The Catholic Encyclopedia

VOLUME THIRTEEN
Revelation— Simon Stock
 THE CATHOLIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE
ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE,
DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH

EDITED BY
CHARLES G. HERBERMANN, Ph.D., LL.D.
EDWARD A. PACE, Ph.D., D.D. CONDE B. FALLEN, Ph.D., LL.D.
THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D.D. JOHN J. WYNNE, S.J.
ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS

IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES
VOLUME XIII

IRew l^orl?

ROBERT APPLETON COMPANY

 Nihil Ohstat, February 1, 1912

EEMY LAFORT, D.D.

CENSOR

Imprimatur

4- JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY

AECHBISHOP OF NEW YORK

Copyright, 1912

By EGBERT APPLETON COMPANY

The work have been written specially for The Catholic
articles in this
Encyclopedia and are protected by copyright. All rights, includ-
ing the right of translation and reproduction, are reserved.
 Contributors to the Thirteenth Volume
ALBERS, P., S.J., Maastricht, Holland: Sohaep- Nullius of; Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi, Diocese
man, Herman J. A.M. of; Sant' Angelo in Vado and Urbania, Diocese
of; Santa Severina, Archdiocese of; Sardinia;
AlDASY, ANTAL, Ph.D., Archivist op the Li- Sarsina, Diocese of; Sassari, Archdiocese of;
brary OF THE National Museum, Budapest: Savona and Noli, Diocese of; Segni, Diocese of;
Rosenau, Diocese of; Roskovdnyi, August. Sessa-Aurunca, Diocese of; Sicily; Siena, Arch-
diocese and University of.
ALLARIA, ANTHONY, C.R.L., S.T.D., Abbot of
S.Theodoro, Lector of Philosophy and The- BERGH, FREDERICK THOMAS, O.S.B Abbot
ology, Genoa: Saint Andrews, Priory of; Sainte- OF St. Augustine's, Carshalton, Surrey,
Genevieve, Abbey of; Saint-Victor, Abbey of. England: Sarum Rite.
ALSTON, G. CYPRIAN, O.S.B., London: Rood; BERTRIN, GEORGES, Litt.D., Fellow of the
Saint Augustine, Abbey of Saint-Denis, Abbey of
;
University, Professor of French Litera-
Sanctuary; Schola Cantorum; Sedilia; Sherborne ture, Institut Catholiqub, Paris: RoUin,
Abbey. Charles; S6vign6, Marie de Rabutin-Chantal,
ALVAREZ, JOSE MARIA, O.P., Prefect Apos- Madame de.
tolic OF Shikoku, Japan: Sliilcoku.
BLAKELY, PAUL LENDRUN, S.J., St. Louis
ALVES MARTINS, JOSE, S.T.D., Bishop op the University, St. Louis, Missouri: Saint Louis,
Cape Verde Islands: Sao Thiago de Cabo University of.
Verde, Diocese of.
BLUME, CLEMENS, S.J., Munich: Rhythmical
AMADO, RAMON RUIZ, LL.D., Ph.L., Col-
S.J., Office.
lege OF St. Ignatius, Sarria, Barcelona: Sala- BOUDINHON, AUGUST-MARIE, S.T.D., D.C.L.,
manca, Diocese and University of; Santander, Director, "Canoniste Contemporain", Pro-
Diocese of; Saragossa, Diocese of; Segorbe, Dio- fessor op Canon Law, Institut Catholiqub,
cese of; Segovia, Diocese of; Seville, Archdio- Paris: Sanction; Secular Clergy; Secularization.
cese of; Sigiienza, Diocese of.
BOYLE, PATRICK, CM., Superior of the Irish
AYME, EDWARD L., M.D., New York: Rose of College, Paris: Schools, Apostolic.
Lima, Saint.
BACCHUS, FRANCIS JOSEPH, B.A., The Ora- BRAUN, JOSEPH, S.J., St. Ignatius College,
Valkbnburg, Holland: Rochet; Sandals, Epis-
tory, Birmingham, England: Rhodo; Rufinus
copal.
Tyrannius; Ryder, Henry Ignatius Dudley.
BRENNAN, ANDREW J., S.T.D., Chancellor op
BARNES, MGR. ARTHUR STAPYLTON, M.A. THE DiOCESB op ScRANTON, PENNSYLVANIA:
(OxoN. AND Cantab.), Cambridge, England: Scranton, Diocese of.
Saint Peter, Tomb of; Sexbm'ga, Saint.
BROCK, HENRY M.,Ore Place, Hastings,
S.J.,
BAUMGARTEN, MGR. PAUL MARIA, J.U.D., England: Giovanni Battista; Ruysch,
Riccioli,
S.T.D., Rome: Saint Peter, Basilica of. John; Soheiner, Christopher; Schott, Gaspar;
Schwarz, Berthold.
BAUR, CHRYSOSTOM, O.S.B., Ph.D. (Louvain),
CoLLBGio Di San Anselmo, Rome: Severian. BROWN, CHARLES FRANCIS WEMYSS, Loch-
BECHTEL, FLORENTINE, S.J., Professor op ton Castle, Perthshire, Scotland Samar and :

Leyte.
Hebrew and Sacred Scripture, St. Louis
University, St. Louis, Missouri: Sabbath; BRUCKER, JOSEPH, S.J., Editor op "Etudes",
Sabbatical Year. Paris: Ricci, Matteo; SchaU von Bell, Johann
JAMES C, C.SS.CC, Honolulu, Ha- Adam.
BEISSEL,
waiian Islands: Sandwich Islands, Vicariate BUCHI, albert, Ph.D., Professor of History,
Apostolic of the. University of Fribourg: Schinner, Matthseus.
BENIGNI, MGR. UMBERTO, Prothonotary BURNS, JAMES A., C.S.C, Ph.D., President op
Apostolic Partecipante, Professor of Ec- Holy Cross College, Washington: Schools:
clesiastical History, Pontipicia Accademia In the United States.
DEI NoBiLi EccLBSiASTici, Rome: Rienzi, Cola
di; Rieti, Diocese of; Rimini, Council and Dio- BURTON, EDWIN, S.T.D., F. R. Hist. Soc, Vice-
cese of; Ripatransone, Diocese of; Roman Col- Peesident op St. Edmund's College, Ware,
leges; Rome; Rome, University of; Rossano, England: Revolution, English, of 1688; Rey-
Archdiocese of; Rossi, Pellegrino; Rota, Sacra nolds, William; Ricardus Anglicus; Richard of
Romana; Ruvo and Bitonto, Diocese of; Sabina, Cirencester; Richard of Cornwall; Richard of
Diocese of; Saint Paul-without-the- walls; Sa- Middletown; Ripon, George Frederick Samuel
lerno, Diocese and University of; Saluzzo, Dio- Robinson, Marquess of; Rishnager, William:
cese of; San Marco and Bisignano, Diocese of; Rishton, Edward; Rivington, Luke; Robert of
San Marino; San Martino al Cimino; San Mi- JumiSges; Robertson, James Burton; Rochester,
niato; Sardinia; San Severino; Sanseverino, Gae- Ancient See of; Rock, Daniel; Roger, Bishop of
tano San Severo, Diocese of Sant a Agata dei Goti,
; ; Worcester; Rokewode, John Gage; RoUe Rich-
Diocese of; Santa Lucia del Mela, Prefecture ard; Rolph, Thomas; Russell, Charles WUliam;
 Nihil Obstat, February 1, 1912

EEMT LAFORT, D.D.

CENSOR

Imprimatur

4- JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY

AKCHBISHOP OF NEW YORK

Copyright, 1912

By EGBERT APPLETON COMPANY

The work have been written specially for The Catholic
articles in this
Encyclopedia and are protected by copyright. All rights, includ-
ing the right of translation and reproduction, are reserved.
 Contributors to the Thirteenth Volume
ALBERS, P., S.J., Maastricht, Holland: Sohaep- Nullius of; Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi, Diocese
man, Herman J.A.M. of; Sant' Angelo in Vado and Urbania, Diocese
of; Santa Severina, Archdiocese of; Sardinia;
AldIsY, ANTAL, Ph.D., Archivist of the Li- Sarsina, Diocese of; Sassari, Archdiocese of;
brary OF THE National Mosecm, Budapest: Savona and Noli, Diocese of: Segni, Diocese of;
Rosenau, Diocese of; Roskovd-nyi, August. Sessa-Aurunca, Diocese of; Sicily; Siena, Arch-
ALLARIA, ANTHONY, dioceseand University of.
Abbot of
C.R.L., S.T.D.,
S. Theodoro, Lector of Philosophy and The-
BERGH, FREDERICK THOMAS, O.S.B., Abbot
ology, Genoa: Saint Andrews, Priory of; Sainte- OF St. Augustine's, Carshalton, Surrey,
GeneviSve, Abbey of; Saint-Victor, Abbey of. England: Sarum Rite.
ALSTON, G. CYPRIAN, O.S.B., London: Rood; BERTRIN, GEORGES, Litt.D., Fellow of the
Saint Augustine, Abbey of; Saint-Denis, Abbey of; University, Professor of French Litera-
Sanctuary; Sohola Cantorum; Sedilia; Sherborne ture, Institut Catholique, Paris: RoUin,
Abbey. Charles; S6vign6, Marie de Rabutin-Chantal,
ALVAREZ, JOSE MARIA, O.P., Prefect Apos- Madame de.
tolic OF Shikokd, Japan: Sliikoku.
BLAKELY, PAUL LENDRUN, S.J., St. Louis
ALVES MARTINS, JOSE, S.T.D., Bishop of the University, St. Louis, Missouri: Saint Louis,
Cape Verde Islands: Sao Thiago de Cabo University of.
Verde, Diocese of.
BLUME, CLEMENS, S.J., Munich: Rhythmical
AMADO, RAMON RUIZ, LL.D., Ph.L., Col-
S.J., Office.
lege of St. Ignatius, Sarria, Barcelona: Sala- BOUDINHON, AUGUST-MARIE, S.T.D., D.C.L.,
manca, Diocese and University of; Santander, Director, "Canoniste Contemporain", Pro-
Diocese of; Saragossa, Diocese of; Segorbe, Dio- fessor OP Canon Law, Institut Catholique,
cese of; Segovia, Diocese of; Seville, Archdio- Paris: Sanction; Secular Clergy; Secularization.
cese of; Sigiienza, Diocese of.
BOYLE, PATRICK, CM., Superior of the Irish
AYME, EDWARD L., M.D., New York: Rose of College, Paris: Schools, Apostolic.
Lima, Saint.
BACCHUS, FRANCIS JOSEPH, B.A., The Ora- BRAUN, JOSEPH, S.J., St. Ignatius College,
Valkenburg, Holland: Rochet; Sandals, Epis-
tory, Birmingham, England: Rhodo; Rufinus
copal.
Tyrannius; Ryder, Henry Ignatius Dudley.
BRENNAN, ANDREW J., S.T.D., Chancellor op
BARNES, MGR. ARTHUR STAPYLTON, M.A. the Diocese of Sckanton, Pennsylvania:
(OxoN. AND Cantab.), Cambridge, England: Seranton, Diocese of.
Saint Peter, Tomb of; Sexbuiga, Saint.
BROCK, HENRY M.,Ore Place, Hastings,
S.J.,
BAUMGARTEN, MGR. PAUL MARIA, J.U.D., England: Giovanni Battista; Ruysch,
Riccioli,
S.T.D., Rome: Saint Peter, BasiHca of.
John; Scheiner, Christopher; Schott, Gaspar;
Schwarz, Berthold.
BAUR, CHRYSOSTOM, O.S.B., Ph.D. (Louvain),
CoLLEGio Di San Anselmo, Rome: Severian. BROWN, CHARLES FRANCIS WEMYSS, Loch-
BECHTEL, FLORENTINE S.J., Professor of TON Castle, Perthshire, Scotland Samar and :

Hebrew and Sacred Scripture, St. Louis Leyte.

University, St. Louis, Missouri: Sabbath; BRUCKER, JOSEPH, S.J., Editor of "Etudes",
Sabbatical Year. Paris: Ricci, Matteo; SchaU von BeU, Johann
BEISSEL, JAMES C, C.SS.CC, Honolulu, Ha- Adam.
waiian Islands: Sandwich Islands, Vicariate BtlCHI, ALBERT, Ph.D., Professor of History,
Apostolic of the. University of Friboubg: Schinner, Matthseus.
BENIGNI, MGR. UMBERTO, Prothonotary BURNS, JAMES A., C.S.C, Ph.D., President of
Apostolic Partbcipante, Professor of Ec- Holy Cross College, Washington: Schools:
clesiastical History, Pontificia Accademia In the United States.
DEI NoBiLi EccLBSiASTici, Rome: Rienzi, Cola
di; Rieti, Diocese of; Rimini, CouncU and Dio- BURTON, EDWIN, S.T.D., F. R. Hist. Soc, Vice-
cese of; Ripatransone, Diocese of; Roman Col- President of St. Edmund's College, Ware,
leges; Rome; Rome, University of; Rossano, England: Revolution, English, of 1688; Rey-
Archdiocese of; Rossi, Pellegrino; Rota, Sacra nolds, William; Ricardus Anglicus; Richard of
Romana; Ruvo and Bitonto, Diocese of; Sabina, Cirencester; Richard of Cornwall; Richard of
Diocese of; Saint Paul-without-the- walls; Sa- Middletown; Ripon, George Frederick Samuel
lerno, Diocese and University of; Saluzzo, Dio- Robinson, Marquess of; Rishnager, Wilham;
cese of; San Marco and Bisignano, Diocese of; Rishton, Edward; Rivington, Luke; Robert of
San Marino; San Martino al Cimino; San Mi- JumiSges; Robertson, James Burton; Rochester,
niato; Sardinia; San Severino; Sanseverino, Gae- Ancient See of; Rock, Daniel; Roger, Bishop of
tano San Severo, Diocese of Santa Agata dei Goti,
; ; Worcester; Rokewode, John Gage; RoUe Rich-
Diocese of; Santa Lucia del Mela, Prefecture ard; Rolph, Thomas; Russell, Charles William;
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME
Russell, Richard; Sadler, Thomas Vincent DE BROECK, WILLIAM, C.SS.CC, Braine-le-
Faustus; Saint Asaph, Ancient See of Saint-John, ; Comtb, Belgium: Sacred Hearts of Jesus and
Ambrose; Sala, George Augustus Henry; Salis- Mary, Congregation of the.
bury, Ancient See of; Sampson, Richard; Sande-
manians; Seekers; Sergeant, John; Sheldon, Ed-
DEDIEU, JOSEPH, Litt.D., Institut Catholiqtjb,
Toulouse: Rusticus of Narbonne, Saint.
ward; Sherwood, AA'ihiam; Shirwood, William;
Simeon of Durham. DEGERT, ANTOINE, Litt.D., Editor of "La
BYRNE, JOSEPH, C.S.SP., Darien, Connecticut: Revue de la Gascoigne", Professor op Latin
Sierra Leone, Vicariate Apostolic of.
Literature, Institut Catholique, Toulouse:
Sainctes, Claude de; Saturninus, Saint; SiSgur,
CABROL, FERXAXD, O.S.B., Abbot of St. Mi- Louis-Gaston de.
chael's, Faenborough, England: Rubrics;
Sext. DELAMARRE, LOUIS N., Ph.D., Instructor in
French, College of the City of N^bw York:
CAHILL, JAMES A., S.J., Woodstock College,
Rochette, Desire-Raoul Ronsard, Pierre
; de;
Maryland: Schoenberg, Matthias von; Schra- Rousseau, Jean-Baptist e; Scarron, Paul.
der, Clement.

CALLAN, CHARLES J., O.P., S.T. L., Professor DELANY, FRANCIS X., S.J., Woodstock Col-
of Philiosophy, Dominican House of Studies, lege, Maryland: Scheffmacher. John James;
Washington: Sacchoni, Rainerio; Silvester,
Schneemann, Gerard.
Francis. DELANY, JOSEPH, S.T.D., New York: Sacrilege;
CA:\IPBELL, WILLIAM, Editor of "The South- Scruple; Secret; Seduction.
ern Messenger", San Antonio, Texas: San DERACHES, JULES, Santa Fe, New Mexico:
Antonio, Diocese of.
Santa Fe, Archdiocese of.

CATHREIN, VICTOR, S.J., Professor of Moral

DEVITT, E. J., S.J., Professor of Psychology,
Philosophy, St. Ignatius College, Valken-
Georgetown, Washington: Sestini, Benedict.
BURG, Holland: Right.
CHABOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE, S.T.D., Director
DE WULF, MAURICE, Ph.D., LL.D., J.U.D.,
Professor of the University op Louvain,
of the "Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Member of Royal Belgian Academy, Editor
Orientalium", Paris: Semitic Epigraphy. OF the " Revue N£o-Scholastique de Philoso-
CHANDLERY, PETER JOSEPH, S.J., Manresa phib", Brussels: Rocelin; Siger de Brabant.
House, Roehampton, London: Shrines of Our DONOVAN, STEPHEN M., O.F.M., St. Bonaven-
Lady and the Saints in Great Britain and Ireland. ture's Seminary, St. Bonaventure, New
CHAPMAN, JOHN, O.S.B., B.A. (Oxon.), Prior of York: Saint Bonaventure, College of.
St.Thomas's Abbey, Erdington, Birmingham,
England: Semi-Arians and Semi-Arianism.
DOYLE, JAMES, Editor of "The Catholic Reg-
ister", San TnoMi;, Madras, India: Saint
CHARLES, BROTHER, Principal, Cathedral Thomas of Mylapur, Diocese of.
School, Natchez, Mississippi: Sacred Heart,
Brothers of the.
DRISCOLL, JAMES F., S.T.D., New Rochelle,
New York: Sabaoth; Sadducees; Salome; Sam-
CHOQUETTE, MGR. CHARLES PHILIPPE son; Sara; Saul; Scribes: Simeon; Simeon, Holy;
CANOX, M.A., L.Sc, President op the Se.m- Simon of Cremona.
iNARY, St. Hyacinthe, Province of Quebec,
Canada: Saint Hyacinthe, Diocese of.
DRISCOLL, JOHN THOMAS, M.A., S.T.L.,
New York: Shamanism.
Fonda,
CLAYTON, JOSEPH, Hampstead, London: Sam- DRUM, WALTER, S.J., Professor op Hebrew
son, Abbot of St. Edmunds; Savaric; Simon of and Sacred Scripture, Woodstock College,
Sudbury. Maryland: Rhymed Bibles; Salmeron, Al-
phonsus; Seven-Branch Candlestick; Shammai
CLEARY, GREGORY, O.F.M., J.C.D., J.Civ.D.
the Elder.
Sometime Professor of Canon Law
S.T.L.,
AND Moral Theology, St. Isidore's College, DUBRAY, C.A., S.M., S.T.B., Ph.D., Professor of
Rome: Roch, Saint; Rose of Viterbo, Saint; Philosophy, Marist College, Washington:
Scarampi, Pierfrancesco. ScalimoU; Secularism.
CLUGXET, JOSEPH-LEON-TIBURCE, Litt.L., DUBRUEL, MARC, S.J., Bordeaux, France:
Paris; Rocamadour. Sacred Heart of Jesus, Society of the.
CORMACK, GEORGE, I.C, Rector, St. Joseph's DUHEM, PIERRE, Professor of Theoretical
Monastery, Clon.mel, Ireland: Rosmini and Physics, University of
Rosminianism (Antonio Rosmini-Serbati).
Bordeaux: Saxe, Jean
de; Saxony, Albert of.

CRIVELLI, CAMILLUS, S.J., Professor of Phi- DUHIG, JAMES, S.T.D., Bishop of

losophy and History, Instituto CientIfico Rockhampton,
Australia: Rockhampton, Diocese ot.
DE San Jos£, Guadalajara, Mexico: Saltillo,
Diocese of. ELDER, SUSAN B., New Orleans, Louisiana:
Rouquette, Adrian.
CUTHBERT, FATHER, O.S.F.C, St. Anselm's
House, Oxford: Rites: Friar Minor Capuchin. ELLIS, JOHN HENRY, Sacramento, California:
Sacramento, Diocese of.
D'ALTOX, E. A., Canon, LL.D., M.R.I.A., Bal-
linrobe, Ireland: Rinuccini, Giovanni Battista; ENGELHARDT, ZEPHYRIN, O.F.M., Santa
Roman Cathohc Relief BiU: In Ireland; Sars- Barbara, California: Sanchez, Jose Bernardo'
field, Patrick. Senan, Jos6 Francisco de Paula; Serra, Junlpero!
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME
FANNING, WILLIAM H. W., S.J., Professor op GIGOT, FRANCIS E., S.T.D., Professor op Sa-
Church History and Canon Law, St. Louis CRED Scripture, St. Joseph's Seminary, Dun-
University, St. Louis, Missouri: Scrutiny; wooDiE, New York: Ruben; Ruth, Book of; Sa,
Sexton. Manoel de; Scholz, John Martin Augustine; Sera-
phim; Seripando, Girolamo.
FERNANDEZ, ISIDOR, Canon, Vicar-General
or the Diocese of San Juan, Argentina; San GILDAS, M., O.C.R., La Teappe, Quebec, Canada:
Juan, Diocese of. Robert of Molesme, Saint.

FINEGAN, PHILIP M., S.J., College of the GILLET, LOUIS, Paris: Ribera, Jusepe de.
Atbneo, Manila, Philippine Islands: Rizal,
3os6 Mercado; Salazar, Domingo de; Sanchez, GOGGIN, J. F., S.T.D., Ph.D., St. Bernard's Sbm-
Alonso. iNARY, Rochester, New York: Sacristan.

FLAHERTY, MATTHEW J., M.A. (Harvard), GOYAU, GEORGES, Associate Editor, "Revue
Concord, Massachusetts: Sheil, Richard La- DBS Deux Mondes ", Paris Revolution, French :

lor.
Richard de la Vergne, Francois-Marie-Benjamin;
Richelieu, Armand-Jean du Plessis, Cardinal,
FLANAGAN, JOHN J., Ph.D., Rockford, Illi- Duke de; Rodez, Diocese of; Rouen, Archdiocese
nois: Rockford, Diocese of. of; Royer-Collard, Pierre-Paul; Sahara, Vicari-
ate Apostolic of; Saint Bartholomew's Day;
FORD, JEREMIAH, D.M., M.A., Ph.D., Pro- Saint-Brieuc, Diocese of; Saint-Claude, Diocese
fessor op the French and Spanish Lan- of; Saint-Denis, Diocese of; Saint-Di6, Diocese
guages, Harvard University, Cambridge, of; Saint-Flour, Diocese of; Saint-Jean-de-Mau-
Massachusetts: Rodrigues Ferreira, Alexandre; rienne. Diocese of; Saint-Simon, Louis de Rou-
Selgas y Carrasco, Jos6. vroy. Due de; Saint-Simon and Saint-Simonism;
Savary; Seez, Diocese of; Sens, Archdiocese and
FORGET, JACQUES, Professor of Dogmatic Councils of.
Theology and the Syriac and Arabic Lan-
guages, University of Louvain: Schism.
GRANJON, henry R. M., S.T.D., Ph.D., J.C.D
Bishop of Tucson, Arizona: San Xavier del
FORTESCUE, ADRIAN, Ph.D., S.T.D., Letch-
Bac, Mission of.
wokth, Hertfordshire, England: Rites; Rit-
ual; Roman Rite, The; Sanctus; Schism,Eastern;
Secret. GRATTAN-FLOOD, W. H., M.R.I.A., Mus.D.,
RosBMOUNT, Enniscorthy, IRELAND Ronan, :

FOURNET, PIERRE AUGUSTE, S.S., M.A., Mon- Saint; Ross, Diocese of; Rotne, David; Ruadhan,
treal: Robert, Saint; Saint-Sulpice, Society of. Saint; Schubert, Franz; Sechnall, Saint; Senan,
Saint; Shepherd, John.
FOX, JAMES J., S.T.D., Professor of Philosophy,
St. Thomas's College, Washington: Self- GRIFFIN, PATRICK JOSEPH, O.S.M., Chicago,
Detenoe. Illinois: Rites: Servite; Servites, Order of.

FOX, WILLIAM, B.Sc, M.E., Associate Pro-

fessor OF Physics, College of the City of GRUBER, HERMANN, S.J., Stella Matutina

New York: Senef elder, Aloys. College, Feldkirch, Austria: Rosicrucians.

FRASER, MGR. ROBERT, S.T.D., LL.D., Pro- GULDNER, BENEDICT, S.J., St. Joseph's Coi^
thonotary Apostolic, Scots College, Rome: LEGE, Philadelphia: Schmid, Christoph von.
Scots College, The.

FRANQON, a., New Orleans, Louisiana: Sieni,

HAGEN, JOHN G., S.J., Vatican Observatory,
Rome: Science and the Church.
Cyril.

FUENTES, VENTURA, B.A., M.D., Instructor, HANDLEY, MARIE LOUISE, New York: Robbia,
College of the City op New York: Rojays Andrea deUa Robbia, Luca di Simone della
;
'

Zorrilla, Francisco de; Ruiz de Alarc6n y Men- Rovezzano, Benedetto da; Settignano, Desiderio
doza, Juan de; Saavedra Remirez de Baque- da; Simone da Orsenigo.
dano. Angel de; San Salvador.
HANRAHAN, JOHN C, O.F.IM.. Rector, St. Isi-
GANCEViC, ANTHONY LAWRENCE, O.F.M., dore's College, Rome :Saint Isidore, College of.
Ph.D., S.T.D., Franciscan College, Sinj,
Dalmatia, Austria: Sappa, Diocese of; Scopia, HARRIS, WILLIAM RICHARD, S.T.D., LL.D.,
Archdiocese of; Scutari, Archdiocese of. Editor of "The Intermountain Catholic",
Salt Lake City, Utah Salt Lake, Diocese of.
:

GERARD, JOHN, S.J., F.L.S., London: Roman

Catholic Relief Bill: In England.
HARTIGAN, J. A., S.J., Litt.D., Ore Place,
Hastings, England: Saba and Sabeans.
GIETMANN, GERHARD, S.J., Teacher of Clas-
sical Languages and Esthetics, St. Ignatius
College, Valkbnburg, Holland: Riemen- HASSETT, MGR. MAURICE M., S.T.D., Harris-
schneider, Tillman; Robert of Luzarches Rococo ;
burg, Pennsylvania: Rings: II. The Ring of
Style; Rumohr, Karl Friedrich; Sansovino, An- the Fisherman; Scillium, Martyrs of.
drea Contucci del; Schadow, Friedrich Wilhehn;
Schmidt, Friedrich von; Schraudolph, Johann; HEALY, JOHN, S.T.D., LL.D, M.R.I.A., Arch-
Schwanthaler, Ludwig von; Schwind, Moritz bishop OF TuAM, Senator of the Royal Uni-
von; Seitz, Alexander Maximilian. versity of Ireland: Ross, School of.
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME
HEALY, PATRICK J., S.T.D., Assistant Pro- KAMPERS, FRANZ, Ph.D., Professor of Me-
fessor OF Church History, Catholic Univer- dieval AND Modern Church History, Uni-
sity OF A.merica, Washington: Sardica, Coun- versity OF Brbslau: Richer; Rudolph of Habs-
cils of; Seleuoians; Serapion, Bishop of Antioch; burg; Sigismund, King of Germany.
yibylline Oracles; Sicard, Bishop of Cremona.
KEILEY, JARVIS, M.A Grantwood, New Jer-
,

HECKMANX, FERDINAND, O.F.M., St. Jo- sey: Rochambeau, Jean-Baptiste-Donation de

seph's College, Callicoon, New York: Rites: Vimeur, Comte de; Savannah, Diocese of;
Franciscan; Seraphim of Montegranaro; Sera- Shields, James.
phina Sforza, Blessed.
KELLY, BLANCHE M., New York: Sacristan, sub-
HENNESSY, BROTHER PATRICK JEROME, titleAltar Societies; Sale, Diocese of; Schools,
St. Mary's, Marino, Dublin; Rice, Edmund Clerks Regular of the Pious; Senegambia, Vicari-
Ignatius. ate Apostolic of; Simon of Cascia, Blessed.

HENRY, H.T., Litt.D., LL.D., Rector of Roman KELLY, JOSEPH, Oxton, Birkenhead, England:
Catholic High School, Philadelphia; Pro- Shrewsbury, Diocese of.
fessor OF English Literature and Gregorian
Chant, St. Charles's Seminary, Overbrook, KENDAL, JAMES, S.J., Bulawayo, Rhodesia,
Pennsylvania: Rex Gloriose Martyrum: Rex South Africa' Rhodesia' Silveira, Gongalo da.
Sempiterne Cselitum; Rorate Cceh; Rosary, Bre- Venerable.
viary Hymns of the; Sacra Jam Splendent; Sacris
Solemniis; Salve Mundi Salutare; Salve Regina; KENNEDY, DANIEL J., O.P., S.T.M., Professor
Salvete Christi Vulnera; Sanctorum Meritis. of Sacramental Theology, Catholic Uni-
versity op America, Washington: Sacraments.
HERBERT, JOHN ALEXANDER, Assistant in
THE Department of Manuscripts, British
Museum, London Rufford Abbey. KENNY, MICHAEL, S.J., Associate Editor of
"America", New York: Russell, Charles.
:

HICKEY, DANIEL, I. C, B.A. (London), New-

port, England: Rosmini and Rosminianism KENT, W. H., O.S.C, Bayswater, London: Sab-
batarians; Sabbatarianism.
(The Rosminian System)

HILGERS, JOSEPH, S.J., Rome: Sabbatine Privi- KIRSCH, MGR. JOHANN P., S.T.D., Professor
lege; Scapular; Simon Stock, Saint. OF Pathology and Christian Archeology,
University of Friboubg: Romanus, Saints;
Rosate, Alberico de; Rufina, Saints; Rufinus,
HOEBER, KARL, Ph.D., Editor, "Volkszei-
Saint; Rufus, Saints; Ruinart, Thierry; Savona-
tung" and "Akademische Monatsblatter",
rola, Girolamo; Seven Deacons; Silverius, Saint,
Cologne: Romulus Augustulus; Rostock, Uni-
versity of; Septimius Severus. Pope; Simonians; Simon Magus.

HOWLEY, MICHAEL FRANCIS, Archbishop of KLEINSCHMIDT, BEDA, O.F.M., Bonn, Ger-

St. John's, Newfoundland: Saint John's, Arch- many: Rio, Alexis FranQois; Sanctuary; San
diocese of. Gallo; Sculpture.

HUDLESTON, GILBERT ROGER, O.S.B., Down- KRIEHN, GEORGE, B.A., Ph.D., New York: San
side Abbey, Bath, England: Richard de Sepo-lcro, Piero da; Sculpture: In England.
Wyche, Saint; Richard Fether,ston, Blessed;
Richard \Vhiting, Blessed; Roberts, John, Ven- LAUCHERT, FRIEDRICH, Ph.D., Aachen: Rol-
erable; Saint Albans, Abbey of; Saint Ouen, Ab- fus,Hermann; Sambuga, Joseph Anton; Schazler,
bey of; Samson, Saint; Scriptorium; Sigebert, Constantine, Baron von; Scherer-Boccard, Theo-
Saint. dore, Count von; Seckau, Diocese of.

HULL, ERNEST R., S.J., Editor op "The Ex- LECLERCQ, HENRI, O.S.B., London: Sacra-
aminer", Bombay, India: Sikhism; Simla, Arch- mentals.
diocese of.

HUXTEK-BLAIR, SIR D.O., BART.,O.S.B.,ALA.,

LEDUC, HIPPOLYTE, O.M.I., Vicar-General op
THE Diocese op St. Albert, Alberta, Canada:
Fort Augustus Abbey, Scotland: Saint Saint Albert, Diocese of.
Andrews and Edinburgh, Archdiocese of; Soot-
land; Scotland, Estabhshed Church of; Scoto-
Hibernian Monasteries. LEHMKUHL, AUGUSTINUS, S.J., St. Ignatius
College, Valkenburg, Holland: Siinchez,
HUONDER, AXTHOXY. S.J., St. Ignatius Col- Thomas.
lege, Valkenburg, Hollant): Roth, Heinrich;
Ruiz de ^lontoya, Antonio. LEJAY, PAUL, Fellow of the University of
France; Professor, Institut Catholique,
ISIDORE, BROTHER, Provincial of the Xaver- Paris: Salutati, Coluccio di Pierio di; Salvianus;
lAN Brothers, Mount Saint .Joseph College, Sannazaro, Jaoopo; Scaliger, Julius Csesar; Se-
Balti.mohb, M
aryland Ryken, Theodore James.
: duhus; Severus Sanctus Endelechius; Sidonius
Apollinaris.
JOXES, W. O.SA., S.T.D., Bishop of Porto
A.,
Rico: Santo Domingo, Archdiocese of. LENNOX, PATRICK JOSEPH, B.A., Professor
OF the ENfiLisH Language and Literature,
JOYCE, GEORGE HAYWARD, S.J., M.A. (Oxon,), Catholic University of America, Washing-
St. Beuno's College, St, Asaph, AVales; Reve- ton: Richard de Bury; Scotland, subtitle Scot-
lation; Sanctify, Mark of the Church. tish Literature.
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME
LETELLIER, A., S.S.S., Superior, Fathers op the MANN, HORACE Headmaster, St. Cuth-
K.,
Blessed Sacrament, New York: Servants of bert's Grammar School,
Newcastle-on-
the Most Blessed Sacrament, Congregation of Tyne, England: Romanus, Pope; Sabinianus,
the Pope; Sergius I, Saint, Pope; Sergius II, III, IV,
Popes; Severinus, Pope.
LINDSAY, LIONEL ST. GEORGE, B.Sc, Ph.D.,
Editoe-in-Chief, "La Nouvelle France", MARIQUE, PIERRE JOSEPH, Instructor in
Quebec: Rimouski, Diocese of; Sugard, Th^odat- French, College op the City op New York:
Gabriel; Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, Prefecture S(jgur, Sophie Rostopchine, Comtesse de.
Apostolic of; Saint-Vallier, Jean-Baptiste de.
ARSH, ERNEST, S.C, New York: Salesian So-
LINNEXKA.MP, MGR. CHRISTOPHER, Vicar- ciety, The.
General OP THE Diocese of St. Joseph Mis-
souri: Saint Joseph, Diocese of. MAYER, JOHANN GEORGE CANON, D.C.L.,
Regent and Professor of the Seminary,
LINS, JOSEPH, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Chur, Switzerland: Saint Lucius, Monastery
Rhsetia, Prefecture Ajiostolic of; Roermond, Dio- of.
cese of; Rottenburg, Diocese of; Rumania; Saint
Gall, Diocese of; Saint Petersburg; Savoy; MEEHAN, ANDREW B,, S.T.D., J.U.D., Pro-
Schleswig-Holstein Servia; Siberia.
;
fessor OP Canon Law and Liturgy, St. Ber-
nard's Seminary, Rochester, New York:
LOFFLER, KLEMEXS, Ph.D., Librarian, Uni- Revocation; Romanos Pontifices; Sacristy;
versity OP Mxjnster: Rimbert, Saint; Sabina, Schmalzgrueber, Francis Xavier; Sentence;
Saint; Samogitia, Diocese of; Schaftlan; Schan- Servus servorum Dei.
nat, Johann Friedrich; Schedel, Hartmann;
Schonborn Family; Sohorlemer-Alst, Burghard, MEEHAN, THOMAS F., Member op the Board op
Freiherr von; Sebastian, Saint; Sergius and Bac- Directors, Brooklyn Public Library, Brook-
chus; Sigebert of Gembloux; Silesia; Silvia, Saint; lyn, New York: Roseerans, William Stark;
Simon, Saint and Apostle. Sadher, Mary Anne Madden; Sands, Benjamin
and James; San Francisco, Archdiocese of;
MAAS, A. J., S.J., Rector, Woodstock College, Scammon, EUakim Parker; Semmes, Raphael;
Maryland: Salvation; Scripture. Sheridan, Philip Henry.

MacAULEY, PATRICK J., Belfast, Ireland:

MELANgON, ARTHUR, S.J., Archivist, St.
Mary's College, Montreal: Sault Sainte
Serena, La, Diocese of.
Marie, Diocese of.

MacERLEAN, ANDREW A., New York: Rio- MERK, AUGUST, S.J., Professor op Apolo-
bamba, Diocese of; Rio Negro, Prefecture Apos-
getics, St. Ignatius College, Valkenburg,
tohc Sacred Heart of Jesus, Missionary Sis-
of;
Holland Romans, Epistle to the.
:

ters of the; Saint Thomas, Diocese of; Saint

Thomas of Guiana, Diocese of; San Le<5n del MERSHMAN, FRANCIS, O.S.B., S.T.D., Pro-
Amazonas, Prefecture Apostoho of: San Salva-
fessor op Moral Theology, Canon Law, and
dor, Diocese of; Santa Fe, Diocese of; Santa
Liturgy, St. John's College, Collegeville,
Maria, Diocese of; Santa Maria de Monserrato,
Minnesota: Rita of Cascia, Saint; Rogation
Abbey Nullius of; Santa Marta, Diocese of; Sao Days; RosaUa, Saint; Salt; Schlor, Aloysius;
Luiz de Caceres, Diocese of; Sao Luiz do Mar-
Septuagesima; Sexagesima.
anhdo. Diocese of; Sao Salvador de Bahia de
Todos OS Santos, Archdiocese of. METZ, WILLIAM J., LL.B., Uniontown, Wash-
ington: Seattle, Diocese of.
McGEE, JOSEPH CHARLES, Albert Ph.D.,
Mixes, Province of Quebec, Canada: Sher- MINGES, PARTHENIUS, O.F.M., S.T.L., Ph.D.,
brooke. Diocese of.
Prefect, College op St. Bonaventure,
QuARACCHi, Florence, Italy: Scotism and
McHUGH, JOHN AMBROSE, O.P., S.T.L., Lector Scotists.
OF Philosophy, Dominican House of Studies,
Washington: Ricoldo da Monte di Croce; Rossi, MOELLER, CH., Professor op General History,
Berbardo de. University op Louvain: Saint George, Orders
of; Saint James of Compostela, Order of; Saint
McNeill, CHARLES, Dublin: Roscommon.
Sylvester, Order of.
MACPHERSOX, EWAN, New York: Santiago del
Estero, Diocese of. MONTANAR, VALENTINE HILARY, Mission-
ary Apostolic, New York: Shan-si, Vicariates
MAERE, R., S.T.D., Professor of Christian Apostolic of Northern and Southern; Shan-tung,
Archeology, University op Louvain: Sohel- Vicariates Apostolic of Northern, Eastern, and
strate, Emmanuel; Selvaggio, Giulio Lorenzo; Southern; Shen-si, Vicariates ApostoUc of North-
Seroux d'Agincourt, Jean-Baptiste. ern and Southern.

MAGNIER, JOHN, C.SS.R., St. Mary's, Clapham, MONTES de oca Y OBREGON, JOSE MARfA
London: Sarnelh, Januarius Maria. IGNACIO, S.T.D., LL.D., Bishop op San Luis
PotosJ, Administrator Apostolic op Tam-
MAORI, F. JOSEPH, M.A., S.T.D,, Richmond, aulipas. Domestic Prelate to His Holiness
Virginia: Richmond, Diocese of. and Assistant at the Pontifical Throne,
Knight Grand Cross op the Holy Sepul-
MAHER, MICHAEL, S.J., Litt.D., M.A. (Lond.), chre, Knight op Isabella the Catholic, K.C.
Director of Studies and Professor op Peda- op Charles the Third, Member op the Madrid
gogics, Stonyhurst College, Blackburn, Academy of Languages and History, San
England: Schools: In England: In Scotland. Luis PoTosi, Mexico San Luis Potosi, Diocese of.
:
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME
MOONEY, JAMES, United States Ethnologist, OTT, MICHAEL, O.S.B., Ph.D., Professor op the
Bureau of American Ethnology, Washing- History of Philosophy, St. John's College,
ton: Ribas, Andres P^rez de; Romero, Juan; CoLLBGEviLLE, Minnesota: Rites: Benedictine;
Sahagun, Bernardino de; Sahaptin Indians; Rouen, Synods of;Sabbas, Saint; Saint Bene-
Saint-Cosme, Jean Frangois Buisson de; Saint dict, Medal of; Sarpi, Paolo; Schenkl, Maurus
Francis Mission; Saliva Indians; Salvatierra von; Sohenute; ScholUner, Hermann; Schotten-
Juan Maria; Samuco Indians; Sanetch Indians; kloster; Schram, Dominic; Schwane, Joseph;
SarayacA Mission; Seohelt Indians; Sena, Bal- Seven Robbers; Sfondrati, Celestino.
thasar; Seneca Indians; Setebo Indians; Shus-
wap Indians; Siletz Indians. OTTEN, JOSEPH, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania:
Rheinberger, Joseph Gabriel; Rueckers, Family
of.
MORENO-LACALLE, JULIAN, B.A., Editor,
"Pan-American Union", Washington: Ribei-
rao Preto, Diocese of; Saint Mark, University of;
PACE, EDWARD A., Ph.D., S.T.D., Professor op
Philosophy, Catholic University op America,
San Jose de Costa Rica, Diocese of; Santa Catha-
rina. Diocese of; Santarem, Prelature NulKus
Washington: Robinson, William Callyhan; Sa-
toUi, Francesco.
of; Sao Carlos do Pinhal, Diocese of; Sao Paulo,
Archdiocese of; Sao Sebastiao do Rio de Janeiro,
Archdiocese of.
PALMIERI, AURELiq, O.S.A., S.T.D., Rome:
Russia Sandomir, Diocese
; of.

MORICE, A. G., B.A., O.M.I., Lecturer in An- PELOQUIN, ZEPHYRIN, M.S.C., Watertown,
thropology, University of Saskatchewan, New York: Sacred Heart of Jesus, Missionaries
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: Saint Boniface, of the.
Archdiocese of; Saskatchewan and Alberta; Se-
ghers, Charles John; Sekanais. PfiREZ, GOYENA ANTONIO, S.J., Editor op
"Raz6n y Fb", Madrid: Ripalda, Juan Mar-
tinez de; Ruiz de Montoya, Diego.
MORIS, JAMES, C.SS.R., Vicar-General of the
Diocese of Roseau, British West Indies:
Roseau, Diocese of. PERRIER, PHILIPPE, S.T.D., J.U.D., Montreal:
Schools: In Canada.
MULLER, HERMANN, S.T.D., Professor of
PfiTRIDES, SOPHRONE, A.A., Professor,
Theology, University of Paderborn:
Schoningh. Greek Catholic Seminary op Kadi-Keui,
Constantinople: Rhaphanaena; Rhesaena, Rhi-
nocolura; Rhithymna; Rhizus; Rhodiopolis; Rho-
MULRY, THOMAS M., K.S.G., New York: Saint sus; Rosea; Rusaddir; Rusicade; Ruspe; Sabrata;
Vincent de Paul, Society of. Sagalassus; Salamis; Sasima; Satala; Sauatra;
Scilhum; Sebaste; Sebastopolis; Selge; Selinus;
MURPHY, ANDREW, Senator of the National Selymbria; Serrae; Sicca Veneria Sidon; Sidyma;
;

University of Ireland, Editor, "Irish Edu- Silandus.

cational Review", Limerick, Ireland:
Schools : In Ireland. PHILLIMORE, JOHN SWINNERTON, M.A.
(OxoN.), Professor of Humanities, Univer-
NOLAN, RICHARD S., B.A. (Trinity College, sity OF Glasgow: Romanos, Saint; Saint An-
Dublin), London: Seal of Confession. drews, University of.

OBRECHT, EDMOND M., O.C.R., Abbot op PLASSMAN, THOMAS, O.F.M. Ph.D., S.T.D., St.
,

Gethsemani, Kentucky: Rievaulx, Abbey of; Bonaventuhe's Seminary, St. Bonaventuke,

Rites: Cistercian; Saints Vincent and Anastasius, New York: Sem.
Abbey of; Salem; S:i\-iffny, Abbey of; Senanque;
Sept-Fons, Notre Dame de Saint-Lieu; Silence. POHLE, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., J.C.L., Pro-
fessor OF Dogmatic Theology, University of
O'CONNOR, JOHN B., O.P., St. Louis Bertrand's Breslau: Ritschlianism; Sacrifice; Secchi, An-
Convent, Louisville, Kentucky: Riccardi, gelo; Semipelagianism.
Nicholas.
POLLARD, WILLIAM HENRY, B.A. (Univ. of
O'DEA, WILLIAM, Manchester, England: Sal-
LoND.); Vice-Rectok, Ratcliffe College,
ford, Diocese of. Leicester, England Rosminians.
:

OJETTI, BENEDETTO, S.J., Consultor, S.C.P.F., POLLEN, JOHN HUNGERFORD, S.J., London:
CoNSULToR, S.C.C., Consultor of the Commis- Sabran, Louis de; Sander, Nicholas; Sharpe,
sion ON the Codification of Canon Law, James.
Gregorian LTniversity, Rome: Roman Congre-
gations, The; Roman Curia. POULAIN, AUGUSTIN, S.J., Paris: Revelations,
Private.
OLIGER, LIVARIUS, O.F.M., Lector of Church
History, Collegio S. Antonio, Rome: Richard; QUIRK, JOHN F., S.J., Georgetown University,
Scala Sancta; Scdia Gestatoria. Washington: Sarbiewski, Mathias Casimir.

OLLION, HENin Litt.D Professor, Faculty

, RAINER, MGR. JOSEPH, V.G., Prothonotaey
Libre desLettres University of Lyons: Apostolic, Rector, St. Francis Provincial
Scaramelh, Giovanm Battista. Seminary, Professor, Sacred Scripture and
_ ,,„„„„, ^ ,, „ , Hebrew, St. Francis, Wisconsin: Salzmann
-^'^mann,
O'NEILL, ANDREW J., .
M.A., Silver Falls, New Joseph.
Brunswick, Canada: Saint John, Diocese of. * Deceased.
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME
RANDOLPH, BARTHOLOMEW, CM., M.A., SCHMID, ULRICH, Ph.D., Editor, "Walhalla",
Teacher OF Philosophy and Church History, Munich: Rupert, Saint.
St. John's College, Brooklyn, New York:
Seton, Elizabeth Ann; Seton, William. SCHREINER, CHRYSOSTOM, O.S.B., Nassau,
Bahama Islands: Shea, Sir Ambrose.
REAGAN, NICHOLAS, O.F.M., Collegio S. An- SCHROEDER, H. J., O.P., St. Dominic's Priory,
tonio, Rome: Siloe.
Benicia, California: Richard, Charles-Louis;
REMY, ARTHUR F. J., M.A., Ph.D., Adjunct Pro- Rocaberti, Juan Tomds de.
fessor OF Germanic Philology, Columbia SCHULEIN, FRANZ X., Professor in the Gym-
University, New York: Rudolf von Ems; Saxo nasium OF Freising, Bavaria, Germany:
Grammatious. Samaritan Language and Literature; Seleuoids;
REVILLE, JOHN CLEMENT, S.J., Professor of Semites.
Rhetoric and Sacred Eloquence, St. Stanis-
laus College, Macon, Georgia: Scherer, SCULLY, VINCENT JOSEPH, C.R.L., St. Ives,
Georg; Segneri, Paolo. Cornwall, England: Ruysbroeck, John,
Blessed; Saint Victor, Aohard de.
REVILLE, STEPHEN, S.T.D., Bishop of Sand-
hurst, Australia: Sandhurst, Diocese of. SEARS, MARTIN G., St. George's, Newfound-
land Saint George's, Diocese
: of.
RODRIGUEZ Y FERNANDEZ, TEODORO,
O.S.A., S.T.M., L.Sc, Rector, University op SENFELDER, LEOPOLD, M.D., Teacher of the
the Escobial, Spain: Santiago, University of; History of Medicine, University op Vienna:
Saragossa, University of; Seville, University of; Schwann, Theodor; Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp.
Sigiienza, University of.
SHAHAN, MGR. THOMAS J., S.T.D., J.U.D.,
RYAN, PATRICK, S.J., London: Rigby, Nicholas; Rector of the Catholic University op
Ritter, Henry. America, Washington: Severus Alexander.
RYAN, WILFRID, S.J., Milltown Park, Dublin: SHARPE, ALFRED BOWYER, M.A. (Oxon.),
Schools: In Australia. London: Richard of St. Victor.
RYBROOK, Professor of Moral
G., Ord. Pr/EM.,
SHIPMAN, ANDREW J., M.A., LL.M., New
Theology and Sacred Scripture, St. Nor-
York: Rites United States: Rosary, II.;
in the
bert's Priory, West de Pebb, Wisconsin: In the Greek Church, Uniat and Schismatic;
Rites : Premonstra tensian Ruthenian Rite; Ruthenians; Sejny, Diocese of.
RYO, JEAN MARIE, Nguludi Mission, Nyassa-
SIBBEL, ARMIN JOSEPH, M.D., Brooklyn, New
LAND, Africa: Shire, Vicariate Apostolic of.
York: Sibbel, Joseph.
SACHER, HERMANN, Ph.D., Editor of the
"Konversationslexikon", Assistant Editor SILVA COTAPOS, CARLOS, Canon op the Cath-
op the "Staatslexikon" op the Gorresge- edral OP Santiago, Chile: San Carlos de An-
sellschapt, Frbiburg-im-Breisgau, Germany: cud. Diocese of; Santiago de Chile, Archdiocese
Saxe-Altenburg; Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; Saxe- and University of.

Meiningen; Saxe- Weimar -Eisenach; Saxony; SLATER, Francis Xavieh's College,

T., S.J., St.
Schaumburg-Lippe; Schwarzburg. Liverpool, England: Rodriguez, Alonso.
SALEMBIER, LOUIS CANON, S.T.D., Professor SLOANE, THOMAS O'CONOR, M.A., E.M., Ph.D.,
OF Church History, University of Lille: New York: Sainte-Claire Deville, Charles;
Schism, Western. Sainte-Claire Deville, Henri-Etienne.
SALTET, LOUIS, S.T.D., Litt. Lie, Professor of SMITH, IGNATIUS, O.P., Dominican House op
Church History, Institut Catholique, Tou- Studies, Washington: Rites: Dominican.
louse: Salamis, Epiphanius of.
SORTAIS, GASTON, S.J., Associate Editor,
SANDS, WILLIAM FRANKLIN, Chevalier op "Etudes", Paris: Sarto, Andrea del; Sassofer-
the Legion of Honour; Ex-Envoy Extraor- rato, Giovanni Battista Salvi da.
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary op
the United States to Guatemala; Member op SOUVAY, CHARLES L., CM., S.T.D,, Ph.D., Pro-
THE Am. Soc. Int. Law; Am. Academy op Polit- fessor, Sacred Scripture, Hebrew, and
ical AND Social Science; Mexican Soc. op Liturgy, Kenrick Seminary, St. Louis, Mis-
Geography and Statistics, NeViT York: Samoa. souri: Sanhedrin; Sichem.

SCANNELL, THOMAS B., Canon, S.T.D., Wey- SPILLANE, EDWARD P., S.J., Associate Editor,
BRiDGE, England: Sadoleto, Jacopo; Salamon, "America", New York: Shea, John Dawson
Louis-Siffren-Joseph. Gilmary.

SCHAEFER, FRANCIS J., S.T.D., Ph.D., Pro- SPITZ, MATERNUS, O.S.B., St. Thomas's Abbey,
fessor OF Church History, St. Paul Semi- Ehdington, Birmingham, England: Siam, Vi-
nary, St. Paul, Minnesota; Saint Paul, Arch- cariate Apostolic of.
diocese of.
STEIN, JOHN, S.J., Doctor inMathematics and
SCHEID, N., Stella Matutina College,
S.J.,
Astronomy (Leiden), Amsterdam: Ruffin,
Paolo; Santini, Giovanni Sante Gaspero; Sohols,
Feldkirch, Austria: Roh, Peter; Roothaan,
Charles Mathieu; Schrank, Franz de Paula von;
Johann Philipp; Schlegel, Friedrich von; Seidl,
Serpieri, Alessandro.
Johann Gabriel.
SCHLAGER, HEINRICH PATRICIUS, O.F.M.,
STENMANS, THEOPHILE, Gretna, Louisiana:
Rolduc.
St. Ludwig's College, Dalheim, Germany:
Rubruck, William; Rudolf of Fulda; Salimbene STOLZLE, REMIGIUS, Ph.D., Editor op "Stu-
degli Adami; Sander, Anton; Schlosser, John DiEN zuB Ph. u. Rel, ", Professor of the Uni-
Frederick Henry. versity op WtJRZBUBG: Sailer, Johann Michael.
 CONTKIBUTORS TO THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME
TANNRATH, JOHN J., Chancelloe of the Arch- Venerable; Scott, William Maurus; Sebastian
diocese OF St. Louis, Missouri : Saint Louis, Newdigate, Blessed; Sedgwick, Thomas; Ser-
Archdiocese of. geant, Richard, Venerable; Shelley, Richard;
Sherson, Martin.
TAYLOR, HANXIS, LL.D., Late Minister Pleni-
potentiary OF THE United States to Spain, WALKER, LESLIE J., S.J., i\I.A. (Lond.); St.
Professor of International and Constitu- Beuno's College, St. Asaph, Wales: Scepti-
tional Law, Georgetown University, Wash- cism.
ington: Ryan, Abram J.
WALLAU, HEINRICH WILHELM, Mainz, Ger-
THOMPKINS, JOHN J., S.J., Seminary of the many: Schoffer, Peter.
Immaculate Conception, Vigan, Philippine WALTER, ALOYSIUS, C.SS.R., Rome: Rossini,
Islands: Saint Thomas, University of. Gioacohino Antonio; Scarlatti, Alessandro; Schel-
THURSTON, HERBERT, S.J., London: Richard I,
ble, Johann Nepomuk.
King of England; Rings; Ritualists; Roger of WARD, MGR. BERNARD, Canon op Westmin-
Hoveden; Roger of Wendover; Rolls Series; Ro- ster, F.R. Hist. Soc, President op St. Ed-
man Cathohc; Rosary, The; Rosary, Confrater- mund's College, Ware, England: Saint Omer,
nity of the Holy; Rosary, Feast of the Holy; College of.
Rotuh; Royal Declaration, The; Santa Casa di
Loreto; Seal; Shakespeare, The Rehgion of; WARREN, CORNELIUS J., C.SS.R., Professor of
Shroud, The Holy; Shrovetide; Sign of the Sacred Scripture, Redemptorist House op
Cross; Simeon Stylites, the Elder; Simeon Sty- Studies, Esopus, New York : Seelos, Francis X.
Utes, the Younger; Saints.
WEBER, N. A., S.M., S.T.D., Professoeof Church
TOKE, LESLIE ALEXANDER ST. LAWRENCE, History, Marist College, A\'ashington: Rey,
B.A., Stratton-on-the-Fosse, Bath, England: Anthony; Rho, Giacomo; Rhodes, Alexandre de;
Romuald, Saint. Riffel, Caspar; Ritter, Joseph Ignatius; Robert
of Geneva; Rocca, Angelo; Rodriguez, Joao;
TOSCANO, JULIAN, Vicar-General of the Dio-
Rohault de Fleury; Rohrbacher, Rene Frangois;
cese OF Salta, Argentina: Salta, Diocese of.
Rostock, Sebastian von; Rudolf of Rtidesheim;
TROBEC, JAMES, S.T.D., Bishop of St. Cloud, Sarabaites; Schwenckfeldians; Sect and Sects;
Minnesota: Saint Cloud, Diocese of. Sibour, Marie-Dominique-Auguste; Simon of
Cramaud.
TURNER, MGR. JAMES P., S.T.D., Philadel-
phia, Pennsylvania: Ryan, Patrick John. WEBSTER, D. RAYMUND, O.S.B., M.A. (Oxon.),
TURNER, WILLIAM, Professor of
B.A., S.T.D., Downside Abbey, Bath, England: Robert of
Logic and the History of Philosophy, Cath- Arbissel; Robert of Newminster, Saint; Rose-
olic University of America, "\\'ashington: line, Saint.
Robert of Courgon; Robert of Melun; Robert WELCH, SIDNEY READ, S.T.D., Ph.D. J.P.,
PuUus; Scholasticism; Schools; Sedulius Scotus. Editor op "The Catholic Magazine for
URQUHART, FRANCIS FORTESCUE, Fellow South Africa", Cape Town: Santos, Joao dos.
and Lecturer in Modern History, Balliol WEST, ALBERT BENJAMIN, M.A., LL.B., Prov-
College, Oxford: Roper, Wilham. idence, Rhode Island: Rhode Island.
VAILHE, SIMEON, A.A., Member of the Rus- WHITFIELD, JOSEPH LOUIS, M.A. (Cantab.),
sian Arch^ological Institute of Constan-
OscoTT College, Birmingham, England Row-
tinople, Rome: Rhodes; Salmas; Samaria;
:

sham, Stephen; Scott, Montford, Blessed.

Samos; Samosata; Sardes; Sardica; Sarepta;
Scythopohs; Sebastia; Sccrth; Schna, Diocese of; WILHELM, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., Aachen, Ger-
Seleucia Pieria; Seleucia Trachaea; Sergiopohs; many: Roman Catechism; Scheeben, Matthias
Sidon, Melchite and Maronite See. Joseph.
VANDER HEEREN, ACHILLE, S.T.L. (Louvain), WILLIAMSON, GEORGE CHARLES, Litt.D.,
Professor of Moral Theology and Libra- London; Rosa, Salvatore; Rosselli, Cosimo; Ru-
rian, Grande Se.minaire, Bruges, Belgium: bens, Peter Paul; Sdnchez, Alonzo Coello; Scan-
Scandal; Septuagmt Version. nabecchi, Filippo; Schaiifelin, Hans Leonhard;
VAN HOVE, A., D.C.L., Professor of Church Schongauer, Martin; Signorelli, Luca.
History and Canon Law, University of Lou- WITZEL, THEOPHILUS, O.F.M., Professor op
vain: Sandes, Felino Maria. Sacred Scripture, Collegio S. Antonio,
VAN ORTROY, FRANCIS, S.J., Brussels: Ribade- Rome: Roger Bacon.
neira, Pedro de; Ricci, Lorenzo.
WOLFSGRUBER, COELESTINE, O.S.B., Vienna:
VASCHALDE, Catholic University
A.A., C.S.B., Salzburg, Archdiocese of; Sankt Polten, Diocese
of America, Washington: Serapion of Thmuis, of; Schwarzenburg, Freidrich, Prince of; Sebe-
Saint. nico. Diocese of; Serajevo, Archdiocese of.

VIEBAN, ANTHONY, S.S., S.T.D., D.C.L., Cath- ZIMMERMAN, BENEDICT, O.D.C., St. Luke's
olic University of Ajierica; Washington: Priory, Wincanton, Somersetshire, I']ng-
Seminary, Eccfeiastical. land: Rites: Carmelite; Salmanticenses and
WAINEWRIGHT, Complutenses.
J()IIN BANNERMAN,
B.A.
(OxoN.), London: Richardson, William, Vener- ZWIERLEIN, FREDERICK J., S.T.L., Docteur
able; Rifhard Thirkeld, Blessed; Rigby, John, is Sciences Morales et Historiques (Lou-
Venerable; Risby, Richard; Robinson, Christo- vain), Professor of Church History, St.
pher, \'enerable; Roe, Bartholomew, Venerable; Bernard's Seminary, Rochester, New York:
Roger Cadwallador, Venerable; Sandy, John, Rochester, Diocese of.
 Tables of Abbreviations
The following tables and notes are intended to guide readers of The Catholic Encyclopedia in
interpreting those abbreviations, signs, or technical phrases which, for economy of space, will be most fre-
quently used in the work. For more general information see the article Abbreviations, Ecclesiastical.

I. General Abbreviations. inf below (Lat. infra).

a. article. It Italian.
ad an at the year (Lat. ad annum). 1. c, loc. cit at the place quoted (Lat. loco
an., ann the j-ear, the years (Lat. annus, citato).
anni). Lat Latin.
ap in (Lat. apud). lat latitude.
art article. lib book (Lat. liber).
Assyr Assyrian. long longitude.
A. S Anglo-Saxon. Mon Lat. Monumenta.
A. V Authorized Version (i.e. tr. of the MS., MSS manuscript, manuscripts.
Bible authorized for use in the n., no number.
—
Anglican Church the so-called N. T New Testament.
"King James", or "Protestant Nat National.
Bible"). Old Fr., O. Fr. . . .Old French
b born. op. cit in the work quoted (Lat. opere
Bk Book. citato).
Bl Blessed. Ord Order.
C, c about (Lat. circa); canon; chap- O. T Old Testament.
ter; compagnie. p., pp page, pages, or (in Latin ref-
can canon. erences) pars (part).
cap chapter (Lat. caput — used only par paragraph.
in Latin context). passim in various places.
cf compare (Lat. confer). pt part.
cod codex. Q Quarterly (a periodical), e.g.
col column. "Church Quarterly".
concl conclusion. Q., QQ., quEest. . . .question, questions (Lat. queestio).
const. , constit. . . . Lat. constitutio. q. V which [title] see (Lat. quod vide).
cura by the industry of. Rev Review (a periodical).
d died. R. S Rolls Series.
diet dictionary (Fr. dictionnaire), R. V Revised Version.
disp Lat. disputatio. S., SS Lat. Sanctus, Sancti, "Saint",
diss Lat. dissertatio. "Saints" —used in this Ency-
dist Lat. distinctio. clopedia only in Latin context.
D. V Douay Version. Sept Septuagint.
ed., edit edited, edition, editor. Sess Session.
Ep., Epp letter, letters CLat. epistola). Skt Sanskrit.
Fr French. Sp Spanish.
gen genus. sq., sqq following page, or pages (Lat.
Gr Greek. sequens).
H. E., Hist. Eccl. .Ecclesiastical History. St., Sts Saint, Saints.
Heb., Hebr Hebrew. sup Above (Lat. supra).
ib., ibid in the same place (Lat. ibidem). s. V Under the corresponding title

Id the same person, or author (Lat (Lat. sub voce).

idem). torn volume (Lat. tomus)

xiii
 TABLES OF ABBREVIATIONS.
tr translation or translated. By it- Diet. Christ. Biog. . . Smith and "Wace (ed.). Diction-
self it means "English transla- ary of Christian Biography.
tion", or " translated into Eng- Diet, d'arch. chr6t.. .Cabrol (ed.), Dictionnaire d'ar-
lish by " Where a translation cheologie chr4tienne et de litur-
is into any other language, the gie.
language is stated. Diet, de th^ol. cath. . Vacant and Mangenot (ed.),
tr., tract tractate. Dictionnaire de theologie
V see (Lat. vide). catholique.
Ven Venerable. Diet. Nat. Biog Stephen and Lee (ed.), Diction-
Vol Volume. ary of National Biography.

Abbkeviations op Titles. Hast., Diet, of the

II.

Acta SS Acta Sanctorum (BoUandists).

Bible Hastings (ed.), A Dictionary of
the Bible.
Ann. pont. cath Battandier, Annuaire 'pontifical
catholique. Kirchenlex Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexi-
con.
Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.Gillow, Bibliographical Diction-
ary of the English Catholics. P. G Migne (ed.), Patres Oroed.
Diet. Christ. Antiq. .. Smith and Cheetham (ed.), P. L Migne (ed.), Patres Latini.
Dictionary of Christian An- Vig., Diet, dela Bible. Vigouroux (ed.), Dictionnaire de
tiquities. la Bible.

Note I. —
Large Roman numerals standing alone indicate volumes. Small Roman ninnerals standing alone indicate
chapters. Arabic numerals standing alone indicate pages. In other cases the divisions are explicitly stated. Thus " Rashdall,
Universities of Europe, I, ix" refers the reader to the ninth chapter of the first volume of that work; "I, p. ix"' would indicate the
ninth page of the preface of the same volume.
—
Note II. Where St. Thomas (Aquina';) is cited without the name of any particular work the reference is always to
"Summa Theologica" (not to "Sununa PhilosophiEe"). The divisions of the "Summa Theol." are indicated by a system which
may best be understood by the following example: "I-II, Q. vi, a. 7, ad 2 um" refers the reader to the seventh article of the
sixth question in the first part of the second part, in the response to the second objection.
—
Note III. The abbreviations employed for the various books of the Bible are obvious. Ecclesiasticus is indicated by
^ccZiis., to distinguish it from Ecclesiastes (EccZes.). It should also be noted that I and II Kings in D. Y. correspond to I and II
Samuel in A. V. and I and II Par. to I and II Chrrmicles.
; Where, in the spelling of a proper name, there is a marked difference
between the D. V. and the A. V. the form found in the latter is added, in parentheses.
,
 Full Page Illustrations in Volume XIII
The Rapture of the Magdalen, etc. —
Jusepe de Ribera 32
Equestrian Statue of Richard I, Palace Yard, Westminster 42
Triple Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu— Phihppe de Champaigne ... 48
Ruins of the Nave and Transept of Rievaulx Abbey 54
—
Rome Gate of S. Paolo with Pyramid of Caius Sestius, etc 166
Rome—Basilica Sebastian,
of St. etc 170
Rome — Piazza and Basihca of St. Mary
Major, etc 176
Rood Loft with Organ, in the Hofkirche, Innsbruck 182
Distant View of the Cathedral, Rouen 210
—
The Doctors of the Church, etc. Peter Paul Rubens 216
Piazza and Fagade of St. Peter's, Carlo Maderna and Bernini 374
Facade of the New Cathedral, Salamanca 390
Sahsbury Cathedral, West Front 400
—
San Marino The Castle, View from the North, etc 448
The Nativity, Piero da San Sepolcro 452
—
Loreto Bas-relief showing the translation of the Holy House, etc 456
Back of the Choir, The Cathedral, Saragossa 470
Girolamo Savonarola — Fra Bartolommeo 492
—
Scotland Battlefield of Kilhecrankie, etc 612
Sculpture 646
The Cathedral, Seville 744'
Sicily—Corso Vittorio Emanuele, with the Neptune, Messina, etc 774
Siena — Church Francis, etc
of St. 780
The Cathedral, Sigiienza 788

Coloured Plates
Reduced Facsimile of a page of the Rossano Codex 202
—
The Madonna of the Harpies Andrea del Sarto 478
The Bride and Groom on their Wedding Journey —Moriz von Schwind 598

Maps
Russia 264
Scotland 620

XV
 THE
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA
R
Revelation. — I. Meaning op Revelation. — erroneous propositions definitively condemned in the
Revelation may be defined as the communication decrees of the Vatican Council. (2) the Modernist
of some truth by God to a rational creature through view (Loisy, Tyrrell). According to this school, there
means which are beyond the ordinary course ot nature. is no such thing as Revelation in the sense of a direct
The truths revealed may be such as are otherwise in- communication from God to man. The human soul
accessible to the human mind —
mysteries^ which even reaching up towards the unknowable God is ever
when revealed, the intellect of man is mcapable of endeavouring to interpret its sentiments in intellec-
fully penetrating. But Revelation is not restricted tual formulae. The formulae itthus frames are our
to these. God may see fit to employ supernatural ecclesiastical dogmas. These can but symbolize the
means to afSrm truths, the discovery of which is not Unknowable; they can give us no real knowledge
yerr se beyond the powers of reason. The essence regarding it. Such an error is manifestly subversive
of Revelation lies in the fact that it is the direct of all belief, and was explicitly condemned by the
speech of God to man. The mode of communication, Decree "Lamentabih" and the Encyclical "Pascendi"
however, may be mediate. Revelation does not (8 Sept., 1907). (3) With the view just mentioned is
cease to be such if God's message is delivered to ua closely connected the Pragmatist view of M. Leroy
by a prophet, who alone is the recipient of the im- ("Dogme et Critique", Paris, 2nd ed. 1907). Like
mediate communication. Such in brief is the account the Modernists, he sees in revealed dogmas simply the
of Revelation given in the Constitution "De Fide results of spiritual experience, but holds their value
Catholica" of the Vatican Council. The Decree to He not in the fact that they symboUze the Unknow-
"Lamentabili" (3 July, 1907), by its condemnation able, but that they have practical value in pointing
of a contrary proposition, declares that the dogmas the way by which we may best enjoy experience of the
which the Church proposes as revealed are "truths Divine. This view was condemned in the same docu-
which have come down to us from heaven" {verv- ments as the last mentioned.
tales e calo delapsce) and not "an interpretation of II. Possibility of Revelation. — The possibiUty
religious facts which the human mind has acquired of Revelation as above explained has been strenuously
by its own strenuous efforts" (prop., 22). It will be denied from various points of view during the last
seen that Revelation as thus explained differs clearly century. For this reason the Church held it necessary
from: (1) inspiration such as is bestowed by God to issue special decrees on the subject in the Vatican
on the author of a sacred book; for this, while in- Council. Its antagonists may be divided into two
volving a special illumination of the mind in virtue classes according to the different standpoints from
of which the recipient conceives such thoughts as which they direct their attack, viz: (1) Rationalists
God desires him to commit to writing, does not (under this class we include both Deist and Agnostic
necessarily suppose a supernatural communication writers). Those who adopt this standpoint rely in the
of these truths; (2) from the illustrations which God main on two fundamental objections: they either
may bestow from time to time upon any of the faith- urge that the miraculous is impossible, and that Rev-
ful to bring home to the mind the import of some elation involves miraculous interposition on the part
truth of religion hitherto obscurely grasped; and of the Deity; or they appeal to the autonomy of
(3) from the Divine assistance by which the pope reason, which it is maintained can only accept as
when acting as the supreme teacher of the Church, is truths the results of its own activities. (2) Immanent-
preserved from all error as to faith or morals. The ists. To this class may be assigned all those whose
function of this assistance is purely negative: it need objections are based on Kantian and HegeUan doc-
not carry with it any positive gift of light to the mind. trines as to the subjective character of all our knowl-
Much of the confusion in which the discussion of Reve- edge. The views of these writers frequently involve a
lation in non-Catholic works is involved arises from purely pantheistic doctrine. But even those who
the neglect to distinguish it from one or other of repudiate pantheism, in place of the personal God,
Ruler, and Judge of the world, whom Christianity
During the past century the Church has been called teaches, substitute the vague notion of the "Spirit"
on to reject as erroneous several views of Revelation immanent in all men, and regard all religious creeds
irreconcilable with Catholic belief. Three of these as the attempts of the human soul to find expression
may here be noted. (1) The view of Anton Guenther for its inward experience. Hence no religion, whether
(1783-1863). This writer denied that Revelation pagan or Christian, is wholly false; but none can
could include mysteries strictly so-called, inasmuch as claim to be a message from God free from any admix-
the human intellect is capable of penetrating to the ture of error. (Cf. Sabatier, "Esquisse", etc., Bk. I,
full all revealed truth. He taught, further, that the cap. ii.) Here too the autonomy of reason is invoked
meaning to be attached to revealed doctrines is under- as fatal to the doctrine of Revelation properly so
going constant change as human knowledge grows and called. In the face of these objections, it is evident
man's mind develops; so that the dogmatic formulae that the question of the possibility of Revelation is at
which are now true will gradually cease to be so. His present one of the most vital portions of Christian
writings were put on the Index in 1857, and his apologetic.
XIII.— 1
 REVELATION REVELATION
If the existence of a personal God be once estab- lect; and that this faculty can only accept those truths
lished, the physical possibility at least of Revelation whose intrinsic reasonableness it recognizes. This
is undeniable. God, who has endowed man with assertion, based on the alleged autonomy of reason,
means to communicate his thoughts to his fellows, can only be met with denial. The function of the in-
cannot be destitute of the power to communicate His tellect is to recognize and admit any truth which is
own thoughts to us. [Martineau, it is true, denies that adequately presented to it, whether that truth be
we possess faculties either to receive or to authen- guaranteed by internal or by external criteria. The
ticate a divine revelation concerning the past or the reason is not deprived of its legitimate activity be-
future (Seat of Authority in Religion, p. 311); but cause the criteria are external. It finds ample scope
such an assertion is arbitrary and extravagant in the in weighing the arguments for the credibility of the
extreme.] However, numerous difficulties have been fact asserted. The existence of mysteries in the
urged on grounds other than that of physical possibil- Christian religion was expressly taught by the Vatican
ity. In estimating their value it seems desirable to Council (De Fide Cath., cap. ii, can. ii). "If anyone
distinguish three aspects of Revelation, viz: as it shall say that no mysteries properly so called are con-
makes known to us (1) truths of the natural law, (2) tained in the Divine revelation, but that all the
mysteries of the faith, (3) positive precepts, e. g. dogmas of the faith can be understood and proved
regarding Divine worship. from natural principles by human reason duly culti-
(1) The revelation of truths of the natural law is —
vated let him be anathema."
certainly not inconsistent with God's wisdom. God (3) The older (Deist) School of Rationalists denied
so created man as to bestow on him endowments the possibility of a Divine revelation imposing any
amply sufficient for him to attain his last end. Had laws other than those which natural religion enjoins
it been otherwise, the creation would have been im- on man. These writers regarded natural religion as,
perfect. If over and above this He decreed to make so to speak, a political constitution determining the
the attainment of beatitude yet easier for man by Divine government of the universe, and held that
placing within his reach a far simpler and far more God could only act as its terms prescribed. This
certain way of knowing the law on the observance of error likewise was proscribed at the same time (De
which his fate depended, this is an argument for the Fide Cath., cap. ii, can. ii). "If any one shall say that
Divine generosity; it does not disprove the Divine it is impossible or that it is inexpedient that man
wisdom. To assume, with certain Rationahsts, that should be instructed regarding God and the worship
exceptional intervention can only be explained on the to be paid to Him by Divine revelation— let him be
ground that God was unable to embrace His ultimate anathema."
design in His original scheme is a mere petitio prin- It can hardly be questioned that the "autonomy of
cipii. Further, the doctrine of original sin suppUes reason" furnishes the main source of the difficulties
an additional reason for such a revelation of the at present felt against Revelation in the Christian
natural law. That doctrine teaches us that man by sense. It seems desirable to indicate very briefly the
the abuse of his free will has rendered his attainment various ways in which that principle is understood.
of salvation difficult. Though his intellectual facul- It is explained by M. Blondel, an eminent member of
ties are not radically vitiated, yet his grasp of truth the Immanentist School, as signifying that "nothing
is weakened; his recognition of the moral law is con- can enter into a man which does not proceed from
stantly clouded by doubts and questionings. Revela- him, and which does not correspond in some manner
tion gives to his mind the certainty he had lost, and to an interior need of expansion; and that neither in
so far repairs the evils consequent on the catastrophe the sphere of historic facts nor of traditional doctrine,
which had befallen him. nor of commands imposed by authority, can any truth
(2) Still more difficulty has been felt regarding rank as vahd for a man or any precept as obligatory,
mysteries. It is freely asserted that a mystery is unless it be in some way autonomous and autochtho-
something repugnant to reason, and therefore some- nous" (Lettre sur les exigences, etc., p. 601). Although
thing intrinsically impossible. This objection rests M. Blondel has in his own case reconciled this prin-
on a mere misunderstanding of what is signified by a ciple with the acceptance of CathoUc belief, yet it
mystery. In theological terminology a conception may readily be seen that it affords an easy ground for
involves a mystery when it is such that the natural the denial not merely of the possibility of external
faculties of the mind are unable to see how its elements Revelation, but of the whole historic basis of Chris-
can coalesce. This does not imply anything contrary tianity. The origin of this erroneous doctrine is to
to reason. A
conception is only contrary to reason be found in the fact that within the sphere of the
when the mind can recognize that its elements are natural speculative reason, truths which are received
mutually exclusive, and therefore involve a contradic- purely on external authority, and which are in no way
tion in terms. A
more subtle objection is that urged connected with principles already admitted, can
by Dr. J. Caird, to the effect that every truth that scarcely be said to form part of our knowledge.
can be partially communicated to the mind by anal- Science asks for the inner reason of things and can
ogies is ultimately capable of being fully grasped by make no use of truths save in so far as it can reach the
the understanding. "Of all such representations, un- principles from which they flow. The extension of
less they are purely illusory, it must hold good that this to refigious truths is an error directly traceable to
imjilicitly and in undeveloped form they contain the assumption of the eighteenth-century philoso-
rational thought and therefore thought which human phers that there are no religious truths save those which
intelligence may ultimately free from its sensuous veil. the human intellect can attain unaided. The prin-
Nothing that is absolutely inscrutable to reason
. ciple is, however, sometimes apphed with a less ex-
can be made known to faith (Philosophy of ReUgion,
'

' tensive signification. It may be understood to involve

p. 71). The objection rests on a wholly exaggerated no more than that reason cannot be compelled to ad-
view regarding the powers of the human intellect. mit any rehgious doctrine or any moral obligation
The cognitive faculty of any nature is proportionate merely because they possess extrinsic guarantees of
to its grade in the scale of being. The intelUgence of truth; they must in every case be able to justify their
a finite intellect can only penetrate a finite object; validity on intrinsic grounds. Thus Prof. J. Caird
it incapable of comprehending the Infinite. The
is writes: "Neither moral nor rehgious ideas
can be
through which the Infinite is made known
finite t^-pes simply transferred to the human spirit in the
form of
to it can never under any circumstances lead to more fact, nor can they be verified by any
evidence outside
than analogous knowledge. It is further frequently ot or lower than themselves"
(Fundamental Ideas of
urged that the revelation of what the mind cannot Christianity, p. 31). A somewhat difi^erent
meaning
understand would be an act of violence to the intel- again is implied in the canon of the Vatican
Council
 REVELATION REVELATION
in which the right of the intellect to claim absolute sary is in itself a strong argument for the existence of
independence (autonomy) is denied. "If anyone a revelation, and imposes on all men the strict obliga-
shall say that human reason is independent in such tion of examining the credentials of a religion which
wise that faith cannot be commanded it by God presents itself \*ith prima facie marks of truth.
let him be anathema" (De Fide Cath., cap. iiij can. i). On the other hand if God has conferred a revelation
This canon is directed against the position mamtained on men, it stands to reason that He must have at-
as already noted by the older Rationalists and the tached to it plain and evident criteria enabling even
Deists, that human reason is amply sufficient with- the unlettered to recognize His message for what it
out exterior assistance to attain to absolute truth in is, and to distinguish it from all false claimants.
all matters of religion (cf. Vacant, "Etudes Th6o- The criteria of Revelation are either external or
logiques", I, 572; II, 387). internal: (1) External criteria consist in certain
III. Necessity of Revelation. —Can it be said signs attached to the revelation as a divine testimony
that Revelation is necessary to man? There can to its truth, e. g., miracles. (2) Internal criteria are
be no question as to its necessity, if it be admitted those which are found in the nature of the doctrine
that God destines man to attain a supernatural itself, in the manner in which it was presented to the
beatitude which surpasses the exigencies of his nat- world, and in the effects which it produces on the soul.
ural endowments. In that case God must needs These are distinguished into negative and positive
reveal alike the existence of that supernatural end criteria, (a) The immunity of the alleged revela-
and the means by which we are to attain it. But tion from any teaching, speculative or moral, which is
is Revelation necessary even in order that man manifestly erroneous or self-contradictory, the ab-
should observe the precepts of the natural law? If sence of all fraud on the part of those who deliver it
our race be viewed in its present condition as his- to the world, provide negative internal criteria,
tory displays it, the answer can only be that it is, (b) Positive internal criteria are of various kinds.
morally speaking, impossible for men unassisted by One such is found in the beneficent effects of the
Revelation, to attain by their natural powers such a doctrine and in its power to meet even the highest
knowledge of that law as is sufficient to the right or- aspirations which man can frame. Another consists
dering of life. In other words. Revelation is morally in the internal conviction felt by the soul as to the
necessary. Absolute necessity we do not assert. truth of the doctrine (Suarez, "De Fide", IV, sect.
Man, Catholic theology teaches, possesses the req- 5, ii. 9.) In the last century there was in certain
uisite faculties to discover the natural law. Luther schools of thought a manifest tendency to deny the
indeed asserted that man's intellect had become hope- value of all external criteria. This was largely due
lessly obscured by original sin, so that even natural to the Rationalist polemic against miracles. Not
truth was beyond his reach. And the Traditionalists a few non-Catholic divines anxious to make terms
of the nineteenth century (Bautain, Bonnetty, etc.) with the enemy adopted this attitude. They allowed
also fell into error, teaching that man was incapable that miracles are useless as a foundation for faith,
of arriving at moral and religious truth apart from and that they form on the contrary one of the chief
Revelation. The Church, on the contrary, recognizes difficulties which lie in faith's path. Faith, they
the capacity of human reason, and grants that here admitted, must be presupposed before the miracle
and there pagans may have existed, who had freed can be accepted. Hence these writers held the sole
themselves from prevalent errors, and who had at- criterion of faith to lie in inward experience — in the
tained to such a knowledge of the natural law as testimony of the Spirit. Thus Sohleiermacher says
would suffice to guide them to the attainment of "We renounce altogether any attempt to demon-
beatitude. But she teaches nevertheless that this strate the truth and the necessity of the Christian
can only be the case as regards a few, and that for religion. On the contrary we assume that every
the bulk of mankind Revelation is necessary. That Christian before he commences inquiries of this kind
this is so may be shown both from the facts of history is already convinced that no other form of reUgion
and from the nature of the case. As regards the but the Christian can harmonize with his piety"
testimony of history, it is notorious that even the (Glaubenslehre, n. 11). The Traditionalists by deny-
most civilized of pagan races have fallen into the ing the power of human reason to test the grounds
grossest errors regarding the natural law; and from of faith were driven to fall back on the same cri-
these it may safely be asserted they would never have terion (cf. Lamennais, "Pensfies Diverses", p. 488).
emerged. Certainly the schools of philosophy would This position is altogether untenable. The tes-
not have enabled them to do so; for many of these timony afforded by inward experience is undoubtedly
denied even such fundamental principles of the nat- not to be neglected. Catholic doctors have always
ural law as the personality of God and the freedom recognized its value. But its force is limited to the
of the will. Again, by the very nature of the case, individual who is the subject of it. It cannot be
the difficulties involved in the attainment of the req- employed as a criterion valid for all; for its absence
uisite knowledge are insuperable. For men to be is no proof that the doctrine is not true. Moreover,
aisle to attain such a knowledge of the natural law as of all the criteria it is the one with regard to which
will enable them to order their lives rightly, the there is most possibility of deception. When truth
truths of that law must be so plain that the mass of mingled with error is presented to the mind, it often
men can discover them without long delay, and pos- happens that the whole teaching, false and true alike,
sessa knowledge of them which will be alike free is beheved to have a Divine guarantee, because the
from uncertainty and secure from serious error. soul has recognized and welcomed the truth of some
No reasonable man will maintain that in the case of one doctrine, e. g., the Atonement. Taken alone and
the greater part of mankind this is possible. Even apart from objective proof it conveys but ^ prob-
the most vital truths are called in question and are ability that the revelation is true. Hence the
met by serious objections. The separation of truth Vatican Council expressly condemns the error of
from error is a work involving time and labour. those who teach it to be the only criterion (De
For this the majority of men have neither inclination Fide Cath., cap. iii, can. iii).
nor opportunity. Apart from the security which The perfect agreement of a religious doctrine with
Revelation gives they would reject an obligation the teachings of reason and natural law, its power to
both irksome and uncertain. It results that a rev- satisfy, and more than satisfy, the highest aspirations
elation even of the natural law is for man in his of man, its beneficent influence both as regards public
present state a moral necessity. and private life, provide us with a more trustworthy
—
IV. Criteria op Revelation. The fact that test. This is a criterion which has often been applied
Revelation is not merely possible but morally neces- with great force on behalf of the claims of the Catholic
 REVELATION 4 REVELATION
Church to be the sole guardian of God's Revelation. error in defining the faith; it does not enable him
These qualities indeed appertain in so transcendent to add jot or tittle to it. All subsequent revelations
a degree to the teaching of the Church, that the argu- conferred by God are known as private re\-elations,
ment must needs carry conviction to an earnest and for the reason that they are not directed to the whole
truth-seeking mind. Another criterion which at Church but are for the good of individual members
first sight bears some resemblance to this claims a alone. They may indeed be a legitimate object for
mention here. It is based upon the theory of Im- our faith; but that will depend on the evidence in
manence and has of recent years been strenuously each particular case. The Church does not propose
advocated by certain of the less extreme members of them to us as part of her message. It is true that in
the Modernist School. These writers urge that the certain cases she has given her approbation to cer-
vital needs of the soul imperatively demand, as their tain private revelations. This, however, only signi-
necessary complement, Divine co-operation, super- fies (1) that there is nothing in them contrary to the
natural grace, and even the supreme magisterium Catholic Faith or to the moral law, and (2) that there
of the Church. To these needs the Catholic religion are sufficient indications of their truth to justify
alone corresponds. And this correspondence with the faithful in attaching credence to them without
our vital needs is, they hold, the one sure criterion being guilty of superstition or of imprudence.
of truth. The theory is altogether inconsistent with It may however be further asked, whether the
Catholic dogma. It supposes that the Christian Christian Revelation does not receive increment
Revelation and the gift of grace are not free gifts from through the development of doctrine. During the
God, but something of which the nature of man is last half of the nineteenth century the question of
absolutely exigent, and without which it would be doctrinal development was widely debated. Owing
incomplete. It is a return to the errors of Baius. to Guenther's erroneous teaching that the doctrines
(Denz. 1021, etc.) of the faith assume a new sense as human science pro-
While the Church, as we have said, is far from gresses, the Vatican Council declared once for all
undervaluing internal criteria, she has always re- that the meaning of the Church's dogmas is im-
garded external criteria as the most easily recognizable mutable (De Fide Cath., cap. iv, can. iii). On the
and the most decisive. Hence the Vatican Council other hand it explicitly recognizes that there is a
teaches: "In order that the obedience of our faith legitimate mode of development, and cites to that
might be agreeable to reason, God has willed that to effect (op. cit., cap. iv) the words of Vincent of Lirins:
the internal aids of the Holy Spirit, there should be "Let understanding science and wisdom [regarding
joined external proofs of His Revelation, viz: Divine the Church's doctrine] progress and make large in-
works (facta divina), especially miracles and prophecy, crease in each and in all, in the individual and in the
which inasmuch as they manifestly display the whole Church, as ages and centuries advance: but
omnipotence and the omniscience of God are most let it be solely in its own order, retaining, that is, the
certain signs of a Divine revelation and are suited same dogma, the same sense, the same import"
to the understanding of all" (De Fide Cath., cap. (Commonit. 28). Two of the most eminent theolog-
iii). As an instance of a work evidently Divine, ical writers of the period, Cardinal Franzelin and
and yet other than miracle or prophecy, the council Cardinal Newman, have on very different lines dealt
instances the Catholic Church, which, "by reason with the progress and nature of this development.
of the marvellous manner of its propagation, its sur- Cardinal Franzelin in his "De Divina Traditione et
prising sanctity, its inexhaustible fruitfulness in all Scriptura" (pt. XXII-VI) has principally in view
good works, its catholic unity and its invincible the Hegelian theories of Guenther. He consequently
stability, is a mighty and perpetual motive of credi- lays the chief stress on the identity at all points of
bility and an irrefragable testimony to its own the intellectual datum, and explains development
divine legation'' (1. c). The truth of the teaching almost exclusively as 1 process of logical deduction.
of the council regarding external criteria is plain to Cardinal Newman wrote his "Essay on the Develop-
any unprejudiced mind. Granted the presence of ment of Christian Doctrine" in the course of the
the negative criteria, external guarantees establish two years (1843-45) immediately preceding his re-
the Divine origin of a revelation as nothing else can ception into the Catholic Church. He was called
do. They are, so to say, a, seal affixed by the hand on to deal with different adversaries, viz., the Prot-
of God Himself, and authenticating the work as His. estants who justified their separation from the main
(For a fuller treatment of their apologetic value, body of Christians on the ground that Rome had cor-
and for a discussion of objections, see Miracles; rupted primitive teaching by a series of additions.
Apologetics.) In that work he examines in detail the difference be-
V. The Christian Revelation. — It remains here tween a corruption and a development. He shows
to distinguish the Christian Revelation or "deposit how a true and fertile idea is endowed with a vital
of faith" from what are termed private revelations. and assimilative energy of its own, in virtue of which,
This distinction is of importance for while the Church
: without undergoing the least substantive change,
recognizes that God has spoken to His servants in it attains to an ever completer expression, as the course
every age, and still continues thus to favour chosen of time brings it into contact with new aspects of
souls, she is careful to distinguish these revelations truth or forces it into collision with new errors: the
from the Revelation which has been committed to hfe of the idea is shown to be analogous to an organic
her charge, and which she proposes to all her members development. He provides a series of tests dis-
for their acceptance. That Revelation was given tinguishing a true development from a corruption,
in its entirety to Our Lord and His Apostles. After chief among them being the preservation of type,
the death of the last of the twelve it could receive no and the continuity of principles; and then, applying
increment. It was, as the Church calls it, a deposit
— "the faith once ilelivered to the saints" (Jude,
the tests to the case of the additions of Roman teach-
ing, shows that these have the marks not of corrup-
3)— for which the Church was to "contend" but to tions but of true and legitimate developments. The
-which she could add nothing. Thus, whenever there theory, though less scholastic in its form than that of
has been question of defining a doctrine, whether at Franzelin, is in perfect conformitv with orthodox
NicEea, at Trent, or at the Vatican, the sole point belief. Newman no less than his Jesuit contemporary
of debate has been as to whether the doctrine is found teaches that the whole doctrine, alike in its later
in Scripture or in Apostolic tradition. The gift of as in its earher forms, was contained in the original
Divine assistance (see I), sometimes confounded with revelation given to the Church bv Our Lord and His
Revelation by the less instructed of anti-Catholic Apostles, and that its identitv is guaranteed to us
writers, merely preserves the supreme pontiff from b3- the infallible magisterium of the Church.
The
 REVELATION REVELATIONS
claim of certain Modernist writers that their views revelation is Divine. (1) God can give this certainty
on the evolution of dogma were connected with New- to the person who receives the revelation (at least
man's theory of development is the merest figment. during it), by granting an insight and an evidence so
Ottiger, Theologia fundamentalis (Freiburg, 1897) vacant,
Etudes TlUologiques sur le Candle du Vatican (Paris, 1895)
;
compelling as to exclude all possibility of doubt. We
Lebachelet, De I'apologitique traditionelle et V apologetiqua mo-
can find an analogy in the natural order: our senses
deme (Paris, 1897) De Broglie, Religion et Critique (Paris, 1906)
; are subject to many illusions, and yet we frequently
Blondel, Lettre sur les Exigences de la Pensie moderne en mati&re perceive clearly that we have not been deceived. (2)
apologetique in Annates de la Philos: ChrUienne (Paris, 1896).
On private revelations: Suarez, De Fide, disp. Ill, sect. 10; At times others can be equally certain of the revela-
Franzelin, De Scriptura et TTaditione, Th. xxii (Rome, 1870) tion thus vouchsafed. For instance, the Prophets of
PouLAiN, Graces of Interior Prayer, pt. IV, tr. (London, 1910). the Old Testament gave indubitable signs of their
On development of doctrine: Bainvel, De magisterio vivo et mission; otherwise they would not have been believed.
tradilione (Paris, 1905) Vacant, op. cit., II, p. 281 seq. Pinard,
; ;

art. Dogme in Diet. ApologUique de la Foi Catholique, ed. d'Al^s There were always false prophets, who deceived some
(Paris, 1910) ; O'Dwyer, Cardinal Newman and the Encyclical of the people, but, inasmuch as the faithful were
Pascendi (London, 1908).
Among those who from one point of view or another have con- counselled by Holy Writ to distinguish the false from
troverted the Christian doctrine of Revelation the following may the true, it was possible so to distinguish. One incon-
be mentioned: Paine, Age of Reason (ed. 1910), 1-30; F. W. trovertible proof is the working of a miracle, if it be
Newman, Phases of Faith (4th ed., London, 1854) Sabatier,
;
wrought for this purpose and circumstances show this
Esquisse d'une philosophic de la religion, 1, ii (Paris, 1902)
Pfleiderer, Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtlicher Grundlage to be so. A prophecy realized is equally convincing,
(Berlin, 1896), 493 seq.; LoiSY, AutouT d'un petit livre (Paris, when it is precise and cannot be the result of chance
1903), 192 sqq.; Wilson, art. Revelation and Modern Thought in
Cambridge Theol. Essays (London, 1905); Tyrrell, Through or of a conjecture of the evil spirit.
Scylla and Charybdis (London, 1907), ii; Martineau, Seat of Besides these rather rare means of forming an
Authority in Religion, III, ii (London, 1890). opinion, there is another, but longer and more intricate
G. H. Joyce. method: to discuss the reasons for and against.
Book See Apocalypse. Practically, this examination will often give only a
Revelation, op.
probability more or less great. It may be also that the
—
Revelations, Private. There are two kinds of revelation can be regarded as Divine in its broad out-
revelations: (1) universal revelations, which are con- lines, but doubtful in minor details. Concerning the
tained in the Bible or in the depositum of Apostolic revelations of Marie de Agreda and Anne Catherine
tradition transmitted by the Church. These ended Emmerich, for example, contradictory opinions have
with the preaching of the Apostles and must be be- been expressed: "some believe unhesitatingly every-
lieved by all; (2) particular or private revelations thing they contain, and are annoyed when anyone
which are constantly occurring among Christians (see does not share their confidence; others give the
Contemplation). When the Church approves pri- revelations no credence whatsoever (generally on a.
vate revelations, she declares only that there is priori grounds) finally there are many who are sym-
;

nothing in them contrary to faith or good morals, and pathetic, but do not know what to reply when asked
that they may be read without danger or even with what degree of credibility is to be attributed to the
profit; no obligation is thereby imposed on the faith- writings of these two ecstatics. The truth seems to be
ful to believe them. Speaking of such revelations as between the two extreme opinions indicated first. If
(e. g.) those of St. Hildegard (approved in part by there is question of a particular fact related in these
Eugenius III), St. Bridget (by Boniface IX), and St. books and not mentioned elsewhere, we cannot be
Catherine of Siena (by Gregory XI) Benedict XIV certain that it is true, expecially in minor details. In
says: "It is not obligatory, nor even possible to give particular instances, these visionaries have been mis-
them the assent of Catholic faith, but only of human taken: thus Marie de Agreda teaches, like her con-
faith, in conformity with the dictates of prudence, temporaries, the existence of crystal heavens, and de-
which presents them to us as probable and worthy of clares that one must believe everything she says, al-
pious belief" (De canon.. Ill, liii, 15; II, xxii, II). though such an obligation exists only in the case of
Illusions connected with private revelations have the Holy Scriptures. In 1771 Clement XIV forbade
been explained in the article Contemplation. Some the continuation of her process of beatification "oa
of them are at first thought surprising. Thus a vision account of the book". Catherine Emmerich has like-
of an historical scene (e. g., of the life or death of wise given expression to false or unlikely opinions:
Christ) is often only approximately accurate, although she regards the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius aa
the visionary may be unaware of this fact, and he may due to the Areopagite, and says strange things about
be misled, if he believes in its absolute historical fidel- the terrestrial Paradise, which, according to her,
ity. This error is quite natural, being based on the exists on an inaccessible mountain towards Tibet.
assumption that, if the vision comes from God, all its If there be question of the general statement of facts
details (the landscape, dress, words, actions, etc.) given in these works, we can admit with probability
should be a faithful reproduction of the historic past. that many of them are true. For these two vision-
This assumption is not justified, for accuracy in aries led lives that were regarded as very holy. Com-
secondary details is not necessary; the main point is petent authorities have judged their ecstasies divine.
that the fact, event, or communication revealed be It is therefore prudent to admit that they received a
strictly true. It may be objected that the Bible con- special assistance from God, preserving them not
tains historical books, and that thus God may some- absolutely, but in the main, from error.
times wish to reveal certain facts in religious history In judging of revelations or visions we may proceed
to us exactly. That doubtless is true, when there is in this manner (a) get detailed information about the
:

question of facts which are necessary or useful as a person who believes himself thus favoured; (b) also
basis for religion, in which case the revelation is about the fact of the revelation and the circumstances
accompanied by proofs that guarantee its accuracy. attending it. To prove that a revelation is Divine
A vision need not guarantee its accuracy in every (at least in its general outlines), the method of exclu-
detail. One should thus beware of concluding without sion is sometimes employed. It consists in proving
examination that revelations are to be rejected; the that neither the demon nor the ecstatic's own ideas
prudent course is neither to believe nor to deny them have interfered (at least on important points) with
unless there is sufficient reason for so doing. Much God's action, and that no one has retouched the revela-
less should one suspect that the saints have been al- tion after its occurrence. This method differs from
ways or very often deceived in their vision. On the the preceding one only in the manner of arranging the
contrary, such deception is rare, and as a rule in un- information obtained, but it is not so convenient.
important matters only. To judge revelations or visions, we must be acquainted
There are cases in which we can be certain that a with the character of the person favoured with them
 REVELATIONS 6 REVELATIONS
from a triple point of view: natural, ascetical, and It must be admitted that they are inspired by a good
mystical. (For those who have been beatified or principle: a very ardent sentiment of the love of God
canonized, this inquiry has been already made by and of repentance. But to this is added another ele-
the Church.) Our inquiry into the visionary's char- ment that cannot be regarded as Divine: a neuro-
acter might be pursued as follows: (1) What are his pathic enthusiasm, which is contagious and sometimes
natural qualities or defects, from a physical, intellec- develops so far as to produce convulsions or repugnant
tual, and especially moral standpoint? If the informa- contortions. Sometimes a kind of unknown language
tion is favourable (if the person is of sound judgment, is spoken, but it consists in reality of a succession of
calm imagination; if his acts are dictated by reason meaningless sounds. (6) What sentiments of peace,
and not by enthusiasm, etc.), many causes of illusion or, on the other hand, of disturbance, are experienced
are thereby excluded. However, a momentary aber- dm-ing or after the revelation? Here is the rule as
ration is still possible. (2) How has the person been formulated by St. Catherine of Siena and St. Ignatius:
educated? Can the knowledge of the visionary have "AMth persons of good will [it is only of such that we
been derived from books or from conversations with are here treating] the action of the good spirit [God
theologians? (3) A\Tiat are the virtues exhibited be- or His Angels] is characterized by the production of
fore and after the revelation? Has he made progress peace, joy, security, courage; except perhaps at the
in holiness and especially in humility? The tree can first moment." Note the restriction. The Bible
be judged by its fruits. (4) ^^^lat extraordinary often mentions this disturbance at the first moment
graces of union with God have been received? The of the revelation; the Blessed Virgin experienced it
greater they are the greater the probability in favour when the Angel Gabriel appeared to her. The action
of the revelation, at least in the main. (5) Has the of the demon produces quite the contrary effect:
person had other revelations that have been judged "With persons of good will he produces, except per-
Divine? Has he made any predictions that have haps at the first moment, disturbance, sorrow, dis-
been clearly realized? (6) Has he been subjected to couragement, perturbation, gloom." In a word the
heavy trials? It is almost impossible for extraordinary action of Satan encounters a mysterious resistance of
favours to be conferred without heavy crosses; for the soul. (7) It often happens that the revelation
both are marks of God's friendship, and each is a prep- inspires an exterior work — for instance, the establish-
aration for the other. (7) Does he practice the fol- ment of a new devotion, the foundation of a new reli-
lowing rules: fear deception; be open with your gious congregation or association, the revision of the
director; do not desire to have revelations? constitutions of a congregation, etc., the building of a
Our information concerning a revelation considered church or the creation of a pilgrimage, the reformation
in itself or concerning the circumstances that accom- of the lax spirit in a certain body, the preaching of a
panied it might be secured as follows: new spirituality, etc. In these cases the value of the
(1) Is there an authentic account, in which nothing proposed work must be carefully examined is it good
:

has been added, suppressed, or corrected? (2) Does in itself, useful, filling a need, not injurious to other
the revelation agree with the teaching of the Church works, etc.? (8) Have the revelations been subjected
or with the recognized facts of history or natural to the tests of time and discussion? (9) It any work
science? (3) Does it teach nothing contrary to good has been begun as a result of the revelation, has
morals, and is it unaccompanied by any indecent it produced great spiritual fruit? Have the sovereign
action? The commandments of God are addressed to pontiffs and the bishops believed this to be so, and
everyone without exception. More than once the have they assisted the progress of the work? This is
demon has persuaded false visionaries that they were very well illustrated in the cases of the Scapular of
chosen souls, and that God loved them so much as to Mount Carmel, the devotion to the Sacred Heart, the
dispense them from the burdensome restrictions im- miraculous medal. These are the signs that enable us
posed on ordinary mortals. On the contrary, the to judge with probability if a revelation is Divine.
effect of Divine visitations is to remove us more and In the case of certain persons very closely united to
more from the life of sense, and make us more rigorous God, the slow study of these signs has been sometimes
towards ourselves. (4) Is the teaching helpful towards aided or replaced by a supernatural intuition; this is
the obtaining of eternal salvation? In Spiritism what is known as the infused gift of the discernment
we find the spirits evoked treat only of trifles. They of spirits.
reply to idle questions, or descend to providing amuse- As regards the rules of conduct, the two principal
ment for an assembly (e. g., by moving furniture have been explained in the article on Contemplation,
about); deceased relatives or the great philosophers namely (1) if the revelation leads solely to the love of
are interrogated and their replies are woefully com- God and the saints, the director may provisionally
monplace. A revelation is also suspect if its aim is to regard it as Divine; (2) at the beginning, the visionary
decide a disputed question in theology, history, astron- should do his best to repulse the revelation quietly.
omy, etc. Eternal salvation is the only thing of im- He should not desire to receive it, otherwise he will be
portance in the eyes of God. "In all other matters", exposing himself to the risk of being deceived. Here
says St. John of the Cross, "He wishes men to have are some further rules: (a) the director must be con-
recourse to human means " (Mout^e, II, xxii) . Finally, tent to proceed slowly, not to express astonishment,
a revelation is suspect if it is commonplace, telling to treat the person gently. If he were to be harsh or
only what is to be found in every book. It is then distrustful, he would intimidate the soul he is direct-
probable that the visionary is unconsciously repeating ing, and incline it to conceal important details from
what he has learnt by reading. (5) After examining him; (b) he must be very careful to urge the soul to
all the circumstances accompanying the vision (the make progress in the way of sanctity. He will point
attitudes, acts, words, etc.), do we find that dignity out that the only value of the visions is in the spiritual
and seriousness which become the Divine Majesty? fruit that they produce; (c) he will pray
fervently,
The spirits evoked by Spiritists often speak in a trivial and have the subject he is directing pray, that the
manner. Spiritists try to explain this by pre'.,ending necessary light may be granted. God cannot
fail to
that the spirits are not demons, but the souls of the make known the true path to those who ask Him
departed who have retained all their vices absurd or
; humbly. If on the contrary a person confided
solely
unbecoming replies are given by deceased persons who in his natural prudence, he would
expose himself to
are still liars, or libertines, frivolous or mystifiers, etc. punishment for his sel -sufficiency; (d)
the visionary
But if that be so, communications with these degraded
beings is evidently dangerous. In Protestant "re-
vivals" assembled crowds bewail their sins, but in a
Hn w f^^^l1
P'^'.f?«tly "^l'" '^nd patient if
his superiors
him to carry out the enterprises that he
hL^= mspired by Heaven or revealed.
deems
strange, exaggerated way, as if frenzied or intoxicated. when confronted with this opposition, One who
becomes im-
 REVILLE REVOLUTION
patient or discouraged, shows that he has very little revenue granted by Parliament for life. His poUcy
confidence in the power of God and is but little con- was to govern England as absolute monarch and to
formed to His will. If God wishes the project to restore Catholics to their full civil and rehgious rights.
succeed, He can make the obstacles suddenly dis- Unfortunately, both prudence and statesmanship
appear at the time appointed by Him. A
very striking were lacking, with the result that in three years the
example of this Divine delay is to be found in the life king lost his throne. The history of the Revolution
of St. Juliana, the Cistercian prioress of Mont-Cor- resolves itself into a catalogue of various ill-judged
nillon, near LiSge (1192-1258). It is to her that the measures which alienated the support of the Es-
institution of the feast of the Blessed Sacrament is tablished Church, the Tory party, and the nation as
due. All her life was passed in awaiting the hour of a whole. The execution of Monmouth (July, 1685)
God, which she was never to see, for it came only made the Revolution possible, for it led to the Whig
more than the century after the beginning of the party accepting William of Orange as the natural
revelations. champion of Protestantism against the attempts of
As regards inspii'ations ordinarily, those who have James. Thus the opposition gained a centre round
not passed the period of tranquillity or a complete which it consolidated with ever-increasing force.
union, must beware of the idea that they hear su- What the Cathohcs as a body desired was freedom
pernatural words; unless the evidence is irresistible, of worship and the repeal of the penal laws; but a
they should attribute them to the activity of their own small section of them, desirous of political power,
imaginations. But they may at least experience in- aimed chiefly at the repeal of the Test Act of 1673
spirations or impulses more or less strong, which seem and the Act of 1678 which excluded Catholics from
to point out to them how to act in difficult circum- both houses of Parliament. Unfortunately James fell
stances. This is a minor form of revelation. The under the influence of this section, which was directed
same line of conduct should be followed as in the by the unprincipled Earl of Sunderland, and he de-
latter case. We must not accept them blindly and cided on a poUcy of repeal of the Test Act. Circum-
against the dictates of reason, but weigh the reasons stances had caused this question to be closely bound
for and against, consult a prudent director, and decide up with that of the army. For James, who placed
only after applying the rules for the discernment of his chief reliance on his soldiers, had increased the
spirits. The attitude of reserve that has just been standing army to 30,000, 13,000 of whom, partly
laid down does not apply to simple sudden and illu- officered by Cathohcs, were encamped on Hounslow
minating views of faith, which enable one to understand Heath to the great indignation of London which re-
in a higher manner not novelties, but the truths garded the camp as a menace to its liberties and a
admitted by the Church. Such enlightenment can- centre of disorder. Parliament demanded that the
not have any evil result. It is on the contrary a very army should be reduced to normal dimensions and
precious grace, which should be carefully welcomed the Cathohc officers dismissed; but James, realizing
and utilized. that the test would not be repealed, prorogued Parlia-
Consult the writings of St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross, ment and proceeded to exercise the "dispensing and
passim; Philip of the Blessed Trinity, Summa theologies
mysticos (Lyons, 1656), pt. II, tr. iii; de Vallgornera, Mystica suspending power" By this he claimed that it was
theologia (Barcelona, 1662), Q. ii, disp. 5; Lopez de Ezquerra, the prerogative of the crown to dispense with the
Lucerna mystica (Venice, 1692), tr. v; Amort, De revelationibus execution of the penal laws in individual cases and to
(Augsburg, 1744) Benedict XIV, De servorum Dei canonizatione
;

