding carries with it a compression of the disconnected
more elastic than air in proportion to its density, and the atoms, and in the oscillation the most tremendous forces
universe be filled with waves of all lengths, — then obviously inevitably are exerted.
a release of stress, in the rearrangement of structure which It is highly unphilosophical to attribute these explosive
gives ' less passing waves, will yield such
resistance to the forces to the substances themselves. They arise from the
sources of power as philosophers have seldom dreamed of. aether [Aidriq] which Sophocles (Oedipus Coloneus, 1470)
In his familiar lectures on scientific subjects, 1867, makes the seat of a terrific thunderstorm; and of which
pp. 282—286, Su ,jfohn
Jlerschel r^c&Ws this tremendous power Aeschylus (Prom. Vinct., 1103-1120) speaks prophetically:
of the aether and adds: »Yea, now in very deed.
»Do what we will — adopt whatever hypothesis we No more in word alone.
please — there is no escape, in dealing with the phenomena The earth shakes to and fro,
of light, from these gigantic numbers; or from the conception And the loud thunder's voice
of enormous physical force in perpetual exertion at every Bellows hard by, and blaze
point, through all the immensity of space.* . . .
The flashing levin-fires;
»If free to expand in all directions, it (the aether) would
Such is the storm from Zeus
require a bounding envelope of sufficient strength to resist
That comes as working fear.
its outward pressure. And to evade this by supposing it
In terrors manifest.
infinite in extent, is to solve a difficulty by words without
ideas —
to take refuge from it in the simple negation of
O Mother venerable!
that which constitutes the difficulty. On the other hand, such
O Aether! rolling round
The common light of all.«
a ,crystalline orb' or ,firmament' of solid matter conceived
as a hollow shell of sufficient strength to sustain the internal
6. Radio- Activity and Organic Growth and
tension, and with a medium attractively, and not repul-
filled
Decay furnishes Direct Evidence of the Wave-
sively elastic, might realize (without supposing a solid structure Theory.
in the contained aether) the condition of transverse vibration.* (i) Radio-active substances are those which transform

This penetrating reasoning of Sir John Herschel shows waves unsuspected and insensible to our perceptions, into
clearly that the power of the aether everywhere about us is others which may be observed, and thus such substances
great enough, if made effective by molecular rearrangement, appear to radiate almost unlimited quantities of energy.
to call forth unlimited explosive forces. It is therefore logical The mystery attaching to radio-activity has excited the
to assign explosive forces to the power of the aether — just interest of many ingenious experimenters, and during the past

as we assign the power of the lightning to the release of 25 years an extensive literature has been developed dealing
aether stresses at the boundaries of condensing drops of rain with this subject. But notwithstanding the labor and ingenuity
when the aether waves come from every direction in this of many eminent natural philosophers, it can hardly be said
all-pervading medium. that we yet have any satisfactory theory of radio-activity.
That which explains the power of the thunderbolt will It is recognized that radio-activity involves the expen-
also explain the power' of dynamite, the trinitrotoluenes, diture of large amounts of energy; and great emphasis has
and other terrific explosive forces, which so long has chal- been laid upon the enormous amount of energy inherent in
lenged the ingenuity of the most eminent natural philosophers. the atoms of matter. In the article on the Sun, Encycl. Amer.,
It is impossible to consider the problem of explosive forces. 1904, Professor Newcomb dwells on the modification of
 5140

Helmholtz'^ contraction-theory of the sun's heat by the dis- X-rays are sent through the field, and finally traverse a layer
covery of radio-activity, and says that recent researches show of tungstate of calcium, objects in the field become illuminated;
that there is a vast amount of energy inherent in matter, and and we can see distinctly along the path of the X-rays.
that its release prolongs the radiation of the sun and stars The writer's theory of the X-rays is that they are fairly
much beyond the periods formerly calculated. Thus instead long waves, which thus penetrate various objects. And under
we have energy available
of 20 million years of solar radiation, the agitation these long waves are either broken up into
for periods to be reckoned in corresponding billions of years. shorter ones, —
corresponding t(5 the visible spectrum, with
The available energy of the universe has been increased a the ultra-violet part, which gives the photographic power to
thousand fold,. the X-rays, — or shorter waves are called forth in the atoms
It be noticed that this reasoning places the source
will all along the line.
of energy in matter, whereas the wave-theory places- the source We know that atoms are oscillating systems and have
of energy in the aether itself, which fills the universe, and a high power of resonance; and this theory of longer waves
has an elastic power 689321600000 times greater than that breaking up into shorter oscillations or calling forth shorter
of air in proportion to its density. The amount of energy in waves,is in accordance with modern researches on the structure
the aether is but only a part of it is available,
unlimited, and periodicity of the atoms.
depending on our material mechanism for converting it into If these views be admissible, it will follow that just as
visible energy, as in the electric current generated by a dynamo, calcium tungstate renders the waves in an X-ray field visible
or the molecular energy in capillarity, cohesion and in chemical to the eye; so also may other radio-active matter in like
affinity, so powerfully exhibited in explosive forces. manner transform invisible waves always pervading the uni-
Sir y. y. Thomson, Sir Oliver Lodge, "Sax Ernest Rutherford verse into perceptible waves. The waves thus rendered sensible
and others have made rough attempts to evaluate the amount to experiment would give a field of research like that charac-
of these so-called atomic energies. Conclusions have been teristic of radio-active substances.
reached that the amount of energy in a milligram of radium By way of illustrating this theory of natural wave trans-
salt would be capable of doing an enormous amount of me- formation we may call attention not only to phosphorescence,
chanical work, such as propelling a large ship involving the in organic bodies under decay, and in living objects like the
expenditure of a vast number of horsepower hours, or months. fire-fly and the glow-worm but also to many phenomena of
;

But although I differ from these eminent authorities luminescence in the physical universe, such as the luminous
reluctantly, I must add that it appears to me probable, if not night clouds, which have been especially studied in Germany,
certain, that the foundation of their argument is of doubtful the general prevalence of the Aurora Borealis in all latitudes,
validity. Having reached the conclusion that waves exist of which Slipher has investigated photographically (cf. Lowell
all possible length, from many metres or kilometres, down to Observ. Bull., No. 79, and the author's Electr. wave-theory of
atomic dimensions; and having found that the waves undergo phys. fore, vol. i, 19 17, p. 48).
transformation in passing through certain substances, I have Then again is similar evidence of luminescence
there
ventured to raise the question whether we may not look upon in the nebulae. Many
of these objects must be intensely cold,
radio-active substances as those which transform and render because we can see very faint stars through them; and we
sensible to observation waves otherwise unsuspected to per- know such no more retain heat than
transparent. nebulae can
vade the world. can the of comets, which are known to be at the tem-
tails

If that idea be admissible, it will follow that the energy perature of space, yet shine with a glow suggestive of phos-
noted in radio-activity does not really reside in the atoms phorescence, or the Geissler-tube.
which are radio-active, but is merely made manifest by the As electric discharges in the Geissler-tube may call
transformations of waves traversing these atoms. ') It is pro- forth ample light, though no sensible temperature is evolved,
bable, perhaps certain, that some atoms have the power of and an electric current is recognized to consist of ordered
rendering sensible waves which otherwise are insensible. waves, in the aether, we see at once why the tail of a comet
Phosphorescence is a familiar illustration of this tendency. might glow in the electro-magnetic field of the sun. The wave-
Again we see evidences of a similar tendency when X-rays field of the sun is so filled with waves of all possible length

pass through a thin layer of tungstate of calcium, whereby that if the particles of a comet's tail had any power of re-
visual rays are produced in the field traversed by the X-rays, sonance, luminosity ought to develop near perihelion passage.
so that the whole field of operations may be explored by Now the tails of comets do become enormously brilliant
the eye. at the nearest approach to the sun; and the luminosity of
With the X-rays alone in free space the field is without thetail dies down as the comet recedes away into space.
material resistance and so quiescent that light waves of sufficient The amplitude of all waves from the sun follows the law:
intensity to give distinct vision do not arise. Yet when the A = kjr (20)
*) In a profound paper »0n the absorption of light by coloured media", Sir John Herschel has outlined the effects
of aether wave
motion through material bodies so clearly that we quote it:
"Now, as regards only the general fact of the obstruction and ultimate extinction of light in its passage through gross media, if we
compare the corpuscular and undulatory theories, we shall find that the former appeals to our ignorance, the latter to our knowledge, for its
explanation of the absorptive phenomena." . .

The question ,What becomes of light' for Herschel is converted into ,What becomes of motion'. »And the answer, on dynamical
'
principles, is, that it continues forever."
 .

89 5140 90

and the energy of the waves varies as the square of the upon which chemical transformation mainly depends, so that
amplitude A^ E=
k^jr'' = (21) without light plants cannot grow and flourish.
Accordingly the power of the waves to develop lumi- 6. The finished plant structure is largely hydrocarbon,

nosity ought to increase with certain mineral salts and water of

Cut off the
nutrition.
and diminish almost directly as the
power of the sun's radiation, when the comet approaches and
water, and the plant because the circulation and
withers,

recedes. This conclusion nutrition through capillarity and the chemical transformation
is in general accord with observation.
In much the same way the permanent luminosity of the by wave-action, in the form of light and heat, all come to
nebulae may depend on the transformation of waves otherwise an end. In the same way, if we intercept the main flow of
capillarity, by cutting off the bark and laying bare the wood
largely invisible. The evidence of celestial radio-activity is
therefore ample, but not exactly of the type noted under
of a tree, it will soon die. This process of »deadening« is

experimental conditions in our laboratories. much used by American farmers when they wish to kill the
trees on uncleared land. And now we see that it all depends
(ii) Animal and plant growth and decay represent trans-
on intercepting the capillary flow, which is due to wave-action.
formations of energy, and thus point to wave-action.
7. What applies to trees applies to almost all forms of
After the foregoing development of the wave-theory
plant life. Thus we see that if the capillarity, due to wave-
this subject is so obvious that an extended argument seems
action,and the chemical affinity for nutrition, under the action
superfluous. We therefore merely call attention to certain
of heat and light waves, be seriously intercepted, the result
leading facts.
is essentially fatal. Hence we hold that all vital phenomena
Animal and plant nutrition go on under the action
1. in the plantand vegetable world depend on wave-action.
of chemical affinity and the molecular forces. And if these This is the deeply mysterious power for renewal so long
two types of physical forces be due to wave-action, it will hidden from our sight, but operating everywhere for the
follow that the nutrition due to chemical affinity and mole- support of life in organic nature.
cular forces are also due to wave-action.
8. The life is more complex and varied, but
of animals
2. The
processes of nutrition consist in the preparation, the causes underlying maintenance are in the main the
its

for the breaking up of molecules of the food, in order to . same. The typical animal lives largely on plants, in one form
make the constituent atoms available as building material for or another. Hence wave-action develops plants, and their
the renewal of organic molecules which are undergoing decay, digestion or decomposition under various chemical reactions,
decomposition or combustion by oxidation in the organism. furnishes food or nutrition, which is made to nourish and
Thus the support of organic life requires a constant renewal support the strength of animal bodies, and all their varied
of molecular and atomic energy, in the form of food prepared activities.

for such nutrition, which gives bodily energy and strength 9. Most of our common animals have animal heat, and
to the animal or plant. hence the chemical combustion of their food is maintained
3. In the case of plant life, the material taken in as by oxygen breathed in through the lungs. We shall not here
food is largelyinorganic, nitrogenous and other elements treat of fish and other forms of life with low temperature,
from the ground, carried up into the plant structure by the which have different vital processes, as these are treated of
force of capillarity, which is a phenomenon of wave-action. in works on biology. It is evident therefore that animal
These elements from the earth are borne in the sap, and nutrition depends on wave-action quite as much as plant
thus distributed throughout the plant structure. But the plant nutrition. Food is taken into stomachs, and subjected to the
leaves act as lungs, and absorb certain gases. These lead chemical reaction of juices, at appropriate temperature, and
to the fixation of oxides and potash products in the plant thus the transformations are connected with wave-action.
structure. Above all, carbon dioxide [CO^) taken from the air 10. The longer waves
of the world go through animal
is effective in building up the organic structure of the plant. bodies quite unperceived, and stimulate the shorter waves,
4. The carbon from the CO^ is built into the plant on which chemical action depends. Thus our theory of the
-structure, so as to make fibre, while most of the oxygen is X-rays being short waves maintained by the action of longer
liberated again to return to the air. Thus growing plants and more penetrating waves (cf. AN 5079, p. 292), finds con-
purify the air of carbon dioxide. Their growth constitutes firmation in the processes of animal and plant nutrition.
a chemical process or reaction, whereby organic structures We have been unaccustomed to view the vital processes
having carbon as the main body of plant structure are built of the world as due to wave-action; but if molecular and
up, and when dried out may be burned, again producing chemical forces depend on the energy of waves in the aether,
heat and CO2. we shall obviously have to change our old way of thinking.
5. It is well known that plants cannot live without air Our new theory of magnetism and electrodynamic
11.

and sunlight. The sunlight, in concert with the longer heat action, under which aether waves penetrate all objects, has
waves, aids the chemical changes, whereby inorganic atoms led a learned thinker. Rev. Paul Camboui, S. J., of Tananarive,
are united and built up into organic molecules. In darkness, Madagascar, to suggest that love and other emotional influ-
as we have often observed, a plant languishes, turns pale and ences in animals, and in man, depend on aether waves emanating
finally chemical transformations of its life come to
dies: the from and directed by bodily senses and organs, not unlike
a standstill, as decay of organic circulation and nutrition fails. the influences of magnetism in inorganic nature. In fact I
This failure is due to the cutting off of the shorter waves, have held somewhat similar views for some years, including
 91 5140 92

the conviction that thought is an electric process sustained come to us from other worlds; while some hold that it doubtless
by waves, and have considered more especially mental and originated here by processes at present wholly unknown.
telepathic suggestions as coming under the domain of wave- 2. Life depends for its maintenance on four chief
phenomena^). The connection of these theories with mental processes:
and spiritual and psychic phenomena is obvious, but we leave
(a) Nutrition, or the absorption for chemical assimilation
the development of the subject to those who make a specialty
of various elements useful in body building.
of psychic phenomena.
Digestive processes, by which the elements are pre-
(b)
12. It is of- course recognized that bodily senses and
pared for nutritive processes, making absorption and nutrition
organs, by the nature of our nervous system, are largely under
easy, so that bodily strength and functions can be maintained.
the control of the will. But even so, the power of suggestion
(c) External chemical elements such as oxygen required
may be conveyed by wave influences directed by different
individuals; and thus a great domain of wave-action is seen for animal heat, and carbon dioxide for plants; which aid
in aesthetics and social life, heretofore but little understood.
the maintenance of life, by maintaining heat, elimination,
or body building.
one magnet can by the concerted vibrations of its
If
atoms draw those of another piece of metal into harmonious (d)Regulation of chemical action, as these processes
accord, so that the second piece of metal responds to the go on. And
as the chemical action depends on wave-action,

waves from the first, a similar power of response for the we see that the aether waves pervading the world are the
chief elemen,t in regulating the progress of growth.
development of emotional harmony may exist in living beings.
Here, again, the field for speculation is very great, but we 3. These four elements are the chief sources of vitality.

must content ourselves with the physical laws, and leave the And if we knew how to sustain the efficiency of these sources

applications of the laws to those best qualified to deal with of power unimpaired, we should have the means of new
psychic and emotional influences. vitality. In practice we are reduced to the problem of studying
the most advantageous nutrition, improving the processes of
It however, of some interest to note the immensity
is,

of the domains of science opened up by the new theory of

elimination, but in some cases electricity may aid medical

the aether. Indeed the unexpected impression now drawn

therapeutics, by the new stimulus thereby aiforded by artificial

from most obscure subjects will lead us to reflect that the

wave action. This last use of electricity has considerably
increased in modern medical practice; but the processes of
aether is the bearer of light for illuminating the organic as
nature are symmetrical, and living beings may have local
well as the physical world.
stimulation more easily than general renewal.
^ (iii) All vital phenomena depend on chemical action
4. paper on electrodynamic action and
In the third
and thus on wave-action, which also builds crystals and
deposits ores by electrolysis.
magnetism, AN 5079, we have shown hovf Ampere's
pp. 261-262,
original theory of elementary electric currents circulating about
Some fifteen years ago Professor Jacques Loeb, then at
the atoms may be reconciled with the wave-theory. In fact
the University of California, but more recently of the Rocke-
the wave-theory and Ampere's theory in many respects are
feller Institute for Medical Research, New York, told me that
identical. And if we conceive waves coming to a body from
in hisjudgement all vital processes depend at last analysis
the atoms of another body, whose atomic planes have a
on chemical action. He cited the fact that suspension of the
haphazard orientation, the two systems of oscillations, atom
supply of material required for nutrition is fatal; and that
for atom, will correspond, as in the theory of gravitational
by varying the supply, and mixing it with various elements, attraction. Each atom is to be conceived to oscillate in such
a varied growth results, as shown everywhere by the great
a way that revolving contact occurs between its parts, or the
variety of organisms and their modification in nature.
system circulates periodically, the periphery thus giving cir-
Now Professor Loeb is perhaps the most eminent ex- culation with the oscillation. The result of the revolving
perimental biologist in the world. He produced parthenogenesis contact or periodic circulation is a wave flat in the atomic
by the use of solutions containing certain chemical elements equator. Thus AmJ>^re's theory of 1822 and the wave-theory
on frog eggs; and the frogs thus artificially developed were are the same.
found to be normal; without the loss of any of their natural
5. This vibration-theory of atoms is well known in
animal powers.
spectrum analysis, and the Ampere--wa.ve-theovy enables us to
Accordingly, the high authority of Professor Loeb's interpret mechanically, in a comparatively simple way. If
it

opinion in a biological problem ought to be almost decisive the waves from the atoms can be maintained unimpaired
that all biological processes depend chiefly and at last analysis their electrical vitality is steady as in permanent magnets.
on chemical But the variety of life and vital phenomena
action. But in vital processes the work of nutrition has to go on,
is so great that perhaps we shall consider this conclusion more because of physical work done by animal organisms; and
probable if we note the elements upon which vitality depends: thereby the vibrational power of the atoms in the physical
I. We take life as existing, and shall not go into the body may be impaired, partly by clogging the electrical
discussion handed down through the centuries as to the origin conductivity, and partly by the short circuit and hysteresis
of life. Arrhenius and others think the germs of it may have eifects, with natural waste of electric energy.

') In radio-telegraphy our apparatus has to be carefully attuned to give the best receiving and transmitting power. So also in psychic
phenomena only those en rapport, in very close psychic accord, may send and receive telepathic messages. The wave-analogy seems very suggestive.
 93 5140 94

6.Thus vital phenomena depend on wave-action largely Conclusion of the Wave-Theory of Chemical Forces.
in the form of electric energy, - the wave energy of the The wave-theory of chemical forces follows from the
aether pervading the entire universe. And just as battery wave-theory of molecular forces, as will be perceived by those
action is not perfect and involves a certain amount of waste who study this whole series of papers; and it appears that
from physical deterioration — so also vital energy may decline the present argument is not only strong in itself, but also
under poor bodily nutrition and waste, which are inseparable gathers immense power from the argument developed in the
from the work of life. A permanent magnet does not de- preceding wave-tlieory of the larger physical phenomena.
teriorate, because the energy given out equals that received,
A satisfactory theory of the phenomena of nature will not be
when the atomic planes remain fixed. Yet in the electrolysis viewed with indifference by discerning natural philosophers.
of the world, the electric action is not so unhindered, but Accordingly, we add merely a few suggestive conside-
constantly modified by chemical affinity due to other elements, rations which may be of interest in the future development
as in vital processes, so that conductivity is constantly changing. of this subject.
These remarks throw some light upon the processes
7. (a) Fourier's remark that heat travels incessantly equally
of mineralogy and crystallization. Some twenty five years suggestive in regard to other forms of energy.
ago I heard that an eminent investigator of crystals had It is well known that chemical processes are always at

reached the conclusion that they are living organisms, not work, but it is well to examine this fact more closely, in hope
very unlike certain primitive types of plants and animals. of confirming the cause underlying this ceaseless law of change.
Such a view then seemed very startling, but it now seems In his celebrated Thdorie analytique de la chaleur, 1822,
plausible if not demonstrated. It is certain that the building Fourier exclaims:
of crystals is an electrolytic action due to waves, and made »La chaleur pe'n^tre, comme la gravite, toutes les sub-
effective when certain solutions are available for facilitating stances de I'univers; rayons occupent toutes les parties
ses
the electrolysis. Wave-action therefore underlies crystal-building de I'espace. ... En effet, le rayon du soleil dans lequel cette
just as it does all vital processes. plan^te est incessamment plongee pdn^tre I'air, la terre et les
eaux; ses elements se divisent, changent de direction dans
8. In spite of all our researches on minerals and metal-
tous les sens; et, penetrant dans la masse Am globe, ils en
lurgical processes, we are still much in the dark as to the
^l^veraient de plus en plus la temperature moyenne, si cette
origin of ores in veins, and nuggets. Just why silver and
chaleur ajoutee n'etait pas exactement compensee par celle
gold, nickel and platinum, copper and iron should be depo-
qui s'echappe en rayons de tous les points de la superficie,
sited as they are in the earth's crust has never been satis-
et repand dans les cieux.«
se
factorily explained. We shall not here go into the question
Throughout this great work Fourier dwells on the in-
extensively, but it may not be out of place to remark that
cessant movement of heat, and gives the mathematical laws
electrolytic action is the only explanation worth considering.
for this propagation. As heat is now known to be a wave-

Q. Electrolytic action, form of electro-plating,

in the motion, Fourier'?, argument becomes of general application
explains the plating of silver on silver, gold on gold, copper to the universe.

on copper. Such electro-plating requires the metallic elements (/S) The wave-theory of the growth of crystals and of
to be in solution, and a current to be maintained capable metallic deposits of ores and minerals in the crust of the earth
of effecting the deposits. Now the earth is a vast and varied naturally follows from the wave-theory of chemical affinity.
laboratory, in which the chemical elements are variously mixed, The evidence adduced above for this conclusion could
and often dissolved in baths of liquid. And therefore if current be much extended, but we deem it well to leave this dis-
action could be maintained it is more than probable that cussion to chemists and mineralogists. It only remains to add
electrolysis analogous to electro-plating would go on; and that if our theory of tenacity be admissible, as shown in the
even if the process be very slow, it would finally give us fifth paper, then it follows that the wave-theory of electrolytic
just such a variety of metallurgical phenomena as we actually processes is beyond dispute. The aether is so stressed at the
observe in nature. boundary of solid bodies that not only adhesion occurs, but
also cohesion. This suffices to build up solid crystals, and
10. In proof of this electrolytic action, under the wave-
furnish the powerful forces operative in electro-plating and
action pervading the world, we need only cite the collection
in metallurgical processes.
of gold nuggets in matrixes of quartz, and silver in corre-
sponding characteristic rocks. The conditions which permitted
Whether these world processes yield ores, nuggets, or

these rocks to form, often with partial crystallization, have

metallic masses of larger size, I can not doubt that this
also permitted the earth's electrolytic action to deposit the
wonderful process for producing in nature pure crystals, and
pure ores, with nuggets of the precious metals, as of gold,
gold and silver, dissolved in the solution of sea water, from
silver, and platinum, are due to molecular separation and
the baths of the ocean overlying these rock formations. It
ordering under wave-action, as in our familiar process of
is well known that sea water contains practically all elements
electro-plating.
in solution; and the processes of electro-plating under the
wave-action of a current, is the only explanation of mineralogical Considered from the point of view of its history through

phenomena suggested by chemical experience. All these pheno- millions of years, the earth, with all the metals in solution

mena are more closely related to vital phenomena than might in the sea, is an immense collection or bath of solvent ele-

at first sight seem probable. ments, under the electric waves and other oscillations pervading
 ;

95 SMO 96

the universe •*), and exhibited to us daily in the fluctuations two cases is so close as to be truly remarkable. It appears
of the magnetism, electrical disturbances and earth currents. from geometrical criteria, that such wave-action alone will
The doctrine of the conservation of energy and of explain universal gravitation; and thus we deduce the cause
{y)
the correlation of forces finds its best support in the wave- involved, and bring out the necessary and sufficient conditions
theory of physical forces. But this conservation should be based on physical and geometrical laws of unquestioned validity.
understood to apply to all the energies of the universe mental, — Recognized Geometrical and Physical Cri-
7.
spiritual,and subconscious, as well as purely physical. All teriaAnalysed by the Method oi Kepler and Newton.
ordinary vital phenomena must be referred to chemical pro- Foundations for the Discovery of the Cause of Uni-
cesses, and thus to wave-action, on which the chemical forces versal Gravitation thus incontestahly es4abl4shed,
depend. It has "long been believed that electrical energy Brief statement of Kepler'^ laws and of Newton's
(i)
underlies vital phenomena, and now we have endeavoured to
deductions therefrom.
give valid physical grounds for this doctrine.
It is well known that Kepler used the observations of
[6) our wave-theory of magnetism be admissible, it
If Tycho Brake to deduce the observed laws of the planetary
will follow that each individual carries a mental and spiritual motions; and that Newton subsequently deduced the law of
wave-field with him, and hence the ,magnetic power' of certain gravitation mathematically from the physical facts formulated
persons. It is not our purpose to go into psychic or related in Kepler's laws. When Newton had thus deduced the law
phenomena, as this must be left to specialists in that large of attraction for the force of universal gravitation, he was
and important field of research. We merely point out that able in turn to show that Kepler's laws follow from the law
if magnetism and electrodynamic action be referred to waves of this force varying inversely as the square of the distances,
from atoms, which under certain conditions act in concert, and even to correct Kepler's third law, which was not quite
we have to admit that each person may be able to exert
shall accurate as originally given, — Kepler's form being t'^-.t''^ =
,personal magnetism' and emotional influences, depending on a^:a'^, whereas it should read
waves in the aether, somewhat analogous to physical magnetism. t^i-+-m):t'^i-^m')=a^:a'^. (22)
The subtile psychic influences operating through the After the course of reasoning laid down by Kepler,
all-pervading aether are as yet but imperfectly understood
Newton derived geometrical criteria, to supplement Kepler's
and until the field is more fully explored we must preserve physical criteria, which proved both necessary and sufficient
an open mind, as the first duty in scientific research, which
to establish rigorously the law of the forces governing the
aims not at popularity, but at truth, which endures unto all
planetary motions. On
account of the historical importance
generations.
of this development, and its bearing on the related problem
Part II. of the cause of gravitation, which we deduce by an analogous
Discovery of the Cause of Universal Gravitation. method, we shall examine the reasoning of Kepler and Newton
with some care.
In concluding the new theory of the aether it only
In the work on the Motion of mars,
1609, Kepler an-
remains to draw attention to the discovery and demonstration
nounced, in substance, the following laws as observed phy-
of the cause of gravitation, which results from this new theory,
sical facts:
and the similar researches published during 19 17, in volume i
I. The orbit of the planet is an ellipse, with the sun
of the Electrodynamic wave-theory of physical forces. The
in the focus.
new theory of the aether affords the necessary and sufficient
II. The radius vector of the planet drawn to the sun's
conditions for a definite proof that wave-action underlies the
centre describes equal areas in equal times.
chief operations of nature.
First, we analyse the facts of planetary observation in
III. And in the work De Harmonice Mundi, 16 19, the
third or harmonic law: The squares of the periodic times
accordance with the inductive method which enabled Kepler
1609—1619.
of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances, or
to discover the laws of planetary motion,
Second, we point out the steps and the physical and
f :
/'2 = a^ : a'^ — the slightly corrected modern form being
geometrical criteria by which Newton deduced from these facts t''[-i.^m):f^[T.^m') = a^:a'^ .
(23)
of observation the law of attraction for universal gravitation. and the considerable ec-
Tycho's observations of mars,
Third, the phenomenon of acoustic attraction, for waves centricity of the orbit of that planet had enabled Kepler to
of air traveling past a balloon of CO1, is simple and easily reject the traditional Ptolemaic theory of eccentrics, and sub-
understood, from measures of velocity in the theory of sound; stitute therefor the theory of planetary motion in an ellipse.

and thus we naturally apply a similar aether-wave-theory to So daring an innovation cost Kepler great labor, because it
the observed attraction of universal gravitation. The inductive involved very tedious calculations. As his work was done
method, applicable to terrestrial gases which may be experi- before the invention of logarithms, these calculations could
mented upon in our laboratories, thus may be extended to not then be abbreviated, as they have been for later investi-
the aether, in which the wave-action of universal gravitation gators. Accordingly, Kepler declared that Napier's invention
takes place; and the similarity of the wave-processes in the of logarithms had trebled the lives of the astronomers.

') When we observe ihe phenomena of nature and note the infinite variety of exquisite colors, some due to absorption, some to
refraction and dispersion, and others to interference, we wonder indeed that the wave-theory was not long ago suggested to investigators. Accor-
dingly, if there be those who hesitate to grant the truth of the theory, we need make but one remark: Behold the order of nature, with the
infinite varieties of colors in the heavens and in the earth! Ha.s this beautiful order no meaning to those who have eyes to see?
 .

97 5140 98
We^ see therefore that Kepler's first law is mainly con- Newton's geometrical criteria were necessary and sufficient
cerned with getting away from the Ptolemaic hypothesis of to show that the force of attraction obeys the law of the
eccentrics and epicycles, which the discoveries of Copernicus
inverse squares, and no other.
had largely but not entirely swept away.
During the past three centuries the historical development
The second law of Kepler has a very different import,
here traced always has been regarded as the best and most
namely, the eqtial areas described in equal times points to
rigorous example of the true processes of scientific discovery.
a central force acting on the planet and directed to the sun's The being given, as found by Kepler from Tycho's ob-
facts
centre. It is well known and easily demonstrated that however
What law of attraction will explain
servations, the question was:
the law of force may vary
with "the distance, so long as it these facts, and is this the only admissible law of attraction?
is central, the
areas described by the radius vector will be
Newton answered both of these questions in the affir-
equal in equal times. Thi.s law of areas would hold for any
mative, and no one ever has been able successfully to challenge
law of attraction,
f—k\r-. the results of his mathematical researches.
(24)
law should change, as from n
If the \ to « 2, = = The recent speculations of Einstein may be disregarded,
because they are totally lacking in physical basis i). Newton
the areas described would still continue to be equal, but the
form of the curve in which the planet moved would undergo based his reasoning on the foundation of facts laid down by
a change with the change in the law. Thus when i, n= Kepler, which was as solid as granite; and hence the past
three centuries have witnessed an unprecedented development
the curve is an ellipse, with the sun in the centre, but with
« =
2, the curve is an ellipse with the sun in the focus,
of celestial mechanics. Since the time of Laplace the Newtoman
corresponding to the planetary motions observed in nature. law has been regularly used as a means of discovery as
second law showed that the force is
Finally, after the certain as observation itself.

central and directed to the focus, the third law of Kepler If we contrast
careful procedure, with correct
this
enabled Newton to deduce the law of this force. Neivton reasoning on valid premises, and compare its logical results
proved that it must vary inversely as the square of the di- with the reckless course of Einstein in proposing to do away
stance. On the observed facts of Kepler's laws no other law with the aether, —
as if the planetary forces were not real,
of force is admissible. — and a medium capable of sustaining stupendous stresses
But in establishing the law of gravitation, (Principia, were not necessary for their transmission across space, —
1686) Newton proceeded with his usual caution and philo- we shall perceive that the whole theory of relativity is nothing
sophic acuteness. For he not only showed that if the planet but a flimsy foundation laid in quicksand. In this whole
move in an ellipse with the sun in the focus, the force of theory of relativity there is not a trace of substantial phy-
attraction will conform to the law of universal gravitation; sical truth.
but also investigated the effect of a slight departure from the (ii) In acoustic attraction theair particles under the
law of the inverse squares (cf AN 5048, pp. 144-153). wave agitation work out from between the balloon of carbon
Thus if we take dioxide and the source of the sound, so that there is tension
f=k^h-'+^' (25) between, while the pressure is increased behind the balloon.
where the gravitational exponent is changed by adding v, a In the same way the aether waves from each of two heavenly
very small quantity, Newton pointed out that the result would bodies expel aetherons from between the masses, thereby
be a forward motion of the perihelion. Hence already in generating tension, at the same time increasing the pressure
1686 he foresaw the possibility of a shifting perihelion, — beyond, thus giving rise to the attraction of universal gravitation.
such as Leverrier discovered for the planet mercury in 1859, The mechanism of attraction, in the case of acoustic
which has since led to many unprofitable speculations on relativity. attraction, has been clearly made out in the fifth paper on
Yet as the observations in Newton's time pointed to the new theory of the aether (AN 5130), and we have illu-
the fixity of the perihelia (Principia, Lib. Ill, Prop. XIV), this strated this mechanism by means of a chart of the wave front
great philosopher believed the law of attraction to be rigo- which is so clear and distinct that no doubt can arise as
rously as the inverse squares. Accordingly, it will be seen to the nature of the cause assigned. The figure is here repeated,
that the investigations of Tycho's observations led Kepler to in order that the image of the wave front may be recalled
the laws of planetary motion, as facts of nature; and upon to our minds with entire distinctness (Fig. 12, plate 7).
the basis of Kepler's laws further geometrical researches led It is evident that as the sound travels faster in air,

Newton directly to the law of universal gravitation. The V= 1. 00, than in the balloon filled with CO^, V= 0.78,
physical facts of nature being as stated in Kepler's laws. the wave agitation in the air will outrun that through the

^) In AN 5079, p. 257, we have shown the inadmissibility of Gerber's, formula for the potential, which underlies Einstein'^ theory;
V= lVl{r {\ — \lc- &rl&if\ (
a)
In the Treatise on electricity and magnetism, 1873, section 856, Maxwell has successfully defended the validity of Weber'i law, of
which the potential is V= {k'' mmli)-{\ — \lc'-{,irl&tf]. (P)

The second term gives the effect due to motion in a wave-field, the work of transforming the potential energy changing, like the
kinetic energy, with the square of the planet's velocity relative to the sun. If dr/d/ =
u, as in circular orbits, the Newtom^-n law follows; but

more generally the velocity in the direction of the radius vector &rl&.t yields a term for the effect of the induction, and i^rjAt^ gives the term
for the change of the induction, under motion in the wave-field. Thus IVeier's law is the fundamental law of nature, and from (P) we have:
/ = -drldr = {k'' mm'lr'') -[i-ijc' {irlitf+ zrjc''- d V/di^ .
(y)
 99 5140 lOO

balloon. Thus for every phase of the waves, the agitations We may easily convince ourselves of the validity of
reach the back of the balloon through the air before they this figure by the following considerations.
arrive straight through that denser and less rapidly conducting 1. The refraction of the sun's gravitational waves in
medium. The effect is to bend the wave front into oppositely passing through the earth, as illustrated above, is postulated
directed eddies behind the balloon, and the incessant ad- on the increase in the density of the layers of the globe as
vance impulses of the waves, —
thus turned out of the ir- we approach the centre, which is a well established physical
rectilinear course, and stopped by the mutual impact of the fact, — since the surface density is only about 2.55, while
eddies, — give such agitation or increase of pressure behind the average density for the whole globe, according to the
that the balloon is shoved forward towards the source of most careful experiments is' about 5.50.
the sound. 2. But quite aside from the increase of density in the

As the particles tend to work around behind the balloon, layers as we approach the centre, it is well known that in
it may be said that the air is thinned out between, when the all cases waves travel faster in free space than through any

particles are carriedaround behind; so that there is tension solid mass whatever. Thus the wave front on either side must
in the medium between the balloon and the source of the be refracted towards the axis of the shadow, not only within
sound. On the other hand the crowding of particles in behind the globe, but also outside of the earth, very much as in
the balloon, by the constant bending of the front as the the case of the sound waves about the balloon of carbon
waves flow steadily around it, and the impulses are destroyed, dioxide treated above.
has the effect of an increase of pressure on the back of the Accordingly, we see that the explanation of acoustic
balloon. Tt is shoved forward by the kinetic energy of these attraction affords a tangible explanation of the development
impulses. And thus it may be said that at last we have of tension between two heavenly bodies, and the increase of
experimental proof that attraction is due to a vis a tergo — pressure beyond them. The air is a kinetic medium, like the
a shove from behind, which is a very old doctrine in natural aether, only the aether is 689321600000 more elastic in
philosophy, but heretofore not capable of obvious demonstration, proportion to its density. Hence the aether is capable of
in simple phenomena admitting of but one interpretation. exerting tremendous stresses, for governing the motions of
Now in the case of the aether waves receding from the planets.
two heavenly bodies, it is evident that the waves from each Finally, it only remains to add that in light the os-
centre will aid in expelling the aetherons from between the cillations of the aetherons normal to the wave
are in the
masses. In AN 5048, p. 156, we have given the following front, and thus similar to those of sound as held by Poisson,
figure to illustrate the refraction of the sun's gravitation waves 1830, (cf. AN 5085), but the waves are flat only in the planes
in traversing the solid globe of the earth. of their equators, and under haphazard arrangement of the
atomic planes only the part q =^ Yio in the direction
of the radius, while the ratio of A/X is excessively
small, making the longitudinal component evanescent
^^ Q- A/X =^ 1 {66420- 10^);
:
(26)
so that the longitudinal component is utterly insen-
sible to observation. As the displacements of the
aetherons are similar to those of the particles of air
in sound it follows that the bending of the aether
wave-front is similar to that shown in the above
diagram of the wave-front for sound waves bending
about the carbon dioxide balloon.
In all these aether waves there is true radial
displacement of the aetherons, as of the particles
of the air, when sound is traveling outwardly from
a source; and thus the analogy between sound and
gravitation is complete in every respect. Accordingly,
we perceive that the aetherons are so worked out
between the two heavenly bodies, that tension
froiTi

existsalong the right line connecting them, while

Illustration of the refraction of the gravitationalwaves of the sun in beyond them there is increase of pressure, as cor-
passing through the globe of the earth, from the Electrodynamic rectly held in the Electr. wave-theory of phys. fore,
wave-theory of physical forces, vol. i, 1917, p. 88. The refracted vol. I, p. 136.
wave-front is here indicated by pointed lines, to complete the analogy
with sound, refracted around the balloon filled with COj, and shown 8. The Inductive Method of Discovery
in Fig. 12, plate 7. as applied to the Aether leads to Wave-
It will be noticed that the waves from either side are Action as the Sole Cause ofUniversal Gravitation,
refracted towards the axis of the earth's shadow, just as in The Kepler-Newton method
(i) applied to the new theory
the case of the acoustic attraction illustrated above. This of the aether.
is a very remarkable analogy which deserves careful study. We have now traced the procedure of Kepler and Newton
 I OI 5MO I02

and shown that from certain well established facts of nature 4. Apparently the only way we can deny the heteroge-
they deduced definite laws of the planetary motion, all de- neity of the aether is to reject this diagram by denying that

pending on the attraction of gravitation. waves exist; yet this is increasingly difficult because of the
The question now is: Can this Kepler-Newton method following phenomena:
be applied to the kinetic theory of the aether, to deduce (a) Light and heat waves certainly radiate from the sun,

rigorously the cause of universal gravitation? and these waves follow the law shown in the diagram. Thus
if the aether were agitated by waves of light and heat alone,
For as Newton made rigorous use of the facts stated
it could not be homogeneous, because of the increased am-
in Kepler'^ laws to law of gravitation, it is
establish the
plitude of the waves towards the sun's surface.
natural to inquire if the Kepler-Newton process can be so
extended in the theory of the aether as to enable us to deduce (b) It is shown in our theory of magnetism that mag-

rigorously the cause underlying universal gravitation. netic forces depend on waves, and obey the law of amplitude
indicated above. Thus cosmical magnetism also is a wave-
We approach this problem by successive steps as follows:
phenomenon, and observation shows that ,magnetic storms'
1.has been shown in AN 5044, p. 53, that the den-
It
are due to masses of magnetic waves proceeding from the
sity of the aether is not uniform throughout space, but in-
sun, and thus very conspicuous when certain solar areas are
creases away from a heavenly body, because the amplitude
uncovered, as by sunspot development.
of the waves receding from any spherical body such as the
(c) A paper by Professor W. Grylls Adams in the Phil.
sun follows the law:
A = klr .
(27)
Transact, of the Roy. Soc. for 1892, A, plate 8, seems to show
that these magnetic disturbances occur simultaneously through-
Accordingly, if the medium be agitated by waves,
2.
out the terrestrial globe, as if the disturbances depended on
their amplitudes increase towards the centre inversely as the commotions in the sun. These disturbances are accompanied
radius, so that under the agitations of the waves the density by aurorae and earth currents, which can only be explained
decreases towards the centre, and increases as we go outward by a solar origin.
into space, directly as the radius:
(d) The connection between sunspots and magnetic
0-= vr (28) storms is shown over a period of two or three centuries, and
3. The following figure shows the curves for the wave emphasized by our latest researches with modern data, as by
amplitude, which are rectangular hyperbolas referred to their the writer's paper bringing Wolf's curves down to 1916, Bull,
asymptotes. of the astron. soc. of France, November 1918, pp. 397—402.
(e) During the year 1920 much discussion arose in
the radio-telegraphic circles of London as to the origin of
very delicate but incessant electric commotions sensible to
our modern apparatus. In an interview with the public press
I expressed the opinion that the reported disturbances depended
primarily on commotions in the sun, which caused corre-
sponding oscillations in our terrestrial magnetic field. Within
about two weeks of this discussion in America, press dis-
patches from Paris and London stated that the French and
English men of science concurred in the view that these
disturbances of our wireless receivers depend principally on
the commotions always going on in the sun.

5. Thus we are driven by a great body of knowledge to

admit that electrodynamic waves must come to us from the sun.
(a) If so, the aether cannot be homogeneous, but must
follow the law of density
a = vr (28)
because of the increasing amplitudes of these waves towards
the sun.
(b) Waves offer the only known explanation of mag-
netism and electrodynamic actions, with the law of amplitude,
= kjr
A (27)
and the law of force,
Fig. 14. Diagram showing graphically the increase of amplitude
towards the sun, and thus a corresponding decrease of
f=A'^ = k"-lr-^. (29)
increase
the density of the aether, owing to the asymptotic (c) In the same way the wave-theory explains Biot
in wave amplitude as we approach the centre. and Savarfs law. Ohm's law, and the mechanical cause under-
lying the pointing of the needle to the north pole, whilst —
These curves follow from the nature of wave expansion
in tridimensional space, and the asymptotic law of the am- no other theory supplies this obvious defect, involving so
plitude thus holds rigorously true.
many electrodynamic phenomena.
 I03 5140 I04

(d) Weber & electrodynamic law implying waves traveling (a) Between the bodies the successive equipotential
with the velocity of light, explains the magnetic tides of the surfaces are further apart than they are beyond them.
earth, whilst no other law meets this rigorous requirement. [0) As the spaces dr indicate the distance we have
6. Accordingly, we see that the wave-field traced in to traverse for a given change which
in the force of gravity,

the above diagram gives us an accurate picture of the ar- in turn corresponds to a given change in the density of
rangement of the aether about such a central body as the the aether, we perceive that the aether has its density thinned
sun. The density of the aether increases directly as r, when out (or the medium made more homogeneous) between the
we go outwardly from the centre. It will follow a similar masses, while the density is somewhat increased beyond them,
law about a spherical mass such as another star; and hence or rendered more heterogeneous for a given value of dr.
these curves of wave amplitude may be made to yield valuable [y) appears that the waves from each mass
It thus
criteria. For example the ecfuipotential surfaces about a homo- operate to expel the aetherons beyond the other mass; so
geneous sphere or a heterogeneous sphere made up of con- that the medium is put under tension between the bodies,
centric layers of uniform density, are sphere surfaces, yet for and experiences increase of pressure beyond them.
a second body the wave-fields interpenetrate and the surfaces (d) The kinetic state of the aether is therefore similar
are changed in a significant way. to that of the air under acoustic attraction there is tension —
(ii) The geometry of the equipotential surfaces based between and increased pressure beyond, which thus generates
on the law of gravitation points directly to the cause of this the central force for holding the planets in their orbits.
great force, and indicates its mode of operation for producing [e) In closing this discussion it seems well to record

the chief phenomena of nature. a sagacious remark on gravitation by the late Professor 5.
1. Now when we calculate the equipotential surfaces W. Burnham, the celebrated discoverer of double stars. It
about two equal stars, fju and /*, we find that they have the is recalled that the apparent orbit of a binary is an ellipse,

form shown in fig. 15, plate 8. and that the radius vector sweeps over equal areas in equal
Thus it will be seen that the surfaces closed about times, as in the case of Kepler s law for the planets, which
each centre in a pair of equal stars are not spherical, but shows that the force is central. It is pointed out that one
actually distorted as shown in the figure. Each body stresses binary, 42 Comae Berenices, revolves in a plane passing through
the aether so as to pull the surfaces enclosing the other body the sun; and another binary, p' Virginis, has an inclination
into egg-shaped surfaces, set end on, and where the two so small that it may be taken to be zero, so that the real
surfaces join we have an hourglass figure. orbit practically coincides with the apparent orbit which we
2. Thus the disturbing influence generates egg-shaped observe; and in this case the central star is in the focus
equipotential surfaces enclosed about either centre, and they of the ellipse as required by the Newtoma.n law (fig. 18, tab. 9).
have ceased to be spherical, and become so distorted in the ['C) When such criteria for motion in a plane under
direction of the other body that the radius vector is very central forces directed to the focus of the ellipse were not
appreciably longer than when either body acted alone; whereas, sufficient to convince an astronomer who visited his office,
beyond, on the side opposite to the other body, the radius in i8g4, that the law of gravitation is really universal, and
vector is shorter than it would be if the other body were he insisted that further proof was desirable though Newton —
absent. In other words the gravitational forces are compounded had not required it for the solar system —
Professor Burnham
as shown in the following figure, and the equipotential surfaces remarked » When equal areas are described in equal times,
:

thus increasingly separated between the bodies, and drawn by the radius vector, so that the forces are known to be
nearer together outside of them. central, and directed to the focus of the ellipse, is not the
discussion about the universality of
the law of gravitation like debating
whether n, the ratio of the circum-
ference to the diameter of a circle,
is the same in Jupiter as it is here?«
{jl)
This suggested debate was
enough to settle the question then
and there; and it was agreed that
the central force which governs the
motions of double stars in their
elliptic orbits can be nothing -but
universal gravitation.
Fig. 16. General theory of the composition of the vectors representing the gravitational forces Burnham was remarkable for
directed to two equal masses, such as a double star with equal components. It will be
his practical turn of mind, and for
noticed that between the masses, the composition largely destroys the oppositely directed
separate forces, whereas outside the two masses, the separate forces are but little reduced
the depth of his understanding of
in composition. The result is that between the bodies the aether is under tension, whereas the Newfonisin natural philosophy,
outside of them it is under increased pressure — both of which tendencies operate to which is especially emphasized in the
balance the centrifugal force of orbital motion.
and second rules of reasoning:
first
3. In general the vector composition gives numerical I. »We are to admit no more causes of natural things
increase beyond the other body, and numerical decrease than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their
between the bodies. Hence we see that: appearances.*
 I05 5140 io6

II. » Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as sin a : sin ^ =: {k'jr') ^ : [kjr) ^ {^^)
far as possible, assign the same causes.* These forces may be calculated for any point p distant r
In the sagacious philosophy of Newton the
natural and r' from the two stars of masses m and ;«', or km and
phenomenon of refraction
viewed as a simple physical
is
k'm', where k is the Gauss\a.n constant.
problem, and does not lead to the discussion of such vague
5. In the case of two equal stars the positions between
and chimerical doctrines as the curvature of space, time-
space-manifolds, etc.
fj,
and f-b, within the above circle, make the resultant less R
than "l/[(/i/^)*+(/^'/r')^], because cos ^ is negative. Forpositions
9.Rigorous Geometric Analysis confirms the outside the above circle, the resultant is relatively larger,
Tension in the Aether between two Stars and in- because cosi^ is positive, ^<7r/2. It attains the maximum
creased Stress beyond them, and thus incontestably relative value in the region outside the two stars, on the line
establishes the Cause of Universal Gravitation. IJifi prolonged; and the minimum relative value between the
(i) Geometrical composition of the attraction to two two stars,on the line |U./t ^ D. This is obvious geometri-
centres from any point in space rigorously coniirms the theory cally from the above figure.

of tension between the stars and the increase of stress or 6. The general theory of the composition of forces
pressure beyond them. here set forth shows that the aether is under tension between
I. Imagine the two stars to be distant r and r' from
the two stars, where the geometrical composition tends to
any point / in space, and let the angle between r and r' a minimum relative value of E. Beyond the two stars, the

be ^. Then by a well known theorem geometrical composition offerees tends to a relative maximum,
and there is greatest increase in the stress of the aether.
cosi^ =^{xx' -i-yy' -i- z z')/rr' (30) The analysis here given explains rigorously the arran-
the origin of coordinates being at the point /. gement of the equipotential surfaces about the two equal
stars and
j.1, The above figure shows that the minimum
f.v.

distances between the surfaces are outside the stars, where

the stress is increased; and maximum distances are between
the stars, where the tension is developed, and the density
of the aether increases slowly as we go outward from either
star as a centre.
Tension between two stars and increase of stress
(ii)

beyond them the only possible explanation of gravitation.

1. The law of centrifugal force shows that physically

there ought to be tension in the aether between two revolving

stars; for the centrifugal force actually is overcome and ba-
lanced, which can be done most effectively by tension between,
and increase of stress or pressure beyond.
2. By no possibility can a pair of stars revolve without

Fig. 17. Geometrical composition of the some physical agency operating to give tension between them,
attractionto two centres inve- so that the stresses in the medium balance the centrifugal
stigated, and simplified for points
on the circumference of a circle
force. And we may compute enormous tension required, the
having the two bodies at the in terms of the breaking strength of immense cables of steel,
extremities of a diameter. (cf AN 5044, p. 51).
3. Now show the effects of
the equipotential surfaces
2. If the point p be on the circumference of a circle,
tension in the aether, since the surfaces are symmetrical in
liaving the distance Z) between the centres of the stars as
diameter, the angle ^ will be a right angle, and cosi^ = o.
all directions about a single spherical mass, but pulled further

apart between two spherical bodies. This distortion of the

But this condition is special and in general will not hold.
If/ be beyond the circumference described on as diameter, D equipotential surfaces, —
which are drawn to correspond to
equal changes in the force of gravity, cannot be explained —
6<nl2; if within the circumference, S>n/2.
except on the theory of tension, which gives the aether less
3. Now whatever be the position of p, we may always
increase of density between, for given values of dr, and thus
•compound the attractive forces directed to the two centres
puts the successive surfaces further apart.
according to the parallelogram of forces. Let the two forces
4. Since mechanical necessity, calculated from the
be P/r^, and k'^jr''^; then by the theorem of the parallelogram
theory of centrifugal force,of thus agrees with the facts
we have for the resultant Ji:
Ji-i = {klrY-^[k'lr'Y^2[klrY [k'jr'Y coi6 (31)
observation in regard to the actual positions of the surfaces,
it follows that the cause of the observed distorted form of

Ji= V\[klrY + \k'lr'Y+2[klrY\k'lr'Y cosS] . (32) the surfaces must be tension or stretching of the medium.
4. The angular direction of the resultant will always No other cause except tension or pulling, which
possible
pass between the two stars. And if 1^ ^
«-+-A the two angles thins out the aether and makes it tend to contract with
a and /J may easily be computed when the magnitude and stupendous power, will explain the known facts.
direction of the forces which make up the two sides, [kjrY 5. If we knew the observed forms of the surfaces we

-and [k'jr'Y are given, by the formula could from them predict the tension which yields such dis-
 I07 5140 io8

tortion; if we knew the mechanical power of the centrifugal the elementary solid angle Aw of the two cones of matter
force we could predict the distortion of the equipotential extending to the centre of the earth being the same in any
surfaces required to balance the stresses exerted. Both con- two elements, Am =
Am', between the limits of the radius
ditions lead to the same result, and no other is possible. r to r+dr and r' to r'-Hdr', corresponding to the depth of
6. If we did not know that the density of the aether isostatic compensation.

increases as we go out from a centre like the sun, we should (/S) This theorem was first proposed by Fratt about
have to discover it before we could form a correct theory 1850, to account for certain apparent anomalies in the attrac-
of the equipotential surfaces. Thus the distortion of the tion of mountains and plateaus in India, but it has now had
surfaces shows the heterogeneity of the aether. And as all extensive use in the researches made by Hayford for the
known facts are thus reconciled, it follows that no other U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, in respect to the continental
possible theory of the aether can reconcile the facts of ob- mass of the United States, and in Ifelmert's geodetic researches
servation except the law for increase of density as we recede as applied of our globe. Thus it is well
to various parts
from the centre a ^
vr, which Sir Isaac Newton suspected established that approximately a fact of obser-
' isostasy is

in 172 1, but could not establish to his satisfaction. vation, and to the depth of isostatic compensation A7n Aiii'. =
7. If we did not suspect the unsymmetrical wave-fields Hayford found this depth about 76 miles for the continental
about the separate masses, and we were required to assign United States.
an adequate cause for the increased distances of the surfaces [y] We shall now show that a perfectly analogous
between the two masses, we should have to conclude: theorem holds mass of the aether between any two
for the
(a) Between the bodies the equipotential surfaces are concentric equipotential surfaces drawn about any centre, even
relatively separated, by the presence of the second mass. when the figures of the equipotential surfaces are disturbed
(b) Beyond either mass the equipotential surfaces are by a neighboring body, as in the case above discussed of
relatively drawn nearer together. two equal stars, with the surfaces distorted between them.
(c) These effects are as if they depended on geometrical
[6] Thus let dft) denote the elementary solid angle
stresses superposed, but oppositely directed; thus on the plane
arbitrarily fixed upon. Then, as in the above integrals,
yz normal to the line fifi, and [.i, fi prolonged, we have:
we have:
W= = ^t;;^ d^H-
P-\-F' dy dz djf JJc7',. (34)
r-l-d?-9-i-d8 ip + d*
without the masses; d;« = dft)J J ^ ar-sm6ArA6A(I)
W= F-P' =^^^,AyAz-^^^'s'AyAz (35)
r 9
-d/l -d9' $'-i-d*'
between the masses. == Am' dwj J JffV^sim^'dr'd^'dO)'. (37)
Therefore, we perceive that the increased distance
8. 0' *
of the concentric surfaces between the masses, means that
(«) For we see that when the equipotential surfaces are
we must go a greater distance for a given change in W.
further apart than usual it means that there is less rapid in-
Now the aether density increases as we go outward, for a
single mass; and in the case of two masses the increase
crease in the density of the aether as we go outward from
the centre. In this case the density of the aether increases
between them is less rapid for given Ar, but relatively more
Hence between the bodies as we go outward, but least rapidly towards the other body,
rapid externally for both bodies.
where the surfaces are fartherest apart. In the case of the
the aether thinned out by the proximity of the two masses
is
earth's crust, on the other hand, the density of the matter
pulling in opposite directions. It is thus under tension, incident
increases as we go downward, but least rapidly under the
to this thinning out. And as the increase in a is gradual
mountains und plateaus, owing to the puffing up or intumes-
but slower than usual with Ar, the concentric surfaces are
further apart. In general their figure depends on the masses
cence, as Sir John Herschel calls it, of the matter just beneath
the crust.
of the two bodies, whose stresses are here combined.
(iii) Close analogy between density of matter in the (J) Accordingly, it appears that we have a theorem for
the aether density quite analogous to that for isostasy in the
earth's crust under isostasy, and density of aether between
crust of the globe, but mathematically much more rigorously
equipotential surfaces.
[a] In the theory of the equilibrium of the earth's crust,
exact than that of isostasy. The aether theorem
the modern doctrine of isostasy plays a prominent part. If 7-t-d7-9-i-d9 i-t-d*

we imagine a solid conical angle Aw, which may be generated dft)

J J Jffr-sin^drd^d® =
by revolving a radius about a fixed small circle, in the surface ?- 9 4>

of a sphere of radius r=
V{x'^+y--^z^), at constant distance /-Hd?-'9'+d9'*'-i-d*'

==dft)J /'^ %\x\&'

from the centre, the principal theorem of isostasy reduces J I a' Ar' A&' AQi' (38)
to the expressions: / 9' *'
r-i-drSH-de^-Kj*
obviously fulfills rigorously the conservation of energy, since
dOT = dft)J J Jffr^sin^drdi^ d® it applies to the aether in the conical space dco between two
r 9 * equipotential surfaces concentric about a fixed centre of mass
r'-^-Ar 0'+d9' <^' + A^'
= dwj J J(T'r'"-^sin^'dr'd(^'d®' (36) ^^ lll^^^'^y^'^ (39)
yet disturbed by the aether stresses due to another mass
 .

I09 5140 1 10

//.'
= JJJ (.' dx' dy dz' (40)
bodies whatsoever are endowed
gravitation.*
with a principle of mutual

{tj) This formulation of the theorem for the rigorous

conservation of energy in the aether makes the conclusion Again, in the General Scholium to the Principia, (17 13),
incontestable that the aether is under tension between the Newton adds:
masses. The increase of stress or pressure beyond the masses, »Hitherto we have explained the phenomena of the
with more rapidly changing density, is equally obvious, since heavens and of our sea by the power of gravity, but have
in these parts the space dr required to be traversed is so not yet assigned the cause of this power. This is certain,
very small. that it must proceed from a cause that penetrates to the

(iv) Conclusions drawn from the application of the

very centres of the sun and planets, without suffering the
least diminution of its force; that operates not according to
Kepler- Newton method.
the quantity of the surfaces of the particles upon which it
The final question now arises: Does not the form of
acts (as mechanical causes use to do), but according to the
the equipotential surfaces point straight to the cause of gravi-
quantity of the solid matter which they contain, and propagates
tation? any other interpretation than the one we have given
Is
its virtue on all sides to immense distances, decreasing always
really Obviously not! We have here a criterion
possible?
in the duplicate proportion of the distances. Gravitation
which may be applied point by point to the surfaces; and
towards the sun is made up out of the gravitations towards
as the surfaces here drawn are found by calculation from the
the several particles of which the body of the sun is com-
law of gravitation, without regard to the cause involved,
posed; and receding from the sun decreases accurately
in
yet there is everywhere exact coincidence of the observed facts
in the duplicate proportion of the distances as far as the
with the requirements of the wave-theory, it follows exactly
orb of saturn, as evidently appears from the quiescence of
as in the Kepler-Newton method that one and only one con-
the aphelia of the planets; nay, and even to the remotest
clusion is possible —
namely: gravitation is due to wave-action
aphelia of the comets, if those aphelia are also quiescent.
receding from the two bodies |U. and fi.
But hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of
Accordingly, just as Kepler?, laws made the rigorous these properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no
deductions of Newton possible, —
providing for the necessary hypotheses; for whatever is not deduced from the phenomena
and sufficient conditions of valid reasoning, so also the form — is to be called an hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether meta-
and arrangement of the equipotential surfaces about a single physical or physical, whether of occult qualities or mechanical,
spherical mass, and about a pair of equal spherical masses, have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy
considered in connection with the spherical expansion of waves particular propositions are inferred frorh the phenomena, and
in free space, leads incontestably to the cause of universal afterwards rendered general by induction. Thus it was that
gravitation. The argument is based on rigorous geometrical the impenetrability, the mobility, and the impulsive force of
criteria, combined with observed physical facts of wave ex- bodies, and the laws of motion and of gravitation, were dis-
pansion, and it affords the necessary and sufficient conditions covered. And to us it is enough that gravity does really exist,
to show that this cause and no other can underlie universal and act according to the laws which we have explained, and
gravitation. abundantly serves to account for all the motions of the
In conclusion, it only remains to add that just as Kepler''!, celestial bodies, and of our sea.«

laws, deduced from Tycho'% observations of the planets, lead The great penetrating power of gravitation here pointed
inevitably to the Newton\a.n law of gravitation, — so also the out, would be naturally explained by the excessive smallness
observed law of attraction thus found by Newton leads in- of the aetheron, i 3620 of the diameter of a hydrogen
:

contestably to waves in the aether as the clause of universal molecule, and its high velocity, 47ioookms. per second; so
gravitation. In the Principia, 1686, Newton resolves the several that even waves in the aether, if moderately long, could
attractive forces separately, at whatever distance the bodies penetrate to the very centres of the sun and planets, as Newton
are situated, —
thus implying that the forces from the bodies says is true of gravitation. Newton here expressly declares
of one system penetrate through the bodies of any other his inability to discover the cause of gravitation; yet in the
neighboring system, —
as if the influence were due to waves authentic Account of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophical dis-
in the free aether, capable of freely penetrating all parts coveries, published by his pupil Colin Maclaurin, London, 1748,
of space. we learn (p. Ill):

In the remarks following the third rule of reasoning »He {Newton) has plainly signified that he thought that
in philosophy, Newton says (Principia, Lib. Ill): those powers arose from the impulses of a subtile aetherial

by experiments and medium that is diffused over the universe, and penetrates the
^Lastly, if it universally appears,
pores of grosser bodies. It appears from his letters to Mr.
astronomical observations, that all bodies about the earth
Boyle, that was his opinion early; and if he did not
this
gravitate towards the earth, and that in proportion to the
publish it sooner, it proceeded from hence only, that he found
quantity of matter which they severally contain; that the moon
he was not able, from experiment and observation, to give
likewise, according to the quantity of its matter, gravitates
a satisfactory account of this medium, and the manner of its
towards the earth; that on the other hand, our sea gravitates
operation, in producing the chief phenomena of nature.*
towards the moon; and all the planets mutually one towards

another; and the comets in like manner towards the sun; we The impulses of the aetherial medium imagined by
must, in consequence of this rule, universally allow that all
Neivton to be the cause of gravitation are now explained by
 1

1 1 5140 I I 2

wave-action, in accordance with the kinetic theory, which point of space, where the absolute or relative force of gravity
Newton had somewhat developed two centuries ago, in the is known compared to that at the earth's surface.

lastedition of his Optics, 17 21. Thus, in the New theory In view of the considerations here cited it will be ob-
of the aether, and the Electr. wave-theory of phys. fore, we vious that the first step in a valid theory of the aether is to

have merely striven to complete the unfinished labors of Sir give an explanation of the enormous velocity of wave pro-
Isaac Newton. pagation. No theory except the kinetic theory of the aether,
10. Summary of the Chief Results of the New in which the aetherons obey the law:
Theory of the Aether. V = y,n V (43)
(i) Although 245 years had elapsed since JRoemer's will be adequate to explain the enormous velocity of the
discovery of the velocity of light, 1675, a valid theory of wave movement.
the mechanism underlying this enormous velocity was not In the firstand third papers, AN 5044, 5079, we have
available until the appearance of the new kinetic theory of shown that the above law holds for the following gases, when
the aether, which treats this medium as a monatomic gas, reduced to a monatomic condition:
with mean velocity of the aetheron, v = ^I'^n- V.
1. Air 4. Carbon dioxide, CO^^
In the first paper, (AN 5044), we have pointed out the
2. Hydrogen Oxygen
5.
valid grounds on which the new kinetic theory of the aether
Carbon monoxide, CO 6. Nitrous oxide, NO^
3. (44)
mainly rests; and subsequently somewhat strengthened, in the
section of the third paper, (AN The kinetic theory must therefore be
of the aether
first 5079), the foundations
regarded as well established. Observation indicates that in a
of this remarkable theory. undeniable that all the in-
It is
monatomic gas the above formula is accurately fulfilled; and
dications of nature point to a kinetic theory of the aether.
as the aether is not known to be capable of any combinations
And now that it is developed, any other view than that set
forth would strike us as too improbable to be given serious
we naturally take its aetheron to have the property of a mon-
atomic gas.
consideration.
In view of the simplicity and directness of these con-
It can scarcely fail to impress natural philosophers that
siderations, it appears to be truly remarkable that nearly two-
sound is found by experiment to travel four times faster in
and a half centuries should elapse between Jioemer'5 discovery
hydrogen than in oxygen. And when we connect this relatively
of the velocity of light, and the development of a kinetic
rapid speed of sound in hydrogen with the square root of
the reciprocal of its relative density, — the density being
theory of this wave-motion, 1920. It must be fairly obvious
— to natural philosophers that the foremost problem of the aether
16 times less than th'at of oxygen, we perceive that the
is the explanation of the enormous velocity of light. And as
dynamical basis of the high wave velocity in hydrogen results
electrodynamic action and waves in radio-telegraphy take place
from the Newtom&n formula:
with the same velocity, the underlying rapid motion of the
V=V[Ela). (41) aetheron is of the deepest interest, and will have the widest
This formula once explains why the speed ought to be
at applications in all branches of physical science.
four times less in oxygen than in hydrogen, since the density
(ii) Einstein assigns no cause of
gravitation, and as he
a occurs in the divisor of the right member under the radical.
rejects the aether, which
required for conveying stresses
is
Proceeding on the basis of these dependable experiments,
across space, his general theory of relativity is misleading.
which are confirmed by researches on many gases, we neces-
In the first paper- on the new theory of the aether we
sarily are led to ascribe the high velocity of waves of light
have explained that Einstein rejects the aether entirely. Michelson
and electrodynamic action to the excessively small density of
and other eminent authorities have remarked on the inadmis-
the aether. For if the waves of sound in hydrogen so greatly
sibility of this procedure; and not a few experienced in-
outrun similar waves in oxygen, owing to the 1 6-fold greater
vestigators have rejected Einstein% general theory of relativity
density of oxygen, it follows that for waves of aether to have a
because he has no medium for conveying light, heat and
large velocity, the aether must have an excessively small density.
natural forces across space.
From this conclusion there appears to be absolutely no
The arguments of Michelson and others drawn from the
escape. For the experiments on the velocity of sound in gases
theory of light are quite unanswerable. Yet it may be worth
are essentially very accurate, and the data well determined,
while to inquire why, if there be no aether, light and electric
with an excessively small if not insensible uncertainty in the
waves are transmitted across space with the velocity of
observed results. The ratio of the observed velocity of sound
in hydrogen to that in oxygen, with their relative densities,
r= 3-10^" cms. If there be no aethereal medium of small
density and great elasticity, it would be much more logical
thus becomes of the highest significance, and leads directly
to assume that action at a distance is instantaneous. Yet this
to the most fundamental laws of wave phenomena in nature.
is contrary to observation.
In very much the same way, we have found the velocity
And
although Einstein assumes as the basis of his system
of light to be 217839 times greater than that of sound in
that nothing travels faster than light «, he nowhere explains
»
theoretical monatomic hydrogen, (AN 5079), whence it follows
why light should have a finite instead of an infinite velocity.
that the absolute density of the aether at the earth's surface is
The wave-theory, on the other hand, lays down no dogma
a= 1888.15-10-". (42) whatever. It takes light and electric waves to travel with the
Accordingly in the third paper, AN 5079, a general observed velocity, r=
3-10" cms., and then inquires what
method is given for finding the density of the aether at any is the mean velocity of the aetheron. By the well established
 13 SUO 114

facts of the kinetic theory of gases, this remarkable theorem (iii) Final table of the physical constants of the aether.
is deduced for the aether:
course of the development of the new theory
In the
V ^ ^l^nV =^ i.57-3-io^'' cms = 47 1239 kms (45) of the aether we have been led to a few changes, but the
where V is the wave velocity, and v the mean velocity of table of constants of the aether given in AN 5044, p. 65—66,
the aetheron. still remains essentially correct, except as indicated below.
It is found that the aetheron moves 1 0000 times faster 1. The method for calculating the density of the aether
than our swiftest planets, and for bodies moving with uniform from the constant of solar radiation devised by Lord Kelvin
velocity, as in orbits essentially circular, offers no resistance in 1854, and modernized in AN 5044, p. 63—64, is now recog-
whatever to the motions of the planets. This corresponds to nized to be defective, owing to the decrease of density of
the known which gives no indication
facts of the solar system, the aether near the earth. For reasons indicated in AN S°79)
of aethereal resistance to the motions
of the planets and p. 233—239, we must first find the density of the aether at
satellites. If the orbits are sensibly elliptical, there will be the earth's surface, and then calculate the density at the
alternate acceleration and retardation, but the effect is very surface of the sun and planets, by the processes explained
slight and in fact insensible to observation. on p. 236-237.
When two bodies which are magnetic are in relative At the earth's surface the density of the aether is found
motion, there is an inductive effect, owing to the change in
the wave fields; and this is observed in the earth's magnetism,
to be 0-35 = 1888.15-10-1^ (46)
while at the sun's surface-the density is
and found to depend on the sun and moon, as first noted
by Kreil at Prague, 1841, and afterwards independently dis- (ros= (1888.15 •lo-"/^ 19) 41-4868 = 357.6865- lo-is, (47)
covered by John Allen Broun, 1845. Accordingly, the density of the aether at the earth's
The existence of a semi-diurnal tide in the earth's mag- surface is 4.31 times that given by Kelvin?, modified method,
netism obeying the law of the inverse cube of the distance while at the surface of the sun the density is about 178.84
of the moon was fully established by Broun and confirmed times that deduced from Kelvins method. We now recognize
by Balfour Stewart and Airy, who pointed out that the tide that Kelvin's method is defective and the results given in the
acted along the line from the Red Sea to Hudson's Bay (the first paper, p. 64, are to be superseded by the method for

magnetic pole). In AN 5079, p. 268, we have shown that finding the absolute density outlined in AN 5079, p. 236.
Z/(r)'i/ misinterpreted his equations, in 1858, and the error has
2. In the firstpaper the ratio of amplitude to wave-
been repeated in many later writers. Lloyd retained in his
length was assumed to be AJX == 1/101.23, whereas in the
analysis of 1858 the angle 6 instead of the angle 21^ used
in the tide-generating potential. All the phenomena of the
fourth paper, AN 5085, it was found toheA/l i =
1660508000 :

which is equivalent to
earth's magnetism, including the periodicities depending on
the heavenly bodies, are fully explained by the wave-theory.
.,4/1 = i/ioi. 23- 1/163045 (48)

Accordingly, appears that the wave-theory accounts

it
or over 163000 times smaller than the value first used, which
for the magnetism of the heavenly bodies, and connects cos-
accorded with the experienced judgement of Kelvin, Maxwell
mical magnetism with universal gravitation, which no previous and Larmor. Accordingly
theory has been able to do. Ap = 2 7r/ioi.23'i/i63045 = 0.0000003806827;
Einstein^ theory, on the other hand, gives no such con- log(^/) = 3.5805632-10 .
(49)
nection. In fact as Einstein even proposed to do away with 3. The energy per
cubic centimetre at the sun's surface
the aether, he has no mechanism for conveying action across is small, owing to the small density of the aether, and the
space. Just how empty space is to be conceived as capable small value oi Ap, where Ap = 2n AJX, and AJX is the ratio
of transmitting forces equivalent to the breaking strength of of the amplitude to the wave-length. The formula for the
millions of immense cables of steel is not apparent. kinetic energy
Accordingly it is recognized that Einstein^ reasoning E=[o.62,(>62) aV^ApY
is devoid of physical basis. He treats his problem as
totally = (0.6366 6862) (3 5 7.
5- io~"i^)(3- ioi'')^(o.oooooo38o682 7)
if it related to pure mathematics, and as if his reasoning were = 0.00000002968587 ergs. (50)
not required to conform to recognized physical conditions. This value of the energy at the sun's surface seems
And since he even introduces the curvature of space, to ex- very insignificant compared to the value 4.41455 ergs, cal-
plain a mere phenomenon of refraction, which Newton would AN
culated in the first paper, 5044, p. 64; but it follows from
not have sanctioned, we perceive that the doctrines of Einstein
the change in density, and above all, the very small amplitude
are chiefly remarkable for the lack of understanding of the just discussed above, in paragraph i. Accordingly, great as
physical universe which they display. the changes in our old conceptions are, we believe this new
The kinetic theory of the aether perfectly accounts for result to be valid, and entitled to adoption in our final results.
the phenomenon of aberration, the Michelson-Morley experiment, Greatest tangential stress per square centimetre at
4.
the motion of the perihelion of Mercury, and other pheno-
mena
all

treated of in the theory of relativity. Accordingly, Ein-

the sun's surface: a V^ (Ap) = 0.12252 dynes. (51)

stein's theory of relativity is as superfluous as it is misleading. This value likewise is very small compared to the value
In all his speculations there is not one truth corresponding I II. 17 13 dynes found in AN
5044, p. 64; but, as before,
to the actual phenomena of nature. the difference is explained by the change in the density and.
 .

115 5140 ii6

ratio of amplitude to wave-length, which latter factor is 1= y/.^^jcv = T^aV-jav^ 3 fV»= 57295900000 cms (60)
decreased by the divisor 163054. the same as in AN 5044, p. 66.
Coefficient of rigidity (or viscosity) of the aether 11. Number of corpuscular collisions per second at the

by
5.

the formula: sun's surface = »// = 0.82, as in AN 5044, p. 66. (61)

;, = ^ F^ = (357.686s IO-l«) (3 • lol^ (5^)

According to Avogadro's law equal volumes of all
12.
gases under the same conditions contain an equal number of
yields
Xos = 321917.8 the at sun's surface (53) molecules. And as hydrogen is 47453880000 times denser
^35.^^ 7050000 at the earth's surface. (54) than aether, we may equate the masses of two spherical
The rigidity of the aether thus turns out to be much larger molecules thus:
than the values found in AN 5044, p. 64, which was only 1800. Vs nar^ =
47453880000 ^l^na'r'^ (62)

Density of the aether at the sun's surface: And if we take the internal densities of the two molecules
6.

o-os= 357-6865 -lo-is.

to be equal, a =
a", we have

7. At the earth's surface the density of the aether

(55)
is
r == 1X47453880000-/-' 3620.405 -r'= (63)
that is, the hydrogen molecule has 3620 times greater radius
found to be
0-3S = „„„
1888.15-10-".
,„ ,

(56)
^,
than the aetheron.
At the surfaces of the other planets the absolute densities We may form a very useful picture of these relative
AN sizes by imagining the hydrogen molecule magnified to the
are as given in the table, in 5079, pp. 237—238.
8. Mean velocity of the aetheron
size of the earth, with mean radius r=
6370.5 kms. On
this scale the aetheron will have a radius of 1.7596 kms,
z'=i.57F==47 123900000 cms .
(57) or 1.0934 miles.
9. The molecular weight of the aetheron, calculated by Accordingly, if the earth represents a hydrogen molecule,
Maxweir?, theorem on the equality of the kinetic energies in a spherical mountain a little over two miles in diameter (more
all gases exactly 11500 feet) would represent an aetheron. This is very
(S8) nearly the height of Mt. Aetna (10872); but as the base of
z^ = -l^
12.92- io~", [H=
i^ = i)
ij .
(59) this volcano is very much extended, we must consider the
10. Average length of the mean free path, at the sun's aetheron to correspond only to the central part of the cone,
surface or at the earth's surface: about a mile in radius.

Table for comparing the physical properties of the aether with well known terrestrial gases.
„ ,,. . Radii of molecules

Gas
 «

5140 ii8

They recognized fully that curvature of the path of the planet (ii) The geometrical and physical interpretation of the
can not take place at every instant of time without the constant potential leads inevitably to the wave-theory.
action of accelerative forces directed to the focus of the conic
We have already pointed out geometrical and physical
section. Euler,
Lagrange, Laplace and the later illustrious properties of the medium which lead inevitably to the wave-
successors of Newton have fully confirmed the validity of the theory. There is not only evidence of the wave-field about
Newtom&n argument; so that no one ever seriously thought all bodies — whence the forces they exert — but also proof
of questioning the Newtomaw dynamics till ^mteV/'s misleading wave
that the field travels as the bodies move, and thus carries
speculations began to be developed. along the field of force which shows itself near bodies.
4. Accordingly, the scientific world read with astonish-
1. We conclude therefore that every body has about it
ment in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
an infinitely extended wave field, the amplitudes varying in-
Society, (Oct. 1916, 76, p. 702) De Sitter's claim that » Gravity
is not a force, but a property of space.
versely as the distance, A = klr, and the forces inversely as
the square of the distances; which corresponds exactly to the
By actual calculations carried out in the first paper
known facts of universal gravitation. And since it is shown
we found that the utmost strength of five million million
rnathematically that waves in the aether expanding freely in
cables of steel, each a foot in diameter, when the steel has
cubical space, would follow the law of amplitude: A=^klr,
the breaking strength of 30 tons to the square inch, are
it cannot be accidental ih&t Laplace'?, expression for the potential
required to curve the path of the moon in its orbit about
has this form. On the contrary, it follows that the expression
the earth. And to curve the path of the earth's motion about
for the potential determined by the ampli-
of gravitation is
the sun an eleven inch cable of steel of the same strength,
tudes of the waves receding from each atom and thus we ;

on each square foot of a hemispherical cross section of the

necessarily are led to the wave-theory of gravitation. For the
earth, would be stretched to its utmost limits by the force
potential of a mass M
is derived from the triple integration
of the sun's gravity, constantly acting
After having made these calculations
on our planet for
of all the elements. Am =
aAxdydz, at their appropriate dis-
governing
Y[[x—x'Y-^[y—y'Y+[z — z'Y]\ and this corres-
its motion.

