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METHODOLOGY

Sunilkumar.S “Psycho-neurological aspects of learning


disabilities” Thesis. Department of Psychology, University of Calicut, 2007
Chapter I11

METHODOLOGY

*3 Research Design
*:* Sample
*3 Tools
*:* Administration and Scoring
+3 Analysis o f the Data
METHODOLOGY

According to dictionary definition, research means to engage in the


systematic investigation in to and study of materials and sources inorder to

establish facts and reach new conclusion. Perhaps the words new conclusion

could be replaced by valid conclusions to give the definition a little more


teeth. (Mukherji, 2000)

When we speak about methodology it generally denotes a combination

of:

a) technology of data collection, namely tools and methods of research

such as questionnaire, schedule, interview guide, case study, life


history, survey and participant observation methods and content
analysis.

b) analytical tools such as statistical tests and methods and

c) philosophy, theory and epistemology of social science guiding the

conduct of research in the definition and understanding of the problem


and the logic of enquiry (Mukherji, 2000).

The term methodology is at times used simply to refer to the

procedures or techniques involved in the collection of data (Sjobery & Nett,

2002).

Ahuja (2005) says that methodology is concerned with techniques. It


inquires into the potentialities and limitations of some technique or other. It

is a plan and procedure for carrying out research. It refers to research


Methodology 1 55

techniques and strategies for obtaining valid information. It is an approach to

understanding a phenomenon. Thus methodology refers to the philosophy on


which research is based. This philosophy includes assumptions and values
that serves as basis (rationale) for research and are used for interviewing data
and reaching conclusion.

The main purpose of this chapter is to provide details regarding the


methodology adopted in this work with respect to the sample selected, tools

used, mode of administration and statistical analysis.

Research Design

According to Kerlinger and Lee (2000) research design is the plan and
structure of investigation, conceived so as to obtain answer to research

question. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It


includes an outline of what the investigator will do, from writing the
hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of the data.

Research design is the systematic planning of research to permit valid


conclusions. It involves the specification of the population to be studied, the

treatments to be administered, and the dependent variable to be measured

(Reis & Judd, 2000).

Ahuja (2005) says that research design is a process of making

decisions or arranging details. It is a process of making decisions before the


situation arises in which the decision has to be carried out.

The present study is designed as a diagnostic research study to explore


certain psycho-neurological aspects of learning disability. Diagnostic
Methodology 156

research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its

association with something else. The studies concerning whether certain


variables are associated are examples of diagnostic research studies. The aim

is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies, the


procedure used must be carefully planned. The research design must make
enough provision for protection against bias and must maximise reliability

with due concern for the economical completion of the research study

(Kothari, 1985).

The Sample

Children from 9 years to 12 years constitute the population from

which the sample is selected. Geographically Kerala includes three sub


regions i.e., Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. Inorder to make the sample
representative of the Kerala population, subjects were taken from all the three
regions.

The sample of the study includes three categories of subjects, namely,

two learning disabled groups and one learning abled group. The learning

disabled subjects were selected from the clinics and special education centers
where these children were studying. The normal control group was selected
possibly from their blood relations of corresponding places. The total

strength of the sample was 80. The learning disabled group consist of 40

subjects and the non learning disabled group consist of 40 subjects. Selection
of the subjects to be included in the two groups was different. Subjects in the
clinical group were selected following the purposive or judgemental

sampling method. The basic assumption behind purposive or judgemental


Methodology 157

sampling is that with the exercise of good judgement and appropriate strategy

one can handpick the cases to be included in the sample and thus develop
samples that are satisfactory in relation to one's research needs. A common

strategy of purposive sampling is to pick cases that are judged to be typical of


the population in which one is interested. The selection of elements proceeds

under the assumption that errors of judgement in the selection will tend to

counter balance each other (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1982). Table. 3.1

gives the scatter of the sample

TABLE 3.1
Distribution of the Sample

S1. Group Girls Boys Total


No.
1. Learning Disabled (identified by the
8 19 27
physician)
2. Learning Disabled (identified by the
3 10 13
researcher)
3 Learning abled 13 27 40

Total 24 56 80

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

(a) Learning Disabled Group

The clinical group, consist of two kinds of samples. Selection of the

subjects included in one of the group was based on the diagnosis made by the

physician. Another group was selected by the researcher, according to the

criterion of the DSM IV, and also with the help of the class teacher where the

subject is studying. The researcher reaffirmed that this group did not receive
Methodology 158

any professional help before. Children with average or better physical

development and with average or above average intelligence were only

included.