(Rome, 1767), 1. Ill, c. liii; Scaramelli, Direttorio mistico (Venice, suspend the operation of any law altogether. To
1754), tr. iv; Schram, Institutiones theologite mysticcB (Ausgburg, obtain the sanction of the Law Courts for this doc-
1777), pt. II, c. iv; St. Liguori, Homo apostolicus (Venice, 1782), trine a test case, known as Hales's case, was brought
append, i, n. 19 Ribet, La mystique divine, II (Paris, 1879)
to decide whether the king could allow a Cathohc
;

Poulain, Des graces d'oraison (5th ed., Paris, 1909), tr. The
Graces of Interior Prayer (London, 1910). to hold office in the army without complying with the
Aug. Poulain. Test Act. After James had replaced some of the
Revllle, Stephen. See Sandhuest, Diocese op. judges by more complaisant lawyers, he obtained a
decision that "it was of the king's prerogative to
Revocation, the act of recalling or annulling,
dispense with penal laws in particular instances "-
the reversal of an act, the recalling of a grant, or the
making void of some deed previously existing. This He acted on the decision by appointing Cathohcs
to various positions. Lord Tyrconnel becoming Lord
term is of wide application in canon law. Grants,
Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Arundel Lord Privy
laws, contracts, sentences, jurisdiction, appointments
Seal, and Lord Bellasyse Lord Treasurer in place of
are at times revoked by the grantor, his successor,
the Tory minister Lord Rochester, who was regarded
or superior according to the prescriptions of law.
as the chief mainstay of the Established Church.
Revocation without just cause is illicit, though often
The Church of England, which was rendered uneasy
valid. Laws and customs are revoked when, owing
by the dismissal of Rochester, was further ahenated
to change of circumstances, they cease to be just and
by the king's action in appointing a Court of High
reasonable. Concordats (q. v.) are revocable when
Commission, which suspended the Bishop of London
they redound to the serious injury of the Church.
for refusing to inhibit one of his clergy from preach-
Minors and ecclesiastical institutions may have
ing anti-Catholic sermons. The feeling was in-
sentences in certain civil trials set aside (Restitutio
tensified by the liberty which Catholics enjoyed in
in integrum). Contracts by which ecclesiastical prop-
erty is alienated are sometimes rescindable. A London during 1686. Public chapels were opened,
including one in the Royal Palace, the Jesuits founded
judge may revoke his own interlocutory sentence but
a large school in the Savoy, and Catholic ecclesiastics
not a definitive judicial sentence. Many appoint-
appeared openly at Court.
ments are revocable at will; others require a judicial
At this juncture James, desiring to counterbalance
trial or other formalities. (See Benefice; Facul-
the loss of Anglican support, offered toleration to the
ties, Canonical; Indults, Pontifical; Jurisdic-
dissenters, who at the beginning of his reign had been
tion, Ecclesiastical.)
severely persecuted. The influence of WilUam Penn
Andrew B. Meehan. induced the king to issue on 4 April, 1687, the Dec-
—
Revolution, English, of 1688. James II, hav- laration of Indulgence, by which liberty of worship
ing reached the climax of his power after the suc- was granted to all. Catholic and Protestant alike.
cessful suppression of Monmouth's rebellion in 1685, He also replaced Tory churchmen by Whig dissenters
then had the Tory reaction in his favour, complete on the municipal corporations and the commission
control over Parliament and the town corporations, of the peace, and, having dissolved Parhament,
a regular army in England, a thoroughly Catholic hoped to secure a new House of Commons which
army in process of formation in Ireland, and a large would repeal both the penal laws and the Test. But
 REVOLUTION 8 REVOLUTION
he underestimated two the hatred of the
difficulties, seven English statesmen sent a letter to William in-
dissenters for "popery" and their distrust of royal viting him to rescue the reUgion and liberties of Eng-
absolutism. His action in promoting Catholics to land. But William was threatened by a French army
the Privy Council, the judicial bench, and the offices on the Belgian frontier, and could not take action.
of Lord lieutenant, sheriff, and magistrate, wounded Louis XIV made a last effort to save James, and
these susceptibilities, while he further offended the warned the Dutch States General that he would re-
Anglicans by attempting to restore to Catholics some gard any attack on England as a declaration of war
of their ancient foundations in the universities. against France. This was keenly resented by James,
Catholics obtained some footing both at Christ who regarded it as a slight upon English indepen-
Church and University College, Oxford, and in March dence, and he repudiated the charge that he had made
Itiss, James gave the presidency of Magdalen Col- a secret treaty with France. Thereupon Louis left
lege to Bonaventure Giffard, the Catholic Vicar him to his fate, removed the French troops from
Apostolic of the Midland District. This restoration Flanders to begin a campaign against the empire,
of Magdalen as a Catholic college created the great- and thus William was free to move. When it was
est alarm, not only among the holders of benefices too late James realized his danger. By hasty con-
throughout the country, but also among the owners cessions granted one after another he tried to undo
of ancient abbey lands. The presence of the papal his work and win back the Tory churchmen to his
nuncio, Mgr d'Adda, at Court and the public position cause. But he did not remove the Catholic officers
granted to the four Cathoho bishops, who had re- or suggest the restriction of the dispensing power.
cently been appointed as vicars Apostolic, served to In October Sunderland was dismissed from office,
increase both the dislike of the dissenters to support but William was already on the seas, and, though
a king whose acts, while of doubtful legality, were driven back by a storm, he re-embarked and landed
also subversive of Protestant interests, and likewise at Torbay on 5 Nov., 1688. James at first prepared
the difficulty of the Anglicans in practising passive to resist. The army was sent to intercept William,
obedience in face of such provocation. Surrounded but by the characteristic treachery of Churchill,
by these complications, James issued his second disaffection was spread, and the king, not knowing
Declaration of Indulgence in April, 1688, and ordered in whom he could place confidence, attempted to
that it should be read in all the churches. This escape. At Sheerness he was stopped and sent back
strained Anglican obedience to the breaking point. to London, where he might have proved an embarras-
The Archbishop of Canterbury and six of his suf- sing prisoner had not his escape been connived at.
fragans presented a petition questioning the dispens- On 23 Dec, 1688, he left England to take refuge with
ing power. The seven bishops were sent to the Tower Louis XIV; the latter received him generously and
prosecuted, tried, and acquitted. This trial proved granted him both palace and pension. On his first
to be the immediate occasion of the Revolution, for, departure the mob had risen in London against the
as Halifax said, "it hath brought all Protestants to- Catholics, and attacked chapels and houses, plunder-
gether and bound them up into a knot that cannot ing and carrjdng off the contents. Even the am-
easily be untied". While the bishops were in the bassadors' houses were not spared, and the Spanish
Tower, another epoch-marking event occurred the — and Sarchnian embassy chapels were destroyed.
birth of an heir to the crown (10 June, 1688). Hither- Bishops Giffard and Leyburn were arrested and com-
to the hopes of the king's opponents had been fixed mitted to the Tower. Father Petre had escaped,
on the succession of his Protestant daughter Mary, and the Nuncio disguised himself as a servant at
wife of William of Orange, the Protestant leader. the house of the envoy from Savoy, till he was en-
The birth of Prince James now opened up the pros- abled to obtain from William a passport. So far as
pect of a Catholic (h'nasty just at a moment when the the English Catholics were concerned, the result of
ancient anti-Catholic bigotry had been aroused by the Revolution was that their restoration to freedom
e^'ents both in England and France. For besides the of worship and liberation from the penal laws was
ill-advised acts of James, the persecution of the delayed for a century and more.
Huguenots by Louis XIV, consequent on the Revoca- So completely had James lost the confidence of the
tion of the Edict of Xantes in 1685, revived old re- nation that William experienced no opposition and
ligious animosities. England was flooded with the Revolution ran its course in an almost regular
French Protestant refugees bearing everywhere the way. A Convention Parliament met on 22 Jan.,
tale of a Catholic king's cruelty. 1689, declared that James "having withdrawn him-
Unfortunately for James his whole foreign policy self out of the kingdom, had abdicated the govern-
had been one of subservience to France, and at this ment, and that the throne was thereby vacant", and
moment of crisis the power of France was a menace "that experience had shown it to be inconsistent
to all Europe. Even Catholic Austria and Spain with the safety and welfare of this Protestant king-
supported the threatened Protestant states, and dom to be governed by a Popish Prince". The
the pope himself, outraged by Louis XIV in a suc- crown was offered to William and Mary, who ac-
cession of wrongs, joined the universal resistance cepted the Declaration of Right, which laid down the
to France and was allied with William of Orange principles of the constitution with regard to the dis-
and other Protestant sovereigns against Louis and his pensing power, the liberties of Parliament, and other
single supporter, James. William had long watched matters. After their proclamation as king and queen,
tlic situation in England, and during 1687 had re- the Declaration was ratified by the Bill of Rights,
ceived communications from the opposition in which and the work of the Revolution was complete.
it was agreed that, whenever revolutionary action English Cathohcs have indeed had good cause to
should become advisable, it should be carried out lament the failure of the king's well-meant, if unwise,
under William's guidance. As early as the autumn attempts to restore their liberty, and to regret that
of 1687 the papal secretary of state was aware of the he did not act on the wise advice of Pope Innocent
plot to dethrone James and make Mary queen, and XI and Cardinal Howard to proceed by slow degrees
a French agent dispatched the news to England and obtain first the repeal of the penal laws before
through France. The Duke of Norfolk then in going on to restore their full civil rights. But on the
Rome also learned it, and sent intelligence to the other hand we can now realize that the Revolution
king before 18 Dec, 1687 (letter of d'Estr^es to had the advantage of finally closing the long struggle
Louvois, cited by RLnke, II, 424). But James, between king and Parliament that had lasted for
though early informed, was reluctant to believe nearly a century, and of establishing general
prin-
that his son-in-law would head an insurrection against ciples of rehgious toleration in which
Catholics were
him. On the day the seven bishops were acquitted bound sooner or later to be included.
 REVOLUTION REVOLUTION
LiNGAKD, Hist, of England, X (London, 1849), the standard the periodical convocation of the States General, their
Catholic account; Lodge in Hunt and Poole, Political Hist, of
England, VIII (London, 1910) Tempebley in Cambridge Modern
;
supremacy in financial matters, the responsibility of
Hist., V (London, 1908) Tbevelyan, England under the Stuarts
;
rninisters, and the regular guarantee of individual
(London, 1904); Wtatt-Davies, Hist, of England for Catholic liberty. Thus the true and great reforms tending to
Schools (London, 1903); Gbeen, Hist, of the English People
(London, 1877-80); Macaulay, Hist, of England (London, 1849); the establishment of liberty were advocated by the
Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional Hist. (London, clergy on the eve of the Revolution. When the
1875); Beight, Hist, of England, 2nd period (London, 1880); Estates assembled 5 May, 1789, the Third Estate
GuizoT, Pourquoi la RSvolution a-t-elle rdissif {1640-1688)
(Paris, 1850); Mazube, Hist, de la rival, de 1688 (3 vols., Paris, demanded that the verification of powers should be
1825). For earlier accounts cOBSult Defoe, Revol. of 1688 re- made in common by the three orders, the object being
printed in Aeber, English Garner, XII (London, 1903) Eachabd,
; that the Estates should form but one assembly in
Hist, of the Revol. in 1688 (London, 1725); Bcrnet, Hist, of my
Own Times (last edition, Oxford, 1897-1900); Dodd, Church which the distinction between the "orders" should
Hist. (Wolverhampton vere Brussels, 1737-42); Speke, Secret disappear and where every member was to have a
Hist, of the happy Revol., 1688 (London, 1715). vote. Scarcely a fourth of the clergy had formally
Edwin Buhton. advocated this reform, but from the opening of the
Estates it was evident that the parochial clergy
Revolution, French. —
The last thirty years desired individual voting which would give the mem-
have given us a new version of the history of the bers of the Third Estate, the advocates of reform,
French Revolution, the most diverse and hostile an effectual preponderance.
schools having contributed to it. The philosopher, As early as 23 May, 1789, the cur^s at the house
Taine, drew attention to the affinity between the of the Archbishop of Bordeaux were of the opinion
revolutionary and what he calls the classic spirit, that that the power of the deputies should be verified
is, the spirit of abstraction which gave rise to Car- in the general assembly of the Estates, and when
tesianism and produced certain masterpieces of French on 17 June the members of the Third Estate pro-
literature. Moreover he admirably demonstrated the claimed themselves the "National Assembly", the
mechanism of the local revolutionary committees and majority of the clergy decided (19 June) to join them.
showed how a daring Jacobin minority was able to As the higher clergy and the nobility still held out,
enforce its will as that of " the people " Following up
. the king caused the hall where the meetings of the
this line of research M. Augustin Cochin has quite Third Estate were held to be closed (20 June), where-
recently studied the mechanism of the societes de upon the deputies, with their president, Bailly, re-
pensee in which the revolutionary doctrine was devel- paired to the Jeu de Faume and an oath was taken
oped and in which were formed men quite prepared not to disband till they had provided France with a
to put this doctrine into execution. The influence of constitution. After Mirabeau's thundering speech
freemasonry in the French Revolution proclaimed by (23 June) addressed to the Marquis de Dreux-Br^z^,
Louis Blanc and by freemasonry itself is proved by master-of-ceremonies to Louis XVI, the king himself
the researches of M. Cochin. Sorel has brought out (27 June) invited the nobility to join the Third
the connexion between the diplomacy of the Revolu- Estate. Louis XVI's dismissal of the reforming
tion and that of the old regime. His works prove minister, Necker, and the concentration of the royal
that the Revolution did not mark a break in the army about Paris, brought about the insurrection
continuity of the foreign policy of France. The of 14 July, and the capture of the Bastille. M. Funck-
radically inclined historical school, founded and led by Brentano has destroyed the legends which rapidly
M. Aulard, has published numerous useful documents arose in connexion with the celebrated fortress.
as well as the review, "La Revolution Frangaise" There was no rising en masse of the people of Paris,
Two years since, a schism occurred in this school, M. and the number of the besiegers was but a thousand
Mathiez undertaking in opposition to M. Aulard the at most; only seven prisoners were found at the
defence of Robespierre, in consequence of which he Bastille, four of whom were forgers, one a young
founded a new review, "Les Annales R^volution- man guilty of monstrous crimes and who for the sake
naires". The "Societe d'histoire oontemporaine", of his family was kept at the Bastille that he might
founded under Catholic auspices, has published a escape the death-penalty, and two insane prisoners.
series of texts bearing on revolutionary history. But in the public opinion the Bastille symbolized
Lastly the works of Abbe Sicard have revealed in the royal absolutism and the capture of this fortress was
clergy who remained faithful to Rome various ten- regarded as the overthrow of the whole regime, and
dencies, some legitimist, others more favourable to foreign nations attached great importance to the
the new poHtical forms, a new side of the history of event. Louis XVI yielded before this agitation;
the French clergy being thus developed. Such are Necker was recalled; Bailly became Mayor of Paris;
the most recent additions to the history of the French Lafayette, commander of the national militia; the
Revolution. This article, however, will emphasize tri-oolour was adopted, and Louis XVI consented to
more especially the relations between the Revolution recognize the title of "National Constituent Assem-
and the Church (see France). bly". Te Deums and processions celebrated the
—
Meeting of the Estates. The starting point of taking of the Bastille; in the pulpits the Abb6
the French Revolution was the convocation of the Fauchet preached the harmony of religion and
States General by Louis XVI. They comprised three liberty. As a result of the establishment of the "vote
orders, nobility, clergy, and the third estate, the by order" the political privileges of the clergy may
last named being permitted to have as many members be considered to have ceased to exist.
as the two other orders together. The electoral During the night of 4 August, 1789, at the instance
regulation of 24 January, 1789, assured the parochial of the Vioomte de Noailles, the Assembly voted with
clergy a large majority in the meetings of the bailliages extraordinary enthusiasm the abolition of all priv-
which were to elect clerical representatives to the ileges and feudal rights and the equality of all French-
States General. While chapters were to send to men. A blow was thereby struck at the wealth of the
these meetings only a single delegate for ten canons, clergy, but the churchmen were the first to give an
and each convent only one of its members, all the example of sacrifice. Plurality of benefices and
cures were permitted to vote. The number of the annates was abolished and the redemption of tithes
"order" of clergy at the States General exceeded was agreed upon, but two days later, the higher
300, among whom were 44 prelates, 208 cur^s, 50 clergy becoming uneasy, demanded another discus-
canons and commendatory abbots, and some monks. sion of the vote which had carried the redemption.
The clergy advocated almost as forcibly as did the The result was the abolition, pure and simple, of
Third Estate the establishment of a constitutional tithes without redemption. In the course of the dis-
government based on the separation of the powers. cussion Buzot declared that the property of the clergy
 REVOLUTION 10 REVOLUTION
belonged to the nation. Louis XVI's conscience began never expressly recognized the clergy as a proprietor,
to be alarmed. He temporized for five weeks, then that in 1749 Louis XV had forbidden the clergy to
merely published the decrees as general principles, receive anything without the authority of the State,
reserving the right to approve or reject later the and that he had confiscated the property of the
measures which the Assembly would take to enforce Society of Jesus. Malouet took an intermediate
them. stand and demanded that the State should confiscate
Declaration of the Rights of Man. Cathol- only superfluous ecclesiastical possessions, but that
icism Ceases to be the Religion of the State. — the parochial clergy should be endowed with land.
Before giving France a constitution the Assembly Finally, on 2 November, 1789, the Assembly decided
judged it necessary to draw up a "Declaration of the that the possessions of the clergy be "placed at the
Rights of Man and of the Citizen", which should form disposal" of the nation. The results of this vote
a preamble to the Constitution. Camus's suggestion were not long in following. The first was Treilhard's
that to the declaration of the rights of man should be motion (17 December), demanding in the name of the
added a declaration of his duties, was rejected. The ecclesiastical committee of the Assembly, the closing
Declaration of Rights mentions in its preamble that of useless convents, and decreeing that the State
it is made in the presence and under the auspices of should permit the religious to release themselves
the Supreme Being, but out of three of the articles from their monastic vows.
proposed by the clergy, guaranteeing the respect due The discussion of this project began in February,
to religion and public worship, two were rejected after 1790, after the Assembly by the creation of assemblies
speeches by the Protestant, Rabaut Saint-Etienne, of departments, districts, and commons, had pro-
and Mirabeau, and the only article relating to religion ceeded to the administrative reorganization of France.
was worded as follows: "No one shall be disturbed The discussion was again very violent. On 13
for his opinions, even religious, provided their mani- February, 1790, the Assembly, swayed by the more
festation does not disturb the public order established radical suggestions of Barnave and Thouret, decreed
by law." In fact it was the wish of the Assembly as a "constitutional article" that not only should the
that Catholicism should cease to be the religion of the law no longer recognize monastic vows, but that re-
State and that liberty of worship should be estab- ligious orders and congregations were and should
lished. It subsequently declared Protestants eligible remain suppressed in France, and that no others
to all offices (24 Dec, 1789), restored to their posses- should be established in the future. After having
sions and status as Frenchmen the heirs of Protestant planned a partial suppression of monastic orders the
refugees (10 July and 9 Dec, 1790), and took measures Assembly voted for their total suppression. The
in favour of the Jews (28 January, 20 July, 16 Aug., proposal of Cazalfes (17 February) calling for the dis-
1790). But it soon became evident in the discussions solution of the Constituent Assembly, and the right-
relating to the Civil Constitution of the clergy that ful efforts made by the higher clergy to prevent
the Assembly desired that the Catholic Church, to Catholics from purchasing the confiscated goods of
which the majority of the French people belonged, the Church provoked reprisals. On 17 March, 1790,
should be subject to the State and really organized the Assembly decided that the 400,000,000 livres'
by the State. worth of alienated ecclesiastical properties should
The rumours that Louis XVI sought to fly to Metz be sold to municipalities which in turn should sell
and place himself under the protection of the army them to private buyers. On 14 April it decided that
of Bouille in order to organize a counter-revolu- the maintenance of Catholic worship should be
tionary movement and his refusal to promulgate the provided for without recourse to the revenues of
Declaration of the Rights of Man, brought about an former ecclesiastical property and that a sufficient
uprising in Paris. The mob set out to Versailles, sum, fixed at more than 133,000,000 livres for the
and amid insults brought back the king and queen first year, should be entered in the budget for the
to Paris (6 Oct., 1789). Thenceforth the Assembly allowances to be made to the clergy; on 17 April
sat at Paris, first at the archiepiscopal residence, then the decree was passed dealing with the assignats,
at the Tuileries. At this moment the idea of taking papers issued by the Government paying interest
possession of the goods of the clergy in order to meet at 5 per cent, and which were to be accepted as
financial exigencies began to appear in a number of money in payment for the ecclesiastical property,
journals and pamphlets. The plan of confiscating thenceforth called national property; finally, on 9
this property, which had been suggested as early July, it was decreed that all this property should
as 8 August by the Marquis de Lacoste, was resumed be put up for sale.
(24 Sept.) by the economist, Dupont de Nemours,
and on 10 October was supported in the name of the
Civil Constitution op the Clergy. On 6 —
February, 1790, the Assembly charged its ecclesias-
Committee of Finances in a report which caused tical committee, appointed 20 Aug., 1789, and com-
scandal by Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun, who under posed of fifteen members to prepare the reorganiza-
the old regime had been one of the two "general tion of the clergy. Fifteen new members were added
agents" charged with defending the financial in- to the committee on 7 February. The "constitu-
terests of the French clergy. On 12 October ents" were disciples of the eighteenth-century
Mirabeau requested the Assembly to decree (1) that philosophes who subordinated religion to the State;
the ownership of the church property belonged to moreover, to understand their standpoint it is well
the nation that it might provide for the support of to bear in mind that many of them were jurists im-
the priests; (2) that the salary of each cur6 should bued with Galilean and Josephist ideas. Finally
not be less than 1200 livres. The plan was discussed Taine has proved that in many respects their re-
from 13 October to 2 November. It was opposed ligious policy merely followed in the footsteps of
the
by Boisgelin, la Luzerne, Bonal, Dillon, the Ahh6 de old regime, but while the old regime protected
the
jNIontesquieu, and the Abb6 Maury, who contended Catholic Church and made it the church exclusively
tluit the clergy being a moral person could be an recognized, the constituents planned to
enslave it
owner, disputed the estimates placed upon the after having stripped it of its
privileges. Further-
wealth of the clergy, and suggested that their pos- more they did not take into account that there are
sessions should simply serve as a guarantee for a loan mixed matters that can only be regulated
after an
of 400,000,000 livres to the nation. The advocates agreement with ecclesiastical authority.
of confiscation maintained that the clergy no longer
They were
especially mcensed against the clergy after the
existed as an order, that the property was like an consistorial address m
which Pius VI (22 March,
escheated succession, and that the State had the right
'°"?^°^ the measures already taken
to claim it, that moreover the Royal Government had H^UT^'A
by the Constituent Assembly, and by
the news re-
 REVOLUTION 11 REVOLUTION
ceived from the \^'est and South where the just The pope replied (17 August) that he still held the
dissatisfaction of Cathohc consciences had provoked same opinion of the Constitution, but that he would
disturbances; in particular the election of the Prot- make no public declaration on the subject until
estant Rabaut Saint-Etienne to the presidency of he consulted with the Sacred College. On 24 August
the National Assembly brought about commotions the king promulgated the Constitution, for which
at Toulouse and Nimes. Under the influence of these he was blamed by the pope in a confidential Brief
disturbances the Civil Constitution of the Clergy on 22 September. M. Mathiez claims to have
•was developed. On 29 May, 1790, it was laid before proved that the hesitancy of Pius VI was due to
the Assembly. Bonal, Bishop of Clermont, and temporal rather than to spiritual considerations,
some members of the Right requested that the proj- to his serious fears about the affairs of Avignon and the
ect should be submitted to a national council or to Comtat Venaissin, where certain popular parties were
the pope. But the Assembly proceeded; it discussed clamouring for French troops, but the truth is that
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy from 1 June to Pius VI, who had made known his opinion of the
12 July, 1790, on which date it was passed. Constitution to two French prelates, was awaiting
This Constitution comprised four titles. Title some manifestation on the part of the French epis-
I, Ecclesiastical Offices: Diocesan boundaries were copate. Indeed the bishops spoke before the pope
to agree with those of departments, 57 episcopal had spoken publicly. At the end of October, 1790,
sees being thus suppressed. The title of archbishop they published an "Exposition des principes sur la
was abolished; out of 83 remaining bishoprics 10 constitution civile du clerg6", compiled by Boisgelin,
were called metropolitan bishoprics and given juris- Archbishop of Aix, in which they rejected the Con-
diction over the neighbouring dioceses. No section stitution and called upon the faithful to do the same.
of French territory should recognize the authority This publication marks the beginning of a violent
of a bishop living abroad, or of his delegates, and this, conflict between the episcopate and the Constitution.
adds the Constitution, "without prejudice to the On 27 November, 1790, after a speech by Mirabeau,
unity of faith and the communion which shall be a decree stipulated that all bishops and priests should
maintained with the head of the Universal Church" within a week, under penalty of losing their offices,
Canonries, prebends, and priories were abolished. take the oath to the Constitution, that all who re-
There should no longer be any sacerdotal posts es- fused and who nevertheless continued to discharge
pecially devoted to fulfilling the conditions of Mass their priestly functions should be prosecuted as
foundations. All appeals to Rome were forbidden. disturbers of the public peace. The king, who was
Title II, Appointment to Benefices: Bishops should much disturbed by
this decree, eventually sanctioned
be appointed by the Electoral Assembly of the de- it (26 December, 1790)in order to avoid a rising.
partment; they should be invested and consecrated Hitherto a large section of the lesser clergy had
by the metropolitan and take an oath of fidelity shown a certain amount of sympathy for the Revolu-
to the nation, the King, the Law, and the Constitu- tion, but when it was seen that the episcopal members
tion; they should not seek any confirmation from the of the Assembly refused to take the oath, thus sac-
pope. Parish priests should be elected by the elec- rificing their sees, a number of the priests followed
toral assemblies of the districts. Thus all citizens, this disinterested example. It may be said that from
even Protestants, Jews, and nominal Catholics, might the end of 1790 the higher clergy and the truly or-
name titulars to ecclesiastical offices, and the first thodox elements of the lower clergy were united
obligation of priests and bishops was to take an oath against the revolutionary measures. Thenceforth
of fidelity to the Constitution which denied to the there were two classes, the non-juring or refractory
Holy See any efi'ective power over the Chiirch. priests, who were faithful to Rome and refused the
Title III, Salary of ministers of Religion : The Con- oath, and the jurors, sworn, or Constitutional priests,
stitution fixed the salary of the Bishop of Paris at who had consented to take the oath. M. de la Gorce
51,000 livres (about $10,200), that of bishops of has recently sought to estimate the exact proportion
towns whose population exceeded 50,000 souls at of the priests who took the oath. Out of 125 bishops
20,000 livres (about $4000), that of other bishops at there were only four, Talleyrand of Autun, Brienne of
12,000 livres (about $2400), that of cur^s at a sum Sens, Jarente of Orleans, and Lafond de Savine, of
ranging from 6000 (about $1200) to 1200 livres Viviers; three coadjutors or bishops in pariibus,
(about $240). For the lower clergy this was a bet- Gobel, Coadjutor Bishop of Bale; Martial de
terment of their material condition, especially as the Brienne, Coadjutor of Sens and Dubourg-Miraudet,
;

real value of these sums was two and one-half times Bishop of Babylon. In the important towns most of
the present amount. Title IV, dealing with resi- the priests refused to take the oath. Statistics for
dence, made very severe conditions regarding the ab- the small boroughs and the country are more difficult
sences of bishops and priests. to obtain. The national archives preserve the com-
At the festival of the Federation (14 July, 1790) plete dockets of 42 departments which were sent to
Talleyrand and three hundred priests officiating at the the Constituent Assembly by the civil authorities.
altar of the nation erected on the Champs-de-Mars This shows that in these 42 departments, of 23,093
wore the tri-coloured girdle above their priestly priests called upon to swear, 13,118 took the oath.
vestments and besought the blessing of God on the There would be therefore out of 100 priests, 56 to
Revolution. Deputations were present from the 57 jurors against 43 to 44 non-jurors. M. de la Gorce
towns of France, and there was inaugurated a sort gives serious reasons for contesting these statistics,
of cult of the Fatherland, the remote origin of all which were compiled by zealous bureaucrats anxious
the "Revolutionary cults". On 10 July, 1790, in a to please the central administrators. He asserts on
confidential Brief to Louis XVI, Pius VI expressed the the other hand that the schism had little hold in
alarm with which the project under discussion filled fifteen departments and concludes that in 1791 the
him. He commissioned two ecclesiastics who were number of priests faithful to Rome was 52 to 55 out
ministers of Louis XVI, Champion de Cic6 and of 100; this is a small enough majority, but one
Lefranc de Pompignan, to urge the king not to sign which M. de la Gorce considers authentic.
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. On 28 July, On 5 February, 1791, the Constituent Assembly
in a letter to the pope, Louis XVI replied that he forbade every non-juring priest to preach in public.
would be compelled, "with death in his soul", to In March the elections to provide for the vacant
promulgate the Constitution, that he would reserve episcopal sees and parishes took place. Disorder
the right to broach as soon as possible the matter grew in the Church of France; young and ambitious
of some concession, but that if he refused, his life priests, better known for their political than for their
and the lives of his family would be endangered. rehgious zeal, were candidates, and in many places
 REVOLUTION 12 REVOLUTION
owing to the opposition of good Catholics those elected restoring peace in the country, where that Assembly's
had much difficulty in taking possession of their bungUng work had unsettled the consciences of indi-
churches. At this juncture, seeing the Constitutional viduals. The parties in the Legislative Assembly
Church thus set up in France against the legitimate were soon irreconcilable. The Feuillants, on the
Church, Pius VI wrote two letters, one to the bishops Right, saw no salvation save in the Constitution;
and one to Louis XVI, to inquire if there remained the Girondins on the Left, and the Montagu ards
any means to prevent schism; and finally, on 13 on the Extreme Left, made ready for the Republic.
April, 1791, he issued a solemn condemnation of the There were men who, like the poet Andre Ch^nier,
Ci\nl Constitution in a solemn Brief to the clergy dreamed of a complete separation of Church and
and the people. On 2 May, 1791, the annexation of State. "The priests", he wrote in » letter to the
the Comtat Venaissin and the city of Avignon by the "Moniteur" (22 October, 1791), "will not trouble the
French troops marked the rupture of diplomatic Estates when no one is concerned about them, and
relations between France and the Holy See. From they will always trouble them while anyone is con-
I\Iay, 1791, there was no longer an ambassador from cerned about them as at present." But the majority
France at Rome or a nuncio at Paris. The Brief of of the members of the Legislative Assembly had sat
Pius VI encouraged the resistance of the Catholics. in the departmental or district assemblies; they had
The Masses celebrated by non-juring priests attracted fought against the non-juring priests and brought
crowds of the faithful. Then mobs gathered and violent passions and a hostile spirit to the Legislative
beat and outraged nuns and other pious women. Assembly. A report from Gensonn6 and Gallois to
On 7 May, 1791, the Assembly decided that the non- the Legislative Assembly (9 October, 1791) on the con-
juring priests as pretres habitues might continue to say dition of the provinces of the West denounced the
Mass in parochial churches or conduct their services non-juring priests as exciting the populace to rebellion
in other churches on condition that they would and called for measures against them. It accused
respect the laws and not stir up revolt against the them of complicity with the emigres bishops. At
Constitution. The Constitutional priests became
Ci\'il A^'ignon the Revolutionary L^cuyer, having been
more and more unpopular with good Catholics; slain in a church, some citizens reputed to be partizans
8fiout's works go to show that the "departmental of the pope were thrown into the ancient papal castle
directories" had to spend their time in organizing and strangled (16-17 Oct., 1791). Calvados was also
regular poUce expeditions to protect the Constitu- the scene of serious disturbances.
tional priests in their parishes against the opposition The Legislative Assembly, instead of repairing the
of good Catholics, or to prosecute the non-juring tremendous errors of the Constituent Assembly, took
priests who heroically persisted in remaining at their up the question of the non-juring priests. On 29
posts. Finally on 9 June, 1791, the Assembly forbade November, on the proposal of Fran5ois de Neuf chateau,
the publication of all Bulls or Decrees of the Court of it decided that if within eight days they did not take
Rome, at least until they had been submitted to the the civil oath they should be deprived of all salary,
legislative body and their pubUcation authorized. that they should be placed under the surveillance of
Thus Revolutionary France not only broke with the authorities, that if troubles arose where they
Rome, but wished to place a barrier between Rome resided they should be sent away, that they should
and the Catholics of France. be imprisoned for a year if they persisted in remain-
The king's tormenting conscience was the chief ing and for two years if they were convicted of having
reason for his attempted flight (20-21 June, 1791). provoked disobedience to the king. Finally it forbade
Before fleeing he had addressed to the Assembly a non-juring priests the legal exercise of worship. It
declaration of his dissatisfaction with the Civil Con- also requested from the departmental directories lists
stitution of the Clergj', and once more protested of the jurors and non-jurors, that it might, as it said,
against the moral violence which had compelled him "stamp out the rebellion which disguises itself under
to accept such a document. Halted at Varennes, a pretended dissidence in the exercise of the Catholic
Louis XVI was brought back on 25 June, and was religion". Thus its decree ended in a threat. But
suspended from his functions till the completion of the this decree was the object of a sharp conflict between
Constitution, to which he took the oath 13 Sept., Louis XVI and the Assembly. On 9 Dec, 1791, the
1791. On 30 Sept., 1791, the Constituent Assembly king made his veto known officially. Parties began
dissolved, to make way for the Legislative Assembly, to form. On one side were the king and the Catholics
in which none of the members of the Constituent faithful to Rome, on the other the Assembly and the
Assembly could sit. The Constituent Assembly had priests who had taken the oath. The legislative power
passed 2500 laws and reorganized the whole French was on one side, the executive on the other. In
administration. Its chief error from a social stand- March, 1792, the Assembly accused the ministers of
point, which Anatole Leroy-Beauheu calls a capital Louis XVI; the king replaced them by a Girondin
one, was to pass the Chapeher Decree (15 June, 1791), ministry headed by Dumouriez, with Roland, Servan,
which forbade working people to band together and and Claviere among its members. They had a double
form associations "for their so-called common in- poUcy: abroad, war with Austria, and at home,
terest". Led astray by their spirit of individuaUsm measures against the non-juring priests. Louis XVI,
and their hatred for certain abuses of the old cor- surrounded by dangers, was also accused of duphcity;
porations, the Constituents did not understand that his secret negotiations with foreign courts made it
the world of labour should be organized. They were possible for his enemies to say that he had already
responsible for the economic anarchy which reigned conspired against France.
during the nineteenth century, and the present syndi- A papal Brief of 19 March, 1792, renewed the con-
cate movement as well as the efforts of the social demnation of the Civil Constitution and visited with
Catholics in conformity with the Encyclical "Rerum major excommunication all juring priests who after
no varum" marks a deep and decisive reaction against sixty days should not have retracted, and all Catholics
the work of the Constituent Assembly. who remained faithful to these priests. The Assembly
—
The Legislative Assembly. When the Constit- replied by the Decree of 27 j\Iay, 1792, declaring that
uent Assembly disbanded (30 Sept., 1791), France all non-jurmg priests might be deported
by the direc-
nas aflame concerning the religious question. More tory of their department at the request of twenty
than half the French people did not want the new citizens, and if they should return after expulsion
Church, the factitious creation of the law; the old they would be liable to ten years' imprisonment.
Church was ruined, demolished, hunted down, and Louis vetoed this decree. Thus arose a struggle not
the general amnesty decreed by the Constituent only between Louis XVI and the Assembly, but
Assembly before disbanding could do nothing towards between the king and his ministry. On 3 June, 1792,
 REVOLUTION 13 REVOLUTION
the Assembly decreed the formation of a camp near but the motion was rejected for the time being.
Paris of 20,000 volunteers to guard the king. At the Henceforth the Convention enacted all manner of
ministerial council Roland read an insulting letter arbitrary political measures: it undertook the trial
to Louis, in which he called upon him to sanction the of Louis XVI, and on 2 January, 1793, "hurled a
decrees of November and May against the non-juring king's head at Europe". But from a religious stand-
priests. He was dismissed, whereupon the populace point it was more timid; it feared to disturb the
of Paris arose and invaded the Tuileries (20 June, people of Savoy and Belgium, which its armies were
1792), and for several hours the king and his family annexing to France. From 10 to 15 March, 1793,
were the objects of all manner of outrages. After the formidable insurrections broke out in La Vend6e,
public manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick in the Anjou, and a part of Brittany. At the same time
name of the powers in coalition against France (25 Dumouriez, having been defeated at Neerwinden,
July, 1792) and the Assembly's declaration of the sought to turn his army against the Convention, and
"Fatherland in danger" there came petitions for he himself went over to the Austrians. The Con-
the deposition of the king, who was accused of be- vention took fright; it instituted a Revolutionary
ing in communication with foreign rulers. On 10 Tribunal on 9 March, and on 6 April the Committee
August, Santerre, Westermann, and Fournier I'AmSri- of Public Safety, with formidable powers, was estab-
cain at the head of the national guard attacked the lished.
Tuileries defended by 800 Swiss. Louis refused to Increasingly severe measvu'es were taken chiefly
defend himself, and with his family sought refuge against the non-juring clergy. On IS Feb., 1793, the
in the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly passed a Convention voted a prize of one hundred livres to
decree which suspended the king's powers, drew up whomsoever should denounce a priest liable to deporta-
a plan of education for the dauphin, and convoked a tion and who remained in France despite the law.
national convention. Louis XVI was imprisoned On 1 March the emigres were sentenced to perpetual
in the Temple by order of the insurrectionary Com- banishment and their property confiscated. On 18
mune of Paris. March it was decreed that any Smigre or deported
Madness spread through France caused by the priest arrested on French soil should be executed
threatened danger from without; arrests of non- within twenty-four hours. On 23 April it was enacted
juring priests multiplied. In an effort to make them that all ecclesiastics, priests or monks, who had not
give way. The Assembly decided (15 August) that taken the oath prescribed by the Decree of 15 August,
the oath should consist only in the promise "to up- 1792, should be transported to Guiana; even the
hold with all one's might liberty, equality, and the priests who had taken the oath should be treated
execution of the law, or to die at one's post" But likewise if six citizens should denounce them for lack
the non-juring priests remained firm and refused of citizenship. But despite all these measures the
even this second oath. On 26 August the Assembly non-juring priests remained faithful to Rome. The
decreed that within fifteen days they should be ex- pope had maintained in France an official internuncio,
pelled from the kingdom, that those who remained the Abb6 de Salamon, who kept himself in hiding
or returned to France should be deported to Guiana, and performed his duties at the risk of his life, gave
or should be liable to ten years' imprisonment. It information concerning current events, and trans-
then extended this threat to the priests, who, having mitted orders. The proconsuls of the Convention,
no publicly recognized priestly duties, had hitherto Freron and Barras at Marseilles and Toulon, Tallien
been dispensed from the oath, declaring that they also at Bordeaux, Carrier at Nantes, perpetrated abomin-
might be expelled if they were convicted of having able massacres. In Paris the Revolutionary Tribunal,
provoked disturbances. This was the signal for a carrying out the proposals of the public accuser,
real civil war. The peasants armed in La Vend6e, Fouquier-Tinville, inaugurated the Reign of Terror.
Deux Sevres, Loire InfcSrieure, Maine and Loire, He The proscription of the Girondins by the Montagn-
and Vilaine. This news and that of the invasion ards (2 June, 1793), marked a progress in demagogy.
of Champagne by the Prussian army caused hidden The assassination of the bloodthirsty demagogue,
influences to arouse the Parisian populace; hence the Marat, by Charlotte Corday (13 July, 1793) gave rise
September massacres. In the prisons of La Force, to extravagant manifestations in honour of Marat.
the Conciergerie, and the Abbaye Saint Germain, at But the provinces did not foUow this policy. News
least 1500 women, priests and soldiers fell under the came of insm'rections in Caen, Marseilles, Lyons, and
axe or the club. The celebrated tribune, Danton, Toulon; at the same time the Spaniards were in
cannot be entirely acquitted of complicity in these Roussillon, the Piedmontese in Savoy, the Austrians
massacres. The Legislative Assembly terminated its in Valenciennes, and the Vendeans defeated Kleber
career by two new measures against the Church: it at Torfou (Sept., 1793). The crazed Convention
deprived priests of the right to register births, etc., decreed a rising era masse; the heroic resistance of
and authorized divorce. Laicizing the civil state was Valenciennes and Mainz gave Carnot time to organ-
not in the minds of the Constituents, but was the ize new armies. At the same time the Convention
result of the blocking of the Civil Constitution of the passed the Law of Suspects (17 Sept., 1793), which
Clergy. The Legislative Assembly was induced to authorized the imprisonment of almost anyone and
enact it because the Catholics faithful to Rome as a consequence of which 30,000 were imprisoned.
would not have recourse to Constitutional priests for Informing became a trade in France. Queen Marie
the registering of births, baptisms, and deaths. Antoinette was beheaded 16 October, 1793. Fourteen
The Coxvention; the Republic; the Reign op Carmelites who were executed 17 July, 1794, were
—
Terror. The opening of the National Convention declared Venerable by Leo XIII in 1902.
(21 Sept., 1792) took place the day following Dumou- From a, religious point of view a new feature arose
riez's victory at Valmy over the Prussian troops. —
at this period the constitutional clergy, accused of
The constitutional bishop, Gr%oire, proclaimed the sympathy with the Girondins, came to be suspected
republic at the first session; he was surrounded in almost as much as the non-juring priests. Numerous
the assembly by fifteen constitutional bishops and conflicts arose between the constitutional priests and
twenty-eight constitutional priests. But the time the civil authorities with regard to the decree of the
was at hand when the constitutional clergy in turn Convention which did not permit priests to ask those
was to be under suspicion, the majority of the Con- intending to marry if they were baptized, had been
vention being hostile to Christianity itself. As early to confession, or were divorced. The constitutional
as 16 November, 1792, Cambon demanded that the bishops would not submit to the Convention when it
salaries of the priests be suppressed and that hence- required them to give apostate priests the nuptial
forth no religion should be subsidized by the State, blessing. Despite the example of the constitutional
 REVOLUTION 14 REVOLUTION
bishop,Thomas Lindet, a member of the Convention, instigators. It is thus clear why Robespierre who
who won the applause of the Assembly by announcing desired a reaction against these excesses, should at-
his marriage, despite the scandal given by Gobel, tack both Exag&res and Indulgents.
Bishop of Paris, in appointing a married priest to a Indeed a reactionary movement was soon evident.
post in Paris, the majority of constitutional bishops As early as 21 November, 1793, Robespierre com-
remained hostile to the marriage of priests. The plained of the "madmen who could only revive
conflict between them and the Convention became fanaticism". On 5 December, he caused the Con-
notorious when, on 19 July, 1793, a decree of the Con- vention to adopt the text of a manifesto to the na-
vention decided that the bishops who directly or tions of Europe in which the members declared that
indirectly offered any obstacle to the marriage of they sought to protect the liberty of all creeds; on
priests should be deported and replaced. In October 7 December, he supported the motion of the Com-
the Convention declared that the constitutional mittee of Public Safety which reported the bad effect
priests themselves should be deported if they were in the provinces of the intolerant violence of the
found wanting in citizenship. The measures taken missionary representatives, and which forbade in
by the Convention to substitute the Revolutionary future all threats or violence contrary to liberty of
calendar for the old Christian calendar, and the worship. These decrees were the cause of warfare
decrees ordering the municipalities to seize and melt between Robespierre and enthusiasts such as Hebert
down the bells and treasures of the churches, proved and Clootz. At first Robespierre sent his enemies
that certain currents prevailed tending to the de- to the scaffold; Hebert and Clootz were beheaded
christianization of France. On the one hand the rest in March, 1794, Chaumette and Bishop Gobel in
of decadi, every tenth day, replaced the Sunday rest; April. But in this same month of April Robes-
on the other the Convention commissioned Leonard pierre sent to the scaffold the Moderates, Des-
Bourdon (19 Sept., 1793) to compile a collection of moulins and Danton, who wanted to stop the
the heroic actions of Republicans to replace the lives Terror, and became the master of France with his
of the saints in the schools. The "missionary repre- lieutenants Couthon and Saint-Just. M. Aulard
sentatives", sent to the provinces, closed churches, regards Robespierre as having been hostile to the
hunted down citizens suspected of religious practices, dechristianization for religious and political motives;
endeavoured to constrain priests to marry, and he explains that Robespierre shared the admiration
threatened with deportation for lack of citizenship for Christ felt by Rousseau's Vicar Savoyard, and
priests who refused to abandon their posts. Persecu- that he feared the evil effect on the powers of Eu-
tion of all religious ideas began. At the request of rope of the Convention's anti-religious policy. M.
the Paris Commune, Gobel, Bishop of Paris, and Mathiez on the other hand considers that Robespierre
thirteen of his vicars resigned at the bar of the Con- did not condemn the dechristianization in principle;
vention (7 November) and their example was followed that he knew the common hostility to the Committee
by several constitutional bishops. of Public Safety of Moderates such as Thuriot
The Montagnards who considered worship neces- and enthusiasts like Hubert; and that on the in-
sary replaced the Catholic Sunday Mass by the civil formation of Basire and Chabot he suspected both
mass of decadi. Having failed to reform and na- parties of having furthered the fanatical measures
tionalize Catholicism they endeavoured to form a of dechristianization only to discredit the Conven-
sort of civil cult, a development of the worship of the tion abroad and thus more easily to plot with the
fatherland which had been inaugurated at the feast powers hostile to France. Robespierre's true in-
of the Federation. The Church of Notre-Dame-de- tentions are still an historical problem. On 6 April,
Paris became a temple of Reason, and the feast of 1794, he commissioned Couthon to propose in the
Reason was celebrated on 10 November. The name of the Committee of Public Safety that a feast
Goddesses of Reason and Liberty were not always the be instituted in honour of the Supreme Being, and on
daughters of low people; they frequently came of 7 May Robespierre himself outlined in a long speech
the middle classes. Recent research has thrown the plan of the new religion. He explained that from
new light on the history of these cults. M. Aulard the religious and Republican standpoint the idea of a
was the first to recognize that the idea of honouring Supreme Being was advantageous to the State, that
the fatherland, which had its origin in the festival religion should dispense with a priesthood, and that
of the Federation in 1790, gave rise to successive priests were to religion what charlatans were to
cults. Going deeper M. Mathiez developed the medicine, and that the true priest of the Supreme
theory, that confronted by the blocking of the Civil Being was Nature. The Convention desired to
Constitution, the Conventionals, who had witnessed have this speech translated into all languages and
in the successive feasts of the Federation the power adopted a decree of which the first article was:
ot formulas on the minds of the masses, wanted to "The French people recognize the existence of a
create a real culle de la palru, a sanction of faith in Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul".
the fatherland. On 23 November, 1793, Chaumette The same decree states that freedom of worship is
passed a law alienating all churches in the capital. maintained but adds that in the case of disturbances
This example was followed in the provinces, where all caused by the exercise of a religion those who "ex-
city churches and a number of those in the country cite them by fanatical preaching or by counter-
were rlosed to Catholic worship. The Convention Revolutionary innovations", shall be punished ac-
offered a prize for the abjuration of priests by passing cording to the rigour of the law. Thus the condition
a decree which assured a pension to priests who of the Catholic Church remained equally precarious
abjured, and the most pninfu! day of that sad period and the first festival of the Supreme Being was cele-
was 20 November, 1793, when men. women, and brated throughout France on 8 June, 1794, with
children dressed in priestly garments taken from the aggressive splendour. ^Miereas the Exageres wished
Church of St. Germain des Pr& marched through the simply to destroy Catholicism, and in the temples
hall of the Convention. Laloi, who presided, con- of Reason political rather than moral doctrines were
gratulated them, saying thev had "wiped out eigh- taught, Robespierre desired that the civic religion
teen centuries of error" Despite the part played should have a moral code which he based on the two
b\' Chaumette and the Commune of Paris in the work dogmas of God and the immortality of the soul.
of violent dechristianization, M. Mathiez has proved He was of the opinion that the idea of God had a
that it is not correct to lav on the Commune and the social value, that public morality depended on it,
Exag6res as thc\- were called, the entire responsibility, and that Catholics would more readily support the
and that a Moderate, an Indulgent, namely Thuriot, republic under the au.spices of a Supreme Being.
the friend of Danton, was one of the most violent The victories of the Republican armies, especially
 REVOLUTION 15 REVOLUTION
that of Fleurus (July, 1794), reassured the patriots policy the Convention met with diplomatic successes,
of the Convention; those of Cholet, Mans, and the reward of the military victories: the treaties
Savenay marked the checking of the Vendean in- of Paris with Tuscany, of the Hague with the Bata-
surrection. Lyons and Toulon were recaptured, vian Republic, of Basle with Spain, gave to France
Alsace was delivered, and the victory of Fleurus as boundaries the AlpSj the Rhine, and the Meuse.
(26 June, 1794) gave Belgium to France. While But the policy of religious pacification was not
danger from abroad was decreasing, Robespierre made lasting. Certain periods of the history of the
the mistake of putting to vote in June the terrible Convention justify M. Champion's theory that
law of 22 Prairial, which still further shortened the certain religious measures taken by the Revolution-
summary procedure of the Revolutionary tribunal ists were forced upon them by circumstances. The
and allowed sentence to be passed almost without descent of the SmigrSs on the Breton coasts, to be
trial even on the members of the Convention. The checked by Hoche at Quiberon, aroused fresh at-
Convention took fright and the next day struck out tacks on the priests. On 6 Sept., 1795 (Law of 20
this last clause. Montagnards like Tallien, Billaud- Fructidor), the Convention exacted the oath of sub-
Varenne, and CoUot d'Herbois, threatened by Robes- mission to the laws even of priests who officiated in
pierre, joined with such Moderates as Boissy private houses. The Royalist insurrection of 13
d' Anglas and Durand Maillane to bring about the Vend&miaire, put down by Bonaparte, provoked a
cou-p d'Uat of 9 Thermidor (27 July, 1794). Robes- very severe decree against deported priests who should
pierre and his partisans were executed, and the be found on French territory; they were to be sen-
Thermidorian reaction began. The Commune of tenced to perpetual banishment. Thus at the time
Paris was suppressed, the Jacobin Club closed, the when the Convention was disbanding, churches were
Revolutionary tribunal disappeared after having sent separated from the State. In theory worship was
to the scaffold the public accuser Fouquier-Tinville free; the Law of 29 Sept., 1795 (7 Vendemiaire), on
and the Terrorist, Carrier, the author of the noyades the religious policy, though still far from satisfactory
(drownings) of Nantes. The death of Robespierre to the clergy, was nevertheless an improvement on
was the signal for a change of policy which proved the laws of the Terror, but anarchy and the spirit
of advantage to the Church; many imprisoned of persecution still disturbed the whole country.
priests were released and many emigre priests re- Nevertheless France owes to the Convention a num-
turned. Not a single law hostile to Catholicism was ber of lasting creations: the Ledger of the Public
repealed, but the application of them was greatly Debt, the Ecole Polytechnique, the Conservatory
relaxed. The religious policy of the Convention of Arts and Crafts, the Bureau of Longitudes, the
became indecisive and changeable. On 21 December, Institute of France, and the adoption of the decimal
1794, a speech of the constitutional bishop, Gr^goire, system of weights and measures. The vast projects
claiming effective liberty of worship, aroused violent drawn up with regard to primary, secondary, and
murmurings in the Convention, but was applauded higher education had almost no results.
by the people; and when in Feb., 1795, the generals —
The Directory. In virtue of the so-called "Con-
and commissaries of the Convention in their negotia- stitution of the year III", promulgated by the Con-
tions with the Vendeans promised them the restora- vention 23 Sept., 1795, a Directory of five members
tion of their religious liberties, the Convention re- (27 Oct., 1795) became the executive, and the Coun-
turned to the idea supported by Gr^goire, and at cils of Five Hundred and of the Ancients, the legis-
the suggestion of the Protestant, Boissy d' Anglas, lative power. At this time the public treasuries were
it passed the Law of 3 Ventdse (21 Feb., 1795), which empty, which was one reason why the people came
marked the enfranchisement of the Catholic Church. by degrees to feel the necessity of a strong restorative
This law enacted that the republic should pay salaries power. The Directors Carnot, Barras, Letoumeur,
to the ministers of no religion, and that^no churches Rewbell, La Reveilliere-L^peaux were averse to Chris-
should be reopened, but it declared that the ex- tianity, and in the separation of Church and State
ercise of religion should not be disturbed, and pre- saw only a means of annihilating the Church. They
scribed penalties for disturbers. Immediately the wished that even the Constitutional episcopate,
constitutional bishops issued an Encyclical for the though they could not deny its attachment to the
re-establishment of Catholic worship, but their new regime, should become extinct by degrees, and
credit was shaken. The confidence of the faithful when the constitutional bishops died they sought to
was given instead to the non-juring priests who were prevent the election of successors, and multiplied
returning by degrees. These priests were soon so measures against the non-juring priests. The Decree
numerous that in April, 1795, the Convention or- of 16 April, 1796, which made death the penalty for
dered them to depart within a month under pain of provoking any attempt to overthrow the Repubhcan
death. This was a fresh outbreak of anti-Catholi- government was a threat held perpetually over the
cism. With the fluctuation which thenceforth charac- heads of the non-juring priests. That the Directors
terized it the Convention soon made a counter-move- really wished to throw difficulties in the way of all
ment. On 20 May, 1795, the assembly hall was in- kinds of religion, despite theoretical declarations
vaded by the mob and the deputy F6raud assassinated. affirming liberty of worship is proved by the Law of
These violences of the Extremists gave some in- 11 April, 1796, which forbade the use of bells and all
fluence to the Moderates, and on 30 May, at the sug- sorts of public convocation for the exercise of religion,
gestion of the Catholic, Lanjuinais, the Convention under penalty of a year in prison, and, in case of a
decreed that (Law of 11 Prairial) the churches not second offence, of deportation. The Directory having
confiscated should be placed at the disposal of citi- ascertained that despite police interference some non-
zens for the exercise of their religion, but that every juring bishops were officiating publicly in Paris, and
priest who wished to officiate in these churches should that before the end of 1796 more than thirty churches
previously take an oath of submission to the laws; or oratories had been opened to non-juring priests in
those who refused might legally hold services in Paris, laid before the Five Hundred a, plan which,
private houses. This oath of submission to the laws after twenty days, allowed the expulsion from French
was much less serious than the oaths formerly pre- soil, without admission to the oath prescribed by the
scribed by the Revolutionary authorities, and the Law of Vendemiaire, all priests who had not taken
Abb6 Sicard has shown how Emery, Superior General the Constitutional Oath prescribed in 1790, or
of St. Sulpice, Bausset, Bishop of Alais and other the Oath of Liberty and Equality prescribed in 1792;
ecclesiastics were inclined to a policy of pacification those who after such time should be found in France
and to think that such an oath might be taken. would be put to death. But amid the discussions to
While it seemed to be favouring a more tolerant which this project gave rise, the revolutionary Social-
 REVOLUTION 16 REVOLUTION
ist conspiracy of Babeuf was discovered, which of the Repubhc. Through its clumsy and odious
showed that danger lay on the Left; and on 25 Aug., religious policy the Directory exposed itself to serious
1796, the dreadful project which had only been passed difficulties. Disturbed by the anti-reUgious innova-
with much difficulty by the Five Hundred was re- tions, the Belgian provinces revolted; 6000 Belgian
jected by the Ancients. priests were proscribed. Brittany, Anjou, and Maine
The Directory began to feel that its pohcy of reli- again revolted, winning over Normandy. Abroad
gious persecution was no longer followed by the the prestige of the French armies was upheld by
Councils. It learned also that Bonaparte, who in Bonaparte in Egypt, but they were hated on the
Italy led the armies of the Directory from victory to Continent, and in 1799 were compelled to evacuate
victory, displayed consideration for the pope. Fur- most of Italy. Bonaparte's return and the coup
thermore, in I'Vance the electors themselves showed d'etat of IS Brumaire (10 November, 1799) were
that they desired a change of poUcy. The elections necessary to strengthen the glory of the French armies
of 20 May, 1797, caused the majority of Councils to and to restore peace to the country and to consciences
pass from the Left to the Right. Pichegru became (see Napoleon).
President of the Five Hundred, a RoyaUst, Barth^- Bibliographical. Tourneux, Bihl. de Vhisl. de Paris pendant
la Revolution (Paris, 1896-1906) Tuetey, Repertoire des sources
;

lemy, became one of the Five Directors. Violent dis- Tnanuscrites de Vhi.^t. de Paris sous la RSvolution, 7 vols, already
cussions which took place from 26 June to 18 July, published (Paris, 1896-1906); Fortesoue, List of the three col-
lections of books, pamphlets, and journals in the British Museum
in which Royer-Collard distinguished himself, brought
relating to the French Revolution (London, 1899).
to the vote the proposal of the deputy Dubruel for —
Sources. Reprint of the Moniteur Universel (1789-99) the ;

the abolition of all laws against non-juring priests two collections in course of publication of Documents inedits
sur I'hist. economique de la Revolution franQaise, and Documents
passed since 1791. The Directors, alarmed by what sur Vhist. de Paris pendant la Revolution frangaise; the works of
they considered a reactionary movement, com- Barruel (q. v.): BouRGiN, La France et Rome de 1788 a 1797,
missioned General Augereau to effect the coup d'etat regeste des depiches du cardinal secretaire d'etat, tirSes du fond des
" Vescovi " des archives secrHes du Vatican (Paris, 1909), fasc. 102
of 18 Fructidor (4 Sept., 1797); the elections of 49
of the Library of French Schools of Athens and Rome; among
departments were quashed, two Directors, Camot numerous memoirs on France on the eve of the Revolution may
and Barthelemy, proscribed, 53 deputies deported, be mentioned: Young, Travels in France, ed. Betham-Edwards
and laws against the emigres and non-juring priests (London, 1889); and on the Revolution itself: Memoires de I'in-
ternonce Salomon, ed. Bridier (Paris, 1890) Gouverneur ;

restored to their vigour. Organized hunting for these Morris, Diary and Letters (New York, 1SS2); Un sejour en
priests took place throughout France; the Directory France 1792 a 1795, lettres d'un tentoin de la Revolution franrnise, tr.
cast hundreds of them on the unhealthy shore of Taine (Paris, 1883) the work of the famous Burke, Reflections
;

on the Revolution in France, ed. Selby (London, 1890), remains an

Sinnamary, Guiana, where they died. At the same important criticism of Revolutionary ideas.
time the Directory commissioned Berthier to make General Works. Thiers, Hist, de la Revolution frangaise (tr.

the attack on the Papal States and the pope, from Paris, 1823-27) ;Mignet, Hist, de la Revolution frangaise (Paris,
1824) Carlyle, The French Revolution (London, 1837) Miche-
which Bonaparte had refrained. The Roman Re-
; ;

LET, Hist, de la Revolution frangaise (Paris, 1847-1853) Louis ;

pubhc was proclaimed in 1798 and Pius VI was taken Blanc, Hist, de la Revolution frangaise (Paris, 1847-63) Tocque- ;

prisoner to Valence (see Pius VI). An especially VILLE, Uancien regime et la Revolution (Paris, 1856) Taine, ;

Les origines de la France contemporaine: la Revolution (tr. Paris,

odious persecution was renewed in France against 1878-84) :SoREL, L'Europe et la Revolution frangaise (Paris,
the ancient Christian customs; it was known as the lSS.5-1904) Sybel, Ge.'ich. der Revolutionszeit (Dusseldorf, 1853-
;

decadaire persecution. Officials and municipalities 57) ; Chuquet, Les guerres de la Revolution (Paris, 1889-1902)
AuLARD, Hist, politique de la Revolution frangaise (Paris, 1901)
were called upon to overwhelm with \exations the Idem, Etudes et legons sur la Revolution frangaise (Paris, 1893-
partisans of Sunday and to restore the observ'ance 1910) Gautherot, Cours professes a V Institut Catholique de Paris
;

of decadi. The rest of that day became compulsory sur la Revolution frangaise, a periodical begun at the end of 1910
and promising to be very important; Madelin, La Revolution
not only for administrations and schools, but also (Paris, 1911), a summary commendable for the exactness of its
for business and industry. Marriages could only be information and its effort at justice in the most delicate questions;
celebrated on decadi at the chief town of each canton. The Cambridge Modern History, planned by the late Lord Acton,
Another religious venture of this period was that of II, The French Revolution (Cambridge, 1904) MacCarthy, The
;

French Revolution (London, 1890-97) Ross, The Revolutionary

;

the Theophilanthropists, who wished to create a spirit- and Napoleonic Era (Cambridge, 1907) Legg, Select Documents
;

ualist church without dogmas, miracles, priesthood or Illustrative of the History of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1905)
GiBBS, Men and Women of the French Revolution (London, 1905).
sacraments, a sort of vague religiosity, similar to Monographs and Special Works. Aulard, Taine, historien de
'

the ' United States'

ethical societies of the Contrary
' .
la Revolution frangaise (Paris, 1907) Cochin, La crise de Vhist.
;

to what has been asserted for one hundred years, revolutionaire: Taine et M. Aulard (Paris, 1909); Bord, La
]\I. JMathiez has proved that Theophilanthropism was
francmagonnerie en France des origines d 1815, bk. I, Les ouvriers
de I'idee revolutionnaire (Paris, 1909) Idem, La conspiration revolu-
not founded by the director. La R(5veilliere-L6peaux.
;

tionnaire de 1 789, les complices, les victimes (Paris, 1909) Funck- ;

It was the private initiative of a former Girondin, the Brentano, Legendes et archives de la Bastille (Paris, 1898) Mal- ;

let, Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution (London, 1902);

librarian Chemin Dupontfes, which gave rise to this
Fling, Mirabeau and the French Revolution (London, 1906);
cult; Valentine Hauy, instructor of the blind and Lenotre, Memoires et souvenirs sur la Revolution et I'Empire
former Terrorist, and the physiocrat, Dupont de (Paris, 1907-9) Idem, Paris revolutionnaire, vieilles maisons, vieux
;

Nemours, collaborated with him. During its early papiers (Paris, 1900-10) Warwick, Robespierre and the French
;

Revolution (Philadelphia, 1909); Bliard, Fraternite revolution-

existence, the new Church was persecuted by the naire, etudes et recits d'aprks des documents inedits (Paris, 1909);
agents of Cochon, Minister of Police, who was the Mortimer Tebnaux, Hist, de la Terreur (Paris, 1862-81);
tool of Carnot, and it was only for a short time, Wallon, Hist, du tribunal revolutionnaire (Paris, 1880-2) Idem, ;

La joumee du 31 mai et le federalisme en 1 793 (Paris, 1886) Idem,

after the coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor, that the Theo-
;

Les representants en mission (Paris, 1888-90); Daudet, Hist, de

philanthrojiists benefited by the protection of remigration pendant la Revolution frangaise (Paris, 1904-7); Lal-
La Revoilliere. In proportion to the efforts of the LEMAND, La Revolution et les pauvres (Paris, 1898) Alger, Eng- ;

lishmen in the French Revolution (London, 1889) DowDEN, The

Directory for the cidte decadaire, the Theophilan- French Revolution and English Literature (London, 1897) Cestre,
;

thropists suffered and were persecuted; in Paris, they La Revolution frangaise et les poiles anglais (Paris, 1906).
were sometimes treated even worse than the Cath- Religious History. Sicard, L'aneien clerge de France, II, III
(Paris, 1902-3) Idem. L'educalion morale et civique avant et pen-
olics, Catholic priests being at times permitted to ;

dant la Revolution (Paris, 18S4); Pierre de la Gorge, Hist,

occupy the buildings connected with certain churches religieuse de la Revolution frangaise, I (Paris, 1909); Mathiez,
\\hile the Theophilanthropists were driven out. On Rome et le clerge franeaix sous la Constituante (Paris, 1911); Idem,
La thtopHlanthropie et le culte decadaire (Paris, 1903); Idem, Lea
a curious memoir written after 18 Fructidor entitled origines des eultes revolulionnaires (Paris,
1904) Idem, Contribu-
;

"Drs circonstances actuelles qui peuvent terminer tion a Ihistoire religieuse de la Revolution
Frangaise (Paris, 1907)
la R^\-olution et des principes qui doivent fonder la
IDEM, La Revolution et VEglise (Paris, 1910) Aulard, La Revolu-
:

tion frangaise et les congregations (Paris,

Republique en France", the famous Madame de raisonet le culte de VEtre suprime (Paris,
1911) Idem, Le cuUe de la
;

1892); Champion, La
Stael, who was a Protestant, declared herself against separation de I Eglise et de I'Etat en
1794 (Paris, 1903); Pierre,
Theophilanthropy; like many Protestants, she hoped ha deportation ecclesiastique sous le Directoire (Paris, 1906)
that Protestantism would become the State religion Georges Goyau.
 R£X 17 REYNOLDS
Rex Gloriose Martyrum, the hymn at Lauds in Rex aiterne Domine,
the Common of Martyrs (Commune plurimorum Rerum Creator omnium,
Martyrum) Roman Breviary. It comprises
in the Qui eras ante saeoula
three strophes of four verses in Classical iambic Semper cum patre filius.
dimeter, the verses rhyming in couplets, together with Pimont (op. cit., Ill, 97) points out that, in its orig-
a fourth concluding strophe (or doxology) in unrhymed inal text, it is amongst all the hymns, the one as-
verses varying for the season. The first stanza will suredly which best evidences the substitution of
serve to illustrate the metric and rhymic scheme: accent forprosodical quantity, and that the (unknown)
Rex gloriose martyrum, author gives no greater heed to the laws of elision than
Corona confitentium, to quantity "qui eras", "mundi in primordio",
Qui respuentes terrea "plasmasti hominem", "tuse imagini", etc. The
Perducis ad ccelestia. second strophe illustrates this well:
Qui mundi in primordio
The hymn is uncertain date and unknown
of
authorship, Mone(Lateinische Hymnen des Mittcl-
Adam plasmasti hominem,
Qui tuee imagini
alters, III, 143, no. 732) ascribing it to the sixth
century and Daniel (Thesaurus Hymnologicus, IV,
Vultum dedisti similem.
Following the law of binary movement (the alter-
139) to the ninth or tenth century. The Roman
nation of arsis and thesis), the accent is made to
Breviary text is a revision, in the interest of Classical
shorten long syllables and to lengthen short ones, in
prosody, of an older form (given by Daniel, I, 248).
such wise that the verses, while using the external
The corrections are: terrea instead of terrena in the
form of iambic dimeters, are purely rhythmic.
line "Qui respuentes terrena" parcisque for parcendo
;

in the line "Parcendo conf essoribus " inter Martyres

Under Urban VIII, the correctors of the hymns
;
omitted the fourth stanza and, in their zeal to turn
for in Martyribus in the line "Tu vincis in Marty-
the rhythm into Classical iambic dimeter, altered
ribus"; "Largitor indulgentiw" for the line "Do-
every line except one. Hymnologists, Catholic and
nando indulgentiam". A
non-prosodic correction is
non-Catholic alike, are usually severe in their judg-
intende for appone in the hne "Appone nostris
ment of the work of the correctors; but in this in-
vocibus" Daniel (IV, 139) gives the Roman Bre-
stance, Pimont, who thinks the hymn needed no
viary text, but mistakenly includes the uncorrected
alteration at their hands, nevertheless hastens to
line "Parcendo confessoribus". He places after the add that "never^ perhaps, were they better in-
hymn an elaboration of it in thirty-two lines, found spired" And it IS only just to say that, as found
written on leaves added to a Nuremberg book and
now in the Roman Breviary, the hymn is no less
intended to accommodate the hymn to Protestant
vigorous than elegant.
doctrine. This elaborated form uses only fines Pimont, Les hymnes du briviaire romain. III (Paris, 1884),
I, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 of the original. Two of the added 93-100, gives the old and the revised text, supplementary
strophes may be quoted here to illustrate the possible stanzas, and much comment. Complete old text with various
MS. readings in Hymnarium Sarisburiense (London, 1851), 95,
reason (but also a curious misconception of Cathofic and in Daniel, Thesaurus hymnol., I (Halle, 1841), 85 (to-
doctrine in the apparent assumption of the lines) gether with Rom. Brev. text and notes). Text (8 strophes) with
for the modification of the original hymn: English version, notes, plainsong and other settings in Hymns,
Ancient and Modern, Historical Edition (London, 1909), 205-7.
Velut infirma vascula Old text, with many MS. references and readings, and notes, in
Ictus inter lapideos Blume, Der Cursus s, Benedicti Nursini (Leipzig, 1909), 111-13
(cf. also the alphabetical index). For first lines of translations
Videntur sancti martyres, etc., Julian, Diet, of Hymnology (London, 1907), s. vv. Rex
Sed fide durant fortiter. aeterne Domine and Rex sempiterne cmlitum. To his list should
be added Bagshawe, Breviary Hymns and Missal Sequences
(London, 1900), 78, and Donahoe, Early Christian Hymns (New
Non fidunt suis meritis, York, 1908), 22. The translation in Bute, The Roman Breviary
Sed sola tua gratia (Edinburgh, 1879), is by Moultrie, an Anglican clergyman.
Agnoscunt se persistere H. T. Henry.
In tantis cruciatibus. Rey, Anthony, educator and Mexican War chap-
Of the thirteen translations of the original hymn into English, lain, b. at Lyons, 19 March, 1807; d. near Ce-
nine are by Catholics. To the list given in Julian, Dictionary of
Hymnology, 958, should be added the versions of Bagshawe, ralvo, Mexico, 19 Jan., 1847. He studied at the
Breviary Hymns and Missal Sequences (London, 1900), 166, and Jesuit college of Fribourg, entered the novitiate of
DONAHOE, Early Christian Hymns (New York, 1908), 50. For that Society, 12 Nov., 1827, and subsequently taught
many MS. references and readings, see Blume, Analecta Hymnica,
1,1 (Leipzig, 1909), 128-29; Idem, Der Cursus s. Benedicti Nursini at Fribourg and Sion in Valais. In 1840 he was sent
(Leipzig, 1909), 67. to the United States, appointed professor of philos-
H. T. Henet. ophy in Georgetown College, and in 1843 trans-
ferred to St. Joseph's Church in Philadelphia. He
Rex Sempiteme Caelitum, the Roman Breviary became assistant to the Jesuit provincial of Mary-
hymn for Matins of Sundays and weekdays during land, pastor of Trinity Church, Georgetown, and
the Paschal Time (from Low Sunday to Ascension vice-president of the college (1845). Appointed chap-
Thursday). Cardinal Thomasius ("Opera omnia", lain in the U. S. Army in 1846, he ministered to
II, 1747, 370) gives its primitive form in eight
Rome, the wounded and djdng at the siege of Monterey amid
strophes, and Vezzosi conjectures, with perfect the greatest dangers; after the capture of the city, he
justice, that this is the hymn mentioned both by remained with the army at Monterey and preached
Ceesarius (d. 542) and Aurehanus (d. c. 550) of Aries, to the rancheros of the neighbourhood. Against the
in their "Rules for Virgins", under the title "Rex advice of the U. S. officers, he set out for Matamoras,
Eeterne domine" Pimont (op. cit. infra. III, 95) preaching to a congregation of Americans and Mexi-
agrees with the conjecture, and present-day hymnolo- cans at Ceralvo. It is conjectured that he was killed
gists confirm it without hesitation. The hymn is by a band under the leader Canales, as his body was
especially interesting for several reasons. In his discovered, pierced with lances, a few days later. He
"De arte metrica" (xxiv) the Ven. Bede selects it left letters dating from November, 1846, which were
from amongst "Ahi Ambrosiani non pauoi" to illus- printed in the "Woodstock Letters" (XVII, 149-50,
trate the difference between the metre of Classical 152-55, 157-59).
iambics and the accentual rhythms imitating them. De Backer-Sommervogel, Brbliothhque, VI, 1689; Appletons'
Ordinarily brief in his comment, he nevertheless re- Cyclopedia of American Biography (New York, 1888), s. v.
fers to it (P. L., XC, 174) as "that admirable hymn N. A. Weber.
. .fashioned exquisitely after the model of iambic
. Reynolds (Greene), Thomas, Venerable. See
metre" and quotes the first strophe: Roe, Bartholomew, Venerable.
XIII.—
 REYNOLDS 18 RHES^NA
Reynolds (Rainolds, Raynolds, Reginaldus), 712,8) and Georgius Cyprius, 870 (Gelzer, "Georgii
William, b. at Pinhorn near Exeter, about 1544; d. Cyprii descriptio orbis romani", 44) mention it among
at Antwerp, 24 August, 1594, the second son of Rich- the towns of Syria Secunda. The crusaders passed
ard Rainolds, and elder brother of John Rainolds, one through it at the end of 1099; it was taken by
of the chief Anglican scholars engaged on the "Au- Baldwin and was given to the Count of Tripoli
thorized Version" of the Bible. Educated at Win- ("Historiens des croisades", passim; Rey in "Bul-
chester School, he became fellow of New College, letin de la Soci6t6 des antiquaires de France", Paris,
Oxford (1560-1572). He was converted partly by 1885, 266). The only bishops of Rhaphansea known
the controversy between Jewel and Harding, and are (Le Quien, "Oriens christianus", II, 921): Bas-
partly by the personal influence of Dr. Allen. In 1575 sianus, present at the Council of Nica3a, 325; Geron-
he made a public recantation in Rome, and two years tius at Philippopolis, 344; Basil at Constantinople,
later went to Douai to study for the priesthood. He _ 381; Lampadius at Chalcedon, 451; Zoilus about
removed with the other collegians from Douai to 518; Nonnus, 536. The see is mentioned as late as
Reims in 1578 and was ordained priest at Chalons in the tenth century in the "Notitia episcopatuum" of
April, 1580. He then remained at the college, lec- Antioch (Vailh6, "Echos d'Orient", X, 94).
turing on Scripture and Hebrew, and helping Gregory Smith, Did. of Gr. and Rom. geogr., s. v.; Muller, notes on
Ptolemy, ed. Didot, I, 973.
Martin in translating the Reims Testament. Some
S. P£TRiDi:s.
years laefore his death he had left the college to become
Rheims. See Reims.
chaplain to the Beguines at Antwerp. He translated
several of the writings of Allen and Harding into Latin Rheinberger, Joseph Gabriel, composer and
and wrote a "Refutation" of Whitaker's attack on organist, b. at Vaduz, in the Principality of Lich-
the Reims version (Paris, 1583); "De justa reipu- tenstein, Bavaria, 17 March, 1839; d. at Munich,
blicEe christianse in regesimpios et hsereticos autho- 25 Nov., 1901. When seven years old, he already
ritate" (Paris, 1590), under the name of Rossaeus; served as organist in his parish church, and at the
a treatise on the Blessed Sacrament (Antwerp, 1593) age of eight composed a mass for three voices. After
" Calvino-Turcismus " (Antwerp, 1.597). enjoying for a short time the instruction of Choir-
KiRBY, Annals of Winchester College (London, 1892) ; Foster, master Schmutzer in Feldkirch, he attended the con-
Alumni Oxonienses (Oxford, 1891); Douay Diaries (London,
1878); Wood, Alhence Oxonienses (London, 1813); Pitts, De
servatory at Munich from 1851 to 1854, and finished
illusirihus Anglice scriptoribus ((Paris, 1619); Dodd, Church his musical education with a course under Franz
History, II (Brussels vere Wolverhampton, 1737-42) Gillow in
;
Lachner. In 1859 he was appointed professor of
Biog. Diet. Eng. Cath., s. v.; Riaa in Diet. Nat. Biog., a. v.
Rainolds, the theory of music and organ at the conservatory,
Edwin Burton. a position which he held until a few months before
his death. Besides his duties as teacher he acted
Rhsetia, Prefectorb Apostolic of (Rh^tortjm), successively as organist at the court Church of St.
in Switzerland, includes in general the district oc- Michael, conductor of the Munich Oratorio Society,
cupied by the Catholics belonging to the Rhaeto- and instructor of the solo artists at the royal opera.
Romanic race in the canton of the Orisons (Grau- In 1867 he received the title of royal professor, and be-
biinden). The prefecture is bounded on the north came inspector of the newly established royal school
by the Prattigau, on the south by Lombardy, on the for music, now called the Royal Academy of Music.
east by the Tyrol, on- the west by the cantons of In 1877 he was promoted to the rank of royal court
Tessin (Ticino), Uri, and Glarus. During the six- conductor, which position carried with it the direction
teenth century the greater part of the inhabitants of the music in the royal chapel. Honoured by his
of the Grisons became Calvinists. In 1621 Paul V, prince with the title of nobility and accorded the
at the entreaty of Bishop John Flugi of Coire (Chur) honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy by the
and Archduke Leopold of Austria, sent thither Munich University, Rheinberger for more than
Capuchin missionaries from Brixen in the Tyrol; forty years wielded, as teacher of many of the most
the first superior was P. Ignatius of Cosnigo, who re- gifted young musicians of Europe and America, per-
sided in the mission (1621-45) and conducted it under haps more influence than any of his contemporaries.
the title of prefect Apostolic. The best known of As a composer he was remarkable for his power of
the missionaries is St. Fidelis of Sigmaringen, who was invention, masterful technique, and a noble, solid
martyred. After the death of P. Ignatius the mission style. Among his two hundred compositions are
was cared for by the Capuchin province of Brixen, oratorios (notably " Christof orus " and "Monfort");
represented in the mission by a sub-prefect. For a tw^o operas; cantatas for soli, chorus, and orches-
long time after the suppression of the religious orders tra ("The Star of Bethlehem", "Toggenburg",
hy Napoleon, the mission was without an adminis- "Klarchen auf Eberstein" etc.); smaller works for
trator; upon the restoration of the order. Capuchins chorus and orchestra; symphonies ("Wallenstein"),
from various provinces were sent into the mission. overtures, and chamber music for various combina-
At present it is under the care of Capuchins of the tions of instruments. Most important of all his
Roman province. It has 22 parishes, in three of instrumental works are his twenty sonatas for organ,
which the majority of inhabitants speak Italian; the most notable productions in this form since
52 churclies and chapels; 40 schools for boys and Mendelssohn. Rheinberger WTote many works to
girls; 7200 CathoUcs; 25 Capuchins. The prefect liturgical texts, namely, twelve masses (one for
Apostolic h^es at Sagens. double chorus, three for four voices a cappella, three
BiTHi, Die knth. Kirche in der Schweiz (Munich, 1902), 89" for women's voices and organ, two for men's voices,
Missiones Calholicw (Rome, 1907), 103; Mayer, Gesch. ties' Bis-
tums Chur (Stans, 1907), not yet completed. and one with orchestra), a requiem, Stabat Mater, and
Joseph Lins. a large number of motets, and smaller pieces.
Rheinberger s masses rank high as works of art,
Rhaphansea, a titular see in Syria Secunda, suffra- but some of them are defective in the treatment of
gan of Ajjamea. Rhaphanaea is mentioned in ancient the text. Joseph Renner, Jr., has recently
remedied
times only by Josephus (Bel. Jud., VII, 5, l),who says most of these defects, and made the masses available
that in tliat vicinity there was a river which flowed six tor liturgical purposes.
days and re;ised on the seventh, probably an inter- Jfh^ZhJ^^'^ '^V,'"''
Rheinberger (Ratisbon, 1911); Renner,
mittent spring now called Fououar ed-Deir, near vUl^'^i'ZVS " ^'f^»en in Kirchen-musikalisches Jahrbuch (Ratis-
bon, 1909).
Rafanieh, a village of the vilayet of Alep in the valley
of the Oronte. The ancient name was preserved
Joseph Otten.
At
the time of Ptolemy (V, 14, 12), the Third Legion Rhessna, titular see in Osrhoene, suffragan of
(Gallica) was stationed there. Hierocles (Synecdcmus, Odessa. Rhesajna (numerous variations of the name
 KHINOCOLURA 19 RHO
appear in ancient authors) was an important town Council of Nice. The first authentic titular known is
at the northern extremity of Mesopotamia near the St. Melas, who suffered exile under Valens and is men-
sources of the Chaboras (now Khabour), on the way tioned on 16 January in the Roman Martyrology.
from Carrhae to Nicephorium about eighty miles He was succeeded by his brother Solon. Polybius
from Nisibis and forty from Dara. Near by Gordian was the disciple of St. Epiphanius of Cyprus, whose
III fought the Persians in 243. Its coins show that life he wrote. Hermogenes assisted at the Council of
it was a Roman colony from the time of Septimus Ephesus (431), was sent to Rome by St. Cyril, and
Severus. The "Notitia dignitatum" (ed. Boecking, received many letters from his suffragan St. Isidore.
I, 400) represents it as under the jurisdiction of the His successor Zeno defended Eutyches at the Second
governor or Dux of Osrhoene. Hierocles (Synec- Council of Ephesus (451). Other bishops were:
demus, 714, 3) also locates it in this province but Alphius, the Massalian heretic; Ptolemy, about 460,
under the name of Theodosiopolis; it had in fact Gregory, 610. Of the other bishops on the list one
obtained the favour of Theodosius the Great and taken did not belong to Rhinocolura; the other three are
his name. It was fortified by Justinian. In 1393 it Coptic heretics.
was nearly destroyed by Tamerlane's troops. To-day Reland, PalcEstijia, 285, 969 sq.; Smith, Diet. Greek and Roman
Geogr., a. v.; MtjLLER, notea on Ptolemy, ed. Didot, 1, 683;
under the name of R4s-el-'Ain, it is the capital of a ViGOUROux, Diet, de la Bible, a. v. Egypte (torrent ou ruisaeau
caza in the vilayet of Diarbekir and has only 1500 d'): Am^lineau, Giographie de V Egypte a Vepoque copte, 404;
inhabitants. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II, 979) RiTTER, Erdkunde, XVI, 143; XVI, 39, 41.
mentions nine bishops of Rhesaena: Antiochus, pres- S. Pl^TRIDiiS.
ent at the Council of Nicsea (325); Eunomius, who
(about 420) forced the Persians to raise the siege of the Rhithymna (Rhbthymna), a titular see of Crete,
town; John, at the Council of Antioch (444); Olym- suffragan of Gortyna, mentioned by Ptolemy, III,
pius at Chalcedon (451); Andrew (about 490); 15, Pliny, IV, 59, and Stephen of Byzantium. Noth-
Peter, exiled with Severian (518) Ascholius, his suc-
;
ing is known of its ancient history but some of its
cessor, a Monophysite Daniel (550)
; Sebastianus
;
coins are extant. It still exists under the Greek name
(about 600), a correspondent of St. Gregory the Great. of Rhethymnon (Turkish, Resmo, It. and Fr. Retimo).
The see is again mentioned in the tenth century in a It is a small port on the north side of the island thirty-
Greek "Notitise episcopatuum" of the Patriarchate seven miles south-west of Candia; it has about
of .\ntioch (Vailh6, in "Echos d'Orient", X, 94). 10,000 inhabitants (half Greeks, half Mussulmans),
Le Quien (ibid., 1329 and 1513) mentions two Jacobite and some Catholics who have a church and school.
bishops: Scalita, author of a hymn and of homilies, Rhithymna exports oil and soap. During the occupa-
and Theodosius (1035). About a dozen others are tion of Crete by the Venetians it became a Latin see.
known. According to Corner (Creta sacra, II, 138 sq.), this
Revue de I'Orient chrU. VI (1901), 203; D'Heebelot, Bibl.
see is identical with Calamona. For a list of twenty-
orientale,I, 140; III, 112; Ritteh, Erdkunde, XI, 375; Smith, four bishops (1287 to 1592) see Eubel (Hier. cath.
Diet. Greek and Roman Geogr., s. v., with bibliography of ancient med. aivi, I, 161; II, 128; III, 161). Three other
authors; Muller, notes on Ptolemy, ed. DinOT, I, 1008; Chapot,
La /routine de VEuphrate de PompSe d la conquSte arabe (Paria, names are mentioned by Corner from 1611 to 1641.
1907), 302. The Turks who had already ravaged the city in 1572,
S. P:6TRIDi!S. captured it again in 1646. At present the Greeks have
a bishop there who bears the combined titles of
Rhinocolura, titular see in Augustamnica Prima, Rhethymnon and Aulopotamos. The date of the
suffragan of Pelusium. Rhinocolura or Rhinocorura foundation of the see is unknown. It is not men-
was a maritime town so situated on the boundary of tioned in the Middle Ages in any of the Greek
Egypt and Palestine that ancient geographers attrib- "Notitise episcopatuum".
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geogr., o. v.
uted it sometimes to one country and sometimes to S. P^TRinis.
the other. Its history is unknown. Diodorus Siculus
(I, 60, 5) relates that it must have been founded by
Rhizus, 'PifoOs, a titular see of Pontus Pole-
Actisanes, King of Ethiopia, who established there moniacus suffragan of Neocaesarea, mentioned by
convicts whose noses had been cut off; this novel Ptolemy (V, 6) as a port on the Black Sea (Euxine)
legend was invented to give a Greek meaning to the it is referred to also in other ancient geographical
name of the town. Strabo (XVI, 781) says that it documents, but its history is unknown. Procopius
was formerly the great emporium of the merchandise ("De bello gothico", IV, 2), tells us that the town was
of India and Arabia, which was unloaded at Leuce of some importance and that it was fortified by
Come, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea, whence it Justinian. He calls it Rhizaion. and it is so styled
was transported via Petra to Rhinocolura. It is in the "Notitise Episcopatuum It was originally
.

identified usually with the present fortified village El a suffragan of Neocaesarea, then an " autocephalous
"
Arish, which has 400 inhabitants, excluding the gar- archdiocese, finally a metropolitan see; the dates of
rison, situated half a mile from the sea, and has some these changes are uncertain. With the decrease of
ruins of the Roman period. It was taken by the
the Christian element the suffragan has become a
French in 1799, who signed there in 1800 the treaty simple exarchate. To-day there are no more than
by which they evacuated Egypt. To-day it and its 400 Greeks among the 2000 inhabitants of Rizeh, as
vicinity are occupied by Egypt, after having been for the Turks call the town. It is the capital of the
a long period claimed by Turkey. The village is Sanjak of Lazistan in the Vilayet of Trebizond, and
near a stream which bears its name (Wadi el-Arish), exports oranges and lemons. Le Quien (Oriens
and receives its waters from central Sinai; it does not christianus, I, 517), mentions three bishops; Necta-
flow in winter, but is torrential after heavy rain. It rius, present at the Council of Nice, 787 John, at the ;

is the "nahal Misraim", or stream of Egypt, fre- Council of Constantinople, 879, and Joachim (met-
quently mentioned in the Bible (Gen., xv, 18, etc.), ropolitan) in 1565.
as marking on the south-west the frontier of the Smith, Did. Greek and Roman Geogr., a. v.; Muller, Notes
Promised Land. Instead of the ordinary translation on Ptolemy, ed. Didot, I, 868.
S. PfiTRinis.
of the Hebrew name, the Septuagint in Is., xxvii, 12,
render it by 'PivoKSpovpa; see St. Jerome (In Isaiam,
XXVII, 12 in P. L., XXIV, 313). Rho, GiAcoMO, missionary, b. at Milan, 1593; d.
Le Quien (Oriens Christianus, II, 541) gives a at Peking 27 April, 1638. He was the son of a noble
list of thirteen bishops of Rhinocolura: the first does
and learned jurist, and at the age of twenty entered
not belong to it. A Coptic manuscript also wrongly the Society of Jesus. While poor success attended
names a bishop said to have assisted in 325 at the his early studies, he was later very proficient in
 RHODE 20 RHODE
mathematics. After his ordination at Rome by subsequently decreasmg until in 1782
it was 52,391.
Cardinal Bellarmine, he sailed in 1617 for the Far Thereafter until 1840 the average annual increase
was
East with forty-four companions. After a brief 973 and from 1840 to 1860, 3289. During the latter
;

stay at Goa he proceeded to Macao where, during the period and for several years afterward came a heavy
siege of that city by the Dutch, he taught the in- immigration from Ireland, followed by a large influx
habitants the use of artillery and thus brought about from Canada. For the last twenty-five years, the
its deliverance. This service opened China to him. increase from European countries, especially Italy,
He rapidly acquired the knowledge of the native has been great. According to the State census of
language and was summoned in 1631 by the emperor 1905, the number of foreign-born in Rhode Island is
to Peking for the reform of the Chinese calendar. as follows: born in Canada, 38,500; in Ireland, 32 -
With Father Sehall he worked to the end of his life 629; In England, 24,431; In Italy, 18,014; In
at this difficult task. When he died, amidst cir- Sweden, 7201; In Scotland, 5649; in Portugal, 5293;
cumstances exceptionally favourable to the Catholic In Russia, 4505; in Germany, 4463 in Poland, 4104.
;

mission, numerous Chinese officials attended his This classification does not distinguish the Jews, who
funeral. He left works relative to the correction of are rapidly increasing, and who in 1905 numbered
the Chinese calendar, to astronomical and theological 14,570.
questions. — —
HiSTOBY. A. Political. It is probable that Verra-
De Backbr-Sommervogel, Biblioth. de Za Com-p. de Jesus, VI zano, sailing under the French flag, visited Rhode
(9 vols., Brussels
lianitii m
Paris, 1890-1900), 1709-11; Hnc, Chris-
and
China, Tartary and Thibet, II (tr. New
York, 1884),
Island waters in 1524. A Dutch navigator, Adrian
20.5-66. Block, in 1614 explored Narragansett Bay and gave
N. A. Weber. to Block Island the name it bears. The sentence of
banishment of Roger Williams from Plymouth Colony
Rhode —
Island. The State of Rhode Island and was passed in 1635, and in the following year he
Providence Plantations, one of the thirteen original settled on the site of Providence, acquiring land by
colonies, is in extent of territory (land area, 1054 purchase from the Indians. One cause of Wilhams's
square miles), the smallest state in the American banishment was his protest against the interference
union. It includes the Island of Rhode Island, Block of civil authorities in religious matters. In Novem-
Island, and the ber, 1637, William Coddington was notified to leave
lands adjacent to Massachusetts. With the help of Williams, he settled
Narragansett on the site of Portsmouth, in the northerly part of the
Bay, bounded on island of Rhode Island, which was then called Aquid-
the north and east neck. Disagreements arising at Portsmouth, Cod-
by Massachu- dington, with a minority of his townsmen, in 1639
•Bsetts, on the south moved southward on the island and began the settle-
1 8 by the Atlantic ment of Newport. Samuel Gorton, another refugee
Ocean, and on the from Massachusetts, in 1638 came first to Portsmouth,
west by Connec- and later to Providence, creating discord at both
ticut. The popu- places by denying all power in the magistrates.
lation, according Gorton finally, in 1643, purchased from the Indians
to the United a tract of land in what is now the town of Warwick,
States Census of and settled there. The four towns. Providence, War-
1910, numbers wick, Portsmouth, and Ne-n-port, lying in a broken
.542,674:. Provi- line about thirty miles in length, tor many years con-
dence, the capi- stituted the municipal divisions of the colony. In
Seal of Rhode I,sl\.nd
,, , , ,,^ tal, situated at 1044 Roger Williams secured from the English Parlia-
the head of ^ arragansett Bay, and having a population ment the first charter, which was accepted by an
of 224,326, IS the mdustrial centre
of an extremely assembly of delegates from the four towns; and a
wealthy and densely populated district Rhode Island .
bill of rights, and a brief code of laws, declaring the
has long smce ranked as chiefly a manufacturing state
government to be "held by the common consent of
although the aftncultural mterests in certain sections
all the free inhabitants", were enacted thereunder.
are still considprable. That agriculture in Rhode In 1663 was granted the charter of Charles II, the
Island has not kept pace with manufactures is illus-
most liberal of all the colonial charters. It ordained
trated l)y instances of rural population. Two country
that no person should be in any wa>' molested on
towns have fewer inhabitants than in 1748- t\v
account of religion; and created the General Assem-
bly, with power to enact all laws necessary for the
government of the colony, such laws being not re-
pugnant to but agreeable as near as might be to the
but it IS of t^raphitic nature. Granite of high grade laws of England, "considering the nature and con-
IS extensively- quarried. The value of stone
quarried stitution of the place and people there".
m 1902 was S7:U,62:5; the value of all other minerals
The separate existence of the little colony was long
produced, i;:i'.),',)9S. The power supplied by the rivers precarious.
gave impetus to manufacturing. Rhode Island-
earl>-
Coddington in 1651 secured for him-
self a commission as go\emor of the islands of Rhode
ers ^\•orc the first in this country to apply the factory Island and Conanicut, but his authority was vigor-
system to cotton manufacturing. At present the
ously assailed, and his commission finally revoked.
products of manufacturing are general, including cot-
The Puritans in Massachusetts were no friends of the
ton, woolen, and rubber goods, jewelry, silverware
people of Rhode Island, and portions of the meagre
machinery and tools. In lOO.j there were 1617 manu-
territory were claimed by Massachusetts and Con-
facturing establishments with a total capitalization
S21.'),',)l»l,37.5; employing 97,:ns workers
of necticut. Rhode Island, like the other colonies was
with a pay- threatened both in England and in America by those
roll of 843,112,03/, and an output of the value
of who favoured direct control by the English Govern-
$202,109,.583. The total assets of banks and trust ment. Under the regime of Andros, Colonial Gov-
coTiipanies in June, 1909, were S2.')2,612,122. The ernor at Boston, the charter government was sus-
bonded State debt, 1 Jan., 1910, was ¥4,800,000 with a pended for two years; and had the recommendations
sinking fund of -56.54,999. The direct foreign com- ot the English commissioner. Lord
merce is small, imports in 1908 being $1,499,116 and Bellemont, been
adopted, the charter government would have been
exports .521, 2sl. The population of Rhode Island in abolished. In 1710 the colony first issued "bills
1708 was 7181. In 1774 it had increased to 59,707, ot credit paper money, which continued increasing
,
 RHODE 21 RHODE
in volume and with great depreciation in value, until quite ready to act in support of their opinion even
after the close of the Revolution, causing and in- to the extent of parcelling her territory among them-
citing bitter partisan and sectional strife, and at selves, that the Constitution was submitted to a
times leading to the verge of civil war. The ad- convention and adopted by a majority of two votes,
vocates of this currency defended it on the ground 29 May, 1790. Admitted to the Union, Rhode Is-
of necessity, lack of specie, and the demand for some land did not follow the example of most of the other
medium to pay the expenses of successive wars. In states in framing a constitution adapted to the new
17S7 the State owed £150,047, English money, on national life, but continued under the old charter.
interest -bearing notes, which in 1789 the Assembly This fact underlies her political history for the next
voted to retire by paying them in paper money then fifty years. The charter of Charles II, though suit-
passing at the ratio of twelve to one. By the early able to its time, was bound to become oppressive.
part of the eighteenth century the people were ex- First, it fixed the representation of the several towns
tensively engaged in ship-building, and it is said that without providing for a readjustment to accord with
in the wars in America between Great Britain and the relative changes therein. Hence, the natural
France, Rhode Island fitted out more ships for service and social forces, necessarily operating in the course
than any other colony. of two hundred years to enlarge some communities
The extraordinary measure of self-government and to reduce others, failed to find a corresponding
granted to the colonists by the charter fostered in political expression. Again, the charter had con-
them a spirit of loyalty toward the mother country, ferred the franchise upon the "freemen" of the towns,
substantially and energetically manifested on every leaving to the Assembly the task of defining the term.
occasion; but which, nevertheless, when the danger From early colonial days the qualification had
from the foreign foe was no longer imminent, was sup- fluctuated until in 1798 it was fixed at the ownership
planted by a feeling of jealous apprehension of the of real estate to the value of $134, or of $7 annual
encroachments on what the colonists had now learned rental (the eldest sons of freeholders being also eli-
to regard as their natural rights. Rhode Island gible). Agitation for a constitution began as soon
heartily joined the other colonies in making the as Rhode Island had entered the Union, and con-
Revolution her cause. In 1768 the Assembly rati- tinued for many years with little result. It came
fied the Massachusetts remonstrance against the to a head ultimately in 1841 in the Dorr Rebellion,
British principle of taxation, in spite of Lord Hills- the name given to that movement whereby a large
borough's advice to treat it with "the contempt it party in the state, under the leadership of Thomas
deserves". The first overt act of the Revolution, W. Dorr of Providence, proceeded to frame a con-
the scuttling of the revenue sloop "Liberty", took stitution, independently of the existing government
place in Newport harbour, 19 July, 1769; followed and to elect officers thereunder. The movement was
three years later by the burning of the British ship readily put down by the authorities after some dis-
of war "Gaspee" at Providence. A strong loyalist play of force, and Dorr was obfiged to flee the state.
party in the colony for social and commercial reasons Returning later, he was indicted for treason, convicted
was anxious to avoid an open breach with the mother and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was par-
country, but the enthusiasm with which the news doned and set at liberty within a year. His work was
of Lexington was received showed that the majority not a failure, however, for in 1842 a constitution was
of the people welcomed the impending struggle. adopted incorporating his proposed reforms. A per-
On 4 May, 1776, the Rhode Island Assembly by sonal property qualification was instituted, prac-
formal act renounced its allegiance to Great Britain, tically equivalent to the real estate qualification;
and in the following July voted its approval of the and neither was required, except in voting upon any
Declaration of Independence. The colony bore its proposition to impose a tax or to expend money, or for
burden, too, of the actual conflict. From 1776 until the election of the City Council of Providence. The
1779, the British occupied Newport as their head- personal property quaUfication was not available,
quarters, ruining the commerce of the town and wast- however, to foreign-born citizens, and this discrimina-
ing the neighbouring country. The evident strategic tion persisted untU 1888, when it was abolished by
importance of the possession of Newport by the constitutional amendment. Each town and city
British, and the possibility of the place's becoming was entitled to one member in the Senate; and the
the centre of a protracted and disastrous war, created membership of the Lower House, limited to seventy-
great alarm not only in the colony but throughout two, was apportioned among the towns and cities on
New England. Two attempts were made to dis- the basis of population, with the proviso that no town
lodge the enemy, the second with the co-operation or city should have more than one-sixth of the total
of the French fleet, but both failed. The levies of membership. In 1909, an amendment was adopted
men and money were promptly met by the people increasing the membership of the Lower House to
of the colony in spite of the widespread privation one hundred, apportioned as before among the towns
and actual suffering. At last the British headquar- and cities on the basis of population, with the proviso
ters were shifted to the south, and the French allies that no town or city should have more than one-
occupied Newport until the end of the war. fourth of the total membership. It is significant that
The same consideration, the instinct for local self- under this amendment the City of Providence has
government, which prompted Rhode Island to resist twenty-five representatives whereas its population
the mother country, made her slow to join with the warrants forty-one. In the same year, the veto
other colonies in establishing a strong centralized power was for the first time bestowed upon the gov-
government. "We have not seen our way clear to ernor. Notwithstanding these approaches toward a
do it consistent with our idea of the principles upon republican form of government, there is a strong de-
which we are all embarked together", wrote the As- mand for a thorough revision of the Constitution.
sembly to the President of Congress. The proposed According to an opinion of the Supreme Court a
federal organization seemed scarcely less objectionable constitutional convention is out of the question,
than the former British rule. Rhode Island took no inasmuch as the Constitution itself contains no pro-
part in the Convention of 1787, and long refused even vision therefor (In re The Constitutional Conven-
to submit the question of the adoption of the Con- tion, XIV R. I., 469), and the only hope of reform
stitution to a state convention. Eight times the seems to be in the slow and difficult process of amend-
motion to submit was lost in the Assembly, and it ment.
was only when it became evident that the other B. Religious. —The earliest settlers in this state
states did not regard Rhode Island's condition of were criticized by their enemies for lack of religion.
single independence as an "eligible" one, and were Cotton Mather described them as a "coUuvies" of
 RHODE 22 RHODE
everything but Roman Catholics and real Christians. _, Members Churohes
In Providence Roger \\ illiams was made pastor of Presbyterian 993 4
the first church, the beginning of the present First Universalist 1, 166 9
Baptist Church. In 1739 there were thirty-three Unitarian [ 1^000 4
churches in the colony; twelve Baptist, ten Quaker, Seventh Day Baptist.....! ! 1^040 5
six Congregational or Presbyterian, and five EpLs- Friends 915 7
eopahan. It is said that in 1680 there was not one Value of property owned by certain denomina-
Catholic in the colony, and for a long period their tions is stated as follows: Protestant Episcopal,
number must have been small. In 1828 there were $1,957,518; Congregational, $1,417,089; Baptist,
probably less than 1000 Catholics in the state. In $1,124,348; Methodist Episcopal, $624,900; Uni-
that year Bishop Fcnwick of Boston assigned Rev. tarian, $280,000; Universalist, $259,000; Free
Robert Woodley to a "parish" which included all Baptist, $242,000.
of Rhode Island and territory to the east in Mas- —
Education. Provision was made for a public
sachusetts. A church was built in Pawtucket in school in Newport in 1640. State supervision of
1829. Father Woodley in 1828 acquired in Newport public schools was not inaugurated until 1828. The
a lot and building which was used for a church and number of pupils enrolled in public schools in 1907
school. In 1830 Rev. John Corry was assigned to was 74,065, and the number of teachers employed,
Taunton and Providence, and built a church in Taun- 2198. The State maintains an agricultural college,
ton in that year. The first Catholic church in Provi- a normal school, a school for the deaf, a home and
dence was built in 1S37 on the site of the present school for dependent children not criminal or vicious,
cathedral. At that time Father Corry was placed and makes provision for teaching the blind. Schools
in charge of Providence alone. From 1844 to 1846, are supported mainly by the towns wherein they are
the mission of Rev. James Fitton included Woon- located. The State appropriates annually $120,000,
socket, Pawtucket, Crompton, and Newport, a to be used only for teachers' salaries, and to be divided
series of districts extending the length of the state. among the towns and cities in proportion to school
In 1846, Newport was made a parish by itself. population, but no town may receive its allotment
Woonsocket received a pastor at about the same time; without appropriating at least an equal amount for
Pawtucket in 1847; Warren in 1851; Pascoag in the same purpose. Another appropriation is paid
18.51; East Greenwich in 1853; Georgiaville in 1855. to towns maintaining graded high schools. This
These parishes were not confined to the limits of the appropriation in 1910 was $26,500. The total amount
towns or villages named, but included the surround- expended on public schools in 1907, exclusive of per-
ing territory. In 1844 the Diocese of Hartford was manent improvements, was $1,800,325, the number
created, including Rhode Island and Connecticut, of school buil'dings was 528; and the valuation of
with the episcopal residence at Providence. At this school property, $6,550,172. The number of paro-
time there were only six priests in the two states. chial school pupils in 1907 was 16,254; the total
In 1872 the Diocese of Hartford was divided and the attendance of Catholic parochial schools and acade-
Diocese of Providence created, including all Rhode mies in 1910 was 17,440. These schools cost about
Island, and in Massachusetts, the counties of Bristol, $1,500,000, and their annual maintenance about
Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket, also the towns of $150,000. The average monthly expense per pupil
Mattapoisset, Marion, and Wareham in the County in the public schools in 1907 was stated as $3.14.
of Plymouth. In 1904 the Diocese of Fall River was Allowing ten months for the school year, on the basis
created, leaving the Diocese of Providence coexten- of that cost, the 16,254 parochial school pupils, if
sive with the state. After 1840, and especially attending the public schools, would have cost the
following the famine in Ireland, the Irish increased State and towns $510,375. Providence is the seat
with great rapidity and long formed the bulk of the of Brown University, a Baptist institution founded in
Catholic population. The growth of cotton manu- 1764. The corporation consists of a Board of Trus-
factures after the Civil War drew great numbers of tees and a Board of Fellows. A majority of the
Canadian Catholics. In more recent years ItaUans trustees must be Baptists and the rest of the trustees
have settled in Rhode Island in great numbers, and must be chosen from three other prescribed Prot-
many Polish Cathohcs. Included in the CathoUc estant denominations. A majority of the fellows,
population are approximately 65,000 Canadians and including the president, must be Baptists; "the rest
French, 40,000 Itahans, 10,000 Portuguese, 8000 indifferently of any or all denominations" It is
Poles, and 1000 Armenians and Syrians. According provided that the places of professors, tutors and all
to a special government report on the census of re- officers, the president alone excepted, shall be free
ligious bodies of the United States, 76.5 per cent, of and open to all denominations of Protestants. The
the population of the City of Providence are Catho- total enrollment of the university for the academic
lics. There are 199 priests in the diocese, including year 1909-10 was 967, including the graduate depart-
about 47 Canadian and French priests, 8 Italian, and ment and the Women's College.
5 Polish priests. Thirty parishes support parochial
schools. Under Cathohc auspices are two orphan
Legislation Affecting Religion. In 1657 the —
Assembly denied the demand of the commissioners of
asylums, one infant asylum, two hospitals, one home the United Colonies that Quakers should be banished
for the aged poor, one industrial school, one house from Rhode Island, and later passed a law that mili-
for working boys, and two houses for working girls. tary service should not be exacted from those whose
The first Catholic governor of the State was James religious behef forbade the bearing of arms. The
H. Higgins, a Democrat, who was elected for two Charter of 1663 guaranteed freedom of conscience,
terms, 1907, 1908. He was succeeded by Aram J. and the colonial laws prohibited compulsory support
Pothier, a Catholic, and a Republican. of any form of worship. In 1663, Charles II wrote to
The State census of 1905 gives the following the Assembly declaring that all men of civil conversa-
statistics of reUgious denominations: tion, obedient to magistrates though of differing
„ , ,.
Members Chtjrcheb judgments, might be admitted as freemen, with
Catholic 200,000 76 hberty to choose and be chosen to office, civil and
Protestant Episcopal 15,441 68 mihtary. On this communication it was voted that
Baptist 14,761 75 all those who should take an oath
Mtthodist Episcopal of allegiance to
5,725 45 Charles II and were of competent estate, should be
Congregationalist 9,738 42 admitted as freemen; but none should vote or
Lutheran 2,217 12 hold office until admitted by vote of the assembly.
Free Baptist 3,306 30 In the volume of laws printed in 1719,
appeared a
 RHODE 23 RHODE
provision that all men professing Christianity, obedi- sole with power to hold property for the religious and
ent to rnagistrates, and of civil conversation, though charitable purposes of the Roman Catholic Church.
of differing judgments in religious matters, Roman Since 1883 there has existed an act enabUng Episco-
Catholics alone excepted, should have liberty to choose palian parishes to incorporate. Special charters are
and be chosen to offices both civil and military. The freely granted when desired. There is a general law
date of the original enactment of this exception is not allowing libraries, lyceums and societies for religious,
known. It was repealed in 1783. The State Constitu- charitable, literary, scientific, artistic, musicalor social
tion of 1842 guarantees freedom of conscience, and purposes to incorporate by filing an agreement stating
provides that no man's civil capacity shall be in- the names of the promoters and the object of the cor-
creased or diminished on account of his religious poration, and by paying a nominal charge. Such cor-
belief. porations may hold property up to $100,000 in value.
The Sunday law of Rhode Island, following the By general law, buildings for religious worship, and
original English statute (Charles II, c. VII, § 1) the land on which they stand, not exceeding one acre,
differs from the law of most other states in that it BO far aa such land and buildings are occupied and
forbids simply the exercise of one's ordinary calling used exclusively for religious or educational purposes,
upon the Lord's day; excepting of course works of are exempt from taxation. The exemption does not
charity and necessity. Hence a release given on apply to pastors' houses. The buildings and personal
Sunday has been held good (Allen v. Gardiner, VII, property of any corporation used for schools, acad-
R. I. 22) and probably many contracts not in pursu-
; emies, or seminaries of learning, and of any incor-
ance of one's ordinary calhng would be sustained porated public charity, and the land, not exceeding
though made on Sunday. A
characteristic exception one acre, on which such buildings stand, are exempt.
exists in favour of Jews and Sabbatarians, who are School property is exempt only so far as it is used
permitted with certain restrictions, to pursue their exclusively for educational purposes. Property used
ordinary calling on the first day of the week. Fishing exclusively for burial purposes, hospitals, public
and fowhng, except on one's own property, and all libraries, and property used for the aid of the poor,
games, sports, plays, and recreations on Sunday are are exempt. Any church property other than that
forbidden. The penalty for the first violation of the specified is taxed, unless it is in a form exempted by
statute is $5, and $10 for subsequent violations. national law. Clergymen are exempt from jury and
Service of civil process on Sunday is void. military duty.
Witnesses are sworn with the simple formality of —
Marriage and Divorce. Marriage between
raising the right hand; or they make affirmation grandparent and grandchild, or uncle and niece, and
upon peril of the penalty for perjury. Judges, assem- between persons more closely related by blood, is void;
blymen, and aU State officers, civil and military, as is marriage with a step-parent, with the child or
must take an oath of office. 'The substance of the grandchild of one's husband or wife, with the husband
oath is to support the Constitution of the United or wife of one's child or grandchild, and with the parent
States, and the Constitution and laws of this State, or grandparent of one's wife or husband. The statute
and faithfully and impartially to discharge the duties contains no express requirement regarding the age of
of the office. The judges of the Supreme and Superior the parties contracting marriage, but it is a defence
Courts also swear to administer justice without to an indictment for bigamy that the prior marriage
respect of persons, and to do equal right to the poor was contracted when the man was under fourteen
and to the rich. Lawyers, auditors, and almost every years of age, and the woman under twelve. Marriages
city and town official take an oath of office. Blas- among Jews are valid in law if they are vahd under
phemy is punished by imprisonment not exceeding the Jewish religion. Marriages may be performed by
two months or fine not exceeding $200; profane hcensed clergymen and by the judges of the Supreme
cursing and swearing by fine not exceeding $5. New and Superior Courts. Before marriage, parties must
State and municipal governments are generally in- obtain a Ucence by personal application from the
augurated with prayer. town clerk, or city clerk, or registrar; and a non-
Legal hohdays include New Year's Day, Columbus resident woman must obtain such licence at least five
Day, and Christmas. Good Friday is a Court holi- days previous to the marriage. The licence must be
day by rule of Court and a school holiday in Provi- presented to the clergyman or judge officiating, who
dence by vote of the school committee. must make return of the marriage. Two witnesses
There no statute or reported decision regarding
is are required to the marriage ceremony. Failure to
evidence of statements made under the seal of con- observe the licence regulations will not invahdate the
fession. Should a question arise concerning this, it marriage provided either of the contracting parties
would have to be decided on precedent and on supposes they have been complied with; but the non-
grounds of public pohcy. The sole statutory privilege compliance is punished by fine or imprisonment.
is that accorded to communications between husband Causes for divorce include adultery, extreme cruelty,
and wife; although the common law privilege of wilful desertion for five years, or for a shorter time
offers of compromise and settlement and of com- in the discretion of the Court, continued drunkenness,
munications between attorney and client are recog- excessive use of opium, morphine, or chloral, neglect
nized. Physicians may be compelled to disclose of husband to provide necessaries for his wife, and
statements made to them by patients regarding any other gross misbehaviour and wickedness repug-
physical condition. nant to the marriage covenant. If the parties have
Incorporation AND Taxation.— In 1869 an act was been separated for ten years, the Court may in its
passed enabling the bishop of the Diocese of Hartford, discretion decree a divorce. Under the law of Rhode
with the vicar-general, the pastor, and two lay mem- Island marriage is regarded as a status, pertaining to
bers of any Catholic congregation in this State, to the citizen, which the State may regulate or alter.
incorporate, and to hold the Church property of such Hence a Court having jurisdiction over one of the
congregation, by filing with the secretary of State an parties to a marriage as a bona fide domiciled citizen
agreement to incorporate. This act was amended of the State, may dissolve the marriage although the
upon the creation of the Diocese of Providence. The other party is beyond the judisdiction; and such dis-
property of all the organized and self-sustaining Cath- solution will be recognized by other states by virtue
olic parishes is held by corporations so formed. 'The of the comity provision of the Federal Constitution
system furnishes a convenient means of continuing (Ditson vs. Ditson, IV R. I. 87).
the ownership of the property of the respective par- Liquor Laws, Corrections, etc. —A Constitu-
ishes. In 1900 the bishop of the Diocese of Provi- tional amendment prohibiting the manufacture and
dence and his successors were created a corporation sale of intoxicating Hquor was adopted in 1886, and re-
 RHODES 24 RHODES
pealed in 1889. At present Rhode Island is a local op- "La glorieuse mort d'Andr^, Catechiste .''
. .

tion state, the question of licence or no-licence being (Paris, 1653); "Catechismus", published in Latin
submitted annually to the voters of the several cities and in Tongkingese at Rome in 1658.
and towns. The Ucensing boards may in their discretion De Backer-Sommeevoqel, Biblioth. de la Comp. de JSsus, VI
(9 vols., Brussels and Paris, 1890-1900), 1718-21; Cahaton,
refuseany application. The number of licences in any Voyages et Missions du P. Rhodes (Paris and Le Mans, 1854).
town may not exceed the proportion of one licence to N. A. Weber.
each 500 inhabitants. The owners of the greater part
of the land within two hundred feet of any location
Rhodes, Knights of. See Hospitallers of St.
may bar its licence. No licence can be granted for a John of Jerusalem.
location within two hundred feet, measured on the Rhodes (Rhodtjs), titular metropolitan of the
street, of any public or parochial school. Maximum Cyclades (q. v.). an island opposite to Lycia
It is
and minimum Ucence fees are fixed by statute, and the and Caria, from which it is separated by a narrow
exact sum is determined by the licensing boards. For arm of the sea. It has an area of about 564 sq.
retail licences the minimum fee is $300, and the miles, is well watered by many streams and th*^
maximum, $1000. river Candura, and is very rich in fruits of all kinds.
In the City of Cranston are located the State The climate is so genial that the sun shines ever there,
institutions", so-called, including the State prison, as recorded in a proverb already known to Pliny
the county jail, the State workhouse, a reform school (Hist, natur., II, 62). The island, inhabited first
for girls, and another for boys. The probation sys- by the Carians and then by the Phcenicians (about
tem is extensively employed, and in the case of juven- 1300 B.C.) who settled several colonies there, was
ile offenders especially, the State makes every effort occupied about 800 B.C. by the Dorian Greeks. In
to prevent their becoming hardened criminals. Pro- 408 B.C. the inhabitants of the three chief towns,
bation officers have the power of bail over persons Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus founded the city of
committed to them. In proper cases, probation offi- Rhodes, from which the island took its name. This
cers may provide for the maintenance of girls and town, built on the side of a hill, had a very fine port.
women apart from their families. Capital punish- On the breakwater, which separated the interior
ment does not exist in the State except in cases where from the exterior port, was the famous bronze statue,
a life convict commits murder. the Colossus of Rhodes, 105 feet high, which cost 300
Wills disposing of personal property may be made talents. Constructed (280) from the machines of
by persons eighteen years of age or over; wills dis- war which Demetrius Poliorcetes had to abandon
posing of real estate, by persons twenty-one years of after his defeat before the town, it was thrown down
age or over. Probate clerks are required to notify by an earthquake in 203 B.C.; its ruins were sold
corporations and voluntary associations of all gifts in the seventh century by Caliph Moaviah to a Jew
made to them by will. If a gift for charity is made by from Emesus, who loaded them on 900 camels.
will to a corporation and the acceptance thereof would After the death of Alexander the Great and the ex-
be ultra vires, the corporation may at once receive the pulsion of the Macedonian garrison (323 b.c.) the
gift, and may retain it on condition of securing the island, owing to its navy manned by the best mariners
consent of the legislature within one year. It has in the world, became the rival of Carthage and
been held that a legacy for Masses should be paid in Alexandria. Allied with the Romans, and more or
full even if the estate were insufficient to pay general less under their protectorate, Rhodes became a
pecuniary legacies in full, on the ground that the gift centre of art and science; its school of rhetoric was
for Masses is for services to be rendered and is not frequented by many Romans, including Cato,
gratuitous, furthermore that a gift for Masses is legal Cicero, Caesar, and Pompey. Ravaged by Cassius
and is not void as being a superstitious use (Sherman in 43 B.C., it remained nominally independent till
v. Baker, XX R. I., 446, 613). A.D. 44, when it was incorporated with the Roman
Cemeteries are regulated to the extent that town Empire by Claudius, becoming under Diocletian the
councils may prevent their location in thickly popu- capital of the Isles or of the Cyclades, which it long
lated districts, and for the protection of health may remained.
pass ordinances regarding burials and the use of the The First Book of Machabees (xv, 23) records
grounds. Desecration of graves is punished. Towns that Rome sent the Rhodians a decree in favour
may receive land for burial purposes, and town coun- of the Jews. St. Paul stopped there on his way from
cils may hold funds for the perpetual care of burial lots. ^Miletus to Jerusalem (Acts, xxi, 1) he may even have
;

Cemeteries are generally owned by corporations spe- made converts there. In three other passages of
cially chartered, by churches and families. Holy Writ (Gen., x, 4; I Par., i, 7; Ezech., xxvii,
Field, Slate of B. I. ami Prumlmce Plantations (Boaton, 1902);
Arnold, Hi'^l. of R. I. (New York, 1860); Staples, Annnls of 15) the Septuagint renders by Rhodians what the
Prorvlcnce (Providence, 1S43) Dowling, Hist, of the Catholic
;
Hebrew and the Vulgate rightly call Dodanim and
Church in New England (Boston, 1899) ; R. I. Colonial Records. Dedan. If we except some ancient inscriptions
Albeht B. West. supposed to be Christian, there is no trace of Chris-
tianity until the third century, when Bishop Euphra-
Rhodes, Alexandre de, missionary and author, non is said to have opposed the Encratites. Euphro-
b. at Avignon, 15 Man/h, 1591; d. at Ispahan, synus assisted at the Council of Nicaea (325). As
Persia, 5 Xov., 1660. He entered the novitiate of the religious metropolitan of the Cyclades, Rhodes
the Society of Jesus at Rome, 24 April, 1612, with the had eleven suffragan sees towards the middle of the
intention of devoting his life to the conversion of the seventh century (Gelzer, "Ungedruckte. Texte
infi(lels. He was assigned to the missions of the East der Notitiae episcopatuum", 542); at the beginning
. .