I had no more doubt that gravity is a real force than had

tances, r^
ponds amplitude of the wave from any atom, and the
to the
Wren, Neivton and Halley in 1686. As we have shown that
mean the summation of the stresses due to the
result to
the aether has an elasticity 689321600000 times greater than
separate atoms of the whole mass.
our air in proportion to its density, it is evident from the
nature of the triple integral for the potential, that the medium 2. Now there must be some simple interpretation of
the formula
is capable of sustaining these stupendous forces.
d F== d7«/r= [(a:-x')^-H(j'-y '^[z-z' Vn
5. The action of centrifugal forces in driving bodies
Xcrdxdj'd^ (67)
from the centre, in the direction of the tangent, and expressed
by the formula: f mv^lq = (65)
which by integration leads to

— where v is the velocity and q is the radius of curvature — V = ^dmlr =^^^[[x-x'Y+[y- -y, ^[z-z'YVI'X
has been fully understood since the time oi Hiiyghens, (cf
xadxAyAz . (68)

De horologio oscillatorio, 1673) about 250 years ago. As And as the waves when expanding freely in cubical space
the planets do not recede from the sun, but curve their follow this same law, the amplitude being A = kjr, our
paths about the centre of the sun, it follows, as Newton interpretation of the potential follows both geometrical and
pointed out, not only that there is a central force incessantly physical laws, and therefore the chances are infinity to one
balancing the centrifugal force, but also that it is proportional that the wave-theory yields the correct interpretation.
to mass, and thus gravitation is not a property of space, 3. The curves for the amplitudes of the waves receding

but of matter, in the focus of the conic section. In the from a centre are as shown in the figure 14, section 8 above.
scholium to Proposition IV, Lib. II of the Principia, Newton These amplitudes show how the agitation of the waves thins
says: »By such propositions, Mr. Huyghens, in his excellent out the density of the medium, towards the centre, and allows
book, De horologio oscillatorio, has compared the force of it to increase directly as r, so that its final density is in-

gravity with the centrifugal forces of the revolving bodies.* versely as the average wave amplitude, or directly as the

6. In view of the observed phenomena of the heavens distance, which corresponds with the undefined heterogeneity
it not possible to depart from this conclusion of Huyghens
is of the aether imagined by Neivton, 17 21.
and Newton. Einstein's theory therefore is unconditionally 4. Accordingly, the wave-theory of universal gravitation

rejected as wholly contrary to dynamical laws admitting of is indicated by the amplitude of the aether wave freely expan-

easy verification. And

remains to consider what other con- ding in cubical space, and by the nature of the observed force of
=Vf =
it

ceptions of gravitation are admissible. We have seen that the gravitation /=

k'^ m m' j r'^ which leads to A
, klr, or

gravitational potential introduced by Laplace, 1782, has the V= Mlr=^^^[[x-x'Y + [y- -y)^+(i-.')'^]-'/=x
form: Xffd^dji'dz .
(69)
V=Mlr=lll\[x- The aether transmits each wave independently of all the rest
Xo'da;d_ydz. (66) and the effect of their superposition is a mean state of stress
This triple integral corresponds to the summation of the stress depending on the average wave amplitude, and on the whole
in the aether due to the superposition of waves, with amplitude
A =klr from each atom of the attracting mass.
™^^^
M = ^^^adxdydz (70)
 119 SHO I20

which is included under the triple integral in the above formula This explanation, without mathematical formulae, is per-
for the potential. fectly simple and satisfactory; and we have also treated by
In the fourth paper (AN 5085, p. 448) we have given the same method, of depicting the progress of the wave-front,
5.
a diagram of the wave field about a pair of equal stars the impulses which cause repulsion when the balloon is filled

(reproduced on a larger scale in fig. ig on plate 10), and shown with hydrogen. In this latter case the sound wave travels so
fast in hydrogen that it quickly turns its front, and reenters
that at the boundary of the concentric ellipsoids, the whole
the air on the side next to the source of the sound. Thus
of the wave stress in the aether due to the two stars is
repulsion results from accentuation of agitation, the wave
directed along the corresponding system of confocal hyper-
bolas. Accordingly, if in the diagram we imagine the density motion being so directed that the air is not decreased in
of the aether to decrease asymptotically as the two stars are elastic pressure on the side next to the source of the sound,

approached, we shall have not only an accurate image of the but actually increased. The kinetic equilibrium of the atmo-
spheric medium thus requires that the balloon filled with
wave field, but of that stress of the aether towards these centres
which is the cause of gravitation. The individual aetherons hydrogen be repelled from the source of the sound.
have a mean velocity v =
'^j^nV =^ 471239 kms per second, 12. The Tension of the Aether is a Maximum
and thus they press incessantly towards the centres where the along the Right Line connecting the Sun and a
density is small, but the amplitude large. Planet, and thus the Wave-Theory conforms to the
6. It follows therefore that the original conceptions Newton\^'!\ Theory of a Central Force directed to the
outlined somewhat vaguely by Sir Isaac Newton in 17 21,but Focus of the Conic Section.
not heretofore considered susceptible of proof, are really true, (i) Maximum wave-action in straight lines connecting
and now established with all the rigor that may be drawn the bodies ^.v and ^h.

from modern mathematical and physical research. The law It has long been remarked by eminent philosophers
of the wave amplitude about any centre of disturbance admits that the chief forces of nature appear to act in straight lines,
of verification; and we know that the density of the medium as along the radius vector drawn from the centre of a planet
is arranged inversely as the amplitude as the waves recede to the centre of the sun. And the question naturally arises
from that centre. And that such waves do recede from bodies as to why the stresses in the aether should be thus exerted.
is amply shown by the waves of magnetic phenomena, which
We shall show that such rectilinear action in minimum paths
follow laws of amplitude similar to those of gravitation. necessarily happens when waves are transmitted in an elastic
(iii) The wave-theory of acoustic attraction and repulsion medium like the aether.
shows that in the aether also the aetherons are so distributed But before doing so we shall recall from the first paper,
as to be in kinetic equilibrium, and thus under the rapid AN 5044, p. 51, that in the case of the moon revolving about
motions of the aetherons the aether is of decreased density the earth, the central force required is equivalent to the full
between two bodies. breaking strength of 5000000000000 cables of steel one foot
In the fifth paper on the new theory of the aether in diameter, when the steel has the enormous tenacity of
(AN 5130) we have applied the wave-theory to acoustic attrac- 30 tons to the square inch. In case of the earth revolving
tion and repulsion, which heretofore has not been satisfactorily about the sun, the curvature of the orbit requires the exertion
explained. As sound is a wave phenomenon, and the velocities of a central force equivalent to the full breaking strength
-of transmission in various media well understood, we were of an 1 1 -inch cable of steel of the above tenacity on each
enabled to study the progress of the wave-front in air and in square foot of a hemispherical cross section of the earth.
balloons filled with carbon dioxide and hydrogen respectively. Thus to hold the earth in its orbit it would be necessary
In the case of a carbon dioxide balloon, we found that almost to cover the illuminated hemisphere with a solid forest
if the waves travel through the air with the velocity i, the of steel cables.
speed through the carbon dioxide will be 0.78 only; and Now these stupendous forces are sustained by the elastic
therefore every phase of the wave reaches the opposite side medium and the mere contemplation of the
of the aether,
of the balloon through the air in advance of that coming above tension, which must be balanced, shows the absurdity of
directly through the balloon. The result is a series of advance the views of Einstein and De Sitter that » gravity is not a force,
molecular impulses on the elastic membrane constituting the but a property of space «. (Monthly Notices 76, 1Q16, p. 702).
rear wall of the balloon. The impulses generate slight oscil- In the aether, however, the stresses are not confined to the
lations in the whole balloon by which a part of the surrounding narrow spaces occupied by the above named cables of steel,
air thus agitated is transferred gradually to the rear side of but are general throughout this medium, the wave motion
the balloon. being directed from the atoms in the sun and the reaction
As the density of the air is thus decreased on the side towards the sun's centre.
next to the source of the sound, and correspondingly increased It follows from the kinetic theory of the aether that

on the rear side of the balloon, the kinetic equilibrium of the each body carries its wave-field with it, without regard to
atmospheric medium can only be maintained when the balloon the wave-field carried by any other body. Accordingly, the
containing CO^ tends to approach the source of the sound. wave-fields from the two bodies interpenetrate, and in the
In other words, the air is worked out somewhat from between arrangement of kinetic equilibrium, the aether density thus
the sources of the sound and the balloon, and forced in behind becomes a minimum in the right line connecting the two
the balloon; so that we have what is called acoustic attraction. bodies, which is the direction of the stress observed in the
 : . : .

12 1
5 MO 122

planetary forces. For we have seen that towards either body fi and where /j,'//j, may be any proper fraction whatever,
fj,',
the density decreases; and along the shortest path, or right the equation of the surfaces would be
Hne connecting the centres of the bodies, the independent
thinning out due to the two wave-fields will be a maximum.
ci= ilr-\-[fi'ln)lr' (79)

The density of the aether is therefore a minimum along the

And the closed surface around the smaller mass would be
contracted in proportion to the size of the mass fi'Ifj,, but other-
line S£, which connects the sun and earth.
wise equipotential surfaces would be of the same general type
We may look at this problem in a slightly different
as the above.
way as follows: the waves from .S tend to thin out the aether
to a degree a =
vr, at the distance r\ the waves from E
Figure 20 therefore conveys a good impression of the

on the other hand yield a density & v'r' at the distance = effectof the interpenetration of the wave-fields in decreasing
the density of the aether between the masses, and increasing
r' from the centre of E. When the lines r and r' lie in the
it beyond. Whereever the surfaces are close together there
right line SE
they represent the shortest possible connection
is rapid change in the stress or density; and where they are
of any third point with the two chief bodies 5 and E.
far apart, there is little change in the density. The change
Let us imagine a set of rotating axes, as in the restricted of density is thus least rapid between the bodies where each
problem of the three bodies (Researches on the evolution mass tends to expel some of the aetherons. The result is
of the stellar systems, vol. 2, 19 10, chap. 8); then the distances tremendous tension along the line fi and ft, with increase of
from either centre will be, for motion in the plane of xy: pressure where the surfaces are denser, beyond either mass.
r=V[x''^y\ r'= l/[(x-i)2-+-/]. s^r^y (^j) Now tension in the medium between the bodies, and
Accordingly, increased pressure beyond them is exactly the mechanical
5^2 = ^2 =^ arr' cos(r, r') 172J
action required to give the central attraction for balancing
the centrifugal force of revolving bodies. The wave-theory
And using the above values for r and r' we have:
thus corresponds exactly with the phenomena of nature, and
0-= vr= j/l/(.r2H-y) (/ = ^V' = j''l/[(a:-i)2+y] (73) it is impossible to doubt the assigned cause of the stupendous
^2 = [GlvY^[a'lv'Y-2[clv) [a'lv') cos(r, r') .
(74) forces which hold the planets in their orbits.

Now as SE is a straight line it is the minimum path These forces are so immense that nothing but a medium of
between the two bodies, and by the equation (73) the minimum enormous elasticity would be adequate to sustain the required
density throughout can be fulfilled only when the point / (^,7) stress. But since the aether has an elasticity 68932 1600000
lies on the line SE, so that the double integral is a minimum: times greater than air in proportion to its density, — an
elasticity almost infinite — and moreover the triple integral
<jjjd.ydff = for the potential shows that the stress increases directly as
= (5jJdo-[(a/i')2+(ff'/v')^-2(o'/>^) [a'lv')coi[r,r')Yi' = the mass, we see that all required dynamical conditions are
==pdjdo-=o. fulfilled, and thus the wave-theory assigns the true cause of
(75)
universal gravitation.
For Q is known to be the minimum path,
Final remarks on the new theory of the aether.
ds = d(r-Hr') = (76)
(ii)

The wave-theory
as developed in the new theory of the
and as a and (/ increase for any departure of the point p {x,y)
aether has found adequate to explain all the forces
been
from the minimum path q corresponding to ds o, it follows = operating in nature. More stress has been laid upon the ex-
from the equation (75) that the condition of minimum for planation of some of these forces than upon others, but this
the double integral is is only by way of illuminating the subjects most obscure

d JJdidtr ^p (? Jdo- =o (77) and heretofore very bewildering to geometers and natural

which requires the point to lie on the line SE = q.

philosophers.
We need not here dwell on the theory of molecular
The aether therefore has minimum density along the
forces — surface tension, capillarity, cohesion, adhesion, etc. —
Hne joining the sun and planet. It is denser on either side because we have shown that all these phenomena depend on
of this line, because under the wave actions of the two centres wave-action. And we have even explained the tenacity and
the aetherons are worked out from between the bodies, and hardness of bodies by the wave stresses in the sheath of
increase the pressure or stress beyond them, as correctly held in
aether at the boundaries of bodies.
the Electrodynamic wave-theory of physical forces, vol . i , 1 9 1 7
In the same way chemical affinity and vital forces,
For two equal masses /.v and fj,,
we have the foregoing depending on chemical processes in connection with capillarity,
figure for the equipotential surfaces osmosis, etc., are naturally explained by wave-action. The
Ci^ IJ,/r+fj,/r' . (78) wave-theory is shown to be identical with A?npire's theory,
we have added, proposed about a century ago to account for magnetism, by
And beneath *it, for comparison, in fig. 20,
for two equal stars, thus making a the hypothesis of elementary electric currents circulating about
plate II, the wave-field
the atoms.
double plate, as explained below. The tendency to form an
hour-glass figure, with symmetrical neck between the equal Now we see all atoms vibrating and emitting waves which
masses is due to the potential or average amplitude of the are flat in the planes of their equators. And as this simple

waves proceeding from either mass. If the masses were unequal, theory is useful in magnetism, so also in chemical phenomena
 .

123 5140 I 24

and the processes involved in vital forces, all of which depend amazing destructive power over all natural objects, we can
on chemical action. easily understand how the power of the aether waves may
As the power of a galvanic battery depends on chemical accumulate near great bodies to any required extent through
changes, it is inevitable that chemical affinity and vital forces the mere form of the expression for the potential, the waves
should be referred to electric action. In the battery there are from the separate atoms being of average wave amplitude
groups of vibrating atoms acting in concert and thus the changes klr, and the whole of the independent effects being super-
go on inan oscillatory character and the current carried along posed in the triple integral:
a wire nothing but a series of waves in the aether, resistance
is

of which develops heat and light.

F= Mjr =^^^[[x-x'y- + {y- -y\
X (T d.x djv dz . (80)
All chemical actions involve changes of temperature,
which is another indication of the electric basis of chemical 4. The cause here assigned fulfills the required geo-
metrical laws, and is sufficient to explain the accumulated
affinity. The support of animal heat by combustion of hydro-
carbons with oxygen is another proof of the same proposition. stress in the aether called gravity. No other explanation of
gravitation known, yet one is so urgently required that
is
One of the most beautiful of the investigations of mole-
Einstein has been led to mere mathematical abstractions devoid
cular forces relates to the globular figures of liquid drops,
of physical basis. For he denies the existence of an aethereal
which are minimal surfaces, and easily explained by the wave-
medium for sustaining the planetary forces. Thus Einstein's
theory under least action. Nothing could be more wonderful
than the results here brought to light; and the power which
speculations no value, because contrary to physical
are of
experiments, which show that centrifugal motion must be
may be attained by wave-action is impressively illustrated by
balanced by central tension, if we are to have steady orbital
the new theory of lightning and of explosive forces.
motion of the heavenly bodies.
The wave-theory was partially developed about a century
5. The wave-theory postulates aether stresses depending
ago by the mathematical analysis of Fourier and Poisson. As
on each atom, with amplitude appropriate to its distance;
now extended and applied to all classes of physical phenomena,
it may justly claim the attention of geometers and natural
and the triple integral sums up these effects at any point of
space, so that the gravitational potential fulfills Laplace's cele-
philosophers; so that the modern investigator can understand
brated differential equation for external space:
the remark of Plato: Qeog del ysw/iizgei.
The conclusion that the Deity
always geometrizes is 9«F/8„T2-4-82F/9/-t-82F/8/^ =o .
(81)
very much like the remark of Kepler
that, in discovering the And for points within the mass Laplace's equation be-
geometrical laws of planetary motion, he was only thinking comes Poisson s celebrated differential equation:
God's thoughts after Him. Kepler's researches led to the 82 F/0a;2+92 F/S^s+Sz J7/8a2 -
\n a (82)
greatest advance of physical astronomy in his time, and one
6.Discontinuity in the wave-phenomena at the boundary
of the greatest advances of all ages.
is also implied in Poisson' s equation of wave motion:
same way
In the
always geometrizes —
if Plato's principle
all the forces of nature being due to
that the Deity
82(D/8/2 = a} [d^W/dx^-^d^W/dy^-hd-^W/dz^) (83)

wave-action, —
and geometrical figures such as minimal sur- of which the Fourier-Poisson solution is:

faces therefore resulting from least action of the whole system

-+-00 V 'y ' /

of waves be applicable to the most varied natural phenomena,

as we have endeavoured to show —
then we cannot doubt that =nnn
— 00
e^^'^^^^^^- ' •
^t nv^^] d? d^ dc d^ d^ dr . (84)
a great and lasting advance in natural philosophy should
follow the development of the wave-theory. The wave-theory Since the wave-theory rigorously fulfills all geometrical and
will enable the modern geometer to think God's thoughts physical requirements, and no other tenable hypothesis has
after Him for it gives an insight into the true laws of nature,
;
been proposed, we hold that it assigns the true cause of
and we are saved from the endless groping in the dark univer.'jal gravitation.
heretofore unavoidable. Concluding remarks on the cause of gravitation.
(iii)

Accordingly, we have merely to remark: 1. 160Q it was established by the researches of

In
1. Waves in the aether following the laws we have ex- Kepler, from the planetary observations of Tycho Brake, that
plained will account for universal gravitation, —
the amplitude the radius vector of a planet drawn to the centre of the sun
A = kjr resulting from unhindered expansion of the waves sweeps over equal areas in equal times.
in free space, and yielding the required law of force established 2. In composing the Principia, 1686, Sir Isaac Newton
by Newton, 1 6 8 6 / : =
^ - /^V/-- = showed clearly that Kepler's law of areas indicates that the
2. The planetary paths curve incessantly under the action force which gives us the motions of the planets is central;
of central forces equivalent to the breaking strength of millions and that it is only the incessant action of this central force
of immense cables of the strongest steel. There must be a which operates to curve the path of the planet at every point
medium called the aether capable of sustaining the immense of its orbit. This led Hiiyghens and Newton to«i valid theory
stresses for holding the planets in their orbits. of curvilinear motion, and thus marks an epoch in the science
3. Theaetherisshowntohavean elasticity 68932 1600000 of natural philosophy.
times greater than that of air in proportion to its density. And 3. During the three centuries since the discovery of
as air alone is observed to be given such rotatory motion and the law of areas by Kepler and its mechanical and physical
stress in the central path of a cyclone as to exert the most interpretation by Newton, it has been shown by all manner
 «

125 5140 I 26

of researches that this law of areas is a fundamental law of utilized by Maxwell in his attempt to explain gravitational
nature. Not only is it verified minutely in the motions of stresses (Treatise on electricity and magnetism, 1873, chapter V,
the planets and satellites of the solar system, by the most sections 103— 1 1 1).
refined comparisons of theory with the most precise obser- g. As Maxwell wSiS misled
into the conception of pressure
vational criteria which the state of modern astronomy affords; in the direction of gravitational force, and tension at right
but also by researches on the orbits of nearly 100 visual angles thereto, instead of the reverse arrangement, the mathe-
double stars, and on the motions of an even greater number matical theory of this subject was given an unfortunate start;
of spectroscopic binaries. and the errors thus begun have been handed down by English
4.For more than a century the orbits of double stars writers, and the whole scientific world thus misled in a matter
justly have been regarded as affording the desired objective essentially simple. Nor is the difficulty diminished, but on
demonstration of the operation of the law of gravitation in the contrary notably increased, by the recent exploitation of
sidereal systems. Having myself calculated about 60 orbits the theory of relativity. Perhaps in time the valid dynamical
of known double stars and compared the results of gravitational theory of the Principia will again restore British science to
theory with observation over long periods of time, I have a position worthy of the country-men of Newton.
not been able to detect the smallest deviation from the 10. That gravitation
is propagated with the velocity
Kepkri&n law of areas or the N'ewioma.n law of attraction of light is consequence of this wave-theory of
a necessary
in the motions of these stellar systems. physical forces. Under the vision of the physical world thus
5. In two cases, indeed, namely: 70 Ophiuchi and unfolded to our contemplation, the beauty and order of the
t. Herculis, there is some evidence of disturbance of the universe appears truly remarkable; and we see that the new
Xepler\&n law of areas, as if due to a third body not yet theory of the aether is a necessary path of exploration in
detected by telescopic observation. Yet just as in the past attaining one of those summits near the stars. This sublimest
history of astronomy, we had two analogous cases in the well portion of human knowledge still is only partly explored,
known disturbed proper motions of Sirius and Procyon, — but in rendering it more accessible to those who have long
the companions of which have since been discovered by admired the marvelous geometry of the heavens, we have
Clark a.nd Schaeberle; — so also in this case the indications labored to extend the researches of Sir Isaac Newton.
point to the triumph of the law of Newton. Thus the uni- 11. It is well known that Maxwell was the first natural
versality of the law of gravitation continues to be minutely philosopher to attribute physical forces to stresses in the
verified by the most refined researches of modern astronomy. aethereal medium, but as he had not developed a theory of
6. In more than two centuries of the most recondite wave-action, as the mode of propagation for these forces he
researches of astronomers and geometers not the slightest left the origin of the aether stresses quite obscure, as we see
doubt has arisen that gravitation is a central force accurately by the discussion in the closing section of his celebrated
directed to the centres of the revolving bodies. In the case Treatise on electricity and magnetism, 1873.
of the motion of the moon
about the earth, and of the earth »We have seen that the mathematical expressions for
about the sun we have calculated the strength of the stupendous electrodynamic action led, in the mind of Gauss, to the con-
cables of steel that would be required to hold these bodies viction that a theory of the propagation of electric action
in their orbits. All these calculations are easily verified. in time would be found to be the very keystone of electro-
7. The cause of universal gravitation isnow definitely dynamics. Now we are unable to conceive of propagation
traced to wave-action in the aether, which is 689321600000 in time, except either as the flight of a material substance
more elastic than air in proportion to its density. Wave-action through space, or as the propagation of a condition of motion
directed to the sun in the foci of the conic sections described or stress in a medium already existing in space. In the theory
by the planets and comets alone will explain the central of Neumann, the mathematical conception called potential,
forces which hold these bodies in their orbits. And in stellar which we are unable to conceive as a material substance, is
systems everywhere we see the same wave-action at work to supposed to be projected from one particle to apother, in
fulfill Kepler's law of areas and Newton's law of force directed a manner which is quite independent of a medium, and which,
to the foci of the ellipses described by the stars. Thus we as Nemnann has himself pointed out, is extremely different
have developed a definite and absolute proof of the cause from that of the propagation of light. In the theories of
of gravitation, which is referred to waves in the aether, Rieman7i and Betti it would appear that the action is supposed
traveling with the velocity of light. to be propagated in a manner somewhat more similar to
8. We
have found that the geometrical theory of the that of light.
equipotential surfaces, about two attracting masses, points »But in all of these theories the question naturally
unmistakably to the cause of gravitation. Vector composition occurs: If something is transmitted from one particle to another
for the forces observed to exist in the gravitational field about at a distance, what is its condition after it has left the one
two equal stars shows that the aether is under tension between particle and before it has reached the other? If this something
the bodies, and under increased pressure beyond them. Nothing is the potential energy of the two particles, as in Neumann's
'
but the wave-theory, with forces directed to the two centres theory, how are we to conceive this energy as existing in
occupied by the stars, will account for the observed form a point of space, coinciding neither with the one particle
of the equipotential surfaces as shown in figure 15, which nor with the other? In fact, whenever energy is transmitted
originally was drawn by Thomson and Tait for their celebrated from one body to another in time, there must be a medium
Treatise on natural philosophy, 1873, yet unfortunately not or substance in which the energy exists after it leaves one
 127 5140 128

body and before it reaches the other, for energy, as Torricelli gravitational property of a body depends upon its state of

remarked, ,is a quintessence of so subtile a nature that it electric charge, and that up to the present time we know
cannot be contained in any vessel except the inmost sub- next to nothing of the potential of the earth's magnetic field.
stance of material things'. Hence all these theories lead to In a postscript to the Third paper, (AN 5079, p. 301-2)
the conception of a medium in which the propagation takes I have directed attention to Majorand% remarkable experiments
place, and if we admit this medium as an hypothesis, I think at Turin, 1919, showing loss of gravitational power when a
it ought to occupy a prominent place in our investigations, body screened by a layer of mercury.
is

and that we ought to endeavour to construct a mental re- The three experiments here cited may be interpreted in
presentation of all the details of its action, and this has the light of the wave-theory, but I cannot see any other way
been my constant aim in this treatise.* of reconciling such unexpected experimental results, which run
12. Accordingly, Maxwell held that we ought to en- counter to all the old theories, and yet must be acknowledged
deavour to construct a mental representation of all the details as furnishing proof that gravitation is a phenomenon which
of the action of the aetherial medium in producing the chief may be experimentally modified, as by absorption, apparently
phenomena of nature. In the Electrodynamic wave-theory of of wave-action, by electric charges or other physical agency.
physical forces, developed by the writer since 19 14, we have Accordingly all these new researches confirm the wave-
attempted to construct this representation, for problems here- theory experimentally and open up gravitation to physical
tofore utterly bewildering to philosophers, and we venture to investigation and experimentation. But in order to obtain
hope, with no inconsiderable success. new light on this difficult subject it is necessary to devise
Nevertheless, in spite of our utmost effort, and the experiments which are conclusive.
unexpected illumination thrown upon some of the greatest 192 1 May 12. T.J. J. See.
problems of transcendental physics, it is of course realized
that the new theory of the aether remains in a very con- First postscript. In order to establish the error of
siderable degree incomplete. a new theory it often iS sufficient to show that it contradicts
In conclusion, it is a great pleasure to record the stead- a more general and fundamental theory. In the present case

fast support lent to these researches by Mrs. See, and by we shall adopt in order to demonstrate the error of the
Einstein theory the doctrine of the conservation of energy
Mr. W. S. Trankle, who have so lyally seconded our best efforts,
which only too often seemed feeble and unequal to so daring as the most general and fundamental principle of modern
physical science.
an enterprise. It is only by departing from the beaten paths,
in the pursuit of a valid theory of the luminiferous aether, 1. Recently, in Astron. Nachr. No. 5115, Dr. Grossmann
that we hope to find the way towards light, more light! of Munich has examined anew the whole question of the
In this sustained effort, which has now extended over motion of the perihelion of Mercury, according to NewcomV%
seven years, the author's labors often have been relieved by work, and finds that the assumed value of 8'^ +43" per =
the sympathetic reception accorded the results by several century for the observed outstanding difference is not justified.
eminent colleagues who have confirmed the steps in this Correcting the result by the equations for the meridian ob-
development. Commander Leonard M. Cox, Civil Engineer, servations,the precision of which Newcomb distrusted, and
U.S. N., Ca\)ta.\-a. Edward L. Beach, U.S.N., Commandant at bringing his result into accord with the definitive elements
Mare Island, and Mr. Otto von Geldern, the eminent Civil of the sun, by raising it 7''3 5, Grossmann concludes that the

Engineer, Vice-President of the California Academy of Sciences, observed outstanding motion of Mercury's perihelion lies be-
San Francisco, have each shown such clear grasp of the new tween 29" and 38", and thus in no case would attain the
points of view as the work advanced, that it would be difficult value of 43" demanded by Einstein.
to overrate the extent to which their enlightened interest has In his researches on the observational material. Dr.
contributed to the final results. Grossmann takes no account of the theoretical reduction, by
Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, 1921 May6. Weber's Law, 9nJ := -\-ii^".c„ which would make the out-
standing motion still smaller, and more out of harmony with'
T.J. J. See.
the Einstein requirements. Thus when tested by the best
available data for the motion of Mercury the
Addition. concluding the above discussion
Since Einstein-\.\\tor]
does not satisfy modern astronomical observations.
my attention has been directed to a paper on certain physical
In the Treatise on electricity and magnetism', section
2.
experiments described at the General meeting of the American ,

Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, April ig-23, 1921, by 856, MaxweWh&s, successfully defended the validity of Weber's
law, of which the potential is
Dr. Chas. F. Brush of Cleveland, in which different gravitational
effects were found for different substances. Brush'?, careful V= k'' mm' ilr-{i-[jlc'')[drlAtY] . (i)

measurements are in marked contrast with those of Baron The second term gives the effect due to motion in a
E'otvds of Budapest who found almost no variation of effects wave-field, the work of transforming the potential energy
for different substances. changing like the kinetic energy, with the square of the
In this connection I call attention to the extraordinary planet's velocity relatively to the sun. If drjdt =^ o, as in
negative gravitational measurements made by Professor Francis circular orbits, the Newtonian law follows; but more generally
E. Nipher of Washington University, St. Louis, about two years the velocity in the direction of the radius vector 6r/di yields-
ago. From his careful experiments Nipher concluded that the a term for the effect of induction, and dV/d/^ gives the term.
 1 29 5140 I30
for the change of the induction, under
motion in the wave-
4. Returning now to the Gerber formula, in comparison
field. Thus Weber's law is the fundamental law of nature,
with the Weber formula, for the potential, we perceive that
and from (1) we have:
the Weber formula is correct, while the Gerber formula is
/= -dVldr = incorrect. In the work of transformation the potential energy
= k^' mm' ijr' [^ -[-.Ic^] [irldtY- + [2rl^) d-'rldt^} (2) changes like the kinetic energy, with the square of the planet's
For it is well known in the
theory of energy, that a velocity, relatively to the sun. Unless we admit this to be
planet may move from perihelion to
aphelion, and vice versa, true we have to deny the conservation of energy; for no
yet the whole energy in the conservative system remains other result is possible by the first equation of (3).
absolutely constant. Thus we always have: Accordingly, the formula the
for potential, under
T-^V= T-Mmjr = C Weber's law
or r+ F= V2'« [[dxlAtY+{dylAtY+[dzldtY] + V =^ k:" mm' [ilr){i-[ilc'')[drldtY\ (5)
-Mm[{x-x'Y^[y-yY+{z-z'Y]~'l'= C. (3) is valid and undeniably admissible. On the other hand,
As the sun moves, as well as the planet, when the mass Gerber'& formula for the potential
of the planet is sensible, we may write the more general V={Mlr){,l[i~[ilc)[drlAt)Y} (6)
expression for the kinetic energy of orbital motion about the
is invalid and wholly inadmissible, because it violates the
centre of gravity of the system:
principle of the conservation of energy.
^l2M[mrl[M-^m)Y n''^^l^m[Mrl[M+m)Y ii^ = T. (4) The Gerber formula being thus inadmissible, Einstein's
In equation (3) the negative term is the potential energy. theory, built upon it, necessarily falls to the ground. Thus
When kinetic energy changes, in a way depending on v^, it is definitely disproved, and can no longer be maintained

a corresponding change must occur in V, the potential energy, by those who admit the conservation of energy.
otherwise the sum of the two energies could not remain constant. If we seek to inquire into the nature of the
5. wave-
3. The
following diagram represents the energy changes fields about two attracting bodies, need to have we shall
in the planetary motion, substantially as given by Professor recourse to the discussion in part II of the sixth paper on
Kundi, in his lectures on physics at the university of Berlin, the New Theory of the Aether, where the whole problem
according to Hehtiholtzs doctrine of the conservation of is treated in some detail, and illustrated by figures showing
energy, 1847. the tension between the masses and increase of pressure
beyond them. This argument is established by necessary
and sufficient conditions. Such wave-fields ') and nothing
else will explain the straight line action of the forces
which govern the motions of the planets in their orbits.
It is needless to point out that as the aether is
a kinetic medium, the physical basis of all forces, and
nothing finer underlies it, it is the source and ultimate
reservoir of all Hence we see
energy. the physical basis
of the conservation of energy. The kinetic theory of
the aether thus leads to the conservationof energy,
and any result in violation of this great principle must
be unreservedlyrejected. Accordingly we have a definite
Fig. a. demonstration of the erroneous character of the Einstein
We see by this diagram that the time flows on continuously theory.
as the planet oscillates from perihelion to aphelion, and the 192 1 Oct. 28. T.y.y.See.
curve extends along the axis (t).

Meanwhile when the potential energy is a maximum at Second Postscript. Since finishing the body of this
aphelion, V^
V-^^/V, the kinetic energy is a minimum, paper, in May, have been impressed with the desirability
I
T' = T~ zIT, because ^IT is negative at aphehon, and of obtaining additional light on the forces which sustain the
numerically just equal to JV, which is then positive, as equilibrium of the molecules of an elastic solid. Heretofore
shown in the diagram. this problem has not oflfered to investigators any very acces-
At perihelion, on the other hand, the kinetic energy is sible point of attack. On December 10, however, it occurred
a maximum, the potential energy a minimum, for corresponding to me how this problem could be solved, by a method of
reasons. The diagram, with two superposed sine curves, the required mathematical rigor, which at the same time conforms
=
JT Xsin®, and /IV= Xsin(®-l-7r), everywhere exactly to the present state of our knowledge of experimental physics.
neutralizing each other, because differing in phase by n, will Hence we add a brief outline of this new method in
therefore correctly represent the oscillations of kinetic and the hope that it will be of interest to the readers of this
potential energy in planetary motion, under a conservative series of papers on the new theory of the aether.
system, free from collisions. By way of extending the argument given in the fifth

^) Since finishing the sixth paper, I have obtained new and most abundant observational proof that mass movements in the sun do

send powerful wave disturbances to the earth, and by the resulting inductions thus produce the aurorae, earth currents and similar disturbances
in the earth's wave-field.
 :

J3I 5140 132

paper, AN 5130, p. 330, and in the sixth paper above, equation persion of these incident waves, rp [6], it appears that from
(7), we notice: the action of diamond on must depend mainly
light this effect

The depends on the density

refractive action [n^ — i) on the rigidity or hardness, and thus on some function of
1.

of the solid a, and the changing wave-length X, and thus on the radius of atomic action, Og [r) = w.
some unknown function n (ff/l). But in a fixed mass the 4. The arrangement and the forces involved
crystalline
•density varies inversely as the cube of the distance of the in giving compactness to atoms combined in a way to be
molecules, as in the formula for a sphere most effective, depend also on the atomic distances, or radii
m^=^j^TC dr^ a = ^j^m/nr^ = C/r^ (a) of molecular activity, and hence on some function of the

Hence we may take tt (a/V) as a function

•
.

of the molecular distance (D4 (r) = u'.

distance (Di [r) = Cjr^ = u. 5. of reflection of waves depends on the

The power
2. As regards the violence of the incessant bending of smoothness and rigidity of the reflecting mass, and thus on
the wave-front, for waves coming from all directions, (p [fi),
the atomic distances and the forces by which the structure
is rendered rigid and impenetrable to the wave agitation. We
we notice that this effect likewise a function of the density,
and of the
is

and thus of the atomic dis-

elasticity or rigidity, may take this unknown function as O^ (r) = v'.

tances r; yet as we do not know the nature of this dependence 6. Accordingly, it appears that the first five elements
we simply write for y(/S) an unknown function (I>.2{r)=v. of the integral for i2, in equation (108) of the fifth paper,
3. In reference to the violence of the incessant dis- or equation (7) above, reduce to
[n^- i) 7t{a/X] cp{^) ip{d) xM HQ-e- r) 0} {r) Oi{r)-0--,{r) =^ u-vwu'-v' = U (/J)

The partial differentiation of this function of five variables relative to the three coordinates {x, y, z) yields:

d CA = (9 U\(iu duldx+dujdv dv/dx-hdu/dw dj^/dx-hd U/du' du'/dx-hdu/dv' dv'jdx) dx

-i-(9 uj^u du/dy-i-d[//dv dv/dv-i-d uj'dw dw/Sy+du/du' du'/dy-hd/jjdv'-dv'/dy) dy
-^{dl7/du-du/dz+dU^/dv-dv/dl-hdU^/dw-dt^/dz-hdl7Jdu'-du'/dz-hdl7/dv'-dv'/dz)dz .
ir)

7. To effect the required quintuple integration we should 10. In 1866 concluded from certain researches
y)/a.r?</^//

have to derive successively d^U, d^d, d^U, d^l7; and if the in the dynamical theory of gases, (Scientific Papers 2.32),
last function, or any one of them, was known, we could then, that in the collisions of molecules the molecular forces, at
by the reverse process of integration, calculate U, and finally very short range of action, are repulsive, and vary inversely
Si. Unfortunately the finite expressions of these successive as the s'*" power of the distance, / filr^ In the present=
differentials are quite unknown; and thus it is useless to writer's researches on the physical constitution of the sun
develop these differential coefficients. and planets, (AN 3992, 4053, 4104, 4152), it is shown that
Apparently the only way we can attack this problem gases and solids are closely related, through internal heat
successfully deduce the function U, for the action of
is to developing high elasticity and great effective rigidity, under
the molecular forces, direct from the data supplied by the the enormous pressure to which matter is subjected in the
dynamical theory of gases. interior of the heavenly bodies.
This happens to yield an integral expression, the law 11. In speaking of the effect of increasing temperature
of molecular repulsion being sensibly / /J//r^, and hence = as we descend into the sun's interior, Newcomb long ago
we have a tangible mode of approach; and fortunately the remarked (Encycl. Amer., article Sun, 1904) that two oppositely
theoretical conclusions are confirmed by experiments, which are directed and very powerful forces were at work: »an incon-
adopted by the best authorities in the dynamical theory of gases. ceivable degree of heat, such that were matter exposed to
8. Accordingly, our mode of integration reduces to it on the surface of the earth, it would explode with a violence

= J^^^^^e d^ Udr dr dr dr dr J
o dw C7 (0,) (d)
to which nothing within our experience can be compared «;
and on the other hand the tremendous pressure due to the
= I7^€)^{ai)dw superincumbent layers, confining the matter which otherwise
= U'U^e/du-du-^8e/dvdv-+ dejdw -dw-^ de/du' du'
would expand with stupendous explosive violence. Owing to
the high effective rigidity acquired by confined gaseous matter
-hds/dv'-dv'- h9^/8«-dw} ii)
= U^de = Ut — the sun having an average effective rigidity from 2000
to 6000 times that of nickel-steel, — we have a valid point
where ^ 68932 1600000 the amount by which
f the elasticity of attack for solids, as we shall now proceed to show in
of the aether exceeds that of the air in proportion to its density. some detail.
9. It will be shown below how the function U for the 12. It was long ago recognized by Mossotti, (Sur les
first five integrations may be obtained, in the integral form, forces qui regissent la constitution interieure des corps, Turin,
corresponding to the repulsive forces actually observed in the 1836) that at small distances the repulsive forces become
theory of gases / =
fi/r^, and the terras giving attraction more powerful than the attractive forces. Hence, in order
at greater distances may be added. The sixth integral, for to deal satisfactorily with molecular forces, we must have a
the central pressure due to the integration for the steady function composed of several terms which becomes negative
action of the enclosing sheath of partially disrupted waves at very small distances, positive at greater distances, all —
of the aether, leads to the elastic constant of the aether, the distances remaining small absolutely, about the order of
and thus presents no difficulty. wave-lengths of light. This function, when integrated relatively
 :

33 5 HO 134

to the distances, should bring into play both attractive and The nature of the curve to be integrated in fig. a depends
repulsive forces, mutually balancing each other, and thus on the value of A, a coefficient of hardness or rigidity. If
yielding the rigidity noticed in an elastic solid. this constant k is small, but not below a certain limit /iq,
13. We therefore take the molecular forces to be re corresponding to fluidity, the body will have slight tenacity,
presented by a potential of the form: and tend to crumble, like stone, chalk or similar substances.
W= [{h-rY-klr^X\ . [S) If below ^0, the body is fluid, and not solid at all.
As A increases above Aq, we get a series of bodies of
Hence at such small distances the forces become
increasing hardness, as shown in Fig. b.
/=d W/dr = [r-A-h^/r^Xl (,)

=^[{r-r,){r-r,){[r-{a + ii)][r-{a-zl>)]}Yr% (x)

14. We are concerned only with very small distances,

and therefore we introduce the condition that when r ri=l, =
/=o; then we have to investigate the biquadratic between

-Ar^-hk =
the distances ri to r^

= [r-n) [r-r^] {[r-{a+id)] [r-{a-t6)]} = o . (A)

If any of the roots are which we here assume, it

real,

can be shown that the equation has two real roots, namely, ri,
a maximum, at which the attractive forces vanish, o, and /=
^9 a smaller value at which the attractive forces are a maximum,
as shown by the following diagram. The constant k is to be
so adjusted that r^ falls on the axis (r) making The f^o.
condition for these two roots is the maximum and minimum
of the potential W in (1^), dlV/dr== o, as in equation (I).

Fig. b.

17. In his celebrated memoir on the dynamical theory

of gases, 1866, (Scient. Pap. 2.32) Maxwell remarks that the
coefficient of rigidity =/,
the pressure. He designates the
elasticity by £ and the density by q.
»This rigidity, however, cannot be directly observed,
because the molecules continually deflect each other from
Fig. a. Illustration of the curve of molecular forces dWldr=f, their rectilinear courses,and so equalize the pressure in all
the unessential parts outside the limits r-^-r^ being directions. The which this equalization takes place is
rate at
indicated by pointed lines. great, but not infinite; and therefore there remains a certain

15. As a solid body is the result of the equilibrium inequality of pressure which constitutes the phenomenon of

established between attractive and repulsive forces, we have viscosity.*

to get the effect of these equilibrated forces by integrating »I have found by experiment that the coefficient of
viscosity in a given gas is independent of the density, and
the equation («) between proper limits:
proportional to the absolute temperature, so that if £T be

/e = ^dWJdr-Ar+c ^ ^ {r* — /ir^-hk) dr-hc =^ o .

(p)
the viscosity, ET'^^pjq.
«But E = p,
«

therefore T, the time of relaxation, varies

inversely as the density independent of the temperature.
and is
The nature of this integration is indicated by the above fig. a. number of producing a given deflection
Hence the collisions
16. This equation contains the whole theory of the
{/j,)
which take place in unit of time is independent of the tempe-
equilibrated forces in a solid body. The integral is
rature, that is, of the velocity of the molecules, and is pro-
'1
portional to the number of molecules in unit of volume. If
/s=^dW/dr-dr+c= [^/-y"-'^U/ir^-hkr]',\-hc =o [v) we suppose the molecules hard elastic bodies, the number of
'4 collisions of a given kind will be proportional to the velocity,
which is an equation of the fifth degree in r, the variable but if we suppose them centres of force, the angle of deflection
distance over which the molecular forces act. will be smaller when the velocity is greater; and if the force
 »

135 5140 I ^6

is inversely as the power of the distance, the number

fifth In order to perceive why there is both attraction and
of deflections of a given kind will be independent of the repulsion, we divide [v) by r^ only, and then we have:
velocity. Hence I have adopted this law in making my cal- Vkr^—'Uhr+klr' + clr%\ = o .
(0)
culations.*
This function is between ^landr^, but negative between
positive
18. The problem of attractive and repulsive forces has
^3 and r^, as we see by the form of the curve in Fig. a.
been ably discussed by Boltzmann (Vorlesungen iiber Gas-
Theorie, i8g6, p. 160-161), who concurs in Maxwell's,
The last term of (o) corresponds to the density function
in equation (a) above.
reasoning. Boltzmann finds his equations much simplified by
taking « =
4, and then the repulsion between two molecules
20. In my researches on the internal constitution of
=
f Klr^^'^, becomes of the inverse 5'*" power. He adds that the heavenly bodies, (AN 3992, 4053, 4104, 4152) I have
his law appears to hold accurately for compound gases, (water shown that the sun's matter internally under tremendous
is

vapor, H^O, carbonic acid, CC2), but not so satisfactorily for explosive forces, yet held in equilibrium by the gravitational
common gases (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen). Experience is pressure of the outer layers. If the pressure could be relieved,
too limited, he thinks, to make known the exact law in from this matter at the temperature of millions of degrees,
most cases. it would, (as Newcomb remarked in 1904) explode with a

Wir sind daher weit violence surpassing that of dynamite or any known substance.
» behaupten zu woUen,
entfernt,
dafi sich die Gasmolekiile wirklich wie Massenpunkte ver-
Hence by pressure;
in confinement the matter is kept rigid

halten, zwischen denen eine der fiinften Potenz der Entfernung

and in AN have calculated that the average rigidity
4104, I

of the solar matter may be from 2000 to 6000 times that

verkehrt proportionale Abstofiung wirksam ist. Da es sich hier
of nickel-steel.
aber blofi um ein mechanisches Modell handelt, so nehmen
wir jenes zuerst von Maxwell eingefiihrte Wirkungsgesetz an,
Now the property of rigidity acquired by the sun's
matter, as thus confined under tremendous pressure, is ana-
fiir welches die Rechnung am einfachsten ist.«
logous to the rigidity of an ordinary solid, — with this diffe-
In a footnote he adds:
rence, that in the ordinary solid heat is largely absent and
»Auch die Annahme einer der fiinften Potenz der Ent- the molecules thus come so close together that collisions are
fernung proportionalen Anziehung gestattet eine ahnliche Ver- incessant, under the short waves pervading nature, and the
einfachung der Rechnung (vgl. Wien. Sitzungsber. 89.714, Mai Maxwellian repulsive forces thus arising balance and overcome
1884). Doch mufi man dann annehmen, dafi fiir Entfernungen, the attractive forces. These two oppositely directed forces,
die noch klein gegen die Distanz sind, bei der schon starke both very powerful at the small distances, r^—r^, bind the
Wirkung stattfindet, die Kraft ein anderes Gesetz befolgt, molecules together into a solid, with hardness or rigidity
nach welchera die Anziehung endlich bleibt oder in AbstoBung depending on the coefficient h. If we heat a solid, the long
ubergeht, well sonst die MolekUle beim Zusammenstofi sich heat waves cause the molecules to oscillate beyond the range
nicht mehr in endlicher Zeit trennen. Im Texte wollen wir of action r-^-r^, and liquefaction and vaporization takes place.
jedoch immer eine der fiinften Potenz verkehrt proportionale This transformation of the equation (108) of the fifth
Abstofiung annehmen. paper, equation (S) above, makes it conform to the experience
The latest researches by Chapman and Jeans (Dynamical of Maxwell, Boltzmann, Jeans, and others in the dynamical
theory of gases, 1916, p. 235-237, 256) leave the conclusions theory of gases; and as we pass directly from the theory of
of Maxwell and Boltzmann unchanged, namely, in molecular a gas to that of a solid, by virtue of the researches on the
collision the repulsive force \%f=fj,lr^- We are therefore constitution of the sun, we now have a theory of molecular
justified in holding that the wave-theory gives rise to both forces which is concrete, and experimentally valid, namely:
attractive and repulsive which are intelligibly united
forces,
into a continuous mode of action only by a function of the
kind dealt with above. In virtue of the changes in r, the elastic force of the
aether may be positive and has the variation
or negative
By means of the above function, however, we have an
which generates the observed forces, or wave-stresses exerted
adequate theory of molecular forces. It accounts for solids of
by the aether upon matter, which usually is most powerful
various degrees of hardness, with the other physical properties
at the boundary owing to the changes of wave-action defined
relating to molecular action and structure.
by Poisson's equation
ig. In the above equation [v) we may divide through
by r^ and obtain '

(t>=f[x,y,z,t). (q)
['k-'Uhlr+klr^-^clr%= o .
(?) In conclusiononly remains to add that the present
it

Now the arguments put forth by Maxwell, Boltzmann, Jeans, developments in mathematical theory and in physical inter-
and others that for gases the repulsive forces, when the pretation, are the outcome of many years of research, in which
molecules are in collision, vary as fjojr^, would lead us to I have labored to give both a true and a sufficient explanation
select the term cjr^ as that which becomes very large when of the most varied natural phenomena. Doubtless very much
r is very small — the other terms being relatively insensible remains to be done in the way of improvement, as shown
at the time of collision. The term kjr^ would also become also by the additions as the work progressed; but this refinement
large, yet not so large as the last term depending on the could not be entered upon till the first outline of the new
inverse 5'** power of r. theory of the aether was presented in continuous form.
 37 SHO 138

In view of the vast extent of the

field of research thus of this eminent mathematician at the early age of 48. In fact
opened up to investigators, may we
not hope that others will Maxwell had not formulated any modus operandi as to how
join in extending the discoveries here merely traversed in such stresses in the medium could arise, nor had he examined
briefest outline? the elastic constant of the aether 6 = 689321600000.
The daring hope originally entertained by Mossotti, In our new theory of the aether we have examined the
1836, of analytically connecting the molecular forces directly character of this medium more critically than Newton and
witlithose of universal gravitation was long ago abandoned Maxwell \i'i.dih&&n able to do, and thus formulated a general
by investigators, chiefly because, as had been so strongly theory of physical forces due to wave-action. This reduces
emphasized by Laplace, the molecular forces are sensible only the theory of aether-stresses to concrete form, and the procedure
at insensible distances, whereas the gravitational forces act with has the recommendation of simplicity. It also conforms to
unbroken continuity over the immensity of the celestial spaces. the undulatory theory of hght and heat, and thus is a necessary
Maxwell was equally daring, and more fortunate in his step in the doctrine of continuity as applied to the physical
physical conceptions, — when he emphasized the theory of universe. The subject is therefore inviting, and will appeal
the aether and concluded that all the forces observed in strongly to the geometer as well as the natural philosopher,
nature are due to stresses in this medium — but the theory who may now perceive a new physical basis for the geometrical
of stresses never was completed, owing to the premature death forms observed in nature.
1921 Dec. 10. T. J. J. See.
Astronom. Nachrichtcn lul. 215. Tafel I.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

by which the atoms give the molecules

Fii?. 3. a, b, c, d, c. Kcgna-ult'i theory of the geometrical arrangement
the property of infinitesimal elements for building up
crystals.

ic. Sclinidt, luhaber Gcorg Ohcim, Kiel.

Astronom. Nachricliten Ed. 215.
Tafel 2.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

ifrOTiom. Nachrichten Bd. 215. Tatel 3.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

'-

{>
j'Astronom. Nachricliten Bd. 215,
Tafel 4.

T.J.J. See. NeAV Theory of the Aether.

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 215. Tafel 5.

T. J. J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

5^
* -- *

4- -« » e,..i

(I « l(
f'

i
 '

Astronom, Nachrichten Bd. 215.

Tafel 6.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

1752

iCv„ _'\i8M ao°

1875

a Centaui?!

1869

Fig. II. The apparent orbit of Alpha Centauri, with extremely variable radius vector, yet under the central force of universal
gravitation sweeping over equal areas in equal times. (From Researches on the evolution of the stellar systems, vol. I, 1896.

p. Schaidl, lohaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 215. Tafel 7.

T.J. 1. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 12. Graphical illustration of the progress of the wave-front, in the case of sound, propagated thruogh the
air and through the carbon dioxide {CO^ of the balloon. This gives acoustic attraction, owing to the
advance wave-motion working some of the air particles out from between the source of the sound and
the balloon, and transferring them beyond the balloon, so as to give a vis a tergo, a shove from behind.

C- Schaidt, Inhaber Georg

Oheim, Kiel.
Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 215. Tafel 8.

T. J. J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Inter p'fitati on of fJife a.boVe S uief ACes.

Fig. 15. Diagram of the equipotential surfaces about two equal masses-, and P-, originally given in Thomson and Tail's Treatise on Natural
(J.

Philosophy, 1=' ed. 1873. Without regard to the cause involved this diagram represents the actual surfaces which exist under the
potential of gravitation; and in the light of the new theory of the aether we now interpret the meaning of the distortions shown
which were first published about half a century ago.

C.Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

)Astronom. Nachriclilen Bd. 215.

T. J. J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

j\stronom. Nachrichten Bd. 215. Tafel 10.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 19. Geometrical illustratibn of the wave-field about two equal stars. The wave-amplitudes increase asymptotically towards
either body, which renders the aether of variable density a ^
v r, while the wave-motion in concentric spheres, when
reflected from the surfaces of the confocal ellipsoids, yields stresses along the tangents to the hyperboloids, which
intersect the ellipsoids at right angles and with them constitute the system of confocal conies.
In nature the aether waves from the two centres are not reflected by the ellipsoidal surfaces, but proceed
onward into infinite space; yet the reaction of the medium gives stresses along the tangents to the hyperboloids exactly
the same as if the waves were perfectly reflected by the confocal ellipsoids, and the state of wave-motion rendered perpetual.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 215. Tafel II

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 20. Double plate showing the aether stresses in the wavefield about two equal stars:
1. The equipotential surfaces distorted by gravitation to two centres, implying corresponding
tension and pressure in the aether.
2. The double wavefield showing the decrease of density of the aether towards either
centre, and the stresses from infinite space acting along the hyperbolas for rendering
the state of the medium perpetual.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

 )
:

Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. (Sondernummer)

(Band 217. — November 1922.)

New Theory of the Aether. By T. J. J. See.

(Seventh Paper.) (With 7 Plates and 2 Portraits.)
I. Discovery of the Cause of Magnetism and A more exact value of this constant probably is
of a Remarkable Connection between Magnetism
and Universal Gravitation.
71 = 1/1408.12 (4)
yet from the considerations indicated in deriving equation (49),
(i) Introductory remarks and definitions. it is possible that the value may be as small as ^ 1/1414.2 13, =
In this paper we demonstrate the cause of
seventh with the results shown in equation (115) below.
magnetism, and outline certain remarkable discoveries in con- From the above equations (i) and (2) we obtain by
nection therewith, more especially a new physical law now
finally established between the magnetism of the earth and
division:
^i'^
_ i,^v'lmm'-[r^ls^+r'^ls'^) .
{5)

terrestrial gravitation. Some of these discoveries have been

It is shown in the first paper, AN 5044, p. 54, that
under tri-dimensional expansion in free space, the wave
known to me since 1Q14, and are recognized in the third
paper (AN 5079), and in volume I of the Electrodynamic
amplitude j4 =
i/r, and that the energy of the waves, from

Wave-Theory of Physical Forces, 19 17, but the proofs now

which the forces arise, becomes / ^= A^ P/r^, exactly as =
in the equations (i) and (2) above. The potential is a state
available are made so much more complete, that it is ad-
of stress of the aether due to the integration for the waves
visable to re-examine the whole subject somewhat briefly.
of the several atoms at their respective distances r, s or s'
The analytical expressions for the accelerating forces
as the case may be.
under Newton's law of gravitation, and under the new law
Thus for gravitation we have:
for the total intensity of the earth's magnetic forces, are
similar in form, except for the two poles in the case of the V= \ ijr- dm =
magnetic action, each of which is a centre of attraction,
exerting its appropriate stress upon the aether in the wave-
= ^^^a[[x-x'Y+{y-y'Y+[z-z'Y]-'l'AxAydz .
(6)

field of the globe:

And for magnetism, having regard to the two poles, we have

g = mm'lr^; for the sun G = k'^jr^ , astron. units; (i)

likewise:
ii = ^i/s-di.t,-i-^-i/s'-df.i,

1= fifj,'/s^ + (2)

Here the
fj,fj,'/s"'.

gravitational masses are m and m', at the = I

J J
ff/j • da: djv dz+ J J J a/s' -dxdy dz .
(7

distance the radius of the earth, and the acceleration g;

r, This magnetic potential is subject to the Gai/ssis^n
[I is the pole strength of the earth's magnetism, and fj,' that equation of condition for the whole earth as a magnet:
of a standard steel bar magnet of weight V2 kilogram, as
used by Gauss (Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus,
Jdf* =o (8)

p. 46), / = the total magnetism,

intensity of the earth's because, on the two-fluid theory, there must be in the entire

s =
the length of the curved line of magnetic force, obtained
mass exactly as much positive as negative magnetism, so that
The wave-theory leads to an identical result.
the integral is zero.
by integrating along the curved path d^ between the place
Accordingly the magnetic forces acting on another
=^ds, in the solid globe magnet of pole strengths /j,', /j,' become in the integral form
of observation e and the pole/, s
p' r = /+/' = fifi'/s'^-hfifi'/s'^ (9)

of the earth, s' = Jdi', being the corresponding curved line as in equation (2) above.
For in the wave-theory not only gravitation, but also
of magnetic force to the other pole. magnetism is due to the energies of the atomic waves, which
yield appropriate forces proportional to the squares of the
It is recognized that a magnetic bar upon the earth

is under a dual system of forces the gravitational and — amplitudes of the vibrations. Now, as found above, the atoms
with magnetic properties, due to the concerted way in which
the magnetic. Gauss showed (p. 46) that the pole strength
of the earth (i =
8464 10^^/*'; and he calculated that on
•
they oscillate in parallel planes, are to the whole of the atoms
of the earth as i 1408.12. And therefore the corresponding
the average, under uniform distribution of these standard
:

forces / and g, resulting from the integrals for the magnetic

steel bar magnets, with parallel axes, each cubic metre of
and gravitational tnasses respectively, must both involve the
the matter of the globe would have within it an amount of
magnetism equivalent to 7.831 of these bars.
squares of the amplitudes, since, as shown in AN 5044, this
occurs for the gravitational force,
The average cubic metre of the earth's matter, with
density 5.5, weighs 5500 kilograms; and thus the ratio of j
g= A^ = k^r^ = -dV/dr. (10)
the magnetic matter of the globe to the whole of it is: Moreover, since the complete differentiation of the

1^
= 3.9155/5500 = 1/1404.674. (3 magnetic potential, by (7), leads to:
 =
195 Sondernummer 196

any two forms of the path between o and p, provided one

form of the path may be changed into the other by con-
= f f f
(ei3/9^ ds/dx • -dx-hdn Ids ds/dy dy H- tinuous motion without passing out of this region. Accordingly,
-^dp.lds-ds/dz-dz) (11) the difference of magnetic potential is given by the integral
„
along the path ds:
-H
ff
t(d.Q/ds' ds'/dx -dx-hdp./ds' ds'/dy dy+
t

we have for the integral

+dfi/ds'-ds'/dz-dz)
of the forces between two magnets
Z = ^dxfids = tpo — i'p (17)

referred to their poles:

As two forms of a curve through two terminal points
I=/-f-/' |(t'
J I /s^ dfi -+- fi'^ I /s'^ -6^= fjuii'ls'^-^ (if,,'/s'^. (12) can be changed into each other under continuous motion
The ratio l/g thus necessarily involves the square of t], which chiefly by rotation depending on symmetry, it follows that
is common to the two forces depending on wave-action :
') the line of magnetic force admits of the integral in (17)

r = (1/1408. 12) (13)

when the force system is symmetrical about an axis.
Accordingly equation harmonic law con- harmonic law and new theory here outlined
In the
(5) yields the
necting the magnetism of the globe with terrestrial gravitation: thereforewe always have in view a magnet possessing
symmetry. Hence the cosmical globe here considered is not
.

Jlg=f{r^ls^-^r^ls'i)= 1/1982802- (rV-H^V-s") (m) irregular distribution of magnetism,

our actual earth, with its
This remarkable law holds true throughout the terrestrial
and unsymmetrical axis, but a homogeneous uniformly
spheroid, so far as the magnetism is regular. It fulfills, for
magnetized sphere. This restriction in our premises,
example, exact criteria at the poles, the equator, and in inter- however, only for reasons of simplicity in establishing the
is
mediate latitudes. And therefore, with an appropriate value rigorous validity of the harmonic law above formulated.
for r/, a similar law will hold true for the sun, Jupiter or
In dealing with such a compound heterogeneous mass
any other planet exhibiting cosmical magnetism admitting of
as our actual earth, it is necessary to have recourse to an
measurement of the intensity. We show hereafter that in the
case of the sun rj = 1/157.
expansion in spherical harmonics, arranged to converge for
internal points, as employed by Gauss, 1838. Yet even here
appears in this paper that the magnetic forces always
It
the new harmonic law will give a surprising approximation
act in curved lines, instead of in the straight lines assumed
to the mean law of the intensity of terrestrial magnetism
by Gauss and all previous investigators. Such a fundamental
found in our globe as a whole.
change in mathematico-physical theory requires us to investigate
It was first recognized by Humboldt in 1804, from
carefully the physical cause of magnetism. This cause iS now
measurements of intensity made during his American voyage
definitely assigned to wave-action, by an argument which
appears to be so convincing as to be incontestable.
(1798-1804), that the total intensity is i.ooo at the magnetic
equator, and increases somewhat steadily towards the magnetic
(ii) Definition of magnetic lines of force and of the poles, where Gauss afterwards made the average intensity to
line integral. be 1.977. The increase of intensity with higher latitudes
As we have to deal very frequently with the lines of presents many irregularities, and this makes it necessary to
magnetic force, we remark that the differential equation of resort to spherical harmonics to give the law of intensity
such a line, at any point [x, y, z), is over the globe.
Xdxlds= Ydylds-= Zdzjds ^ (iii). Method for constructing
(15)
the lines of magnetic force.
where X,Y, Z are the components of the vector R, or total
directed force, parallel to the axes, and dx, dy, dz are the
Before preceeding with the
theory of magnetism, we shall
projections on the axes of the spacial element of the curve ds.
Thus the line-integral between the points a.nd p becomes:
show how to draw the lines of
force, as by the system of rulers
P
L = ^[Xdxlds-^ Ydylds^Zdzjds) ds , ,
devised by Dr. Roget near the
middle of the 19''' century. Let
drawn
rectilinear radii vectores be
dj/; = [Xdxlds-^ Ydylds+Zdz\ds) .
from any point on the line of force
Now let the expression under the integral be an exact Fig. I. Resolution of the forces *° ^^e two magnetic poles A^and
differential, as in (16), then the value of Z is the same for to the two poles. S, as shown in the figure i.

') Remembering the dual system of forces acting on a bar magnet at the earth's surface, we have another way of reaching the same
result, as follows:
1. The pole strength of the earth, V- = 8464- 10" (i', where fi' is the pole strength of Gauss' unit bar magnet. The quantity of matter
generating the magnetism (J. is 1/1408 of the earth's mass.
2. The gravitational mass of the unit bar magnet ni = 1/(8464- 10^*) of the matter producing the magnetism of the earth, which
may be taken as unity in the divisor.
3. Then mass of the earth, m
the gravitational =
(1408) (8464 10^*), the magnetic unit of mass again being that of the Gauss\i.n unit bar.
4. Accordingly, replacing the numbers in units of magnetism (fi'-fi') with others representing the matter which produces the
magnetism, in order to get the ratio \iti.' jmrn, we have;
tili'jmm' = [(8464-io'")(i.V']/[(l4o8)(8464-io'^-(i'n'/(8464-io^^] = (i/i4o8)/i4o8, or vj^ = 1/(1408)^
 : . :

197 Sondernummer

Here the two points o and o' are taken to be indefinitely (iv) The physical nature of the magnetic lines of force
near each other, and thus oo' is tangential to the curve, in the investigated by means of an experimentum crucis, which
direction of the magnetic force. shows that these lines represent the axial rotations of the
Then obviously the sines of the angles ;' and d are wave-elements.
inversely as the forces emanating from the corresponding poles, 1. It is now shown that the stress in the aether along
and therefore directly as the squares of the corresponding the line of force directed to the pole is due to waves flat
of the equator of the magnet, parallel to which
distances, thus: 9
sin j'/r''
v/ />
sino/r''
/
= .

(18) .
in the plane
the elements of aether or aetherons rotate, about the lines
But by geometry, of force, and thereby generate the tension along these lines
sin/ = rdujdis sin (5 = r' dfi/ds (19)
which Faraday recognized as causing the lines to tend to
shorten themselves. Towards the ends of the magnet there
and therefore by substituting in (18) we get: is a change in direction of the stress, due to the
gradual
da/r = d/S/r' .
(20) absence of wave-emitting atoms, all vibrating in concert; and
therefore the wave movement turns around and the lines
It is obvious from the figure x that
reenter the magnetic poles, as illustrated in the following
r since = r' sin /J (2:) figure 3 from Newtons Principia, 1687, lib. II, section VIII,

and on multiplying equation (20) by (21) the product yields prop. XLI, theorem XXXII, where the curvature of the waves
to a new radius is exhibited after the movement from the
sin« da = sin/S d/S
centre A passes through the orifice BC.
which admits of integration in the simple form 2. Now
magnetism each atom emits its own waves,
in

coso; = cos/S-hC (22)

and as the motion spreads with increased facility along the
axis of the rnagnet, owing to the increased stress due to
To construct the lines of force by the mechanical waves crowding in that direction, the lines of force are
means devised by Dr. Roget, let two rulers of equal length nearly straight 'at the centre of the magnet, and curve most
revolve around their ends fixed in and S as centres, N rapidly around after passing the poles.
while the moveable vertical boundary, taken to be the side
This simple view of the dynamics of the magnetic
of a right triangle ABC, with base on NS prolonged, slides
lines of force scarcely seems to require further explanation,
along.
as I have treated it briefly in AN 5048, p. 162, in connection
with Dclbear's experiment, based on an observable mechanical
model shown in practice to give the curvature and dynamical
properties of the lines of force. Nevertheless the accompa-
nying figure will enable us to see more clearly why the lines
have near the ends of the magnet the increased curvature
actually observed. The extension of the Newtoma^n figure
is authorized by this example in vector composition.

3. Accordingly we shall illustrate the flatness of the

lines of force near the centre of the bar magnet, compared
to the rapid curvature towards either end, by another figure
deduced from that given by Newton in the Principia, 1687,
as follows:
Imagine adjacent additional centres of disturbance,
a)
A', A", A'"- •, and Ai, A2, A^- •, all in vertical line with

the centre A. And make additional orifices above and below

BC, as B'C, B"C", B"'C"' B^C^, B^ C2, ^3 C3
, through • •
,

Fig. 2. Dr. Roget'% mechanical method for constructing

the magnetic lines of force. which the wave disturbances may pass.
b) Then the waves in the same phase will everywhere

The intersection of the rulers resting against the sliding mutually support each other: the disturbing centres being in
triangle ABC will fulfill the conditions specified in equation the same parallel line, the wave fronts will become straightened
(22). For nB is the cosine of a to the radius r, and sB by the mutual support of the separate independent distur-
in like manner is the cosine of ^ to the radius r, and bances.
NS= C. c) Now imagine the orifices brought closer and closer
Hence the point of a pencil, held at this intersection together, yet maintained as distinct centres of disturbances

at once describe a line of the magnetic force, 00' we see that beyond the line BC, prolonged in both directions,
0, will
In the present paper the lines of force for the earth's field the wave fronts will become quite straight in the centre, but

have not been drawn by such mechanical magnetic line will curve around rapidly only near the end of the extreme
apparatus, yet the accuracy is sufficient for all purposes here orificeB^C, B^Cv, above and below respectively. This is
in view which is chiefly the exposition of valid physical exactly what occurs in magnetism: the lines of force curve

theory. around conspicuously as we approach the ends of the magnet.

 19.9 Sondernummer 200

d) The poles, in fact, are the centres

of the reacting stress in the medium when
agitated by all the atoms vibrating in concert,
and emitting waves of the kind here de-
scribed. The lines of force being axes of
rotations for the aetherons, as the waves
move along, there is a tendency in these
lines to shorten themselves, as in Dolbear's
experiment; the result is tension along the
lines, and as they are of minimum length,
they tend to keep straight near the centre
of the magnet, and to curve sensibly only
near the ends of the bar, just as in the
water-wave experiment above described
from Newto?is diagram of 1687.
4. The experiments here described
are accurate and can be verified by actual
trial for water waves, which are simple and
easily understood. They disclose to us the
true nature of magnetism, for the following
reasons:
a) The results conform to Dolbear's
experiment, where the dynamical influences
at work are easily understood, and admit
of but one interpretation,
b) They are verified in the actual
Fig. 3. Ne7vto7i% diagram of the spread of waves to a new radius, after passing through an orifice -5C;
movement of water, the waves of which also
with Airy's illustration of the nature of the wave-motion, below (of. Tides and Waves, 1845).
have tension along their axes and tend to
P
straighten themselves to a minimum axis .r = Jd. the
principle of Least Action.

5. By actual experiment, \'i ii,t„ - Faraday found that

the plane of a beam of polarized light was rotated when
passed along the line of force, through heavy glass, carbon
disulphide and similar substances, and the more rotated the
longer the path 5. This fact shows clearly that aether waves
of the type here described underlie magnetism. They are /
proved to exist by the practical experiments with water waves,
by Dolbcar'% experiment, on tangible models, and by Faraday?,
celebrated experiment on the rotation of the plane of polarization
by magnetism.
6. There is one other experiment which equally supports

the above conclusion, namely the revolution of a flexible

m
*'*,
I W tllltn^ijllgiijiiiB

hoop set loosely on an axis, in the apparatus commonly used

to show the force. When the hoop is
effects of centrifugal

spun rapidly about becomes of oval shape, bulged

its axis, it

out at the equator and drawn in at the poles of rotation,

Fig 4. Illustration of the simultaneous compounding of wave motions
like the figures of the planets which it is used to illustrate.
from closely adjacent orifices, by extension of Newton's theory.
Now imagine a series of such hoops mounted side by As the rotations about the axes are parallel, the tension in each
side, and tied together mutually along the axis. Then, when wave disturbance tends to shorten the arc of the whole wave
filament, and make the wave front a minimum. We thus get
the rotation develops, the whole line of connected hoops magnetic lines of force nearly straight in the equatorial regions of
will shorten itself, under the centrifugal force, just as in the magnet, with rapid curvature towards the poles.
This diagram,
in connection with Fig.
Faraday^ lines of force. It is impossible to imagine a more 3 above, completely explains the observed
phenomena in magnetism, and assures us that the wave theory
convincing proof than that here suggested. assigns the true cause of magnetism. Drawn l>y T. F. Greathead-
 20I Sondernummer 202

2. New General Formulae for the Intensity of where F is the ponderomotive force pulling the small magnet
the Ponderomotive Force in every Part of the Mag- (with poles fj,'
and //.') bodily towards the north pole of the
netic Field: the New Theory rigorously verified by large magnet, with poles /u, and f.o, which may be the earth.
the Law 'of Biot for a Short Magnet deep in the b) If we go towards the south pole, the force / pulling
Interior of the Globe as the Simplest Basis of the towards the north pole weakens, leaving the pull towards
Earth's Magnetism, 1816. the south pole correspondingly predominant. Hence as
(i) Law
of the aether stress along the line of magnetic
=
/ fifi'ls'^ decreases, while /' fifi'/s'^ increases, we have =
iforce from pole to pole.
the corresponding inequality of stress:

When we have a new theory of any phenomenon in F' = f,f,'/s''-fifi'/sK (25)

nature nothing is more satisfactory than its expression in the This is therefore the ponderomotive force pulling the
form of a geometrical law which enables us to confirm the small magnet towards the south pole of the large magnet,
mathematical rigor of the theory for every part of space. which may be the earth. In view of these equations, the
Thus we need the means for exploring the entire magnetic reader may now advantageously refer
again to figure 4 above,
'field, from pole to pole, to see if our harmonic law is which gives a connected representation of all the wave
everywhere rigorously fulfilled. phenomena in the field about a magnet, together with the
If this law is found to be exact throughout the whole forces thereby generated. It is well also to refer to the
field of the magnet, this property of mathematical accuracy photograph of magnetic action reproduced in plate 2, fig. i,
alone will constitute an overwhelming argument for the validity which places the new theory beyond controversy, because the
of the new theory. Indeed, unless a contradiction can be effects of the ponderomotive forces are rendered directly
established, we may safely conclude that the law as formulated visible to the eye of the reader. This is the first photograph
is a true law of nature. of the kind ever taken for illustrating the mutual actions of
1. We begin with the magnetic equator, since in this two magnets, the smaller magnets being shown in four leading
region the two equal poles are equally remote; and as 5 and s'
positions.

are equal, two

terms for the aether stress are equal,
the 3. In view of the above considerations, our harmonic law
and the oppositely directed forces perfectly balanced, thus:
//^ =^V2(l/j2+l/^'2) (26)
./=/+/'=/t'Ji/52-d;(t-i-ft'Ji/.r'2-d/*=fifi'A^-l-W*'A'^ (23)
may be written for the earth's magnetic and gravitational
where ^i and ^1 are the strengths of the poles of the greater actions in the form :

magnet (the earth for instance), fjil and 11' the strengths of
the poles of the smaller magnet, or needle, which we may
//^ == i^fj,'lmm'-{r^/s^-hr^/s'^) = tj^ r^t/s^-i-i/s'^) .
(27)

regard as suspended by a vertical thread attached to its Here, in the right member of the equation, we have
centre of gravity, while the needle itself assumes the hori- merely replaced / by the above magnetic expression (23),
zontal position. and for ^ substituted the familiar gravitational formula,

This fact was first carefully observed by Humboldt ^ = mm'/r^. In fact equation (27) may be said to have the

Tvhen he crossed the earth's magnetic equator in northern following meaning:

Peru 7" i' south latitude, 3 13° 41' east longitude, between The action of the large magnet, such as the uniformly
the silver mining town of Micuipampa and Caxamarca, where magnetized sphere of the earth, upon the small magnet at
the elevation is about 12000 feet (Cosmos, vol. i, Bohn the distance of the two poles, from which its stresses are
translation, p. 177). The true laws of the earth's magnetism exerted, is to the gravitative action of the earth towards its
are so important that we shall be justified in deriving general centre, as
formulae and comparing them with the results of observations
in both terrestrial hemispheres. What is true of the earth's fil^'{i/s'-^ i/r-) : (mm'/r'') =f [r^- 1
s"-
+ r^ j s'^ : i.) (28)

magnetism is even more rigorously true of a symmetrical Thus at unit distance, r =; i, the magnetic force is to the

magnetic bar, because a good artificial magnet is much more gravitational force as i to ig6oooo, if i^ = 1/1400.
regular and exact laws of attraction than the earth,
in its
In dealing with the actual earth elsewhere, we find
which is made up of many lesser magnets very irregularly from the total intensities at the poles calculated by Gauss
arranged into one large globular magnet. that the theoretical ratio is slightly different, namely: i to
2. As we go towards pole the force pulling
either 1982802. We need not here inquire into the theoretical
-towards the othier pole .weakens, leaving unbalanced the two sources of this trifling difference, as that would raise too

terms /and/', which are oppositely directed, thereby yielding many difficult analytical questions relative to Gauss' theory.
the aether tension /, yet becoming more and more unequal The difference itself, moreover, is very trifling.

towards the poles. Accordingly, if / denote the total force, or aether

4.
a) If we go towards the north pole, / =
lilJti Is stress along the line of force, so that /" [T/s^-hi/s'^), = fj,f.i,'

creases, because s steadily decreases: on the other hand,/' we have for any place on the globe:
decreases, because / quite as steadily increases. Hence in

-the northern hemisphere the difference of stress will be:

//^^ = ^VMiA'+iA") (29)

F= [i/i''/s'^ — fjifj.'/s''^ 124J or W{jIs'+ i/s'^)]/[mm'/r^] =f {r^s^-^r^/s''-] .

(30)
 :

20- Sondernummer 204

5. This means that the earth's magnetic part acting a simple view of the earth's magnetism. It had been some-
at the distance to the two foci, s and s', is to the gravity of what outlined by Tobias Mayer of Gottingen about the middle
the whole mass m, acting at the distance to the centre r, as of the 18'*^ century, but Biot gave it a form of much greater
^^rys^-hr^s'^) : i = 960000 -(^Vi^+rV/^)
i/i mathematical elegance and rigor. He imagines a single magnet
if 'ij = 1/1400 .
whose axis passes through the centre of the earth, in a di-
rection perpendicular to the magnetic equator, but of small
a) As shown above in (23) the stress in the aether
along the
line of force is
length compared to the earth's radius.
perfectly balanced only at the
equator, because there fj,ij,'/s^ fifJi'js'^ The unbalanced = .

tension along the line of force at any point whatever is

equivalent to the effect of each pole pulling unequally on
its own end of the needle. The old doctrine of repulsion
need not be considered at all.
b) North or south of the equator therefore the stress
is unbalanced, because we have:
(ifj,'/s^~ l.i,fj,'/s'^ = 7^= ponderomotive force in the northern
hemisphere
fi/fi'/s'^ — fi/ji'/s'^ = ^ ponderomotive
J^' force in the southern
hemisphere .

This unbalancing of the stresses in either hemisphere

is by observation. A small magnet suspended
easily confirmed
by a thread easily is seen to be swung bodily and end-on
towards the nearest pole. If the proper pole of the sus-
pended magnet be not presented to that of the larger magnet,
the smaller magnet will quickly reverse itself, and then swing
over, deflecting the thread about its centre visibly from the
vertical shown in plate 2, fig. i.
direction of gravitation, as Fig. 5. Illustration of Biot's theory of a short magnet near
6. It power of the term due to the
is the increased the earth's centre.
nearer pole, and decreased power of the term due to the
In order to give a distinct analysis of Biot's theory
opposite pole which throws the aether stress along the line
we derive first the expressions
for the force exerted by a
of force out of balance; and this lack of balance gives
bar magnet upon a unit pole, as ordinarily given. Let the
therefore the difference, or visible ponderomotive forces:
line ns denote the distance 2/ between the two poles of a
F^ fif^t,' I
s'
— ^ip'I
s'"^
, in the northern hemisphere , ,
magnet, each of pole strength fj,, acting upon a unit pole
F'= f^in'js''^
— fi^'/s^ , in the southern hemisphere. at m of strength If fx' be austral (south seeking), the
j^i,'.

At the poles it is obvious that we shall have: forces exerted by the poles n and 5 will become:

North Pole, J^ = ji/i'/s^ , because fifi'js'^ =o /=-f,f,'/r' f'=+f,^,'lr'K (33)

South Pole, F' = fif-i'/s'"^ , because fifx'js'^ =o 132; These forces may be resolved into two, namely F in
the direction mo, and Q in the direction ns, — the former
The results here developed contain the whole theory
somewhat small, the latter much larger:
of the mutual actions of two magnets upon each other. But
as such a theory does not exist today in any book in the
F= fif,'a{i/r'^-i/r^)
world, we have felt authorized to explain the new theory Q= l{i/r'^-^i/r^).
fj-fi'
{34}

to assure the reader of

in sufficient detail its entire rigor. Let mp be the direction of the resultant F of the two
The following development by Biot, who reached similar forces; then as the sides of the triangle mop are proportional
results from another point of view, will also prove of interest to the forces in their directions we have
to the student of this subject.
The problem of magnetism has been
mo:op= P:Q = a{r^-y^): [l[r^+r'^)] (35)1

treated heretofore that it is highly advisable to examine

so unsatisfactorily
it
op = /(^3-+-/3)/(r3-r'3) .
(36).
But by trigonometry we have
from several aspects. Thus Biofs formula gives identical
results at the two poles, yet no physical cause is assignable ^2 = rt2-t-/2-H2a/cos® r'^ = a^-hP-zalcosO .
(37)
from his reasoning why such a result should follow, whilst Now / is taken to be small compared to a, and under
on the wave-theory of magnetism we have a very tangible these conditions we may expand these expressions in series,
physical cause always before our minds, and generating the neglecting terms of l/a higher than the first.
ponderomotive force exactly as observed in nature. r-3 = «-«[i-3(//a)cos0]
(ii) Outline of the simple theory of terrestrial magnetism
proposed by Biot in 1816. Wherefore, by addition and subtraction respectively,
In his Traite' de Physique, 18 16, tome III, p. 139, the we get:.
celebrated jf. B. Biot developed an hypothesis which gives ^-3 + ^-3 ^ ,^-3^ ^/-3_^-3 =2^-3.3 (//«) cos (D .
(39))
 :

205 Sondernummer 206

Substituting these expressions in (34) above, we find, 3. Detained Analysis of the Law connecting
on putting for 2(il the magnetic moment m 2//*: = the Mean Total Intensity of the Magnetism of the
P = m[ji,' 3 cos Oja^ , Q = mfi'ja^ earth with Terrestrial Gravitation.
P= (2 •
3 cos 0) .
(4°)
(i) Analysis and application of the harmonic law,

The magnitude of theresultant force i? is given by the equation

I/^ = ^2 [rys^-hr^/s'^).

for the composition of the vectors P and Q: Let / denote the mean total intensity of magnetism

J?^ = F^+Q^-2PQcos0 , ,
at any point of the earth's surface;
acceleration of terrestrial gravity, ordinarily taken as 981
and let g- denote the
cm
= (2M(3 cosa))2+i — 2-3 cosOcosO)] C. G. S. It is usual to designate the value of the horizontal
whence „
= OT^t'/«8.(n-3cos2(D)/'.
i?
^mi
, „ / „
(42)
component of the earth's magnetism by ;', and to express
this force in lo"^ of a C. G. S.-unit. Thus at Cheltenham,
If thereforethe m on
point prolongation is the of the Md., the Magnetic Observatory of the U. S. Coast Survey in
axis of the magnet, we have: O = and: 0°, 1906 found the value of ^ to be 20 (New International Encycl.,
= J? 2 mfi'/a^ .
(43)
New York, 1916, vol. 22, article Terrestrial Magnetism, p. 121
or Z. A. Bauer, United States Magnetic Tables and Magnetic
But if thepoint m is = and we have:
in the equator, (D go°, Charts for 1905, Washington, 1908).
i? =^ mfi'/a^ .
(44) Y = 0.00020 C. G. S.