Children with sub normal intelligence, serious organic disorders, sub

average overall physical development and drug consumers were excluded

fiom the sample because learning deficit may be identified in children with

these problems also.

(b) Learning Abled Group

Subjects in this group was selected by systematic random sampli~~g.

The selection was made fiom all the places fiom where the LD samples were

taken, possibly fiom their blood relations. These samples are thus matched

with those in the clinical groups with respect to age, sex and education.

Before selecting each subject the researcher conducted an interview inorder

to confirm that they did not have history of any major physical or

psychological problems or brain injury. In order to make the interview more

consistent a personal data sheet was used. The samples selected for the Non

LD group was also based on the ratings of teachers and a standard

intelligence test. Equal number of learning disabled and learning abled

subjects were taken kom every class inorder to control the effect of learning

atmosphere in the institutions. Distribution of sample with respect to age is

given in Table 3.2.


Methodology 159

TABLE 3.2
Age Wise Distribution of the Sample

S1.
Age in Years
Group
No. Girls Boys

1. Learning Disabled 10-12 9-12


2. Learning abled 9-12 9-12

Educational level of the sample ranged from IV" standard to W


'
standard. Educational distribution of the samples is given in Table 3.3

TABLE 3.3

Distribution of Education in the Sample

S]. Education
Group Boys Girls Total
No. level
4' std 7 1 8
Learning
1. 5~ std 12 5 17
Disabled
6' std 10 5 15
4' std 1 5 6
2. Learning abled 5' std 19 6 25

6' std 7 2 9

Although no attempt to control the religious background of the

subjects were made, distribution of this variable as represented in the sample


is presented in Table 3.4.
Methodology 160

TABLE 3.4
Distribution of Religion in the Sample

Group Hindu Muslim Christian Total


Learning
30 5 5 40
Disabled
Learning
25 9 6 40
abled
Total 55 14 11 80

Thus the entries in Tables from 1 to 4 reveal that the Learning

Disability groups and Non Learning Disability group are more or less

matched in Age and Sex.

Variables in the Study

In the present study as the fxst step data was collected focusing on

two set of variables:

1) Variables representing learning disability in Language hnction-

Reading and Writing.

2) Variables representing neuropsychological hnctions-Attention,

Memory and Impulsivity

3) As a second step a post-hoc categorization of the data was done to

verifj the role of socio demographic variables.

In the above LD variables are considered as the dependent variable,

and other variables are considered as independent variables.


Methodology 161

TOOLS

The following are the tools selected for assessing the variables under

the study.

1. A personal data sheet- prepared by the researcher for collecting

personal and family background.

2. For assessing intelligence Draw-A-Man-Test (Pramila Phatak-revised,

1987) is used.

3. For assessing attention Digit span- a subtest of Wechsler's Intelligence

Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R, Wachsler 1974) is used.

4. For assessing the impulsivity of children, Matching Familiar Figure

Test (MMF) developed by Kagan and Co-worker (cited from

Medinnus, 1976) is used.

5. For assessing memory, a test for children prepared by the researcher is


used.

6. For assessing the language skill, a language test for children prepared

by the researcher is used.

A brief description of each tool is followed:

1. Personal Data Sheet

The personal data sheet consist of personal details, family background

and medical background of the subject. The personal details regarding the

name, age, sex, education, academic performance etc.. . are included. The

family history of the subject consist of type of family, education, nature of

employment, socio-economic status, religion etc.. . of parents. In the medical


Methodology 162

background, subjects history of any disease, health condition of parents

during pregnancy, history of drug addiction, or alcoholism, marital problem

etc.. . in the family are included. The informations are collected directly from

the subjects, parents and teachers.