Indies, and inaugurated his missionary labours in of the tenth century, it had only ten (op. cit., 558);
1624 with great success in Cochin China. In 1627 at the close of the fifteenth, only one, Lerne (op. cit.,
he proceeded to Tongking where, within the space of 635), which has since disappeared.
three year.s, he converted 6000 persons, including
Rhodes is still
a Greek metropolitan depending on the Patriarchate
several bonzes. When in 1630 persecution forced of Constantmoplc. On 15 August, 1310, under the
him to leii\-e the country, the newly-made con-\-erts leadership of Grand Master Foulques de Villaret,
continued the work of evangehzation. Rhocles was the Knights of St. John captured the island in spite
later recalled to Rome where he obtained permission of the Greek emperor, Andronicus II, and
for more
from his superiors to undertake missionary work in than two centuries, thanks to their fleet, were a solid
Persia. Amidst the numerous activities of a mis- bulwark between Christendom and Islam. In 1480
sionary career, he found time for literary productions: Rhodes, under the orders of Pierre d'Aubusson, un-
"Tunchinensis historiEe hbri duo" (Lyons, 1652)- derwent a memorable siege by the lieutenants of
 RHODESIA 25 RHODESIA
Mahomet II;on 24 October, 1522, Villiers de I'lsle liesnorth and west of Matabeleland and south of the
Adam had make an honorable capitulation to
to Zambesi. In September, 1890, an expeditionary
Solyman II and deliver the island definitively to the column occupied that country and, in the next four
Turks. From 1328 to 1546 Rhodes was a Latin years, much was done to develop its resources. In
metropolitan, having for suffragans the sees of iVlelos, 1893 the company, who questioned the right of the
Nicaria, Carpathos, Chios, Tinos, and Mycone; Matabele to make annual raids among their neigh-
the list of its bishops is to be found in Le Quien bours the Mashonas, came to blows with King
(Oriens christ.. Ill, 1049) and Eubel (Hierarchia Lobengula. Five weeks of active operations and the
catholica medii aevi, I, 205; II, 148; III, 188). The death of the king, probably by self-administered
most distinguished bishop is Andreas Colossensis poison, brought the whole of Southern Rhodesia
(the archdiocese was called Rhodes or Colossi) who, under the absolute control of the company.
in 1416 at Constance and 1439 at Florence, defended After the war, the settlement and opening up of
the rights of the Roman Church against the Greeks, the country was carried on under the direction of
and especially against Marcus Eugenicus. After the Mr. Rhodes who, on the ruins of Lobengula's royal
death of Marco Cattaneo, the last residential arch- kraal at Bulawayo, built Government House, and in
bishop, Rhodes became a meretitular bishopric, while the vicinity, laid out the streets and avenues of what
Naxos inherited its metropolitan rights. On 3 was intended soon to become a great city. At one
March, 1797 it became again a titular archbishopric time Bulawayo had a population of some 7000 white
but the title was thenceforth attached to the See of inhabitants and seemed to be fulfilling the dreams of
Malta. Its suffragans are Carpathos, Leros, Melos, its founder when its progress and that of the whole
Samos, and Tenedos. By a decree of the Congrega- country was cut short by the cattle pest, the native
tion of the Propaganda, 14 August, 1S97, a prefecture rebellion of 1896, and by years of stagnation and
Apostolic, entrusted to the Franciscans, was es- inactivity consequent upon the Boer War. Its white
tablished in the Island of Rhodes; it has in addition population (1911) is 5200. Besides Southern Rho-
jurisdiction over a score of neighbouring islands, of desia the chartered company own the extensive ter-
which the principal are Carpathos, Leros, and ritories of North-western and North-eastern Rhodesia
Calymnos. There are in all 320 Catholics, while which lie north of the Zambesi and which, with the
the island, the capital of the vilayet of the archipelago, more populous southern province, cover an area of
contains 30,000 inhabitants. The Franciscans have some 450,000 square miles and form a country larger
three priests; the Brothers of the Christian Schools than France, Germany, and the Low Countries
have established there a scholasticate for the Orient combined. The black population is less than 1,500,-
as well as a school; the Franciscan Sisters of Gemona 000, while the whites hardly exceed 16,000. All
have a girls' school. The most striking feature of the native tribes of Rhodesia belong to the great
the city, in addition to a series of medieval towers Bantu family of the negro race. Before the arrival
and fortifications, is the Street of the Knights, which of the pioneer columns the dominant race south of
still preserves their blason (Order of St. John) and the Zambesi were the Matabele, an off-shoot of
the date of the erection of each house or palace; the Zulus, who conquered the country north of the
several of the mosques are former churches. Limpopo River in the middle of the last century.
Meoksius, Creta, Cyprus, Rhadus (Amsterdam, 1675) CoKO- ; They formed a military caste which lived by
NELLI, Isola di Rodi geographica, storica (Venice, 1702) Le ;
war and periodical raids upon their weaker neigh-
Quien, Oriens christ., I, 923-30; Paulsen, Commentatio exhibens bours. The destruction of this military despotism
Rhodi descriptionem macedonica mtale (Gottingen, 1818) Menge, ;

Ueber die Vorgesch. der Insel Rhodus (Cologne, 1827) RoTTlEHS,

; was a necessary step to the evangelizing of the coun-
Description des monuments de Rhodes (Brussels, 1828); Ross, try. Before the arrival of the Matabele warriors the
Reisen auf den griech. Inseln, III, 70-113; Idem, Reisen nach Kos,
principal inhabitants of Southern Rhodesia were the
Halikarnassos, Rhodos (Stuttgart, 1840); Berg, Die Insel Rhodos
(Brunswick, 1860) Schneiderwirth, Gesch. der Insel Rhodos
;
Makaranga whose ancestors had formed the once
(Heiligenstadt, 1868); Gu^rin, L'tle de Rhodes (Paris, 1880); powerful empire of Monomotapa. North-western
BiLLiOTi AND CoTTERET, L'tlc dc Rkodes (Paris, 1891); Becker, Rhodesia or Barotseland is ruled partly by an ad-
De Rhodiorum primordiis (Leipzig, 1882) Torr, Rhodes in Ancient
;

Times (Cambridge, 1885) Idem, Rhodes in Modern Times (Cam-

; ministrator residing at Livingstone, near the Vic-
bridge, 1887) Schumacher, De Republica Rhodiorum commentatio
; toria Falls of the Zambesi and partly by its native
(Heidelberg, 1886); Von Gelder, Gesch, der alten Rhodier (La King Lewanika, the chief of the Barotse, who has
Haye, 1900): Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geogr., a. v.;
FiLLlON in ViGOUROUX, Diet, de la Bible, s. v. Missiones catholicce
; been heavily subsidised by the company. The pre-
(Rome, 1907). dominant people in North-eastern Rhodesia are the
S. VAILHE. Awemba and the Angoni whose raiding propensities
and cooperation with the Arab slave drivers caused
Rhodesia, a British possession in South Africa, much trouble and expense until their definitive an-
bounded on the north and north-west by the Congo nexation by the company in 1894.
Free State and German East Africa; on the east by The earliest attempt to evangelize Matabeleland
German East Africa, Nyassaland, and Portuguese was made in 1879 when three Jesuit Fathers, travel-
East Africa; on the south by the Transvaal and ling by ox-wagon, accomplished the journey of some
Bechuanaland; on the west by Bechuanaland and twelve hundred miles between Grahamstown and
Portuguese West Africa. Cecil John Rhodes, to Bulawayo. They were hospitably received by King
whom the colony owes its name, desired to promote Lobengula who had been assured by some resident
the expansion of the British Empire in South Africa. traders that the missionaries had come for his people's
The Dutch South African Republic and Germany good. He granted them a free passage through his
were contemplating annexations in the neighbour- dominions and allowed them to train his subjects in
hood of the Zambesi River. To thwart these enemies habits of industry but not to preach the Gospel
of unity without delay and without the aid of the of Christ which, as he well knew, would lead to
British Parliament was the task to which Mr. Rhodes drastic changes, not only in the domestic life of his
and his colleagues set themselves. Early in 1888 people, but in his whole system of government.
Lobengula, King of Matabeleland, entered into a For some fourteen years the missionaries held their
treaty with Great Britain and on 30 October of the ground awaiting events and it was only through the
same year he granted to Rhodes's agents "the conquest of the country by the company that free
complete and exclusive charge over all metals and missionary work was rendered possible. It was dur-
minerals" in his dominions. On 28 October, 1889, ing this period that Baron von Hubner, who was not
the British South Africa Company was formed under without personal experience of South Africa, declared
a royal charter. The company, on Lobengula's that he would never contribute a penny to the
advice, first decided to open up Mashonaland, which Zambesi Mission, since he thought it contrary to his
 RHODIOPOLIS 26 RHYMED
duty to foster an enterprise doomed to failure and Rhodo, a Christian writer who flourished in the
disaster. Events seemed to justify his prognostica- tirne of Commodus (1 80-92 )j he was a native of
tions, f(jr tlie mission, owing to fever and the hard- Asia who came to Rome where he was a pupil of
ships of tra\-cl, seemed to be losing more workers than Tatian's. He wrote several books, two of which are
it made converts. In 1893, however, the power of mentioned by Eusebius (Hist, eccl., V, xiii), viz.,
Lobengula was brolien and mission stations began a treatise on "The Six Days of Creation" and a work
to grow up in the neighbourhood of Salisbury, the against the Marcionites in which he dwelled upon the
capital, and of Bulawayo. In Matabeleland there various opinions which divided them. Eusebius,
are two mission stations, one at Bulawayo and the upon whom we depend exclusively for our knowledge
second at Empandeni, some sixty miles away. This of Rhodo, quotes some passages from the latter work,
la:;t station owns a property of about one hundred in one of which an account is given of the Marcionite
square miles most of which formed the original grant Apelles. St. Jerome (De vir. ill.) amplifies Euse-
of Lobengula and the title to which was confirmed bius's account somewhat by making Rhodo the author
by the company. The principal station among the
Mashonas or Makaranga is Chishawasha, fourteen
of a work against the Cataphrygians —
probably he
had in mind an anonymous work quoted by Eusebius
miles from Salisbury (founded in 1892). There are a Uttle later (op. cit., V, xvi).
other stations of more recent date at Salisbury, Harnack, Altchrist Lit., p. 599; Bardenhewer, Patrology
Driefontein, Hama's Kraal, and Mzondo, near
(tr. Shahan, St. Louis, 1908), 117.

Victoria, all under the charge of the Jesuit Fathers.

F. J. Bacchus.
The Missionaries of Marianhill, recently separated Rhosus, a Secunda, suffragan
titular see in Cilicia
from the Trappists, have two missions in Mashona- to Anazarba. Rhosus or Rhossus was a seaport
land at Macheke and St. Trias Hill. The Makaranga situated on the Gulf of Issus, now Alexandretta, south-
who are thus being evangehzed from seven mission west of Alexandria (Iskenderoun or Alexandretta).
stations are the descendants of the predominant tribe It is mentioned by Strabo (XIV, 5; XVI, 2), Ptolemy
who received the faith from the Ven. Father Gongalo (V, 14), Pliny (V, xviii, 2), who place it in Syria, and
de Silveira in 1561. Among the Batongas, who owe by Stephanus Byzantius; later by Hierocles (Synecd.
a somewhat doubtful allegiance to King Lewanika 705, 7), and George of Cyprus (Descriptio orbis
in North-western Rhodesia, there are two Jesuit romani, 827), who locate it in Cilicia Secunda. To-
mission stations on the Chikuni and Nguerere Rivers. wards 200, Serapion of Antiooh composed a treatise on
These missions are under the jurisdiction of the the Gospel of Peter for the faithful of Rhosus who had
Jesuit Prefect Apostolic of the Zambesi, resident in
become heterodox on account of that book (Eusebius,
Bulawayo. There are 35 priests, 30 lay brothers, "Hist, eccl.", VI, xii, 2). Theodoret (Philoth. Hist.,
and 83 nuns in charge of the missions. The Catholic X, XI), who places it in Cilicia, relates the history of
native population is about 3000. For the missions
the hermit Theodosius of Antioch, founder of a
of North-eastern Rhodesia see Ntassa, Vicariate,
monastery in the mountain near Rhosus, who was
Apostolic of. The land of the mission stations in forced by the inroads of barbarians to retire to
Rhodesia is usually a grant from the Government Antioch, where he died and was succeeded by his
made on condition of doing missionary work and ia disciple Romanus, a native of Rhosus; these two
therefore inalienable without a special order in
religious are honoured by the Greek Church on 5 and
Council. Native schools, in some cases, are in
9 February. Six bishops of Rhosus are known (Le
receipt of a small grant from the Government. The Quien, "Or. Christ.", II, 905): Antipatros, at the
Jesuit Fathers have one school for white boys (120)
Council of Antioch, 363; Porphyrias, a correspondent
at Bulawayo, while the Sisters of the Third Order of
of St. John Chrysostom; Julian, at the Council of
St. Dominic have three: at Bulawayo (210), Salis-
Chalcedon, 451; a little later a bishop (name un-
bury (130), and Gwelo (40). These schools are un- known), who separated from his metropolitan to
denominational and receive grants from the Govern-
approve of the reconciliation effected between John
ment. Hence Catholics, who were first in the field,
of Antioch and St. Cyril; Antoninus, at the Council
have a very considerable share in the education of
of Mopsuestra, 550; Theodore, about 600. The see
the country. New Government schools have been
is mentioned among the suffragans of Anazarba in
built recently in Sahsbury, Bulawayo, and Gwelo
"Notitiae episcopatuum" of the Patriarchate of
and other places in order to meet the growing de-
Antioch, of the sixth century (Vailh6 in "Echos
mand for education and they have, so far, succeeded d'Orient", X, 145) and one dating from about 840
in filling their school-rooms without taking many '
(Parthey, " Hieroclis sjmecd. et notit. gr. episcopat. ',
pupils from the schools managed by Catholics.
The chief source of information about the Zambesi Mission is not. Ia, 827). In another of the tenth century
the Zambesi Mission Record, issued quarterly (Roehampton, Rhosus is included among the exempt sees (Vailhl,
England): Hensman, A History of Rhodesia (London, 1900); ihid., 93 seq.). In the twelfth century the town and
Hone, Southern Rhodesia (London, 1909) Hall, Prehistoric
;

Rhodesia (London, 1909) Michbll, Life of C. J. Rhodes (2 vols

;
neighbouring fortress fell into the hands of the Ar-
London, 1910). menians; in 1268 this castle was captured from the
James Kendal. Templars by Sultan Bibars (Alishan, "Sissouan",
Venice, 1899, 515). Rhosus is near the village of
Rhodiopolis, titular see of Lycia, suffragan of Arsous in the vilayet of Adana.
Myra, called Rhodia by Ptolemy (V, 3) and Stephanus S. PilTEIDilS.
Byzantius; Rhodiapolis on its coins and inscriptions;
Rhodiopolis by Pliny (V, 28), who locates it in the Rhymed —
Bibles. The rhymed versions of the
mountains to the north of Corydalla. Its history is Bible are almost entirely collections of the psalms.
unknown. Its ruins may be seen on a hill in the heart The oldest English rhymed psalter is a pre-Reforma-
of a forest at Eski Hissar, vilayet of Koniah. They tion translation of the Vulgate psalms, generally
consist of the remains of an aqueduct, a small theatre, assigned to the reign of Henry II and still preserved
a temple of Escalapius, sarcophagi, and churches. m Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. The Bodle-
Only one bishop is known, Nicholas, present in 518 ian Library, Oxford, has another Catholic rhyming
at a Council of Constantinople. The "Notitise psalter of much the same style, assigned epigraphic-
episcopatuum " continue to mention the see as late ally to the time of Edward II. Thomas Brampton
as the twelfth or thirteenth century. did the Seven Penitential Psalms, from the Vulgate
Le Quien, Oriena christianus, I, 991; Spsatt and Forbes, mto rhyming verse in 1414; the MS. is in the Cotton
Trareh in Lycia, I, 166, 181; Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman lan collection, British Museum. These and other
geoQr., s. v. pre-Reformation rhyming psalters tell a story of
S. PETBIDilS. popular use of the vernacular Scripture in England
 RHYTHMICAL 27 RHYTHMICAL
which they ignore who say that the singing of psalms Mason Good's "Song of Songs" (London, 1803);
in English began with the Reformation. Sir Thomas C. C. Price's "Acts of the Apostles" (New York,
Wyat (d. 1521) is said to have done the whole psalter. 1845). The French have had rhyming psalters since
We have only "Certayne Psalmes chosen out of the the "Sainotes Chansonettes enRime Frangaise" of
Psalter of David, commonlye called the VII Peni- Clement Marot (1540). Some Italian rhymed ver-
tential Psalmes, Drawen into English metre". Henry sions of the Bible are: Abbate Francesco Rezzano,
Howard, Earl of Surrey (d. 1547), translated Pss. "II Libro di Giobbe" (Nice, 1781); Stefano Egidio
Iv, Ixxiii, Ixxxviii into English verse. Miles Cover- Petroni, "Proverbi di Salomone" (London, 1815);
dale (d. 1567) translated several psalms in "Goastly Abbate Pietro Rossi, " Lamentazioni di Geremia, i
psalmes and spirituall songs drawen out of the Holy Sette Salmi Penitenziali e il Cantioo di Mose"
Scripture
'
The old Version of the Anghcan Church,
' (Nizza, 1781); Evasio Leone, "II Cantico de'
printed at the end of the Prayer Book (1562) con- Cantioi" (Venice, 1793); Francesco Campana,
tains thirty-seven rhyming psalms translated by "Libro di Giuditta" (Nizza, 1782).
Thomas Sternhold, fifty-eight by John Hopkins, Bibliotheca Sussexiana, II (London, 1839); Warton, History
of English Poetry (1774-81); Holland, The Psalmists of Britain
twenty-eight by Thomas Norton, and the remainder
by Robert Wisdom (Ps. cxxv), William Whittingham
(London, 1843). Walter Drum.
(Ps. cxix of 700 lines) and others. Sternhold's —
Rhythmical Office. I. Description, Develop-
psalms had been previously published (1549). —
ment, AND Division. By rhythmical office is meant
Robert Crowley (1549) did the entire psalter into a horary prayer, the canonical hours of the
liturgical
verse. The Seven Penitential Psalms were trans- priest, oran office of the Breviary, in which not only
lated by very many; William Hunnis (1583) entitles the h3rmns are regulated by a certain rhythm, but
his translation, with quaint Elizabethan conceit, where, with the exception of the psalms and lessons,
" Seven Sobs of a Sorrowful Soul for Sinne". During practically all the other parts show metre, rhythm,
the reign of Edward VI, Sir Thomas Smith translated or rhyme; such parts for instance as the antiphons
ninety-two of the psalms into English verse, while to each psalm, to the Magnificat, Invitatorium, and
imprisoned in the Tower. A
chaplain to Queen Mary, Benedictus, likewise the responses and versicles to
calling himself the "symple and unlearned Syr the prayers, and after each of the nine lessons; quite
William Forrest, preeiste", did a poetical version of often also the benedictions before the lessons, and
fifty psalms (1551). Matthew Parker (1557), later the antiphons to the minor Horce (Prime, Terce, Sext,
Archbishop of Canterbury, completed a metrical and None).
psalter. The Scotch had their Psalmes buickes from The old technical term for such an office was
1564. One of the most renowned of Scotch versifiers Historia, with or without an additional "rhytmata"
of the Psalms was Robert Pont (1575). Zachary or rimata, an expression that frequently caused mis-
Boyd, another Scotchman, published the Psalms in understanding on the part of later writers. The
verse early in the seventeenth century. Of English reason for the name lay in the fact that originally
rhyming versifications of the Psalms, the most charm- the antiphons or the responses, and sometimes the
ing are those of Sir PhiUp Sidney (d. 1586) together two together, served to amplify or comment upon
with his sister, Countess of Pembroke. This com- the history of a saint, of which there was a brief
plete psalter was not published till 1823. The rich sketch in the readings of the second nocturn. Grad-
variety of the versification is worthy of note; almost name was transferred to offices in which
ually this
all the usual varieties of lyric metres of that IjTic age no word was said about a "history", and thus we
are called into requisition and handled with elegance. find the expression "Historia ss. Trinitatis". The
The stately and elegant style of Lord Bacon is structure of the ordinary office of the Breviary in
distinctive of his poetical paraphrases of several which antiphons, psalms, hymns, lessons, and re-
psalms. Richard Verstegan, a Catholic, published sponses followed one another in fixed order, was the
a rhyming version of the Seven Penitential Psalms natural form for the rhythmical office. It was not
(1601). George Sandys (1636) published a volume a question of inventing something new, as with the
containing a metrical version of other parts of the hymns, sequences, or other kinds of poetry, but of
Bible together with "a Paraphrase upon the Psalmes creating a text in poetic form in the place of a text
of David, set to new Tunes for Private Devotion, in prose form, where the scheme existed, definitely
and a Thorow Base for Voice and Instruments"; arranged in all its parts. A
development therefore
his work is touching in its simplicity and unction. which could eventually serve as a basis for the
The Psalm Books of the various Protestant churches division of the rhythmical offices into distinct classes
are mostly rhyming versions and are numerous: is of itself limited to a narrow field, namely the ex-
New England Psalm Book (Boston, 1773); Psalm ternal form of the parts of the office as they appear
Book of the Reformed Dutch Church in North in poetic garb. Here we find in historical order the
America (New York, 1792); The Bay Psalm Book following characters: (1) a metrical, of hexameters
(Cambridge, 1640). Noteworthy also, among the intermixed with prose or rhymed prose; (2) a rhyth-
popular and more recent rhymed psalters are: mical, in the broadest sense, which will be explained
Brady and Tate (poet laureate), "A new Version of below; (3) a form embelhshed by strict rhythm and
the Psalms of David" (Boston, 1762); James Mer- rhyme. Consequently one may distinguish three
rick, "The Psalms in English Verse" (Reading, classes of rhythmical offices: (1) metrical offices, in
England, 1765); I. Watts, "The Psalms of David" hexameters or distichs; (2) offices in rhymed prose,
(27th ed., Boston, 1771); J. T. Barrett, "A Course i. e., offices with very free and irregular rhythm, or

of Psalms" (Lambeth, 1825); Abraham Coles, "A with dissimilar assonant long lines; (3) rhymed of-
New Rendering of the Hebrew Psalms into English fices with regular rhythm and harmonious artistic
Verse" (New York, 1885); David S. Wrangham, structure. The second class represents a state of
"Lyra Regis" (Leeds, 1885); Arthur Trevor Jebb, transition, wherefore the groups may be called those
"A Book of Psalms" (London, 1898). Such are the of the first epoch, the groups of the transition period,
chief rhyming English psalters. Other parts of and those of the third epoch, in the same way as
Holy Writ done into rhyming English verse are: with the sequences, although with the latter the
Christopher Tye's "The Acts of the Apostles trans- characteristic difference is much more pronounced.
lated into English Metre" (1553); Zachary Boyd's If one desires a general name for all three groups, the
"St. Matthew" (early seventeenth cent.); Thomas expression "Rhymed Office", as suggested by "His-
Prince's "Canticles, parts of Isaias and Revelations" toria rimata" would be quite appropriate for the
in New England Psalm Book (1758); Henry Ains- pars major et potior, which includes the best and most
wort, "Solomon's Song of Songs" (1642); John artistic offices; this designation "gereimtes Ojficium"
:
 RHYTHMICAL 28 RHYTHMICAL
(Reimofflcium) has been adopted in Germany through Much more perfectly developed on the other hand, is
the "Aiialecta Hymnica" The term does not give the rhythm in the Office which Leo IX composed in
absolute satisfaction, because the first and oldest honour of Gregory the Great (Anal. Hymn., V, no.
offices are without rhyme, and cannot very well be 64). This office, the work of a pope, appeared in
called rhymed offices. In the Middle Ages the word the eleventh century in the Roman breviaries, and
"rhythmical" was used as the general term for any soon enjoyed widespread circulation; all its verses
kind of poetry to be distinguished from prose, no are iambic dimeters, but the rhythm does not as yet
matter whether there was regular rhythm in those coincide with the natural accent of the word, and
poems or not. And for that reason it is practical many a verse has a syllable in excess or a syllable
to comprise in the name "rhythmical offices" all wanting. For example, the first antiphon of the
those which are other than pure prose, a designation first nocturn:
corresponding to the "Historia rhytmata". Gregorius ortus Romae
Apart from the predilection of the Middle Ages E senatorum sanguine
for the poetic form, the VitcB metricw of the saints Fulsit mundo velut gemma
were the point of departure and motive for the Auro superaddita,
rhythmical offices. Those Vike were frequently Dum prsEclarior praeclaris
composed in hexameters or distichs. From them Hie accessit atavis.
various couples of hexameters or a distich were taken This author does not yet make use of pure rhyme,
to be used as antiphon or response respectively. In but only of assonance, the precursor of rhyme.
case the hexameters of the ViUb metricce did not prove Hence we have before us an example of transition
suitable enough, the lacking parts of the office were from offices of the first epoch to those of the second.
supplemented by simple prose or by means of verses With these latter the highest development of the
in rhymed prose, i. e., by text lines of different length rhythmical office is reached. It is marvellous how
in which there was very little of rhythm, but simply in many offices of this artistic period, in spite of all
assonance. Such offices are often a motley mixture symmetry in rhythm and rhyme, the greatest variety
of hexameters, rhythmical stanzas, stanzas in pure exists in the structure of the stanzas, how a smooth
prose, and again in rhymed prose. An example of and refined language matches the rich contents full
an old metrical office, intermixed with Prose Re- of deep ideas, and how the individual parts are
sponses, is that of St. Lambert (Anal. Hymn., joined together in a complete and most striking pic-
XXVII, no. 79), where all the antiphons are borrowed ture of the saint or of the mystery to be celebrated.
from that saint's Vitw metricw, presumably the work A prominent example is the Office of the Trinity by
of Hucbald of St. Amand; the office itself was com- Archbishop Pecham of Canterbury.
posed by Bishop Stephen of Liege about the end of The first Vespers begins with the antiphona:
the ninth century: (1) Sedenti super solium
Antiphona I Orbita Solaris prsesentia gaudia conf ert
: Congratulans trishagium
Praesulis eximii Lantberti gesta revolvens. Seraphici clamoris
Antiphona II: Hie tuit ad tempus Hildrici regis in Cum patre laudat filium
aula, Indifferens principium
Dilectus cunctis et vocis famine dulcis. Reciproci amoris.
A mixing of hexameters, of rhythmical stanzas, and
of stanzas formed by unequal lines in rhymed prose (2) Sequamur per suspirium,
is shown in the old Office of Rictrudis, composed by Quod geritur et gaudium
Hucbald about 907 (Anal. Hymn., XIII, no. 87). In Sanctis caeli choris;
By the side of regular hexameters, as in the Invita- Levemus cordis studium
torium: In trinum lucis radium
Rictrudis sponso sit laus et gloria, Christo, Splendoris et amoris.
Pro cuius merito iubilemus ei vigilando. It is interesting to compare with the preceding the
we find rhythmical stanzas, like the first antiphon to antiphons to the first nocturn, which have quite a
Lauds: different structure; the third of them exhibits the
Beata Dei famula profound thought:
Rictrudis, adhuc posita Leventur cordis ostia:
In terris, mente devota Memoria Gignenti
Christo hserebat in aethra; Nalo intelligentia.
or stanzas in very free rhythm, as e. g., the second Voluntas Procedenti.
response to the first nocturn: again the first response to the third nocturn:
Ha;c femina laudabilis Candor lucis, perpurum speculum
Meritisque honorabilis Patris splendor, perlustrans saeculum,
Rictrudis egregia Nubis levis intrans umbraculum
Divina providentia In .Egypti venit ergastulum.
Per\-enit in Galliam, Virgo circumdedit virum
Prteclaris orta natalibus, Mel mandentem et butyrum.
Honestis alta et instituta moribua. upon which follows as second response the beautiful
From the metrical offices, from the pure as well as picture of the Trinity in the following form:
from those mixed with rh>med prose, the transition A 'Veterani facie manavit ardens fluvius:
was SI "in made to such as consisted of rhymed prose Antiquus est ingenitus, et facies est Filius,
merely. An example of this kind is in the Offices of Ardoris fluxus Spiritus, duorum amor medius.
Ulrich, composed by Abbot Borno of Reichenau (d. Sic olim multifarie
lOfsi: the antiphon to the Magnificat of the first Prophetis luxit Trinitas,
Vi'spers begins thus: Quam post pandit ecclesiae
Venerandi patris Wodalrici soUemnia In carne fulgens Veritas.
M:i;inip jucunditatis repra'sentant gaudia. HisTOEYAN-D SIGNIFICANCE.— It Cannot be defi-
II.
Qua:' merito cleri suscipiuntur voto nitely statedwhich of the three old abbeys: Prum,
Ac populi celebrantur tripudio. Land(S'ennec, or Saint-Amand can claim priority in
Liotctur tellus tali compta praesule, composing a rhythmical office. There is no doubt
Exsulfet polus tanto ditatus compare; however that Samt-Amand and the monasteries in
Solus dicmon ingemat, qui ad eius sepulcrum Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant, was the real
start-
Suum assidue perdit dominium etc.
.
mg-pomt of this style of poetry, as long ago as the
 RIBADENEIRA 29 RIBADENEIRA
mnth century. The pioneer in music, the Monk offices, ina most dignified manner. Special atten-
Hucbald of Saint-Amand, composed at least two, tion should be called to Bishop Brynolphus of Skara
probably four, rhythmical offices; and the larger num- (1278-1317), Archbishop Birgerus Gregorii of Upaala
ber of the older offices were used hturgically in those (d. 1383), Bishop Nicolaus of Linkoping (1374-91),
monasteries and cities which had some connexion and Johannes Beneohini of Oeland (about 1440).
with Saint-Amand. From there this new branch of The number of offices where the composer's name ia
hymnody very soon found its way to France, and in known is insignificantly small. No less than seven
the tenth and eleventh, and particularly in the hundred anonymous rhythmical offices have been
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, showed fine, if not the brought to light during the last twenty years through
finest results, both in quality and quantity. Worthy the "Analeota Hymnica". It is true not all of them
of especial mention as poets of this order are: the are works of art; particularly during the fifteenth
Abbots Odo (927-42) and Odilo (994-1049) of century many offices with tasteless rhyming and
Cluny, Bishop Fulbert of Chartres (1017-28), the shallow contents reflect the general decadence of
BentnUctine Monk Odorannus of Sens (d. 1045), Pope hymnody. Many, however, belong to the best prod-
Leo IX (d. 1054); Bishop Stephen of Tournay (1192- ucts of rehgious lyric poetry. For six centuries in all
1203); Archdeacon Rainald of St. Maurice in Angers countries of the West, men of different ranks and sta-
(d. about 1074); Bishop Richard de Gerberoy of tions in life, among them the highest dignitaries of
Amiens (1204-10) Prior Arnaud du Prfe of Toulouse
; the Church, took part in this style of poetry, which
(d. 1306), and the General of the Dominican Order, enjoyed absolute popularity in all dioceses. Hence
Martiahs Auribelli, who in 1456 wrote a rhymed office one may surmise the significance of the rhythmical
for the purpose of glorif3ang St. Vincent Ferrer. The offices with reference to the history of civilization,
most eminent poet and composer of offices belongs to their importance in history and development of
Germany by birth, but more so to France by reason liturgy, and above all their influence on other poetry
of his activity; he is Julian von Speyer, director of the and literature.
orchestra at the Prankish royal court, afterwards Blume and Dreves, Analecta Hymnica medii cEvi, V, XIII,
XVII, XVIII-XXVI. XXVIII, XLVa, LII, appendix (Leipzig,
Franciscan friar and choir master in the Paris con- 1889-1909): Baumeh, Reimofficien, 356-64, in Gesch, de.i Breviers
vent, where about 1240 he composed words and music (Freiburg, 1895); Bltjme, Zur Poesie des kirchlichen Stunden~
for the two well-known offices in honour of St. Francis gehetes,132-45, in Stimmen aus Maria-Laach (1898) Felder,
;

Liturgische Reimofficien auf die Ml. Franziskus und Antoniua

of Assisi and of St. Anthony of Padua (Anal. Hymn., (Fribourg, 1901).
Y, nos. 61 and 42). These two productions, the musi- Clemens Blume.
cal value of which has in many ways been overesti-
mated, served as a prototype for a goodly number of Ribadeneira (or Ribadeneyra and among
successive offices in honour of saints of the Franciscan Spaniards often Rivadeneira), Pedro de, b. at
Order as well as of others. In Germany the rhymed Toledo, of a noble Castilian family, 1 Nov., 1526
offices were just as popular as in France. As early as (Astrain, 1, 206) d. 22 Sept., 1611. His father Alvaro
;

in the ninth century an office, in honour of St. Chry- Ortiz de Cisneros, was the son of Pedro Gonzales
santus and Daria, had its origin probably in Priim, Cedillo and grand-
perhaps through Friar Wandalbert (Anal. Hymn., son of Hernando
XXV, no. 73); perhaps not much later through Abbot Ortiz de Cisneros
Gurdestin of Landevennec a similar poem in honour whom Ferdinand
of St. Winwaloeus (Anal. Hymn., XVIII, no. 100). IV had honoured
As hailing from Germany two other composers of with the governor-
rhythmical the earlier period have become
offices in ship of Toledo and
known: Abbot Berno of Reichenau (d. 1048) and important mis-
Abbot Udalschalo of Maiachach at Augsburg (d. sions. His mother,
11.50). of the illustrious
The other German poets whose names can be given house of Villalobos,
belong to a period as late as the fifteenth century, as was still more dis-
e. g. Provost Lippold of Steinberg and Bishop Johann tinguished for her
Hofmann of Meissen. England took an early part virtue than for her
in this style of poetry, but unfortunately most of the birth. Already the
offices which originated there have been lost. Bril- mother of three
liant among the English poets is Archbishop Pecham daughters, she
whose office of the Trinity has been discussed above. promised to con-
Xext to him are worthy of especial mention Cardinal secrate her fourth
Adam Easton (d. 1397) and the Carmelite John Horneby child to the Blessed
of Lincoln, who about 1370 composed a rhymed office Virgin if it should
in honour of the Holy Name of Jesus, and of the Visita- be a son. Thus
tion of Our Lady. Italy seems to have a relatively vowed to Mary be-
small representation; Rome itself, i. e. the Roman fore his birth, Riba^
Breviary, as we know, did not favour innovations, deneira received in
and consequently was reluctant to adopt rhythmical baptism the name
offices. The famous Archbishop Alfons of Salerno of Pedrowhich had
Pedko de Ribadeneira
(1058-85) is presumably the oldest Italian poet of been borne by his
this kind. Besides him we can name only Abbot paternal grandfather and that of Ribadeneira in mem-
Reinaldus de CoUe di Mezzo (twelfth century), and ory of his maternal grandmother, of one of the first
the General of the Dominicans, Raymundus de Vineis families of Galicia. In the capacity of page he followed
from Capua (fourteenth century). In Sicily and in Cardinal Alexander Farnese to Italy, and at Rome
Spain the rhymed offices were popular and quite entered the Society of Jesus at the age of fourteen,
numerous, but with the exception of the Franciscan on 18 Sept., 1540, eight days before the approval of
Fra Gil de Zamora, who about the middle of the fif- the order by Paul III.
teenth century composed an office in honour of the After having attended the Universities of Paris,
Blessed Virgin (Anal. H}ann., XVII, no. 8) it has been Louvain, and Padua, where, besides the moral crises
impossible to cite by name from those two countries which asssailed him, he often had to encounter
any other poet who took part in composing rhythmical great hardships and habitually confined himself to
offices. Towards the close of the thirteenth century, very meagre fare [he wrote to St. Ignatius (Epp.
Scandinavia also comes to the fore with rhymed mixtfe, V, 649): "Quanto al nostro magnare or-
 RIBAS 30 RIBAS
dinariamente 6, a disnare un poco de menestra et master of Castilian and rank him among the elassic
un poco de came, et con questo e finito"]. He was authors of their tongue. All lines were familiar to
ordered in November, 1549, to go to Palermo, to him, but he preferred history and ascetical literature.
profess rhetoric at the new college which the Society His chief claim to glory is his Life of St. Ignatius
had just opened in that city. He filled this chair Loyola, in which he speaks as an eye-witness, ad-
for two years and a half, devoting his leisure time to mirably supported by documents. Perhaps the work
visiting and consoling the sick in the hospitals. abounds too much in anecdotal details which tend
Meanwhile St. Ignatius was negotiating the creation to obscure the grand aspect of the saint's character
of the German College which was to give Germany a and genius (Analecta BoUand., XXIII, 513). It ap-
chosen clergy as remarkable for virtue and orthodoxy peared for the first time in Latin at Naples in 1572
as for learning: his efforts were soon successful, and (ibid., XXI, 230). The first Spanish edition, re-
during the autumn of 1552 he called on the talent vised and considerably augmented by the author,
and eloquence of the young professor of rhetoric at dates from 1583. Other editions followed, all of
Palermo. Ribadeneira amply fulfilled the expecta- them revised by the author; that of 1594 seems to
tions of his master and delivered the inaugural ad- contain the final text. It was soon translated into
dress amid the applause of an august assembly of most of the European languages. Among his other
prelates and Roman nobles. He was ordained priest works must be mentioned his "Historia eclesidstica
8 December, 1553 (Epp. mixtse. III, 179); during the del Cisma del reino de Inglaterra" and the "Flos
twenty-one years which followed he constantly filled sanctorum", which has been very popular in many
the most important posts in the government of his countries. Some unpublished works of his deserve
order. From 1556 to 1560 he devoted his activity publication, notably his History of the persecution
to securing the official recognition of the Society of of the Society of Jesus and his History of the Spanish
Jesus in the Low Countries. At the same time he was Assistancy.
AsTHAiN, Historia de la CompaHia de Jesils en la Asistencia de
charged by his general with the duty of promulgating EspaHa (Madrid, 1902-09) ; Prat, Histoire du P&re Rihadeneyra,
and causing to be accepted in the Belgian houses the Sommervogel, Bibliothique
disciple de S, Ignace (Paris, 1862);
Constitutions, which St. Ignatius had just completed de la C. de J., VI, 1724-58; de la Fuente, Obras escojidas del
Padre Pedro de Rivadeneira, con una noticia de su vida y juicio
at the cost of much labour. critico de sus escritos in Biblioteca de autores Espailoles, LX
(1868)
But these diplomatic and administrative missions Monumenta historica S.J.: Igruitiana, aer. I, Epistolte, II; ser.
did not exhaust Ribadeneira's zeal. He applied
still IV, I; Polanco, Chronicon Soc. Jesu, VI; Bpistolce mixtce, V.

himself ardently to preaching. In December, 1555, Francis Van Ortbot.

he preached at Louvain with wonderful success, and
likewise in January, 1556, at Brussels. On 2.5 Ribas, Andres Perez de, pioneer missionary,
November of the same year he left Belgium and historian of north-western Mexico; b. at Cordova,
reached Rome 3 February, 1557, setting out again, Spain, 1576; d. in Mexico, 26 March, 1655. He joined
17 October for Flanders. His sojourn in the Low the Society of Jesus in 1602, coming at once to
Countries was interrupted for five months (Novem- America, and finishing his novitiate in Mexico in 1604.
ber, 1558, to March, 1559); this period he spent in In the same year he was sent to undertake the Chris-
London, having been summoned thither on account tianization of the Ahome and Suaqui of northern
of the sickness of Mary Tudor, Queen of England, Sinaloa, of whom the former were friendlj' and anxious
which ended in her death. In the summer of 1559 for teachers, while the latter had just been brought
he was once more with his general, Lainez, whose to submission after a hard campaign. He succeeded
right hand he truly was. On 3 November, 1560, he so well that within a year he had both tribes gathered
made his solemn profession, and from then until into regular towns, each with a well-built church,
the death of St. Francis Borgia (1572) he continued while all of the Ahome and a large part of the Suaqui
to reside in Italy, filling in turn the posts of provincial had been baptized. The two tribes together num-
of Tuscany, of commissary-general of the Society in bered about 10,000 souls. In 1613, being then
Sicily, visitor of Lombardy, and assistant for Spain superior of the Sinaloa district, he was instrumental
and Portugal. The accession of Father Everard in procuring the submission of a hostile mountain
Mercurian as general of the order brought a great tribe. In 1617, in company with other Jesuit mission-
change to Ribadeneira. His health being much im- aries whom he had brought from Mexico City, he
paired, he was ordered to Spain, preferably to Toledo, began the conversion of the powerful and largely
his native town, to recuperate. This was a dreadful hostile Yaqui tribe (q. v.) of Sonora, estimated at
blow to the poor invalid, a remedy worse than the 30,000 souls, with such success that within a few years
disease. He obeyed, but had been scarcely a year most of them had been gathered into orderly town
in his native land when he began to importune his communities. In 1620 he was recalled to Mexico
general by letter to permit him to return to Italy. to assist in the college, being ultimately appointed
These solicitations continued for several years. At provincial, which post he held for several years.
the same time his superiors saw that he was as sick in After a visit to Rome in 1643 to take part in the elec-
mind as in body, and that his religious spirit was some- tion of a general of the order, he devoted himself
what shaken. Not only was he lax in his religious chiefly to study and writing until his death.
observances, but he did not hesitate to criticize the He left numerous works, religious and historical,
persons and affairs of the Society, so much so that he most of which are still in manuscript, but his reputa-
was strongly suspected of being the author of the tion as an historian rests secure upon his history of the
mem(5irs then circulated through Spain against the Jesuit missions of Mexico published at Madrid in 1645,
Jesuits (Astrain, III, 106-10). This, however, was one year after its completion, under the title: "His-
a mi.stake, and his innocence was recognized in 1578. toria de los Triunfos de Nuestra Santa Fe entre
He was who took upon himself the task of refuting
it gentes las mis bdrbaras conseguidos por los
.

the calumnies which mischief-makers, apparently soldados de la milioia dc la Compafila de Jesus en las
Jesuits, went about disseminating against the Con- misiones de la Provincia de Nueva - Espafia" Of
stitutions of the Society, nor did he show less ardour this work Bancroft says: "It is a complete history of
and filial piety in making known the life of St. Jesuit work in Nueva Vizcaya, practically the only
Ignatius Loyola and promoting his canonization. history the country had from 1590 to 1644, written
Outside of the Society of Jesus, Ribadeneira is not only by a contemporary author but by a promi-
chiefly known for liis literary works. From the day nent actor in the events narrated, who had access to
of his arrival in Spain to repair his failing health all the voluminous correspondence of his order, com-
until the day of his death his career was that of a paratively few of which documents have been pre-
brilliant writer. His compatriots regard him as a served. In short, Ribas wrote under the most
 RIBEIRAO 31 RIBERA
favourable circumstances and made good use of his tion of the art of the Renaissance, the reaction of as-
opportunities." ceticism and the Catholic Reformation on the volupt-
Aleqre, HistOTia de la Compaflia de JesHs (Mexico, 1841); uous paganism of the sixteenth century. Hence
Bancroft, Hist. North Mexican States and Texas, I {San Fran-
cisco, 1886); BerIstain y Sodza, Biblioteca Hispano-Americana the preference for the popular types, the weather-
Setentrional, III (Amecemeca, 1883). beaten and wrinkled beggar, and especially the old
James Moonet. man. This "aging" of art about 1600 is a sign of the
century. Heroic youth and pure beauty were dead
Ribeirao Preto, Diocese of (de Riberao for a long time. The anchorites and wasted ceno-
Preto), suffragan see of the Archdiocese of Sao Paulo, bites, the parchment-like St. Jeromes, these singular
Brazil, established 7 June, 1908, with a Catholic popu- methods of depicting the mystical life seem Ribera's
lation of 500,000 souls. The first and present bishop, personal creation; to show the ruins of the human
Rt. Rev. Alberto Jos6 Gon5alves, was bom 20 July, body, the drama of a long existence written in fur-
1859, elevated 5 December, 1908, and consecrated rows and wrinkles, all engraved by a pencil which
29 April, 1909. The district of Ribeirao Preto is at digs and scrutinizes, using the sunhght as a kind of
present the most important one of the State of Sao acid which bites and makes dark shadows, was one
Paulo, both on account of the richness of its soil and of the artist's most cherished formulas.
the great number of agricultural, industrial, and com- No one demonstrates so well the profound change
mercial establishments therein. Its principal prod- which took place in men's minds after the Reformat
uct is coffee, the shipments of which are so consider- tion and the Council of Trent. Thenceforth concern
able as to necessitate the constant running of an for character and accent forestalled every other
extraordinary number of trains. consideration. Leanness, weariness, and abasement;
The seat of the diocese is the city of Ribeirao Preto, became the pictorial signs of the spiritual life. A
situated on the shores of Ribeirao Preto and Ribeirao sombre energy breathes in these figures of Apostles,
Retiro, 264 miles from the capital of the state. The prophets, saints, and philosophers. Search for
municipality, created by law of 1 April, 1889, is di- character became that of ugliness and monstrosity.
vided into four wards, viz.: Villa Tibeiro, Barracao, Nothing is so personal to Ribera as this love of de-
Morro do Cip6, and Republica. It is, like most of formity. Paintings like the portrait of "Cambazo",
the interior towns of Sao Paulo, of modem construc- the blind sculptor, the "Bearded Woman" (Prado,
tion. The city is lighted by electric light and has ex- 1630), and the "Club Foot" of the Louvre (1651)
cellent sewer and water-supply systems. The streets inaugurate curiosities which had happily been foreign
are well laid, straight, and intersecting at right angles, to the spirit of the Renaissance. They show a
with many parks and squares. The cathedral, now gloomy pleasure in humiliating human nature.
nearing completion, will be one of the finest buildings Art, which formerly used to glorify life, now violently
of its kind in Brazil. It is well provided with schools emphasized its vices and defects. The artist seized
and colleges, prominent among which are those main- upon the most ghastly aspects even of antiquity.
tained by the Church. Cato of Utica, howling and distending his wound,
Julian Moreno-Lacalle. Ixion on his wheel, Sisyphus beneath his rock. This
artistic terrorism won for Ribera his sinister reputa-
Ribera, Jusepe de, called also Spagnoletto, tion, and it must be admitted that it had depraved
L'EsPAQNOLET (the little Spaniard), painter, b. and perverted qualities. The sight of blood and
at Jativa, 12 Jan., 1588; d. at Naples, 1656. Fan- torture as the source of pleasure is more pagan than
tastic accounts have been given of his early history; the joy of life and the laughing sensuaUty of the
his father was said to be a noble, captain of the fortress Renaissance. At times Ribera's art seems a dan-
of Naples, etc. All this is pure romance. pupilA gerous return to the delights of the amphitheatre.
of Ribalta, the author of many beautiful pictures His "Apollo and Marsyas" (Naples), his "Duel"
in the churches of Valencia, the young man desired or "Match of Women" (Prado) recall the programme
to know Italy. He was a very determined character. of some spectacle manager of the decadence. In
At eighteen, alone and without resources, he begged nothing is Ribera more "Latin" than in this san-
in the streets of Rome in order to live, and performed guinary tradition of the games of the circus.
the services of a lackey. A
picture by Caravaggio However, it would be unjust wholly to condemn this
aroused his admiration, and he set out for Naples in singular taste in accordance with our modern ideas.
search of the artist, but the latter had just died At least we cannot deny extraordinary merit to the
(1609). Ribera was then only twenty. For fifteen scenes of martyrdom painted by Ribera. This
years the artist is entirely lost sight of; it is thought great master has never been surpassed as a practical
that he travelled in upper Italy. He is again found artist. For plastic realism, clearness of drawing, and
at Naples in 1626, at which time he was married, evidence of composition the "Martyrdom of St.
living like a nobleman, keeping his carriage and a Bartholomew" (there are in Europe a dozen copies,
train of followers, received by viceroys, the accom- of which the most beautiful is at the Prado) is one
plished host of all travelling artists, and very proud of the masterpieces of Spanish genius. It is impos-
of his title of Roman Academician. Velasquez sible to imagine a more novel and striking idea. No
paid him a visit on each of his journeys (1630,1649). one has spoken a language more simple and direct.
A sorrow clouded the end of his hfe; his daughter In this class of subjects Rubens usually avoids
was seduced by Don Juan of Austria. Her father atrocity by an oratorical turn, by the splendour of
seems to have died of grief, but the story of his suicide his discourse, the lyric brilliancy of the colouring.
is a fiction. Ribera's point of view is scarcely less powerful with
Ribera's name is synonymous with a terrifying art much less artifice. It is less transformed and de-
of wild-beast fighters and executioners. Not that veloped. The action is collected in fewer persons.
he did not paint charming figures. No artist of his The gestures are less redundant, with a more spon-
time, not excepting Rubens or Guido Reni, was more taneous quality. The tone is more sober and at the
sensitive to a certain ideal of Correggio-hke grace. same time stronger. Everything seems more severe
But Ribera did not love either ughness or beauty for and of a more concentrated violence. The art also,
themselves, seeking them in turn only to arouse emo- while perhaps not the most elevated of all, is at least
tion. His fixed idea, which recurs in every form in one of the most original and convincing. Few artists
his art, is the pursuit and cultivation of sensation. In have given us, if not serene enjoyment, more serious
fact the whole of Ribera's work must be understood thoughts. The "St. Lawrence' of the Vatican ia
as that of a man who made the pathetic the condition scarcely less beautiful than the "St. Bartholomew".
of art and the reason of the beautiful. It is the nega^ Moreover it must not be thought that these ideas
 RICAROnS 32 RICCARDI
of violence exhaust Ribera's art. They are supple- "Adoration of the Shepherds" have not been equalled
mented by sweet ideas, and in his work horrible pictures by any speciaHst, but these works are marked by a
ulternate with tender ones. There is a type of young new serenity. This impassioned genius leaves us
woman or rather young girl, still almost a child, of under a tranquil impression; we catch a ray or —
delicate beauty with candid oval features and rather
thin arms, with streaming hair and an air of ignorance,
should it rather be called a reflection? of the Olym-
pian genius of the author of "The Maids of Honour"
—
a type of paradoxical grace, which is found in his Ribera was long the only Spanish painter who en-
"Rapture of St. Magdalen" (Madrid, Academy of joyed a European fame; this he owed to the fact
S. Fernando), or the "St. Agnes" of the Dresden that he had lived at Naples and has often been classed
^Museum. This virginal figure is truly the "eternal with the European school. Because of this he is
feminine" of a country which more than any other now denied the glory which was formerly his. He is
dreamed of love and sought to deify its object, regarded more or less as a deserter, at any rate as
summarizing in it the most irreconcilable desires and the least national of Spanish painters. But in the
virtues. No painter has endowed the subject of the seventeenth century Naples was still Spanish, and
Immaculate Conception with such grandeur as Ribera by living there a man did not cease to be a Spanish
in his picture for the Ursulines of Salamanca (1636). subject. By removing the centre of the school to
Even a certain familiar turn of imagination, a certain Naples, Ribera did Spain a great service. Spanish
intimate and domestic piety, a sweetness, an amicable art, hitherto little known, almost lost at Valencia and
and popular cordiality which would seem unknown Seville, thanks to Ribera was put into wider circula-
to this savage spirit were not foreign to him. In tion. Through the authority of a master recognized
more than one instance he reminds us of Murillo. even at Rome the school felt emboldened and en-
He painted several "Holy Famihes", "Housekeeping couraged. It is true that his art, although more
in the Carpenter Shop" (Gallery of the Duke of Spanish than any other, is also somewhat less special-
Norfolk). All that is inspired by tender reverie ized; it is cosmopohtan. Like Seneca and Lucian,
about cradles and chaste alcoves, all the distracting who came from Cordova, and St. Augustine, who
delights in which modern religion rejoices and which came from Carthage, Ribera has expressed in a uni-
sometimes result in affectation, are found in more versal language the ideal of the country where life
than germ in the art of this painter, who is regarded has most savour.
by many as cruel and uniformly inhuman. Thus DoMiNici, Vite de' pittori . .napoletani (Naples, 1742-
.

1743; 2nd ed., Naples, 1844); Palomino, fii Museo Pictdrico, I

throughout his work scenes of carnage are succeeded (Madrid, 1715); II (Madrid, 1724); NoHcias, Elogios y Vidas de
by scenes of love, atrocious visions by visions of ios Pintores, at the end of vol. II, separate edition (London,
beauty. They complete each other or rather the 1742), in German (Dresden, 1781); Bermudez, Diccionario
historico de Ios mds ilustres profesores de las bellas artes en Espafia
impression they convey is heightened by contrast. (Madrid, 1800) Stirling, Annals of the artists of Spain (Lon-
;

And under both forms the artist incessantly sought don, 1S48) ; VlARDOT, Notices sur les principauz peintres de
one object, namely to obtain the maximum of emo- VEspagne (Paris, 1839) Blanc, Ecole Espagnole (1869) Meyer,
; ;

Ribera (Strasburg, 1908); Lafond, Ribera et Zurbaran (Paris,

tion; his art expresses the most intense nervous
1910).
life.
Louis GiLLET.
This is the genius of antithesis. It forms the very
basis of Ribera's art, the condition of his ideas, and Ricardus Anglicus, Archdeacon of Bologna, was
even dictates the customary processes of his chiaro- an English priest who was rector of the law school
scuro. For Ribera's chiaroscuro, scarcely less per- at the University of Bologna in 1226, and who, by
sonal than that of Rembrandt, is, no less than the new methods of explaining legal proceedings, became
latter's, inseparable from a certain manner of feeling. recognized as the pioneer of scientific judicial pro-
Less supple than the latter, less enveloping, less cedure in the twelfth century. His long-lost work
penetrating, less permeable by the light, twilight, "Ordo Judiciarius" was discovered in MS. by
and penumbra, it proceeds more roughly by clearer Wunderlich in Douai and published by Witt in 1851.
oppositions and sharp intersections of light and dark- A more correct MS. was subsequently discovered at
ness. Contrary to Rembrandt, Ribera does not de- Brussels by Sir Travers Twiss, who, on evidence
compose or discolour, his palette does not dissolve which seems insufficient, followed Panciroli in iden-
under the influence of shadows, and nothing is so tifying him with the celebrated Bishop Richard Poor
peculiar to him as certain superexcited notes of (died 1237). Probably he graduated in Paris, as a
furious red. Nevertheless, compared to Caravaggio, Papal Bull of 1218 refers to "Ricardus Anglicus
his chiaroscuro is much more than a mere means of doctor Parisiensis", but there is no evidence to con-
relief. The canvas assumes a vulcanized, car- nect him with Oxford. He also wrote glosses on the
bonized appearance. Large wan shapes stand out papal decretals, and distinctions on the Decree of
from the asphalt of the background, and the shadows Gratian. He must be distinguished from his con-
about them deepen and accumulate a kind of obscure temporary, Ricardus Anglicanus, a physician.
tragic capacity. There is always the same twofold Rashdall, Medirrval Uinversilies, II, 750 (London, 1895);
rhythm, the same pathetic formula of a dramatized Twiss, Law Magazine and Review, May, 1894; Sarti and
Fattorini, De clans Archigymnasii Bononiensis Professorihus;
universe regarded as a duel between sorrow and joy, Blakiston in Diet. Nat. Biog., s. v. Poor, Ricfiard.
day and night. This strUdng formula, infinitely less
subtile than that of Rembrandt, nevertheless had an
Edwin Burton.
immense success. For all the schools of the south Riccardi, Nicholas, theologian, writer and preach-
Caravaggio's chiaroscuro perfected by Ribera had the er; b. at Genoa, 1585; d. at Rome, 30 May, 1639.
force of law, such as it is found throughout the Nea- Physically he was unprepossessing, even slightly de-
]iolitan school, in Stanzioni, Sahator Rosa, Luca formed. His physical deficiencies, however, were
Cliurdano. In modern times Bonnat and Ribot abundantly compensated for by mentality of the
painted as though they knew no master but Ribera. highest order. His natural taste for study was en-
Rest came to this violent nature towards the end couraged by his parents who sent him to Spain to
of his hfe; from the idea of contrast he rose to that of pursue his studies in the Pincian Academy. While a
harmony. His last works, the "Club Foot" and student at this institution he entered the Dominican
the "Adoration of the Shepherds" (1650), both in order and was invested with its habit in the Convent
the Loui.re, are painted in a silvery tone which seems of bt. Paul, where he studied philosophy
to foreshadow the hght of ^'elasquez. and theology,
His hand had bo brilliant was his record that after completing his
not lost its \-igour, its care for truth; he always dis- studies he was made a professor of Thomistic theology
played the same implacable and, as it were, in- at Pincia. WTule discharging his academic duties,
fle.xible realism. The objects of still hfe in the tie acquired a reputation as
a preacher second only to
 ^^^^Hh'

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J^ a^
K,:
fii/
»-. cMM^ J-jl
^f^i-':-i#^?3'!«?^^#|*'A^ir?-

JUSEPE DE RIBERA
THE RAPTURE OF THE MAGDALEN ST. SEBASTIAN, PRADO, MADRID
ACADEMY OP e. FERNANDO, MADRID
ST JEROME, THE BRERA, MILAN THE BLIND SCULPTOR, PRADO, MADRID
 RICCI 33 RICCI
hiB fame as a theologian. As a preacher Philip III saintly superior followed this line of conduct to the
of Spain named him "The Marvel", a sobriquet by letter and incessantly inculcated it in his subordinates.
which he was known in Spain and at Rome till the The seven encyclical letters which he addressed to
end of his life. On his removal to Rome in 1621, he them in the fifteen years of his generalship all breathe
acquired the confidence of Urban VIII. He was made the sweetest and tenderest piety and zeal for their
regent of studies and professor of theology at the Col- religious perfection. "Preces vestras", he says in the
lege of the Minerva. In 1629 Urban VIII appointed last, that of 21 Feb., 1773, "animate omni pietatis
him Master of the Sacred Palace to succeed Niccold exercitio accurate fervideque obeundo, mutua inter
Ridolphi, recently elected Master General of the vosmetipsos caritate, obedientia et observantia erga
Dominicans. Shortly after this the same pontiff ap- eos qui vobis Dei loco sunt, tolerantia laborum,
pointed him pontifical preacher. These two offices serumnarum, paupertatis, contumeliarum, secessu et
he discharged with distinction. His extant works solitudine, prudcntia et evangeUca in agendo sim-
number twenty. Besides several volumes of sermons plicitate, boni exempli operibus, piisque coUoquiis"
for Advent, Lent, and special occasions, his writings (Let your prayers
treat of Scripture, theology, and history. One of his be inspired by
best known works is the "History of the Council of every practice
Trent" (Rome, 1627). His commentaries treat of of piety, with
a.11 the books of Scripture, and are notable for their mutual charity
originality, clearness, and profound learning. Two among your-
other commentaries treat of the Lord's Prayer and selves, obedience
the Canticle of Canticles. and respect for
QuiStif-Echard, SS. Ord. Prad., II, 503, 504. those who hold
John B. O'Connor. the place of God in
your regard, en-
Ricci, Lorenzo, General of the Society of Jesus, durance of labour,
b. at Florence, 2 Aug., 1703; d. at the Castle of Sant' of hardships, of
Angelo, Rome, 24 Nov., 1775. He belonged to one of poverty, of insult
the most ancient and illustrious families of Tuscany. in retreat and
He had two brothers, one of whom subsequently be- soUtude, with pru-
came canon of the cathedral and the other was raised dence and evan-
by Francis I, Grand Duke of Tuscany, to the dignity gelical simplicity
of first syndic of the Grand duchy. Sent when very of conduct, the
young to Prato to pursue his studies under the direc- example of good
tion of the Society of Jesus in the celebrated Cico- works, and pious Lorenzo Ricci
gnini college, he entered the society when he was conversation).
scarcely fifteen, 16 Dec, 1718, at the novitiate of S. (Epistolae praepositorum generalium S.J., II, Ghent,
Andrea at Rome. Having made the usual course of 1847, 306). This pious and profoundly upright man
philosophical and theological studies and twice de- was nevertheless not wanting on occasion in courage
fended with rare success public theses in these sub- and firmness. When it was suggested to save the
jects, he was successively charged with teaching belles French provinces of his order by giving them a
lettres and philosophy at Siena, and philosophy and superior entirely independent of the general of Rome,
theology at the Roman College, from which he was he refused thus to transgress the constitutions com-
promoted to the foremost office of his order. Mean- mitted to his care and uttered to the pope the ever
while he was admitted to the profession of the four famous saying: "Sint ut sunt aut non sint" (Leave
vows, 15 Aug., 1736. About 1751 his edifying and them as they are or not at all) (Cordara, op. cit., 35)
.

regular life, his discretion, gentleness, and simplicity Unfortunately he placed all his confidence in his
caused him to be appointed to the important office of assistant for Italy, Father Timoni, of Greek origin,
spiritual father, the duties of which he discharged to "vir quippe praefidens sibi, iudiciique sui plus nimio
the satisfaction of all. In 1755 Father Luigi Centuri- tenax" (Idem, op. cit., 20), who, like many others
one, who appreciated his eminent qualities, chose him expected the society to be saved by a miracle of Provi-
as secretary of the society. Finally in the Nine- dence. When, to the mass of pamphlets aimed
teenth Congregation he was elected general by unan- against the Jesuits, the Portuguese episcopate brought
imous vote (21 May, 1758). It was at the most stormy the reinforcement of pastoral letters, a number of
-and distressed period of its existence that the senate bishops wrote to the pope letters which were very
of the society placed its government and its destinies eulogistic of the Society of Jesus and its Institute, and
in the hands of a man, deeply virtuous and endowed Clement XIII hastened to send a copy to Father
with rare merit, but who was inexperienced in the art Ricci. It was a brilliant apologia for the order.
of governing and who had always lived apart from the Cordara and many of his brethren considered it ex-
world and diplomatic intrigues. The historiographer pedient to publish this correspondence in full with the
Julius Cordara, who lived near Ricci and seems to have sole title: "Indicium Ecclesiae universse de statu
known him intimately, deplored this choice: "Eun- praesenti Societatis lesu" (op. cit., 26). Timoni, who
dem tot inter iactationes ac fluctus cum aliquid fancied that no one would dare any thing against
prseter morem audendum et malis inusitatis inusitata the Jesuits of Portugal, was of a contrary opinion,
remedia adhibenda videbantur, propter ipsam nature and the general was won over to his way of thinking.
placiditatem et nulla unquam causa incalescentem Disaster followed disaster, and Ricci experienced
animum, minus aptum arbitrabar" (On account of the. most serious material difficulties in assisting the
his placid nature and too even temper, I regarded him members who were expelled from every country.
as little suited for a time when disturbance and storm At his instance, and perhaps even with his collabora-
seem to require extraordinary application of unusual tion, Clement XIII, solicitous for the fate of the
remedies to unusual evils). (Denkwiirdigkeiten der Society, published 7 January, 1765, the Bull "Apos-
Jesuiten, p. 19.) On the other hand it must be ad- tolicam pascendi", which was a cogent defence of the
mitted that the new general did not have much leeway. Institute and its members (Masson, "Le cardinal de
In his first interview with Clement XIII, who had Bernis depuis son minist^re", 80). But even the
assumed the tiara 6 July, 1758, and always showed pontiff's intervention could not stay the devastating
himself deeply attached to the Jesuits, the pope torrent. After the suppression of the Jesuits in
counselled him: "Silentium, patientiam et preces; Naples and the Duchy of Parma, the ambassadors
.cetera sibi curse fore" (Cordara, op. cit., 22). The of France, Spain, and Portugal went (Jan., 1769)
xin.—
 RICCI 34 RICCI
to request officially of the pope the total suppression !>>, L^!T
mth ".°?'^.
seventy of his former
""'^ "^e^t. inasmuch as Cordara speaks
of the society. This was the death-blow of Clement ol Jesus.
brothers in arms, and of the Society
Cabaton, Oocumenfs inidits concernant la Compatnie
XIII, who died some days later (2 Feb., 1769) of an ae J6SUS, -A-VU, ie Pire fiicci et la mippressim
de la Compagnie
His successor, the conventual de Jisus en /7rS, CLXXIV (Poitiers" EpiMce praposi-
apoplectic attack. 1869);
torum generahum Soaetalis Jesu, II (Ghent, 1847) Smith,
Ganganelli, little resembled him. Whatever may ;
Suppression of the Society of Jesus in The Month (1902-03);
The
have been his sympathies for the order prior to his Murr, Journal zur Kunstgesch. u. zur allgemeinen Litteratm.
IX (Nuremberg, 1780), 254-309; Masson, Le Cardinal de Bernis
elevation to the sovereign pontificate, and his in- deputs son mxmstire, 1768-1794 (Paris, 1903), a good collection of
debtedness to Ricci, who had used his powerful in- documents, but the author does not Itnow the history of the
fluence to secure for him the cardinal's hat, it is Jesuits Ravignan, Climenl
; X
III et ClhnentXIV, supplementary
volume, historical and critical documents (Paris, 1854)
indisputable that once he became pope he assumed Boero,
;

Osservazioni sopra I'istoria del pontificato di Clemente XIV

at least in appearance a hostile attitude. "Sepalam scritta dal P. A. Theiner (2nd ed., Monza, 1854), useful for docu-
Jesuitis infensum prsebere atque ita quidem, ut ne ments.
generalem quidem prsepositum in conspectum ad- Francis Van Ortrot.
mitteret" (Cordara, 43). There is no necessity of
Ricci, Matteg, founder of the Catholic missions of
repeating even briefly the history of the pontificate
China, b. at Macerata in the Papal States, 6 Oct.,
of Clement XIV (18 May, 1769-22 Sept., 1774),
1552; d. at Peking, 11 May, 1610. Ricci made his
which was absorbed by his measures to bring about
classical studies in his native town, studied law at
the suppression of the Society of Jesus (see Clement
Rome for two years, and on 15 Aug., 1571, entered
XIV). Despite the exactions and outrageous in- Roman College, where he
the Society of Jesus at the
justices which the Jesuit houses had to undergo even
made his novitiate, and philosophical and theological
at Rome, the general did not give up hope of a speedy
studies. While there he also devoted his attention
deliverance, as is testified by the letter he wrote to
to mathematics, cosmology, and astronomy under the
Cordara the day after the feast of St. Ignatius, 1773
direction of the celebrated Father Christopher Clavius.
(Cordara, loc. cit., 53). Although the Brief of aboli-
In 1577 he asked to be sent on the missions in Farthest
tion had been signed by the pope ten days previously.
Asia, and his request being granted he embarked at
Father Ricci was suddenly notified on the evening
Lisbon, 24 March, 1578. Arriving at Goa, the capital
of 16 August. The next day he was assigned the
of the Portuguese Indies, on 13 Sept. of this year, he
English College as residence, until 23 Sept., 1773, when
was employed there and at Cochin in teaching and the
he was removed to the Castle of Sant' Angelo, where
ministry until the end of Lent, 1582, when Father
he was held in strict captivity for the remaining two
Alessandro Valignani (who had been his novice-
years of his life. The surveillance was so severe
master at Rome but who since August, 1573, was.
that he did not learn of the death of his secretary
in charge of all the Jesuit missions in the East Indies)
CornoUi, imprisoned with him and in his vicinity,
until six months after the event. To satisfy the summoned him to Macao to prepare to enter China.
Father Ricci arrived at Macao on 7 August, 1582.
hatred of his enemies his trial and that of his com-
panions was hastened, but the judge ended by recog-
—
Beginning of the Mission. In the sixteenth century
nothing remained of the Christian communities
nizing "nunquam objectos sibi reos his innocen-
founded in China by the Nestorian missionaries in the
tiores; Riccium etiam ut hominem vere sanctum di-
seventh century and by the Catholic monks in the
laudabat" (Cordara, op. cit., 62); and Cardinal de Moreover it
thirteenth and fourteenth (see China) .

Bernis dared to write (5 July): "There are not, population

is doubtful whether the native Chinese
perhaps, sufficient proofs for judges, but there are
enough for upright and reasonable men" (Masson, was ever seriously affected by this ancient evangehza-
tion. For those desiring to resume the work every-
op. cit., 324).
thing therefore remained to be done, and the obstacles
Justice required that the ex-general be at once set
at liberty, but nothing was done, apparently through
were greater than formerly. After the death of bt.
Francis Xavier (27 November, 1552) many fruitless
fear lest the scattered Jesuits should gather about
their old head, to reconstruct their society at the
attempts had been made. The first missionary to
centre of Catholicism. At the end of August, 1775,
whom Chinese barriers were temporarily lowered was
Jesuit, Melchior Nunez Barreto, who twice
went
Ricci sent an appeal to the new pope, Pius VI, to the
where he spent a month each time
obtain his release. But while his claims were being as far as Canton,
considered by the circle of the Sovereign Pontiff, (1555). Dominican, Father Caspar da Cruz, was;
A
death came to summon the venerable old man to the also admitted to
Canton for a month, but he also had
refrain from "forming a Christian Christianity
tribunal of the supreme Judge. Five days pre- to
Still others, Jesuits, Augustinians, and Franciscans
in
viously, when about to receive Holy Viaticum, he
touched on Chinese soil,
made this double protest: (1) "I declare and protest 1568, 1575, 1579, and 1582
that the suppressed Society of Jesus has not given
only to be forced, sometimes with ill treatment, to-
is due the credit of
any cause for its suppression this I declare and pro- withdraw. To Father Valignani
having seen what prevented all these undertakings
;

test with all that moral certainty that a superior

well-informed of his order can have. (2) I declare and from havmg lasting results.
The attempts had
protest that I have not given any cause, even the hitherto been made
haphazard, with men insufficiently
slightest, for my imprisonment; this I declare and prepared and incapable of profiting by favourable
protest with that supreme certainty and evidence that circumstances had they encountered them. Father
each one has of his own actions. I make this second Valignani substituted the
methodical attack with pre-
protest only because it is necessary for the reputation vious careful selection of the missionaries who, the
of the suppressed Society of Jesus, of which I was field once
open, would implant Christianity there.
to Macao Father
the general.'' (Murr, "Journal zur Kunstgeschichte", To this end he first summoned
from
IX, 2S1.) To do honour to his memory the pope Michele de Ruggieri, who had also come to India since
caused the celebration of elaborate funeral services in Italy in 1578. Only twenty years had
elapsed
establishing their
the church of St. John of the Florentines near the the Portuguese hadi succeeded in
Castle of Sant' Angelo. As is customary with prel- colony at the portals of China, and the Chinese,
at-
tracted by opportunities for gain, were flocking
ates, the body was placed on a bed of state. It was
carried in the evening to the Church of the Gesti,
thither. Ruggieri reached Macao in July, 1579, and,
where it was buried in the vault reserved for following the given orders apphed himself wholly
to
the study of the Mandarin language, that is, Chineee
the burial of his predecessors in the government of
as it is spoken throughout the empire by the officials
the order.
CoBDARA, Denku'iirdigkeiten in D6LLINGER, BeitriLge zur and the educated. His progress, though very slow,
politischen^ kirchlichen und Cvlturgesch., Ill (1882), 1-74. permitted him to labour with more fruit than his
 RICCI 35 RICCI

predecessors in two sojourns at Canton (1580-81) ready had maps, called by their geographers "de-
allowed him by an unwonted complacency of the scriptions of the world", but almost the entire space
mandarins. Finally, after many untoward events, was filled by the fifteen provinces of China, around
he was authorized (10 Sept., 1583) to take up his which were painted a bit of sea and a few islands on
residence with Father Ricci at Chao-k'ing, the ad- which were mscribed the names of countries of which
ministrative capital of Canton. —
they had heard all together was not as large as a
—
Method of the Missionaries. The exercise of great small Chinese province. Natm'ally the learned men
prudence alone enabled the missionaries to remain in of Chao-k'ing immediately protested when Father
the region which they had had such difficulty in Ricci pointed out the various parts of the world on
entering. Omitting all mention at first of their in- the European map and when they saw how small a
tention to preach the Gospel, they declared to the part China played. But after the missionaries had
mandarins who questioned them concerning their ob- explained its construction and the care taken by the
ject "that they were religious who had left their geographers of the West to assign to each country
country in the distant West because of the renown of its actual position and boundaries, the wisest of them
the good government of China, where they desired to surrendered to the evidence, and, beginning with
remain till their death, serving God, the Lord of the Governor of Chao-k'ing, all urged the missionary
Heaven". Had they immediately declared their in- to make a copy of his map with the names and in-
tention to preach a new religion, they would never scriptions in Chinese. Ricci drew a larger map of the
have been received; this would world on which he wrote more
have clashed with Chinese detailed inscriptions, suited to
pride, which would not admit the needs of the Chinese; when
that China had anything to the work was completed the
learn from foreigners, and it governor had it printed, giv-
would have especially alarmed ing all the copies as presents
their politics, which beheld a to his friends in the province
national danger in every in- and at a distance. Father
novation. However, the mis- Ricci does not hesitate to say:
sionaries never hid their Faith "This was the most useful
nor the fact that they were work that could be done at
Christian priests. As soon as that time to dispose China to
they were established at Chao- give credence to the things of
k'ing they placed in a conspicu- our holy Faith. . Their
ous part of their house a pic- conception of the greatness
ture of the Blessed Virgin with of their country and of the
the Infant Jesus in her arms. insignificance of all other
Visitors seldom failed to in- lands made them so proud
quire the meaning of this, to that the whole world seemed
them, novel representation, to them savage and barbarous
and the missionaries profited compared with themselves; it
thereby to give them a first was scarcely to be expected
idea of Christianity. The mis- that they, while entertaining
sionaries assumed the initia- this idea, would heed foreign
tive in speaking of their re- masters.' But now numbers
ligion as soon as they had were eager to learn of Euro-
overcome Chinese
sufficiently pean affairs from the mission-
antipathy and distrust to see who profited by these
aries,
their instructions desired, or dispositions to introduce reli-
at least to be certain of making Matteo Ricci (on the left) gion more frequently with their
them understood without explanations. For example,
shocking their listeners. They achieved this result their beautiful Bibles and the paintings and prints de-
by appealing to the curiosity of the Chinese, by picting religious subjects, monuments, churches, etc.,
making them feel, without saying so, that the gave them an opportunity of speaking of "the good
foreigners had something new and interesting to customs in the countries of the Christians, of the false-
teach; to this end they made use of the European ness of idolatry, of the conformity of the law of God
things they had brought with them. Such were large with natural reason and similar teachings found in the
and small clocks, mathematical and astronomical writings of the ancient sages of China". This last
instruments, prisms revealing the various colours, instance shows that Father Ricci already knew how
musical instruments, oil paintings and prints, cos- to draw from his Chinese studies testimony favourable
mographical, geographical, and architectural works to the religion which he was to preach.
with diagrams, maps, and views of towns and build- It was soon evident to the missionaries that their
ings, large volumes, magnificently printed and splen- remarks regarding religion were no less interesting
didly bound, etc. The Chinese, who had hitherto to many of their visitors than their Western curios-
fancied that outside of their country only barbarism ities and learning, and, to satisfy those who wished
existed, were astounded. Rumours of the wonders to learn more, they distributed leaflets containing a
displayed by the religious from the West soon spread Chinese translation of the Ten Commandments, an
on all sides, and thenceforth their house was always abbreviation of the moral code much appreciated
filled, especially with mandarins and the educated. by the Chinese. Next the missionaries, with the
It followed, says Father Ricci, that "all came by assistance of some educated Chinese, composed a
degrees to have with regard to our countries, our small catechism in which the chief points of Christian
people, and especially of our educated men, an idea doctrine were explained in a dialogue between a pagan
vastly different from that which they had hitherto and a European priest. This work, printed about
entertained' 'This impression was intensified by the 1584, was also well received, the highest mandarins of-
explanations of the missionaries concerning their little the province considering themselves honoured to re-
museum in reply to the numerous questions of their ceive it as a present. The missionaries distributed
visitors. hundreds and thousands of copies and thus "the good
One of the articles which most aroused their curi- odour of our Faith began to be spread throughout
osity was a map of the world. The Chinese had al- China" Having begun their direct apostolate in
 RICCI 36 RICCI

this manner, they furthered it not a httle by their only to prepare the ground and open the way to the
edifying regular Hfe, their disinterestedness, their apostolate properly so called. With this object in
charity, und their patience under persecutions which view he employed other means, which made a deep
often dpstro>-e(l the fruits of their labours. impression on the majority of the educated class, and
—
Devdopiiiad of the Missions. Father Ricci played especially on those who held pubhc offices. He com-
the chief part in these early attempts to make Chris- posed under various forms adapted to the Chinese
tianity known to the Chinese. In 1607 Father taste little moral treatises, e. g.. that called by the
Ruggieri died in Europe, where he had been sent in Chinese "The Twenty-five AVords", because in
ITi.SS by Father Valignani to interest the Holy See twenty-five short chapters it treated "of the mortifi-
more particularly in the missions. Left alone with a cation of the passions and the nobility of virtue"
young priest, a pupil rather than an assistant, Ricci Still greater admiration was aroused by the "Para-
was expelled from Chao-k'ing in 1589 by a viceroy of doxes", a collection of practical sentences, useful
Canton who had found the house of the missionaries to a moral life, familiar to Christians but new to the
suited to his own needs; but the mission had taken Chinese, which Ricci developed with accounts of
root too deeply to be exterminated by the ruin of its examples, comparisons, and extracts from the Scrip-
first home. Thenceforth in whatever town Ricci tures and from Christian philosophers and doctors.
sought a new field of apostolate he was preceded by Not unreasonably proud of their rich moral literature,
his reputation and he found powerful friends to pro- the Chinese were greatly surprised to see a stranger
tect him. He first went to Shao-chow, also in the succeed so well; they could not refrain from praising
province of Canton, where he dispensed with the his exalted doctrine, and the respect which they soon
services of interpreters and adopted the costume of acquired for the Christian writings did much to
the educated Chinese. In 1595 he made an attempt dissipate their distrust of strangers and to render
on Nan-king, the famous capital in the south of China, them kindly disposed towards the Christian religion.
and, though unsuccessful, it furnished him with an But the book through which Ricci exercised the
opportunity of forming a Christian Church at Nan- widest and most fortunate influence was his "T'ien-
ch'ang, capital of Kiang-si, which was so famous for chu-she-i" (The True Doctrine of God). This was
the number and learning of its educated men. In the little catechism of Chao-k'ing which had been
1598 he made a bold but equally fruitless attempt to dehvered from day to day, corrected and improved
establish himself at Peking. Forced to return to as occasion offered, until it finally contained all the
Nan-king on 6 Feb., 1599, he found Providential matter suggested by long years of experience in the
compensation there; the situation had changed com- apostolate. The truths which must be admitted as
pletely since the preceding year, and the highest —
the necessary preliminary to faith the existence and
mandarins were desirous of seeing the holy doctor unity of God, the creation, the immortality of the
from the West take up his abode in their city. Al- soul, reward or punishment in a future life — are here
though his zeal was rewarded with much success in demonstrated by the best arguments from reason,
this wider field, he constantly longed to repair his while the errors most widespread in China, especially
repulse at Peking. He felt that the mission was not the worship of idols and the beUef in the transmigra-
secure in the provinces until it was established and tion of souls, are successfully refuted. To the testi-
authorized in the capital. On 18 May, 1600, Ricci mony furnished by Christian philosophy and theology
again set out for Peking and, when all human hope of Ricci added numerous proofs from the ancient Chinese
success was lost, he entered on 24 January, 1601, books which did much to win credit for his work. A
summoned by Emperor Wan-li. masterpiece of apologetics and controversy, the
Last Labours.— Ricci's last nine years were spent "T'ien-chu-she-i", rightfully became the manual of
at Peking, strengthening his work with the same the missionaries and did most efficacious missionary
wisdom am 1 tenacity of purpose which had conducted work. Before its author's death it had been reprinted
it so far. The imperial goodwill was gained by gifts at least four times, and twice by the pagans. It led
of European curiosities, especially the map of the countless numbers to Christianity, and aroused
world, from which the Asiatic ruler learned for the esteem for our religion in those readers whom it did
first time the true situation of his empire and the not convert. The perusal of it induced Emperor
existence of so many other difTerent kingdoms and K'ang-hi to issue his edict of 1692 granting hberty to
peoples; he required Father Ricci to make a copy preach the Gospel. The Emperor Kien-long, al-
of it for him in his palace. At Peking, as at Nan- though he persecuted the Christians, ordered the
king and elsewhere, the interest of the most intelligent "T'ien-chu-she-i" to be placed in his hijrary with
Chinese was amused chiefly b>' the revelations which his collection of the most notable productions of the
tlie European teacher made to them in the domain Chinese language. Even to the present time mission-
of the science's, even those in which they considered aries have experienced its beneficent influence, which
tbcmsehes most proficient. Mathematics and was not confined to China, being felt also in Japan,
astronomy, for e.xample, had from time immemorial Tong-king, and other countries tributary to Chinese
formed a part of the institutions of the Chinese hterature.
Go\ernment, but, when they listened to Father Besides the works intended especially for the in-
Ricci, e\'en the men who knew most had to acknowl- fidels and the catechumens whose initiation was in
edge how small and how mingled with errors was their progress. Father Ricci wrote others for the new
knowledge. But this recognition of their ignorance Christians. As founder of the mission he had to
and their esteem for European learning, of which mvent formulse capable of expressing clearly and un-
they had just got a gUmpse, impelled very few Chinese equivocally our dogmas and rites in a language which
to make serious efforts to acquire this knowledge, had hitherto never been put to such use (except for
their attachment to tradition or the routine of the Nestorian use, with which Ricci was not ac-
national teaching being too deep-rooted. However, quainted). It was a deUcate and diflScult task, but
tlie Chinese governors, who even at the present day it formed only a part of the
heavy burden which the
ha\'e made no attempt at reform in this matter, did clirection of the mission was for Father
Ricci, par-
not wish to deprive the country of all the ad\antages ticularly during his last years. While advancing
of European discoveries. To procure them recourse gradually on the capital Ricci did not abandon
the
had to be had to the missionaries, and thus the territory already conquered; he trained
in his meth-
Chinese mission from Ricci's time until the end of ods the fellow-workers who joined him
the eighteenth century found its chief protection in and com-
missioMd them to continue his work in the cities he
the ser\'ices performed with the assistance of European Jett. Thus in 1601 the mission included, besides
learning. Father Ricci made use of profane science Peking, the three residences of Nan-king,
Nan-ch'ang,
 RICCI 37 RICCI
Shao-chow, to which was added in 1608 that of believed themselves justified in employing the terms
Shang-hai. In each of these there were two or three T'ien and Shang-ti as well as T'ien-chu to designate
missionaries with "brothers", Chinese Christians the true God. However, there were objections to
from Macao who had been received into the Society this practice even among the Jesuits, the earliest
of Jesus and who served the mission as catcchists. arising shortly after the death of Father Ricci and
Although as yet the number of Christians was not being formulated by the Japanese Jesuits. In the
very great (2000 baptized in 1608), Father Rioci in ensuing discussion carried on in various writings for
his "Memoirs" has said well that considering the and against, which did not circulate beyond the
obstacles to the entrance of Christianity into China circle of the missionaries only one of those working
the result was "a very great miracle of Divine Om- in China declared himself against the use of the name
nipotence". To preserve and increase the success Shang-ti. This was Father Nicholas Longobardi,
already obtained, it was necessary that the means Ricci's successor as superior general of the mission,
which had already proved efficacious should continue who, however, did not depart in anything from the
to be employed; everywhere and always the mission- lines laid down by its founder. After allowing the
aries, without neglecting the essential duties of the question to be discussed for some years, the superior
Christian apostolate, had to adapt their methods to ordered the missionaries to abide simply by the cus-
the special conditions of the country, and avoid tom of Father Ricci; later this custom together with
unnecessary attacks on traditional customs and the rites was submitted to the judgment of the Holy
habits. The application of this undeniably sound See. In 1704 and 1715 Clement XI, without pro-
policy was often difficult. In answer to the doubts nouncing as to the meaning of T'ien and Shang-ti in
of his fellow-workers Father Ricci outlined rules, the ancient Chinese books, forbade, as being open to
which received the approval of Father Valignano; misconstruction, the use of these names to indicate
these insured the unity and fruitful efficacy of the the true God, and permitted only the T'ien-chu.
apostolic work throughout the mission. Regarding the rites and ceremonies in honour of
Question of the Divine Names and the Chinese Rites. ancestors and Confucius, Father Ricci was also of
— The most difficult problem in the evangelization of the opinion that a broad toleration was permissible
China had to do with the rites or ceremonies, in use without injury to the purity of the Christian religion.
from time immemorial, to do honour to ancestors or Moreover, the question was of the utmost impor-
deceased relatives and the particular tokens of respect tance for the progress of the apostolate. To honour
which the educated felt bound to pay to their master, their ancestors and deceased parents by traditional
Confucius. Ricci's solution of this problem caused a prostrations and sacrifices was in the eyes of the
long and heated controversy in which the Holy See Chinese the gravest duty of filial piety, and one who
finally decided against him. The discussion also neglected it was treated by all his relatives as an
dealt with the use of the Chinese terms T'ien (heaven) unworthy member of his family and nation. Similar
and Shang-ti (Sovereign Lord) to designate God; ceremonies in honour of Confucius were an indis-
here also the custom established by Father Ricci pensable obligation for scholars, so that they could
had to be corrected. The following is a short his- not receive any literary degree nor claim any public
tory of this famous controversy which was singularly office without having fulfilled it. This law still re-
comphcated and embittered by passion. With regard mains inviolable; Kiang-hi, the emperor who showed
to the designations for God, Ricci always preferred, most goodwill towards the Christians, always refused
and employed from the first, the term T'ien chu (Lord to set it aside in their favour. In modern times the
of Heaven) for the God of Christians; as has been Chinese Government showed no more favour to the
seen, he used it in the title of his catechism. But in ministers of France, who, in the name of the treaties
studying the most ancient Chinese books he con- guaranteeing the liberty of Catholicism in China,
sidered it established that they said of T'ien (heaven) claimed for the Christians who had passed the exam-
and Shang-ti (Sovereign Lord) what we say of the inations, the titles and advantages of the corre-
true God, that is, they described under these two sponding degrees without the necessity of going
names a sovereign lord of spirits and men who knows through the ceremonies; the Court of Peking in-
all that takes place in the world, the source of all variably replied that this was a question of national
power and all lawful authority, the supreme regu- tradition on which it was impossible to compromise.
lator and defender of the moral law, rewarding those After having carefully studied what the Chinese
who observe and punishing those who violate it. classical books said regarding these rites, and after
Hence he concluded that, in the most revered monu- having observed for a long time the practice of them
ments of China, T'ien and Shang-ti designate nothing and questioned numerous scholars of every rank
else than the true God whom he himself preached. with whom he was associated during his eighteen
Ricci maintained this opinion in several passages of years of apostolate, Ricci was convinced that these
his "T'ien-chu-she-i"; it will be readily understood rites had no rehgious significance, either in their
of what assistance it was to destroy Chinese prej- institution or in their practice by the enlightened
udices against the Christian religion. It is true that, classes. The Chinese, he said, recognized no divinity
in drawing this conclusion, Ricci had to contradict in Confucius any more than in their deceased ances-
the common interpretation of modem scholars who tors; they prayed to neither; they made no requests
follow Chu-Hi in referring T'ien and Shang-ti to apply nor expected any extraordinary intervention from
to the material heaven; but he showed that this them. In fact they only did for them what they did
material interpretation does not do justice to the for the living to whom they wished to show great
texts and it is at least reasonable to see in them some- respect. "The honour they pay to their parents con-
thing better. In fact he informs us that the educated sists in serving them dead as they did living. They
Confucianists, who did not adore idols, were grateful do not for this reason think that the dead come to eat
to him for interpreting the words of their master with their offerings [the flesh, fruit, etc.] or need them.
such goodwill. Indeed, Ricci's opinion has been They declare that they act in this manner because
adopted and confirmed by illustrious modern Sinol- they know no other way of showing their love and
ogists, amongst whom it suffices to mention James gratitude to their ancestors. . Likewise
Legge ("The Notions of the Chinese concerning God what they do [especially the educated], they do to
and Spirits", 1852; "A Letter to Prof. Max MuUer thank Confucius for the excellent doctrine which he
chiefly on the Translation of the Chinese terms Tt left them in his books, and through which they ob-
and Chang-ti", 1880). tained their degrees and mandarinships. Thus in
Therefore it was not without serious grounds that all this there is nothing suggestive of idolatry, and
the founder of the Chinese mission and his successors perhaps it may even be said that there is no super-
 RICCI 38 RICCI
stition." The "perhaps" added to the last part of Meanwhile an understanding was reached by the
this conclusion shows the conscientiousness with hitherto divided This reconciliation
missionaries.
•which the founder acted in this matter. That the was hastened by the persecution of 1665 which as-
vulgar and indeed even most of the Chinese pagans sembled for nearly five years in the same house at
mingled superstition with their national rites Ricci Canton nineteen Jesuits, three Dominicans, and one
never denied; neither did he overlook the fact that Franciscan (then the sole member of his order in
the Chinese, like' infidels in general, mixed super- China). Profiting by their enforced leisure to agree
stition with their most legitimate actions. In such on a uniform Apostolic method, the missionaries dis-
cases superstition is only an accident which does not cussed all the points on which the discipline of the
corrupt the substance of the just action itself, and Church should be adapted to the exigencies of the
Ricci thought this applied also to the rites. Con- Chinese situation. After forty days of conferences,
sequently he allowed the new Christians to continue which terminated on 26 Jan., 1668, all (with the pos-
the practice of them, avoiding everything suggestive sible exception of the Franciscan Antonio de Santa
of superstition, and he gave them rules to assist Maria, who was very zealous but extremely uncom-
them to discriminate. He believed, however, that promising) subscribed to forty-two articles, the result
this tolerance, though licit, should be limited by the of the deliberations, of which the forty-first was as
necessity of the case; whenever the Chinese Christian follows: "As to the ceremonies by which the Chinese
community should enjoy sufficient liberty, its customs, honour their master Confucius and the dead, the
notably its manner of honouring the dead, must be replies of the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition
brought into conformity with the customs of the rest approved by our Holy Father Alexander VII, in
of the Christian world. These principles of Father 1656, must be followed absolutely because they are
Ricci, controlled by his fellow-workers during his based on a very probable opinion, to which it is
lifetime and after his death, served for fifty years as impossible to offset any evidence to the contrary,
the guide of all the missionaries. and, this probability assumed, the door of salvation
In 1631 the first mission of the Dominicans was must not be closed to the innumerable Chinese who
founded at Fu-kien by two Spanish religious; in would stray from the Christian religion if they were
16.33 two Franciscans, also Spanish, came to establish forbidden to do what they may do licitly and in good
a mission of their order. The new inissionaries were faith and which they cannot forego without serious
soon alarmed by the attacks on the purity of religion injury." After the subscription, however, a new
which they thought they discerned in the communi- courteous discussion of this article in writing took
ties founded by their predecessors. Without taking place between Father Domingo Fernandez Navar-
sufficient time perhaps to become acquainted with rete, superior of the Dominicans, and the most
Chinese matters and to learn exactly what was done in learned of the Jesuits at Canton. Navarrete
the Jesuit missions they sent a denunciation to the finally appeared satisfied and on 29 Sept., 1669,
bishops of the Philippines. The bishops referred submitted his written acceptance of the article to the
it to Pope Urban VIII (1635), and soon the public superior of the Jesuits. However, on 19 Dec. of
was informed. As early as 1638 a controversy began this year he secretly left Canton for Macao whence
in the Philippines between the Jesuits in defence of he went to Europe. There, and especially at Rome
their brethren on the one side and the Dominicans where he was in 1673, he sought from now on only
and Franciscans on the other. In 1643 one of the to overthrow what had been attempted in the con-
chief accusers, the Dominican, Jean-Baptiste Moralez, ferences of Canton. He publishecl the "Tratados
went to Rome to submit to the Holy See a series of historicos, politicos, ethicos, y religiosos de la mo-
"questions" or "doubts" which he said were con- narchia de China" (I, Madrid, 1673; of vol. II,
troverted between the Jesuit missionaries and their printed in 1679 and incomplete, only two copies are
rivals. Ten of these questions concerned the par- known). This work is fiUecf with impassioned accusa-
ticipation of Christians in the rites in honour of tions against the Jesuit missionaries regarding their
Confucius and the dead. Moralez's petition tended methods of apostolate and especially their tolera-
to show that the cases on which he requested the de- tion of the rites. Nevertheless, Navarrete did not
cision of the Holy See represented the practice au- succeed in inducing the Holy See to resume the ques-
thorized by the Society of Jesus; as soon as the tion, this being reserved for Charles Maigrot, a
Jesuits learned of this they declared that these eases member of the new Soci6t6 des Missions Etrang^res.
were imaginary and that they had never allowed Maigrot; went to China in 1683. He was Vicar
the Christians to take part in the rites as set forth by Apostolic of Fu-kien, before being as yet a bishop,
Moralez. In declaring the ceremonies illicit in when, on 26 March, 1693, he adc&essed to the mis-
its Decree of 12 Sept., 1645 (approved by Innocent sionaries of his vicariate a mandate proscribing the
X), the Congregation of the Propaganda gave the names T'ien and Shang-ti; forbidding that Christians
only possible reply to the questions referred to it. be allowed to participate in or assist at "sacrifices or
In 1651 Father Martin Martini (author of the solemn oblations" in honour of Confucius or the dead;
"Novus Atlas Sienensis") was sent from China to prescribing modifications of the inscriptions on the
Rome by his brethren to give a true account of the ancestral tablets; censuring and forbidding certain,
Jesuits practices and permissions with regard to the according to him, too favourable references to the
Chinese rites. This delegate reached the Eternal ancient Chinese philosophers; and, last but not least,
City in 1654, and in 1655 submitted four questions declaring that the exposition made by Father Martini
to the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. was not true and that consequently the approval
This supreme tribunal, in its Decree of 23 March, which the latter had received from Rome was not
1656, approved by Pope Alexander VII, sanctioned to be relied on.
the practice of Ricci and his associates as set forth by By order of Innocent XII, the Holy Office resumed
Father Martini, declaring that the ceremonies in in 1697 the study of the question on the documents
honour of Confucius and ancestors appeared to con- furnished by the procurators of Mgr Maigrot and on
stitute "« purely civil and political cult". Did this those showing the opposite side brought by the repre-
decree annul that of 164.')? Concerning this question, sentatives of the Jesuit missionaries. It is worthy
laid before the Holy Office by the Dominican, Father of note that at this period a number of the missionaries
John de Polanco, the reply was (20 Nov., 1669) that outside the Society of Jesus, especially all the Augus-
both di'crees should remain "in their full force" timans, nearly the Franciscans, and
all some Domini-
and .should be observed "according to the questions, cans, were converted to the practice of Ricci
circumstances, and everything contained in the
and the
Jesuit missionanes. The difficulty of grasping the
proposed doubts" truth amid such different representations of facts and
 RICCI 39 RICCI
contradictory interpretations of texts prevented the visions. At the same time the hate of the pagans was
Congregation from reaching a decision until towards reawakened, enkindled by the old charge that
the end of 1704 under the pontificate of Clement XI. Christianity was the enemy of the national rites, and
Long before then the pope had chosen and sent to the the neophytes began to be the objects of persecutions
Far East a legate to secure the execution of the to which K'ang-hi, hitherto so well-disposed, now gave
Apostolic decrees and to regulate all other questions almost entire liberty. Clement XI sought to remedy
on the welfare of the missions. The prelate chosen this critical situation by sending to China a second
was Charles-Thomas-Maillard de Tournon (b. at legate, John-Ambrose Mezzabarba, whom he named
Turin) whom Clement XI had consecrated with his Patriarch of Alexandria. This prelate sailed from
own hands on 27 Dec, 1701, and on whom he con- Lisbon on 25 March, 1720, reaching Macao on 26
ferred the title of Patriarch of Antioch. Leaving September, and Canton on 12 October. Admitted,
Europe on 9 Feb., 1703, Mgr de Tournon stayed for a not without difficulty, to Peking and to an audience
time in India (see Malabar Rites) reaching Macao with the emperor, the legate could only prevent his
on 2 April, 1705, and Peking on 4 December of the immediate dismissal and the expulsion of all the mis-
same year. Emperor K'ang-hi accorded him a warm sionaries by making known some alleviations of the
welcome and treated him with much honour until he Constitution "Ex die", which he was authorized
ill4
learned, perhaps through the imprudence of the legate to offer, and allowing K'ang-hi to hope that the pope
himself, that one of the objects of his embassy, if not would grant still others. Then he hastened to return
the chief, was to abolish the rites amongst the to Macao, whence he addressed (4 November, 1721)
Christians. Mgr de Tournon was already aware that a pastoral letter to the missionaries of China, com-
the decision against the rites had been given since 20 municating to them the authentic text of his eight
Nov., 1704, but not yet published in Europe, as the "permissions" relating to the rites. He declared that
pope wished that it should be published first in China. he would permit nothing forbidden by the Constitu-
Forced to leave Peking, the legate had returned to tion; in practice, however, his concessions relaxed the
Nan-king when he learned that the emperor had rigour of the pontifical interdictions, although they
ordered all missionaries, under penalty of expulsion, did not produce harmony or unity of action among the
to come to him for a piao or diploma granting per- apostolic workers. To bring about this highly de-
mission to preach the Gospel. This diploma was to sirable result the pope ordered a new investigation,
be granted only to those who promised not to oppose the chief object of which was the legitimacy and op-
the national rites. On the receipt of this news the portuneness of Mezzabarba's "permissions"; begun
legate felt that he could no longer postpone the an- by the Holy Office under Clement XII a conclusion
nouncement of the Roman decisions. By a mandate was reached only under Benedict XIV. On 11 July,
of 15 January, 1707, he required all missionaries under 1742, this pope, by the Bull "Ex quo singulari", con-
pain of excommunication to reply to Chinese author- firmed and reimposed in a most emphatic manner
ity, if it questioned them, that "several things" in the Constitution "Ex illfi. die", and condemned and
Chinese doctrine and customs did not agree with annulled the "permissions" of Mezzabarba as author-
Divine law and that these were chiefly "the sacri- izing the superstitions which that Constitution
fices to Confucius and ancestors" and "the use of sought to destroy. This action terminated the con-
ancestral tablets", moreover that Shang-ti and T'ien troversy among Catholics.
were not " the true God of the Christians " When the The Holy See did not touch on the purely theoreti-
emperor learned of this Decree he ordered Mgr de cal questions, as for instance what the Chinese rites
Tournon to be brought to Macao and forbade him to were and signified according to their institution and
leave there before the return of the envoys whom he in ancient times. In this Father Ricci may have
himself sent to the pope to explain his objections to been right; but he was mistaken in thinking that as
the interdiction of the rites. While still subject to practised in modern times they are not superstitious
this restraint, the legate died in 1710. or can be made free from all superstition. The popes
Meanwhile Mgr Maigrot and several other mis- declared, after scrupulous investigations, that the
sionaries having refused to ask for the piao had been ceremonies in honour of Confucius or ancestors and
expelled from China. But the majority (i. e. all the deceased relatives are tainted with superstition to such
Jesuits, most of the Franciscans, and other missionary a degree that they cannot be purified. But the error
religious, having at their head the Bishop of Peking, a of Ricci, as of his fellow-workers and successors, was
Franciscan, and the Bishop of Ascalon, Vicar Apos- but an error in judgment. The Holy See expressly
tolic of Kiang-si, an Augustinian) considered that, to forbade it to be said that they approved idolatry; it
prevent the total ruin of the mission, they might would indeed be an odious calumny to accuse such a
postpone obedience to the legate until the pope should man as Ricci, and so many other holy and zealous
have signified his will. Clement XI replied by pub- missionaries, of having approved and permitted to
Ushing (March, 1709) the answers of the Holy Office, their neophytes practices which they knew to be super-
which he had already approved on 20 November, stitions and contrary to the purity of religion. De-
1704, and then by causing the same Congregation to spite this error, Matteo Ricci remains a splendid type
issue (25 Sept., 1710) a new Decree which approved of missionary and founder, unsurpassed for his zealous
the acts of the legate and ordered the observance of intrepidity, the intelligence of the methods applied
the mandate of Nan-king, but interpreted in the to each situation, and the unwearying tenacity with
sense of the Roman replies of 1704. Finally, be- which he pursued the projects he undertook. To him
lieving that these measures were not meeting with belongs the glory not only of opening up a vast
a sufficiently simple and full submission, Clement empire to the Gospel, but of simultaneously making
issued (19 March, 1715) the Apostolic Constitution, the first breach in that distrust of strangers which
"Ex ilia die". It reproduced all that was properly excluded China from the general progress of the
a decision in the repUes of 1704, omitting all the world. The establishment of the Catholic mission
questions and most of the preambles, and concluded in the heart of this country also had its economic
with a form of oath which the pope enjoined on all consequences: it laid the foundation of a better under-
the missionaries and which obhged them under the standing between the Far East and the West, which
severest penalties to observe and have observed fully grew with the progress of the mission. It is super-
and without reserve the decisions inserted in the fluous to detail the results from the standpoint of the
pontifical act. This Constitution, which reached material interests of the whole world. Lastly, science
China in 1716, found no rebels among the missionaries, owes to Father Ricci the first exact scientific knowl-
but even those who sought most zealously failed to edge received in Europe concerning China, its true
induce the majority of their flock to observe its pro- geographical situation, its ancient civiUzation, its vast
 RICCI 40 RICE
SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. dc la C. de J., VI (Paris, 1.S9.)), 1795;
and curious literature, its social organization so different Delambre, Hisl. de I' AMronomie Muilerne, II (Paris, 1.S21), 274;
from what existed elsewhere. The method instituted Wolf, Gmc/i. d. Astronomic (Munich, 1S77), 434; Walsh, Catholic
by Ricci necessitated a fundamental study of this new Churchmen in Science (2nd series, Philadelphia, 1909); Lins-
Offenbarung, XLVII, 65 sqq.
world, and if the missionaries who have since followed
MEIEH, NatUT, a.