The As the magnetic declination for 1906 was 70^27', we find

(43) and (44) represent Bid's
simple equations
-celebrated result, that if the earth's magnetism be due to a T^ Y s&cd = 0.00020-2.98838 = 0.000597676
short magnet in the centre of the globe, the total magnetic = 0.0006, nearly. S)

force at the poles ought to be exactly twice as great as at But since the declination changes slowly, and also the
rthe equator. value of ;' varies progressively from year to year, we need
not dwell on the higher decimal places; for although accurate
According to the scale of intensity formerly employed
Humboldt found that at the magnetic equator, — between
values for the Observatory are available, yet other places in
the same community would have slightly different values.
Micuipampa and Caxamarca, Peru, at an elevation of nearly
— Thus we use the round number 6- 10^''' as representing the
12000 feet in the Andes, the intensity was i.ooo; and
Gauss calculated the average intensity to be
mean value of / at Cheltenham for the year 1906.
.at the poles
Accordingly we have by observation:
This confirms Bioi% law quite accurately; for half
1.977.
of the mean
polar intensity, found by Gauss' profound theory, l/g = 6/9810000 ==: 1/1635000 .
(46)
is 0.9885, in perfect accord with the mean of many deter- It be observed that at the equator the harmonic
is to
minations along the magnetic equator, as shown by the law gives the ratio /^/^ =
1/1982802, and at the mean
following table: poles Irj'^ =
1/99 1 40 1, exactly double the equatorial value,
as under Bzot's law. And similar confirmations of the harmonic
Sixteen widely separated determinations of the law will be found at various stations in middle latitude, so
total intensity near the magnetic equator. far as the earth's magnetism is regular, in undergoing steady
'^°'^^
East ^^ increase towards the poles.
Name of Place Latitude
Lo^^ftu^e
'^^g"^'''^
^ Intensity In the applications of the harmonic law

Cape of Good Hope —34 n l8°26' 1. 014 //^ = ^2 [r^/s^+rys'^)

Mauritius —20 9 57 31 1. 144 it is magnetic pole in Boothia Felix
to be noticed that at the
Madras +13 4 80 17 1-031 the line of magnetic running to the pole in the
force s'

'Otaheite —1729 21030 1.094 Antarctic becomes infinite, so that the second term in the
Galapagos Islands — o 270 23 i.o6g above equation vanishes, and we must therefore use only the
Magnetic equator near Caxamarca — 7 281 12 I.ooo first term in our calculations.
Quito o 281 IS 1.067 when we apply the formula to the pole
In like manner,
Plateau of Antisana — o 281 20 1.068
in the Antarctic, j becomes infinite, and the first term vanishes,
Montevideo —34 S3 3°3 47 1.060
so that only the second term remains for use in calculations.
Rio de Janeiro —22 55 316 SI 0.878
At the magnetic equator on the other hand, the two
Bahia —12 59 321 30 0.871
terms become of exactly equal value, and the curved lines
Minimum of faint zone east of Brazil — 19 59 322 36 0.706
5^ V =
to the poles attain maximum values 2 1.4142,
Pernambuco — 84 325 9 0.914
s' =1/2 =
1.4142, so that the sum r'^/s^-f-r^/s'^ 1.000. =
Porto Praya +14 54 336 30 1.156
Also, by observation, each of the equatorial terms is approxi-
Ascension — 7 5^ 345 36 0.873
P P
St. Helena -iS 55 354 17 0.836
mately V2; as we find by actual integration .f
=J d^, s'
=J As'.
Mean value of total intensity /o
= 0.9863
Half of Gauss' mean value at the poles ^jilc = 0.9885 Towards the poles, on the other hand, the divisor 5 or s'

^= of the chief term becomes small, augmenting the intensity

Difference
 . :

207 Sondernummer 208

at the poles according to the data of observation and Gauss needles will show exactly the same tendency. The ponde-
theory. The harmonic law
therefore is extremely simple, and romotive force or unbalanced stress in the aether is along
the force changes steadily, yielding the required increase the curved paths to the nearest pole.
of intensity towards the poles, and only half of this mean Hence in considering the earth's magnetism we have
intensity at the equator. to take the integrals:
Now
was shown by Gauss (Allgemeine Theorie des
it

Erdmagnetismus, 1838, p. 46), as more fully" explained below, 5 = Jd5 = J[i +(dyda:)2+(dVd:<:)2]''^ dx
that on the average there are in each cubic metre of the o
(5oJ
earth's matter the equivalent of 7.831 bar magnets each P' P'
weighing one German pound, all of them weighing 3.9155 kg. s> = Jd/ = ^[i+{Ayl6xY-^{Azldx)-YI'dx
And taken to be 5.5, the average
as the density of the earth is

cubic metre of the earth's matter will weigh 5500 kg. Dividing as explained above.
3.9 1 55 by 5500, we find from Gauss' figures that: In general the curves of the magnetic lines of force
^ = 3-9I55/5500 = I : 1404-674"' (47)
in the earth's field are curves of double curvature; so that
the rigorous integration of (50) is difficult, because we do not
part of the earth is magnetic, like the perfectly saturated
steel bars used in the Observatory at Gottingen, 1833—38.
know the equations of the curves by which we might compute
These figures imply that the distribution of the bar Ayl&x and d'z/dx. Thus we have to consider the curvature

magnets within the earth is uniform, whereas a more natural

hypothesis would be to take the density of the bars to be
along any path whatever in finding s =^ \ds, /= \ds'.

o
proportional to the density of the matter in the different
In its most general form the equation for the curvature
spherical shells of which the earth is made up.
along any path in space has the form
On calculating the weight of the average cubic metre
of the earth's matter, on this hypothesis, we find it comes 1/^ = [(dVd5^)'-H(dlr/d52)2+{dVd.f')"']'^" (51)
out 5524.13 kg, instead of 5500 kg, as previously assumed where q is the variable radius of cutvature.
on the theory of homogeneity. The ratio of increase is But in our present practical calculations, it suffices tO'

1.004387 to I. Since the external action of the earth's take the curved line .y as lying in the plane through the
magnetism was found to correspond to 7.831 standard bars, magnetic poles of the earth, which are found to be at depths
in the observations used by Gauss, and this observed datum of 0.766^ for the north pole, and of o.666r for the south
cannot be increased by any alteration of our hypothesis, we pole. With these slight restrictions we have calculated the
can adjust the difference only by taking somewhat fewer bars length of and / for Cheltenham, Maryland, namely,.
5-

in each cubic metre, 7. 831/1. 004387 7.7968, in place = .f= 0.913/-, .$'=3,361^, (i/.f^+i//^) = 1.2 1 14, whence
of 7.831. The result is: we find the theoretical ratio to be

n = 3-8984/5500 = 1/1410.837 (48) lis = 1.2114/1982S02 == 1/1636810. (52}

Giving this value a weight of 3, and the above value a weight Table of observed values of the total intensity at
of 2, we get as our mean result: various places and of the product Itf'' == i 1960000^ :

n 1/1408.372 = (49)
which increases towards the poles:
The result is thus very near the value iy i 1408.12 = :
Place

previously indicated, equation (4), and thus we adhere to

that value as the most probabje.
should be explained that the curved line of magnetic
It

force, along which magnetic stress towards either pole acts,

is to be integrated between the place of observation and the

pole properly located in the earth. Here we come to a new

property of magnetism as distinguished from gravitation. For
gravity acts in straight lines, while magnetism acts in curved
lines, along the lines of magnetic force directed to either
pole. It is directed along the tangents of these curves to-

wards the nearer pole, and always is positive, as I have found

by careful experiments with soft iron, and also with freely
suspended small magnetic needles.
The small suspended magnetic needles are magnets,
free to turn the appropriate end to the nearer pole and ;

when so suspended by a thread they behave exactly as soft

iron in which magnetism is induced by the waves in the
field of the larger magnet. It is easy to find by trial of

this simple experiment, that just as soft iron filings when

laid upon a glass plate and jarred, will arrange themselves
along the magnetic line of force, so also freely suspended
 : :

209 Sondernummer 2IO

The close agreement of this ratio with the observed total intensity of the magnetic force is vertical, and there
value given in (46) above is so remarkable that the appli- should be no curvature of this special path either above or
cation of the new formula requires no comment. It is evident below the earth's surface, except for local inequalities of
that the new formulae magnetism, which in this general theory of the mean total
Ilg = (1/1408.12)2 + [(;.2/^2) (^2//2)] intensity of the total force is left out of account.
/ P' According to Gauss, (p. 46), the total intensity of the
s= = Jd/
Jd.f s' magnetism at the north pole is:

hold for any part of the globe.

O
^= I-70I .
(53)
will For what apply
will
At the south pole likewise Gauss finds:
at the equator, at the pole, and at a typical station in middle
latitude will apply generally to any part of the earth's sur- /'= 2-253- (54)
face. But it is evident that we must expect the test to be Restricting ourselves to the consideration of the mean
fulfilled only for the mean value of /, since the calculated total magnetic intensity, and disregarding local
force of the
action from the distant pole can take no account of local influences altogether,it is evident that in the region of the

magnetic attractions, which often are of sensible magnitude. poles, the curved line of magnetic force s becomes straight,

(ii) The magnetic lines of force are paths of least

while s' =
00, and therefore we can write the harmonic
law in the form;
action for the aether stress.

The unexpected above brought out, that the stress

result
Ik =il 19^2^02 -{rlsY (ss)

in the aether which gives rise to the magnetic forces, is

where r is the earth's radius, at which g is determined, and
exerted along the curved line of magnetic force and thus /
is tangential to the line of force at every point, requires
^ = \ds, also is expressed in units of the earth's radius.
something more than passing notice. Such a result has
hardly been considered in the science of dynamics as
Using the values found by Gauss, in (53) and (54)
handed
down by the great classic authorities, — such as Newton,
above, we find for the depths of the two poles as more fully
discussed hereafter
Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, Yet we
Gauss, Jacobi, Ha}nilton.
must remember that these classic authorities were occupied North pole, i-^ 0.766 r , >

chiefly with gravitational forces, which act in right lines; South pole, s' = 0.666 r .
^^ '

and if they dealt with other forces occasionally, it was al- The results here brought out are quite remarkable. As
ways assumed that the stress from which the forces arise s at the is a straight line, we find that the pole is
poles
act in right lines, like gravitation. When we come to mag- located much
nearer the surface in the southern than in the
netism, however, the case is different: we have a 'duality northern hemisphere. Hence the mean total intensity at the
of powers', and stresses acting in curved lines. south pole is a maximum, 2.253, while in the northern
It is admitted by the most eminent mathematicians, hemisphere the pole is much deeper down and the total force
that in the operations of nature the changes take place correspondingly weaker, /=
This very simple deduction
i .
7 o i .

according to the principle of Least Action. Already Fermat throws light upon the asymmetry of the earth's magnetic
had established by rigorous test the fact of action in Least system, long recognized, bitt heretofore not understood.
Time for such forces as light: Hence we may be sure that the harmonic law will hold

T = I ijvds .
for the entire arc, from the magnetic equator to the magnetic
poles. It is certain that the magnetic force or stress from
In time this geometric condition was generalized for
later
either not only varies inversely as the square of the
pole
the other forces of nature also. distance along the curved line of force, but also renders
s,
In applying the above formula (49) to the magnetism the pole a true centre of attraction, as so long held in the
of the earth, we notice that as magnetism is a stress, and theory of magnetism. This is what Airy calls the »duality
directed along the line of force, we must assume this curved
of powers«, (Treatise on Magnetism, 1870, p. 10).
path to be the path of least action for the operation of the
This confirmation of the law of inverse squares, thus
stress in the aether called magnetism. The distance .y there-
verifiesthe wave-theory of physical forces. It was noticed
fore is a curved path
by Faraday that lines of force tend to shorten themselves,
P P (Experimental Researches in Electricity, no. 3269), which led
^ = Jd^ = J[i-H(dji//d«)2-H(dz/d^)2]'/'d^ him to the theory of tension along the lines of force. We
O have explained this mechanical tendency by waves with
p' p'
Hence these lines of force
rotations about the lines of force.
s' = |d/ = ^[i^{dy/dxY-^{dz/dxYY''dx are minimum
paths for the whirling filaments, with tension
along then directed to the poles.
where the limits are the place of observation and the nearer
(iii) Determination of the depth of the magnetic poles.
pole located at the proper depth in the globe of the earth.
Gauss shows that
I. for the two poles the mean value
Let us examine into these lines of force, in the hope
of the total magnetic force is
of finding special cases of straight lines, as at the two sur-
face magnetic poles of the globe, where the direction of the I^ 1-977 •
(57)
Bd. 217.
 ;

2 I 1 Sondernummer 212

2. To get the depth of the mean pole we have there- i/n' = 1/880072 (63)
fore to solve the equation: whence / = (880072/1982802)''' = 0.66622 r. (64)
ijn = 1.977/1982802 = i/ioo2Q35 . (58) 9. The southern magnetic pole is quite appreciably
This is the ratio of magnetic force at the pole to gravity. nearer the surface than the northern. In fact the difference
3. And we then introduce the factor i/s'^, with the in the depth of the two poles amounts to almost exactly
condition that when the whole
from the force is exerted one-tenth of the terrestrial radius, or
pole at a certain depth s<r, we have the observed ratio
indicated in the second number: Jd.f-Jd/ = 5-j' = 0.10052^ ,
(65)

i/i9828o2-(r/5)2 = 1/100293S (59)

This a very remarkable feature of the magnetism
is
which gives:
of the globe, and so far as I can find out it has scarcely
.f^r(ioo2g35/i9828o2)''''==o.7ii28r (60)
been considered by previous investigators. Yet such a lop-
4. Accordingly, we find by a very simple process
sided position ,of the two magnetic poles, the southern —
that the pole placed at a depth of 0.71128^, will generate
being one-tenth of a terrestrial radius nearer the Antarctic
the increase of force noticed at the pole above the part
Continent, -- must have some meaning in the physical con-
1/1982802, which would correspond to the distance unity, stitution of our planet.
in this case the radius of the earth.
10. Perhaps the phenomenon of this notable magnetic
5. Since the intensity of the total magnetic force is
asymmetry here brought to light is too novel to justify as
observed to increase from the equator to the pole, according
yet any satisfactory discussion. But we think it worth while
to the general law of terrestrial magnetism discovered by
to point out that the magnetic asymmetry corresponds closely
Hutnboldt 1799—1804, and first announced by him to the
to the land and water hemispheres, the origin of which I
Paris Academy, An XIII, 26''' Frimaire (Jan. 16, 1805), in
have treated in AN484-445, 1916.
a joint paper with M. Biot (Cosmos, vol. I, pp. 17 9-1 81,
If this coincidence in position is accidental it is quite
Bohn Translation), we naturally attribute this increase of the
remarkable. On the other hand, if there be a real physical
magnetic force to the smaller distance at which the stress
connection of the pole nearest the earth's surface with the
is exerted, by the nearer pole, that to the other pole de-
great briny ocean which overlies half the world, we might
creasing correspondingly.
explain it by the greater conductivity of salt water for the
6. It must be remembered that in magnetism the pole
electrical wave-action, on "which the magnetism of the earth
is a real centre of attraction, corresponding to the centre of
so essentially depends. Whether such a secular asymmetry
gravity of a heavenly body, for purely gravitational forces
of the magnetic system of the earth could develop with the
and consequently our reference of magnetic forces must be
lapse of the billions of years involved in the growth of the
to the poles by which they are exerted. Airy justly says
earth is a question which must be left to the future researches
that magnetism is characterized by a »Duality of Powers*
of natural philosophers.
(Treatise on Magnetism, 1870, p. 10); hence we must not
At any rate I deem it desirable to direct attention
on that account fail to refer the forces to their appropriate
centres. And when we do this all the chief phenomena of
to the only known surface cause of such asymmetry, and
the singular coincidence in the positions of the two systems
magnetism may be explained by the laws of
terrestrial
attraction for forces varying inversely as the square of the
— the magnetic system being bodily displaced 0.05 r = 200
which
another most impressive proof of the con-
miles towards the ocean hemisphere. Whatever conclusions
distance, is
may be developed, these two remarkable asymmetries, —
nection of gravity with magnetism, and of magnetism with
—
both of these forces being due to wave-action, one relating to the ocean and the other to the magnetic
gravitation
following the same laws, yet exerted along rectilinear and
system, — are the greatest outstanding physical features of
the globe, and their essential coincidence therefore is the
curvilinear paths respectively.
Having found the average depth of the mean mag- more extraordinary. It certainly must appear to philosophers
7.
very surprising that such vast outstanding features have re-
netic poles, it will now be in order to determine the depth
ceived little or no study in the researches heretofore made
of the actual north and south magnetic poles in the solid
on the origin of the globe, and the distribution of the mag-
globe of the earth. At the northern magnetic pole Gauss'
netism in the two hemispheres. ^)
theory gives the total intensity as
/ = 1. 701
only remains to add that as the difference of the
It

depths of the magnetic poles from the surface of the earth

wherefore we find
ijn = 1. 701/1982802 = 1/1165668 . (61)
is o.io of the radius or 637.8 kms,

north pole
about 400 miles, the
is displaced downward 318 kms, or 200 miles,
And j = /-(1165668/1982802)''' = 0.76674^ (62) while the south pole is displaced upward, towards the Ant-
8. For the actual south pole, we have likewise arctic, by an equal amount. The absolute amount of this
/'= 2.253 displacement thus is very large.

') Mr. jE. of Wheldon and

F. Wesley, was able to place in my hands a full set of the great series of memoirs on
Wesley, London,
terrestrial magnetism by General Sir Edward Sabine. They had been presented to Sir yohn Herschel, as they successively appeared
in the Philosophical Transactions, and finally purchased by Mr. Wesley, with the Herschel library. Without this valuable Herschel
collection my labors would have encountered increased difficulty.
 213 Sondernummer 214

4- The Harmonic Law affords an Experimen- keiten in Zweifel ziehen. auf einzelne mag-
In Beziehung
tum Crucis as to the Nature of Magnetism. netische Korper oder kiinstliche Magnete) liefie
(natiirliche
sich die Frage, ob in ihnen ein merklicher Uberschufi der
(i) The aether stress arising under the harmonic law
einen oder der andern Fliissigkeit enthalten sei, oder nicht,
gives forces directed towards the nearer pole.
leicht durch sehr scharfe Versuche entscheiden, da im erstern
If we examine the second member of the equation for
Falle ein mit einem solchen Korper belasteter Lotfaden eine
the harmonic law connecting the total intensity of the earth's
Abweichung von der vertikalen Lage zeigen miifite (und zwar
magnetism with terrestrial gravitation, namely:
in der Richtung des magnetischen Meridians). Wenn der-
l/^=rr(rys^-+-ryr^) (66) gleichen Versuche, mit vielen kiinstlichen Magneten in einem
we perceive that magnetic equator the two terms are
at the von Eisen hinlanglich entfernten Lokale angestellt, niemals
exactly equal, we approach either pole, the term
while as die geringste Abweichung zeigen sollten (wie wohl zu ver-
becomes largest for the pole which is nearest, while the other muten steht), so wiirde allerdings jene Gleichheit auch fiir

term vanishes. This equation therefore represents a stress die ganze Erde mit grofiter Wahrscheinlichkeit anzunehmen
in the aether in the form of an unbalanced tension. sein, immer aber doch die Moglichkeit einiger Ungleichheit
At the magnetic equator the two oppositely directed noch nicht ganz ausgeschlossen.«
stresses exactly balance. Accordingly at this place there is In the Electr. Wave-Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. I, 19 17,
no force, because the balanced tension acts in the tangent, p. 20, and AN 5079, pp. 261-262, it is clearly shown that
and therefore is precisely parallel to the axis of the magnet. Ampere's theory of galvanic currents about the atoms, — to
Likewise at any other point of the magnetic line of force which Gauss strongly inclines in the above passage, — is

the tension is in the direction of the tangent, yet on either identical wave-theory. Thus the two theories are
with the
side of the magnetic equator the term corresponding to the one and the same. The existence of electric currents about
remoter pole decreases, while that directed to the nearer the atoms implies waves emitted by the atoms which are
pole increases. And as the stress therefore is no longer flat in the planes of their equators. It is waves propagated

exactly balanced, that directed to the nearer pole becomes from the wire bearing a galvanic current that calls forth
predominant. It is this outstanding unbalanced stress which the magnetic property in iron, steel, nickel or other sub-
appears as a force directed to the nearer pole, along the stances subjected to such action.
curved line 5 or s' as the case may be. Thus by the demonstrated identity of effects the wave-
This is the most remarkable physical characteristic of theory has the sanction of Ampere and Gauss, though it was
magnetism, and heretofore it has not been well understood. not developed in their time, nor stated in the way which
The theory of the action of a magnet upon a unit pole is has developed since the memorable triumph of the undula-
essentially defective and misleading. For if one pole, say tory theory under the analysis of Fourier and Poisson.
austral, is presented, it tends to move one way along the
(ii) At either pole of the earth, the magnet stands
line of magnetic force; while if the opposite pole, say the the other pole along the
vertical, because the tension to
boreal, is presented, it tends to move the other way along
line s or ,/ vanishes.
the magnetic lines of force.
By an examination of the above equation (66) we per-
Now in nature there is no such thing as the separation
ceive that near the north pole of the earth, the line of force
of the two poles. As pointed out in ANso7g, p. 247, one
pole cannot exist and act separately, any more than one
/ running away to the other pole is of infinite length, and
However short be the pieces into the term depending on r"^]^"^ therefore vanishes. A corre-
side of the human body.
even sponding result happens at the south pole of our globe,
which a magnet is broken, the two poles still persist,
Hence the conclusion where the term depending on r^.^^ disappears, owing to the
to dust-like or molecular dimensions.
infinite distance to the north pole along the curved line s.
that magnetism is a property inherent in the molecules or atoms.
In fact this property of magnets, by which the lines
About the year 1820 the celebrated French physicist
of the earth's magnetic force at the poles become very straight
Ampere reached the conclusion from the action of galvanic
— corresponding to a very flat field —
offers very serious
currents in producing artificial magnets that magnetism con-
circulation of elementary electric practical difficulty to polar explorers. As
far back as Feb. 17,
sisted essentially in the
84 1, was experienced by Sir James Ross, when
difficulty
currents about the atoms. A very similar view was taken
1

he attempted to judge from the observed dip of 88° 40' how

by Gauss (Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, 1838,
far away the southern magnetic pole would be. His obser-
p. 49; Gauss Werke 5.168) who reasons
as follows:
vations showed that the direction of the dip from the vertical
unserer Theorie ist angenommen, dafJ in jedem
»In
was only 80', ordinarily corresponding to 80 miles, yet he
mefibaren magnetisierten Telle des Erdkorpers genau eben
estimated the distance to the pole as about 160 nautical
so viel positives wie negatives Fluidum enthalten sei. Hatten
miles — multiplying the normal change of dip by two.
die magnetischen Fliissigkeiten gar keine Realitat, sondern
waren sie nur ein fingiertes Substitut fiir galvanische Strome
When Shackletons party — Dr. Mackay, Professor David,
in den kleinsten Teilen der Erde, so ist jene
Gleichheit Sir Douglas Mawson —
approached the south magnetic pole
in 1909, they found that the dip changed very slowly,
—
schon von selbst an die Befugnis zu dieser Substitution ge-
evidently owing to the flatness of the magnetic field — and
knupft; legt man hingegen den magnetischen Flussigkeiten
man ohne Ungereimtheit they were nearly at the end of their vital resources before
wirklic'he Realitat bei, so konnte
Quantitaten beider Flussig- they came near the region of the pole. On the evening of
die voUkommene Gleichheit der
 215 Sondernummer 216

Jan. 15, iQog, the dip was observed to be 8g°48', and Sir Thus it appears well to illustrate an easy experiment by a

Douglas Mawson, at that time somewhat inexperienced, esti- photograph admitting of accurate reproduction.
mated that the pole was distant only 12 or 13 miles. On 1. We suspend by threads four small magnetic needles,

Jan. 16, they reached the estimated spot, by forced marches, and so space them about the large magnet as shown in
yet the point of verticity probably was still quite a distance fig. I, plate 2. It will be seen from the photograph that in all
away, for reasons which now seem fairly obvious. cases the magnet exerts a very sensible pull on the small
For in 19 12,Douglas Mawson again sought to
Sir needles. They are therefore bodily drawn away from the
reach the pole from Commonwealth Bay, on the other side vertical as shown in the photograph here reproduced.
(Home of the Blizzard, 2 vols., Lippincott, Phil., 19 14), and 2. The statement so often made that a magnet exerts
found by measurement that when he was at dip 89°43.'s, only a directive action on a magnetic needle, therefore, is
only 1 6.'5 from the vertical, the rate of change was so slow not generally true. In the case of the earth, with the poles
that he had to travel three or four nautical miles to effect almost infinitely distant, the action is indeed mainly directive;
a change of a single minute in the dip. Thus in this last effort yet there is always a slight bodily pull on the needle, north-
he did not reach the south magnetic pole, but got only within an ward ourin hemisphere, and southward in the southern
estimated distance of some 50 or 60 miles of it. Probably it hemisphere.
was near Gauss' calculated place, two or three times this distance. 3. With the photograph of the effect of the forces
It is a curious fact that Gauss' calculated position of acting on the four needles, herewith reproduced in fig. i, plate 2,
the pole almost half way between the positions attained
lies
our theory of the nature of magnetism is completely demon-
by Mawson in igog, and 19 12, as shown on the map given strated. The argument underlying the harmonic law is seen
in plate 3, from Shackleton's report on the Geology of the to be a fact. It is impossible to claim that a similar theory
Antarctic. Hence in view oi Mawson & experience of igi2, ever before was proposed by any other investigator. And
when the magnetic field was found to be so very flat that as the wave-theory now is definitely proved for the first time
he had to go three or four nautical miles to effect a change it would appear that Helmholtz was not far wrong when he
in the dip of only a single minute, I believe the southern said that our failure to discover the cause of magnetism was
magnetic pole has not yet been attained by any explorer. tPie disgrace of the 19''' century.
It would appear to be very near the position assigned
4. seems likely that the cause never could have
It
by Gauss' profound theory, namely: 7 2" 3 5' south latitude, been discovered by reasoning based on the theory of the
i52°3o' east longitude. The Shackleton party in igog got —
a half magnet when no such
action on a unit north pole 1

within about 80 miles of this site, and Mawson in igi2 —

thing exists in nature! and hence I have examined the
was within about 130 miles of it; yet the untraversed south problem from the ground up. In the unpublished Prelimi-
magnetic polar area of elliptical form, with centre near Gauss'
nary Paper which I sent to the Royal Society in 19 14, it
position, was still at least 160 miles long and about 100
was shown conclusively that a needle suspended by a thread
miles wide. The centre of this elliptical area has never
is bodily attracted to a wire bearing a steady galvanic current,
yet been explored, and thus Gauss' calculated position still
the ponderomotive force being
in a veritable Terra Incognita.
is

Returning now to the above formula for the harmonic

F= (j,'xi{^lr+ilr') (67)

law, we see that the lines of magnetic force at the poles as shown in section 12 (ii) below.
become excessively straight and parallel. And hence, just The on physics, indeed, give no clear state-
treatises
as two parallel lines meet only at infinity, so also the re- ment as towhat happens in this case. They simply evade
turning branch of a very straight closed line can reach the the difficulty cleverly, and sometimes vaguely. Even Maxwell
other pole only by traversing an infinite distance in its circuit. declared in his address on Action at a Distance (Scient. Pap.,
Accordingly, it is true that at the poles of a magnet vol. 2, p. 317), that »the most obvious deduction from this
the conjugate term in the harmonic law becomes rigorously new fact [Oersted'^ experiment) was that the action of the
zero. The magnetic attraction on the vertical needle there- current on the magnet was not a push-and-pull force, but
fore is wholly downward, and the curved line s or s' to the a rotatory force, and accordingly many minds were set a
pole becomes rigorously a right line, as assumed in the speculating on vortices and streams of aether whirling round
foregoing theory, for calculating the depths of the poles below the current.*
the earth's surface. This mathematical method for locating 5. Just before making this amazing announcement,
the depth of the poles in the earth is therefore 'entirely showing that he had never tried the experiment which I

rigorous; and the only uncertainty which can arise is from carried out in 19 14, Maxwell in this address said:
some physical modification of magnetic wave action, such »We have now arrived at the great discovery by Oersted
as the absorption studied by Majora7ia at Turin, igig, in of the connection between electricity and magnetism. Oersted
his researches on the absorption of gravitation (cf. Phil. Mag., found that an electric current acts on a magnetic pole, but
May, 1920). that it neither attracts nor repels it, but causes it to revolve
(iii) Photographic illustration of the directions of the round the current. He expresses this by saying that 'the
forces exerted in magnetism. electric conflict acts in a revolving manner'.*
In view of the considerable confusion of thought on 6. Evidently
the great Maxwell believed that the
the subject now prevalent it is very important to have a magnet not bodily attracted to a wire bearing a current.
is

convincing demonstration of the true nature of magnetism. An error authorized by so eminent an authority as Maxwell
 : :

217 Sondernummer 218

naturallywould be constantly copied by the less cautious we perceive that the gravitational force attracting to the
investigators.And thus to this day there is no clear state- centre of the earth, is at that distance 1982802 times more
ment in any standard work issued prior to the Electr. Wave- powerful than the total magnetic intensity /, acting at such
Theory of Phys. Fore, vol. i, 1917, in which I explained that distance that {r^/s^-f-r^/s'^) =
i, which is near the magnetic
the needle is bodily attracted to the wire, by wave-action, equator.
just as it is also bodily attracted to the pole of another
These considerations show how tangible is the connec-
magnet, by stresses along the lines of force, as above deduced
tion now
established between magnetism representing a fraction
from the harmonic law,
of the mass t] attracting to two centres, and gravitation di-
Jjg = ^2(^2/^2^.^3/y2) =, l/l 98280 2 (r ^V/^) (68)
•

V+ rected to a single centre. Gravitation is the mean action

•which is fundamental in the theory of cosmical magnetism. incident to the haphazard arrangement of the planes of the
The magnetic vector component j^= atoms in a non-magnetic body; while in a magnetic body
7. i : 1408 depends
the planes of the atoms take on parallelism, and the attrac-
on the earth's constitution, as does also ^=981 cm.
tion a » Duality of Powers*, as if the forces come from the
But if we pass to any other planet as Venus, Mars, Jupiter
or the sun, it is evident that whilst the numerical value of two poles.
/ and g
be changed, as well as the vector component
of will 5. Now as for formulae to the sun,
applying these
rj, yet formula of the same type will hold. Thus
another we notice that the Mt. Wilson
found the sun'sobservers
for the various planets we could write the following series polarity similar to that of the earth's, yet the intensity of
of equations: magnetization about 80 times greater. Hence if ijs denote
the part of the sun's mass which is magnetic, we have by
observation the following equation
(69)
r]s- = 8o)y/ (72)
Jvlgr == r/v" [rv'/sv'-^rr'-'/sv''^]
where tje = 1/1408,
as deduced from the researches of Gauss,

(iv) Calculation of the magnetic vector component for

and used throughout our theory of the earth's magnetism.
the sun shows that i i 57'** part of the solar mass is magnetic. 6.would thus appear that globe for globe the part of
It

1.
:

The formula which connects terrestrial magnetism

the sun's mass whichis magnetic is 1/1408 l/8o 1/157.42 • ^
of the whole of that immense mass of flaming fluid.
with gravitation upon the earth is therefore of general vali-
dity. Gravitationalfrom the centre of a spherical
action The total intensity of solar magnetism being as the
planet, — all the particles under hap-
the integral action of square of this fraction, we have
hazard arrangement, whether the mass be homogeneous or 7/\ = (1/157.42)2= 1/24781 .
(73)
made up of concentric shells of uniform density would — And our equation for the harmonic law as applied to the
have a mean value at the surface. And the vector compo- sun becomes:
nent 5^,
— representing the fractional part of the planet's
Jlg=rj^{r^ls^+r'-ls'^) = ^724781 -(i/Z'-H i//^) (74)
mass which is magnetic, — when we
square for take its
.

Since the force of gravity at the solar surface is

the composition, according to the law for directed magnitudes,
would lead to equations of the form given above. 27301.6 cm (AN3992, p. 134), we find that at the part of

2. The force g is compounded for the single distance

the sun where (r'^/s^-t-r^/s'^) = i, which is near the solar
equator, the value of / would be
r, upon which gravity depends, while the magnetic force /

depends on the »Duality of Powers*, as Airy calls them, /= 1.1017 cm. (75)
and therefore has to be calculated from both foci of the It thus appears that at the sun's equator the balanced
magnetic planet. This explains the theory in a simple way; stress, represented by magnetic forces, if unbalanced, could
yet in practice we can not find rj by observation, except produce an acceleration of over one centimetre per second,
perhaps in the case of the sun, the magnetism of which is and at the solar poles over two centimetres. This force is
very powerful, about 80 times that of the earth's magnetism, not large absolutely, yet on matter suspended by repulsive
according to the observers at the Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory. forces it operates powerfully in generating the lines of the

3. In general if we had any standard of force, as at coronal streamers visible during total solar eclipses and in ;

the of a spherical shell concentric with the centre

surface cycles of the sun spot period produces stupendous electric
of an ordinary magnet, like the surfaces of the above spheres luminosity effects somewhat analogous to a solar Aurora
for the magnetic planets and sun, we could write similar Borealis and Aurora Australis, which become sensible in
equations for the forces of magnets under experiment in our droughts and heat waves felt upon our globe.
laboratories. Thus the assigned cause of magnetism is general,
We pause here to recall Gauss' result, for the earth,
and the harmonic law of universal validity.
and our extension of it to the sun, in terms of other units.
4. The harmonic law In the Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, 1838, p. 46
{Gauss Werke 5.165), Gauss shows that the total number
may be put in a somewhat different form: of magnets, each weighing one German pound, which it
gtj^r^ l/{i/s'-+-i/s'^) (70)
would be necessary to distribute throughout the globe to
account for the observed magnetism of the earth is
But since
M/r^-ij^r^ = J//1982802 (71) JV= 8464-101*'.
 2 19 Sondernummer 220

The values which I use are slightly different from 1841, and by Sir Douglas Mawson's observations of 1909
those employed by Gauss eighty four years ago. With my and igi2. The south magnetic pole is the more instructive
constants the value of comes out: N also because of the way Gauss' calculated position fits in

N= 84S4-4S7-ioi* with the recently observed places.

^8454457000000000000000. (76) On February 17, 1841, Sir James Ross discovered

To explain the significance of this immense number Cape Gauss, near 76° 12' South Latitude, 164° East Longitude.
of magnets for the entire earth, Gauss remarks that in order Here the vertical walls of ice stopped the westward cruise
to obtain a substitute for the action of the globe in outer of the Erebus and Terror; but from measures taken on the
space, we should have under uniform distribution
to assume, ice he observed the dip to be 88° 40', or 80' from magnetic
with parallel magnetic axes, nearly eight such magnets to verticity, »so that the pole was only 160 miles distant*.
each cubic metre of the earth's mass (more exactly 7.831). The place of Ross' ship is indicated on the accom-
Such a result, 8.454457 lo^-*- one-pound magnets, panying map (plate 3) and as he found the variation there to be
;

everywhere with parallel magnetic axes, is impressive enough ioQ°2 4' east, I have accurately charted his calculated position
an illustration of the magnetism of our globe; yet for the of the south magnetic pole, at this nearest a:pproach to it.
sun the number of such one pound magnets would be enor- The places commonly assigned to Ross' estimate of the place

mously greater. In fact the magnetic part of the sun is of the pole, frequently are so inexact that it is necessary

1/157 of the whole, and since the sun is 330000 more to exercise caution, to avoid being misled. Thus in the
massive than the earth, this is equivalent to 2102 times the articlePolar Regions, Encycl. Brit.,9"'ed., 1885, vol. 19, p. 330,.
total mass of our globe. it is stated that »the south magnetic pole was calculated ta
Accordingly for the sun we should have the higher be in 76° S. and 145° 20' E., or about 500 miles southwest
number: from the ship's positions. There is no good authority for
N= 8.454457 • lo^*-- 2 =
17.77127-10^*
102 thisstatement, and it cannot be correct. The place laid

= 17 7 7 I 270000000000 000000 000 .

(77)
down on the accompanying map is from Ross' observationSr
and he expressly declares that »the pole was only 160 miles-
To convey a clear idea of this effect we may imagine
distant*.
our earth to have the property of perfect magnetism. Then
Ross believed the pole to be in the snow capped
if all its particles were reduced to magnetic bars with parallel
mountains, slightly to the north of west from his position,
axes, it would require 2102 such perfect magnetic globes,
and asthe summits were over loooo feet high, he could
like this hypothetical substitute for the earth, when uniformly
behold from the sea the range of mountains in which the
distributed throughout the sun's mass, to give the magnetic
on the planets pole is placed, and yet he could not reach it, owing to the
field which actually surrounds our sun and acts
indefinitely extended vertical walls of ice.
as they revolve in their orbits.
Since the solar magnetic field is rendered variable by In his account he adds »The range of mountains in
:

the outburstsof sunspots, with their increased emission of the extreme west, which, if they be of an equal elevation
magnetic waves, we need not be surprised at the earth with Mount Erebus, were not less than fifty leagues distant

currents (really eddy currents) 'Magnetic Storms' and Aurorae (150 nautical miles), and therefore undoubtedly the seat of
the southern magnetic pole, was distinguished b^ the name
observed upon our globe.
of His Royal Highness, Prince Albert. i-

Investigation of the Supposed Motion of

5. It is worthy of notice that Ross seems to have been
the Magnetic Poles in the Earth. aware of the flatness of the earth's field, near the magnetic
(i) Sir James Clark Ross' attempts to reach the south pole; for when the dip is only 80' from verticity, he esti-
magnetic pole, 1841. mates the pole to be distant 160 miles so that twice as- —
In order to obtain a clear view of the supposed motion many miles would have to be traversed to produce the re-
of the magnetic poles in the solid globe of the earth, we quired change of dip. This same problem arises with Sir
must first review the locations assigned to the poles by Douglas Mawson, 1912, as shown below, but it was not
leading explorers at different epochs. We shall then be able given much attention in the dash for the magnetic pole-
to judge if there is evidence of a progressive motion of the made Jan. 16, 1909.
poles, and, if so, to fix its character as accurately as possible.
(ii) Sir Douglas Mawson's search for the south mag-
On 183 1, the north magnetic pole was located
June i,
netic pole, 1909.
by Sir James Ross in 70° 5' North Latitude, 263" 14' East
Longitude, where the dip was observed to be 89° 59'. This I. In Skackleton' & Heart of the Antarctic (2 vols.,
Lippincott, Phila., 1909) a detailed account is given of the
observation no doubt was as accurate as could be expected,
search for the south magnetic pole. The Shackleton party
but since the north magnetic pole does not seem to have
been located by actual observation at any later period, we seems to have believed that the pole was in rapid movement.
have no observational data to enable us to judge of its Thus on p. 383, they say:
supposed motion since 1831. »In the interval between 1841, when these observations
We shall examine the problem of the
therefore first were made, and 1902, when the Discovery Expedition again
supposed motion of the south" magnetic pole, where approxi- located the south magnetic pole, it had moved about two-
mate data are furnished by Sir James Ross observations of hundred geographical miles to the eastward.*
 «

22 1 Sondernummer 222

2. This statement as to the motion of the pole since 1841 south magnetic pole from the other side, the base being in
must be received with great reserve for the following reasons: Commonwealth Bay. The following is a brief summary of

a) On
p. 177 stated in the record
it is for Jan. 12,
the chief measurements of dip, and other phenomena noted.
iQOQ, that on carefully analysing the results of the advance On Nov. 10, 19 1 2, the party started for the south
copy of the Discovery Expedition Magnetic RepoTt,Mr. Mawson magnetic pole, the journey being_ mainly to the south, and
decided that »the magnetic pole, instead of moving easter- slightly to the east. On Nov. 20, the dip was 87° 27', re-
ly, as had done in the interval between Sabine?, obser-
it
quiring a change of 153' to reach the pole; but by Nov. 27,
vations in 1 84 1, and the time of the Discovery Expedition
the dip had changed to 88° 54', yet as the change was some-

in igo2, was likely now to be traveling somewhat to the what sudden it was thought to be »too large«, (p. 287), —
northwest*. This was of course on the supposition that the perhaps the readirlg should have been 88° 2 4'. The dip con-
pole moves quite rapidly. Such reasoning, however, was not tinued to decrease slowly, and on Dec. 3, it was steady at
justified, because the pole had never yet been accurately located.
88° 30' — a result showing that the above value for Nov. 27
was an error.
b) On Jan. 1 5, Mawson got a good latitude obser-
As the party sped on they seemed to find the dip
vation, 4 2', and twenty minutes before noon found by
7 2°
nearly stationary for a time, 89° 11', —
what it had been
the dip circle that the dip was 8g°45', so that they had at
since leaving the station at 150 miles. Sixty five miles more
length approached very near to the south magnetic pole.
appeared to yield little change in the dip. On Dec. 17 they
That evening the dip was again found to be 8g°48', the —
passed 70° south latitude making about 14 miles a day,
day's march having been 14 miles. Having calculated that
and the dip was found to be 8g°2 5'. On Dec. 19, the dip
the pole was not over 13 miles away, they rested till early
was 8g°3 5', and at 256 miles the altitude of the plateau
next morning. Thus they made an early start for the spot
was 5600 feet, while on Dec. 21, their sledge-meter showed
fixed upon for the pole, 7 2"" 2 5' South Latitude, 15 5° 16' East
— 301 miles.
Longitude, and reached it by great effort at 3''3o'" p. m.,
On page 296 Bage describes the difficulties of making
guiding their course by vertical marks erected every two
accurate observations:
miles or so, as they traveled, the compass now being useless,
» Magnetic work under these conditions is an extremely
on account of the great proximity to the pole. uncomfortable operation. Even a light wind will eddy round
3. Owing to the extreme weariness of the party and the break-wind, and it is wind which makes low tempera-
their shortage of food they took no further observations, tures formidable. Nearly all the work has to be done with
merely raising the British Flag, and taking possession of the bare fingers or thin instrument-gloves, and the time taken
plateau about the pole, and retracing their steps with all is far greater than in temperate climates, owing to the fingers
haste to the little depot where the dip was 89° 48', which constantly 'going' and because of the necessity of continually
they reached at 10*' p. m. (p. 182). On Jan. Tt^, Mawson esti- freeing the instrument from the condensed moisture of the
mated (p. 180) that »in order to accurately locate the mean breath. Considering that the temperature was 12° F. when —
position (of the pole) possibly a month of continuous obser- he had finished his four hours' work, it may be imagined
vation would be needed, but that the position he indicated that Webb was ready for his hot tea. The dip proved to
was now as close as he could locate it.« be 89°43.'5, that is: sixteen and half minutes from the ver-
The dash upon by the apparent
to the pole place fixed
tical. The altitude was just over five thousand nine hundred
feet, in latitude 7o°36.'s south and longitude 148° 10' east.«
rapid change was thus all that was attempted.
in the dip
Apparently they did not even count the number of oscilla- The party was now within 175 miles of where David,
tions of the needle in 10 minutes, which would have given
Mawson and Mackay had stopped in igog. They had to
turn back after getting within i6.'5 of the go° dip at the
a measure of the total intensity at the pole, and been valuable
pole. Bage's diary says:
scientific data. The journey had, however, proved to be much
longer than had been expected, which again emphasizes the
»We have now been exactly six weeks on the tramp
and somehow feel rather sad at turning back, even though
flatness of the magnetic field near the pole.
it has not been quite a Sunday school picnic all along. It
84 1 Ross had taken the distance to be two miles
In 1
a great disappointment not to see a dip of go°, but the
is
to a single minute of change in the dip. By actual journey
time is too short with this 'climate'. It was higher than we
the Shackleton party found the distance there and back at
expected to get, after the unsatisfactory dips obtained near
least 500 miles. If we take the single distance at 240 miles
the two-hundred-mile depot. The rate of increase since that
on a great circle, the change of 80' in the dip from Ross'
spot has been fairly uniform and indicates that go° might
place in 1841, would imply an average multiplication by
be reached in another fifty to sixty miles, if the same rate
three miles for each minute of the change in dip. The
held, and that means at least another week. It's no good
distance, however, from Ross' place at the sea to the actual We have our
thinking about it, for 'orders are orders'. '11

pole probably was about 320 miles, which, would make the Twenty-five days till we
work cut out to get back as it is.
average multiplier of the change of dip four instead of three. we have twenty-three days' food, eight
Certainly
are overdue.
(iii) The expedition to the south magnetic pole, by days' with us, ten days' at two hundred miles, and five days'
Mawson, Bage and Webb, from Commonwealth Bay, igi2. at sixty-seven miles; so with luck we should not go hungry,

In the Home of the Blizzard (Lippincott, Phila., 19 14, but Webb wants to get five more full sets of dips if possible

2 vols.) we find a detailed account of the approach to the on the way back, and this means two and a half days.
 «

223 Sondernummer 224

This southward journey of Mawsoni, party from Com- (v) Is there any evidence of the motion of the earth's
monwealth Bay is full of instruction, like that of the Shackle- magnetic poles?
ton party from Ross Sea. in IQ09. In both explorations the This is a question which has been long debated, yet
observers found the pole with go° dip was much further from the above analysis of the evidence it would seem as
away than they had at first expected. This was due to the if motion is not definitely proved. Before making the above
extreme flatness of the magnetic field near the pole. had inclined to the impression
careful analysis of the records I

(iv) True place of the south magnetic pole probably of a counter-clockwise rotation of the south magnetic pole,
is within 30 miles of the position calculated by Gauss, 1^38. about the Gaussi&n position {M) of the Maximum Magnetic
Moment for the earth. But in this early survey of the data I
After some study of the effect of the increasing flat-
had relied upon the pole being not over 160 miles from the
ness of the magnetic field, as we near the pole, I have i?^j.s'' ship Erebus, Feb. 17, 1841. We have seen
position of
ventured to construct a table of distances from the pole,
above that Jioss held the pole to be distant only 160 miles^
•with changing rate of increase for a given increment of dip
yet in so doing he took the multiplier for converting changes
(z/^ =3') towards the magnetic pole.
of dip into nautical miles to be only 2, whereas the above
This may
not be complete, but it is very in-
table table based upon Mawson's observational experience showed
structive, as simple means of harmonizing the
affording a that the average multiplier for Jioss' distance should have
conflicting estimates of the observers who have tried to locate been at least 3, perhaps 4.
the pole from opposite sides. It seems to show that the true We find in the records of ^/^i2i:-^/«'/^«'s party, 19 09, abundant
pole is very near the point located by Gauss in 1838, and evidence of a current view that the magnetic pole is near the
almost certainly not over 30 miles away. coast, and even moving eastward! As they travel inland they

Number of
Differences jni = multiplier OT;('i9/-i9;+,) = are surprised at the slowness of the change of dip, and
of dip from for i' of dip to give radial width of conclude that it has suddenly moved westward. As a matter
circle about
the pole equivalent distance circles in naut. of fact they had not sufficiently allowed for the flatness of
magnetic pole 2
in naut. miles. miles.
the field very near the pole. And these errors of reckoning
I I6.'S-I2' 4 were not only current among the explorers, but are also
2 12 — 9 S IS repeated in the article Terrestrial Magnetism, Encycl. Brit.,
3 Q - 6 6 18
ii'*" ed., by such a scientific authority as Dr. Charles Chree,
4 6 - 3 7 2 I
Kew
S 3—0 '=5
24
director of the Observatory.
out that Sabine's Chart (1841) gave
Dr. Chree points

2 ;»i(^i^;— ^1^,4-1) = g6 miles

for the south magnetic pole 7 3° 30' South Latitude, 147° 30'
East Longitude. He says Professor J. C. Adams in his re-
searches reached the coordinates 73°4o'S., and 147'^7'E,
Estimated total distance of Mawson's party in
igi2 from pole = 106 miles Chree then
chief data.
gives the following table as a summary of the
Estimated distance oi Shackkton's party of 1909
from pole = 70 miles. (a) Southern Cross Expedition, 7 2°4o'S., 152" 30' E,
(B) The Voyage of the » Discovery*,
In fact it isabout 70 miles northwest of the furtherest
1902-3 72 51 S., 156 25 E,
point reached by Shackleton'% party in 1909, and about
(C) 5/^fflir/^/,?/^«'s Expedition, 1908-9 72 25 S., 155 16 E.
105 miles southeast of where Mawson's party halted in 19 12.
In conclusion Dr. Chree thinks » there at least moderate-
The star on the map shows where we locate the south magnetic is

pole, after a careful study of all the evidence furnished by

probability that a considerable movement towards the north-
east has taken place during the last seventy years.
the parties of Shackkton and Mawson.
Unfortunately for Dr. Chree's argument we see from
This very accurate confirmation of the position of the
the foregoing investigation that there is not the slightest
south magnetic pole indicated by Gauss in 1838, is well
evidence of any such motion. If any motion at all is shown,
calculated to impress us with the rigor of the method of
it is to the westward. For Gauss' theoretical determination
calculation used by that great mathematician. Observation
of the position of the pole is our only trustworthy guide.
has not yet been able to improve on the results of the
It is valid for the epoch 1830, and the observational work
mathematical calculations made before any explorer had visited
of 1909 and 19 1 2 show the pole still so very near Gauss'
the Antarctic Continent!
original position that we cannot be sure that any motion
Gauss' method rests on 24 constants, and thus requires at has occurred in the intervening 80 years. The star (*)•
all

measures of the three independent magnetic elements of dip, on the map is the most probable place indicated by the
declination and total intensity, at eight places of observation. available observations, yet being only about 3' from the pole
The method does not require observations in the southern of Gauss or 25 miles, we can not safely conclude that any
hemisphere, yet the more symmetrically the stations are motion at all has occurred. Under the most favorable con-
distributed about the earth the better. Above all, great accuracy ditions Gauss' calculated place may be uncertain by 2'; and
is required in the magnetic measurements, and as Gauss was at least i' of uncertainty always exists in the observations of
a great master in this line of research, very little improvement 1909 and 19 12, because of the difficulty in setting and reading
has ever been made on his original constants of 1838. the dip circle accurately while traveling in so severe a climate.-
 :

225 Sondernummer 226

If the southern magnetic pole gives little or no evidence » Table XLV, Axis and Moment of First Order Gaussia.n
of motion in 80 years, it would be natural to hold that the Coefficients.
north magnetic pole is correspondingly fixed. Unfortunately Epoch
"^ Authority
* N. Lat. W. Long.
" cgs. units.
the observational evidence is even more incomplete than that 1650 H. Fritsche 82°5o' 42^55' 0.3260
for the south pole. When only 30 years of age Sir James Ross 1836 » 78 27 63 35 0.3260
was in the icefields with his uncle Sir John Ross, and as 1845 J- C.Adams 78 44 64 20 0.3282
they could only move some eight miles in two years, yet 1880 » 78 24 68 4 0.3234
they were near the north magnetic pole, the young man in 1885 Neumayer, Peterson, Bauer 78 3 67 3 0.3230
desperation 1885 Neumayer, Schmidt 78 34 68 31 0.3230
sheer finally got ashore and having found the
dip to be 89" 59' located the pole June i, 1831, at »49. The
order Gauss\z.n constants have a simple
first

70° 17" N, 263° 13' 15" E. physical meaning. The terms

containing them represent the
s'
potential arising from the uniform magnetization of a sphere
So far as I canno other explorer ever was able
learn
The Norwegian expedition
reach the north magnetic pole.
parallel to a fixed axis, the moment M
of the spherical
to magnet being given by
of 1905—07, under Roald Amundsen, was to search for this
spot,but although he traversed the Northwest Passage and
where R
is the earth's radius. The position of the north end
came to San Francisco, with his vessel, and I conversed with of the axis of this uniform magnetization and the values of
him at Mare Island, I never heard of his being near the M\R^ derived from the more important determinations of the
north magnetic pole. Probably the ice blocked the way in Gaussian constants are given in Table XLV. The data for
the channels to the south, as it did with the .ff^wes in 1831, 1650 somewhat doubtful value. If they were as reliable
are of
and Amundsen had to steer a more northerly course. Accor- as the others, one would feel greater confidence in the reality

dingly it appears that Sir James Ross alone attained the north of the apparent movement of the north end of the axis from

magnetic pole or got within 10 miles of The only other

east to west. The table also suggests a slight diminution in
indications of value are
it.

drawn from Gauss' theory; but even

M 1845, but it is open to doubt whether the apparent
since
change exceeds the probable error in the calculated values.*
here a contradiction arises, probably from a systematic bias
Accordingly, it thus appears that Dr. C/tree is very
at some unknown source.
doubtful of the supposed motion of the north magnetic pole
For Gauss himself calculated the north magnetic pole
to the westward.
to be at 73°35'N, 264° 21' E. Longitude, which was 3?s
Yet reasoning on the basis of the observed secular
from Ross' observed latitude. This considerable difference
motion of the magnetic meridians, Airy remarks in his
proved puzzling to Gauss, who says, (p. 44) Treatise on Magnetism, 1870, p. 53:
»Nach Ross's Beobachtung fallt der nordliche magne- »The system of magnetic meridians has undergone
tische Pol um 3" 30' siidlicher als nach unserer Rechnung, considerable changes in the times of modern accurate science.
und letztere wie aus unsrer Vergleichungstafel^ersichtlich
gibt, The southern point of Africa received from the Portuguese
ist, eine um
i°i2' fehlerhafte Richtung der magnetischen voyagers in the fifteenth century the name of L'Agulhas (the
Kraft an jenem Platze. Beim siidlichen magnetischen Pole needle), because the direction of the compass-needle, or the
local magnetic meridian, coincided there with the geogra-
wird man eine bedeutend grofiere Verschiebung zu erwarten
phical meridian: it now makes with it an angle of about
haben. Da in Hobarttown, als dem demselben am nachsten
30°. In the sixteenth century, the compass-needle in Britain
liegenden Beobachtungsorte, die berechnete Inklination, ohne
pointed east of north: it now points from 20° to 30° (in
Rucksicht auf das Zeichen, von der Rechnung um 3° 38' zu different parts of the British isles) west of north. At the
klein angegeben wird, insofern man sich auf die Beobachtungen present time, a change of the opposite character is going
verlassen kann, so wird der wirkliche siidliche magnetische on: in 18 19 the westerly declination at Greenwich was about
Pol wahrscheinlich bedeutend nordlicher liegen als ihn unsere 24° 23', which was probably its maximum; in the last thirty
Rechnung angibt, und mochte derselbe etwa in der Gegend years it has diminished from 2 3? 5 to 20°, nearly. It is be-
von 66° Breite und 146° Lange zu suchen sein.« lieved that the magnetic poles are rotating around the geo-
graphical poles from east to west.«
Accordingly it appears that in view of the observed
Gauss was in doubt Great and impressive as are the surface changes here
difference at the north magnetic pole.
magnetic pointed out by Airy, it can scarcely be held that any regular
of the accuracy of the calculated place of the south
cyclical motion of the magnetic poles are in progress. This
pole; yet observations over 70 years later verified the true
could not be so and leave either pole fixed in its place, as
place of the south pole to be very near that assigned by
we have shown is true of the south magnetic pole. Nor, on
the great mathematician. the other hand, can we adopt the hypothesis of motion and
As Dr. CAree has recently discussed the problem of the assign to the south magnetic pole a cycle of oscillation
motion of the north magnetic pole from another point of enabling it same position in 19 10 as 1830.
to present the

view, we shall quote his summary in the Encycl. Brit., article We are thus forced most extensive secular
to admit the

Terrestrial Magnetism, ii'''ed., 1911, page 382: motions of the magnetic meridians, yet compelled at the same
Bd. 217.
 :

227 Sondernummer 228

time to deny any sensible motion of the magnetic poles in x,y,z

the solid globe of the earth. ii = —^[aix+fidy+Y'^^) =

The only way we account for such a motion
could
x,y,z
of the magnetic meridians without motion of the poles would
be to assign the meridional shifts to superficial effects, per-
= ^[dnl^x-dx-hdiildyAy+diildz-dz) (8c

haps due to Eddy-Currents in the globe, like those distur-

in which ii fulfills Laplace's, equation for every point of
bances which manifest themselves chiefly in Earth Currents
and Aurorae, and depend on the action of the sun and free space:
moon as explained hereafter. Perhaps the periodicity of the d^iildx^+d'^nl^y-^'d-nldz'^ = o

secular changes and their differences in local surface areas or in polar coordinates [r, u, I) :

of the globe, could be explained by the mutual interactions I /r^ 9(^2

• •
dnldr)ldr+ 1 /(r^ sin u)-d{smu- dii/du)/du -+-
of the various segments of the earth under the incessant + i/{rHm^u)-d^Si/dP=o. (81)
magnetic disturbances of the heavenly bodies, especially the Therefore the potential of the earth's field may be
sun and moon.
expanded in convergent series of the form:
Under the influence of cosmically induced eddy currents,
depending on the sun and moon, and the sunspot cycle with
i3 = (sJr^+Sjr^-\-Ss/r^-i )-f-5o'-H5iV+
-hSi'r^-hSs'r^-i (82)
its suddenly varying magnetic field, there could arise not
in which Si, S2, S^- Sq', Si', S.,', S^' are surface har-
only the uncompensated electric disturbances, and their
monics of the degree indicated by the subscripts.
varying dissipation, with auroral displays in the atmosphere'
of the higher latitudes, but also, from the way these distur- Since the surface harmonic Sn can be expanded in

bances are reflected and compensated within a globe so the form

heterogeneous as our earth, a mass of progressive secular
oscillations in the magnetic field near the surface. This is
Sn =^ -Pn {cosu) {An,m COSml-^Bn.m sinw I) (83)

we have
the most probable explanation of the secular changes in the
earth's magnetism: for we must not regard our globe as one
homogeneous mass, but a series of masses acting on each ii ^^j y^ {FZ [cosu) [An,m cos7nl-^£n,m s\nm X)

other mutually, and all under changing action depending

on the sun, moon and sunspot cycles. -+- rn -Pn (cos u) {An,m COS ml-h Bn,m sinmk)] (84)

6. of the Earth's Magnetic Moment,

Theory The latter series, depending on periodic planetary in-

with Gauss' Explanation of his Method ofCalculation. fluences outside of the earth, usually is separated from the
other, because it is very small, and in fact was not included
(i) The constant part of the earth's magnetism depends
in Gauss' the non-periodic part of the earth's
theory for
on internal causes, and its potential may be developed in
magnetism. Thus we have for the principal development of
a convergent series of spherical harmonics.
the magnetic potential
It has long been recognized that the earth's magnetism

may be separated into two parts: a = sJr^-\-Sjr^-hSs/r^-\

A constant part, depending on internal causes, X^ 'X7
1.

namely plane magnetic waves emitted from the atoms so

^^ l-^TC (cosz^)
^\ ~^i \An,mCO%mK-^]^n,m'i\Vi.mK)\
,
i\1 /

(85)
\

lined up as to have their equatorial planes parallel to a

common plane. If we ignore all the hormonics beyond the first, we obtain:

2. A periodic part, depending on fluctuating magnetic ii = \lr^-{A^,^Px[co%u)-^Pi^{c.o%u)y.

disturbances due to the sun, moon, and sunspot changes. x(^,,,cos^-H^,,isinA)} (86)
Let H
denote the horizontal component of the magnetic = i/?-^-{o.3iS7 coszii-Hsinz^X
force at any point of the earth's field then the force usually
; x(o. 0248 cos2 0.0603 sinA)} — .
(87)
is resolved into the components: This expression
last harmonic of order unity,
is a biaxial
Towards the north, X=iycos(5 = —i/r-d^i/du (cf J. H. Jeans, Mathematical Theory of Electricity and
Towards the west, Hsind ¥= = — i/(rs\nu)-dii/dl (78) Magnetism, 3'"^ ed., 1915, p. 403), and is easily shown to be
Vertically downward, Z Hig^ = = diljdr equal to 0.3224 cos;(, where % is the angular distance of the
where 6 = the magnetic declination; 6 = angle of the dip; point [u, A) from the pole of a uniformly magnetized sphere
and a = the potential due to the earth's field at a point with axis through
of polar distance u and longitude X, distant r from the Lat. 78°2o'N., and Long. 67°i7'W. , ,

centre of the globe. U= II" 40' I =. 2Q2°43'

, ^ '

If «, ^, y be the components of the magnetic force as discussed by Chree, near the end of section 5 above.
at any point {x, y, z), we shall have Accordingly the potential is

0= -^llq-dfi ii ^ 0.^224 cosx-/r^ (89)

Q =^ {r^—2rr(, [cos« cos^o + sina sin^o cos(A — ^o (79) which the potential of a uniformly magnetized sphere having
is

-ro 21V» as direction of magnetization the radius through the point

 . a : « .

229 Sondernummer 230

defined in equation (88). It is sometimes defined as equivalent

/= == 2 [lfi-[x-x')li\l[l2fi)
[2iixl2iJi,-2^,,'x'l2ij,')- i//
to the potential of a single magnetic particle of appropriate = 2§K^lK=2Jt AvjX = 2A dvJK (96)
volume dv = dx dy
magnetic mass at the centre of the earth, yet with the axis
Upon integration for thewe may dz,
of the magnetic particle pointing in this same direction.
therefore write
(ii) The calculation of the magnetic moment of a K^= i//-JJJ^dxd_ydz = ^^^B dx dy dz ijg-
magnet explained more
In the older theories
in detail.
= ^lr-]]]cdxdydz. (97)
all it was recognized that in'
magnet we have to imagine as much negative as positive The condition that should be K a maximum for a

magnetism, so that, as Gauss expressed it I d/t == o, when

body like the earth evidently is that R = (A'^-f-B^-t-C^)'!^
should be a maximum. Hence we rotate the axes to such
the
shall
integral
now examine
is extended throughout the whole body.
the basis of this reasoning.
We a position that d£ = o, or

Let ;(* be a small quantity of magnetism, / the resultant

dK = d^^{A^+B^^ C^yi' dx dydz =o {98)

magnetic force at the point [x,y,z), then the magnetic force as explained in the following calculation.
exerted on a quantity f* of magnetism concentrated there is (iii) Gauss' calculation of the magnetic moment of the earth.
[hf . Now for a whole magnet l d^w == o, and in order to In the 31^' section of his Allgemeine Theorie Gauss

condition for the opposite magnetisms proceeds to calculate the magnetic moment of the earth.
fulfill this we have:
He first remarks that it would be a misconception to attri-
^|U. = —1^' (90) bute any significance to the mere surface location of the
Let N
be the centre of mass of the positive, 5 the poles, or the chord joining them, if one were to call this
centre of mass of the negative magnetism characteristic of line the magnetic axis of the earth.
the two poles of the magnet; then obviously the coordinates »The one way«, says Gauss, »in which we can give
of N and 6' are: the conception of the magnetic axis of a body a general
X = ^^.xl^fi, y = 2fiyJ2ij,, z = 2fj,z/2fj,; . . validity is that set forth in article 5 of the »Intensitas Vis

x' = :2;U,V/2^', = ~y'

:2ii'y'l2ii' , ? = 2fi'z'l:S^i'.
^^'^ Magneticae«, according to which we understand a straight
line, in respect to which the moment of the free magnetism
Now if / be the distance between N and S, whose contained in the body is a maximum. To determine the
coordinates are given in (91), we have: position of the magnetic axis of the earth in this sense and
/= [(^_^:^')2 + (3;_y)2_^(-_p)2]v._ (g^) at the same time the moment of the earth's magnetism in
Then, there is a certain constant in the theory of a magnet, respect to the same, as already remarked above in art. 17,
known as the magnetic moment, which we shall call K: we require only a knowledge of the terms of the first order.
K=12,^= -l2iM'. (93)
According to our elements in art. 26, we have:
The magnetic moment therefore is equal to the product P' = +925.782 cosz^-+-89.0 2 4 sin 2^ cosl +
of the between the two poles by the amount of
length
— 178.744 sinz^ sin A (99)
magnetism at either pole. If the magnet be placed in a in which —925. 782 i?^, — 89.024^?^, +178.744^?^
uniform field, and the axis of the line NS makes the angle % are the moments of the earth's magnetism in respect to the
with the strength f, a directed magnitude defining the field, earth's axis, and the two earth-radii for the longitude 0° and
the whole couple becomes: 90°. By the earth's axis we are to understand the direction
/{2iJ,^/2l-2fj,'^/2l)sinx =/2fi,Ismx. (94) and the negative sign of the corresponding
to the north pole,

It follows from the definition in (93) that the magnetic

moment indicates that the magnetic axis makes an obtuse
moment is a positive magnitude K=l2fju, and since l NS, = angle with
south. The
it, magnetic north pole is turned to the
that the
direction magnetic axis resulting from
of the
the pole the centre of mass of the magnetic forces, just
is
this is parallel to the diameter of the earth at 77^50' north
as the centre of oscillation gives the centre of gravity for
latitude, 296°29' longitude (east), 77^50' south latitude,
the gravitative forces at work in the motion of a compound
1 16° 29' longitude (east), and the magnetic moment in respect
pendulum, of length /.
to the same == 947.08 i?'.«
Now be the direction cosines of the mag-
let J, Tj, t,
»In respect to this last result, we are to remember,
netic axis of any element dv dx dy dz of a magnet, and = that our elements are based upon a unit of intensity which
y such a quantity that Jdv is the magnetic moment of the is a thousandth part of that commonly used. In order to
element: then y is the intensity of magnetization, at the
make the reduction to the absolute unit established in the
point (x,y,z), where the element dv = dx dy dz is taken,
Intensitas Vis Magneticae, we remark that in the latter the
and we have horizontal intensity of Gottingen, 1834, July 19, was found
yj=-^ 7ri =B n^c (95) = 1.7748, from which with the inclination 68° i' the total
y being a vector or directed magnitude, tangential to the intensity =
4.7414 follows, whereas by the above unit this
line of magnetization, and A, B, C the ideal equivalent was taken to be === i3S7- The reduction factor is therefore
magnets with axes parallel to the coordinate axes. = 0.0034941, and consequently the magnetic moment of
If * r be the direction cosines of the axis of the the earth in absolute units

whole magnet, we have

q^
= 3. 3092^^. (100)
 «: « X

231 Sondernummer 2X2

»In this absolute unit for the terrestrial magnetic force and if we develop i/q in a series:
the millimetre is taken as the unit of length, and therefore
I104J
R must also be expressed in millimetres, whereby since — we have
the ellipticity of the earth is entirely neglected it is sufficient — R^-po = -^T^dfj,,
to consider R whose circumference
as the radius of a circle
amounts to 46000 million millimetres. According to this, the p^P' = -^T'ro dfi, R'P" = -jr'ro'dn.
(i°5)

above magnetic moment is expressed by a number whose

= »Since T" =
i, it will follow by means of the funda-
logarithm 2g. 93136 or by 853800 quadrillions. According mental assumption, that the mass of the positive and negative
to the same absolute unit the magnetic moment of one of
fluid in each measurable part of its conductor, and therefore
the sensitive magnetic bars experimented upon in 1832
in the whole earth, is equally large, or that
(intensitas, Art. 21) is =
100877000; and the magnetic
moment therefore 8464 trillion times larger.*
of the earth is
(106)
»Therefore 8464 trillion such magnetic bars, with parallel /">= o;
axes, would be required to replace the magnetic action of or the first term of our series for V falls away, We see
the earth in outer space; which in a uniform distribution further, that P' has the form
throughout the whole bodily space of the earth would amount to p3p' ^ a cosu-\- jS sinu cos X-i-y sin u sin
nearly eight bars (more exactly 7.831) to each cubic metre.
The fractional part of the earth which magnetic
a = ~ ''o cos«o djtt
j

^ ^ —
(iv) is (107)
found be 1^
to = 1/1404.674. W'o sin^o cosAo djw
The above analysis discloses how Gauss reached his y ^ ^ ifd sinuo sin Ag d^ .

celebrated result, that 7.831 parallel saturated steel bar magnets,

»Thus, according to the explanation in Art. 5 of the
each weighing one German pound, all of them 3.9155 kilograms,
Intenjitas Vis Magneticae, — «, — /3, —y are the moments
would be required in each cubic metre of the earth's mass to
of the terrestrial magnetism in respect to three rectangular
give externally the magnetic field actually observed at the
axes, of which the first is the earth's axis, the second and
surface of our globe.
third are the equatorial radii for the longitude 0° and 9o°.«
After ariving at this striking practical result Gauss
continues: »The general formulae for all coefficients of the series
»When so stated, this result still retains meaning
its for i/q we may assume as known; purpose it is merely
for our

even if we do not consider the earth a real magnet, but would necessary to remark that in respect to u and X the coefficients
ascribe terrestrial magnetism merely to purely galvanic streams are rational integral functions of cosz^, sinwcosZ, sinz^sinA,
in the earth. If, however, we consider the earth a real magnet, and T" of the second order, T'" of the third order, etc.
we are compelled to ascribe to each part of the same, which The same holds therefore also for the coefficients P", P'", etc.
is one eighth cubic metre in size, on the average at least ^),
The series for i/q and for V converge, so long as r is not
a magnetization quite as powerful as that bar contains, — smaller than R, or rather, not smaller than the radius of a
a result indeed which will be unexpected by the physicist.* sphere which encloses the whole of the magnetic parts of
Gauss gives the following explanation of
In section 1 7
the earth.

the analysis by which the above value of V is calculated We have already remarked that in his treatment of
magnetism. Gauss takes the action to be in right lines, whereas
»We
choose r for the distance to the centre of the
in nature the lines of magnetic force are curved. The corrections
earth, for the angle which r makes with the northern
and u
for this defect will be considered hereafter.
part of the earth's axis, while X denotes the angle of the
The above is the process of reasoning by which Gauss
plane through t and the earth's axis and a fixed meridian,
derives 7.831 parallel bar magnets each weighing a German
reckoned positive to the east. Let F be a function developed
pound, all of them 3.9155 kg for each cubic metre of the
in a series proceeding according to powers of r, which we
give the following form:
globe of the average weight =
5500 kg, and hence the mass
component with the properties of a vector which I was led to
V= R^P'>lr+R^P'lr-+R^P"lr^-^R^P"'lr^ + t\.c. (loi) deduce becomes
The
and
coefficients P",
order to
X; in
P\ P", etc., are here functions of u
discern how they depend on the internal
V = 3'9iS5/S5oo = 1/1404.674 (108)
Hence taking account of Laplace's law of density, we get
distribution of the magnetic fluid in the interior of the earth,
the value finally adopted, namely:
be an element of magnetic fluid, q its distance
let

from O,
Afi,

and for Afi, let

this
r^, kqi ^^o> denote the same which
Tj = 1/1408.12 .

r, u, X, are for O. We have therefore expanded Calculation of the fractional part of the earth which
(v)
is magnetic, on the simple hypothesis that on the average
V^ —\iJQ-dfi (102)
the magnetism in the different spherical shells is proportional
through all d/i. Furthermore to the density of the matter in these shells.
Q = {r^ — 2rro cosao~'~sini!sin«o cos(A
[cos« cosuq-
[cosu — Aq)]-)- Profound as is the analysis underlying Gauss' theory
(103) of the earth's magnetism, there remains in the theory one

') "Insofar as we are not obliged to assume, in all magnetic parts of the earth, parallel magnetic axes
throughout. The more such
parallelism fails, the stronger must be the average magnetization of the parts, in order to bring forth the total magnetic moment."
 : ) .

233 Sondernummer 234

unnecessary element of weakness, which can be removed; relative decrease of density near the surface, according to
and as the correction conforms to Gauss' mathematical cri- Laplace's law.
teria, yet brings the analysis of the theory down to a better
The magnetic moment found by Gauss can be adapted
physical basis, it is worthy of careful attention.
to this condition by the following process of calculation.
In section 32 of the Allgemeine Theorie Gauss says
The integral for the mass in any spherical layer of the globe
that the manner of the actual distribution of the magnetic
of radius q is (cf. AN3992, p. 127):
fluid in the earth remains necessarily indeterminate; and
b b
then proceeds to point out that instead of any arbitrary
distribution of the magnetic fluid within, we may always J
Am = 47rJ
q'^ Aq Cq •
sin [g x)./g x x ^ qjr
substitute a superficial distribution of magnetism which will
" " Aq ^ r Ax (109)
M
.

give exactly the same effect in external space. This results And the total mass
from Poissons, theorem on the volume and surface distribution
of magnetism (Memoires de I'lnstitut tome 5, 1822). Where-
M= (47r r^ o^o/?)! x sin (g x) da
fore Gauss concludes that a given action in external space
may from an indefinite number of different distributions
result
= (47j:r^ ao/g^)-{sin{gx)—gxcos{gx)} (no)
of the magnetic fluid within.
where x is the fraction of the earth's radius, x = qjr
From a purely mathematical point of view, this theorem In our present problem it suffices to use a numerical ratio
is valid, yet from a physical point of view it fails entirely,

because we know that in magnetism, as in gravitation, the N= [i/(cri r^)]y^ai [n^-rh-, (i 1 1)

forces acting around attracting bodies, depend on the matter z=o
within them, not upon their surfaces, or any mere mathematical where the volumes of the shells ^l<in [ri^~r^i-,) are easily
abstraction. calculated, and the density tii is already determined (c. f.

Thus the one weakness of the Theory of Rela-

fatal AN3992).
tivity arose from the absurd claim that » Gravity is not a
For it is not known that Laplace's law is rigorously
force, but a property of space* [de Sitter, MN
76, 1916, p. 702). true, and owing to the improvements which may ultimately
Such a view is wholly untenable, because the force of gra- be possible in the elements of Gauss' theory; attempts at
vity is proportional to the mass, and acts in right lines to-
extreme refinement are not justifiable. Accordingly we use
wards it: therefore gravity is a force depending on matter, the following table
and directly proportional to the amount of it gathered into
n
the central attracting body, and in no sense is a property
of space. Physically such claims are absurd!
In the same way, we know very well that magnetism
depends on the atoms within the magnet, which have mag-
netic properties. For example, leaving out of account a slight
change due to mere form of the bar, if we double the number
of such atoms, by taking a magnet of double the mass, we
practically double the intensity of the magnetic force in the
field about it. Thus magnetism depends upon matter: it is
a physical force!
From these considerations we see that whilst the mathe-
matical possibility exists of a given action in external space
resulting from many different mathematical distributions of
the magnetism within, there is no such physical possibility.
And as magnetism is a physical phenomenon, we are re-
stricted in our choices of magnetic distribution to those which
are consistent with the possible distribution of the matter.
This leads to the physical theory that the magnetism of the
earth depends on the density of the concentric spherical
shells of which the globe is made up.
Accordingly, in the preceding section we have deve-
loped a criterion for reducing Gauss' infinite number of pos-
sible solutions for the distribution of the magnetism within
the earth to a unique solution, with the density of the mag-
netic fluid everywhere proportional to the density of the
matter within the earth. As Gauss took the distribution of
the magnetism to be uniform in the evaluation above given,
7.831 one-pound bar magnets to each cubic metre of matter,
whatever be its density, it seems advisable to consider the
effect of the increase of density towards the centre, and
 : : : :

235 Sondernummer 236

As the connection between magnetism and gravitation I = do/dx 7J

= d.Q/dy ^ = d.Q/dz
was discovered from an extension of the researches of Gauss,
we have, for the sake of uniformity, adhered closely to his dSi == dn/dx-dx-i-dn/dydy-i-clSildz-dz
constants. Yet it may be that at some future time values = ^dx-hij dy-h^dz IcosS ds ^ .
(120)
slightly different from those now in use may come to be
Accordingly, the basis of the general theory is the equations:
preferred. For example, if^=: 1/1414.213^ 1/ V'2000000,
which involves only a slight change, then we should have: X= -ilR-dajdu
^ Y= -i/(i?sin«) -8-0/91 (121)
Ilg 1/2000000, at the magnetic equator, , ,
Z= -dii/dj?.
llg= i/i 000000, at the poles.
Then it follows that the magnetic potential -Q may be expanded:
These round numbers are accurate enough for all
practical purposes, and are easily remembered. They conform
n = J?{Bo- B/r-hR^ B^r^-i-B^ B^r^-h •

+B.yB^lr^+---). (122)
rigorously to Biofi. law of 18 16, which represents the larger
phenomena of the earth's magnetism disclosed by Huinboldf 1,
The functions /q. -Pit Pi etc. are spherical surface harmonics,
of degree indicated by the subscripts, depending on the angles
law of 1804. The harmonic law, it should be noted, gives
a physical basis for the laws of Humboldt and Biot, which u and A, which be more fully explained below.
will

heretofore has been wanting, and thus will prove extremely If therefore we extend the integration through all ele-

useful to investigators. ments of the magnetic fluid, we shall have

7. Outlines of Gauss' General Theory of the i3= -l^lq-dli

Earth's Magnetism.
We have seen, that Gauss takes r to denote the distance
= — \{r^ — 2rr(i [cosu cos«o"*~sin«sin«o cos(A — Ao) +
-^r,']}-'"-df, (123)
(1 =

of any element of magnetism dfi from the centre of the earth, where
while u denotes the angle between r and the earth's north
r-—2rr^ co%\r,r<^)-^r^^-
(124)
polar axis, and 1 the angle, (reckoned positive to the east), cos [r, ro) cosu cosao~'~sin« sin?/o cos(A — Ao)
between the plane containing r and the earth's axis and a and thus
fixed meridian. Thus let r^, n^, ^0 be coordinates of the
element djtt in the globe, r, u, X those of a point considered S2 = J J J
{r- — 2/-ro [cos«cos«o" sina sinz^o COS (A — Aq)"
as lying anywhere in space: then the radius vector connecting ro^]}~'''- a dr r s'lnu du r sinu dX
• .
(125)
them is defined by the relation
As the development of this function depends on i/q,
p2-_^2_ 2^^|j [cos«cos2<o + sin«sin«oCOs(A — Ao)]H-ro^- (116) we may put
And for the potential we have the integral: i/Q=i/r-{To+T^-ro/r+ T^-r^lr^+ T^-r.^jr^^ • • • (126)
)

il =— \{f'^ — 2rf(j [cosz^cosz<o-i-sinz^sin«o cos(A — ^0)] Wherefore, since i2 = — Ji/p-d^, we have from equations
-ro 21-V2 d|(* 1I17J (122), (123), (126)
for the elements of magnetism d/i* throughout the globe. This Bo-B'^jr+B,- B''lr''- + B2- B'-lr^^ =
expression for ii may be expanded into a converging series
-{l|rlT,dll^l|r'^T^rod(l+I|r^^T^r,'d^v+} (127)
of solid spherical harmonics, involving sines and cosines of u
and X, and the ratio between the radius of the earth [R] Equating like powers of r in this identify, we have:
and that of the external point [r).
We shall now enter at some length into Gauss AU-
B,B^= - Jro d^ Ps i?3= - Jrs r,^ dfju

B^ B-' = - Jri To dfji Bi B^ = - Jt; ro^ (128)

gemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, 1838, because without dfji

this outline of Gauss' work, it will be difficult to interpret -^2-^*= -J^2'-o'd^ etc.
his results or to recognize their bearing upon the present
By Gauss' fundamental assumption the mass of positive
problem of the law connecting magnetism with gravitation.
and negative magnetic fluid in every part of the earth is
In the measurement of magnetic fluid Gauss takes as of equal magnitude, and thus also in the whole globe; so that
unit the quantity of boreal fluid, which, acting on a similar
quantity of the same kind of fluid, at assumed unit distance,
we have f,
J
d;(* =o .
ll29)
exerts a moving force equal to unity. If (U. be the mass of Therefore, since the. function T^^ = i, the equation
fluid, at the distance q, the magnetic force exerted is taken to be: Bq = —i/B'^-^ Bfyd/j,, leads to the result
/=+/*/?' (118) ^0 = 0. (13°)
repulsive or attractive, in the direction of the line q, accor- And the series becomes
ding as j(t

Putting
is positive or negative.
d^ mass of the magnetic
for the fluid in any
/\ B^/r'-hB2 B^/r^-hBs B^-jr^+B^ B^j/-'^
• =
differential element dx, dy, Az, we have = -[ilr^- 1 T,r^ di^+ijr^- ^T^r,'' df,+
+ i/r*-j7^,ro»d/t+---j
o = -Ji/^-d//.= -JJJi/^-ffd^djFd^ (119)
= - J2I ro dfi
(131)

^1 ^' BiB^= -^T., ro' dfi

and the components of the earth's total magnetic force /,
Pi R° =
(132)
making the angle 6 with any plane become -S^3 ro' dfi Bi B'' = -]t, ro' d/i
 . ;

237 Sondernummer 238

The first equation yields: In the expansion of i/^, we need only remark that
J^i Ji = —^ TiTo A(i ^^ acosu-\- fi s\nucoiX + as respects u and 1,
functions of cosz^, sinwcosA, sin«sinA; in the case of T^,
the coefficients are rational integral

-^-yivatt sinl
where o£ = — Jrocosz^o dfi
(133)
they are of the second order; in the case of T^ of the
third order, etc. The same rule holds for F^, /g, etc.
/S =— I cosAq
ro sin^o Afi The converge so long as r is
series for ijq, and i3

/ =^ — j ro sin^o sin Aq dft not srhaller than R, or the observed point is external to
the surface of the earth, in which the magnetic fluid acts
The coefficients /8, — —y
are explained by Gauss, in
-«,
to develop magnetism.
§ of his investigation Intensitas Vis Magneticae, as moments
1 5

of the earth's magnetism, in respect to the three rectangular The function of the magnetic potential ii for the
coordinate axes; the first being in respect to the earth's axis, point O satisfies Laplace's, equation:
and the two latter in respect to equatorial radii for longi- d^iildx^+d^Qldy^+d^iildz'- = (134)
tudes Aq = 0°, ^0 = go°. which may also be transformed into the spherical coordinates:
r-92(r.Q)/8r2 + 82i2/92,2-+-ctgz^-8i2/9«+i/sin2z^-a2i3/8;i2 = o . (i3S)
The former expressions
north,

west,
X=
Y=
- i/r
for the

dii/du
-i/{rsmu]-dSi/dl=
components of the magnetic force now become
= -Ji^/r^ {dFjdu-hJ?/r-dl'^/du-hJiyr^ dpjdu-t-
-Ji^/{r« sinu)- {dFjdl-h£/r-dF^/dX-hJiyr''-8Fjdl-
} (136)
(137)
downward, Z= -dSi/dr = Ji^/r^- {2Fi^-h ^Ji P.ilr+ ^R'^ F^lrU } .
(138)
For points at the surface of the earth, r ^ R, and these expressions may be written
X= -{8F^l'du + 8p^l-du-\-'dF^l8u^ }
(139)
Y= -il%inu-{dFjdl+dF^ldl-HdF^ldU } (140)
Z= 2/\H-3/'2 + 4P3-+--- (141)
After deriving these expressions Gauss remarks that if we combine with these equations the well known theorem that
every function of ). and u which has a definite finite value for all values of I from 0° to 360°, and for u from 0° to
180°, can be developed in a series of the form d _)_ d^_|_/) _|_/) _|_ . . .
gt^-.

of which the general term Fn satisfies Laplace's differential equation, that such a development is possible in only one
definite way. Proceeding in this way Gauss is led to four theorems of which the following is the most remarkable:
I. The knowledge all points of the earth's surface suffices for deriving the general expression
of the value of ii in
of a for the space external to the earth's surface, and thereby the determination of the forces X, Y, Z,
whole -infinite
not only on the earth's surface, but also for the whole infinite space outside of it. To this end it suffices to develop iiJR
in a series, as shown hereafter.