2. Draw-A-Man-Test

For the preliminary screening, Draw-A-Man test of intelligence is

used. This is done to assure that the subject possess average intelligence

which is one of the criteria for learning disabled. Here the researcher used

revised and extended form of Draw-A man test by Pramila Phatak. The use

of human figure to measure intelligence is based up on the development of

human body. The original scale included scoring of the major body parts and

their crude proportions. It was felt that in the advance concept of human

figure the inter location of various body parts and the sex of the figure are

inevitable. Hence a few more points were added to the original scale and a

list of 25 points was made. The following are the list of the major 25 scoring

points.

Reliability and Validity

Consistency of scores on repeated performance with different samples

were reported to be around 0.9, indicating acceptable reliability of the scale.

The validity CO-efficientshave been calculated against different

criteria in various studies. The correlation between the scale and the criterion

varies according to the nature of the external criterion. However all of them
Methodology 163

are in accordance with the expectation of accepting the validity of the scale.

The rank order CO-efficients (Rho) were calculated for 8 age groups

consisting of 9-5 1 students. They ranged from 0.18 to 0.84. The average 'r' is

calculated by using the Rho's. The Rho's were calculated for 10 groups

consisting of 15 to 60 students. They ranged from 0.01 to 0.44.

3. Digit Span

Digit span is one of the subtests of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for

Children (WISC-R, 1974), used to assess the span of attention. It consist of

two categories, Digit Forward and Digit Backward. The present study

selected this test in the year 2000. Hale, Hoeppner and Fiorello (2002) has

also selected this tool for assessing attention which W h e r ensures the

validity of this method for this purpose.

4. Impulsivity Test

To assess the irnpulsivity of the subject, Matching Familiar Figures

Test (MFF) was used. The original form consist of a series of twelve

pictures, each on a separate sheet, along with six variants of that picture. For

the present purpose a shorter form of Matching Familiar Figure Test was

used. It was developed by Kagan and Coworkers (cited fiom Medinnus,

1976). The reflection-impulsivity dimension in children has received

considerable attention in recent research. When faced with various problem

solving task, the reflective children have been found to having longer

attention span and are less distractable. On the other hand impulsive children

spend little time in considering alternatives. They make quick and hasty
Methodology 164

judgments that frequently result in incorrect responses (Medinnus, 1976).

This test consist of six items of the matching familiar figure and two tasks

involving motor control. All the items are drawing of figures and patterns.

The child is asked to select the picture that is exactly like the one at the top of

the sheet. The two measures obtained from this test are the time taken to

respond (the amount of time the child takes to make his choice) and the

number of errors.

Reliability and Validity

Studies using (MFF) has proved its validity by differentiating children

of different levels in scholastic performance and intelligence (Joseph, 1994).

5. Memory

Memory refers to the mental processes that enable us to acquire,

retain, and retrieve information (Hockenbury and Hockenbury, 1998).

Although the present study was initially designed in 2000. Later in 2002,

Hoerig, David and D' Arnato also emphasized the need to assess memory of LD

children. In order to assess the quality of memory of the subject, the investigator

developed a test that is simple enough to be used with children of any literacy

level. Twenty four common objects, made of wood, steel and plastics that are

familiar to the children are selected. The objects are,

Car Carrot Plate Matchbox Cow Hen


Ball Pineapple Pencil Torch Hippopotamus Parrot
Key Mango Bangle Bulb Goat Sparrow
Watch Grapes Flower Comb Horse Egg
Methodology 165

Reliability and Validity

As the scores for memory is likely to improve with passing of time in


children Test retest reliability is not appropriate. Parallel form is an

appropriate method which was not attempted in this work due to limitation of
time.

The test could differentiate LD and Non LD children significantly

with LD children scoring a significantly lower mean (LD mean = 5.03 and
Non LD mean = 12.23) than the Non LD (Table 4.5). This result establishes

the diagnostic validity of the test. Therefore this test is considered for use in

the present study.