him have rendered scarcely less service to science than H. M. Brock.

to rehgion, a great part of the credit is due to
Ricci.
IMiTTEO Riccil, Dell' enlrala della Compagnm di Giesu e Rice, Edmund Ignatius, founder of the Institute
archives
cristianM ndla Cina (MS. of Father Ricci, extant in the of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (better known
foregoing article as the
of the Society of Jesus; cited in the
Memoirs of Father Ricci), a somewhat free tr. of this worK is as "Irish Christian Brothers"), b. at Callan, Co. Kil-
Riven in Trigaui.t, De Christiana expedilione apud kmas sus- kenny, 1762; d. at Waterford, 1844. He was edu-
ceplaab Societale Jes-u. Ex P. Matthai Ricci commentarus
tibn,
Matheus Ricci, S.J. ««'??"';
cated in a Catholic school which, despite the provi-
V (Augsburg, 1615); de Ursis, P. Babtoli, ^eH sions of the iniquitous penal laws, the authorities
escripla pelo seu companheiro (Rome, 1910) ;

Historia della Compagnia di Giesii. Lm Cina, l-ll (Rome, lbb,il. suffered to exist in the City of Kilkenny. In 1779 he
Bartoh is the most accurate biographer of Ricci; D Ohl^ians, entered the business house of his uncle, a large export
vie da Pkre Matthieu Ricci (Paris, 1693); Natali
Ilsecorido
La
Confucio (Rome, 1900); Ventori, VaposloMo del P. M. Kica and import trader in the City of Waterford, and, after
d C d. G. in Cina secondo i suoi scrilti medih (Home, 19"J). the latter's death, became sole proprietor. As a
Brdckeb, Le Phe Matthieu Ricci in Etudes, CXXIV (Pans, citizen he was distinguished for his probity, charity,
1910) 5-27; 185-208; 751-79; De Backeh-Sommekvogel,
Bibl. des icrivains de la C. de J., VI, 1792-95. Chinese
Rites.— and piety; he was
Bhdcker in Vacant, Diet, de Thiol, cath., s. v. Chinois (Bj'es) an active member
and works indicated; Cobdieh, Bibl. Sinica, II, 2nd ed., 869-
of a society estab-
925; Idem, Hisl. des relations de la Chine avec les puissances
occidentales. III (Paris, 1902), xxv. lished in the city
JosBPH BrUCKEE.
for the relief of the
See Pistoia, Synod op. poor. About 1794
Ricci, Scipio.
he meditated en-
Riccioli, Giovanni Battista, Italian astronomer, tering a conti-
b. at Ferrara 17 April, 1598; d. at Bologna 25 June, nental convent,
1671. He entered the Society of Jesus 6 Oct., 1614. but his brother,
After teaching philosophy and theology for a number an Augustinian
of years, chiefly at Parma and Bologna, he devoted who had but just
himself, at the request of his superiors, entirely to the returned from
study of astronomy, which at that time, owing to the Rome, discoun-
discoveries of Kepler and the new theories of Coperni- tenanced the idea.
cus, was a subject of much discussion. Realizing Rice, thereupon,
the many defects of the traditional astronomy in- devoted himself to
herited from the ancients, he conceived the bold the extension of
idea of undertaking a reconstruction of the science his business. Some
with a view to bringing it into harmony with con- years later, how-
temporary progress. This led to his "Almagestum ever, he again de-
novum, astronomiam veterem novamque com- sired to become a
plectens" (2 vols., Bologna, 1651), considered by religious. As he
many the most important literary work of the Jesuits was discussing the Edmund Ignatius Rice
during the seventeenth century. The author in matter with a
common with many scholars of the time, notably in friend of his, a sister of Bishop Power of Waterford,
Italy, rejected the Copemican theory, and in this a band of ragged boys passed by. Pointing to
work, admittedly of great erudition, gives an elab- them Miss Power exclaimed: "What! would you
orate refutation in justification of the Roman De- bury yourself in a cell on the continent rather than
crees of 1616 and 1633. He praises, however, the devote your wealth and your life to the spiritual and
genius of Copernicus and readily admits the value material interests of these poor youths? " The words
of his system as a simple hypothesis. His sincerity were an inspiration. Rice related the incident to Dr.
in this connexion has been called into question by some, Lanigan, bishop of his native Diocese of Ossory, and
e. g. Wolf, but a study of the work shows beyond to others, all of whom advised him to undertake the
doubt that he wrote from conviction and with the mission to which God was evidently calling him.
desire of making known the truth. Riccioli's proj- Rice settled his worldly affairs, his last year's business
ect also included a comparison of the unit of length (1800) being the most lucrative one he had known,
of various nations and a more exact determination and commenced the work of the Christian schools.
of the dimensions of the earth. His topographical Assisted by two young men, whom he paid for their
measurements occupied him at intcr-vals between services, he opened his first school in Waterford in
1644 and 1656, but defects of method have rendered 1 802 In June of this year Bishop Hussey of Waterford
.

his results ofbut little value. His most important laid the foundation stone of a schoolhouse on a site
contribution to astronomy was perhaps his detailed which he named Mount Sion. The building was soon
telescopic study of the moon, made in collaboration ready for occupation, but Rice's assistants had fled
with P. Grimaldi. The latter's excellent lunar map and could not be induced to return even when offered
was inserted in the "Almagestum novum", and the higher salaries. In this extremity two young men
lunar nomenclature they adopted is still in use. He from Callan offered themselves as fellow-labourers.
also made observations on Saturn's rings, though it Other workers soon gathered round him, and by 1806
was reser\-ed for Huyghens to determine the true Christian schools were established in Waterford,
ring-structure. He was an ardent defender of the Carrick-on-3uir, and Dungarvan. The communities
new Gregorian calendar. Though of delicate health, adopted a modified form of the Rule of the Presenta-
Riccioli was an indefatigable worker and, in spite of tion Order of nuns, and, in 1808, pronounced their
his opposition to the Copemican theory, rendered vows before Bishop Power. Houses were established
valuable ser^'ices to astronomy and also to geography in Cork, Dublin, Limerick, and elsewhere. Though
and chronology. His chief works are: "Geographiae the brothers, as a rule, made their novitiate in Mount
et hydrographiae reformatee libri XII" (Bologna, Sion and regarded Rice as their father and model, he
1661); "Astronomia reformata" (2 vols., Bologna, was not their superior; they were subject to the
1665); "Vindicia' calendarii gregoriani" (Bologna, bishops of their respective dioceses. In 1817, on the
1666); "Chronologia reformata" (1669); "Tabula advice of Bishop Murray, coadjutor to the Arch-
latitudinum et longitudinum" (Vienna, 1689). bishop of Dubhn, and of Father Kenny, S.J., a special
 RICHARD 41 RICHARD
friend,Rice applied to the Holy See for approbation Richard I, King of England, b. at Oxford, 6
and a constitutionfor his society. In 1820 Pius VII Sept., 1157; d. at Chaluz, France, 6 April, 1199; was
formally confirmed the new congregation of "Fratres known to the minstrels of a later age, rather than to
Monachi" by the Brief "Ad pastoraHs dignitatis his contemporaries, as "Coeur-de-Lion" He was
fastigium''. This was the first confirmation by the only the second son of Henry II, but it was part of
Church of a congregation of religious men in Ireland. his father's policy, holding, as he did, continental
Brother Rice was unanimously elected superior gen- dominions of great extent and little mutual cohesion,
eral by the members. All the houses were united to assign them to his children during his own life-
except the house in Cork, where Bishop Murphy re- time and even to have his sons brought up among
fused his consent. Later, however, in 1826, the the people they were destined to govern. To Richard
Brothers in Cork attained the object of their desire, were allotted the territories in the South of France
but one of their number, preferring the old condition belonging to his mother Eleanor of Aquitaine, and
of things, oifered his services to the bishop, who before he was sixteen he was inducted as Duke of
placed him in charge of a school on the south side of that province. It was a weak point in the old King's
the city. This secession of Br. Austin Reardon was management of his sons, that, while dazzling them
the origin of the teaching congregation of the Pres- with brilliant prospects, he invested them with very
entation Brothers. The confirmation of the new little of the substance of power. In 1173 the young
Institute attracted considerable attention, even out- Henry, who, following a German usage, had already
side of Ireland, and many presented themselves for the been crowned king in the lifetime of his father,
novitiate. The founder removed the seat of govern- broke out into open revolt, being instigated thereto
ment to Dublin. by his father-in-law, Louis VII, King of France.
At this time the agitation for Catholic Emancipa- Under the influence of their mother Eleanor, who
tion was at its height and the people were roused to bitterly resented her husband's infidelities, Geoffrey
indignation by the reports of the proselytizing prac- and Richard in 1173 also threw in their lot with the
tices carried on in the Government schools. Brother rebel and took up arms against their father. Allies
Rice conceived the idea of establishing a "Catholic gathered round them and the situation grew so
Model School" The "Liberator" entered warmly threatening, that Henry II thought it well to propi-
into his scheme, and procured a grant of £1500 from tiate heaven by doing penance at the tomb of the
the Catholic Association in aid of the proposed build- martyred Archbishop St. Thomas (11 July, 1174).
ing. On St. Columba's day, 1828, Daniel O'Connell By a remarkable coincidence, on the very next day,
laid the foundation stone, in North Richmond Street, a victory in Northumberland over William, King of
Dublin, of the famous school, since known as the Scotland, disposed of Henry's most formidable op-
"O'Connell Schools" In his speech on the occasion ponent. Returning with a large force to France, the
he referred to Brother Rice as "My
old friend, Mr. King swept all before him, and though Richard for a
Rice, the Patriarch of the Monks of the west". The while held out alone he was compelled by 21 Sept. to
founder resigned his office in 1838 and spent his re- sue for forgiveness at his father's feet.
maining years in Mount Sion. Before lus death he The King dealt leniently with his rebellious chil-
saw eleven communities of his institute in Ireland, dren, but this first outbreak was only the harbinger
eleven in England, and one in Sydney, Australia, while of an almost uninterrupted series of disloyal in-
applications for foundations had been received from trigues, fomented by Louis VII and by his son and
the Archbishop of Baltimore and from bishops in successor, Philip Augustus, in which Richard, who
Canada, Newfoundland, and other places. lived almost entirely in Guienne and Poitou, was en-
Pateick J. Hennesst. gaged down to the time of his father's death. He
acquired for himself a great and deserved reputation
Richard, a Friar Minor and preacher, appearing in for knightly prowess, and he was often concerned in
history between 1428 and 1431, whose origin and chivalrous exploits, showing much energy in par-
nationality are unknown. He is sometimes called the ticular in protecting the pilgrims who passed through
disciple of St. Bernardine of Sienna and of St. Vincent his own and adjacent territories on their way to the
Ferrer, but probably only because, like the former, he shrine of St. James of Compostella. His elder brother
promoted the veneration of the Holy Name of Jesus Henry grew jealous of him and insisted that Richard
and, like the latter, announced the end of the world as should do him homage. On the latter's resistance
near. In 1428 Richard came from the Holy Land to war broke out between the brothers. Bertrand de
France, preached at Troyes, next year in Paris during Bom, Count of Hautefort, who was Richard's rival
ten days (16-26 April) every morning from about five in minstrelsy as well as in feats of arms, lent such
o'clock to ten or eleven. He had such a sway over powerful support to the younger Henry, that the old
his numerous auditors that after his sermons the men King had to intervene on Richard's side. The death
burned their dice, and the women their vanities. of the younger Henry, 11 June, 1183, once more
Having been threatened by the Faculty of Theology restored peace and made Richard heir to the throne.
—
on account of his doctrine perhaps, also, because he
was believed to favour Charles VII, King of France,
But other quarrels followed between Richard and
his father, and it was in the heat of the most desperate
whilst Paris was then in the hands of the English of these, in which the astuteness of Philip Augustus
he left Paris suddenly and betook himself to Orleans had contrived to implicate Henry's favourite son
and Troyes. In the latter town he first met Bl. Joan John, that the old King died broken-hearted, 6 July,
of Arc. Having contributed much to the submission 1189. Despite the constant hostilities of the last
of Troyes to Charles VII, Richard now followed the few years, Richard secured the succession without
French army and became confessor and chaplain to difficulty. He came quickly to England and was
Bl. Joan. Some differences, however, arose between crowned at Westminster on 3 Sept. But his object
the two on account of Catherine de la Rochelle, who in visiting his native land was less to provide for the
was protected by the friar, but scorned by Joan. government of the kingdom than to collect resources
Richard's name figures also in the proceedings against for the projected Crusade which now appealed to the
Bl. Joan of Arc in 1431 in the same year he preached
;
strongest, if not the best, instincts of his adventurous
the Lent in Orleans and shortly after was interdicted nature, and by the success of which he hoped to
from preaching by the inquisitor of Poitiers. No startle the world. Already, towards the end of 1187,
trace of him is found after this. when the news had reached him of Saladin's conquest
DE Kerval, Jeanne d'Arc et les Franciscains (Vanves, 1893)
Debout, Jeanne d'Arc (Paris, 1905-07), I, 694-97 and passim; of Jerusalem, Richard had taken the cross. Philip
Wallon, Jeanne d'Arc (Paris, 1883), 125, 200, 261. Augustus and Henry II had subsequently followed
LiVAHIUS Oligbr. his example, but the quarrels which had supervened
 RICHARD 42 RICHARD
had so far prevented the realization of this pious Canterbury and Justiciar, he left it a capable gov-
design. Now that he was more free the young King ernor. Hubert tried to wring unconstitutional sup-
seems to have been conscientiously in earnest in plies and service from the impoverished barons and
putting the recovery of the Holy Land before every- clergy, but failed in at least one such demand before
thing else. Though the expedients by which he set the resolute opposition of St. Hugh of Lincoln.
to work to gather every penny of ready money upon Richard's diplomatic struggles and his campaigns
whieh he could lay hands were alike unscrupulous against the wily King of France were very costly but
and impolitic, there is something which commands fairly successful.He would probably have triumphed
respect in the energy which he threw into the task. in the end,but a bolt from a cross-bow while he was
He sold sheriffdoms, justiceships, church lands, and besieging the castle of Chaluz inflicted a mortal
appointments of all kinds, both lay and secular, prac- injury. He died, after receiving the last sacraments
tically to the highest bidder. He was not ungenerous with signs of sincere repentance. In spite of his
in providing for his brothers John and Geoffrey, and greed, his lack of principle, and, on occasions, his
he showed a certain prudence in exacting a promise ferocious savagery, Richard had many good instincts.
from them to remain out of England for three years, He thoroughly respected a man of fearless integrity
in order to leave a free hand to the new Chancellor hke St. Hugh of Lincoln, and Bishop Stubbs says of
William of Longchamp, who was to govern England him with justice that he was perhaps the most sin-
in his absence. Unfortunately he took with him cerely religious prince of his family. "He heard
many of the men, e. g. Archbishop Baldwin, Hubert Mass daily, and on three occasions did penance in a
Walter, and Ranulf Glanvill, whose statesmanship very remarkable way, simply on the impulse of his
and experience would have been most useful in own distressed conscience. He never showed the
governing England, and left behind many restless brutal profanity of John."
Lingard and all other standard Histories of England deal fully
spirits John himself and Longchamp, whose
like
with the reign and personal character of Richard. Davis, A
energy might have been serviceable against the in- History of England in Six Volumes, II (2nd ed., London, 1909),
fidel. and Adams, The Political History of England, II (London, 1905),
Already on 11 Dec, 1189, Richard was ready to may be specially recommended. The Prefaces contributed by
Bishop Stubbs to his editions of various Chronicles in the B. S.
cross to Calais. He met Phihp Augustus, who was are also very valuable, notably those to Roger of Hoveden
also to start on the Crusade, and the two Kings swore (London, 1868-71) Ralph de Diceto (1875) and Benedict of Peter-
; ;

borough (1867). Besides these should be mentioned in the same se-

to defend each other's dominions as they would their ries the two extremely important volumes of Chronicles and Memo-
own. The story of the third Crusade has already rials of the Reign of Richard I (London, 1864-65), also edited by
been told in some detail (see vol. TV, p. 549). It was Stubbs; the Magna Vita S. Hugonis, edited by Dimock, 1864;
September, 1190, before Richard reached Marseilles; and Randulphi de Coggeshall Chronicon Anglicanum, ed. Steven-
son, 1875. See also Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings
he pushed on to Messina and waited for the spring. (London, 1889); Luchaire and Lavissb, Histoire de France
There miserable quarrels occurred with Philip, whose (Paris, 1902) ; Kneller, Des Richard Ldwenherz deutsche Ge-
sister he now refused to marry, and this trouble was fangenshaft (Freiburg, 1893); Bloch, Forschungen zur Politik
Kaisers Heinrich VI in den Jahren 1191-1194 (Berlin, 1892);
comphcated by an interference in the affairs of Sicily, Kindt, Griinde der Gefangenschaft Richard I von England (Halle,
which the Emperor Henry VI watched with a jealous 1892); and especially R6hricht, Gesch. d. Kdnigreich Jerusalem
eye, and which later on was to cost Richard dear. (Innsbruck, 1890).
Setting sail in March, he was driven to Cyprus, where Herbert Thurston.
he quarrelled with Isaac Comnenus, seized the island, Richard, Charles-Louis, theologian and publi-
and married Berengaria of Navarre. He at last cist; b. at Blainville-sur-I'Eau, in Lorraine, April,
reached Acre in June and after prodigies of valour
1711; d. at Mons, Belgium, 16 Aug., 1794. His
captured it. Philip then returned to France but
family, though of noble descent, was poor, and he
Richard made two desperate efforts to reach Jeru-
received his education in the schools of his native
salem, the first of which might have succeeded had
town. At the age of sixteen he entered the Order of
he known the panic and weakness of the foe. Saladin
St. Dominic and, after his religious profession, was
was a worthy opponent, but terrible acts of cruelty
sent to study theology in Paris, where he received the
as well as of chivalry took place, notably when
Doctorate at the Sorbonne. He next applied himself
Richard slew his Saracen prisoners in a fit of passion.
to preaching and the defence of religion against
In July, 1192, further effort seemed hopeless, and the
d'Alembert, Voltaire, and their confederates. The
King of England's presence was badly needed at home
outbreak of the Revolution forced him to seek refuge
to secure his own dominions from the treacherous
at Mons, in Belgium. During the second invasion
intrigues of John. Hastening back Richard was
of that country by the French, in 1794, old age pre-
wrecked in the Adriatic, and falling eventually into
the hands of Leopold of Austria, he was sold to the
vented him from fleeing, and, though he eluded
his pursuers for some time, he was at last detected,
Emperor Henry VI, who kept him prisoner for over
tried by court martial, and shot, as the author of
a year and extorted a portentous ransom which Eng-
"Parallfele des Juifs qui ont crucifix J(5sus-Christ,
land was racked to pay. Recent investigation has
shown that the motives of Henry's conduct were less avec les Frangais qui ont ex6cut6 leur roi" (Mons,
vindictive than political. Richard was induced to 1794). Among his works may be mentioned "Biblio-
surrender England to the Emperor (as John a few theque sacr^e, ou dictionnaire universelle des sciences
years later was to make over England to the Holy ecclesiastiques" (5 vols., Paris, 1760) and "Supple-
See), and then Henry conferred the kingdom upon
ment" (Paris, 1765), the last and enlarged edition
his captive as a fief at the Diet of Mainz, in Feb.,
being that of Paris, 1821-27, 29 vols., and "Analyses
1194 (see Bloeh, "Forschungen", Appendix IV). des conciles g6n6raux et particuliers " (5 vols., Paris,
Despite the intrigues of King Philip and John, 1772-77).
MouLAERT, Ch. L. Richard aus dem Predigerorden (Ratisbon,
Richard had loyal friends in England. Hubert 1870); Nomenclator, III (3rd ed.), 433-35.
Walter had now reached home and worked energeti- H. J. SCHEOEDEB.
cally with the Justiees to raise the ransom, while
Eleanor the Queen Mother obtained from the Holy Richard, Gabriel. See Detroit, Diocese op.
Sit an excommunication against his captors. Eng-
land responded nobly to the appeal for money and
Richard Here, Blessed. See Thomas Johnson,
Blessed.
Richard reached home in March, 1194.
He showed little gratitude to his native land, and Richard de Bury, bishop and bibliophile, b. near
after spending less than two months there quitted Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk, England, 24 Jan., 1286;
it for his foreign dominions ne^-er to return. Still, d. at Auckland, Durham, England, 24 April, 1345.
in Hubert Walter, who was now both Archbishop of He was the son of Sir Richard Aungerville, but was
2;

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 RICHARD 43 RICHARD
named after his birthplace. He studied at Oxford, did not neglect the poets, he had but little use for law-
and became a Benedictine. Having been appointed books. He kept copyists, scribes, binders, correctors,
tutor to Prince Edward, son of Edward H and Isabella and illuminators, and he was particularly careful to
of France, he was exposed to some danger during the restore defaced or battered texts. His directions for
stormy scenes that led to the deposition of the king. the lending and care of the books intended for his
On the accession of his pupil to the throne (1327), de college at Oxford are minute, and evince considerable
Bury eventually rose to be Bishop of Durham (1333), practical forethought. His humility and simple faith
High Chancellor (1334), and Treasurer of England are shown in the concluding chapter, in which he
(1336). He was sent on two embassies to John XXII acknowledges his sins and asks the future students of
at Avignon, and on one of his visits, probably in 1330, his college to pfay for the repose of his soul.
he made the acquaintance of the poet Petrarch. He Bale, ScHptorum Illustrium majoris Britannia!, quam nunc
Angliam et Scotiam vacant, Catalogus (Basle, 1557) Warton,
continued to en- ;

History of English Poetry, I, 140; IIallam, Introduction to the

joy the favour of Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth
the king, and in Centuries; Thomas, The Philobiblon newly translated, published
under the title of The Love of Books in the Past and Present
his later years took Library (1905) Surtees Society, edition of Scriptores Tres;
;

a prominent part Wharton, Anglia Sacra; Cambridge Modern History, I, xvii;

in the diplomatic The Cambridge History of English Literature, II, 410; Blades,
The Enemies of Books; Clark, The Care of Books,
negotiations with
Scotland and P. J. Lennox.
France. He died Richard de la Vergne, Fean5ois-Marie-Bbn-
at his manor of
JAMIN, Archbishop of Paris, b. at Nantes, 1 March,
Auckland, and was
1819; d. in Paris, 28 January, 1908. Educated at the
buried in the ca-
Seminary of Saint-Sulpice he became in 1849 secre-
thedral of Dur- tary to Bishop Jacquemet at Nantes, then, from 1850
ham. He founded to 1869, vicar-general. In 1871 he became Bishop
Durham College of Belley where he began the process for the beatifi-
at Oxford, and ac-
cording to tradi-
cation of the Cur6 d'Ars. On 7 May, 1875, he became
coadjutor of Cardinal Guibert, Archbishop of Paris,
tion bequeathed to
its library most of
whom he succeeded 8 July, 1886, becoming cardinal
with the title of Santa Maria in Via, 24 May, 1889.
the boolfs which
He devoted much energy to the completion of the
he had spent his
Basilica of the Sacred Heart at Montmartre, which
life in collecting.
he consecrated. Politically, Cardinal Richard was
There they re-
attached by ties of esteem and sympathy to the
mained until the Monarchist Catholics. In 1892, when Leo XIII
dissolution of the
Seal of Richard de Burt recommended the rallying of Catholics to the Repub-
College by Henry
lic (see France, The Third Republic and the Church in
VIII. They were
France), the cardinal created the "Union of Christian
then scattered, some going to Balliol College, others to
France" (Union de la France Chretienne), to unite all
the university (Duke Humphrey's) library, and still
Catholics on the sole basis of the defence of religion.
others passing into the possession of Dr. George Owen,
The Monarchists opposed this " rallying (Ralliement)
'
'
the purchaser of the site whereon the dissolved college
with the policy which this union represented, and at
had stood. These books were of course all in manu-
last, at the pope's desire, the union was dissolved.
script, for the art of printing had not yet been dis-
covered.
On many occasions Cardinal Richard spoke in defence
of the religious congregations, and Leo XIII addressed
Bale mentions three of de Bury's works, namely:
to him a letter (27 December, 1900) on the religious
"Philobiblon"; "EpistoteFamiliarium"; and "Ora-
tiones ad Principes ". Itisbythe" Philobiblon "that
who were menaced by the then projected Law of As-
sociations. In the domain of hagiography he earned
he is principally remembered. It was first printed at
distinction by his "Vie de la bienheureuse Frangoise
Cologne in 1473, then at Spires in 1483, in Paris in
d'Amboise" (1865) and "Saints de I'^glise de Bre-
1500, and at Oxford in 1598-99. Subsequent editions
tagne" (1872).
were made in Germany in 1610, 1614, 1674, and 1703, L'ipiscopat francais, 1802-1905, a. v. Belley, Paris; Leca-
and in Paris in 1856. It was translated into English NTJET, UEglise de France sous la troisiime ripublique, II (Paris,
by J. B. Inglis,
in 1832 and of this translation a reprint 1910)- Georges Goyau.
was made at Albany, New York, in 1861. The stand-
ard Latin text —the result of a collation of 28 manu- Richard de Wyche, Saint, bishop and confessor,
scripts and of the printed editions — was established by b.about 1 197 at Droitwich, Worcestershire, from which
Ernest C. Thomas and edited by him, with English his surname is derived; d. 3 April, 1253, at Dover.
translation, in 1888. A reprint of Thomas's transla- He was the second son of Richard and Alice de
tion appeared in the "Past and Present" Library in Wyche. His father died while he was still young and
1905. the family property fell into a state of great dilapida-
Bishop Richard had a threefold object in writing the tion. His elder brother offered to resign the inheri-
"Philobiblon": he wished to inculcate on the clergy tance to him, but Richard refused the offer, although
the pursuit of learning and the cherishing of books as he undertook the management of the estate and soon
its receptacles; to vindicate to his contemporaries restored it to a good condition. He went to Oxford,
and to posterity his own action in devoting so much where he and two companions lived in such poverty
time, attention, and money to the acquisition of books; that they had only one tunic and hooded gown be-
and to give directions for the management of the li- tween them, in which they attended lectures by turns.
brary which he proposed to establish at Durham He then went to Paris and on his return proceeded
College, Oxford. The work is important for its side- Master of Arts. At Bologna he studied canon law, in
lights on the state of learning and manners and on the which he acquired a great reputation and was elected
habits of the clergy in fourteenth-century England. Chancellor of the University of Oxford.
He is the true tjTDe of the book-lover. He had a His learning and sanctity were so famed that
library in each of his residences. Conspicuous in his Edmund Rich, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Robert
legacy are Greek and Hebrew grammars. He did not Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, both offered him the
despise the novelties of the moderns, but he preferred post of chancellor of their respective dioceses. Richard
the well-tested labours of the ancients, and, while he accepted the archbishop's offer and thenceforward
 RICHARD 44 RICHARD
became St. Edmund's intimate friend and follower. Ralph Booking shortly after his canonization and
He approved the arehbisliop's action in opposmg the another short life,compiled in the fifteenth century,
king on the question of the vacant sees, accompanied was printed by Capgrave. Both these are included in
him in his exile to Pontigny, was present at Poissy the notice of St. Richard in the BoUandist "Acta
when he died, and made him a model in life. Richard Sanctorum".
Hardy, Descriptive catalogue of MSS. relating to the history o/
supplied Matthew Paris with material for his biogra- Great Britain and Ireland, III (London, 1871), 136-9; Acta SS.,
phy, and, after attending the translation of his relics April, I (Venice, 176S), 277-318; C.apghave, Nore legenda Anglii

to Pontigny in 1249, wrote an account of the incident (London, 1516), 269; Pahls, Historia major, ed. Madden in R. S.,
II, III (London, 1866); Annales monastici, ed. Luard in R. S.
in a letter published by Matthew Paris (Historia (London, 1864) Flares historiarum, ed. Idem in R. S., II (London,
;

major, V, VI). Retiring to the house 'of the Domini- 1890); Rishanger's Chronicle, ed. Riley in R. S. (London, 1865);
cans at Orleans, Richard studied theology, was or- Trivet, ed. Hog, Annales sex regum Anglice (London, 1845);
Calendar of Papal Letters, ed. Bliss, I (London, 1893) Vita di S,
dained priest, and, after founding a chapel in honour
:

Ricardo vescovo di Cicestria (Milan, 170Q) Stephens, Memorials

of St.. Edmund, returned to England where he became
;

of the See of Chichester (London, 1876) 83-98, contains the best

,

Vicar of Deal and Rector of Charring. Soon afterwards modern life; Wallace, St. Edmund of Canterbury (London, 1893),
196-205; Gasquet, Henry III and the Church (London, 1905),
he was induced by Boniface of Savoy, the new Arch- 222, 343; Challoner, Britannia sancta (London, 1745), 206-13;
bishop of Canterbury, to resume his former office of Stanton, Menology of England and Wales (London, 1887), 141-3.
chancellor. G. Roger Hudleston.
In 1244 Ralph Neville, Bishop of Chichester, died;
the election of Robert Passelewe, Archdeacon of Chi- Richard Petherston, Blessed, priest and martyr,
chester, to the vacant see, was quashed by Boniface at 30 July, 1540. He was chaplain to
d. at Smithfield,
a synod of his suffragans, held 3 June, 1244, and on his Catharine of Aragon and schoolmaster to her daugh-
recommendation the chapter elected Richard, their ter, Princess Mary, afterwards queen. He is called
choice being immediately confirmed by the arch- Doctor by Pits (De illustribus Angliae
sacr(B theologice
bishop. Henry III was indignant, as Robert Passe- scriptoribus, 729). He was one of the theologians ap-
lewe was a favourite, and he refused to surrender to pointed to defend Queen Catharine's cause in the
Richard the temporalities of his see. The Saint took divorce proceedings before the legates Wolsey and
his case to Innocent IV, who consecrated him in per- Campeggio, and is said to have written a treatise
son at Lyons, 5 March, 124.5, and sent him back to "Contra divortium Henrici et Catharinae, Liber
England. But Henry was immovable. Thus home- imus". No copy of this work is known to exist. He
less in his own diocese, Richard was dependent on the took part in the session of Convocation which began
charity of his clergy, one of whom, Simon of Tarring, in April, 1529, and was one of the few members who
shared with him the little he possessed. At length, in refused to sign the Act declaring Henry's marriage
1246, Henry was induced by the threats of the pope to with Catharine to be illegal ah initio, through the
deliver up the temporalities. As bishop, Richard lived pope's inability to grant a dispensation in such a case.
in great austerity, giving away most of his revenues as In 1534 he was called upon to take the Oath of Su-
alms. He compiled a number of statutes which regu- premacy and, on refusing to do so, was committed to
late in great detail the lives of the clergy, the celebra- the Tower, 13 Dec, 1534. He seems to have remained
tion of Divine service, the administration of the sacra- in prison till 30 July, 1540, when he was hanged,
ments, church privileges, and other matters. Every drawn, and quartered at Smithfield, together with the
priest in the diocese was bound to obtain a copy of Catholic theologians, Thomas Abel and Edward
these statutes and bring it to the diocesan synod (Wil- Powell, who like himself had been councillors to Queen
kins, " Concilia", I, 6SS-93) in this way the standard
; Catharine in the divorce proceedings, and three here-
of life among the clergy was raised considerably. For tics, Barnes, Garret, and Jerome, condemned for
the better maintenance of his cathedral Richard insti- teaching Zwinglianism. All six were drawn through
tuted a yearly collection to be made in every parish of the streets upon three hurdles, a Catholic and a heretic
the diocese on Easter or Whit Sunday. The mendi- on each hurdle. The Protestants were burned, and the
cant orders, particularly the Dominicans, received three Catholics executed in the usual manner, their
sjiecial encouragement from him. limbs being fixed over the gates of the city and their
In 1250 Richard was named as one of the collectors heads being placed upon poles on London Bridge.
of the subsidy for the crusades (Bliss, "Calendar of Richard was beatified by Leo XIII, 29 Dec, 1886.
Papal Letters", I, 263) and two years later the king Pits, De illustribus AnglitE scriptoribus (Paris, 1619), 729;
appointed him to preach the crusade in London. He Sander, tr. Lewis, Rise and Growth of the Anglican Schism (Lon-
don, 1877). 65, 67, 150; Buhnet, History of the Reformation,
made strenuous efforts to rouse enthusiasm for the ed. PococK (Oxford, 1865), I, 260, 472, 566-67; IV, 555, 563;
cause in the Dioceses of Chichester and Canterbury, Tanner, Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica (London, 1748), 278;
and while journeying to Dover, where he was to conse- Original Letters Relative to the E Hglish Reformation (Parker Society,
Cambridge, 1846), I, 209; Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII,
crate a new church dedicated to St. Edmund, he was ed. Gaihdner (London, 1882, 1883, 1885), VI, 311, 1199; VII,
taken ill. Upon reaching Dover, he went to a hospital 530; VIII, 666, 1001.
called "Maison Dieu", performed the consecration G. Roger Hodleston.
ceremony on 2 April, but died the next morning. His
Richard Kirkman, Blessed. See William
body was taken back to Chichester and buried in the
Lacy, Blessed.
cathedral. He was solemnly canonized by Urban IV
in the Franciscan church at Viterbo, 1262, and on 20 Richard of Cirencester, chronicler, d. about
Feb. a papal licence for the translation of his relics to 1400. He was the compiler of a chronicle from 447 to
a new shrine was given; but the unsettled state of the 1066, entitled "Speculum Historiale de Gestis Regum
country prevented this until 16 June, 1276, when the Angliae". The work, which is in four books, is of little
translation was performed by Archbishop Kilwardby historical value, but contains several charters granted
in the presence of Edward I. This shrine, which stood to ^A'estminster Abbey Nothing is known of Richard's
.

in the feretory behind the high altar, was rifled and life except that he was a monk of Westminster, who
destro>'eil at the Reformation. The much-restored made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1391, was still at
altar tomb in the south transept now commonly Westminster in 1397, and that he lay sick in the in-
assigned to St Richard has no evidence to support its
. firmary in 1400. Two other works are attributed to
claim, and no relics are known to exist The feast is
. him: "De Officiis", and "Super Symbolum Majus et
celebrated on 3 April. The most accurate version of Minus ", but neither is now extant. In the eighteenth
St Richard's will, which has been frequently printed, century his name was used by Charles Bertram as the
is that given by Blaauw in "Sussex Archaeological pretended author of his forgery "Richardus Copenen-
Collections", I, 164-92, with a translation and valu- sis de situ Britanniie", which deceived Stukeley and
able notes. His life was written by his confessor many subsequent antiquarians and historians, includ-
 RICHARD 45 RICHARD
ing Lingard, and which was only finally exposed by epistolas Pauli"; "Super evangelia"; "Super distinc-
Woodward in 1866-67. This spurious chronicle, how- tiones decreti"; "De ordine judiciorum"; "De cla-
ever, still appears under Richard's name in Giles, "Six vium sacerdotalium potestate"; "Contra Patrem
English Chronicles" (London 1872). Joannem Olivum"; a poem, "De conceptione im-
Ricardi Cicealrensis Speculum Historiale, ed. M.wOR, Rolls
Series (London, 1863-69); Stukeley, An Account of Richard of
maculata Virginis Maria;"; three MS. sermons now
Cirencester and his works (London, 1757); Hardy, Descriptive in the Bibliotheque Nationale (MS. 14947, nos. 47,
Catalogue (London, 1871); Hunt in Diet. Nat. Biog., s. v.; Boiy- 69, 98), and a sermon on the Ascension, the MS. of
LANDISTS, Catalogus cod. hagiog. Lat. B. N. (Paris, 1893).
which at Erlangen.
is Works erroneously ascribed
Edwin Burton. to him are a treatise on the rule of St. Francis; the
Richard of Cornwall (Richard Rufus, Ruts, "Quadragesimale" which was written by Francis of
—
Rosso, Rowse). The dates of his birth and death
are unknown, but he was still living in 1259.
Asti; the completion of the "Summa" of Alexander
of Hales, and an "Expositio super Ave Maria",
He was
an Oxford Franciscan, possibly a Master of Arts of probably by Richard of Saxony. His death is as-
that university, who had studied for a time in Paris signed by some to 1307 or 1308, by Pits to 1300, by
(1238), and then returned to Oxford.
Parkinson to some earlier date on the ground that he
He was chosen
with Haymo of Faversham to go to Rome to oppose was one of the "Four Masters", the expositors of the
the minister-general Elias. In 1250 he was lecturing Rule of St. Francis.
Wadding, Annates Minorum (2nd ed., Rome, 1731-45), and
at Oxford on the "Sentences ", till he was driven away supplement by Sbaralea (1806); Parkinson, Collectanea Anglo-
by the riots, when he returned to Paris and continued Minoritica (London, 1726) DE Martigne, La Scolastique et les
;

traditions Franciscaines: Richard de Middletown in Revue, scien.,

lecturing there, gaining the title Philosophus Admira-
eccUs., II (1885) Portali^, Vhypnotisme au moyen dge: Avicenne
;

bilis; but according to Roger Bacon his teaching was et Richard Middletown in Etudes relig. hist, litt., LV (1892)
very mischievous, and produced evil results for the Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du Moyen Age
(Paris, 1905); Kingsfobd in Diet, Nat, Biog, a, v. Middleton,
next forty years. He was again at Oxford in 1255 as
regent-master of the friars. Several works, all still Edwin Burton.
in MS., are attributed to him. These are: "Com-
mentaries on the Master of the Sentences", a work
Richard of Victor, theologian, native of
St.
Scotland, but the date and place of his birth are un-
formerly at Assisi; "Commentary on Bonaventure's
known; d. 1173 and was commemorated on 10 March
third book of Sentences" (Assisi); and a similar com-
mentary on the fourth book (Assisi). Pits ("De
in the necrology of the abbey. He was professed at
the monastery of St. Victor under the first Abbot
illustribus Angliae scriptoribus") denies his identity
Gilduin (d. 1155) and was a disciple of the great
with Richard Rufus on the ground that Rufus was
mystic Hugo whose principles and methods he adopted
born at Cirencester in Gloucestershire, and not in
and elaborated. His career was strictly monastic,
Cornwall.
Monumenfa Franciscana, ed. Brewer and Howlett in R. S. and his relations with the outer world were few and
(London, 1858-82) Wadding, Annates Minorum, IV (Lyons and
; slight. He was sub-prior of the monastery in 1159,
Rome, 1650); 2nd ed. (Rome, 1731-45); and supplement by and subsequently became prior. During his tenure
Sbaralea (1806); Parkinson, Collectanea Anglo- Minoritica
(London, 1726); Little, The Grey Friars in Oxford (Oxford, of the latter office, serious trouble arose in the com-
1892); Denipl]^, Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis (Paris, munity of St. Victor from the misconduct of the
1889) see also tr. of Thomas of Eccleston by Fr. Cuthbert,
;
English Abbot Ervisius, whose irregular life brought
The Friars and how they came to England (London, 1903), and
The Chronicle of Thomas of Eccleston (London, 1909) upon him a personal admonition from Alexander III,
Edwin Burton. and was subsequently referred by the pope to a com-
mission of inquiry under the royal authority; after
Richard of Middletown (a Media Villa), flour- some delay and resistance on the part of the abbot his
ished at the end of the thirteenth century, but the resignation was obtained and he retired from the
dates of his birth and death and most incidents of his monastery. A letter of exhortation was addressed by
life are unknown. Middleton Stoney in Oxfordshire the pope to " Richard, the prior" and the community
and Middleton Cheyney in Northamptonshire have in 1 170. Richard does not appear to have taken any
both been suggested as his native place, and he has active part in these proceedings, but the disturbed
also been claimed as a Scotsman. He probably condition of his surroundings may well have accen-
studied first at Oxford, but in 1283 he was at the tuated his desire for the interior solace of mystical
University of Paris and graduated Bachelor of Divinity contemplation. Ervisius's resignation took place in
in that year. He entered the Franciscan order. In 1172. In 1165, St. Victor had been visited by St.
1278 he had been appointed by the general of his order Thomas of Canterbury, after his flight from North-
to examine the doctrines of Peter Olivus, and the same ampton; and Richard was doubtless one of the
work was again engaging his attention in 1283. In auditors of the discourse delivered by the archbishop
1286 he was sent with two other Franciscans to Naples on that occasion. A letter to Alexander III, dealing
to undertake the education of two of the sons of with the affairs of the archbishop, and signed by
Charles II, Ludwig, afterwards a Franciscan, and Richard is extant and published by Migne. Like his
Robert. After the defeat of Charles by Peter of master, Hugo, Richard may probably have had some
Arragon the two princes were carried as hostages to acquaintance and intercourse with St. Bernard, who
Barcelona and Richard accompanied them, sharing is thought to have been the Bernard to whom the
their captivity till their release in 1295. The rest of treatise "De tribus appropriatis personis in Trini-
his life lies in obscurity. Anew point of interest at tate" is addressed. His reputation as a theologian
the present day lies in the fact that, medieval scho- extended far beyond the precincts of his monastery,
lasticthough he was, he knew and studied the phe- and copies of his writings were eagerly sought by
nomena of hypnotism, and left the results of his other religious houses. Exclusively a theologian,
investigations in his "Quodlibeta" (Paris, 1519, fol. unlike Hugo, he appears to have had no interest in
90-8) where he treats of what would now be termed philosophy, and took no part in the acute philosophi-
auto-suggestion and adduces some instances of tele- cal controversies of his time; but, like all the School
pathy. His works include "Super sententias Petri of St. Victor, he was willing to avail himself of the
Lombardi", written between 1281 and 1285, and first didactic and constructive methods in theology which
printed at Venice, 1489; "QuaestionesQuodlibetales" had been introduced by Abelard. Nevertheless, he
in MS. at Oxford and elsewhere; "Quodlibeta tria" regarded merely secular learning with much suspicion,
printed with the Sentences at Venice, 1509; "De holding it to be worthless as an end in itself, and only
gradibus formarum" in MS. at Munich; and "Quae- an occasion of worldly pride and self-seeking when
stiones disputatae" in MS. at Assisi. Other works divorced from the knowledge of Divine things. Such
which have been attributed to him are: "Super learning he calls, in the antithetical style which char-
 RICHARD 46 RICHARD
acterizes all his writing, " Sapientia insipida et doctrina Tyburn, 17 Feb., 1603. He arrived at Reims 16 July,
indocta"; and the professor of such learning is "Cap- 1592, and on 21 Aug. following was sent to Valladolid,
tator famae, neglector conseientiae " Such worldly- where he arrived 23 Dec. Thence, 1 Oct., 1594, he was
minded persons should stimulate the student of sacred sent to Seville where he was ordained. According to
things to greater efforts in his own higher sphere one account he was arrested at Clement's Inn on 12
"When we consider how much the philosophers of Feb., but another says he had been kept a close pris-
this world have laboured, we should be ashamed to be oner in Newgate for a week before he was condemned
inferior to them"; "We should seek always to com- at the OldBailey on the 15 Feb., under stat. 27Eliz., c.
prehend by reason what we hold by faith." 2, for being a priest and coming into the realm. He
His works fall into the three classes of dogmatic, was betrayed by one of his trusted friends to the Lord
mystical, and exegetical. In the first, the most im- Chief Justice, who expedited his trial and execution
portant is the treatise in six books on the Trinity, with with unseemly haste, and seems to have acted more as
the supplement on the attributes of the Three Persons, a public prosecutor than as a judge. At his execution
and the treatise on the Incarnate Word. But greater he showed great courage and constancy, dying most
interest now belongs to his mystical theology, which is cheerfully, to the edification of all beholders. One of
mainly contained in the two books on mystical con- his last utterances was a prayer for the queen.
GiLLOw, Bihl. Diet. Eng. Cath., V, 414; Chai.loner, Missionary
templation, entitled respectively "Benjamin Minor" Priests, I, n. 134; Calendar State Papers Domestic, 1601-3 (Lon-
and "Benjamin Major", and the allegorical treatise don, 1870), 292, 298, 300, 301, 302.
on the Tabernacle. He carries on the mystical doc- John B. Wainewright.
trine of Hugo, in a somewhat more detailed scheme,
in which the successive stages of contemplation are Richard Thirkeld, Blessed, martyr; b. at Conis-
described. These are six in number, divided equally cliffe, Durham, England; d. at York, 29 May, 1583.

—
among the three powers of the soul the imagination, From Queen's College, Oxford, where he was in 1564-
the reason, and the intelligence, and ascending from 5, he went to Reims, where he was ordained priest, 18

the contemplation of the visible things of creation to April, 1579, and left 23 May for the mission, where he
the rapture in which the soul is carried "beyond it- ministered in or about York, and acted as confessor to
self" into the Divine Presence, by the three final Ven. Margaret Clitheroe. On the eve of the Annuncia-
stages of "Dilatio, sublevatio, alienatio". This tion, 1583, he was arrested while visiting one of the
schematic arrangement of contemplative soul-states is Catholic prisoners in the Ousebridge Kidcote, York,
substantially adopted by Gerson in his more systema- and at once confessed his priesthood, both to the
tic treatise on mystical theology, who, however, makes pursuivants, who arrested him, and to the mayor
the important reservation that the distinction between before whom he was brought, and for the night was
reason and intelligence is to be understood as func- lodged in the house of the high sheriff. The next day
tional and not real. Much use is made in the mystical he was sent to the Ousebridge Kidcote. On 27 May
treatises of the allegorical interpretation of Scripture his trial took place, at which he managed to appear in
for which the Victorine school had a special affection. cassock and biretta. The charge was one of having
Thus the titles " Benjamin Major " and "Minor" refer reconciled the queen's subjects to the Church of Rome.
to Ps. Ixvii, "Benjamin in mentis excessu" Rachel He was found guilty on 27 May and condemned 28
represents the reason, Lia represents charity; the May. He spent the night in instructing his fellow-
tabernacle is the type of the state of perfection, in prisoners, and the morning of his condemnation in up-
which the soul is the dwelling-place of God. In like holding the faith and constancy of those who were
manner, the mystical or devotional point of view pre- brought to the bar. No details of his execution are
dominates in the exegetical treatises; though the extant six of his letters still remain, and are summar-
:

critical and doctrinal exposition of the text also re- ized by Dom Bede Camm.
ceives attention. The four books entitled " Traotatus Camm, Lives of the English Martyrs, II (London, 1904 ), —
635-53; Challoner, Missionary Priests, I, no. 20; Surteeb, His-
exceptionum", and attributed to Richard, deal with tory oj Durham, III (London, 1820-40), 381.
matters of secular learning. Eight titles of works John B. Wainewright.
attributed to him by Trithemius (De Script. Eccl.)
refer probably to MS. fragments of his known works. Richard Whitingr, Blessed, last Abbot of Glaston-
A "Liber Penitentialis" is mentioned by Montfaugon bury and martyr, parentage and date of birth un-
as attributed to a "Ricardus Secundus a Sancto known, executed 15 Nov., 1539; was probably edu-
Victore", and may probably be identical with the cated in the claustral school at Glastonbury, whence he
treatise "De potestate solvendi et hgandi" above proceeded to Cambridge, graduating as M.A. in 1483
mentioned. Nothing is otherwise known of a second and D.D. in 1505. If, as is probable, he was already
Richard of St. Victor. Fifteen other MSS. are said a monk when he went to Cambridge he must have
to exist of works attributed to Richard which have received the habit from John Selwood, Abbot of
appeared in none of the published editions, and are Glastonbury from 1456 to 1493. He was ordained
Erobably spurious. Eight editions of his works have deacon in 1500 and priest in 1501, and held for some
een published: Venice, 1506 (incomplete) and 1592; years the office of chamberlain of his monastery. In
Paris, 1518 and 1550; Lyons, 1534; Cologne, 1621; February, 1525, Richard Bere, Abbot of Glastonbury,
Rouen, 1650, by the Canons of St. Victor; and by died, and the community, after deciding to elect his
Migne. successor per formam compromissi, which places the
Hdqonin, Notice sur R. de St. Victor in P. L„ CXCVI; EngeI/- selection in the hands of some one person of note,
HARDT, R. von St. Victor u. J. Ruysbroek (Erlangen, 1838);
Vaughan, Hours irilh the My.^lics, V (London, 1893); Inge, agreed to request Cardinal Wolsey to make the choice
Christian Mysticism (.London, INIIS); De Wulf, Histoire de la of an abbot for them. After obtaining the king's per-
philosophic mSdiivale (Louvain, 190.5); Buonamici, R. di San.
Villorc — sagqidi studio sulla ftlosofia mistica del secoio A'// (Alatri,
mission to act and giving a fortnight's inquiry to the
1S9SI; VON HOgel, The Mystical Element in Religion (London, circumstances of the case Wolsey on 3 March, 1525,
1909); Underbill, Mysticism (London, 1911). nominated Richard Whiting to the vacant post. The
A. B. Sharpe. first ten years of Whiting's rule were prosperous and

Richard Reynolds, Blessed. See John Hough- peaceful, and he appears in the State papers as a care-
ful overseer of his abbey alike in spirituals and tem-
ton, Blessed.
porals. Then, in August, 1535, came the first "visi-
Richardson (alias Anderson), William, Vener- tation " of Glastonbury by Dr. Layton, who, however,
able, last martyr under Queen Elizabeth; b. accord- found all in good order. In spite of this, however, the
ing to Challoner, at ^'ales in Yorkshire (i. e. presu- abbot's jurisdiction over the town of Glastonbury was
mabh- A\'ales, near Sheffield), but, according to the suspended and minute "injunctions" were given to
Valladulid diary, a Lancashire man; executed at him about the management of the abbey property;
 RICHELIEU 47 RICHELIEU
but then and more than once during the next few Richelieu, Aemand-Jean du Plessis, Cardinal,
years he was assured that there was no intention of Duke de, French statesman, b. in Paris, 5 September,
suppressing the abbey. 1585; d. there 4 December, 1642. At first he intended
By January, 1539, Glastonbury was the only mon- to follow a military career, but when, in 1605,hisbrother
astery left in Somerset, and on 19 September in that Alfred resigned the Bishopric of Lugon and retired to
year the royal commissioners, Layton, Pollard and the Grande Chartreuse, Richelieu obtained the see
Moyle, arrived there without warning. Whiting hap- from Henry IV and withdrew to the country to take
pened to be at his manor of Sharpham. Thither the up his theological studies under the direction of Bishop
commissioners followed and examined him according Cosp^an of Aire. He was consecrated bishop on 17
to certain articles received from Cromwell, which ap- April, 1607; he was not yet twenty-two years old, al-
parently dealt with the question of the succession to though the Brief of Paul V dated 19 December, 1606,
the throne. The abbot was then taken back to announcing his appointment contains the statement:
Glastonbury and thence sent up to London to the "in vigesimo tertio aetatis anno tantum constitutus"
Tower that Cromwell might examine him for himself, Mgr Lacroix, the historian of Richelieu's youth, be-
but the precise charge on which he was arrested, and
subsequently executed, remains uncertain though his
case is usually referred to as one of treason. On 2
October, the commissioners wrote to Cromwell that
they had now come to the knowledge of "divers and
sundry treasons committed by the Abbot of Glaston-
bury", and enclosed a "book" of evidences thereof
with the accusers' names, which however is no longer
forthcoming. In Cromwell's MS., "Remembrances",
for the same month, are the entries: "Item, Certayn
persons to be sent to the Towre for the further exam-
enacyon of the Abbot of Glaston Item.
. . .

The Abbot of Glaston to (be) tryed at Glaston and

also executyd there with his complycys. Item. .

Councillors to give evidence against the Abbot of

Glaston, Rich. Pollard, Lewis Forstew (Forstell),
Thos. Moyle." Marillac, the French Ambassador,
on 25 October wrote: "The abbot of Glastonbury
. . has lately been put in the Tower, because, in
.

taking the Abbey treasures, valued at 200,000 crowns,

they found a written book of arguments in behalf of
queen Katherine." If the charge was high treason,
which appears most probable, then, as a member of
the House of Peers, Whiting should have been at-
tainted by an Act of Parliament passed for the pur-
pose, but his execution was an accomplished fact be-
In fact it seems clear that
TOMB OF RiCHEUETJ
fore Parliament even met.
Church of the Sorbonne, Paris
his doom was deliberately wrapped in obscurity by
Cromwell and Henry, for Marillac, writing to Francis lieves that in a journey made to Rome at the end of
I on 30 November, after mentioning the execution of 1606, Richelieu deceived the pope as to his age, but
the Abbots of Reading and Glastonbury, adds: the incident is still obscure. In his diocese, Richelieu
'
could learn no particulars of what they were charged
' showed great zeal for the conversion of Protestants
with, except that it was the relics of the late lord mar- and appointed the Oratorians and the Capuchins to
quis" which makes things more perplexing than ever.
;
give missions in all the parishes. Richelieu repre-
Whatever the charge, however, Whiting was sent sented the clergy of Poitou in the States General of
back to Somerset in the care of Pollard and reached 1614, when his political career began. There he was
Wells on 14 November. Here some sort of trial ap- the mouth-piece of the Church, and in a celebrated
parently took place, and next day, Saturday, 15 No- discourse demanded that bishops and prelates be sum-
vember, he was taken to Glastonbury with two of his moned to the royal councils, that the distribution of
monks, Dom John Thome and Dom Roger James, ecclesiastical benefices to the laity be forbidden, that
where all three were fastened upon hurdles and the Church be exempt from taxation, that Protestants
dragged by horses to the top of Tor Hill which over- who usurped churches or had their coreligionists
looks the town. Here they were hanged, drawn and interred in them be punished, and that the Decrees
quartered. Abbot Whiting's head being fastened over of the Council of Trent be promulgated through-
the gate of the now deserted abbey and his limbs ex- out France. He ended by assuring the young king
posed at Wells, Bath, Ilohester and Bridgewater. Louis XIII that the desire of the clergy was to have
Richard Whiting was beatified by Pope Leo XIII in the royal power so assured that it might be "oomme
his decree of 13 May, 1895. His watch and seal are un ferme rocher qui brise tout ce qui le heurte" (as a
still preserved in the museum at Glastonbury.
firm rock which crushes all that opposes it).
Heabne, History and Antiquities of Glastonbury (Oxford, 1722) Richelieu was named secretary of state on 30 Novem-
Adam de Domerham, Hist, de rebus . . . Glastomensibus, ber, 1616, but after the assassination of Concini, fav-
ed. Heabne (Oxford, 1727); Leland, Collectanea, ed. Hearne
ourite of Maria de' Medici, he was forced to leave the
(Oxford, 1715), VI, 70; Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic,
Henry VIII.. ed. Brewer and Gairdner (London, 1870, 1902),
ministry and follow the queen mother to Blois. To
IV-XVIII- Sander, tr. Lewis, Rise and Growth of the Anglican escape the political intrigues which pursued him he re-
Schism (London, 1877), 141, 142; Wright, Letters relating to the tired in June, 1617, to the priory of Coussay and,
Suppression of the Monasteries, in publ. Camden Soc. (London,
1843) Burnet, History of the Reformation, ed. Pollock (London,
;
during this time of leisure caused by his disgrace, pub-
1875)- GASQnET, Henry VIII and the English Monasteries, II lished in October, 1617 (date confirmed by Mgr La-
(London, 1888), 325-86; Idem, The last Abbot of Glastonbury croix), his " Les principaux points de la foi de I'^glise
(London, 1896); see also review of this work by Dixon in
English Historical Review (Oct., 1897), 782; Baumeb, Die Bmc-
catholique, d^fendus centre I'^crit adress^ au Roi par
dictiner-Martyren in England unter Heinrich VIII Studienm les quatre ministres de Charenton"; it was upon
O S B VIII, 502-31; IX, 22-38, 213-34; Archbold,HistorySomerset
reading this book half a century later that Jacques de
Religious Houses (Cambridge, 1892); Collinson, of
Somerset, II (Bath, 1791). See also bibliography to article Coras, a Protestant pastor of Tonneins, was converted
Glabtonbcry Abbey. G. RoGER HtJDLESTON. to Catholicism. Richelieu continued to be represented
 RICHELIEU 48 RICHELIEU
enemy to his power; the Capuchin,
to the king as an —
with the Protestant princes an alliance which had
I.eclercdu Tremblay, neAcr succeeded in completely been made only after an unsuccessful attempt to form
clearing him in Louis XIII's opinion. To disarm one with Bavaria and the Catholic princes of Germany.
suspicion Richelieu asked the king to name a place of That Richelieu was possessed of religious senti-
exile, Lind at his order went in 161S to Avignon, where ments cannot be contested. It was he who in Febru-
he passed nearly a year and where he composed a ary, 1638, prompted the declaration by which
catechism which became famous under the name of Louis XIII consecrated the Kingdom of France to the
"Instruction du cliretien ". This book, destined to be Virgin Mary; in the ministry he surrounded himself
read in e\'ery parish each Sunday at the sermon, was a with priests and religious; as general he employed
real blessing at a time when ignorance of religion was Cardinal de la Valette; as admiral, Sourdis, Arch-
the principal evil. When Maria de' Medici escaped bishop of Bordeaux; as diplomat, B^ruUe; as chief
from Blois, in 1619, Richelieu was chosen by the min- auxiliary he had Leclerc du Tremblay. He himself
ister Luyncs to negotiate for peace between Louis designated Mazarin his successor. He had a high
XIII and his mother. By Brief of 3 November, 1622, idea of the sacerdotal dignity, was continually pro-
he was created cardinal by Gregory XV. On 19 April, testing against the encroachments of the parlements
1024, he re-entered the Council of Ministers, and on 12 on the jurisdiction of the Church, and advised the
August, 1624, was made its president. Richelieu's king to choose as bishops only those who should
policy can be reduced to two principal ideas the do- : "have passed after their studies a considerable time
mestic unification of France and opposition to the in the seminaries, the places established for the study
House of Austria. At home he had to contend with of the ecclesiastical functions" He wished to com-
constant conspiracies in which Maria de' Medici, pel the bishops to reside in their dioceses, to estab-
Queen Anne of Austria, Gaston d'Orleans (the king's lish seminaries there, and to visit their parishes. He
brother), and the highest nobles of the court were in- aided the efforts of St. Vincent de Paul to induce the
volved. The executions of Marillac (1632), Mont- bishops to institute the "exercises des ordinants",
morency (1632), Cinq-Mars and of de Thou (1642) retreats, during which the young clerics were to pre-
intimidated the enemies of the cardinal. He had also pare themselves for the priesthood. Richelieu fore-
to contend with the Protestants who were forming a saw the perils to which nascent Jansenism would ex-
state within the state (see Huguenots). The capitu- pose the Church. Saint-Cyran's doctrines on the
lation of La Rochelle and the peace of Alais (28 June, constitution of the Church, his views on the organi-
1629) annihilated Protestantism as a political party. zation of the "great Christian Republic", his liaison
Richelieu's foreign policy (for which see Leclerc with Jansenius (who in 1635 had composed a violent
DU Teemblay) was characterized by his fearlessness pamphlet against France under the name of Mars
in making alliances with the foreign Protestants. At gallicus), and the manner in which he opposed the an-
various times the Protestants of the Grisons, Sweden, nulment of the marriage of Gaston d'Orldans, drew
the Protestant Princes of Germany, and Bernard of upon him the cardinal's suspicion. In having him
Saxe-Weimar were his allies. The favourable treaties arrested 14 May, 1638, Richelieu declared that "had
signed by Mazarin (q, v.) were the result of Richelieu's Luther and Calvin been confined before they had be-
policy of Protestant alliances, a policy which was gun to dogmatize, the states would have been spared
severely censured by a number of Catholics. At the many troubles". Two months later Richelieu forced
end of 1625, when Richelieu was preparing to give the solitaries of Port Royal-des-Champs to disperse;
back ^'alteline to the Protestant Grisons, the parti- some were sent to Paris, others to Fert6-Milon.
sans of Spain called him "Cardinal of the Hugue- Saint-Cyran remained in the dungeon of Vincennes
nots", and two pamphlets, attributed to the Jesuits until the cardinal's death. With the co-operation of
Eudemon Joannes and Jean Keller, appeared against the Benedictine GrSgoire Tarisse, Richelieu devoted
him; these he had burned. Hostilities, however, in- himself seriously to the reform of the Benedictines.
creased until finally the king's confessor opposed the Named coadjutor to the Abbot of Cluny in 1627,
foreign policy of the cardinal. This was a very im- and Abbot of Cluny in 1629, he called to this monas-
portant episode, and on it the recent researches of Father tery the Reformed Benedictines of Saint-Vannes. He
de Rochemonteix in the archives of the Society of proposed forming the congregations of Saint-Vannes
Jesus have cast new light. Father Caussin, author and Saint-Maur into one body, of which he was to have
of "La Cour Sainte", the Jesuit whom Richelieu, on been superior. Only half of this project was accom-
2.0 March, 1636, had made the king's confessor, tried plished, however, when in 1636 he succeeded in unit-
to use against the cardinal the influence of Mile, de La ing the Order of Cluny with the Congregation of
Fayet te, a lady for whom the king had entertained a Saint-Maur. From 1622 Richelieu was proviseur of
certain regard and who had become a nun. On the Sorbonne, and was in virtue of this office head of
S December, 1637, in a solemn interview Caussin re- the Association of Doctors of the Sorbonne. He had
called to the king his duties towards his wife, Anne of the Sorbonne entirely rebuilt between 1626 and 1629,
Austria, to whom he was too indifferent; asked him and between 1635 and 1642 built the church of the
to allow his mother, Maria de' Medici, to return to Sorbonne, in which he is now buried.
France; and pointed out the dangers to Catholicism On the question of the relations between the tem-
which might arise through Richelieu's alliance with poral and the spiritual powers, Richelieu really pro-
the Turks and the Protestant princes of Germany. fessed the doctrine called Duvalism after the theo-
After this inter\'iew Caussin gave Communion to the logian Duval, who admitted at the same time the
king and addressed him a very beautiful sermon, en- supreme power of the pope and the supreme power
treating him to obey his directions. Richelieu was of the king and the divine right of both. In the dis-
anxious that the king's confessor should occupy him- sensions between Rome and the Galileans he most
self solel>- with "giving absolutions", consequently, frequently acted as mediator. When in 1626 a book
on 10 De((_'mber, 1637, Caussin was dismissed and by the Jesuit Sanctarel appeared in Paris, affirming
exiled to Rcnnes, and his successor. Father Jacques the right of the popes to depose kings for wrong-doing,
Sirmond, celebrated for his historical knowledge, was heresy, or incapacity, it was burned in the Place de
fore(>,l to promise that, if he saw "anything censur-
Gr^ve; Father Co ton and the three superiors of the
able in the conduct of the State", he would report it to Jesuit houses summoned before the Parlement were
the cardinal and not attempt to influence the king's forced to repudiate the work.
conscience. However, I'ather Caussin's fears concern-
The enemies of the
Jesuits wished immediately to create a new disturb-
ing Richelieu's foreign policy were not shared by all of ance on the occasion of the pubhcation of the "Somme
his confreres. Father Lallemand, for instance, affirmed
thfelogique des verit6s apostoliques capitales de la re-
that it was rash to blame the king's political alliance hgion chretienne", by Father Garasse, but Richelieu
 RICHER 49 RICHER
opposed the continued agitation. It was, however, Upon the whole, Richelieu's policy was to preserve
renewed at the end of 1626, owing to a thesis of the a just mean between the parliamentary Galileans and
Dominican Tetef ort, which maintained that the Decre- the Ultramontanes. "In such matters", he wrote in
tals formed part of the Scripture. Richelieu again his political testament, "one must believe neither the
strove to allay feeling, and in a discourse (while still people of the palace, who ordinarily measure the
affirming that the king held his kingdom from God power of the king by the shape of his crown, which, be-
alone) declared that "the king cannot make an article ing round, has no end, nor those who, in the excesses
of faith unless this article has been so declared by the of an indiscreet zeal, proclaim themselves openly as
Church in her oecumenical councils" Subsequently, partisans of Rome". One may believe that Pierre de
Richelieu gave satisfaction to the pope when on 7 De- Marca's book was inspired by him and reproduces his
cember, 1629, he obtained a retraction from the Galli- ideas. According to this book the liberties of the
•can Edmond Richer, syndic of the theological faculty, Galilean Church have two foundations: (1) the recog-
who submitted his book "La puissance ecclcsias- nition of the primacy and the sovereign authority of
tique et politique to the judgment of the pope.
'

' Nine the Church of Rome, a primacy consisting in the

years later, however, Richelieu's struggles against the right to make general laws, to judge without appeal,
resistance offered by the French clergy to taxes led and to be judged neither by bishops nor by councils;
him to assume an attitude more deliberately Galilean. (2) the sovereign right of kings which knows no su-
Contrary to the theories which he had maintained in perior in temporal affairs. It is to be noted that
his discourse of 1614 he considered, now that he was Marca does not give the superiority of a council over
minister, that the needs of the State constituted a the pope as a foundation of the Galilean liberties.
case oi force majeure, which should oblige the clergy to (For Richelieu's work in Canada see article Canada.)
submit to all the fiscal exigencies of the civil power. In 1636 Richelieu founded the Academic Frangaise.
As early as 1625 the assembly of the clergy, tired of He had great literary pretentions, and had several
the incessant demands of the Government for money, mediocre plays of his own composition produced in a
Lad decreed that no deputy could vote supplies with- theatre belonging to him. With a stubbornness in-
out having first received full powers on the subject; explicable to-day Voltaire foolishly denied that Rich-
Richeheu, contesting this principle, declared that the elieu's "Testament politique" was authentic; the re-
needs of the State were actual, while those of the searches of M. Hanotaux have proved its authenticity,
Church were chimerical and arbitrary. and given the proper value to admirable chapters such
In 1638 the struggle between the State and the as the chapter entitled "Le conseil du Prince", into
iclergy on the subject of taxes became critical, and which Richelieu, says M. Hanotaux, "has put all his
Richelieu, to uphold his claims, enlisted the aid of the soul and his genius". [For Richelieu's "Mtooires"
brothers Pierre and Jacques Dupuy, who about the see Hablay, Family of: (2) Achille de Harlay.]
middle of 1638 published "Les fibert^s de I'eglise Besides the works indicated in the articles Leclerc du Trem-
BLAY and Maria de' Medici the following may be consulted:
gaUicane". This book estabhshed the independence Maxiynes d'etat et fragments politiques du cardinal de Richelieu, ed.
lof the Galilean Church in opposition to Rome only to Hanotaux (Paris, 1880); Lettres, instructions di-plomatiques et
reduce it into servile submission to the temporal power. papiers d itat du cardinal de Richelieu, ed. Avenel (8 vols., Paris,
1853-77) MSmoires du cardinal de Richelieu, ed. Horric de Beau-
'The clergy and the nuncio complained; eighteen
;

CAiRE, I (Paris, 1908); Lair, LAVOLLiE, Bruel, Gabriel de

bishops assembled at the house of Cardinal de la MuN, and Lecestre, Rapports et notices sur I'edition des Me-
Hochefoucauld, and denounced to their colleagues this moires du cardinal de Richelieu priparee pour la societe de I'his-
' toire de Prance (3 fasc, Paris, 1905-07); Hanotaux, Hist, du
' work of the devil
'
Richelieu then exaggerated his
' .
cardinal de Richelieu (2 tomes in 3 vols., Paris, 1893-1903), ex-
fiscal exigencies in regard to the clergy; an edict of tends to 1624; Caillet, UAdministration en France sous le mi-
nistirre du cardinal de Richelieu (2 vols., Paris, 1863); D'Avenel,
16 April, 1639, stipulated that ecclesiastics and com- Richelieu et la monarchic absolue (4 vols., Paris, 1880-7) ;Idem,
munities were incapable of possessing landed prop- La noblesse franQaise sous Richelieu (Paris, 1901) Idem, PrS-
;

erty in France, that the king could compel them to tres, soldats et juges sous Richelieu (Paris, 1907); Lacroix, Riche-
Geley,
.surrender their possessions and unite them to his do- lieu d LuQon, sa jeunesse, son episcopal (Paris, 1890) ;

Fancan et la politique de Richelieu de 1617 d 1627 (Paris, 1884);

mains, but that he would allow them to retain what De Rochemonteix, Nicholas Caussin, confesseur de Louis XIII,
they had in consideration of certain indemnities which et le cardinal de Richelieu (Paris, 1911); Perraud, Le cardinal de
Richelieu evSque, theologien et protecteur des lettres (Autun, 1882)
should be calculated in going back to the year 1520. Valentin, Cardinalis Richelieu scriptor ecclesiasticus (Toulouse,
In Oct., 1639, after the murder of an equerry of Mar- 1900) Lodge, Richelieu (London, 1896) Perkins, Richelieu and
; ;

shal d'Estrfe, the French Ambassador, Estrefe de- the Growth of French Power (New York, 1900).
clared the rights of the people violated. Richelieu Georges Goyau.
refused to receive the nuncio (October, 1639) ; a de-
cree of the royal council, 22 December, restrained the Richer, a monk of Saint-R6mi (flourished about
powers of the pontifical Briefs, and even the canonist 980-1000), was the son of a knight belonging to the
Marca proposed to break the Concordat and to hold a Court of Louis IV d'Outre-Mer (reigned 936-54).
national council at which Richelieu was to have been Richer inherited from his father a love of war and
made patriarch. Precisely at this date Richelieu had politics. At Saint-R6mi he was a pupil of Gerbert's;
a whole series of grievances against Rome: Urban besides Latin he studied philosophy, medicine, and
Till had refused successively to name him Legate of mathematics. Nothing more than these facts is
the Holy See in France, Legate of Avignon, and coad- known with certainty concerning his life. The great
jutor to the Bishop of Trier; he had refused the pur- Gerbert commissioned him to write a history of
ple to Father Joseph, and had opposed the annulment France. The only MSS. of his "Historiarum libri
of the marriage of Gaston d'OrMans. But Richelieu, IV" was discovered by Pertz (1833) at Bamberg and
however furious he was, did not wish to carry things then published. Richer selected the date 882, with
to extremes. After a certain number of polemics on which Hincmar's annals closed, for the starting-
the subject of the taxes to be levied on the clergy, the point of his history. In his work he depends upon
ecclesiastical assembly of Mantes in 1641 accorded to Flodoard (d. 966) In his eagerness for rhetorical orna-
.

the Government (which was satisfied therewith) five ment Richer frequently loses sight of historical ac-
and a half millions, and Richelieu, to restore quiet, ac- curacy. Notwithstanding this, in Wattenbach's
cepted the dedication of Marca's book "La Concorde opinion, the work has great value: "he is our sole
du sacerdoce et de I'empire", in which eertam excep- informant for the very important period in which the
tions were taken to Dupuy's book. At the same time sovereignty passed from the Carlovingians to the
the sending of Mazarin as envoy to France by Ur- Capetians" He gives a large amount of important
ban VIII, and the presentation to him of the cardinal's information concerning this era. His statements
hat put an end to the differences between Richelieu concern both the events of the larger history as well
and the Holy See. as of the destinies of his chm-ch and school at Reims;
 RICHMOND 50 RICHMOND
to George Brent in 1687. In the spring of 1634 Father
we also welcome information relatmg
receive
culture. John Altham, a Jesuit companion of Father Andrew
various matters regarding the history of
Carlovm- White, the Maryland missionary, laboured amongst
In politics he defended the rights of the
some of the Virginia tribes on the south side of the
giiins. King Henry I of Germany was to hmi only
matters Potomac. Stringent laws were soon enacted in Vir-
the King of Saxony. In ecclesiastical
Gerbert. ginia against Catholics. In 1687 Fathers Edmonds
Rii'her held to the views of his master
to and Raymond were arrested at Norfolk for exercising
Richer is the first writer to give clear expression
their priestly functions. During the last quarter of the
the conception of a French nationality. ,^ ,, ,

Ebert, All.iim. Cexh. der Lit. des MiUelaUrr-< im Abendlande eighteenth century the few Catholic settlers at Aquia
Gcschichlsqwllen im Creek, near the Potomac, were attended by Father
(I.cipziK, 1SS7); Wattendvch, DeutscUnnds
MMflaiier (Stuttgart, 19(14); Richcn HistoHarum hbri I
eel.

Scrip., Ill: new

\

ed. by Waitz in
.

John Carroll and other Jesuit missionaries from Mary-

PKurz in Mon. Germ. Hist.:
Scrinl. rer. Germ, in usum schul. (Hanover, 1S77);
Keiman'N, ue land.
Rirliiri rita et scriptis (Olsnaj, 1845); Giesebbecht,
drul^rhdi Retrhes unleT Otto II (Berlin, 1S40), excursus xv;
Jahrb. des
All-
—
American Period. Rev. Jean Dubois, afterwards
des Savanls
third Bishop of Xew York, accompanied by a few
NET, Richeri Init. lib. quatuor in Jour, (}|66U/Y°il™'
Etudes .^ur t'liisl. de Hugues Capet in Rev. hist., XXVlli (ISSO); French priests and with letters of introduction from
WiTTicH, Richer iiber 'he Hersage Giselbert von Lothnngen und Lafayette to several prominent \'irginia families, came
Heinrich von Sachsen in Forschungen zur deidschen Gesch., Ill to Norfolk in August, 1791, where he laboured a few
(1863).
Feanz Kampers.

Richmond, Diocese of (Richmondensis), suf-

fragan of Baltimore, established 11 July, 1820, com-
prises the State of Virginia, except the Counties of
Accomac and Northampton (Diocese of Wilmington)
and Bland, Buchanan, Carroll, Craig (partly), Dickin-
son, Floyd, Giles, Grayson, Lee, Montgomery,
Pulaski, Russell, Scott, Smyth, Tazewell, Washing-
ton, Wise, and Wythe (Diocese of Wheeling); and in
the State of \\'est Virginia, the Counties of Berkeley,
Grant, Hampshire, Hardy, Jefferson, Mineral, Mor-
gan, and Pendleton. It embraces 31,518 square miles
in Virginia and 3290 square miles in West Virginia.
Originally it included also the territory of the present
Dioce.se of Wheeling, created 23 July, 18.50.
Colonial Period. —
In the summer of 1526 a Spanish
Catholic settlement was made in Virginia on the very
spot (according to Ecija, the pilot-in-chief of Florida)
where, in 1607, eighty-one years later, the English
founded the settlement of Jamestown. Lucas Vds-
quez de Ayll6n, one of the judges of the island of San
Domingo, received from the King of Spain, 12 June,
l.y23, a patent empowering him to explore the coast
for 800 leagues, establish a settlement within three
years and Christianize the natives. In June, 1526,
Ayll6n sailed from Puerto de La Plata, San Domingo,
with three vessels, 600 persons of both sexes, horses,
and supplies. The Dominicans Antonio de Monte-
sinos and Antonio de Cervantes, with Brother Peter
de Estrada, accompanied the expedition. Entering
the Capes at the Chesapeake, and ascending a river
Cathebral of the Sacred Heart, Richmond
(the James), he landed at Guandape, which he named
St. Michael. Buildings were constructed and the months, and probably left the priests who came with
Holy Sacrifice offered in a chapel, the second place of him. Proceeding to Richmond towards the end of
Catholic worship on American soil. Ayll6n died of the year, he offered in the House of Delegates, by in-
fever, 18 Oct., 1526. The rebellion of the settlers and vitation of the General Assembly, the first Mass ever
hostility of the Indians caused Francisco Gomez, the said in the Capital City. His successors at Rich-
next in command, to abandon the settlement in the mond, with interruptions, were the Revs. T. C. Mon-
spring of 1527, when he set sail for San Domingo in grand, Xavier Michel, John McElroy, John Baxter,
two vessels, one of which foundered. Of the party John Mahoney, James Walsh, Thomas Hore, and
only 150 reached their destination. Fathers Horner and Schreiber.
A second expedition sent by Menendez, the Gov- Tradition tells us that at an early date, probably
ernor of Florida and nominal Governor of Virginia, at the time of the Declaration of Independence, Alex-
settled on the Rappahannock River at a point called andria had a log chapel with an unknown resident
Axacan, 10 Sept., 1570. It consisted of Fathers priest. Rev. John Thayer of Boston (see Boston,
ScRura, \'ife-Provincial of the Jesuits, and Luis de Ahchdiocese of) was stationed there in 1794. Rev.
(^uiros, six Jesuit brothers, and a few friendly Indians. Francis Neale, who in 1796 constructed at Alexandria
.A log building served as chapel and home. Through a brick church, erected fourteen years later a more
the treachery of Don Luis de Vclasco, an Indian pilot suitable church where Fathers Kohlmann, Enoch,
of S]);inish name. Father O^uiros and Brothers Soils and Benedict Joseph Fenwick, afterwards second
and Mcnilfz were slain by the Indians, 14 Feb., 1.571. Bishop of Boston, frequently officiated. About 1796
Four clays later were martyred Father Segura, Broth- Rev. James Bushe began the erection of a church at
ers Linares, Redondo, Gabriel, Gomez, and Sancho Norfolk. His successors were the Very Rev. Leonard
Zcvalles. Menendez, several months later, sailed for Xeale, afterwards Archbishop of Baltimore (see Bal-
.Axacan, where he had ciKht of the murderers hanged; timore, Archdiocese of). Revs. Michael Lacy,
they being converted before death by Father John Christopher Delaney, Joseph Stokes, Samuel Cooper,
Rogel, a .Jesuit missionary. J. Van Horsigh, and A. L. Hitzelberger.
Attempts to found Catholic settlements in ^'irginia
were made by Lord Baltimore in 1629, and Captain
Bishop:^ of Richmond. — (1) Right Rev. Patrick Kelly,
D.D., consecrated first Bishop of Richmond, 24 Aug.,.
 RICHMOND 51 RICHMOND
1820, came to reside at Norfolk, where the Catholics University, Washington, 12 Aug., 1888, created titular
were much more numerous than at Richmond, 19 Archbishop of Damascus, 9 Jan., 1897, and transferred
Jan., 1821. The erection of Virginia into a diocese to the See of Dubuque, 24 July, 1900.
had been premature and was accordingly opposed by (6) Right Rev. Augustine Van De Vyver, D.D.,
the Archbishop of Baltimore. Because of factions consecrated, 20 Oct., 1889, began an able and vigorous
and various other difficulties. Bishop Kelly soon peti- rule. On 3 June, 1903, he publicly received the Most
tioned Rome to be relieved of his charge. He left Rev. Diomede Falconio, Apostolic Delegate, who the
Virginia in July, 1822, having been transferred to the following day laid the cornerstone of the new Sacred
See of Waterford and Lismore, where he died, 8 Oct., Heart Cathedral, one of the most artistic edifices in
1829. Archbishop MarSchal of Baltimore was ap- the country, designed by Joseph McGuire, architect^
pointed administrator of the diocese. of New York. A handsome bishop's house and a.
Rev. Timothy O'Brien, who came as pastor to pastoral residence adjoin the cathedral. The latter
Richmond in 1832, did more for Catholicism during his was solemnly consecrated by Mgr. Falconio on 29
eighteen years' labour than any other missionary, ex- Nov., 1906. The event was the most imposing Cath-
cepting the Bishops of the See. In 1834 he built St. olic ceremony in the history of the diocese. Besides
Peter's Church, afterwards the cathedral, and founded Cardinal Gibbons, and the Apostolic Delegate, there
St. Joseph's Female Academy and Orphan Asylum, were present 18 archbishops and bishops. Bishop
bringing as teachers three Sisters of Charity. Van De Vyver convened a quasi-synod, 12 Nov., 1907,
(2) The Right Rev. Richard Vincent Whelan, D.D., which approved the decrees of the Second Synod and
consecrated21 March, 1841, established the same year, enacted new and needed legislation. In 1907 the
on the outskirts of Richmond, St. Mncent's Seminary Knights of Columbus held at the Jamestown Exposi-
and College, discontinued in 1846. Leaving Rev. tion their national convention and jubilee celebration,
Timothy O'Brien at St. Peter's, Richmond, the Bishop participated in by the Apostolic Delegate, and several
took up his residence at the seminary, and acted as archbishops and bishops while the following year the
;

president. In 1842 Bishop Whelan dedicated St. St. Vincent de Paul Society held a similar celebration
Joseph's Church, Petersburg, and St. Patrick's in Richmond. In June, 1909, St. Peter's (Richmond)
Church, Norfolk, and the following year that of St. handsome new residence and the adjoining home of
Francis at Lynchburg. In 1846 he built a church at the McGill Union and the Knights of Columbus were
Wheeling and, two years later, founded at Norfolk completed, at a total cost of about $50,000. In the
St. Vincent's Female Orphan Asylum. Wheehng was following autumn St. Peter's Church (the old cathe-
made a separate sec, 23 July, 1850, and to it was trans- dral) celebrated the diamond jubilee of its existence.
ferred Bishop Whelan. With it, either as bishops or as priests, are indelibly
(3)Right Rev. John McGill, D.D., consecrated 10 linked the names of Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishops
Nov., 1850, was present in Rome in 1854 when the Keane and Janssens, and Bishops Van De Vyver,
Dogma of the Immaculate Conception was proclaimed. Whelan, McGill, Becker, Keiley, and O'Connell of
By pen and voice he opposed Knownothingism. In San Francisco. Most Rev. John J. Kain, deceased
1855 Bishop McGill convened the First Diocesan Synod. Archbishop of St. Louis, had also been a priest of the
During the yellow fever plague of the same year, Rev. diocese. Bishop Van De Vyver introduced into the
Matthew O'Keefe of Norfolk and Rev. Francis DevUn diocese the Fathers of the Holy Ghost; additional
of Portsmouth won renown the latter dying a martyr
; Benedictine and Josephite Fathers and Xaverian
to priestly duty. In 1856 St. Vincent's Hospital, Brothers; the Christian Brothers; additional Sisters
Norfolk, was founded. Alexandria, formerly in the of Charity; the Benedictine and Franciscan Sisters;
Baltimore archdiocese as part of the District of Co- Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, of the Blessed Sacra-
lumbia, but ceded back to Virginia, was annexed to ment and of the Perpetual Adoration. Under his
the Richmond diocese, 15 Aug., 1858. In 1860 the regime have been founded 12 new parishes, 32
bishop transferred St. Mary's German Church, Rich- churches, 3 colleges, 4 industrial schools, 2 orphan
mond, to the Benedictines. During the Civil War asylums, 1 infant asylum (coloured), and many paro-
Bishop McGill wrote two learned works, "The True chial schools.
Church Indicated to the Inquirer", and "Our Faith, Notable Benefactors. —
Mr. and Mrs. Thomas For-
the Victory", repubhshed as "The Creed of Cath- tune Ryan, of New York, the former donating, the
olics" The bishop established at Richmond the latter furnishing, the imposing Sacred Heart Cathedral
Sisters of the Visitation, and at Alexandria the (nearly $500,000), together with other notable bene-
Sisters of the Holy Cross. He also took part in the factions. Mrs. Ryan has built churches, schools,
Vatican Council. Bishop McGill died at Richmond, and religious houses in various parts of the state.
14 January, 1872. Other generous benefactors were Right Rev.
(4) Right Rev. James Gibbons, D.D. (afterwards Bernard McQuaid, D.D., Joseph Gallego, John P.
archbishop and cardinal), consecrated titular Bishop of Matthews, William S. Caldwell, Mark Downey, and
Adramyttum to organize North Carolina into a vica- John Pope.
riate, 16 Aug., 1868, was appointed Bishop of Rich- —
Statistics. (1911) Secular priests, 50; Benedictines,
:

mond, 30 July, 1872. He estabhshed at Richmond 10; Josephites, 6; Holy Ghost Fathers, 2; Brothers,
the Little Sisters of the Poor, and St. Peter's Boys' Xaverian, 35; Christian, 12; Sisters of Charity, 60; of
Academy. Erecting new parishes, churches, and St. Benedict, 50; Visitation Nuns, 23; Sisters of Char-
schools, making constant diocesan visitations, fre- ity of Nazareth, Kentucky, 20; of the Holy Cross, 20;
quently preaching to large congregations of both Little Sisters of the Poor, 18; Sisters of the Blessed
Catholics and non-Catholics, Bishop Gibbons, during Sacrament, 18; of St. Francis, 12; of Perpetual Adora-
his short rule of five years, accomplished in the diocese tion, 10; parishes with resident priests, 35; missions
a vast amount of religicms good. Made coadjutor with churches, 48; colleges, 3 (1 coloured), academies,
Bishop of Baltimore, 29 May, 1877, he succeeded 9; parochial schools, 26; industrial schools, 4 (2 col-
Archbishop Bayley in that see, 3 Oct., 1877. oured); orphan asylums, 4; infant asylums, 1 (col-
(5) Right Rev. John Joseph Keane, D.D. (after- oured) young people attending Catholic institutions,
;

wards archbishop), consecrated, 25 Aug., 1878. 7500; home for aged, 1 (inmates, 200); Catholic Hos-
Gifted with ever-ready and magnetic eloquence, pital, 1 (yearly patients, 3000).
Bishop Keane drew great numbers of people to hear —
Catholic Societies. Priests' Clerical Fund Associa-
his inspiring discourses. He held the Second Dio- tion; Eucharistic League; Holy Name; St. Vincent de
cesan Synod in 1886, and introduced into the diocese Paul; League of Good Shepherd; boys' and girls'
the Josephites and the Xaverian Brothers. Bishop sodalities; tabernacle, altar, and sanctuary societies;
Keane was appointed first Rector of the Catholic women's benevolent and beneficial; fraternal and
 EICHTER 52 RIENZI

social,such as Knights of Columbus, Hibernians, and art. For the south entrance he carved, besides an
flourishing local societies. Of parishes there are one annunciation and a representation of Christ as a
each of Gernians, Italians, and Bohemians, and 4 for gardener, the afterwards renowned statues of Adam
the coloured people. Catholic population, 41,000. and Eve, the heads of which are of special importance.
The causes of growth are principally natural increase There also he showed his gift of depicting character
and con\'ersions, t,here being little Cathohc immigra- in the more than life-size statues of Christ, the Bap-
tion into the diocese. tist, and the Twelve Apostles for the buttresses.
Maghi, The Catholic Church in the CUn and Diocese of Riclimand Elsewhere indeed we seek in vain for the merits of
(Richmond, Virginia, 190G); Parke, Catholic Missiovx in Vir- rounded sculpture. He had a special talent for the
ginia (Richmond, 1,S-5I)J; Keiley, Memoranda (Norfolk, VirEinia,
1S71); Proceedings of the Catholic Benevolent Union (Norfollt, noble representation of female saints (cf for example, .