The coefficient Fn satisfies the partial differential equation

n {n+i)Fn-^S-^F„/du^-i-ctgudF„/du-hi/sm^u-d^F„/dl^ =o .
1142;
If we designate by Fn,m the following function of u only:

.)(. i){n — m — 2){n- — cos"-™-*

Fn,'. 'u-h « — etc. s\n u (143)
(2^— l) 2 •
4 (2n- 0(2
it follows that Fn has the form of an aggregate of 2«-+-i parts, as follows:

Fn = gn,0 Pn,!)^[gn,\ COsA-t-/^,l S\nl) Pn,x-^[gn,2 C0%2l+hn,i sin 2I) F„^^-\- • -^{gn,nCOSnl-+- hn,nS.\nnl) Fn^n (144)
where gn,a, gn,i, /in,i, gn.2, hn,i, etc., are definite numerical coefficients, of which the table calculated by Gauss is given below.

From this general formula it follows that i\ has 3 indeterminate coefficients, F^ has 5; F^, 7; /4, 9; the full

expressions being:

Px = g\,^^'yg\,\ cos2+,^i,isin2)/'i,i
Pi = P2,0-^{g2,l COSyl+/^,l
g2,0 P2,l-^{g>,2 COS2l-h/l2,2 sin2A)Sinl) /'2,2

F3 = cosl-i-^3,1
gs^o Pa',o-^{g3,i
cos2A-H^3,2 sin2A) Ps,2-^{gs,B cos3A-H/^3,3 sinsA) P^^g
sinil) Ps,i-^-{gs,2 (145)
F^ = Pi,0-^[gi,l
^4,0 /4,l + cos
C0sA-)-/^4,i sin A) A,2 + C0S3A-l-^4,3
(.f4,2
2A-)-y^4,.2 siu 2A) (^4,3 sin 3A) /'4,g -H
-t-(^4,4 C0S4A + /Z4,4 sin4A) /4,4 .

Already, in section 22, p. 26, Gauss has considered the first four terms of the series. As each complete observation of
probable distribution of the magnetism of the globe in respect X, Y, Z gives three constants, he adds that exact observations

to the radius, remarking that the series would converge rapidly at eight places would be theoretically sufficient to determine all

if it is concentrated towards the centre, but less rapidly if the coefficients for the general theory of the earth's magnetism,
more diffuse and irregular in its distribution. He then adds. But in practice a larger number of observations are necessary;
as shown above, that the coefficient Fy has three coefficients and he reduces his equations to the following form for points

Fi, five; Ps, seven; F^,, nine

—
making 24 constants for the on parallel circles of latitude:
 A

239 Sondernummer 240

X = k^k' cos A + ^' sin A + /J" cos 2I+K" sin 2A- g\,o
== -(-925.782 gi,2
+- 0.493
-H ^"' cos 3 A -I- X'" sin 3 A -I- etc. (146) ^2,0
= — 22.059 gS,2 -73-193
y= /-i-/'cosA-i-Z'sinA-i-/"cos2A+Z"sin2A + gs,o
= — 18.868 gi,2 -45-791
-H /'" cos ik-^-L"' sin 3I + etc. ^4.0
= -108.855 ^2,2
— 39.010
gui =
(147)
-H 89.024 h,2 — 22.766
Z =^ m-hm' cosX-i-M' sink-^m" cos2X-hM" sinzX = — 144.913 K2 -•-42.573
-i-OT"'cos3A+j1/"'sin3;i-i-etc. (148) =
.^2,1
-I- 122.936 gi,i -h 1.396
Here it is assumed that the eight points, separated by =
.?'3,1

-152.589 gi,S -Hig.774

convenient arcs, lieupon a great circle; and Gauss notes that
^4,1
=
^^1,1 — 178.744 ha -18.750
there will be as many values of i, I, m, k', etc., as there are =
'^2,1
— 6.030 — 0.178
On h,l =
parallel circles adapted to this treatment. each circle, +- 4.127
-I- 47-794 giA
according to theory / =
o, and from the values of / found —
^^4,1 -H 64.1 12 h.4,4 -^ 3-I7S (153)
by calculation we have a measure of the inadmissibility of Gauss considers these coefficients as the Elements
the numbers adopted in the theory of any parallel.
of the theory of the earth's magnetism; and thence
The above expressions give for the coefficients the fol- collects his results into the following formula, putting for
lowing equations: brevity e in place of cosw, and f in place of sinz^:

iljJi^ — 1.977-^937.103^-1-71.2451?^— 18. 868«^— 108. 855^*

— ,?3,o-d^3,o/d«-etc. (149) -•-(64.437- 7 9.si8^-i-i2 2.936/^-Hi52.589f3)/cosA
m = 2<?^i,o ^1,0-1-3^2,0 ^2,0 +- 4^3,0 -A.o-^etc.
— 188.303 — 33.5o7«-H47.794^2-H64.ii2^8)^sinA
-i-(

-^(7 -03s -7 3- 193^- 45-7 9 1^^);^^ cos 2A

the number being twice as great as that of the number of
-(-(- 45.092 —
2 2. 7 6 6^-4 2.5731?^)/^ sin 2A
parallel circles. On substituting in d/i,o/d«, AF^^aJdu, etc.,
-h( 1.396-1- 9.7 74^)/^ cos 3A
1
and in /\,o, etc., the numerical values of u, the coef-
-^2,0)
-<-(— 18.750 —
0.17 8^)/^ sin 3
ficients ^1,0, g2,0i giydi etc., may be determined by the method
^-4.I27/*cos4A-^-3.I75/*sin4A .
(154)
of least squares.
For the magnetic poles of the globe Gauss finds:
In the same way we have for the determination of
the coefficients ^14, ^2,1. ^s.i, etc.: 1. North pole: North latitude 73^35'
-k' = .^1,1 -d-Pi.i/dz^-t-^-a.i •d^2,l/d^^-^-
East longitude 264 21 from Greenwich
Total intensity / == 1.70 1, in ordinarj' units
-t-.?"3,ld/3,l/d«-t-etc.

Z' =
^/^= +895-86. (155)
gx,i- Fi,J&mu-\-g2,i- -Pi.ih^tt-^ (15°)
2. South pole: South latitude 7 2° 35'
-•-.fs.i'^s.i/sin^^-t-etc.

m' =
East longitude 152 30
2^l,lZ'^,l + 3,f2,l^2,l^-4,f3,l^3,l^-etc. Total intensity /' =
2.253
the number of which is three times that of the parallel circles. iiJR = -1030.24 .
(156)
And likewise for the coefficients h-^^i, hi,^, ^i,i, etc.:
Gauss remarks that Sir James Ross found the north
-K' = /^i,i-d/'i,i/d2^-i-/^2,i-dP2,i/d2^-H magnetic pole 3" 30' further south than is given by this
-H/^3,1 •d/s,i/d2^-+-etc. calculation; and that at the south pole the deviation between
— = /' /^i,i-Zi,i/sin«-H/42,i"^2,i/sina-t- (151) theory and observation may be yet more considerable, owing
-"-^3,1 '-/sji/sinz^H-etc. to certain defects in the observations at Hobarttown. He
M' = 2/^1,1 Z",, 1-^3/^2,1 ^2,1-^4/^3,1 ^3,1 + etc. thinks the south magnetic pole probably lies appreciably
further north than is given by the above calculation, and
In like manner we have for the determination of ^2,21
assigns south latitude 66° and east longitude 146° as its
^3,2, ^4,2, and /z2,2, '^8,2> '^4,21 the following equations:
probable location.
— k"^ g2,2 •
dFs.i/du-t-
dl'2,2/du-i-gs,i It will be seen from the differences shown in the
-i-.f4,2 •dZ4,2/d«-i-etc. following table that Gauss' elements are comparatively very
Z" = 2^2,2-^2,2/sin«^H-2^g,2-Z8,2/sinz<!+ exact. In order to give to the mind a connected view of
+ -+-2^4,2 •Z4,2/sin« etc. them. Gauss induced Dr. Goldschmidt to represent his results
m" = 3g2.'2-P2,2-^4g9,2A,2-^5gi.2-Pi,2-^etc. , .
graphically. The excellence of the agreement is also shown

-X" = ^a,2-dZ'2,2/d«+/^s,2-d/'s,2/d«-l-
by comparing these calculated charts with the recently ob-
dFi,2/<iu-\-etc.
served charts.
-i-Ai,^

— = I" /i2,2'-P2,2/sinu-i-hs,2- J\,2/sinu-\-

Owing to the great importance of a correct understanding
-t-/^4,2 /'4,2/sinz(:-+-etc.
of the high accuracy of Gauss' theory, in the present investi-

^" = 3^'2,2 -P2,2-^-4'^3,2 ^3,2-*-S^4,2 Z4,2-^-etC.

gation for connecting the magnetism of the earth with terrestrial
gravitation, we reproduce a slightly modified form of Gauss'
And so on, to higher orders of terms, as far as required. table for comparing his theory with observations throughout
Selecting the best data available in his time Gauss the globe. The table as here given has been condensed as
found for the 24 largest coefficients of g and h the follo- much as possible, yet it is so impressive that it cannot fail

wing tabular values: to interest the modern reader.

241 Sondernummer 242
243 Sondernummer 244
 : : : . .

245 Sondernummer 246

Now from ,159! and (160) we get for the mutual potential energy of the two magnetic systems:

dx djv dz dx' dy' dz' ,

(163)
[[^-^)^+{^-y)^+(^-,) 21 V>
The functions A, B, C vanish in free space, where there is no magnetized matter, and therefore we may use
these functions in the sextuple integral with the understanding that they are zero everywhere where space is devoid of
matter. The limits thus become infinite, and we get:
-t-00 {1, li'

IV= f f f ( f C '^^-'^^l^^-^S-'^-^lh+C-dnldz){A'-dii'ldx' + B'-dii'ldy'+ C'-dpJld/ dx dy dz dx'

JJJ — 00J J J f(f_^)2^.(„_^^2_^(^_
[[^-xY+(v-y) -[l-^Y]
/a
dy' dz' 16 a)

Integrating by parts, and noticing that the surface (I.) The attraction or repulsion according as the poles
integral at infinity vanishes, we get simply are unlike or like, between two quantities fjb and yu' of mag-
+00 (1, fi' netism, supposed concentrated in two points at distance r
W =^l][A-dP.ldx+B-dQldy+C-diildz) d;c dj;d^
.

'
{165) apart is represented by the force
f=±lili'lrK (172)
This force in the mutual action of two elements
(II.)
-dBldy^dCldz)dxdydz . [66) of magnetism is taken to be in the straight line r, joining
the elements fi and ,«.'.
Here assumed that A, B, C vary continuously, but
it is This hypothesis of rectilinear action almost pre-
as these functions undergo at the surface such rapid variation sumes that magnetism similar to gravitation, whereas it
is

as to amount to discontinuity; and thus a finite portion of is shown paper that magnetic stress is exerted
in the present
the integral will arise from an infinitely thin stratum near the in the curved lines of force typical of magnetism. It is ne-
surface, as in the Poisson formula for surface density ^^ and cessary therefore to examine the foundation of the classic
volume dentity fi (Memoires de ITnstitut, tome V, 1821): theory of magnetism with particular care.
(III.) The classic theory supposes that the unit quantity

W =l'\^9.ii,^dS^m9.iJLdxdydz. (167) of magnetism is so chosen that two units of positive mag-

netism at unit distance apart repel each other with unit force.
Let therefore i3' be the potential of the magnet acted
This definition, underlying the magnetic system of units,
upon; then, taking account of the discontinuous change at
gives for the dimensions of a quantity of magnetism, in the
the surface 471 about the system, we get
magnetic system of units:
32i2'/8^'2^-e2i2'/8y^-i-82i3'/9s'' = An {dA/dx-hdB/dy+-
+ dC/dz). (168)
The
dv =
(IV.) strength of a magnetic field, or the resultant
And on multiplying by -Q dx dy dz and
Si integrating,
magnetic force a point in the
at field, is defined to be the
we have by (166) force exerted upon a unit of positive magnetism supposed
fi.fi
concentrated at the point. So that in general, if be the R
IV = r/47r-JJJi3(82i2'/8;«:2 -d^S2'/dy-^-+- resultant magnetic force at the point, the magnetic force exerted
-d^i2'/dz^)dxdydz [i6g) on a quantity 11, of magnetism concentrated there becomes
-00 [i,ji
fi R, just as in the case of gravity, where the force is mg.

i/47r- f r Ud.Q/dx-dii'/dx-^dn/dydi2'/dy + (ii) How the action is modified by the law of mag-
_ 00 +
dS2/dz dp.'jdz) dx dy dz [170) netic stress acting tangentially in the curved lines of force
\>;V- directed to the two poles.
= -hi/ATT-
j J
\J?B' cosx'dxdydz (171) We have seen abundant proof that the law:
/ t'

(cf. Sir JV. Thmnson, Reprint of Papers on Electricity and Ilg=f[r^ls'''-^r^ls'^] s=^ds / = Jd/ (174)

Magnetism, p. 433).
represents the connection between magnetism and gravitation.
In this formula and R' are the resultant forces
last R In every possible situation on the earth's surface we
at any point of space due to the acting and acted upon
found that in general we have to consider the modification
systems respectively, and 1 is the angle between the direc-
of theory due to the increase in the path of action from
tions of these resultant forces.
r to r-t-dr
Having now derived very general expressions for the
To make the reasoning general, and avoid confusion,
mutual potential and mutual action of two magnets, or mag-
netic systems, of any form or distribution in space, we are
we shall put: s = q + Jq = q {1 -^Jq/q) (175)
obliged to consider carefully how far the underlying hypo- where q is the rectilinear path chosen by Gauss in his All-
theses conform to the true laws of nature. It has been as- gemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, 1838. This path q
sumed by Gauss, Airy, Thomson, Maxwell, Crystall and other within the earth may be increased by as much as 40 per-
recent investigators: cent at the equator, so that Jq is finite, not infinitely small.
 : . :

247 Sondernummer 248

Now expressions for magnetism involve the inverse

second power, and therefore we are concerned with
j2 = q'^-^2qJq-^{JqY
where q^ r' — 2rro [cos« cos^o"*" (176)
-Hsinz^ sin^o cos(A — ^0! W]
Any expression for the force used by Gauss, as
0= -Ji/^o-d^
= — \ {r^ — 2r ro [cosu cos«o-i-sinz^sin«o cos (A — ^o)]"*"
+ro'}-'l'-df, (177)
will therefore be much more complex.
We may put the above expansion in the following form

{Q+jQY Qni+jQ/Qr = = Qni+2jQ/Q + {j^)^/Q']. (178)

And then we have
Me(i+^?/?)]' = W?')[i+^?/?]-' (179)

-4U?/?)^+sU?/e)'--}- (180)
This series converges with sufficient rapidity, except when
Jq is very large, as in the region of the terrestrial equator.
It. is evident that beyond the first term, the sum of the terms

V
"S^n [n— 1) [n — 2)-
v=i
I •2-3-4- -v Hiy
is negative, because the firstterm of (179) is smaller than
^Iq^, under the integral (177) used by Gauss.
Accordingly as
i"'/[$^ (i~*"^?/?)^]<i"'/?^; and therefore , ,

^'^''
Ji/5^-d^>Ji/[^Mi+^?/?)^]-d^
we may form a table for the earth, using the value s =
q{i-^JqIq) in the different latitudes. Thus the table will
give the means of integration by quadrature for the average
value in the case of our globe. In this way we may find
out how much s>q, as used by Gauss.
Approximate Table for the Increase of the
Amount of Magnetism in the Globe, under Curved
Line Action compared to the Straight Line Action
assumed by Gauss:
of
Qua- Pole
Globe

i Number
in of the

Zone drant
= from
 !

2 49 Sondernummer 250
in virtue of curved line action, zone for zone; and, solid
deflection of the needle against gravity, predicted by the
angle for solid angle, at least 40 percent, perhaps formula for the ponderomotive force:
50 percent.
Thegeneral theory of curved line action here developed F= ?ng tgx =^ fifi'/s^~lj,fi'/s'^, (northern hemisphere) (185)
new in science. It has not been used in any
is entirely
previous work. Thus in CrystalVi. great article on Magnetism,
where »i =
gravitational mass of the smaller magnet, was
due visibly and undeniably to a force along the tangent to
Encycl. Brit., 9'^ ed., p. 227, it is stated that the force between
two quantities of magnetism is / =
ju,ft'/r^ and »is in the
the line of force. By moving the suspended needle from one
position to another, where the lines of force curve rapidly,
line joining the two points*.
it could be seen distinctly that the deflection is always in
The whole theory of magnetism heretofore in use is
the tangent to the magnetic line of force. The observation
based on the theory of rectilinear action, as in Gauss' AU-
gemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, § 3, p. 7, where we read:
is not difficult. The evidence is perfectly unmistakable!

»Zur Abmessung der magnetischen Flussigkeiten legen Concl usions.

wir, wie in der Schrift Intensitas vis magneticae etc. diejenige 1. From
experiments here described it follows
the
Quantitat nordlichen Fluidums als positive Einheit zu Grunde, incontestably that the laws of magnetic attraction and repul-
welche auf eine ebenso grofie Quantitat desselben Fluidums sion are not quite so simple as we have supposed. Instead
in der zur Einheit angenommenen Entfernung eine bewegende of an attraction or repulsion along the straight line r, we
Kraft ausubt, die der zur Einheit angenommenen gleich ist. must imagine these stresses exerted along the shortest lines
Wenn wir von der magnetischen Kraft, welche in irgend einem of force / p'

Punkte des Raumes, als Wirkung von anderswo befindlichem s = Q-^^Q = J d.f , / = J d/ .

magnetischem Fluidum, schlechthin sprechen, so ist darunter O

immer die bewegende Kraft verstanden, welche daselbst auf 2. The aether stress along the line of force of minimum
die Einheit des positiven magnetischen Fluidums ausgeiibt wird. length is the maximum tension for the attracted magnetic
In diesem Sinne iibt folglich die in einem Punkt konzentriert needle. The is directed to the nearer pole, around
resultant
gedachte magnetische Fliissigkeit 11 in der Entfernung q die the curve, changes direction at the equator, and in
but it

magnetische Kraft fjhjq'' aus, und zwar abstofiend oder an- the other hemisphere is therefore directed to the other pole.
ziehend in der Richtung der geraden Linie q, je nachdem fju 3. The lines of force, as Faraday noticed, tend to
positiv Oder negativ ist. Bezeichnet man durch a, b, c die shorten themselves, and thus are under tension. The tension
Koordinaten von ^ in Beziehung auf drei unter rechten Winkeln is greatest nearest the poles, which act as true centres of

einander schneidende Achsen; durch x,y,z die Koordinaten attraction, yet the stress always acts in curved lines, because
des Punktes, wo die Kraft ausgeiibt wird, sodafi there another pole in the distance to which the other end
is

of the line of force returns.

4. Since the lines of force are vortical filaments of
und zerlegt die Kraft den Koordinatenachsen parallel, so sind
aether in rapid rotation, owing to the wave-action consti-
die Komponenten —
tuting magnetism, the resultant rotation at any point being
f),{x-a)lq^, fi,{y-b)\q^ , fj,{z-c)lQ^, in the plane normal to the line of force, we perceive —
welche, wie man leicht sieht, den partiellen Differential- that the tension in the line of force will always pull the
quotienten von —
j^Jq nach x, y und z gleich sind.« suspended magnetic needle towards the nearer pole of the
Wehave cited the foundations of Gauss' theory in some larger magnet. The chief forces are centred in the opposite
detail, not only to show that he takes the force / fijq'^ and = ends of the suspended needle, the opposite poles of the
reckons q rectilinear, »in der Richtung der geraden Linie (i«, needle being pulled to opposite poles of the large magnet.
positive or negative according to the sign of jU.; but also to 5. At the equator the action on the two ends of the
exhibit the Gaussi&Ti resolution of the component forces, which suspended needle are equal in other positions the forces
:

is of exactly the same form as- in the case of gravitation. are unequal, with the increased attraction towards the nearer
Before coming definitely to the decision that a funda- pole predominant.
mental error of the kind here described has come down in a) There is always a slight bodily deflection of the
the classical theory of magnetism, as developed by Gauss suspended needle towards the larger magnet the vortical —
and other high authorities, I took pains to experiment very filament of the aether along the line of force acting like a
carefully as follows: stretched rope.
(a) When iron were sprinkled on a plate of
filings But near either pole, the stress along the line of
b)
glass over the poles of a powerful small magnet, they showed force much more predominant, that we notice chiefly
is so
unmistakably the tendency to move towards the poles along the attraction towards the pole.
the curved lines of force, not straight to the poles. 6. As observation confirms the theory of tension along
(b) When soft iron paper fasteners were attached to the magnetic lines of force, we perceive that these obser-
threads for exploring the field, they showed the same motion vations, showing stresses as described above, also confirm
— the pulling being in the tangent to the line of force. and definitely establish wave-action as the cause of magnetism.
(c) Yet not content with such indications, I went to the This explanation is not only sufficient; it is also necessary
trouble to test the field carefully, again and again, when the — the only possible one! Hence in finding the law of mag-
small compass needle was tied to a silk thread for exploring netic action in curved lines of force, we have discovered
the magnetic field. Upon actual trial it was found that the the true cause of magnetism
 « : ;

251 Sondernummer 252

9- The Feebleness of Gravitation Compared Accordingly the above value at Cheltenham is typical
to Electricand Magnetic Forces: Velocity of the of the larger part of the globe. The above remarks
of
Propagation of Universal Gravitation. Mrs. Sommerville and Prof. Ball are therefore very appropriate.
(i) Estimates of the feebleness of gravitation. e) In 1894, Prof. C. V. Boys determined the constant
of gravitation or the attraction of a mass of a gram at a
The force of universal gravitation is so nearly insen-
distance of a centimetre in a second,
sible, for small masses, as to lead to the belief that this
chief force of nature is a residual effect, in which only a r = 0.0000000666 == io~^''-666 c. g. s. (i8g)
small component of the elastic power of the aether is exerted. == 1/(1501-10*) dyne, or practically one-fifteen
By virtue of the stupendous masses of the heavenly bodies, millionth of a dyne.
however, this residual component attains gigantic magnitude As the dyne is roughly the weight of a milligram, it
between the planets and the sun, or between the members was remarked by Prof. G. M. Minchin of Oxford (Treatise
of a pair of double stars, as they revolve in their orbits, — on Statics, 1886, vol. II, p. 251), »how extremely small a
the actual stress becoming a maximum and thus often enor- magnitude is the constant of gravitation*. This opinion of
mous at periastron passage. the feebleness of gravitation has been generally held by
a) Thus in the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, investigators since the days of Newton in fact the force was ;

g'*' ed., 1858, p. 426, Mrs. Sommerville remarks: so very small that it was a long time before experimental
measurements of the deflections due to gravitation became
» Gravitation is a feeble force, vastly inferior to electric
possible.
action, chemical affinity and cohesion; yet, as far as human
In 1774 Maskelyne succeeded in detecting the deflection
knowledge extends, the intensity of gravitation has never
of the vertical by the attraction of Mt. Shehallien in Scot-
varied within the limits of the solar system.
land, from which he deduced a mean density of the earth
The latter part of this argument is modified by obser-
of 4.71. In i7g8 Cavendish first used the method of the
vations and experiments made within the past twenty years
Torsion Balance, and obtained the value 5.48, which is very
but the remark on the feebleness of gravitation is eminently
near the modern value, 5.50.
appropriate, and today more noteworthy than in former times,
In view of the extreme feebleness of gravitation, the
when gravitation was less investigated by natural philosophers. accurate determination of the gravitation constant is one of
In the article Gravitation, Encycl. Brit., g'*" ed.,
b) the most difficult experiments in the whole range of physical
1875, Ball points out that on the average the attraction of science.
a magnet is millions of times more powerful than gravita-
(ii) Revision of MaxtveW^ calculation of the stress in
tional attraction. This general remark is of such great
the aether incident to gravitation.
interest that we propose to test it by actual calculation, as
In his researches on the stresses in the aether required
follows. So far as I know this calculation is new, at least
to produce magnetic or gravitational forces. Maxwell
electric,
I have never met with it in the writings of any modern
derives the formula (Treatise on Electricity and
following
investigator.
Magnetism, 1873, sect. 643; Minchitii, Treatise on Statics,
c) It appears by the U. S. Coast Survey observations vol. II, 1886, p. 451):
at the Magnetic Observatory, Cheltenham, Maryland, that in B=Ji^l?.nr. (igo)
igo6, the horizontal component of the earth's magnetism
= 0.00020 where F is the gravitation constant, F = 666 lo"-^" c. g. s.,
was Y
& = 70° Now
27'
c. g. s.,

we may
while the inclination or dip was
take gravity as 981 cm c. g. s.,
as above explained, and ^ 981 cm, = is the acceleration of
gravity at the earth's surface.
and therefore the horizontal component of the earth's mag-
The calculation is as follows:
netism is to that of gravitational acceleration as
logi?=-"98i^ 2.ggi669o logS =^ o.go3ogoo
Ylg= 2/9810000= 1/4905000. (i86) log(R2) =
5.9833380 logTT =o.4g7i4gg
But cos7o°27' = 0.3347 =
1/3 very nearly, and thus log 10^" =
10.0000000 log666 2.8234742 =
we have for the ratio of the total intensity at Cheltenham log(ioi«-^2)= i5.g83338o log(87r666) 4.2237141 =
to gravity, igo6, the equation: log(87r666) =
4.2237141
= rseci^./^ = 1/1635000 log(io"-^'787r666) =
11.7596239, c. g. s.
-''/^ .
(187)
log(98iooo) 5.9gi66go=
This is the same result at which we arrived in equation
log^ =
5.767g54g kg per sqcm
(46) above. B =
586077.3 kg per sqcm. (igi)
d) It is shown in Gauss' Allgemeine Theorie des Erd-
In Maxwell's calculation of this stress an error of a
magnetismus, 1838, that at the two poles the average inten-
decimal place occurs, as is easily shown. He gives the
sity of the earth's magnetism is 1.977, or nearly 2, while
stress as 37000 tons weight per square inch, namely:
at the magnetic equator it reduces to i approximately. We
therefore have the general theorem, that for the region be-
B' = 37000-2240 =
82880000 pounds per sq inch.
tween the magnetic equator and the magnetic poles the inten- log(8288oooo) = 7.gi844g7
sity of the earth's magnetism lies between the limits given log(6. 4516 2.20462 13)
- = 1.1530014
in equation (115): log^' = 6.7654483
Ijg^ 1/2000000, and //^ == i/ioooooo . (188) B' = 5827040 kg per sqcm. (ig^)
 :

^53 Sondernummer 254

But above we found B=

586077.3 kg per sqcm, which It will be seen that the aether stress is very great near
is almost exactly one tenth of MaxwelVs, value. the surfaces of the larger planets, and especially near the
If we recall that Maxwell used a slightly different value solar surface. This stress varies as the square of the force
of r
from that cited above, it seems certain that he misplaced of gravity, and thus augments rapidly near a large dense
the decimal point in his reduction. mass, where the acceleration of gravity becomes very large.
In pounds per square inch this may be made even Such a result is in no way remarkable, but on the contrary,
more obvious, thus: to be expected by any one familiar with the wave-process
^= 8335974, [See] ,
for generating the physical forces pervading nature.
by
^^^^' It would be easy to calculate the magnetic stresses
B' =^ ?,2?,?,oooo, [Maxwell)
the corresponding formula
which exhibits very distinctly the misplacement of the decimal
point in Maxwell's, calculation.
B' = R''^l?,nr

(iii) Table of stresses in the aether at the surfaces of where R' is the magnetic acceleration expressed in units of

the sun and planets, and at the orbits of the eight principal some known gravitational acceleration. Thus to compare the
planets of the solar system. stress due to the magnetic field of the earth with gravity
The following table contains data of much interest, as at the earth's surface we use the ratio above found, for such

revealing to us the actual state of the aether at critical points a typical station as Cheltenham, namely:

of the solar system. R' = l/g= 1/1635000.

Table of the aether stress es for the sun and planets.
 255 Sondernummer 256

lined up in parallel planes, and giving the attraction directed In AN 5048, p. 144-154, we have examined the
to the two poles; the rest, 1407/1408, of them lying hap- degree of rigor which may be assigned the Newtomzn law
hazard, with their planes tilted at all possible angles, and of the inverse squares, and found that whilst the law certainly
giving only a mean stress towards the centre of the whole is very accurate, yet the exponent is not accurate beyond
mass — then, it will follow that gravitation necessarily is the ten-miUionth, or seventh decimal place.
transmitted with the velocity of light. For this velocity cer- (a) In the Astronomical Journal, vol. 14, 1894, p. 49,

tainly is true of the waves generating magnetism, and as Prof. A.Hall considered the admissible change of exponent to
magnetism is definitely connected with gravitation, this latter account for the motion of Mercury's perihelion. After weighing
force must of necessity be transmitted across space with the the evidence carefully Hall adopted the modified law:
same velocity, namely, V^
3 •10'^'' cm.
4. The investigation of the connection between the This places the uncertainty in the seventh decimal place
magnetism of the earth and terrestrial gravity now shown of the exponent; and it is impossible for us to deny the
to exist, is therefore of the deepest interest, because it fur- admissibility of such a change. For the whole matter was
nishes a definite proof that the universal gravitation, which subsequently reviewed by Newcomb, (Astronomical Constants,
governs the motions of the planets in their orbits, is trans- 1895, ^i^) ^^'^ adopted the same form of law, but carried
P-
mitted with the velocity of light. This is another proof that the development to higher decimal places:
gravitation is due to wave-action in the aether, because the
velocity of transmission deduced from the connection with
magnetism corresponds to such waves.
In my own examination of this question, AN 5048,
p. 148, I find that when account is taken of Weier's law,
In the Baltimore Lectures, 1904, Appendix F, (reprinted
with the small terms resulting from the propagation in time,
from the Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 8, June, 1856; Phil. Mag.,
the most probable exponent does not exceed the following:
March, 1857) Lord Kelvin treats of Faraday discovery, 1,

/=;«,«'/^2.ooooooio46_
1845, of the rotation of a beam of polarized light when it (jgg)
is passed through heavy glass, carbon disulphide, etc. along Since the author prepared the second paper on the
the path of a magnetic line of force. This discovery is New Theory of the Aether, AN
5048, Dr. Grossmann of Munich,
fundamental in magnetism, and by all competent authorities has very carefully tested the outstanding difference of 43* in
ranked among the most wonderful of Faraday?, discoveries. the motion of Mercury's perihelion found by Newcomb, 1881,
Yet although over three fourths of a century have now and finds, (AN 5115) that the true outstanding difference
elapsed since Faraday'?, discovery, the only investigators who very probably lies between 29' and 38", but in no case will
have studied it from the dynamical point of view are Kelvin, attain 43" per century, as so long assumed.
1856; Maxwell, 1873; and the present writer, 19 17. The Now as the smaller terms in Weber'? law amount to
work of Kelvin and Maxwell was incomplete, yet extremely + i4"S for the motion of Mercury, it follows that with Gross-
suggestive. In fact, since their investigations led to the ex- mann'? results the difference to be accounted for would be
planation of the cause of magnetism outlined by me in 19 17, between -t- 1 4"5 and -i- 2 3*5 per century. This leads to residuals

and that cause is now definitely demonstrated, it is well to smaller than was used to get my exponent 2.0000001046,
recall the reasoning of both Kelvin and Maxwell. which was [d^loo =
-)-28;'44 (AN 5048, p. 148). And hence

Kelvin inferred that »the magnetic influence on light with Grosspianri? outstanding motion, and Weber'? law (this
discovered by Faraday depends on the direction of motion latter is necessary in any case), the exponent would be less

of moving particles*, and that ^Faraday"?, optical discovery than 2.0000001046, —

the axact amount depending on the
affords a demonstration of the reality of Ampire's explanation adopted centennial difference [dCJ]oo taken by meat -+-2S'!44.
of the ultimate nature of magnetism« corresponding to— Making fair allowances for the obvious uncertainty in
the wave-theory. this outstanding difference, I think it certain that the ten-
After discussing Rankine'?, molecular
hypothesis of millionth place of the exponent probably is accurate, namely:

vortices, which he had himself developed at length, Kelvin f= mm'jr"'^'', )- = o.ooooooi (197)
finally concludes: »I think we have good evidence for the but the hundred-millionth place is in doubt by at least 3 units,
opinion that some phenomenon of rotation is going on in
the magnetic field, that this rotation is performed by a great
so that: ^ ^
0.00000010 + 0.00000003 (198)
The uncertainty in this exponent therefore is of the
number of very small portions of matter, each rotating on
order of three one-hundred-millionths, and it is not easy to
its own axis, being parallel to the direction of the
this axis
see how we can reach a conclusion authorizing a smaller
magnetic force, and that the rotations of these different
value of this uncertainty.
vortices are made to depend on one another by means of
Now in his address to the British Association in Australia,
some kind of mechanism connecting them.« This is Kelvin'?
19 14) P- 316, Prof. E. W. Brown, of Yale University, estimates
early description of what is now the wave-theory.
that the exponent in the law of gravitation does not differ from
10. The Degree of Accuracy of the Law of the 2 by a fraction greater than i 400000000
: 0.0000000025 =
Inverse Squares for Gravitation and for Magnetism — which is at least ten times smaller than the uncertainty
respectively. indicated above. Brown'? premises are open to grave objections,
(i) The accuracy of the law of the inverse squares for in that he assumed the Newtoni&n law to be quite rigorous,
gravitation. and adopted an oblateness of the earth of about i : 294,
 : 1 1 :

'57 Sondernummer 258

which not admissible, (AN 5048, pp. 149-150), because

is
Gauss took the force due to an element of positive
in AN103-5 104, I have shown that the most probable
5 magnetism d/*, at the distance D, to have the general form,
oblateness of the earth is i 298.3. (Intensitas Vis Magneticae,
:
etc., 1833, § 21):
The estimated higher accuracy of the law of attraction f=dfilir (200)
adopted by Brown therefore is not justified by the existing
where n inay be any number whatever.
state of our knowledge. In fact the fluctuations of the moon As the result of a long series of delicate experiments,
continue to be so troublesome that calculations on the motion
on a magnetized needle, by means of fixed magnets about
of the perigee do not give as exact a criterion for the ex-
a foot long and weighing about one pound, he found that
ponent in the law of attraction as we formerly believed.
while various values of n may be almost equally well adopted
All we can do at the present time is to say that the for special cases; yet when the distance between the two
exponent does not differ from 2 by more than about one-twenty- magnets is sufficiently great, compared to the linear dimen-
millionth of the whole, or o.ooooooi, while the uncertainty is sions of either, —
ultimately taken as more than four times
about three in the hundred millionth place, or ±0.00000003. as great, in the experiments finally devised by Gauss, — the
It follows from this line of reasoning that the law of best results indicated that the true value is n 2. ^
gravitation is established with very great accuracy. It is by If the deflexions in the end-on experiments were de-
far the most exact of all the laws of nature, because astro- noted by CD, and in the broadside-on experiments by <D',
nomical observations extend over long ages, and the precision the positions of the deflecting magnet are given by the general
of the observations is very high for about two centuries. In expressions
the case of eclipses of the sun and moon the records are l -{n+2)^. .^_r.^-(«+2) . ,

fairly complete for 3000 years, and thus they serve to check tg®' = L\r~^"'^'''^ + L'2r~^"-^'^U hZ'fr^^""^')
^""''
astronomical calculations back to the time of the Babylonians.
The accuracy
where =n
L-^JL'i .

(ii) of the law of the inverse squares

His observations, however, required but few terms of
for magnetism.
the series, and were satisfied by the approximate formulae:
In the year 19 14, I made a careful estimate of the
accuracy assignable to the law of gravitational attraction in
= 0.086870^"^ — 0.002185
tg© r~
-6

Newton's time, and found that it was of the order of one tg®' = 0.043435 ^-5
002449 r" r~'-l-o.
unit in the ten -thousandth place of the exponent, thus, be the distance between the centres of the mag-
If r
n =
2.0001 0.0001. + nets, measured in metres, and CDo, O'o, and Oc, O'c be the
It follows from the formulae for the calculation of the observed and calculated values, respectively, the experiments
motion of the perihelion (cf. Tisserand's Me'canique Celeste, of Gauss, lead to the following table of results
tome I, p. 50), that the exponent 2.001 would give a dis- *o — *<:
placement of a planet's perihelion amounting to d^ 648" in = I.I m 57' 2 4:'8 + 2:'8

a single revolution. In the same way the exponent 2.0001 1.2 29 40.5 -6.0
would yield a displacement of 64*8, a little over i', which 3 13 51-2 -i- o:'8 10 19-3 -t-6.0
-+-
is about as high an order of accuracy as was attainable in 4 47 28.6 4.5 55 58.9 -1-0.2

Newion's, time. 5 27 19. - 9.6 45 14-3 -6.6

If now we turn to the law of magnetic attraction, we 6 12 7.6 - 3-3 37 I 2.2 — 3.2
find a similar history of progress. In the time of Newton 7 O 9.9 - S-° 3° 57-9 — 1.2
the law of magnetic attraction had not been determined, nor 5° 52.5 -+- 4.2 25 59-5 -3-4
even surmised with any degree of probability. Accordingly, 9 o 43 21.8 + 7-8 22 9.2 -1-2.6

John Michell of Cambridge, England, in 1750, first showed 2.0 o 37 16.2 -H-I0.6 19 1.6 + 5-9
o 32 -+- 16
roughly that the law of the inverse squares probably holds 2.1 4.6 0.9 24.7 -4-4.9

for magnetic attraction. This law was much more rigorously 2-S o 18 51-9 - 10.2 9 36.1 -2-5
established by the French physicist Coulomb, in 1785, by 3.0 oil
1 0.7 - I.I 5 33-7 — 0.2
means of delicate experiments with the torsion balance; and 3-5 o 6 56.9 - 0.2 3 28.9 — I.O
it has since been generally received as a true law of nature, 4.0 o 4
4 35.9 - 3-7 2 22.2 + 1.7
so that we have /=
/"i"-'/''^ Those who have studied this subject carefully have
The general theory of magnetic attraction was sub- found in the above table a double proof of the law of the
sequently improved by Hansteen, of Copenhagen (Magnetismus inverse squares:
der Erde, 18 19). Yet it is to Gauss, above all others, that 1. The fact that tg® and tgCD' can be so accurately
we owe the real test of the law of magnetic attraction; for expressed by only the first two terms of the infinite series
this great mathematician made a successful effort to fix the in (201).
law of nature with a degree of rigor comparable to that of 2. The fact that the coefficient of the first term in
universal gravitation in the time of Newton. tgCD, namely 0.086870, is exactly double that in tg®', which
Gauss carried out a series of end-on observations with is 0.043435.
bar magnets in which the density of the magnetism for either As a result of the great generality of this analytical
half of the bar was assumed to have the form: theory, together with the novelty of the experimental method,
f=lx"'. (199) for treating the law of force at great distances, where minor
Bd. 217.
 «

259 Sondernummer 260

imperfections in the magnets would be minimized, and the »It has been usual to ascribe the ordinary diurnal
refinement of the observations made by Gauss, the law of variations of the terrestrial magnetic force to solar heat, either
the inverse squares has been regarded as definitely settled operating directly upon the magnetism of the earth, or gene-
by his Accordingly, it seems certain that the
researches. rating thermo-electric currents in its crust. The credit of
exponent in the expression for the law of magnetic attraction these hypotheses has been somewhat weakened by the dis-
is 2, with a probable uncertainty of not more than one unit covery of a variation which is certainly independent of any
in the ten-thousandth place: such cause, namely, the lunar variation of the three magnetic
n = 2±>' r<o.oooi , .
elements; while at the same time new laws of the solar

or n = 2.oooorho.oooi .
(203) diurnal change have been established, which are deemed to
be incompatible with the supposition of a thermic agency.
Therefore, it appears probable that the exponent in
There has been, accordingly, a tendency of late to recur to
the law of force in magnetic attraction is known to within
the hypothesis that the sun and moon are themselves endued
about a thousandth part of the accuracy attainable in the
with magnetism, whether inherent or induced; and it is there-
refined theories of the heavenly motions developed by the
fore of some importance to determine the eff"ects which such
labors of astronomers in the two centuries following the
bodies would produce at the earth's surface, and to compare
memorable epoch of Newton.
them with those actually observed.*
The law of magnetic attraction is therefore exceedingly
»I have endeavoured, in what follows, to solve this
accurate, and with modern apparatus, the refinement doubt-
question, on the assumption that the supposed magnetism of
less could be carried still further; but it would serve little
these luminaries is inherent. The result will show the in-
purpose in the present state of science, as the true law of
sufficiency of the hypothesis to explain the phenomena; and
nature already is plainly indicated.
willtherefore bring us one step nearer to their explanation,
For it appears from the above analysis of the leading
by the removal of one of their supposed causes.*
facts that the exponent in the law of magnetic attraction
He
has about the value n =
2.0001, essentially identical with
then derives the usual expressions for the total

the accuracy n =
2.0001 attained in the test of the law
forces X, Y,Z, exerted by a needle dehcately suspended about
its centre of gravity upon a distant magnetic element m
of gravitation embodied in the Principia by Newton, 1687.
supposed to be in the heavens:
If this degree of accuracy appeared satisfactory to Newton,
in the case of gravitation, the accuracy attained by Gauss
X == [Mmja^] [2cosa + ^[bla) cos /S-H 3 (<:/«) cos;']

for magnetic attraction leaves very little to be desired. Y= [Mmla^)[ — cos fi-^2,[b I a) cos a] (204)

II. Explanation of the Periodic and Secular Z= [Mmja^] — cos/ + 3((:/(2;) cosa]
[ .

Changes in the Earth's Magnetism, including the Here M is an integral, which we need not explain,
Cause of the Earth Currents, 'Magnetic Storms', a, b, c are the coordinates of the distant magnetic element
and Aurorae. m, and a, fi, y the angles made by the axis of the suspended

In the theory of magnetism a considerable group of terrestrial magnet with the coordinate axes.
errors have been handed down by tradition. Although some Lloyd then proceeds to substitute in these expressions,
of them have been refuted several years ago, they still continue saying: »If D denote the distance of the centre of the
to find place in even the latest treatises. It is therefore magnet from the centre of the earth, r the earth's radius,
necessary to dwell at some length on these errors, in the hope I the latitude of the point {a, b, c) on its surface, and 6
of giving increased currency to valid views on this subject. the angle contained by the meridian passing through it with
(i) Correction of the error in Lloyd's analysis of 1858: that containing the acting magnet,
Direct magnetic action of the sun and moon established by a = D — rcoslcos6 b=^rcoslsm^ c=rsinA.« (205)
Lloyd's, observations.
He makes the coordinates a, b, c to depend on
thus
In the Philosophical Magazine for March, 1858, Dr. the hour angle 6, and thus tacitly "restricts all changes to
Humphrey Lloyd, for many
years professor of natural philo-
the period of the diurnal movement. His analysis is so framed
sophy, and afterwards provost of Trinity College, Dublin, has as to exclude the possibility of a semi-diurnal movement
a learned paper entitled: »On the direct magnetic influence of the suspended needle. Yet he proceeds to examine the
of a distant upon the diurnal variations of the
luminary effect of his analysis, finally adding the following conclusions:
magnetic force at the earth's surface «, which was afterwards
»r. That the effect of a distant magnetic body on
reprinted in Lloyd's Treatise on Magnetism, (Longmans, Green
each of the three elements of the earth's magnetic force
& Co., London, 1874, p. 233—239). consists of two parts, one of which is constant throughout
We shall review Lloyd's paper briefly in order to point
the day, while the other varies with the hour-angle of the
out the error of analysis which vitiates the conclusions drawn
luminary.
from it. These unjustifiable conclusions have been widely
»2. Each of these parts varies inversely as the cube
circulated in other works, such as the Mathematical Theory of
of the distance of the magnetic body.«
Electricity and Magnetism (3'^''ed., 19 16) by Dr. y. H. Jeans,
now secretary of the Royal Society, and are detrimental to »3. The variable part will give rise to a diurnal
the progress of physical science.
inequality, having one maximum and one minimum in the
day, and subject to the condition:
Dr. Lloyd begins his discussion with the following
interesting introductory remarks: J^+J^^T^ =o .
 26l Sondernummer 262

»The third of these laws does not hold, with respect

either to the solar-diurnal or to the lunar-diurnal variation.
Thus, in the solar-diurnal variation of the declination, the
changes of position of the magnet throughout the night are
comparatively small, and do not correspond, with change of
sign only (as required by the foregoing law), to those which
take place at the homonymous hours of the day. The phe-
nomena of the lunar-diurnal variation are even more opposed
to the foregoing law, the variation having two maxima and
two minima of nearly equal magnitude in the twenty-four
lunar hours, and its values at homonymous hours having for
the most part the same sign. Hence the phenomena of the
diurnal variationnot caused by the direct magnetic
are
action of the sun and moon.«
This is one of the most curious specimens of deceptive
reasoning which I have ever met with in physical science.
If Lloyd had used the angle 26 instead of 6, in the polar
expressions for the coordinates a, b, c, so that

a = Z' — r cosA cos2i^ 3 ^ r cosA sin2i^ f = rsinA (206)

it. isevident that the disturbing action resulting would have
had a semi-diurnal period, in accordance with magnetic ob-
servations, and with gravitational action in the theory of the
tides of our seas.
In the theory of our ocean tides, the angle 26 is used
to represent the semi-diurnal forces acting on the sea (cf.

Darwin's article Tides, Encycl. Brit.). The reader is also

referred to the discussion in AN 5079, pp. 267—270, where
Darwin'% figure of the semi-diurnal movement of a pendulum
will be found useful, in interpreting the following magnetic

observations by Lloyd himself:

Lunarinequality of the easterly force (i^) atDublin(Z/i!y(/,p. 197).
_
Lunar hours
. = easterly'.force
V)
,
vi = easterly force \-
l
summer lunations 1
er lunations
•
12 — 0.19
10 — 0.2 I

8 — 0.06
6 -1-0.09

4 -Ho. 12
2 -t-0.08
o — 0.06
•
2 — 0.04
4 -1-0.05
6 -1-0.17
-1-0.06
0.00
 .

263 Sondernummer 264

It appears that among all his eminent contemporaries 2. But although this periodic magnetic connection has

Airy alone —
probably as the result of his great work on been known now over 7 o" years, and we might properly have
Tides and Waves, —
was able to interpret the magnetic tides attributed high magnetic power to the sun, yet we could not
of the earth correctly. In his Treatise on Magnetism, 1870, make out the mode of operation of the magnetic forces, even
p. 206, Airy recognized »a true lunar tide in magnetism, after the Mount Wilson observers, about 1908, had obtained
occurring twice in the lunar day, and showing magnetic a better and more direct proof of the intense magnetism of
attraction backward and forward in the line from the Red the sun's globe.
Sea to Hudson's Bay«. 3. We pause therefore to unfold a clear view of the
In view of the cause of magnetism set forth in the disturbanceknown as an electric current when it is developed
in a dynamo of the simplest type. In AN 507 g, plate 6, we
present paper it would be difficult to overrate this analysis
oi Airy. First, he assigned to a magnet a »Duality of Powers*, have explained in some detail the wave field about a wire
— an attraction towards the two centres known as the poles — bearing a. current. In the accompanying fig. 7, therefore, we
and second, he says distinctly that the force of the earth's
magnetism directed to the north pole near Hudson's Bay is
variable along the line of the magnetic meridian directed
through Western Europe to the Red Sea.
In our new theory of the ponderomotive forces of the
earth's field, we found the formulae:
F= ^^7^2 - ii(i'ls'^, F' =
till'I
s'^ -
fifj,'/s^ (207)
.

Now ifunder the radiation of the moon or sun any action

is exerted upon the earth to change the relative intensity of

either pole, the forces F

and F' will vary correspondingly.
Under these circumstances the ponderomotive forces cannot
possibly remain constant; and the result necessarily is a true
lunar magnetic tide occurring twice daily, according to which
ever pole temporarily is most powerful, thus showing magnetic
attraction backward and forward in the line from the Red
Sea to the north magnetic pole near Hudson's Bay.
In the case of the sun the changes of the earth's mag-
netic field due to heat and the magnetic waves in the earth's
illuminated hemisphere are so very considerable that the
phenomena are somewhat involved. In the case of the moon's
action the effects are simpler, though much feebler.

Airy adds that the lunar magnetic forces are considerably

less than those which follow the law of solar hours; the mean Fig. 7. Generation of electric current by relative motion
in a wave-field.
diurnal solar inequality being about 1/600 of the horizontal
force, while the lunar is only 1/12000. Thus the solar in- show in the middle section of the figure the nature of the
fluence is approximately 20 times more powerful than that due waves of the magnetic field. The waves are to be conceived
to the moon. This result need cause no surprise in view of as traveling in every direction with the velocity of light.
the recently measured high intensity of the sun's magnetism. What, then, will happen when a loop of wire — which may
(iii) The cause of Earth Currents, 'Magnetic Storms', be viewed as a section of an armature or core revolves —
and the Aurorae. in such a wave field?
The explanations of the Aurora Borealis heretofore 4. We know that induction takes place, so that a current
put forth are artificial, incomplete or unsatisfactory. They all tends to be generated and will flow steadily in one direction
involve something unusual, or out of the ordinary, and there- if the wave-disturbance is properly led off in a wire forming
fore must be rejected as inconsistent with the simphcity of a closed circuit. To get a clear view of this induction process,
the laws of nature. we need only note that as the wire has both inductance and
Wepropose to develop the magnetic wave-theory of the capacity, any motion of the wire in the wave-field, or any
Aurora, and shall endeavor to show that this phenomenon motion of the wave-field relatively to the wire, will produce
may be easily understood as soon as we approach the problem the induction required to develop the current. By the motion
from the right point of view. of the wire, or of the wave-field relatively to the wire, the
I. About 1850 it was shown by Lamont, Wolf, Gautier
electric equilibrium in the wire is disturbed, as when it moves

and Sabine that there is some extraordinary dependence of the between the magnetic poles P and P'
amplitude of the magnetic disturbances, or 'Magnetic Storms', 5.Suppose, for example, the copper wire C to move
of our globe upon sunspots. The amplitudes of the magnetic from a to b. At such a point as a the equilibrium of the
disturbances follow the same law as the sunspots, in a cycle aether will be disturbed. Under the action of the vortices
of about II years. in the external free aether, those within the wire will tend
 .

205 Sondernummer 266

to be forced upward, owing to the approach of the wire to- and 538), E. W. Maunder reached similar conclusions,
pp. 2
wards the whirl w. At the point on the other hand, the without knowledge of Broun
fi, s,earlier work. Maunder made
wire recedes from the whirl w', and owing to the enormous the period to be 27.28 days, coinciding with the sun's rotation
elasticity of the aether a suction effect will result, by virtue relatively to the observer upon the earth. Mr. Maunder regarded
of which the aether in the wire at will also tend to be his results as demonstrating that the larger magnetic distur-
fi
forced upward.
Thus, owing to these relative motions, the bances of the earth originate in the sun; and considered the
disturbances at a and /9 combine to produce a wave distur- action as propagated along narrow well defined streams, having
bance upward in the wire as shown, which is similar to that their bases in active areas of sunspots, yet possibly preceding
given in AN 507 9, Tafel 6, for a current. and outliving the spots themselves.
But as a current requires a circuit, we must next
6.
1 1 Young' % observations of the violent magnetic tremors
consider what is the effect of the motion of the wire on the
near the time of the total solar eclipse in Colorado, 1872,
opposite side, a' At the point y the disturbance of the
b' .
are well known, but as his account is instructive we quote
aether due to the vortex w" will be downward, for reasons
,
it briefly:
similar to those assigned above. At d, on the other hand,
the wire is receding from the vortex w", and under the high
»0n August 3, 1872, the chromosphere in the neigh-
borhood of a sun-spot, which was just coming into view
elasticity of the aether,the resulting suction effect will be
around the edge of the sun, was greatly disturbed on several
such as to also direct the disturbance downward. Thus at
occasions during the forenoon. Jets of luminous matter of
both ;' and d there is a combination of downward distur-
intense brilliance were projected, and the dark lines, of the
bances; and therefore a tendency to develop the electric
spectrum were reversed by hundreds for a few minutes at
oscillations or current shown in the diagram, and recognized
a time. There were three especially notable paroxysms at
as a current in AN 5079, Tafel 6.
8*^45"", 10^30™, and ii'^so'" a. m. local time. At dinner the
7. This combination of electric oscillations tending photographer of the party, who was determining the magnetic
upward on the right, and downward on the left of the wire constants of our station, told me, without knowing anything
loop, is the basis of the induced current discovered by
about my observations, that he had been obliged to give up
Faraday in 183 1. The rule about » cutting the lines of his magnet having swung clear off the scale.
work, Two
force* is a very good rule of thumb for artisans and mecha-
days later the spot had come around the edge of the limb.«
nics but it gives no intelligent view of what actually goes
;

Young's observations extended over the next two days,

on. Thus we have outlined the process from the point of
and when he afterwards wrote to Airy and Perry in England,
view of the highly elastic medium the aether is known to be.
he was surprised to find from their photographs that the
8. And we have explained how the relative motion
needles at Greenwich und Stonyhurst had shown violent
of the wire in respect to the magnetic field filled with vor- tremors, just like that noted in Colorado, and at the same
tices must necessarily create about the wire the wave-field —
instant of Greenwich mean time, within 10 minutes, the
called a current. The magnetic vortices, being elements of
time in Colorado not having been noted with any great
the magnetic waves, may be conceived as moving with the
precision.
velocity of light in free space; yet as they are perpetually
12. The accompanying Plate 7 of simultaneous magnetic
renewed in situ, they act as if they were stationary relatively
disturbances throughout the world, reduced to Greenwich time,
to the magnetic poles upon which they depend.
is from a paper by Prof. W. G. Adams, in the Phil. Trans.,
As we pointed out above, any motion of the fixed
9. for 1892, A, Plate 8.After examining this record, it is useless
wave-field, or any marked variation of the wave-field, in re-
to extend our present argument any further.
spect to the wires, will give rise to electric disturbances which
But whilst the relationship of Sunspots to 'Magnetic
might be made the basis of an electric current, if properly
Storms', Earth Currents, Aurorae,is long recognized from well
led off and directed. We have now to draw attention to the
defined phenomena of periodicity, the nature of the undoubted
well known fact that the sun's magnetic wave field is quite
connection continues so very obscure that we must carry the
variable. The magnetic wave disturbances are much worse
examination a little further.
when sunspots are present than when these spots are absent.
As the spots are known to be vortices of highly magnetized In his Treatise on Magnetism, 1870, p. 204 Airy says:
matter, we see that the magnetic waves coming from these »The periods of great disturbance sometimes occupy a
local areas of the solar surface are the immediate cause of portion of a single day, sometimes several days in succession:
the Magnetic Storms «.
» This connection is abundantly they are familiarlyknown by the name of 'magnetic storms'. They
established by the researches of astronomers during the past are not connected with thunder-storms or any other known
75 years. disturbance of the atmosphere; but they are invariably con-
10. In the Phil. Trans., vol. 166, p. 387, yohn Allen nected with exhibitions of Aurora Borealis, and with spontaneous
Broun found from magnetic phenomena that there was a galvanic currents in the ordinary telegraph wires: and this con-
period of recurrence in the magnetic disturbances of about nection is found to be so certain that, upon remarking the
26 days, —
the period of the solar rotation, and ex- — display of one of the three classes of phenomena, we can at
pressed the belief that certain zones or areas of the solar once assert that the other two are observable (the Aurora
surface might exert a potent influence on the state of the Borealis sometimes not visible here, but certainly visible in
earth's magnetism during several rotations. In 1904, (MN65, a more northern latitude).*
 267 Sondernummer 268

Conclusions as to the Cause of the Earth Cur- is because the air near the horizon is of greatest depth, and
rents, 'Magnetic Storms', Aurora Borealis and Aurora thus on the photographic plate the persistence of the auroral
Australis. rays may become visible in spite of its invisibility to the eye.
1. From the above argument it follows that the sun's In high latitudes, especially about the cold poles of our globe,
magnetic wave-field is variable, owing to the changes associated the atmospheric electric potential of the air tends to fall, as
with the sunspot development. Variability in the sun's magnetic Exner showed, on the average fifteen times more rapidly than
wave field leads to variability in the inductive actions of these in the equatorial regions of our globe. Thus in cold regions

waves upon the earth; and as our globe has both inductance the rapid fall of the electric potential offers an easy release
and capacity, the result is electric disturbances adjusting them- for wave stress in the air when the particles of cirrus and
selves within the globe, which is a heterogeneous mass three similar clouds are undergoing rapid condensation. Thus electric
fourths covered by sea, and surrounded by an atmosphere well discharges at great height do not take the form of lightning
suited to Geifiler tube displays. directed to the earth, but of faintly luminous streamers.
6. Now if we consider the new theory of lightning and
2. It is easily shown by experiments on land, especially

near the sea, that very considerable differences of electric

of surface tension given in the fifth paper, 5130, we AN
perceive that liquid drops, or even globules of ice suspended
potential always exists in the ground, and is in constant
in a frozen cirrus cloud, under the influence of the earth's
dissipation and adjustment. The solid heterogeneous earth, sea
magnetic field, would not have the aether stress at the surface
and sky are under perpetual adjustment of the equilibrium of
exerted with perfect symmetry, but there would be a north
their respective wave-fields; and as the inductions due to the
and south polarity in the globules, owing to the unsteadiness
sun are variable, we see that there will arise a true magnetic
in the earth's magnetic forces. If this stress yielded to a slight
tide pullingbackward and forward from the Red Sea to Hudson's
electric rupture, under the wave impulses of the earth's mag-
Bay, whenever the solar inductions take place in such a way
netism, the release of energy would generate an agitation
as to change the two poles of the globe of the earth or of
yielding luminous streamers in the direction of the magnetic
the sun. If these changes are rapid and violent we frequently
lines of force, as in the aurora. Since the magnetic stress
have a form of lightning in the upper atmosphere:
is greatest to the north, the rays often would start there and
F= fifi'js^ — fifjo'js'^, Aurora Borealis. (208)
flash southward, which explains the auroral streamers perfectly,
F' = fi^'/s'^ — /M'i«'A^ Aurora Australis. (209) without the introduction of any arbitrary hypothesis. So simple a
3. These simple considerations perfectly explain the earth theory leaves nothing to be desired; without strain it explains
currents, and the 'magnetic storms', and we may dismiss these all the auroral phenomena of the two terrestrial hemispheres.

two classes of phenomena as now referred to their true cause. 7. The folded ribbon bands so often seen in the aurora
For the sun is variable in its action, owing to spot develop- are perspective shadow effects, produced mainly by alternations
ment and rotation, and thus has variable poles, /j, und fj, of luminous and non-luminous clouds, somewhat analogous to
while the earth also rotates steadily; yet its poles fj,' and fj,' the beams, with truncated columnar aspect, often seen in the
are variable, because the changing light hemispheres are sky at sunset or sunrise; yet just as the sources of the auroral
successively subjected to an extremely variable induction by light are more hidden than in the case of the sun, so the
the sun's action. Accordingly the earth currents and 'magnetic auroral truncated bands or folded curtains thus are more
storms' immediately follow from the above formulae. mysterious than what we see produced by the sun's visible
4. As for the aurora, it was remarked by Halley in the illumination.
Phil. Trans., for 1714-1716 (vol. XXIX, no. 341), that this 8. During the observed at Mare Island,
brilliant aurora
brilliant northern light is a magnetic phenomenon. Perhaps California, May 14, saw the streamers forming very
192 1, I
Halley was influenced in his conclusions, as more modern distinctly in several parts of the sky where the clouds were
investigators have been, by the observed fact that the streamers just forming and dissolving. When a faint cloud became visible,
of the aurora are parallel to the lines of force of the earth's yet was not luminous, I found, by watching, that it often
magnetic field. The argument from the parallelism of the would soon exhibit faint streamers running parallel to the
streamers to the magnetic lines of force and from the periodi- earth's magnetic lines.
city of the aurora coinciding with that of the 'magnetic storms', Thus I am convinced that the light energy of the aurora
earth currents and sunspot development is all that is required is wave-energy, which in lower clouds frequently takes the
to show that the aurora depends upon electric discharges in form of lightning directed to the earth; but in the region of
our atmosphere. The streamers take on faint luminosity along the cirrus, where the air is very rare, is released by slight

the lines of magnetic force, because the magnetic state of the oscillatorychanges in the earth's magnetic forces. The aurora
earth is varying, under the irregular inductive action of the is a kind of sheet lightning of the upper atmosphere, and
sun, which operates most directly upon the light hemisphere; therefore the luminous streamers take the direction of the
yet as the night hemisphere of the earth is magnetically a lines of force in the earth's magnetic field. To this extent
part of the earth's entire system, the dissipation of uncom- Halley'^ bold conjecture of 17 14 is correct. more detailed A
pensated magnetic wave-energy is likely to become visible account of the brilliant aurora observed May 14, 1921, will
chiefly by night. be found in AN
5140, p. 81.
5. In Lowell Observatory Bulletin no. 79, June to No- (iv) The secular changes in the earth's magnetism.
vember, 1 9 16, Dr. Slipher has shown that the aurora usually Itonly remains to consider the secular changes of the
is present in the sky near the horizon, even by daylight. This earth's magnetism. Here, unfortunately, we are on uncertain
 : .

269 Sondernummer 270

ground, owing to the absence of any well defined criteria to 1. Gravitational attraction

/=
show the cause at work.
mm'/r^ . (211)
1. It was stated by Airy that the magnetic north pole Magnetic
2. total intensity, or aether stress
probably is revolving around the geographical pole; but after
a critical survey of the known data for the south magnetic
/ = /.i/fi'/s^-h/X'fi'/s'^ . (212)

pole, in section 5 above,we are unable to find definite evidence It is justly remarked that for a full century investi-

of any shifting whatever of the earth's magnetic poles. And gators have fought shy of searching for the cause of mag-
as the poles appear to be fixed, — if we judge by that in netism. The result was so unsatisfactory to physical science
that in the later years of his life Helmholtz is said to have
the Antarctic, for which the observed data are most complete
— we have been obliged to conclude that the surface secular remarked that our failure to discover the cause of magnetism
changes in the earth's magnetism depend mainly on induction was the disgrace of the 19'^ century. Certainly the need
for such research has long been felt as a most urgent desi-
effects due chiefly to the sun, as in Arago's rotation ex-
periment of 1825. deratum of science, and yet little or no progress was made,
owing to the confused state of the subject.
2. Since the sun
is a strongly magnetized body, there

would arise globe some eddy currents of considerable

in our Now that a way is opened for referring all the chief

intensity; and as the eddy currents for astronomical reasons

forces of nature to wave-action in the aether,we must be
would recur with approximate regularity in the same direction,
careful not to allow attention to be diverted from so fruit-
for a long time, over considerable areas, it is likely that a
ful a line of inquiry. There need be, for example, no dis-
cussion of the irregularities of the earth's magnetism we
very considerable secular change in the magnetic forces near
;

have known of these irregularities all along, but had not

the surface would gradually result. This is the only tangible
perceived the harmonic law connecting the earth's total
explanation of the secular changes known to me.
magnetic force with terrestrial gravitation.
It has the element of simplicity in and we its favor,
The new method has enabled us to reach the har-
know that considerable differences do
of electric potential
monic law:
really exist in regions very near each other: therefore it seems
probable that an adjustment of the planes of the atomic //^ = ^2 (^2/j2 + ^2//2) ^=1/1408.12 (213)
equators would gradually occur so as to shift the direction thus accurately connecting the total intensity of magnetism
of the magnetic lines in the same direction; then, later, by with gravity throughout the globe. It has enabled us to
mutual reaction upon other masses, the oscillation might go calculate the total quantity of magnetism in the sun, and
in the other direction. to connect the total force of this magnetism at the sun's
But as the »magnetic domains* of the earth are very
3.
surface with the known force of solar gravitation by a similar

unequal in size and intensity, it is probable that the secular equation

changes would be slow and ill-conformed to one uniform rule. hlg^ =
^oM^oV-fo^ '-oV-yo'^) )?= 1/157 + (214)
The fact is that they are quite confused, some clockwise, Such a law evidently is in the highest sense a true law of
others counter-clockwise. Hence
about corresponds to
this nature. Indeed it has all the generality of the law of gra-
the observed secular changes magnetism. Great
in the earth's vitation itself. The new law can be applied wherever the
as these changes become with the lapse of centuries, they intensity of the magnetization is known in units of that ob-
evidently do not belong to the poles, which apparently are served in the earth or in the sun.
not shifting. We can only explain the secular changes by the Obviously a similar equation will hold for Jupiter,
theory of comparatively shallow Arago eddy currents. To Saturn or Mars, yet up to this time we have no observed
this hypothesis there is not the slightest objection, yet we
data for fixing the intensity of the magnetization in Jupiter,
must derive the secular changes wholly from observation. Saturn or Mars compared to that in the earth or sun. How-
ever, just as Kepler's law of planetary motion about the sun:
Magnetic Attraction depends on a Duality
12.
of Powers, and is therefore directed along Curved a^:a'^ = t'^[M^m):t''^[M+m') J/ = i , usually, (215)
Lines towards Two Poles, while Gravitational At- was generalized for the planets and double stars of mass
traction directed straight towards a Single Centre
is M^-^nti, in the form:
of Gravity: Simplicity of the General Laws of Nature. [M-^m] [Mi+mi) : = a^jt"^ ^iV^^
: (216)
(i) The connection and the difference between mag- so also at the surface of any cosmical body the law con-
netism and gravitation. necting magnetism with gravitation becomes
It is

a duality of powers,
now clearly shown that magnetism depends on
and therefore the mutual attraction be-
-I'vlgf = rjv^ [rr^/sv^-hrv^/sv'^ n)
seems probable that the magnetization in a body
It
tween two magnets is directed along curved lines, according
like Jupiter someday may be determined by observation.
to the formulae for the ponderomotive force:
Even now we may approximate the magnetic component ij,
F= fif.'ls^-fiii'ls'^ F' = fif,'/s''-fj,[^'/s^ . (210)
For since the mass of this great planet lies between that
In this respect magnetism is totally unlike the simpler
of the sun and earth, we should expect 1] for Jupiter to lie
stress of gravitation resulting from the haphazard arrangement
between 1/1408 and 1/157, thus
of the atomic planes, yet yielding a single force directed
1/157 >!/,> 1/1408 (218)
in a right line towards the centre of gravity:
.
 ,

271 Sondernummer 272

And similar reasoning would apply to Saturn, Uranus, profoundly illuminated by Faraday's, experiment of 1845, on
and Neptune. In the case of Mars, on the other hand, we the rotation of a beam of polarized light, and by a whole
should expect the magnetization to be less intense than in train of phenomena in magneto-optics; by the great body of
the case of the earth ; so that we should have phenomena in electrodynamics; and finally by the vast array
i/j40&>'riM of phenomena in wave motion, especially collected together
(219)
in figure 4 of this paper, and the six preceeding papers on
And as the mass of Mars is only about o.i of the earth's
the New Theory of the Aether.
mass, it would not be unexpected if the magnetization of
that small planet should prove to be approximately: The complete accord of all these magneto-optical pheno-

^AJ = 1/14080, or TjM = 1/12000. (220)

mena with the undulatory theory in general thus yields another
independent probability:
The magnetization
of Venus, by similarity of causes,
probably would be comparable with the earth's, and thus very
nearly the same as our well determined value tj = 1/1408. J.
-h"x dx" = i/n l223j

Thus the problem of cosmical magnetism takes on new interest

in all directions. And the reciprocal of the compound probability of all

There are too many questions as yet unexplored for us these causes
to dare to hope to solve all of them in a perfectly simple
manner; yet when a way is once opened for a solution, there Pj, == le-''^'-dxle-^"^"-dx'Je~''"-'"-dx" =
will eventually appear the investigator who will traverse this a a' a"
unexplored path, just as has happened in extending the dominion = [i/n- ijn'- ijn"] = i/oo^ (224)
of the law of gravitation over the unexpected celestial pheno- ;/^oo, «'=oo, n"=<y^
mena discovered since the time of Newton. when the limits of the integrals are narrowed indefinitely,
It is remarkable that at last we have reached a great therefore is the chance \^hich supports the wave-theory. Accor-
law of nature connecting magnetism with gravitation, in spite dingly, the ratio of all the points in infinite space to one
of the remarkable difference in the two forces; and that we represents the probability that magnetism and universal gravi-
are able to refer both of these forces of nature to wave-action tation are due to the common cause of wave-actions in the aether.
in the aether. By this harmonic law geometrically connecting
(ii) Defects in the theory of magnetism handed down
the haphazard wave-action in gravitation, which has the force
by tradition from the days o( Robert Norman, 1576; Gilbert,
directed towards a single centre, with the systematic wave-
1600; and Euler, 1744.
action in magnetism, yielding a duality of powers, or forces
In the Third Paper, AN 5079, p. 244—247, we have
directed to two centres, the argument for the cause assigned
vastly strengthened. given a brief notice of the defective theory adopted by Euler,
to either force separately is

example, the probability be very great in favor

If for 1744, who regarded the aether as circulating through the axis
of a magnet from the south to the north pole, like the blood
of either hypothesis separately, so that the chance of any other
result practically vanishes, as happens when the limits a and /J
flowing through the arteries in one direction only, thus returning
to the south pole through free space, along the magnetic Hnes
are indefinitely near together, in the probability integrals:
of force. Figure 3, Tafel 4, AN 5079, illustrates Euler's theory

J'
-ex' dx ijn, ^e -/I'x'
dx' = ijn'
according to be original diagrams of his Opuscula, vol. Ill,
Berlin, 1744, plate i.
(221)
The principles thus adopted by Euler gave an unfor-
C^e -/iV dx '

tunate bias to thought in magnetism, and although in later

treatises they are somewhat modified so as to conform to
n and n' being very large numbers. And if the two causes at modern thought, yet the whole trend of the reasoning in this
work, as now happens, are connected by the verified harmonic subject has continued to be on an unsound basis. The usual
law, then the probability of the compound event, or common habit of describing the Eulerissi circuit from the north to the
cause, for both of the phenomena of magnetism and gravitation south pole as »the path of a unit north pole«, is criticised
being jointly due to wave-action, becomes the reciprocal of in AN 5079, p. 247 as »unscientific and a very imperfect
the product of these probabilities, when each one has infinitely makeshift*, — the mildest criticism, consistent with truth,,
narrow limits, namely: which could be made.
P P' But prior to Euler's, time certain defects were current
/' = J^-'^'^'-da:J^-^"^"-d*'=[l/«-l/«'] = l/oo2- (222) which had been handed down from the days of Robert Nor-
a a'
«=°° n='x, man, 1576:
Thus the probability becomes an infinity of the second 1. That magnetization does not change the weight of

order, like all the points in an infinite plane to one, that if a body; that by the action of the magnetic forces there is
wave-action underlies either magnetism or gravitation, the no tendency to a motion of translation.
same cause underlies both classes of phenomena. 2. Hence the earth's magnetic action is directive only,
Now the processes involved in gravitation are not directly being due to a couple.
perceptible to our senses, and thus somewhat obscure. It is None of these claims are strictly true, because one
not so, however, with the cause of magnetism, which — is magnet exerts upon another the following ponderomotive forces-
 . : :

273 Sondernummer 274

for the northern and southern hemispheres respectively: south pole and north pole, A and B, and thus it may be
F=^f,^'ls^-^^'IS'^. JP'=r= f,f,'/s'^-f,i^'/s^. (225)
that Euler's diagram of 1744 had its inspiration in an earlier
And thus the earth does exert upon a magnet, suspended
diagram of Gilbert, 1600.
Accordingly the defects in the traditional theory of
by a thread through its centre of gravity, a slight deflecting
effect; yet it is difficult to observe it experimentally, owing
magnetism doubtless arose originally from the way the south-
seeking pole points when brought to the earth's poles. It
to the force of gravitation exceeding the magnetic force in
a ratio of about 000000 represents this pointing phenomenon faithfully, but gives us
1 to 2000000 times.
At the no idea of the correct theory of magnetism, as now expressed
magnetic poles, a piece of steel suddenly
earth's
converted into a magnetic needle would be under two forces:
by the formulae for the ponderomotive force in the observed
mutual action of two magnets.
(a) ordinary gravitation, (b) terrestrial magnetism, having a
In AN 5079, p. 247, we have called attention to Max-
strength of about i/ioooooo of gravitation. As both forces
weir% indistinct reasoning, in his address on Action at a Di-
work in the same vertical direction it seems certain that the
stance, respecting the push and pull forces between a mag-
magnetized steel would weight a little more after magnetization
netic needle and a wire bearing a current, as in Oersted's
than before, though the change of weight would be small.
We may safely reach this conclusion by observing that experiment. Thus it only remains to formulate an expression
for the ponderomotive force by which the magnetic needle
if a steel needle or piece of soft iron is suspended by a thread
is drawn to the wire, as follows
over the pole of a strong steel magnet, the downward pull
on the thread is certainly greater in this position above the
E= fj,
X i/r-h[i X i/r (226)
magnet, than when the strong steel magnet is removed. I where fi and are the strengths of the two poles of the
j/i

have often tried the experiment, and found the effect very magnetic needle, z is a constant, i the strength of the cur-
noticeable. What is true of a magnetized needle suspended rent, and r the shortest radial distance of the poles from

above a magnet therefore is true of a magnetized piece of the axis of the wire.
steel at the earth's magnetic poles. For the downward pull Biot a.nd Savart' s\&w of 1820 (ANso7g, p. 255), corres-
due purely to gravity would be slightly increased by the ponds to the above form of expression and as the needle ;

purely magnetic action of our globe. acts as if the magnetism were centred in its poles, this

The defect in Normarii, reasoning, in regard to the extraordinarily simple formula results for the ponderomotive
earth's magnetic action being directive only, need not be dis- action of a current in a straight wire upon a magnetic needle
cussed at length, because we have seen that the ponderomotive with poles at the distance r. If the distance of the two
force does really exist, and vary from place to place; yet the poles from the axis of the wire be unequal, r and r', the
change from place to place is slow, owing to the size of the formula becomes very slightly more complex:
earth, and the great length of the curved lines s and s' F= fix i/r-i-[i X i/r' ^ fix i(i/r-+- i/r') . (227)
It only remains to recall a diagram originally given in Experiments made by me in 19 14, show that these
Gilbert' work De Magnete, 1600, as follows.
i,
ponderomotive forces are real, and very sensible to obser-
vation. If the needle be out of its position of equilibrium,
it tends to turn around, as in Oersted's experiment. If re-
versed from its natural position, there would of course be
a change of sign in F, and repulsion would result but from ;

the point of view of the wave-theory, the case of attraction

is far more interesting.

(iii) Results of recent investigations in regard to the

cause of magnetism and gravitation.
a) Views of Airy: In his Treatise on Magnetism, 1870,
Airy expresses himself thus
»In ordinary observation, magnetism is scarcely known
except as existing in and especially in steel, and as
iron
related in some obscure manner to the earth. But there is
reason to believe that it is one of the most extensively dif-
fused agents in nature. It can be traced not only in iron
Fig. 8. Diagram from Gilbert % De Magnete, 1600, showing but also in every substance into which iron (one of the most
the directions taken by the south-seeking pole of a widely spread substances in nature) enters in composition.
magnetic needle at various places on the earth.
It is found in nitkel and other substances, and even in
This appears to have been the precursor oi Euler's
defective theory of 1744, (AN 5079, Tafel 4, Fig. 3.) some gases. Wherever a galvanic current exists in nature,

that the aether flows in at the south pole, and out whether produced by chemical action or appearing in the
circulating like the blood in the
at the north pole, thermo-electric form as originating from the effects of heat
arteries in one direction only.
at the place of union of different substances, magnetic effects

This figure is from Mottelay's, excellent English trans- can be elicited. On the larger scale it is certain that the whole
lation of Gilbert's work, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1893, earth acts as a combination of magnets, and there is reason

p. 282. The points C and D here correspond with Euler'% to think that the sun and the moon also act as magnets*.

Bd. 217.
 « « « : «

275 Sondernummer 276

Yet after developing a comprehensive treatise written forces in this respect, that the bodies between which it acts
with his usual masterly ability, and making great use and cannot be divided into two opposite kinds, one positive and
high commendation of the researches of Gauss, Airy con- the other negative, but are in respect of gravitation all of
cludes his work (p. 220) with the following somewhat melan- the same kind, and that the force between them is in every
choly remark: case attractive. To account
such a force by means of
for

»0n the whole, we must express our opinion, that the stress in an intervening medium, on the plan adopted for

general cause of the earth's magnetism still remains one of electric and magnetic forces, we must assume a stress of an

the mysteries of cosmical physics. opposite kind from that already mentioned. We must suppose
that there is a pressure in the direction of the lines of force,
Views of Maxwell: We shall now examine MaxwelFs
b)
views on magnetism and gravitation. In the celebrated article
combined with a tension in all directions at right angles to
the lines of force. of stress would, no doubt,
Such a state
on Attraction, (Scient. Pap., vol. II, p. 488) Maxwell rt3.s,ons
account for the observed effects of gravitation. We have not,
as follows:
however, been able hitherto to imagine any physical cause
^Faraday showed that the transmission of electric and
for such a state of stress.
magnetic forces is accompanied by phenomena occurring in
It has been shown in AN 5048, pp. 162-164, that this
every part of the intervening medium. He traced the lines of
last view of Maxwell, assigning a pressure in the direction
force through the medium; and he ascribed to them a ten-
dency to shorten themselves and to separate from their neigh- of the gravitational force, is erroneous. We treat of his cal-
culations of stress in some detail section 9 (ii) above, and
bors, thus introducing the idea of stress in the medium in
correct a numerical error which has stood about half a cen-
a different form from that suggested by Newton: for, whereas
tury. It thus suffices to add that what Maxwell could not
Newtons stress was a hydrostatic pressure in every direction,
Faraday's
solve was even more bewildering to Lord Kelvin, Helmholtz,
is a tension along the lines of force, combined
with a pressure in all normal directions. By showing that the
and other investigators.

plane of polarisation of a ray of light passing through a trans- And be shed on magnetism, it need
as light could not
parent medium in the direction of the magnetic force is made not surprise us mystery of the cause underlying
that the
to rotate, Faraday not only demonstrated the action of magne- gravitation has remained complete. In a learned paper in
tism on light, but by using light to reveal the state of mag- the Proc. R. Soc, vol. 54, 1893, p. 457, Prof. Larmor con-
netisation of the medium he 'illuminated', to use his own cludes by saying that: »The cause of the phenomenon of
phrase, 'the lines of magnetic force'«. gravitation has hitherto remained perfectly inscrutable*.