6. Language Test

Due to the non availability of language test in the native population,

the investigator devised a test to asses the language ability of the learning

disabled children. The test consists of two areas i.e., Reading and Writing.
The criteria used for the selection of the words, numbers and letters are given

below:

1) The possible words that are interchangeable with other letters were

identified.

2) Simple words with two or three letters, numbers and alphabets


including the letters and numbers that are often miswritten or misread
by learning disabled children were selected.

3) 25 Malayalam words which were correctly spelled (read and written)

by all the students in the class were selected from the Malayalam
Methodology 166

textbook for the 3" standard students. As the present sample is

selected from 4" standard, it is assumed that children who pass class 3

have acquired the language at the average level.

Reading:

One of the most critical problems faced by a significant number of

learning disabled children is their difficulty with reading. For assessing

reading, the investigator first prepared the following:

(1) List of Malayalarn and English alphabets

A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X ~ Y Z

(2) Identified a list of Malayalarn and English words (9 each) that are

commonly miss spelt by the learning disabled including words and

alphabets.

Play
home
on
cold
step
belt
was
top
Saw
(3) A list of nine numbers also selected which are given below

12 14
10 51
6 61
31 17
9
Writing:Inorder to identifjr the writing skill of learning disabled children, the
researcher identified 25 common Malayalam words from Malayalam
textbook prescribed for standard three, the previous standard from which the
subjects in the sample were promoted. This was done based on certain
criteria. Before identiQing the words, the investigator conducted a dictation
of 35 Malayalam words based on their textbook among the 3" standard Non
LD children. Among the 35 Malayalam words, 25 words which were
correctly written by all of them were selected. The words are given below.
Methodology 168

Reliability Validity

As the scores for language is likely to improve with passing of time in

children test-retest reliability is not appropriate. Parallel form is an

appropriate method which was not attempted in this work due to limitation of

time.

However, the test could differentiate LD and Non LD children

significantly with LD children scoring a significantly lower mean score (LD

Reading mean = 12.88 and Writing mean = 12.49; NLD Reading mean=l .S0

and Writing mean = 2.17) than the Non LD children (Table 4.3).

ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING

1) PERSONAL DATA SHEET

Administration

The subject was seated comfortably in front of the table. After making

proper rapport, the personal data sheet was given to the subject and were

asked to write the personal, educational, family, social and health

background of the subject.

Scoring

The informations collected are used for the post hoc subgrouping of

the sample with regard to certain socio demographic factors and also for

initial screening of subjects.


Methodology 169

2) DRAW - A - MAN TEST

Administration

The subject was seated comfortably at the table. After establishing

proper rapport, a blank sheet of paper was given to the subject and the

investigator gave the following instructions. "This is a blank space and I

want you to draw a picture of a full human figure in the space. I want to see
how nicely you can draw it. You can take as much time as you like, but if

you want to turn the sheet and use the backside, you have to tell me. When
you finish put the pencil down and raise your hand to indicate that you have

finished".

Scoring

The scoring of the human figure is simple for anyone who is capable

of following the instructions faithfully. The illustration of each body part is

given in the manual along with their weightages and description of scoring

points. Thus the directions in the manual is followed.

3) DIGIT SPAN

Administration

The subject is seated comfortably and proper rapport is established.

The two parts of the test is administered one after the other.

Digit Forward: The instruction for the subject was as follows; " I am going
to say some numbers. Listen carefully and when I have finished, repeat them

after me" (Wechsler, 1974). The digits were read out one per second with

clarity. If the subject repeated trial 'I' of a series successfully, then the next
Methodology 170

higher number in the same trial is used. If helshe failed then a second chance
is given in the same series of trial 11. If helshe failed on both the trials of a

given series then the testing was discontinued.

Digit Backward: The instruction for the subject was as follows. "Now I am

going to say some more numbers, but this time I want you to say them

backwards" (Wechsler, 1974). An example was given and let the subject try.