1S75); The Metropolitan Catholic Almanac (Baltimore, 1841-61); Sts. Dorothea and Margareta in the same chapel,
Catholic Almanac and Directory (New York, 1865-95); Cathohc and the Madonna in the Miinsterkirche). A small
Directory (Mii\v;iuk.'.\ 1SH5-91; ODicial Catholic Directory (Mil-
waukee, 1900-11); IIuoheb, The History of the Society of Jesus m Madonna (now in the municipal museum at Frank-
.A'orlh America, Colonial and Federal (London, 1907); Shea, fort) is perfect both in expression and drapery. Be-
The History of the Catholic Church in the United States (.\kron, sides other works for the above-mentioned churches
Ohio, 1890); foreign references cited by Shea (I, bk. II, i, 106,
107, 149, 150); Navarette, Real Cidula que contiene el asiento
and a relief with the "Vierzehn Nothelfer" for the
aipitulado con Lucas Vdsquez de Aylldn; Coleccion de Viages y hospital (St. Burkhard), he carved for the cathedral
Bi-seubrunientos (Madrid, 1829), ii, 153, 156; Fernandez, His- of Wtirzburg a tabernacle reaching to the ceiling,
toria Ertesin.tlica de Kueslros Tiempos (Toledo, 1611); QuiBOS,
Letter uf 12 Sept.. 1.570; Rogel, Letter of 9 Dec. 1620: Barcia, two episcopal tombs, and a colossal cross all rec- —
Ensayo Cronoldgico, 142-6; Tanner, S^rietas Militaris, 447-51. ognized as excellent worlcs by those familiar with the
V. Joseph Maori. peculiar style of the master. Riemenschneider's
masterpiece is the tomb of Emperor Henry II in the
Richter, Henry Joseph. See Grand Rapids,
Cathedral of Bamberg; the recumbent forms of the
Diocese of.
emperor and his spouse are ideal, while the sides of
Ricoldo da Monte di Croce (Pennini), b. at the tomb are adorned with fine scenes from their
Florence about 1243; d. there 31 October, 1320. lives. The figures instinct with life, the drapery,
After studying in various great European schools, he and the expression of sentiment, are all of equal
became a Dominican, 1267 was a professor in several
; beauty. Among his representations of the "Lament
convents of Tuscany (1272-88), made a pilgrimage to o\er Christ", those of Heidingsfeld and Maidbrunn,
the Holy Land (1288), and then travelled for many in spite of some defects, are notable works; resem-
years as a missionary in western Asia, having his chief bling the former, but still more pleasing, is a third
headquarters at Bagdad. He returned to Florence in the university collection. The defects in many of
before 1302, and was chosen to high offices in his his works are probably to be referred for the most
order. His " Itinerarium " (written about 1288-91; part to his numerous apprentices. There are a great
published in the original Latin at Leipzig, 1864; in number of other works by him in various places, e. g.
Italian at Florence, 1793; in French at Paris, 1877) a beautiful group of the Crucifixion in the Darm-
was intended as a guide-book for missionaries, and is stadt Museum, another at Volkach am
Main rep-
.an interesting description of the Oriental countries resenting Our Lady surrounded by a rosary with
visited by him. The "Epistolse de Perditione Ac- scenes from her life in relief and being crowned by
conis" are five letters in the form of lamentations —
angels playing music the picture is suspended from
•over the fall of Ptolemais (written about 1292, pub- the roof.
lished at Paris, 1.S84). Ricoldo's best known work is There is a second Meister Tillmann Riemenschnei-
the "Contra Legem Sarracenorum", written at Bag- der, who carved the Virgin's altar in Creglingen.
•dad, which has been very popular as a polemical This bears so close a resemblance to the works of the
isource against Mohammedanism, and has been often younger "Master Dill", that recently many be-
-edited (first published at Seville, 1500). The "Chris- lieved it should be referred to him; in that case,
tianae Fidei Confessio facta Sarracenis" (printed at however, he would have executed one of his best
IBasle, 1.543) is attributed to Ricoldo, and was prob- works as a very young man.
ably written about the same time as the above men- Bode, Cesch. der deutschen Plastik (Berlin, 1885) ; Weber,
Leben u. Wirken T. Riemenschneiders (2nd ed., Wiirzburg, 1888);
tioned works. Other works are: "Contra errores ToNNiES, Leben u. Werke T. Riemenschneiders (Strasburg, 1900)
Judffiorum" (MS. at Florence); "Libellus contra Adelmann in Walhalla, VI (1910).
nationes orientales" (MSS. at Florence and Paris); G. GlETMANN.
"Contra Sarracenos et Alcoranum" (MS. at Paris);
"De variis religionibus " (MS. at Turin). Very prob- Rienzi, Cola di (i. e., Nicola, son of Lorenzo), a
ably the last three works were written after his return popular tribune and extraordinary historical figure.
to Europe. Ricoldo is also known to have written His father was an innkeeper at Rome in the vicinity
—
two theological works a defence of the doctrines of of the Trastevere; though it was believed that he was
St. Thomas (in collaboration with John of Pistoia, really the son of the Emperor Henry VII. His child-
about 12.S5) and a. commentary on the "Libri sen- hood and youth were passed at Anagni, with some
tentiarum" (before r2S;S.) Ricoldo began a transla- relatives to whom he was sent on the death of his
tion of the Koran about 1290, but it is not known mother. Though he was thus brought up in the coun-
whether this work was completed. try he succeeded in acquiring a knowledge of letters
Mandoxnet in Retue Bibliquc (1893), 44-61, 182-202, 584- and of Latin, and devoted himself to a study of the
'607;EcHAHn-QeiTiF, Script. CJrd. Prod., I, 506; Tocron, Hist,
des Hommes illus. de I'ordre de St. Dom., I, 759-63; Murray,
history of ancient Rome in the Latin authors, Livy,
Discoveries and Travels in Asia, I, 197. Valerius Maximus, Cicero, Seneca, Boethius, and the
J. A. McHuGH. poets. When his father died he returned to Rome
and practised as a notary. The sight of the remains
Kiel,Lons. See Saskatchewan and Alberta.
of the former greatness of Rome only increased his
Riemenschneider, Tillmann, one of the most admiration for the city and the men described in his
important of Prankish sculptors, b. at Osterode am favourite authors. Contemplating the condition in
Harz in or after 1460; d. at Wilrzburg, 1531.
In which Rome then was in the absence of the popes,
1483 he was admitted into the Guild of St. Luke at torn by the factions of the nobles who plundered on
\\'urzburg, where he worked until his death. In the all sides and shed innocent blood, he conceived a de-
tombstone of the Ritter von Grumbach he still ad- sire of restoring the justice and splendour of former
heres to the Gothic style, but in his works for the days. His plans became more definite and settled
Marienkapelle at \\'urzburg he adopts the Renais- when his brother was slain in a brawl between the Or-
sance style, while retaining reminiscences of earher sini and the Colonna. Thenceforth he thought only
 RIENZI 53 RIENZI
of the means of breaking the power of the barons. Roman Empire with an Italian emperor. In August,
To accomplish this he had first to win the favour of 1347, two hundred deputies of the Italian cities as-
the populace by upholding the cause of the oppressed. sembled at his request. Italy was declared free, and
In consequence of this and on acoount of the elo- all those who had arrogated a lordship to themselves
quence with which he spoke in Latin, he was sent to were declared fallen from power; the right of the peo-
Avignon in 1343 to Clement VI, by the captain of the gle to elect the emperor was asserted. Louis the
people, to ask him to return to Rome and grant the lavarian and Charles of Bohemia were called upon to
great jubilee every five years. Cola explained to the justify their usurpation of the imperial title. Cola,
pope the miserable condition of Rome. Clement was flattered himself secretly with the hope of becoming
much impressed, and appointed him to the office of emperor; but his high opinion of himself proved his.
notary (secretary) of the Camera Capitolina, in which ruin. He was a dreamer rather than a man of action;
position he could gain a better knowledge of the mis- he lacked many qualities for the exercise of good gov-
fortunes of the city. Cola then by his public dis- ernment, especially foresight and the elements of po-
courses and private conversations prepared the peo- liticalprudence. He had formed a most puerile con-
ple; a conspiracy was formed, and on 19 May, 1347, cept of the epipire. He surrounded himself with
Asiatic luxury, to pay for which he had to impose new
taxes; thereupon the enthusiasm of the people, weary
of serving a theatrical emperor, vanished. The barons
perceived this, and forgetting for the moment their
mutual discord, joined together against their common
enemy. In vain the bell summoned the people to
arms in the Campidoglio. No one stirred. Cola had
driven out the barons, but he had not thought of re-
ducing them to inaction; on the contrary he had ren-
dered them more hostile by his many foolish and hu-
miliating acts. Lacking all military knowledge he
could offer no serious resistance to their attacks. The
discontent of the people increased; the Bishop of
Orvieto, the other Rector of Rome, who had already
protested against what had occurred at the conven-
tion of the Italian deputies, abandoned the city; the
pope repudiated Cola in a Bull. Thus deserted, and
not believing himself safe, he took refuge in the Castle
of S. Angelo, and three days later (18 Dec, 1347) the
barons returned in triumph to restore things to their
former condition.
Cola fortunately succeeded in escaping. He sought
refuge with the Spiritual Franciscans living in the
hermitages of Monte Maiella. But the plague of 1348,
the presence of bands of adventurers and the jubilee
of 1350 had increased the mysticism of the people
and still more of the Spirituals. One of the latter,
Fra Angelo, told Rienzi that it was now the proper
moment to think of the common weal, to co-operate
in the restoration of the empire and in the puri-
fication of the Church: all of which had been pre-
dicted by Joachim of Flora, the celebrated Calabrian
abbot, and that he ought to give his assistance. Cola
betook himself thence to Charles IV at Prague (1350),
Statue op Cola di Rienzi who imprisoned him, either as a madman or as a,
G. Masini, Gradinata del Campi heretic. After two years Cola was sent at the request
of the pope to Avignon, where through the interces-
he summoned the populace to assemble the follow- sion of Petrarch, his admirer, though now disillu-
ing day in the Campidoglio. There Cola explained sioned, he was treated better. When Innocent VI
his plans and read a new democratic constitution sent Cardinal Albomoz into Italy (at the beginning of
which, among other things, ordained the establish- 1353) he allowed Cola di Rienzi to accompany him.
ment of a civic militia. The people conferred abso- The Romans, who had fallen back into their former
lute power on him; but Cola at first contented him- state of anarchy, invited him to return, and Albomoz
self with the title of tribune of the people; later, how- consented to appoint him senator (sindaco) of Rome.
ever, he assumed the bombastic titles of Candidatus Onl Aug., 1354, Rienzi enteredRomein triumph. But
Spiritus Sancti, Imperator Orbis, Zelator Italice, Ama- the new government did not last long. His luxury and
tor Orbis et Tribuniis Augustus (candidate of the Holy reveby, followed by the inevitable taxation, above all
Spirit, emperor of the world, lover of Italy, of the the unjust killing of several persons (among whom was
world, august tribune) . He was wise enough to select Fra Moriale, a brigand, in the service of Cola), pro-
a colleague, the pope's vicar, Raimondo, Bishop of voked the people to fury. On 8 Oct., 1354, the cry
Orvieto. The success of the new regime was wonder- of "Death to Rienzi the traitor!" rose in the city.
ful. The most powerful barons had to leave the city; Cola attempted to flee, but was recognized and slain,
the others swore fealty to the popular government. and his corpse dragged through the streets of the
An era of peace and justice seemed to have come. city. Cola represented, one might say, the death
The pope, on learning what had happened, regretted agony of the Guelph (papal-national-democratic) idea
that he had not been consulted, but gave Cola the and the rise of the classical (imperial and aesthetic)
title and office of Rector, to be exercised in conjunc- idea of the Renaissance.
tion with the Bishop of Orvieto. His name was heard Vita Nicolai Laurentii in Muratoki, Antiquitates; Vita Nicolai
everywhere, princes had recourse to him in their dis- Laurentii, ed. del R& (Florence, 1854) Gabrielli, Epistolario di
;

Cola Rienzo (Rome, 1890) Papenoordt, Cola di Rienzo und seine

;

putes, the sultan fortified his ports. Zeit (Hamburg, 1841); Rodocanachi, Cola di Rienzo (Paris,
Cola then thought of re-establishing the hberty and 1888).
independence of Italy and of Rome, by restoring the U. Bbnigni.
 RIETI 54 RIFFEL

Rieti, Diocese of (Reatina), Central Italy, im- spot, in the valley of the rivulet Rie (from whence
mediately subject to the Holy See. The city is situ- the abbey derived name), and surrounded by pre-
its

ated in the valley of the River Velino, which, on cipitous hills, in Blakemore, near Helmesley. The
account of the calcareous deposits that accumulate community took possession of the ground in 1131, and
in it, grows shallower and imperils the city, so that Ijegan the foundation, the first of their order in York-
even in ancient da>'.s it was necessary to construct shire. The church and abbey, as is the case with all
canals and outlets, like that of iNIarius Curius Den- monasteries of the order, were dedicated to the
tatus (272 B. c.) which, repaired and enlarged by Blessed Virgin Mary. At first their land being crude
Clement Ylll, has produced the magnificent waterfall and uncultivated, they suffered much until, after a
of the \'elino, near Terni. The city, which was number of years, their first benefactor again came to
founded by the Pelasgians, was the chief town of the their assistance and, later on, joined their community.
Sabines, and became later a Roman municipium and Their land, also, through their incessant labours, even-
prefecture. After the Longobard invasion it was the tually became productive, so that, with more ade-
seat of a "gastaldo", dependent on the Duchy of quate means of subsistence, they were able to devote
Spoleto. It was presented to the Holy See by Otto I their energies to the completion of church and
in 962; in 1143, after a long siege, it was destroyed by monastic buildings, though these were finished only
King Roger of Naples. It was besieged again in 1210 after a great lapse of time, on account of their isola-
by Otto of Brunswick when forcing his way into the tion and the fact that the monastery was never
Kingdom of Naples. In the thirteenth century the wealthy. The constructions were carried on section
popes took refuge there on several occasions, and in by section, permanent edifices succeeding those that
1288 it witnessed the coronation of Charles II of were temporary after long intervals. The final build-
Naples; later an Apostolic delegate resided at Rieti. ings,however, as attested by the magnificent, though
In 18(50, by the disloyalty of a delegate, it was occu- melancholy, ruins yet remaining, were completed on a
pied by the Italian troops without resistance. Rieti grand scale.
was the birthplace of Blessed Colomba (1.501) in the ; Within a, very few years after its foundation the
sixth century it contained an Abbey of St. Stephen; community numbered three hundred members, and
the body of St. Baldovino, Cistercian, founder of the was by far the most celebrated monastery in England;
monastery of Sts. Matthew and Pastor (twelfth cen- many others sprang from it, the most important of
tury) is venerated in the cathedral. Near Rieti is them being Melrose, the first Cistercian monastery
Greccio, where St. Francis set up the first Christmas built in Scotland. Rievaulx early became a brilliant
crib. The cathedral is in Lombard style, with a crypt centre of learning and holiness; chief amongst its
dating from the fourth or fifth century. It should be lights shone St. Aelred, its third abbot (1147-67),
remarked that in medieval documents there is fre- who from his sweetness of character and depth of
quent confusion between Beatinus (Rieti), Aretinus learning was called Bernardo prope par. He had been,
(Arezzo), and Tealinus (Chieti). The first known before his entrance into the cloister, a most dear
Bishop of Rieti is Ursus (499); St. Gregory mentions friend and companion of St. David, King of Scotland.
Probus and Albinus (sixth century). The names of History gives us but scant details of the later life at
many bishops in the Longobard period are known. Rievaulx. At the time of its suppression and con-
Later we meet with Dodonus (1137), who repaired the fiscation by Henry VIII the abbot, Rowland Blyton,
damage done by King Roger; Benedict, who in 1184 with twenty-three religious composed its community.
officiated at the marriage of Queen Constance of The estates of this ancient abbey are now in the
Naples and Henry VI; Rainaldo, a Franciscan (1249), possession of the Duncombe family.
restorer of discipline, which work was continued by Manrique, Annates Ciatercienses (Lyons, 1642) Mart|]NE;

AND DuRAND, ThesauTus norms anecdotorum, IV (Paris, 1717);

Tommaso (1252); Pietro Guerra (1278), who had Henriquez, Phoenix reviviscens (Bruasels, 1626) Dugdalb,
;

Andrea Pisano erect the episcopal palace with materi- Monasticon Anglicanum, V (London, 1817-30) Cartularium ab-
;

als taken from the ancient amphitheatre of Vespasian; de Rievalle in Surtees' Soc. Publ. (London, 1889) St. Adred,
bati(E ;

Abbot of Rievauz (London, 1845) Oxford, Ruins of Fountains

Lodovico Teodonari (1380), murdered while engaged
;

Abbey (London, 1910) Hodges, Fountains Abbey (New York,

;

in Divine service, on account of his severity, which 1904).

deed was cruelly punished by Boniface IX; Angelo Edmond M. Obrbcht.
Capranica (1450), later a cardinal; Cardinal Pompeo
Colonna (1508), who for rebellion against Julius II RifFel, Caspar, historian, b. at Bvldesheim,
and Clement VII was twice deprived of his cardinal- Bingen, Germany, 19 Jan., 1807; d. at Mainz, 15
itial dignity; Scipione Colonna (1520), his nephew, Dec, 1856. He studied under Klee at Mainz and
took part in the revolt against Clement VII in 1528, Bonn and under Mohler at Tubingen. After his
and was killed in an encounter with Amico of Ascoli, ordination to the priesthood, 18 Dec, 1830, he was
Abbot of Farfa; iNIarianus Victorius (1572, for a few named assistant priest at Bingen. In 1835 he was
days), a distinguished writer and patrologist; Giorgio appointed to a parish at Giessen, and to the chair of
Bolognetti (1639), restored the episcopal palace and moral theology in the local theological faculty. His
was distinguished for his charity; Gabrielle Ferretti transfer to the professorship in Church history fol-
(1827), later a cardinal, a man of great charity. At lowed in 1837. The publication of the first volume
present the diocese contains 60 parishes, 142,100 in- of his Church history in 1841 aroused a storm of
habitants, 250 secular priests, 7 religious houses with indignation among Protestants, to whom his accurate
63 priests, 15 houses of nuns; 2 educational establish- though not flattering account of the Reformation was
ments for boys, and 4 for girls. distasteful. The Hessian Government hastened to
C\PPELLETTI, Le chiene d' Italia, V; de Sanctis, Notizie storiche pension the fearless teacher (19 Nov., 1842). This
di Rieti (Rieti, 1887); Maroni, Commentarii de Ecclesia Reatina
(Rome, 1753). measure caused intense indignation among the dio-
U. Benigni. cesan Catholic clergy, who denounced the Protestant
atmosphere of the university. Riff el retired to
—
Rievaulx (Rievall), Abbey of. Thurston, Arch- Mainz, where Bishop von Ketteler appointed him
bishop of York, was very anxious to have a monastery in 1S51 professor of Church history in his newly
of the newly founded and fervent order of Cistercians organized ecclesiastical seminary. Death put a
in his diocese; and .so, at his invitation, St. Bernard premature end to the teaching of this Catholic
of Clairvaux sent a colony of his monks, under the educator, who contributed largely to the restoration
leadership of Abbot William, to make the desired of a truly ecclesiastical spirit among the German
foundation. After some delay ^^'aIter Espee became clergy. He wrote: "Geschichtliche Darstellung des
their founder and chief benefactor, presenting them Verhaltnisses zwischen Kirche und Staat", Mainz,
with a suitable estate, situated in a wild and lonely 1836; "Predigten auf alle Sonn- und Festtage des
o
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O
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W
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O
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 RIGBY 55 RIGHT
Jahres" Mainz, 1839-40, 3rd ed., 1854; "Christ- right is a moral or legal authority, and, as such, is
liche Kirchengesohichte der neuesten
Zeit", Mainz, distinct from merely physical superiority or pre-emi-
lN41-4b; "Die Aufhebung des Jesuitenordens", nence; the thief who steals something without being
3rd ed., Mamz, 1855. detected enjoys the physical control of the object,
gjGoYAU, L'Allemagne religieuse: le CathoHcisme, II (Paria, 190S), but no right to it; on the contrary, his act is an in-
justice, a violation of right, and he is bound to return
N. A. Weber. the stolen object to its owner. Right is called a moral
or legal authority, because it emanates from a law
Rigby, John, Venerable, English martyr; b.
about 1570 at Harrocks Hall, Eooleston, Lancashire; which assigns to one the dominion over the thing and
executed at imposes on others the obligation to respect this
St. Thomas
Waterings, 21 June, 1600.
dominion. To the right of one person corresponds an
He was the or sixth son of Nicholas Rigby, by
fifth
obligation on the part of others, so that right and
Mary, daughter of Oliver Breres of Preston. In the obligation condition each other. If I have the right
service of Sir Edmund Huddleston, at a time when his
to demand one hundred dollars from a person, he is
daughter, Mrs. Fortescue, being then ill, was cited
under the obligation to give them to me; without this
to the Old Bailey for recusancy, Rigby appeared on
her behalf; compelled to confess himself a Catholic, obligation, right would be illusory. One may even
say that the right of one person consists in the fact
he was sent to Newgate. The next day, 14 February,
that, on his account, others are bound to perform or
1599 or 1600, he signed a confession, that, since he
omit something.
had been reconciled by the martyr, John Jones the
Franciscan, in the Clink some two or three years
The clause, "to possess, claim, and use, anything
as one's own", defines more closely the object of right.
previously, he had declined to go to church. He was Justice assigns to each person his own {suum cuique).
then chained and remitted to Newgate, till, on 19
February, he was transferred to the White Lion. On
When anyone asserts that a thing is his own, is his
private property, or belongs to him, he means that
the first Wednesday in March (which was the 4th
this object stands in a special relation to him, that it
and not, as the martyr himself supposes, the 3rd) he
is in the first place destined for his use, and that he
was brought to the bar, and in the afternoon given a
can dispose of it according to his will, regardless of
private opportunity to conform. The next day he
others. By a thing is here meant not merely a material
was sentenced for having been reconciled; but was
object, but everything that can be useful to man,
reprieved till the next sessions. On 19 June he was
including actions, omissions, etc. The connexion of a
again brought to the bar, and as he again refused to
certain thing with a certain person, in virtue of which
conform, he was told that his sentence must be car-
the person may declare the thing his own, can orig-
ried out. On his way to execution the hurdle was inate only on the basis of concrete facts. It is an
stopped by a Captain Whitlook, who wished him to
evident demand of human reason in general that one
conform and asked him if he were married, to which
the martyr repUed, "I am a bachelor; and more than
may give or leave one's own to anyone; but what
constitutes one's own is determined by facts. Many
that I am a maid", and the captain thereupon de-
things are physically connected with the human per-
sired his prayers. The priest, who reconciled him, —
son by conception or birth his limbs, bodily and
had suffered on the same spot 12 July, 1598.
mental qualities, health, etc. From the order imposed
Challoneb, MissioTiary Priests, II (London, 1878), n. 117;
G11.WW, Bibl. Did. Bng. Cath., V, 420; Chatham Society's Pub- by the Creator of Nature, we recognize that, from the
lications, LXXKI (1870), 74. first moment of his being, his faculties and members
John B. Wainewright. are granted a person primarily for his own use, and
so that they may enable him to support himself and
Rigby, Nicholas, b. 1800 at Walton near Preston, develop and fulfil the tasks appointed by the Creator
Lancashire; d. at Ugthorpe, 7 September, 1886. for this life. These things (i. e., his qualities, etc.) are
At twelve years he went to Ushaw College, where he his own from the first moment of his existence, and
was for a time professor of elocution. Ordained whoever injures them or deprives him of them vio-
priest in September, 1826, he was sent to St. Mary's, lates his right. However, many other things are con-
Wycliffe, for six months, and was then given the united nected with the human person, not physically, but
missions of Egton Bridge and Ugthorpe. After seven only morally. In other words, in virtue of a certain
years the two missions were again separated, and fact, everyone recognizes that certain things are
he took up his residence at Ugthorpe. There he specially destined for the use of one person, and must
built a church (opened in 1855), started a new ceme- be recognized as such by all. Persons who build a
tery, and founded a middle-class college. About house for themselves, make an implement, catch game
1884 he resigned the mission work to his curate, the in the unreserved forest, or fish in the open sea, be-
Rev. E. J. Hickey. His obituary notice, in the come the owners of these things in virtue of occupation
"Catholic Times" of 17 September, 1886, gives a of their labour; they can claim these things as their
sketch of his life. He wrote: "The Real Doctrine own, and no one can forcibly appropriate or injure
of the Church on Scripture", to which is added an these things without a violation of their rights. Who-
account of the conversion of the Duke of Brunswick ever has lawfully purchased a thing, or been presented
(Anton Ulrich, 1710), and of "Father Ignatius" with it by another, may regard such thing as his own,
Spencer (1830), (York, 1834), dedicated to the Rev. since by the purchase or presentation he succeeds to
Benedict Rayment. Other works, chiefly treatises the place of the other person and possesses his rights.
on primary truths, or sermons of a controversial As a right gives rise to a certain connexion between
character, are described in Gillow, "Bibl. Diet. person and person with respect to a thing, we may
Eng. Cath." distinguish in right four elements: the holder, the
Patrick Ryan. object, the title, and the terminus of the right. The
holder of the right is the person who possesses the
Right, as a substantive (my right, his right), desig- right, the terminus is the person who has the obhga-
nates the object of justice. When a person declares tion corresponding to the right, the object is the thing
he has a right to a thing, he means he has a kind of to which the right refers, and the title is the fact on
dominion over such thing, which others are obliged to the ground of which a person may regard and claim
recognize. Right may therefore be defined as a moral the thing as his own. Strictly speaking, this fact alone
or legal authority to possess, claim, and use a thing is not the title of the right, which originates, indeed,
as one's own. It is thus essentially distinct from in the fact, but taken in connexion with the principle
obhgation; in virtue of an obligation we should, in that one must assign to each his own property; how-
virtue of a ri^ht, we may do or omit something Again, . ever, since this principle may be presupposed as self-
 RIGHT 56 RIGHT
evident, it is customary to regard the simple fact as and wherever the good of the community requires it.
the title of the right. Finally, the right corresponding to the object of
Theright of which we have hitherto been speaking distributive justice is the defence of the members
is individual right, to which the obligation of com- against the community or its leaders; they must not
mutative justice corresponds. Commutative justice be laden with public burdens beyond their powers,
regulates the relations of the members of human and must receive as much of the pubhc goods as be-
societ}' to one another, and aims at securing that each comes the condition of their meritoriousness and
member renders to his fellow-members what is equally services. Although, in accordance with the above,
theirs. In addition to this commutative justice, there each of the three kinds of rights has its own immediate
is also a legal and distributive justice; these virtues object, all three tend in common towards one remote
regulate the relations between the complete societies object, which, according to St. Thomas (Cont. Gent.,
(State and Church) and their members. From the pro- Ill, xxxiv), is nothing else than to secure that peace
pensities and needs of human nature we recognize be maintained among men by procuring for each the
the State as resting on a Divine ordinance; only in the peaceful possession of his own.
State can man support himself and develop according Right (or more precisely speaking, the obligation
to his nature. But, if the Divine Creator of Nature corresponding to right) is enforceable at least in
has willed the existence of the State, He must also —
general that is, whoever has a right with respect to
will the means necessary for its maintenance and the some other person is authorized to employ physical
attainment of its objects. This will can be found only force to secure the fulfilment of this obligation, if the
in the right of the State to demand from its members other person will not voluntarily fulfil it. This en-
what is necessary for the general good. It must be forceable character of the obligation arises necessarily
authorized to make laws, to punish violations of such, from the object of right. As already said, this object
and in general to arrange everything for the public is to secure for every member of society a sphere of
welfare, while, on their side, the members must be' free activity and for society the means necessary for
under the obligation corresponding to this right. The its development, and the attainment of this object is
virtue which makes all members of society contribute evidently indispensable for social life; but it would
what is necessary for its maintenance is called legal not be sufficiently attained if it were left to each one's
justice, because the law has to determine in individual discretion whether he should fulfil his obligations or
cases what burdens are to be borne by the members. not. In a large community there are always many who
According to Catholic teaching, the Church is, like would allow themselves to be guided, not by right or
the State, a complete and independent society, where- justice, but by their own selfish inclinations, and would
fore it also must be justified in demanding from its disregard the rights of their fellowmen, if they were
members whatever is necessary for its welfare and the not forcibly confined to their proper sphere of right;
attainment of its object. But the members of the consequently, the obligation corresponding to a right
State have not only obligations towards the general must be enforceable in favour of the possessor of the
body; they have likewise rights. The State is bound right. But in a regulated community the power of
to distribute public burdens (e. g. taxation) according compulsion must be vested in the pubhc authority,
to the powers and capability of the members, and is since, if each might employ force against his fellowmen
also under the obligation of distributing public goods whenever his right was infringed, there would soon
(offices and honours) according to the degree of arise a general conflict of all against all, and order
worthiness and services. To these duties of the gen- and safety would be entirely subverted. Only in
eral body or its leaders corresponds a right of the cases of necessity, where an unjust attack on one's life
members; they can demand that the leaders observe or property has to be warded off and recourse to the
the claims of distributive justice, and failure to do authorities is impossible, has the individual the right
this on the part of the authorities is a violation of the of meeting violence with violence.
right of the members. While right or the obligation corresponding to it is
On the basis of the above notions of right, its object enforceable, we must beware of referring the essence
can be more exactly determined. Three species of of right to this enforcibiUty or even to the authority
right and justice have been distinguished. The object to enforce it, as is done by many jurists since the time
of the right, corresponding to even-handed justice, of Kant. For enforcibihty is only a secondary char-
has as its object the securing for the members of acteristic of right and does not pertain to all rights;
human society in their intercourse with one another although, for example, under a real monarchy the
freedom and independence in the use of their own subjects possess some rights with respect to the ruler,
possessions. For the object of right can only be the they can usually exercise no compulsion towards him,
good for the attainment of which we recognize right since he is irresponsible, and is subject to no higher
as necessary, and which it effects of its very nature, authority which can employ forcible measures against
and this good is the freedom and independence of him. Rights are divided, according to the title on
every member of society in the use of his own. If which they rest, into natural and positive rights, and
man is to fulfil freely the tasks imposed upon him by the latter are subdivided into Divine and human
God, he must possess the means necessary for this rights. By natural rights are meant all those which
purpose, and be at liberty to utilize such indepen- we acquire by our very birth, e. g. the right to live,
dently of others. He must have a sphere of free activ- to integrity of limbs, to freedom, to acquire property,
ity, in which he is secure from the interference of etc.; all other rights are called acquired rights, al-
others; this object is attained by the right which though many of them are acquired, independently of
protects each in the free use of his own from the en- any positive law, in virtue of free acts, e. g. the right
croachments of others. Hence the proverbs: "A of the husband and wife in virtue of the marriage con-
wilfing person suffers no injustice" and "No one is tract, the right to ownerless goods through occupa-
compelled to make use of his rights" For the object tion, the right to a house through purchase or hire,
of the right which corresponds to commutative justice etc. On the other hand, other rights may be given by
is the liberty of the possessor of the right in the use of positi\'e law; according as the law is Divine or human,
his own, and this right is not attained if each is bound and the latter civil or ecclesiastical, we distinguish
always to make use of and insist upon his rights. The between Divine or human, civil or ecclesiastical rights.
object of the right which corresponds to legal justice To civil rights belong citizenship in a state, active or
is the good of the community; of this right we may passive franchise, etc.
not say that "no one is bound to make use of his Summa (/ieo(., II-II, QQ, Ivii sqq.; DoMiNicus SoTo; Molina;
right", since the community —or, more correctly, its LESsins, De justilia el jure: Taparelli d'Azeglio, Saggio
—
leaders must make use of public rights, whenever
teoretico di dirello «a(ura!e (Palermo, 1840-3);
Pruner, Die Lehre
vomBecht (Ratisbon, 1857); Vermeersch, Qucestiones de justilia
 RIGHT 57 RIMINI
(2nd ed.,Bruges, 1904); Cbolly, DejusfiKaei jure (Dublin, 1870); 359, with over four hundred bishops. About eighty
Meyer, Die GrundstUze der SMlichkeit u. des Rechtes (Freiburg,
1868); Idem, Institutiones juris naturalis, I (2nd ed.), nn. 430
Semi-Arians, including Ursacius, Germinius, and
sqq.; FuHKiCH, Rechissubjekt u. Kirchenrecht, I (Leipzig, 1908); Auxentius, withdrew from the orthodox bishops, the
Cathrein, Recht, Naturrecht u. positiven Recht (2nd ed., Frei- most eminent of whom was Restitutus of Carthage;
burg, 1909); Idem, Moral philosophic, I (5tii ed., Freiburg), 502
sqq.; Thehing, Der Zweck in Recht (4tli ed., Vienna); St,\mm-
Liberius, Eusebius, Dionysius, and others were still
LER, Die Lehrc vo?n richtigen Recht (Vienna, 1902) Bekker, Grund-
;
in exile. The two parties sent separate deputations
begriffe des Rechts (Berlin, 1910). to the emperor, the orthodox asserting clearly their
V. Cathrein. firm attachment to the faith of Nicsea, while the
Right of Asylum. See Privileges, Ecclesias- Arian minority adhered to the imperial formula. But
tical. the inexperienced representatives of the orthodox
majority allowed themselves to be deceived, and not
Right of Presentation. See Presentation,
only entered into communion with the heretical dele-
Right of. gates, but even subscribed, at Nice in Thrace, a
Rimbert, Saint, Archbishop of Bremen-Hamburg, formula to the effect merely that the Son is like the
d. at Bremen 11 June, 888. It is uncertain whether Father according to the Scriptures (the words "in all
he was a Fleming or a Norman. He was educated at things" being omitted). On their return to Rimini,
the monastery of Turholt near Brugge in Flanders. they were met with the unanimous protests of their
There St. Ansgar, first Archbishop of Hamburg, be- colleagues. But the threats of the consul Taurus, the
came acquainted with him, and later made him his remonstrances of the Semi-Arians against hindering
constant companion. When Ansgar died on 2 Feb- peace between East and West for a word not contained
ruary, 865, Rimbert was chosen his successor. Pope in Scripture, their privations and their homesickness
Nicholas I sent him the pallium in December, 865. — all combined to weaken the constancy of the or-
As Ansgar's missionary system was based on a con- thodox bishops. And the last twenty were induced to
nexion with the Benedictine Order, Rimbert became, subscribe when Ursacius had an addition made to the
shortly after his consecration, a monk at Corvey, and formula of Nice, declaring that the Son is not a
subsequently made missionary journeys to West creature like other creatures. Pope Liberius, having
Friesland, Denmark, and Sweden, but concerning regained his liberty, rejected this formula, which was
these unfortunately we have no detailed information. thereupon repudiated by many who had signed it. In
In 884 he succeeded in putting to flight the Norman view of the hasty manner of its adoption and the
marauders on the coast of Friesland; in remembrance lack of approbation by the Holy See, it could have no
of this incident he was later held in special veneration authority. In any case, the council was a sudden de-
in Friesland. Among his episcopal achievements the feat of orthodoxy, and St. Jerome could say: "The
foundation of a, monastery in Biioken near Bremen whole world groaned in astonishment to find itself
and his care for the poor and sick are especially em- Arian"
phasized. Historians are indebted to him for a Hepele, History of the Councils, tr.; § 82; Duchesne, Histoire
biography of St. Ansgar, which is distinguished by ancienne de V^glise, II (Paris, 1910), 294 sq.; Mansi, Coll, Cone,
III, 293 sq.; Newman, The Arians of the Fourth Century (Lon-
valuable historical information and a faithful charac- don and New York, reprint, 1901), 335-52; Gwatkin, Studies in
ter-sketch. On the other hand, the biography of Arianism (London).
Rimbert himself, written by a monk of Corvey, is, U. Bbnigni.
while very edifying, poor in actual information;
hence we know so little of his life. Rimini, Diocese of (Ariminum), suffragan of
Vita Rimberti in Man. Germ. hist. Scriptores, II (Hanover, Ravenna. Rimini is situated near the coast between
1829), 764—75; Dehio, Gesch. des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen,
I (Berlin, 1877), 92-8; Allgem. deutsche Biogr., s. v.; Biogr, the rivers Marecchia (the ancient Ariminus) and Ausa
nationale de Belgique, a. v. Rembert. (Aprusa) .Coast navigation and fishing are the prin-
Klemens Lofflek. cipal industries. The thirteenth-century cathedral
(San Francesco) was originally Gothic, but was trans-
Rimini, Council op. — The second Formula of formed by order of Sigismondo Malatesta (1446-
Sirmium (357) stated the doctrine of the Anomoeans, 55) according to the designs of Leone Baptista
or extreme Arians. Against this the Semi-Arian Alberti and never completed; the cupola is lacking,
bishops, assembled at Ancyra, the episcopal city of also the upper part of the fagade; in the cathedral are
their leader Basilius, issued a counter formula, assert- the tombs of Sigismondo and his wife Isotta. The
ing that the Son is in all things like the Father, after- plastic decorations of the main nave and some of the
wards approved by the Third Synod of Sirmium (358) chapels, a glorification to Sigismondo and Isotta, are
This formula, though silent on the term "homo- by Agostino di Duccio, and breathe the pagan spirit
usios", consecrated by the Council of Nicaea, was of the Renaissance. On the southern side are the
signed by a few orthodox bishops, and probably by tombs of illustrious humanists, among them that of
Pope Liberius, being, in fact, capable of an orthodox the philosopher Gemistus Pletho, whose remains were
interpretation. The Emperor Constantius cherished brought back by Sigismondo from his wars in the
at that time the hope of restoring peace between the Balkans. There is a remarkable fresco of Piero della
orthodox and the Semi- Arians by convoking a general Francesca. In San Giuliano is the great picture of
council. Failing to convene one either at Nicsea or at Paul Veronese representing the martyrdom of that
Nicomedia, he was persuaded by Patrophilus, Bishop saint, also pictures of Bittino da Faenza (1357) dealing
of Scythopolis, and Narcissus, Bishop of Neronias, to with some episodes of the saint's life. Among the
hold two synods, one for the East at Seleucia, in profane edifices are the Arch of Augustus (27 B. c),
Isauria, the other for the West at Rimini, a proceeding the remains of an amphitheatre, and the five-arched
justified by diversity of language and by expense. bridge of Augustus over the Marecchia. The town
Before the convocation of the councils, Ursacius and hall has a small but valuable gallery (Perin del Vaga,
Valens had Marcus, Bishop of Arethusa, designated Ghirlandajo, Bellini, Benedetto Coda, Tintoretto,
to draft a formula (the Fourth of Sirmium) to be sub- Agostino di Duccio) the Gambalunga Library (1677)
;

mitted to the two synods. It declared that the Son has valuable manuscripts. There is an archaeological
was born of the Father before all ages (agreeing so far museum and a bronze statue of Paul V; the castle of
with the Third Formula); but it added that, when Sigismondo Malatesta is now used as a prison.
God is spoken of, the word oi(rla, "essence", should be Ariminum was built by the Umbri. In the sixth cen-
avoided, not being found in Scripture and being a tury b. c. it was taken by the Gauls; after their last de^
cause of scandal to the faithful; by this step they feat (283) it returned to the Umbri and became in 263 a
intended to exclude the similarity of essence. Latin colony, very helpful to the Romans during the
The Council of Rimini was opened early in July, late Gallic wars. Rimini was reached by the Via
 RIMOUSKI 58 RIMOUSKI
entered the city and proclaimed a constitution which
riamminia, and here began the ^'la ,Emiha that led to
Piacenza. Augustus did much for the city and
Galla was soon abolished. In IMJO Rimini and the Romagna
were incorporated with the Kingdom of Italy.
Placida built the church of San Stefano. \\ hen the
Goths conquered Rimini in 493, Odoacer, besieged m Rimini was probably evangelized from Ravenna.
Ravenna, had to capitulate. During the Gothic wars Among its traditional martyrs are: St. Innooentia and
companions; Sts. Juventinus, Facundinus, and com-
Rimini was taken and retaken many times. In its
panions; Sts. Theodorus and Marinus. The see was
vicinity Xarses overthrew (5.5o) the Alamanni. Un-
probably established before the peace of Constantine.
der Byzantine dominion it belonged to the Pentapolis.
In 72S it was taken with many other cities by the
Among the bishop)S were: Stennius, at Rome in 313;
Cyriacus, one of his successors, sided with the Arians;
Lombard King Liutprand but returned to the Byzan-
tines about 735. King Pepin gave it to the Holy See,
under St. Gaudentius the famous Council of Rimini
but during the wars of the popes and the Italian cities was held (359); he was later put to death by the
Arians for having excommunicated the priest Marci-
against the emperors, Rimini sided with the latter.
In the thirteenth century it suffered from the discords anus; Stephanus attended at Constantinople (551);
of the Gambacari and Ansidei families. In 1295 the election of Castor (591) caused much trouble to
'

St Gregory I who had to send to Rimini a visitor

'

Malatesta I da N'crucohio was named "Signore" of . , '

'

Agnellus (743) was governor of the city subject to

the Archbishop of Ravenna; Delto acted frequently
as legate for John VIII; Blessed Arduino (d. in 1009);
Uberto II is mentioned with praise by St. Peter
Damian; Opizo was one of the consecrators of the
Antipope Clement III (Guiberto, 1075); Ranieri II
degli Uberti (1143) consecrated the ancient cathedral
of St. Colomba; Alberigo (1153) made peace between
Rimini and Cesena; Bonaventura Trissino founded
the hospital of Santo Spirito; under Benno (1230)
some pious ladies founded a hospital for the lepers,
and themselves cared for the afflicted. At the end of
the thirteenth century the Armenians received at
Rimini a church and a hospital. From 1407 Gregory
XII resided at Rimini. Giovanni Rosa united the
ele\-en hospitals of Rimini into one. Under Giulio
Parisani (1549)the seminary was opened (1568).
Giambattista Castelli (1569) promoted the Triden-
tine reforms and was nuncio at Paris. Andrea
Minucoi was severely tried during the French Revolu-
Cathedral of S.\n Francesco, Rimini tion; under him the Malatesta church (San Fran-
Originally XIII Century; the exterior rebuilt in Claasic Style cesco) became the cathedral. The diocese has 124
after designs of Leone Baptista Alberti, XVCentury
parishes, 125,400 inhabitants, 336 priests, 10 houses
the city, and, desiiite interruptions, his family held of religious with 56 priests, 24 houses of religious
authority until LSiS. Among his successors were: women, who care for the hospitals, orphanages, and
Malatesta II (1312-17); Pandolfo I, his brother (d. other charitable institutions, or communal and private
1326), named by Louis the Bavarian imperial vicar in schools. There are also 1 school for boys and 3 for
Romagna; Ferrantino, son of Malatesta II (133.5), op- girls.
posed by his cousin Ramberto and by Cardinal Cappelletti, Le Chiese d'ltalia, II; Nardi, Cronotassi dei
pastori delta Chicsa di Rimini (Rimini, 1813); ToNINl, Storia
Bertando del Poggetto (1331), legate of John XXII; civile e sacra di Rimini (6 vols., Rimini, 1848-88); Idem, Com-
Malatesta III, Guastafamiglia (1363), lord also of pendio della slaria di Rimini (1896) Ybiarte, Rimini: Etudes sur
;

Pesaro; Malatesta IV I'Ungaro (1373); Galeotto, les lettres et les arts d Za cour des Malatesta (Paris, 1882)

uncle of the former (1385), lord also of Fano (from U. Bbnigni.

1340), Pesaro, and Cesena (1378); his son Carlo
(1429J, the noblest scion of the family, laboured for Rimouski, Diocese of (Sancti Germani de
the cessation of the \^'este^n Schism, and was the RiMousKi), suffragan of Quebec, comprises
the
ccjunsellor, protector, and ambassador Gregory
of counties of Bonaventure, Gasp6 (except Magdalen
XII, and patron of scholars; Galeotto Roberto Islands), Rimouski and the greater part of Temis-
(1432), his brother Sigismondo Pandolf (1468) had couata, and forms the eastern extremity of the prov-
the military and intellectual qualities of Carlo Mala- ince of Quebec. At the extreme point of the Gasp^
testa but not his character. He was tyrannous and peninsula (formerly called Honguedo), Jacques
perfidious, in constant rebellion against the popes, a Cartier landed on his first voyage of discovery (1534)
good soldier, poet, philosopher, and lover of the fine and planted a cross with the royal arms of France.
arts, but a monster of domestic and public vices; in The Souriquois or Micmacs occupied the shores of
1463 he submitted to Pius II, who left him Rimini; Bale des Chaleurs, and their successive missionaries,
Robert, his son (14S2), under Paul II nearly lost his Recollets, Capuchins, Jesuits, amongst them Father
state and under Sixtus l\ became the commanding Labrosse, and Spiritians (or priests of the seminary of
he pontifical army against Alfonso of Naples,
officer of f the Holy Ghost), including the celebrated Pierre
bv whom he was defeated in the battle of Campo Maillard, ministered to that region of the Rimouski dio-
INiorto (14.'^2) Pandolfo V, his son (1.500), lost Rimini
; cese. The first Mass was celebrated near the city of
to Cesare Borgia (1500-3), after whose overthrow it Rimouski, at a place since called Point e-au-Pere, by
fell to Venice (1503-9), but was retaken by Julius II the Jesuit Henri Xouvel, in 1663, on his way to the
and incorporated with the territory of the Holy See. Papinachois and Montagnais of Tadoussao, on the
.\fter the death of Leo X Pandolfo returned for several north shore. The first settler at Rimouski was
months, and with his son Sigismondo held tyrannous Germain Lepage (1696), whose patronymic was chosen
rule. Adrian ^'I gave Rimini to the Duke of Urbino, as titular of the future parish and diocese. The
the pope's vicar. In 1527 Sigismondo managed to seigniory had been conceded to his son Ren6 in 1688.
regain the city, but the following year the Malatesta The latest statistics give 120 churches and chapels,
dominion passed away forever. Rimini was thence- with 148 priests. Two wooden churches were built
forth a papal city, subject to the legate at Forli. In at Rimouski, in 1712 and 1787 respectively; the first
1845 a band of adventurers commanded by Ribbotti stone church, 1824, was replaced by the present
 RINGS 59 RINGS
cathedral in 1854. Before the creation of the see, though, on the other hand, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, and
Rimouski was successively visited by Bishops Hubert the Apostolic Constitutions (I, iii) protest against the
(1791), Denaut (1798), Plessis (1806-14-22), Panet ostentation of Christians in decking themselves with
(1810-26), Signay (1833-38^3), Turgeon (1849), and rings and gems. In any case the Acts of Sts. Perpetua
Baillargeon (1855-60-65). The see was created and and Felicitas (c. xxi), about the beginning of the third
its first titular nominated on 15 January, 1867, and century, inform us of how the martyr Saturus took a
acquired civil incorporation ipso facto the same day, ring from the finger of Pudens, a soldier who was
according to the law of the country. looking on, and gave it back to him as a keepsake,
The first bishop, Jean-Pierre-Frangois Laforce- covered with his own blood.
Langevin, was b. at Quebec, 22 Sept., 1821, and or- Knowing, as we do, that in the pagan days of Rome
dained on 12 Sept., 1844. As director of the Quebec every flamen Dialis (i. e., a priest specially consecrated
seminary he was one of the joint founders of Laval to the worship of _
University (1852). He successively filled the offices of Jupiter) had, like the
pastor to the parishes of Ste Claire and Beauport, and senators, the priv-
of principal of Laval Normal School. He was con- ilege of wearing a
secrated 1 May, 1867, resigned 1891, and died 1892. gold ring, it would
He completed the organization of a classical college not be surprising to
previously founded by the Abb& C. Tanguay and G. find evidence in the
Potvin and adopted it as the seminary of the diocese. fourth century that
He introduced the Sisters of the Congregation of rings were worn by
Notre-Dame (Montreal) and sanctioned the founda- Christian bishops.
tion (1879) of the Sisters of the Most Holy Rosary, But the various pas-
a flourishing institute largely due to the zeal of Vicar- sages that have been
General Langevin, his brother. Bishop Langevin appealed to, to prove Bronze ring with seal in the form
established the cathedral chapter in 1878. this, are either not op a footstep, engraved with
Christian Symbols
The second bishop, still in office, Andr6-Albert authentic or else are _

Blais, b. at St-Vallier, P. Q., 1842, studied at the inconclusive. St. Augustine indeed speaks of his seal-
college of Ste Anne de la Pocatiere, graduated in Rome ing a letter with a ring (Ep. coxvii, in P. L., XXXIII,
Doctor of Canon Law, and taught the same branch 227), but on the other hand his contemporary Possidius
at Laval University. He was consecrated bishop 18
. expressly states that Augustine himself wore no ring (P.
May, 1890, and took possession of the see in 1891. L., XXXII, 53), whence we are led to conclude that
Bishop Blais created many new parishes in the dio- the possession of a signet does not prove the use of a
cese, and founded a normal school under the manage- ring as part of the episcopal insignia. However,
ment of the Ursulines. The clergy, exclusively in a Decree of Pope Boniface IV (a. d. 610) we hear of
French-Canadian, study classics and philosophy at the monks raised to the episcopal dignity as anulo
diocesan seminary, and theology principally at Laval ponlificali suharrhatis, while at the Fourth Council
University, in some cases at the Propaganda, Rome. of Toledo, in 633, we are told that if a bishop has been
( For parochial system, incorporation of religious in- deposed from his office, and is afterwards reinstated,
stitutions, etc., see Canada, and Quebec, Pbovince he is to receive back stole, ring, and crosier [orarium,
OF.) There are no cities besides Rimouski, but all anulum et baculum). St. Isidore of Seville at about
the larger rural parishes have fine churches and con- the same period couples the ring with the crosier
vent-schools the only domestic mission is that of the
; and declares that the former is conferred as "an
Micmacs at Ristigouche, under the care of the Capu- emblem of the pontifical dignity or of the sealing of
chins. Besides a Priests' Aid Society, there are secrets" (P. L., LXXXIII, 783). From this time
several benevolent and mutual aid societies for the forth it may be assumed that the ring was strictly
laity. The religious orders of men are the Capuchins, speaking an episcopal ornament conferred in the rite
Eudists, and Brothers of the Cross of Jesus; those of of consecration, and that it was commonly regarded as
women are the Ursulines, Sisters of Charity, of the emblematic of the betrothal of the bishop to his
Good Shepherd (teaching), of the Holy Rosary, of Church. In the eighth and ninth centuries in MSS.
the Holy Family, and the Daughters of Jesus. Re- of the Gregorian Sacramen-
treats for the clergy are given each year; conferences tary and in a few early Pon-
to discuss theological cases take place every three tificals (e.g., that attributed
months. Nearly all the secular clergy (110 out of 137) to Archbishop Egbert of
belong to the Eucharistic League. Out of a total York) we meet with various
Catholic population of 118,740, only 3695 are not formulae for the delivery of
French Canadians. The Indians number 610. The the ring. The Gregorian
Protestant element amounts to 8798. There is no form, which survives in sub-
friction between these different elements and no stance to the present day,
difficult racial problem to solve, the parishes contain- runs in these terms: "Re-
ing an English-speaking element as well as the Mic- ceive the ring, that is to say
macs being instructed in their native tongues. the seal of faith, whereby Silver ring op Leubatius,
GuAY, Chroniques de Rimouski (Quebec, 1873) Le Canada
;
thou, being thyself adorned Abbot of Senaparia, Gaul
eccUsiastique (Montreal, 1911).
with spotless faith, mayst keep unsullied the troth
Lionel Lindsay.
which thou hast pledged to the spouse of God, His
Rings. — I. —
In Geneeal. Although the surviving holy Church."
ancient rings, proved by their devices, provenance, —
These two ideas namely of the seal, indicative of
etc., to be of Christian origin, are fairly numerous discretion, and of conjugal fidelity —
dominate the
(See Fortnum in "Arch. Joum.", XXVI, 141, and symbolism attaching to the ring in nearly all its
XXVIII, 275), we cannot in most cases identify liturgical uses. The latter idea was pressed so far
them with any liturgical use. Christians no doubt, in the case of bishops that we find ecclesiastical decrees
just like other people, wore rings in accordance with enacting that "a bishop deserting the Church to
their station in life, for rings are mentioned without which he was consecrated and transferring himself
reprobation in the New Testament (Luke, xv, 22, and to another is to be held guilty of adultery and is to
James, ii, 2). Moreover, St. Clement of Alexandria be visited with the same penalties as a man who,
(Psed., Ill, c. xi) says that a man might lawfully wear forsaking his own wife, goes to live with another
a ring on his little finger, and that it should bear some woman" (Du Saussay, "Panoplia episcopalis", 250).
religious emblem — a dove, or a fish, or an anchor It was perhaps this idea of espousals which helped
 RINGS 60 RINGS
to establish the rale, ofwhich we hear already in the "Le costume, etc.", I, 170) without special indult.
ninth century, that the episcopal ring was to be placed In any case such rings cannot ordinarily be worn by
on the fourth finger (i. e., that next the little finger) these minor prelates during the celebration of Mass.
of the right hand. As the pontifical ring had to be The same restriction, it need hardly be said, applies
worn on occasion over the glove, it is a common thing to the ring which is conferred as part of the insignia
to find medieval specimens large in size and pro- of the doctorate either of theology or of canon law.
portionately heavy in execution. The inconvenience The plain rings worn by certain orders of nuns and
of the looseness thus resulting was often met by conferred upon them in the course of their solemn
profession, according to the ritual provided in the
Roman Pontifical, appear to find some justification
in ancient tradition. St. Ambrose (P. L., XVII
701, 735) speaks as though it were a received custorti
for virgins consecrated to God to wear a ring in
memory of their betrothal to their heavenly Spouse.
This delivery of a ring to professed nuns is also men-
tioned by several medieval Pontificals, from the
twelfth century onwards. Wedding rings, or more
strictly, rings given in the betrothal ceremony, seem
to have been tolerated among Christians under the
Roman Empire from a quite early period. The use
of such rings was of course of older date than Chris-
tianity, and there is not much to suggest that the
Crystal rinqb engraved in intaglio with Christian giving of the ring was at first incorporated in any
Emblems, Rome ritual or invested with any precise religious signifi-
placing another smaller ring just above it as a keeper cance. But it is highly probable that, if the accept-
(see Lacy, "Exeter Pontifical", 3). As the pictures ance and the wearing of a betrothal ring was toler-
of the medieval and Renaissance periods show, it ated among Christians, such rings would have been
was formerly quite usual for bishops to wear adorned with Christian emblems. Certain extant
other rings along with the episcopal ring; indeed the specimens, more particularly a gold ring found near
existing " Caeremoniale episooporum" (Bk. II, viii, Aries, belonging apparently to the fourth or fifth
nn. 10-11) assumes that this is still likely to be the century, and bearing the inscription, Tecla vimt
casf. Custom prescribes that a layman or a cleric Deo mm
marito seo [suo], may almost certainly be
of inferior grade on being presented to a bishop should assumed to be Christian espousal rings. In the
kiss his hand, that is to say his episcopal ring, but it coronation ceremony, also, it has long been the cus-
is a popular misapprehension to suppose that any tom to deliver both to the sovereign and to the queen
indulgence is attached to the act. Episcopal rings, consort a ring previously blessed. Perhaps the ear-
both at an earlier and later period, were sometimes liest example of the use of such a ring is in the case

used as receptacles for relics. St. Hugh of Lincoln of Judith, the step-mother of Alfred the Great. It
had such a ring which must have been of considerable is however in this instance a little diflScult to deter-

capacity. (On investiture by ring and staff see mine whether the ring was bestowed upon the queen
I."JVESTITUEES, CONFLICT OF.) in virtue of her dignity as queen consort or of her
Besides bishops, many other ecclesiastics are nuptials to Ethelwulf.
privileged to wear rings. The pope of course is the Rings have also occasionally been used for other
first of bishops, but he does not habitually wear the religious purposes. At an early date the small keys
signet ring distinctive of the papacy and known as
"the Ring of the Fisherman" (see below in this ar-
ticle), but usually a simple cameo, while his more
magnificent pontifical rings are reserved for solemn
ecclesiastical functions. Cardinals also wear rings
independently of their grade in the ecclesiastical
hierarchy. The ring belonging to the cardinalitial
dignity is conferred by the pope himself in the con-
sistory in which the new cardinal is named to a par-
ticular "title" It is of small value and is set with a
sapphire, while it bears on the inner side of the bezel
Signet of St. Arnould, Bishop Bishop's Gold Ring,
the arms of the pope conferring it. In practice the OP Metz, VII Century Gaul, VII Century
cardinal is not required to wear habitually the ring
thus presented, and he commonly prefers to use one which contained filings from the chains of St. Peter
of his own. The privilege of wearing a ring has be- seem to have been welded to a band of metal and worn
longed to cardinal-priests since the time of Innocent upon the finger as reliquaries. In more modern
III or earlier (see Sagmtiller, "Thatigkeit und Stel- times rings have been constructed with ten small
lung der Cardinale", 163). Abbots in the earlier knobs or protuberances, and used for saying the
Middle Ages were permitted to wear rings only by rosary.
special privilege. A letter of Peter of Blois in the Babington in Diet. Christ. Anliq.; Leclercq in Diet, d'arch.
chrU., I (Paris, 1907), s. v. Anneaux; Deloche, Etude historique
twelfth century (P. L., CCMI, 283) shows that at et areheologique sur les anneaux (Paris, 1900); Du
Saussat,
that date the wearing of a ring by an abbot was apt Panoplia episcopalis (Paris, 1646), 175-294; Dalton, Catalogue
to be looked upon as a piece of ostentation, but in of early Christian Antiquities in the British Museum (London,
1901) Barbier de Montault, Le eostume usages ecclesias-
the later Pontificals the blessing and delivery of a ;

tiques selon la tradition

et les
romaine (Paris, 1897-1901).
ring formed part of the ordinary ritual for the con-
Herbert Thurston.
secration of an abbot, and this is still the case at the
present day. On the other hand, there is no such
ceremony indicated in the blessing of an abbess,
II.
mention
The Ring of the Fisherman. The earliest
of the Fisherman's ring worn by the popes
—
though certain abbesses have received, or assumed, is in a letter of Clement IV written in 1265 to his
the privilege of wearing a ring of office. The ring nephew, Peter Grossi. The writer states that popes
is also regularly worn by certain other minor prelates, were then accustomed to seal their private letters
for example prothonotaries, but the privilege cannot with "the seal of the Fisherman", whereas public
be said to belong to canons as such (B. de Montault, documents, he adds, were distinguished by the
 RINUCCINI 61 RIOBAMBA
leaden "bulls'' attached (see Bulls and Briefs). favour of the minister de La Ferronays and a secreta-
From the fifteenth century, however, the Fisher- riate in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This position
man's ring has been used to seal the class of papal allowed him (as Montalembert later wrote to him) to
official documents known as Briefs. The Fisherman's become for Christian, what Winckelmann had been
ring is placed by the cardinal camerlengo on the for ancient, art. He spent the greater portion of the
finger of a newly elected pope. It is made of gold, period 1830-60 in travels through Italy, Germany,
with a representation of St. Peter in a boat, fishing, and England. In Munich he became acquainted with
and the name of the reigning pope around it. the spokesmen of contemporary Catholicism
Babington in Did. Christ. Aniiq., s. v., 3. Boisser^e, Baader, DoUinger, Gorres, and Rumohr
Maurice M. Hassett. and also with Sohelling. Schelling gave him an in-
sight into the sesthetic ideal; Rumohr directed him to
Rinuccini, Giovanni Battista, b. at Rome, 1592; Italy, where the realization of this ideal in art could
d. at Fermo, 1653, was the son of a Florentine patri- be seen. In 1835 the first volume of his "Art Chre-
cian, his mother being a sister of Cardinal Ottavo. tien" appeared under the misleading title, "De la
Educated at Rome and at the Universities of Bologna,
Perugia and Pisa, in due course he was ordained
poiSsie chr^tienne —
Forme de I'art" This work,
which was received with enthusiasm in Germany and
priest, having at the age of twenty-two obtained his Italy, was a complete failure in France. Discouraged,
doctor's degree from the University of Pisa. Return- he renounced art study and wrote a history of the
ing to Rome he won distinction as an advocate in the persecutions of the English Catholics, a work which
ecclesiastical courts, and in 1625 became Archbishop was never printed. As the result of his intercourse
of Fermo. For the twenty years following, his life with the Pre-Raphaelites of England, where he lived for
was the uneventful one of a hard-working chief pastor, three years and married, and especially of Montalem-
and then, in 1645, he was sent as papal nuncio to Ire- bert's encouragement, he visited again, in company
land. Maddened by oppression, the Irish Catholics with his wife, all the important galleries of Europe,
had taken up arms, had set up a legislative assembly although he had meanwhile become lame and had to
with an executive government, and had bound them- drag himself through the museums on crutches.
selves by oath not to cease fighting until they had Prominent men like Gladstone, Manzoni, and Thiers
secured undisturbed possession of their lands and reli- became interested in his studies, which he published
gious liberty. But the difficulties were great. The in four volumes under the title "L'art chr^tien"
Anglo-Irish and old Irish disagreed, their generals (1861-7). This work is not a history of all Christian
were incompetent or quarrelled with each other, sup- art, but of Italian painting from Cimabue to the death
plies were hard to get, and the Marquis of Ormond of Raphael. Without any strict method or criticism,
managed to sow dissension among the members of he expresses preference for the art of the fifteenth cen-
the Supreme Council at Kilkenny. In these circum- tury, not without many an inexact and even unjust
stances the Catholics sought for foreign aid from Spain judgment on the art of later ages; but, in spite, or
and the pope; and the latter sent them Rinuccini with rather on account of this partiality, he has contributed
a good supply of arms, ammunition, and money. He greatly towards restoring to honour the forgotten and
arrived in Ireland, in the end of 1645, after having despised art of the Middle Ages. Rio describes the
narrowly escaped capture at sea by an English vessel. more notable incidents of his life in the two works,
Acting on his instructions from the pope, he encour- "Histoire d'un coU&ge breton sous I'Empire, la petite
aged the Irish Catholics not to strive for national chouannerie" (1842) and "Epilogue k l'art chr6tien"
independence, but rather to aid the king against the (2 vols., Paris, 1872) He also published the following
.

revolted Puritans, provided there was a repeal of the works: "Shakespeare" (1864), in which he claims
penal laws in existence. Finding, however, that Or- the great dramatist as a Catholic; "Michel-Ange
mond, acting for the king, would grant no toleration et Raphael" (1867); "L'id6al antique et I'id^al Chre-
to the Catholics, Rinuccini wished to fight both the tien" (1873).
Royalists and the Puritans. The Anglo-Irish, satis- LefiSbure, Portraits de croyants (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), 157-
fied with even the barest toleration, desired negotia- 284. B. KlEINSCHMIDT.
tions with Ormond and peace at any price, while the
Riobamba, Diocese of (Bolivarensis), suffragan
Old Irish were for continuing the war until the Planta- of Quito, Ecuador, erected by Pius IX, 5 Jan., 1863.
tion of Ulster was undone, and complete toleration
The which has a population of 18,000, is situated
city,
secured. Failing to effect a union between such
9039 feet above sea-level, 85 miles E.N.E. of Guaya-
discordant elements, Rinuccini lost courage; and quil. Its streets are wide and its adobe houses gen-
when Ormond surrendered Dublin to the Puritans, erally but one story high on account of the frequent
and the Catholics became utterly helpless from dis- earthquakes. Formerly the city was situated about
sension, he left Ireland, in 1649, and retired to his 18 miles further west near the village of Cajabamba
diocese, where he died. and contained 40,000 inhabitants, but it was com-
Rinuccini, The Embassy to Ireland (tr. Hutton, Dublin,
1873); GiLBEHT, History of Irish Affairs (.1841 -SS) (Dublin, pletely destroyed on 4 Feb., 1797, by an earthquake.
1880); Meehan, Confederation of Kilkenny (Dublin, 1846); Old Riobamba was the capital of the Kingdom of
D'Alton, History of Ireland (London, 1910). Puruha before the conquest of the Incas; it was de-
E. A. D'Alton. stroyed by Ruminahui during his retreat in 1533 after
his defeat by Benalcdzar. The cathedral and the
Rio, Albxis-Fkancois, French writer on art, b. Redemptorist church in the new city are very beauti-
on the Island of Arz, Department of Morbihan, 20 ful. Velasco the historian and the poets Larrea and
May, 1797; d. 17 June, 1874. He was educated at Orozco were natives of Riobamba. It was here too
the college of Vannes, where he received his first that the first national Ecuadorian convention was
appointment as instructor, which occupation how- held in 1830. The diocese, comprising the civil Prov-
ever proved to be distasteful. He proceeded to Paris, inces of Chimborazo and Bolivar (having an area of
but was temporarily disappointed in his hope of ob- 4250 square miles), has 63 priests, 48 churches and
taining there a chair of history. His enthusiastic chapels, and about 200,000 inhabitants. The pres-
championship of the liberty of the Greeks attracted ent bishop, Mgr Andres Machado, S.J., was bom at
the attention of the Government, which appointed Cuenoa, Ecuador, 16 Oct., 1850, and appointed, 12
him censor of the public press. His refusal of this Nov., 1907, in succession to Mgr Arsenio Andrade (b.
appointment won him great popularity and the life- at Uyumbicho, in the Archdiocese of Quito, 8 Sept.,
long friendship of Montalembert. In 1828 he pub- 1825, appointed on 13 Nov., 1884, d. 1907).
lished his first work, "Essai sur I'histoire de I'esprit Mera, Geog. de la repHblica del Ecuador.
humain dans I'antiquit^", which brought him the A. A. MacEhlean.
 RIO 62 RIPON

Rio de Janeiro. See Sao Sebastiao, Archdio- he (Baius) held them. (6) He maintains that the
cese OF. Divine maternity of the Blessed Mrgin Mary is of
itself a sanctifying form. The following are his
Rio Negro, Prefecture Apostolic of, in Brazil,
works: "De ente supernaturali disputationes in
bounded on the eouth by a line running westwards universam theologiam", three vols., I (Bordeaux,
from the confluence of the Rio Negro and Rio Branco
1634), II (Lyons, 1645), III, written "AdversusBa-
along the watershetl of the Rio Negro to Colombia,
janos" (Cologne, 1648); rare editions like that of
separating the new prefecture from those of Teff(S and
Lyons, 1663, have been published of the two first
Upper Solimoes, and the See of Amazones (from
volumes. It is a classic work in which he included
which it was separated by a Decree of the Sacred
questions which are not included in ordinary theologi-
Congregation of the Consistory, 19 Oct., 1910), on
cal treatises. His third volume was attacked in an
the west by Colombia, on the north by Colombia
anonymous work, "P. Joannis Martinez Vulpes
and Venezuela, on the east by the territory of Rio Academiae Lovaniensis",
capta per theologos .

Branco. The white population is small, and corifined

.

which Reusch says was the work of Sinnich. "Ex-

tn the few villages along the banks of the Rio Negro.
positio brevis litterae Magistri Sententiarum" (Sala-
A.s early as 16.58 a Jesuit Father, Francisco Gonsales,
manca, 1635), praised by the Calvinist Voet. "Trac-
established a mission among the natives of the Upper
tatus theologici et scholastic! de -i-irtutibus, fide, spe
Rio Negro, and traces of the work of the Jesuit mis-
Two et charitate" (Lyons, 1652), a posthumous work and
sionaries still exist in the scattered villages.
very rare. Two new editions of all his works have been
years later a Carmelite, Father Theodosius, evan-
issued: Vives (8 vols., Paris, 1871-3), PalmiS (4
gelized the Tucumaos. The Franciscans laboured
vols., Paris, Rome, Propaganda Fide, 1870-1).
among the Indians from 1870 and had seven stations
"Discurso sobre la eleoci6n de sucessor del ponti-
on the Rio Uaup^s (Tariana Indians), four on the
ficado en vida del pontifice" (Seville). Uriarte says
Rio Tiki6 (Toccana Indians), and one on the Rio
this work was published in Aragon, perhaps in Huesca,
Papuri (Macu Indians), but on the fall of the empire
with the anagram of Martin Jir6n de Palazeda, writ-
most of the missions were abandoned, though some
ten by order of the Count de Olivares. The following
of them were re-established later.
A. A. MacErlean. are in manuscript: "De visione Dei" (2 vols);
"De praedestinatione " "De
angelis et auxiliis";
;

Riordan, Patrick William. See San Francisco,

Archdiocese of.
"De voluntate Dei"
of Salamanca;
—preserved
in the University
"Discurso acercade la ley de
Ripalda, Juan MartInez de, theologian, b. at desafio y parecer sobre el desaflo de Medina Sidonia
Pamplona, Navarre, 1.594; d. at Madrid, 26 April, d Juan de Braganza", preserved in the Biblioteca
1648. He entered the Society of Jesus at Pamplona Nacional.
Southwell, Biblioteca scriptorum S. J. fRome, 1670), 478;
in 1609. In the triennial reports of 1642 he says of Antonio, Bibliotkeca hispana nova, I (Madrid, 1783), 736;
himself that he was not physically strong, that he Hurter, Nomenclalor, I (Innsbruck, 1892), 381: .Sommervogel,

had studied religion, arts, and theology, that he had Bibliollikque, V., col. 640; Biografia eciesidstica completa, XXII
(Madrid, 1864), 179.
taught grammar one year, arts four, theology nine-
According to South- Antonio P^rez Goyena.
teen, and had been professed.
well, he taught philosophy at Monforte, theology at Ripatransone, Diocese of (Ripanensis), in
Salamanca, and was called from there to the Imperial Ascoli Piceno, Central Italy. The city is situated on
College of Madrid, where, by royal decree, he taught five hills, not far from the site of ancient Cupra Marit-
moral theology. Later he was named censor to tima. The modern name comes from Ripa trans
the Inquisition and confessor of de Olivares, the Asonem, "the other bank of the Asone". castle A
favourite of Philip IV, whom he followed when he was erected there in the early Middle Ages, and en-
was exiled from Ma(irid. Southwell describes his larged later by the bishops of Fermo, who had several
character by saying that he was a good religious, conflicts with the people. In 1571 St. Pius V made it
noted for his innocence. Mentally he qualifies him an episcopal see, naming as its first bishop Cardinal
as subtle in argument, sound in opinion, keen-edged Lucio Sasso and including in its jurisdiction small por-
and clear in expression, and well-versed in St. Augus-
tions of the surrounding Dioceses of Fermo, Ascoli, and
tine and St. According to Drews, no Jesuit
Thomas. Teramo. Noteworthy bishops were Cardinal Filippo :

ever occupied this chair in the University of Sala-

Sega (1575); Gaspare Sillingardi (1582), afterwards
manca with more honour than he, and Hurter places Bishop of Modena, employed by Alfonso II of Ferrara
him, with Lugo, first among the contemporary theo-
on various missions to Rome and to Spain, effected
logians of Spain, and perhaps of all Europe. Among a revival of religious life in Ripatransone Gian Carlo ;

the numerous theological opinions which characterize

Gentili (1845), historian of Sanseverino and Ripa-
him the following are worth citing: (1) He thinks
transone; Alessandro Spoglia (1860-67), not recog-
that the creation of an intrinsically supernatural sub-
nized by the Government. The cathedral is the work
stance is possible, in other words, that a creature
of Gaspare Guerra and has a beautiful marble altar
is possible to which supernatural grace, with the ac-
with a triptych by Crivelli; the church of the Madonna
companying gifts and intuitive vision, is due. (2)
del Carmine possesses pictures of the Raphael School.
He holds that, by a positive decree of God, super- The diocese, at first directly subject to the Holy See,
natural grace is conferred, in the existing providence,
has been suffragan of Fermo since 1680.
for every good act what.soever; so that every good Cappelletti, Le chiese d' Italia, III (Venice, 1857); Annuaire
act is supernatural, or at least that every natural pontifical catholique (Paris, 191 1), s. v.
good act is accompanied by another which is super- U. Benigni.
natural. (3) He maintains that, prescinding from
the extrinsic Dnine law, and taking into account only Ripon, Marquess of, George Frederick Samuel
the nature of things, the supernatural faith which is Robinson, K.G., P.C., G.C.S.I., F.R.S., Earl de
called lata would be sufficient for justification, that Grey, Earl of Ripon, Viscount Goderich, Baron Grant-
faith, namely, which conies by the contemjilation ham, and baronet; b. at the prime minister's resi-
of created things, though assent is not produced with- dence, 10 Downing Street, London, 24 Oct., 1827; d.
out grace. (4) He affirms that in the ])romissory 9 July, 1909. He was the second son of Frederick
revelations the formal object of faith is God's faith- John Robinson, Viscount Goderich, afterwards first
fulness to His promises, the constancy of His will, Earl of Ripon, and Lady Sarah Albinia Louisa,
and the efficacy of omnipotence. (5) He asserts daughter of Robert, fourth Earl of Buckinghamshire;
that all the jjropositions of Baius were con- and he was born during his father's brief tenure of the
demned for doctrine according to the sense in which office of prime minister. Before entering public life
 RISBY 63 RISHTON
he married (8 April, 1851) his cousin Henrietta Ann He was condemned to death by the Act of Attainder,
Theodosia, elder daughter of Captain Henry Vyner, 25 Henry VIII, c. 12, together with Elizabeth Barton,
and by her had two children, Frederick Oliver, who Edward Bocking, Hugh Rich, warden of the Ob-
succeeded to his honours, and Mary Sarah, who died servant friary at Richmond, John Bering, B.D.
in infancy. Inheriting the principles which were (Oxon.), Benedictine of Christ Church, Canterbury,
common to the great Whig families, Lord Ripon Henry Gold, M.A. (Oxon.), parson of St. Mary, Alder-
remained through his long pubho life one of the most manbury, London, and vicar of Hayes, Middlesex,
generally respected supporters of Liberahsm, and and Richard Master, rector of Aldington, Kent, who
even those who most severely criticised his admin- was pardoned; but by some strange oversight
istrative ability— and in his time he held very many Master's name is included and Risby's omitted in the
—
of the great offices of state ^recognized the integrity catalogue of prcetermissi. Father Thomas Bourchier,
and disinterestedness of his aims. He entered the who took the Franciscan habit at Greenwich about
House of Commons as member for Hull in 1852, and 1557, says that Fathers Risby and Rich were twice
after representing Huddersfield (1853-57), and the offered their lives, if they would accept the king's
West Riding of Yorkshire (1857-59), he succeeded supremacy.
his father as Earl of Ripon and Viscount Goderich Gairdner, Letters and Papers of the reign of Henry VIII,
VI, VII (London, Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh, and Dublin,
on 28 Jan., 1859, taking his seat in the House of Lords. 1882-3), passim; Gasquet, Henry VI 11 and the English Monas-
In the following teries (London, 1906), 44; KiRBY, Winchester Scholars (London
November he suc- and Winchester, 1888), 98; Boase, Register of the Univcrdty of
Oxford (Oxford, 1885), 71.
ceeded his uncle
J. B. Waineweight.
as Earl de Grey
and Baron Gran-
Rishangrer, William, chronicler, b. at Rishangles,
tham. In the same
year he took
first
Suffolk, about 1250; d. after 1312. He became a
Benedictine at St. Alban's Abbey, Hertfordshire in
office, and was a
1271, and there revived the custom of composing
member of every
chronicles which had languished since the time of
Liberal adminis-
tration for the Matthew Paris. His chief work is the history of the
Barons' Wars, "Narratio de bellis apud Lewes et
next half-century.
The offices he held Evesham", covering the period from 1258 to 1267
and including a reference which shows that he was
were: under sec-
still engaged on it on 3 May, 1312. Apart from its
retary of State
historical matter which is derived from Matthew Paris
for war (1859-
under secre- and his continuators, it is interesting for the evidence
61);
it affords of the extreme veneration in which Simon
tary of State for
de Montfort was held at that time. He also wrote
India (1861-
secretary a short chronicle about Edward I, "Qusedam recapi-
1863) ;
tulatio brevis de gestis domini Edwardi" It is
of State for war
possible, though not very probable, that he wrote
George Feedehick Samuel, Marquess (1863-66), all un-
the earlier part of a chronicle, "Willelmi Rishanger,
oF Ripon der Lord Palmer-
monachi S. Albani, Chronica". Four other works
ston; secretary of State for India (1866) under Earl
attributed to him by Bale are not authentic.
Russell. In Mr. Gladstone's first administration he Rilet, Willelmi Rishanger chronica et annates in R. S. (London,
was lord president of the council (1868-73) and 1863-76); Riley in Mon. Germ. Hist., XXVIII (Berlin, 1865);
during this period acted as chairman of the joint Halliwell, Chronicle of William de Rishanger of the Barons'
Wars in Camden Society Publications, XV (London, 1840)
commission for drawing up the Treaty of Washington, B^MONT, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884) Hardy, Descriptive
;

which settled the Alabama claims (1876). For this Catalogue (London, 1862-71), I, 871; III, 171-2, 191-3; Tout in
great public service he was created Marquess of Ripon. Diet. Nat. Biog., a. v.

He also was grand master of the freemasons from Edwin Burton.

1871 to 1874, when he resigned this office to enter the
Catholic Church. He was received at the London Rishton, Edward, b. in Lancashire, 1550; d. at
Oratory, 4 Sept., 1874. When Gladstone returned to Sainte-M6nehould, Lorraine, 29 June, 1585. He was
power in 1880 he appointed Lord Ripon Governor- probably a younger son of John Rishton of Dunken-
General and Viceroy of India, the office with which his halgh and Dorothy Southworth. He studied at
name will ever be connected, he having made himself Oxford from 1568 to 1572, when he proceeded B.A.
beloved by the Indian subjects of the Crown as no probably from Brasenose College. During the next
one of his predecessors had been. He held this office year he was converted and went to Douai to study
until 1884. In the short administration of 1886 he for the priesthood. He was the first Englishman to
was first lord of the admiralty, and in that of 1892- matriculate at Douai, and is said to have taken his
1895 he was secretary of State for the Colonies. M.A. degree there. While a student he drew up and
When the Liberals again returned to power he took published a chart of ecclesiastical history, and was one
office as lord privy seal. This office he resigned in of the two sent to Reims in November, 1576, to see if
1908. Ever a fervent Catholic, Lord Ripon took a the college could be removed there. After his ordina-
great share in educational and charitable works. He tion at Cambrai (6 April, 1576) he was sent to Rome.
was president of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul In 1580 he returned to England, visiting Reims on the
from 1899 until his death vice-president of the Cath-
;
way, but was soon arrested. He was tried and con-
oUc Union, and a great supporter of St. Joseph's demned to death with Blessed Edmund Campion and
Catholic Missionary Society. others on 20 November, 1581, but was not executed,
The Tablet (17 July, 1909); Annual Register (London, 1909). being left in prison, first in King's Bench, then in the
Edwin Burton. Tower. On 21 January he was exiled with several
others, being sent under escort as far as Abbeville,
Risby, Richard, b. in the parish of St. Lawrence, whence he made his way to Reims, arriving on 3
Reading, 1490; executed at Tyburn, London, 20 March. Shortly afterwards, at the suggestion of
April, 1534. He entered Winchester College in 1500, Father Persona, he completed Sander's imperfect
and was subsequently a fellow of New College, Oxford, "Origin and Growth of the Anglican Schism". With
taking his degree in 1510. He resigned in 1513 to the intention of taking his doctorate in divinity he
enter the Franciscan Order, and eventually became proceeded to the University of Pont-a-Mousson in
warden of the Observant friary at Canterbury. Lorraine, but the plague broke out, and though he
 RITA 64 RITES

went to Saintc-M6nehould to escape the infection, he —

function as a rite the rite of the blessing of palms,
died of it and w:is buried there. Dodd in error the coronation rite, etc. In a slightly different sense
ascribes his death to 1586, in which mistake he has we call the whole complex of the ser\ices of any
been foUowi-d l)v the writer in the "Dictionary of Church or group of Churches a rite thus we speak—
National Biography" and others. After his death the of the Roman Rite, Byzantine Rite, and ^•arious
book on the schism was published by Father Persons, Eastern rites. In the latter sense the word is often
and subsequent editions included two tracts attributed considered equivalent to liturgy (q. v.), which
to Rishton, tlio one a diary of an anonymous priest in however, in the older and more proper use of the
the Tower (1.5SO-.5), which was probably the work of word is the Eucharistic Servirc, or Mass; hence for
Father John Hart, S.J.; the other a hst of martyrs a whole series of religious functions "rite" is pref-
wit h later addit ions by Persons. Recent pubhcation of erable.
the "Tower Bills" makes it certain that Rishton did A Christian rite, in this sense, comprises the manner
not write the diary, and his only other known works of performing services for the worship of God and
all

are a tract on the difference between Catholicism and the sanctification of men. This includes therefore:
Protestantism (Douai, 1575) and "Profession of his (1) the administration of sacraments, among which
faith made manifest and confirmed by twenty-one the service of the Holy Eucharist, as being also the
reasons". Sacrifice, is the most important element of all; (2)
Pitts, De illuf^fribiis Anglim acri-ptoribus (Paris, 1619) ; Dodd, the series of psalms, lessons, prayers, etc., divided
Church Hi^toTij (Brussels vere Wolverhampton, 1737-42), II, 74, into separate unities, called "hours", to make up
a very inaccurate account: a Wood, Athenas Oxonienaes, ed.
together the Divine Office; (3) all other religious and
Bliss (London, 1813-20); Kinsella and Deane, The Rise and
Progress of the English RefarTnation (Dublin, 1S27) a translation
,
ecclesiastical functions, called sacramentals. This
of Sander; Lewis, Rise and Growth of the Anglican Schism (Lon- general term includes blessings of persons (such as a
don, 1877), the best translation of Sander, the editor accepts the
coronation, the blessing of an abbot, various cere-
diary in the Tower as being by Rishton; Knox, First and Second
Douay Diaries (London, 1878); Foley, Records Eng. Prov. S.J., monies performed for catechumens, the reconciUa-
VI (London, 1880) Fosteh, Alumni Oxonienses (Oxford, 1891)
;
tion of public penitents, Benediction of the Blessed
GiLLOW, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.; Simpson, Edmund Campion, re-
vised ed. (London, 1896-1907); Coopeb in Diet. Nat. Biog.;
Sacrament, etc.), blessings of things (the consecration
Persons, Memoirs in Catholic Record Society. II, IV (London, of a church, altar, chalice, etc.), and a number of
1906) ; Tower Bills, ed. Pollen in Catholic Record Society, lit devotions and ceremonies, e. g. processions and the
(London, 1906).
taking of ^ows. Sacraments, the Divine Office,
Edwin Burton.
and sacramentals (in a wide sense) make up the rite
of any Christian religious body. In the case of
Rita of Cascia, Saint, b. at Rocca Porena in the Protestants these three elements must be modified
Diocese of Spoleto, 1386; d. at the Augustinian con- to suit their theological opinions.
vent of Cascia, 1456. Feast, 22 May. Represented as
holding roses, or roses and figs, and sometimes with
II. Difference of Rite. —
The Catholic Church
has never maintained a principle of uniformity in rite.
a wound in her forehead. According to the "Life" Just as there are different local laws in various parts
(Acta SS., May, V, 224) written at the time of her of the Church, whereas certain fundamental laws are
beatification by the Augustinian, Jacob Carelicci, obeyed by all, so Catholics in different places have
from two older biographies, she was the daughter of their own local or national rites; they say prayers
parents advanced in years and distinguished for and perform ceremonies that have evolved to suit
charity which merited them the surname of "Peace- people of the various countries, and are only dif-
makers of Jesus Christ". Rita's great desire was to ferent expressions of the same fundamental truths.
become a nun, but, in obedience to the will of her The essential elements of the functions are obviously
parents, she, at the age of twelve, married a man
the same everywhere, and are observed by all Catho-
extremely cruel and ill-tempered. For eighteen years lic rites in obedience to the command of Christ and
she was a model wife and mother. When her husband
the Apostles, thus: in every rite baptism is adminis-
was murdered she tried in vain to dissuade her twin tered with water and the invocation of the Holy
sons from attempting to take revenge; she appealed to
Trinity; the Holy Eucharist is celebrated with bread
Heaven to prevent such a crime on their part, and and wine, over which the words of institution are
they were taken away by death, reconciled to God.
said; penance involves the confession of sins. In the
She applied for admission to the Augustinian convent amplification of these essential elements, in the ac-
at Cascia, but, being a widow, was refused. By con-
companying prayers and practical or symbolic cere-
tinued entreaties, and, as is related, by Divine inter-
monies, various customs have produced the changes
vention, she gained admission, received the habit of
which make the different rites. If any rite did not
the order and in due time her profession. As a reli-
contain one of the essential notes of the service it
gious she was an example for all, excelled in mortifica-
would be invalid in that point, if its prayers or cere-
tions, and was widely known for the efficacy of her
monies expressed false doctrine it would be heretical.
prayers. Urban Mil, in 1637, permitted her Mass
Such rites would not be tolerated in the Cathoho
and Office. On account of the many miracles re-
Church. But, supposing uniformity in essentials
ported to have been wrought at her intercession, she
and in faith, the authority of the Church has never
received in Spain the title of La Santa de los impos-
insisted on uniformity of rite; Rome has never re-
sibiles. Slie was solemnly canonized 24 May, 1900.
Mixseitiifr of the Sacred Heart (19U2), 200; Dunb.ik, Diet, of sented the fact that other people have their own
Saintti/ Women (London, 190.5); Stadler. HriliQrn-lexicon; .Acta expressions of the same truths. The Roman Rite
S. Sei/is, XXXII, .563; Acta SS., March. V, 224-34; Cakdi, Vila is the most venerable, the most archaic, and immeas-
delta b. Rita da Cascia (Foligno, lsO.5; rev. ed., Rome, 1900).
urably the most important of all, but our fellow-
Francis Mershman. CathoUcs in the East have the same right to their
Rites. —I. Name axd Definition. —
Ritnsin classi-
traditional liturgies as we have to ours. Nor can
we doubt that other rites too have many beautiful
cal Latin means, primarily, the form and mannerof any
prayers and ceremonies, which add to the richness of
rchgious observance, so Li vy, I, 7: " Sacra diis aliis
albano ritu, gneco Hereuli ut ab Evandro instituta
Catholic Uturgical inheritance. To lose these would
be a misfortune second only to the loss of the Roman
erant (Romulus) facit"; then, in general, anv custom
Rite. Leo XIII in his Encychcal, "Praeclara" (20
or usage. In English the word "rite" ordinarily June, 1894), expressed the traditional attitude of the
means the ceremonies, prayers, and functions of any papacy when he wrote of his reverence for the vener-
religious l3od>', whether pagan, Jewish, iMoslem, or
able rites of the Eastern Churches and assured the
Christian. But here we must distinguish two uses schismatics, whom he invited to reunion, that there
of the word. We speak of any one such religious was no jealousy of these things at Rome; that for
 RITES 65 RITES
all Eastern customs "we shall provide without nar- sire foruniformity in their patriarchate, but the great
rowness." majority regarded the old state of things with per-
At the time of the Schism, Photius and Cerularius fect indifference. When other bishops asked them
hurled against Latin rites and customs every con- how ceremonies were performed at Rome they sent
ceivable absurd accusation. The Latin fast on descriptions (so Pope Vigilius to Profuturus of Braga
Saturday, Lenten fare, law of celibacy, confirmation in 538; Jaff6, "Regesta Rom. Pont.", n. 907), but
by a bishop, and especially the use of unleavened were otherwise content to allow different uses. St.
bread for the Holy Eucharist were their accusations Gregory I (590-604) showed no anxiety to make the
against the ^^'est. Latin theologians replied that new English Church conform to Rome, but told St.
both were right and suitable, each for the people Augustine to take whatever rites he thought most
who used them, that there was no need for uni- suitable from Rome or Gaul (Ep. xi, 64, in P. L.,
formity in rite if there was unity in faith, that one LXXVII, 1186-7).
good custom did not prove another to be bad, thus Thus for centuries the popes alone among patriarchs
defending their customs without attacking those of did not enforce their own rite even throughout their
the East. But the Byzantine patriarch was breaking patriarchate. The gradual romanization and sub-
the unity of the Church, denying the primacy, and sequent disappearance of Galhcan rites were (be-
plunging the East into schism. In 1054, when ginning in the eighth and ninth centuries), the work
Cerularius's schism had begun, a Latin bishop, not of the popes but of local bishops and kings who
Dominic of Gradus and Aquileia, wrote concerning naturally wished to conform to the use of the Apos-
it to Peter III of Antioch. He discussed the ques- tolic See. The Gallican Rites varied everywhere
tion Cerularius had raised, the use of azymes at Mass, (Charles the Great gives this as his reason for adopt-
and carefully explained that, in using this bread, ing the Roman Use; see Hauck, "Kirchengesch.
Latins did not intend to disparage the Eastern cus- Deutschlands", II, 107 sq.), and the inevitable desire
tom of consecrating leavened bread, for there is a for at least local uniformity arose. The bishops' fre-
symbolic reason for either practice. "Because we quent visits to Rome bi-ought them in contact with
know that the sacred mixture of fermented bread is the more dignified ritual observed by their chief at
used and lawfuUj' observed by the most holy and the tomb of the Apostles, and they were naturally in-
orthodox Fathers of the Eastern Churches, we faith- fluenced by it in their return home. The local bis-
fully approve of both customs and confirm both by a hops in synods ordered conformity to Rome. The
spiritual explanation" (Will, "Acta et scripta quae romanizing movement in the West came from be-
de controversiis ecclesiae graecae et latince saec. XI low. In the Prankish kingdom Charles the Great, as
composita extant", Leipzig, 1861, 207). These words part of his scheme of unifying, sent to Adrian I for
represent very well the attitude of the papacy to- copies of the Roman books, commanding their use
wards other rites at all times. Three points, how- throughout his domain. In the history of the sub-
ever,may seem opposed to this and therefore require stitution of the Roman Rite for the Gallican the popes
some explanation: the supplanting of the old Gal- appear as spectators, except perhaps in Spain and
lican Rite by that of Rome almost throughout the much later in Milan. The final result was the ap-
West, the modification of Uniat rites, the sup- plication in the West of the old principle, for since
pression of the later medieval rites. the pope was undoubtedly Patriarch of the West it
The existence of the Galilean Rite was a unique was inevitable, that sooner or later the West should
anomaly. The natural principle that rite follows conform to his rite. The places, however, that
patriarchate has been sanctioned by universal tra- really cared for their old local rites (Milan, Toledo)
dition with this one exception. Since the first or- retain them even now.
ganization of patriarchates there has been an ideal It is true that the changes made in some Uniat rites
of uniformity throughout each. The close bond that by the Roman correctors have not always corre-
joined bishops and metropolitans to their patriarch sponded to the best liturgical tradition. There are,
involved the use of his liturgy, just as the priests of a as Mgr Duchesne says, "corrections inspired by zeal
diocese follow the rite of their bishop. Before the that was not always according to knowledge"
arbitrary imposition of the Byzantine Rite on all (Origines du culte, 2nd ed., 69), but they are much
Orthodox Churches no Eastern patriarch would have fewer than is generally supposed and have never been
tolerated a foreign liturgy in his domain. All Egypt made with the idea of romanizing. Despite the
used the Alexandrine Rite, all S3rria that of Antioch- general prejudice that Uniat rites are mere mutilated
Jerusalem, all Asia Minor, Greece, and the Balkan hybrids, the strongest impression from the study of
lands, that of Constantinople. But in the vast West- them is how little has been changed. Where there is
ern lands that make up the Roman patriarchate, no suspicion of false doctrine, as in the Byzantine
north of the Alps and in Spain, various local rites Rite, the only change made was the restoration of
developed, all bearing a strong resemblance to each the name of the pope where the schismatics had
other, yet different from that of Rome itself. These erased it. Although the question of the procession
form the Galhcan family of hturgies. Abbot Cabrol, of the Holy Ghost has been so fruitful a source of
Dom Cagin, and other writers of their school think that dispute between Rome and Constantinople the
the Galilean Rite was really the original Roman Rite Filioque clause was certainly not contained in the
before Rome modified it ("Pal^ographie musicale ", original creed, nor did the Roman authorities insist on
V, Solesmes, 1889; Cabrol, "Lesoriginesliturgiques", its addition. So Rome is content that Eastern
Paris, 1906). Most writers, however, maintain with Catholics should keep their traditional form un-
Mgr Duchesne ("Origines du culte chr^tien", Paris, changed, though they believe the Catholic doctrine.
1898, 84-89), that the Galilean Rite is Eastern, Antio- The Filioque is only sung by those Byzantine Uniats
chene in origin. Certainly it has numerous Antio- who wish it themselves, as the Ruthenians. Other
chene peculiarities (see Gallican Rite), and when it rites were altered in places, not to romanize but only
emerged as a complete rite in the sixth and seventh to eradicate passages suspected of heresy. All
centuries (in Germanus of Paris, etc.), it was dif- other Uniats came from Nestorian, Monophysite,
ferent from that in use at Rome at the time. Non- or Monothelete sects, whose rites had been used for
Roman liturgies were used at Milan, Aquileia, even centuries by heretics. Hence, when bodies of these
at Gubbio at the gates of the Roman province (In- people wished to return to the Catholic Church their
nocent I's letter to Decentius of Eugubium; Ep. services were keenly studied at Rome for possible
XXV, in P. L., XX, 551-61). Innocent (401-17) nat- heresy. In most cases corrections were absolutely
urally protested against the use of a foreign rite in necessary. The Nestorian Liturgy, for instance, did
Umbria; occasionally other popes showed some de- not contain the words of institution, which had to be
XIII.—
 RITES 66 RITES

added to the Liturgy of the converted Chaldeca. Rome then by no means imposed uniformity
The :\lonophvsite Jacobites, Copts, and Armenians of rite. Catholics are united in faith and discipline,
have in the Trisugiun the fateful clause: "who wast but in their manner of performing the sacred func-
crucified for us", which has been the watchword of tions there is room tor variety based on essential
Monophysitism ever since Peter the Dyer of Antiooh unity, as there was in the first centuries. There are
added it (47()-S.'-;j. If only because of its associations cases the Georgian Church) where union with
(e. g.

this could not remain in a Catholic Liturgy. Rome has saved the ancient use, while the schis-
In some instances, however, the correctors were matics have been forced to abandon it by the cen-

over scrupulous. In the Gregorian Armenian Liturgy tralizing policy of their authorities (in this case
the words said by the deacon at the expulsion of the Russia). The ruthless destruction of ancient rites
catechumens, long before the Consecration: "The in favour of uniformity has been the work not of
body of the Lord and the blood of the Saviour are set Rome but of the schismatical patriarchs of Con-
forth (or "are before us") (Brightman, "Eastern stantinople. Since the thirteenth century Con-
Liturgies", 430) were in the Uniat Rite changed to: stantinople in its attempt to make itself the one
"are about to be before us" The Uniats also omit centre of the Orthodox Church has driven out the far
the words sung by the Gregorian choir before the more venerable and ancient Liturgies of Antioch and
Anaphora: "Christ has been manifested amongst us Alexandria and has compelled all the Orthodox to
(has appeared in the midst of us)" (ibid., 434), and use its own late derived rite. The Greek Liturgy of
further change the cherubic hymn because of its antici- St. Mark has ceased to exist; that of St. James has
pation of the Consecration. These misplacements been revived for one or two days in the year at
are really harmless when understood, yet any reviser Zakynthos and Jerusalem only (see Antiochene
would be shocked by such strong cases. In many Liturgy). The Orthodox all the world over must
other ways also the Armenian Rite shows evidence of follow the Rite of Constantinople. In this unjustifi-
Roman influence. It has unleavened bread, our able centralization we have a defiance of the old
confession and Judica psalm at the beginning of principle, since Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria,
Mass, a Lavabo before the Canon, the last Gospel, Cyprus, in no way belong to the Byzantine Patriarch-
etc. But BO little is this the effect of union with Rome ate. Those who accuse the papacy of sacrificing
that the schismatical Armenians have all these everything for the sake of uniformity mistake the real
points too. They date from the time of the Crusades, offender, the oecumenical patriarch.
when the Armenians, vehemently opposed to the III. The Old Rites. — Catholic and Schismatical. —
Orthodox, made many advances towards Catholics. A complete table of the old rites with an account of
So also the strong romanizing of the INIaronite their mutual relations will be found in the article
Liturgy was entirely the work of the Maronites Liturgy. Here it need only be added that there is a
themselves, when, surrounded by enemies in the Uniat body using each of the Eastern rites. There is no
East, they too turned towards the great "Western ancient rite thatis not represented within the Catholic
Church, sought her communion, and eagerly copied Church. That rite, liturgical language, and religious
her practices. One can hardly expect the pope to body connote three totally different ideas has been
prevent other Churches from imitating Roman cus- explained at length in the article Gkeek Rites. The
toms. Yet in the case of Uniats he does even this. rite a bishop or priest follows is no test at all of his
A Byzantine Uniat priest who uses unleavened religion. Within certain broad limits a member of
bread in his Liturgy incurs excommunication. The any Eastern sect might use any rite, for the two
only case in which an ancient Eastern rite has been categories of rite and religion cross each other con-
wilfully romanized is that of the Uniat Malabar tinually. They represent quite different classifica-
Christians, where it was not Roman authority but tions: for instance, liturgically all Armenians belong
the misguided zeal of Alexius de Menezes, Arch- to one class, theologically a Uniat Armenian belongs
bishop of Goa, and his Portuguese advisers at the to the same class as Latins, Chaldees, Maronites, etc.,
S>Tiod of Diamper (1599) which spoiled the old and has nothing to do with his Gregorian (Mono-
Malabar Rite. physite) fellow-countrymen (see Eastern Churches).
The Western medieval rites are in no case (except Among Catholics the rite forms a group; each rite is
the Ambrosian and Mozarabic Rites), really inde- used by a branch of the Church that is thereby a
pendent of Rome. They are merely the Roman Rite special, though not separate, entity. So within the
with local additions and modificationB, most of which Catholic unity we speak of local Churches whose
are to its disad'S'antage. They are late, exuberant, characteristic in each case is the rite they use. Rite
and inferior variants, whose ornate additions and long is the only basis of this classification. Not all Ar-
interpolated tropes, sequences, and farcing destroy menian Catholics or Byzantine Uniats obey the same
the dignified simplicity of the old liturgy. In 1.570 patriarch or local authority; yet they are "Churches,"
the re\'isers appointed by the Council of Trent individual provinces of the same great Church,
restored with scrupulous care and, even in the light because each is bound together by their own rites.
of later studies, brilliant success the pure Roman In the West there is the vast Latin Church, in the
Missal, which Pius V ordered should alone be used East the Byzantine, Chaldean, Coptic, Syrian,
wherever the Roman Rite is followed. It was a Maronite, Armenian, and Malabar Uniat Churches.
return to an older and piu'cr form. The medieval It is of course possible to subdivide and to speak
rites ha\'e no doubt a certain archaeological interest; of the national Churches (of Italy, France, Spain,
but where the Roman Rite is used it is best to use etc.) under one of these main bodies (see Latin
it in its pure form. This too only means a return Church). In modern times rite takes the place
to the principle that rite should follow patriarchate. of the old classification in patriarchates and provinces.
The reform was made very prudently, Pius V allowing
any rite that could prove an existence of two cen-
IV. Protestant Rites. — The Reformation in the
sixteenth century produced a new and numerous
turies to remain (Bull, "Quo primum", 19 July, series of rites, which are in no sense continuations of
1.570, printed first in the Alissal), thus saving any the old development of liturgy. They do not all
local use that had a certain antiquity. Some dio- represent descendants of the earliest rites, nor can
ceses fe. g. Lyons) and religious orders (Domin- they be classified in the table of genus and species
icans, Carthusians, Carmelites), therefore keep their that includes all the old liturgies of Christendom.
uses, and the independent Ambrosian
s]_iecial and The old rites are unconscious and natural develop-
Mozarabic Rites, whose loss would have been a real ments of earlier ones and go back to the original
misfortune (see Liturgy, Mass, Litukgy of the) fluid rite of the first centuries (see Liturgy). The
still remain. Protestant rites are deliberate compositions made
 RITES 67 RITES
by the various Reformers to suit their theological Messe und ordnung Gottis diensts" (Clemen, op. cit.,
positions, as new services were necessary for their 34-43), to be used on Sundays, whereas the "Formula
prayer-meetings. No old liturgy could be used missae", in Latin, might be kept for week-days. In
by people with their ideas. The old rites contain the "Deudsche Messe" "a spiritual song or German
the plainest statements about the Real Presence, psalm" replaces the Introit, then follows Kyrie elei-
the Eucharistic Sacrifice, prayers to saints, and for son in Greek three times only. There is no Gloria.
the dead, which are denied by Protestants. The Then come the Collects, Epistle, a German hymn.
Reformation occurred in the West, where the Roman Gospel, Creed, Sermon, Paraphrase of the Lord's
Rite in its various local forms had been used for cen- Prayer, words of institution with the account of
turies. No Reformed sect could use the Roman the Last Supper from I Cor., xi, 20-9, Elevation
Mass; the medieval derived rites were still more (always kept by Luther himself in spite of Karl-
ornate, explicit, in the Reformers' sense super- stadt and most of his colleagues), Communion,
stitious. So all the Protestant sects abandoned the during which the Sanctus or a hymn is sung. Collects,
old Mass and the other ritual functions, composing the blessing from Num., vi, 24-6. Except the Kyrie,
new services which have no continuity, no direct re- all is in German; azyme bread is still used but de-
lation to any historic liturgy. However, it is hardly clared indifferent; Communion is given under both
possible to compose an entirely new Christian ser- kinds, though Luther preferred the unmixed chalice.
vice without borrowing anything. Moreover, in many This service remained for a long time the basis of the
cases the Reformers wished to make the breach with Lutheran Communion function, but the local branches
the past as little obvious as could be. So many of of the sect from the beginning used great freedom in
their new services contain fragments of old rites; modifying it. The Pietistic movement in the eigh-
they borrowed such elements as seemed to them teenth century, with its scorn for forms and still more
harmless, composed and re-arranged and evolved the present Rationalism, have left very little of Lu-
in some cases services that contain parts of the old ther's scheme. A vast number of Agenda, Kirchen-
ones in a new order. On the whole it is surprising ordnungen, and Prayer-books issued by various Lu-
that they changed as much as they did. It would theran consistories from the sixteenth century to our
have been possible to arrange an imitation of the own time contain as many forms of celebrating the
Roman Mass that would have been much more Lord's Supper. Pastors use their own discretion to a,
like it than anything they produced. great extent, and it is impossible to foresee what ser-
They soon collected fragments of all kinds of rites. vice will be held in any Lutheran church . An arrange-
Eastern, Roman, Mozarabic, etc., which with their ment of hymns, Bible readings (generally the Nicene
new prayers they arranged into services that are hope- Creed), a sermon, then the words of institution and
less liturgical tangles. This is specially true of the Communion, prayers (often extempore), more hymns,
Anglican Prayer-books. In some cases, for instance, and the blessing from Num., vi, make up the general
the placing of the Gloria after the Communion in outline of the service.
Edward VI's second Prayer-book, there seems to be Zwingli was more radical than Luther. In 1523 he
no object except a love of change. The first Lutheran kept a form of the Latin Mass with the omission of all
services kept most of the old order. The Calvinist he did not like in it ("De canone missae epichiresis"
arrangements had from the first no connexion with in Clemen, op. cit., 43-7), chiefly because the town
any earlier rite. The use of the vulgar tongue was a council of Ziirioh feared too sudden a change, but in
great principle with the Reformers. Luther and 1525 he overcame their scruples and issued his
Zwingli at first compromised with Latin, but soon the "Action oder bruch (=Brauch) des nachtmals"
old language disappeared in all Protestant services. (ibid., 47-50). This is a complete breach with the
Luther in 1523 published a tract, "Of the order of the Mass an entirely new service. On Maundy Thurs-
service in the parish" ("Von ordenung gottis diensts day the men and women are to receive communion,
3mn der gemeine" in Clemen, "Quellenbuch zur on Good Friday those of "middle age", on Easter
prakt. Theologie", I, 24-6), in which he insists on Sunday only the oldest {die alleraltesten). These
preaching, rejects all " unevangelical " parts of the are the only occasions on which the service is to
Mass, such as the Offertory and idea of sacrifice, in- be held. The arrangement is: a prayer said by the
vocation of saints, and ceremonies, and denounces pastor facing the people, reading of I Cor., xi, 20-9,
private Masses {Winkelmessen), Masses for the dead, Gloria in Excelsis, "The Lord be with you" and its
and the idea of the priest as a mediator. Later in the answer, reading of John, vi, 47-63, Apostles' Creed,
same year he issued a "Formula missae et communionis an address to the people. Lord's Prayer, extempore
pro ecclesia Vittebergensi" (ibid., 26-34), in which he prayer, words of institution. Communion (under both
omits the preparatory prayers. Offertory, all the Canon kinds in wooden vessels), Ps. cxiii, a short prayer of
to qui pridie, from Unde et memores to the Pater, the thanksgiving; the pastor says: "Go in peace" On
embolism of the Lord's Prayer, fraction, Ite missa other Sundays there is to be no Communion at all,
est. The Preface is shortened, the Sanctus is to be but a service consisting of prayer. Our Father, sermon,
sung after the words of institution which are to be general confession, absolution, prayer, blessing.
said aloud, and meanwhile the elevation may be Equally radical was the Calvinist sect. In 1535
made because of the weak who would be offended by through Farel's influence the Mass was abolished in
its sudden omission (ibid., IV, 30). At the end he Geneva. Three times a year only was there to be a
adds a new ceremony, a blessing from Num., vi, 24-6. commemorative Supper in the baldest form on other
;

Latin remained in this service. Sundays the sermon was to suffice. In 1542 Calvin
Karlstadt began to hold vernacular services at issued " La forme des pri^res eccl^siastiques" (Clemen,
Wittenberg since 1521. In 1524 Kaspar Kantz pub- op. cit., 51-8), a supplement to which describes "La
lished a German service on the lines of Luther's maniere de c616brer la cene" (ibid., 51-68). This rite,
"Formula missae" (Lohe, "Sammlung liturgischer to be celebrated four times yearly, consists of the read-
Formulare", III, Nordlingen, 1842, 37 sq.); so also ing of I Cor., xi, an excommunication of various kinds
Thomas Miinzer, the Anabaptist, in 1523 at Alstedt of sinners, and long exhortation. "This being done,
(Smend, "Die evang. deutschen Messen", 1896, 99 the ministers distribute the bread and the cup to the
sq.).A number of compromises began at this time people, taking care that they approach reverently and
among the Protestants, services partly Latin and in good order" (ibid., 60). Meanwhile a psalm is sung
partly vernacular (Rietschel, "Lehrbuch der Litur- or a lesson read from the Bible, a thanksgiving fol-
gik", I, 404-9). Vernacular hymns took the place of lows (ibid., 55), and a final blessing. Except for their
the old Proper (Introit, etc.). At last in 1526 Luther occurrence in the reading of I Cor., xi, the words of
issued an entirely new German service, "Deudsche institution are not said; there is no kind of Commu-
 RITES 68 RITES

nion form. It is hardly possible to speak of rite at all America accepted a book based on the English one of
in the Calvinist body. 1662, but taking some features from the Scotch ser-
The other ritual functions kept li>- Protestants vices. The Anglican service-books are now the least
(baptism, confirmation as an introduction to Com- removed from Catholic liturgies of those used by any
munion, marriage, funerals, appointment of ministers) Protestant body. But this is saying very little. The
went through much the same development. The Non-jurors in the eighteenth century produced a
first Reformers expunged and modified the old rites, number of curious liturgies which in many ways go
then gradually more and more was changed until back to Cathohc principles, but have the fault common
little remained of a rite in our sense. Psalms, hymns, to all Protestant services of being conscious and arti-
prayers, addresses to the people in various combina- ficial arrangements of elements selected from the old
tions make up these functions. The Calvinists have rites,instead of natural developments (Overton, "The
always been more radical than the Lutherans. The Non-jurors", London, 1902, oh. vi). The Irvingites
development and multiple forms of these services may have a not very successful service-book of this type.
be seen in Rietschel, "Lehrbuch der Liturgik", II, Many Methodists use the Anglican book; theother later
and Clemen, "Quellenbuch zur praktischen Theolo- sects have for the most part nothing but loose arrange-
gie", I (texts only). The Anglican body stands ments of hymns, readings, extempore prayers, and a
somewhat apart from the others, inasmuch as it has a sermon that can hardly be called rites in any sense.
standard book, almost unaltered since 1662. The V. Liturgical Language. —
The language of any
first innovation was the introduction of an English Church or rite, as distinct from the vulgar tongue, is
litany under Henry VIII in 1544. Cranmer was pre- that used in the official services and may or may not
paring further changes when Henry VIII died (see be the common language. For instance the Rumanian
Procter and Frere, "A New History of the Book of Church uses liturgically the ordinary language of the
Common Prayer", London, 1908, 29-35). Under country, while Latin is used by the Latin Church for
Edward VI (1547-53) many changes were made at her Liturgy without regard to the mother tongue of
once: blessings, holy water, the creeping to the Cross the clergy or congregation. There are many cases
were abolished, Mass was said in English (ibid., 39-41), of an intermediate state between these extremes, in
and in 1549 the first Prayer-book, arranged by Cran- which the liturgical language is an older form of the
mer, was issued. Much of the old order of the Mass vulgar tongue, sometimes easily, sometimes hardly at
remained, but the Canon disappeared to make way all, understood by people who have not studied it
for a new prayer from Lutheran sources. The "Kdl- specially. Language is not rite. Theoretically any
nische Kirchenordnung " composed by Melanchthon rife may exist in any language. Thus the Armenian,
and But zer supplied part of the prayers. The changes Coptic, and East Syrian Rites are celebrated always
are Lutheran rather than Calvinist. In 1552 the in one language, the Byzantine Rite is used in a great
second Prayer-book took the place of the first. This number of tongues, and in other rites one language
is the present Anglican Book of Common Prayer and sometimes enormously preponderates but is not used
represents a much stronger Protestant tendency. The exclusively. This is determined by church discipline.
commandments take the place of the Introit and The Roman Liturgy is generally celebrated in Latin.
Kyrie (kept in the first book), the Gloria is moved to The reason why a liturgical language began to be used
the end, the Consecration-prayer is changed so as to and is still retained must be distinguished in liturgical
deny the Sacrifice and Real Presence, the form at the science from certain theological or mystic considera-
Communion becomes: "Take and eat this in remem- tions by which its use may be explained or justified.
brance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in Each liturgical language was first chosen because it was
thy heart by faith with thanksgiving" (similarly- for the natural language of the people. But languages
the chalice). In 1558 Elizabeth's Go\'ernment issued change and the Faith spreads into countries where
a new edition of the second Prayer-book of Edward other tongues are spoken. Then either the authori-
VI with slight modifications of its extreme Protestant- ties are of a more practical mind and simply translate
ism. Both the Edwardine forms for communion the prayers into the new language, or the conservative
are combined. In 1662 a number of re^•isions were instinct,always strong in religion, retains for the
made. In particular the ordination forms received Uturgy an older language no longer used in common
additions defining the order to be conferred. A few life. The Jews showed this instinct, when, though
slight modifications (as to the lessons read, days no Hebrew was a dead language after the Captivity, they
longer to be kept) have been made since. continued to use it in the Temple and the synagogues
The Anglican Communion service follows this in the time of Christ, and still retain it in their ser-
order:The Lord's Prayer, Collect for purity, Ten vices. The Moslem, also conservative, reads the
Commandments, Collect for the king and the one for Koran in classical Arabic, whether he be Turk, Persian,
the da>', Epistle, Gospel, Creed, sermon, certain sen- or Afghan. The translation of the church service is
tences from the Bible (meanwhile a collection is made), complicated by the difficulty of determining when the
prayer for the Church militant, address to the people language in which it is written, as Latin in the ^A'est
about Communion, general confession and absolution, and Hellenistic Greek has ceased to be the
in the East,
the comfortable words (Matt., xi, 28; John, iii, 16; vulgar tongue. Though the Byzantine services were
1 Tim., i, 15; I John, ii, 1), Preface, prayer ("We do translated into the common language of the Slavonic
not presume"), Consecration-prayer, Communion at people that they might be understood, this form of the
once, Lord's Prayer, Thanksgiving-prayer, "Glory be language (Church-Slavonic) is no longer spoken, but
to God on high", blessing. Very little of the arrange- isgradually becoming as unintelligible as the original
ment of the old Mass remains in this service, for all the Greek. Protestants make a great point of using
ideas Protestants reject are carefully excluded. The languages "understanded of the people", yet the
Book of Common Prayer contains all the official ser- language of Luther's Bible and the AngUcan Prayer-
vices of the Anghcan Church, baptism, the catechism, book is already archaic.
confirmation, marriage, funeral, ordination, articles
It has also forms of morning and
History. —AMien Christianity appeared Hellenistic
of religion, etc. Greek was the common language spoken around the
e-\-ening prayer,composed partly from the Catholic Mediterranean. St. Paul writes to people in Greece,
Office with man>- modifications and very considerably Asia Minor, and Italy in Greek. When the parent
reduced. The Episcopal Church in Scotland has a rites were finally written down in the fourth and fifth
Prayer-book, formed in 1637 and revised in 1764, centuries Eastern liturgical language had slightly
which is more nearly akin to the first Prayer-book of changed. The Greek of these liturgies (Apost.
Edward VI and is decidedly more High-Church in Const. VIII, St. James, St. Mark, the Byzantine
tone. In 1789 the Protestant Episcopal Church of Liturgy) was that of the Fathers of the time, strongly
 RITES 69 RITES
coloured by the Septuagint and the New Testament. Arabic, Church-Slavonic, and Rumanian. Georgian
These liturgies remained in this form and have never has almost died out. Later Russian missions have
been recast in any modern Greek dialect. Like the very much increased the number. They have
text of the Bible, that of a liturgy once fixed becomes translated the same Byzantine Rite into German,
sacred. The formulae used Sunday after Sunday are Esthonian, and Lettish for the Baltic provinces,
hallowed by too sacred associations to be changed Finnish and Tartar for converts in Finland and
as long as more or less the same language is used. Siberia, Eskimo, a North American Indian dialect,
The common tongue drifts and develops, but the Chinese, and Japanese. Hence no general principle
liturgical forms are stereotyped. In the East and of liturgical language can be established for Eastern
West, however, there existed different principles in Churches, though the Nestorians and Monophysites
this matter. Whereas in the West there was no have evolved something like the Roman principle
literary language but Latin till far into the Middle and kept their old languages in the liturgy, in spite
Ages, in the East there were such languages, totally of change in common talk. The Orthodox services
unlike Greek, that had a position, a literature, a are not, however, everywhere understood by the
dignity of their own hardly inferior to that of Greek people, for since these older versions were made lan-
itself. In the West every educated man spoke and guage has gone on developing. In the case of con-
wrote Latin almost to the Renaissance. To trans- verts of a totally different race, such as Chinese or
late the Liturgy into a Celtic or Teutonic language Red Indians, there is an obvious line to cross at once
would have seemed as absurd as to write a prayer- and there is no difficulty about translating what
book now in some vulgar slang. The East was never would otherwise be totally unintelligible to them.
hellenized as the West was latinized. Great nations, At home the spoken language gradually drifts away
primarily Egypt and Syria, kept their own languages from the form stereotyped in the Liturgy, and it is
and literatures as part of their national inheritance. difficult to determine when the Liturgy ceases to be
The people, owing no allegiance to the Greek lan- understood. In more modern times with the growth
guage, had no reason to say their prayers in it, and of new sects the conservative instinct of the old
the Liturgy was translated into Coptic in Egypt, into Churches has grown. The Greek, Arabic, and
Syriac in Syria and Palestine. So the principle of a Church-Slavonic texts are jealously kept unchanged,
uniform liturgical language was broken in the East though in all cases they have become archaic and
and people were accustomed to hear the church ser- difficult to follow by uneducated people. Lately the
vice in different languages in different places. This question of liturgical language has become one of the
uniformity once broken never became an ideal to chief difficulties in Macedonia. Especially since the
Eastern Christians and the way was opened for an Bulgarian Schism the Phanar at Constantinople in-
indefinite multiplication of liturgical tongues. sists on Greek in church as a sign of Hellenism, while
In the fourth and fifth centuries the Rites of Antioch the people clamour for Old-Slavonic or Rumanian.
and Alexandria were used in Greek in the great towns In the West the whole situation is different.
where people spoke Greek, in Coptic or Sjrriac among Greek was first used at Rome, too. About the third
peasants in the country. The Rite of Asia Minor and century the services were translated into the vulgar
Constantinople was always in Greek, because here tongue, Latin (see Mass, Liturgy of the), which has
there was no rival tongue. But when the Faith was remained ever since. There was no possible rival
preached in Armenia (from Csesarea) the Armenians language for many centuries. As the Western
in taking over the Csesarean Rite translated it of barbarians became civilized they accepted a Latin
course into their own language. And the great Nes- culture in everything, having no literatures of their
torian Church in East Syria, evolving her own litera- own. Latin was the language of all educated people,
ture in Sjrriac, naturally used that language for her so it was used in church, as it was for books or even
church services too. This diversity of tongues was letter- writing. The Romance people drifted from
by no means parallel to diversity of sect or religion. Latin to Italian, Spanish, French, etc., so gradually
People who agreed entirely in faith, who were sepa- that no one can say when Latin became a dead lan-
rated by no schism, nevertheless said their prayers in guage. The vulgar tongue was used by peasants and
different languages. Melchites in Syria clung entirely ignorant people only; but all books were written,
to the Orthodo!x faith of Constantinople and used the lectures given, and solemn speeches made in Latin.
Byzantine Rite, yet used it translated into Syriac. Even Dante (d. 1321) thought it necessary to write
The process of translating the Liturgy continued later. an apology for Italian (De vulgari eloquentia).
After the Schism of the eleventh century, the Ortho- So for centuries the Latin language was that, not of
dox Church, unlike Rome, insisted on uniformity of the Catholic Church, but of the Roman patriarchate.
rite among her members. All the Orthodox use the When people at last realized that it was dead, it was
Byzantine Rite, yet have no idea of one language. too late to change it. Around it had gathered the
When the Slavs were converted the Byzantine Rite associations of Western Christendom; the music
was put into Old Slavonic for them; when Arabic be- of the Roman Rite was composed and sung only to a
came the only language spoken in Egypt and Syria, it Latin text; and it is even now the official tongue of
became the language of the Liturgy in those countries. the Roman Court. The ideal of uniformity in rite
For a long time all the people north of Constantinople extended to language also, so when the rebels of the
used Old Slavonic in church, although the dialects they sixteenth century threw over the old language, sacred
spoke gradually drifted away from it. Only the from its long use, as they threw over the old rite and
Georgians, who are Slavs in no sense at all, used their old laws, the Catholic Church, conservative in all
own language. In the seventeenth century as part these things, would not give way to them. As a
of the growth of Rumanian national feeling came a bond of union among the many nations who make up
great insistence on the fact that they were not Slavs the Latin patriarchate, she retains the old Latin
either. They wished to be counted among Western, tongue with one or two small exceptions. Along
Latin races, so they translated their liturgical books the Eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea the Roman
into their own Romance language. These represent Rite has been used in Slavonic (with the Glagolitic
the old classical liturgical languages in the East. letters) since the eleventh century, and the Roman
The Monophysite Churches have kept the old Mass is said in Greek on rare occasions at Rome.
tongues even when no longer spoken; thus they use It is a question how far one may
speak of a special
Coptic in Egypt, Syriac in Syria, Armenian in Ar- liturgical Latin language. The writers of our Col-
menia. The Nestorians and their daughter-Church lects, hymns, Prefaces, etc., wrote simply in the lan-
in India (Malabar) also use Syriac. The Orthodox guage of their time. The style of the various ele-
have four or five chief liturgical languages: Greek, ments of the Mass and Divine Office varies greatly ac-
 RITES 70 RITES

cording to the time at which they were written. TV e the use of Latin in the A\'est came about naturally
have texts from the fourth or fifth to the twentieth and is retained through conservative instinct. It is
century. Liturgical Latin then is simply late Chris- not so in the East. There is a great practical ad-
tian Latin of various periods. On the other hand the vantage to travellers, whether priests or laymen, in
Liturgy had an influence on the style of Christian finding their rite exactly the same everywhere. An
Latin writers second only to that of the Bible. First English priest in Poland or Portugal could not say
we notice Hebraisms (per omnia scecula scBCulorum), his Mass unless he and the server had a common
many Greek constructions (per Dominum nostrum, language. The use of Latin all over the Roman
meaning "for the sake of", 5i<i) and words [Euchn- patriarchate is a very obvious and splenjiid witness
ristia, lilania, episcopus), expressions borrowed from of unity. Every Catholic traveller in a country of
Biblical metaphors {pastor, liber prcedestinationis, which he does not know the language has felt the
crucifigere carnem, lux, vita, Agnus Dei), and words comfort of finding that in church at least everything
in a new Christian sense {humilitas, compunclio, is familiar and knows that in a Catholic church of his

caritas). St. Jerome in his Vulgate more than any own rite he is at home anywhere. Moreover, the
one else helped to form liturgical style. His con- change of liturgical language would be a break with
structions and phrases occur repeatedly in the non- the past. It is a witness of antiquity of which a
Biblical parts of the Mass and Office. The style Catholic may well be proud that in Mass to-day we
of the fifth and sixth centuries (St. Leo I, Celestine I, are still used to the very words that Anselm, Gregory,
•Gregory I) forms perhaps the main stock of our Leo sang in their cathedrals. A change of language
services. The mediaeval Schoolmen (St. Thomas would also abolish Latin chant. Plainsong, as
Aquinas) and their technical terminology have in- venerable a relic of antiquity as any part of the ritual,
fluenced much of the later parts, and the Latin of the is composed for the Latin text only, supposes always