»From this phenomenon Thomson afterwards proved, by c) Views of Lord Kelvin. In the introduction to the
strict dynamical reasoning, that the transmission of magnetic English edition of .^i?^-/«'s Electric Waves, 1893 (pp. xii-xiii).
force is associated with a rotatory motion of the small parts Lord Kelvin expressed himself as follows regarding Faraday's
of the medium. He showed, at the same time, how the centri- researches
fugal force due to this motion would account for magnetic »But before his death, in 1867, he had succeeded in
attraction. inspiring the rising generation of the scientific world with
»A theory of this kind is worked out in greater detail something approaching to faith that electric force is trans-
in Clerk Maxwell's TreatiSe on Electricity and Magnetism. It mitted by a medium called ether, of which, as had been
is there shown that, if we assume that the medium is in a believed by the whole scientific world for forty years, light
state of stress, consisting of tension along the lines of force, and radiant heat are transverse vibrations. Faraday himself
and pressure in all directions at right angles to the lines of did not rest with this theory for electricity alone. The very
force, the tension and the pressure being equal in numerical lasttime I saw him at work in the Royal Institution in an
value and proportional to the square of the intensity of the underground cellar, which he had chosen for freedom from
field at the given point, the observed electrostatic and electro- disturbance and he was arranging experiments to test the
;

magnetic forces will be completely accounted for.« time of propagation of magnetic force from an electromagnet
»The next step is to account for this state of stress in through a distance of many yards of air to a fine steel needle
the medium. In the case of electromagnetic force we avail polished to reflect light; but no results came from those
ourselves of Thomson's deduction from Faraday's discovery experiments. About the same time or soon afterward, certainly
stated above. We assume that the small parts of the medium not long before the end of his working time, he was engaged
are rotating about axes parallel to the lines of force. The (I believe at the shot tower near Waterloo Bridge on the

centrifugal force due to this rotation produces the excess of Surrey side) in efforts to discover relations between gravity
pressure perpendicular to the lines of force. The explanation and magnetism, which also led to no result.*
of electrostatic stress is less satisfactory, but there can be no Absolutely nothing has hitherto been done for gravity
»

doubt that a path is now open by which we may trace to either by experiment or observation towards deciding between
the action of a medium all forces which, like the electric and Newton and Bernoulli, as to the question of its propagation
magnetic forces, vary inversely as the square of the distance, through a medium, and up to the present time we have no
and are attractive between bodies of different names, and light, even so much as to point a way for investigation in
repulsive between bodies of the same names. that direction. But for electricity and magnetism Faraday's
»The force of gravitation is also inversely as the square anticipations and Clerk Maxwell's splendidly developed theory
of the distance, but it differs from the electric and magnetic have been established on the sure basis of experiment by
 «

277 Sondernummer 278

Hertz's work, of which his own interesting account is now pelled Halley to print it at his private expense. Let the simple
presented the English reader by his translator, Prof.
to record of fact — that they discouraged Newton, 1686; Faraday,
U. E. Jones. It is interesting to know, as Hertz explains in 1866; myself, 1914— 16; and in 1916— 19, actually championed
his introduction, and it is very important in respect to the Relativity against the Newtonian Philosophy tell the story —
experimental demonstration of magnetic waves to which he of the Royal Society, whether the organization ever is effective
was led, that he began his electric researches in a problem in promoting the highest discoveries, such as Newton would
happily put before him thirteen years ago by Prof. v. Helm- approve.
holtz, of which the object was to find by experiment some The Philosophical Transactions during the last 50 years
relation between electromagnetic forces and dielectric pola- has perhaps a dozen learned mathematical memoirs on electricity
risation of insulators, without, in the first place, any idea of dis- and magnetism, especially on Maxwell's equations for the
covering a progressive propagation of this force through space. electromagnetic field, yet not one of the authors discloses the
This citation is important for showing the great Fara- smallest knowledge of the fundamental errors in the theory
day's conviction of a connection between magnetism and of magnetism handed down from the days oi Gilbert, 1600,
gravitation,and also for showing the significance of Hertz's and Euler, 1744, though one or two recent authors discuss
researches on forces due to waves propagated through the aether. the hypothetical Magneton, which has no real existence. Hence
as they made no progress towards the cause of magnetism,
Absolute Continuity among the Forces of Nature.
we have recently had what Dr. Whewell calls a stationary period
If after two centuries of effort, from the time of Newton in physical science.
and Bernoulli, such great mystery still hung over this question
(iv) General considerations on the highest laws of nature.
of the connection between gravitation and electrodynamic
It is one of the great merits of Sir Isaac Newton's law
action, under electric and magnetic forces, as viewed by the
of universal gravitation:
comprehensive and experienced mind of Lord Kelvin, still
more imperative was it the writer's duty to develop the / = mm'jr'^ (228)
connection between magnetism and gravitation. Yet this was that extremely simple, and at the same time of the utmost
it is

much more difficult than it might seem at first sight. generality. Accordingly 235 years after the publication of the

1. In Dr. K. F. Bottlinger'% Inaugural Dissertation at Principia (1687), we find that the Newtonian law still accounts

the university of Munich, 19 12, it is stated that Einstein had perfectly for the observed motions of the celestial bodies, ex-

been so unsuccessful in connect gravitation

his attempt to cept as modified by the addition of the small terms in Weber's
with electrodynamic action that he had quite turned away law of 1846, which take account of the induction and change
from it. Out of grew the much discussed
this Einstein failure of the induction, under wave-action propagated across space
but false doctrine of Relativity. was prematurely exploited
It with the velocity of light.
in England, by the Royal societies and by scientific journals, A favorite motto from Shakespeare's King Lear, scene II,
which have since regretted the record of this ill-advised course. was adopted by Gauss, in physical science:
2. Now that gravitation is directly connected with mag- »Thou, nature, art my goddess; to thy laws my services
netism, and magnetism itself an electrodynamic phenomenon, are bound ;«
it follows incontestably that universal gravitation also is an
and the rule for very perfect productions:
electrodynamic force. Accordingly it is evident that the
»Pauca sed matura.«
present successful breaking down of the complete isolation
which so long separated gravitation from the other forces of Thus judged by the experience of this great mathematician,
the chief object of the explorer of nature is the discovery of
the universe is a step of no ordinary significance.
the right idea, based on the doctrine
general and universal laws which are highly perfect and admit
3. Faraday had
1866, as above
the forces of nature, of no exceptions. Accordingly we notice the analytical simi-
of continuity for all

But in Faraday's day the Royal larity of the laws of magnetic intensity to the Newtom&n law
described by Lord Kelvin.
Society of London would give no heed to his views, any
of gravitation: ^ ^ y+yr = ^^,j,i+^^,l,>2 (^^g)
more than they would to the similar views set forth in my g^mm'jr^ (228)
Preliminary Paper of 19 14, which were regarded favorably
by such an authority as the late Lord Rayleigh. Thus, owing
F= (ifj,' I s^ — [ifjb' I
s''^
, F' ^ ijufjb'I
s'"^ — jifju' I
s'^
.
(230)

to the lack of vision of the referees of the Royal Society,

The first force is directed to two poles, usually at unequal
distances, j' and /, along the curved lines of the magnetic
Faraday's correct ideas were smothered for half a century,
force, while the second force is directed to a single centre,
and never could have triumphed but for my good fortune in
the centre of gravity of the whole mass. There is therefore
getting the work completed and published in these papers on
a great similarity in the above laws, yet the diflFerence ine-
the New Theory of the Aether. In deference to the revered
vitably resulting from rectilinear attraction towards a single
memory oi Newton, one would have thought that if the referees
work of discovery, centre, and the duality of powers resulting from stresses
of theRoyal Society could not lead in this
directed towards two centres or poles, along curved lines.
they certainly would encourage such effort on the part of
others for illuminating the cause of gravitation. As magnetism is characterized by polarity, while gravi-

But in view of their utter failure, it appears that the tation shows an and depends wholly
utter lack of polarity,
4.
same weakness of management now, as in 1686, when
exists on a mean central action only, one cannot doubt that the
they evaded the publication of Newton's Principia, and com- above laws of nature are ultimate.
 279 Sondernummer 280

The very simplicity of the law of magnetic attraction, verifiedby experiment, and follows at once from the law of
and its close analogy with the Newton\a.r\ expression for gravi- magnetic intensity given above in equation (229).
tation,shows that the fundamental law of magnetism may be It frequently is said that the successors of Kepler and
expected to withstand the ravages of time, just as the law Newton have been so much occupied with the verification of
of gravitation has done for over two centuries. the laws of these great masters, under the complex conditions
Perhaps the above formulae are typical of the highest of the actual universe, that the more recent investigators seldom
laws of nature. Magnets exert magnetic attraction only through have been able to add to the laws of nature. Undoubtedly
the mutual action of their poles; the forces are therefore it is a disadvantage to be so much bewildered by a multitude
directed to these and follow extremely simple laws,
poles, of secondary phenomena that we lose sight of the significant
although the action conveyed along curved lines.
is outstanding features of any problem.
In the case of gravitation, on the other hand, the forces
No doubt the modern students of magnetism have been
result from the integrations of the actions of the several
bewildered with refinements, and thus were unable to discover
atoms at their respective distances, yet practically this mean the errors in the foundations of the theory of magnetism handed
action reduces to a single force directed to the centre of
down by traditions dating from 1576, 1600 and 1744. When
gravity of the mass, at least for spheres and spheroids differing
such fundamental errors of principle are involved in our
but little from spheres.
theories, the mere refinement of measurement will add little
We perceive, therefore, as the result of experience, that
to our stock of physical knowledge. Before real progress can
the great laws of nature are extremely simple, and of the
be expected the erroneous theory must be unconditionally
utmost generality in their character. When these qualities
thrown overboard, and a new start made, on the basis of true
are not assured by any announced law, it is to be suspected
laws of nature, which may be recognized, chiefly by their
that what may be called a law of nature is not ultimate,
simplicity.
but at best only a first approximation, and sometimes wholly
erroneous, without being even approximately true. Often we must turn our eyes away from great masses
of lest the simplicity of general laws be lost
observations,
The formulae of Relativity-^) obviously fall in the class
of rejected laws. The theory is too complex, vague and chimerical sight of in a hopeless mass of bewildering detail. The in-

to represent any permanent advance in physical science. vestigator often is in the position of the explorer who cannot

It is justly remarked that it has all the weakness of the

see the general character of the forest on account of the

Ptolemaic system of astronomy, without the extenuating circum- trees which crowd too close about him. Thus in the present

stance, applicable to Ftolemy's complex system, that it arose investigation I have depended much less upon the magnetic

in a primitive age, when knowledge of the heavens was not

observations of the past 7 5 years, than upon the general
yet subjected to the Experimentum Crucis of an exact test. results already known to Humboldt and Gauss. As it was
Moreover, Relativity was born of complexity, not of simplicity; the data of their arbitrary scale of intensities, for the earth's

it involves so much
misapplication of mathematics, without magnetism, which enabled me to reach the general laws
physical basis, —
such as the so-called four-dimensional time- here I have retained their scale in the maps and
given,

space manifolds, curvature of space, geodesic curves, etc. — diagrams of this paper. The multiplier given by Sabine for
that an experienced natural philosopher cannot defend it.
converting these numbers into the absolute scale is 7.57.

Thus the doctrine of Relativity has not enlightened, but rather And since it was a somewhat hidden diamond acci-
confused the scientific world. Out of all this mass of discussion dentally dropped by Gauss amidst his profound calculations
not one clear truth has emerged, except perhaps the warning to on the amount of magnetism in the earth, that finally en-
beware of doctrines which pride themselves on their complexity. abled me to work out and verify the connection between
The law for the ponderomotive force which two magnets the magnetism of the earth and terrestrial gravitation^), I
exert on each other, given in equation (230) above, is equally gratefully crown the great mathematician with a laurel wreath,
remarkable for its simplicity and its generality. There can by selecting his portrait for the frontispiece to this con-
-

be no doubt whatever that this law is ultimate. It is easily cluding paper on the New Theory of the Aether. ,

'j Ever since completing the first paper, AN

5044, Jan. 14, 1920, the present writer has recognized clearly the fallacy of the Einstein
Theory of Relativity. Valid mathematical and physical reasons for the rejection of the whole theory are given in 5044, and in AN5048, AN
the latter paper dated Febr. 19, 1920. It is gratifying to notice that Prof. Paul Painleve and Prof. Emile Picard, perpetual secretary, in important
communications to the Paris Academy of Sciences, Oct. 24, 1921, have confirmed my conclusions from somewhat different points of view. Both
of these eminent mathematicians reject the doctrines of Einstein, and support the Newtoman mechanics. As they had received copies of the
successive papers on the New Theory of the Aether, their announced support of the Netvtoma.n doctrines in natural philosophy is not surprising.
Under the kinetic theory of the Aether any other position is wholly imtenable, but they did well to give public notice of the danger into which
many unwary societies and investigators had fallen.
In an article, written for Popular Astronomy, about 1894, it was stated by Prof. Asaph Hall that in his time Laplace had done more
'-')

for astronomy than all the Universities of Europe combined. In the same way it is evident that Gauss did more for terrestrial magnetism than
all other authorities of every age combined, and henceforth his work takes on vastly increased significance, from the connection now established
between magnetism and universal gravitation. Since 235 years have elapsed since the publication of Newton's Principia, and yet no real progress
was made towards solving the problem of the cause of gravitation, or showing that gravitation is an electrodynamic phenomenon, we think it
very improbable that a solution could be effected without the results given by Gauss' method, as further developed in the present paper.
And since Faraday's attempts at experimental proof of a connection between magnetism and gravitation failed, yet the present analytical
method of attacking the problem succeeded, by virtue of Gauss' theory, I look upon Gauss' theory as one of the most precious products of the
human intellect. For when every other resource failed. Gauss' theory admitted of analytical development which enabled us to solve the greatest
outstanding physical problem of the centuries!
 « :

Sondernummer 252

As the genius of Gauss incidentally brought out the the magnetic equator in the Peruvian Andes, between Mi-
results which gave the fractional part of the earth that is cuipampa and Caxamarca, may be expressed at Paris by
magnetic, and thereby made it possible to connect the mag- 1.3482, in Mexico by 1.3155, in San Carlos del Rio Negro
netism of the globe with terrestrial gravitation, thus breaking by 1.0480, and in Lima by 1.0773. When I developed
down the hitherto inscrutable isolation of the chief force of this law of the variable intensity of terrestrial magnetic force,
nature, we may exclaim of
Gauss, even more appropriately and supported it by the numerical value of observations
than Fourier could of Laplace: instituted in 104 different places, in a Memoir read before
»It is the great mathematician whose memory we the Paris Institute, on the 26"" Frimaire, An XIII, (of which
celebrate. the mathematical portion was contributed by M. Biot), the
By a fortunate circumstance it turns out that Humboldt facts were regarded as altogether new. It was only after
was not only the life-long friend and cooperator with Gauss the reading of the paper, as Biot expressly states [Lametherie,

in establishing the study of terrestrial magnetism upon a Journal de Physique, t. 59, p. 446, note 2), and as I have
scientific basis, but also the idol of my repeated in the Relation historique, t. i,p. 262, note i, that
youth, the perpetual
inspiration to a career of discovery. These early impressions Mr. de Rossel communicated to Biot his oscillation experiments
were of the greatest iniluence during my student days at the
made six years earlier (between 1791 and 1794) in Van
university of Berlin, so that I very frequently visited Diemen's Land, in Java, and in Amboina. These experiments
Hum-
boldt'% country place at Tegel. Who knows what influence gave evidence of the same law of decreasing force in the
these have had in leading me to a rigorous
associations Indian Archipelago. It must, I think, be supposed that this
proof of the connection between magnetism and terrestrial excellent man, when he wrote his work, was not aware of

gravitation, since these researches were begun in 1914, and

the regularity of the augmentation and diminution of the
intensity, as before the reading of my paper he never men-
such a connection definitely indicated to the Royal Society
tioned this (certainly not unimportant) physical law to any
of London?
of our mutual friends, Laplace, Delambre, Prony or Biot. It
Humboldt regarded discovery
of the law of the
his
was not till 1808, four years after my return from America,
increase of the magnetic intensity from the
earth's total
that the observations made by M. de Rossel were published
equator towards the poles as the most important result of
in the Voyage de L'Entrecasteaux, t. 2, pp. 287, 291, 321,
his American voyage of discovery, 1798-1804. Accordingly,
480, and 644. Up to the present day it is still usual, in
in veneration of the memory of this great man ^), I cite his
all the tables of magnetic intensity which have been pub-
own account of the discovery of this great law (Cosmos, lished in Germany [Hansteen, Magnet, der Erde, 18 19, p. 71;
Bohn Translation, vol. I, pp. 179— 181): Gauss, Beob. des Magnet. Vereins, 1838, p. 36-39; Erttian,
»The following is the history of the discovery of the Physikal. Beob., 1841, p. 529-579), in England [Sabine, Re-
law that the intensity of the force increases (in general) with port on Magnet. Intensity, 1838, p. 43—62 Contributions to ;

the magnetic latitude. When I was anxious

myself to attach Terrestrial Magnetism, 1843), ^nd in France [Becguerel, Traitd
in 1798 to the expedition of captain Baudin, who intended d'Electr. et de Magnet., t. 7, p. 354—367), to reduce the
to circumnavigate the globe, I was requested by Borda, who oscillations observed in any part of the earth to the standard
took a warm interest in the success of my project, to exa- of force which I found on the magnetic equator in Northern
mine the oscillations of a vertical needle in the magnetic Peru; so that, according to the unit thus arbitrarily assumed,
meridian in different latitudes in each hemisphere, in order the intensity of the magnetic force at Paris is put down as
to determine whether the intensity of the force was the same, 1.348. The observations made by Lainanon in the unfortunate
or whether it varied in different places. During my travels expedition of La Perouse, during the stay at Teneriffe (1785),
in the tropical regions of America I paid much attention to and on the voyage to Macao (1787), are still older than

this subject. observed that the same needle which in the

I those of admiral Rossel. They were sent to the Academy
space of tenminutes made 245 oscillations in Paris, 246 of Sciences, and it is known that they were in the possession
in the Havana, and 242 in Mexico, performed only 216 of Condorcet in the July of 1787 [Becguerel, t. 7, p. 320);
oscillations during the same period at San Carlos del Rio Negro, but notwithstanding the most careful search, they are not
(i''53' north lat. and 8o''4o' west long, from Paris), on the now to be found. From a copy of a very important letter
magnetic equator i. e. the line in which the inclination o, = ol Lamanon, now in the possession of captain Duperrey, which
in Peru (7°!' south lat. and 80° 54' west long, from Paris) was adressed to the then perpetual secretary of the Academy
only 211; while at Lima (12^2' south lat.) the number rose of Sciences, but was omitted in the narrative of the Voyage
to 219. I found in the years intervening between 1799 and de La Perouse, it is stated 'that the attractive force of the

1803, that the whole force, if we assume it at i.oooo on magnet is less in the tropics than when we approach the

^) Humboldt's extensive and varied researches on the magnetism of the earth extended over more than 60 years. In addition to his
series' of observations, especially during the travels in America, 1799-1804, and the expedition to
own notable Central Asia, 1829, he secured
the cooperation of the Russian and British Governments for the establishment of chains of magnetic
observatories throughout the northern and
southern hemispheres, 1 830-1 840, and hy Ross in the Antarctic, 1841. He always cooperated with Gauss and Weber, and thus aided the observational
foundation of Gauss' Allgemeine Theorie des Erdmagnetismus, 1838.
After eight years of researches in the wave-theory of physical forces, and the frequent use of Humboldt'% Cosmos for exactly forty years,
the present author finally was enabled to establish between cosmical magnetism and universal gravitation the
remarkable general law of nature
f j - -^ .^2 (yiU-i^f-ijs"'), Hence the addition of his portrait to this concluding paper on the New Theory of the Aether may he dedicated to the
revered memory of Humboldt.
"'
Bd. 217. -
 283 Sondernummer 2S4

poles, and that the magnetic intensity deduced from the In conclusion it may be recalled that Gauss was much
number of oscillations of the needle of the inclination-compass bewildered by the phenomenon of the Northern Light, adding
varies and increases with the latitude'. If the Academicians, (p. 50): »Die ratselhaften Erscheinungen des Nordlichts, bei
while they continued to expect the return of the unfortunate welchem allem Anscheine nach Elektrizitat in Bewegung eine
La Perouse, had felt themselves justified, in the course of Hauptrolle spielt« — »the puzzling appearance of the Northern
1787, in publishiiig a truth which had been independently Light, in which according to all appearances electricity in
discovered by no less than three different travellers, the motion plays a leading part«. He adds that it will not do
theoryof terrestrial magnetism would have been extended to deny the possibility of such electric currents, but it will
by the knowledge of a new class of observations, dating be interesting to investigate how such electric currents would
eighteen years earlier than they now do. This simple state- arise from the magnetic actions at the surface of the earth.
ment of facts may probably justify the observations contained
In the above paper we have not overlooked this re-
in the thirdvolume of my Relation historique (p. 615): —
commendation of the great mathematician. On the contrary
'The observations on the variation of terrestrial magnetism,
the new theory, of molecular forces (AN 5130) yields so direct
to which I have devoted myself for thirty-two years, by means
and simple an explanation for this harmless discharge of
of instruments, which admit of comparison with one another,
electric energy from the changing globules in the comparatively
in America, Europe and Asia, embrace an area extending
rare air of the cirrus clouds that the explanation fulfills all
over 188 degrees of longitude, from the frontier of Chinese
known physical by assimilating the aurora to a
conditions
Dzoungarie to the west of the South Sea bathing the coasts
kind of lightning of the upper atmosphere, which frequently
of Mexico and Peru, and reaching from 60° north lat. to
is easily set off in delicate streamers by unusually violent
1 2" south lat. I regard the discovery of the law of the
disturbances of the earth's magnetism.
decrement of magnetic force from the pole to the equator,
as the most important result of rriy American voyage'. Al- As it has taken eight long years to finish the work
though not absolutely certain it is very probable that Con- recommended by Gauss, 84 years ago, I think we may appro-
dorcet read Lamanon's letter of July, 1787, at a meeting of priately exclaim with the Poet Oliver Wendell Holmes:
the Paris Academy of Sciences and such a simple reading
;
»When darkness hid the starry skies
I regard as a sufficient act of publication. (Annuaire du
In war's long winter night,
Bureau des Longitudes, 1842, p. 463). The first recognition
One ray cheered our straining eyes,
still
of the law belongs, therefore, beyond all question, to the
The far-off Northern Light 1«
companion of La Perouse; but long disregarded or forgotten,
{Holmes' Poems, America to Russia, p. 199).
the knowledge of the law that the intensity of the magnetic
force of the earth varied with the latitude, did not, I con- Very grateful acknowledgements are due to two eminent
ceive, acquire an existence in science until the publication civil engineers, —
Captain Leonard M. Cox, U. S. N., of Mare
of my observations from 1798 to 1804. The object and Island, and Mr. Otto von Geldern of San Francisco; to my
the length of this note will not be indifferent to those who friend Mr. A. E. Axlund, a very skillful draftsman who has
are familiar with the recent history of magnetism, and the aided in the preparation of the plates; to my associate Mr.
doubts that have been started in connection with it, and who, W. S. Trankle, for contributing greatly to the early completion
from their own experience, are aware that we are apt to of the paper; and, above all others, to Mrs. See, for an un-
attach some value to that which has cost us the uninterrupted wavering faith that the hour for the triumph of light over
labour of five years under the pressure of a tropical climate, darkness would finally come.
and of perilous mountain expeditions.
Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, May 8, 1922. T. J. y. See.

Ausgegeben 1922 Oktober 22.

 .^ /7
-^•^t?^^/^.aM^ ^//^i ^^./^^/^ ^^iff-ec/ 80.
 Astronom. Nachrichten Bd.
I217. Tafel 1.

7. /. J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

General view of the wave-field about the earth, showing the unequal depths of the poles in the solid globe, due to the shift of the whole
magnetic system towards the Ocean-Hemisphere, by 0.05 of the radius, or 200 miles. This explains the increased total intensity of the earth's
magnetism in the southern hemisphere, which is the greatest outstanding phenomenon in the magnetism of the globe, and not heretofore investigated.

C- Schaidt. Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

 Tafel 2

J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Fig. 1. Photograph of four small magnetic needles, suspended by threads, near a larger strong magnet,
which
pulls them over bodily to the adjacent poles, and thereby indicates unmistakably
the nature of the
ponderomotive force. This photograph discloses the true nature of magnetism, and sweeps away the false
principles which have come down from the time of Gilbert, 1600, and Etiler,
1744.

Fig. 2. A typical view of the Aurora Borealis, showing extensive curtain, with ribbon folds at the lower
border, and stars visible through the illumination. An aurora of this general aspect was observed by
the author at Madison, Wisconsin, Sept. 29, 1895. The brilliant aurora observed at Mare Island, California,
May 14, 1921, had less of the well defined curtain, but more of the delicate streamers,and they appeared
and disappeared wherever certain thin clouds became visible in the sky. This proves that the aurora is
a kind of lightning of the upper atmosphere, the unstable aether stress on the surfaces of the drops
escaping as an electric discharge, under the decreased resistance of the rare air, by the mere disturbances
of the earth's magnetism, yet this lightning never reaches the surface of the earth like that of the lower
Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 217.
Tafel 3.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

General map of the region of the south magnetic pole, and of the journeys over the ice by Mawson from Ross Sea,
1909, and from the other side, 1912. The most probable position of the magnetic pole is shown to be at the star (»), so
very near the position assigned by Gauss' Theory, 1838, that no certain evidence of motion exists, although 70 years elapsed
between Gauss' calculations just prior to Ross' observations, 1841, and the Shackkton-Mawson explorations, 1909-1912.
Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 217. Tafel 4.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber
Georg Oheim, Kiel.
 Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 217.
Tafel S.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

C. Scliaide, Inhaber Georg Oheim,

Kiel.
 Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 217.
Tafel 6.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aehter.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 217. Tafel 7.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Toronto H. F.

Zi-ka-Wei H. F.

Batavia H. F.

Colaba H. F.

Toronto V. F.

Melbourne H. F.

San Fernando H. F.

Vienna H. F.

Kew H. F.

Wilhelmshaven H. F.

St. Petersburg H. F.

Stonyhurst H. F.

Lisbon H. F.

St. Petersburg Decl.

ToroDto Decl.
Wilhelmshaven Decl.

Kew Decl.

Utrecht Decl.

Utrecht V. F.
(inveited)

Batavia V. F.
(inverted)
Vienna V, F.
Kew V. F.
St.Petersburg V. F.
Stonyhurst V. F.

Batavia V. F.

world, in the great 'Magnetic

of simultaneous disturbances of the magnetic needle throughout the
Professor W. Grylh Adams record
Storm' of June 25, 1885.

Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

C. Schaidt,
Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. Nr. 4844-45.

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 202.

lope.
Tafel 8.
 Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. Nr. 4844-45.
(Bd. 202. — Mai 1916.)

Determination of the Physical Cause

which has established the Unsymmetrical Equilibrium of the Earth's Solid Nucleus in the Fluid Envelope,
and thereby produced the well-defined Land and Water Hemispheres of the Terrestrial 'Spheroid.
By T.y. J. See.
(With three plates.)

I. Introductory Remarks. It was justly observed depending on certain inequalities of the land in the two
by Herschel (Outlines of Astronomy, 10. ed., 186.Q, § 284), terrestrial hemispheres; but he does not seem to have given
that the terrestrial hemisphere having Falmouth, England, as any attention to the cause of the difference in these two
a pole includes nearly all the lands of the globe, while the hemispheres or how it arose, beyond the theorems deduced
opposite hemisphere, with pole in New Zealand, is almost from his researches on the stability of the sea, from which
wholly covered by the sea. tacitly follows that the distribution of density in the
it globe
This fundamental division of the Earth into a well is unsymmetrical.
defined land and ocean hemisphere is the most remarkable In the passage above cited Herschel remarks that »one
fact connected with the physical constitution of the globe, result of maritime discovery on the great scale, is, so to
and would long since have received the careful attention of speak, massive enough to call for mention as an astronomical
philosophers but for the apparent hopelessness of discovering feature. Astronomically speaking, the fact of this divisibility
the cause on which it depends. of the globe into an oceanic and terrestrial hemisphere is
The first explorers to comprehend the extent of the important, as demonstrative of a want of absolute equality
ocean were the early navigators who extended the voyages in the density of the soHd material of the two hemispheres.
of discovery begun by Colimibus in 1492. As the outcome Considering the whole mass of land and water in a state
of their explorations it gradually dawned on the early navi- of equilibrium, it is evident that the half which protrudes
gators that one hemisphere of the Earth is almost wholly must of necessity be buoyant; not, of course, that we mean
covered by the ocean, while in the other the area covered to assert be lighter than water, but, as compared with
it to
by the sea about equals the combined lands of the globe. the whole in a less degree heavier than the fluid.*
globe,
Thus the idea that the Earth's surface is about three fourths It was also clearly recognized by the English geodesist

sea and one fourth land early became familiar to geographers jf. H. Pratt half a century ago that the ocean hemisphere
and astronomers. is due to an unsymmetrical distribution of density in the
Accordingly the fact of the existence of an ocean hemi- Earth; but as he did not anticipate that any progress could
phere was known to navigators and geographical explorers be made, in locating the depth of these inequalities of density,
long before any explanation of it was attempted by natural the recent progress in the subject has grown out of the
philosophers. When Newton established the law of gravitation, earthquake researches of the writer, (Proc, Am. Philos. Soc,
for explaining the principal phenomena of the physical uni- Philadelphia, 1906-1Q13) and the newer investigations of
verse, 1686, and incidentally made out the cause of the tides geodesists, Hayford ^) and Helmert ^), who have
especially
of the sea, he was well acquainted with the distribution of established Fratt'% doctrine of isostacy as one of the most
the ocean; but there is no record of any attention being important laws of the Earth's crust.
given by him to the problem of the significance of the land It would be difficult for me to acknowledge sufficiently

and ocean hemispheres. my indebtedness to the writings of Pratt, without which an

Laplace followed in Newton'?, footsteps, and
closely adequate theory of the ocean hemisphere might still lie
endeavored to work which that great master had
finish the hopelessly beyond our reach. If the present theory be con-
left untouched. And thus it was the great French geometer sidered at all satisfactory, the writer would ascribe the out-
who first studied profoundly the problem of the equilibrium come mainly to the profit he derived from the study of the
of the sea, and proved by mathematical analysis that the ingenious methods and suggestions put forth by this eminent
equilibrium generally is stable when the density of the over-
geodesist.

lying fluid is less than the average of the solid globe of the II. General Analysis of theForces which secure

Earth on which it rests, but unstable if these conditions of the Stability of the Ocean. Although this dynamical
density are reversed. problem was first treated by Laplace (Mec. eel., liv. IV chap II,
In the fifth volume of the Mec. eel. Laplace has con- §§ 12,-1 a), yet the development has been somewhat sim-
sidered the equations for the motions of the heavenly bodies plified by more modern writers, such as Airy (Article Tides

^) The figure of the Earth and isostacy from measurements in the United States, 1909. Also Supplementary investigations in 1909
of the figure of the Earth and isostacy, 19 10.
^) Die Erfahrungsgrundlagen der Lehre vom AUgemeinen Gleichgewichtszustande der Massen .der Erdkruste. Sitzungsberichte der
Kgl. PreuCischen Akad. der Wissenschaften, XX, 19IZ.
 339 4844 340

and Waves, Encycl. Metr., 1845, § 123, pp. 279-280) and silver, density 13.5, and c— ffi 8, so that the fluid would=
Darwin (Article Tides, Encycl. Brit., gth ed., § 19). It seems have much greater attraction for itself than for the solid
advisable to describe the general character of the forces which globe, and it would thus gather into a rather small meniscus
establish the equilibrium of the sea so as to give greater on one side, and not spread around the Earth as our actual
argument of the present paper.
lucidity to the oceans do.
Let us imagine a solid globe of average density oi To give the general mathematical conditions of equi-
covered by a layer of fluid of density c; and suppose oi — cr librium, suppose the fluid layer be disturbed, so that its
is a positive
greater than the fluid
quantity, or that
by which
the
it is
nucleus
covered,
has a density
so that the
equation is
r ^ a[^ + S>) (1)

equilibrium once established will be stable. Then imagine where Si a surface harmonic of degree i then
is ; it is easily

the fluid to be displaced sidewise, so that forces of

layer shown that the potential due to this deformation is

restitution will be developed. 4 7r (T ai + 3

Si
The force of gravitation actingon any part of the
water distant ;-'
from the centre of the water and r from and the whole potential is
the centre of the solid nucleus towards the centre
is ^/j n ar' a,i+3
U=
47T a
of the fluid sphere, and Vs "^ ("'i ~' "') '' towards the centre Si (3)
2Z-HI /+!
of the nucleus. For the matter of the two spheres may be
regarded as interpenetrating, the density of the solid nucleus (Cf. Thomson & Taif% Treat, on Nat. Phil., §§ 815-816
thus reducing to the difference of the two densities (Ti a, — If, therefore, greater than Y.sOi, the po-
0/(22-1-1) is

and each sphere attracting towards its centre of figure. tential of the forces due to deformation is greater than that
due to the nucleus; and as such a deformation
tends to increase itself by mutual attraction,
it follows that the forces will augment the
deformation. Accordingly, when
ff= 1/3 (22-1-1) o'l (4)

all the deformations up to the z'*" are un-

stable, but the i -+- i'*" is stable.
Poincari has treated of this problem of
stability,of a fluid mass in equilibrium, by
methods of great generality, in the Acta Math.,
7) §§ 3, 4, 1885, to which the reader is re-
ferred for further development of the subject.
For our present purposes, in dealing with
the equilibrium of the ocean, it suffices that
Fig. I. Stable equilibrium of Sea. Fig. 2. Unstable equilibrium of Sea. Oi —c be positive, or the fluid lighter than
In both cases the combined attraction of nucleus and fluid envelope is represented in the nucleus which it covers. When this con-
magnitude and direction by pc.
dition is fulfilled, deformations of any order
Now if (Ti
—c is positive, as is true of the earth and give rise to positive forces of restitution, and the equilibrium
sea, where oi— 0'= 4.50, there is a force tending to carry is stable.
the water from places where it is deeper to places where Hence, however the ocean may be disturbed, as by
it is shallower, as shown in the accompanying figure, which storms or earthquakes, its equilibrium is stable, and after a
is a modification of that in Airy's work on Tides and Waves, series of oscillations the fluid quickly returns to its proper
plate I: and thus the distribution of the water over te nucleus spheroidal figure about the nucleus on which it rests.
tends to become symmetrical. Accordingly, when oi —a is

positive, and the equilibrium is arbitrarily disturbed, the forces III. To find the physical cause of the observed distri-
of restitution restore the original condition, and the equi- bution of the sea over the earth, we may apply the methods
librium is stable.
of geodesy for calculating the effects of local attraction.

however, ffi
If, —
a is negative, or the nucleus lighter It would not be difficult to devise direct methods for

than the fluid surrounding it, the force of restitution becomes calculating the attraction of a given arbitrary distribution of
negative, and tends to carry the water from where it is matter in altering the sea level, and thus changing the dis-
shallower to where it is deeper, and the sidewise displacement tribution of the sea over the globe. But as our object is
of the nucleus augments. practical, it seems better to work from methods of investi-
Therefore the equilibrium of a layer of fluid distributed gation already satisfactorily established by the researches of
over a nucleus lighter than itself is unstable. Hence, as geodesists.
Lord Kelvin remarks (Treat, on Natural Philosophy, § 816), The following method of treatment by Pratt (Treatise
when the nucleus is lighter than the ocean, it will float in on attractions, Laplace'^ functions, and the figure of the Earth,
the ocean with part of the surface dry. This would be true, 4. ed.,187 1) is well known; and it suffices to explain the
for example, if our existing sea were converted into quick- symbols and their geometrical significance.
 341 4844 342

About any place on the surface as pole, suppose a h being expressed in parts of a mile. If we use 3958.8, the
number of great circles be drawn about the Earth regarded mean of the Earth adopted by Clark, we shall find
radius
as a sphere, each making with the next the angle /J, which the above constant increased in the ratio of 4000/3958.8,
thus divide the surface into a series of lunes. Then from and we have
the same pole describe a series of small circles at angular ^ = 0.00000532557 ^sinV2/S-^ (14)
distances a and o; H- y, thus dividing the earth's surface into
but for most purposes the difference is unimportant.
a series of four sided compartments. To determine the law The following is a brief explanation of the method
for the drawing of the small circles, it suffices to calculate for finding the horizontal attraction of a thin hemi-spherico-
the attraction of a fixed mass of matter, at uniform height spheroidal meniscus of matter lying on the Earth's surface
throughout, standing on one of these compartments, upon the upon a point on the sur-
p
assumed pole in the horizontal direction. face. In the figure (3),
If we take a and a -1- y for the angular distance from suppose MANio be the
the place of the two circles bounding the compartment; /i meniscus, with pole at
for the height of the mass S for the angular distances along
;
F
A and let be the at-
;

the surface of an elementary vertical prism of the mass; a tracted point; and let
the radius of the Earth tp the angle which the plane of ^
;
the meniscus be divided
makes with the plane of the mid-line of the lune, in which into lunes from F to C,
latter plane the resultant attraction acts. Then it may be and the lunes into com-
shown that an elementary prism with base area a^ sinS d^ dip partments. If Q be the
at the distance 2 a sin ^2^ exerts an attraction along the chord 6 mid-point of one of the
equal to aa^AsmSdSdip , > compartments which lies
4^2 sin2 1/21^
^^' in the meniscus, and the
angles be as shown in
Along the tangent to the mid-line of the lune the attraction
the figure, then we have
is easily shown to be
to consider the qua-
ahsmS cos V")^ d^ dxp cos xp , ,

dA- (6) Fig. 3. Diagrarn illustrating^ the calculation drgntal triangle ^^C of
AF = qo"
_. ^_.. _. ... ..,.j.^ r .V.
4 sin ^V2' of the effect of the solidification of the
^Yiich The
and on putting sin5 = 2 sin,1V2^ cos V2^, this reduces to
ocean hemisphere.
required formula is
.

cosC

dA
ah cos^ Vs^ di^ d?// cosxp =— ctgactgiJ, or in our present symbols, since b^n — 6,

2 sin ^1^ t = n-l

a
cos(J= -ctg(7r-l)ctg(7r-^) (15)
Integrating now for the attraction of the whole mass, we have and this reduces to
a+cp -i-v,r ctg!^ ^ — tgi^cosd . (16)

A=^kakJ f'-^dScosipdip Let n be the number of compartments between E and C, the

numerical value of 1 determining the value of n. If is F
(8) 180° from the pole of the meniscus at A, the horizontal
a+9
attraction will be zero; and accordingly it suffices to take F
= ah sm J sm Vu
d6 at 150°, I35^ 120°, and 90° from the pole ^. The values
of (5, A and n, calculated by Fratt, are given in the fol-
The lawof dissection for the compartments made by lowing table:
the circles so chosen as to simplify the expression for the
is

attraction, which is thus reduced to the form

^=4 0-/^ sin V2/* sin Viy cos2{V2« -^- V^yVsin V2o:+ V45P) (

^^Uahsin^^^ . (9)

The transcendental expression

sinV4 9'COs2(V2a-l-V4 9')/sin(V2a + V4SP) = V2i (1°)
is solved by means of tables, and it is shown that

y/(a-Hy) =
Villi-l-o-ooooSSl"-^-?')^} (") •

The very simple expression (9) may be reduced to

numbers as follows: Put a =2.^5, and a 4000 miles; =

then, since the acceleration of gravity g='^li7t ffi a^ja^
=
V3 n ffi a, tfi being the mean density, we may take for the
acceleration due to the attracting mass
g=
VsTTao-ls. 50/2.55) {12) .

Hence the attraction of the mass in any compartment becomes

= (^-^-^-^sinV2^),
A={\2i 4?r 5-5° « /
= 0.00000527072/% sinY2y^-.^ U3]
 —

34; 4844 344

= 0.0493 "''^ cosd^fcos^ cos a -f- sin (^ sin u cos d) ^

= 0.02465 a/i cos (2 cos^^ — (cos^^
(5 -5'
— sin^(^cos^(J)(i — cos 2 «) -t-sin 2 cos sin 2 «} 1^ (5

= 0.02465 (r,^cos(5 {2«cos^^ — (cos^^ sin^i^ cos^<J) 2 (i — C0S2 a) -l-sin2^cos(J.2'sin2 «} . (20)

When any value of 6 is chosen, the table last given above of a hemispheroidal meniscus, of thickness h at the pole.
shows how many {n) compartments there will be for each Then, by the preceding formula we have
lune and the corresponding values of a, or the distance of
;

Ah = (0.1341 sin^ -I- 0.0888 sin 2^

26
the midpoints of the compartments from P, are to be found -+- 0.0226 sin3(^)(/%/a)((r/2. 55)^
from the first of the above tables.
a being the deficiency of density in the ocean. Now the
The values of i — cos 2 aand sin 2 a must be written
North and South Atlantic acts as a canal to the ocean
down, and added together; and when substituted in the hemisphere; hence the elevation of the sea-level at New
formula will give the horizontal attractions for each of them
Zealand is
in turn. The sum of these several attractions is the iinal
attraction for the position of P. As a result of calculation
for the horizontal attraction of a slender hemispheroidal H=j[Wlg) Aa6 (ff/^/2.55) {
— o.i34icos^-
;27)
meniscus of matter at the Earth's surface on points 90°, 120°,
i35°> 15°° 3.nd 180°, the following values result: — 0.0444 cos 2 6 — 0.0075 cos 31^ — 0.0444}
go° jii = {A/a)^
o.iiiCi '5°° A^= q.oi2() [hj a) g \

The density of sea-water is 1.028, and o'= 2.55 — 1.02?

120° ^^2 = 0.0381 (/^/a)^ 180° Ac, = o{hja)g=^ o [(21) == and the elevation of the sea
135" = o.o2i(){hla)g 1.52, level

The
As,

density used in these coefficients is 2.55, instead of

J

H= — 0.596,^(0.0444-1-0.1341 cosi^
-t- 0.0444 cos 2 6 -1-0.0075 cos 3^
2.75 used by Pratt. = 0.596/2 (0.1413 — 0.0888), at Great Britain, (28)
If 6 be the distance of any point in the further hemi-
^ 0.596 .^ 0.0525 = o.o3i29^mile,
sphere from the pole of the meniscus, the above quantities,
by the use of indeterminate coefficients, lead to the fol-
= 330.4 feet, if ,^ = 2 miles.

lowing formula, the density of 2.75 used by Pratt again (2). Suppose the ocean in the New Zealand hemisphere
being reduced to 2.55. to be of the form of a meniscus, the thickness at the pole
being zero, and at the edge h. Then by formula (25) we get
.<4a=(o.i34i sin -1-0.0888 (5
sin 2 ^-1-0.0226 sv!\-^S][hja)g (22)

which will give the attraction at any point in the hemisphere

11= —0.596 (l. 9109
COSI^-HO. 8755 C0S2l^
-H0.2276 COS 3 1^-1-0.87 55) /^
opposite to the meniscus. To find the tangential attraction
of a hemispherical shell of uniform thickness upon any point
= 0.596(2.1385-1.7510)/%
129)

in the surface of the whole sphere is a simple problem of

= 0.23095^^=^2592.642 feet

the same kind. Making the calculations for the points g 1° Suppose the ocean be regarded as uniformly deep;
(3).
(a little away from the base of the meniscus), 120°, 135°, then by formula (24) we have
150°, 180°, from the pole of the shell, we get:
H = — 0.596 04 50 cos (2. 00 cos 1^-1-0.9 2 2 6

Qi" ^1= 1.2750 (^/a)^ 150° ^4==o.o7Qo(/?/«)^ 0.2351 cos ^-1-0.9200) h 3

120° A2=' o.i'i'j6[hla)g 180° Ai =
o{hja)g=o I

(23) = 0.596(2.2801 — 1.8400)/^ 13°J

135° Af, = 0.10^6 {hla)g \

= 0.2623 ^ 2769.888 ^^^ =^ feet for .^ 2 miles.

And the following formula will serve generally for other The average of three methods is

points in the hemisphere opposite to the herai-spherical shell.

Horizontal attraction
Vs (330-4+2592.6-1-2769.9) = Vs 5692.9 = 1897.6 feet.

^ft = (2.045osin^-i-i.8399sin2^-Ho.7os3sin3i5)(/%/a)^ (24)

Itestimated that the land of the water hemisphere
is

amounts to four percent of the surface of the globe, while

If we take a hemispheroidal meniscus of thickness h at its the land of the land hemisphere is about 24 percent, making
edge, and no thickness at the pole, the attraction will be the total water of the globe 72 percent, and of land 28.
found by subtracting the results in (22) from those in (24). Four percent of the Earth's surface is eight percent
Thus we get of the water hemisphere. If we wish to allow for this land,
^(, = (1.9109 sini^-H 1.75 II sin2^ -1-0.68 27 sv;\^6)[hla)g (25) we may reduce 1898 feet by eight percent, or 152 feet,
leaving for the effect of the solidification of the water hemi-
IV. Application of the geodetic method for finding
sphere 1746 feet. This is the amount by which the level
how much higher the sea level stands on the shores of Great
of the sea would be lowered about England if the ocean
Britain than would if the ocean in the New Zealand
it
hemisphere about New Zealand were converted into average
hemisphere were to become land, other things remaining
rock of the crust of the globe.
as at present.
This is the same as finding the effect of the deficiency V. Calculation of the amount of the intumescence of
of matter in the ocean hemisphere in producing horizontal the land hemisphere.
local attraction in the opposite hemisphere. When allowance is made for Australia, the southern
(i). Consider the New Zealand Ocean of the form point of South America, and the islands of the East Indies,
 4844 346
lands which are almost symmetrically distributed about the level is exactly equal to the volume of all the depressions
New Zealand pole, we find that the solidification of the
ocean extending below it.
hemisphere would lower the level of the sea in England by Now suppose the upper two miles of sea water to be
1746 feet. If the fluid were molten rock of density 2.55, removed, or temporarily
left out of consideration. Imagine
instead of water of density i.oo, the equivalent meniscus the present land areas first reduced to a dead level, as by
would have a thickness of "^72.55 —
685 feet =
V7.7 mile. erosion, and then elevated a mile above mean sphere level,
Thus the conversion of the ocean hemisphere into land would and the water below mean sphere level correspondingly with-
lower the level of the sea about England by 1746 feet, and drawn, so as to depress the sea about the land an additional
the equivalent meniscus of crust, of density 2.55, has a mile, owing to the postulated elevation and resulting change
thickness at the pole of 685 feet. in the Earth's attraction. Then imagine the total volumes
As respects the attraction of the Earth, this change of the sea restored, and the result will represent a simple
of level corresponds to a vacant space of this thickness be- outline of how the existing state of our globe came about.
neath the land hemisphere, with pole at Falmouth, England, For in the uplift of the continental masses, they will
and we may imagine the vacancy to be just beneath the carry up their borders to some extent; and in the withdrawal
crust, the shell be conceived to be of homogeneous density
if of the sea to increase the depth in the ocean hemisphere,
and otherwise supported, as by walls of perfect rigidity. This by about three quarters of a mile at New Zealand, owing
gives the key to the problem of the land hemisphere of to the change in the Earth's attraction, the bases of the
the globe. continents and islands will be still more uncovered, as the
If we
take the shell of isostatic compensation to have surface of the surrounding sea falls about a mile around
a thickness of 74 miles [Hayford], and deduct 20 miles for England, and nearly half a mile about the continents nearer
the outer solid crust, we shall have for the quasi-fluid sub- the Equator of the land hemisphere.
stratum a depth of 54 miles. But is seems certain that the With this explanation of the effect of the upheaval of
intumescence is chiefly in the upper part of this layer, because the land and the withdrawal of the ocean from its lower
earthquake shocks are known to proceed from a depth not layers, we may now imagine the upper layers of the sea
exceeding about 40 miles, though expansive changes might two miles deep again superposed; and then we see that by
extend to greater depth. If we allow normal density to the the filling up of the sea and raising the level everywhere
.

lower layer of 20 miles, the thickness being the same as about 2 miles, the Earth would appear as we know it — about
that of the solid crust above, we shall have 34 miles for one fourth land, and three fourths sea, —
with a land and
the total thickness of the layer of intumescence. water hemisphere well defined.
A total intumescence of V7.7 niile, when distributed To find the amount of the intumescence required by
over a layer 34 miles thick, would reduce the amount of the above reasoning, we notice that an elevation of the land
the intumescence to Y262 part. In other words, a reduction by a mile will be satisfied by a layer beneath it Yss of
in the density of the layer 34 miles deep of such a nature the thickness of the substratum. If it be thought that the
that the average density is decreased by Y262 part would thickness should be a mile plus the 2 4 11 feet which Geikie
fill up the vacancy calculated to have a thickness of 685 feet takes for the average height of all the lands of the globe,
in the problem of the solidification of the ocean. the intumescence would be less than V2 Vssi O'' V22- A
'

Accordingly, if the matter under the land hemisphere reduction of the density by Yss would make that of the in-
had its average density decreased by V255 P^rt, so that tumescent layer 2.47 instead of 2.55 in the overlying crust;
the earthquake and mountain forming layer which may be and if we use Y22> the density of the layer beneath the
estimated to have a thickness of 33 miles, will have an crust becomes 2.44. These results satisfactorily explain the
average density of 2.54, the elevation of 685 feet would be notable deficiencies of matter beneath the plateaus and moun-
accounted for, without any additional mass in the crust of tains found by geodetic researches.
the land hemisphere. In his communication to the Berlin Academy of Nov. 2,
The land hemisphere is about half water, und Geikie 191 1, p. 332, Helmert points out that the orographic forms
estimates (Text-book of Geology, 4. ed., p. 49) the average of land and sea are compensated isostatically within a few
, elevation of the lands of the globe at 241 1 feet. But the hundred metres (bis auf wenige hundert Meter); that is to
oceans of the land hemisphere are taken to have an average say, if the isostatic compensation in the crust and substratum

depth of about 12000 feet, and as the land areas alone is not complete, it is so within a few hundred metres. This
have been raised, it is clear that 685 feet for a hemisphere is a point of some importance in the theory of mountain

would correspond to 1370 feet for a half-hemisphere, which formation. For in a discussion of the subject between Professor
is the total land area. H. F. Ried of Johns Hopkins University and the present
In the » Realm of Nature*, hy H. H. Mill, 1905, p. 188, writer, at the annual General Meeting of the American Philo-

it is shown that, according to Murray's data on the ocean sophical Society, April 19, 191 1, Ried conceded the validity
depths, the mean sphere level is at a depth of loooo feet of the new theory of mountain formation if the conditions
below the present sea-level, so that the enclosing concentric of isostacy could be satisfied. Although Helmerf% results
spheroid would leave the earth half land and half sea. This were not yet public, I had sufficiently studied the question
level should probably be chosen for estimates of the intu- to be able to assure that isostacy was not mathematically

mescence of the earth; for by a remarkable coincidence the exact, but to be taken as perfect only within limits of some

volume of all the elevations projecting above this mean sphere hundreds, and in rare cases, thousands, of feet.
 :

347 4844 348

In other words, the expulsion of lava of smaller specific broad at the South, while Australia would be considerably
gravity from beneath the sea and its injection under the land extended eastward, and Africa southward and eastward, so
for the uplift of mountains and plateaus was not inconsistent that it probably would take on Madagascar.
with the doctrine of isostacy as now developed. For a layer In this hypothetical draining of the wather to the North,
of such matter hundreds or even thousands of feet thick, Northern India would be submerged, and the peninsula cut
if the density be appropriate, would not contradict the ob- off from the mainland, and thus another tapering point taken
served isostatic compensation of the globe. And now Helmert from Asia because the plains of Deccan would then be an
;

has confirmed, by his great experience and authority, the island, and other large islands might appear to the South
views put forth by the present writer in April, 19 11. in the Indian Ocean.
It is scarcely necessary to add that both Helmert's As the sea now is, only the higher ridges extending
views and my own are satisfactorily confirmed by the present to from Asia rise above the waves; and as the
the South
investigation of the equilibrium of the globe between the ocean almost completely covers the Southern Hemisphere,
land and water hemispheres, and it is shown that the intu- India and the Malay peninsula necessarily assume the tapering
mescence of the matter beneath the crust varies between form. This aspect depends chiefly on the deepening sea to
sufficiently wide limits to account for all the problems of the South, and is largely a consequence of the depth of the
local attraction which may arise in any part of the Ter- water in the ocean hemisphere.
restrial Globe. The supposed law for the Earth is partly the effect
of the direct uplift of the land above the sea through the
VI. Explanation of the tapering of the terrestrial land
earthquake processes, and partly the result of the withdrawal
masses towards the South.
of the sea to the ocean hemisphere. Both causes have con-
»Face of the Earth «, and many other works
In Suess'
tributed to observed tendency, but it assuredly is not
the
on Geology and Geography, the fact is noted that all the based on any mechanical process of nature except the acci-
great land masses of the globe are widest on the North,
dental distribution of the outline and depth of the sea.
and taper to points towards the South. This tendency is
It should be noticed that the distribution of the World
so marked as to cause many authorities to conclude that it
Ridge about the Ocean hemisphere would not be changed
is a law characteristic of the Earth's mode of development.
by the above mentioned depression of the level of the sea
But we believe a little consideration will show that this sup-
by one mile at New Zealand. The World Ridge thus is a
posed law is due principally to the great depth of the South-
visible proof of the process of elevation going on about the
ern Ocean, and the gradual withdrawal of the water to that
greatest of the oceans.
hemisphere.
Let us see what cause may have contributed to broaden VII. The intumescence of the substrata beneath the
the continents at their northern ends and render them taper- mountains, plateaus and continents the physical cause of the
ing at the South. We have reason to conclude that the land appearance of dry land upon the Earth, and the essential
began to group in one hemisphere by chance, and then the condition in the development of the higher forms of life.

tendency grew more pronounced, by the extension of the It is instructive to reflect on the consequences of this
process under the influence of the leakage of the oceans investigationon the theories of the evolutionary history of
and the injection of lighter material under the continents. our planet. The emergence of dry land was a necessary
As the land hemisphere culminates in middle north latitude, condition for the development of the higher forms of life;
the extension in longitude of such continents as Europe and and without the appearance of the dry land, none of the
Asia occasions no surprise; but it should be remembered that higher forms of life could have developed, which is also
the Indian Ocean was formerly connected with the Medi- well known from the established laws of Biology.
terranean, and for this reason Africa also should be broad The present investigation gives us a definite
cause for
on the North. the appearance of the dry land, and presents a mental picture
In North America we have a typical continent widest of how the continents of the globe came to emerge from
at the North and tapering to the South; and South America the sea.
follows the same law. This tendency to broaden at the North Prior to the writer's researches on earthquakes and
and narrow at the South is augmented by the withdrawal mountain formation, begun in 1906, it had been uniformly
of the ocean to the southern hemisphere. If the ocean were assumed by all previous writers that the ocean bottom is
so distributed as to be of less depth to the South and greater water tight, and that leakage through the solid rock of the
depth to the North, this tendency would largely disappear. crust of the globe 20 miles thick did not take place. Now
Thus large areas in the centre and northern part of North we have proved by a connected and mutually confirmatory
America, the Amazon and La Plata valleys, nearly the whole series of researches not only that ocean leakage really takes
of Europe, and Siberia, would sink beneath the waves and ; place, but also that it is the sole cause which has made
the continents would present a totally different aspect. Not possible the appearance of dry land upon the Earth. Let
only would the extension in the east and west direction at it be noticed

the North be curtailed, but the extension to the South in I.That geodetic research, as outlined in the second
some cases would be increased. If the Southern Ocean at part of this paper, shows that a shell of isostatic compen-
New Zealand were lowered by a mile it seems certain that sation really exists; and the interior nucleus below a depth
South America would take on the Falkland Islands, and become of some 80 miles presents no irregularities of density which
 : :

m-y 4844 350

could cause any part of the globe to float above the sur- If the mass of the Earth be M, and the element of
rounding oceans.
2. The irregularities of density causing the continents
Am = crda^dj'd^ (31)
then the expressions for the forces acting on a unit mass
to emerge from the sea are confined wholly to the isostatic
shell, and due wholly to the effects of the leakage of the
whose coordinates are [sd y, z') becomes ,

dF r r fx'—x
oceans, and the resulting intumescence under the areas now
constituting dry land. dx
A' = I I
j —^ o dx dy dz

3. If the ocean bottoms had been water tight, as as-

sumed by previous writers, we should have had a planet
dy
= y=j j j -^^ adxdydz
without continents and without any of the higher forms of life. 132J

4. If there exists elsewhere in the universe other planets

dV
dz
=Z^ j j j
—— a dx dy dz
with oceans which do not leak, these worlds will never attain
a development comparable to that known to us; yet the r = y[{:x'-x)^ -h [y'-yY + [z'-zY]
universality of the porosity of matter is so well established
the potential function being
that we may at once dismiss the idea of such defective
development in other worlds. Wherever oceans of appreciable C r r a dxdydz
(33)
depth exist they will leak and develop mountains and con-
tinents, with life somewhat analogous to that found upon If in spherical coordinates we take the angle (p for the
the Earth. longitude, 6 for the polar distance, and r for the radius of
We reminded of the importance of correct
are thus the sphere, the expressions required in the transformation are
premises in philosophic reasoning. So long as the false
all
X—X = rsva.e cos gp
premise of the contraction of the Earth was admitted, we y' —y =r sin 6 sin
y
could make no progress towards explaining the origin of the
z' — = r cosy
z
(34)
mountains and plateaus; and earthquakes were denied any
dm ^ G dx dy dz = (S dr r d& r 'iva.6 dtp
organic in the development of our globe. With
function
water-tight ocean bottoms, the uplift ot the mountains, and The element of the potential due to this differential

plateaus about the sea, with earthquakes, sea waves, and active
element is (i/r) a r^sin^drdi^dy ; and the potential function
volcanoes blowing out vast quantities of steam and pumice, becomes
271 Tl r
remained a profound enigma. Nor could any reason be
V= — j df j sinS dS j ffrdr (35)
assigned why lighter material should underly the mountains
00
.

and cause them to exert a feeble attraction. Isostacy was o

equally mysterious, and so little confidence was entertained If we make use of the equations (31) and (34), in
that we would discover the cause of the unsymmetrical equi-
(32), we obtain the expressions for the resolved forces in
hbrium of the globe between the land and water hemispheres, spherical coordinates
that Fratt pronounced such speculation useless, while Darwin
considered the hidden inequalities of density as necessarily
unknown, (cf XI and XV below.) X-- cos dy sin'i^di^ ^dr
0(
--
I 5P I I
dx
In this connection attention should be called to the
philosophical reasoning oi Herschel, in his Physical Geography,
1867, pp. 9 and 14: »The fact (of the land and ocean
hemisphere) is proves the force by which
instructive, as it

the continents are sustained to be one of tumefaction, inas-

much as it indicates a situation of the centre of gravity of
mass of the Earth somewhat eccentric relatively to
dV =
dy

dV =
Y=

=
000 j

2 71
sin 9 dy

71
I sin^i^di^ I

7-
ffdr (36)

the total Z I dy I cosy sini^ dS j adr

—
.

that of the general external surface the eccentricity lying dx

in the direction of our antipodes and is therefore a proof
;

of the comparative lightness of the materials of the ter- The forces arising from a spheroidal shell will be
restrial hemisphere.* identical with these, except that the limits of the integral
relative to r should be from ri to r rather than o to r, r^
VIII. Recent researches in geodesy and geogony in-
being the distance from the centre of gravity of the spheroid
dicate that notwithstanding surface irregularities the external
to the inner surface of the shell.
shell of the terrestrial spheroid may be regarded as an ellip-
If e be the oblateness of the terrestrial spheroid, e the
soidal homoeoid.
eccentricity of a meridional section, then we have
The results of recent researches in geodesy, more especially = a — aV[i—e'^) or [eja) == i— V{i~e^) ^=^ e
e
those made by Hayford and Tittman of the United States
when the oblateness is expressed in units of the semi-axis
Coast Survey, and by Hehnert in Germany, cited on pag. 337,
have confirmed the discovery of the physical cause which major; and hence we have e^V[i—[i—eY]
has produced the apparent inequalities noticed in the Earth's If we take e=
297.7 (cf. Researches on the Evo-
i :

crust but now proved not to extend to any considerable depth. lution of the Stellar Systems, Vol. II, p. 441), then it is easy
 :

351 4844 352

to prove (cf. Pratt, Figure of the Earth, 4. ed., p. 9) that

these forces reduce to the form

dV
dx
 353 4845 354
dv
lZ^X= ^

a {x' - .x) dx dy ds The radius vector to the point {x', y', z') is r, and the direction
f f f cosines X^x'/r, ^^^y'/r, v^z'jr, or x' = Xr, y' = fir,

dv
if __ y^ r r /' G{y' — y)dxdydz z' ^ vr. If we expand the radical of (43) according to in-
y J J J \{x' xY- -[y'-yY^i^'
218/a (44) verse powers of r (cf. Tisserand'i Mec. eel. 2.319) we get
— z) dx dy dz
'
by using the direction cosines
8« J J J [[x'-xY [y'+yY-^W-^W\
V= -
j J I
cidx dy dz -+ jiAJ /
j axdxdydz-h in
I j j
aydxdydz -h V f
I j a z dx dy dz (

(S'''" — i) / / jax^dxdydz-i-(:ifj,'^—i)j a y'^ dx dy dz -^-

isv'^—x) (Jz^dxdydz(
j j j j f

jl^i"'/ / I ff:c,i'da:d_j'd^ + ^' >' I I jayzdxdydz-hvXJ I

j azxdzdydzt (45)

Now if M
denotes the mass of the Earth, e the oblateness, a the equatorial radius, and (p the ratio of the centrifugal
force to gravity equator we have the well
at the ; known expression for the potential of the Earth, d being the polar distance
of the attracted point on the surface.
y=M/r+ {e- V2 9) (Vs " cos^^) Ma^r^ .
(46)
Comparing these two expressions for V, and equating the coefficients of like powers of Vr, VrS Vr= we obtain

^=JJ Jo'd.xdjvdz ;
J J Jff.r
da:dj' dz =o ;
^^^<Sy dxdy dz =o ;
JJJo- z d* d v ds =o .
(47)

V2 (3^- - i)JJJo'-^--d.«;dj)/dz-)-V2 (Si"'-- i)JJJo-y d.xdjd2-+- V2 (sv^- i)^^^as- dxdydz-h

+ ^X /.v^
^
^(f xy dx dy dz-^ ^ /J, v\ \ \ay z dx dy dz-h ^v l\ \ [a z X dx dy dz == {e—- V2 y) (Vs ~~cos^(^) Ma^ (48)

The equation(47) shows that the centre of gravity is l^-H/t^-H j/^ = I, and hence by introducing this condition,
at the centre of the spheroid of revolution, and that the and putting for i this value, the coefficients of the two
mass is a centrobaric body. (Cf. Thomson and Tait, Treatise members respectively take the form [X'^ — Vsf*^ — V2 J'^); and
on Nat. Phil. 1. 2, § 535.) {^kX^ + ^l,f,^+[^Uv'~cos^6)} = ^UX^+^l,fi^-^Uv\ since
The equation (48) may be simpHfied by noticing that cosi^ = >'. Hence, on equating the terms depending on the
the direction cosines X, fi, v always fulfill the condition several coefficients Xfju, fiv, vX, X'^, fi^, v^ we have

j
I I (Tarjv d.jcdjvdz =o ; I I l ffjc^ d.xdj'dz =o ; 1 I I ffz.* dxdji^dz = o .
149J

JJ fffx^ — V2JJJ c.T" d* dy dz — V2J JJ ^^ d.x dy dz =

dx dy dz o" Vs (« — V2 f) M d^
lllay'^dxdydz - ^Ul^laz'^dxdydz - ^U^^'S^a dxdydx = x"" Vs (f- V2 v) M a^ (so)

ll^a dx dy dz - ^l.-,^lla dxdydz -^l^lHoy'' dxdydz =

z"- x'' -- Vs (« - V2 y) ^«^ •

The equations (49) show that the axes OX, OY, OZ This problem was given some attention by Laplace a
are principal axes, and this however the body revolves, pro- century ago (Mdc. eel. 2.5, p. 365, und 5.2, p. 19-24). It

vided only that the centre of gravity is kept at O. has been examined more in detail by Darwin, in a paper
The first two of equations (50) give the relation on Possible geological changes due to a shifting of the

\\\ a
x"^
dx dy dz ^ ^^^ a y'^
dx dy dz . (51)
Earth's axis of rotation reprinted in
Vol. Ill, p. 1-36.
Darwin' % Scientific Papers,

This means simply that the moments of inertia of the Earth

X. The Earth retains primitive axis of rotation
about the axes OX, and OY
the plane of the equator in
its

and the motion about the centre of gravity is very steady.

are identical, which ought to be true of such a spheroid of
In view of the above principles, as more fully ela-
revolution. If we subtract the third from the first of (50),
borated by Darwin in the investigation just cited, it is obvious
we obtain, in the usual notation for the moments of inertia,
that the upheavals of the Earth's crust which have eventually
C—A = f f f ax'^ dx dy dz — JJJ
cs^ dx dy dz = given us the continents and larger islands of the globe have
lS2J
V3(^-V2 9')^«' not involved any large displacement of the pole from its
The moment of inertia C, about the polar axis OZ, is primitive position. For the forces have operated with ex-
the largest,and a maximum of all the possible axes of the ceeding slowness, and the upHfts have resulted from just
spheroid, and since the equator is the plane of maximum such slight disturbances as we now witness in earthquakes.
areas it is evident that uniform or steady rotation about In the parts of the Mec. eel. above cited 5.365 and 9.19-24)
such an axis is stable, and no upheaval depending on mutual Laplace had deduced the stability of motion for a solid globe,
actions within the Earth can disturb it. Hence no upheaval such as the Earth is now known to be, and also showed
depending on the internal forces of a highly rigid globe can that the overlying sea would adjust itself in a stable layer
displace the pole from its mean position except by very about the globe and could not be disturbed except by slight
;

small oscillations. oscillations due to such influences as earthquakes, which have

 355 4845 356

thus elevated the mountains and plateaus and finally given have always held true. And thus the rotation of the earth
us the continents and islands. about the centre of gravity is very steady, and subject to
The cumulative effect of these changes in the course none but very minute changes depending on the relative
of immeasurable time has been the elevation of a group of
.
motions of parts of its mass.
continents so situated that they constitute the land hemi- As the Earth is now definitely known to have ori-

sphere of the globe, while the other is almost wholly covered ginated independently, at a great distance from the Sun, and
by the sea. Both the emergence of the land from the sea, subsequently to have built up its mass by accretion as it
and the withdrawal of the ocean to the water hemisphere neared that central mass, and revolved in an orbit becoming
has been extremely gradual. Very probably this withdrawal ever smaller and smaller and rounder and rounder, owing
of the sea to the ocean hemisphere will explain a con- to the secular action of the nebular resisting medium, we
siderable part of the lowering of the strand line noticed realize that the primitive history of our planet was entirely
by Suess in his great work on the Face of the Earth as different from what was long believed by Laplace and his
characteristic of nearly all countries. followers.
We
say only a considerable part is due to the with- The old traditional views have now been entirely aban-
drawal of the sea to the other hemisphere because much — doned, and we see that the rotation of the globe was acquired
of it is due to the bodily uplift of the continents by the by insensible degrees as it neared the Sun and gradually
earthquake process, as my paper » Further Re-
set forth in increased its mass. The atmosphere was at length developed,
searches, etc.«, Proc. Am.
Soc, Phila., igo8. In fact
Phil. and the oceans precipitated upon the encrusted planet. The
the elevation of the continents and the withdrawal of the details of this early history are not yet established, but the
sea to the opposite hemisphere has gone on simultaneously, geological evidence is conclusive that the primitive oceans
and the two movements have finally given us a land and covered the entire Earth.
water hemisphere such as we now observe. In A.N. 181.365, and Researches, Vol. II, 1910, I have
In considering these changes, however, it is important shown that the Moon is really a captured planet, and that
to notice that the geometrical centre of the interior surface the Earth's rotation period never was short, as imagined by
of the isostatic shell of the globe exactly coincides with the Lord Kelvin and Darwin. Thus the evidence is conclusive
centre of the solid nucleus within. The isostatic shell is of
that no appreciable readjustment in the figure of our planet
slightly irregular figure only on its external surface, owing has ever taken place. The stabiUty of the figure of the globe
to the effects of ocean leakage; but according to the ge- and the very gradual changes in the state of the sea have
odetic researches of Hayford and Helmert the elevations and thus secured the most perfect conditions for the development
depressions with variations of density beneath do not extend of organic life ; and the great continuity shown in geological
deeper than 76 miles. The earth therefore rotates about the history not remarkable, but has necessarily re-
therefore is
common centre of gravity of both shell and nucleus; and sulted from the steady processes operative in the formation
the elevations of the continents and the withdrawal of the sea of the Earth.
to the opposite hemisphere has not involved any permanent
changes in the motion of the earth about its centre of gravity.
XL Origin of the older and development of the more
recent investigations Misleading conclusion of Lord Kelvin
theory of the isostatic shell there are no
:

Under the
hemispheres
in the two terrestrial
and Darwin that the existence of dry land proves the Earth
inequalities of attraction
is not a figure of equilibrium appropriate to its diurnal
depending on the unequal distribution of the land, as imagined
rotation.
by Laplace, Mec. eel. 5, and thus the motions of the heavenly
In the Mdc. cdl., Liv. IV, Chapter II, §§ 13-14, Laplace
bodies are not disturbed by the unsymmetrical equilibrium
has given careful attention to the problem of the equilibrium
of the solid nucleus in the fluid envelope.
of the sea, and shown that it generally is stable when the
The differential equations for the mutual action of all
density of the overlying fluid is less than the average of
elements of the mass,
the solid globe of the Earth on which it rests, but unstable
d2*| if these conditions of density are reversed. In accordance
y d/^J adx dydz ==
/// 'd/2
o
with these results,
Brit., 9. ed., that »Sir
Darwin notes in the article Tides, Encycl.
William Thomson has remarked [^Thomson

/// -^-5-
d/2
ladxdydz (S3) and
the
Tait, Nat. Phil.,
ocean, it will
§ 816)
float in the
if the nucleus is

ocean with part of the

lighter than
sur-
d^
a dx dy dz face dry«.
'
dt' ""d/^
Notwithstanding the clearness of this reasoning, along
with the corresponding integrals. down by Laplace, there are important
the lines originally laid
errors in the writings of Lord Kelvin and Darwin, to which

Iff I
dv
dt
— y d^l
dt\
adxdy dz =K attention should be called. Thus in the Treatise on Natural
Philosophy, 1883, 1. 2, 424, the following statement occurs:
f
dz ^1 = K'
Iff l^'d7 dt\
a dx dy dz (54) »We have in § 797 been occupied with the results
of observations giving the form of ellipsoid which most nearly

fff
I dx
di
X —
dz\
dt\
adxdydz-= K"
I
satisfies geodetic and gravitational experiments, but the
existence of dry land proves that the Earth's surface is not
 ;

357 4'^45 358

a figure of equilibrium appropriate to the diurnal rotation. Thus

it appears that the primitive grouping of the lands
Hence the interior of the Earth must be in a state of stress, of the globe for the development of the continents was a
and as the land does not sink in, nor the sea bed rise up, matter of chance; but once they were started, the forces
the materials of which the Earth is made must be strong continued to be directed from the adjacent oceans for their
enough to bear the stress. We are thus led to inquire how uplift,till the present arrangement of a land hemisphere
the stresses are distributed in the Earth's mass, and what with interlocking oceans resulted, while the waters of the
are the magnitudes of the stresses.* globe withdrew more and more to the ocean hemisphere.
Lord Kelvin then refers to the work of Darwin, in- The only way I can account for these errors in the
cluded paper published in Phil. Trans., R. Soc. 173,
in a reasoning of Kelvin and Darwin is by supposing that as
1882, reprinted in Darwin's Scientific Papers 2.460-514, both of them had been occupied with the hypothetical more
entitled: »0n the stresses caused in the interior of the Earth rapid rotation of the Earth in former times, resulting from
by the weight of continents and mountains.* Darwin s work on the origin of the Moon, they unconsciously
Darwin begins the summary of this paper by saying: »The allowed that cause to be introduced into a problem where
existence of dry land proves that the Earth's surface is not there nothing to suggest it, and definite reasons can now
is
a figure of equilibrium appropriate for the diurnal rotation.* be assigned to the contrary. It may also be noted that the
Then follow remarks like the above quoted from Lord Kelvin. results brought out in the present paper, based on the theory
On page 513 of the Scient. Pap. 2 Darwin concludes: »It of isostacy, as confirmed by geodetic research, negative Z'art^zVz's
is well known
that the Earth may be divided into two hemi- conclusions as to stresses in the deep interior of the Earth
pheres, one of which consists almost entirely of land, and for the stresses resulting from inequalities, in the isostatic
the other of sea. If the South of England be taken as the shell would be confined essentially to that shell, and thus
pole of a hemisphere, it will be found that almost the whole Darwin's, reasoning on stresses in the deep interior of the
of the land, excepting Australia, lies in that hemisphere, globe is vitiated by a false premise, which perhaps could
whilst the antipodal hemisphere consists almost entirely of not have been anticipated by anyone prior to the recent
sea. This proves that the centre of gravity of the Earth's geodetic confirmation of the existence of this shell.
mass more remote from England than the centre of the figure
is In A. N. 181.365, and Researches, Vol. II, I have
of the solid globe. « Darwin then remarks that stich a dis- proved that the moon can only be regarded as a captured
placement without true deformation is expressed by a surface planet; and in the Proceedings of the Am. Phil. Soc, No. 204,
harmonic of the first order; but the problem is meaningless, April— June, 19 12, will be found my » Dynamical Theory
as shown by considering the surface forces due to deformation of the Globular Clusters*, showing that the principle of for-
of a homogeneous sphere. He adds that in the case of the mation in the distance with subsequent drawing together under
Earth such an inequality does exist, »and thus the force universal gravitation is a fundamental law in the development
referred to must be counterbalanced somehow. The balance of all types of systems throughout the sidereal universe.
can only be maintained by inequalities of density, which Accordingly, in view of this law of nature, ahy other origin
are necessarily unknown. The problem therefore apparently of the Moon than that of capture is quite out of the question.
eludes mathematical treatment.* These researches in cosmogony thus throw important
Like the conclusions reached by Pratt, and more fully light on the constitution of the terrestrial globe; and the

discussed in XV, below, this last impression of Darwin is deceptive point of view adopted in the earlier researches of
altogether too hopeless. The earlier statement that »the Kelvin and Darwin probably is responsible for the errors
existence of dry land proves that the Earth is not a figure into which they fell when they connected the appearance of
of equilibrium appropriate to the diurnal rotation*, seems dry land with the diurnal rotation of the Earth.
to be vitiated by an error of principle, or by some unstated Nearly seventy years ago Herschel (Outlines of Astr.,
premise which is inadmissible. In any case the reasoning § 284) and Airy (Tides and Waves, Sec. 123; and Phil.
is inconsistent with the claim that »The balance of forCes Trans., 1855, p. loi) were considering the unsymmetrical
can only be maintained by inequalities of density which are equilibrium of the Earth as covered by the sea, and also
necessarily unknown* since these inequalities of density do the results of the geodetic observations made in India by
not involve the question of rotation. Everest, 1847, showing a large deflection of the plumb line
On this latter point it is sufficient to observe that, if due to the local attractions of the Himalaya Mountains. They
the dry land appeared at the equator or geographical poles, were also familiar with the subsequent investigations by
there might be some foundation for the claim that the land's J. H. Pratt for determining the effects of the Himalaya
emergence from the sea depends on the rotational speed of Mountains and Indian Ocean on the direction of gravity
the globe; but as the land hemisphere obviously culminates [Pratt, Fig. of the Earth, § 93).

in the middle north latitude, while the corresponding region Hersehel held that the unsymmetrical equilibrium of
of the southern hemisphere is covered by an ocean two miles the Earth gave indications of a tumefaction or puffing up

deep, there obviously is not the least connection between of the land, though he made no calculation as to the amount
the existence of land and the rotation of the globe. As is of the tiimefaction, or its location in respect to depth beneath
shown in the present paper, the appearance of dry land the Earth's surface. From his remarks in the article Tides
depends on the existence of lighter material beneath it, and and Waves, it may be inferred that Airy probably held

such a grouping of the several continents as will enable similar general views on the equilibrium of the globe, but

them conjointly to emerge from the ocean. was somewhat more definite with respect to the problem of
 359 4845 ;6o

local and worked out the mathematical theory

attractions, Trans, for 1858-59; and included the chief results in the
with sufficient to show that the geodetic observations
care Fig. of the Earth, pp. 87-94.
in India could be explained by a layer of material slightly By actual researches on the local attractions found in
lighter than the crust just beneath the base of the Himalaya the trigonometric survey of India, by Everest and others,
Mountains. (Phil. Trans., 1855, p. loi.) Pratt found these local disturbances of the plumb-line to be
Geodesists have never lost sight of the ideas outlined as large as 28". The deviations generally exceeded 7" and

by these eminent mathematicians, and more recently their were so large as to induce Everest to abandon his original
researches have been greatly facilitated by precise pendulum principal terminal station at Takal Khera.
measurements of the intensity of gravity in many of the chief At the time these investigations were in progress Pratt
continents of the globe. But although these early suggestions believed the crust of the Earth to be thick, in accordance
have never been abandoned, they do not appear to have with certain researches of Hopkins and Thomson (Lord Kelvin],
taken such definite shape as to enable any previous writer and therefore would not admit the validity of Airy's premises.
to formulate the cause of the suspected internal arrangement Pratt therefore extented his investigations to take account
of the density of the Earth, prior to the development of of the deficiency of matter in the Indian Ocean compared
the »New Theory of Earthquakes and Mountain Formation* to rock; and showed that the deficiency in the attraction
in igo6, and more fully described in »Further Researches, of this southern ocean must be very considerable in its effects
etc.* (Proceedings of Am. Phil. Soc, 1Q08, pp. 264-267). on the plumb-line, along the great arc of India.
XII. The earlier theory of Airy, 1855, that light material In order to be free from any special hypothesis as to
underlies the mpuntains. the thicknessof the crust, Pratt made a third application
In his paper »0n the computation of the effect of the of his method for dealing with local attractions and proved
attraction of mountain masses, as disturbing the apparent that a slight though widespread deficiency or excess in the

astronomical latitude of stations in geodetic surveys*, Phil. density beneath the surface might anywhere produce local
Trans., 1855, pp. 1 01-104, Azry commends Pratt's paper on attractionsas important as any that was caused by the

the attraction of the Himalayas, Phil. Trans., 1855, pp. 53-100, mountains on the North or the ocean to the South of India.
and says he was greatly surprised to find the disturbing effect He concluded that in the unknown regions below we have
of the mountains as calculated from the theory of gravitation unlimited resource upon which to draw for explaining the
greater than what is observed in geodetic measurement. He anomalies of local attraction observed at the surface. Much
then proceeds to show that Pratt's results ought to have been additional light has been thrown upon these conclusions

expected, and' are of high importance in every investigation by recent geodetic researches; but we need only allude to
in geodesy. Hayford's investigation showing that the depth of isostatic
compensation for the continental United States does not
Airy says the theory that the Earth once was fluid is
exceed 76 miles, and is thus a layer about three or four
held by most physicists, but the fluidity may be very im-
times the thickness of the Earth's crust.
perfect, and in fact mere viscidity. He then proceeds to
show that the state of the Earth's crust lying upon lava may XIII. Recent earthquake investigations prove that the
be compared with perfect correctness to the state of a raft Earth's crust is thin, and may be taken to have a thickness
of timber floating upon water, some logs floating higher than of 20 miles.
others, because more deeply immersed in the water. Whilst As intimated above, it was formerly held by eminent
Airy adopts the theory that the crust is floating in equilibrium, physicists such as Hopkins, Thomson, Pratt, and others that
he remarks that »in our entire ignorance of the modus the Earth's crust is' of much greater thickness than geologists
operandi of the forces which have raised submarine strata had all along believed. This arose from certain researches
to the tops of high mountains, we can not insist on this as of Thomson on the rigidity of the Earth, which were after-
absolutely true«. His idea is that »the diminution of attractive wards extended by Darwin, tending to show that the globe
matter below (the mountains), produced by the substitution of the Earth is solid throughout.
of light crust for heavy lava, will be sensibly equal to the In view of the claims of these eminent physicists many
increase of attractive matter above*. geologists finally gave up the view that the Earth has a thin
Such were the considerations which led Airy to suggest crust resting on a layer of liquid matter. But in the writer's
that the material just beneath the mountains may be relatively memoirs on earthquakes and mountain formation, Proc. Am.
deficient in density. In Airy's view this might result from the Phil. Soc, 1906-08, it was proved that, although the matter
mountains being left aloft as the Earth contracted its volume, of the interior of the Earth is rendered solid and rigid by
or from a superabundance of lighter matter beneath producing the great pressure to which it is subjected, yet there is a
the upheaval actually observed. On the hypothesis that the quasi-fluid or plastic layer just beneath the crust of the globe,
deficiency in density is just beneath the crust of the globe, and bodily movement in this layer actually takes place in
Airy has explained how this defect due to lighter matter world-shaking earthquakes, as when lava is transferred from
might counteract the attractive effect of the elevated masses under the sea and pushed under the land. Thus the views
on the plumb-line. of the older geologists were restored, and the claims of the
Upon supposition that the mountains may have
the physicists definitely disproved.
drawn mass from the regions below I¥att has cal-
their In general modern seismological observations show that
culated the modifying effect on the plumb-line in the Phil. earthquakes are due to shocks proceeding from a depth of
 ^6i 4845 362

about 20 miles; and therefore are due to strains arising in gravityis too great over the deep sea in comparison with
the layer just beneath the crust of the globe. In my researches thaton continental land is independent of any hypothesis;
it is shown that these strains and simply shows that the orographic form taken by the land
are due to the leakage of the
oceans, producing accumulation of steam and increasing pres- has only a small influence on the acceleration of gravity;
sure in the plastic layer. just beneath the crust. The strain and thus in general isostacy exists.
slowly accumulates and finally becomes so great that the Helmert then enters upon the consideration of the depth
crust moves along a fault line; and then a readjustment of isostatic compensation, taking Hayford'& working hypothesis
occurs in the layer of lava just beneath the crust. As the of 120 kilometres as the basis, and finds that the distur-
,

steam accumulates under the ocean but not under the land, bances of gravity are to be explained partly by the oro-
the lava layer tends to spread mainly towards the land and the ; graphic form of the land, and partly by imperfections in the
result is that the crust is uplifted into a wall parallel to the conditions of equilibrium, the agreement with the doctrine
sea coast, as in the typical case of the Andes in South of isostacy in the United States having been found by Hayford
America. very satisfactory. He adds that the future must determine
Recent earthquake researches thus mark a very definite whether there is along coasts generally a deviation from the
advance in our knowledge of the thickness of the crust of Pratt-Hayford distribution of mass.
the Earth. Not only is the crust thin, as Airy assumed in Helmert finally examines Hayford'% calculations, for the
1855, but the lava beneath this crust actually moves in depth of 7 6 miles, as that of isostatic compensation in the
earthquakes and in the relief of the strain along the path
;
United States, and concludes that his inference is not entirely
of least resistance pushes up mountain ranges essentially conclusive, owing to failure to take into consideration the
parallel to the sea shore. depth of the sea. If we reckon from the base of the sea
that the mean height of the continent is about 6000 metres,
XIV. The geodetic researches of Helmert, based on
we should find 400 metres as the thickness of the remaining
the deep sea gravity measured by Hecker, confirm the doctrine
disturbing layer of matter. However that may be, Helmert
of isostacy.
concludes, the orographic form of the continental land and
In the Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Ac, XX, 1Q12,
sea is compensated isostatically within a few hundred metres
will be found an important paper communicated by Helmert,
Nov. 2, 191 1. The deep sea measures of gravity were made
— as was found by Hayford from the variations of gravity in
the United States.
by Hecker, 1901— 10, and confirm the doctrine of isostacy
first formulated by Pratt about half a century ago. Hecker's, XV. The early geodetic researches of Everest, Pratt
journeys included voyages from Hamburg to Rio Janeiro, Rio and Airy confirmed by the recent researches of Hayford and
Janeiro to Lisbon, Bremerhaven to Melbourne, Sydney to San Tittman in the United States and of Burrard in India.
Francisco, and San Francisco to Yokohama the observations We have seen that as far back as 1847 Everest ob-
being made with the most approved modern pendulum appa- served that the attraction of the Himalaya Mountains produced
ratus, and thoroughly discussed by Helmert and his associates a very considerable deviation of the plumb-line at many of
of the Royal Geodetic Institute at Potsdam. the Indian stations and that Pratt and Airy confirmed this
;