If the subject failed in the trial I, trial I1 of the same series is given to

himher. If helshe succeeded, testing proceeded to the higher series. If helshe

failed in the trial 11, the test was discontinued.

Scoring

The subject's score in the Digit Forward is the highest number of

digits repeated without error. Maximum score is 9.

Scoring in Digit Backward is the maximum number of digits repeated

in backward series with out error in trial I or 11. The highest score in digit
backward is '8'.

The total score for the Digit span is the sum of scores on digit forward

and digit backward. The maximum possible score is ' 17'.

4) IMPULSIVITY TEST

Administration

Each child is individually tested using the picture materials. Seated the
subject comfortably infront of the table. After making proper rapport the
child is instructed, "find the picture that is exactly like the one at the top of

the page". The time take to make his selection and errors are recorded.
Methodology 17 1

The two tasks, involving fine motor control were used to assess motor

behaviour. For the first task the child is instructed to connect the dots inorder

to make a umbrella. For the second task the child is to draw a path for the

dog to run over to get his bone. A broken line has been drawn to show where
the path is, but the subject has to connect the dashes so that the dog can run
along the path.

Scoring

The recorded time taken to complete each task is the index. In addition

a general or global assessment of the child's performance interms of some of

the following criteria is also made.

1. Accuracy of performance

2. Did the child appear to map out a plan of action before beginning

or did he proceed immediately with the task.

3. Did the child exhibit good motor control or was he somewhat


poorly co-ordinated in performing the task.

4. To what extent did the child appear tense and anxious. Combine

the children's performance on the two tasks.

5 ) MEMORY

Administration

The subject was seated comfortably infi-ont of a table and rapport was

established. After establishing rapport all the 24 objects were presented

together by placing them for 60 seconds. Then subjects were instructed to

recall the names of objects from memory.


Methodology 172

Scoring

The number of items correctly recalled represent the score. The

maximum score thus possible is '24' and minimum is '0'.

6) LANGUAGE TEST

Administration

Seated each individual subject comfortably at the table. After making

proper rapport the subject is instructed as follows: "I am going to show a list

of Malayalam alphabets, your task is to read the alphabet I have shown

specifically". This procedure was repeated in the case of English alphabets,

Malayalam and English words and the numbers.

In the second session, the subject is instructed to write the Malayalam

words one by one in the order in which they were presented verbally.

Scoring

For the assessment of reading, the investigator shows the list already

prepared to each individual subject and asked them to read them aloud. The

number of miss spelled words or errors are taken as the score. As cited by

Reddy, Rmar and Kusuma (2002), Thomas et al, 1987; and Adams, 1990

found students with learning disabilities have been found to display a

substantially greater number of error responses in certain academic subjects

than their non handicapped peers and have suggested that error analysis can

be effectively made use of by the teacher to identifL the learning disabled

students and also to measure the degree of disability.


Methodology 173

In the case of writing the investigator conducted a dictation of the

already prepared 25 Malayalam words individually. Each wrong word is

considered as one score.

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

The present study intended to explore certain psycho-neurological

aspects of learning disability in school going children. The tenability of the

hypotheses formulated to meet these objectives was tested using simple

statistical methods as follows:

The first four hypotheses suggesting a difference between the Learning

Disabled children and Non Learning Disabled children in terms of language

learning and three neuropsychological functions, viz., attention, memory and

impulsivity. The mean differences were tested using 't' test.

For hypotheses five to the tenth inter relationship between the studied

variables were verified by computing Pearson's Correlation Coefficient

between the scores of the respective variables. The scores were also subjected

to Multiple Regression Analysis. But the results were not significant enough.

Hypotheses 11' and 12' intend to explore the role of certain socio-

demographic factors on LD. For verifying this, 't7-test was computed between

the mean score of the different subgroups categorized according to their

socio-demographic characteristics.

The last hypothesis, to study individual differences among the LD


Methodology 174

children with respect to the studied language and neuropsychological

variables, was verified by graphical analysis.

The results of the analysis are presented and discussed in the next

chapter.

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