Renaissance is an important element that in many the Latin syllables and the Latin accent, and becomes
cases overlays the ruder forms of earlier times. Of a caricature when it is forced into another language
this Renaissance Latin many of the Breviary lessons with different rules of accent.
are typical examples; a comparison of the earlier These considerations of antiquity and universal
forms of the hymns with the improved forms drawn use always made proportionately (since there are the
up by order of Urban VIII (1623-44) will convince Eastern Uniat rites) but valid for the Roman patri-
any one how disastrous its influence was. The ten- archate may well outweigh the practical convenience
dency to write inflated phrases has not yet stopped of using the chaos of modern languages in the liturgy.
almost any modern Collect compared with the old There is also an aesthetic advantage in Latin. The
ones in the "Gelasian Sacramentary " will show how splendid dignity of the short phrases with their
much we have lost of style in our liturgical prayers. rhythmical accent and terse style redolent of the
—
Use of Latin. The principle of using Latin in great Latin Fathers, the strange beauty of the old
church is in no way fundamental. It is a question Latin hymns, the sonorous majesty of the Vulgate,
of discipline that evolved differently in East and West, all these things that make the Roman Rite so digni-
and may not be defended as either primitive or uni- fied, so characteristic of the old Imperial City where
versal. The authority of the Church could change the Prince of the Apostles set up his throne, would
the liturgical language at any time without sacrificing be lost altogether in modern English or French
any important principle. The idea of a, universal translations. The impossibility of understanding
tongue may seem attractive, but is contradicted by Latin is not so great. It is not a secret, unknown
the fact that the Catholic Church uses eight or nine tongue, and till quite lately every educated person
different liturgical languages. Latin preponderates understood it. It is still taught in every school.
as a result of the greater influence of the Roman The Church does not clothe her prayers in a secret
patriarchate and its rite, caused by the spread of language, but rather takes it for granted that people
\\'estern Europeans into new lands and the unhappy understand Latin. If Catholics learned enough
schism of so many Easterns (see Fortescue, "Or- Latin to follow the very easy style of the Church
thodox Eastern Church", 431). Uniformity of rite language all difficulty would be solved. For those
or liturgical language has never been a Catholic who cannot take even this trouble there is the ob-
ideal, nor was Latin chosen deliberately as a sacred vious solution of a translation. The Missal in Eng-
language. Had there been any such idea the lan- lish is one of the easiest books to procure; the
guage would have been Hebrew or Greek. The ignorant may follow in that the prayers that lack of
objections of Protestants to a Latin Liturgy can be education prevents their understanding without it.
answered easily enough. An argument often made The liturgical languages used by Catholics are:
from I Cor., xiv, 4-18, is of no value. The whole 1. Latin in the Roman, Milanese, and Mozarabic
passage treats of quite another thing, prophesying in Rites (except in parts of Dalmatia).
tongues that no one understands, not even the speaker 2. Greek in the Bj-zantine Rite (not exclusively).
(see 14: "For if I pray in a tongue, my spirit prayeth, 3. Syriac in the Syrian, Maronite, Chaldean, and
but my understanding is without fruit"). The Malabar Rites.
other argument, from practical convenience, from the 4. Coptic in the Coptic Rite.
loss to the people who do not understand what is 5. Armenian by all the Churches of that rite.
being said, has some value. The Church has never 6. Arabic by the Melchites (Byzantine Rite).
set up a ni>sterious unintelligible language as an 7. Slavonic by Slavs of the Byzantine Rite and (in
ideal. There is no principle of sacerdotal mysteries Glagolitic letters) in the Roman Rite in Dalmatia.
from which the layman is shut out. In spite of the 8. Georgian (Byzantine Rite).
use of Latin the people have means of understanding 9. Rumanian (Byzantine Rite).
the service. That the>- might do so still better if
e\-erything were in the vulgar tongue may be ad-
—
VI. LiTUKGiCAL Science. A. Rubrics. The most
obvious and necessary study for ecclesiastical persons
mitted, but in making this change the loss would is that of the laws that regulate the performance of
probably be greater than the gain. liturgical functions. From this point of view litur-
B\- changing the language of the Liturgy we should gical study is a branch of canon law. The rules for
lose the principle of uniformity in the Roman patri- the celebration of the Holy Mysteries, administration
archate. According to the ancient principle that of sacraments, etc., are part of the positive law of the
rite follows patriarchate, the \\'estern rite should be Church, just as much as the laws about benefices,
that of the Western patriarch, the Roman Bishop, church property, or fasting, and oblige those whom
who uses the local rite of the city of Rome. There is they concern under pain of sin. As it is therefore
a further advantage in using it in his language, so the duty of persons in Holy orders to know them,
 RITES 71 RITES
they are studied in all colleges and seminaries as part eccl. lit.", etc., especially the monumental "Diet,
of the training of future priests, and candidates are d'arch. chrfit. et de liturgie") have advanced to the
examined in them before ordination. Because of first place among modern authorities on historical
its special nature and complication liturgical science liturgy. From Germany we have the works of H.
in this sense is generally treated apart from the rest Daniel (Codex lit. eccl. universse), Probst, Thalhofer,
of canon law and is joined to similar practical matters GLhr, and a school of living students (Drews, Riet-
(such as preaching, visiting the sick, etc.) to make up schel, Baumstark, Buchwald, Rauschen). In Italy good
the science of pastoral theology. The sources from work is being done by Semeria, Bonaccorsi, and others.
which it is learned are primarily the rubrics of the Nevertheless the study of liturgy hardly yet takes the
liturgical books (the Missal, Breviary, and Ritual). place it deserves in the education of church students.
There are also treatises which explain and arrange Besides the practical instruction that forms a part
these rubrics, adding to them from later decrees of the of pastoral theology, lectures on liturgical history
S. Congregation of Rites. Of these Martinucci has would form a valuable element of the course of church
not yet been displaced as the most complete and au- history. As part of such a course other rites would be
thoritative, Baldeschi has long been a favourite and considered and compared. There is a fund of deeper
has been translated into EngUsh, De Herdt is a good understanding of the Roman Rite to be drawn from
standard book, quite sound and clear as far as it goes its comparison with others, Galilean or Eastern. Such
but incomplete, Le Vavasseur is perhaps the most instruction in liturgiology should include some notion
practical for general purposes. of ecclesiology in general, the history and comparison
—
B. History. The development of the various rites, of church planning and architecture, of vestments and
their spread and mutual influence, the origin of each church music. The root of all these things in different
ceremony, etc., form a part of church history whose countries is the liturgies they serve and adorn.
importance is becoming more and more realized. —
Dogmatic Value. The dogmatic and apologetic
For practical purposes all a priest need know are value of liturgical science is a very important con-
the present rules that affect the services he has to sideration to the theologian. It must, of course, be
perform, as in general the present laws of the Church used reasonably. No Church intends to commit her-
are all we have to obey. But just as the student self officially to every statement and implication con-
of history needs to know the decrees of former synods, tained in her official books, any more than she is
even if abrogated since, as he studies the history of committed to everything said by her Fathers. For
earher times and remote provinces of the Church, instance, the Collect for St. Juliana Falconieri (19
because it is from these that he must build up his June) in the Roman Rite refers to the story of her
conception of her continuous life, so the Uturgical miraculous communion before her death, told at
student will not be content with knowing only what length in the sixth lesson of her Office, but the truth
affects him now, but is prompted to examine the past, of that story is not part of the Catholic Faith. Lit-
to inquire into the origin of our present rite and study urgies give us arguments from tradition even more
other rites too as expressions of the life of the Church valuable than those from the Fathers, for these state-
in other lands. The history of the liturgies that deeply ments have been made by thousands of priests day
affect the life of Christians in many ways, that are after day for centuries. A
consensus of liturgies is,
the foundation of many other objects of study therefore, both in space and time a greater witness of
(architecture, art, music, etc.) is no inconsiderable agreement than a consensus of Fathers, for as a gen-
element of church history. In a sense this study eral principle it is obvious that people in their prayers
is comparatively new and not yet sufficiently organ- say only what they believe. This is the meaning of
ized, though to some extent it has always accompanied the well-known axiom: Lex orandi lex credendi. The
the practical study of liturgy. The great mediseval prayers for the dead, the passages in which God is
liturgists were not content with describing the rites asked to accept this Sacrifice, the statements of the
of their own time. They suggested historical reasons Real Presence in the oldest liturgies are unimpeach-
for the various ceremonies and contrasted other prac- able witnesses of the Faith of the early Church as to
tices with those of their own Churches. Benedict these points. The Bull of Pius IX on the Immaculate
XIV's treatise on the Mass discusses the origin of each Conception (" Ineffabilis Deus", 8 Dec, 1854) con-
element of the Latin liturgy. This and other books tains a classical example of this argument from liturgy.
of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century liturgiologists Indeed there are few articles of faith that cannot be
are still standard works. So also in lectures and established or at least confirmed from liturgies. The
works on liturgy in our first sense it has always been Byzantine Office for St. Peter and St. Paul (29 June)
the custom to add historical notes on the origin of the contains plain statements about Roman primacy.
ceremonies and prayers. The study of liturgy from this point of view is part of
But the interest in the history of liturgy for its own dogmatic theology. Of late years especially dogmatic
sake and the systematic study of early documents is a theologians have given much attention to it. Chris-
comparatively new thing. In this science England tian Pesch, S.J., in his " Praelectiones theologise dog-
led the way and still takes the foremost place. It maticse" (9 vols., Freiburg i. Br.) quotes the liturgical
followed the Oxford Movement as part of the revived texts for the theses as part of the argument from tra-
interest in the early Church among Anglicans. W. dition. There are then these three aspects under
Palmer (Origines liturgicae) and J. M. Neale in his which liturgiology should be considered by a Catholic
various works are among those who gave the first theologian, as an element of canon law, church history,
impulse to this movement. The Catholic Daniel Rock and dogmatic theology. The history of its study
("Hierurgia" and "The Church of our Fathers") would take long to tell. There have been liturgiol-
further advanced it. It has now a large school of ogists through all the centuries of Christian theology.
followers. F. C. Brightman's edition of "Eastern Briefly the state of this science at various periods is
Liturgies" is the standard one used everywhere. this:
The monumental editions of the "Gelasian Sacra- Liturgiologists in the Ante-Nicene period, such as
mentary" by H. A. Wilson and the "Leonine Sacra- Justin Martyr, composed or wrote down descriptions
mentary" by C. L. Feltoe, the various essays and dis- of ceremonies performed, but made no examination of
cussions by E. Bishop, C. Atchley, and many others the sources of rites. In the fourth and fifth centuries
keep up the English standard. In France Dom the scientific study of the subject began. St. Am-
Gueranger (L'annSe liturgique) and his school of brose's "Liber de Mysteriis" (P. L., XVI, 405-26),
Benedictines opened a new epoch. Mgr Duchesne the anonymous (pseudo-Ambrose) "De Sacramentis"
suppUed a long-felt want with his "Origines du culte (P. L., XVI, 435-82), various treatises by St. Jerome
Chretien", Dom Cabrol and Dom Leclercq ("Mon. (e. g., "Contra Vigilantium" in P. L., XXIII, 354-
 RITES 72 RITES
(Oxford, 1896); Cabrol, Introduction aux etudes lilurgiquea
367) and St. Augustine, St. Cyril of Jerusalem's
(Paris, 1907); Rietschel, Lehrbuch der Liturgik (Berlin, 1900)-
"Catechetical Instructions" (P. L., XXXIII, 331- Clemen, Quellenbuch zur praktischen Theologie, I: Liturgik
ll.H) and the famous " Peregrinatio Silvia>" (in the (Giessen, 1910) The Prayer-books of Edward VI and Elizabeth
;

"Corpus script, eccl. Latin." of Vienna: "Itinera are reprinted in the An^Mrd and Modem Library of Theological
Literature (London) Pkoctok and Fbehe, A New History
hicrosolymitana", 35-101) represent in various de-
;
of the
Book of Common Prayer (London, 1908) Maude, A History of
;

grees the beginning of an examination of liturgical the Book of Common Prayer (London, 1899).
texts. From the sixth to the eighth centuries we have Adrian Fortescue.
valuable texts (the Sucramentaries and Ordines) and
a liturgical treatise of St. Isidore of Seville ("De eccl.
Benedictine Rite. —The only important rite pecu-
liar Order is the
to the Benedictine Benedictine
officiis"inP. L.,LXXXIII). The Carlovingian revival
Breviary (Breviarium Monasticum). St. Benedict
of the eighth and ninth centuries began the long line
devotes thirteen chapters (viii-xx) of his rule to
of medieval liturgiologists. Alcuin (P. L., C-CI),
regulating the canonical hours for his monks
Amalarius of Metz (P. L., XCIX, CV), Agobard (P.
and the Benedictine Breviary is the outcome of this
L., CIV), Florus of Lyons (P. L., CXIX, 15-72),
regulation. It is used not only by the so-called
Eubanus Maurus (P. L., CVII-CXII), and Wala-
Black Benedictines, but also by the Cistercians,
frid Strabo (P. L., CXIV, 916-66) form at this
Olivetans, and aU those orders that have the Rule
time a galaxy of liturgical scholars of the first impor-
tance. In the eleventh century Bemo of Constance
of St. Benedict as their basis. The Benedictines
are not at liberty to substitute the Roman for the
("JMicrologus" in P. L., CLI, 974-1022), in the
Monastic Breviary; by using the Roman Breviary
twelfth Rupert of Dcutz ("De divinis officiis" in
they would not satisfy their obligation of saying the
P. L.,CLXX, 9-:j:;4), Honorius of Autun ("Gemma
Divine Office. Each congregation of Benedictines
animae" and "De Sacramentis" in P. L., CLXXII),
has its own ecclesiastical calendar.
.lohn Beleth ("Rationale div. offic." in P. L., CCII,
9-166), and Beroldus of Milan (ed. Magistretti, Milan,
Michael Ott.
1804) carry on the tradition. In the thirteenth cen-
tury William Durandus of Mende ("Rationale div.
Carmelite Rite. —The in use among the
rite
Carmelites since about the middle of the twelfth cen-
offic"; see Durandus) is the most famous of all the tury is known by the name of the Rite of the Holy
mediaeval liturgiologists. There is then a break till Sepulchre, the Carmelite Rule, which was written
the sixteenth century. The discussions of the Refor- about the year 1210, ordering the hermits of Mount
mation period called people's attention again to Carmel to follow the approved custom of the
liturgies, either as defences of the old Faith or as
Church, which in this instance meant the Patriarchal
sources for the compilation of reformed services. Church of Jerusalem: "Hi qui litteras noverunt et
From this time editions of the old rites were made legere psalmos, per singulas horas eos dicant qui ex
for students, with commentaries. J. Clichtove institutione sanctorum patrum et ecclesiae approbata
("Elucidatorium eccl.", Paris, 1516) and J. Cochla^us consuetudine ad horas singulas sunt deputati." This
("Speculum ant. devotionis", Mainz, 1.549) were the Rite of the Holy Sepulchre belonged to the Galilean
first editors of this kind. Claude de Sainctes, Bishop family of the Roman Rite; it appears to have de-
of Evreux, published a similar collection ("Liturgiae
scended directly from the Parisian Rite, iDut to have
sive missje ss. Patrum", Antwerp, 1562). Pamelius's
undergone some modifications pointing to other
"Liturgica latin." (Cologne, 1571) is a valuable edition sources. For, in the Sanctorale we find influences of
of Roman, Milanese, and Mozarabic texts. Melchior
Angers, in the proses traces of meridional sources,
Hittorp published a collection of old commentaries
while the lessons and prayers on Holy Saturday are
on the liturgy ("De Cath. eccl. div. offic", Cologne, purely Roman. The fact is that most of the clerics
1568) which was re-edited in Bigne's "Bibl. vet. who accompanied the Crusaders were of French na-
Patrum.", X (Paris, 1610). The seventeenth century
tionality; some even belonged to the Chapter of
opened a great period. B. Gavanti ("Thesaurus sacr.
Paris, as is proved by documentary evidence. Local
rituum", re-edited by Merati, Rome, 1736-8) and H.
influence, too, played an important part. The
Menard, O.S.B. ("Sacramentarium Gregorianum" in
Temple itself, the Holy Sepulchre, the vicinity of
P. L., LXXVIIl) began a new line of liturgiologists.
the Mount Bethany, of Bethlehem, gave
of Olives, of
J. Goar, O.P. ("Euchologion", Paris, 1647), and Leo
rise to magnificent ceremonies, connecting the prin-
AUatius in his various dissertations did great things
cipal events of the ecclesiastical year with the very
for the study of Eastern rites. The Oratorian J. Morin
localities where the various episodes of the work of
("Comm. hist, de disciplina in admin. Sac. Pcen.", Redemption has taken place. The rite is known to
Paris, 1651, and "Comm. de sacris eccl. ordination-
us by means of some manuscripts, one (Barberini
ibus", Paris, 1655). Cardinal John Bona ("Rerum
659 of A. D. 1160) in the Vatican library, another at
lit. libri duo", Rome, 1671), Card. Tommaai ("Co-
Barletta, described by Kohler (Revue de I'Orient
dices sacramentorum", Rome, 1680; " Antiqui libri
Latin, VIII, 1900-01, pp. 383-500) and by him
missarum", Rome, 1691), J. Mabillon, O.S.B. ("Mu-
ascribed to about 1240.
saeumltalicum", Paris 1687-9), E. Martene, O.S.B.
("De ant. eccl. ritibus Antwerp, 1736-8), represent The hermits on Mount Carmel were bound by rule
,
only to assemble once a day for the celebration of
the highest point of liturgical study. Dom Claude de
Mass, the Divine Office being recited privately.
\'ert wrote a series of treatises on liturgical matters.
In the eighteenth century the most important names
Lay brothers who were able to read might recite the
Office, while others repeated the Lord's Prayer a
are: Benedict XIV ("De SS. Sacrificio Missse", re-
certain number of times, according to the length and
published at Mainz, 1870), E. Renaudot ("Lit. orient.
coUectio", Paris, 1716), the four Asscmani, Maronites
solemnity of the various offices. It may be presumed
("Kalendaria eccl. universae", Rome, 1755; "Codex that on settling in Europe (from about a. d. 1240) the
lit. eccl. universae", Rome, 1749-66, etc.),
Carmelites conformed to the habit of the other men-
Muratori dicant orders with respect to the choral recitation
(" Liturgia romana vetus", Venice, 1748 So we come
1
or chant of the Office, and there is documentary evi-
.

to the revival of the nineteenth century, Dom

Gu(5ranger and the modern authors already men- dence that on Mount Carmel itself the choral recita-
tioned. tion was in force at least in 1254. The General
REN.trDOT, Liturgiarum orienlalium coUecHo (Frankfurt 1847) •
Chapter of 1259 passed it number of regulations on
Maft^ne, De anliquis ecclesim ritibus (Antwerp and Milan, 17:i0- liturgical matters, but, owing to the loss of the acts,
8): AssKMANi, C'ode^ liturgicus ercleda' uTiivers^E (Rome, ITin-Br,)- their nature is unfortunately not known.
Daniel, Codex liturgicus ecdesice universal (Leipzig 1847)' Sub-
Denziqek, Ritus Orientalium (Wttrzburg, 186.3) Nilles Knlrn-
;
sequent chapters very frequently dealt with the rite,
darium manuale (Innsbruck, 1896); Hammond, Liturgies 'Eastern chiefly adding new feasts, changing old established
and Western (Oxford, 1S78); Briqhtman, Eastern Liturgies
customs, or revising rubrics. An Ordinal, belonging
 RITES 73 RITES
to the second half of the thirteenth century, is pre- the form of consecration, the priest, according to
served at Trinity College, Dublin, while portions the Ordinal of 1312 and later rubrics, makes a move-
of an Epistolarium of about 1270 are at the Maglia- ment as if breaking the host. Great care is taken
becchiana at Florence (D6, 17S7). The entire Or- that the smoke of the thurible and of the torches do
dinal was rearranged and revised in 1312 by Master not interfere with the clear vision of the host when
Sibert de Beka, and rendered obligatory by the lifted up for the adoration of the faithful the chalice,
;

General Chapter, but it experienced some difficulty however, is only slightly elevated. The celebrating
in superseding the old one. Manuscripts of it are priest does not genuflect but bows reverently. After
preserved at Lambeth (London), Florence, and else- the Pater Noster the choir sings the psalm Deus
where. It remained in force until 1532, when a venerunt gentes for the restoration of the Holy Land.
committee was appointed for its revision; their work The prayers for communion are identical with those
was approved in 1539, but published only in 1544 of the Sarum Rite and other similar uses, viz. Dmnine
after the then General Nicholas Audet had intro- sancte pater, Domine Jesu Christe (as in the Roman
duced some further changes. The reform of the Rite), and Salve salus mundi. The Domine non
Roman liturgical books under St. Pius V called for a sum dignus was introduced only in 1568. The Mass
corresponding reform of the Carmelite Rite, which ended with Dominus vobiscum, He missa est (or its
was taken in hand in 1580, the Breviary appearing equivalent) and Placeat. The chapter of 1324 or-
in 1584 and the Missal in 15.^7. At the same time dered the Salve regina to be said at the end of each
the Holy See withdrew the right hitherto exercised canonical hour as well as at the end of the Mass.
by the chapters and the generals of altering the liturgy The Last Gospel, which in both ordinals serves for
of the order, and placed all such matters in the hands the priest's thanksgiving, appears in the Missal of
of the Sacred Congregation of Rites. The publica- 1490 as an integral part of the Mass. On Sundays
tion of the Reformed Breviary of 1584 caused the and feasts there was, besides the festival Mass after
newly established Discalced Carmelites to abandon Terce or Sext, an early Mass (matutina) without
the ancient rite once for all and to adopt the Roman solemnities, corresponding to the commemorations of
Rite instead. Besides the various manuscripts of the Office. From Easter till Advent the Sunday Mass
the Ordinal already mentioned, we have examined was therefore celebrated early in the morning, the
a large number of manuscript missals and breviaries high Mass being that of the Resurrection of our Lord;
preserved in pubhc and private libraries in the Un- similarly on these Sundays the ninth lesson with its
ited Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, and other coun- responsory was taken from one of the Easter days;
tries. We have seen most of the early prints of the these customs had been introduced soon after the
Missal enumerated by Weale, as well as some not conquest of the Holy Land. A solemn commemora-
mentioned by him, and the breviaries of 1480, 1490, tion of the Resurrection was held on the last Sunday
1504, 1516 (Hora;), 1542, 1568, 1575, and 1579. before Advent; in all other respects the Carmelite
Roughly speaking, the ancient Carmelite Rite Liturgy reflects more especially the devotion of the
may be said to stand about half way between the order towards the Blessed Virgin.
Carthusian and the Dominican rites. It shows signs The Divine Office also presents some noteworthy
of great antiquity — e. g. in the absence of liturgical features. The first Vespers of certain feasts and the
colours, in the sparing use of altar candles (one at Vespers during Lent have a responsory usually taken
low Mass, none on the altar itself at high Mass but from Matins. Compline has various hymns accord-
only acolytes' torches, even these being extinguished ing to the season, and also special antiphons for the
during part of the Mass, four torches and one candle Canticle. The lessons at Matins follow a somewhat
in choir for Tenebrae) incense, Ukewise, is used rarely
; different plan from those of the Roman Office. The
and with noteworthy restrictions; the Blessing at singing of the genealogies of Christ after Matins on
the end of the Mass is only permitted where the cus- Christmas and the Epiphany gave rise to beautiful
tom of the country requires it; passing before the ceremonies. After Tenebrae in Holy Week (sung at
tabernacle, the brethren are directed to make a pro- midnight) we notice the chant of the Tropi; all the
found inclination, not a genuflexion. Many other Holy Week services present interesting archaic
features might be quoted to show that the whole features. Other points to be mentioned are the
rite points to a period of transition. Already ac- antiphons Pro jidei meritis etc. on the Sundays from
cording to the earliest Ordinal Communion is given Trinity to Advent and the verses after the psalms on
under one species, the days of general Communion Trinity, the feasts of St. Paul, and St. Laurence.
being seven, later on ten or twelve a year with leave The hymns are those of the Roman Office; the proses
for more frequent Communion under certain condi- appear to be a uniform collection which remained
tions. Extreme Unction was administered on the practically unchanged from the thirteenth century
eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, both hands (the palms, to 1544, when all but four or five were abohshed.
with no distinction between priests and others) and The Ordinal prescribes only four processions in the
the feet superius. The Ordinal of 1312 on the con- course of the year, viz. on Candlemas, Palm Sunday,
trary orders the hands to be anointed exieriibs, the Ascension, and the Assumption.
but also without distinction for the priests; it more- The calendar of saints, in the two oldest recensions
over adds another anointing on the breast {super of the Ordinal, exhibits some feasts proper to the
pectus: per ardorem lihidinis). Holy Land, namely some of the early bishops of
In the Mass there are some peculiarities, the altar Jerusalem, the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
remains covered until the priest and ministers are and Lazarus. The only special features were the
ready to begin, when the acolytes then roll back the feast of St. Anne, probably due to the fact that the
cover; likewise before the end of the Mass they cover Carmelites occupied for a short time a convent dedi-
the altar again. On great feasts the Introit is said cated to her in Jerusalem (vacated by Benedictine
three times, i. e. it is repeated both before and after nuns at the capture of that city in 1187), and the
the Gloria Patri; besides the Epistle and Gospel there octave of the Nativity of Our Lady, which also was
is a lesson or prophecy to be recited by an acolyte. proper to the order. In the works mentioned below
At the Lavabo the priest leaves the altar for the we have given the list of feasts added in the course
piscina where he says that psalm, or else Veni of three centuries, and shall here speak only of a few.
Creator Spiritus or Deus misereatur. Likewise after The Chapter of 1306 introduced those of St. Louis,
the first ablution he goes to the piscina to wash his Barbara, Corpus Christi, and the Conception of
fingers. During the Canon of the Mass the deacon Our Lady {in Conceptione seu potius veneratione
moves a fan to keep the flies away, a custom still in sanctificationis B. V.); the Corpus Christi procession,
use in Sicily and elsewhere. At the word fregit in however, dates only from the end of the fifteenth
 RITES RITES

century. In 1312 the second part of the Confiteor, In the old missal, before the refoim of Claude
which then had been very short, was introduced.
till Vaussin, there were wide divergences between the
Daily commemorations of St. Anne and Sts. Albert Cistercian and Roman rites. The psalm "Judica"
and AngcKis date respectively from the beginning was not said, but in its stead was recited the "Veni
and the end of the fifteenth century, but were trans- Creator"; the "Indulgentiam" was followed by the
ferred in 1503 from the canonical Office to the Little "Pater" and "Ave", and the "Oramus te Domine"
Office of Our Lady. The feast of the "Three Maries" was omitted in kissing the altar. After the "Pax
dates from 1342, those of the Visitation, of Our Lady Domini sit semper vobiscum", the "Agnus Dei" was
ad nives, and the Presentation from 1391. Feasts said thrice, and was followed immediately by "Hebc
of the order were first introduced towards the end sacrosancta commixtio corporis", said by the priest
of the fourteenth century —
viz. the Commemoration while placing the small fragment of the Sacred Host
(Scapular Feast) of 16 July appears first about in the chalice; then the "Domine Jesu Christe, Fili
13S0; St. Eliseus, prophet, and St. Cyril of Con- Dei Vivi" was said, but the "Corpus Tuum" and
stantinople in 1399; St. Albert in 1411; St. Angelus "Quod ore sumpsimus" were omitted. The priest
in 14.56. Owing to the printing of the first Breviary said the "Placeat" as now, and then "Meritis et
of the order at Brussels in 1480, a number of terri- precibus istorum et omnium sanctorum Suorum
torial feasts were introduced into the order, such as misereatur nostri Omnipotens Dominus. Amen",
St. Joseph, the Ten Thousand Martyrs, the Division while kissing the altar; with the sign of the Cross the
of the Apostles. The raptus of St. Elias (17 June) is Mass was ended. Outside of some minor exceptions
first to be found in the second half of the fifteenth in the wording and conclusions of various prayers, the
century in England and Germany; the feast of the other parts of the Mass were the same as in the Roman
Prophet (20 July) dates at the earliest from 1551. Rite. Also in some Masses of the year the ordo was
Some general chapters, especially those of 1478 and different; for instance, on Palm Sunday the Passion
1564, added whole lists of saints, partly of real or was only said at the high Mass, at the other Masses
supposed saints of the order, partly of martyrs whose a special gospel only being said. However, since the
bodies were preserved in various churches belonging time of Claude Vaussin the differences from the
to the Carmelites, particularly that of San Martino ai Roman Mass are insignificant.
Monti in Rome. The revision of 1584 reduced the Sanc- In the calendar there are relatively few feasts of
torale to the smallest possible dimensions, but many saints or other modern feasts, as none were introduced
feasts then suppressed were afterwards reintroduced. except those especially prescribed by Rome for the
A word must be added about the singing. The Cistercian Order; this was done in order to adhere as
Ordinal of 1312 a,l\owa fauxbourdon, at least on solemn closely as possible to the spirit of St. Benedict in
occasions; organs and organists are mentioned with prescribing the weekly recitation of the Psalter. The
ever-increasing frequency from the first years of the divisions of the feasts are: major or minor feast of
fifteenth century, the earliest notice being that of sermon; major or minor feast of two Masses; feast
Mathias Johannis de Lucca, who in 1410 was elected of twelve lessons and Mass; feast of three lessons and
organist at Florence; the organ itself was a gift of Mass; feast of commemoration and Mass; then
Johannes Dominici Bonnani, surnamed Clerichinus, merely a commemoration; and finally the feria.
who died at an advanced age on 24 Oct., 1416. The differences in the ritual are very small. As re-
Zimmerman, Le cirSmonial de Maitre Sibert de Beka in Chro- gards the last sacraments. Extreme Unction is given
niques du Carmel (Jambes-lez-Namur, 1903-5) Idem, Ordinaire
:

de rOrdre de Notre-Dame du Mont Carmel (Paris. 1910), being before the Holy Viaticum, and in Extreme Unction
the thirteenth volume of Bihlioth&que liturgique; Wessels, the word "Peccasti" is used instead of the "Deli-
Ritus Ordinis in Analecta Ordinis Carmetitarum (Rome, 1909) quisti" in the Roman Ritual. In the Sacrament of
Wealb, Bibliographia liturgica (London, 1886). The oldest
Ordinal, now in Dublin but of English origin, written after 1262 Penance a shorter form of absolution may be used in
and before the publication of the Constitution of Boniface \^III, ordinary confessions.
" Gtoriosus Deus," C. Gloriosus, de Reliquiis, in Sexto, has not Mi^sale Ci^terci'ii^e, MS. of the latter part of the fourteenth
yet been printed. BENEDICT ZIMMERMAN. century; Mis. Cisl. (Stnisburg, 1486); Mis. Cist. (Paris, 1516,
1545, 1584) Regula Ssmi. Palri^ Benedicts; Breviarium Cist,
—
CiSTEHCiAN Rite. This rite is to be found in the
;

cum Bulla Pii Papa: IX die 7 Frh., 1871; Bona, Op. omnia
(Antwerp, 1677); Guigvart, Mon. primitifs de la rigle cist.
liturgical books of the order. The collection, com- (Dijon, 1878) Rubrique^ du briviaire cist., by a religious of La
;

posed of fifteen books, was made by the General Grande Trappe (1882); Trilhe, Memoire sur le projet de cere-
Chapter of Citeaux, most probably in 1134; they are monial cist. (Toulouse, 1900); Idem, Man. cceremoniarum juxta
now included in the Missal, Breviary, Ritual, and usum S. 0. Ci.it. (Westmalle, 1908).
calendar, or Martyrology. When Pius V ordered the Edmond M. Obrecht.
entire Church to conform to the Roman Missal and Dominican Rite, a name denoting the distinctive
HroN'iary, he exempted the Cistercians from this law, ceremonies embodied in the privileged liturgical
because their rite had been more than 400 years in books of the Order of Preachers, (a) Origin and
existence. Under Claude \'aussin, General of the
Cistercians (in the middle of the seventeenth century),
—
development. The question of a special unified rite
for the order received no official attention in the time
several reforms were made in the liturgical books of of St. Dominic, each province sharing in the general
the order, and were approved by Alexander VII, liturgical diversities prevalent throughout the Church
Clement IX, and Clement XIII. These approbations at the time of the order's confirmation (1216) Hence,
.

were confirmed by Pius IX on 7 Feb., 1871, for the each province and often each convent had certain
Ci.stercians of the Common as well as for those of the peculiarities in the text and in the ceremonies of the
Strict Observance. The Breviary is quite different Holy Sacrifice and the recitation of the Office. The
from the Roman, as it follows e.xactly the prescrip- successors of St. Dominic were quick to recognize the
tions of the Rule of St. Benedict, with a very few impracticabihty of such conditions and soon busied
minor additions. St. Benedict wished the entire themselves in an effort to eUminate the embarrassing
Psalter recited each week; twelve psalms are to be distinctions. They maintained that the safety of a
said at Matins when there are but two Nocturns;
when there is a third Nocturn, it is to be composed
basic principle of community life
— —
unity of prayer
and worship was endangered by this conformity with
of three divisions of i canticle, there being in this different diocesan conditions. This belief was im-
latter case always twelve lessons. Three psalms or pressed upon them more forcibly by the confusion
di\-isions of psalms are appointed for Prime, the Little that these liturgical diversities occasioned at the
Hours, and Compline (in this latter hour the "Nunc general chapters of the order where brothers from
dimittis"is never said), and always four psalms for
every province were assembled.
Vesper.^. Man>' minor di\-isioiis and directions are The first indication of an effort to regulate liturgical
given in St. Benedict's Rule.
conditions was manifested by Jordan of Saxony, the
 RITES 75 RITES
successor of St. Dominic. In the Constitutions (1238) the chapters of the order sanctioned and which the
ascribed to him are found several rubrics for the reci- members of the order gratefully accepted. It must
tation of the Office. These insist more on the atten- not be thought that the rite has come down through
tion T\'ith which the Office should be said than on the the ages absolutely without change. Some slight cor-
qualifications of the liturgical books. However, it is ruptions crept in despite the rigid legislation to the
said that Jordan took some steps in the latter direc- contrary. Then new feasts have been added with the
tion and compiled one Office for universal use. permission of the Roman Pontiffs and many new edi-
Though this is doubtful, it is certain that his efforts tions of the liturgical books have been printed. Changes
were of little practical value, for the Chapters of in the text, when they have been made, have always
Bologna (1240) and Paris (1241) allowed each convent been effected with the idea of ehminating arbitrary
to conform with the local rites. The first systematic mutilations and restoring the books to a perfect con-
attempt at reform was made under the direction of formity with the old exemplars at Paris and Bologna.
John the Teuton, the fourth master general of the Such were the reforms of the Chapters of Salamanca
order. At his suggestion the Chapter of Bologna (1551), Rome (1777), and Ghent (1871). Several
(1244) asked the delegates to bring to the next times movements have been started with the idea of
chapter (Cologne, 1245) their special rubrics for the conforming with the Roman Rite; but these have al-
recitation of the Office, their Missals, Graduals, and ways been defeated, and the order still stands in posses-
Antiphonaries, "pro concordando officio". To bring sion of the rite conceded to it by Pope Clement in 1267.
some kind of order out of chaos a commission was
appointed consisting of four members, one each from
(c) Sources of the rite. — To determine the sources
of the Dominican Rite is to come face to face with
the Provinces of France, England, Lombardy, and the haze and uncertainty that seems to shroud most
Germany, to carry out the revision at Angers. They liturgical history. The thirteenth century knew no
brought the result of their labours to the Chapter of unified Roman Rite. While the basis of the usages
Paris (1246), which approved the compilation and of north-western Europe was a Gallicanized-Gre-
ordered its exclusive use by the whole Order. This gorian Sacramentary sent by Adrian IV to Charle-
same chapter approved the "Lectionary" which had magne, each little localityhad its own peculiar dis-
been entrusted to Humbert of Romains for revision. tinctions. At the time of the unification of the
The work of the commission was again approved by Dominican Rite most of the convents of the order
the Chapters of Montepulciano (1247) and Paris (1248). were embra,ced within the territory in which the old
But dissatisfaction with the work of the commission Gallican Rite had once obtained and in which the
was felt on especially with their interpretation
all sides, Gallico-Roman Rite then prevailed. Jordan of
of the rubrics. They had beenhurried in their work, Saxony, the pioneer in liturgical reform within the
and had left too much latitude for local customs. order, greatly admired the Rite of the Church of
The question was reopened and the Chapter of Lon- Paris and frequently assisted at the recitations of the
don (1250) asked the commission to reassemble at Office at Notre-Dame. Humbert of Romains, who
Metz and revise their work in the light of the criti- played so important a part in the work of unification,
cisms that had been made; the result of this revision was the provincial of the French Province. These
was approved at the Chapters of Metz (1251) and facts justify the opinion that the basis of the Domini-
Bologna (1252) and its use made obligatory for the can Rite was the typical Gallican Rite of the thir-
whole order. It was also ordained that one copy of teenth century. But documentary evidence that the
the liturgical books should be placed at Paris and one rite was adapted from any one locality is lacking.
at Bologna, from which the books for the other con- The chronicles of the order state merely that the rite
vents should be faithfully copied. However, it was is neither the pure Roman nor the pure Gallican,
recognized that these books were not entirely perfect, but based on the Roman usage of the thirteenth cen-
and that there was room for further revision. Though tury, with additions from the Rites of Paris and other
this work was done under the direction of John the places in which the order existed. Just from where
Teuton, the brunt of the revision fell to the lot of these additions were obtained and exactly what
Humbert of Romains, then provincial of the Paris they were cannot be determined, except in a general
Province. Humbert was elected Master General of way, from an examination of each distinctive feature.
the Chapter of Buda (1254) and was asked to direct Two points must be emphasized here: (1) the
his attention to the question of the order's liturgical Dominican Rite is not an arbitrary elaboration of
books. He subjected each of them to a most thorough the Roman Rite made against the spirit of the Church
revision, and after two years submitted his work to the or to give the order an air of exclusiveness, nor can
Chapter of Paris (1256). This and several subsequent it be said to be more gallicanized then any use of the
chapters endorsed the work, effected legislation guard- Gallico-Roman Rite of that period. It was an honest
ing against corruption, constitutionally recognized the and sincere attempt to harmonize and simplify the
authorship of Humbert, and thus once and for all widely divergent usages of the early half of the
settled a common rite for the Order of Preachers thirteenth century. (2) The Dominican Rite, for-
throughout the world. mulated by Humbert, saw no radical development
(b) Preservation. —Clement IV, through the gen- after its confirmation by Clement IV. When Piua
eral, Johnof Vercelli, issued a Bull in 1267 in which V made his reform, the Dominican Rite had been fixed
he lauded the ability and zeal of Humbert and forbade and stable for over three hundred years, while a con-
the making of any changes without the proper author- stant liturgical change had been taking place in other
ization. Subsequent papal regulation went much communities. Furthermore, the comparative sim-
further towards preserving the integrity of the rite. plicity of the Dominican Rite, as manifested in the dif-
Innocent XI and Clement XII prohibited the print- ferent liturgical books, gives evidence of its antiquity,
ing of the books without the permission of the master (d) Liturgical books. — The rite compiled by Hum-
general and also ordained that no member of the order bert contained fourteen books: (1) the Ordinary,
should presume to use in his fulfilment of the choral which was a sort of an index to the Divine Office,
obligation any book not bearing the seal of the general the Psalms, Lessons, Antiphons, and Chapters being
and a reprint of the pontifical Decrees. Another force indicated by their first words. (2) The Martyrology,
preservative of the special Dominican Rite was the an amplified calendar of martyrs and other saints.
Decree of Pius V (1570), imposing a common rite on (3) The CoUeotarium, a book for the use of the
the universal Church but excepting those rites which hebdomidarian, which contained the texts and the
had been approved for two hundred years. This ex- notes for the prayers, chapters, and blessings. (4)
ception gave to the Order of Friars Preachers the The Processional, containmg the hymns (text and
privilege of maintaining its old rite, a privilege which music) for the processions. (5) The Psalterium, con-
 RITES 76 RITES

taining merely the Psulter. (6) The Lectionary, the Blessed Virgin, and Office of the Dead. In
wliich eontained the Sunday homilies, the lessons point of dignity the feasts are classified as "totum
from Sarivd Srri])ture and the lives of the saints. duplex", "duplex", "simplex", "of three lessons",
(7) The Antiplionarv, giving the text and
music for and "of a memory" The ordinary "totum duplex"
the parts of Ike (»tti(<' sung outside of the Mass. feast is equivalent to the Roman greater double.
(S; The Gradual, which contained the words and the A "totum duplex" with an ordinary octave (a .simple
music for the parts of th<' Mass sung by the choir. or a solemn octave) is equal to the second-class
(!)) The Con\-c'ntual Missal, for the
celebration of double of the Roman Rite, and a "totum duplex"
solemn Mass. (10) The Epistolary, containing the with a most solemn octave is like the Roman first-
Epistles for the Mass and the Office. (11) The class double. A "duplex" feast is equivalent to the
Book of Gospels. (12) The Pulpitary, which con- lesser double and the "simplex" to the semi-double.
tained the musical notation for the Gloria Patri, There is no difference in the ordering of the canonical
the Invitato^^', Litanies, Tracts, and the Alleluia. hours, except that all during Paschal time the Domini-
(1.3) The Alissal for a private Mass. (14) The can Matins provide for only three psalms and three
Brc^-iar^-, a compilation from all the books used in lessons instead of the customary nine psalms and nine
the choral recitation of the Office, very much reduced lessons. The Office of the Blessed Virgin must be
in size for the convenience of travellers. said on all days on which feasts of the rank of duplex
By a process of elimination and synthesis under- or "totum duplex" are not celebrated. The Gradual
gone also by the books of the Roman Rite many of psalms must be said on all Saturdays on which is said
the books of Humbert have become superfiuous while the votive Office of the Blessed Virgin. The Office
several others have been formed. These add noth- of the Dead must be said once a week except dur-
ing to the original text, but merely provide for the ing the week following Easter and the week follow-
addition of feasts and the more convenient recitation ing Pentecost. Other minor points of difference are
of the office. The collection of the liturgical books the manner of making the commemorations, the
now contains; (1) ^lartyrology; (2) CoUectarium; text of the hymns, the Antiphons, the lessons of
(3) Processional; (4) Antiphonary; (.5) Gradual; the common Offices and the insertions of special
(G) Missal for the conventual Mass; (7) Missal for feasts of the order. There is no great distinction
the private Mass; (8) Breviary; (9) Vesperal; between the musical notation of the Dominican
(10) Hora- Diurnae; (11) Ceremonial. The con- Gradual, ^esperal, and Antiphonary and the cor-
tents of these books follow closely the books of the responding books of the new ^'atican edition. The
same name issued by Humbert and which have just Dominican chant has been faithfully copied from the
been described. The new ones are: (1) the HoriB MSS. of the thirteenth century, which were in turn
Diurnae; (2) the Vesperal (with notes), adaptations derived indirectly from the Gregorian Sacramentary.
from the Breviary and the Antiphonary respectively; One is not surprised therefore at the remarkable
(3) the CoUectarium, which is a compilation from all similarity between the chant of the two rites. For
the rubrics scattered throughout the other books. a more detailed study of the Dominican Rite ref-
\Vith the exception of the Breviary, these books are erence may be had to the order's litm-gical books.
MoRTiER, Hist, des mattres g^niraux ile VOrdre des Frhes
similar in arrangment to the correspondingly named Pricheurs, I (Paris, 1903), 174, 309-312, .579 sq.; C.ibsitto,
books of the Roman Rite. The Dominican Breviary Liiurgia Dominicana (Naples, 1804) ; Masetti, Mon. et Antiq,
is divided into two parts: Part I, Advent to Trinity; vet. discipl. Ord. Praid. (Rome, 1864); Danzas, Etudes sur lea
Part II, Trinity to Advent. temps prim, de I'ordre de S. DoTninique (Paris, 1884) ; Ada
Capitulorum Ord. Prasd., ed. Reichert (Rome, 1898-1904);
(e) Distinctive marks of the Dominican Rite. Litt. Encyc. Maoist. Gener. O. P., ed. Reichert (Rome, 1900);
Only the most striking differences between the TuRON, Hist, des hommes ill. de I'Ordre de St. Dominique, I, 341;
Dominican Rite and the Roman need be mentioned Bullarium O. P., passim, IGNATIUS SmITH.
here. The most important is in the manner of cele-
brating a low Mass. The celebrant in the Domini- —
Franciscan Rite. The Franciscans, unlike the
can Rite wears the amice over his head until the be- Dominicans, Carmelites, and other orders, have never
ginning of Mass, and prepares the chalice as soon had a peculiar rite properly so called, but, conform-
as he reaches the altar. The Psalm "Judica me ably to the mind of St. Francis of Assisi, have always
Deus" is not said and the Confiteor, much shorter followed the Roman Rite for the celebration of Mass.
than the Roman, contains the name of St. Dominic. However, the Friars Minor and the Capuchins wear
The Gloria and the Credo are begun at the centre of the amice, instead of the biretta, over the head, and
the altar and finished at the Missal. At the Offertory are accustomed to say Mass with their feet uncovered,
there is a simultaneous oblation of the Host and the save only by sandals. They also enjoy certain
chalice and only one prayer, the "Suscipe Sancta privileges in regard to the time and place of cele-
Trinitas" The Canon of the Mass is the same as the brating Mass, and the Missale Romano - Seraphicum
Canon of the Roman Rite, but after it are several contains many proper Masses not found in the
noticeable differences. The Dominican celebrant Roman Missal. These are mostly feasts of Fran-
says the "Agnus Dei" immediately after the "Pax ciscan saints and blessed, which are not celebrated
Domini" and then recites three prayers, "Hsec throughout the Church, or other feasts having a
sacrosancta commixtio", "Domine Jesu Christe", peculiar connexion with the order, e. g. the Feast of
and "Corpus et sanguis". Then follows the Com- the Mysteries of the Way of the Cross (Friday before
munion, the priest receiving the Host from his left Septuagesima), and that of the Seven Joys of the
hand. No prayers are said at the consumption of Blessed Virgin (First Sunday after the octave of the
the Precious Blood, the first prayer after the "Cor- Assumption). The same is true in regard to the
pus et Sanguis" being the Communion. These are Breviarium Romano-Seraphicum, and Martyrolo-
the most noticeable difTerences in the celebration of a gium Romano-Seraphicum. The Franciscans ex-
low Mass. In a solemn Mass the chalice is prepared ercised great influence in the origin and evolution
just after the celebrant has read the Gospel, seated of the Breviary, and on the revision of the Ru-
at the Epistle side of the sanctuary. The chalice brics of the Mass. They have also their own
is brought from the altar to the place where the cele- calendar, or ordo. This calendar may be used not
brant is seated by the sub-deacon, who porus the only in the churches of the First Order, but also in
wine and water into it and replaces it on the altar. the churches and chapels of the Second Order, and
The Dominican Breviary differs but slightly from Third Order Regular (if aggregated to the First
the Roman. The )ffices celebrated
( are of seven Order) and Secular, as well as those religious in-
classes:— of the season (de tempore), of saints (de stitutes which have had some connexion with the
Sanctis), of vigils, of octaves, votive Offices, Office of parent body. It may also be used by secular priests
 RITES 77 RIT£S
or clerics who are members of the Third Order. The alleluias are said after the "Ite missa est" for a week
order has also its own ritual and ceremonial for after Easter; tor the whole of the remaining Paschal
its receptions, professions, etc. time one alleluia is said. The rite for the celebration
Ccerem. Romano-Seraph. (Quaracchi, 1908) Rit. Romano-Seraph.
;
of feasts gives the following grades: three classes of
(Quaracohi, 1910); Promptuarium Seraph. (Quaracchi, 1910).
triples, two of doubles, celebre, nine lessons, three
Ferdinand Heckmann. lessons. No feasts are celebrated during privileged
Friars Minor Capuchin Rite. The Friars Minor — octaves. There are so many feasts lower than
double that usually no privilege is needed for votive
Capuchin use the Roman Rite, except that in the
Confiteor the name of their founder, St. Francis, Masses. The rubrics regulating the various feasts
is added names of the Apostles, and in the
after the of the year are given in the "Ordinarius seu liber
suffrages they make commemorations of St. Francis cseremoniarum oanonici ordinis Pra^monstratensis".
and all saints of their order. The use of incense in Rubrics for the special liturgical functions are found
the conventual mass on certain solemnities, even in the Missal, the Breviary, the Diurnal, the Pro-
though the Mass is said and not sung, is another cessional, the Gradual, and the Antiphonary.
liturgical custom (recently sanctioned by the Holy (2) Divine Office. —The
Breviary differs from the
See) peculiar to their order. Generally speaking, Roman calendar, the manner of recit-
Breviary in its
the Capuchins do not have sung Masses except in ing it, arrangement
of matter. Some saints on the
parochial churches, and except in these churches Roman calendar are omitted. The feasts peculiar
they may not have organs without the minister to the Norbertines are: St. Godfried, C, 16 Jan.;
general's permission. By a Decree of the Sacred St. Evermodus, B. C, 17 Feb.; Bl. Frederick, Abbot,
Congregation of Rites, 14 May, 1890, the minister 3 Mar.; St. Ludolph, B. M., 29 Mar.; Bl. Herman
general, when celebrating Mass at the time of the Joseph, C, 7 Apr.; St. Isfrid, B. C, 15 June; Sts.
canonical visitation and on solemnities, has the privi- Adrian and James, MM., 9 July; Bl. Hrosnata,
leges of a domestic prelate of His Holiness. In M., 19 July, 19; Bl. Gertrude, V., 13 Aug.; Bl.
regard to the Divine Office, the Capuchins do not Bronislava, V., 30 Aug.; St. Gilbert, Abbot, 24 Oct.;
sing it according to note but recite it in monotone. St. Siardus, Abbot, 17 Nov. The feast of St. Nor-
In the larger communities they generally recite bert, founder of the order, which falls on 6 June in
Matins and Lauds at midnight, except on the three the Roman calendar, is permanently transferred to
last days of Holy Week, when Tenebrae is chanted 11 July, so that its solemn rite may not be interfered
on the preceding evening, and during the octaves of with by the feasts of Pentecost and Corpus Christi.
Corpus Christi and the Immaculate Conception of Other feasts are the Triumph of St. Norbert over
the Blessed Virgin Mary, when matins are recited the sacramentarian heresy of Tanchelin, on the third
also on the preceding evening with the Blessed Sunday after Pentecost, and the Translation of St.
Sacrament exposed. Every day after Complin Norbert commemorating the translation of his body
they add, extra-liturgically, commemorations of the from Magdeburg to Prague, on the fourth Sunday
Immaculate Conception, St. Francis, and St. An- after Easter. Besides the daily recitation of the
thony of Padua. On the feast of St. Francis after canonical hours the Norbertines are obliged to say
second Vespers they observe the service called the the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, except on
"Transitus" of St. Francis, and on all Saturdays, triple feasts and during octaves of the first class.

except feasts of first and second class and certain In choir this is said immediately after the Divine
privileged feria and octaves, all Masses said in their Office. (3) Administration of the Sacrament of
churches are votive in honour of the Immaculate —
Penance. The form of absolution is not altogether
Conception, excepting only the conventual mass. in harmony with that of the Roman Ritual. The
They follow the universal calendar, with the addition following is the Norbertine formula: "Dominus nos-
of feasts proper to their order. These additional ter Jesus Christus te absolvat, et ego auctoritate
ipsius, mihi licet indignissimo concessa, absolvo te
feasts include all canonized saints of the whole
in primis, a vinculo excommunicationis in quan-
Franciscan Order, all beati of the Capuchin Reform .

and the more notable beati of the whole order; and tum possum et indiges", etc.
every year the 5th of October is observed as a com- The liturgical books of the Norbertines were re-

memoration of the departed members of the order printed by order general chapter, held at
of the
in the same way as the 2nd of November is observed Pr6montr6, in 1738, and presided over by Claude H.
in the universal Church. Owing to the great number Lucas, abbot-general. A
new edition of the Missal
of feasts thus observed, the Capuchins have the and the Breviary was issued after the General
privilege of transferring the greater feasts, when Chapter of Prague, in 1890. In 1902 a committee
necessary, to days marked semi-double. According was appointed to revise the Gradual, Antiphonary,
to the ancient Constitutions of the Order, the Capu- etc. This committee received much encouragement
chins were not allowed to use vestments of rich tex- in its work by the Motu Proprio of Pius X
on church
ture, not even of silk, but by Decree of the Sacred
music. The General Chapter of Tepl, Austria, in
Congregation of Rites, 17 December, 1888, thejr must 1908, decided to edit the musical books of the order
now conform to the general laws of the Church in this as prepared, in accordance with ancient MSS. by
this committee. G. Rybrook.
matter. They are, however, still obliged to rnain-
tain severe simplicity in their churches, especially
when non-parochial. —
Servitb Rite. The Order of Servites (see Ser-
Ceremoniale Orel. Cap.; AnaledaOrd. Cap.: ConsHt. ord. (Rome).
vants OF Mary) cannot be said to possess a separate
Father Cuthbbht. or exclusive rite similar to the Dominicans and
others, but follows the Roman Ritual, as provided in
Prbmonstratbnsian Rite. —The Norbertine rite its constitutions, with very slight variations. De-
differs from the Roman in the celebration of the Sacri- votion towards the Mother of Sorrows being the prin-
fice Mass, in the Divine Office, and in the
of the cipal distinctive characteristic of the order, there are
administration of .the Sacrament of Penance. (1) special prayers and indulgences attaching to the
Sacrifice of the Mass. —
The Missal is proper to the solemn celebration of the five major Marian feasts,
order and is not arranged like the Roman Missal. namely, the Annunciation, Visitation, Assumption,
The canon is identical, with the exception of a slight Presentation, and Nativity of our Blessed Lady.
variation as to the time of making the sign of the The feast of the Seven Dolours of the Blessed
cross with the paten at the "Libera nos". The Virgin Mary, celebrated always on the Third Sunday
music for the Prefaces etc. differs, though not con- of September, has a privileged octave and is en-
siderably, from that of the Roman Missal. Two riched with a plenary indulgence ad instar Por-
 RITES 78 RITES

(iunculce; that is, as often as a visit is made to a church ity of the Armenianswere converted to Christianity
of the order. In common with all friars the Sorvite by St. Gregory the Illuminator, a man of noble
priests wear an amice on the head instead of a biretta family, who was made Bishop of Armenia in 302 (see
while proceeding to and from the altar. The Mass Gregory the Illuminator). So thoroughly was
is begun with the first part of the Angelical Salutation, his work effected that Armenia alone of the ancient
and in the Confiteor the words Septem beatis pairibus nations converted to Christianity has preserved no
noslris are inserted. At the conclusion of Alass the pagan literature antedating the Christian literature
Salve Regina and the oration Omnipotens sempilcrne of the people; pagan works, if they ever existed, seem
Deus are recited. In the recitation of the Divine to have perished in the ardour of the Armenians for
Office each canonical hour is begun with the Ave Christian thought and expression. The memory of
Maria down to the words ventris lui, Jesus. The St. Gregory is so revered that the Armenians who are
custom of reciting daily, immediately before Vespers, opposed to union with the Holy See take pride in
a special prayer called Vigilia, composed of the three calling themselves "Gregorians", implying that they
psalms and three antiphons of the first nocturn of the keep the faith taught by St. Gregory. Hence it is
Office of the Blessed Virgin, followed by three les- usual to call the dissidents "Gregorians'', in order to
sons and responses, comes down from the thirteenth distinguish them from the Uniat Catholics. At first
century, when they were offered in thanksgiving for the language of the Christian liturgy in Armenia was
a special favour bestowed upon the order by Pope Syriac, but later they discarded it for their own tongue,
Alexander IV (13 May, 12.59). The Salve Regina and translated all the services into Armenian, which
is daily chanted in choir whether or not it is the anti- was at first written in Syriac or Persian letters.
phon proper to the season. P. J. Griffin. About 400 St. Mesrob invented the present Armenian
alphabet (except two final letters which were added
Rites, CoNGBEGATioN OF. See Roman Congre- in the year 1200), and their language, both ancient
gations.
and modern, has been written in that alphabet ever
—
Rites in the United States. Since immigration since. Mesrob also tra,nslated the New Testament
from the eastern portion of Europe and from Asia into Armenian and revised the entire liturgy. The
and Africa set in with such volume, the peoples who Armenians in their church life have led almost as
(both in union with and outside the unity of the checkered an existence as they have in their national
Church) follow the various Eastern rites arrived in life. At first they were in full communion with the
the United States in large numbers, bringing with Universal Church. They were bitterly opposed to
them their priests and their forms of worship. As Nestorianism, and, when in 451 the Council of
they grew in number and financial strength, they Chalcedon condemned the doctrine of Eutyches, they
erected churches in the various cities and towns seceded, holding the opinion that such a definition was
throughout the country. Rome used to be considered sanctioning Nestorianism, and have since remained
the city where the various rites of the Church through- separated from and hostile to the Greek Church of
out the world could be seen grouped together, but in Constantinople. In 1054 the Greeks seceded in turn
the United States they may be observed to a greater from unity with the Roman Church, and nearly
advantage than even in Rome. In Rome the various three centuries later the Armenians became reconciled
rites are kept alive for the purpose of educating the with Rome, but the union lasted only a brief period.
various national clergy who study there, and for Breaking away from unity again, the majority formed
demonstrating the unity of the Church, but there is no a national church which agrees neither with the Greek
body of laymen who follow those rites; in the United nor the Roman Church; a minority, recruited by con-
States, on the contrary, it is the number and pressure verts to union with the Holy See in the seventeenth
of the laity which have caused the establishment and century, remained united Armenian Catholics.
support of the churches of the various rites. There is The Mass and the whole liturgy of the Armenian
consequently no better field for studying the various Church is said in Ancient Armenian, which differs
rites of the Church than in the chief cities of the considerably from the modem tongue. The lan-
United States, and such study has the advantage to guage is an offshoot of the Iranian branch of the Indo-
the exact observer of affording an opportunity of Germanic family of languages, and probably found
comparing the dissident churches of those rites with its earliest written expression in the cuneiform in-
those which belong to Catholic unity. The chief scriptions; it is unlike the Semitic languages im-
rites which have established themselves in America mediately surrounding it. Among its peculiarities
are these: (1) Armenian, (2) Greek or Byzantine, and are twelve regular declensions and eight irregular
(3) Syro-AIaronite. There are also a handful of ad- declensions of nouns and five conjugations of the
herents of the Coptic, Syrian, and Chaldean rites, verbs, while there are many difficulties in the way of
which will also be noticed, and there are occasionally postpositions and the like. It abounds in consonants
priests of the various Latin rites. and guttural sounds; the words of the Lord's Prayer
I. The Armenian Rite. —This rite alone, of all in Armenian will suffice as an example: "Hair mier,
the rites in the Church, is confined to one people, one vor herghins ies, surp iegitzi anun ko, ieghastze
language, and one alphabet. It is, if anything, more arkautiun ko, iegitzin garnk ko, vorbes hierghins iev
exclusive than Judaism of old. Other rites are more hergri, zhatz mier hanabazort dur miez aissor, iev tog
widely extended in every way: the Roman Rite is miez ezbardis mier, vorbes iev mek togumk merotz
spread throughout Latin, Teutonic, and Slavic bardabanatz, iev mi danir zmez i porsutiun, ailperghea
peoples, and it even has two languages, the Latin and i chare." The language is written from left to right,
the Ancient Slavonic, and two alphabets, the Roman like Greek, Latin, or EngUsh, but in an alphabet of
and the Glagolitic, in which its ritual is written; the thirty-eight peculiar letters which are dissimilar in
Greek or Byzantine Rite extends among Greek, form to anything in the Greek or Latin alphabet, and
.•Slavic, Latin, and Syrian peoples, and its services are are arranged in a most perplexing order. For in-
celebrated in Greek, Slavonic, Rumanian, and Arabic stance, the Armenian alphabet starts off with o, p,
with service-books in the Greek, Cyrillic, Latin, and fc, t, z, etc., and ends up with the letter It may also
/.
Arabic al])habcts. But the Armenian Rite, whether be noted that the Armenian has changed the con-
Catholic or Gregorian, is confined exclusively to per- sonantal values of most of the ordinary sounds in
sons of the Armenian race, and employs the ancient Christian names; thus George becomes Kevork;
Arraenian language and alphabet. The history and Scrgius, Surkis; Jacob, Hagop; Joseph, Hovsep;
origin of the race have been given in the article Ar- Gregory, Krikori; Peter, Bedros, and so on. The
MENi.\, but a word may be said of the language (Hatjk, usual clan addition of the word "son" (ian) to most
as it is called), and its use in the liturgy. The major- Armenian family names, something like the use of
 RITES 79 RITES
mac in the Gaelic languages, renders usual Armenian Mass; the second and smaller curtain is used merely to
names easy of identification (e. g., Azarian, Hagopian, separate the priest from the deacons and to cover the
Rubian, Zohrabian, etc.). altar after service. Each curtain opens on both sides,
The book containing
the regulations for the ad- and ordinarily is drawn back from the middle. The
ministration the sacraments, analogous to the
of second curtain is not much used. The use of these
Greek Euchologion or the Roman Ritual, is called curtains is ascribed to the year 340, when they were
the "Mashdotz", after the name of its compiler St. required by a canon formulated by Bishop Maoarius
Mesrob, who was surnamed Mashdotz. He arranged of Jerusalem. Upon the altar are usually the Missal,
and compiled the five great liturgical books used in the Book of Gospels, a cross upon which the image of
the Armenian Church: (1) the Breviary (Zhamakirk) Our Lord is painted or engraved in low relief, and two
or Book of Hours; (2) The Directory (Tzutzak) or or more candles, which are lighted as in the Roman
Calendar, containing the fixed festivals of the year; use. The Blessed Sacrament is usually reserved in a
(3) The Liturgy (Pataragakirk) or JMissal, arranged tabernacle on the altar, and a small lamp kept burn-
and enriched also by John Mantaguni; (4) The Book ing there at all times. In the choir, usually enclosed
of Hymns (Dagaran), arranged for the principal great within a low iron railing, the singers and priests stand
feasts of the year; (5) The Ritual or "Mashdotz", in lines while singing or reciting the Office. In the
mentioned above. A peculiarity about the Armenian East, the worshipper, upon entering the nave of the
Church is that the majority of great feasts falling upon church, usually takes off his shoes, just as the Moham-
weekdays are celebrated on the Sunday immediately medans do, for the Armenian founds this practice upon
following. The great festivals of the Christian year Ex., iii, 5; this custom is not followed in the United
are divided by the Armenians into five classes: (1) States, nor do the Armenians there sit cross-legged
Easter; (2) feasts which fall on Sunday, such as Palm upon the floor in their churches, as they do in Asia.
Sunday, Pentecost, etc. (3) feasts which are observed
; The administration of the sacraments is marked
on the days on which they occur: the Nativity, by some ceremonies unlike those of the Roman or
Epiphany, Circumcision, Presentation, and Annun- Greek Churches, and by some which are a composite
ciation; (4) feasts which are transferred to the follow- of the two. In the Sacrament of Baptism the priest
ing Sunday Transfiguration, Immaculate Conception,
: meets the child carried in the arms of the nurse at
Nativity B. V. M., Assumption, Holy Cross, feasts the church door, and, while reciting Psalms li and
of the Apostles, etc.; (5) other feasts, which are not cxxx, takes two threads (one white and the other
observed at all unless they can be transferred to red) and twists them into a cord, which he afterwards
Sunday. The Gregorian Armenians observe the blesses. Usually the godfather goes to confession
Nativity, Epiphany, and Baptism of Our Lord on the before the baptism, in order that he may fulfil his
same day (6 January), but the Catholic Armenians duties in the state of grace. The exorcisms and
observe Christmas on 2.5 December and the Epiphany renunciations then take place, and the recital of the
on 6 January, and they observe many of the other Nicene Creed and the answers to the responses
feasts of Our Lord on the days on which they actually follow. The baptismal water is blessed, the anoint-
fall. The principal fasts are: (1) Lent; (2) the Fast ing with oil performed, the prayers for the catechumen
of Nineveh for two weeks, one month before the com- to be baptized are said, and then the child is stripped.
—
mencement of Lent in reality a remnant of the The priest takes the child and holds it in the font
ancient Lenten fast, now commemorated only in so that the body is in the water, but the head is out,
name by our Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quin- and the baptism takes place in this manner: "N.,
quagesima Sundays; (3) the week following Pentecost. the servant of God coming into the state of a catechu-
The days of abstinence are the Wednesdays and men and thence to that of baptism, is now baptized
Fridays throughout the year with certain exceptions by me, in the name of the Father [here he pours a
(e. g., during the week after the Nativity, Easter, and handful of water on the head of the child], and of the
the Assumption) .In the Armenian Church Saturday Son [here he pours water as before], and of the Holy
is observed as the Sabbath, commemorating the Old Ghost [here he pours a third handful]". After this
Law and the creation of man, and Sunday as the the priest dips the child thrice under the water,
Lord's Day of Resurrection and rejoicing, commem- saying on each occasion: "Thou art redeemed by the
orating the New Law and the redemption of man. blood of Christ from the bondage of sin, by receiving
Most of the saints' days are dedicated to Armenian the liberty of sonship of the Heavenly Father, and
saints not commemorated in other lands, but the becoming a co-heir with Christ and a temple of the
Armenian Catholics in Galicia and Transylvania use Holy Ghost. Amen." Then the child is washed
the Gregorian (not the Julian) Calendar, and have and clothed again, generally with a new and beautiful
many Roman saints' days and feasts added to their robe, and the priest when washing the child says:
ancient ecclesiastical year. "Ye that were baptized in Christ, have put on Christ,
In the actual arrangement of the church building Alleluia. And ye that have been illumined by God
for worship the Armenian Rite differs both from the the Father, may the Holy Ghost rejoice in you.
Greek and the Latin. While the Armenian Church Alleluia." Then the passage of the Gospel of St.
was in communion with Rome, it seems to have united Matthew relating the baptism of Christ in the Jordan
many Roman practices in its ritual with those that is read, and the rite thus completed.
were in accord with the Greek or Byzantine forms. The Sacrament of Confirmation is conferred by
The church building may be divided into the sanctuary the priest immediately after baptism, although the
and church proper (choir and nave.) The sanctuary Catholic Armenians sometimes reserve it for the
is a platform raised above the general level of the bishop. The holy chrism is applied by the priest
church and reached by four or more steps. The altar to the forehead, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, palms,
is always erected in the middle of it, and it is again a heart, spine, and feet, each time with a reference to
few steps higher than the level of the sanctuary. It the seal of the Spirit. Finally, the priest lays his
is perhaps possible that the Armenians originally hand upon and makes the sign of the cross on the
—
used an altar screen or iconostasis, like that of the child's forehead saying: "Peace to thee, saved
Greek churches, iDut it has long since disappeared. through God." When the confirmation is thus
Still they do not use the open altar like the Latin finished, the priest binds the child's forehead with the
Church. Two curtains are hung before the sanc- red and white string which he twisted at the begin-
tuary: a large double curtain hangs before its entrance, ning of the baptism, and fastens it at the end with a
extending completely across the space like the Roman small cross. Then he gives two candles, one red
chancel rail, and is so drawn as to conceal the altar, and one green, to the godfather and has the child
the priest, and the deacons at certain parts of the brought up to the altar where Communion is given
 RITES 80 RITES

to it by a small drop of the Sacred Blood, or, if it mitre, which is called the Saghavard or helmet. This
be not at the time of Mass, by taking the Blessed is also worn by the deacons attending on a bishop at
Sacrament from the Tabernacle and signing the pontifical Mass. The Armenian bishops wear a
mouth of the child with it in the form of the cross, mitre almost identical in shape with the Latin mitre
saymg in eilher case: "The plenitude of the Holy and said to have been introduced at the time
of their
Ghost"; if the candidate be an adult, full Commu- union with Rome
in the twelfth century, when they
nion is administered, and there the confirmation is relinquished the Greek form of mitre for the priests
ended. The formula of absolution in the Sacrament to wear in the Mass. The celebrant is first \-ested
of Penance is: "May the merciful God have mercy with the shapik or alb, which is usually narrower than
upon you and grant you the pardon of all your sins, the Latin form, and usually of linen (sometimes of
both confessed and forgotten; and I bj' virtue of my silk). He then puts on each of his arms the bazpans
order of priesthood and in force of the power granted or cuffs, which replace the Latin maniple; then the
by the Di\'ine Command: A\'hosesoever sins you ourar or stole, which is in one piece; then the goii
remit on earth they are remitted unto them in heaven; or girdle, then the varkas or amict, which is a large
through that same word I absolve you from all par- embroidered stiff collar with a shoulder covering
ticipation in sin, by thought, word and deed, in the to it; and finally the shoochar, or chasuble, (Yhioh is
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy almost exactly like a Roman cope. If the celebrant
Ghost. And I again restore you to the sacraments be a bishop, he also wears the gonker or Greek epigo-
of the Holy Church; whatsoever good you shall do, nation. The bishops carry a staff shaped like the
shall be counted to you for merit and for glory in the Latin, while the vartabeds (deans, or doctors of divin-
life to come. May the shedding of the blood of the ity; analogous to the Roman mitred abbots) carry
Son of God, which He shed upon the cross and which a staff in the Greek form (a staff with two intertwined
delivered human nature from hell, deliver you from serpents). No organs are used in the Armenian
your sins. Amen." As a rule Armenians are ex- church, but the elaborate vocal music of the Eastern
horted to make their confession and communion on style, sung by choir and people, is accompanied by
at least five days in the year: the so-called Daghavork two metallic instruments, the keshotz and zinzgha
or feasts of Tabernacles, i. e., the Epiphany, Easter, (the first a fan with small bells; the second similar
Transfiguration, Assumption, and Exaltation of the to cymbals), both of which are used during various
Holy Cross. The first two festivals are obligatory, parts of the Mass. The deacon wears merely an alb
and, if an Armenian neglects his duty, he incurs and a stole in the same manner as in the Roman Rite.
excommunication. The iSaf^ament of Extreme Unc- The subdeacons and lower clergy wear simply the alb.
tion (or "Unction with Oil", as it is called) is sup- The Armenian Mass may be divided into three
posed to be administered by seven priests in the parts: Preparation, Anaphora or Canon, and Con-
ancient form, but practically it is performed by a clusion. The first and preparatory portion extends
single priest on most occasions. The eyes, ears, as far as the Preface, when the catechumens are
nose, lii)s, hands, feet, and heart of the sick man are directed by the deacon to leave. The Canon com-
anointed, with this form: "I anoint thine eyes with mences with the conclusion of the Preface and ends
holy oil, so that whate\'er sin thou mayst have com- with the Communion. As soon as the priest is
mit ted through thy sight, thou mayst be sa\-ed there- robed in his vestments he goes to the altar, washes
from by the anointing of this oil, through the grace his hands reciting Psalm xxvi, and then going to the
of our Lord Jesus Christ", and with a similar ref- foot of the altar begins the Mass. After saying the
erence to the other members anointed. Intercessory Prayer, the Confiteor and the Absolu-
The Divine Liturgy or Mass is of course the chief tion, which is given with a crucifix in hand, he re-
rite among the Armenians, whether Catholic or cites Psalm xlii (Introibo ad altare), and at every two
Gregorian, and it is celebrated with a form and cere- verses ascends a step of the altar. After he has
monial which partakes in a measure both of the Roman intoned the prayer "In the tabernacle of holiness",
and Byzantine rites. As we have said, the curtains the curtains are drawn, and the choir sings the ap-
are used instead of the altar-rail or iconostasis of propriate hymn of the day. Meanwhile the cele-
those rites, and the vestments are also peculiar. brant behind the curtain prepares the bread on the
The Armenians, like the Latins, use unleavened paten and fills the chalice, ready for the oblation.
bread, in the form of a wafer or small thin round cake, When this is done the curtains are withdrawn and
for consecration; but like the Greeks they prepare the altar incensed. Then the Introit of the day is
many wafers, and those not used for consecration sung, then the prayers corresponding to those of the
in the Mass are given afterwards to the people as first, second, and third antiphons of the Byzantine
the antidoron. The wine used must be solely the Rite, while the proper psalms are sung by the choir.
fermented juice of the best grapes obtainable. In the Then the deacon intones "Proschume" (let us attend),
Gregorian churches Communion is given to the people and elevates the book of the gospels, which is in-
under both species, the Host being dipped in the chalice censed as he brings it to the altar, making the Little
before deli\-ering it to the communicant, but in the Entrance. The choir then sings the Trisagion
Catholic churclies Communion is now given only in (Holy God, Holy and Mighty, Holy and Immortal,
one species, that of the Body, although there is no have mercy on us) thrice. The Gregorians inter-
express prohibition against the older form. On polate after "Holy and Immortal" some words de-
Christmas Eve and Easter E\-e the Armenians cele- scriptive of the feast day, such as "who was made
brate Mass in the e\-ening; the Mass then begins manifest for us", or "who didst rise from the dead",
with the curtains drawn whilst the introductory but this addition has been condemned at Rome as
l)salms and prophecies are sung, but, at the moment being a relic of the Patripassian heresy. During the
the great feast is announced in the Introit, the cur- Trisagion the Keshotz is jingled in accompaniment.
tains are withdrawn and the altar appears with full Then the Greek Ektene or Litany is sung, and at its
illumination. During Lent the altar remains entirely conclusion the reader reads the Prophecy; then the
hidden by the great curtains, and during all the Sun- Antiphon before the Epistle is sung, and the epistle
day's in Lent, except Palm Sunday, Mass is cele- of the day read. At the end of each the choir re-
brated behind the drawn curtains. A relic of this sponds Alleluia. Then the deacon announces "Orthi"
practice still remains in the Roman Rite, as shown (stand up) and, taking the Gospels, reads or intones
by the veiling of the images and pictures from Passion the gospel of the day. Immediately afterwards, the
Sunday till Easter Eve. The Armenian vestments Armenian form of the Nicene Creed is said or sung.
for Mass are peculiar and splendid. The priest wears It differs from the creed as said in the Roman and
a crown, exactly in the form of a Greek bishop's Greek Churches in that it has, " consubstantial with
 RITES 81 RITES
the Father by whom all things were made in Heaven by the choir. The celebrant then elevates the con-
and in Earth, visible and invisible; who for us men and secrated Host, saying "Holy things for Holy Persons,"
our sah-ation came down from Heaven, was incarnate and when the choir responds, he continues: "Let us
and was made man and perfectly begotten through taste in holiness the holy and honourable Body and
the Holy Ghost of the most Holy Virgin Mary; he Blood of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ who came
assumed from her body, soul, and mind, and all that down from heaven and is now distributed among us."
in man is, truly and not figuratively;" and "we be- Then the choir sings antiphons in honour of the sacri-
lieve also in the Holy Ghost, not created, all perfect, fice of the Body and Blood, and the small curtain is
who proceedeth from the Father (and the Son), drawn. The priest kisses the sacred Victim, saying
u'ho spake in the Law, in the Prophets and the Holy "I confess and I believe that Thou art Christ, the
Gospel, who descended into the Jordan, who preached Son of God, who has borne the sins of the world."
Him who loas sent, and who dwelt in the Saints, " and The Host is divided into three parts, one of which is
after concluding in the ordinary form adds the sen- placed in the chalice. The choir sing the communion
tence pronounced by the First Council of NicKa: hymns as appointed; the priest and the clergy receive
"Those who say there was a time when the Son was the Communion first, and then the choir and people.
not, or when the Holy Ghost was not; or that they The little curtain is withdrawn when the Communion
were created out of nothing; or that the Son of God is given, and the great curtains are drawn back when
and the Holy Ghost are of another substance or that the people come up for Communion.
they are mutable; the Catholic and Apostolic church After Communion, the priest puts on his crown (or
condemns." Then the Confession of St. Gregory is the bishop his mitre), and the great curtains are again
intoned aloud, and the Little Ektene sung. The kiss drawn. Thanksgiving prayers are said behind them,
of peace is here given to the clergy. The deacon at after which the great curtains are withdrawn once
its close dismisses the catechumens, and the choir more, and the priest holding the book of gospels says
sings the Hymn of the Great Entrance, when the bread the great prayer of peace, and blesses the people.
and wine are solemnly brought to the altar. "The Then the deacon proclaims "Orthi" (stand up) and
Body of our Lord and the Blood of our Redeemer are the celebrant reads the Last Gospel, which is nearly
to be before us. The Heavenly Powers invisible always invariable, being the Gospel of St. John,i,
sing and proclaim with uninterrupted voice, Holy, 1 sqq.: "In the beginning was the Word, etc."; the
Holy, Holy, Lord God of Hosts." only exception is from Easter to the eve of Pentecost,
Here the curtains are drawn, and the priest takes when they use the Gospel of St. John, xxi, 15-20:
off his crown (or the bishop his mitre). The priest "So when they had dined, etc." Then the prayer for
incenses the holy gifts and again washes his hands, peace and the "Kyrie Eleison" (thrice) are said, the
repeating Psalm xxvi as before. After the Saluta- final benediction is given, and the priest retires from
tion is sung, the catechumens are dismissed, and the the altar. Whilst Psalm xxxiv is recited or sung by
Anaphora or Canon begins. The Preface is said the people, the blessed bread is distributed. The
secretly, only the concluding part being intoned to Catholic Armenians confine this latter rite to high
which the choir responds with the Sanctus. The festivals only. The chief editions of the Gregorian
prayer before consecration follows, with a comparison Armenian Missals are those printed at Constantinople
of the Old and the New Law, not found in either (1823, 1844), Jerusalem (1841, 1873, and 1884), and
Greek or Roman Rite: "Holy, Holy, Holy; Thou art Etschmiadzin (1873); the chief Catholic Armenian
in truth most Holy; who is there who can dare to editions are those of Venice (1808, 1874, 1895),
describe by words thy bounties which flow down upon Trieste (1808), and Vienna (1858, 1884).
us without measure? For Thou didst protect and —
Armenian Catholics. Armenians had come to the
console our forefathers, when they had fallen in sin, United States in small numbers prior to 1895. In
by means of the prophets, the Law, the priesthood, that and the following year the Turkish massacres
and the offering of bullocks, showing forth that which took place throughout Armenia and Asia Minor, and
was to come. And when at length He came. Thou large numbers of Armenians emigrated to America.
didst tear in pieces the register of our sins, and didst Among them were many Armenian CathoUcs, al-
bestow on us Thine Only Begotten Son, the debtor though these were not sufficiently numerous to organ-
and the debt, the victim and the anointed, the Lamb ize any religious communities like their Gregorian
and Bread of Heaven, the Priest and the Oblation, brethren. In 1898 Mgr Stephan Azarian (Stephen
for He is the distributor and is always distributed X), then Catholic Patriarch of Cilicia of the Arme-
amongst us, without being exhausted. Being made nians, who resided in Constantinople, entered into
man truly and not apparently, and by union without negotiations with Cardinal Ledochowski, Prefect of
confusion. He was incarnate in the womb of the the Congregation of the Propaganda, and through
Virgin Mary, Mother of God, and journeyed through him obtained the consent of Archbishop Corrigan of
all the passions of human life, sin only excepted, and New York and Archbishop Williams of Boston for
of His own free will walked to the cross, whereby He priests of the Armenian Rite to labour in their re-
gave life to the world and wrought salvation for us." spective provinces for the Armenian Catholics who
Then follow the actual words of consecration, which had come to this country. He sent as the first Ar-
are intoned aloud. Then follow the Offering and the menian missionary the Very Reverend Archpriest
Epiklesis, which differs slightly in the Gregorian and Mardiros Mighirian, who had been educated at the
Cathohc form; the Gregorian is: "whereby Thou wilt Propaganda and the Armenian College, and arrived
make the bread when blessed truly the body of our in the United States on Ascension Day, 11 May, 1899.
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ;" and the Catholic He at first went to Boston where he assembled a small
form: "whereby Thou hast made the bread when congregation of Armenian Catholics, and later pro-
blessed truly the Body of our Lord and Saviour Jesus ceeded to New York to look after the spiritual welfare
Christ." As there is actually no blessing or con- of the Catholic Armenians in Manhattan and Brook-
secration after the Epiklesis the Cathohc form repre- lyn. He also established a mission station in Worces-
sents the correct belief. Then come the prayers for ter, Massachusetts. In New York and Brooklyn the
the hving and the dead, and an intoning by the Catholics of the Armenian Rite are divided into those
deacons of the Commemoration of the Saints, in who speak Armenian and those who, coming from
which nearly all the Armenian saints are mentioned. places outside of the historic Armenia, speak the
Then the deacon intones aloud the Ascription of Praise Arabic language. At present this missionary is
of Bishop Chosroes the Great in thanksgiving for the stationed at St. Stephen's church in East Twenty-
Sacrament of the Altar. After this comes a long eighth Street, since large numbers of Armenians live
Ektene or Litany, and then the Our Father is sung in that vicinity, but has another congregation under
xni.—
 RITES 82 RITES
IssAVERDEN-z, The Armenian Liturgy (Venice, 1873); Idem,
his charge in Brooklj-n.All these Catholic Armenians
The Armenian Ritual (Venice, 1873); Idem, The Sacred Rites
are ton poor to build any church or chapel of their and Ceremonies of the Armenian Church (Venice, 1888); Prince
own, and use the basement portion of the Latin Maximilian, Missa Armeuica (Ratiabon and New York, 1908)
FoRTESCUE, The Armenian Church (London, 1873) Asdvad-
churches. Towards the end of 1906 another Ar- ;

ZADOeBiANTS, Armenian Liturgy, Armenian and English (Lon-

menian priest, Rev. Manuel Basieganian, commenced don, 1887); Brightman, Liturgies Eastern and Western (Oxford,
mission -nork in Paterson, Xew Jersey, and now at- 1896): NiLLES, Kalendarium Manuale, II (Innabruck, 1897); u!
throughout New England, S. Census Bureau, Religious Bodies, pt. II (Waahington, 1910)!
tends mission stations
New Jersey, and Eastern Pennsylvania. In 1908 II. Byzantine or Greek Rite. This rite, —
Rev. Hovsep (Joseph) Keossajian settled in Law- reckoning both the CathoUc and Schismatic Churches,
rence, Massachusetts, and established a chapel in comes next in expansion through the Christian world
St Mary's Church.
. He also ministers to the spiritual to the Roman Rite. It also ranks next to the Roman
wants of the Armenian Catholics at Boston, Cam- Rite in America, there being now (1911) about 156
bridge, East Watertown, Newton, Lynn, Chelsea, Greek Cathohc churches, and about 149 Greek
and Lowell. In 1909 Rev. Moses Mazarian took Orthodox churches in the United States. The
charge of the Armenian mission at Cleveland, Ohio, Eastern Orthodox Churches of Russia, Turkey,
and in the cities throughout the west. None of these Rumania, Servia, and Bulgaria, and other places
have been able to build independent Armenian where they are found, make up a total of about
churches, but usually hold their services in the Roman 120,000,000, while the Uniat Churches of the same
Catholic churches. Besides the places already men- rite, the Greek Catholics in Austria, Hungary, Italy,
tioned there are slender Armenian Catholic congrega- Bulgaria, Asia, and elsewhere, amount to upwards of
tions at Haverhill, Worcester, Fitchburg, Milford, 7,500,000. The Byzantine Rite has already been
Fall River, Holyoke, and Whiting, in Massachusetts; fully described [see Constantinople, The Rite of;
Nashua and Manchester, in New Hampshire; Provi- Greek Rites; Orthodox Church; Altar (in
dence, Pawtucket, and Central Falls in Rhode the Greek Church); Archimandrite; Epiklesis;
Island; New Britain and Bridgeport, in Connecticut; Euchologion; Iconostasis], as well as the or-
Jersey City, West Hoboken, and Newark, in New ganization and development of the various churches
Jersey; and Philadelphia and Chicago. The number using the Greek or IJyzantine Rite (see Eastern
of Catholic Armenians in the United States is very Churches; Greek Church; Russia). Unlike the
small, being estimated at about 2000 to 2500 all told. Armenian Rite, it has not been confined to any par-
So many of them reside among the other Armenians ticular people or language, but has spread over the
and frequent their churches, that there may be more entire Christian Orient among the Slavic, Rumanian,
who do not profess themselves Catholics, and purely and Greek populations. As regards jurisdiction and
Armenian chapels would doubtless bring to light many authority, has not been united and homogeneous
it
whom the mission priests on their rounds do not reach. like the RomanRite, nor has it, like the Latin
Gregorian Armenians. —
Inasmuch as Armenia was Church, been uniform in language, calendar, or par-
converted to the faith of St. Gregory the Illuminator, ticular customs, although the same general teaching,
the Armenians who are not in union with the Holy ritual, and observances have been followed. The
See pride themselves upon the fact that they more principal languages in which the liturgy of the Greek
truly hold the faith preached by St. Gregory and they Rite is celebrated are (1) Greek; (2) Slavonic; (3)
are accordingly called Gregorian^, since the word Arabic, and (4) Rumanian. It is also celebrated in
"Orthodox" would be likely to confuse them with Georgian by a small and diminishing number of wor-
the Greeks. By reason of the many schools founded shippers, and sometimes experimentally in a number
in Armenia and in Constantinople by American of modem tongues for missionary purposes; but, as
Protestant missionaries, their attention was turned this latter use has never been approved, the four
to America, and, when the massacres of 1895-96 took languages named above may be considered the official
place, large numbers came to the United States. ones of the Byzantine Rite. A portion of the popula-
Many of them belonged to the Protestant Armenian tion of all the nations which use this rite, follow it in
Church, and identified themselves with the Con- union with the Holy See, and these have by their
gregationahsts or Presbyterians; but the greater union placed the Byzantine Rite in the position which
number of them belonged to the national Gregorian it occupied before the schism of 1054. Thus, the
Church. In 1.S.S9 Rev. Hovsep Sarajian, a priest Russians, Bulgarians, and Servians, who are schis-
from Constantinople, was sent to the Armenians in matic, use the Old Slavonic in their church books and
Massachusetts, and a church which was built in services; so likewise do the Catholic Rutheniana,
Worcester in 1891, is still the headquarters of the Bulgarians, and Servians. Likewise the Rumanians
Armenian Church in the United States. The emigra- of Rumania and Transylvania, who are schismatic,
tion increasing greatly after the massacres, Father use the Rumanian language in the Greek Rite; but
Sarajian was reinforced by several other Armenian the Rumanians of Transylvania, who are Catholic,
priests; in 1S9S he was made bishop, and in 1903 was do the same. The Orthodox Greeks of Greece and
invested with archiepiscopal authority, having Canada Turkey use the original Greek of their rite; but the
and the United States under his jurisdiction. Seven Italo-Greeks of Italy and Sicily and the Greeks of
great pastorates were organized to serve as the nuclei Constantinople, who are Catholic, use it also. The
of future dioceses: at Worcester, Boston, and Law- Syro-Arabians of Syria and Egypt, who are schis-
rence (Massachusetts), New York, Providence (Rhode matic, use the Arabic in the Greek Rite; but the
Island), Fresno (CaUfornia), and Chicago (lUinois). CathoUc Melohites likewise use it.
To these was added A\'est Hoboken in 1906. There The numerous emigrants from these countries to
are numerous congregations and mission stations in America have brought with them their Byzantine
various cities. Churches have been built in Worces- Rite with all its local peculiarities and its language.
ter, Fresno, and A\'est Hoboken; in Boston and Prov- In some respects the environment of a people pro-
idence halls are rented, and in other places arrange- fessing the Greek Rite in union with the Holy See
ments are often made with Episcopal churches where but in close touch with their countrymen of the Roman
their services are held. The Gregorian Armenian Rite has tended to change in unimportant particulars
clergy comprises the archbishop, seven resident and several of the ceremonies and sometimes particular
three missionary priests, while the number of Gregor- phrases of the rite (see Italo-Grbeks Melchites;
;

ian -Armenians is given at 20,000 in the United States. Ruthenian Rite), but not to a greater extent than
There are several Armenian societies and two Ar- the various Schismatic Churches have changed the
menian newspapers, and also Armenian reading- language and ceremonies in their several national
rooms in several places. Churches. Where this has occurred in the Greek
 RITES 83 RITES
Churches united with the Holy See, it has been fiercely inated with St. James the Less, Apostle and Bishop
denounced as latinizing, but, where it has occurred of Jerusalem. It is the type form of the Syriac Rite,
in Russia, Bulgaria, or Syria, it is merely regarded by but the Maronite Use has accommodated it more and
the same denouncers as a mere expression of na- more to the Roman. This form of the Liturgy of
tionalism. There is in the aggregate a larger number St. James constitutes the Ordinary of the Mass,
of Catholics of the Byzantine Rite in America than which is always said in the same manner, merely
of the Orthodox. The chief nationalities there which changing the epistles and gospels according to the
are Catholic are the Ruthenians, Rumanians, Mel- Christian year. But the Syrians, whether of the
chites, and Italo-Greeks; the principal Orthodox Maronite, Syrian, Catholic, or Syro-Chaldaic rite,
ones are the Russians, Greeks, Syro-Arabians, Ser- have the peculiarity (not found in other liturgies)
vians, Rumanians, Bulgarians, and Albanians. The of inserting different anaphoras or canons of the Mass,
history and estabhshment of each of these has been composed at various times by different Syrian saints;
Greek Catholics in America;
already given (see these change according to the feast celebrated,
Greek Orthodox Church in America). As emi- somewhat analogously to the Preface in the Roman
gration from those lands increases daily, and the rep- Rite. The principal anaphoras or canons of the
resentatives of those rites are increasing in numbers Mass used by the Maronites are: (1) the Anaphora
and prosperity, a still wider expansion of the Greek according to the Order of the Holy Catholic and
Rite in the United States may be expected. Al- Roman Church, the Mother of all the Churches;
ready the Russian Orthodox Church has a strong (2) the Anaphora of St. Peter, the Head of the Apos-
hierarchy, an ecclesiastical seminary, and monas- tles; (3) the Anaphora of the Twelve Apostles; (4)
teries, supported chiefly by the Holy Synod and the the Anaphora of St. James the Apostle, brother of
Orthodox Missionary Society of Russia, and much the Lord; (5) the Anaphora of St. John the Apostle
proselytizing is carried on among the Greek Catho- and Evangehst; (6) the Anaphora of St. Mark the
lics. The latter are not in such a favourable position Evangelist; (7) the Anaphora of St. Xystus, the
they have no home governmental support, but have Pope of Rome; (8) the Anaphora of St. John sur-
had to build and equip their own institutions out named Maro, from whom they derive their name;:
of their own slender means. The Holy See has pro- (9) the Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom; (10) the
vided a bishop for them, but the Russians have stirred Anaphora of St. Basil; (11) the Anaphora of St,
up dissensions and made his position as difficult as Cyril; (12) the Anaphora of St. Dionysius; (13) the
possible among his own people. The Hellenic Greek Anaphora of John of Harran, and (14) the Anaphora
Orthodox Church expects soon to have its own Greek of Marutha of Tagrith. Besides these they have also
bishop, and the Servians and Rumanians also expect a a form of liturgy of the Presanctified for Good Friday,
bishop to be appointed by their home authorities. after the Roman custom. Frequent use of incense
III. Maronite Rite. — The Maronite is one of the is a noticeable feature of the Maronite Mass, and
Syrian rites and has been closely assimilated in the not even in low Mass is the incense omitted. In
Church to the Roman Rite (see Maronites). Un- their form of church building the Maronites have
Uke the Syro-Chaldean or the Syro-Catholic rites, nothing special like the Greeks with their iconostasis
for they all use the Syriac language in the Mass and and square altar, or the Armenians with their cur-
hturgy, it has not kept the old forms intact, but has tains, but build their churches very much as Latins
modelled itself more and more upon the Roman Rite. do. While the sacred vestments are hardly dis-
Among all the Eastern rites which are now in com- tinguishable from those of the Roman Church, in
munion with the Holy See, it alone has no Schismatic some respects they approach the Greek form. The
rite of corresponding form and language, but is alb, the girdle, and the maniple or cuffs on each hand,
wholly united and Catholic, thereby differing also a peculiar form of amict, the stole (sometimes in
from the other Syrian rites. The liturgical language Greek and sometimes in Roman form), and the or-
is the ancient Syriac or Aramaic, and the Maronites, dinary Roman chasuble make up the vestments worn
as well as all other rites who use Syriac, take especial by the priest at Mass. Bishops use a cross, mitre,
pride in the fact that they celebrate the Mass in the and staff of the Roman form. The sacred vessels
very language which Christ spoke while He was on used on the altar are the chalice, paten or disk, and
earth, as evidenced by some fragments of His very a small star or asterisk to cover the consecrated Host.
words still preserved in the Greek text of the Gospels (e. They, like us, use a small cross or crucifix, with a
g. in Matt., xxvii, 46, and Mark, v, 41). The Syriac is long silken banneret attached, for giving the blessings.
a Semitic language closely related to the Hebrew, and The Maronites use unleavened bread and have a
is sometimes called Aramaic from the Hebrew word round host, as in the Roman Rite.
Aram (Northern Syria). As the use of Ancient The Maronite Mass commences with the ablution
Hebrew died out after the Babylonian captivity, the and vesting at the foot of the altar. Then, standing
Syriac or Ajamaic took its place, very much as at the middle of the sanctuary, the priest recites
Italian has supplanted Latin throughout the Italian Psalm xhi, "Introibo ad altare", moving his head in
peninsula. This was substantially the situation at the form of a cross. He then ascends the altar,
the time of Christ's teaching and the foundation of takes the censer and incenses both the uncovered
the early Church. Syriac is now a dead language, chalice and paten, then takes up the Host
and in the Maronite service and hturgy bears the and has it incensed, puts it on the paten and
same relation to the vernacular Arabic as the Latin has the corporals and veils incensed. He next
in the Roman Rite does to the modern languages of the pours wine in the chalice, adding a little water, and
people. It is written with a peculiar alphabet, reads then incenses it and covers both host and chalice
from right to left hke the Hebrew or Arabic languages, with the proper veils. Then, going again to the foot
but its letters are unlike the current alphabets of of the altar, he says aloud the first prayer in Arabic,
either of these languages. To simpUfy the Maronite which is followed by an antiphon. The strange
Missals, Breviary, and other service books, the ver- Eastern music, with its harsh sounds and quick
nacular Arabic is often employed for the rubrics and changes, is a marked feature of the Maronite Rite.
for many of the best-known prayers; it is written, not The altar, the elements, the clergy, servers, and
in Arabic characters, but in Syriac, and this mingled people are incensed, and the Kyrie Eleison (Kurrili-
language and alphabet is called Karshuni. The Epis- son) and the "Holy God, Holy strong one etc."
tle, Gospel, Creed, and Pater Noster are nearly always are sung by choir and people. Then comes the Pater
given in Karshuni, instead of the original Arabic. Noster in Arabic, with the response: "For thine is
The form of the Liturgy or Mass is that of St. the kingdom and the power and the glory, world
James, so called because of the tradition that it orig- without end. Amen." The celebrant and deacon
 RITES 84 RITES

intone the S\'napte for peace, which is followed by a Lord, and send down the Holy and Life-giving Spirit
short form of the Gloria in excelsis: "Glory be to upon us! Hear me, O Lord! and let Thy living and
God on high, and on earth peace and good hope to Holy Spirit descend upon me and upon this sacrifice!
the sons of men etc." The Phrumiur is then said; and so complete this mystery, that it be the Body of
this is an introductory prayer, and always comes Christ our God for our redemption!" The prayers
before the Sedro, which is a prayer of praise said aloud for the Pope of Rome, the Patriarch of Antioch, and
by tlie priest standing before the altar while the censer all the metropolitans and bishops and orthodox pro-
is swung. It is constructed by the insertion of verses fessors and believers of the Catholic Faith imme-
into a more or less constant framework, commemora- diately follow. This in turn is followed by a long
tive of the feast or season, and seems to be a survival prayer by the deacon for tranquillity, peace, and the
of the old psalm verses with the Gloria. For in- commemoration of all the saints and doctors of the
stance, a sedro of Our Lady will commemorate her early Church and of Syria, including St. John Maro,
in many ways, something like our litany, but more with the petition for the dead at the end. Then comes
poetically' and at length one of Our Lord will celebrate
; the solemn oiTering of the Body and the Blood for
Him in His nati\'ity, baptism etc. Then come the the sins of priest and people, concluding with the
commemorations of the Prophets, the Apostles, the words: "Thy Body and Thy Holy Blood are the way
martyrs, of all the saints, and lastly the commemora- which leads to the Kingdom!" The adoration and
tion of the departed: "Be ye not sad, all ye who sleep the fraction follow; then the celebrant elevates the
in the dust, and in the decay of your bodies. The chalice together with the Host, and says: "O de-
living Body which you have eaten and the saving sirable sacrifice which is offered for us! victim of
Blood which you have drunk, can again vivify all of reconciliation, which the Father obtained in Thy own
you, and clothe your bodies with glory. O Christ, person! O Lamb, Who wast the same person as the
Who hast come and given peace by Thy Blood to the High Priest who sacrificed!" Then he genuflects
heights and the depths, give rest to the souls of Thy and makes the sign of the Cross over the chalice:
servants in the promised life everlasting!" The "Behold the Blood which was shed upon Golgotha
priest then prays for the hving, and makes special formy redemption; because of it receive my
supphca-
intercession by name of those living or dead for whom tion". The "Sanctus fortis" is again sung, and the
the Mass is offered. He blesses and offers the sacred celebrant lifts the Sacred Body on high and says:
elements, in a form somewhat analogous to the " Holy things for holy persons, in purity and holiness!
Offertory in the Roman Rite. Another phrumiiin The fraction of the Host follows after several prayers,
and the great Sedro of St. Ephraem or St. James is and the priest mingles a particle with the Blood,
said, in which the whole sacrifice of the Mass is fore- receives the Body and the Blood himself, and gives
shadowed. The psalm preparatory to the Epistle communion to the clergy and then to the people.
in Arabic is recited, and the epistle of the day then \Mien it is finished he makes the sign of the Cross
read. The Alleluia and gradual psalm is recited, with the paten and blesses the people.
the Book of Gospels incensed, and the Gospel, also Then follow a synapte (litany) of thanksgiving,
in Arabic, intoned or read. The versicles of thanks- and a second signing of the people with both paten
giving for the Gospel are intoned, at several parts and chalice, after which the priest consumes all the
of which the priest and deacon and precentor chant remaining species saying afterwards the prayers at
in unison. The Niccne Creed, said in unison by the purification and ablution. The prayer of blessing
priest and deacon, follows, and immediately after the and protection is said, and the people and choir
celebrant washes his hands saying Psalm .x.wi. This sing: "Alleluia! Alleluia! I have fed upon Thy
ends the Ordinary of the Mass. Body and by Thy living Blood I am reconciled, and
The Anaphora, or Canon of the Mass, is then begun, I have sought refuge in Thy Cross! Through these
and varies according to season, place, and celebrant. may I please Thee, O Good Lord, and grant Thou
In the Anaphora of the Holy Catholic and Roman mercy to the sinners who call upon Thee!" Then
Church, which is a typical one, the Mass proceeds they sing the final hymn of praise, which in this
with the prayers for peace very much as they stand anaphora contains the words: "By the prayers of
at the end of the Roman Mass; then follow prayers Simon Peter, Rome was made the royal city, and she
of confession, adoration, and glory, which conclude shall not be shaken! " Then the people all say or
by giving the kiss of peace to the deacon and the other sing the Lord's Prayer; when it is finished, the final
clergy. The Preface follows: "Let us lift up our benediction is given, and the priest, coming again to
thoughts, our conscience and our hearts! I^. They the foot of the altar, takes off his sacred vestments and
are hfted up to Thee, O Lord! P. Let us give proceeds to make his thanksgiving.
thanks to the Lord in fear, and adore Him with The principal editions of ttie Maronite missals and service
trembUng. I^. It is meet and just. P. To Thee, boolts for the deacons and those assisting at the altar are The
Book of Sacrifice according to the Rite of the Maronite Church of
O God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, O glorious Aniioch (Kozhayya, 1816, 1838, and 1885; Beirut, 1888), and
and holy King of Israel, for ever! I^. Glory be to The Book of the Ministry according to the Rite of the Maronite
the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, now and church of Antioch (Kozhayya, 1855).
forever, world without end. I^. Before the glorious
and (;h\-ine mysteries of our Redeemer, with the
—
Maronites in America. The Maronites are chiefly
from the various districts of Mount Lebanon and from
pleasant things which are imposed, let us implore the city of Beirut, and were at first hardly distin-
the mercy of the Lord! I^. It is meet and just" guishable from the other Syrians and Arabic-speaking
(and the Preface continues secretly). Then the persons who came to America. At first they were
Sanctus is sung, and the Consecration immediately merely pedlars and small traders, chiefly in religious
follows. The words of Consecration are intoned and devotional articles, but they soon got into other
aloud, the choir answering "Amen" After the lines of business and at present possess many well-
succeeding pra\'er of commemoration of the Resur- established business enterprises.
rection and hope of the Second Coming and a prayer
Not only are they
established in the United States, but they have also
for mercy, the Epiklesis is said: "How tremendous
spread to Mexico and Canada, and have several
is this hour and how awful this moment, my
beloved, fairly large colonies in Brazil, Argentine, and Uruguay.
in which the Holy and Life-p;i^•ing Spirit comes down
Their numbers in the United States are variously es-
from on high and descends upon this Eucharist which timated from 100,000 to 120,000, including the native
is placed in this sanctuary for our
reconciliation.
W ith silence and fear stand and pray! Salvation to
born. Many of them have become prosperous mer-
chants and are now American citizens. Several
us and the peace of God the Father of all of us. Let
Maronite families of title (Emir) have emigrated and
us cry out and say thrice: Have mercy on us, O
made their homes in the United States; among them
 RITES 85 RITES
are the Emirs AI-Kazen, Al-Khouri, Abi-Saab, and
(3) finally the Copts, Catholic or Orthodox. All of
others. There is also the well-known Arabic novelist these have a
handful of representatives in America,
of the present day, Madame Karam Hanna (Afifa and, as immigration
Karam) of Shreveport, Louisiana, formerly of great their numbers increases, it is a question how
will become.
Amshid, Mount Lebanon, who not only writes enter-
taining fiction, but touches on educational topics Those
(1) Chaldean or Syro-Chaldean Catholic Rite. —
who profess this rite are Eastern Syrians,
and even women's rights. Nahum Mokarzel, a grad- coming from what
was anciently Mesopotamia, but
uate of the Jesuit College of Beirut, is a clever writer is now the
borderland of Persia. They ascribe
both in Arabic and English. The Maronites are the origin of the
rite to two of the early disciples,
established in New York, the New England States, Addeus and Maris, who first preached the Gospel
Pennsylvania, Minnesota, and Alabama. The first in their lands. It is
really a remnant of the early
Maronite priest to visit the United States was Rev. Persian Church, and it
has always used the Syriac
Joseph Mokarzel, who arrived in 1879 but did not language in its liturgy.
The principal features of
remain. Very Rev. Louis Kazen of Port Said, the rite and the celebration
of the Mass have aheady
Egypt, came later, but, as there were very few of his been described (see Addeus and Maris, Litubgt
of).
countrymen, he likewise returned. On 6 August, The peculiar Syriac which it uses is known
as the
1890, the Rev. Butrosv Korkemas came to establish eastern dialect, as distinguished from that used in
a permanent mission, and after considerable difficulty the Maronite and Syro-Cathohc rites, which is the
rented a tiny chapel in a store on Washington Street, western dialect. The method of writing
this church
New York City. He was accompanied by his nephew, Syriac among the Chaldeans is somewhat different
Rev. Joseph Yasbek, then in deacon's orders, who from that used in writing it among the western
was later ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Syrians. The Chaldeans and Nestorians use in their
Corrigan, and founded the Maronite mission in church books the antique letters of the older versions
Boston; he is now Chor-Bishop of the Maronites of the Syriac Scriptures which are called "astran-
and practically the head of that rite in America. gelo", and their pronunciation is somewhat different.
A church was later established in Philadelphia, The Chaldean Church in ancient times was most
then one in Troy and one in Brooklyn, after which flourishing, and its history under Persian rule was a
the Maronites branched out to other cities. At bright one. Unfortunately in the sixth century it
present (1911) there are fifteen Maronite churches in embraced the Nestorian heresy, for Nestorius on
the United States: in New York, Brooklyn, Troy, being removed from the See of Constantinople went
Buffalo, Boston, Lawrence, Springfield, Philadelphia, to Persia and taught his views (see Nestorius and
Scranton, St. Paul, St. Louis, Birmingham, Chicago, Nestorianism; Persia). The Chaldean Church
Wheeling, and Cleveland. Meanwhile new con- took up his heresy and became Nestorian (see
gregations are being formed in smaller cities, and are Chaldean Christians). This Nestorian Church
regularly visited by missionary priests. The Maro- not only extended throughout Mesopotamia and
nite clergy is composed of two chor-bishops (deans Persia, but penetrated also into India (Malabar) and
vested with certain episcopal powers) and twenty- even into China. The inroads of Mohammedanism
three other priests, of whom five are Antonine monks. and its isolation from the centre of unity and from
In Mexico there are three Maronite chapels and four intercommunication with other Catholic bodies
priests. In Canada there is a Maronite chapel at caused it to diminish through the centuries. In the
New Glasgow and one resident priest. There are sixteenth century the Church in Malabar, India,
only two Arabic-English schools, in New York and came into union with the Holy See, and this induced
St. Louis, since many of the Maronite children go to the Nestorians to do likewise. The conversion of
the ordinary Catholic or to the public schools. part of the Nestorians and the reunion of their an-
There are no general societies or clubs with religious cient Church with the Holy See began in the seven-
objects, although there is a Syrian branch of the St. teenth century, and has continued to the present day.
Vincent de Paul Society. About fifteen years ago The Chaldean Patriarch of Babylon (who really has
Nahum A. Mokarzel founded and now publishes in his see at Mossul) is the chief prelate of the Chaldean
New York City the daily newspaper, "Al Hoda" Catholics, and has under him two archbishops
(The Guidance), which is now the best known (of Diarbekir and Kerkuk) and nine bishops (of
Arabic newspaper in the world and the only illus- Amadia, Gezireh, Mardin, Mossul, Sakou, Salmas,
trated one. His brother also publishes an Arabic Seert, Sena, and Urmiah). The Malabar Christians
monthly magazine, "Al Alam ul Jadid" (The New have no regular Chaldean hierarchy, but are governed
World), which contains modem Arabic literature and by vicars Apostolic. The number of Chaldean Catho-
translations of American and English writers. There lics is estimated at about 70,000, while the cor-
are also two Maronite papers pubhshed in Mexico. responding schismatic Nestorian Church has about
The Maronites also have in New York a publishing 140,000 (see Asia; Chaldean Christians).
house on a small scale, in which novels, pamphlets, There are about 100 to 150 Chaldean Catholics in
and scientific and religious works are printed in the United States; about fifty live in Yonkers, New
Arabic, and the usual Arabic literature sold. York, while the remainder are scattered in New York
Dandini, Reisebemerkungen Uber die Maroniten (Jena, 1903); City and vicinity. The community in Yonkers is
Istafan-al-Dawaihi, a History of the Maronites (Beirut, 1890)
Nau, Opuscules Maronites (Paris, 1899-1900); Kohler, Die cared for by Rev. Abdul Masih (a married priest from
kathol. Kirchen des Morgenlandes (Darmstadt, 1896); Prince the Diocese of Diarbekir), who came to this country
Maximilian, Missa Maronitica (Ratisbon and New York, 1907) from Damascus some six years ago. He says Mass
AzAK, Les Maronites (Cambrai, 1852) Ethebidge, The Syrian
;