Helmert remarks that the important observations by Eng- observational conclusion by mathematical researches based
More in the Himalayas, altitude of 4696 metres,
lish officers at on the theory of gravitation. A photographic view of the
which enabled Basevi in 1871 to make out decisive defects Himalaya Mountains from Phalut, at the culmination of the
in the attraction of gravity, already had fore-runners during Range, in Mt. Kinchinjunga, near Mt. Everest, supplied by
the 18* century, in Bouguer's observations about Quito, at Colonel Sidney G. Burrard, F. R. S., Surveyor General of
the base of Chimborazo, the similar results thus arising having India, is given in Plate 8. This lofty snow covered range

led Laplace (Mec. eel. 5.2, 56) to refer them to defects of

led to the general law of density in the Earth's crust and the

density beneath the mountain masses. But the observations theory of isostacy. Pratt took account of the feeble attraction

taken within the last 30 years are much more decisive and of the Indian Ocean, on the South, as well as the attraction

thoroughly done. Hehnert treats of the deep sea observations of the Himalaya Mountains on the North ; and reached the
following conclusions:
of Hecker in a careful and systematic manner, and reaches
the following results for the disturbance of mean gravity on
»The density of the crust beneath the mountains must
the open ocean in comparison with that on continental land:
be less than that below the plains, and still less than that
below the ocean bed.« [Pratt, Fig. of the Earth, p. 201.)
Pacific Ocean — 0.040 cm ± 0.026 cm
Again, in article 215, Pratt concludes: »There is no doubt
Indian Ocean -1- 0.031 » ±0.100 »
that the solid parts of the Earth's crust beneath the Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean + 0.018 » zh 0.038 »
must be denser than in the corresponding parts on the opposite
which are combined into — 0.019 cm ± 0.021 cm. side, otherwise the ocean would flow away to the other parts

Helmert remarks that the amount —0.020 cm is easily of the Earth. The following reasoning will explain this: Sup-
accounted for by the Pratt-Hayford hypothesis of isostacy; pose the Earth to be a sphere. Through any point on it
and he adds that the mean result of three oceans agrees suppose a surface drawn separating a thin portion on the right
well together, and the mean error is sufficiently small cor-* — hand and through the same point a similar surface separa-
responding to a layer of rock 200 metres thick by which ting a like portion on the left. The sphere consists, then, of

the mass of the Earth's crust on continental land is dis- three parts, the middle portion being of a symmetrical form and
tinguished from that of the ocean. This disturbance by which attracting the point in the direction of the radius, and the two
 : « « « «

363 4845 364

slender slices attracting it equally to the right and left of the truth, that the assumption of extreme rigidity .is far from
that radius. If one of these slices became
and of less fluid the truth — United States is not maintained in its
that the
density than the other, its attraction would be overcome by position above the level by the rigidity of the Earth,
s.ea

that of the other, and the fluid would be drawn away to but is, in the main, buoyed up, floated, upon underlying
the other parts of the sphere. does not follow that the
It material of deficient density.*
whole of the fluid would be drawn over. The above process »The conclusions were based upon the 507
just stated
would go on until the surface of the fluid at the circum- residuals considered as The residuals have been
one group.
ference of the slice had become so inclined as to be at right examined in separate groups of 25, each group covering a
angles to the direction of the resultant attraction of the whole small region. Not a single group of 2 5 contradicts the con-
mass, solid and
If, however, a narrow channel were
fluid. clusion just stated.*
cut through circumference (which would otherwise act
this »It is certain that for the United States and adjacent
as an embankment) the whole of the water would be drawn off. regions including oceans, the isostatic compensation is more
»Now in the case of the Earth there is a channel than two-thirds complete — perhaps much more.«
opening a passage from the New Zealand hemisphere into »The departure from perfect compensationmay be, in
the opposite one, viz the North and South Atlantic, and
:
some regions, in the direction of over-compensation rather
yet the ocean remains in that hemisphere. There must, there- than under-compensation, but in either case the departure
fore, be some excess of matter in the solid parts of the Earth from perfect compensation is less than one third.
between the Pacific Ocean and the Earth's centre which retains »In terms of stresses, it is safe to say that these geodetic
the water in its place. This effect may be produced in an observations prove that the actual stresses in and about the
infinite variety of ways; and therefore, without data, it is
United States have been so reduced by isostatic adjustment
useless to speculate regarding the arrangement of matter which that they are less than one-tenth as great as they would be
actually exists in the solid parts below. if the continent were maintained in its elevated position, and
This subject is by no means so hopeless as is implied the ocean floor maintained in its depressed position, by the
in last remark of Pratt; for if the modern theory of
the rigidity of the Earth.
mountain formation has shown that lighter material is pushed The latest geodetic researches of Burrard (Professional
under the mountains and plateaus, the unsymmetrical ar- Paper No. 12, Survey of India) support the conclusions of
rangement of matter due to the light material under the Pratt and Hayford that isostacy exists, but the data derived
World Ridge ^) will fully explain the observed land and water by Hayford for the United States require modification before
hemispheres of the globe. When the continents first began they can be applied to India and the elevated regions of
to emerge from the sea, the elevation of the higher points the Himalayas. In view of the immensity of the Himalaya
of the land hemisphere above the sea may have been ever uplifts this variation of the theory of isostacy is not altogether
so slight; but the lack of symmetry between the two hemi- surprising, but doubtless should have been anticipated.
spheres has steadily increased, till we have truly a land and
a water hemisphere as now observed. XVI. Concluded physical cause of the unsymmetrical
The important researches of Hayford are sufficiently equilibrium of the Earth between the land and water hemi-
Washington Academy of Sciences
set forth in a report to the spheres, with remarks on the bearing of these results on
and published in the Proceedings for May 18, 1906. His work other sciences.
rests on Clarke' % Standard Spheroid for 1866, which was From the theory of the equilibrium of the globe between
found best suited to the area covered by the United States. the land and water hemispheres here outlined, it follows that
The residuals are least for a depth of 71 miles as that of the development of the ocean hemisphere is of comparatively
isostaticcompensation. latedevelopment in the geological history of the Earth. Thus
Hayford'^ work rests on 765 series of astronomical almost the whole of this unsymmetrical arrangement may
observations at 89 stations in the United States, and is thus be ascribed to the period embraced in the formation of the
the most extensive yet made by geodesists. But Burrard's sedimentary rocks.
unfinished researches in India essentially conform to the con- The concluded intumescence of the layer beneath the
clusions reached by the American investigators; and all the land areas conforms to the theory of plastic flow just beneath
modem geodetic researches confirm the earlier conclusions the Earth's crust, under earthquake forces. The views set
of Fratt and Airy, so that what was formerly an hypothesis forth in A. N. 167.113, 169.321, 17I.369, 173.373, and Re-
is now an established fact. searches, Vol. II, that under planetary pressure all matter
With Tittman's, approval, Hayford' & results were an- is may readily interpenetrate, when
porous, and the elements
nounced as follows subjected to such enormous forces, also appear to be con-
»The evidence shows and decisively that the
clearly firmed. Accordingly, although matter in the interior of the
assiunption of complete isostaticcompensation within the Earth would become gaseous if in a free state, it has in
depth of 7 I miles is a comparatively close approximation to confinement the property of a highly rigid solid. Thus the

') of his Collected Mathematical Works, pp. 419-452, Yir.G.W. Hill has an important and too little known memoir on
In vol. IV
Dynamic Geodesy, which are developed extremely general expressions for the force of gravity throughout the world. He introduces the
in
fiction of a small sphere of negative mass, in one side of the globe, just beneath the crust; and by varying the decrease in density thus pro-
duced obtains a series of approximations of remarkable accuracy. Dr. Hiir% mathematical formulae and results are therefore consistent with the
present physical theory, and confirm the ^eed of such a general theory of the Earth's attraction.
 3&5 4845 366

pressure is the sole cause of the effective rigidity of planets ocean m.ight sever the former land connections between the
like the Earth, as pointed out to the editor of Nature
I first Malay Peninsula and Australia, as imagined by Wallace. Thus
in a letter published during the year 1905. the lines of research here traced will prove useful for various
Accordingly, our present knowledge of the increase of investigations in geology and paleontology, as well as in
pressure and rigidity as we descend into the interior of the biology. In fact all the sciences which deal with the evo-
globe, does not leave us »in such complete ignorance as to lution of the Earth will be improved by the new lines of
the manner in which the equilibrium of the solid parts of investigation here sketched and the improvement thus sug-
;

the Earth is maintained*, as Darwin believed in 1882 (cf gested affords an impressive illustration of the vast deve-
Darwin'^ Scient. Pap. 2.514). On the contrary, the stable lopments yet to be made in all the physical and natural
equilibrium of the globe necessarily results from the law of sciences.
universal gravitation to which its parts are subjected, and It seems probable that the previous lack of definite
by which the matter, though it would be gaseous if free, is lines of progress for coordinating all the known phenomena
given in confinement the property of an elastic .solid, with of the globe, which might have been expected as a legitimate
an average rigidity surpassing that of steel. outcome of the vast extension of such sciences as geology,
The celebrated researches of Lord Kelvin and Darwin, paleontology, geodesy, seismology, and physics of the Earth,
by which our knowledge was first extended along this line during the past two centuries, has produced on the modern
are so important that they will deserve to be remembered mind somewhat hopeless and bewildering effect, not unlike
a
in the remotest ages. that noted by some historians of astronomy as characteristic
The view that the great Southern Ocean has become of the stationary period of the Middle Ages (cf. Whewell's
deeper in recent geological time is of no small interest in History of the Inductive Sciences, I, Book IV). And thus
connection with various problems of geology and paleontology. there arose a growing demand for the discovery of the physical
For example, it throws an interesting light on Ch. Darwin'^ cause of the land and ocean hemispheres of the terrestrial
Theory of Coral Islands, and on A. R. Wallace'^ speculations globe yet the attempts at a solution of the problem seemed
;

on a possible former land connection between the Malay hopeless, prior to the researches on earthquakes and moun-
Peninsula and Australia. tain formation 1906—13, and on isostatic compensation,
Darwin found such evidence of widespread subsidence 1909-1 I.

as to him to the view that a very large area of the

lead It is scarcely necessary to point out that these results
Southern Ocean was becoming more and more deeply sub- somewhat impressively the importance of an in-
illustrate
merged. An increase in the accumulation of the water on dependent attitude of mind, as well as the value of a com-
this side of the globe, however, would explain the phenomena prehensive vision in the study of the sciences. Apparently
noted quite as well as actual subsidence of the ocean bed, this quality of independence, and the power for comparing
which is now excluded by other considerations, especially together the most remote phenomena and the most diverse
those based on the rigidity of the Earth and the acknow- objects,and the physical causes by which they may be pro-
ledged absence of actual shrinkage. duced, alone makes possible substantial progress in discovery
In the same way this increase in the depth of the of the highest order.

Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, ig IS July 6. T.J.'j.Sec.

 Tafel 9.
A^w^om. Nachrichten Bd. 202.
_i„^

T.J.J. See. Physical cause of the unsymmetrical equilibrium of the Earth's solid
nucleus in the fluid envelope.

c
3

bn

ft

•a
c

o
 AJU. ZU2. Tafel 10.

T.J.J. See. Physical cause of the unsymmetrical equilibrium of the Earth's solid
nucleus in the fluid envelope.

Polar section of the terrestrial spheroid through the meridian of Central India.
 Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. Nr. 5103-04

,
(Band 213 — Mai 1921).

Researches on the Figure of the Earth, with Definitive Determination of the

Oblateness,
and Complete Tables of the Corresponding Terrestrial Spheroid. By T.
J. J. See.
(With a plate and two tables.)

Historical Statement of the Problem of the

I.
Celeste, Tome
III, Liv. VII, Chap. 4 no. 21). This value was
Figure of the Earth. largely used by Laplace, but in 1825 he adopted the round
The determination
of the figure and dimensions of the figure I :'3o6, drawn from the combined researches oi Burg,
earth the recognized problem of geodesy, and many ap-
is Bouvard and Burckhardt on several thousand Greenwich
proximate solutions of it have been effected within the past observations of the moon (cf Mecanique Celeste, Tome V,
three centuries. The governments of the leading nations of Liv. XI, Chap, i, no. i). 4
the world have long maintained extensive and highly organized Bessel'^ profound researches in geodesy (A.N. Bd. 14,
geodetic surveys for the accurate measurement of arcs of the
1837), with a general method for utilizing all observations,
meridian and of longitude; and so many arcs have now been him
led deduce corrections for the calculation of the
to
measured by geodetic operations that the linear dimensions distance from Barcelona to Formentera (AN 19.116). By
of the earth are known to a high degree of accuracy. combining all the best arcs known in 1841 he obtained
According to Dr. O. H. Titimann, who has had over the oblateness i 299.1528 (AN 438), which long remained
:

40 years experience in geodesy and for about 15 years was classic, and has been but little improved upon to this day,
Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the (cf. Bessel's Abhandlungen, Bd. 3). Thus in the Encyclopedia
best value of the earth's equatorial radius is Helmert% value Metropolitana, 1849, Sir George Airy carefully discusses the
of 1903, — whigh was communicated to Professor Newcomb theory of the figure of the earth, first outlined in 1830, and
for his researches on the motion of the moon namely — finally adopts his earlier oblateness of i 299.33, which does :

6378000 m. This round number is preferred, because there not differ sensibly from Bessel'% classical value of 1841.
still is an uncertainty in the length of the earth's equatorial
In spheroid of 1878 (Phil. -Mag., 5"" Series,
Clarke'^
radius of at least 250 metres; yet the accuracy attained in vol. VI, p. 86) value of the oblateness is found,
a larger
the diameter of the earth already approaches i part in 25000,
1:293.465; and although it has been extensively used in
which is a notable triumph of the science of geodesy! England and America, it is now abandoned as certainly less
But the determination of the exact geometrical figure accurate than Bessel's classic value of 1841. For during the
of the earth is a much more difficult problem than the past 30 years the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey has made
measurement of its radius or equatorial diameter. And as extensive series of pendulum observations; and a full dis-
the spheroidal
figure of the earth gives rise to
sensible cussion of the results by Dr. Wm. Bowie (investigations of
perturbations of the motion of the moon, both in latitude Gravity and Isostacy, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special
and in longitude, which admit of accurate evaluation from Publication, no. 40, 1917, p. 134) leads to the value !: 297.4.
the observations of the moon, the question of the geometrical
This value of the flattening of the earth's mean figure
figure of the earth becomes also fundamentally a great
differsvery little from other values derived from geodetic data
problem of astronomy. Thus in the determinaticin of the
in the United States and elsewhere-. For example in 1909
figure and dimensions of the earth the sciences of geodesy
Hayford had obtained the value i 297.0. Likewise Professor :

and astronomy occupy common ground, and it is difficult

Helmert, in 1901, had found the value i 298.2, but in 1915 :

to*>separate the science of the measurement of the earth

increased the oblateness to i 296.7+0.4. Dr. Bowie, on the :

from the science of the heavens.

other hand, had reached the value 1 298.0 in 1912, but in :

In establishing the law of universal gravitation, 1687,

1917 adopted r 297.4 as an improvement on his earlier result.
:

Sir Isaac Newton correctly concluded that the mean figure

The recent progress of Helmert and of the American
of the earth is that of an oblate spheroid of revolution, with
investigators may be tabulated as follows:
oblateness considerably less than i 230, (Principia, Lib. Ill,
:

Prop. 19), which corresponds to the hypothesis of horfiogeneity.

Name ' Date e = Obi. e = Mean
1:298.54^0.00334965]
Already in 175 i the measurements of arcs of latitude
Helmert 1884
= 0-00335784
in Peru and in France led La Condamine to an oblateness
»

»
1901
1915
1:298.2 =0.00335345
1:296.7 =^0.00337041]
= 297.810 ,

I :

which is near the modern value i 303.6, (cf. Mesure des :

Hayford 1909 1:297.0 =0.00336704] =

trois premiers degres du meridien dans I'hemisph^re austral, 0.00336174
In 1785 Lalande reached the value
Bowie 19 1 2 1:298.0 =0.00335570 = ,

Paris, 1751, p- 259)- 297.465 I :

» 1917 1:297.4 =0.00336247]

I 300, and in 1789 Legendre found the most probable
:

oblateness to be i 305- :
Giving Helmert' % value a weight of 2, Hayford and
In 1802 Biirg discussed the lunar perturbations due Bowie's value a weight of i, in accordance with their geo-
detic experience, we obtain for the weighted mean of these
to the lack of sphericity of the earth's figure, and found
coefficients leading to the oblateness i 305.05, (Mecanique :
several results: g = 0.00335914 = i :
297.695 . (i)
 « : :

235 5I03 236

The first of Helmert'^ values of 1884 based on

is Just why no modification of the Newtonian Law should
I :fc97.8, derived from the lunar perturbations depending be considered so desirable, in view of the recent English
on the figure of the earth, and on i : 299.26 derived from predilectionfor Einstein's theory, —
which so unjustifiably
pendulum observations. Accordingly it will be seen that there form of Netvton's law as to violate the homogeneity
alters the
is a very good agreement between the results of Helmert and of the fundamental equation of the potential of a sphere
—
those found by the American investigators; yet both results, is not apparent.
except the value of Helmert, 1884, rest mainly on pendulum What I mean here is this: In the third paper on the
observations. new theory of the aether (AN 5079) I have shown that
There are several other methods, however, of finding Einstein's reasoning proceeds on Gerber's formula for the
the ellipticity of the earth's figure, which
have been quite potential, U = M/r{i- i/c-dr/dt)^ (2)
thoroughly discussed by Helmert, and subsequently by Tisse- which violates ordinary potential of a sphere, just as
the
rand, Mecanique Celeste, Tome II, 189 1, pages 368 — 369, we should do in the dimensional equation of the velocity,
where we find the following sagacious summary F^ Lj T, by unwarrantedly introducing the factor y' in
»R6fiexions gdndrales et conclusions. L'examen des — the divisor thus: V= Lj-Ty"^ (3)
valeurs obtenues* pour I'aplatissement de la Terre par diverses
which is not authorized by any recognized canon of physical
methodes et avec des donnees numdriques de sources dif-
science.
ferentes montre qu'on n'en est pas encore arrive au point
Brown's procedure, on the one hand, shows a somewhat
de pouvoir affirmer que I'aplatissement 1/293.5 de M. Clarke while the British followers of
ultra conservative attitude,
doit 6tre prdfere k I'une des valeurs 1/299.26, 1/297.8 aux-
Einstein, on the other, exhibit a course as reckless as it is
quelles parvenu M. Helmert.
est On remarquera d'ailleurs disrespectful to the traditional veneration naturally attaching
que les erreurs probables des denominateurs de ces derni^res seems to me that neither of these extreme
to Newton's law. It
sont de i ou de 2 unites. La thdorie de Clairaut neglige
courses can be justified.
du reste les quantites du second ordre et ne permet pas de There is of course no objection to modifying the
distinguer entre I'ellipticite et I'aplatissement, de sorte qu'on ne
Newtonian law, provided any known physical Cause can be '

peut pas pretendre k determiner le denominateur ^n question

assigned for the change, such as wave-action, thus converting
k moins d'une. unite prfes. (M, O. Callandreau a ^tendu la
this law into Weber's law of 1846, which I have dealt with
th^orie de Clairaut, en tenant compte des termes du carrd
in AN5048, p. 149-150. Moreover, Majorana's experiments
de I'aplatissement, dans un important mdmoire Sur la theorie :

lend observational support to this course,

at. Turin, 19 19,
de la figure des plan^tes ,Annales de I'Observatoire de Paris',
and the validity of some slight modification cannot well be
t. XIX).
denied. in our researches, on the physical
Nevertheless,
»I1 s'agirait done de savoir si I'aplatissement 1/298 ou universe, always desirable to go slow in modifying laws
it is

1/299 des k present, 6tre remplace par 1/293 01 1/294.

doit, which have proved accurate and historically serviceable
Nous ne pensons pas que la chose puisse Itre regardee comme thus changes should be admitted only in the face of con-
d^montrde. Cela entrainerait, comme on I'a vu, des conse- vincing evidence.
quences assez graves, car il y aurait contradiction entre
2. Determination of the Ellipticity of the
I'aplatissement 1/293 ct la valeur numerique de la constante
Terrestrial Spheroid by means of the Equation for
(yi — C)IA fournie par la thdorie de la precession. II n'en
the Coefficient of the Moon's Inequality in Lati-
est plus ainsi quand on adopte 1/297 ou ^^ aplatissement
tude depending on the Figure of the Earth.
plus petit. M. Roche, regardant la contradiction comme bien
The determination of the exact analytical expression
etablie,en avait conclu que I'interieur de la Terre doit Stre
for the law of universal gravitation leads to a problem of
solide (Memoire sur I'dtat intdrieur du globe terrestre, Paris,
successive approximations. And the search for a solution
1 881). Cette conclusion, qui serait d'une importance capitale
might be entirely in vain but for the highly rigorous geo-
pour la Gdologie, ne peut done pas encore ^tre consideree
metrical conditions fulfilled by the motions of certain boffies
comme certaine. Nous reviendrons plus loin sur ce sujet.«
of the solar system, and the resulting accuracy with which
Accordingly it thus appears, from an extensive survey it is possible to detect a small deviation from the assumed
of the subject made 30 years ago, that Tisserand reached form of the law of attraction. Among the motions best
the conclusion that the only values to be seriously considered adapted for disclosing a departure from the law of Newton,
•were Helmert^ values, i 299.26 to i 297.8, the latter from
: :
we must reckon the nearly fixed elliptical paths described
the observations of the moon, and the former from pendulum by the planets about the sun, and the rapidly varying Kep-
observations. lerian ellipse described by the moon about the centre of
After these able discussions by Helmert and Tisserand, gravity of the earth.
it is surprising that Professor E.W. Brown, in his researches The moon's motion, however, is disturbed not only by
on the lunar theory, should prefeii the large value 1 294, : the action of the sun and planets but also by the action of
apparently because it gave an outstanding motion of the lunar the oblateness of the figure of the earth; and to throw any
perigee of only +3", (cf. AN S°48, p. 150). He even con- light on the observed inequalities in the moon's motion, it
siders favorably the still larger value i : 293.7, because this is necessary to separate these two causes, the celestial —
would get rid of the outstanding motion of the lunar perigee, from the terrestrial —
and to evaluate them independently
without modifying the Newtonian Law. and with great accuracy. As geometers for over two cen-
 « . ;

237 51°: 238

tunes have given great attention to the motion of the moon, ellipticity whose roundness was made known
of the earth,
it happens fortunately that analysis has enabled them to to the astronomers by her eclipses*.
early »The two —
determine with great accuracy the effect of the different preceeding inequalities deserve every attention of observers
^
forces acting upon the moon. because they have the advantage over geodetical measures
Itfound that just as the action of the oblate figure
is in giving the oblateness of the earth, in a manner which is
of the earth produces sensible inequalities in the motion of less dependent on the irregularities of its figure*.
the moon, both in latitude and in longitude, so also the ob- Laplace did not fully grasp the fluctuations of the
served amounts of these inequalities, when carefully separated moon's motion, since established by Newcomb and first ex-
from the other perturbations of the moon's motion, laecome plained by me in 1916, and thus he somewhat overrated
- -established data which enable us to determine the exact the accuracy of the second method, as pointed out below,
degree of the oblateness of the earth's figure. The lunar Section 3.
perturbations best suited to this purpose are the monthly With this explanation of the importance of the lunar
inequality in latitude depending on the figure of the earth, methods, we remark that the inequality in latitude depending
and the progression of the lunar perigee in longitude, a part on the figure of the earth, has the analytical form (cf Pratt's
of which also depends on the oblateness of the terrestrial Figure of the Earth, 4''' edition, p. 148)
spheroid. The i8.6 year inequality in longitude, having a
Jl = —najh- Asin[nt+e) (4)
coefficient of i".ii']6, is treated of independently in sec-
=— — ^l^(f)sm2oosm[nt+e)
na^J2ha'^-[e (5)
moon's node, y = 0.00346768
tion 3 below.
where k is the regression of the
The
observational determination of the exact amount
is Helmert's value of the ratio of the centrifugal force to
a =
of the earth's oblateness therefore presents a most difficult
the force of gravity at the terrestrial equator; earth's
6378000 meters; a = moon's mean
problem. After reviewing the causes operating to exclude a
mean equatorial radius,
definite and accurate result, Tisserand remarks (Traitd de
distance, the ratioa/a = moon's
sine of the equatorial
Mecanique Celeste, Tome II, p. 366): »On pent voir par ce
qui precede combien la determination de la 'figure de la
horizontal parallax, taken = as /'(j; =57' 2^39, logsinPcj;
(8.2 198844—10), and the obliquity of the ecliptic for 1900.00,
terre devient delicate et qu'on parrte des ope-
difficile,
rations geodesiques ou des mesures du pendule, quand on
soit
ft) = 23°27'8;'26 [Newcomd, Astronomical Constants, 1895,
p. 196), and, for the same epoch, the mean motion of the moon
veut tenir compte des irregularites de la surface et de la
croflte terrestre.
n= i73255'93r8484 (6)
in a Julian year.
It be the aim of the present paper to determine
will
Hansen has carefully determined the coefficient of this
the ellipticity of the terrestrial spheroid with the highest
lunar inequality in from extensive series of obser-
latitude
accuracy now obtainable. It concludes certain investigations
vations, and (Darlegung der theo-
fixed the value at 8^382.
which were developed in 1904, but heretofore not published
retischen'Berechnung der in den Mondtafeln angewandten
in detail. The approximate mean result then given in
Storungen, t. I, p. 457—471 and t. II, p. 273—322). Previously
AN 39Q2 as i 297.7 isnow put in final form and rendered
:

to Hansen's researches Bilrg had fixed the value at 8", and

more exact.
in his Cours d' Astronomic, t. II, p. 316, Faye has reached
This celestial method of finding the oblateness of the
the value 8^59. The mean oi Burg's and of i^ajv^'s value is
earth was preferred by Laplace, and is given great prominence
in his lunar theory, which appeared in the third volume of
8f29S which differs from Hansen's value by 0^087, a com-
paratively small quantity.
the Mecanique Celeste, 1802. It leads to a mean result free
Tisserand remarks (Mecanique Cdleste, t. II, p. 368)
from the influence of local irregularities of gravity such as
that the difference of o;'2 between the values found by Faye
arise from mountains or irregularities of crust, and thus prove
and Hansen shows that the determination of this coefficient
troublesome in the researches of geodesy.
from the observations of the moon is a delicate matter. The
By means of a very great number of observations of
difference is less important, however, since the mean of
the moon extending over a long interval, Biirg, a celebrated
Burg's value, which Laplace estimated so highly, and of
calculator of Vienna, at Laplace's request, carefully deter-
Faye's is within o;'o87 of that found by the pains-taking
mined the coefficient of the lunar inequality in latitude, and
labor of Hansen, 8f382.
fixed the value at —8'; from which Laplace deduced an
Accordingly it appears that we may adhere to Hansen's
oblateness of 1/304.6.
value with great confidence. Our formula for the ellipticity
The related method based on the inequality in longi-
of the earth thus becomes:
tude, extending over a revolution of the moon's nodes, in
and likewise depending on the ellipticity of the
e = 8f382-2/%/[«sin^/'g:sin2ft)(2o6264r8)]-+-o. 00173384 (7)
18.6 years,
figure of the earth, — for which Burg found the coefficient
where 0.00173384 = <p/2 found by Helmert as indicated
above.
to be 6!'8 from a great number of Maskelyne's observations,
— led Laplace to of 1/305.05. This great
an oblateness We use the above values, and recall that the mean
regression of the node h, in units of the moon's mean motion
geometer regarded the near coincidence of the two values
in a Julian year, is found by calculation to be:
as an indication of the high accuracy of the two astrono-
mical methods.
h/n = 27.32166/(365.2563582-18.5996)
»Thus, the moon«, says
»by the observation
Laplace, = 0.004021663 (8)
"

1:
of her motions, renders sensible to modern astronomy the wherefore log = (7,6044057-10)
(/%/«) (9)
 .

239 5I03 240

Thus we find: sinP([; = 8.2198844-10 The oblateness of the earth thus obtained by assigning
sin^Pj: = 6.4397688-10 moderate weights to the three determinations ought to have
sinzft) = 9.86 34520-10 an uncertainty in the divisor of not more than one unit.
log(sm^i'(; sin 2ft)) = 6.3032208-10 .
The coincidence of this value with He/merfs independent
result found from gravity determinations, is quite remarkable,
Accordingly,*
and renders it the more probable that no considerable
log [{2/5/«)(8f 38 2/206264^8)] = 3.5143583-10 (") error due to accidental or constant causes can exist in this
and 3.5143583-10 weighted mean ellipticity deduced from the lunar inequality
6.3032208-10 in latitude.
Iog(« — 5P/2)= 7.2111375-10 2) Nevertheless, in the above-mentioned address on the
e — 9/2 = 0.0016260634. moon's motion, Prof. £. W. Brown expresses the view- that
Therefore, s—cp/2 = 0.0016260634 the lunar inequality in latitude is not satisfactory for the

-1-5P/2= 0.0017338400 determination of the oblateness of the earth, because the

e= 0.0033599034 coefficient of the inequality is entangled with the obliquity

of the ecliptic. The obliquity, however, is known with great
or «= 1/297.63 ,
precision for several centuries prior to the present epoch,
Tisserand adds (Mdcanique Cdleste, t. II, p. 368 that and even to the age of the Greeks, with a degree of ac-
Helmert stops at a value of i/297-.8±2.2 as the result of curacy surpassing that derivable from the observations the
the observations of the moon. ancients have transmitted to us. Thus the obliquity has no
The oblateness above reached
is not far from Helmerf% degree of uncertainty which can sensibly vitiate the oblateness
value, but would make the probable error smaller than
I of the earth deduced from the lunar inequality in latitude:
that given by Helmert, owing to the superior accuracy of and after an examination of this criticism, we must hold it
Hansen's work, and the greater weight to be attributed to to be not well founded. It is surprising that Prof. Brown
his researches. was not more careful in pronouncing against one of the most
If we use Burg's value of the coefficient, 8' instead accurate of all our available methods, which was correctly
of the 8f382 found by Hansen, we obtain appraised by Laplace in 1802, and more recently has enabled

6=0.00328580=1/304.34 (14)
Helmert to reach a value of the oblateness e =
1/297.8
extremely near the truth.
and with Faye's coefficient, 8^59, we obtain the larger value
Brown contends
«== 0.00340025 ^ 1/294.103 .
(15) lunar parallax,
finally that the observations on the
between Greenwich and the Cape of Good
The mean of these two values, resulting from the coeffi- Hope, and the observed motion of the moon's node and
cients of Biirg and Faye, is found to be: perigee, are best satisfied by an oblateness of about i 294. :

6 = 0,0033430=1/299.13 (16)
And he holds that this value should have been adopted in
the conference of almanac directors. In the course of the
which agrees almost exactly with the oblateness found by
present paper we shall examine into the validity of this
Bessel from a discussion of all geodetic measurements in
claim: it suffices here to say that it is inadmissible, partly
1841, (AN 438), namely:
e = 1/299. 1528 •
(17)
because it assumes that the Newtonian Law should not be
modified by a slight change in the exponent, as shown in
As it seems wholly ignore the work of Burg
illogical to AN 5048, p. 148.
and Faye, we combine the three results, with the system of
3. Discussion of Laplace's Theoretical Method
weights assigned below:
fordetermining the Ellipticity of the Terrestrial
Hansen e = 0.0033599 wt. = 10 Spheroid by Means of the 18.6-Year Inequality in
Biirg 0.0032858 5 Longitude depending on the Regression of the
Faye 0.0034002 5 Moon's nodes.
weighted mean, b = 0.0033515 = 1/298.37 .
(18) Fromthe observations used for the construction of his
This result utilizes all the results obtained from the lunar 1755, Tobias Mayer found indications of an
tables,
moon's inequality in latitude, depending on the figure of the inequality in longitude in some way depending on the re-
earth. It is remarkable that it agrees almost exactly with volution of the moon's node. In his memoir on the secular
Helmert's earlier value (1903) for the oblateness of the earth, acceleration of the moon, 1772, Lagrange was the first to
obtained from gravity determinations, namely, entertain the idea of introducing the oblateness of the earth

f = 1/298.3 (19)
into the differential equations of the motion of the moon,
but neglected —
it, supposing insensible the inequalities which
to which E. W. Brown has called attention in his address
Prof.
contain the factor the inclination of the moon's orbit, -
/,
to the British Association in Australia, 19 14, p. 317. It also
and thus he missed the inequality in longitude depending
conforms closely to my value of 1904, namely:
on the oblateness of the earth.
s = 1/297.7 (20) Twenty seven years later, 1799, while calculating the
AN 3992, and to the value 1/297 adopted by the Directors terms which escaped the analysis of Lagrange, Laplace
dis-
of the Nautical Almanacs in 1 9 11 covered the physical cause of the inequality pointed out by
 : 3
24r 5103 242
Mayer, and easily explained the nature
of the perturbations and, it is important to ascertain the law which regulates any
in longitude. But Laplace discovered also the inequality in such inequality. If we examine the lunar theory, with the
latitude Jl, which Burg and
Burckhardt subsequently con- most scrupulous attention^ we shall find, that the action of
firmed by the discussion of observations, and which
we have the planets produces nothing of this kind.«
already discussed in relation to the ellipticity of the
earth. In his commentary
to the translation of the Mdcanique
The principal inequality in longitude depending on the Celeste, from which the above is quoted, Bowditch points out
figure of the earth has the form
that D'Aletnbert proposed to introduce an inequality of long
^^= -('74«M)(e-V29')/sin2/'Csin2<Bsina period, before Laplace discovered the cause of the moon's
= -Csina
,

l^i)
>

secular acceleration, 1787. And in spite of this discovery

where ^ is the longitude of the moon's node, and the other the irregularities of the motion in longitude continued to
symbols are the same as were described before. engage the attention of astronomers like Laplace, Burckhardt,
Using the values previously introduced, namely: Bilrg, Plana, and Carlini. Laplace subsequently recurs to the
^
log sin2P(j^ = 6.4397688-10 log(i^A) = 2.39SS943 inequality of long period which appears to exist in the
log sin 2w =9.8634520-10 log(i9/4)= 0.6766936 moon's motion, in the fifth volume of the Mecanique Celeste,
T= 5°8'43:'3S = i8s23:'3S
we find with ,
but speaks with less confidence of the existence of this ine-
= 0.00335233
,

e = :298. I
^^^^ quality. And in the last edition of the Syst^me du Monde,
published only a short time before his death, he omits mention
by actual calculation C=7!'ii76. (23)
of it altogether. This would seem to show that Laplace was
Accordingly the theoretical value of this inequality in the
at least partially aware of the fluctuations of the moon's
moon's longitude is
^L =
+7^1176 sinft. (24)
motion, afterwards established by iV^z^ir^wz^, 1869-1909, and
of which the present writer discovered the physical cause,
In volume
of his Mecanique Celeste, p. 367, Tisserand
II
19 16 (cf. Electr. Wave-Theory of Phys. Forces, vol. I, 1917).
reaches a value of the coefficient larger than this; for in
From above discussion of the inequality in the
the
volume III, p. 148, he deduces the value:
moon's longitude depending on the figure of the earth, it
8L = -f-7'626sinO (25) follows that to evaluate the coefficient by observation, the
the retrograding node ft giving this change to a plus sign fluctuations must be known accurately for the period of the
in the coefficient. observations. In the present state of science the laws of the
pointed out by Laplace (Mdcanique Cdleste, Liv.VII,
It is fluctuations have been established indeed, but not yet used
Chap. IV, § 24) that Mason found the value 7^7 for this in calculation and thus the corresponding method of finding
;

coefficient by observation, while Biirg subsequently obtained the ellipticity of the earth
is not quite rigorously applied in
the value 6!'8. The simple mean of these two values is 7''2S, the deduction of the older coefficients of Bilrg and Mason.
near the new theoretical value calculated above. If we give Nevertheless, as the fluctuations change very gradually, the
Mason's value a weight of t and Burg's value a weight of 2, mean values derived by Biirg and Mason from observations
the mean will be 7fio, which is still nearer the above cal- extending over a long period of years should give coefficients
culated value, and yields: which are essentially accurate.
£ =298.6572 == 0.003348321
I :
(26) .
Accordingly, just as Zffl//i2« believed, the method ul-
But it should be pointed out that none of the older timately is one of great promise; and since he obtained an

methods for obtaining this coefficient by observation can be ellipticity of 1/304.6, from Biirg's coefficient, the use of
rigorously depended on, owing to the fluctuations established by Mason's value (7''7) properly weighted still further improves
Newcomb in 1909, and theoretically explained by me in accor- the accuracy.
dance with Newton's law, 1916, (cf. AN 5048, pp. 153—160). 4. The Determination of the Ellipticity of the
I have shown that, there are three terms in the moon's mean Strata, under Laplacg's Law of Density, gives also
longitude with periods of 18.0293, 61.7006, and 277.590 the Ellipticity of the Earth's Surface; and the Fluid
years, respectively; and as the corresponding coefficients are Theory, postulated by Clairaut, 1743, is confirmed by
i", 3", and 13", there would result slow changes in the the Modern Pratt-Helmert- Hayford Theory of Isostacy.
moon's mean longitude, which would render the older dis- Under Laplace's law of density, which assumes the —
cussions somewhat defective, yet on the average giving a
law of the compressibility of the earth's matter to be that
result approximately correct.
the increase of the square of the density is proportional to
It is noteworthy that in Chap. V, Lib. VII, of the Me-

canique Cdleste, 1802, Laplace believed in the existence of

the increase of the pressure, or dST = xaAa, — we have
throughout the globe: ^ =. G^-svs\qx.lqx .
(27)
fluctuations in the moon's mean motion. He introduces the
subject by saying: »We have remarked that the moon's mean It is sho\yn also that the ellipticity of a stratum of uniform

motion, deduced from a comparison of the observations of density is defined by the equation:

Flamsteed and Bradley, is sensibly greater than that which «= V29'-[i-3^/(?^«W(3-^-?^«V^) (28)
results from the observations of Bradley, compared with those where ^a is the part of the radius appropriate to the stratum
of Maskelyne; moreover, the observations made within fifteen in question, z^
\ —qujlgqa, and (p = 0.00346768, as before.

•or twenty years indicate, in this motion, a still greater dimi- Itshown in AN 3992,
is thatqa = 2.52896, =
nution. This seems to prove, that there is, in the theory of 144" 53' 55f2; and hence we find for the ellipticity of the

the moon's motion, one or more inequalities of a long period; earth's surface:
 : ::

243 5I03 244

log^a = 0.4029420 where a is the radius of a shell, and e its ellipticity, the
logtg^a = 9.8468605—100 law of Laplace, which Legendre was the first to propose,
leads to the equations
.

0.556081511 a
— qajtgqn = 3.598168 s = Fl, l=yl^aa^-Aa (33)
I

= 4-598168 a

= {a^-d(}/da/^aa^da+6/a^)y.
d^y/da^ (34)
\og[qaY == 0.8058840
logz = 0.6625849 I29J o

This equation takes on a sunple aspect when we suppose

\Qg{qaYlz = 0.1432991
"

that the law of density will be such that we may always write,
— [gaYlz :=— 1.3909104
—z = —4.598168 a^ do-/d«/J
- ff a^ da-hm'^ .(35)
— z—{qaY/z =—5.9890784
-^-3 * where m denotes a constant, m = V6/a.
^ — z—(qaY/z = — 2.9890784 .

On clearing of fractions and differentiating this last

32 = 13.794504 equation, we get:
log 32 = 1397060 1.
•dVd«2 dc/da- m' a a- (36)
\og[gaY = 0.8058840 which may be put in the form

=-2.15686
0.3338220
d^aa/da^~\-m^ (Ja = o .
(37)
-Sz/(qaY
=-1.15686 By integration we obtain
i-5z/{qaY (30)
log[i— 30/(^a)^] = 0.063280911 aa ^ Qsin qa-hJ? cos qa (38)

== and as the density should be finite at the centre, where

log[3-z-{qaY/z] o.4755373n
log{[i-3z/(?«)^]/[3-^-(?«)V^]} = 9-5877436-10
a = o, we conclude = and our general equation
that J? o,

for the density reduces to the form AN 167.122}:

log ( V2 y) = 7-9379752-10
a = Q smqa/a = sinqx/qx
(cf.

By equation (28) we have loge = 7.5257188—10 .

a^ .
(39)

Therefore e = 0.0033552 = 1/298.045 .

(31)
This is Laplace's celebrated law of density, and when
applied to the earth .the data of the law is illustrated by
Accordingly, on Clairaui's fluid-theory, 1743, (cf. Tts- the following table and curve (cf. AN 3992):
serand's Mecanique Celeste, Tome II, p. 211), as now con-
firmed by modern geodesy, we conclude from the above data, Fig. 2. Curves of Pressure and Density within
which appear to be the best obtainable, that the ellipticity the Earth, according to Laplace'^ Law.
of the surface of the terrestrial spheroid is i : 298.045.
Over half a century ago it was shown by Pratt to be 13
highly probable that the density of the matter just beneath
IZ
the surface of the earth is so arranged as to give equal mass
in equal cones having their common vertices at the center
of the earth. This doctrine of isostacy applies especially to
the inequalities of the earth's surface, and has been recently
confirmed by Hayford's investigations of the gravitational
and geodetic measurements made by the U. S. Coast Survey.
In his latter years Helmert recognized the fact of
isostacy in the arrangement of the crust of the globe, and
thus Clairaut's fluid -theory is fully confirmed by modern
geodesy. Accordingly it is made the basis also of my paper
on the Physical Cause of the Land and Ocean Hemispheres
of the Earth (AN 202 Nr. 4844-5, May 1916). We have
therefore finally confirmed the arrangement of the globe as
a heterogeneous mass of fluid in equilibrium, as originally
postulated by Clairaut in 1743; and used by Laplace as the
basis of his law of density, which made it possible to integrate
Clairattfs, differential equations for the equilibrium of a fluid
mass (cf. Tisserand'% Mecanique Celeste, Tome II, Chap. XV,
p. 232).
It is shown that if the earth's internal density follows
a law ff ^ a)(a) (32)
 245 5I03 246

Radius ; (Oj = 5.50) (Pressure in Atmospheres)

I.O
0.9
0.8

r
 : : .

247 5^03 248

Pratt remarks that the argument for Laplace's law of This rested on a very complete calculation in which
density, deduced from these calculations, is not very strong. account is taken of a term of second order in sin-CP, where
As the terrestrial strata have small ellipticity, the law of is the latitude {Tisserand's Mecanique Celeste, Tome II,
density conceivably might be varied from that of Laplace, p. 366). Accordingly, more recent calculation of the
his
and yet lead to about the same agreement when the inte- ellipticity, for Prof. NewcomVs Lunar Researches, was in fact
gration for {C—A)IC is extended to the mass of the whole an improvement on the value of 1884, yet it included the
earth. But as Laplace's law gives a close agreement for the results of 20 years of later measurements of the force of *

ellipticityof the surface with those found by pendulum gravity by means of the more refined pendulum observations
observations and by elaborate geodetic measurements of arcs of recent times.
of the meridian, it is improbable that the law of density In his address to the British Association in Australia,
should be materially changed. We must therefore regard 1914, p. 317, Prof. -ff. /^. ^r(7«^/z therefore accepts Helmert's
Laplace's law as essentially a law of nature. value of I : 298.130, from the whole series of pendulum ob-
In AN
3Qg2, 4053, 4104, we have adduced strong servations, as the concluded value by that method; and it
physical arguments to show that the increase of density probably be a long time before any material improve-
will
towards the centers of the heavenly bodies is due to the ment on will be possible.
this result
enormous pressure to which their gaseous or semi-solid matter This value of the ellipticity of the earth has great in-
is subjected. It is shown that the enormous rigidity of the herent probability, both because of the refinement of the
heavenly bodies is due solely to the pressure. measures of gravity, and their wide distribution over the
Professor £. Wiechert and others have formerly assumed globe, in both latitude and longitude, and also because of the
for the earth an iron nucleus, covered with a superstructure thoroughness with which Helmert has systematically treated
of rock; but of late, the author's argument that the increase all the accumulated observational material during the past
of density downward is due solely to the enormous increase 50 years. It has in our time the same relative weight with
of preSfeure seems to be very generally accepted. Hence the Bessel's classical value e 1/299.15 = (c6)
differential equation A^ =
zcrdcr, underlying Laplace's law,
determined from the sagacious discussion of all the geodetic
may be regarded as verified by an induction based on the
observations of arcs of the meridian available to the investi-
study of the principal solid bodies of the solar system.
all
gator in the middle of the 19'*^ century.
It therefore that the close agreement of the
follows
.It is somewhat remarkable that as far back as 1904,
theoretical with the observed value of the precession points
the present writer reached an ellipticity of the earth, from
to an ellipticity of the external surface of the globe of i : 298.3. all the available methods of finding this element, according
6, Determination of the
Ellipticity of the exactly with Helmert's value, but without knowledge of his
Earth's Surface by Means of Pendulum Obser- result. The value of 1904 was:
vations of the Force of Gravity, and of Clairaut's e = 1/(298.30+1.00). (57)
Theorem. And calculated formulae and elaborate tables for the resul-
I
The potential of the earth's mass may be expressed ting spheroid. On receiving other data, probably from Prof.
in the form E. IV. Brown, I altered the concluded ellipticity a little, and
V= M/r-hie-y^cp) [Ma^r'^) (Vs-cos^i^) (52) putjlished merely the approximate result, in AN 167. 125,
The second term varies with the polar distance ^, which namely: g = 1/297.7.
is thecomplement of the latitude. Accordingly the gravity appears that my value of the oblateness
Accordingly, it
in any latitude was found by Clairaut, in his Theorie de of the earth, 1904, and Helmert's value of 1903, are in exact
la Figure de la Terre, 1743, to vary according to the fol- agreement; and although Helmert subsequently increased his
lowing law: ^= (?{i-4-(6/2-f)sin2®}. (53) value to I 296.7, as shown above in Section I, my definitive
:

This formula for the variation of gravity with the latitude value for the oblateness, 192 1, based on all available data
is known as Clairaut's Theorem. remains quite unchanged, namely
By means of pendulum observations a great many E= 1:298.3, (58)
determinations of the relative force of gravity have been
Determination of the Ellipticity of the
7.
made in all parts of the world. These give a good deter-
Terrestrial Spheroid from Geodetic Measurements
mination of the ellipticity of the earth. The following are
of Arcs of the Meridian.
the most important results
I. Helmert's determination, 1Q03, based on all the This method is the one originally proposed by the
available measures of gravity, taking accoimt of the term of
Alexandrian astronomer Eratosthenes, about 230 B. C, and
in modern times gradually perfected with the development of
second order in sin^G>, whei-e ® is the latitude:
s = 1/298.30. (54)
geodesy. It is therefore very old, and was generally considered
the logical method prior to the discovery of the widely pre-
This value was furnished to Prof. Newcomb for his Lunar valent minor variations of the force of gravity due to local
Researches, vol.11, 19 12, and was long believed to \)t Helmert's disturbing influences. But even with irregular gravitational
final word on the subject. As far back, however, as 1884, attractions disturbing the local direction of the vertical, the
Helmert, from pendulum observations, had reached the value: method is still very valuable, because it rests on direct
e = 1/(299. 26±i. 26). (55) measurement of the length of the arc of the meridian.
 : :

^^y 5104 250

It ©i and
©J be the astronomical latitudes of the ter- American geodetic work is combined with the results of the
minals of the arc in question,
and q the radius of curvature various series of triangulations in other parts of the world :

of the meridian for the mean

latitude ®2) and a the V2(®i + e = 1/300.7. (64)
equatorial axis, we have for the length of the arc the integral
In regard to several other determinations of the ellipticity
*-> *.,

.
-f = J(>da) = «J( 1-^2) (
1-^2 sin2(p)-^/M®. (59)
of the earth, by geodetic methods, it only remains to add
that they are of secondary importance compared to the four
principal results here cited. For example, in his Figure of
And if we put for the ratio of the polar to the equatorial the Ea'rth, 4"' ed., 1871, p. 177, Pratt made a determination
axis d/a =
{[ —„)/[l-^.„'|^
^e may write n {a d)/(a-h/>) = — of the ellipticity of the terrestrial spheroid, taking account
= 1/595-6 •«, in the case of the earth, and thus of local- attractions. From the three long arcs considered
Pratt found the ellipticity to be
^^{i-hn]{i— n^)(i-h2n COS 2 (D-t- »-)-'!' d0. 60 « = 1/295-2- (65)
Pratt also made certain criticisms of Bessel's formulae,
When
the measurements are extensive, over a long and but Colonel Clarke did not consider the criticism justified;
fairly homogeneous
arc, as in a level country, the local dis- and in his Article Earth, Encycl. Britt., g"" ed., p. 605, Clarke
turbances are largely eliminated, as mutually destroying one says oi Pratt's attack on Bessel's equations: »certainly Bessel
another. Yet there may be some disturbing gravitational was right, and the objection is groundless*.
causes introduced, due to systematic local attractions exerting
It only remains therefore to find the best mean value
an uncompensated influence on the vertical. Besides, there
obtainable from the above four chief results. After careful
are errors of observation incident to the imperfections of the
considerationwe adopt the following weights for the different
geodetic instruments, and thus also affecting the adjustment
independent determinations, all of which are valuable:
of the triangulation of the meridian. And for these and Name Date Ellipticity weight.
other reasons it is possible that the pendulum observations Airy 183 1 0.003340794 ;
of gravity may give a more accurate value of the ellipticity Bessel 1841 0.003342774 5
of the earth than that of geodetic measurements of arcs of Clarke 1878 0.003407614 3
the meridian.
Tittmann 1904 °-oo3325573 6
Nevertheless, the geodetic method has advantages, and
Weighted Mean e = 0.003347059 , ,

the following

1.
are the chief results

Atry, from an able discussion of the figure of the

e = 1/298.767 ^ '

only remains to point out certain features of the arc

It
earth, Encycl. Metr., ed. 1831, and ed. 1849,
method which seem worthy of the attention of geodesists.
s = 1/299.33. (61) In the U. S. Coast Survey Report, 1898-99, App. No. 3,
This result was reached by a judicious selection of arcs along Frontispiece, we find the accompanying Map of the Geodetic
the meridian only; those in mountainous countries also being Operations for the Measurement of the Earth, Fig. i Plate i.
excluded, to avoid undue effects of local gravitational distur- The only important extensions of the arcs here laid down,
bances. Az'ry weighed carefully the relative accuracy of the in the 20 years since this map was published, are in the
earlier and later geodetic measurements, and thus obtained region of South Africa, where Sir David Gill's arc amounted
an ellipticity of great accuracy. to 22° of latitude, in 1903, and slight arcs of 2?s in the
equatorial region of Africa, 1908, with a similar short arc
2. Vessel's classical determination of the ellipticity of
the figure of the earth, 1841, AN 19 Nr. 438;
in Egypt, Cairo to Assiut (cf. The Observatory, Dec. 1920,

e = 1/299. 1528 . (62)

pp. 421-422).
The most striking feature of Figure i, which is a niap
This celebrated result based upon an elaborate discussion
is
of the world's geodetic surveys, is the inequality between
of the most reliable measurements of arcs of the meridian.
the operations made in the two terrestrial hemispheres —
The final spheroid is so adjusted to the entire system of ob-
nearly all the measurements being in the northern hemisphere,
servations, by a least square solution of the equations, as to
where most of the land lies, and the greater and more enter-
give minimum errors of observation. Besse/'s discussion has
prizing nations are developed.
always been considered a masterpiece, and no criticisrn of
This great deficiency of long arcs in the southern
serious purport has ever been made against it.
hemisphere is thus a fundamental weakness in the
terrestrial
3. Clarke's spheroid of 1878,
geodetic method, but the weakness is largely if not entirely
« = 1/293-465. (63) compensated for by the following circumstances:
This value by Clarke comparatively recent, but it differs
is I. It is by CoL H.G.Lyons, at the London
stated
materially from Bessel's, and has not been much used on the discussion subjects, Nov. 5, 1920, (cf. The
of geophysical
continent of Europe, where the leading authorities have Observatory, Dec. 1920, p. 422), that Dr. Bahn's researches,
preferred Bessel's determination of the ellipticity. Clarke's in the Beitrage zur Geophysik, show that in the South African
result has, however, been considerably used in England, and Arc »the combined errors resulting from triangulation and
provisionally by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. base measurement are only about i in 90000, or 28 metres
4. Tittmann's Coast Survey result, 1904, i-n which the in 2600 kilometres. The- curvature, as a whole, agrees well
 ; «

251 5IO+ 252

with that of the Clarke spheroid of 1880, but the radius of by the attraction of this matter. Nevertheless the ellipticity
curvature for the southern portion is less than for the arc of the earth is much (V-2 5P) due
greater than the ellipticity
as a whole.* to the centrifugal force and even greater than the
alone,

If this analysis be dependable, it means that the el- ellipticity which would exist were the earth composed of a

lipticity of the spheroid in South Africa than that in- is less sphere touching the surface at the poles, and consisting of
dicated by Clarke'% spheroid, and thus more nearly accordant concentric spherical strata of equal density and of a spherico-
with our value f i =
298.3, which is a satisfactory con-
:
spheroidal shell having the density of the rocks and clay at'
firmation of the new spheroid derived- from the latest the surface (or 1-^420 nearly). This being the case, the
geodetic surveys. regularity of the surface is no doubt remarkable; and this
regularity is accounted for on the hypothesis of original
2. In the dynamical theory of the land and water
fluidity.
hemispheres of our globe, given in AN 4844—45, May 1916,
»The near coincidence between the numerical values
it is shown that theoretically there ought not to be any sensible
of the ellipticity of the spheroid obtained inde-
terrestrial
difference in the figures of the two terrestrial hemispheres.
pendently from the motion of the moon, from the pendulum,
When Laplace therefore concluded, in the fifth volume of the
Mecanique Celeste, that there are slight inequalities in the by the aid of Clairaut's, theorem, and from direct measures
of arcs, affords no additional evidence whatever in favour
motion of the moon depending on certain inequalities of land
of the hypothesis of original fluidity, being a direct con-
in the two terrestrial hemispheres, he did not take account
sequence of the law of universal gravitation. These results
of isostacy, and the resulting perfect hydrostatic equilibrium
(that every equatoreal axis and the axis of rotation are
of the two hemispheres.
principal axes) would follow as a consequence of the hypo-
For in AN 4845, p. 355, I have shown that under the
thesis of original fluidity.*
theory -of the isostatic shell, now recognized to exist, there
»The phenomena of precession and nutation introduce
are no inequalities of attraction in the two terrestrial hemi-
a new element to our consideration, namely, the moment of
spheres, depending on the unequal distribution of the land
inertia of the earth about an equatoreal axis. The observation
and thus the motions of ths heavenly bodies are not disturbed,
of these phenomena enables us to determine the numerical value
as Laplace imagined, by the unsymmetrical equilibrium of the
of the (moment of inertia) if we suppose e known otherwise.
solid nucleus in the fluid envelope of our globe.
Now, independently of any hypothesis as to original fluidity,
3. These two results accord well with the views of the
probable that the earth consists approximately of spherical
it is
late Professor Sir G. G. Stokes, (Cambridge and Dublin Math.
strata of equal density. Any material deviation from this
Journal, vol. IV, p. 210), which in part are as follows:
arrangement could hardly fail to produce an irregularity in
»It may be well to consider the degree of evidence the variation of gravity, and consequently in the form of the
afforded by the figure of the earth in favour of the hypo- we know that the surface is one of equilibrium.
surface, since
thesis of the earth's original fluidity.* Hence we may assume when not directly considering the
»In the first place it is remarkable that the surface of ellipticity, that the density is a function of the distance from
the earth is so nearly a surface of equilibrium. The elevation the centre.*
of the land above the level of the sea is extremely trifling »Now the preceding results will not be sensibly affected
compared with the breadth of the continents. The surface by giving to the nearly spherical strata of equal density one
of the sea must of course necessarily be a surface of equi- form or another, but the form of the surface will be materially
librium, but still it is remarkable that the sea is spread so affected. The surface in fact might not be spheroidal at all,
uniformly over the surface of the earth. There is reason to or if spheroidal, the ellipticity might range between tolerably
think that the depth of the sea does not exceed a very few wide limits. But according to the hypothesis of original fluidity
miles on the average. Were a roundish solid taken at random, the surface ought to be spheroidal, and the ellipticity ought
and a quantity of water poured on it, and allowed to settle to have a certain numerical value depending upon the law
under the action of the gravitation of the solid, the probability of density. If then there exists a law of density, not in itself
is that the depth of the water would present no sbrt of improbable a priori, which satisfies the required conditions
uniformity, and would be in some places very great. Ne- respecting the mean and superficial densities, and which gives
vertheless the circumstance that the surface of the' earth is to the ellipticity and to the annual precession numerical values
so nearly a surface might be attributed to
of equilibrium nearly agreeing with their observed values, we may regard
the constant degradation of the original elevations during this law not only as in all probability representing approximately
the lapse of ages.* the distribution of matter within the earth, but also as furnishing,
»In the second place, it is found that the surface is by its accordance with observation, a certain degree of evidence
very nearly an oblate spheroid, having for its axis the axis in favour of the hypothesis of original fluidity. The law of
of rotation. That the surface should on the whole be pro- density usually considered in the theory of the figure of the
tuberant about the equator is nothing remarkable, because earth is a law of this kind.*
even were the matter of which the earth is composed arranged This reasoning of Stokes is so well thought out that
symmetrically about the centre, a surface of equilibrium would we have quoted it in full. Since the time of Stokes' paper,
still be protuberant in consequence of the centrifugal force; 1849, very notable progress has been made in our theory
and were matter to accumulate at the equator by degradation, of the connection between solid and fluid bodies. In the
the ellipticity of the surface of equilibrium would be increased Mdmoires des Savants fitrangers, Acad, des Scienc. de Paris,
 :

3j 5104 254

(Tomes 18, 20, 1868, 1870) Tresca and St. Venant published 3. The found from pendulum observations
ellipticity
the results of their experiments made about half a century of the force weighted mean of the results of
of gravity,
ago, on the fl'ow of metals and other solid bodies when Helmert, Hayford and Boivie, equation (i) above:
subjected to very great forces. It was found that under very
great forces the division betweeri solid and fluid bodies quite
e I =
297.695 0.00335914 wt. 10
: = .

4. The by the geodetic measurement

ellipticity indicated
disappears, and that solids yield like wax and adapt themselves of arcs of the meridian and of longitude, weighted mean of
to equilibrium forms.
the results of the geodetic researches of Airy, Bessel, Clarke,
Lord Kelvin, Sir George Darwin, and the present writer Tittniann, equation (66) above:
(cf. AN
3992, 4104, 4152) have since confirmed the con- s == 0.003347059 wt. 10
I : 298.767 = .

clusion that whatever their constitution the planetary bodies

Weighted mean of these four independent methods:
behave as fluid under the tremendous pressures and high
temperatures operating in their interior. Thus the stars, sun
e = I : 298.2751 =: 0.003352610 wt. 30
±0.1388 d=o. 000001559 .

and planets take on true figures of equilibrium appropriate

The probable error of this general mean ellipticity of
to themutual gravitation of their particles and the centrifugal
the terrestrial spheroid has been calculated by the well known
force of rotation; and any other figure of the surfaces of
formula (cf. Merriman% Textbook of the Method of Least
these masses is inconceivable. The doctrine of isostacy,
Squares, New York and London, 1897, p. 75):
simce developed in geodesy, points in the same direction,
and simplifies very greatly our theory of the earth's attraction ro = 0.6745 ^{^/^'V[(»-i)^/]} (57)
(cf.AN 4844-45). where p represents the weights assigned the several inde-
Accordingly, the favorable circumstances described in pendent results, and n—x :^ 3, « being the number of in-
dependent determinations.
the above three arguments, for the perfect figure of equilibrium
It was observed by Laplace, in his celebrated Theorie
of the earth, render the geodetic method for finding the
Analytique des Probabilites, 1807, that the theory of pro-
oblateness by the measurement of arcs of the meridian one
bability is nothing but common sense reduced to calculation.
of great accuracy, in spite of the inequality of the geodetic
operations hitherto made in the two terrestrial hemispheres.
And Gauss based his development of the method on the
axiom established by experience that the most probable value
Thus in a definitive determination of the figure of the earth,
of a quantity which is observed directly several times, with
it is obvious that th,e method of geodesy should have adequate
equal care, is the arithmetical mean of the measurements.
.

weight, not inferior to that based on pendulunv observations

of the relative force of gravity.
And if the separate observations have unequal weights, the
above formula takes account of the weights assigned by the
8. Definitive Determination of the Oblateness best judgement available.
of the Terrestrial Spheroid Based upon a Weighted Now above determination of the most probable
in the
Mean of the Results indicated by the Separate we cannot observe this quantity directly,
oblateness pf the earth
Methods for finding the Figure of the Earth. but must deduce it by calculation from independent methods
The chief results arrived at in the foregoing investigation of observation, the calculations themselves being free from
are summarized in the following survey of independent error. The theory of probability and the method of least
weighted means, by the four methods which give a definite squares is thus applicable to the determination of the figure
determination of the ellipticity of the terrestrial spheroid. of the earth, and gives us a dependable criterion for the

1. The ellipticity indicated by the lunar inequality in degree of precision attained.

weighted mean of the coefficients found by Burg, Finding the most probable value of an element from
latitude,
a varied series of observations is equivalent to determining
Faye and Hansen, equation (18) in section 2 above:
the centre of gravity of the given observations, so that the
e= t: 298.37= 0.0033515 wt. 5 .

whole body of phenomena will be best represented. This

2. The ellipticity derived from two separate sources
condition is fulfilled by the weighted mean, which makes
shown to be quite independent, yet in remarkably good
the sum of the squares of the outstanding residuals a minimum.
agreement In the present problem the weights have been assigned from
(a) 18.6-year lunar inequality in longitude, depending the following considerations:
on the revolution of the moon's nodes, weighted mean of I. As to the first method, for reasons fully pointed
Bilrg and Masons coefficients (7fio), e i: 298.6572 ^ out by Laplace in 1802, the ellipticity indicated by the lunar
= 0.00334832, equation (26) above. inequality in latitude must be given considerable weight, since
Laplace?, law of density, which rests on Clairaut's,
(b) it leads to a mean figure of the earth uninfluenced by local
fluid -theory, recently verified by the geodetic fact of isostacy peculiarities, such as mountains, plateaus and other irregu-
— the constants oi Lap lace' & law (cf. AN 3992, 1904) having larities of the earth's crust. Moreover, the accuracy of the
been derived from experimental determination of the density method depending on the lunar inequality in latitude is con-
of the rocks composing the crust of the globe (2.55). The firmed by the independent researches of Bilrg, Hansen and
method thus yields for the surface stratum e ^ 1 : 2,98.045 Faye; and the observations are not materially vitiated by the
= 0.00335520, equation (31) above. The mean of (a), and fluctuations in the moon's mean longitude, which have oc-
(b) therefore gives: casioned so much inconvenience to recent investigators in

£=1:298.351=0.00335176 wt. 5 . the lunar theory.

 -

255 5I04 256

2. The second method, depending on the 18.6-year equilibrium of such a heterogeneous fluid mass, thus represents
lunar inequality in longitude, combined with the surface essentially a law of nature.
ellipticity resulting from Laplace's law, under Clairaufs, fluid- The ellipticity of the terrestrial spheroid now found
theory, is sufficiently set forth in the above table. In con- from the discussion of all the available methods thus becomes
firmation of its validity we note that Fratt's theory of isostacy, with the highest accuracy now obtainable:
in the constitution
firmed by the recent researches
of the crust of the earth, has been con-
of Helmert, Hayford and
s= 1/(298. 3o±o.3o). (68)

Bowie, and to a considerable extent by the results reached

The uncertainty in this divisor is taken at a little over
twice the probable error in the above summary, so that it pro-
by Colonel Burrard in India, near the mighty range of
bably does not exceed ±0.30. Accordingly it appears that
the Himalayas, -where the contrasts between the elevations
the ellipticity of the earth is determined to a degree of
and depressions of the continental crust are the greatest in
precision of about one part in a thousand. In view of the
the world. Thus it is obvious that the Clairaut- Laplace
immensity of the terrestrial globe and the entangled local
Pratt fluid -theory of the earth's constitution is verified by
influences which vitiate our efforts to determine its true figure
the most extensive geodetic observations and researches of
with great accuracy-'), this result must be regarded as a
our time.
scientific triumph of no mean order. It reflects the highest
3. The ellipticity found from determinations of the
ona long series of patient observers, in many lines of
credit
force of gravity, by means of the pendulum observations, as
investigation, whose combined researches extend over nearly
used by Helmert, and subsequently by the U. S. Coast Survey,
three centuries.
obviously must be given great weight. Accordingly, we assign
the result of this method a weight equal to that of the two
The amount of the compression at either pole of the
terrestrialglobe is approximately 21 kilometres; and as the
foregoing methods combined.
uncertainty in our value is estimated at one-thousandth of
4. And on account of the importance of the actual
the whole amount, we see that the outstanding error is
measurements of arcs of the meridian and of longitude in
reduced to a residue of the order of 21.4 metres, or about
geodesy, it will be generally felt that equal weight should
65 feet.
be given to the mean ellipticity indicated by geodetic ope-
A result so helpful to physical science can hardly fail
rations. As the best method of combining the observations,
to be gratifying to geometers, since it exhibits the steady
on the various arcs of the globe depends on geodetic ex-
narrowing of the limits of error in the delicate and difficult
perience and sound practical judgement, it seemed best to
problem of the measurement of the exact figure of the earth.
use the results of the chief investigators since 1830, without
attempting new reductions of the original data. An attempt 9. Dynamical Theory of the Figure of the
at new reductions would raise many troublesome questions, Earth.
without yielding any corresponding advantages, where the Let X, Y, Z be the components of the attractive force
ground already has been covered by investigators of great of gravity, parallel to the coordinate axes, acting on a fluid
eminence. This may be easily understood from the discor- particle of the earth's mass; then if a be the density and ^
dance of Clarke's oblateness i 293.465, 1878, with those
:
the pressure at the point considered, we have
oi Airy, 1830, zxiA Bessel, 1841, 1:299.15, which Tittmann
— dcT = ^(Xd^c-H Ydy-tZdz)
has brought out by his value 1:300.7, 1904, an ap-
proximate restoration of Bessel's value after a lapse of more
= a{d V/dx-dx-hd V/dydy-hd v/dz- dz) (69)
which becomes zero at the free surface, or
than 60 years! Accordingly, it is best to leave the discussion
of purely geodetic operations to geodesists; and hence the d^3 = adV= a{Xdx-i-Ydy-hZdz) = 0. (70)
admissibility of the weights assigned to the result reached This equation implies that the resultant of the forces
by Airy, Bessel, Clarke, Tittmann, probably will be generally is normal to the surface at every point. In a homogeneous
acknowledged. mass the expression (69) is the differential equation for all
Sir George Darwin's conception of the matter of the surfaces of equal pressure. If the mass is heterogeneous, we
globe as plastic and yielding under the tremendous forces have the complete differential:
to which it is subjected by gravity is also confirmed by the Xdx-+- Ydy+Zdz = dv/dx-dx-hd V/dydy-hd V/dz-dz. (71)
present author's researches on the physical constitution of Whenthe mass has uniform velocity of rotation, the
the earth, sun, and planets, (AN 3992, 4053, 4104). And effect of the centrifugal force must be introduced, as it acts
as these modern inquiries into the internal constitution of on each particle with a force proportional to the distance
the globe support the conclusions drawn from geodetic from the axis of rotation. Thus the corresponding part of
researches on the earth's surface by Hehnert, Hayford, and
Burrard, we justly conclude that the fluid -theory of the
Xdx+ Ydy-hZdz = d£i (72)
is a complete differential of Si =f[x,y, z).
earth is fully verified. Laplace's law of density, and the
hypothesis 6.^ = /Jcrdc introduced by this great geometer
'
The equilibrium condition is that
for the integration of Clairaut's differential equations of the d^ = ad.Q (73)

That the equatorial radius of Ihe earth should be known to i part in 25000, and thus 25 times more accurately than the oblateness
^)

of the geometrical figure, is not remarkable, when we consider that one quantity is measured directly, in the observed length of a degree, while
the other is a differential effect which must be calculated from small residuals, either terrestrial or celestial.
 : : . . . : ::

257 5I04 2S8

be a complete differential. That is, a must be a function of T
be the duration of the earth's axial rotation, and
If
i3 or of tcr, and thus also SJ a function of il. Accordingly, (T the density atany point p{x,y, z), and V the potential
di3 = 8/3/8^ •dx+8i3/8y.dj)' + 9i2/8^-d2 = o (74)
of gravity, with the centrifugal force included, we shall have

is the differential equation of surfaces of equal pressure and V= lllG{[x-x'Y+{y-y'Y+[z-z'Y\-'^'Ax' Ay' d.z'
•

density. -^-{2n^|T^) [x'^+y^i. (80)

Let
denote the eccentricity of the meridian, so that
e The triple integral is to be extended to points of the
when e I =
298.3, e : =
0.08181332; then if the equation which the variables
earth's mass, after x', y', z'
all

of the moveable
for the ellipsoid be point p[x\y',z') disappears; and F becomes a function of
^VUMi+^')]+y/[^Mi+^')]+^V= 1 (75)
X, y, z, which, equated to a constant, gives the general equa-'
the attraction upon the particle dwi =a 6.x Ay ^z has for its
tion to the level surfaces.
we put ©' and 1' for the geocentric
.components
x ^ Ax Y = Ay Z=Cz (76)
If
longitude respectively, we have
latitude and

A^ 2n a\[i-^e'') e~^ a.xzX%e—\le'^\ , > X =

r cos®' cos A'
C= 4?ro-[(i+^V-2-(i-+-£^)«-5*arctg^]. "^j jv = rcos(Z)'sinA' (81)
To
take account of the centrifugal force due to rotation' z =r sin CD'
we introduce the appropriate components jcto^, jcw', oi — — And then our four equations for the component forces based
and then the condition of the fluid equilibrium becomes: on the geographical latitude and longitude, are:

[a — (xr) X Ax^{A — y 6.y^ Cz = o. H= V

ui'^) d.z (78)
^ cos® cos A = —dv/dx
By integration this yields
g cos (P sin A = — Vj^y 8
(82)
(^-«2)(^2-Hy)-+-c^2=:i5r (79) g&\n(D = -dv/dz.
where .^ is the constant of integration. These will become, by substituting polar coordinates

H = F= JJJ(r[r2— 2r(*'cos®'cosA'-t-ycos®'sin;/ -y sin a)')H-/2]-V» dy dy' dz'-^(2n^/ T^) r^ cos^O)'

.
= —g ® cos ®' cos — V)
8 F/8/- [cos [I -t- sin (0 sin 0)']
= — se-cosa)sin(A — A') ^'
/ otws^, ^ ^, M — V)-hsin0cos0']
i/r-dv/d0' ^ ^g[ — cos0sm(D'cos{l lA
r ^ • •
^,1 i/r-sec®'8F/8A'
' 1 \ /
^

As the geocentric coordinates r, 0', V, are not determined directly by observation, they must be eliminated, by
the simplest available process.
The differences between the geographical and geocentric longitude X — V probably nowhere exceeds a minute
of arc, and hence we .may put cos (A A') i. — =
And in the development of the first part of V, under the above triple
integral, it is known that the terms invplving V have very small coefficients. In these therefore we may substitute X
for V, and after V is thus made to disappear, we get

ff=V^= ^^^a [r^—2r [x' cos 0' cosl-hy' cos 0' sinA-i-^' sin 0')-hr'^]-''' dx' dy' dz'-i-{27i^/ T^) r^ cos^CD'
8 F/dr = -^ cos ( 0) - 0') i/r 8 V/(I0'
• =
-gsm{0 — 0') i/r- sec 0' 8 V/dX' =o (84)

We may apply Zaplace's method of expanding V in & series of spherical functions which to Y^ yields:

V= =H
Mjr-h Y^/r^-^ Yjr^-^ Yjr^-\-(2ny T^)r^ cos^0'
dvldr = Mlr''-i-sY2/r'^-+-4Y3/r^-hsYjr'^-(47TyT^)rcos^0' = ^cos(a)'- (P) (85)
i/r-dv/d0' = i/^4.8F2/8a)'+i/?-3-8y3/8(Z)'-Hi//-6.8F4/8a)'-(47rVr2)rsina)'cosa)' = ^sin(a)'-a)).
In order to eliminate r and 0' from these equations, we square both members of the first and divide by M.
We observe that in this elimination the squares and product of I3 and Y4, and their product by [271^/ T^)r^ cos^0' may
be neglected as insensible. Thus we get:

Mlr^+2 Yilr^-h 2 Yg/r^-h2 Yjr^ -{2TTyT^)rcos^0' =

(86)
HyM- i/M- Y^^r^- {471V AfT') Y2 cos^ W'/r- {471-^/ MT*) r' cos^0'
On subtracting this from the second equation of (85), we find

H^'/M-h Y2/r*-^-2Ys/r''-^3Yjr^ =
(87)
^ cos (0)' - ©) -H (87r V^') ^ cos^ (P'H- i/yl/- Fa V'-'- 4Ti^/MT^) Y2 cos^0'/r-h{4Tr^/MT^) r^cos^0'.

The last term of the right member is of the order of We take the earth to be an oblate spheroid of revo-
the square of the compression, and thus very minute, but it lution, and thus the meridian to be an ellipse with polar and
ought not to be omitted in very precise determinations, (cf. equatorial axes in the ratio of 297.3:298.3, so that the
G. IV. Ifill's Collected Mathematical Works, vol. II, p. 305). compression or oblateness e, and the eccentricity e are

In this equation be noticed that wherever the

it will £=1:298. 30 ^=0.08181332.
variables r and 0' occur,- they are multiplied by quantities Then, by the method of Bessel and Encke, (cf. AN 438,
which are at least of the order of smallness of the com- and Berliner Jahrbuch for 1852, or Chauvenet's Spherical
pression. Thus it suffices to eliminate them by formulae and Practical Astronomy, vol. I, pp. 96-102), we find the
^'hich are only, approximately exact. formula required by astronomers for the geocentric latitude
 : : : : : :

'59 5I04 26o

and logarithm of the radius of the spheroid, in the reduction To obtain exact numerical values for these radii of
of observations to the centre of the earth curvature, at the equator, ©i = 0°, latitude ©2 =
3°°) and

O- = 692;'6265 sin2G>— ifi629sin4a)

O' at the pole, ©3 = we use
90°, the well known formula:
\og{r/a) = QQ92727-H0. 0007291 C0S2®
9. (88) q = a{i-e'^){j-^'-sm'-0)-'" (95)
— 0.0000018 C0S4(I> .
and thus we find
And the radius of curvature of the meridian in any = 6335309.00 metres
Qi
latitude may be calculated from the formula = 6351246.00
C2
» (96)
Q = a{i-e^-){i-e-'sin'0)-'l\ (89) = 6399454-00
qs » .