Churches (London, 1879); Silbernagl, Verfassung u. gegen- in a chapel attached to St. Mary's Catholic Church,
wdrtiger Bestand s&mtlicher Kirchen des Orients (Ratisbon, 1904). and some Nestorians also attend. At present (1911)
—
IV. Othee Oriental Rites. The rites already there are two other Chaldean priests in this country:
described are the principal rites to be met with in Rev. Joseph Ghariba, from the Diocese of Aleppo,
the United States; but there are besides them a few who is a travelling missionary for his people, and Rev.
representatives of the remaining Eastern rites, al- Gabriel Oussani, who is professor of church history,
though these are perhaps not sufficiently numerous patrology, and Oriental languages in St. Joseph's
to maintain their own churches or to constitute Seminary at Dunwoodie near Yonkers, and from
separate ecclesiastical entities. Among these smaller whom some of these particulars have been obtained.
bodies are: (1) the Chaldean Catholics and the There are also said to be about 150 Nestorians in the
schismatic Christians of the same rite, known as United States; the majority of these live and work
Nestorians; (2) the Syrian Catholics or Syro-CathoUcs in Yonkers, New York. They have no priest of their
and their correlative dissenters, the Jacobites, and own, and, where they do not attend the Catholic
 RITSCHLIANISM 86 RITSCHLIANISM
Ritp, are drifting into modern Protestantism. Ritschlianism, a peculiar conception of the nature
Several of them have become members of the Epis- and scope of Christianity, widely held in modern
copal Church, and they are looked after by Dr. Protestantism, especially in Germany. Its founder
Al>raham Yohannan, an Armenian from Persia, now was the Protestant theologian, Albrecht Ritschl (b
a mini.ster in the Episcopal Church and lecturer on at Berlin, 2.5 March, 1822; d. at Gottingen, 20 March'
modern Persian at Columbia University. They have 1889). Having completed his studies in the gymna-
no church or chapel of their own. sium at Stettin, where his father resided as general
—
(2) Syro-Calliolic Rite. This rite is professed by superintendent of Pomerania, Ritschl attended the
those S\Tiac Christians who were subjects of the an- University of Bonn, and was for a time captivated by
cient Putriarchate of Antioch; these are spread the "Biblical supernaturalism " of his teacher, K. J.
throughout the plains of Syria and Western Mesopo- Nitzsch. Mental dissatisfaction caused him to leave
tamia, whereas the Maronites live principally on Bonn in 1841, and he continued his studies under
Mount Lebanon and the sea coast of Syria (see Julius Miiller and Tholuck in the University of Halle.
Asia; Eastern Churches). The Sjrriac Mass and Disabused here also as to the teachings of his pro-
hturgy is, like the Maronite (which is but a variation fessors, he sought and found peace in the reconcilia-
of it), the Liturgy of St. James, Apostle and Bishop tion doctrine of the Tubingen professor, Ferdinand
of Jerusalem. For this reason, but principally for Christian Bam-, through whose writings he was won
the reason that Jacob Baradasus and the greater part over to the philosophy of Hegel. On 21 May, 1843,
of the Syriac Church (see Barad^us, Jacob) em- he graduated Doctor of Philosophy at Halle with the
braced the Monophysite heresy of Eutyches (see dissertation, "Expositio doctrinae Augustini de
MoNOPHYSiTES AND Monophysitism), the Schis- creatione mundi, peccato, gratia" (Halle, 1843).
matic branch of this rite are called Jacobites, although After a long residence in his parents' house at Stettin,'
they call themselves Suriani or Syrians. Thus we he proceeded to Tiibingen, and there entered into
have in the three Syrian rites the historic remem- personal intercourse with the celebrated head of the
brance of the three greatest heresies of the early (later) Tubingen School, Ferdinand Christian Baur.
Church after it had become well-developed. Nes- He here wrote, entirely in the spirit of this theologian,
torians and Chaldeans represent Nestorianism and the "Das Evangelium Marcions und das kanonische
return to Catholicism; Jacobites and Syro-Catholics Evangelium des Lukas" (Tubingen, 1846), wherein
represent Monophysitism and the return to Cathol- he attempts to prove that the apocryphal gospel
icism; the Maronites represent a vanished Mono- of the Gnostic Marcion forms the real foundation of
thehtism now wholly Catholic (see Monothelitism the Gospel of St. Luke. Having qualified as Privat-
AND Monothelites). The Syro-Catholics like the docent at Bonn on 20 June, 1846, he was appointed
Maronites vary the Ordinary of their Mass by a large professor extraordinary of Evangelical theology on
number of anaphoras or canons of the Mass, con- 22 December, 1852, and ordinary professor on 10 July,
taining changeable forms of the consecration service. 1859. Meanwhile he had experienced a radical
The Syro-Catholics confme themselves to the an- change in the earlier views which he had formed under
aphoras of St. John the Evangelist, St. James, St. Baur's influence; this change removed him farther
Peter, St. John Chrysostom, St. Xystus the Pope and farther from the Tubingen SchooL
of Rome, St. Matthew, and St. Basil; but the schis- In 1851 he had withdrawn his hypothesis concerning
matic Jacobites not only use these, but have a large the origin of the Gospel of St. Luke as untenable, and
number of others, some of them not yet in print, in 1856 he had a public breach with Baur. Hence-
amounting perhaps to thirty or more (see Syria; forth Ritschl was resolved to tread his own path.
^Syrian Rite, East). The epistles, gospels, and many In the second edition of his "Die Entstehung der
well-known prayers of the Mass are said in Arabic in- altkatholisohen Kirche" (Bonn, 1857; 1st ed., 1850),
stead of the ancient Syriao. The form of their church he rejected outright Baur's sharp distinction between
vestments is derived substantially from the Greek or St. Paul and the original Apostles —
between Paul-
Byzantine Rite. Their church hierarchy in union with —
inism and Petrinism by maintaining the thesis that
the Holy See consists of the S\Tian Patriarch of An- the yew Testament contains the religion of Jesus
tioch with three archbishops (of Bagdad, Damascus, Christ in a manner entirely uniform and disturbed
and Homs) and five bishops (of Aleppo, Beirut, by no internal contradictions. At Gottingen, whither
Gezireh, Mardin-Diarbekir, and Mossul). The num- he was called at Easter, 18(j4, his peculiar ideas first
ber of Syro-Catholics is about 25,000 families, and of found full realization in his "Die ohristliche Lehre
the Jacobites about 80,000 to 8.5,000 persons. von der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung" (3 vols.,
There are about 60 persons of the Syro-Catholic Bonn, 1870-4; 4th ed., 1895-1903). His practical
Rite in the eastern part of the United States, of whom conception of Christianity was described first in his
forty live in Brooklyn, New York. They are mostly lecture on "Christliche Vollkommenheit " (Gottingen,
from the Diocese of Aleppo, and their emigration 1874; 3rd ed., 1902) and then in his "Unterricht in
thither began only about five years ago. They have der christlichen Religion" (Bonn, 1875; 6th ed.,
organized a church, although there is but one priest 1903), which was intended as a manual for the
of their rite in the Ignited States, Rev. Paul Kassar gymnasium, but proved very unsatisfactory for prac-
from Aleppo, an alumnus of the Propaganda at Rome. tical purposes. In his small, but important, work,
He is a mission priest engaged in looking after his "Theologie und Metaphysik" (Bonn, 1881; 3rd ed.,
countrymen and resides in Brooklyn, but he is only Gottingen, 1902), he denies the influence of phi-
here upon an extended leave of absence from the losophy in the formation of theology. In addition to
diocese. There are also some thirty or forty Syro- numerous smaller writings, which were re-edited after
Jacobites in the United States; they are mostly from his death under the title "Gesammelte Aufsatze"
Mardin, Aleppo, and Northern Syria, and have no (2 vols., Gottingen, 1893-6), he compiled a "Ge-
priest or chapel of their own. sohichte des Pietismus" (3 vols., Bonn, 1880-6), based
(3) Coptic Rite.^TheTe is only a handful of Copts upon a wide study of the sources. Pietism itself, as
—
in this country -in New York City perhaps a dozen it appeared in Calvinistic and Lutheran circles during
individuals. Oriental theatrical pieces, in which an the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, he con-
Eastern setting is required, has attracted some of demns as an abortion of modern Protestantism caused
them thither, principally from Egypt. They have by the false Catholic ideal of piety. His last and
no priest, either Catholic or Orthodox, and no place incomplete work, "Fides imphcita, oder eine Unter-
of worship. As to their Church and its organization, suchung iiber Kohlerglauben, Wissen und Glauben,
see Eastern Churches; Egypt: V. Coptic Church. Glauben und Kirche" (Bonn, 1890), appeared shortly
Andrew J. Shipman. after his death. After 1888 he suffered from heart
 RITSCHLIANISM 87 RITSCHLIANISM
disease, of which he died in the following year. Al- is thus alone obligatory for theology and Church,
though Ritschl was violently attacked cluring his while the other convictions and institutions of the
lifetime not only by the orthodox party, but also by earliest Christian community are of a subsidiary
the Erlangen school named after Hofmann, he at- nature. For this reason, therefore, Luther himself
tached to himself a large circle of enthusiastic follow- recognized the Bible as the Word of God only in so
ers with Liberal leanings, who are included under the far as it "makes for Christ". Since the Christian faith
name of Ritschlianists. The literary organs of exists only through personal experience or subjective
Ritschlianism in Germany are the " Theologisohe acquaintance with justification and reconciliation, the
Literaturzeitung", the "Zeitschrift fiir Theologie objects of faith are not presented to the mind from
und Kirche", and the "Christliehe Welt". without through a Divine revelation as an authorita-
To understand and rightly appraise the rather tive rule of faith, but become vividly present for the
abstruse train of thought in the doctrine of justifioa- Christian only through subjective experience. The
tion, which constitutes the focus of Ritschl's theolog- revelation of God is given only to the believer who
ical system, we must go back to the epistemology on religiously lays hold of it by experience, and recog-
which the whole edifice rests. Influenced by the phi- nizes it as such.
losophy of Kant rather than of Lotze, Ritschl denies Justifying faith especially is no mere passive atti-
human reason the power to arrive at a scientific knowl- tude of man towards God, but an active trust in Him
edge of God. Consequently religion cannot have an and His grace, evincing itself chiefly in humility,
intellectual, but merely a practical-moral foundation. patience, and prayer. It is by no means a dogmatical
Religious knowledge is essentially distinct from scien- belief in the truth of Revelation, but it possesses
tific knowledge. It is not acquired by a theoretical essentially a thoroughly practico-moral character.
insight into truth, but, as the product of religious faith, Ritschlianism can thus speak without any incon-
is bound up with the practical interests of the soul. sistency of an "undogmatic Christianity" (Kaftan).
Religion is practice, not theory. Knowledge and faith The harmonizing of the free-religious moral activity
are not only distinct domains; they are independent of the Christian with dependence on God is proclaimed
of and separated from each other. While knowledge' by Ritschl the "master-question of theology". This
rests on judgments of existence (Seinsurteile), faith fundamental problem he solves as follows: The re-
proceeds on independent "judgments of value" turning sinner is at first passively determined by God,
(Werturteile) which afiirm nothing concerning the
, whereupon justification achieves its practical success
essence or nature of Divine things, but refer simply in reconciliation and regeneration, which in their
to the usefulness and fruitfulness of religious ideas. turn lead to Christian activity. Justification and
Anticipating to some extent the principles of Prag- reconciUation are so related that the former is also
matism put forward in a later generation by W. James, the forgiveness of sin and as such removes man's
Schiller, etc., Ritschl declared that knowledge alone consciousness of guilt (i. e., mistrust of God), while the
valuable which in practice brings us forward. Not latter, as the cessation of active resistance to God,
w^hat the thing is "in itself", but what it is "for us", introduces a new direction of the will calculated to
is decisive. So far Ritschl is not original, since develop Christian activity in the true fulfilment of
Schleiermacher had already banished metaphysics
from Christian philosophy, and had explained the ciliation— —
one's vocation. These two justification and recon-
form the basis of our sonship as children
nature of religion subjectively as springing from the of God. This justification, identical with forgiveness
feeling of our absolute dependence on God. Ritschl's of sin, is, however, no real annihilation of sin, but a
teaching is distinguished from that of the Berlin forensic declaration of righteousness, inasmuch as God
scholar especially by the fact that he seeks to establish regards the believing sinner, in spite of his sins, as just
a better Biblical and historical foundation for his and pleasing in consideration of the work of Christ.
ideas. In the latter respect he is the promoter of the A
special characteristic of Ritschlianism lies in the
so-called historical-critical method, of the application assertion that justifying faith is possible only within
of which many Ritschlianists of the present day are the Christian community. The Church of Christ (by
thorough masters. which, however, is to be understood no external in-
Like Schleiermacher, Ritschl connects mankind's stitution with legal organization) is on the one hand the
subjective need of redemption with Jesus Christ, the aggregate of all the justified believers, but on the
"originator of the perfect spiritual and moral reli- other hand has, as the enduring fruit of the work of
gion" Since we can determine the historical reality Christ, a duration and existence prior to all its mem-
of Christ only through the faith of the Christian com- bers, just as the whole is prior to its parts. Like the
munity, the religious significance of Jesus is really children in the family and the citizens in the state,
independent of His biography and investigation into the believers must also be born in an already existing
His life. A convinced Ritschlianist seems to be ready Christian community. In this alone is God preached
to persevere in his Christianity, even though radical as the Spirit of Love, just as Jesus Himself preached,
criticism were to succeed in setting aside the historical and in this alone, through the preaching of Christ
existence of Christ. He could be a Christian without and His work, is that justifying faith rendered possible,
Christ, as there could be a Tibetan Buddhist without in virtue of which the individual experiences regenera-
an historical Buddha (of. "Christliehe Welt", 1901, tion and attains to adoption as a son of God (cf.
n. 35). Ritschl himself never wished to separate Conrad, "Begriff und Bedeutung der Gemeinde in
Christianity from the Person of Christ. Since, as Ritschl's Theologie" in "Theol. Studien und Krit.",
Ritschl especially emphasizes in reply to Baur, the 1911, 230 sqq.). It is plain that, according to this
original consciousness of the early Christian com- view. Christian baptism loses all its importance gs
munity reveals itself with perfect consistency in the the real door to the Church.
writings of the New Testament, theology must in its What is Ritschl's opinion of Jesus Christ? Does
investigation of the authentic contents of the Christian he consider Him a mere man? If we set aside the
religion begin with the Bible as source, for the more pious flourishes with which he clothes the form of the
thorough understanding of which the ancient Chris- Saviour, we come speedily to the conviction that he
tian professions of faith furnish an indirect, and the does not recognize the true Divinity of Jesus Christ.
symbolical books of Protestants (Luther) a direct, As the efficacious bearer and transmitter of the Divine
guidance. The Reformation rightly elevated the Spirit of Love to mankind Jesus is "superordinate"
Pauline justification by faith to the central place in to all men, and has in the eternal decree of God a
Christian doctrine, and in the West carried it to a merely ideal pre-existence. He is therefore, as for
successful conclusion. As the necessary doctrine of the earliest community so also for us, our "God and
salvation through Christ, this doctrine of justification Saviour" only in the metaphorical sense. All other
 RITTER 88 RITUAL
theological questions —
such as the Trinity, the meta- always in the interests of Christianity itself, since
physical Divine sonship of Christ, original sin, without a rational foundation and substructure'
—
eschatology possess an entirely secondary impor-
tance. This selt-limitation is specially injurious to the
Revelation and faith would hang unsupported in the
air. In this statement the Cathohc opposition to
doctrine concerning God: all the Divine attributes, Ritschhanism in one of the most fundamental points
except such as are practico-moral, are set aside as of difference is sufficiently characterized.
unknowable. The essence of God is love, to which all O. Ritschl, Albert Ritschl's Leben (Leipzig, 1892-6). Concern-
ing the system consult: Fricke, Met iphysiku. Dogmatik in ihrem
His other attributes may be traced. Thus, His gegenseiti'jen Verh&linis unter besonderer Beziehung auf die
omnipotenr'c is another phase of love inasmuch as the RitschVsche Theologie (Leipzig, 1882) Thikotter, Darstellung
;

world is nothing else than the means for the establish- u. BeuTteilung der Theologie A. Ritschl's (Leipzig, 1S.S7) FLtipEL,
;

A. RitschVs philosoph. Ansichten (Langensalza, 1886) Lipsius'

ment of the Kingdom of God. Even the Divine Die RitschVsche TheoloHe (Leipzig, 1888); Haring, Zu Ritschl's
;

justice ends in love, especially in God's fidelity to Versohnungslehre (Zurich, 1888) Herrmann, Der evangel. Glaube
;

the chosen people in the Old Testament and to the u. die Theologie A. RitschVs (Marburg, 1890) Pfleiderek,
;

Die RitschVsche Theologie (Brunswick, 1891) Bertrand, Une

Christian community in the New. Every other ;

nouvelle conception de la Redemption, La doctrine de la justifi-

explanation of the relation between the just God and cation et de la reconciliation dans le syst^me theologigue de Ritschl
sinful mankind —
such as the juridical doctrine of (Paris, 1891); Goyau, L'Allemagne religieuse (Paris, 1897), 94

satisfaction taught by St. Anselm of Canterbury —

ia
sqq. Garvie, The Ritschlian Theology (Edinburgh, 1899) Kat-
;

TENBTJSCH, Von SchleicrmacheT zu Ritschl (Halle, 1903) Schoen ;

;

called by Ritschl "sub-Christian". Only the sin Les origines histor. de la theol. de Ritschl (Paris, 1893) Fabre, Le's
;

against the Holy Ghost, which renders man incapable principes philosophiques de la thiol, de Ritschl (Paris, 1894) von ;

KuGELCHEN, Gruudriss der RitschVschen Dogmatik (Gottingen

of s:ilvation, calls forth the anger of God and hurls
1903) Swing, The Theology of A. Ritschl (New York, 1901); Fabhi-
;

him into everlasting damnation. Other evils decreed cius, Die Eniwickelung in R.' s Theol. von2874~1889 (Leipzig, 1909);
by God are not punishments for sin, but punishments Herrmann, tr. Matheson and Stewart, Faith and Morals; 1.
Faith as Ritschl Defined it; II. The Moral Law, as Understood in-
intended for our instruction and improvement. Sin Romanism and Protestantism (London, 1910). Cf. also Sanday,
being conceivable only as personal guilt, the idea of Christologies Ancient and Modern (Oxford, 1910), 81 sqq. For
original sin is morally inconceivable. refutation consult: Strange, Der dogmatische Ertrag der RitschV-
^schen Theologie nach Kaftan (Leipzig, 1906) Schadeh, Theo-
Although Ritschlianism has undergone manifold 'zentrische Theologie, I (Leipzig, 1909)
;

Edghill, Faith and Fact.

;

alterations and developments in one direction or A Study of Ritschlianism (London, 1910) (a fundamental work).
another at the hands of its learned representatives See also; O. Ritschl in Realencykl. fur prot. Theol. (Leipzig,
1906), s. V. Ritschl, Albrecht Benjamin; American Journal of
(Harnack, Kaftan, Bender, Sell, and so on), it has Theol. (Chicago, 1906), 423 sqq.; Kiefl, Z)er geschichtl. Christus
remained unchanged in its essential features. The u. die moderne Philosophic (Mainz, 1911), 51 sqq.
Liberal and modern-positive theology of Germany Joseph Pohle.
is distinctly coloured with Ritschlianism, and the
efforts of orthodox Protestantism to combat it have Ritter, Joseph Ignatius, historian, b. at Schwein-
met with poor success. More than a decade ago itz, Silesia, 12 April, 1787; d. at Breslau, 5 Jan.,
Adolf Zahn ("Abriss einer Geschichte der evan- 1857. He pursued his philosophical and theological
gelischen Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert", 3rd ed., studies at the University of Breslau, was ordained
Stuttgart, 1893) passed the sharp judgment on priest in 1811, and for several years was engaged in
Ritschlianism, that it was "a rationalist scepticism pastoral work. An annotated translation of St.
and Pelagian morahsm, vainly decked out in the John Chrysostom's treatise on the priesthood not
truths of the Reformers, the threadbare garment only obtained for him the doctorate in theology, but
of Lutheranism, for purposes of deceit; the clearest also attracted the attention of the Prussian ministry,
sign of the complete exhaustion and impoverish- which in 1823 named him ordinary professor of church
ment of Protestantism, which at the end of the nine- history and patrology at the University of Bonn.
teenth century again knows no more than the com- Here he made the acquaintance of Hermes, and be-
mon folk have ever known: 'Do right and fear no came favourably disposed towards his system. He
man'-" The Catholic critic will probably see in the was in 1830 named professor and canon at Breslau.
scorn for metaphysics and the eUmination of the As administrator of this diocese (1840-43), he atoned
intellectual factor the chief errors of Ritschlian for his earlier Hermesian tendencies by his fearless
theology. The separation of faith and knowledge, Catholic policy, notably in the question of mixed
of theology and metaphysics, has indeed a long and marriages. Later he published tracts defending the
gloomy history behind it. The philosophy of the Church against the attacks of Ronge, the founder of
Renaissance, with its doctrine of the "double truth", the so-called German Catholics. Also worthy of
erected the first separating wall between faith and commendation is his beneficence, exercised par-
knowledge; this division was increased by Spinoza, ticularly towards deserving students. His principal
when he assigned to faith the r61e of concerning itself writings which bear on church history and canon
n-ith pia dogmata, but entrusted to philosophy alone law are: "Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte",
the investigation of truth. Finally appeared Kant, Elberfeld and Bonn, 1826-33; sixth edition by Ennen,
who cut the last threads which still held together Bonn, 1862; "Irenicon oder Briefe zur Forderung dea
theology and metaphysics. By denying the demon- Friedens zwischen Kirche u. Staat", Leipzig, 1840;
Btrability of the existence of God through reason, he "Der Capitularvicar", Munster, 1842; "Geschichte
consistently effected the complete segregation of der Diocese Breslau", Breslau, 1845. With J. W. J.
faith and knowledge into two "separate households" Braun he brought out a new edition of Pellicia's work,
In this he was followed by Schleiermacher and Ritschl. "De Christianae ecclesiae politia", Cologne, 1829-38.
Since recent Modernism, with its Agnosticism and Bellamy, La Theologie Cath. au XIX' sierle (Paris, 1904), 36.
Immanentism, adopts the same attitude, it is, N. A. Webeb.
whether a\-owedly or not, the death-knell not only
of Christianity, but of e\-ery objective rehgion.
—
Ritual. The Ritual {Rituale Romanum) is one
of the official books of the Roman Rite. It contains
Consefiuently, the regulations of Pius X against all the services performed by a priest that are not in
Modernism represent a contest in which the vital the Missal and Breviary and has also, for convenience,
mterests of the Catholic religion are at stake. As some that are in those books. It is the latest and
the foremost champion of the powers and rights of still the least uniform book of our rite.
reason in its relations with faith, Catholicism is the
When first ritual functions were wTitten in books,
defender of the law of causality which leads to the the Sacramentary in the West, the Euchologion in
knowledge of metaphysical and Divine truths, the the East contained all the priest's (and bishop's)
guardian of a constant, eternal, and unalterable part of whatever functions they performed, not only
truth, and the outspoken foe of' every form of Scep-
the holy Liturgy in the strict sense, but all other
ticism, Criticism, Relativism, and Pragmatism—
sacraments, blessings, sacramentals, and rites of
 RITUAL 89 RITUAL
every kind as well. The contents of our Ritual and Church, to be observed in the administration of
Pontifical were in the Sacramentaries. In the East- sacraments and other ecclesiastical functions by those
ern Churches this state of things still to a great ex- who have the care of souls, should also be included
tent remains. In the West a further development in one book and published by authority of the Apos-
led to the distinction of books, not according to the tolic See; so that they should carry out their office
persons who use them, but according to the services according to a public and fixed standard, instead of
for which they are used. The Missal, containing the following so great a multitude of Rituals"
whole Mass, succeeded the Sacramentary. Some But, unlike the other books of the Roman Rite,
early Missals added other rites, for the convenience the Ritual has never been imposed as the only stand-
of the priest or bishop; but on the whole this later ard. Paul V did not abolish all other collections
arrangement involved the need of other books to of the same kind, nor command every one to use
supply the non-Euoharistic functions of the Sacra- only his book. He says: "Wherefore we exhort in
mentary. These books, when they appeared, were the Lord" that it should be adopted. The result
the predecessors of our Pontifical and Ritual. The of this is that the old local Rituals have never been
bishop's functions (ordination, confirmation, etc.) altogether abolished. After the appearance of the
filled the Pontifical, the priest's offices (baptism, Roman edition these others were gradually more and
penance, matrimony, extreme unction, etc.) were more conformed to it. They continued to be used,
contained in a great variety of little handbooks, but had many of their prayers and ceremonies modi-
finally replaced by the Ritual. fied to agree with the Roman book. This applies
The Pontifical emerged first. The book under especially to the rites of baptism. Holy Communion,
this name occurs already in the eighth century the form of absolution, extreme unction. The
(Pontifical of Egbert). From the ninth there is a ceremonies also contained in the Missal (holy water,
multitude of Pontificals. For the priest's functions the processions of Candlemas and Palm Sunday, etc.),
there was no uniform book till 1614. Some of these and the prayers also in the Breviary (the Office for
are contained in the Pontificals; often the chief ones the Dead) are necessarily identical with those of
were added to Missals and Books of Hours. Then Paul V's Ritual; these have the absolute authority
special books were arranged, but there was no kind of the Missal and Breviary. On the other hand,
of uniformity in arrangement or name. Through the many countries have local customs for marriage, the
Middle Ages a vast number of handbooks for priests visitation of the sick, etc., numerous special blessings,
having the care of souls was written. Every local recessions and sacramentals not found in the Roman
rite, almost every diocese, had such books; indeed
E ook, still printed in various diocesan Rituals. It
many were compilations for the convenience of one is then by no means the case that every priest of the
priest or church. Such books were called by many Roman Rite uses the Roman Ritual. Very many
names Manuale, Liber agendarum, Agenda, Sacra- dioceses or provinces still have their own local hand-
menlale, sometimes Rituale. Specimens of such books under the name of Rituale or another (Ordo
medieval predecessors of the Ritual are the Manuale administrandi sacramenta, etc.), though all of these
Curatorum of Roeskilde in Denmark (first printed conform to the Roman text in the chief elements.
1513, ed. J. Freisen, Paderborn, 4898), and the Most contain practically all the Roman book, and
Liber Agendarum of Schleswig (printed 1416, Pader- have besides local additions.
born, 1898). The Roeskilde book contains the The further history of the Rituale Romanum is this:
blessing of salt and water, baptism, marriage, bless- Benedict XIV in 1752 revised it, together with the
ing of a house, visitation of the sick with viaticum Pontifical and Ccerimoniale Episcoporum. His new
and extreme unction, prayers for the dead, funeral editions of these three books were published by the
service, funeral of infants, prayers for pilgrims, Brief "Quam ardenti" (25 March, 1752), which
blessing of fire on Holy Saturday, and other blessings. quotes Paul V's Constitution at length and is printed,
The Schleswig book has besides much of the Holy as far as it concerns this book, in the beginning of
Week services, and that for All Souls, Candlemas, and the Ritual. He added to Paul V's text two forms for
Ash Wednesday. In both many rites differ from the giving the papal blessing (V, 6; VIII, 31). Mean-
Roman forms. while a great number of additional blessings were
In the sixteenth century, while the other liturgical added in an appendix. This appendix is now nearly
books were being revised and issued as a uniform as long as the original book. Under the title Bene-
standard, there was naturally a desire to substitute dictionale Romanum it is often issued separately.
an official book that should take the place of these Leo XIII approved an editio typica published by
varied collections. But the matter did not receive Pustet at Ratisbon in 1884. This is now out of date.
the attention of the Holy See itself for some time. The Ritual contains several chants (for processions,
First, various books were issued at Rome with the burials. Office of the Dead, etc.). These should be
idea of securing uniformity, but without official sanc- conformable to the Motu Propria of Pius of 22 X
tion. Albert Castellani in 1537 published a Sacer- Nov., 1903, and the Decree of the Sacred Congre-
dotale of this kind; in 1579 at Venice another version gation of Rites of 8 Jan., 1904. All the Catholic
appeared, arranged by Francesco Samarino, Canon liturgical publishers now issue editions of this kind,
of the Lateran; it was re-edited in 1583 by Angelo approved by the Congregation.
Rocca. In 1586 Giulio Antonio Santorio, Cardinal The Rituale Romanum is divided into ten "titles"
of St. Severina, printed a handbook of rites for the (tituli) all, except the first, subdivided into chapters.
;

use of priests, which, as Paul V says, "he had com- In each (except I and X) the first chapter gives the
posed after long study and with much industry and general rules for the sacrament or function, the others
labour" (Apostolicce Sedis). This book is the foun- give the exact ceremonies and prayers for various
dation of our Roman Ritual. In 1614 Paul V cases of administration. Titulus I {caput unicum)
published the first edition of the official Ritual by the is "of the things to be observed in general in the ad-
Constitution " Apostolicse Sedis " of 17 June. In this ministration of sacraments"; II, About baptisrn,
he points out that Clement VIII had already issued chap, vi gives the rite when a bishop baptizes, vii
a uniform text of the Pontifical and the Ccerimoniale the blessing of the font, not on Holy Saturday or
Episcoporum, which determines the functions of Whitsun Eve; III, Penance and absolutions from
many other ecclesiastics besides bishops. (That is excommunication; IV, Administration of Holy Com-
still the case. The Ccerimoniale Episcoporum forms munion (not during Mass); V, Extreme Unction,
the indispensable complement of other liturgical the seven penitential psalms, litany, visitation and
books for priests too.) "It remained", the pope care of the dying, the Apostolic blessing, commenda-
continues, "that the sacred and authentic rites of the tion of a departing soul; VI, Of funerals. Office of
 RITUALISM 90 RITUALISTS

the Dead, absolutions at the grave on later days, Presence and the Eucharistic Sacrifice, could not fail
funerals of infants; VII, Matrimony and churching in the long run to produce an effect upon the externals
of women; VIII, Blessings of holy water, candles, of worship. Many of the followers were more ven-
houses (on Holy Saturday), and many others; then turous than the leaders approved. Moreover, the
blessings reserved to bishops and priests who have conversion of Newman and other prominent Trac-
siief;ial fanulties, such as those of vestments, ciboriums, tarians, while somewhat breaking up the party and
statues, foundation stones, a new church (not, of arresting the progress of events at Oxford, had only
course, the consecration, which is in the Pontifical), transferred the movement to the parish churches
cemeteries, etc.; IX, Processions, for Candlemas, throughout the country, where each incumbent was in
Palm Sunday, Rogation Days, Corpus Christi, etc.; a measure free to follow his own hght and to act for
X, Exorcism and forms for filling up parochial books himself. The Rev. W. J. E. Bennett, Vicar of St.
(of baptism, confirmation, marriage, status animarum, Paul's, Knightsbridge, became notorious for a number
the dead). The blessings of tit. VIII are the old of innovations in ritual, notably in such details as the
ones of the Ritual. The appendix that follows tit. use of altar lights, cross, and coverings which brought
X contains additional forms for blessing baptism- him into conflict with his bishop (in 1850) and led in
water, for confirmation as administered by a mission- the end to his resigning his benefice. In 1859 still
ary priest, decrees about Holy Communion and the greater sensation was caused by the "Romish" cere-
"Forty Hours" devotion, the litanies of Loreto and monial of the Rev. Bryan King at St. George's in the
the Holy Name. Then follow a long series of bless- East. The roughs of the district, with some violent
ings, not reserved; reserved to bishops and priests Evangelicals, for months together continued to inter-
they delegate, reserved to certain religious orders; rupt the services with brawling and rioting. The
then more blessings (novissimae) and a second appen- English Church Union, however, founded at about
dix containing yet another collection. These ap- this period to defend the interests of the High Church
pendixes grow continually. As soon as the Sacred movement, lent effective aid, and public opinion
Congregation of Rites approves a new blessing it is turned against the authors of these disturbances.
added to the next edition of the Ritual. During the years that followed ceremonial innova-
The Milanese Rite has its own ritual {Rituale tions, imitating more and more pronouncedly the
Amhrosianum, published by Giacomo Agnelli at the worship of the Catholic Church, spread throughout
Archiepiscopal Press, Milan). In the Byzantine the country. A regular campaign was carried on,
Rite the contents of our ritual are contained in the organized on the one side by the English Church
'ElixoKbyiov. The Armenians have a ritual {Mashdotz) Union and on the other by the Church Association,
like ours. Other schismatical Churches have not yet which latter was called into existence in 1865 and
arranged the various parts of this book in one collection. earned amongst its opponents the nickname of the
But nearly all the Uniats now have Rituals formed on "Persecution Company Limited". The lovers of
the Roman model (see Liturgical Books, § IV). ornate ceremonial were for the most part sincerely
Baruffaldi, Ad rituale Tomanum co-mmentaria (Venice, 1731) convinced that they were loyal to the true principles
Catalan!, Rituale romxinum perpeiwis commenlariiB
of Anglicanism, and that they were rightly insisting
. .

exornatum (Rome, 1757); Zaccaria, Bibliotheca Ritualis (Rome,

1776): Thalhofer, Handbuch der kath. Liturgik, II (Freiburg, on the observance of the letter of the law embodied in
1893), 509-36. AdHIAN FoETESCUE. '
the so-called Ornaments Rubric
'
'
which stands at the
,
'

Ritualism. head of the Morning Service in the Book of Common

See Ritualists.
Prayer. It could not of course be denied that the
—
Ritualists. The word "Ritualists'' is the term practices which the Tractarians were introducing had
now most commonly employed to denote that ad- long been given up in the Church of England. But
vanced section of the High Church party in the An- though these had fallen completely iato abeyance, the
glican Establishment, which since about 1860 has party contended that the letter of the Prayer Book
adhered to and developed further the principles of tho made it a duty to revive them. It may be said indeed
earlier Tractarian Movement. Although this desig- that it is round the Ornaments Rubric that the whole
nation is one that is not adopted but rather resented rituaUstic controversy has turned down to the present
by the persons to whom it is applied, it cannot exactly day. For this reason a somewhat full account of it is
be called a nickname. "Rituahsm" in the middle of indispensable.
the nineteenth century not uncommonly meant the The Prayer Book of Edward VI, which came
first
study or practice of ritual, i.ceremo-
e. ecclesiastical into use on 9 June, 1549, has the following rubric at
nial; while those who favoured ritualism were apt to the beginning of the Mass: "Upon the day and at the
' '
be called rituahsts
' For example, the Rev. J. Jebb,
' . time appointed for the administration of the Holy
in a publication of 1856 entitled "The Principle of Communion, the Priest that shall execute the holy
Ritualism Defended", defines ritualism equivalently ministry shall put upon him the vesture appointed for
as "a sober and chastened regard for the outward that ministration, that is to say a white Alb plain,
accessories of worship", and insists further that "we with a Vestment or Cope." This first Prayer Book
need something more than a lawyer's mind to examine of Edward VI remained in use for three years when
fairly ecclesiastical questions. The Church requires it was supplanted by the second Prayer Book of
that divines and rituahsts should be called into Edward VI (1 Nov., 1552). In this, under the in-
counsel" It w;is only some time later, about 1865 or fluences of Continental reformers, the rubric just
ISiJG, that the word came to be used as the name of a quoted was expunged and the following substituted:
party and was printed with a capital letter. "And here is to be noted that the Minister at the time
Unlike many other party names which have grown of the Communion, and at all other times in his minis-
up in the course of controversy, the word "Ritualists" tration, shall use neither Albae, Vestment or Cope".
does vei->- fairly indicate the original, if not the most After the accession of Elizabeth a revised Prayer Book
fundamental, characteristic which has divided those was issued in 1559, which contained the rubric in the
so designated from their fellow-High-Churchmen. following form: "And here it is to be noted that the
The mo\ement headed by Newman and his friends minister at the time of the Communion and at all
had been primarily doctrinal. Pusey always stated other times in his ministration shall use such orna-
that the leaders had rather discouraged as too con- ments in the Church as were in use by authority of
spicuous anything in the way of ceremonies, fearing Parliament in the second year of the reign of King
that they might awaken prejudice and di'i'ert atten- Edward VI according to the Act of Parliament set in
tion from more important issues. Nevertheless the the beginning of the book. " In spite of a brief sup-
s>-mpathies awakened for the traditions of a Catholic pression under the Long Parhament and during the
past, and especially the revival of faith in the Real Commonwealth, the same rubric was restored in sub-
 RITUALISTS 91 RITUALISTS
stantially identical terms in the Prayer Book of 1662 has existed ever since against the Judicial Committee
which remains in force to-day. Now it must not of as a court of appeal is traceable to this cause. Many
course be forgotten that the word "ornaments" is of the Ritualists not only refuse to acknowledge the
used in a technical sense which has been defined by jurisdiction of a secular court in church matters, but
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to include they declare themselves justified in withholding
"all the several articles used in the performance of the obedience from their bishops as long as the bishops
rites and services of the Church '
Vestments, books,
' . are engaged in enforcing its decrees. The passing of
cloths, chalices, and patens must be regarded as church the Public Worship Regulation Act in 1874 which, as
ornaments. In modern times even organs and bells Disraeli stated in Parliament, was meant "to put
are held to fall under this denomination. Further down the Ritualists", seems only to have led to in-
there can be no doubt that if the reference to the creased litigation, and the Risdale judgment in 1877
second year of Edward VI be strictly interpreted, by which the Committee of the Privy Council, after
much Catholic ceremonial was then still retained em- elaborate argument by counsel on either side, recon-
bracing such adjuncts as lights, incense, vestments, sidered the question of Eucharistic vestments and the
crosses, etc. There is considerable controversy re- eastward position, reaffirming the condemnation of
garding the precise meaning of the rubric, but, how- the former but pronouncing the latter to be lawful,
ever we regard it, it certainly gives much more latitude providing that it did not render the manual acts in-
to the lovers of ritual than was recognized by the visible to the congregation, gave encouragement to
practice of the English Church in 1850. the Ritualists by showing that earlier decisions were
Although of recent years the innovators have gone not irreversible. In any case there were no signs of
far beyond those usages which could by any possibility any greater disposition to submit to authority. The
be covered by a large interpretation of the Ornaments committal of four clergymen to prison in the years
Rubric, it seems clear that in the beginning the new 1878-81 for disobedience to the order of the courts
school of clergy founded themselves upon this and whose jurisdiction they challenged, only increased the
were not exactly accused of doing what was illegal. general irritation and unrest. In 1888 came another
Their position, a position recognized in 1851 by the sensation. Proceedings were taken before the Arch-
bishops themselves, was rather that of wishing "to bishop of Canterbury, sitting with episcopal assessors
restore an unusual strictness of ritual observance" against Dr. King, Bishop of Lincoln, for various
Their tendencies no doubt were felt to be "popish", ritualistic practices. In his judgment, subsequently
but they were primarily censured by the Protestant confirmed by the Privy Council, Archbishop Benson
party as "ultra-rubricians". The first appeal to sanctioned under carefully defined conditions the
legal tribunals in theWesterton v. Liddell case (Mr. eastward position, mixed chalice, altar hghts, the
Liddell was the successor of Mr. Bennett) terminated, ablutions, and the singing of the Agnus Dei, but for-
after appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy bade the signing of the cross in the air when giving
Council, substantially in favour of the Ritualists. It the absolution and the benediction.
was decided that the Ornaments Rubric did establish Naturally the effect of these alternate relaxations
the legality of a credence table, coloured frontals and and restrictions was not favourable to the cause of
altar coverings, candlesticks and a cross above the sober uniformity. The movement went on. The
holy table. This gave confidence to the party in other bishops had probably grown a little weary in repres-
directions and between the years 1857 and 1866 there sing an energy which was much more full of conviction
was a considerable extension of ritual usages such as than their own, and in the years which followed,
the Eucharistic vestments, altar lights, flowers, and especially in the Diocese of London, under Bishop
incense, while the claim was generally made that they Temple, a large measure of licence seems to have been
were all perfectly lawful. granted or at any rate taken. The rapid spread of
With the year 1866 began a period of almost inces- "romanizing" practices, though in their extreme
sant controversy. Six specific practices, known as form they were confined to a comparatively small
the "Six Points", were about this time recognized as number of churches, began to attract general atten-
constituting the main features in the claims of the less tion, while causing profound uneasiness to Evangeli-
extreme RituaUsts. They were: (1) the eastward cals and Nonconformists. In 1898 Sir William
position (i. e. that by which the minister in con- Harcourt started a vigorous campaign against
secrating turns his back to the people) (2) the use of
; ritualistic lawlessness by a series of letters in the
incense; (3) the use of altar lights; (4) the mixed "Times", and almost concurrently Mr. John Kensit
chaUce; (5) the use of vestments; (6) the use of wafer and his followers appealed to another phase of public
bread. A committee of the Lower House of Convoca- opinion by their organized interruptions of the
tion in 1866 expressed a strong opinion that most of services in the churches they disapproved of. It was
these things should not be introduced into parish feltonce again that something must be done and this
churches without reference to the bishop. A
royal time the remedy took the form of the so-called
commission followed (1867-70), but came to no very "Lambeth Hearings", when the Archbishops of Can-
clear or unanimous decision except as regards the terbury and York, after listening to legal and expert
inexpediency of tolerating any vesture which departs argument, delivered a joint "opinion" upon certain
from what had long been the estaWished usage of the burning questions, to wit (a) the use of incense and
English Church. Meanwhile the Dean of Arches, processional lights, and (b) the practice of reserva-
and, after appeal, the Privy Council, delivered judg- tion. On 31 July, 1899, they jointly pronounced the
ment in the Mackonochie case and between them use of incense to be inadmissible, and on 1 May, 1900,
decided against the legality of the elevation, use of in two independent "opinions", they concurred in
incense, altar lights, ceremonially mixed chalice, and forbidding any form of reservation of the consecrated
against any position of the minister which would hide elements. Very little was effected by this or by a
the manual acts from the communicants. Even series of Church Discipline Bills which were intro-
more important was the judgment of the same Judicial duced into Parliament, but which died stillborn.
Committee of the Privy Council in the Purchas Case Consequently in 1904 a royal commission was ap-
(Ap. 1871), which besides confirming these previous pointed "to inquire into the alleged prevalence of
decisions, even as against the opinion of the Dean of breaches or neglect of the Law relating to the conduct
Arches, declared in more unequivocal terms the illegal- of Divine Service in the Church of England and to
ity of wafer-bread and of all Eucharistic vestments. the ornaments and fittings of churches. " The com-
The reaction among the High Church party against mission, after collecting an immense mass of evidence
this sweeping condemnation was considerable, and it is from ecclesiastics and laymen of every shade of opin-
probably true that much of the strong feeling which ion, not forgetting the agents employed by the
 RITUALISTS 92 RITUALISTS

Church Association to keep watch on the services in which by its very name manifested its proper
usage.
rituahstic churches, issued a voluminous report in 1906. Not long afterwards it was gradually adopted by
Although the commission has accomplished little certain High Church clergymen of an extreme type.
more than the propounding of certain suggestions At the present day it is the rule rather than the ex-
regarding the reconstitution of the ecclesiastical ception among English ecclesiastics of all shades of
courts, suggestions which have not yet been acted opinion, not excepting even the Nonconformists.
upon, the "Report" is a document of the highest im- With regard to the present position and principles
portance for the evidence which it contains of the of the Ritualists we shall probably do well with
developments of Ritualism. The commissioners Monsignor R. H. Benson (Non-Catholic Denomina-
single out certain practices which they condemn as tions, pp. 29-58) to recognize a distinction between
being graver in character and of a kind that demand two separate schools of thought, the moderate and the
immediate suppression. No doubt the numerical extreme. On the one hand all the members of this
proportion of the churches in which the clergy go to party seem to agree in recognizing the need of some
these lengths is small, but the number seems to be more immediate court of appeal to settle disputed
increasing. The practices censured as of special questions of dogma and ritual than can be afTorded
gravity and significance, are the following: "The by the "Primitive Church" which the early Trac-
interpolation of prayers and ceremonies belonging tarians were content to invoke in their difficulties.
to the Canon of the Mass. The use of the words On the other hand while both sections of the Ritual-
'Behold the Lamb of God' accompanied by the ists are in search of a "Living Voice" to guide them,
exhibition of a consecrated wafer or bread. Res- or at any rate of some substitute for that Living
ervation of the sacrament under conditions which Voice, they have come to supply the need in two quite
lead to its adoration. Mass of the presanctified. different ways. To the moderate Ritualists it has
Corpus Christi processions with the sacrament. seemed sufficient to look back to the Book of Common
Benediction with the sacrament. Celebration of Prayer. This, it is urged, was drawn up in full view
the Holy Eucharist with the intent that there should of the situation created by "Roman abuses", and
be no communicant except the celebrant. Hymns, though it was not intended to be a complete and final
prayer.s and devotions involving invocation or a guide in every detail of doctrine and discipline,
confession to the Blessed Virgin or the saints. The the fact that it was originally issued to men already
observance of the festivals of the Assumption of trained in Catholic principles, justifies us in supplying
the Blessed Virgin Mary and of the Sacred Heart. deficiencies by setting a Catholic interpretation upon
The \'eneration of images and roods." These all doubtful points and omissions. The Ritualist
practices are described as having an exceptional of this school, who of course firmly believes in the
character because they are at once (1) in flagrant continuity of his Church with the Church of England
contradiction with the teaching of the Articles and before the Reformation, thinks it his duty to "behave
Prayer Book; (2) they are illegal, and (.3) their and teach as a Marian priest, conforming under
illegality does not depend upon any judgment of the Elizabeth, would have behaved and taught when the
Privy Council. Similar objection is taken to any ob- Prayer Book was first put into his hands: he must
servance of All Souls' Day or of the festival of Corpus supply the lacunm and carry out the imperfect
Christi which implies the "Romish" doctrine con- directions in as 'Catholic' a manner as possible"
cerning purgatory or transubstantiation. (Benson, op. cit., p. 32). Thus interpreted, the
But while it is quite true that the number of Prayer Book supplies a standard by which the rulings
churches in which these extremes are practised is of bishops and judicial committees may be measured,
small, it is important to remember that private and, if necessary, set aside; for the bishops themselves
oratories, communities, and sisterhoods, which last are no less bound by the Prayer Book than are the
commonly follow forms of devotion and ritual which rest of the clergy, and no command of a bishop need
cannot externally be distinguished from those pre- be obeyed if it transgress the directions of this higher
vailing in the Catholic Church, were not in any way written authority. The objections to which this
touched by these investigations of the commissioners. solution of the difficulty is open must be suflSciently
It is in such strongholds that the ritualistic spirit obvious. Clearly the text of this written authority
is nurtured and propagated, and there is as yet no itself needs interpretation and it must seem to the
sign that the feeling which animated this revival of unprejudiced mind that upon contested points the
the religious life is less earnest than of yore. interpretation of the bishops and other officials of the
Again everything seems to point to the conclusion Establishment is not only better authorized than that
that if extreme practices have not spread more widely of the individual Ritualist, but that in almost every
this is due less to any distaste for such practices in case the interpretation of the latter in view of the
themselves than to a shrinking from the unpleasant- Articles, canons, homilies, and other official utter-
ness engendered by open conflict with ecclesiastical ances is strained and unnatural. Moreover there is
authority. Where comparative impunity has been the undeniable fact of desuetude. To appeal to such
secured, as for example by the ambiguity of the Or- an ordinance as the "Ornaments Rubric" as evi-
naments Rubric, a notable and increasing proportion dently binding, after it has been in practice neglected
of the clerg>' have advanced to the very limits of by all orders of the Church for nearly three hundred
what was likely to be tolerated in the way of ritualis- years, is contrary to all ecclesiastical as well as civil
tic de\'elopment. It has been stated by Archbishop presumptions in matters of external observance.
Davidson that before IS.JO the use of vestments in a The extreme party among the Ritualists, though
public church was known hardly anywhere. In 1901 they undoubtedly go beyond their more moderate
carefully compiled statistics showed that Eucharis- brethren in their sympathy with Catholic practices
tic vestments of some kind (other than the stole au-
and also in a very definitely formulated wish for
thorized by long tradition) were used in no less than "Reunion" (see Union of Christendom), do not
l.'i2ri churches of the provinces of York and
Canter- greatly differ from them in matters of doctrine.
bury, that is about twelve per cent of the whole; Many adopt such devotions as the rosary and benedic-
and the number has increased since. A slighter but tion, some imitate Catholic practice so far as to recite
not altogether contemptible indication of the drift the Canon of the Mass in Latin, a few profess even
of opinion v\hen unchecked by authority is to be to hold the infallibility of the Roman Pontiff and to
found in the familiar "Roman collar" Less than recei\'e (of course with exception of the necessity of
fifty >-ears ago, at the time of the "Roman aggres-
external communion with Rome) all doctrines defined
sion" it was regarded in England as the distinctive and taught by him. But the more fundamental
feature of the dress of a Catholic priest, an article difference which divides the Ritualists into two classes
 RITUALISTS 93 RITUALISTS
is probably to be found in their varying conceptions ically appointed bishop of the diocese requires that
of the authority to which they profess allegiance. English Catholics should be in communion with him,
Giving up the appeal to the Prayer Book as a final and renders it gravely sinful for them to hear Mass in
rule, the extreme party find a substitute for the —
the churches of the "ItaUan Mission" so the Ritual-
Living Voice in the consensus of the Churches which ist is prone to designate the Churches professing obe-
—
now make up Catholic Christendom that is prac- dience to Rome. This participation in alien services is
tically speaking in the agreement of Canterbury, a schismatical act in England, while on the other hand
—
Rome, and Moscow if Moscow may be taken as the on the Continent, an "English Catholic" is bound to
representative of a number of eastern communions respect the jurisdiction of the local ordinary by hear-
which do not in doctrinal matters differ greatly from ing Mass according to the Roman Rite, and it becomes
one another. Where these bodies are agreed either an equally schismatical act to attend the services of
explicitly or by silence, there, according to the theory any Enghsh Church.
of this advanced school, is the revealed faith of Chris- The weak points in this theory of the extreme Rit-
tendom; where these bodies differ among themselves, ualist party do not need insisting upon. Apart from
there we have matters of private opinion which do not the difficulty of reconciling this view of the supposed
necessarily command the assent of the individual. "Catholic" teaching of the Established Church with
It is difficult perhaps for anyone who has not been the hard facts of history and with the wording of the
brought up in a High Church atmosphere to under- Articles, apart also from the circumstance that nothing
stand how such a principle can be applied, and how was ever heard of any such theory until about twenty-
Ritualists can profess to distinguish between beliefs five years ago, there is a logical contradiction about
which are de fide and those which are merely specula- the whole assumption which it seems impossible to
tive. To the outsider it would seem that the Church evade. The most fundamental doctrine of all in this
of Canterbury has quite clearly rejected such doc- system (for all the other beliefs depend upon it) is pre-
trines as the Real Presence, the invocation of saints, cisely the principle that the Living Voice is constituted
and the sacrificial character of the Eucharist. But by the consensus of the Churches, but this is itself a
the Ritualist has all his life been taught to interpret doctrine which Rome and Moscow explicitly reject
the Thirty-Nine Articles in a "Catholic" sense. and which the Church of England at best professes
When the Articles say that transubstantiation is only negatively and imperfectly. Therefore by the
repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, he is very test which the Ritualists themselves invoke, this
satisfied to believe that some misconception of tran- principle falls to the ground or at any rate becomes a
substantiation was condemned, not the doctrine matter of opinion which binds no man in conscience.
as defined a little later by the Council of Trent. The real strength of Rituahsm and the secret of the
When the Articles speak of "the sacrifices of Masses steady advance, which even in its extreme forms it
— for the quick and the dead" as "blasphemous still continues to make, Ues in its sacramental doctrine
and in the true devotion and self-sacrifice which in so
fables and dangerous deceits", he imderstands that
this repudiation was only directed against certain many cases follow as a consequence from this more
popular "Romish errors" about the multiplication spiritual teaching. The revival of the celibate and
of the effects of such Masses, not against the idea ascetic ideal, more particularly in the communities of
of a propitiatory sacrifice in itself. Again the state- men and women living under religious vows and con-
ment that "the Romish doctrine concerning . In-
. . secrated to prayer and works of charity, tends strongly
vocation of Saints is a fond thing vainly invented", in the same direction. It is the Ritualist clergy who
for him amounts to no more than a rejection of cer- more than any other body in the English Church have
tain abuses of extreme romanizers who went perilously thrown themselves heart and soul into the effort to
near to idolatry. In this way the Church of England spirituahze the lives of the poor in the slums and to
is exonerated from the apparent repudiation of these introduce a higher standard into the missionary work
Catholic beliefs, and the presumption stands that she among the heathen. Whatever there may be of
accepts all Catholic doctrine which she does not ex- affectation and artificiality in the logical position of
plicitly reject. Hence as Rome and Moscow and the Rituahsts, the entire sincerity, the real seU-denial,
Canterbury (in the manner just explained) profess and the apostolic spirit of a large proportion of both
above specified, such beliefs are to be
the three beliefs the clergy and laity belonging to this party form the
regarded as part of the revealed faith of Christendom. greatest asset of which Anghcanism now disposes.
On the other hand such points as papal infallibility, (For those aspects of Ritualism which touch upon
indulgences, and the procession of the Holy Ghost, Anghcan Orders and Reunion, see Anglican Orders
which are admittedly rejected by one or more of the and Union op Christendom.)
three great branches of the Catholic Church, have For a concise Catholic view of Ritualiam at the_ present day,
not the authority of the Living Voice behind them. more particularly in its relations to the other parties in the Church
of England, see Benson, Non-Catholic Denominations (London,
They may be true, but it cannot be shown that they 1910). An excellent historical sketch of the movement may be
form part of the Revelation, the acceptance of which found in Thureatj-Danqin, La renaissance catholique en Angle-
terre au XIX' siicle (Paris, 1901-8), especially in the third
is obligatory upon all good Christians. volume. The most important Anglican account is probably
With this fundamental view are connected many Warre-Cornish, History of the English Church in the Nineteenth
other of the strange anomaUes in the modern Ritualist Century (London, 1910), especially Part II; a good summary ia
also provided by Holland in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia
position. To be^n with, those who so think, feel of Religious Knowledge (New York, 1910), s. v. Ritualism.
bound to no particular reverence for the Church of The best materials for the history of the movement may be
their baptism or for the bishops that represent her. found in the Blue Books issued by the various royal commissions
more especially the Report and the four accompanying volumes
By her negative attitude to so many points of Catholic of minutes of evidence printed for the royal commission on ec-
doctrine she has paltered with the truth. She has by clesiastical discipline in 1906. The letters and other docurnents
God's Providence retained the bare essentials of published in such complete biographies as those of Pusey, Bishop
S. Wilberforce, Archbishop Tait, Bishop Wilkinson, Archbishop
Cathohcity and preserved the canonical succession of Benson, Lord Shaftesbury, Charles Lowder, and others, are also
her bishops. Hence English Catholics are bound to very useful. See also Spencer Jones, England and the Holy See
be in communion with her and to receive the sacra- (London, 1902) Mallock, Doctrine and Doctrinal Disruption (Lon-
;

don, 1908); MacColl, The Royal Commission and the Ornaments

ments from her ministers, but they are free to criticize Rubric (London, 1906); Moyes, Aspects of Anglicanism (London,
and up to a certain point to disobey. On the other 1906); Dolling, Ten Years in a Portsmouth Slum (London, 1898);
hand the Ritualist believes that each Anglican bishop MacColl, Lawlessness, Sacerdotalism and Ritualism (London,
jurisdiction, par- 1875); RoscOE, The Bishop of Lincoln's Case (London, 1891);
possesses jurisdiction, and that this Sanday, The Catholic Movement and the Archbishop's Decision (Lon-
ticularly in the matter of confessions, is conferred don, 1899); Tomlinson, Historical Grounds of the Lambeth Judg-
ment (London, 1891), and in general The Reunion Magazine and
upon every clergyman in virtue of his ordination. the now extinct Church Review. HERBERT ThtJRSTON.
canon-
Further the same jurisdiction inherent in the
 RIVINGTON 94 RIZAL

Rivington, Luke, b. in London, May, 1838; d. of the authors of our roaring literary successes".
in London, 30 Mtiy, ls'.)l); fourth son of Francis Se-\-eral editions of the work were published in
Rivington, a well-known London publisher. He was Manila and in Spain. There is a French translation
educated at Highgatc Grammar School and Magdalen ("BibhothSque sociologique", num. 25, Paris, 1899),
College, Oxford. After his ordination as an Anglican and two abbreviated English translations of httle
clergyman in l,StJ2, he became curate of St. Clement's, value: "An Eagle's Flight" (New York, 1900), and
Cxford, leaving there in 1867 for All Saints's, Mar- "Friars and FiUpinos" (New York, 1902). The
garet Street, London, where he attracted attention as book satirizes the friars in the Phihppines as well as
a preacher. Faihng in his efforts to found a rehgious the Filipinos. Rizal's a n i m
osity to the friars was
community at Stoke_, Staffordshire, he joined the largely of domestic origin. The friars were the land-
Cowley Fathers and became superior of their house lords of a large hacienda occupied by his father;
in Bombay. Becoming unsettled in his religious there was vexatious litigation, and a few years later,
convictions he visited Rome, where in 1888 he was by Weyler's order, soldiers destroyed the buildings
received into the Church. His ordination to the on the land, and various members of the family were
priesthood took place on 21 Sept., 1889. He re- exiled to other parts of the Islands.
turned to England and settled in Bayswater, not Rizal returned to the PhiUppines in 1887. After
undertaking any parochial work, but devoting a stay of about six months he set out again for
himself to preaching, hearing confessions, and nTiting Europe, passing through Japan and the United
controversial works. The chief of these were "Au- States. In London he prepared his annotated edi-
thority; or a plain reason for joining the Church tion of Morga's "Suoesos de las Islas Filipinas" which
of Rome" (1888); "Dust" a letter to the Rev. he completed in Paris (1890). In Belgium he pub-
C. Gore on his book "Roman Catholic Claims" Ushed (Ghent, 1891; Manila, 1900) "El Filibus-
(1888); "Dependence; or the insecurity of the terismo", a sequel to "Noli me tangere" Its
Anghcan Position" (1889); "The Primitive Church animus may be judged from its dedication to three
and the See of Peter" (1894); "Anglican Fallacies; Filipino priests who were executed for complicity
or Lord Halifax on Reunion" (1895); "Rome and in the Cavite outbreak of 1872. In 1891 he arrived
England or Ecclesiastical Continuity" (1897); "The in Hong-Kong, where he practised medicine. The
Roman Primacy A. D. 430-51" (1899) which was following year he came to Manila, but five days
practically a new edition of "The Primitive Church before his arrival a case was filed against him for
and the See of Peter". He also wrote several anti-religious and anti-patriotic propaganda " On 7
'
' .

pamphlets and brought out a new edition of Bishop July the governor-general ordered Rizal's deporta-
Milner's "End of Religious Controversy". This tion to Mindanao. The reasons given were the
was for the Catholic Truth Society of which he was finding in his baggage of a package of leaflets, "satir-
long a member of the committee, and a prominent izing the friars and tending to de-catholicize and so
figure at the annual conferences so successfully or- de-nationalize the people"; and the "publication
ganized by the society. His pamphlets include of 'El Filibusterismo' dedicated to the memory of
" Primitive and Roman " (1S94) a reply to the notice —
three traitors condemned and executed by com-
of his book "The Primitive Church in the "Church —
petent authority and whom he hails as martyrs"-
Quarterly Review"; "The Conversion of Cardinal Rizal spent four years in peaceful exile in Dapitan,
Newman" (1896) and "Tekel" (1897) in which he Mindanao, when he volunteered his services to the
criticized the reply of the Archbishops of Canterbury governor to go to Cuba as a surgeon in the Spanish
and York to Pope Leo XIII after the condemnation Army. The offer was accepted. When he arrived in
of Anglican Orders. In 1S97 the pope conferred on Spain, he was arrested and brought back to Manila,
him an honorary doctorate in divinity. During his where he was charged with founding unlawful associa-
latter years he lived near St James church, Spanish
. tions and promoting rebellion, and sentenced to be shot.
Place, devoting himself to his literary work and the Rizal had given up the practice of his religion long
instruction of inquirers in the Catholic Faith. years before. But now he gladly welcomed the minis-
The Tablet (3 and 10 June, 1899) Catholic Book Notes do June,
; trations of the Jesuit Fathers, his former professors, and
1899); GiLLOW, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.; Annual Register (London, he wrote a retractation of his errors and of Masonry
1899). Edwin Burton. in particular. On the morning of his execution he
assisted at two Masses with great fervour, received
Rizal, Jos£ Mercado, Filipino hero, physician, Holy Communion and was married to an Irish half-
poet, novehst, and sculptor; b. at Calamba, Province of caste girl from Hong-Kong with whom he had co-
La Laguna, Luzon, 19 June, 1861; d. at Manila, habited in Dapitan. Almost the last words he spoke
30 December, 1S96. On his father's side he was were to the Jesuit who accompanied him: "My great
descended from Lam-co, who came from China to pride. Father, has brought me here." 30 December,
settle in the PhiUppines in the latter part of the the day of his execution, has been made a national
seventeenth century. His mother was of Filipino- hohday by the American Government and $50,000
Chinese-Spanish origin. Rizal studied at the Jesuit appropriated for a monument to his memory; a new
College of the Ateneo, Manila, where he received the province, adjacent to Manila, is called Rizal; the
degree of Bachelor of Arts with highest honours two centavo postage stamp and two peso bill the —
before he had completed his sixteenth year. He con-
tinued his studies in Manila for four years and then
—
denominations in most common use bear his picture.
Whether he was unjustly executed or not, is dis-
proceeded to Spain, where he devoted himself to puted; his plea in his own defense is undoubtedly
philosophy, Uterature, and medicine, with ophthal- a strong one (cf. Retana). The year of his death was
mology as a speciality. In Madrid he became a a year of great uprising in the Islands and feeling
Freemason, and thus became associated with men ran high. Whatever may be said about his sentence,
like Zorilla, Sagasta, Castelar, and Balaguer, promi- its fulfilment was a political mistake. Rizal, it is said,
nent in Spanish poUtics. Here and in France he did not favour separation from Spain, nor the expul-
began to imbibe the political ide;is, wliich later cost sion of the friars. Nor did he wish to accomplish his
him his life. In Germany he was enrolled as a law
student in the University of Heidelburg and became
— —
ends reforms in the Government by revolutionary
methods, but by the education of his countrymen and
acquainted with Virchow and lilumentritt. In their formation to habits of industry.
Berlin was published his novel "Noh me tangere" Besides the works mentioned above, Rizal wrote a
(1886) characterized, perhaps too extravagantly, nunaber of poems and essays in Spanish of liter^
by W. D. Howells as "a great novel" written by one merit, some translations and short papers in German,
"bom with a gift so far beyond that of any or all French, English, and in his native dialect, Tagalog.
 ROBBER 95 ROBERT
A complete list of his writings is given in Retana, leaves of lilies, and the eyes; an occasional touch of
"Vida y escritos del Dr. Rizal" (Madrid, 1907). gold is added in coronal or lettering. Later Luca
Craig, The Story of Jose Rizal (Manila, 1909); El Dr. Rizal y used colour more freely. The Della Robbia earthen-
su obra in La Juretttud (Barcelona, Jan., Feb., 1897); Pi, La
miierte crisiiana del Dr. Rizal (Manila, 1910)
; Craig, Los errores wares are so fresh and beautiful and so decorative
de Retana (Manila, 1910.) that even in Luca's time they were immediately in
Philip M. Finegan. great request. They are seen at their best in Florence.
Robber Council of Ephesus. See Ephesus. A few of the principal ones are: the crucifix at S.
Miniato and the ceiling of the chapel in which it is
Robbia, Andrea della, nephew, pupil, assistant, found; the medallions of the vault (centre, the Holy
and sharer of Luca's secrets, b. at Florence, 1431; d. Ghost; corners, the Virtues) in the chapel of Cardinal
1528. It often difficult to distinguish between his
is Jacopo of Portugal, also at S. Miniato; the decora-
works and Luca's. His, undoubtedly, are the medal- tions of the Pazzi chapel at Sta. Croce; the armorial
lions of infants for the Foundling Hospital, Florence, bearings of the Arti at Or San Michele; the Madonna
and the noble Annunciation over the inner entrance; of S. Pierino; the exquisite street lunette of Our Lady
the Meeting of S. Francis and S. Dominic in the loggia and Angels in the Via dell' Agnolo; the tomb of Bishop
of S. Paolo; the charming Madonna of the Architects, Benozzo Federighi at the Sta. Trinity,; and, in the
the Virgin adoring the Divine Child in the Crib and Bargello, the Madonna of the Roses, the Madonna
other pieces in the Bargello; the fine St. Francis at of the Apple, and a number of equally fine reliefs.
Assisi; the Madonna della Querela at Viterbo; the Of his works outside Florence may be mentioned:
high altar (marble) of S. Maria delle Grazie at Arezzo; the Madonna at Urbino; the tabernacle at Im-
the rich and variegated decora- pruneta, the vault panels of S.
tions of the vaulted ceiling, Giobbe, Venice (sometimes said
porch of Pistoia Cathedral, and to be by the school only) medal- ;

many other works. lions of Justice and Temperance,

Andrea had several sons, of Museum of Cluny, Paris; arms
whom Giovanni, Girolamo, Luca of R6n6 d'Anjou, London, South
the Younger, and Ambrogio are Kensington Museum, and other
the best known. Giovanni exe- works in Naples, Sicily, and else-
cuted the famous reliefs for the where. The admirable and
Ospedale del Ceppo, Pistoia; and much disputed group of the
Girolamo worked much in Visitation at S. Giovanni Fuor-
France, where he died. The civitas, Pistoia, is attributed
Della Robbia school gradually both to Luca and to Andrea.
lostpower and inspiration, the Bahbet de Jouy, Les Della Robbia
1855); M#ntz, Hisl. de I'Art
(Paris,
laterworks being often over- pendant la Renaissance (Paris, 1895);
crowded with figures and full of Reymond, Les Della Robbia (Florence,
conflicting colour. 1897); Crutwell, Luca and Andrea
Della Robbia (London, 1902).
See bibl. of Robbia, Luca di Simone
DELLA. M. L. Handlet. M. L. Handley.
Robert, Saint, founder of
Robbia, Luca di Simone the Abbey of Chaise-Dieu in
della, sculptor, b. at Florence, Auvergne, b. at Aurillac, Au-
1400; d. 1481. He is believed vergne, about 1000; d. in Au-
to have studied design with a, vergne, 1067. On his father's
goldsmith, and then to have side he belonged to the family
worked in marble and bronze of the Counts of Aurillac, who
under Ghiberti. He was early had given birth to St. G^raud.
invited to execute sculptures for He
studied at Brioude near the
the Cathedral of S. Maria del basilica of St-Julien, in a school
Fiore and the Campanile. The Luca della Robbia open to the nobility of Auvergne
—
latter representing Philosophy Detail from the fresco by Vasari, in the
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
by the canons of that city. Hav-
Arithmetic, Grammar, Orpheus, ing entered their community,
—
and Tubalcain (1437) are still somewhat Gothic and being ordained priest, Robert distinguished him-
in character. For the organ-gallery of the cathe- self by his piety, charity, apostolic zeal, eloquent
dral he made the famous panels of the Cantorie, discourses, and the gift of miracles. For about forty
groups of boys singing and playing upon musical in- years he remained at Cluny in order to live under the
struments (1431-8), now in the Museo del Duomo. rule of his compatriot saint, Abb6 Odilo. Brought
For the north sacristy he made a bronze door; figures back by force to Brioude, he started anew for Rome in
of angels bearing candles and a fine glazed earthen- order to consult the pope on his project. Benedict IX
ware relief of Christ rising from the tomb over the encouraged him to retire with two companions to the
entrance are also of his execution. Above the en- wooded plateau south-east of Auvergne. Here he built
trance to the southern sacristy he made the Ascension a hermitage under the name of Chaise-Dieu {CasaDei).
(1446). From this time on, Luca seems to have worked The renown of his virtues having brought him numer-
almost entirely in his new ware. The medium ous disciples, he was obliged to build a monastery,
was not unknown, but by dint of experimenting he which he placed under the rule of Saint Benedict
brought his material to great perfection. The colours (1050). Leo IX erected the Abbey of Chaise-Dieu,
are brilliant, fresh, and beautiful in quality, the blue which became one of the most flourishing in Christen-
especially being quite inimitable. The stanniferous dom. At the death of Robert it numbered 300 monks
glaze, or enamel, contained various minerals and was and had sent multitudes all through the centre of
Luca's own secret; in the firing, it became exceed- France. Robert also founded a community of women
ingly hard, durable, and bright. Luca's design is at Lavadieu near Brioude. Through the elevation of
generally an architectural setting with a very few Pierre Roger, monk of Chaise-Dieu, to the sovereign
figures, or half figures, and rich borders of fruits and pontificate, under the name of Clement VI, the abbey
flowers. He excels in simplicity and loveliness of reached the height of its glory. The body of Saint
composition. His madonnas have great charm, Robert, preserved therein, was burned by the Hugue-
dignity, and grace. In the earlier productions colour nots during the religious wars. His work was de-
is used only for the background, for the stems and stroyed by the French Revolution, but there remain
 ROBERT 96 ROBERT
for the admiration of tourists, the vast church, cloister, P. L., CLVII, 182) was the source of much controversy
tomb of Clement \'I, and Clementine Tower. The during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
feast-day of St. Robert is 24 April. Other evidence of eccentric actions on Robert's part
Labbe, BM. Tiova, 11, 637, 046, 6.59; Acta SS,, April, III, and scandals among his mixed followers may have
318-34; Mabillon, Ada S.O.S. Benedidi, VI, ii, lSS-222; helped to give rise to these rumors. The Fontevrists
Annnles O.S. Benedidi. V, 1-9. SO-UO; Bhanche, Les monastires
d'Avernne. 97-117, 129-44; MosNIER, Les Sainis d'Auvergne, I did everything in their power to discredit the attacks
(Parw, 1900), 412-47. A. FODRXET. on their founder. The accusatory letters of Marbodius
of Rennes and Geoffrey of Vendome were without suf-
Robert Johnson (Richardson), Blessed. See
ficient cause declared to be forgeries and the MS.
Thomas Ford, Blessed. letter of Peter of Saumur was made away with, prob-
Robert Laurence, Blessed. See John Houghton, ably at the instigation of Jeanne Baptiste de Bourbon,
Blessed. Abbess of Fontevrault. This natural daughter of
Robert of Arbrissel, itinerant preacher, founder of Henry IV applied to Innocent X
for the beatification
Fontevrault, b. c. 1047 at Arbrissel (now Arbressec) of Robert, her request being supported by Louis XIV
near Rh^tiers, Brittany; d. at Orsan, probably 1117. and Henrietta of England. Both this attempt and one
Robert studied in Paris during the pontificate of Greg- made about the middle of the nineteenth century
ory VII, perhaps under Anselm of Laon and later failed, but Robert is usually given the title of "Bles-
displayed considerable theological knowledge. The sed". The original recension of the Rule of Fonte-
date and place of his ordination are unknown. In vrault no longer exists; the only surviving writing of
1089 he was recalled to his native Diocese of Rennes Robert is his letter of exhortation to Ermengarde of
by Bishop S>lvester de la Guerche, who desired to Brittany (ed. Petigny in "Bib.del'6coledesChartes",
reform his flock. As archpriest, Robert devoted 1854, V, iii).
himself to the suppression of simony, lay investiture, Ada SS., Feb., Ill, 593 sqq., contains two ancient lives by
Baldric Dol and the monk Andrew; Petigny, Robert
of
clerical concubinage, irregular marriages, and to d Arhissel Geffroi de Venddme in Bib. de Vecole des Chnrtes;
ct

the healing of feuds. This reforming zeal aroused Walter, Ersteti Wanderprediger Frankreichs, I (Leipzig, 1903),
a modern scientific book; Idem, Excurs, II (1906); Boehmer in
such enmity that upon Sylvester's death in 1093, Theologische Literaturzeitung, XXIX, col. 330, 396, a hostile
Robert was compelled to leave the diocese. He went review. RaYMUND WeBSTER.
to Angers and there commenced ascetic practices
which he continued throughout his life. In 1095 Robert of Courgon (De Cdrsone, De Cursim,
he became a hermit in the forest of Craon (s. w. of CuRsus, etc.), cardinal, b. at Kedleston, England;
Laval), living a life of severest penance in the com- d. at Damietta, 1218.After having studied at Ox-
pany of Bernard, afterwards founder of the Congre- ford, Paris, and Rome, he became in 1211 Chancellor
gation of Tiron, Vitalis, founder of Savigny, and others of the University of Paris; in 1212 he was made
of considerable note. His piety, eloquence, and Cardinal of St. Stephen on the Cselian Hill; in 1213
strong personality attracted many followers, for he was appointed legate a latere to preach the crusade,
whom in 1096 he founded the monastery of Canons and in 1215 was placed at the head of a commission
Regular of La Ro6, becoming himself the first abbot. to inquire into the errors prevalent at the University
In the same year Urban II summoned him to Angers of Paris. He took an active part in the campaign
and appointed him a "preacher {seminiverhus, cf. against heresy in France, and accompanied the army
Acts 17, 18) second only to himself with orders to of the Crusaders into Egypt as legate of Honorius
travel everywhere in the performance of this duty" III. He died during the siege of Damietta. He is
(Vita Baldrici). the author of several works, including a "Summa"
There is no evidence that Robert assisted Urban devoted to questions of canon law and ethics and
to preach the Crusade, for his theme was the abandon- dealing at length with the question of usury. His
ment of the world and especially poverty. Living interference in the affairs of the University of Paris,
in the utmost destitution, he addressed himself to in the midst of the confusion arising from the intro-
the poor and would have his followers known only duction of the Arabian translations of Aristotle,
as the "poor of Christ", while the ideal he put for- resulted in the proscription (1215) of the metaphysical
ward was "In nakedness to follow Christ naked upon as well as the physical treatises of the Stagyrite,
the Cross" His eloquence, heightened by his together with the summaries thereof (Summse de
strikingly ascetic appearance, drew crowds every- eisdem). At the same time, his rescript (Denifle,
where. Those who desired to embrace the monastic "Chartul. Univ. Paris", I, 78) renews the condemna-
state under his leadership he sent to La Ro6, but the tion of the Pantheists, David of Dinant, and Amaury
Canons objected to the number and diversity of the of Bene, but permits the use, as texts, of Aristotle's
postulants, and between 1097 and 1100 Robert for- "Ethics" and logical treatises. The rescript also con-
mally resigned his abbacy, and founded Fontevrault tains several enactments relating to academic discipline.
(q. v.). His disciples were of every age and condi- Denifle, Chartul. Uniii. Paris, I (Paris, 1889), 72, 78; De
tion, including even lepers and converted prostitutes.
WCLF, Hist, of Medieval Phil., tr. Coffey (New York, 1909), 252.

Robert continued his missionary journeys over the William Turner.

whole of Western France till the end of his life, but Robert of Geneva, antipope under the name of
little is known of this period. At the Council of Clement VII, at Geneva, 1342; d. at Avignon, 16
b.
Poitiers, Nov., 1100, he supported the papal legates Sept., 1394. He was the son of Count Amadeus III.
in exporiimunicating Philip of France on account of Appointed prothonotary Apostolic in 1359, he became
his lawless union with Bertrade de Montfort; in Bishop of Therouanne in 1361, Archbishop of Cam-
1110 he attended the Council of Xantes. Knowledge brai in 1368, and cardinal 30 May, 1371. As papal
of his approaching death caused him to take steps to legate in Upper Italy (1376-78), in order to put down
ensure the permanence of his foundation at Fonte- a rebeUion in the Pontifical States, he is said to have
vrault. He imposed a vow of stability on his monks authorized the massacre of 4000 persons at Cesena,
and summoned a Chapter (September, 1116) to settle and was consequently called "the executioner of
tjie form of government. From Hautebniyere, a priory Cesena". Elected to the papacy at Fondi, 20 Sept.,
founded by the penitent Bertrade, he went to Orsan, 1378, by the French cardinals in opposition to Urban
another jiriory of Fontevrault, where he died. The VI, he was the first antipope of the Great Schism.
'•^ ifa Andrea?" gives a detailed account of
his last France, Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal,
year of life. Sa\'oy, some minor German states, Denmark, and
Robert was never canonized. The accusation made Norway acknowledged his authority. Unable to
against him by Cleoffrey of Vendome of extreme indis- maintain himself in Italy he took up his residence at
cretion in his choice of exceptional ascetic practices (see A\-ignon, where he became completely dependent
 ROBERT 97 ROBERT
on the French Court. He created excellent cardinals, used in the finished building, so that the whole re-
but donated the larger part of the Pontifical States mains a splendid monument to Robert. In his day
to Louis II of Anjou, resorted to simony and extortion it was already called the "Gothic Parthenon".
to meet the financial needs of his court, and seems Gracefully built and better lighted than several of the
never to have sincerely desired the termination of large churches of France, there is yet, especially about
the Schism. the fagade, a majestic severity. It is more spacious
Baluze, Vital Paparum Avmionensium,
sqq.
I
Salembieb, The Greed Schism of the West (tr.
(Paris, 1693), 486 than Notre Dame in Paris and considerably larger
; New York,
than the cathedral of Reims. The former is effec-
1907), passim.
j^_ ^_ WebER.
tive through its quiet simplicity, which amounts to
Robert of Jumieges, Archbishop of Canterbury austerity; the latter is less rich in the modelling
(10.51-2). Robert Champart was a Norman monk of of choir, windows, and triforium. But Robert's
St. Ouen at Rouen and was prior of that house when creation became a standard far and near, through
in 1037 he was elected Abbot of Jumidges. As abbot France and beyond, on account of the successful
he began to build the fine Norman abbey-church, and manner in which weight and strength are counter-
at this time he was able to be of service to St. Edward balanced and of the consistently Gothic style. The
the Confessor, then an exile. When Edward returned design presents a middle aisle and two side aisles,
to England as king in 1043 Robert accompanied him though the choir has five aisles and the transept has
and was made Bishop of London in 1044. In this the width of seven aisles. The choir is flanked by
capacity he became the head of the Norman party in seven chapels; that in the centre (the Lady chapel)
opposition to the Saxon party under Godwin, and projecting beyond the others in French style. The
exerted supreme influence over the king. In 1051 majestic and harmonious interior is surpassed in
Robert was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury and beauty by few cathedrals. The nave is about 470
went to Rome for his pall, but the appointment was ft. in length, 164 ft. in breadth (213 ft. in the transept)
very unpopular among the Enghsh clergy who re- and 141 ft. in height. A poet writes aptly, "Fabrica
sented the intrusion of a foreigner into the metro- nil demi patitur nee sustinet addi" (It is not possible
politan see. For a time he was successful in opposing to add anything to or to take anything from it).
Godwin even to the extent of instigating his exile, G. GlETMANN.
but when Godwin returned in 1052 Robert fled to
Rome and was outlawed by the Witenagemot. The Robert of Melun (De Meldttno; Melidensis;
pope reinstated him in his see, but he could not regain Melidunus), an English philosopher and theologian,
possession of it, and William of Normandy made his b. in England about 1100; d. at Hereford, 1167. He
continued exclusion one of his pretexts for invading gets his surname from Melun, near Paris, where,
England. The last years of his life were spent at after having studied under Hugh of St. Victor and
Jumieges, but the precise date of his death has not probably Abelard, he taught philosophy and theology.
been ascertained, though Robert de Torigni states it Among his pupils were John of Salisbury and Thomas k
as 26 May, 1055. The valuable liturgical MS. of the Becket. Through the influence of the latter he was
' Missal of Robert of Jumieges", now at made Bishop of Hereford in 1163. Judging from the
Rouen, was
given by him, when Bishop of London to the abbey tributes paid him by John of Salisbury in the "Me-
at Jumieges. talogicus" (P. L., CXCIX), Robert must have en-
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. Thobpe, R. S. (London, joyed great renown as a teacher. On the question
1861): Vita Eadwardi in LuARD, Lives of Edward the Confessor,
of Universals, which agitated the schools in those
R. S, (London, 1858) William of Malmesbury, Gesta Ponti-
;

ileum; P. L., CXLI, 1441, giving one of liis charters; Wilson, days, he opposed the nominalism of Roscelin and
The Missal of Robert of Jumikges (London, 1S96) Hook, Lives
; seemed to favour a doctrine of moderate realism.
of the Archbishops of Canterbury (London, 1865-75) Hunt in
;
His principal work, "Summa Theologise" or "Summa
Diet. Nat. Biog.; Searle, Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Nobles, and
Kings (Cambridge, 1899) Obituary of the Abbey of Jumieges in
;
Sententiarum " is still in MS., except portions which
Recueil des Historiens, XXIII (Rouen, 1872), 419. have been published by Du Boulay in his "Historia
Edwin Burton. Univ. Paris", ii, 585 sqq. He also wrote "Quaestiones
Robert of Lincoln. See Grossetbste. de Divina Pagina" and "Qusestiones de Epistolis
Pauli", both of which are kept in the Biblioth&que
Robert of Luzarcbes (Lus), b. at Luzarches near Nationale. Those who have examined the Summa '
'
'

Pontoise towards the end of the twelfth century; pronounce it to be of great value in tracing the his-
is said to have been summoned to Paris by Philip tory of scholastic doctrines.
Augustus who employed him in beautifying the city, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket in Rer. Britt. SS,
contains valuable data; De Wulf, Hist, of Medieval Phil., tr.
and to have had a share in the work on Notre Dame. Coffey (New York, 1909), 210; HAtJH]SAU, Hist, de la phil. seal.
The real fame of this master is, however, connected (Paris, 1872), 490 sqq. WiLLIAM TUENER.
with the cathedral of Notre Dame in Amiens. The
3ld cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1218 and Bishop Robert of Molesme, Saint, b. about the year
Evrard de Fouilloy had it rebuilt in Gothic style. 1029, at Champagne, France, of noble parents who
kn inscription made in 1288 in the "labyrinth" of bore the names of Thierry and Ermengarde; d. at
the floor (now removed) testified that the building Molesme, 17 April, 1111. When fifteen years of age,
iad been begun in 1220, and names "Robert, called he commenced his novitiate in the Abbey of Montier-
jf Luzarches", as the architect, and as his successors, la-Celle, or St. Pierre-la-Celle, situated near Troyes,
Thomas de Cormont and the latter's son. The work of which he became later prior. In 1068 he succeeded
Na,s completed in later centuries. VioUet-le-Duc Hunaut II as Abbot of St. Michael de Tonnerre, in the
sees a fact of great significance in the emplojrment of Diocese of Langres. About this time a band of seven
;he layman, Robert; but it is not accurate that in anchorites who lived in the forest of CoUan, in the
Romanesque times the architects were always bish- same diocese, sought to have Robert for their chief,
)p3, priests, or monks; or, on the other hand, that but the monks, despite their constant resistance to his
lince the Gothic period the Church relinquished the authority, insisted on keeping their abbot who enjoyed
lirection of church-building so entirely as is now be- so great a reputation, and was the ornament of their
leved. Robert was not long employed on the cathe- house. Their intrigues determined Robert to resign
iral. Under the successor of IJishop Evrard, who his charge in 1071, and seek refuge in the monastery
apparently died in 1222, Cormont appears as the of Montier-la-Celle. The same year he was placed
irchitect. Before 1240 the work had grown up to the over the priory of St. Ayoul de Provins, which de-
rault. About 1270 Bishop Bernard put a choir pended on Montier-la-Celle. Meantime two of the
window in the provisionally completed cathedral, hermits of CoUan went to Rome and besought Gregory
in intended alteration of the original plan was not VII to give them the prior of Provins for their supe-
XIII.—
 ROBERT 98 ROBERTS
rior. The pope granted their request, and in 1074 decades of the twelfth century. In 1153 he began to
Robert initiated the hermits of Collan in the monastic teach at Oxford, being among the first of the cele-
life. As tiic location at Collan was found unsuitable, brated teachers in the schools which were afterwards
Robert founded a monastery at Molesme in the valley organized into the University of Oxford. After the
of Langres at the close of 1075. To Molesme as a death of Henry II he returned to Paris; thence he
guest came the distinguished canon and doctor went to Rome, where he was appointed cardinal and
i^coldlre) of Reims, Bruno, who, in 1082, placed him- Chancellor of the Apostolic See. His influence was
self under the direction of Robert, before founding the always on the side of orthodoxy and against the en-
celebrated order of the Chartreux. At this time the croachments of the rationalistic tendency represented
primitive discipline was still in its full vigour, and the by Abelard. This we know from the biography of
by the labour of their hands. Soon,
religious lived St. Bernard written by William of St. Thierry, and
however, the monastery became wealthy through a from his letters. Robert wrote a compendium of
number of donations, and with wealth, despite the theology, entitled "SententiarumTheologicarum Libri
vigilance of the abbot, came laxity of discipline. Octo", which, for a time, held its place in the schools
Robert endeavoured to restore the primitive strict- of Western Europe as the official text book in theology.
ness, but the monks showed so much resistance that It was, however, supplanted by the "Libri Senten-
he abdicated, and left the care of his community to tiarum" of Peter the Lombard, compared with
his prior, Alberic, who retired in 109.3. In the follow- whom Robert seems to have been more inclined to
ing year he returned with Robert to Molesme. On 29 strict interpretation of ecclesiastical tradition than
X(jv., Urban II confirmed the institute of
109.J, to yield to the growing demands of the dialectical
Molesme. In 1098 Robert, still unable to reform his method in theology and philosophy. The Lombard,
rebellious monks, obtained from Hugues, Archbishop however, finally gained recognition and decided the
of Lyons and Legate of the Holy See, authority to fate of scholastic theology in the thirteenth century.
found a new order on new lines. Twenty-one religious Robert's "Summa" was first published by the Bene-
left Molesme and set out joyfully for a desert called dictine Dom Alathoud (Paris, 1655). It is reprinted
Citeaux in the Diocese of Chalons, and the Abbey of in Migne (P. L., CLXXXVI, 639 sqq.).
Citeaux (q. v.) was founded 21 March, 1098. Haur6atj, Hist, de la phil. scol., I (Paris, 1872), 483 aqq.
Left to themselves, the monks of Molesme appealed William Turner.
to the pope, and Robert was restored to Molesme,
which thereafter became an ardent centre of monastic Roberts, John. Venerable, first Prior of St.
Hfe. Robert died 17 April, 1111, and was buried Gregory's, Douai (now Downside Abbey), b. 1575-6;
with great pomp in the church of the abbey. Pope martyred 10 December, 1610. He was tlie son of John
Honorius III by Letters Apostolic in 1222 authorized and Anna Roberts of Trawsfynydd, Merionethshire,
his veneration in the church of Molesme, and soon N. Wales. He matriculated at St. John's College,
after the veneration of St. Robert was extended to the Oxford, in February, 1595-6, but left after two years
whole Church by a pontifical Decree. The feast was without taking a degree and entered as a law student
fixed at first on 17 April, but later it was transferred at one of the Inns of Court. In 1598 he travelled on
to 29 April. The Abbey of Molesme existed up to the the continent and in Paris, through the influence of a
French Revolution. The remains of the holy founder Catholic fellow-countryman, was converted. By the
are preserved in the parish church. advice of John Cecil, an English priest who afterwards
Vita S. Roberti, Aliimii^ Mul ^ inensis auctore monacho molismensi
t ,
became a Government spy, he decided to enter the
Bah Adone, abb. 8<ec. XII; Exordium Cisterciensis Cenobii; Cui-
G^JARD, Les Monuments primitifs de la Rn/te Cistercienne (Dijon, English college at Valladolid, where he was admitted
1S78) William of Malmesbury, Bk. I, D<: rebus gestis Anglorum,
; 18 October, 1598. The following year, however, he
P. L., CLXXIX; Laurent, Carl, de Molesme, Bk. I (Paris, 1907). left the college for the Abbey of St. Benedict, Vallado-
F. M. GiLDAS. lid; whence, after some months, he was sent to make
Robert of Newminster, Saint, in the dis-
b. his novitiate in the great Abbey of St. Martin at
trict ofCraven, Yorkshire, probably at the village Compostella where he made his profession towards the
of Gargrave; d. 7 June, 11,59. He studied at the end of 1600. His studies completed he was ordained,
University of Paris, where he is said to have composed and set out for England 26 December, 1602. Although
a commentary on the Psalms became parish priest at
;
observed by a Government spy, Roberts and his com-
Gargrave, and later a Benedictine at Whitby, from panions succeeded in entering the country in April,
where, with the abbot's permission, he joined the 1603; but, his arrival being known, he was arrested
founders of the Cistercian monastery of Fountains. and banished on 13 May following. He reached Douai
About 11 38 he headed the first colony sent out from on 24 May and soon managed to return to England
Fountains and established the Abbey of Newminster where he laboured zealously among the plague-stricken
near the castle of Ralph de ]\Ierlay, at Morpeth in people in London . In 1604, while embarking for Spain
Northumberland. During his abbacy three colonies with four postulants, he was again arrested, but not
of monks were sent out; monasteries were founded: being recognized as a priest was soon released and
Pipewell (1143), Roche (1147) and Sawley (1148). banished, but returned again at once. On 5 Novem-
Capgrave's life tells that an accusation of misconduct ber, 1605, while Justice Grange was searching the
was brought against him by his own monks and that house of Mrs. Percy, first wife of Thomas Percy, who
he went abroad (1147-S), to defend himself before was involved in the Gunpowder Plot, he found Roberts
St. Bernard, but doubt has been cast upon the truth there and arrested him. Though acquitted of any
of this story, which may have arisen from a desire complicity in the plot itself, Roberts was imprisoned
to associate the English saint personallv with the in the Gatehouse at Westminster for seven months
greatest of the Cistercians. His tomb in" the church and then exiled anew in July, 1606.
of Xcnvminster became an object of pilgrimage; This time he was absent for some fourteen months,
his feast is kept on 7 June. nearly all of which he spent at Douai where he founded
Acin .s'.S., June, II, 47-s; Dalgairms, The Cistercian Saints
of a house for the English Benedictine monks who had
England (London. IS14); Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue. II, 2S2-
MOller, hi. Robert von Newminster in Cislercienser Chronik V entered various Spanish monasteries. This was the
(Mehrerau, ISflS): ChartuUirium Abbatim de .X.no Monaateric beginning of the monastery of St. Gregory at Douai
(.Surtees .Soc, 1878). which still exists as Downside Abbey, near Bath,
Raymund WebSTER.
England. In October, 1607, Roberts returned to
Robert Pullus (Pullem, Pfllan, Pully), car- England, was again arrested in December and placed
dinal, English philosopher and theologian, of the in the Gatehouse, from which he contrived to escape
twelfth century, b. in England about 1080; d. 1147- after some months. He now lived for about a year in
50. He seems to have studied in Paris in the first London and was again taken some time before May,
 ROBERT 99 ROCABERTI
1609, in which month he was taken to Newgate and Society's Publications'' (London, 1905), pp. 85-92.
would have been executed but for the intercession of His labours seem to have been mainly in Cumberland
de la Brod6rie, the French ambassador, whose petition and Westmoreland; but nothing is known about
reduced the sentence to banishment. Roberts again them. Eventually he was arrested and imprisoned at
visited Spain and Douai, but returned to England Carlisle, where Bishop Robinson, who may have been
within a year, knowing that his death was certain if a relative, did his best to persuade him to save his life
he were again captured. This event took place on 2 by conforming; but the priest remained constant, and
December, 1610; the pursuivants arriving just as he being condemned, under 27 Eliz., c. 2, for being a
was concluding Mass, took him to Newgate in his priest and coming into the realm, suffered the last
vestments. On 5 December he was tried and found penalty with such cheerful constancy that his death
guilty under the Act forbidding priests to minister in was the occasion of many conversions.
England, and on 10 December was hanged, drawn, Challoneb, Missionary Priests, I, no. 114; Gillow, Bihl.
Diet. Eng. Cath., a. v.; Wilson in Victoria History of Cumberland,
and quartered at Tyburn. The body of Roberts was II (London, 1905), 87.
recovered and taken to St. Gregory's, Douai, but dis- JOHN B. WaINEWRIGHT.
appeared during the French Revolution. Two fingers Robinson, John, Venerable. See Wilcox,
are still preserved at Downside and Erdington Abbeys Robert, Venerable.
respectively and a few minor relics exist. At Erding-
ton also is a unique contemporary engraving of the Robinson, William Callyhan, jurist and educa-
martyrdom which has been reproduced in the "Down- tor, b. 26 July, 1834, at Norwich, Conn.; d. 6 Nov.,
sideReview" (XXIV, 286). The introduction of the 1911, at Washington, D. C. After preparatory studies
cause of beatification was approved by Leo XIII in his at Norwich Academy, Williston Seminary, and Wes-
Decree of 4 December, 1886. leyan University, he entered Dartmouth College from
The earlier accounts given by Challoneb, Dod (Dodd), Plow- which he was graduated in 1854. He then entered
den, and Foley are misleading, aa they confound John Roberts
the Benedictine with an earlier priest of the same name. This has the Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal
been shown conclusively by Camm, whose work is the best on the Church, was graduated in 1857, and ordained to the
subject. Ybpes, Coronica general de la Orden de San Benito, IV Episcopalian Ministry, in which he served first at
(Valladolid, 1613), folios 58-63; Pollen, Acts of English Martyrs
(London, 1891), 143-70; Camm, A Benedictine Martyr in England, Pittston, Pa. (1857-8), and then at Scranton, Pa.
Being the lAfe . . of Dom John Roberts O.S.B. (London, (1859-62). He was received into the Catholic
1897) Idem, The Martyrdom of V. John Roberts in Downside
:
Church in 1863, was admitted to the Bar in 1864, and
Review, XXIV, 286; Bishop, The Beginning of Douai Convent and
The First Prior of St, Gregory's in Downside Review, XVI, 21; was lecturer and professor in law in Yale University
XXV, 52; FtJLLERTON, Life of Luisa de Carvajal (London, (1869-95). For two years (1869-71) he was judge
1873). G. Roger Hudlbston. of the City Court and later (1874-6) judge of the
Court of Common Pleas at New Haven, Conn. In
Robert Salt, Blessed. SeeThomas Johnson,
1874 also he served as member of the Legislature.
Blessed.
From Dartmouth College he received (1879) the de-
Robertson, James Btirton, historian, b. in Lon- gree LL.D., and from Yale University the degree M.A.
don 15 Nov., 1800; d. at Dublin 14 Feb., 1877, son (1881). He married, 2 July, 1857, Anna Elizabeth
of Thomas Robertson, a landed proprietor in Grenada, Haviland and, 31 March, 1891, Ultima Marie Smith.
West Indies, where he spent his boyhood. In 1809 His thorough knowledge of law made him eminent as
his mother brought him to England, and placed him a teacher and enabled him to render important service
at St. Edmund's College, Old Hall (1810), where he to the Church. In 1895 he was appointed professor
remained nine years. In 1819 he began his legal in the Catholic University of America, where he or-
studies, and in 1825 was called to the bar, but did ganized the School of Social Sciences and remained as
not practise. For a time he studied philosophy and Dean of the School of Law until his death. Besides
theology in France under the influence of his friends articles contributed to various periodicals, he wrote:
Lameunais and Gerbet. In 1835 he published his "Life of E. B. Kelly" (1855); "Notes of Elementary
translation of Frederick Schlegel's "Philosophy of Law" (1876); "Elementary Law" (Boston, 1876);
History", which passed through many editions. "Clavis Rerum'' (1883); "Law of Patents" (3 vols.,
From 1837 to 1854 he lived in Germany or Belgium. Boston, 1890); "Forensic Oratory" (Boston, 1893);
During this time he translated Mohler's "Symbol- "Elementsof American Jurisprudence" (Boston, 1900).
ism", adding an introduction and a life of Mohler. Catholic University Bulletin (Deo., 1911); Catholic Educational
Renew (Dec, 1911). E. A. PaCE.
This work considerably influenced some of the Ox-
ford Tractarians. In 1855 Dr. Newman nominated Rocaberti, Juan TomXs de, theologian, b. of a
Robertson as professor of geography and modern noble family at Perelada, in Catalina, c. 1624; d. at
history in the Catholic University of Ireland. In
Madrid, 13 June, 1699. Educated at Gerona he en-
this capacity he published two series of lectures (1859
tered the Dominican convent there, receiving the
and 1864), as well as "Lectures on Edmund Burke" habit in 1640. His success in theological studies at
(1869), and a translation of Dr. Hergenrother's the convent of Valencia secured for him the chair of
"Anti Janus" (1870) to which he prefixed a history theology in the university. In 1666 he was chosen
of Gallicanism. He also wrote a poem, "The Prophet provincial of Aragon, and in 1670 the General Chapter
Enoch" (1859), and contributed several articles to elected him general of the order. He became en-
the " Dublin Review ". His services to literature ob- deared to all who came in contact with him. No one,
tained for him a pension from the Government in perhaps, held him in greater esteem than Clement X.
1869, and the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from The celebrated Dominican Contenson dedicated to
Pius IX (1875). He is buried in Glasnevin cemetery. him his "Theologia mentis et cordis". He obtained
Tablet (24 Feb., 1877) Gillow in Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.; The
;

Edmundian, II, no. 8 (1895). EdWIN BueTON. the canonization of Sts. Louis Bertrand and Rose of
Lima, the solemn beatification of Pius V, and the
Robinson, Christopher, Venerable, martyr, b. annual celebration in the order of the feast of Bl.
at Woodside, near Westward, Cumberland, date un- Albert the Great and others. In 1676 he was ap-
known; executed at Carlisle, 19 Aug., 1598. He was pointed by Charles II first Archbishop of Valencia
admitted to the EngUsh College at Reims in 1589, and and then governor of that province. In 1695 he was
was ordained priest and sent on the mission in 1592. made inquisitor-general of Spain.
Two years later he was a witness of the condemnation Rocaberti is best known as an active apologist of
and execution of the venerable martyr John Boste (q. v.) the papacy against Galileans and Protestants. His
at Durham, and wrote a very graphic account of this, firstwork in this sense was "De Romani pontificis
which has been printed from a seventeenth-century auctoritate" (3 vols., Valentia, 1691-94). His most
transcript in the first volume of the "Catholic Record important work is the "Bibliotheca Maxima Ponti-
 ROCAMADOUE 100 ROCH
In this monu- veneration. After the religious manifestations of
ficia" (21 vols., Rome, 1097-99).
mental work the author collected and published m the Middle Ages, Rocamadour, as a result of war
alphabetical order, and in their entirety, all the impor- and revolution, had become almost deserted. Re-
cently, owing to the zeal and activity of the bishops
tant works dealing with the primacy of the Holy See
of Cahors, it seems to have revived and pilgrims are
from an orthodox point of view, beginning with Abra-
ham Bzovius and ending with Zacharias Boverius. An beginning to crowd there again.
ex( 'ellent summary is given in Hurter's Nomenclator'
'

'
. De Gissey, Hi^i, el miracles de N. D. de Roc-Amadour au pays
de Quercy (Tulle, 1666); Caillau, Hist. crit. el relig. de N. D. de
(iUETiF-EcHAHD, Srript. ord. Pr,-ed., II (Paris, 1721), 630, 827;
Ti>DHON, Hist, dea horn. ill. de I'ordre Dom., V (Pans, 174S),
Roc-Amadour (Paris, 1834) Idem, Le Jour de Marie ou le guide
;

71 1-215; HoRTER, Numtnclator, II; AnnSe Domimmine. All,

du p&lerin de Roc-Amadour (Paris, 1836) Servois, Notice et
;

extraits du recueil des miracles de Roc-Amadour (Paris, 1856)

7.S.-,. H. J. SCHROBDBR. LlEUTAUD, La Vida de S. Amadour, texte proven/^al du XIV^ s,
(Cahors, 1876) Bourri^res, Saint Amadour et Sainte V^ronigue,
Rocamadour, communal chief town of the canton
;

disciples de Notre Seigneur et apdtres des Gaules (Paris, 1895);

of Gramat, district of Gourdon, Department of Lot, Enard, Lettre pastorale sur Vhist. de Roc-Amadour . . .