But for many purposes, it is better to exprfess these Hence = 6367315.33 metres
Qo , >

properties of the terrestrial spheroid by means of general ^ = 32072.5 metres ^ = 66.17 metres. ^^''

formulae which are applicable to all latitudes and equally Therefore the radius of curvature in plane of the meridian
useful in astronomy and geodesy. The theory of the deri- at any latitude becomes:O
vation of these formulae must be sought in works on the
^:= 6367315.33 — 32072.50 cos 2® -1-6 6. 1 7 cos 4® m. (98)
theory of the figure of the earth. The coefficients given
below have been checked by equations of condition, and
•
And the derivation of the other equations is similar.
Thus for the equation in D, we first compute by means of
their rigorous accuracy may be depended on.
the elliptical integral treated below, the length of a degree
10. Derivation of the Elements of the New of three arcs of the meridian:
Terrestrial Spheroid.
at the equator,
The elements of the terrestrial spheroid here adopted
= ®i = 0° to ®2 = A
1° 1 10572.06 metres
rest on the equatorial radius a 6378000.00 metres, con- at latiude, ®2 = 30° D2 = 110847.60 (99)
cluded by Helmert from all his researches up to 1903. at the pole, ®3 = 90° = Z>s 11 1690.80 »
In the formulae indicated below, q is the radius of
And then we have similar equations of condition:
curvature of the spheroidal surface in the plane of the
the radius of curvature of the spheroidal surface •£)i= Do-A-hB
meridian, q'

in the plane perpendicular to the meridian, D the length of

= Bo-ViA-^/oB
B>,_ •
(100)

a degree in the plane of the meridian, D' the length of a Ds = B>a-^A-hB

degree in a plane perpendicular to the meridian. Accordingly, whence Dq = ^li[2D2-^B>s) = 11 1128.67 m
A = 559.37 m
( \

we have the following: B == 2.76 m. ^ '

Concluded Elements of the Terrestrial Spheroid. And therefore

a = 6378ooozb25o metres D= 111128.67 — 559.37 cos 2 ©-+-2.76 cos 4® m. (102)

b^6356618.84^:250 metres The length of a degree of the elliptic arc of the meridiap
t^ — /5)/a^ 298.30 = 0.00335233
(a I :
has been computed by the formula
±0.30" ±0.00000335
q = 6367315.33 — 32072.50 cos2(D-H66.
\
,
(

m 17 cos4(Z) ^^ '

= 63887 13.00 — 10727.00

p' 14.00 cos 4® m cos2<I)-f-
D = 111128.67 — 559.37 cos ©-+-2.76 cos 4® m 2
= 1410.46 cos® — 93.48 cos ©-Ho. cos 5® m.
ZP' II 3 1 2
'Ji t) [i^n^ 2n C0S2®- °/>d® {103)
0—<D' = 692f6265 sin2(Z)— i'i629sin4<P
\og{r/a) =^= 9.9992727-^0.0007291 cos2(Z>
— 0.0600018 cos4(D .
(91) where a\b = (i -!-«)/( i —«), so that n = 1 :
595.6.
This elliptic integral of the second class yields the series:
Each of the formulae here adopted has been controlled
by equations of condition of great accuracy. For example,
sjb = {i+n+^Un-") ao-(3«-+-3«') «iH-("/8«') "a- (104)

the equation for the radius of curvature q in the plane of The functions of n yield the following values

the meridian leads to three equations of condition: (i-H)7-H5/4«2) =, J QQjggjjoo

Qi ^ Qa~^ cos cos 0i
2(Di~i-jB 4 (3ra-H3«2) — 0.00504540 ,
(105)
= qo-A+B ©1 = 0° ['%n^ 0.000001843
?•' = P0~'^COS2®.,-(-^COS4(Z), / \ For the trigonometric functions ®= a^,, u^, a^, 0°,
'
= eo-V2^-V-2^ = 3o° a>2
^^''
ffi ^ we have:
1°
= ^0—"^ COS2®s-HJ5COS4®3
,

?s aoJ= ®2 — ®i, log(36oo/2o6264.8) = 8.2418774-10

= Qo-^'^-^-B = 9°° <Z>3 •.
«i = sin(®2 — ®i)cos(®2-H®i) (i .6)
By combining the first and third of these equations; Kj = — ®i)cOS2(®3-l-®i)
Sin2(®.2 .

and then the second and the third, we obtain successively And for the three terms of (104) we find:
Qi-^Qs = 2qo-^-2B qi—qs = —2A (93) I= -1-0.01748265
whence A = V2(?3 — = V2 — ?i). -^ (?!-+- es 2.?o) II= — 0.00008804 I107J
and = 2q2-^A-h£ = Qs—^ — S
2^0 go (94) III= -Ho. 00000018
whence ^0= Vs(2e2"'"Ps)> 2 = -)-o.oi739479'. :
 5I04 262

Hence for the length of the meridian arc of i"" on either side of the equator, we obtain:

s = J?d® = aJ(i-^2)(i-^2sin2(D)-''=d® = ^ {i-hn){i-n^)[i-h2ncos20-^n^)-'/'d(D = i>

= ^(0.01739479) = 10572.06 (108) 1 metres.

In the calculation of corresponding
£>2 we have to
between 30°,®i = ®3.= 3o?5;
to take ffi the limits 2q?s,
and to get Dg
at the pole O ^= we O between
90°, ©^ = 8g?5 and
take = the limits CD^ 90?5, with the results
indicated in the above equation (99). -

In concluding this paper on the figure of the earth, science by the use of such inadmissible values as i : 294 by
it only remains to point out the circumstances from which Prof. E. W. Brown in his New Lunar Theory and
Tables of
it arose, and which have delayed its completion and publi- the Motion of the Moon, 1920, — it has seemed to me im-
cation for seventeen years. portant that further delay should not occur in publishing the
Although the last 40 years have been productive
1. paper on the concluded definitive figure of the earth.
of manyresearches which bear on the figure of the earth, 4. For it should be remembered that the figure of the
these researches as a rule have been pursued in isolation, earth enters into a great many sciences, as Astronomy, —
and almost wholly without regard to other modes of treatment Mechanics, Dynamics, Physics, Geodesy, Geography and —
of the same problem; and when brought conclusion to a therefore the best data of our age should again be made
and prepared for publication, the discussion of the figure of accessible to these varied groups of investigators. This seems
the earth usually has proceeded from the point of view of the more important since no all-around treatment of the
a single method only. Thus the public mind has become subject at all convincing has appeared within the 30 years
somewhat bewildered if not confused by the numerous results since the publication of the second volume of Tisserand's
obtained from isolated points of view, and apparently lost Mecanique Celeste.
hope of a substantial improvement of our knowledge based 5. Moreover since Tisserand's learned discussion, though
on the utmost use of all available methods taken together. very well balanced and comprehensive, left the limits of the .

Such an integration of all the results of the separate investi- oblateness of the earth somewhat wide, as if his data were
gations alone can give the definitive determination of the not decisive, whereas they really were quite conclusive, I
figure of the earth which our age demands. naturally have labored to narrow as much as is allowable
2. Perhaps these remarks on scattered results do not the limits of uncertainty by the use of the data of the past
apply to the discussions carried out 39 or 40 years ago by 30 years. Of all the men recently active in science, Helmert
such eminent investigators as Helmert and Tisserand, whose was best qualified to make an authoritative review of the
surveys of the available data were comprehensive and well subject, but our hopes along this line are now cut short by

balanced by the use of all methods then available yet the ;

the recent lamented death of this illustrious geodesist.
very intervals of 30 or 40 years which have elapsed since 6. Fortunately all the new data point very definitely to
their comprehensive researches render newer determinations the value now adopted, which was in fact also recommended
desirable, just as the production in this period also furnished to Newcomb by Helmert in 1903, because of the indications
new data for this purpose, —
especially along the line of drawn from the great body of the older data. It appears
pendulum observations and the measurement of arcs of the likely to be some time before any further sensible refinement
meridian. When I began to treat of the figure of the earth, in the oblateness of the earth will be possible ;
yet the ac-
seventeen years ago, it was from the immediate necessity of curacy already attained is so great that we may be less
obtaining a reliable approximate value i : 297.7, (AN 3992), concerned for the slight improvements which may be made
which accords closely with the value i : 297 adopted by the by future investigators.
directors of the nautical almanacs in 19 11. The author acknowledges gratefully the aid uniformly
« 3. Thus with the approximate value attained in 1904, extended in this, as in other investigations, by his associates
the whole of my discussion was reserved for a later and Mr. L. Tiernan, and Mr. W. S. Trankle, and above all by
fuller treatment. And as many
observations have been added Mrs. See, without which it would not have been possible to
to the data of the subject in the last 17 years, while on the bring these long delayed researches on the figure of the
other hand the confusion continues, —
and even injures earth to a satisfactory conclusion,

Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Mo., 192 1 J an. '14. T. J. J. Sec.

 .

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 213. Tafel I

o
'A

iE

z
u
et
O 3
10*
<
u
S
O
3a. a
o
Ik
(ft
z
o
It

t.
o
o

o
o

Oheim, Kiel.
C SchaidI, Inhaber Georg
 Tables of the Differences of the Astronomical and Geocentric Latitude, C
and of the change of the Logarithm of the Earth's Radius, Log (r/a), -with th
(D = Geographical Latitude, O' == Geocentric Latitude, (r/a) = Radius of the Earth in units of th

* 1
e Latitude.

e Equatorial Radius a-

*
 Abdruck aus den Astr. Nachr. (Sondernummer)
(Band 216. — August 1922.)

Discovery of the Cause of the Sunspots, and of their 11 -year Periodicity, and of the Cause
of the Cepheid, Geminid, and Cluster Variable Stars. By T. J. J. See.
[With 9 Plates.]

Introductory Remarks on the Problem of

I. analogous to the swifter rotation of the spots observed in
Sunspots and their ii-year Periodicity, and on the the gaseous photosphere near the sun's equator. Can any
Elements, Conjunctions and Oppositions of Jupiter one doubt that these three similar phenomena, on the three
and Saturn. largest bodies of our solar system, depend on a common cause?
The year 1610 is especially notable in the history of And what can this common cause be? To get a long
astronomy from Galileo'?, invention of the telescope and his range view of this subject we may recall the capture theory
almost immediate discovery of conspicuous spots on the sun. of satellites developed in 1909, (AN 43°8; 4341, 4.343) ^nd
In the scholastic philosophy then current the sun appeared the resulting theory of the rotations of the principal planets
so glorious, that Dante had made it the abode of the saints, (AN 4358). This development of 1909 enables us to re-
while under Aristotle's, original doctrines it was held to be cognize that the processes which operated in the formation
perfect and therefore free from all physical defects; and thus of the solar system still are at work, and thus the precipi-
the solar spots noticed by Galileo soon became objects of tation of meteors upon these bodies leads to the equatorial
much philosophic attention and of violent controversy. Hence accelerations noticed on the sun, Jupiter and Saturn.
it happens that our records of these spots run back 311 And all we are required to do is to develop the
years, and during much of this period the observers have dynamical theory now recognized to be valid and to have
left us reliable and fairly continuous observations. its roots firmly set in the foundations of the solar system.
But although in this interval of ten generations of This, will lead us to a critical study of the mutual actions
astronomers the combined mass of the observations ac- of Jupiter and Saturn, in precipitating meteors upon the sun.
cumulated is enormous, it is a somewhat embarrassing fact And thus we cite first the elements of these great planets
that science still is unable to give us an adequate physical as given in HilV% New Theory of Jupiter and Saturn,
theory of the origin of the spots or of the celebrated Collected math, works of G. W. Hill 3.19.
1 -year periodicity discovered by Schwabe of Dessau in 1843.
1
Elements of Jupiter and Saturn.
For in a special article on the Sun, New International
Epoch 1850 Jan. 0.0 m. t. Greenw.
Encycl., New
York, 1Q16, Prof. Hale, Director of the Mt.
Wilson Solar Observatory, expressly remarks: »The cause Z=iS9''56' 26:'6o

of this periodicity is unknown.*

It has seemed to me very unfortunate that
always
although the observational record accumulates century after
century, no substantial progress is made in the physical
theory of the sun. Now there naturally will be different
views of what criteria a valid physical theory should meet,
and where the accumulated mass of observations is so enormous
as is true of the solar records, it would not be
surprising

if some division of opinion should arise

from outstanding
details. Yet if the great body of solar phenomena clearly
conforms to the theory, it will have the presumption of truth,
and become the stronger the more fully it meets a geometri-
cally rigorous test which may serve as an experimentum
crucis.

Accordingly, having been somewhat occupied with the

problem of the cause of sunspots since 19 17, when the

dynamical theory here outlined first took definite form, and
having recently developed certain exact criteria which appear
justified in longer
to be absolutely decisive, I would not be
publication of the results at which I have arrived.
delaying the
It is evident that solar
phenomena do not stand alone,
to be
but are closely related to other processes recognized
going on in the solar system. Thus both Jupiter and Saturn
equatorial accelerations.
have been found to have very sensible
 195 Sondernummer 196

dL = ki Psm{[in — i' n') t+n-n'-^ Q}l{in — i' n'Y (4) For notwithstanding the abundance of observational
(cf. Laplace, Mec. Cel., lib. II, chap. VII, § 54, chap. VIII, § 65). material, we have remained hopelessly in the dark as to the
cause underlying these perplexing phenomena. The sagacious
Laplace shows that the great inequality thus arising
investigator is therefore justified in departing from traditions
extends over a period of about gi8 years. In the first half
which lead only to failure. It is not by pursuing these beaten
of this period, or 459 years, Jupiter is accelerated, (at
paths that we shall find the hidden laws of nature.
the maximum about 21'), while Saturn is retarded, (at
the maximum about 49')! but in the second period of 459 Taking the motion in a Julian year to be as indicated

years, the changes in the mean motions are reversed, Jupiter in equation (i) we find the difference
above, in the mean
being retarded, and Saturn accelerated, by corresponding
,
motions to be « — «'== 65260^41046, which will amount
amounts. to a whole circumference in a period of

The
'"
conjunctions r = i296ooo"'/6s26or4io46 ^ 19.8589 Julian years. (5)
of Jupiter and Saturn This is the period .between
average the conjunctions of
occur at points of their Jupiter and Saturn; and half of it, or
orbits differing in longi-
tude by about 120°, near
"^1^% = 9.92945 Julian years (6)

will give the average period between conjunctions and oppo-

the points 0°, 240°, 120°,
sitions with the sun.
as shown in the following
diagram, which indicates Now
by the American Ephemeris for 1921, we find
also the shift of the line that Jupiterand Saturn will be in conjunction in heliocentric
of conjunctions, in the longitude A =
i7 7?o, at the epoch t^,

recurrence near the same t^= 1921 August 22.5775 Gr.m.t. (7)
point, after about 60-year According to the mean period in equation (5) the conjunction
periods, — the successive of I go I should have occurred on Oct. 12.5, but from the
subscripts to the letters F'g- Diagram of the shifting conjunc-
' •

data of the Berliner Jahrbuch for 1901, we find that the

J and
< S, showing where
.
';™= °^
illustrating^TT,"
Laplace ^'f- ^'""'"V ^Z^
s discovery of the
two planets actually were in line at the epoch / 1901 =
the conjunctions recur. ^^^^^ of t^e great inequality, 1785. Sept. 29.64.
This figure and the This indicates that a difference of 12 or 13 days may
above analysis of the relations of the mean motions will arise from the relative positions and forms of the orbits. If
make known to us a series of periodic impulses arising from we disregard this slight change, as unimportant for our present
the mutual actions of our two greatest planets, and pro- purposes, we find that in 188 1 the conjunction should have
foundly effecting the other bodies of the solar system. In occurred on Dec. 3, and at each 20-year period earlier the
particular, it is easy to see that if there be meteor swarms, date moves forward by 51.537 days. In about 140 years
with their perihelia near the sun's surface, and their aphelia the conjunctions will occur at all seasons of our calendar.
near Jupiter and Saturn respectively, their paths will be Thus the conjunction of 1941 will occur on July i.o, and
subjected to considerable periodic disturbances at intervals in 1961 on May 10.5.
of about 20 years, with secondary maxima in half this period,
yet the whole period of meteoric downpour depending on Periodic Impulses for the Precipitation of
2.

Jupiter's sidereal 11.86 years, and thus com-

revolution in Maximum Multitudes of Meteors upon the Sun
pounding into a shorter cycle of average length 11.18 years, under the combined actions of Jupiter and Saturn.
which is the well known s.unspot cycle. It is well known from the researches on Jacobi'?, inte-
Accordingly, we propose to investigate the effect of gral for the of three bodies (cf my
restricted problem
the mutual actions of Jupiter and Saturn in precipitating Researches on the Evolution of the Stellar Systems, vol. II,
meteors upon the sun, in the hope of finding this average 1910, p. 170), that we have an hour-glass shaped space
observed period, and also of assigning the cause of the about the sun and a planet such as Jupiter. In his celebrated
variation between the observed lower limit of about 8 and memoir on Periodic Orbits, Acta Math. 1898, Sir George
the upper limit of some 14 years. Darwin calculated these surfaces for a planetary mass Jove
If the average period of 11. 18 years can be found having one-tenth of the solar mass. This planetary mass
from dynamical theory, and the lower and upper limits like- is relatively about 100 times that of our actual Jupiter, and

wise assigned, in substantial accordance with the observed the closed surface about that planet therefore is about ten
minimum and maximum of duration noticed during the past times too large in linear dimensions. Yet such enlargement
311 years, —
involving some 28 cycles, since Galileo' ?, of the scale enables us to see the nature of the closed sur-
invention of the telescope in 16 10, the presumption will — face about the planet more distinctly, and as the other
be very strong that we have found the true physical cause relations are unchanged, we shall make use of Darwin's
underlying these remarkable appearances. figure, as follows.

No phenomena in nature have been better established It is shown that a meteoric body may pass from the

than the periodic fluctuations in the frequency of sunspots, region controlled by the sun, through the neck of the hour-
and none have proved more utterly bewildering to natural glass, to that under the control of the planet, and, under
philosophers, when they have attempted to assign the cause. some conditions, collisions occur.
 197 Sondernummer 198

Outlines of the Dynamical Theory of the

Precipitation of Meteors for the Sunspot Periodicity.
In order to test the. theory of sunspot periodicity de-
pending on meteor swarms of long period, we shall consider
the dynamics of a system made up of a sun and planet,
such, as Jupiter; and we shall suppose that Jupiter revolves
in a circular orbit. Then we may introduce the system of
rotating axes, and by the use of Jacobin integral, we have
the divisions of space found for the restricted problem of
three bodies, as illustrated in the foregoing figure.
A
particle of cosmical dust introduced into such a
system, with small relative velocity, has its motion defined
by the Hill surfaces here drawn. If its constant of relative
energy is fixed, or variable between certain limits, its possible
motion is thereby determined. If the velocity be greater than
corresponds to the system, the body may pass on through it
without stopping or changing its path materially. In the
present problem we shall suppose the motion to be confined
to the hour-glass space about 5 and y, and ignore the remoter
parts of the figure. In this case the periodic paths may
pass about 6' or y
or about both of these centres conjointly;
yet the periodic orbit rotates with the planet Jupiter in a
period of 11.86 years.

Figur 2. Section of the j%7/ surfaces in the plane of the orbit of Jupiter, Next consider a particlepursuing a non periodic
restricted problem of three bodies, giving curves of zero but perturbed orbit, descending near the sun, and at
velocity in the case, where the planet has one-tenth of the aphelion passing near Jupiter, somewhat like that of Lexell's
sun's masS' (Darwin). The inner curve represents the hour-
glass shaped space, with narrow neck, through which the
celebrated comet of 1770. The transformations of the orbit
meteorite may move and drop down nearer the sun or planet, of Lexeir% comet are well known (cf Researches on the
till it becomes captured by 'one of the larger bodies. Evolution of the Stellar Systems, vol. II, 19.10, p. 196).
V)x. Foor has carefully traced those of comet 1889 V, and
Since the surfaces of zero Velocities in the motion of
about the sun are based on the theory of rotating
many similar transformations in the restricted problem of
Jove
three bodies have been worked out by Darwin, Stromgren
axes, having the mean motion of Jupiter, we perceive that
and other contemporary mathematicians. We need not go
in its motion about the sun the revolving planet alvcays
into the infinite details of such problems, but will simply
carries this hour-glass space with it.
take such transformations as facts; yet the reader should be
In the same way, if Saturn carry a similar hour-glass
referred to Sir George Darwin's researches on periodic orbits
space with that planet, we perceive that a larger outer set
(Scient. Papers, vol. IV, 191 1).
of surfaces will be periodically superposed upon the inner
Accordingly, that if there be swarms of
follows
surfaces belonging to Jupiter. And as the two planets carry it

these surfaces with them, the result is a compounding of

meteorites near Jupiter and the sun, and thus not
passing

the effects near longitudes 0°, 240° and 120°, as shown in

pursuing rotating orbits, they may be so transformed by
where the outer encounters with the planet as to bring about collisions of
figure 3 on following page, lines relate to
the surfaces about Saturn.
many of these particles with the sun's globe. In general
obvious their motions would be direct, and their paths would be
From the mere contemplation of this figure it is

that the system of three bodies — the and

sun, Jupiter, confined very largely to the plane of Jupiter's orbit, just as
— somewhat profound disturbance are the orbits of the periodic comets and the asteroids, which
Saturn is subjected to a
in the course of ages undoubtedly have been thrown within
in a period of 19.8589 years; and a secondary maximum
Jupiter's orbit by successive transformations.
of disturbance in half this period, 9.92945 years, when Jupiter
and Saturn are in opposition, in the positions of the pointed In view of the multitude of comets and asteroids gathered

lines. The first opposition line would correspond to S^ at in by Jupiter, it is probable that every point of Jupiter's
120° for Saturn,_ on the line J^i^ 5s, and to Js/a at 300° for orbit would have its quota of particles descending near the
The second conjunction will be with Jupiter and sun. Darwin showed in his address to the British Association
Jupiter.
Saturn in the positions %
and S-i at 240°. The next oppo- in South Africa, 1905, how such a particle may revolve a

sitionwould be with Saturn at S^ and Jupiter at ^6/^; then long time, yet many of them are finally absorbed in the

a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn at J^, S^\ and finally sun or Jupiter.
with Saturn at ^2 and Jupiter at ^/j in opposition; after »As it grazes past Jove or the sun it may often but
which the cycle repeats itself indefinitely, except for the just escape a catastrophe but a time will come at length
,

slow shift of the lines of conjunction-opposition in giS years when it runs its chanc'es too fine and comes into actual
as already explained. collision. The individual career of the stone is then ended
 ,

199 Sondernummer 200

mass could be trebled, so as to become

equal to Jupiter's, the increase of the Sa-
turnian mass would be accompanied by a
destruction of the obliquity, — so
that instead of 27" as at present, it would
become less than three degrees. This
throws important light on Jupiter's small
obliquity —
it has been destroyed in building

up the planet by the capture and absorption

of millions of meteors moving near the plane
of the planetary orbit.
But of course in building up Jupiter
and destroying his original obliquity, the sun
has been built up also. In fact the precipi-
tation of meteors upon the larger bodies of
it. the solar system has been going on from
the earliest ages. And it is this process of
sweeping up cosmical dust which has built
up the planets. It is definitely established
from valid dynamical laws that they never
were parts of the sun, as supposed by
Laplace, but have been formed in the distance
by the accretion of smaller masses, and
gradually drawn to the centres about which
they now revolve, while the original eccen-
of their orbits have been gradually
tricities
destroyed by the secular action of the nebular
resisting medium formerly pervading our
solar system.
The conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn
previously described occur at average inter-
Fig. 3. Section of the limiting Hill surfaces, of hour-glass form, connecting the closed spaces vals of 19.8589 years. Midway between
about the planets with that about the sun. The scale of the space about Jupiter is these conjunctions there occur oppositions,
magnified 10 times, that about Saturn 18.3 times; and the two sets of surfaces in average period of 9.92945 years; which
superposed as at the conjunctions of the two planets.
is shorter than the average sunspot period.
Thus whilst Jupiter's own period of 11.86 years is somewhat
by absorption and of course by far the greater chance is
in excess of the observed value, the conjunction or opposition
thatit will find its Nirvana by absorption in the sun.«
with Saturn is shorter than the sunspot period, which usually
The modern researches of Poincari, Darwin, Stromgren given as
is 11. 18 years.
and others have now established this collision theory on the
dynamically possible that the observed period of
Is it
firmest basis; and thus we assume that the reader is familiar
1 1 1 8 years may depend on the superposition and composition
.

with the chief conclusion of modern mathematicians.

of orbital motions in these periods of 9.92945 and 1 1.86 years?
Now if so much is established by the researches of If so, the mystery of the sunspot periodicity would
geometers, in respect to the precipitation of the Jovian meteor be solved. A question of such importance deserves the most
particles into the sun, it follows that similar reasoning will careful examination in the light of the modern theories of
apply to the independent system of particles passing near dynamics. But before forming a judgement on this critical
the sun and Saturn. For just as Jupiter has an immense problem, we may advantageously examine certain oscillatory
mass, rapid rotation, and captured satellites, as shown by the phenomena of the earth's surface, more especially the tides
retrograde revolutions, of the outer members of the system; of our oceans, which in practice combine a free and forced
so also has Saturn large mass, rapid rotation and also captured oscillation of different periods.
satellites — showing that this great outer planet has played pointed out by Darwin and other authorities
It is
almost as great a part in the development of our system as on that the equilibrium figure of our actual ocean is
tides,
has Jupiter himself. We may therefore assume meteoric swarms subjected to forces which tend to change its shape in a
to touch all points of Saturn's orbit, and often pass also lunar day, 24"^ 51'". But the oceans are too shallow to re-
near the orbit of Jupiter in their circuits about the sun. spond to such rapid oscillation, and the tide-wave therefore
The reader should be referred especially to a paper travelswestward more slowly than the forces by which the
by the author in AN 4307, on the Physical Cause which has disturbance is generated. Hence the tide-wave is retarded
produced the small obliquity of Jupiter (cf. Researches . .
. in its progress around the earth by the friction incident to
vol. II, 1910, p. 393-397). It is there shown that if Saturn's the small depth of the sea.
 ;

20I Soiidernummer 202

Accordingly the disturbance of our actual sea is re- / = Pmlr"^ = Jupiter's action , .

peated at the average interval of a lunar day, and the wave

thus generated travels around the world in about two days.
/' = k^-ni'lr''^ = Saturn's action ^ '

where ^^ is the Gaussian constant.

The tide-wave forcibly generated by the moon's attraction
has its period of free oscillation nearly doubled by the To compare these actions at all distances it suffices

shallowness of the sea; where as if the sea were about 13 to note mass exceeds that of Saturn in the
that Jupiter's

miles deep it would keep pace with the moon in its west- ratio 3.34177 to i. Hence the actions will be equal at
ward movement. distances in the ratio of the square roots of these numbers, or
1.82805 to i; for obviously whatever be r and;-', we may
follows
It that
must be the summation of a
the resultant oscillation of the
series of partial waves,
ocean
generated
always write r^
1.82805^', and have the valid equation:

at successive intervals of time, yet constantly falling behind 3.34177/(1.82805^)2 = i/r^ (9)
the moon, and the integration of the partial waves, which Accordingly, in order to make the Jovian action always
yields the aggregate wave, being the same at each instant, equal to that of Saturn, we have to take Jupiter's action at
(in an ocean or canal of uniform depth), this aggregate wave a distance r=
1.82805;-' These spheres of influence as
must travel westward at the rate of a thousand miles an drawn to scale are as indicated in the following figure 4
hour (cf. Darwin, Tides, Encyc. Brit., g'** ed., p. 354). It but the volumes are as the cubes, (1.828)^ to i, so that
follows therefore that the period of an oscillating system may Jupiter's sphere exceeds Saturn's 6.108 to i.

be altered by composition, as under resonance influence, when

there are such periodic impulses at work to change or modify
the oscillation time. And in any given case the final result
will depend on the composition of the superposed periodic
forces to which the whole system is subjected.

3. The Effect of Two Forced Oscillations, in

Different Periods, when the Number of Free Bodies
C^
is Infinite, is an effective Composition according
to the Weights of the two Impulses, or the Spheres
Fig. 4. Illustrationof the radii of the relative spheres of
of Activity of the two Disturbing Planets. influence of Jupiter and Saturn, which give the
relative weight of these planets in fixing the
The principle here stated is analogous to the celebrated resulting periodicity of the meteoric downpour.
theorem adopted by Laplace in his theory of the tidal os-
cillations (Mec. Cel., vol. II), that the state of any system It thus appears that the volume of Jupiter's sphere of
subject to periodic impulses must be periodic like the forces activity is 6.108 times that of Saturn's. But in order to
to which it is subjected. Accordingly, we need only apply get the dynamical effect on meteors traversing these spheres
the principle to the problem now under consideration. of influence, we have to consider the velocities of the
meteors
when near Jupiter and Saturn respectively. This will enable
Jupiter is the largest planet of our solar system, with
mass 3500/1047.35 = 3.34177 times that of Saturn; and
us to estimate the
are subjected to these disturbing influences,
relative lengths of time in which they
and the precipi-
thus if forced oscillations of meteor swarms arise depending
tative effects in throwing them upon the sun.
on the actions of these two great planets, it is natural to
expect that the impress of Jupiter's action depending on his
Now at Jupiter and Saturn respectively the sun's gravity
is in the ratio of (9.54)^ (5.20)^ == 3.36. And hence the
:

sidereal revolution will be considerably the more powerful

moving meteors, under this stronger central action at Jupiter's
of these periodic phenomena.
orbit, will be in his larger sphere of influence, or under
Now meteors are moving about the sun in elongated greater force, a longer duration of time, proportional to
orbits, with aphelia near the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, 6.108/3.36 =
1.82 nearly.
and under the mutual actions of these two great planets By comparing the parabolic velocities at the orbits of
their paths are so sensibly perturbed that a considerable Jupiter and Saturn respectively (cf.AN 3992, p. 136), we
mass of them are brought into collision with the sun. If find them to be 8.0941 km and 4.4148 km respectively.
the meteors traveled in a straight line ellipse about the This yields the ratio of 1.83. Accordingly, by the above
sun's centre, the period for the Saturnian meteors would be reasoning we find that, Jupiter's relative perturbative efficiency
10.416 years, and for the Jovian meteors 4.1958 years. In over Saturn's, in their mutual actions on meteors, whether
practice, however, both of these periods would be somewhat moving with moderate or very great (parabolic) velocity,
lengthened, the exact amount depending on the distance of the and thus not subject to appreciable change, is in the ratio
perihelion, and whether the aphelion is beyond or within of 1.828 to I.
the orbit of the great planet in question. All these various Dynamically this means that whatever distance be taken
cases will occur in nature. as the unit of distance, and of action, Jupiters sphere of
We have next to consider the relative extent of the influence and his efficiency, always is 1.82805 times greater
spheres of influence carried by the two planets Jupiter and than Saturn's. In other words, if there be two periods based

Saturn in their motions about the sun. The gravitational on meteor swarm precipitation, — namely 11.86172 years,
actions are given by the expressions: which is Jupiter's sidereal period, and 9.92945 years, which
 .

203 Sondernummer 204

is the ETCrage period in which Saturn passes Jupiter's radius 2. The persistence of the tendency to a secondary
vector in the reverse direction at conjunction or at opposition maximum, which is especially well shown in Wolfs curve
— we must get their mean period by combining them with from 183 1 to 1875.
different weights as follows:
Explanation of the Sunspot Curves here adopted.
II. 86172 wt. 1.82805
1. It is evident that the modern observations of the
9-92945 T_
sun kept up during the last half century at Greenwich, Potsdam,
Mean period Tc =
17846 years.11. (10) Zurich, and other observatories, on a uniform basis, and thus
Let us now examine for a moment the observational giving comparable data decade after decade, are vastly
period of the sunspot cycle as found by the best authorities. preferable older observations.
to the Yet we find fairly
These periods are as follows: satisfactory data back to the beginning of Schwabe's records
1. Ji. Wolf, 1852-1877, by the various observations
in 1826; and we may even go back half a century further,
since 1610, AN 35.369, and Mem. R. A. S., vol. 43, 1877, to 1776, without passing out of the era of modern observers.
p. 202. T= I lYi II + 2.030 + 0.307. 2. It is stated in Miss Gierke's History of Astronomy
In this result 2.030 years is a periodic oscillation, and 0.307 4'*^
during the 19'*^ Century, ed., 1902, p. 53, that »for 164
the uncertainty in the determination of the period.
years, then, after Galileo first levelled his telescope at the
2. Faye, 1878, from a careful discussion of Sc/^wafe's
setting sun, next to nothing its nature* was learned as
and ;

observations under Faye% criterion, CR86.gii, July 30,

beyond the time of rotation of the sun on its axis,
1877. r= 11^20.
that
which was immediately deduced by Galileo and Fabricius,
3. Spoerer, 188 1, by a discussion of the accumulated
there was no development or increase of precision for five
observations since 1732, AN 97.102. 7'= 11^31.
generations of astronomers.
4. Newcomb, igoo, from a discussion of the accumu-
lated data since the time of Galileo, ApJ 13, Jan. igoi. 3. The turning point for renewed solar observations

r= 11^13.
seems to been reached when Prof. Alexander Wilson
have
of the University of Glasgow, in November, iid'), noticed
Each of these determinations has high and special
a great sunspot and followed it so systematically as to deduce
merit, and if we take the simple mean, which gives them
the celebrated Wilsonian theory that the solar spots are
equal weight, we get
To = iiyi87±o.o62; (11)
depressions in the photosphere. In 1774 ^z'/i'^^ proved his
theory by geometrical evidence thencon sidered satisfactory,
and hence the difference from the above calculated period (Phil. Trans. 1774, part i, p. 7— 11). In the same epoch other
is only notable solar observers appeared:
To— Tc =^ o^.oog (12)
(i) J. E. Bode, Gedanken iiber die Natur der Sonne
or about 3.3 This difference is so extraordinarily
days.
und die Entstehung ihrer Flecken, Berlin, 1776.
small as to be remarkable —
only one seventh of the
(2) y. H. Schroeter, Beobachtungen iiber die Sonnen-
probable error in the above value of To.
fackeln und Sonnenflecken, Erfurt, 1789.
In his memoir of 1877, Wolf remarks that Schwabe
himself, the discoverer of the sunspot cycle, had later adopted (3) Sir Wm. Herschel, On the Nature and Constitution

the period of 11. 11 years (AN 1521). And the same is true of the Sun and Fixed Stars, (Phil. Trans. 1795, P- 46); and
of later investigators, — they all agree that the period is Observations tending to investigate the Nature of the Sun,
slightly over 1 1 years. in Order to find the Causes of its Variable Emission of

Accordingly, it appears that we can only view the Light and Heat, (Phil. Trans. 1801, p. 265-334):
above results as establishing the true cause of the sunspot (4) Lalande and his associates at Paris also were
cycle; and naturally the theoretical mean period is prefe- active in all lines of observations, and from the Mdra. de
rable to that derived from observations. Thus the true mean I'Acad. d. Sc, 1776, (pub. 1779), we find that the solar spots
period of the sunspot cycle is 11. 178 years. had enough attention for Lalande to develop the eruptive
The accompanying diagrams, plate 3, fig. a, of the theory first outlined by Derham in 1 7 1 1

sunspot cycles observed since 1831 are from Wolfs memoir 4. If we contrast this considerable development of
of 1875 in the memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society systematic solar observations during the last' third of the
for 1877. It will be noticed that the curves are not of 18"' century with the almost total lack of good observations
equal heights, nor the periods of equal lengths; but that in the and a half preceding 1770, we shall find
century
the different cycles show notable variations both in height reason to the assumption sometimes made that the
reject
of curve and period of duration. sunspot curves of frequency prior to 1770 can be depended
This problem will be examined in more detail here- upon. This no doubt is the tacit reason why Rudolf Wolf
after, and we shall endeavor to assign the cause for the and other investigators of sunspot curves often terminate
oscillation of the period in length, and for the variation of these curves at 1770. In his memoir of 1875, Wolf \xid.teA
the amplitude or vertical height. At present we merely point extends his curves back to 1745; and in a recent extensive
out two salient features: examination of this subject by Prof. A. Wolfer of the Zurich
I. An indication of double periodicity, in about 89 Observatory the curves are carried back to 1749. (cf. Die
years, 4 high maxima followed by 4 low maxima, as from Haufigkeit der Sonnenflecken in den Jahren 1749-1901,
1834 to 1Q23, or from 1745 to 1834. Wolfer, Astron. Mitteilungen no. 93, and Monthly Weather
 205 Sondernummer 206

Review, Washington, April 1902; and a later summary to The Calculation from
4. the Motion of Jupiter
1920, Monthly Weather Review, Aug. 1920). of the Theoretical Sunspot Saros in 88.9 Years
S- In the paper of August, 1920, Wolfer finds from confirmed by the Observed Periodicity in about
his profound studies on the ii-year periodicity of sunspots,
90 years.
16 10 to 1920, that a revision of the mean period now
From a study of the sunspot cycle, in relation to
changes the value from 11. 12 to 11.2 years. Wolfer'^nz'v
Jupiter's orbital motion, made on Aug. 12, 1921, I was
value thus agrees perfectly with my theoretical value 11^178,
able to derive the Great Theoretical Saros, or Restitution
found above from the motion of Jupiter and Saturn, and
Period, in which the sunspots should recur, and to confirm
the observed value resulting from the work of Wolf, Spoerer,
the theory by a careful comparison with Wolf's researches
Faye &r\d Newcomb, iiyiSv, which I had deduced before I
on the observed periodicity since 1745. This theoretical
received the papers so kindly furnished by Prof. Wolfer.
periodicity was found to correspond to 88.9 years, and was
6. We now turn to Wolf's sunspot frequency curves, derived by the following process of calculation.
1745-1798, and notice that in his latest work, Wolfer has
reduced Wolf's maximum of 1788 to about 86 percent of
1. We
have seen that the theoretical period of the
sunspot 11. 178 years, while the mean observed
cycle
is
the height given it by Wolf in his memoir of 1875. After
period found by Wolf, Faye, Spoerer and Newcomb was
some study of this question I am led to think this curve
11.187 years, which differs only 0.009 from the above
ought to come down to 0.7 of the height given it by Wolf.
theoretical period. The difference between the theoretical
This would malce the maximum of 1788 a low maximum.
and observed period is insensible, so that we naturally prefer
On the other hand, I would raise the Wolf msixims. of 1760 the theoretical period of 11.178 years.
by about 40 percent, and that of 1750 by about 50 percent,
as shown by the pointed lines in the diagrams of Wolf's
2. Now Jupiter's sidereal revolution occurs in 11. 86172
years; and thus the sunspot cycle
is 0.68372 year shorter
curves revised, Plate 3 (b).
than the planet's revolution. The sunspot cycle is therefore
7. My reasons for going further than Prof. Wolfer does
displaced 2 2?o2oi in respect to Jupiter's orbit, in a sidereal
in this concluded revision of Wolf's curves are the following:
revolution of the planet, as shown by the following equation:
(a) The observers from 1745 to 1770 were few in
number and desultory in attention to the observation of the «:% = i/ii.86i72:i/ii.i78 = 36o°:a; , ,

it:=382?o2oi ('3)
spots which actually existed on the sun. The chances
are
therefore that a great percentage of the spots escaped notice. X — 360°== 22?020i; (14)
(b) On the other hand in the period of the French or dividing 2 2?o2oi'by 1 1.86 17 2, we have i?8s64 per annum.
Revolution, 1784 to 1798, — when all Europe and especially 3. But each sidereal revolution of Jupiter finds the
France was under an exhaltation of intellectual activity, — conjunction-opposition line displaced according to the pro-
it is probable that many relatively minute sunspots were portion;
noticed, and the number thus unduly increased. Hence to i^ : «2 = i/ii'86i72 : 1/9.92945 = 360° : .x; ,

make the record from 1745 to 1798 of any scientific value a: = 430-OSS9 ^"^^
we must depress the maximum of 1788 and elevate the ^—360°= 7o?o5S9; (16)
maxima of 1750 and 1760, as here indicated.
whence, dividing 7o?o5S9 by 11. 86172, we have for the
(c) This revision of Wolf's curves would make the 4
motion per annum 5?9o6o5.
maxima 1745— 1785 all high, and of comparatively short
period, 10 years each, which accords with the tendency
4. And now the difference in these motions, s?9o6o5

noticed in the later and more reliable records of our own time.
— i?8564 = 4?o496s, ist he amount by which the conjunction-

opposition line gains upon the sunspot cycle in a year. The

(d) After careful reiiection I am of the opinion that
periodicity resulting from this displacement is therefore
no known fact stands in the way of this revision, while on
the other hand it brings the 18* century sunspot record % = 36o°/4?o496s == 88.89657 years (17)
into harmony with that since 1834, which is the best and which is equal to 7.952816 sunspot cycles.
most accurate of all. Incidentally it confirms the great Accordingly, in slightly less than 8 sunspot cycles,
sunspot saros in 88.9 years, which is founded upon the the observed cycles of the phenomena should be repeated
numerical relations of cycles recognized to exist, the writer's as a kind of sunspot saros. If the sunspot phenomena were
theoretical period of i,i?'i78 years being independently found made up of 4 high maxima, and 4 low maxima, which is
by Prof. Wolfer as ii?'2 years in his latest work. very nearly the case, the whole of the phenomena should
8. In conclusion, the author acknowledges his great become periodic after about 88.9 years. With the cycle
indebtedness to Prof. A. Wolfer, for invaluable data, including fixed at 11^178, we find the eight periods to amount to
his very latest results; and to Sir Frank W. Dyson, Astro- 89.424 years, which corresponds very closely to the above
nomer Royal, who kindly furnished the latest Greenwich saros period.
sunspot and magnetic records. It is to the continuous 5. Now let us examine Wolf's curves of the sunspot
observations maintained at Greenwich and the systematic cycles from 1745 to 1921, — a period of .176 years, very
classification and reduction kept up at Zurich that we mainly nearly two of the above theoretical cycles, 2X88.9 = 177.8
owe our present knowledge of sunspots and their 11 -year years, — for which the observations are most trustworthy.
periodicity. Such records will always be of the highest It is to be understood that since Wolf's death in 1893, his
usefulness to the investigator. curves have been continued by his successors, so that the
 207 Sondernummer 208

data of the last 28 years are dependable. The periods of 11. Moreover, we should consider the chance of the
the frequency curves of the accompanying chart since 1745 lows occurring when the moveable epoch of the sunspot
probably are free from serious defect of any kind. saros is on the side of Jupiter's orbit corresponding to
6. First, we notice that in the whole interval of 176 minimum meteorites; and the highs occurring when this epoch
years, since 1745, there appears to be two great divisions of the sunspot saros is on the side of Jupiter's orbit corre-
in the spot phenomena: sponding to maximum comet orbits, or maximum meteors.
(a) A
marked period of three low maxima, 1798—1834 This again leads to a compound probability almost in-
= 36 and a similar marked period of four low
years;
finitely small:
=
maxima, 1877— 1921 =^ 44 years. Fc= pp>p"P'''= 1/65536-1/268435456
(b) Each of these groups of low maxima were preceded
=
1/17592186044416 (20)

by series of high maxima. That of 1745—1798 53 years, = 12. It is needless to extend these calculations any
apparently maxima, with average period of
contained five further, since a compound probability of 17 trillions to i,

that the arrangement not due to chance may be regarded

10.6 years; and that from 1834 to 1877 years con- =43 is

tained four well defined high maxima of average period as a certainty.

10.75 years each. As the old records are less satisfactory Accordingly, we conclude that the great saros or
than modern ones, we cannot be too certain of minor details; theoretical periodicity in 88.9 years — found from the

for example one high maximum, most likely that of 1785— 178 and 9.92945 years to Jupiter's
relations of the cycles 11.

1798, might really be a low maximum, which would balance

sidereal revolution in11.86172 years — is strikingly con-
the distribution more perfectly. firmed by the sunspot records of the past 176 years. The
observations point to the theory in such a way that not the
7. As the beginning and end of these periods some- is
least doubt can remain as to reality of the connection.
what indistinct, we must not expect too perfect an agreement
It is true, therefore, that there is a great periodicity
in theminor details; yet in a general way there is very
or saros in the spot cycles, extending over about 89 years,
perfect agreement in the observations showing two groups
yet heretofore not recognized, because we did not see the
of high series, and two groups of low series of the sunspot
connection with Jupiter's motion, and the process by which
cycles. These are the larger and more outstanding features
the meteors were precipitated upon the sun, and the larger
of the observed phenomena; and thus the records since
features of the spot phenomena recurring after the lapse of
1745 certainly point to two great periods of solar activity,
so great a period.
of about 8g years each. Can such a record be the result
of chance, or does it depend on the theoretical Jovian cycle Accordingly, it only remains to write the formula for
above discussed? the length of the sunspot cycle:

8. To judge intelligently of this problem, we notice Hi = n^-jn^ (o-o/o-,^) sin [/S- « (/- 4)] (21)
that each of the lows in the groups of the cycles comes /7;= iiyi78-2yo5(ob/a(,)sin[i77°-4?o4965(;'-/o)], (22}
along in proper succession: that is, they are all together, =
192 1.64224 tij

each of the lows of the low groups being placed with the Here the variable term 2.05 years is the »oscillation«:
other low groups; and each of the highs of the high groups found by Wolf (Mem. R. A, S. 1877, P- 202) from the ob-
being placed with ijie other high groups of its series. Thus servations between 16 10 and 1870, and ffo is the mean
there is no mixing of the highs and lows, but each class density and a^ represents the average variable density of
of these phenomena is well separated, and stands out con- the meteors in the different parts of Jupiter's orbit successi-
spicuously by itself. vely described in the motion of that great planet about
9. Now if this arrangement or order of development the sun.
depended on chance, the probability of this orderly recurrence It will be found that this formula is capable of re-
would be excessively small. As 16 spot cycles are involved, presenting the lengths of the sunspot cycles with remarkable
we should have to consider the probability of a chance accuracy, and that the highs and lows are indicated by the
event depending on either of two possibilities, each equally factor (ffo/ff|ji), in the variable term having the period of 88.9
probably. Hence we should have: years, with four highs and about 4 lows, as above explained.
/>=(!/,)"= 1:65536. (18) The amplitudes Ai of the successive cycles depend on the
The improbability of this orderly arrangement being due density of the meteors, and thus on the reciprocal expression:
purely to chance is so obvious that further argument probably
—
Ai = o-j,/ffo (23)
is not required in thisthough additional
connection,
For an observed fact that the highs are somewhat
it is
considerations may be adduced as follows, which render the shorter in period than the lows, the former having length
above divisor very much larger yet. say 10.7, and the latter extending to about 12.0 years. The
10. We may consider the chance of each low being highs therefore are deficient in length by 0.50, and the lows
same order as the other lows. This would
in elevation of the exceed the average length by about 0.83.
be P' =
(Vs)*^ 1/64; and the chance of each high being It thus appears that to
some extent there is a process
of the same order as the other highs, which is P" == (V2)* of partial compensation phenomena. When the sunspot
= 1/64. The chance of the compound probability is therefore
in
the amplitudes are greater the periods are somewhat shorter
/',= /'i''i^"=i/65536-i/64-i/64= 1/268435456 (19) than the average; and when the amplitudes are smaller the
 .

209 Sondernummer 2IO

periods are considerably longer than the average period. 2. Now in the case of the sunspots, the observations
Perfect compensation probably is not to be expected here, during the 311 years since Galileo's invention of the telescope
yet this tendency towards partial compensation is clearly and discovery of these spots, do indeed give us reliable
indicated by the observed phenomena and may not be re- frequency curves; yet the underlying cause is left utterly
jected without doing violence to the observations. Such obscure, because no one appears to have applied successfully
processes of partial compensations are frequently met with, the above principle. Perhaps the difficulty was increased,
and may be said to be a general tendency in nature. because we did not anticipate that it would be possible to
Finally it is to be noticed that even if perfect com- find curves in other periodic phenomena so accurately similar
pensation on the two sides of Jupiter's orbit be attainable, to the sunspot curve as to constitute an experimentum crucis;
and a good agreement in the individual cycles could be yet on
Aug. 19, 1921, such an identity of curves was
predicted from our formula, under legitimate variation of discovered by the writer and shown to be so rigorously
the arbitrary constants, yet there is little assurance or proba- applicable as a crucial test, that the chances are infinity to
bility concordance being permanent, owing to the
of this one that it reveals the true cause of sunspots. Heretofore
changing perturbative influences affecting the meteors, and the nature of these phenomena has been so completely hidden
the unkn.own distribution or density of these swarms in the from our- view that the cause involved has proved utterly
Accordingly, if there is a general
different parts of their orbits. bewildering to natural philosophers.
accordance between theory and observation it is all we can 3. The accompanying curves (Plates 4 and 5) for the
expect; and that we now have certainly attained, in much form of the tide wave in a river or .shallow canal of
greater perfection than any one heretofore has dared to uniform width and depth are from Airfs celebrated article
hope for. on Tides and Waves, Encyc. Metr., 1845. To explain them
it suffices to say that the upper curve Nr. 9, shows the
5. A Method for making the Spot Frequency
theoretical form of the 'surface of the water in a shallow
Curve an Experimentum Crucis for the Discovery
river, as the tide wave advances from the sea, to the t^'
of the Cause of Sunspots and of Cepheid and Cluster
station; then up the river, to the 2""*, 3"^ and 4*' stations.
Variable Stars.
It will be noticed that the wave front becomes steeper, owing
I. If we have a series of recurring phenomena, but do
to resistance; thus the form of the wave is slowly modified,
not know the underlying cause to which they are due, yet
and it finally breaks up by the development of a secondary
can trace the curve of these phenomena in an accurate and
wave in the rear of the chief wave. The formula ^) for the
dependable way, we may proceed to infer the hidden cause
elevation of the water is:
involved from other periodic phenomena showing similar
frequency curves, if it is allowable to suppose that the two
H= — bk&\Ti[mvt—mx') + ^liPkmx/im[2mvt—2mx'). (24)

causes may be of like nature, as indicated by the frequency The first term of this expression is a sine curve and
curves of the phenomena. holds for the elevation when the displacement of the particle

') In the propagation of a simple unresisted wave along a canal of uniform width and depth, we have for tlie uniform motion of
the disturbance, under the accelerating forces X and Y:
X = ^(x,t) = xi^>^~'=) = A{e'^y^e—'ny) cos,{nt—mx—B) (a)

Y= — ^AXjAx-ix — —A{em—e-^i)^\n{nt—mx—B) (b)

j,=o

which satisfy the differential equations: dX/d^r-t-dF/d;/ = o d'X/d.»'-Hd"^/d/ = o X = ^l^y+x^ -'i^-^^i.y^xi -1) (c)

But under resistance the equations of wave motion in a canal are more complicated, just as the theory of disturbed planetary motion
is more complex than the simple theory of undisturbed motion. In general our equations have the form:

^Xl&i^ = F+Ajdix[—gX— jd^y/d^'-di'], equation of equal fluid pressure (d)

y=-q
y=y
Y= S d7)/dx— ldX/d«-d.«r, equation of continuity (e)

y=1\
where S =
the value of X
at the bottom of the canal, and &-(\l&x =
tangent of the inclination of this sloping bottom to the horizon. These
uniform width, but of uniform or variable depth, when the motion
two equations contain the whole theory of the motion of fluids in canals of
is taken to be entirely longitudinal and vertical.

If in this oscillatory motion of the fluid about a

mean position, which is called a wave, we put;
X = acos{mvt—mx) w
^g ggj
iXjix ^ mai\-n{mvt—mx) (g)

j„^ d^XJix'' = —m' a coa{mvt—mx}

These expressions satisfy the differential equation of wave-motion,

d^X/di-'-e/' A^Xldx"- =o (h)

to a second approximation, lead to the solution:

and by double integration, accurate
X= ^{vt—x)-^'^{vt-^x)—^li^a''m''{vt+x)cos{2mvt—2mvx) (0

above Airy, Tides and Waves, p. 286-300).

easily transformed to give the elevation of the water above mean
level, as cited (cf.
which is
 21 I Sondernummer 2 I 2

is small in comparison with the depth of the water; but the forms and the reversed tidal curves have been
of tides
second term is of a different type, since the multiplier x' treatedby Airy in the ablest manner, and illustrated by
is outside of the periodic function, as in the integrations for many figures which now become of extreme interest in con-
the secular variations of the elements of the planetary orbits nection with the sunspot cycle. As the forms of the sun-
(cf. Mec. Cel., Liv. II, Chap. V, §§ 40-42).
This latter ex- spot frequency curve and the tidal curve are absolutely
pression for the elevation of the water may be conceived identical in every detail, we are forced to admit that the
to be a secondary wave, infinitely small at first, but whose sunspot frequency depends on a movement in the sun ana-
magnitude increases continually as x' increases, or the distur- logous to a tide, but resisted by other parts of the sun's
bance travels along the canal, with the increase of the time t. body in which such motion does not exist.
4. When wave leaves the sea, at the first
the tide 7. The next question naturally is: What kind of solar
station, the second term and the motion harmonic,
is insensible, tide can this be? Obviously it is nothing but the periodic
in the curve of sines; but as the disturbance travels up the forward rush of the equatorial acceleration, produced by the
canal, the secondary wave grows, as shown in Airys curves, sudden downpour of meteors against the equatorial regions
which of course exaggerate the effects, to render them visible of the photosphere, under the combined precipitative action
to the eye of the reader. In our actual seas the vertical of Jupiter and Saturn, yet not occurring in the polar regions,
motion is of course very small compared to the horizontal and therefore this equatorial tide in the solar photosphere
motion, and this exaggeration of the vertical component is is resisted by the slower rotation in higher latitudes just —
necessary in the diagram. as the tidal waves entering the river Severn are resisted by

Now if at any station along the river we record the its banks, as so well and fully illustrated by Airy in his
passing elevation of water, as by a tide-gauge, we get the great work on tides and waves. Accordingly this resistance
next lower series of figures, nos. 10, 11, 12, 13. We can of the equatorial rush or photospheric tide at the solar equator
easily see that this is a reversal of the above form of the is the true cause of the form of the curve of the sunspot
surface; for a tide-gauge is made by fixing a marking pencil frequency. On this point there is not the slightest doubt
on a sheet moving uniformly in the contrary
of paper, to those who know the geometrical properties of curves shown-

direction to the advance of the wave up the river, as shown to be of identical type.
by the arrow on the right, upper part of Plate 4. Thus as 8. It would be build up an argument
possible to
the pencil is held fast, and the paper on a cylinder revolves from the theory showing that the chanees
of probability,
beneath it, to the left, the tidal curve due to the change are infinity to one that this is the correct and only admissible
in the level of the water, with the periods shown, is recorded, interpretation of the identity of form between the tidal curve
the record being the exact reverse of the above form of of resisted wave motion and the curve of spot frequency.
the tide-wave. The incontestable nature of such an argument is obvious.
5. It is the tidal curve of resisted wave motion which By no possibility could the two curves have identically the
especially interests us in the theory of the sunspots; for it same form throughout their courses —
involving the ana-
gives an exact and very wonderful reproduction of the curve logous ordering of an infinite number of
points or neigh-
of frequency, sunspot cycle, as found by
or form of the boring elements of curvature —
without both curves repre-
Schwabe, R. Wolf, Faye, Spoerer, Newcomb and other investi- senting resisted tidal wave motions.
gators. Let the following typical sketches serve to remind 9. It when Schwabe began
only remains to add that
us of the steep slope on the left, the high maximum, with to record sunspots in he acted unconsciously as a
1826,
more gradual slope and distinct indication of secondary tide-gauge. The spots are the solar analogue of the height
maximum on the right. of the water in the tidal river; and Schwabe by noting the
number of spots with the uniform flight of time made a
useful gauge of the disturbances in the equatorial regions
of the sun. Thus Schwabe's method was very simple, yet
extremely effective, since it gave an accurate register of the
ebb and flow of spots, and therefore of the resistance to
the current movements at the sun's equator due to the
Fig. 5. Typical forms of the curve of frequency of sunspots.
downpour of meteors under the combined actions of Jupiter
These curves are typical of the records found from and Saturn.
the laborious researches of Wolf, which covered the whole 10. As soon as I had perceived the cause thus under-
period from 16 10 to 1875, and were extended till Wolf's lying the curve of sunspot frequency, Aug. iq, 192 i, I had
death in 1893, since which time Wolfer has kept up these the good fortune to be able to submit the argument to the
solar researches with great and commendable continuity. Thus criticaljudgement of commander L. M. Cox, U. S. N., the
our curves run from 1610 to 1921, but different portions eminent civil engineer at Mare Island, who concurred at
of the record have been made by different investigators. once in the view that the proof is overwhelming. It was
6. From
above simple argument it follows that
the not without the concurrence of several other trusted and
the sunspot obeys the mathematical law of a wave
cycle sagacious thinkers — Capt. E. L. Beach, U. S. N., Comman-
movement advancing against resistance, as shown by the dant, Mr. A. E. Axland, Mr. L. Tiernan, Mr. W. S. Trankle,
actual records of oceanic tides in shallow rivers. These and especially Mrs. See — that I was induced to announce
 213 Sondernummer 214

the discovery by the cablegrams of Aug. 20-22, to the conflagration theory is that it would separate the cluster
Astronomische Nachrichten, and the Astronomische Gesell- variables from other variables, with secondary maxima. Na-
schaft at the Potsdam meeting. ture will not allow such discontinuity.
For upon reflection it was evident that vi/hatever cause
(c) Thus whilst the conflagration of meteors occurs,
regulates the sunspot curve of frequency the whole flow — there are also and inequalities of level set up in
currents
of spots —
must necessarily regulate the origin of the
the photospheres of the stars; and the resulting thermal and
individual spots.Therefore there could be no doubt whatever gravitational oscillations are closely associated and obey the
of the cause of the sunspots. They could
of the discovery
same wave laws, — though usually in slightly different periods,
be due to nothing but the cause here assigned, and all other as we see by the results cited below from Lord Kelvin,
causes are wholly and forever excluded from consideration.
eq. (32), Bitter, eq. (49) and (50), and Moulton, ApJ 29 -
11. We have therefore no hesitation in introducing and therefore the changes, with the whole of the phenomena
into astronomy the tidal curve of resisted wave motion as of light variation, obey the curves of resisted tide waves.
of great importance in the science of the heavens. The This is the substance of the new theory, and it is appli-
doubly periodic function cable alike to the sunspots and to the periodic fluctuations
H^ — bk%\T\[mvt—mx') + of starlight shown by the light curves of Cepheid, Geminid
-\-^liPk7nx' 5m[2i?tvt — 27nx') (25)
and Cluster variables.
(d) only remains to point out that in the case of
It
as here interpreted, gives us the true clue to the long stan-
the Cluster the secondary maximum on the des-
variables
ding mystery of the sunspot frequency curve.
cending slope of the light curve, is either missing or nearly
And not only will this development enable us to under-
insensible. It is important to know how to interpret this
stand great masses of phenomena in the solar system, but
deficiency, and a clear light is shed on the mystery by ex-
also others equally or more bewildering in the sidereal
tending the researches on the theoretical form of the tide-
universe. It is well known that the two great classes of
wave in a shallow river, to second approximation given in
variable stars heretofore utterly bewildering to investigators
Airy's figure Nr. 9. If this curve be continued to the 6'''
are the Cepheids including Geminids and the Cluster variables,
or 8* station, it is evident that the secondary wave will
the latternumbering thousands, and discovered chiefly by
Professor Solon I. Bailey.
break away more distinctly from the chief wave the —
secondary wave becoming steeper in front, and allowing the
As Dr. Harlow Shapley has used the Cepheid and
chief wave to be followed by a long dead level track, just
Cluster variables to find an indirect correlation method for
such as we find in the light curves of Cluster variables.
measuring the distance of the globular clusters, ranging —
in distance from 7000 to 240000 light-years it is evident — (e)Accordingly we conclude that if enough time were
that we must explain the forms of the Cepheid light curves, to elapse before the next meteoric downpour, under the orbital
and also the light curves of the cluster variables, in order revolution of the satellite, the secondary wave would duly

to be sure that they come under the causes assigned by the

appear. But the forced oscillation under orbital motion in

theory of resisted wave motion. say half a day gives a pulsation so rapid that the thermal
and gravitational disturbance, due to meteoric downpour at
12. The accompanying figures. Plates 6, 7, will make
their equators, has no time to show an effect of sensible
thistheory sufficiently obvious. The resemblance of the light
resistance by disrupting the pulsation into two oscillations.
curves of the Cepheids to the sunspot frequency curve has
There is not time for sensible resistance effects to follow
been emphasized by several writers, but especially by Miss
as a separate wave; hence the secondary maximum in the
Gierke % The System of the Stars, 1905, from whose excellent
light curves are largely or entirely lacking, because too soon
work the typical illustrations here used are taken.
overtaken and swallowed up in the succeeding forced os-
The propriety of applying the theory of the tidal curves cillation depending on orbital motion, which is of much
of resisted wave motion to these variables is at once obvious, greater magnitude. The fact that the resisted wave theory
if we turn to Airy'?, figures Nr. 53 and 59, Plate 5.
overcomes this great mystery in Cluster variables shows how
(a) These tidal curves of the resisted waves at Newnham secure is the physical foundation underlying the theory. Thus
and Weymouth respectively are so exactly similar to the light all the chief phenom.ena of Cepheid and Cluster variables

curves of certain typical Cluster variables found by Bailey, are accounted for in a manner much simpler than any
that one could not wish for a more perfect geometrical investigator heretofore has dared to anticipate.
correspondence. The rapid rise to high maximum, more
gradual decline, and long dead level track constituting the 6. Brief Notice of the Cepheids, Geminids
minimum, are very notable features, and will strongly commend and Cluster Variables: Explanation of why the
the theory of a resisted tide-wave to the investigator of Sunspot Frequency and Stellar Light Curves fol-
variable star phenomena throughout the sidereal universe. low the Law of the Tidal Curve of a Resisted
(b) It might be possible to ascribe the light curves of Wave.
cluster variables of this type largely to mere surface con- I. The following table from Miss Gierke's Problems
flagration incident to the downpour of meteors, since the of Astrophysics, London, 1903, p. 324, will convey to the
rapid rise in brilliancy and slower decline, under cooling, reader a very good idea of the periods, and extent of the
could thus be accounted for. The objection to the purely light changes in a dozen typical Cepheid variables.
215 Sondernummer 216

Name
 2 I
7 Sondernummer 218

which in an oscillating periodic function of great interest, ment developing into two unequal oscillations. Therefore
seemed likely to be most applicable, but after a brief exa- itis more complicated than the above simple curve of sines,

mination I had to drop the work until the following day. with — just as motion in the ellipse, in-
single periodicity
(b) On Aug. 1 9, I made a careful sketch of the vestigated by the Greek geometer Apollpnius of Perga in his
Harmonic Functions 0^*°' and ©7*^', here reproduced, s. great worjc on conic sections (250 B. C.), and introduced
Plate 8 Fig. 6, found the resemblance to the sunspot
but by Kepler in 1609 for the motions of the planets, is more
curve not sufficiently close to justify the adoption of these complicated than simple motion in a circle.
curves. Thus I put aside the harmonic curves altogether Up to Kepler''!, time circular motion had been used
and turned to the Fourier wave curves treated by Riemann, by astronomers, since the days of Hipparchus and Ptolemy;
p. 159, 161. and it required a heroic effort on Kepler'', part to get rid
On tracing the curves reduced in the vertical ordinate of this usage of eighteen centuries. For it must be remem-
by the factor V4 found that although these reversed wav^
I bered that the Greek geometers and natural philosophers
curves rose more rapidly than they
fell, and in general form regarded the circle as a perfect figure, and hence it was
were like the sunspot frequency curves, yet they did not held that the celestial motions necessarily are circular.
have a secondary maximum on the downward slope, as 6. If a, /S be the coordinates of the centre of the
indicated so frequently in the solar records. Hence whilst circle, the equation of the path of the eccentric referred
I did not despair of progress prudent to extend
I deemed it to the origin, distant J = V{a^+fi'^), becomes:
the search for other curves, in the hope of finding a more
{x-aY + {y-fiY = r^'
exact type for the sunspot frequency curve.
= rcoiut-^cc
X (29)
y =
(c) Having been so long engaged upon the wave-
rsinw-i-fi.
theory of physical forces, (1914— 1921), in completing the
The radius vector q and polar angle ^, jn reference
New Theory of the Aether, 192 i, nothing was more natural
to any point as origin may be obtained, by a roundabout
than to turn to Azry's great work on Tides and Waves, 1845.
process and this usage was kept up till Kepler introduced
;

Remembering his analysis of the theory of long waves

the simpler theory of motion in the ellipse, of which the
as resisted in shallow canals (Art. 201) with the figure
polar equation is:
reproduced in the Second Paper on the New Theory of the
Aether, AN 5048, p. 141-2, I turned to that illustration, ^ = «(i — f^)/(r +^ cost/). (30)
and immediately recognized the exact form required for the Here the radius vector is given, and the true anomaly v is

sunspot curve. In a few minutes the problem was perfectly easily found by the solution o{ Kepler'?, equation.
solved and the further the examination of the tidal curves 7. Increased geometrical rigor, as well as a better
was extended the more incontestable the proof of the identity basis for physical action, followed Kepler'% innovation of
became. The rest of the discussion is given above, and any 1609. For it was upon Kepler's laws of planetary motion,
one may now form his own judgement both as to the logical — which placed the sun in the focus of the ellipse, with
character of the search for curves which would be useful the radius vector describing equal areas in equal times, and
in the geometry of the heavens, and as to results of that made the squares of the periodic times to vary as the cubes
search in finding . curves of the deepest interest to the in- of the mean distances, — that Ne2vt07i established the law
vestigator of the physical universe. of universal gravitation, 1686:

for the sun's

only remains to add that in view of the evidence
5. It

curve of spot frequency cited above and con-

/ = mm'lr'^- (31)
With these explanatory remarks on the progress of past
firmed by the light curves of Cepheid, Geminid and Cluster
ages, it must be borne in mind that in our present problem
variables, we have no alternative but to give up any idea
of sunspots and variable stars, we introduce the theory of
that the eff'ect of meteoric downpour upon the sun or a star
the tidal curve of a resisted wave with the following under-
would follow the simple law of the well known curve of
standing :

sines, of which the equation is:

y = asin{2nx/X-ha) == asm{2Ti:/l) ( Vt—x) = the

(a) Under
conservation of energy,
the law of gravitation and the doctrine of'
we hold that the downpour of
=^ a&in[27tlX)[mVt—7nx). (27)
meteorites generates the energy of light and heat radiated
In practice the disturbance would be a disintegrating away by the disturbed heavenly body. As the meteors fall,
oscillation or broken wave; and hence we must frankly admit their gravitational energy generates a disturbance in the
that all the physical oscillations of matter in nature are
photosphere, which upsets both the hydraulic and radiative
accompanied by resistance. The tendency of this friction equilibrium, whether on the sun or stars; and the first result
is a gradual modification of the chief wave, and, if kept up is a photospheric outburst, with rush of flaming fluid ,
—
long enough, a disruption into another of shorter length but the magnitude of the disturbance depending on the amount
greater amplitude; and the formation of a secondary wave, of meteors precipitated, the intensity of gravity, the star's
as shown by the second term of the expression for a tidal velocity of rotation, surface temperature, etc.
curve of a resisted wave: (b) The hydraulic and radiative equilibrium being
H=^ —l,ksm[mvt—mx')-^^li,b'^kmx'%\n[2m-ut—2mx'). (28) thus upset, there will follow with time, a gradual reaction
>This curve with two maxima represents a modification or subsidence, to be followed by a secondary wave of distur-
which in time develops into double periodicity, or a move- bance like the first, but of feebler intensity.
 2 19 Sondernummer 220

8. (a) The problem of the gravitational oscillation in the higher latitudes along with it, by the suction of
of spheres been treated by Lord Kelvin in the Phil.
has friction, — the hydrodynamical conditions specified in the
Trans, for 1863; and the period found to be very short, equation of continuity still holding approximately true.
except in case of masses of small density, which are thus Moreover, by the increased centrifugal force given to the
subjected to feeble forces, — the time of oscillation being equatorial current by the meteoric downpour, there is addi-
inversely as the square root of the density. Kelvin's time tional suction towards the swifter current at the equator.
for the gravitation oscillation of the sun is found to be: Hence the level of the spherical or spheroidal photosphere
r=3^8» (32)
is slightly raised at the equator and the level of the fluid in
;

higher latitude undergoes a slight adjustment as the surface

[fi] In his Anwendungen der Mechanischen Warme-
fluid moves slightly towards the equatorial region.
Theorie auf kosmologische Probleme, Leipzig, 1882, Hitter
finds that vifhen the sun's thermal equilibrium is disturbed Hence in time the shallow surface current is checked
the period of the oscillation is T=
2.422 days. No change by friction at the sides, and from the layers beneath, which
of Ritter's constants will alter this result materially; so that revolve less rapidly: the result is a revulsion and readjustment
we know the time of the thermal oscillation is only a of level in all latitudes, as when the resisted tide wave in

few days. our rivers breaks up. This subsiding oscillation calls forth
In the Astrophysical Journal for May, igog, a secondary movement or rush of fluid like the first, but much
[y]
F. Moulton reached a period of thermal oscillation for
J?.
feebler, and thus arises the secondary maximum in the curves

the sun of only a few days, —

and thus substantially in of the sun and stars. Such readjustment in the surface
accord with Hitter's work of 1882. These results hold for layers of our sun are also implied in Spoerer's law of sunspots>

expansions and contractions of the globe represented by a which we have shown confirm the theory in every respect.
harmonic of the second order, which in view of the high The views here expressed on the sun's equatorial
effective rigidity of the sun (AN 4104) is an excellent ap- photospheric currents and their reactions, apply of course
proximation to the truth. to the stars throughout the sidereal heavens, though the —
9. Now we dismiss all such gravitational and thermal time of reaction will vary from star to star, according to
oscillations as are here described in paragraphs a, /S, ;', as physical conditions. In view of the extreme fluidity of the
inapplicable to the sun and variable stars; and consider stars, at the high temperature of their photospheres, it is

only what will happen as the secondary wave or tidal current evident that the period of modification for the formation
of the equatorial disturbance develops on the sun or a star, of a secondary wave, as in the resisted wave noticed upon
under the effect of frictional resistance to the original rush the earth, will not be very short, except where the frictional

of the flaming fluid. It is for this readjustment of the equa- effects are very great.
torial flow under friction that we introduce the curve of the 12. In the case of the sunspots, for example, the period
resisted tide wave —
the double or secondary oscillation to the secondary maximum is some six years, — half of
being due to the effects of friction and reaction, as in the the periodic time of the chief disturbing planet. In the
observed progress of the tide waves noticed upon the earth. case of a variable Aquilae the secondary maximum
like rj

10. When
the current is set up at the equator of a follows in about four days, about two-thirds of the period
sun by a meteoric downpour, there is generated ^)
or star of the companion shown by the spectrograph to revolve in
besides the outburst of light and heat, a forward rush of some 6V2 days. If the period be very short say less- —
the photospheric fluid. Now a river, as we know in practical than half a day —
it seems, certain that secondary maxima

hydraulics, runs swifter and at greater elevation in the cannot develop, for lack of time of decay; and this inference
centre of the channel, where the fluid is deepest. Owing to is confirmed by the general absence of secondary maxima
the tendency to maintain the hydrodynamical condition in Cluster variables.
implied in the equation of continuity, (cf Airy, Tides and As Commander Leonard M. Cox was kind enough to
Waves, Art. 72, or Darwin, Art. Tides, Encyc. Brit., g''^ed., confirm the early results at whichI arrived, on Aug. 19-22,
§ II. eq. 481): I may be pardoned for quoting some passages from a letter
Auy s^nSJA^-^-y s\n6-AvlA^~^ws\rx& =o (33) in which he gives the conclusions of a practical worker in
the rushing column of liquid in the centre tends to drag the hydraulics of rivers and channels.
along the fluid near the banks of the river, and thus by »My dear Dr. See:
suction the level of the fluid is elevated in the rapidly moving »I am so
profoundly impressed with your remarkable
centre of the channel. discovery of the cause and periodicity of sunspots and of
11. Now in the same way a rapidly moving current the Cepheid and Cluster variable stars, that I am impelled
set up in the photosphere, equator of the sun or of
at the to express, in my feeble way, my appreciation of the
a star, by the downpour of meteors, tends to carry the fluid achievement.* . . .

') In the present paper we have scarcely alluded to the elliptic tide which in fact is a periodic change of oblateness of figure
depending on the revolution of the companion in its orbit; yet we assume that the reader is familiar with this variation of tidal forces, and
the resulting equatorial and polar rush of the flaming fluid. This change of oblateness under the tidal forces producing the elliptic tide would
give rise to some change of brightness, but not the great blazing up of light actually noticed in the case of many variables. Hence the chief
effects are ascribed to the meteoric downpour, yet the subordinate effects of the elliptic tide are not overlooked in our reasoning, but recognized
to exist without special discussion.
 221 Sondernummer 222

»I am particularly impressed with the use of the geo- authorized to use same time we shall endeavor
it, yet at the
metrical theory of terrestrial wave motion, as in the case to explain how from the eccentric distribution of
it arises
of the tides —
which are of so much interest to engineers. the orbits of comets and meteors about Jupiter's orbit.
Apparently you have rejected the complicated and used the 1. The distribution of comet orbits in Sivaslian's
simple and obvious —
though not obvious until you pointed diagram of 1893 (s- p'ate i) resembles the positive and nega-
the way. In this, you remind me of Xepkr's innovation tive character in the sine function, — nearly all the orbits
(in 1609, I think) in boldly rejecting the clumsy theory of being between longitudes 90° and 270°, while the' lack of
eccentrics as handed down by Ptolemy, for the simple and orbits between 270° through 360° to 90° corresponds to the
perfect theory of elliptical motion with the sun in the focus negative value of the sine between 180" and 360°.
of the ellipse.*
2. Thus by taking the average density for the mean
»As the development and application of geo-
I recall
value we may introduce the sine function to represent the
metry to the heavens, not many species of curves are used
density of the orbits; and with the axes arranged as here
even now — chiefly the conic sections. Your introduction
described, we find that by taking the average density of the
of the tidal curve of a resisted wave, and your development
orbits for the zero of our function, the variable density of
pf a general equation describing it, makes a new doubly
the orbits from 0° through 360° will correspond very accu-
periodic function applicable to the most intricate and varied
rately to the sine function.
of celestial phenomena. Undoubtedly we shall have occasion
3. So much law of distribution of the orbits
for the
to observe indications of this resisted wave motion through-
out the system as well as in the globular clusters
solar
of comets about the orbit of Jupiter. The question remains
what the density of the meteors will be in the different parts
and other portions of the sidereal universe.*
of the planetary orbit. Here again we may take Oq for the
» Since the cluster variables are used for calculating
average density of the meteors throughout the planetary
the distance of the clusters, recently found to be removed
orbit, and cr„ for the average density of the meteors in the
from the earth hundreds of thousands of light years, this
application of the tidal curve of a resisted wave seems part of the orbit being described; the ratio ffo/cTj^ will vary
destined to become as useful in astronomy as the theory somewhat as the distance function rja in the theory of
of elliptical motion introduced by Kepler the year before elliptic motion, and thus will not become negative in any
Galileo invented the telescope and discovered the sunspots part of the orbit. The factor ob/tfu, w'ill give therefore the
from which your new discovery arises.* variable amplitude required.
»It will always be a source of pride to me that, despite 4. In his memoir of 1877 (Mem. R. A. S., 1877),
my inability always to follow you on the lofty plane of Wolf noticed that the variation in length of the sunspot
your work, you have done me the honor of including me cycle could properly be regarded as an » oscillation*, and
among the few to whom you first communicated your dis- his mean values from all his series of observations 1610—
covery. I shall not attempt to express my gratitude, for the 1870, turns out to be:
reason that personal considerations seem out of place in , o Oscillation

connection with such a momentous addition to the knowledge

1

Minima, Jn ^ +2^11 (34)

of man.*

7. Explanation of the Binary Character of Maxima, Jn = + 2yo6

the Formula for the Length of the Sunspot Cycle,
with the resulting Secondary Periodic Oscillation Minima, Jn = +1.54
affecting the Duration, and itself Variable with
the Amplitude. Maxima, Jn = +2.52
It will be noticed that our formula for the length of
Mean value Jn ^ +2.0575 (35)
the sunspot cycle, given in section 5 above, has the binary
form, and thus the secondary term may become positive or 5. Hence we may take the oscillation or variable part
negative, through the changes of sign in the expression of the period as 2.05 years, and by introducing the law
of the sine above described, our formula would become
sin [/?-«(/- 4)]- (21)

Hence a word of explanation is desirable in justification of ni= iiri78-2yos(o-o/(r(,)sin[/S-a(2'-/o)] (36)

the form adopted. = iiTi78-2ro5(ffo/o'|j.)sin[i77°-4?o496s (/-/q)]

Already in 1875 Wolf found the period, during — ^0 = 1921 Aug. 22.5775 (37)
the whole interval from 1610 to 1870.6 —
about 261 years
— to be so clearly modified by a secondary term which where /J = 177° = heliocentric longitude of Jupiter, Aug.
22, 192 1, and the oscillation is adjusted to give four high
might become either positive or negative, that this eminent
investigator adopted the designation »oscillation* for this
maxima during the next 44 years.

secondary term, which was to be added to the mean term 6. Now it is found by the sunspot records that when
of period 11. 11 years (Mem. R. A. S., 1877). the amplitudes of the cycle are large, or the maxima are high,
Such a secondary oscillation, for modifying the mean the period is materially shorter than the mean; and when
sunspot period, is simply a fact of observation shown in the the amplitudes are low, or the maxima are low, the periods

records from the age of Galileo; and therefore we are are considerably longer than the mean. Thus there is a
 223 Sondernummer 224

tendency to compensation in length for lack of height, as

in many other phenomena of nature.
This is an additional reason for the form of the above
equations, where the amplitude

^i = CTo/ffj,. (38)
7. The amplitudes Ai are therefore large on the side of
the orbit 1 ^ 90° to 1 =
270°, as shown in the figure.
On this side of Jupiter's orbit the meteors are dense, and
the effect of their downpour is therefore intense.
It appears that the combined actions of Jupiter and
Saturn, when the phase line representing the appulse with Fig. 8. Illustration of the effect of elliptic motion, which gives
the secondary term of the sunspot period depending on
Saturn enters the region of dense orbits, are nearly twenty
sin[P — a(^ —?o)] ^'s° ^
variable amplitude.
years preparing for the precipitation of meteors upon the
sun, probably in rearranging the meteor paths relatively to Accordingly, if the reasoning here outlined be admissible,
the planetary orbits. The effect is thus delayed, as if to let it will follow that cycle does not depend on
the sunspot
orbital motions develop. The eccentricities of the meteor two separate 4^62
periods 6^51 of +
11. 13 years, as =
orbits no doubt are readjusted ^), so that increasing numbers Newcomb concluded in his paper »0n the Period of the
of meteors pass very near the sun. Solar Spots«, Ap. J. 13.1, January, 1901. In view of the
8. But as the effect, when once developed, runs on impossibility of such long periods arising from internal causes,
period before is exhausted, we see that the it is difficult to recognize any physical or geometrical ground
for a like it

solar phenomena are prolonged after the phase line of Jupiter for the view that our sunspot cycle depends on two shorter

and Saturn has passed on, and entered into the region of periods each several years in length. The only possible
rare meteors. Thus our formula for the oscillation has the physical basis for Newcomb's theory would be the downpour
form written above, and is justified by experience. of meteors from Jupiter's system, yet having perihelia near
the sun; but here the periods would lie between 4.2 and
This theory enables us to predict that the sunspot
cycle beginning next year will have high maxima, and after 5.3 years, and thus do not correspond to Newcomb's hypo-
thetical component periods.
44 years the low maxima will again return. Such is the plain
remains to point out clearly a series of false premises
It
indication of the past 176 years, and we cannot depart
heretofore very widely current, and which have added to
from it without doing violence to the observations.
the disorder of our thinking on sunspot phenomena.
9. In practical mechanics it is well known that if a
has been very usual to ascribe certain meteoro-
1. It
wheel roll upon an eccentric, such as an elliptical cylinder,
logical phenomena
to the influence of sunspots; but any
with through the focus of the ellipse, the centre of
axis
attempt to prove the truth of this assumption has met with
gravity of the wheel will oscillate relatively to the axis, in
insurmountable difficulty, and added to the confusion of the
the period of the movement around this centre, as in the
subject.
theory of planetary motion.
2. Below in section10 we set forth the conclusions-
The oscillation of the radius vector is given by the
which seem to followfrom accurate calculation, yet even
formula for elliptic motion:
here necessary to be on our guard against misinter-
[rla) = [i-e'^)l[i-\-ecosv) .
(39)
it is

pretation of the present theory.

And the component of this central displacement, de- For example, the sunspots are now held to be an
3.
pending on the true anomaly v (which in our problem might indirect of the repulsive forces forming the corona
effect
increase or decrease the precipitation of meteors upon the and of the circulation and readjustment within the solar
sun, owing to the asymmetry of the orbital arrangement) atmosphere, due to the periodic downpour of meteors pre-
is easily seen to be: cipitated by the actions of Jupiter and Saturn and thus the ;

(^/a)sint'= [[i—e'^)l[i-^ecoiv)]&mv. (40) spots are comparatively, not

harmless in their
if entirely,
The magnitude of these eccentricity effects depends effects upon climatology and other terrestrial weather condi-

upon the eccentricity of the meteor orbits, (usually very great), tions, —
unless the »Magnetic Storms* associated with the
and upon the asymmetry of the ensemble of cometary orbits, spots have some influence not yet recognized. This latter

which appears to be very pronounced.

is not Hence it possibility still exists, but we do not elaborate it in the

remarkable, but perfectly inevitable that in the sunspot cycle present paper.
there should exist a double oscillation, that is, an os- — 4. It is a very different question when we come to
cillation variable both in period and amplitude, as in the consider the seasonal elevation of terrestrial temperature by
above formulae (39) and (40), where v and [rja) oscillate, the downpour of meteors, which appears to occur at inter-
and the resolved component may reach large proportions, vals of 9.92945 years, —
thus giving us with the equatorial
in view of the eccentricities and asymmetry involved. expansion of the corona, terrible decennial droughts. If our

') Compare Herschel's tabulation of the effects of the disturbi ng force, given below near the end of section 12, for details of these=
adjustments.
 :

225 Sondernummer 226

theory be admissible, these droughts do not follow either 8. Calculation of the Amount of Meteoric
the sunspot cycle, or Jupiter's orbital motion. Matter falling into the Sun.
S- In Section 4 above we deal with the shift of the In the Researches on the Evolution of the Stellar
epochs of the several cycles in respect to one another. Systems, vol. 2, 19 10, has shown how
p. 320, the writer
(a) The droughts appear to occur about every ten years, to calculate the amount of the meteoric matter falling
into
yet there is a shifting of their epoch amounting to 51.5 days the sun, from the observed secular acceleration of the
earth's
in 19.8589 years, or about 25.8 days every ten years, so motion, which may be found from researches on total
that relatively to our calendar, the seasons of the decennial eclipses of the sun noticed by the Greeks.
droughts will circulate around the 12 months of the year The formula for the secular acceleration of the earth
in about 140 years. depending on the increase of the sun's mass is found to be:
(b) The drought cycle depending on meteoric downpour
and the action of Jupiter and Saturn shifts in respect to the _3287£4 3^/ ^?'\^ „

average sunspot cycle in 11. 178 years, according to the

formula: where q is the mean radius of the.earth, q = 6370000000mm;
:«3 = 1/11.178 360° X
i?o is the radius of the sun, i?o = 696098000000 mm;
?zi

= 4o5?267
:
1/9.92945
(41)
kjal" =
the mean motion of the earth in a Julian century
X
= 129600000", the combined mass of the sun and earth
x-36o° = 4s?267 (42) being unity; and is the thickness H
of the layer of cos-
Accordingly in about 8 drought cycles, of 9.92945
(c) mical dust of the mean density of the earth falling upon
years each, (about 79 years), the epoch will be displaced the sun from regions of celestial space beyond the terres-
through a whole circumference, relatively to the mean sunspot trial orbit, and thus effecting secular changes in the earth's
cycle, and the phases may begin over again. motion.
6. It is therefore vain for us to search for a fixed Now since
between the drought cycle and the sunspot cycle.
relationship n-(»7-^o^ = i.oooi
No such relationship exists, and the search merely adds to which differs but little from unity, we get by the above
our bewilderment. In the same way we show, in section equation (A)
4
above, how the epoch of the mean sunspot cycle circulates ^/Zi° == 388800000/698098000000 -iW^ =
in respect to Jupiter's sidereal motion Thusin his orbit. = o:'ooo5584^/2- (B) (44)
happens that in time the sunspot maxima and minima
it
If we take If= 1000 mm, and use the factor i.oooi, we
occur with Jupiter every
conceivable relative position:
in
the shift is 22?02oi each Jovian revolution, or i?8s64 per
obtain
^V = of5S9o/2- (C) (45)
annum, thus completing the circulation through 360° in This is the amount of the secular acceleration^) of
slightly less than 200 years.
the earth's motion, arising from the fall of a layer of matter
7. In view of the considerations here brought to light, mean
of the density of our globe, 5.5, upon the sun's sur-
it is important on the one hand to avoid hasty deductions face in a Julian century. This falling of matter on the sun
which can have no basis in cyclic or dynamical theory, produces the principal secular change in the earth's motion.
and on the other not to abandon hope of real progress in But there are small changes due to tangential resis-
a subject heretofore unduly confused. If a few firm foun- tance in the curved cylindrical space swept over by the
dations of fact can be established, and harmonized in our earth in its motion about the sun, which is found to be
theory of sunspot phenomena, the clearing up of the rest given by the equation
will present less difficulty. Accordingly, in this paper we
aim to develop a theory based on carefully ascertained facts,
JL,^'> = 9/2 • [kjal-') [ht'^lq) = ofogie t\ (D) (46)

and which may unfold to us the true laws of nature.

And, lastly, there is a retardation of the earth's ro-
tation by the downfall of miscellaneously directed cosmical
8. If the dynamical theory at first sight seems strange,
dust upon our globe, and by tidal friction. In the same
it is only because it is unfamiliar, not having been —
Researches, vol. 2, 1910, pp. 317—321, we have shown that
thought out by any previous investigator. When its obvious-
these two secular effects upon the earth's rotation, and
ness is once pointed out many will wonder that it had not
affecting the apparent secular motion of the sun, may be
occurred to some of the eminent astronomers heretofore
reduced to the expression
occupied with the deeper problems of solar physics. The
road to new light is not along the familiar beaten paths; z^Z3'' = ofo6so/^ (E) (47)
and thus I have not hesitated to follow where the light and they lead to an appa-
All these three terms are plus,
leads. rent secular acceleration of the sun in a century amounting to:

') Since preparing the above discussion, largely as given in my Researches, vol. 2, 19 10, I have been surprised to find that Newton,
Halley and Flamsteed, in 1694, were earnestly occupied with the problem of the acceleration of orbital motion due to increase of the central
mass. In Brezvster's Life of Newton, 1855, vol. .i, p. 170, we have the following letter from Flmnsteed to Newton:
"Yesterday at London, I had a great deal of talk with Mr. Halley about the moon's motion. He affirmed the moon's motion to
have .been swifter in the time of Albategnius than at present, and that the cause of it was by reason that the bulk of the planets continually
increased. I gave him the hearing, and at last told him that his notion was yours, he answered ,in truth you helpt him with that'".
This passage is very remarkable, and so far as I know it is the earliest discussion of the subject except what is given in Newton's,
Principia. Flamsteed says he told Halley that the argument was Newton'^, and Halley admitted that Neiuton had helped him with it.
Bd. 216
 227 Sondernummer 228

^^ +o:'ss9o/2i only I 27000000'" of the solar mass, such a secular aug-

:

^JLi" = -t- 0.09 1 6/2 = -o:'7is6^2 (F) (48) mentation of the central mass is by no means improbable.
z= I 1
+ 0.0650 i'^\ The only question remaining therefore is whether the increase
This reasoning is founded on a meteoric layer of dust at of mass goes on uniformly, or by gusts, varying in intensity
the earth's surface of thickness h = 1 mm in a century, like the observed showers of rain. It would seem that the

density = 5.5. downpour cannot possibly be uniform.

The H. Cowell, on ancient eclipses,
researches of Dr. F. It is quite remarkable, as pointed out by Sir John

made some 15 years ago, and Dr. Fotheringham' s recent Herschel (Outlines, 10"" ed., 1869, § 325), that as far back
extension of these researches, as reported in the Monthly as 1852 (Compt. Rend., Aug. 20, 1852, and AN 806, 833),
Notices, indicate that the probable amount of the earth's the celebrated Father Secchi made careful measurements of
secular acceleration may be as great as i"43 per century, the intensity of the thermal radiation of different parts of
which would correspond to a downfall of meteoric dust upon the solar surface, finding the heat emitted at the centre of
the sun of thickness 2000 mm, and upon the earth of thick- the disc nearly twice that at the borders, and moreover
ness h=
2 mm each of density 5.5, which is not excluded that the equatorial region of the sun is somewhat hotter
by any known observational phenomenon. than the polar regions.
In a letter written to the Royal Society, in 1749, This early result of ^irc/^z coincides with the requirements
Euler expressed the conviction that the motions of the planets of the meteoric theory, and, as. Secchi% work always is accurate,
are accelerated, and that the earth once was beyond the it may even be considered as an observational confirmation

present orbit of Saturn. This was an early indication of of the postulated meteoric downpour. What other cause
the view developed in recent times that the planets are except falling meteorites could heat the equatorial regions
steadily nearing the sun, chiefly from the secular increase to a temperature beyond that of the polar regions? Obviously
of the sun's mass under the downfall of meteorites upon no other cause is known. And as the sun has a recognized
its surface. very noticeable equatorial acceleration of the photospheric
The above calculation is accurate and dependable, and surface at the equator, over that in higher latitude, where
as the researches Fotheringham and others on
of Cowell, the spot zones appear, we infer that the equatorial acce-
ancient eclipses of the sun, show that a secular acceleration leration is due to the whirl of cosmical dust continually
of the earth really exists, it is natural to attribute this secular colliding with the sun's surface, and thus imparting to it an
change in the major axis of the earth's orbit mainly to an increase of momentum, owing
the meteorites having a
to
increase of the sun's mass by the downpour of meteorites direct motion of revolution like those of the planets.
upon the surface of the sun. The tangential velocity at the sun's surface would be
Quite recently there was a report of a paper to the 617 kms. (cf. AN 3992, p. 136), and thus a small mass, by
Roy. Astron. Soc. in the Observatory (May, 1920, p. 178) this great velocity, would contribute considerably to the
stating that no cause was known adequate to account for augmentation of the sun's equatorial momentum. Such secular
the earth's reported secular acceleration. In reply to this downpour of meteorites would thus maintain the sun's equa-
comment (Observatory, Aug., 1920, pp. 287—8) I called torial acceleration against decay by friction and also maintain ;

attention to calculations like the above, given in my Re- a higher temperature in the region of greatest impact, since
searches vol. 2, 19 10, pp. 319-321; where upon Mr. Harold probably nine-tenths or more probably 95 percent of the^
Jeffreys acknowledged the adequacy of the assigned cause meteors would have direct motion, like the planets, by whose
for explaining the real secular acceleration of our planet disturbing action they are precipitated upon the sun's disc.
indicated by ancient solar eclipses, particularly that of 128 By this reasoning, it will be noticed, we give a direct
B.C., total at the Hellespont, and supposed to have been and simple explanation of the sun's equatorial acceleration,
observed by Hipparchus. which is accounted for by principles operating also to give
Accordingly, the cause assigned seems adequate, and the equatorial accelerations observed in Jupiter and Saturn,
founded upon the downpour of meteors upon the sun, which and confirmed by the direct motion of all their inner satellites,
is known to be at work; andthus we are justified in adop-. and of Saturn's rings. The vortex of dust here assumed to
ting the above explanation as true and sufficient to explain be precipitating upon the solar surface is therefore definitely
all the known phenomena. It seems therefore justifiable to known to exist, and to have a direct motion like the acce-
hold that in this case we have brought to light the true leration observed in the sun's equatorial regions.
cause of the earth's secular acceleration*). The greater temperature observed at the sun's equator
This implies an increase in the sun's mass by nearly in 1852 has therefore the highest probability. But
\>j Secchi,
twice that of the moon is a century, yet as the moon is it does not follow that such inequality in temperature would
Several recent British writers persist in the antiquated habit of regarding the apparent secular acceleration
)
of the sun and moon
indicated by observation as due chiefly to a retardation of the earth's rotation, holding that only a small part
of it is real. This was the view
current half a century ago, as in the speculations of Delaunay and Adams, and in Thomson and 7fflVs Treatise on Natural
* Philosophy 187-^
which underlies Darwin's researches on the origin of the moon, 1880.
Such views were justifiable enough before the development of the Capture Theory of Satellites (A.N
4341, 4343); but since that
development —
with definite proof that the sun and planets have acquired their rotations by the collisions of meteors'
against their equators
(AN 4307), and that tidal friction is everywhere vastly overshadowed by the acceleration of rotation due to the downpour of meteors against
the surfaces - the persistence of this antiquated mode of reasoning is entirely out of place, as inconsistent with recent
progress in cosmoeony
fcf. Researches on the Evolution of the Stellar Systems, vol. 2,
s /
1910, p. 293-326).
 229 Sondernummer 230

lead to spot development in higher latitudes till the circu- subjected to forces which become very feeble, in the reactions
latory system somewhat adjusted itself, which probably would of the parts of the mass upon itself Now, such a very
be a process of four or five years. expanded state does not correspond to the sun's actual
condition, and is therefore excluded.
9. All other Explanations of the Earth's Secular
Acceleration, except the Downpour of Meteorites If k = 1.66, as in monatomic gases, Ritter's formula
upon the Sun, excluded. No Cause within the Sun for the sun's double pulsation period would reduce to:
can give Rise to the Sunspot Cycle, nor produce T= 2/r//Vl(3''«~"4)AJ]'''' = 10046= = 3 hours, nearly (50)
a Sensible Change in Solar Radiation. Sir ^o/m where r = 688 000 000 m; /i=:i.66, iV= 27.435 and
HerscheV% Cyclonic Theory of Sunspots, 1847, still
g = 9.81 m.
more Appropriate under the Periodic Conflagration Accordingly, whatever be k, whether the gases be
of Meteorites.
biatomic or monatomic, the duration of the double oscillation
Itimportant to emphasize the indisputable fact that
is
at most will be only a few hours. It is not possible to
the theory of a considerable downpour of meteorites upon prolong the pulsation into days without adopting assumptions
the sun offers the only known explanation of the earth's unwarranted by experience.
observed secular acceleration. Thus we have the definite fact
In 1909 Moulton also made a thorough investigation
of the secular acceleration of the earth's motion, which — of the pulsation period of the sun (ApJ 29, May, 1909): but
is confirmed by the researches of Cowell, Fotheringham, and
although his details were different from those reached by
other investigators of ancient solar eclipses, and only one
Ritter,he concurred in the above conclusion that the sun's
cause adequate to explain this acceleration'.
pulsation period is very short. It could not be made to
Our problem of the earth's acceleration
solution of the exceed a day without doing violence to physical experience,
is is one solution and only one, just
therefore unique: there and departing from every indication of probability.
as in the case of a linear equation with one unknown
Accordingly, we reach the incontestable conclusion that
quantity. Such a problem, with unique solution, is most
no oscillation depending on thermal or gravitational causes
welcome to the investigator; for not the least uncertainty within the sun could arise of longer duration than a day.
attaches to the result, and thus the solution illuminates a
The average sunspot cycle is at least 4000 times longer
great secret of nature.
than this theoretical oscillation period; and thus by no
And not unique solution of the secular
only is the physical possibility can the sunspot fluctuation depend on
acceleration of the earth found to be satisfactory mathematically, an internal oscillation of the sun's mass.
but also physically. It is especially welcome, as having no
It follows, therefore, that the long duration of the
inherent improbability; for we know that billions of meteors
sunspot cycle compels us to look beyond the sun's interior
daily fall upon the earth (cf. observations by the writer in
for the causes which underly this periodic fluctuation in the
AN 3618, and Researches, vol. 2, igio, p. 300), and hence sun's condition. No thermal or gravitational cause within
we hold that these same bodies must therefore also fall upon the sun can possibly generate a cycle of 1 1.18 years duration,
the sun, in vastly greater quantities. The sun naturally draws because the forces at work are very powerful, and the period
in great quantities of small bodies and thus builds up its mass. of their reaction on the sun's mass very short, a day or
If we come to examine the causes within the sun which less, and thus less than 1/4000* of the sunspot cycle.
could give rise to a periodic disturbance or oscillation of In turning away from the sun's body to the surrounding
that globe depending upon the equilibrium of gravitational
heavens, for the cause of the sunspot fluctuation, nothing
or thermal forces we shall find that any such supposed cause appeals so directly to our common sense as the mutual
cannot be admitted, owing to the absence of known physical
reactions of Jupiter and Saturn, which come into conjunction-
agency -adequate to produce and especially to prolong the opposition in 9.92945 years, while Jupiter himself revolves
oscillation. Internal causes at most would explain an os-
in 11.86172 years, and has an unsymmetrical or lopsided
cillationhaving a period of a few days but not a sunspot — distribution of cometary orbits about his sidereal path.
cycle of 11.18 years, which is at least four thousand times
Ever since the researches of Adams, Leverrier, Schia-
the duration of any admissible internal disturbance.
parelli,Newton and Alexander Herschel on the November
In his well known Anwendungen der Mechanischen meteors, and other meteoric swarms, and the comets with
Warme-Theorie auf kosmologische Probleme, Leipzig, 1882, which they are connected, which researches were carried out
in the middle sixties of last century, — we have referred
Ritter investigates the duration of the pulsation of the sun.
Taking the under constant
ratio of the specific heat of the gas
meteors to cometary origin. And thus we must hold that
pressure to that under constant volume to have the value not only are the cometary paths distributed unsymmetrically
=: T.41 as in ordinary biatomic gases, Ritter finds (p. 69),
/§ ,
about Jupiter's orbit, but also the corresponding meteor swarms.
that the duration of the double pulsation would be Thus with the meteor swarms arranged in a lopsided, or
7"= 20928 seconds = 5.812 hours = 0.2422 day. (49) unsymmetrical form, the cycle of the downpour of meteors
sphere of gas were expanded to fill Neptune's
If the upon the sun will depend upon Jupiter's sidereal revolution
orbit and the density equally distributed, the time would as well as on the conjunction-opposition with Saturn. Accor-

be 340 years. Thus the only way to get a long period for dingly we reach the theory above developed, and every other
the thermal oscillation is to have a very expanded mass explanation is excluded.
 « «

231 Sondernummer 2.^2

Sir John HerscheVi, Cyclonic Theory of Sunspots, 1847. to inquire whether any such cause of circulation can be
found in the economy of the sun, so far as we know and
I. Those who read Sir John HerscheVi, lucid account
of sunspot distribution in the two zones north and south of
can understand it?«
2. In section 424 Herschel continues:
the solar equator (Results of Observations at the Cape of
» Recurring now to the question whether any probable
Good Hope, 1847, P- 433) cannot fail to be impressed with
or possible cause can be assigned, from what we know of
the argument there adduced for the cyclonic theory of sun-
the sun's economy, capable of giving rise to circulatory
spots, afterwards confirmed observationally by Secchi and
Faye, and in recent times often illustrated by our photographs
movements to and from its poles, in the fluids which cover
its surface and having at the same time a dependency on
of the sunspots.
its rotation; it may be observed that if any physical diffe-
»Now, whatever be the physical cause of the spots,
rence in the constitution or circumstances of its polar and
says Herschel, »one thing is certain, that they have an in-
equatorial regions tend to repress the escape of heat in the
timate connection with the rotation of the sun upon its axis.
The absence of spots in the polar regions of the sun, and one and to favor it in the other of these regions, the effect
will be the same as if those regions were unequally heated
their confinement to two zones extending to about 35° lati-
from without, and all the phenomena of trade winds, mutatis
tude on either side, with an intermediate equatorial belt
mutandis, must arise.
much more rarely visited by spots, is a fact notorious in
3. Here it may be observed that the downfall of meteors
their history, and which at once refers their cause to fluid
circulations, modified, if not produced, by that rotation, by
upon the sun's equator not only represses the escape of the
sun's internal heat, but also adds greatly to the temperature
reasoning of the very same kind whereby we connect our
of the surface layer of the photosphere. Herschel then pro-
own system of trade and anti-trade winds with the earth's
ceeds to reason that the sun is surrounded by an atmosphere
rotation. Having given any exciting cause for the circulation
of considerable thickness, as an aliquot part of the sun's
of the atmospheric fluids from the poles to the equator, and
radius, and with the ellipticity of the layers increasing
back again, or vice versa, the effect of rotation will neces-
outwardly, in accordance with the known laws of dynamics,
sarily be to modify these currents as our trade winds and
(cf. Laplace, Mec. Cel., Lib. Ill, Chap. IV, § 30). The thickness
monsoons are modified, and to dispose all their meteorological
of the atmospheric layeis, density for density, must differ
phenomena on a great scale which accompany them as their
between the equator and the poles. He concludes that this
visible manifestations, in zones parallel to the equator, with
elliptical layer about the sun, with increased obstruction to
a calm equatorial zone interposed. It only remains, therefore,
the equatorial radiation, should maintain the equatorial and
:Pole polar regions at different temperatures, and by the inter-
change thus produce the spots. If this difference of
temperature would be maintained by mere difference of
radiation, due to greater thickness in the elliptical layer
at the solar equator, how much more certainly would such
an effective blanketing of the heat at the equator arise
from the downpour of meteors? The blanketing of the
equatorial zone is shown to be a fact by the observed
acceleration of the earth's motion, made known by the
researches on ancient eclipses.
The exchanges of atmospheric circulation
solar
between equator and poles
should be accompanied by
vorticose motions, in very full agreement with observation,
not only in the case of terrestrial tornadoes, but also of
sunspots, which appear to be filled in by the collapse of
their sides, the penumbra generally closing in upon the
spot and disappearing after it.
4. Such is Herschel' s cyclonic theory of sunspots.
It rests on a very secure dynamical basis, as respects the
effectsof rotation, but the premise postulating an atmo-
sphere thick enough to constitute a considerable part of
the sun's radius, and decreasing in depth towards the
poles, is the weak link in the chain of reasoning. For
the sun's atmosphere is known to constitute a very thin
layer of gases, with the density falling off rapidly as we
Fig. 9. Illustration of the circulatory system of the sun's photosphere ascend, (cf. AN
4053), and all internal disturbances dying
and corona. The meteoric downpour yields the acceleration out rapidly owing to the intensity of the gravitative action
of spots observed at the equator, while the resulting expulsion
of dust, falling in higher heliographic latitude, produces the zones
as explained in AN 4053.
of spots on either side, with Spoerer's law of drift in the ob- Zonal obstruction of the sun's radiation therefore
served sunspot period. would not give rise to long period disturbances in the
 1

233 Sondernummer 234

•atmospheric circulation, unless this obstruction was super- So long as we look only at the changing multitude
posed periodically, by an external cause, such as the downpour of details of climate, in particular countries, and not at the
of meteors, acting at fixed intervals corresponding to the condition of the globe as a whole, we naturally do not
tardy return of the appulse with Jupiter and Saturn, and suspect violent variations in the sun's radiation.
giving sunspots in cycles of 1 1 years' duration.
But the moment we venture to depart from traditional
5. HerscheT^ Results at the Cape appeared in 1847,
teaching, and begin to think for ourselves, we discover
but his theory of sunspots doubtless was prepared some
abundant evidence of changes in the solar radiation which
years earlier, and probably without knowledge of Schwabe'5
are sensible throughout the terrestrial globe. They may even
discovery of a sunspot periodicity in 1843. Thus fferscheFi
prove fatal, through the effects of unusual heat and drought,
cyclonic theory took no account of the problem of periodi-
to a considerable portion of mankind ^).
city, which is much more difficult to solve than might be

supposed at first sight. For several investigators long ago We examine this question on its merits.
shall therefore

considered the possibility of the sun being an oscillating No great problem could be more worthy of the meditation
gaseous globe, but all of them have found the theoretical of philosophers who aim at the discovery of the laws of
periods much too short to be compared with the immense the universe.
ii-year cycle noticed for sunspots (cf. section 6, paragraph From Plate la, Sivaslian's Diagram of the Comet Family
8, a, jS, Y above). of Jupiter, 1893, we notice that the next opposition in 193

10. Somewhat Violent Variations of the Sun's

along the line jf^i^ S-j, in Plate lb, will be in a somewhat
Radiations indicated by World Famines and by sparser of comet orbits; whilst the conjunction of
region
other Large Features of Terrestrial Meteorology. 194 1 be in heliocentric longitude ^
will
S1°> ^ region =
much sparser in meteors, according to the indications of
Up to the present time our studies in solar radiation
the cometary orbits. Hence we should expect the season
have extended over short periods, in recent times, or else
of 1941 to be considerably less violently hot than 1921,
are long range studies based upon the records of snow and
which is a record breaker for violence of temperature, and
ice in Europe during the winters of various years in the
disastrous droughts in nearly all the leading countries of
period since the Middle Ages. Thus in the Smithsonian
the world.
Report for 1857, pp. 339-345, there is a very philosophical
summary of the evidence for secular changes of the sun's The conjunction of 1961 will again become violent,

intensity of radiation. Though Wolf and other high autho- from the downfall of meteors and the development of ex-

rities are cited, no decision is reached, and it is doubtful

cessive heat; but in 1981 the effects will be even worse, —
if the record is continuous enough to enable a modern being a repetition of the record breaking heat of 192 1. Yet
investigator to pursue the subject to a definite result.
the heat will occur in our winter, corresponding to summer
in the southern hemisphere, as in 186 1, when in fact the
Lord Kelvin and some other authorities, including
conjunction fell on Feb. 20, 1862. And as the southern
Fourier, in his celebrated Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur,
terrestrial hemisphere is so largely covered with water, the
have considered the distribution of plants and animals in
effect of the heat upon the earth may be very much less
the classic period as affording comparatively good evidence
important than in 1921, when the conjunction occurred in
that no considerable change in the sun's radiation has taken
August, with the sun as directly as possible over the land
place since the Greek and Roman writers Aristotle, Theo-
hemisphere of the globe.
phrastus and Fliny described the flora and fauna best known
2000 years ago. 1802, July 26, there were conditions for great heat
In
It would seem that the records of antiquity exclude development similar to that of 192 1. Sir TVilliam Herschel
(Phil. Trans. 1801, pp. 265—318) was then studying solar
the possibility of very great secular change, since the distri-
that recorded by the Greek effects upon the earth, and considered the general aspects
bution in modern times confirms
and Roman But up to the present time there
naturalists. of terrestrial meteorology to depend largely upon the sun's

are only general indications of the secular constancy of the

condition. »The
influence of this eminent body« says

solar radiation, whilst decennial variations have not been

Herschel, p. 265, »on the globe we inhabit, is so great, and
so widely diffused, that it becomes almost a duty for us to
investigated at all, and we can affirm nothing, except that
in his recent measurements Abbot found the socalled » solar
study the operations which are carried on upon the solar

constant* to be 1.93 (small) calories per second, and va- surface*. »A constant observation of the sun with this view
(i. e. determining the radiation) and a proper information
riable by as much as 5 or even 10 percent within a single week.
respecting the general mildness or severity of the seasons,
That very sensible and comparatively sudden changes
in all parts of the world, may bring this theory to perfection
do occur from time to time in the sun's radiation is indi-
or refute it, if it be not well founded.*
cated by our common sense, and by the consensus of opinion
of mankind. Yet this result heretofore has not found definite Even today, after the lapse of 120 years, our data
scientific expression, chiefly because it was not suspected are very incomplete, yet may afford some indications of
nor sought for in the larger aspects of terrestrial meteorology the truth.

^) In the Literary Digest of Aug. 6, and Aug. 13, 1921, it is stated that no rain has fallen in the wheat belt of Russia, along the
Wolga, from Samara to Perm, since March. After a drought of six months vegetation is parched, the ground craclced open to great depths,
forest trees dying and millions of people fleeing west in the greatest distress ever known in Russian history.
 235 Sondernummer 236

The summer heat and drought of iqoi was so terrible 2. Up to August I, England has had a drought of
that in large regions of the Mississippi valley a considerable over 100 days, and the most terrible heat ever known. At-
fraction of the forest trees perished. The season of 1881 tempts to produce rain about London by throwing great
was similar, but perhaps less severe all over the globe. In quantities of explosives high into the air, about the middle
I go I the normal conjunction was due on Nov. 5, and in of July, failed to produce a drop of moisture. The Man-
1881 on Dec. 31. These hot waves therefore were nearer chester Guardian of July i, reports that the iron locks of
the winter season than in the season of 192 1, where the Monument Bridge in the ship canals at Hull had become
conjunction occurred on August 22. bound from the excessive heat, and that pouring water on
Russia is a very large and uniform country much like them had failed to cool them enough to release the locks,

the Mississippi valley, and the Russian annals of iSgi make so that the ships continue tied up and unable to move.
the famine from drought in that year very notable. The 3. France has had this summer the most terrible heat
drought and heat in America was less pronounced, yet recorded within half a century, with almost no rain for four
widespread, and severe. The year i8gi, it will be noticed, or five months; so that all the French rivers are low and
corresponds to the opposition of Jupiter and Saturn ys/. Si, stagnant, and the ship canals unable to operate. At Paris
Plate I b, when a very considerable meteoric downfall may the summer has been almost unbearable, so that the forests
have occurred. at Fontainebleau were dried out and have partly perished

The only observational record in partial conflict with by accidental fires, while at Bordeaux the heat and drought
this inference, some observations by Frost at Potsdam in
is have been equally bad. No appreciable rain has fallen for
i8g2 (cf. AN 3 105—6, and Astronomy & Astrophysics, 1 1 720). .
five months, and the vineyards, gardens and fields of the

Yet it may be observed that Frost\ work was directed country are parched, so that the forests are everywhere
chiefly to the determination of the absorption of the solar endangered.
atmosphere, at the sun's limb, while the relative temperature 4. In Spain and Italy the conditions of extreme heat and
of different parts of the disc was a secondary problem, and dryness correspond to those in France. At Milan, Venice,
given only casual attention. Florence, the heat was extreme, while at Rome the summer
Accordingly, whilst the observations were held to heat has been so excessive that for the first time within the
indicate the practical uniformity of the heat radiation from memory of the oldest inhabitant, relief against the torrid
all parts of the solar disc, we must accept such a conclusion climate has had to be sought in discarding the coat at all

with great both because the observations were in-

reserve, dances given by the Roman aristocracy. The significance
sufficient, and because contrary to Secchi's careful work of of this record is sufficient to show the extreme heat all

1852. Moreover, Frost's work was done nearly a year after over Italy.
the great Russian drought and famine of i8gi, and thus 5. In Germany the summer heat and dryness has been
somewhat late for detecting the effect of meteoric downpour excessive. Reports show that whilst the early grain crops
a year or more previous to the observations. escaped without great such as potatoes,
injury, the late crops,
A
complete search of past records is much beyond will be largely burnt up, and will result in a serious food
the scope of the present paper. We can only say the indi- shortage. The forest trees in the Tiergarten, the largest
park
cations point strongly to the theory here developed, and no in Berlin, are losing their leaves so rapidlyunder the drought,
contradiction of its conclusions is known, nor do we believe at the end of July, that already they have to be cleaned
any can be established by the most painstaking and im- up and carried away; whereas such fall of the leaves usually
partial research. does not occur till late in September or October. Thus even
Thus we turn to the season of ig2i, and ask ourselves the forests of Germany, Switzerland, Bohemia, Austria, and
for a summary of the evidence that the heat has been Hungary have suffered badly before mid-summer. In the
unusual. burning of a large hotel at Villars, Switzerland, Aug. i, even
I. There has been excessive heat throughout the in- the trees took fire and acted as torches for spreading the
terior and nearly all parts of the United States, and Canada, conflagration, so that they had to be felled by the troops.

as well as Mexico. Recognition of this unusual torridity Such a record of drought throughout Europe is quite un-
has found expression in a thousand ways; and it is remarked precedented since exact observations began to be made
not only that the heat is great and unabated, but accom- 300 years ago.
panied by conditions which preclude rain so that great — 6. When we come to Russia, the story is even more
droughts have occurred. Thus the crops in Mexico are distressing. The immense and fertile valley of the Wolga,
officially reported to be greatly injured by the excessive from Samara to Perm, is burnt up by the heat, with long-
drought. What occurs in the tropical and semitropical land continued and excessive drought; and in the province of
of Mexico, is true of the temperate zone of the interior Samara, millions of people, without reserves of food, or
United States and Canada. The great heat is everywhere prospects for this year, have abandoned their homes and are
associated with excessive and long-continued drought, — so fleeing in the hope of escaping starvation from lack of food
that not only are corn and other crops greatly injured, — and water. So great an exodus of whole peoples has not
the cotton crop being the smallest since 1888 — but even been known since the Middle Ages. Great alarm is felt in
large numbers of forest trees have been killed by the vio- Germany, Poland and Rumania at the Russian migration,
lence of the heat. A wave of relief was felt in Central Europe when the United
 Sondernummer 238
States government took steps to relieve the distress of the century. The chances
are infinity to one that it does not
fleeing Russian refugees i).
fall steadily,
but comes down in gusts, at the time of ~
In the case of China, Manchuria, and parts of Siberia,
7. the conjunctions and oppositions of
Jupiter and Saturn, as
the story is similar. Millions of the Chinese and Northern we have explained above. Accordingly, the theory here deve-
Mongolians are fleeing from the excessive heat and drought loped accords with all known phenomena, and not
a single
which have laid waste their provinces. No such desperate legitimate objection to it can be raised.
migration has been observed in China since the Middle Ages;
and it is impossible to foresee the extent of the affliction The Physical Cause of the Persistence of
in vast areas, which usually are fertile and prosperous regions, Excessive Droughts, as in 1921.
supporting in comfort immense populations of industrious The unprecedented drought is of world-wide of 192 1

people. In fact reports from Shanghai show that the drought' character, profoundly affecting all the principal nations of
has greatly afflicted not only China, but the whole of Asia. the northern terrestrial hemisphere; and thus it is well to
8. In India the intense heat and drought have done inquire into the physical cause of this condition, and its
immense damage, and by raising the prices of wheat added long persistence over the larger part of the terrestrial globe.
to the unrest and agitation of the population which is of The cause can not be local, but is evidently general through-
such grave concern to the authorities of the British Empire. out the and breadth of the earth; yet it depends
length
What is true of India is equally true of Syria and Mesopotamia, not on ordinary influences, —
but on a hidden physical
and especially Siberia. In Japan, the grain, fruit and the law of such a kind as not to be suspected by meteorologists,
rice fields have suffered greatly from the unusual torrid heat, and thus apparently it has escaped detection by investigators.
so that the whole Orient has suffered from the terrible 1. We have seen that there is every reason to believe

summer heat of 192 1. The Literary Digest of Aug. 13 that the heat of the sun has been suddenly increased by
summarizes the Russian famine situation by the alarming the meteors falling upon that globe, under the combined
heading: »The Third Horseman rides in Russia «. precipitative actions of Jupiter and Saturn. Let us assume
Accordingly, it appears from this brief survey that as probable such an increase in the solar radiation; and
whether we consider conditions in California —
where prunes then consider what will follow. Is there any physical law
and other stone fruit are rotting from the torrid heat re- of the molecular motions of the gases of the atmosphere
flected from the pit in the core, or any other part of the not heretofore suspected to exist?
world —
the story is everywhere the same: an unprecedented 2. When the weather is very hot, a very large per-
state of heat and drought, which is not to be explained by centage of the water vapor in the atmosphere, say i/«''' part
local terrestrial conditions, but must be assigned to an ele- — where n may equal any number as 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and
vation in the temperature of the equatorial regions of the so on, — is separated out from the lower layers of the at-
sun itself. mosphere and driven to regions of the air higher than usual,
There is no other possible explanation of an effect by virtue of the great heat and the smaller molecular weight
soworldwide^) and so unprecedented in the annals of the of the water vapor, and its 1.27 times greater molecular
human race. And not a single objection to such an expla- velocity.
nation can be offered. Science up to the present has no 3. For the air has molecular weight as follows:
records to contradict an explanation sanctioned by our parts
common sense, and by the consensus of the climatic evidence Nitrogen 14 3
of the globe. Oxygen 16 i

recognized
A sensible secular acceleration of the earth has been
probable
Mean molecular wt. = 29.
as for about 15 years; and in 1Q09
In the case of water vapor we have for the vapor
I showed that the fall of meteors upon the sun is the only
of H2O:
possible explanation of the secular acceleration of the earth parts
indicated by the researches of astronomers on ancient Hydrogen I 2

eclipses of the sun. The amount of matter thus precipitated Oxygen 16

upon the sun may be double that of our lunar mass in a Molecular wt. ^18.
*) A press report from London by Sir Hall Caine, Sept. 13, 1921, shows that the above description of the disaster in Russia is not
overdrawn. Sir Hall quotes the British Prime Minister's statement, made in August, in the House of Commons: '>In the Russian famine we
are witnessing the most terrible devastation which has afilicted the world for centuries" and himself goes further, declaring, from the evidence
;

furnished by distinguished Russians of all parties in various countries of Europe, that the calamity is the worst which has afflicted the human
family since the Flood.
Onl^ a part of the calamity, however, is due to the drought —
the rest being due to the war, revolution and subsequent demoralization.
Sir Hall Caine, who personally witnessed the famine and cholera in Russia in 1891, exclaims; "Yet what was the famine of 1891
compared with the present catastrophe? My Russian friends tell me the population affected is not fewer than 40000000, and that from 15000000
to 20000000 of these are homeless, friendless and foodless, and are on the roads". (Note added Sept. 13, 1921).
') The description of the drought in Russia, Literary Digest of Aug. 6, says that the drought is word-wide, and thus not confined
to Russia, though there attaining the most disastrous proportions. A press dispatch from Spitzbergen, Aug. 5, 921, says; "The heat wave at
last has struck Lapland and the Polar regions. With the thermometer at 86 degrees (Fahrenheit), the Eskimos have thrown away their fur
garments and are organizing bathing parties."
»For most of the Eskimos, this bath will be the event of a lifetime, perhaps never to be repeated. The game and reindeers are
suffering terribly."
 :

'39 Sondernummer 240

4. It thus appears that water vapor is 1 1 units less out of equilibrium early in the season of 192 i. And there
heavy than air (29), which is a difference of 38 percent. seems no possibility of general relief till the whole atmo-
And as the mean molecular velocity is governed by the sphere is stirred up by the larger current movements incident
molecular weight, according to the formula of Maxwell to the sun's rapid change in declination, about the autum-

V2OTiz/i^ = ^kf'hVi^ (51)

nal equinox.
10. We have examined many treatises on meteoro-
Qz/i^ = (14-5)2^2^ (52) logy '^j, and consulted several eminent meteorologists, without
we find
i/i = ri
1/(14.5/9)
I \
-t^a = 1.272/2
I

(53)
\ finding any record of the above separation process as applied
to the lighter vapor of water. It depends on the physical
Accordingly, as the molecular velocity of water
5.
laws of molecular diffusion, and apparently has not been
vapor is times that of the air, the water vapor, under
1.27
studied in dealing with terrestrial meteorology. The cause
intense and continued heat, tends to rise above the air of
at work is definite, and well defined, but would produce a
corresponding temperature and pressure. Hence the water
notable effect only under persistent high temperature; and
vapor forms a relatively greater part of the upper part of
thus the effects would become notable chiefly in the summer
the higher atmosphere, while in the lower atmosphere there
with the sun at maximum elevation.
is a deficiency of moisture, due to the heat driving out the
11. If in addition to summer altitude, the radiative
swifter molecules of water vapor.
power of the sun be increased, as by meteors falling into
Now the lower air contains most of the dust par-
6. it and developing an immense equatorial extension of the
ticles,which by acting as nuclei of condensation, may deve- corona, under the actions of Jupiter and Saturn, then the
lop drops, and give rise to rain. And when the weather is disturbance of the rainmaking power of the world would be
very hot, with the water vapor tending in greater percentage enormous. This cause appears to be adequate to account for
upward, a difficulty arises in the saturation of the atmosphere. the unprecedented drought of 192 1; and so far as we know
Thus the formation of rain is increasingly difficult. no other cause can be assigned, which is at all adequate to
7. Under the great and persistent heat of a drought, account for so great a disturbance in the normal equilibrium
upon a large inland area, the water vapor passes more and of the terrestrial meteorological elements.
more to a level relatively free from dust; and even if a 12. It is true that the cause here assigned depends
lowering of temperature occurred at this height, the droplets, on unequal molecular diffusion; but this is a definite cause
on descending to lower level, would again vaporize, and operating on an immense scale ^), in the gigantic laboratory
again ascend to greater height. Hence the cirrus clouds of the earth's atmosphere, under direct solar radiation. To
so prevalent in dry seasons! deny an accumulative effect of such a process is to deny
8. This explanation appears to afford a solution of well known physical laws of molecular diffusion. And to

the increased difficulty in developing rain during prolonged ignore the drought as due to unusual causes is to deny the
droughts. has long been a saying that the dryer it gets,
It plainest evidence of our senses, and the most authentic reports

the more it is to rain; so that dryness adds to the

difficult of the recent extreme desiccation of the larger part of the
prolongation of the drought, and the spell is not broken terrestrial globe.
until there is change of temperature and shift of air currents II. The Observed Periods, Distribution, Na-
with the season, in the larger world movements of the ture and Cause of Sunspots.
atmosphere. (i) The sunspot periods found by Wolf and later
9. Accordingly, the present (Aug., 192 world-wide 1) investigators.
drought may last till late in the summer or autumn. And In the Memoirs R. A. S. 43, 1875, Wolf gives the
all the phenomena would indicate that the abnormal solar following useful table, to which the later periods have been
radiation had thrown the terrestrial atmospheric elements added from the best available authorities.
Since the above discussion was written I have found that in his Meteorology, 1861, (p. 51-52), Sir yohn Herschel takes account
')

of the diffusive power of water vapor which he says is lighter than air in the ratio of 0.6235 'o '• "It is the lightest of all known .vapours',
and, with exception of hydrogen and ammonia, the lightest of gases. In consequence, as soon as generated, it tends to rise in the air by its
buoyancy, and in so doing, carries up with it much of the air with which it is intermixed, disengaging itself no doubt from it, in its upward
progress, to become entangled, however, with fresh particles, which again it carries upward, to abandon them for others. In this way, not only
is its upward diffusion far more rapid than its horizontal, but in its struggle upwards it tends to produce an ascen.sional movement in the air

itself, and thus to act as a powerful agent in the production of wind".

-) In his Elements of Meteorology, 1902, p. 143, Prof W. M. Davis gives a table of pressures, weights of vapor and saturated air:

Vapor weight Sat. Air weight

Vapor Pressure
Temp. cu. met. cu. met.
grams kilogr.
-30" C. 0.38 0.44 1.45
o 4-57 4.87 1.30
-30 31-51 30.08
-40 54.87 50.67 I. II
Davis adds: "It is important to notice that the increase of capacity is much faster at high temperatures than at low temperatures", —
which would make the higher air able to hold but a small amount of vapor, owing to its low temperature. Yet as the amount of the upper
air is indefinitely great, I do not doubt the escape of water vapor into it, as shown also by the cirrus clouds so prevalent in
droughts, yet
yielding no rain.
 o
1 o s 11 61

241 Sondernummer 242

Premiere Se'rie Seconde Sdrie

Minima Maxii] Minima Maxima
1 1.0 II.
1610.8 1615-5 1745-0 i7S°-3
S.2 10-5 10.2 1 1.2
1619.0 1626.0 I75S-2 1761.5
15.0 13-5 11-3 8.2
1634.0 1639.5 1766. 1769.7
I I.O 9-5 9.0 8.7
1645-° 1649.0 I77S-S 1778.4
10. 1 1.0 9.2 9.7
I65.S-0 1660.0 1784.7 1788.
1 1.0 15-° 13.6 16.
1666.0 167 5.0 1798-3 1804.2
13.5 10. 12-3 1 2.2
1679-5 1685.0 1810.6 1816.4
10.0 8.0 12.7 13-5
i68g.5 1693.0 1823.3 1829.9
8-5 12-S I0.6 7.3
i6g8.o 1705.5 1833-9 1837.2
14.0 I 2.7 9.6 10.9
17 1 2.0 17 18.2 1843-S 1848.
II-5 9-3 12.5 1 2.0
1723.5 1727-5 1856.0 i860.
10.5 1 1.2 1 1.2 10.5
1734.0 1738-7 1867.2 1870.6
1 1.20+ 2.1 11.20+ 2.06 I i.i I d= 1-54 10.94+ 2.52
±0.64 ±0.63 0.47 ±0.76

Minima
 243 Sondernummer J
44

18
 245 Sondernummer 246
As this is a very small fraction of the sun's mass, we in by nearly
all investigators, though our photographic data
must not expect it to appreciably accelerate the sun's rotation. in proof of the fact is based upon the scant records of the
But it may easily prevent the extinction of the observed few moments of total solar eclipses.
acceleration of the outer layer of the equatorial region with
surface drift like that known to exist.
The fact appears to be fairly well established that
the extent of the corona is variable, with the sunspot cycle.
As the equator is given an increase of momentum found that
It is at the minimum the corona has the longest
proportional to the rneteoric downfall:
equatorial extensions, and when the spots are numerous the
AH= m\M-[v — v^)
2) = mlM-{6iT —
(56) corona appears to be most fully developed above the spot
we see that the equatorial layer tends to be accelerated by zones, offering to the eye a rudely quadrilateral contour.
over 600 times it present velocity. Now as the falling mass On each side of the equator there are great luminous sheaves
m is small, compared to the total solar mass M, the only of the coronal light, curving together, and away from the
effect is to accelerate the surface layer. pole on the outside, as if arranged somewhat along the lines
of the sun's magnetic field. No doubt the magnetic field
From our
researches on the motion of rivers, we know
and the electrical forces operating about the sun have a
that the motion is deepest in the centre, and dies
current
good deal to do in arranging the visibility of the lines of
out towards the banks, owing to friction. In the same way
the corona; for the polar streamers are distinct and follow
we may be sure that the acceleration or current in the solar
the lines of force of a spherical magnet, as I have proved
surface is deepest and swiftest at the equator, and dies down
by careful comparison.
gradually on either side. But in any case the accelerating
current at the sun's equator is not of any considerable depth, As far back as the Colorado eclipse of 1878, Prof.
owing to the tremendous increase of pressure as we descend Cleveland Abbe reached the conclusion that the coronal light
into the sun (cf. AN 4053, 4104, 4152, and Researches on was due to streams of meteors rushing towards or from
the Evolution of the Stellar Systems, vol.11, 1910, pp.45 i, 541).
periheHon, and many others concur in the view that the solar
neighborhood is crowded by swarms of such small bodies.
Accordingly, as there is elevation of temperature at
the solar equator, and greater relative motion, we see that But since Arrhenius' study of the solar corona. Lick
an effort at adjustment always is in progress. The vortical Observatory Bulletin, Nr. 58, 1904, it has been held that
motion of the spots, with clockwise rotation in the southern under light pressure the fine matter of the corona is actually
hemisphere, and counter-clockwise rotation in the northern expelled from the sun itself Some of the fine dust driven
hemisphere therefore arises, and the explanation of it presents away by radiation pressure falls back, while other parts of
no difficulty of any kind. it float and still other parts of
quietly in the coronal field,
the dust are so fine as to recede to great distance or escape
The whirling of the spots originates from this diffe-
from the sun's control entirely.
rential motion, and the
themselves arise from the
spots
descent of cooler matter, originally driven out from the Accordingly, we concur in the general opinion that
equatorial heat zone, and tending to fall back in higher the coronal matter is supplied from the solar surface by the
latitude. Hence the spots obey Spoerer's law of development, varying pressure of the sun's radiation; and as the tempe-
as before remarked. rature of the equatorial regions exceeds that of the polar

But as the elevation of the sun's temperature at the

regions during the maximum of the meteoric downpour, which
corresponds to the minimum
of spots, there is a variable
equator under meteoric downpour is gr.adual, and the down-
state of the corona, depending on the sunspot or meteoric
pour decreases only gradually, the adjustment between the
cycle. In the early period, when the meteors are falling
equatorial and polar regions is also gradual and may extend
thickest, and later as the spots are being generated, the
over several years. The heating up is comparatively rapid,
equatorial extension of the corona is notable. In the later
but the cooling down more leisurely, while the drift under
periods of spot decline, just growth of
before the rapid
Spoerer's law is slow, owing to the feebleness of the forces
meteoric downfall, the outline figure of the corona appears
under which adjustment is gradually accomplished.
to be nearly circular. The details of this theory have yet
12. The Periodicity of the Coronal Extension to be studied, but it conforms generally to the existing state
naturally conforms to the Sunspot Cycle. of our knowledge, and is believed to rest on a substantial
(i) The variability of the coronal extension.
foundation.

Within the last 40 years it has been established by (ii) Magnetic storms' or the variation of terrestrial
,

the observation of total eclipses of the sun, that the corona magnetism, with the spot development, due to the magnetic
is not always of the same form and extent, but that the areas about the spots being then most effective.
appearance of the corona is variable with the sunspot cycle. Ever since Lament (Annalen der Phys. 84.580) dis-
It would thus not be difficult to trace the details of the covered the change in the range of magnetic variation in
growth of this doctrine since 1870, but we may refer the loYs years, 1851, it has been recognized that the variation
reader to the account in Miss Gierke's History of Astronomy, in the amplitude of the magnetic declination follows the
igo2, pp. 174—176. curve of Wolf's, sunspot cycle so closely as to show that
The theory of a form
variable for the corona has the two phenomena —
sunspots and magnetic storms are —
come into use gradually, and has at last been concurred immediately and directly related.
 247 Sondernummer 248

The question is : How and why are the magnetic storms Accordingly, it follows that Sivaslian' % diagram of 1893
related to spot development? We may
answer this as follows: is incomplete, yet the relation of Jupiter to his family of
1. In the Bulletin de la Soc. Astr. de France, Nov., comets is sufficiently developed to show that the comets are
1Q18, I have explained the magnetic effect by supposing quite unsymmetrically distributed about the Jovian orbit.
the surface openings of the spots to allow the underlying Most of the orbits are gathered together and symmetrically
magnetic waves to escape more easily than usual. Thus when arranged about the Jovian Aphelion, whereas about the
the surface is agitated by spot development, we have abundance periheHon, in longitude 12", almost no orbits will be found.
of magnetic storms', and vice versa.
, This remarkable asymmetry of distribution is not yet ex-
2. But if the spots be really due to the descent of plained, and it may be a long time before we know the
cooler matter upon the solar surface as is implied in the cause on which it depends. But the fact is certain, and
theory now set forth —
the zones on either side of the moreover, adding a few more orbits to the diagram will not
equator being fixed by the higher temperature at the equator, change the distribution of the cometary paths, to alter the
with the corresponding expulsion of dust and drift towards dependence on Jupiters position in his orbit, or the sidereal
the polar regions, with the beginning of spot growth in revolution.
higher latitude, as indicated by Spoerer's law then it will — The above figure, Plate i, will sufficiently illustrate
follow that, as the cooler matter settles upon the photo-
the theory of a meteoric swarm under the action of Jupiter
spheric surface, it looks dark by contrast, gives out less heat
and Saturn. We must suppose Jupiter's orbit everywhere
and light, and thus takes on more fully magnetic properties
crossed by meteor paths, just as in the well known case of
appropriate to the sun as a whole, because the iron and
periodic comets. The swarms on the average revolve direct,
other vapors in the spots are cooled enough to become
in a period of from 4.5 to 4.8 years. Saturn's meteoric
magnetic. Under this view the spot areas are simply better
swarms may have a period of 11. 125 years, as imagined
radiators of the magnetic waves. At present either view
by Schuster. The reaction of Jupiter upon his own meteors,
seems admissible, but time must decide which is preferable.
and upon those connected with Saturn's orbit will give relative
Accordingly, there is no difficulty in accounting for
impulses in periods of 9.92945 years, and in 11. 86172 years
the growth of ,magnetic storms' with the progress of the
respectively, which may be compounded as before described.
spot development; yet certain discriminations are needed
before we can fix on the theory of the magnetism of spots All kinds of detailed transformations of the meteor
which is most admissible. This problem is difficult, yet paths will result. We are concerned here only with average
soluble by separating the secondary effects of spot growth effects, and dynamically these evidently will attain maxima
from the causes out of which it grows. in periods depending on combinations of 9.92945 years and
In 1877 Faye called attention to the frequently ob- 11.86172 years, which latter is the period of Jupiter's sidereal
served outbursts of hydrogen protuberances about spots as revolution. As Saturn's motion is retrograde relatively to
due to this volatile element being carried down into the Jupiter, the longer period will be shortened to an indermediate
nucleus, where the temperature is high, whence a rapid— period, between 9.92945 and n. 86 172 years, yielding an
expansion, with outburst of hydrogen, calcium and other adjustment in accordance with the principle of least action.
protuberances occur. The details of spot operations thus
But although the maximum dynamical impulse occurs
admit of satisfactory explanation, and it is believed that no
at conjunctions and oppositions of Jupiter and Saturn, and
serious difficulty remains outstanding. This is remarkable in
view of the bewilderment heretofore prevalent, and increasing
the outburst of solar heat should then take place, as in —
with the accumulation of the vast masses of solar data now
1881, 1901, 192 I, which were years of terrific heat — yet
the sunspots, being an indirect effect of the equatorial
available.
acceleration and the heat then given to the sun, may not
(iii) Remarks on the incompleteness of Sivaslians, dia-
attain maximum prominence till 4 or 5 years have elapsed
gram for the dependence of the sunspot cycle, with coronal
in the cooling and adjustment of the sun's surface layers in
on the meteors connected with Jupiter and Saturn.
fluctuation,
It is important to inquire why the sunspot cycle
different latitudes. We shall not go into this problem in more
detail at present.
depends on a composition between the sidereal revolution of
Jupiter in 11. 86172 years and the retrograde revolution of We now observe from Plate i that if the conjunction
the conjunction-opposition line with Saturn in 9.92945 years. of 192 I, Aug. 22.57756 G. M. T., the heliocentric longitude
The best answer to this inquiry is the preceding diagram of ^ = 177°) be taken as the initial position 5i _7i in our figures, ,

Jupiter's family of comets, made hy A. G. Sivaslian in 1893. it will be evident we are now in the densest cluster of comet
This diagram is not complete, as was supposed by orbitsand meteor swarms. Hence we should expect a tremen-
Sivaslian, in 1893, but today has to be supplemented by dous increase recently in the precipitation of meteors upon
the orbits of the following comets, and several others. the sun. Is this the source of the terrible heat developed
Period. during the summer of 192 1 in all the leading countries of
1896 V (Giacobini) 9.00 years the world? The recent weather reports accord with this
1896 VII (Perrine) 6.67 view, and thus emphatically support the theory of meteoric
1905 II (Borrelly) 7.30 downfall; but we have already examined the weather reports
1906 IV (Kopff) 6.67 somewhat fully in section lO above, and need not here
1906 VI (Metcalf) 6.89 extend the discussion.
 249 Sondernummer 250

1. Hence it follows that just as the arrangement of (iv) The previous researches on meteor swarms by
the cometary orbits depends on the sidereal revolution of Sir John Herschel, Lockyer, Schuster and Turner did not lead
Jupiter, so also the meteor swarms shown to be produced to the observed period of the sunspot cycle, 11. 18 years.
by the disintegration of comets must also depend on the known
1. It is well John Herschel was the
that Sir
sidereal revolution of this great planet. first to suggest that the sunspot periodicity depends on the

2. We do not know the reason

for this dependence downfall of meteors upon the solar surface. (Outlines of
on the sidereal position, but from the observed positions Astronomy, lo"" ed., 1869, Arts. 900-905 a). It does not
of the cometary orbits, the fact appears to be certain. appear that Herschel worked out the theory in any conside-
Nothing could be more clearly demonstrated by the above rable detail, but rather adopted Sir W. Tompson's theory of
diagrams. meteoric matter falling into the sun to keep up its heat.
3. It is to be noticed also that as Jupiter has very When was revived by Sir Norman Lockyer,
this theory
few comet orbits near his perihelion, in longitude 12°, but the objection from Herschel's time, seemed more
dating
very many near his aphelion, a presumption exists that a formidable than at first seemed probable. Meteors falling on
similar law of distribution will hold for the paths of the the solar surface, for example, would not be distributed with
meteor swarms, which are invisible. especial density in northern and southern heliographic latitude

Accordingly, when Jupiter is in conjunction with where the maxima of the spot zones are located. Accordingly,
4.
certain fundamental difficulties of the meteoric theory were
Saturn, near aphelion, Aug. 22, 192 1, there ought to be
not overcome by Herschel or by Lockyer; and the difficulty
great derangement of the meteor swarm paths by the mu-
still persists, unless overcome by the meteoric theory of the
tual actions of these two great planets. If this throws down
present writer, which we believe will be found to be true.
swarms of meteors upon the sun, there ought to be maximum
development of heat, as during the terribly hot summer 2. In later times the problems of sunspot periodicity

of 192 1. has been extensively studied by Schuster and Turner^); but

in spite of their extensive labors it can hardly be said that
5. The details of the mutual actions of these great
any satisfactory conclusion was arrived at.
planets upon the meteor swarms is sufficiently illustrated by
the Plate Jupiter will so shorten the radius vector of the
NewcomV% conclusion that there are two periods of
i.

meteors belonging to the Saturnian system as to bring billions

4.62 -1-6.5 1 years = 11. 13 years is also far from convincing.
of them into collision with the sun and Saturn will react ;
He holds that these are the uniform cycles underlying the
periodic variation of sunspot activity; but is so bewildered
correspondingly on the Jovian swarms. Hence a maximum
may by the cause involved that he adds: » Whether the cause of
downpour of meteors be expected.
be sought in something external to the sun;
this cycle is to
The conjunction of 1901-1961 in longitude 297°
6.
or within it ., we have at present no way of deciding.*
. . .

is favorably situated for the downpour of meteors, as we

less
Now to ascertain what would happen under the mutual
see by comparing the two diagrams. The conjunction of
action of the we consider as before first the
two planets,
1 881-194 1 in longitude 57°, will be still less favorably
about the planet and the sun, and the rotating
jSTz/Z-surfaces
situated; and we should not expect such terrific precipitation
orbits resulting therefrom. It will not be difficult to infer
of meteors upon the sun at these conjunctions.
the shifting of orbits which will take place when the orbits
These diagrams facilitate the study of the dependence of the particles are not periodic and do not rotate with
of the meteor swarms upon Jupiter's sidereal revolution. And Jupiter and Saturn, but extend from either planet to perihelia
as the conjunction-opposition line for Jupiter and Saturn near the sun.
revolves retrograde, in a period of 9.92945 years, while (a) When the orbits are rotating, like the Hll-snviaces,
Jupiter revolves direct in a period of 11. 8617 2 years, we which either planet carries about itself and the sun, it is

see that the sunspot cycle, if dependent on the interactions evident that just as the surfaces may be superposed in con-
of these great planets, should recur in less than 11.86 years, junction or opposition, so also may the orbits be superposed.
but have a period greater than 9.93 years. The outcome of this superposition is indicated by the figures.
It is shown in section 4 above that the contbination of (b) We
conclude that in conjunction Saturn operates
these periods leads to the average value of 11. 18 years, in to decrease the perihelion distance of many particles near
exact agreement with the observed duration of the sunspot the sun, mainly within the Jovian control; and likewise,
cycle, 1 1. 1 8 years. Moreover, the periods will be irregular, Jupiter operates to increase the perihelion distance of many
varying from about 8.0 years to 14.0 years, in the way we particles mainly under the control of Saturn. In opposition
have already explained. the perturbative tendencies at work are exactly the reverse,

It is imagine a more satisfactory proof than

difficult to but other particles in paths normal to the planetary line are
that here adduced of the cause of the sunspot cycle, and precipitated upon the sun. If the two planetary orbits were
its mysterious variation. The exact agreement as to
periods exactly circular the two tendencies would be equal, for equal

here given, and their direct deduction from the retrograding planetary actions; and the sun will have about equal masses

motion of the conjunction -opposition line in respect to of meteorites precipitated upon its equatorial regions, in
sidereal revolution leaves nothing to be desired. periods less than 11.86 years, but greater than 9.93 years.
Jupiter's

1) MN 64.543 (i904).
 Sondernummer 252

(c) Herschel's table of the effects of the tangential disturbing force.

Direction of
Motion in Orbit
 253 Sondernummer 254
If the now going on
meteoric downpour upon the sun hung certain sketches of it over my desk,- to remind me
is shown depend on the perturbative actions of Jupiter
to that the subject be resumed as soon as the
.should new
and Saturn, the knowledge of sound theory thus gained, theory of the aether was concluded (June 15, 192 1).
when confirmed by time and increased experience, may prove
Accordingly, early in July, 192 i, the work was energe-
to be a source of safety for vast populations against world-
ticallyresumed, and as the summer already was one of
wide drought and famine, such as are now witnessed in
unprecedented heat, I became convinced, as stated in a press
Russia and China, and threaten other parts of the continents
announcement issued July 8, that an unusual number of
of Asia, Central and Western Europe, and North America.
meteors had recently fallen upon the sun. This explained
About 140 years from now, 2061 A. D., a very similar the extraordinary summer heat
in accordance with a cause
situation of maximum danger will recur to the inhabitants known to be from the observed secular acceleration
at work,
of the northern terrestrial hemisphere, from the conjunctions of the earth's motion, as confirmed by the researches of
of the great planets Jupiter and Saturn in the middle of the Cowell and Fotheringham on ancient eclipses.
summer. But lesser dangers will recur in 1941 and 1961,
The ability to calculate the exact length of the mean
as explained above, —
after which the danger to the northern
sunspot cycle from the sidereal revolution of Jupiter
hemisphere will decrease somewhat, owing to the conjunctions
(11.86172 years) compounded with retrograde appulse with
corresponding to the winter season, and thus threatening
Saturn (in 9.92945 years) was another very striking proof
chiefly the inhabitants of the southern terrestrial hemisphere,
of the dynamical theory depending on the meteoric down-
which is largely covered by the ocean, and less likely to
pour under the combined actions of these two great planets,
be adversely affected. as was also the great sunspot saros in 88.9 years.
By it may be possible
the extension of these researches
But final and absolutely overwhelming proof became
for astronomers to foretell these dangers in time to
future
possible only on Aug. 19, when I discovered that the form
avert world drought disasters to large populations, such as
of the sunspot frequency curve was that of the tidal curve
we have witnessed in 192 1. If this could be done with of a resisted wave. Such a gravitational and thermal tide
confidence, so as to give opportunity in years of plenty to
at the sun's equator would result from the meteoric down-
provide for years of famine, incident to drought, millions of
pour, and hence the argument was seen to be absolutely
people would be saved from suffering and destruction by this
complete; and as each part of the argument supported the
humanitarian service of science. Thus in time the researches
other, and thus it hung together consistently as a whole,
here outlined may add not a little to the safety and stability the result was announced by the cablegram of Aug. 20, to
of the nations of the earth.
be followed by the cablegram of Aug. 22, when the results
It always is very difficult to be sure that we have had been fully applied to the Cepheid, Geminid and Cluster
correctly connected the details of a great multitude of pheno- variables.
mena in the simplestand most direct way. But as simplicity
Nothing could be simpler or more general than the
is a powerful argument for truth, when we come to search
present theory of the generation of surface tides rushing
for the fundamental laws of nature, the indications are that forward about the equators of the stars, and by the neigh-
the meteoric theory here advanced alone meets the modern boring resistance to this movement, yielding curves of light,
requirements of solar and cosmical physics. Certainly no corresponding to the tidal curves of resisted waves, as ob-
simpler theory could be proposed, and it is difficult to served in the canals and rivers connected with the oceans
imagine any valid objection to explanations which appeal so covering the Thus the tidal theory, —
terrestrial globe.
strongly to our common sense, and to the direct evidence begun by Newton, 1686, extended und improved by Laplace's,
of our senses. use of more rigorous dynamical principles, and made emi-
When we consider the sun and the Cepheid, Geminid nently practical by the researches of Airy on tides and waves,
and Cluster variable stars in their larger aspects, we naturally 1845, — unfolds a penetrating vision of the most stupendous
ask whether the theory advanced will account for the chief operations of the sidereal universe.
phenomena of their observed changes. If so, the more of We are enabled to understand the cause of sunspots,
these phenomena we can bring under the theory, the greater by the form of the curve of frequency, where the period
the probabiHty that it is correct. is somewhat long, and the movement shows a secondary
For in the final new development,
confirmation of any maximum under the sensible resistance of the equatorial

italways is a great element of satisfaction to find that the rush by other portions of the photosphere in higher latitude

adopted theory is supported by arguments drawn from several and at greater depth.
independent sources, so that the indications all are mutually To understand the break in the tidal curve of a
accordant. resisted wave, as applied to the sun and stars, we notice

In the investigation now concluded it appears by the the well known with the water
fact that a river flows fastest,
greatest elevation, deeper parts of the
in the central
records at hand that as far back as 19 17 I became so fully at

convinced that the sunspot cycle depends upon meteors channel. Now this central elevation of level corresponds

thrown upon the sun by the combined actions of Jupiter to the equators of the sun and stars; and hence we perceive
the equatorial current is resisted, the equatorial
and Saturn, that I then drew up a considerable outline of that as
of the photosphere readjusts itself, by a revulsion of
the dynamical theory of this precipitation of meteors, and level
 %

255 Sondernummer 256

the flaming fluid towards the poles, and a secondary os- the tidal curves recorded in our rivers, we see the cause
cillation follows, by reaction of the globe upon itself, yielding at work as plainly as if it were observed with the telescope.
a flow like the first equatorial accelerated current, but feebler. It is fortunate that we have very perfect frequency
These simple considerations, verified by recognized facts curves for the sunspots, and very similar light curves in such
and experiments in terrestrial hydraulics, show that the tidal stars as 7/ Aquilae. In view of the perfect geometric con-
curve of a resisted wave gives an exact representation of
formity of the curves with each other and with the tidal
the currents at the equators of the sun and stars as set in
curve of resisted wave-motion, it is absolutely impossible to
motion by the meteoric downpour. doubt that the cause at work in the two cases is identical.
And we may apply this discovery at once to the body In the case of the sun the orbital motion of Jupiter is slow,
of the Cepheid and Geminid variable stars, in which the and the meteoric downpour therefore somewhat gradual and
light curve has the same form as the curve of sunspot prolonged; in the case of 7/ Aquilae the period of the meteoric
frequency. downpour is much shorter, yet long enough for the gravi-
tational and thermal tidal wave at the equator of the star
In the case of the we do not observe the
sunspots
to break, partially subside, and, by reaction, form a distinct
variation of the sun's light —
though indeed it does actu-
— secondary maximum.
ally vary, but the frequency of the spots, a secondary
phenomenon proportional to the variations of the sun's light. All these considerations show the exhalted nature of the
Up to the present time our imperfect experimental measure- tidal theory as a means of future discovery. The applications
ments do not disclose to us the sun's light curve; yet we of the theory in the terrestrial phenomena of the oceanic
know from the variable stars that the type of this variation tides heretofore made by Newton, Laplace and Airy are small

in radiation is similar to that of the Cepheid variables. compared to those which will be made in the immensity of
space. By the study of the associated gravitational and thermal
Accordingly, in the absence of direct records of the pulsations, — visible through the fluctuations of starlight in
sun's light curve, we may use the curve of spot frequency, the globular clusters and other remote objects of the sidereal
which will have the correct form, but a considerable retar- universe, — we have a means of exploration of transcendent
dation of phase, owing to the fact that the spots are an interest to the geometer and natural philosopher.
indirect effect of the downpour of the meteors upon the
Here are sidereal systems of the highest order, composed
sun's equatorial belt.
of many thousands of giant stars, removed from us by
yet
Again, in the case of the Cluster-variables discovered perhaps a quarter of a million light-years, and thus by per-
by Bailey, we find the periods to be of the order of a spective condensed into a very small angular space on the
half day or less, which is too short an interval to bring back ground of the heavens, while from the mere effect of
about any visible secondary maximum, due to break of the this distance these giant stars are so faint as to appear on
tidal rush under the effect of resistance; and thus Bailey' our photographic plates as extremely delicate points of light.
Cluster-variables are practically devoid of sensible secondary Nevertheless their starlight is found to undergo regular
maxima in their light curves. periodic fluctuations which admit of accurate measurement.
Without the present theory we could not have foreseen From the light curves thus defined, the geometer per-
the cause of this omission of the secondary maximum; but and thermal oscillations going
ceives that the gravitational
in the light of it, we see how inevitable the omission is, on in these remote sidereal systems, though forever beyond
and how very useful the theory is in dealing with the the range of direct telescopic exploration, are undeniably
thousands of stars undergoing regular pulsations of light, similar to the tidal oscillations familiar to Newton, Laplace,
though situated in globular clusters so remote that the Airy and Darwin in the oceans and rivers of our terrestrial
radiation takes from 7000 to 240000 light-years to reach globe, and duly recorded since the age of Galileo in the
the earth. curves of sunspots investigated by Schwabe, Wolf, Spoerer,

Obviously the regularity of the pulsation is due to Faye, Newcomb and other astronomers.

the orbital motion of a satellite about the Cluster-variable; The possibilities opened up by these unexpected but
yet the downpour of meteors thereby precipitated, chiefly verified lines of research are as gratifying as they are limitless,
owing to the considerable eccentricity of the satellite orbit, and seem to me beyond mortals wonderful! They present
is the direct cause of the rapid increase of the star's light, to us an impressive picture of the continuity and unbroken
as shown by the steep ascending slope of the light curve. order of nature; and again emphasize Newton % doctrine that
the laws found to hold true upon the earth are to be extended
These remarks remind one that there is a new
to the heavens and applied to the solar system and sidereal
»Astronomy of the Invisible*, more general than that made
systems throughout the immensity of space.
known eighty years ago through Bessel's celebrated researches
on the proper motions of Sirius and Procyon. The difference In the author's paper on the Dynamical Theory of the
between the two developments consists largely in the fact Globular Clusters etc., (Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, IQ12), it is
that the tidal movements in the stars will be forever in- pointed out that the globular clusters have been built up by
visible, while the companions of Sirius and Procyon have the downpour of meteoric matter upon the component stars.
been optimally discovered. Yet as the light curves admit Thus the prediction made nine years ago is now proved by
of direct comparison with the sunspot frequency curve and some of the most impressive phenomena yet brought to light
 1

257 Sondernummer 258

in the sidereal systems of high order first studied by Sir On Tides and Waves, 1845, is shown to be identical with
William Herschel. that of the tidal curve of a resisted wave.
For over forty years the explorations of this unrivaled 6. The light curves of thousands of variable stars,
man made known the immensity and profundity of the which are explained also by the theory of gravitational and
star-depths. He wondered especially at the nature of the thermal waves under resistance.
globular clusters, scattered along the path of the clustering
7. The secondary maxima in the curve of frequency
stream of the Milky Way; and did not fail to notice that
of sunspots and in the light curves of variable stars, which
the symmetrical accumulation of brightness, increasing to a
heretofore have proved utterly bewildering to astronomers
perfect blaze of starlight towards the centre, is a proof of
and geometers.
the globular form of these dense masses of stars.

To the wonders perceived by Herschel, Bailey has

8. The connection between the sunspot frequency

added the amazing discovery of hundreds of variables in

curve and the light curves of variable stars — both types
of curves being geometrically identical and depending on
the interior of the globular clusters; and Shapley has recently
the modified oscillation incident to the resistance to wave
supplemented the record with a systematic determination of
motion.
the distances of these splendid systems.
was justly pointed out by Fourier, in his historical
It
9. The secular acceleration of the earth established
by researches on ancient eclipses, showing that the sun's
eulogy on the author of the Mecanique Celeste (June 15,
mass increases, and thus confirming the theory of a meteoric
1829), that the successors of Herschel and Laplace would
downpour.
witness the accomplishment of the great phenomena whose
laws these celebrated astronomers discovered. At remote 10. The direction of the rotations of the spots in
epochs the spectacle of the heavens will be changed, yet the zones north and south of the solar equator.
nothing can diminish the glory of the inventor who alone 11. The Great Saros or theoretical restitution period
is able to assign the cause of natural phenomena. in88.9 years, which is confirmed by the sunspot curves of
If therefore we are able to assign to resisted wave Wolf and other investigators during the past 176 years.
action the wonderful periodic fluctuations of the starlight of
12. World-wide meteorological disturbances, with
the individual variables noticed in Herschel's, glorious globular
decennial droughts due to the increase of solar radiation,
clusters, we shall bring to light a geometrical law which will
as witnessed for the greater part of a century and especi-
verify ftie prediction of Fourier, whose rigorous analysis,
ally illustrated by the excessive heat experienced in all
involving sextuple integration between infinite limits, a,lone is countries during the summer of 1921.
adequate to deal with the general theory of wave motion.
that the present theory
In the New Theory of the Aether, recently published,
It is a most impressive fact
we have referred all the physical forces of the universe to
explains:
wave-action in the aether. And now we find that free and
1. The sun's equatorial acceleration, and the preser- forced waves in matter, fluid and thermal oscillations in the
vation of this acceleration from age to age. photospheres of the stars, depending on the gravitational
2. The periodicity of corona, with its great
the action of other bodies, play a much greater part in the
equatorial extension near time of sunspot minimum,
the phenomena of the universe than we have heretofore believed.
when the principal gust of the meteoric downpour occurs. Accordingly, this general wave-theory of the universe follows

3. Spoerers law of progress for spot distribution, the from the original development begun by Newton, for the
development beginning in high heliographic latitude and tides of our sea and the sound waves of the air, and cannot
moving towards the equator with the advance of the sun- fail to give us the deepest insight into the laws of nature.

spot cycle. The prompt and generous recognition lent to this

4. The mean periodof the sunspot cycle, in 11. 178 investigation by several friends deserves the author's grateful
years, which can be calculated more accurately from the remembrance, and thus he mentions especially Captain
motions of Jupiter and Saturn than it can be found by the Edward L, Beach, U. S. N., Commandant at Mare Island,
direct observation of spots after records extending over 3 1 and Commander L. M. Cox, U. S. N., the eminent civil
years, from their discovery by Galileo, in 16 10. engineer; associates Mr. L. Tierna?i, Mr. W. S.
besides his

The form of the curve of frequency of sunspots, Trankle, above all Mrs. See, as contributing to the
and
5.
which by comparison with the curves in Airys great treatise early completion of these researches.

Starlight on Loutre, Montgomery City, Missouri, 19 21 Aug. 22. T.J.J. See.

Bd. 216.
 259 Sondernummer 260

Discovery of the Cause of the Mira Variable Stars.

Postscript: same cause as the Cepheid-variables, namely: meteoric
I. The day ! mailed this paper to the editor, (Sept. 21, showers on the photosphere, undergoing gravitation and
iQ2i) Ireceived AN 5 116 and 5117, containing important thermal oscillations like the tidal curve of a resisted wave.
articles on variable stars by Neiskanen and Ludendorff. 2. I had neglected to treat of the Mira stars, because
Heiskanen gives a well defined curve of S Vulpeculae, I had not seen a good light curve of Omicron Ceti. Here
AN 5116, p. 63, which shows clearly that this star has a it is, and the record tells the same story as in the case of

rapid rise, followed by a much more gradual decline, with S Vulpeculae, namely: gravitation and thermal oscillations
distinct secondary maximum, and therefore depends on the following the tidal curve of a resisted wave..

r;j. 13.
Ceti SVul^eCtt/ae

The rapid rise to maximum, more gradual decline to orbital motion, but neither does our sun, owing to the
minimurtl, with distinct secondary maximum
about half way smallness of the masses of Jupiter and Saturn. Thus Mira
along the downward slope assimilates Mira not only to probably has comparatively small bodies active in precipi-
d Cephei, as Ludendorff imagines, but also to the curve of tatingthe meteors, and the combinations of two or more
the sunspot frequency much more distinctly than we have of them will explain the »oscillations« in the period as
heretofore dared to believe. well as the ignition of the star's photosphere.

3. No doubt the Mira be found

stars generally will 5. It is interesting to note that the earliest observations
to have similar connections and to depend on the very of Mira by David Fabricms
at Resterhave, East Frisia, were
cause here outlined. It is no objection to the meteoric theory made 1596, and thus just 325 years ago. This
in August,
that the periods, and amplitudes are somewhat variable, in seems a long period to wait for an explanation of any
the Mira stars; because we see above what happens in the celestial phenomenon, yet if the explanation is valid, the

case of our sun, with an » oscillation* in the spot period, compensation is to be found in the establishment of a true
and similar causes no doubt will operate among the stars law of nature.
generally. When the periocjs are very regular, as in some 6. Finally, attention may be called to the desirability
of the cluster variables, the orbital motion of the companion of giving the light curves in the form shown above. Figure 13.
is so powerful as to be the chief influence, and an » os- In the absence of this form, the physical meaning of the
cillation* in the period is eliminated. fluctuation of the star light is difficult to recognize; but
with this unsymmetrical oscillation and secondary maximum
4. It is well known that the spectral changes of Mira
exhibited to the eye, the tidal curve of a resisted wave
show atmospheric ignition, as if the absorbing gases of the
photosphere were aflame from the downpour of meteors, becomes as obvious as in the light curve of d Cephei, or
the curve of sunspot frequency.
with internal disturbances incident to this conflagration and
tidal rush of the flaming fluid. The star does not exhibit IQ2I Sept. 22. T.y. J. See.

Ausgegeben 1922 August 23.

 Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 216.

T.J.J. See. Caus

Sivaslian's diagram of Jupiter's family of comets. 1893.

C Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kiel.

 Tafel I.

gunspots and their Periodicity.

Diagram and oppositions of Jupiter and Saturn, with the years when abnormal
illustrating the conjunctions
terrestrial heat and drought may be expected, from the precipitation of meteors upon the sun.
A.stronom. Nachrichten Bd. 216. Tatel 2.

T.J.J. See. Cause of the Sunspots and their Periodicity.

Diagram illustrating the relative motion of Jupiter and Saturn, and the theoretical method
for calculating the sunspot period of 11. 178 years.

C.Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim,

Kiel.
 Tatel 3.
Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 2l6.

Georg Oheim. Kiel.

C .Schaidt, Inhaber
 '

Astronoin. Nachrichten Bd. 216.

Tafel 4.

T.J.J. See. Cause of the Sunspots and their Periodicity.

P Thi/iraiad, farm, of tidt-ware in, a, shaUtrw rwer, to seaind, approsamjxtuirt, (ZOIJ

TTwirctual Tidol ajrvej for different statioru on.

10 (he rwer fZ02l
l^^stajion. at rnou/h of rive
n 'f^.miim-

2Tr \ if myc-Itv=

44. tongCbuiijioL SeoUon, ot the Th.oiiLes.f508.l

Correspondiltij tidal curves on, different parts of the Tham£S (&10j sprang tedc.
(//'^,/y
„
tm rr
«
.-
Shar7xesj,Ja4l r<i!.£4 i^MiimnTTTTviimiisrirm
AJJ 46. Dtptfo'-d, ia41 Tet.HA. -IM
Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 216.
Tafel 5.

T. J. J. See. Cause of the Sunspots and their Periodicity.

CetTespanSow tidal curves on different parts ef the Sefenv/SBl

Tidal curve at Hung Hood,
^1. TidaJ, nerve at the, mmuh of the, Setem ° I g nt ivv^yiTniixiiLJK
Hours /ham, lotv water 30
o I n miv vvi-vnTmiriiixn
IS

1
Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 216.
Tafel 6.

T.J.J. See. Cause of the Sunspots and their Periodicity.

Mag.

Light-Curve of 17 Aquilse (Schur).

_j I I i_
 Tafel 7.
Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. 216.

T. J. J. See. Cause of the Sunspots and their Periodicity.

/?tt^-tf /o 20 30 so (0 70" go 70 fOO //O

^2

s.

Qd .1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6

Typical Light-Curves of Cluster Variables

MAG,
A.stronom. Na^ffl|l|!Hi|""JiJ!l"iJ|iW Tafel 8.

T.J.J. See. Cause of the Sunspots and their Periodicity.

/l=aTO

""TS^

Fig. 7. Illustration of unsymmetrical distribution of comet orbits

the
and meteoric swarms about Jupiter's orbit, which authorizes
the use of the term Atc (a„/ajJsin[P— a(^— /„)] in the formula for
the sunspot periodicity.

Fig. 10. Illustration of the escape of water vapor, molecular weight 18,
to the higher regions of the atmosphere, which is relatively
so free from dust, and condensation therefore so difficult,
that when a drought in a large inland country once becomes
established, it is apt to be prolonged till the larger seasonal
changes produce such commotion in the earth's atmosphere
Fig. 6. illustrationsof the types of curves examined by the auihor as to bring on rain.
before adopting the tidal curve of a resisted wave as repre-
senting the order of nature.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim,

Kiel.
Astronom. Nachnchten Bd. 216. Tafel 9.

T. J. J. See. Cause of the Sunspots and their Periodicity.

The corona during the total solar eclipse of May 28, 1900, drawn by PV. H. Wesley from photographs by ^. W. Maunder.
This was near the spot minimum of 1901.5, and the corona therefore already much extended at the equator under the
increasing downpour of meteors,
Composite photograph of sun's disc and limb, taken by W.J. S. Lockyer, 1904, July [9.
(a) The great cyclonic spot of
May 5, 1858, drawn by Secchi; and (b) a stereoscopic view of solar atmosphere above a
group of Sunspots, Aug. 7, 19 15, by Hale.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim,

Kiel.