RupiN, Roc-Amadour, etude hist, et archeol.

in the Diocese of Cahors and the ancient province (Cahors, 1899) ;

(Paria, 1904), an excellent work containing the definitive history

of (iucrcy. This village by the wonderful beauty of of Roc-Amadour; Albe, Les miracles de N. D. de Roc-Amadour
its situat'ion merits the attention of artists and excites au XII" s.. texte et traduction des manuscrits de la Bibliothique
the curiosity of archxologists ; but its reputation is naiionale (Paris, 1907), corroborating the work of Rupin.

to its celcbnitcd
LiSoN Clugnet.
due especially
sanctuary of the BlessedVirgin
which for centuries has at- Rocca, Angelo, founder of
the Angelica Library at Rome,
tracted pilgrims from every
country, among them kings, b. at Rocca, now Arccevia,
bishops, and nobles. near Ancona, 1.545; d. at
A curious legend purport- Ronie, 8 April, 1620. He was
received at the age of seven
ing to explain the origin of
this pilgrimage has given rise
into the Augustinian monas-
tery at Cameiino (hence also
to controversies between criti-
cal and traditional schools, called Camers, Camerinus),
especially in recent times. Ac- studied at Perugia, Rome,
cording to the latter, Rocama- Venice, and in 1.577 graduated
dour is indebted for its name as doctor in theology from
to the founder of the ancient Padua. He became secretary
sanctuary, Ht. Araadour, who to the superior-general of the
was none other than Zacheus Augustinians in 1579, was
of the Gospel, husband of St. placed at the head of the Vati-
Veronica, who wiped the can printing-office in 1585, and
Saviour's face on the way to entrusted with the superin-
Calvary. Driven forth from tendence of the projected edi-
Palestine by persecution, tions of the Bible and the writ-
Ainadour and Veronica em- ings of the Fathers. In 1595
barked in a frail skiff and, he was appointed sacristan in
guided by an angel, landed the papal chapel, and in 1605
on the coast of Aquitaine, became titular Bishop of Ta-
where they met Bishop St. gaste in Numidia. The pub-
Martial, another disciple of lic library of the Augustinians

Christ who was preaching at Rome, formally established

the Gospel in the south-west 23 October, 1614, perpetuates
of Gaul, .\fter journeying to his name. It is mainly to his
Rome, where he witnessed the efforts that we owe the edition
martyrdoms of Sts. Peter and .S\ixT Koch of the Vulgate published dur-
Paul, Amadour, having re- <3. Martinetti, Church of the Saviour, Jerusalem ing the pontificate of Clem-
turned to France, on the death of his spouse, withdrew ent VIII. He also edited the works of Egidio
to a wild spot in Quercy where he built a chapel in hon- Colonna (Venice, 15S1), of Augustinus Triumphus
our of the Blessed ^'irgin, near which he died a little (Rome, 1582), and wrote: " BibliothecEB theologies
later. This marvellous account, hke most other similar et scripturalis epitome" (Rome, 1594); "De Sacro-
legends, unfortunately does not make its first appear- sancto Christi corpore romanis pontificibus iter
ance till long after the age in which the chief actors are conficientibus pra;ferendo commentarius " (Rome,
deemed to liave lived. The name of Amadour occurs in 1599); "De canonizatione sanctorum commentarius
no document previous to the compilation of his Acts, (Rome, 1601); "De campanis" (Rome, 1612). An
which on careful examination and on an application incomplete collection of his works was published in
of the rules of the cursns to the text cannot be judged 1719 and 1745 at Rome: "Thesaurus pontificiarum
old(>r than the twelfth century. It is now well es- sacrarumque antiquitatum necnon rituum praxium
tablished that St. Martial, Amadour's contemporary et caeremoniarium".
in the legend, lived in the third not the first century, Ossinoer, Bibl. August (Ingolstadt, 1768), 754-64; Ch.ii.meE8,
and Rome has never included him among the members Gen. Biog. Diet., s. v.
of the ApostoUc College. The mention, therefore, N. A. Webeb.
of St. Martial in the .\cts of St. Amadour would alone Roch, Saint, b. at Montpellier towards 1295; d.
suffice, e\'en if other proof were wanting, to prove them 1327. His father was governor of that city. At his
a forgery. The untrustworthiness of the legend has birth St. Roch is said to have been found miraculously
led some recent authors to suggest that Amadour marked on the breast with a red cross. Deprived of
was an unknown hermit or possibly St. Amator, his parents when about twenty years old, he dis-
Bishop of Auxorre, but this is mere h>'pothesis, with- tributed his fortune among the poor, handed oyer to
out any historical basis. Although the origin of the his uncle the government of Montpellier, and in the
sanctuary of Rocamadour, lost in antiquity, is thus disguise of a mendicant pilgrim, set out for Italy, but
first set down along with fabulous traditions which stopped at Aquapendente, which was stricken by the
cannot bear the light of sound criticism, yet it is plague, and devoted himself to the plague-stricken,
undoubted that this spot, hallowed b>' the prayers of curing them with the sign of the cross. He next
innumerable multitudes of pilgrims, is worthy of our visited Cesena and other neighbouring cities and then
 ROCHAMBEAU 101 ROCHESTER
Rome. Everywhere the terrible scourge disappeared the correspondence and diary of Count Axel Fersen).
before his miraculous power. He visited Mantua, After the first meeting with the American general
Modena, Parma, and other cities with the same he marched with his force to the Virginia peninsula,
results. At Piacenza, he himself was stricken with and rendered heroic assistance at Yorktown in the
the plague. He withdrew to a hut in the neighbour- capture of the English forces under Lord Cornwallis,
ing forest, where his wants were supplied by a gentle- which concluded the hostilities. When Cornwallis
man named Gothard, who by a miracle learned the surrendered, 19 Oct., 1781, Rochambeau was pre-
place of his retreat. After his recovery Roch returned sented with one of the captured cannon. After the
to France. Arriving at Montpellier and refusing to surrender he embarked for France amid ardent pro-
disclose his identity, he was taken for a spy in the testations of gratitude and admiration from the
disguise of a pilgrim, and cast into prison by order of officers and men of the American army. In 1783 he
—
the governor, his own uncle, some writers say, where — received the decoration of Saint-Esprit and obtained
five years later he died. The miraculous cross on his the baton of a marshal of France in 1791. Early
breast as well as a document found in his possession in 1792 he was
now served for his identification. He was accordingly placed in com-
given a public funeral, and numerous miracles at- mand of the army
tested his sanctity. of the North, and
In 1414, during the Council of Constance, the conducted a force
plague having broken out in that city, the Fathers of against the Aus-
the Council ordered public prayers and processions in trians, but re-
honour of the saint, and immediately the plague signed the same
ceased. His relics, according to Wadding, were year and narrowly
carried furtively to Venice in 14S.5, where they are escaped the guillo-
still venerated. It is commonly held that he belonged tinewhen the Ja-
to the Third Order of St. Francis; but it cannot be cobin revolution-
proved. Wadding leaves it an open question. Urban ary power had
VIII approved the ecclesiastical office to be recited obtained supreme
on his fea^t (16 August). Paul III instituted a con- control in Paris.
fraternity, under the invocation of the saint, to have When the fury of
charge of the church and hospital erected during the revolution had
the pontificate of Alexander VI. The confraternity spent itself,
increased so rapidly that Paul IV raised it to an arch- Rochambeau was
confraternity, with powers to aggregate similar con- reinstated in the
fraternities of St. Roch. It was given a cardinal- regard of his
protector, and a prelate of high rank was to be its countrymen. He
immediate superior (see Reg. et Const. Societatis S. was granted a
Rochi). Various favours have been bestowed on it pension by Napo-
bv Pius IV (C. Regimini, 7 March, 1561), by Gregory leon Bonaparte in
XIII (C. dated 5 January, 1577), by Gregory XIV 1804, and was dec-
(C. Paternar. pont., 7 March, 1591), and by other orated with the Jean-Baptiste Rochambeau
pontiffs. It still flourishes. Cross of Grand
Wadding, Annales Min. (Rome, 1731), VII, 70; IX, 251; Officer of the Legion ofHonour. The last years of the
Acta SS. (Venice, 1752), 16 August; Gallia Christiana, VI ad an. distinguished mihtary leader's life were passed in the
1328; .4ndr6, Hist, de S. Roch (Carpentras, 1854); Chavanne,
S. Roch. Hist, compute, etc. (Lyons, 1876); CoFFiNii:EE9, dictation of his memoirs, which appeared in two
S. Roch, Hudes histor. sur Montpellier au XIV" si^cle (Montpellier, volumes in Paris in 1809, and which throw many per-
1855); Bevignaot, Vita del Taumaturgo S. Rocco (Rome, 1878);
sonal and brilliant sidelights on the events of two
Vita del gloriosa S. Rocco, figlio di Giovanni principe di Agatopoli,
era delta Montpellieri, con la storica relazione del suo corpo (Venice, of the most historically impressive revolutions, and
1751)- Butler, Lives of the Saints, 16 August; Leon, Lives of the exceptional men therein concerned.
the SairUs of the Three Orders of S. Francis (Taunton, England, Wright, Memoirs of Marshal Count de Rochambeau Relative to
1886); Piazza, Opere pie di Roma (Rome, 1679). the War of Independence (1838) ; SouL^, Histoire des troubles de
Gregory Cleary. V Amerique anglaise (Paris, 1787) ; standard histories of the United
States may also be consulted.
Rochambeau, Jean - Baptiste - Donatien de Jakvis Keiley.
ViMBUR, Count de, marshal, b. at Vendome, France, Roche, John, Venerable. See Leigh, Richard,
1 July, 1725; d. at Thor6, 10 May, 1807. At the
Venerable.
age of sixteen he entered the army and in 1745 be-
came an aid to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, sub- Rochester, Ancient See of (Rofpa; Rofpensis),
sequently commanding a, regiment. He
served with the oldest and smallest of all the suffragan sees of
distinction in several important battles, notably those Canterbury, was founded by St. Augustine, Apostle
of Minorca, Crevelt, and Minden, and was wounded of England, who in 604 consecrated St. Justus as its
at the battle of Lafeldt. When the French monarch first bishop. It consisted roughly of the western
resolved to despatch a military force to aid the Amer- part of Kent, separated from the rest of the county
ican colonies, in the Revolutionary War, Rochambeau by the Medway, though the diocesan boundaries
was created a Ueutenant-general and placed in com- did not follow the river very closely. The cathedral,
mand of a body of troops which numbered some 6000 founded by King Ethelbert and dedicated to St.
men. It was the smallness of this force that made Andrew from whose monastery at Rome St. Augus-
Rochambeau at first averse to taking part in the Amer- tine and St. Justus had come, was served by a college
ican War, but his sympathy with the colonial cause of secular priests and endowed with land near the
compelled him eventually to accept the command, and city called Priestfield. It suffered much from the
he arrived at Newport, Rhode Island July, 1780, Mercians (676) and the Danes, but the city retained
and joined the American army under Washington, its importance, and after the Norman Conquest a new

on the Hudson a few miles above the city of New cathedral was begun by the Norman bishop Gundulf
York. Rochambeau performed the double duties This energetic prelate replaced the secular chaplains
of a diplomat and general in an ahen army with rare by Benedictine monks, translated the relics of St.
distinction amidst somewhat trying circumstances, Paulinus to a silver shrine which became a place of
not the least of which being a somewhat unaccount- pilgrimage, obtained several royal grants of land,
able coolness between Washington and himself, and proved an untiring benefactor to his cathedral
which, fortunately, was of but passing import (see city. Gundulf had built the nave and western front
 ROCHESTER 102 ROCHESTER
before his death; the western transept was added be- Thomas Brown, 1435 Bl. John Fisher, 1504
tween 1179 and 1200, and the eastern transept during AMUiam Wells, 1437 (Cardinal)
the reign of Henry III. The cathedral is small, John Lowe, 1444 Sehismatical bishops:
being only 306 feet long, but its nave is the oldest Thomas Rotheram (or John Hilsey, 1535
in England and it has a fine Norman crypt. Besides 1468
Scott), Richard Heath, 1539
the shrine of St. Paulinus, the cathedral contained John Aloock, 1472 Henry Holbeach, 1543
the relics of St. Ithamar, the first Saxon to be con- John Russell, 1476 Nicholas Ridley, 1547
secrated to the (i)iscopate, and St. William of Perth, Edmund Audley, 1480 John Poynet, 1550
who was held in popular veneration. In 1130 the Thomas Savage, 1492 John Scory, 1551
cathedral was consecrated by the Archbishop of Richard Fitz James, 1496 Vacancy, 1,552
Canterbury assisted by thirteen bishops in the pres- The canonical line was restored by the appoint-
ence of Henry I, but the occasion was marred by ment in 1554 of Maurice Griffith, the last Catholic
a great fire which bishop of Rochester,
nearly destroyed the who died in 1558.
whole city and dam- The diocese was so
aged the new cathe- small, consisting
dral. After the burial merely of part of
of St. \\illiam of Kent, that it needed
Perth in 1201 the only one archdeacon
offerings at his tomb (Rochester) to super-
were so great, that vise the 97 parishes.
by their means the It was also the poor-
choir was rebuilt and est diocese in Eng-
the central tower was land. The cathedral
added (1343), thus was dedicated to St.
completing the ca- Andrew the Apostle.
thedral. From the The arms of the see
foundation of the see were argent, on a sal-
the archbishops of tire gules dn Escalop
Canterbury had en- shell, or.
joyed the privilege SHRUEaOLE AND
of nominating the Denne, History and An-
bishop, but Arch- tiquities of Rochester(ljOa-
don, 1772); Whaston,
bishop Theobald the Cathedral, Rochester, England Anglia Sacra (London,
transferred the right 1691), pt. i, includes
to the Bcneilictine monks of the cathedral who ex- annals by de Hadenham (604-1.307) and de Dene (1314-
ercised it for the first time in 1148. .50); Pearman, Rochester: Diocesan History (London, 1897);
Palmer, RocheHer: The Cathedral and See (London, 1897); Hope,
The follo\ving is the list of bishops with the date Architectural History of Cathedral in Kent ArchcEological Society,
of their acces.sion; but the succession from Tatnoth XXriI, XXIV (1898-1900); Erndlphus, Textus Roffensis, ed.
(.S-U) to Siweard (10.58) is obscure, and may be modi-
Hearne (London, 1720), reprinted in P. L., CLXIII; Pegqb,
Account of Textus Roffensis (London, 1784) in Nichols, Bib.
fied by fresh research: Topog. Brit. (London, 1790); J. Thorpe, Registrum Roffense
St. Justus, 1)04 Radulphus d'Escures, (London, 1769) .1. Thorpe, Jr., Custumale Roffense (London,
;

1788) Winkle, Cathedral Churches of England and Wales (Lon-

Romanus, G24 1108 ;

don, 1860); F.^IRBAIRNS, Cathedrals of England and Wales (Lon-

Vacancy, G25 Ernulf, 111,5 don, 1907); Godwin, De prcesulibus AnglicE (London, 1743);
St. Paulinus, 633 John of Canterbury, 1125 Gams, Series Episcoporum (Ratisbon, 1873); Searle, AnglO"
Saxon Bishops, Kings and Nobles (Cambridge, 1899).
St Ithamar, 644
. John of Sc'es, 1137
Damianus, 6.5.5 Asoelin, 1142
Edwin Burton.
Vacancy, 664 Walter, 114.S Rochester, Diocese of, on its establishment by
Putta, 666-9 Gualeran, 11,S2 separation from the See of Buffalo, 24 January,
Cwichelm, 676 Gilbert de Glanvill 1185
,
1868, comprised the counties of Monroe, Livingston,
drbmund, 67 f: Benedict de Sansetun, A\'a}rne, Ontario, Seneca, Cayuga, Yates, and Tomp-
Tobias, 693-706 1215 kins in the state of New York. In 1896, after the
Ealdwulf, 727 Henry Sandford, 1226 death of Bishop Ryan of Buffalo, the boundary line
Dunno, 741 Richard de W'endover, of the two dioceses was somewhat changed, the
Eardwulf, 747 1235 (consecrated, counties of Steuben, Schuyler, Chemung, and Tioga
Deora, 765-72 12:58) being detached from the See of Buffalo and added to
Wicrmund I, 7S1-5 Lawrence de St. Martin, that of Rochester.
Boornmod, S():3-5 1251 Bishops: (1) Rev. Bernard J. McQuaid, who be-
Tatnoth, 844 Walter de Merton, 1274 came a pioneer and leader in Catholic education and
Beadunoth (jiDssibly iden- John de Bradfield, 1277 the founder of a model seminary, was consecrated
tical with \\'iErmund II) Thomas Inglethorp, 1283 bishop of Rochester in St. Patrick's Cathedral, New
Wfermund II, 84r)-(i2 Thomas de Wouldham, York City, on 12 July, 1868. Four days later he
Cuthwulf, .xc,(l-s 1292 took possession of his small and poor diocese, con-
Swithwulf (date unknown) Vacancy, 1317 taining only sixty churches administered by thirty-
Ceolmund, ,S',)7-904 Hamo de Hythe, 1319 eight priests, seven of whom were Redemptorist
C'ynefrith (date unknown) John de Sh(-ppey, 1352
Burhric, 03.'; or 934
Fathers. When he died, 18 Jan., 1909, after forty
William of W'hittlesea, years spent in a laborious episcopate, his diocese was
Beorhtsige (doubtful 1362 richly furnished with churches, schools, seminaries,
name) Thomas Trilleck, 1364 charitable institutions, answering the manifold
Daniel, 951-5 Thomas Brinton, 1373 needs of the Catholic population, then estimated
Aelfstan, c. 0(54 William de Bottisham, at 121,000. (2) Rev. Thomas F. Hickey was con-
Godwine I, 995 13X9 secrated in St. Patrick's Cathedral, Rochester, 24
Godwine II (date un- John de Bottisham, 1400 May, 1905, having been appointed coadjutor to
known) Richard Young, 1404 Bishop McQuaid.
Siweard, 1058 John Kemp, 1419 (after- Churches: The steady growth of the Catholic
Arnost, 107() wards Cardinal) population in the Diocese of Rochester, due mainly
Gundulf, 1077 John Langdon, 1421 to immigration of Irish, German, French, Polish,
 ROCHESTER 103 ROCHESTER
[talian,Lithuanian, and Ruthenian Catholics, taxed under the care of their parents, or in a boarding-
the resources at the disposal of Bishop MoQuaid, house approved by the superiors. Within two years
ivho was anxious throughout his entire episcopate to after the erection of the diocese, this plan was
supply the people with churches and priests of their realized. On his return from the Vatican Council
own nationality and language, whenever they were in 1870, St. Andrew's Preparatory Seminary was
willing and able to support them. The parishes were opened in a small building to the rear of the episcopal
not allowed to become unwieldy, but were increased residence. It has already given nearly 175 priests
m number to meet the needs and convenience of the to the diocese of Rochester. The rule has been
faithful. The problem of spiritual ministration to made to adopt no one in this diocese who has not
Catholics dwelling at watering-places in the diocese spent at least two years in St. Andrew's Seminary.
in the svimmer found a good solution in the erection Through the generosity of Mgr. H. De Regge and
of neat summer chapels. some others. Bishop McQuaid was enabled to erect
— —
Catholic Education. Elementary. The common a new building in 1880 and to enlarge it in 1889;
schools in the Diocese of Rochester at the time and in 1904 the younger priests of the diocese fur-
of its creation professed to be non-sectarian. Bishop nished him with funds to erect a fire-proof structure
McQuaid felt that they wore very dangerous to the with fitting accommodations for the work of the
Catholic child which really finds its church in the school.
school. He sought a remedy in a vigorous agitation (b) Theological. —
For many years the ecclesiastical
for the rights of Catholic parents, contributing to students of the Diocese of Rochester were sent mainly
the support of the public school system by their to the provincial seminary at Troy or to Rome and
taxes, to receive public money for the maintenance Innsbruck in Europe for their theological education.
of schools, in which their children could be educated In 1879 Bishop MoQuaid put aside a small legacy be-
with that "amount and description of religious in- queathed him as a nucleus of a fund for the erection
struction" which conscience tells them is good, of suitable buildings for a diocesan seminary. Al-
expedient, necessarj^. The failure of the State to though the fund grew slowly, the bishop would not
remedy the injustice was met with the firm command lay the first stone until nearly all the money needed
of the bishop which was put into execution as soon for the work was in hand, nor would he open the semi-
as possible throughout the diocese: "Build school- nary for students until the buildings were completed
houses thefn for the religious education of your children and paid for, and at least four professorships
as the best protest against a sj'stem of education from endowed. In April, 1887, he was able to purchase
which religion has been excluded by law." At a site on the bank of the Genesee River gorge, only
Rochester in 1868, there were 2056 children in the three miles from the cathedral. Four years later he
parochial schools of the five German churches, and began the erection of the buildings. In two years they
441 children in the schools attached to the Churches were completed, and in September, 1893, the seminary
of St. Patrick and St. Mary. Both of these had a was opened with 39 students. Applications for
select or pay school and a free, parish, or poor school, admission soon came from various parts of the United
admitting invidious distinctions very distasteful States and Canada. Four years after its establish-
to the new bishop. ment, it became evident that more room was neces-
Outside of Rochester schools were attached to a sary. A fund for an additional building was begun,
few churches of the diocese, but with a very small and in 1900 the Hall of Philosophy and Science was
attendance. These were the humble beginnings of erected with accommodations for class-rooms, library,
the admirable parochial school system, which em- and living rooms. In the following year Bishop
braces to-day practically all the CathoUo children McQuaid received a recognition for these labours
of the school age in the diocese. Not all the Catholic from Leo XIII in a Brief granting to himself and his
schools were brought to their present high degree of successors the power of conferring degrees in Philoso-
efficiency at once; it took many years and persistent phy and Theology. The Hall of Theology was
effort to accomphsh this work. The brothers gradually begun in 1907 and solemnly dedicated 20 August,
yielded their places to the sisters, who now teach 1908. The priests of the diocese founded the ninth
all the children in the Catholic schools, both boys and endowed professorship in honour of their bishop's
girls. Bishop McQuaid spared no pains in de- jubilee. An infirmary for sick students was in pro-
veloping good teachers in his own order of the Sisters cess of construction when Bishop McQuaid died.
of St. Joseph, for whom a normal training school was —
Charities. Though Catholic education was the
established. Occasional "teachers' institutes" or- primary concern of Bishop McQuaid in his diocese,
ganized for the benefit of these sisterhoods in Roches- ample provision for its charities was not lacking.
ter prepared the way for the annual conference held (1) As early as 1845 the R. C. A. Society of Rochester,
by the parochial teachers in the episcopal city since already in existence some years, was incorporated,
1904, at which the various orders meet to discuss having for its object the support of the orphan girls

educational problems and to perfect in every possible Female Orphan Asylum at Rochester
in St. Patrick's
way the parochial school system. and the support of the orphan boys sent to the Boys'
As early as 1855 the Ladies of the Sacred Heart Asylum, either at Lancaster, New York, or at Lime
transferred their convent in Buffalo to Rochester as Stone Hill near Buffalo. In 1864 St. Mary's Boys'
a more central point for their academy. About the Orphan Asylum was also established in Rochester
same time the Sisters of St. Joseph in Canandaigua under the care of the Sisters of St. Joseph, to whom also
opened St. Mary's academy for young ladies, now the Girls' Orphan Asylum was confided in 1870
Nazareth Academy attached to the new mother- on the resignation of the Charity hitherto
Sisters of
house of the order in Rochester. Advanced courses in charge. When the Auburn Orphan Asylum, in-
were also introduced in 1903 into the Cathedral school corporated in 1853, was transferred to Rochester in
under the direction of Bishop Hickey, who, in 1906, 1910, all this work was then centralized in the epis-
converted the old Cathedral Hall into a high school, copal city. Here also special provision had been
classical and commercial, open to both girls and made for the German Catholic orphans since 1866,
boys. when St. Joseph's Orphan Asylum was erected and
-n ,. .-. ^
Ecclesiastical.— (a.) Preparatory.— Believmg that placed under the care of the Sisters of Notre-Dame.
it was hard for a boy to become a
worthy priest (2) In 1873 a short-lived attempt was made to sup-
without first leading the normal life of the family plement the work of St. Mary's Orphan Asylum by
in the world, Bishop McQuaid planned his prepara-
giving the boys of suitable age an opportunity of
and acquiring a practical knowledge of farming or of a
tory ecclesiastical seminary as a free day-school
not a boarding-school, the students living at
home useful trade. A similar institution for girls flourished
 ROCHET 104 ROCHETTE
under Mother Hieronymo for some twenty years (cf. the decisions of 31 May, 1817; 17 Sept., 1722; 16
under the name of The Home of Industry which then April, 1831). However, as the rochet may be used
was changed into a home for the aged. The location by the properly privileged persons as choir-dress, it
did not prove desirable for such an institution, may be included among the liturgical vestments in the
and $1)5,000 having been raised by a bazaar, Bishop broad sense, the biretta or the cappa magna.
like
Mcl^uaid was enabled to erect St. Anne's Home for Prelates who do not belong to a religious order
the .Vgi'il, admitting men as well as women. should wear the rochet over the soutane during Mass'
'

('i) Tlie spiritual needs of another class of the des- in so far as this is convenient.
titute, tlie Catholic inmates of public eleemosynary The origin of the rochet may be traced from the
and penal institutions in the diocese, appealed strongly clerical (non-liturgical) alba or camisia, that is, the
to Bishop McQuaid, who at once became their cham- clerical linen tunic of everyday life. It was thus not
pion in the endeavour to have their religious rights re- originally distinctive of the higher ecclesiastics alone.
spected according to the guarantee of the Constitution This camisia appears first in Rome as a privileged vest-
of the State of New York. His agitation in this noble ment; that this was the case in the Christian capital
cause was crowned with success, and the State sup-
ports to-day chaplains at the State Industrial School,
Industry, at the State Reformatory, Elmira, at the
Craig Colony (state hospital for epileptics), Sonyea,
at the Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, Bath, while the
county maintains a chaplain in Rochester for its
public institutions of this kind. (4) The Catholic
sick have one of the largest and best equipped hos-
pitals in Rochester at their disposal in St. Mary's
Hospital, established by the Sisters of Charity under
Mother Hieronymo in 18.57. The Sisters of Mercy
of St. James Hospital in Hornell, and of
ha\e charge
late years the Sisters of St. Joseph have also opened
a hospital in Elmira.
St.vtistics. Priests,— 163 (6 Redemptorists)
churches with resident priests, 94; missions with
churches, 36; chajiels, 18; parishes with parochial
schools, with 20,189 pupils; academies for young
.54 Rochet of St. Thomas of Canterbury
ladies, 2 with 470 pupils (Nazareth, 352; Sacred
Heart, ll.S); theological seminary for secular clergy, as early as the ninth century is established by the
1 with 234 students (73 for the Diocese of Rochester; St. Gall catalogue of vestments. Outside of Rome
preparatory seminary, 1 with SO students; orphan the rochet remained to a great extent a vestment
asN'lums, 3 with 438 orphans (St. Patrick's, Girls', common to all clerics until the fourteenth century
110, Mary's Hoys', 204; St. Joseph's, 115);
St. (and even longer); according to various German
Home for the Aged, 1 with 145 inmates (men, 25j synodal statutes of the thirteenth and fourteenth
hospitals, 3 with 3115 inmates during year (St. centuries (Trier, Passau, Cambrai, etc.), it was worn
Mary's, Rochester, 2216; St. Joseph's, Ehnira, 463; even by sacristans. The Fourth Lateran Council
St.James, Ilornell, 436); CathoUcs, 142,263. prescribed its use for bishops who did not belong to
Cn,ic. Hull. Phil. II acta et decnin. Acta S. Suli^ III; Leonis
a religious order, both in the church and on all public
XIII Acta XVI, xxi; Catholic Directory {1868-1911); McQuaid:
Di'irui^ Idem, Pastorals in Annual Coll. for Eccl.
(fragment:ir\') ;
appearances. The name rochet (from the medieval
(1S71-1911); Idem, Pastoral (Jubilee) (1S7.)); Idem,
S(i,ilciil.-< roccus) was scarcely in use before the thirteenth cen-
P'i.-.toral(Visitation) (1.S7.S): Idem, Our Amirican Seminaries in tury. It is first met outside of Rome, where, until the
Am. Eccl. Rev. (May, 1S!I7), reprint in Smith, The Training of a
Priest, pp. xxi-xxxix: Idc.m, The Training of a Semmarij Profe^^or fifteenth century, the vestment was called camisia,
in Smith, op. rit., pp. 3li7-3.j, Idem, Christian Free .SeliooU (lsi)2), alba romana, or succa (subia). These names gradually
a reprint of Icfturea; Idi:m, Religion in Schools in .Xorth Am. ReiK yielded to rochet in Rome also. Originally, the rochet
(.\pril, ISSI); Idk.m, Riluiioas Tcneldng in Schools in Forum (Dec,
LSSfl) R, ports of Confirence.i hell l,i/ parochial teachers (1904-10).
:
reached, like the liturgical alb, to the feet, and, even
Frederick J. Zwierlein. in the fifteenth century still reached to the shins.
It was not reduced to its present length until the
Rochet, an over-tunic usually made of fine white seventeenth century.
linen (cambric; fine cotton material is also allowed), Braun, Die liturg. Gewandung im Occident u. Orient (Freiburg,
and reaching to the knees. While bearing a general 1907), 125 sqq. ; Bock, Gesch. der liturg. Gewander, II (Bonn,
1866), 329 sqq.; Rohault de Fleury, La Messe, VII (Paris,
resemblance to the surplice, it is distinguished from 1888).
that vestment by the shape of the sleeves; in the Joseph Bkaun.
surplice these are at least fairly wide, while in the
rochet they are always tight-fitting. The rochet is Rochette, D:bsir£ Raoul, usually known as
decorated with lace or embroidered borders broader
at the hem and narrower on the sleeves. To make the
— Raoul-Rochette, a French archaeologist, b. at St-
Amand (Cher), 9 March, 1789; d. in Paris, 3 June,
\'estment entirely of tulle or lace is inconvenient, as 1854. His father was a physician. He made his
is the inordinate use of plaits; in both cases, the vest-
classical studies in the lyceum of Bourges, and then
ment becomes too effeminate. The rochet is not a took up post-graduate work in the Ecole Normale
vestment pertaining to all clerics, like the surplice; Superieure in Paris. In 1810, he obtained a chair of
It is distinctive of prelates, and may
be worn by other grammar in the lyceum Louis-le-Grand, and in the
ecclesiastics only when (as, e. g., iii the case of cathe-
same year, married the daughter of the celebrated
dral chapters) the usus rochetti has been granted them
sculptor Houdon. Three years later, he was awarded
by a special papal indult. That the rochet possesses a prize by the Institute for his "Memoire sur les
no liturgieal character is clear both from the Decree
Colonies (TJrecques". In 1815, he became lecturer at
of Urban \'II prefixed to the Roman Missal, and
from the Ecole Normale and succeeded Guizot in the chair
an express decision of the Congregation of Rites
(10 of modem history at the Sorbonne. It has been often
Jan., ls52j, which declares that, in the administra-
said that he owed his rapid advancement only to
tion of the sacraments, the rochet may not be
used favouritism, because of his devotion to the ruling
as a vesHs sncrn; in tlie administration of the
sacra- power; this is not entirely true. He was a real
ments, as well as at the conferring of the tonsure
and scholar whose deep knowledge of archaeology was
the minor orders, use should be made of the surphce
admired even by his pohtical enemies. He was elected
 ROCK 105 ROCKHAMPTON
bo the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres in Biog., 8. v., incorrectly dating his departure for Rome 1813 instead
of 1818; Kelly, Life of Daniel Roek, D.D., prefixed to the
1816, and two years later, made a keeper of medals
modern Anglican ed. The Church of Out Fathers, ed. Hart and
and antiques. His appointment to the position of Frere (London, 1903), with portrait. The Edmundian, II
censor (1820) aroused the hostility of his students, who (1895), no. 8.
prevented him from delivering his lectures and caused Edwin Burton.
the course to be suspended. In 1824 he was trans-
Rockford, Diocese op (Rockpordibnsis), created
ferred to the chair of archaeology. He entered the 23 September, 1908, comprises Jo Daviess, Stephen-
Academy of Fine Arts in 1838, and was made its
son, Winnebago, Boone, McHenry, Carroll, Ogle,
perpetual secretary in 1839. Besides his memoirs for
the Institute and numerous contributions to the
DeKalb, Kane, Whiteside, Lee, and Kendall Counties
in the north-western part of the State of Illinois.
"Journal des Savants", he wrote many books, the
chief ofwhich are: "Histoire critique de I'dtablisse- The diocese has an area of 6867 sq. miles, and a Cath-
olic population of 50,000, mostly Irish and Germans
ment des colonies grecques" (Paris, 1815); "Anti-
or their descendants. The total population of the
quitds grecques du Bosphore Cimm^rien" (Paris,
twelve counties that form the diocese, according to
1822); "Lettressur la Suisse" (Paris, 1826); "Me-
the last census, is 414,872. The entire territory of
moires in^dits d' antiquity figurde grecque, 6trusque
the Diocese of Rockford was a part of the Archdiocese
et Romaine" (Paris, 1828); "Pomp6i" (Paris, 1828);
"Cours d'arch^ologie" (Paris, 1828); "Peintures
of Chicago until 23 September, 1908. The city of
Rockford has a population of 48,000; it is a manu-
antiques in^dites" (Paris, 1836).
facturing centre. The Right Reverend Peter James
Louis N. Delamaeee. Muldoon, formerly Auxiliary Bishop of Chicago, was
appointed the first Bishop of Rockford, and took
Rock, Daniel, antiquarian and ecclesiologist, possession of his see, 15 December, 1908. There are
b. at Liverpool, 31 August, 1799; d. at Kensington, in the diocese (1911), 99 secular priests, 64 churches
London, 28 November, 1871. He was educated at with resident priests, 18 missions with churches,
St. Edmund's College, Old Hall, where he studied 3 high schools, 25 parochial schools with an attend-
from April, 1813, to Dec, 1818. There he came ance of 3850, 5 hospitals, 1 maternity home, 1
under the influence of the Rev. Louis Havard from home for aged, and Mt. St. Mary's Academy for
whom he acquired his first interest in liturgy, and Girls (St. Charles) with an attendance of 84.
was the intimate companion of the future historian, Offic. Catholic Directory (1911).
Mark A. Tierney. He was then chosen as one of the J. J. Flanagan.
first students sent to reopen the English College at
Rome, where he remained till he took the degree of Rockhampton, Diocese op, in Queensland,
D.D. in 182.5. He had been ordained priest, 13 Australia. In 1862 Father Duhig visited the infant
March, 1824. On his return to London he became settlement on the banks of the Fitzroy River and
assistant priest at St. Mary's, Moorfields, till1827, celebrated the first Mass there. Father Scully came
when he was appointed domestic chaplain to John, from Brisbane to attend to the spiritual needs of the
Earl of Shrewsbury, with whom he had contracted a little congregation and in 1863 Dean Murlay was

friendship based on similarity of tastes while at Rome. appointed first resident pastor of Rockhampton,
He accordingly resided at Alton Towers, Stafford- his parish extending as far north as Cooktown and
shire, till 1840, with the exception of two years during south to Maryborough. He built the first Catholic
which Lord Shrewsbury's generosity enabled him to church in Rockhampton, a wooden edifice still stand-
stay at Rome collecting materials for his great work, ing, and for many years was the only priest to look
"Hierurgia or the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass", which after the Catholics scattered over the vast territory.
was published in 1833. He had previously published A foundation of the Sisters of Mercy from All-Hallows
two short works: " Transubstantiation vindicated Convent, Brisbane, was established in 1873, and Sister
from the strictures of the Rev. Maurice Jones" Mary de Sales Gorry, the first Queensland-born nun,
(1830), and "The Liturgy of the Mass and Common was appointed Superioress. Rockhampton remained
Vespers for Sundays" (1832). part of the Diocese of Brisbane until 1882. In 1876
In 1840 he became chaplain to Sir Robert Throck- the Holy See erected the northern portion of the
morton of Buokland in Berkshire, and while there colony into a pro-vicariate, and in 1882 made Rock-
wrote his greatest book, "The Church of Our Fathers ", hampton a see with a territory of some 350,000
in which he studies the Sarum Rite and other medie- square miles. Right Rev. Dr. Cani, a native of
val liturgical observances. This work, which has the papal states, who had had a distinguished scholas-
tic career at Rome, and former pro-vicar Apostolic
profoundly influenced liturgical study in England
and which caused his recognition as the leading au- of North Queensland, was appointed first bishop of
thority on the subject, was published in 1849 (vols. the new diocese. Bishop Cani, who was then
I and II) and 18.53-4 (vol. III). After 1840 Dr. administering the Diocese of Brisbane, was con-
Rock was a prominent member of the "Adelphi", secrated by Archbishop Vaughan in St. Mary's
an association of London priests who were working Cathedral, Sydney, 21 May, 1882, and was installed
together for the restoration of the hierarchy. When in his temporary cathedral at Rockhampton on 11
this object was achieved, he was elected one of the June following.
first canons of Southwark (1852). Shortly after, he In the new diocese there were about 10,000 Catho-
lics, 6 or 7 priests, 8 Catholic schools, and 1 orphan-
ceased parochial work, and having resided succes-
sively at Newick, Surrey (1854-7), and Brook Green, age. Bishop Cani added to the small number of
Hammersmith (1857-64), he went to live near the priests,purchased sites for new churches, and acquired
South Kensington Museum in which he took the 3000 acres of fertile land near Rockhampton for a
central orphanage which he had built and placed
keenest interest and to which he proved of much
service. His "Introduction to the Catalogue of under the care of the Sisters of Mercy. His great
work was the erection of St. Joseph's Cathedral, a
Textile Fabrics" in that Museum has been separately
He also magnificent stone edifice which he did not live to see
reprinted (1876) and is of great authority.
dedicated. After a strenuous episcopate of sixteen
contributed frequent articles to the Archaeological
years Dr. Cani died, 3 March, 1898. His great vir-
Journal, the Dublin Review, and other periodicals.
tues were recognized even by those outside the
For many years before his death he held the honour-
Church. Humility and simplicity of life, love of the
able position of President of the Old Brotherhood
There is an oil poor and orphans were his special characteristics.
of the English Secular Clergy.
painting of him at St. Edmund's College, Old Hall. He was succeeded in Rockhampton by Right Rev.
GiLLOW, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath., a. v.; Sutton in Diet. Nat. Dr. Higgins, a native of Co. Meath, Ireland, and now
 ROCOCO lOG ROCOCO

Bishop of Ballarat. Dr. Higgins studied May- m seemed too coarse and heavy, the lines too straight
nooth, was subsequently President of the Diocesan and stiff, the whole impression too weighty and forced.
Seminary at Navan, and m
1888 was chosen auxihary The small and the light, sweeps and flourishes, caught
the public taste; in the interiors the architectonic had
bishop to the Cardinal Archbishop of Sydney with
to yield to the picturesque, the curious, and the whim-
the title of titular Bishop of Antifelle. He had
There develops a style for elegant parlours,
zealously laboured in the Archdiocese of Sydney for
sical.
dainty sitting-rooms and boudoirs, drawing-rooms
over ten years, when appointed to Rockhampton.
He tra^'(rsed his new diocese from end to end, and libraries, in which walls, ceiling, furniture, and
gaugtnl wants, attracted priests to his aid, placed
its
works of metal and porcelain present one ensemble
of sportive, fantastic, and sculptured forms. The
students for the mission in various ecclesiastical col-
horizontal lines are almost completely superseded
IcKi's, introdured new religious teaching orders,
built and dedicated churches, convents, and schools by curves and interruptions, the vertical varied at
least by knots; everywhere shell-like curves appear
in several centres, bringing the blessings of religion
in a hundred forms, pronged, blazed, and sharpened
and Christian education to the children of the back-
blocks. to a cusp; the natural construction of the walls is
new cathedral concealed behind
On l.'j October, 1899, the beautiful
was dedicated by the Cardinal Archbishop of Sydney thick stucco-
ramework on
assisted by several other distinguished Austrahan
f ;

the ceiling per-

prelates in the presence of a great concourse of people.
haps a glimpse of
The remains of Dr. Cani were transferred thither.
Dr. Higgins visited Rome and Ireland in 1904, and
Olympus en-
chants the view
returned" with renewed energy to carry on his great
all executed in a
work. On the death of Dr. Moore, Bishop of Bal-
beautiful white or
larat, ^'ictoria, he was translated to that important
in bright colour
Sec, where he has ever since laboured with charac-
The present Bishop tones. All the
teristic zeal and devotedness.
Rockhampton is Right Rev. Dr. James Duhig, simple laws and
of
rules being set
born at Broadford, Co. Limerick, Ireland, 1870. Dr.
aside in favour of
Duhig emigrated from Ireland with his family at the
free and enchant-
age of thirteen, studied with the Christian Brothers
ing imaginative-
at Brisbane and at the Irish College, Rome, was
ness, tlie fancy re-
ordained priest, 19 Sept., 1896, and, returning to
c e i v c d all the
Queensland in the following year, was appointed
In igO.") he was greater incentive
to a curacy in the parish of Ipswiih.
appointed administrator of St. Stephen's Cathedral, to activity, and
Brisbane, and recei\'C(l the briefs of his appointment the senses were
the more keenly
to the See of Rockhampton. At present (1911) there
are in the Diocese of Rockhampton: about 28,000
requisitioned.
Catholics; 19 missions or districts; 30 priests (4
Everything vigor-
of whom belong to the Marist Congregation, who ous is banned,
have 1 house in the diocese); 12 Christian Brothers; every suggestion
of earnestness;
I'lO nuns; and 26 Cathohc schools, attended by about Rococo DooRW.\Y AT Toulouse,
5000 children. nothing disturbs France
J. Duhig. the shallow re-
pose of distinguished banality; the sportively grace-
—
Rococo Style, This style received its name in ful and light appears side by side with the elegant
the nineteenth century from French emigres, who and the ingenious. The sculptor Bouchardon repre-
used the word to designate in whimsical fashion the sented Cupid engaged in carving his darts of love
shell work style {style rocaille), then regarded as Old from the club of Hercules; this serves as an ex-
Prankish, as opposed to the succeeding more simple cellent symbol of tlie Rococo style —
the demigod is
styles. Essentially, it is the same kind of art and transformed into the soft child, the bone-shattering
decoration as flourished in France during the regency club becomes the heart-scathing arrows, just as
following Louis Xl\''s death, and remained in fashion marble is so freely replaced by stucco. Effeminacy,
for about forty years (1715-50). It might be termed softness, and caprice attitudinize before us. In
the climax or degeneration of the Baroque, which, this connexion, the French sculptors, Robert le
coupled with French grace, began towards the end Lorrain, Michel Clodion, and Pigalle may be men-
of the reign of Louis XI^' to convert grotesques into tioned in passing. For small plastic figures of gypsum,
curves, lines, and bands (Jean Berain, 1638-1711). clay, biscuit, porcelain (Sevres, Meissen), the gay
As its effect was loss pronounced on architectural Rococo is not unsuitable; in wood, iron, and royal
construction than elsewhere, it is not so much a real metal, it has created some valuable works. How-
style as a new kind of decoration, which culminates ever, confessionals, pulpits, altars, and even facades
in the resolution of architectural forms of the interiors lead ever more into the territory of the architectonic,
(pilasters and arrhitraves) by arbitrary ornamenta- which does not easily combine with the curves of
tion after the fashion of an unregulated, enervated Rococo, the light and the petty, with forms whose
Baroque, while also influencing the arrangement of whence and wherefore baffle inquiry. Even as mere
space, the construction of the facades, the portals, decoration on the walls of the interiors the new forms
the forms of the doors and windows. The Rococo could maintain their ground only for a few decades.
style was rfadily received in Germany, where it In France the sway of Rococo practically ceases with
was still further pervr-rted into the arbitrary, un- Oppenord (d. 1742) and Meissonier (d. 1750). In-
symmetrical, and unnatural, and remained in favour augurated in some rooms in the Palace of Versailles,
until 1770 (or even longer); it found no welcome in it unfolds its magnificence in several Parisian buildings
England. In Italy a tendency towards the Rococo (especially the Hotel Soubise). In Germany French
Bt.\le is evinced by the Borromini, Guarini, and others. and German artists (Cuvillics, Neumann, Knobels-
Tiie French themselves speak only of the Style dorff, etc.) effected the dignified equipment of the
Ri'gence and Louis XV, which, however, is by no Amalienburg near Munich, and the castles of Wiirz-
means confined to this one tendency. burg, Potsdam, Charlottenburg, Bruhl, Bruchsal,
To a race grown effeminate the Baroque forms Schonbrunn, etc. In France the style remained some-
 RODEZ 107 RODEZ
what more reserved, since the ornaments were mostly requirements of mere beauty of form. Rococo ia
of wood, or, after the fashion of wood-carving, less indeed really empty, solely a pleasing play of the
robust and naturalistic and less exuberant in the fancy. In the sacristy (for presses etc.) and ante-
mixture of natural with artificial forms of all kinds chambers it is more suitable than in the church it-
(e. g. plant motives, stalactitio
representations, gro-
tesques, masks, implements of various professions,
self — at least so far as its employment in conspicuous
places is concerned.
badges, pamtmgs, precious stones). As elements The Rococo style accords very ill with the solemn
of the beautiful France retained, to a greater extent office of the monstrance, the tabernacle, and the altar,
1,han Germany, the unity of the whole scheme of and even of the pulpit. The naturalism of certain
decoration and the symmetry of its parts. Belgian pulpits, in spite or perhaps on account of
This style needs not only decorators, goldsmiths, their artistic character, has the same effect as have
and other technicians, but also painters. The outspoken Rococo creations. The purpose of the
Frencli painters of this period reflect most truly the confessional and the baptistery would also seem to
moral depression dating from the time of Louis XIV, demand more earnest forms. In the case of the
even the most celebrated among them confining them- larger objects, the sculpture of Rococo forms either
selves to social portraits of high society and de- seems petty, or, if this pettiness be avoided, resem-
picting "gallant festivals", with their informal, bles Baroque. The phantasies of this style agree ill
frivolous, theatrically or modishly garbed society. with the lofty and broad walls of the church. How-
ever, everything must be decided according to the
object and circumstances; the stalls in the cathedral
of Mainz elicit not only our approval but also our
admiration, while the celebrated privileged altar of
Vierzehnheiligen repels us both by its forms and
its plastic decoration. There are certain Rococo
chahces that at the monastery of Einsiedeln)
(like
which are, as one might say, decked out in choice
festive array; there are others, which are more or
less misshapen owing to their bulging curves or figures.
Chandeliers and lamps may also be disfigured by
obtrusive shellwork or want of all symmetry, or
may amid great decorativeness be kept within
reasonable limits. The material and technic are
also of consequence in Rococo. Woven materials,
wood-carvings, and works in plaster of Paris are
evidently less obtrusive than works in other materials,
Rococo Decoration fkom a Chateau near Paris
when they employ the sportive Rococo. Iron (es-
The "beautiful sensuality" is effected by masterly pecially in railings) and bronze lose their coldness and
technique, especially in the colouring, and to a great hardness, when animated by the Rococo style; in
extent by quite immoral licences or mythological the case of the latter, gilding may be used with ad-
nudities as in loose or indelicate romances. As for vantage. Gilding and painting belong to the regular
^A'atteau (1684-1721), the very titles of his works— means through which this style, under certain cir-
e. g. Conversation, Breakfast in the Open Air, Rural cumstances, enchants the eye and fancy. All things
Pleasures, Itahan or French Comedians, Embark- considered, we may say of the Rococo style ^as has —
—
ment for the Island of Cythera indicate the spirit not unreasonably been said of the Baroque and of the
and tendency of his art. Add thereto the figures in Renaissance —
that it is very apt to introduce a
fashionable costume slim in head, throat, and feet, worldly spirit into the church, even if we overlook
in unaffected pose, represented amid enchanting, rural the figural accessories, which are frequently in no
scenery, painted in the finest colours, and we have a way conducive to sentiments of devotion, and are
picture of the high society of the period which beheld incompatible with the sobriety and greatness of the
Louis XV and the Pompadour. Frangois Boucher architecture and with the seriousness of sacred func-
(1703-70) is the most celebrated painter of ripe Rococo. tions.
For the church Rococo may be, generally speaking, Ornements Louis XV
et du style Rocaille, reproduUs d'aprks les

compared with worldly church music. Its lack of originaux (Paris, 1890) Recueil des asuvres de G. M. Oppenord
;

(Paris, 1888) Recueil des oeuvres de J. A, Meissonier (Paris, 1888)

simplicity, earnestness, and repose is evident, while
;

GurLitt, Das Barock- u. Rokokoornament Deutschlands (Berlin,

its obtrusive artificiality, unnaturalness, and triv- 1885-9) :DoHME, Barock- u. Rokoko-Architektur; Jessen, Das
iality have a distracting effect. Its softness and Ornament des Rokoko (Leipzig, 1894).
pettiness likewise do not become the house of God. G. GlETMANN.
However, shorn of its most grievous outgrowths, it
may have been less distracting during its proper Rodez, Diocese of (Ruthen^), was united to
epoch, since it then harmonized with the spirit of the Diocese of Cahors by the Concordat of 1802,
the age. A development of Baroque, it will be found and again became an episcopal see by the Concordat
a congruous decoration for Baroque churches. In of 1817 and Bull of 1822, having jurisdiction over:
general it makes a vast difference whether the style (1) the ancient Diocese of Rodez with the exception
is used with moderation in the finer and more in- of the deanery of Saint Antonin, incorporated with
genious form of the French masters, or is carried to the Diocese of Montauban; (2) the ancient Diocese
extremes with the consistency of the German. The of Vabres; (3) a few scattered communes of the
French artists seem ever to have regarded the beauty Diocese of Cahors. The Diocese of Rodez corre-
of the whole composition as the chief object, while sponds exactly to the Department of Aveyron (for-
the German laid most stress on the bold vigour of merly Rouergue). It was suffragan of Bourges until
the lines; thus, the lack of symmetry was never so 1676, then of Albi, and has again been suffragan of
exaggerated in the works of the former. In the Albi since 1822. Modern tradition attributes to St.
church Rococo may at times have the charm of Martial the foundation of the church of Rodez and
prettiness and may please by its ingenious technic, the sanctuary of the Blessed Virgin at Ceignac,
provided the objects be small and subordinate a for according to Cardinal Bourret, the church of
credence table with cruets and plate, a vase, a choir Rodez honoured St. Martial as early as the sixth cen-
desk, lamps, key and lock, railings or balustrade, do tury (see Limoges). There were bishops of Rodez
not too boldly challenge the eye, and fulfil all the before 675, as Sidonius Apollinaris mentions that the
 RODKZ 108 RODEZ
Goths left it at that date without bishops. Amantius, this order of Aubrac adopted the rule of St. Augustine
who ruled about the end of the fifth century, is the in 1162.
first bishop mentioned. Among others are: S. The Diocese of Rodez is famous also through the
Quintianus who assisted at the Councils of Agde Abbey of Conques and the cult of Sainte Foy. Some
(506) and Orleans (511), afterwards Bishop of Cler- Christians, flying from the Saracens about 730, sought
mont; S. Dalmatius (524-80); S. Gausbert (tenth a refuge in the "Val Rocheux" of the Dourdou and
century), probably a Bishop of Cahors; Jean de built an oratory there. In 790 the hermit Dadon
Cardaillae (1371-9); Patriarch of Alexandria, who made this his abode and aided by Louis the Pious,
fought against English rule; Blessed Francis then King of Aquitaine, founded an abbey, which
d'Estaing (1501-29), ambassador of Louis XII to Louis named Conques. In 838 Pepin, King of Aqui-
Juluis II; Louis Avelly (1664-6) who wrote the life taine, gave the monastery of Figeac to Conques.
of St. Vincent of Paul; Joseph Bourret (1871-96), Between 877 and 883 the monks carried off the body
made Cardinal in 1S03. The Benedictine Abbey of of the youthful martyr Ste-Foy from the monastery
founded in 862 by Raymond I, Count of
\''abres, of Sainte Foy to Conques, where it became the object
Toulouse, was raised to episcopal rank in 1317, and of a great pilgrimage. Abbot Odolric built the abbey
its diocesan territory was taken from the south- church between 1030 and 1060; on the stonework over
eastern portion of the Diocese of Rodez. Some the doorway is carved the most artistic representation
in France of the Last Judgment. Abbot Begon
(1099-1118) enriched Conques with a superb rel-
iquary of beaten gold and cloisonnfe enamels of a

ii. jLi
4
Hn
iiiiii.
kind extremely rare in France. Pascal II gave him
permission for the name of Ste-Foy to be inserted in
the Canon of the Mass after the names of the Roman
virgins. At this time Conques, with Agen and
Schelestadt in Alsace, was the centre of the cult of

AI ^Kn H- '^M^
JMjlTlrtv,v<inl
Ji^mMFnni^^fiti'*^ Ste. Foy which soon spread to England, Spain, and
iF^x^^H.'),
m^guUSaj^^^feJ^^Hw' America where many towns bear the name of Santa
^R^jSPPr The statute of Ste-Foy seated, which dated
^m
'^wWrggg »m F^.
from the tenth century, was originally a small wooden
m one co-\'ered with gold leaf. In time, gems, enamels,
and precious stones were added in such quantities
that it is a living treatise on the history of the gold-
'm J^ ir-n. smiths art in France between the eleventh and six-

lHH ri^
9k. jL^^ ji-i
1 1
1
teenth centuries. It was known during the Middle
Ages as "Majesty de Sainte Foy". The shrine en-
closing the relics of the Saint, which in 1590 was hid-

Kg den in the masonry connecting the pillars of the

choir, was found in 1875, repaired, transferred to the
cathedral of Rodez for a novena, and brought back
to Conques, a distance of 25 miles, on the shoulders
of the clergy.
Among Saints specially honoured in the Diocese

wSf^ The Cathedral, Rodez

scholars hold that within the limits of the modem
1 of Rodez and Vabrea are: S. Antoninus of Pamiers,
Apostle of the Rouergue (date uncertain) S. Gratus
;

and S. Ansutus, martyrs (fourth century); S. Naama-

tius, deacon and confessor (end of fifth century);
Ste. Tarsicia, grand-daughter of Clothaire I and of
Diocese of Rodez there existed in ilerovingian times Ste-Radegunda, who retired to the Rouergue to lead
the See of Arisitum which, according to Mgr Duchesne, an ascetic life (sixth century); S. Africanus, wrongly
was in the neighbourhood of Alais. styled Bishop of Comminges, who died in the Rouer-
During the Miiidle Ages the Bishop of Rodez held gue (sixth century); S. Hilarianus, martyred by the
temporal dominion over that portion of the town Saracens in the time of Charlemagne (eighth and
known as the Cite, while in the eleventh century the ninth century); S. George, a monk in the Diocese
Bourg became the County of Rodez. The cathedral of Vabres, afterwards Bishop of Lodeve (877); S.
of Rodez (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) is a Guasbert, founder and first abbot of the monastery
beautiful Gothic building, famous for its belfry of Montsalvy in the modern Diocese of St. Flour
(1510-26) and unique rood-beam. It was spared (eleventh century). Among natives of the diocese
during the Revolution for dedication to Marat. The are: Cardinal Bernard of Milhau, Abbot of St.
town of Milhau adopted Calvinism in 1534, and in Victor's at Marseilles in 1063, and legate of Gregory
1.373 and lfj20 was the scene of two large assemblies VII; Theodatus de Gozon (d. 1353) and John of
of Prote.stant deputies. In 1629 Milhau and Saint- La Valetta (1494-1568), grand masters of the order
Afrique, another Protestant stronghold, were taken of St. John of Jerusalem; the former is famous for
and dismantled bj' Louis XIII. In 1628 a pest at his victory over the dragon of Rhodes, the latter for
\'illefranche carricil off SOOO inhabitants within six his heroic defence of Malta; Frassinous (1765-
months; Father Ambroise, a Franciscan, and the 1841), preacher and minister of worship under the
chief of police Jean dc Pomayrol saved the lives of Restoration; Bonald (1754-1840) and LaromiguiSre
many little cliildren by causing them to be suckled (1736-1837), philosophers; Affre (1793-1848), born
by goats. The Cistercian .-Vbbeys of Silbanes, at St. Rome de Tarn and slain at the Barricades as
Beaulieu, Loc-Dieu, Bonneval, and Bonnecombe Archbishop of Paris. The chief shrines of the diocese
were model-farms during the Middle Ages. M- are: Notre Dame de Ceignac, an ancient shrine re-
tackeil by brigands in the Rouergue country on his built and enlarged in 1455, which over 15,000 pilgrims
way to Santiago di Compnstella, .\dalard, Msrount of visit annually; Notre Dame du Saint Voile at
Flanders, erected in 1031 a monastery known as the Coupiac, another ancient shrine; Notre Dame des
Dumerie d'Aubrar, a special order of priests, knights, Treize Pierres at Villefranche, a pilgrimage dating
lay brothers, ladies, and la>' sisters for the care and from 1509.
protection of travellers. At Milhau, Rodez, Xazac, Before the application of the Associations' Law in
and Bozouls, hospitals, styled "Commanderies", of 1901, there were in the Diocese of Rodez, Capuchins,
 RODRIGUES 109 ROE
Jesuits, Trappists, Peres Blancs, Premonstratensians, Rodriguez, Alonso, b. at Valladolid, Spain, 1526;
Fathers of Picpus, Sulpicians, Clerics of St. Victor, d. at Seville 21 February, 1616. When twenty years
and many congregations of teaching brothers. This of age he entered the Society of Jesus, and after com-
diocese furnishes more missionaries than any other pleting his studies taught moral theology for twelve
in France. Of the numerous congregations for women years at the College of Monterey, and subsequently
which had their origin there, the principal are: filled the posts of master of novices for twelve more
affiliations of the Sisters of St. Francis of Sales, known years, of rector for seventeen years, and of spiritual
as the Union, teaching orders founded in 1672, 1698, father at Cordova for eleven years. As master of
1739, 1790, with mother-houses at St-Geniez, novices he had under his charge Francis Suarez, the
d'Olt, Bozouls, Lavernhe, Auzits; the Sisters of St. celebrated theologian. Alonso's characteristics in
Joseph, founded in 1682 for teaching and district these offices were care, diligence, and charity. He
nursing, with mother-house at Marcillac, and other was a religious of great piety and candour, hating all
sisters of the same name, united in 1822, 1824, 1856, pride and ostentation. It was said of him by those
with mother-houses at Milhau, Villecomtal, Salles- who were personally acquainted with him, that his
la-Source; the Sisters of the Holy Family, a teaching character and virtues were accurately depicted in
and nursing order, founded in 1816 by Emilie de "The Practice of Christian and Religious Perfection",
Rodat, with mother-house at Villefranche and many published at Seville, 1609. This work is based on the
convents throughout the diocese; the Minim Sisters material which he collected for his spiritual exhorta-
of the Sacred Heart of Mary founded in 1844 by Mile. tions to his brethren, and published at the request of
Chauchard, with mother-house at Cru^jouls, for the his superiors. Although the book thus written was
care of the sick and children of the working classes; primarily intended for the use of his religious brethren,
two branches of Dominican Sisters, teaching orders, yet he destined it also for the profit and edification of
founded in 1843 and 1849 with mother-houses at other religious and of laymen in the world. Of set
Gramond and Bor-et-Bar; the Sisters of the Union purpose it avoids the loftier flights of mysticism and
of Ste-Foy, teaching and nursing nuns, founded in all abstruse speculation. It is a book of practical
1682 with mother-house at Rodez. At the close of instructions on all the virtues which go to make up the
the nineteenth century the religious congregations perfect Christian life, whether lived in the cloister or in
of the diocese had charge of 75 nurseries; 1 institute the world. It became popular at once, and it is as
for the deaf and dumb; 3 orphanages for boys; 13 much used to-day by all classes of Christians as it was
orphanages for girls; 2 houses of rescue; 2 houses of when it first became known. More than twenty-five
mercy; 1 economic bakery; 83 houses of religious editions of the original Spanish have been issued, be-
women devoted to the care of the sick in their own sides extracts and abridgments. More than sixty edi-
homes; 3 hospitals. At the end of 1909 the diocese tions have appeared in French in seven different
had a population of 377,299, 51 parishes, 617 auxiliary translations, twenty in Italian, at least ten in German,
parishes, 287 curacies, and 1200 priests. and eight in Latin. An English translation from the
Gallia Christiana, Nova (1715), I, 195-234; Instrumenta, 49-55, French by Fr. Antony Hoskins, S.J., was printed at
203; Duchesne, Fastes Episcopaux, II, 39^1; Sicard, Ruthena St. Omer in 1612. The best known English transla-
Christiana, ed. Maibonabe in Memoires de la society des lettres,
sciences et arts de I'Aveyron, XIV (Rodez, 1893), 331-447; BouR-
tion, often reprinted, is that which first appeared in
RET. Documents sur les origines chretiennes de Rouergue. Saint London, 1697, from the French of Abb6 Regnier des
Martial (Rodez, 1902) ; Servieres, Les Saints du Rouergue Marais. P. O. Shea issued in New York an edition
(Rodez, 1872) Idem, Histoire de VEglise du Rouergue (Rodez,
adapted to general use in 1878. The book has been
;

1875); BouiLLET AND Servi^res, Sainte Foy vi^rge et martyre

(Rodez, 1900) Grimaldi, Les B^nifices du Diocese de Rodez avant
; translated into nearly all the European languages and
la Revolution de 1789 (Rodez, 1906); DE Marlavagne, Histoire into many of those of the East. No other work of the
de la cathedrale de Rodez (Rodez, 1876); Bousqcet, Tableau
chronologique et biograph. des cardinaux, archeviques et ivSques ori- author was published. Gilmary Shea left a translation
ginaires du Rouergue (Rodez, 1850); Calmet, L'abbaye de Vabres of the work which has never been published.
et son erection en eviche in Ann. de St, Louis des Frangais (1898). CoRDARA, Historice Societatis Jesu: Pars Sexta, I (Rome, 1750)
Georges Goyatj. De Gtjilhermy, MSnologe de la C. de J., Assistance d'Espagne,
I (Paris, 1902), 321; a short life is prefixed to the English trans-
lation of The Practice of Christian and Religious Perfection (Dub-
Rodrigues Ferreira, Alexandre, a Brazilian lin, 1861); SoMMEHVOQEL, Bibl, de la C. de J., VI (Paris, 1895).

natural scientist and explorer, b. at Bahia in 1756; T. Slater.

d. at Lisbon in 1815. He was sent to Portugal for Rodriguez, Joao (Gieam, Girao, Giron, Roiz),
his training and there studied at the University of
missionary and author, b. at Alcochete in the Dio-
Coimbra. After taking his degrees, he taught nat-
ural history subjects for a time at his Alma Mater,
cese of Lisbon in 1558; d. in Japan in 1633. He
entered the Society of Jesus on 16 December, 1576,
until in 1778 he was called to Lisbon to work in the
and in 1583 began his missionary labours in Japan.
Museo da Ajuda. He devoted his time for the next His work was facilitated by his winning the esteem
five years to cataloguing the various specimens con-
of the Emperor Taicosama. He studied the Japanese
tained in the museum, and to the writing of learned
language ardently, and is particularly known for his
monographs and reports. As a result of his efforts efforts to make it accessible to the Western nations.
he was elected a Corresponding Member of the His Japanese grammar ranks among the important
Academy of Sciences at Lisbon. The Portuguese linguistic productions of the Jesuit missionaries.
Government empowered him to engineer a journey Published at Nagasaki in 1604 under the title "Arte
of exploration for scientific purposes in the interior
da lingoa de Japam", it appeared in 1624 in an
of his native land. He entered upon this expedition abridged form at Macao: "Arte breve da lingoa
in 1783 and spent nine years in it. First examining
japoa"; from the manuscript of this abridgement
the Island of Marajo, since important for the produc- preserved in the National Library in Paris, the
tion of rubber, he crossed to the mainland, and Asiatic Society prepared a French edition of the work
followed the course of the Amazon and its tributaries, "Elements de la grammaire japonaise par le P.
studying the natives, their languages and customs, Rodriguez" (Paris, 1825). Rodriguez compiled also
and the fauna and flora of a vast region. On account a Japanese-Portuguese dictionary (Nagasaki, 1603),
of the energy and with which he conducted his
skill
later adapted to the French by Pages (Paris, 1862).
investigations he became known as the Brazilian R^MUSAT, in iVouti. melanges asiat., I (Paris, 1829), 354-57;
Humboldt. From 1793 until his death he was in Gansen, in Buchberger's Handlexikon, s. v.
Lisbon, acting as Director of the Gabinete de His- N. A. Weber.
toria Natural and of the Jardim Botanico. Most
of the records of his Brazilian explorations seem to Roe, Bartholomew (Venerable Alban), English
have passed from view. J. D. M. Ford. Benedictine martyr, b. in Suffolk, 1583; executed at
 ROERMOND 110 ROGATION
Tyburn, 21 Jan., 1641. Educated in Suffolk and at of Calvinism in the Netherlands. In Roermond the
Cambridge, he became converted through a visit to firstbishop, Lindanus, who was consecrated in
1563
a Cathohc prisoner at St. Albans which unsettled his could not enter upon his duties until 1569; notwith-
religious views. He was admitted as a convictor into standing his zeal and charitableness he was obliged
the Enghsh College at Douai, entered the English to retire on account of the revolutionary movement-
Benedictine monastery at Dieulward where he was he died Bishop of Ghent. The episcopal see remained
professed in 1612, and, after ordination, went to the vacant until 1591; at later periods also, on account
mission in 1615. From 1618 to 1623 he was impris- of the political turmoils, the see was repeatedly
oned in the New Prison, Maiden Lane, whence he was vacant. In 1801 the diocese was suppressed; the
banished and went to the English Benedictine house at last bishop, Johann Baptist Baron van Velde He
Douai but returned to England after four months. He Melroy, died in 1824.
was again arrested in 1625, and was imprisoned for two WTien in 1839 the Duchy of Limburg became once
months at St Albans, then in the Fleet whence he was
. more a part of the Netherlands, Gregory XVI sepa-
frequently liberated on parole, and finally in Newgate. rated (2 June, 1840) that part of Limburg which had
He was condemned a few days before his execution been incorporated in the Diocese of Louvain in 1802
under the statute 27 Eliz. c. 2, for being a priest. and added to this territory several new parishes which
With him suffered Thomas Greene, aged eighty, who had formerly belonged to the Diocese of Aachen, and
on the mission had taken the name of Rejmolds. He formed thus the Vicariate Apostolic of Roermond
was probably descended from the Greenes of Great over which the parish priest of Roermond, Johann
Milton, Oxfordshire, and the Reynoldses of Old August Paredis, was placed as vicar Apostolic and
Stratford, Warwickshire, and was ordained deacon at titular Bishop of Hirene. In 1841 a seminary for
Reims in 1590, and priest at Seville. He had lived priests was established in the former Carthusian
under sentence of death for fourteen years, and was monastery of Roermond, where the celebrated
executed without fresh trial. They were drawn on Dionysius the Carthusian had been a monk. Upon
the same hurdle, where they heard each other's con- the re-establishment of the Dutch hierarchy in 1853
fessions, and were hanged simultaneously on the same the Mcariate-Apostolic of Roermond was raised to a
gibbet amidst great demonstrations of popular sym- bishopric and made a suffragan of Utrecht. The first
pathy. bishop of the new diocese was Paredis. In 1858 a
GiLLOw, Bibl. Did. Eng. Cath., Ill, 36; V, 437; Challoneb, cathedral chapter was formed; in 1867 a synod was
Missionary Priests, II, nos. 166, 167; Pollen, Acts of the English
Martyrs (London, 1891), 339^3. held, the first since 1654; in 1876 the administration
John B. Waineweight. of the church property was transferred, by civil law,
to the bishop. During the Kullurkampf in Germany
Roennond, Diocese of (Rue^emundensis), in a number of ecclesiastical dignitaries driven out of
Holland, suffragan of Utrecht. It includes the Prov- Prussia found a hospitable welcome and opportunities
ince of Limburg, and in 1909 had 3.32,201 inhabitants, for further usefulness in the Diocese of Roermond;
among whom were 325,000 Catholics. The diocese among these churchmen were Melohers of Cologne,
has a cathedral chapter with 9 canons, 14 deaneries, Brinkmann of Miinster, and Martin of Paderborn.
173 parishes, 197 churches with resident priests, an Bishop Paredis was succeeded by Franziskus Boreman
ecclesiastical seminary at Roermond, a preparatory (1886-1900), on whose death the present bishop, Joseph
seminary for boys at Rolduo, about 70 Catholic Hubertus Drehmann, was appointed.
primary schools, 2 Catholic preparatory gymnasia, 1 Gallia Christiana, V, 371 aqq. Neerlandia cathoHca seu
;

training college for male teachers, 24 schools for phil- provincicB Utrajectensis historia et conditio (Utrecht, 1888), 263-
osophical, theological, and classical studies, 35 higher 335; Albers, Geschiedenis van het herstel der hierarchie in de
Nederlanden (Nymwegen, 1893-4) ; Meebdinck, Roermond in
schools for girls, about 60 charitable institutions, 45 de Middeleeuwen; Onze Pius Almanak. Jaarboek voorde Katholiken
houses of religious (men) with about 2400 members, van Nederland (Alkmaar, 1910), 338 sqq.
and 130 convents with 3900 sisters. Among the Joseph Lins.
orders and congregations of men in the diocese are:
Jesuits, the Society of the Divine Word of Steyl, Rogation Da.ys, days of prayer, and formerly also
Brothers of the Immaculate Conception, Redemptor- of fasting, instituted by the Church to appease God's
ists, Marists, Reformed Cistercians, Dominicans, anger at man's transgressions, to ask protection in
Benedictines, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Brothers calamities, and to obtain a good and bountiful harvest,
of Mercy, Poor Brothers of St. Francis, Conventuals known in England as "Gang Days" and "Cross
Calced Carmelites, Missionaries of Africa, Priests of Week", and in Germany as Bittage, Bittwoche, Kreuz-
the Sac;rcd Heart of Jesus, Brothers of the Seven woche. The Rogation Days were highly esteemed in
Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Brothers of St. England and King Alfred's laws considered a theft
Francis, Brothers of St. Joseph, the Society of Mary committed on these days equal to one committed on
the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Sunday or a higher Church Holy Day. Their cele-
Congregation of the Divine Spirit, and the Congrega- bration continued even to the thirteenth year of
tion of Missions. Among the female orders and con- Elizabeth, 1571, when one of the ministers of the
gregations are: Benedictines, Brigittines, Ursulines Established Church inveighed against the Roga-
Sisters of St. Charles Borromeo, Sisters of Tilburg' tion processions, or Gang Days, of Cross Week.
Sisters of the Child Jesus, Sisters of St. The ceremonial may be found in the Council of
Francis'
Sisters of the Divine Providence, Sisters of Mercy
etc! Clovesho (Thorpe, Ancient Laws, I, 64; Hefele,
The Diocese of Roermond was established in 1559 Conciliengeschichte, III, 564).
during the reign of Philip II, when after long and The Rogation Days are the 25th of April, called
difficult negotiations with the papacv the dioceses
of Major, and the three days before the feast of the
the Netherlands were reorganized. By these negotia- Ascension, called Minor. The Major Rogation,
tions all jurisdiction of foreign bishops, e.
g. that of which has no connexion with the feast of St. Mark
the Archbishoj) of Cologne, came to an end. In this (fixed for this date much later) seems to be of very
way the Diocese of Roermond, the boundaries of early date and to have been introduced to counteract
which w'ere settled in 1561, became suffragan of
a,
the ancient Robigalia, on which the heathens held
Mpchhn, The reorganization of the dioceses, how- processions and supplications to their gods. St.
ever, met with violent opposition, partly from bish-
Gregory the Great (d. 604) regulated the already exist-
ops to whose territories the new dioceses had formerly ing custom. The Minor Rogations were introduced
belonged, partly from a number of abbots whose
by St. ^Lamertus, Bishop of Vienne, and were after-
abbe.\-s were incorporated in the new bishoprics.
wards ordered by the Fifth Council of Orleans, which
Much difficulty was also caused by the rapid growth was held in 511, and then approved by Leo III (795-
 ROGATISTS 111 ROGER
816). This is asserted by St. Gregory of Tours in It has been presumed that Robert Bacon, O.P., was
"Hist. Franc", II, 34, by St. Avitus of Vienne in his Roger's brother; more probably he was his uncle.
"Horn, de Rogat." (P. L., LVIII, 563), by Ado of Roger made his higher studies at Oxford and Paris,
Vienne (P. L., CXXIII, 102), and by the Roman and was later professor at Oxford (Franciscan school).
Martyrology. Sassi, in "Archiepiscopi Mediolanen- He was greatly influenced by his Oxonian masters
ses", ascribes their introduction at an earlier date to and friends Richard Fitzacre and Edmund Rich, but
St. Lazarus. This is also held by the Bollandist especially by Robert Grosseteste and Adam Marsh,
Henschen in "Acta SS.", II, Feb., 522. The liturgical both professors at the Franciscan school, and at Paris
celebration now consists in the procession and the by the Franciscan Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt
Rogation Mass. For 25 April the Roman Missal (see Schlund in "Arohiv. Francisc. Histor.", IV, 1911,
gives the rubric: "If the feast of St. Mark is trans- pp.436 sqq.). They
ferred, the procession is not transferred. In the rare created m
him a
case of 25 April being Easter Sunday [1886, 1943], predilection for
the procession is held not on Sunday but on the positive sciences,
Tuesday following". languages, and
The order to be observed in the procession of the
Major and Minor Rogation is given in the Roman
Ritual, title X, oh. iv. After the antiphon "Exurge
Domine", the Litany of the Saints is chanted and
each verse and response is said twice. After the verse
"Sancta Maria" the procession begins to move. If
necessary, the litany may be repeated, or some of the
Penitential or Gradual Psalms added. For the Minor
Rogations the "Ceremoniale Episcoporum", book II,
physics; and to
the last-men-
tioned he owed
his entrance about
1240(125171257?)
into the Francis-
cans, either at
Oxford or Paris.
He continued his
t
ch. xxxii, notes: "Eadem
serventur sed aliquid re- learned work; ill- ^v .«^ j m
missius"
Mass
If the procession is held, the Rogation
obligatory, and no notice is taken of whatever
is
ness, however,
compelled him to
^'
W "" * ^ \ 4
"'

feast may occur, unless only one Mass is said, for then
a commemoration is made of the feast. An exception
give
years.
it

was able to
up
When
for two
he
, J ,df^^^l\
is made in favour of the patron or titular of the church,
of whom the Mass is said with a commemoration of recommence his Roger Bacon
the Rogation. The colour used in the procession and studies his SU- From an old engraving by Sadeler
Mass is violet. The Roman Breviary gives the in- periors imposed other duties on him, and forbade
struction: "All persons bound to recite the Office, and him to publish any work out of the order without
who are not present at the procession, are bound to special permission from the higher superiors "under
recite the Litany, nor can it be anticipated" pain of losing the book and of fasting several days
Rock, The Church of Our Fathers, III (London, 1904), 181; with only bread and water".
Duchesne, Chr. Worship (tr. London, 1904), 288; Binterim, This prohibition has induced modem writers to
DenkieUrdigkeiten; Amberger, Pastoraltheologie, II, 834; Van
DER Steppen, Sacra Liturgia, IV, 405; NiLLES, Kalendarium pass severe judgment upon Roger's superiors being
Manuale (Innsbruck, 1897). jealous of Roger's abilities; even serious scholars
Fkancis Mershman. say they can hardly understand how Bacon conceived
Rogatists. See Donatists. the idea of joining the Franciscan Order. Such
critics forget that when Bacon entered the order the
Roger, Bishop of Worcester, d. at Tours, 9 August, Franciscans numbered many men of ability in no way
1179. A younger son of Robert, Earl of Gloucester, inferior to the most famous scholars of other religious
he was educated with the future king, Henry II, orders (see Felder, "Gesch. der wissenschaftlichen
afterwards ordained priest, and consecrated Bishop Studien im Franziskanerorden bis um die Mitte des
of Worcester by St. Thomas of Canterbury, 23 Aug., 13. Jahrhunderts", Freiburg, 1904). The prohibi-
1163. He adhered loyally to St. Thomas, and th9ugh tion enjoined on Bacon was a general one, which ex-
one of the bishops sent to the pope to carry the king's tended to the whole order; its promulgation was not
appeal against the archbishop, he took no active even directed against him, but rather against Gerard
part in the embassy, nor did he join the appeal made of Borgo San Donnino, as Salimbene says expressly
by the bishops against the archbishop in 1166, thus (see "Chronica Fr. Salimbene Parmensis" in "Mon.
arousing the enmity of the king. When St. Thomas Germ. Hist.: SS.", XXII, 462, ed. Holder-Egger).
desired Roger to join him in his exile, Roger went Gerard had pubUshed in 1254 without permission
without leave (1167), Henry having refused him per- his heretical work, " Introductorius in Evangelium
mission. He boldly reproached the king when they seternum"; thereupon the General Chapter of Nar-
met at Falaise in 1170, and a reconciliation followed. bonne in 1260 promulgated the above-mentioned
After the martyrdom of St. Thomas, England was decree, identical with the "constitutio gravis in
threatened with an interdict, but Roger interceded contrarium" Bacon speaks of, as the text shows (see
with the pope and was thereafter highly esteemed in the constitution published by Ehrle, S.J., "Die
England and at Rome. Alexander III, who frequently altesten Redactionen der Generaloonstitutionen des
employed him as delegate in ecclesiastical causes, spoke Franziskanerordens" in "Archiv fiir Literatur- und
of him and Bartholomew, Bishop of Exeter, as "the Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters", VI, 110; St.
two great lights of the English Church" Bonaventure, "Opera Omnia", Quaracchi, VIII, 456).
Materials fw the History of Archbishop Becket in R. S. (London, We need not wonder then that Roger's immediate
1875-85) Gervase of Canterbury, Hist. Works in R. S. (Lon-
superiors put the prohibition into execution, especially
;

don, 1879-80) be Diceto, Opera Hist, in R. S. (London, 1876)

;

P. L., CXCIX, 365, gives one of his letters to Alexander III; as Bacon was not always very correct in doctrine;
Giles, Life and Letters of Becket (London, 1846) Hope, Life of
;
and although on the one hand it is wrong to consider
St. Thomas d Becket (London, 1868) Morris, Life of St. Thomas
him as a necromancer and astrologer, an enemy of
;

Becket (London, 1885); Norqate in Did. Nat. Biog., s. v.

Edwin Burton. scholastic philosophy, an author full of heresies and
suspected views, still we cannot deny that some of
Roger Bacon, philosopher, surnamed Doctor his expressions are imprudent and inaccurate. The
MiRABiLis, b. Ilchester, Somersetshire, about
at judgments he passes on other scholars of his day are
1214; d. at Oxford, perhaps 11 June, 1294. His sometimes too hard, so it is not surprising that his
wealthy parents sided with Henry III against the friends were few. The above-mentioned prohibition
rebellious barons, but lost nearly all their property. was rescinded in Roger's favour unexpectedly in 1266.
 ROGER 112 ROGER
Some years before, while still at Oxford, he had made mf ormed. The Chronica XXIV Generalium Ordinio
the acquaintance of Cardinal Guy le Gros de Foulques, Mmorum'' says that "the Minister General Jeromp
whom Urban IV had sent to England to settle the of Ascoh [afterwards Pope Nicholas IV] on the
advice
disputes between Henry III and the barons; others of many brethren condemned and rejected
the doc
believe that the cardinal met Roger at Paris, in 1257 or trine of the English brother Roger Bacon,
Doctor of
125S (see "Archiv. Francisc. Histor.", IV, 442). Divinity, which contains many suspect innovations
After a conference about some current abuses, espe- by reason of which Roger was imprisoned" (see
the
cially about ecclesiastical studies, the cardinal asked "Chronica" printed in "Analecta Franciscana" III
Roger to present his ideas in writing. Roger delayed 360). The assertion of modern writers, that Bacon
in doing this; when the cardinal became Clement was imprisoned fourteen or fifteen years, although he
IV and reiterated his desire, Bacon excused himself had proved his orthodoxy by the work "De nullitate
because the prohibition of his superiors stood in the magiae", has no foundation in ancient sources.
way. Then the pope in a letter from Viterbo (22 Some authors connect the fact of imprisonment re-
June, 1266) commanded him to send his work immedi- lated in the "Chronica" with the proscription of
ately, notwithstanding the prohibition of superiors or 219 theses by Stephen Tempier, Bishop of Paris
any general constitution whatsoever, but to keep the which took place 7 March, 1277 (Denifle, "Char-
commission a secret (see letter pubhshed by Martene- tularium Universitatis Parisiensis", I, 543, 560).
Durand, "Thesaurus novus anecdotorum", II, Paris, Indeed it was not very difficult to find some "sus-
1717, 358, Clement IV, epp. n. 317 a; Wadding, "An- pect innovation" in Bacon's writings, especially with
nales", ad an. 1266, n. 14, II, 294; IV, 265; Sbaralea, regard to the physical sciences. As F. Mandonnet,
"BullariumFranciscanum", III, 89 n. 8f 22 June, 1266)
, O.P., proves, one of his incriminated books or pam-
We may suppose that the pope, as Bacon says, from phlets was his "Speculum Astronomiae", written in
the first had wished the matter kept secret; otherwise 1277, hitherto falsely ascribed to Blessed Albert the
we can hardly understand why Bacon did not get per- Great [Opera Omnia, ed. Vives, Paris, X, 629 sq.;
mission of his superiors; for the prohibition of Nar- cf. Mandonnet, "Roger Bacon et le Speculum
bonne was not absolute; it only forbade him to pub- Astronomic (1277)" in "Revue Neo-Scholastique",
lish works outside the order "unless they were XVII, Louvain, 1910, 313-35]. Such and other
examined thoroughly by the minister general or by questions are not yet ripe for judgment; but it is to
the provincial together with his definitors in the be hoped that the newly awakened interest in
provincial chapter". The removal of the prohibi- Baconian studies and investigations will clear up
tive constitution did not at once remove all ob- more and more what is still obscure in Roger's lite.
stacles; the secrecy of the matter rather produced The writings attributed to Bacon by some authors
new embarrassments, as Bacon frankly declares. amount to about eighty; many (e. g. "Epistola de
The first impediment was the contrary will of his magnete", composed by Petrus Peregrinus de Mari-
superiors: "as Your Holiness", he writes to the court) are spurious, while many are only treatises
pope, "did not write to them to excuse me, and I republished separately under new titles. Other
could not make known to them Your secret, because writings or parts of writings certainly composed by
You had commanded me to keep the matter a secret, him were put in circulation under the name of other
they did not let me alone but charged me with other scholars, and his claim to their authorship can be
labours; but it was impossible for me to obey because established only from internal reasons of style and
of Your commandment". Another difficulty was the doctrine. Other treatises stiU lie in the dust of the
lack of money necessary to obtain parchment and to great European libraries, especially of England,
pay copyists. As the superiors knew nothing of his France, and Italy. Much remains to be done before
commission, Bacon had to devise means to obtain we can expect an edition of the "Opera Omnia" of
money. Accordingly he ingenuously reminded the Roger Bacon. For the present the following state-
pope of this oversight, "As a monk", he says, "I for ments may suffice. Before Bacon entered the order
myself have no money and cannot have; therefore I he had written many essays and treatises on the sub-
cannot borrow, not having wherewith to return; my jects he taught in the school, for his pupils only, or
parents who before were rich, now in the troubles of for friends who had requested him to do so, as he con-
war have run into poverty; others, who were able fesses in his letter of dedication of the "Opus Majus"
refused to spend money so deeply embarrassed, I urged
;
sent to the pope: "Multa in aho statu conscripseram
my friends and poor people to expend all they had, propter juvenum rudimenta" (the letter was dis-
to sell and to pawn their goods, and I could not help covered in the Vatican Library by Abbot Gasquet,
promising them to write to You and induce Your O.S.B., and first published by him in the "English
Hohness to fully reimburse the sum spent iDy them Historical Review", 1897, under the title "An un-
(60 pounds)" ("Opus Tertium", III, p. 16). published fragment of a work by Roger Bacon", 494
Finally, Bacon was able to execute the pope's sq. for the words above cited, see p. 500).
; To this
desire; in the beginning of 1267 he sent by his pupil period seem to belong some commentaries on the
John of Paris (London?) the "Opus Majus", where he writings of Aristotle and perhaps the little treatise
puts together in general lines all his leading ideas and " De mirabili potestate artis et naturae et de nuUitate
proposals; the same friend was instructed to present magiae" (Paris, 1542; Oxford, 1604; London, 1859).
to the p(ipe a burning-mirror and several drawings of The same work was printed under the title "Epistola
Bacon appertaining to physics, and to give all ex- de secretis operibus artis et naturae" (Hamburg, 1608,
planations required by His Holiness. The same 1618). After joining the order, or more exactly from
year (1207) he finished his "Opus Minus ", a recapitula- about the years 1256-57, he did not compose works
tion of the main thoughts of the "Opus Majus", of any great importance and extent, but only occa-
to f aciUtate the pope's reading or to submit to him an sional essays requested by friends, as he says in the
epitome of the first work if it should be lost. With above-mentioned letter, "now about this science, now
the same object, and because in the first two works about another one", and only more Iransilorio (see
some ideas were but hastily treated, he was induced "Eng. Hist. Rev.", 1897, 500). In the earlier part
to compose a third work, the "Opus Tertium"; in this, of his life he probably composed also "De termino
sent to the pope before his death (1268) he treats in
,
pascaH" (see letter of Clement IV in "Bull. Franc",
a still more extensive manner the whole material he III, 89); for it is cited in another work, "Computus
had spoken of in his preceding works. Unfortunately naturalium", assigned to 1263 by Charles ("Roger
his friend Clement IV died too soon, without having Bacon. Sa vie, etc.", Paris, 1861, p. 78; ct. pp.334sqq)-
been able to put into practice the counsels given by The most important of all his writings are the
Bacon. About the rest of Roger's life we are not well "Opus Majus", the "Opus Minus", and the "Ter-
 ROGER 113 ROGER
tium''. The "Opus Majus" deals in seven parts had the intention of writing and for which these works
with (1)the obstacles to real wisdom and truth, viz. as well as his prmambula were only the preparation.
errors and their sources; (2) the relation between If we may conclude from some of his expressions
theology and philosophy, taken in its widest sense we can reconstruct the plan of this grand encyclo-
as comprising all sciences not strictly philosophical: paedia: it was conceived as comprising four volumes,
here he proves that all sciences are founded on the the first of which was to deal with grammar (of the
sacred sciences, especially on Holy Scripture; (3) several languages he speaks of) and logic; the second
the necessity of studying zealously the Biblical with mathematics (arithmetic and geometry), astron-
languages, as without them it is impossible to bring omy, and music; the third with natural sciences, per-
out the treasure hidden in Holy Writ; (4) mathemat- spective, astrology, the laws of gravity, alchemy, agri-
ics and their relation and application to the sacred culture, medicine, and the experimental sciences; the
sciences, particularly Holy Scripture; here he seizes fourth with metaphysics and moral philosophy (see
an opportunity to speak of Biblical geography and Delorme in "Diet, de Theol.", s. v. Bacon, Roger;
of astronomy (if these parts really belong to the Brewer, pp. 1 sq.; Charles, 370 sq., and particularly
"Opus Majus"); (5) optics or perspective; (6) the Bridges, I, xliii sq.). It is even possible that some
experimental sciences; (7) moral philosophy or treatises, the connexion of which with the three works
ethics. The Opus Majus " was first edited by Samuel
'

' ("Opus Majus", "Opus Minus", "Opus Tertium")

Jebb. London, 1733, afterwards at Venice, 1750, or others is not evident, were parts of the "Scriptum
by the Franciscan Fathers. As both editions were principale"; see Bridges, II, 405 sq., to which is added
incomplete, it was edited recently by J. H. Bridges, 'Tractatus Fr. Rogeri Bacon de multiplicatione
Oxford, 1900 ("The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon, specierum", which seems to have belonged originally
edited with introduction and analytical table, " in 2 to a work of greater extent. Here may be mentioned
vols.); the first three parts of it were republished some writings hitherto unknown, now for the first
the same year by this author in a supplementary time published by Robert Steele: "Opera hactenus
volume, containing a more correct and revised text. inedita Rogeri Baconi. Fasc. I: Metaphysica Fratris
It is to be regretted that this edition is not so critical Rogeri ordinis fratrum minorum. De viciis con-
and accurate as it might have been. As already tractis in studio theologise, omnia quse supersunt nunc
noted. Bacon's letter of dedication to the pope was primum edidit R.St.", London, 1905; Fasc. II: Liber
found and published first by Dom Gasquet; indeed primus communium naturalium Fratris Rogeri, partes
the dedication and introduction is wanting in the I et II", Oxford, 1909. Another writing of Bacon,
hitherto extant editions of the "Opus Majus", where- "Compendium studii philosophiae", was composed
as the "Opus Minus" and "Opus Tertium" are ac- during the pontificate of Gregory X who succeeded
companied with a preface by Bacon (see "Acta Ord. Clement IV (1271-76), as Bacon speaks of this last-
Min.", Quaracchi, 1898, where the letter is reprinted). named pope as the "predecessor istius Papae"
Of the "Opus Minus", the relation of which to the (chap. iii). It has been published, as far as it is
"Opus Majus" has been mentioned, much has been extant, by Brewer in the above-mentioned work.
lost. Originally it had nine parts, one of which must He repeats there the ideas already touched upon in
have been a treatise on alchemy, both speculative his former works, as for instance the causes of human
and practical; there was another entitled "The seven ignorance, necessity of learning foreign languages,
sins in the study of theology". All fragments hith- especially Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek; as a specimen
erto found have been published by J. S. Brewer, "Fr. are given the elements of Greek grammar.
R. Bacon opp. qusedam haotenus inedita", vol. I About the same time (1277) Bacon wrote the
(the only one) containing: (1) "Opus Tertium"; fatal"Speculum Astronomiae" mentioned above.
(2) "Opus Minus"; (3) "Compendium Philos." And two years before his death he composed his
"The appendix adds "De secretis artis et naturae "compendium studii theologiae" (in our days pub-
operibus et de nullitate magiae", London, 1859 lished for the first time in "British Society of Francis-
(Rerum Britann. med. aev. Script.). The aim of the can Studies", III, Aberdeen, 1911), where he set forth
"Opus Tertium" is clearly pointed out by Bacon as in a last scientific confession of faith the ideas and
himself: "As these reasons [profoundness of truth and principles which had animated him during his long
its difficulty] have induced me to compose the Second life; he had nothing to revoke, nothing to change.
Writing as a complement facilitating the understand- Other works and pamphlets cannot be attributed
ing of the First Work, so on account of them I have with certainty to any definite period of his life. To
written this Third Work to give understanding and this category belong the "Epistola de laude Scrip-
completeness to both works; for many things are here turarum", published in part by Henry Wharton
added for the sake of wisdom which are not found in in the appendix (auctarium) of "Jacobi Usserii
the other writings ("Opus Tertium", I, ed. Brewer, Armachani Historia Dogmatica de Scripturis et
6). Consequently this work must be considered, in saoris vernaculis" (London, 1689), 420 sq. In ad-
the author's own opinion, as the most perfect of all the dition there is both a Greek and a Hebrew grammar,
compositions sent to the pope; therefore it is a real the last of which is known only in some fragments:
misfortune that half of it is lost. The parts we "The Greek grammar of Roger Bacon and a fragment
possess contain many autobiographical items. All of his Hebrew Grammar, edited from the MSS.,
parts known in 1859 were published by Brewer (see with introduction and notes", Cambridge, 1902.
above). One fragment dealing with natural sciences Some specimens of the Greek Grammar, as preserved
and moral philosophy has been edited for the first in a MS. of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, had been
time by Duhem ("Un fragment in^dit de I'Opus Ter- published two years before by J. L. Heiberg in "By-
tium de Roger Bacon pr6ced6 d'une 6tude sur ce frag- zantinische Zeitschrift", IX, 1900, 479-91. The
ment", Quaracchi, 1909); another (Quarta pars com- above-mentioned edition of the two grammars cannot
munium naturalis philos.) by Hover (Commer's be considered very critical (see the severe criticism
"Jahrb. fiir Philos. u. speculative Theol.", XXV, 1911, by Heiberg, ibid., XII, 1903, 343-47). Here we may
pp. 277-320). Bacon often speaks of his "Scriptum add Bacon's "Speculum Alchemiae", Nuremberg,
principale". Was this a work quite different from 1614 (Libellus do alchimia cui titulus Spec. Al-
:

the others we know? In many texts the expression chem.); it was translated into French by Jacques
only means the "Opus Majus", as becomes evident Girard de Tournus, under the title "Miroir d'alqui-
by its antithesis to the "Opus Minus" and "Opus mie", Lyons, 1557. Some treatises dealing with
Tertium ". But there are some other sentences where chemistry were printed in 1620 together in one volume
the expression seems to denote a work quite different containing: (1) "Breve Breviarium de dono Dei";
from the three just mentioned, viz. one which Bacon (2) "Verbum abbreviatum de Leone viridi"; (3)
XIII.—8
 ROGER 114 ROGER
"Secretum secretorum naturse de laude lapidis philo- meaning (sensus spiritualis); for when the literal
sophorum"; (4) "Tractatus trium verborum"; (5) sense is wrong, the spiritual sense cannot be
right
"Alchimia major" But it is possible that some of since it is necessarily based upon the
literal sense'
these and several other treatises attributed to Bacon The reasons of this false exposition are the
corruption
are parts of works already mentioned, as are essays De of the sacred text and ignorance of the Biblical
"
lan-
situ orbis", "De regionibus mundi", "De situ Pates- guages. For how can they get the real meaning
of
tinae", "De locis saoris", " Descriptiones locorum Holy Writ without this knowledge, as the Latin ver-
mundi", "Summa gramma ticalis" (see Golubovich, Greek and Hebrew idioms?
sions are full of
"Bibliotecabio-bibliografica della Terra Santa e dell' The seventh sin is the radically false method of
Oriente Francescano", Quaracchi, 1906, 1, 268 sq.). preaching: instead of breaking to the faithful the
If we now examine Bacon's scientific systems and Bread of Life by expounding the commandments of
leading principles, his aims and his hobby, so to say, God and inculcating their duties, the preachers con-
we find that the burden not only of the writings sent tent themselves with divisions of the arhor Por-
to the pope, but also of all his writings was ecclesias-
:
phyriana, with the jingle of words and quibbles.
tical stucfy must be reformed. All his ideas and prin- They are even ignorant of the rules of eloquence, and
ciples must be considered in the light of this thesis. often prelates who during their course of study were
He openly exposes the "sins" of his time in the study not instructed in preaching, when obhged to speak
of theology, which are seven, as he had proved, in the in church, beg the copy-books of the younger men,
"Opus Majus" Though this part has been lost, which are full of bombast and ridiculous divisions^
we can reconstruct his arrangement with the aid of serving only to "stimulate the hearers to all curiosity
the "Opus Minus" and "Opus Tertium". The first of mind, but do not elevate the affection towards
sin is the preponderance of (speculative) philosophy. good" ("Opus Tertium", Brewer, 309 sq.). Ex-
Theology is a Divine science, hence it must be based ceptions are very few, as for instance Friar Bertholdus
on Divine principles and treat questions touching Alemannus (Ratisbon) who alone has more effect
Divinity, and not exhaust itself in philosophical than all the friars of both orders combined (Friars
cavils and distinctions. The second sin is ignorance Minor and Preachers). Eloquence ought to be ac-
of the sciences most suitable and necessary to theo- companied by science, and science by eloquence;
logians ; they study only Latin grammar, logic, nat- for "sciencewithout eloquence ia like a sharp sword in
ural philosophy (very superficially!) and a part of the hands of a paralytic, whilst eloquence without
metaphysics four sciences very unimportant, scientice
: science is a sharp sword in the hands of a furious
viles. Other sciences more necessary, foreign (Orien- man" ("Sapientia sine eloquentia est quasi gladius
tal) languages, mathematics, alchemy, chemistry, acutus in manu paralytici, sicut eloquentia expera
physics, experimental sciences, and moral philosophy, sapientiae est quasi gladius acutus in manu furiosi";
they neglect. A third sin is the defective knowledge "Opus Tertium", I, Brewer, 4). But far from being
of even the four sciences which they cultivate: their an idle fault-finder who only demolished without
ideas are full of errors and misconceptions, because being able to build up. Bacon makes proposals ex-
they have no means to get at the real understanding tremely fit and efficacious, the only failure of which
of the authors from whom they draw all their was that they never were put into general practice,
knowledge, since their writings abound in Greek, by reason of the premature death of the pope. Bacon
Hebrew, and Arabic expressions. Even the greatest himself and his pupils, such as John of Paris, whom he
and most highly-esteemed theologians show in their praises highly, William of Mara, Gerard Huy, and
works to what an extent the evil has spread. others are a striking argument that his proposals
Another sin is the preference for the "Liber Sen- were no Utopian fancies; they showed in their own
tentiarum" and the disregard of other theological persons what in their idea a theologian should be.
matters, especially Holy Scriptures; he complains: First of all, if one wishes to get wisdom, he must take
"The one who explains the 'Book of the Sentences' care not to fall into the four errors which usually pre-
ishonoured by whereas the lector of Holy Scrip-
all, vent even learned men from attaining the summit of
ture is neglected for to the expounder of the Sentences
; wisdom, viz. "the example of weak and unreliable
there is granted a commodious hour for lecturing at authority, continuance of custom, regard to the
his own will, and if he belongs to an order, a compan- opinion of the unlearned, and concealing one's own
ion and a special room; whilst the lector of Holy ignorance, together with the exhibition of apparent
Scripture is denied all this and must beg the hour wisdom" ("Fragilis et indignse autoritatis exemplum,
for his lecture to be given at the pleasure of the ex- consuetudinis diuturnitas, vulgi sensus imperiti, et
pounder of the Sentences. Elsewhere the lector of proprise ignorantiae ocoultatio cum ostentatione sap-
the Sentences holds disputations and is called master, pentiae apparentis"; "Opus Majus", I, Bridges, 1,2).
whereas the lector of the [Biblical] test is not allowed Thus having eliminated "the four general causes of
to dispute" ("Opus Minus", ed. Brewer, .328 sq.). all human ignorance", one must be convinced that
Such a method, he continues, is inexplicable and very all science has its source in revelation both oral and
injurious to the Sacred Text which contains the word written. Holy Scripture especially is an inexhaust-
of God, and the exposition of which would offer ible fountain of truth from which all human phi-
many occasions to speak about matters now treated losophers, even the heathen, drew their knowledge,
in the several "SummiB Sententiarum " . Still more immediately or mediately; therefore no science,
disastrous is the fifth sin: the text of Holy Writ is whether profane or sacred, can be true if contrary to
horribly corrupted, especially in the "exemplar Holy Writ (see "English Hist. Rev.", 1897, 508 sq.;
Parisiense", that is to say in the Biblical text used at "Opus Tertium", XXIV, Brewer, 87 This con-
sq.).
the University of Paris and spread by its students over viction having taken root, we must consider the means
the whole world. Confusion has been increased by of attaining to wisdom. Among those which lead
many scholars or religious orders, who in their en- to the summit are to be mentioned in the first place
,
deavours to correct the Sacred Text, in default of a the languages, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic.
sound method, have in reality only augmented the Latin does not suffice, as there are many useful works
divergences; as every one presumes to change any- written in other languages and not yet translated,
thing "he docs not understand, a thing he would or badly translated, into Latin. Even in the best
not dare to do with the books of the classical poets' versions of scientific works, as for instance of Greek
',
the world is full of "correctors or rather corrupters" and Arabic philosophers, or of the Scriptures, as also
The worst of all sins is the consequence of the fore- in the Liturgy, there are still some foreign expressions
going: the f.alsity or doubtfulness of the literal sense retained purposely or by necessity, it being impossible
(senstis litteralis) and consequently of the spiritual to express in Latin all nuances of foreign texts. It
 ROGER 115 ROGER
would be very interesting to review all the other rea- or write about the methods and course of lectures in
sons adduced by Bacon proving the advantage or ecclesiastical schools of the Middle Age's, or on the
even necessity of foreign languages for ecclesiastical, efforts of revision and correction of the Latin Bible
social, and political purposes, or to follow his in- made before the Council of Trent, or on the study of
vestigations into the physiological conditions of Oriental languages urged by some scholars before the
language or into what might have been the original Council of Vienne, without referring to the efforts
one spoken by man. He distinguishes three degrees made by Bacon. In our own day, more thoroughly
of linguistic knowledge; theologians are not obliged to than at the Council of Trent, measures are taken in
reach the second degree, which would enable them to accordance with Bacon's demand that the further cor-
translate a foreign text into their own language, or ruption of the Latin text of Holy Scripture should be
the third one which is still more difficult of attain- prevented by the pope's authority, and that the most
ment and which would enable them to speak this scientific method should be applied to the restoration
language as their own. Nevertheless the difficulties of St. Jerome's version of the Vulgate. Much may
of reaching even the highest degree are not as in- be accomplished even now by applying Bacon's prin-
surmountable as is commonly supposed; it depends ciples, viz.: (1) unity of action under authority; (2) a
only on the method followed by the master, and thorough consultation of the most ancient manu-
as there are very few scholars who follow a sound scripts; (3) the study of Hebrew and Greek to help
method, it is not to be wondered at that perfect knowl- where the best Latin manuscripts left room for doubt;
edge of foreign languages is so rarely found among (4) a thorough knowledge of Latin grammar and con-
theologians (see "Opus Tertium", XX, Brewer, 64 struction (5) great care in distinguishing between St.
;

sq.; "Compendium Studii phU.", VI, Brewer, 433 Jerome's readings and those of the more ancient ver-
sq.). On this point, and in general of Roger's atti- sion (see "Opus Tertium", XXV, Brewer, 93 sq.;
tude towards Biblical studies, see the present author's Gasquet, "English Biblical Criticism in the Thirteenth
article "De Fr. Roger Bacon ejusque sententia de Century" in "The Dublin Review", CXX, 1898, 15).
rebus biblicis" in "Archivum Franciscanum His- But there are still some prejudices among learned men,
toricum". III, Quaracchi, 1910, 3-22; 185-213. especially with regard to ISacon's orthodoxy and his
Besides the languages there are other means, e. g. attitude towards Scholastic philosophy. It is true
mathematics, optics, the experimental sciences, and that he speaks in terms not very flattering of the
moral philosophy, the study of which is absolutely Scholastics, and even of their leaders. His style la
necessary for every priest, as Bacon shows at length. not the ordinary Scholastic style proceeding by in-
He takes special pains in applying these sciences to ductions and syllogisms in the strictest form; he
Holy Scripture and the dogmas of faith. These are speaks and writes fluently, clearly expressing his
pages so wonderful and evincing by their train of thoughts as a modern scholar treating the same sub-
thought and the drawings inserted here and there such jects might write. But no one who studies his works
a knowledge of the subject matter, that we can easily can deny that Bacon was thoroughly trained in Scho-
understand modern scholars saying that Bacon was lastic philosophy. Like the other Scholastics, he
born out of due time, or, with regard to the asserted esteems Aristotle highly, while blaming the defective
imprisonment, that he belonged to that class of men Latin versions of his works and some of his views on
who were crushed by the wheel of their time as they natural philosophy. Bacon is familiar with the sub-
endeavoured to set it going more quickly. It is in jects under discussion, and it may be of interest to
these treatises (and other works of the same kind) that note that in many cases he agrees with Duns Scotus
Bacon speaks of the reflection of light, mirages, and against other Scholastics, particularly regarding matter
burning-mirrors, of the diameters of the celestial and form and the intellectus agens which he proves not
bodies and their distances from one another, of their to be distinct substantially from the intellectus possibilis
conjunction and eclipses; that he explains the laws of ("Opus Majus", II, V; "Opus Tertium", XXIII).
ebb and flow, proves the Juhan Calendar to be wrong; It would be difficult to find any other scholar who
he explains the composition and effects of gunpowder, shows such a profound knowledge of the Arabic phi-
discusses and affirms the possibihty of steam-vessels losophers as Bacon does. Here appears the aim of
and aerostats, of microscopes and telescopes, and some his philosophical works, tomake Christian philosophy
other inventions made many centuries later. Subse- acquainted with the Arabic philosophers. He is an
quent ages have done him more justice in recognizing enemy only of the extravagances of Scholasticism, the
his merits in the field of natural science. John Dee, subtleties and fruitless quarrels, to the neglect of
for instance, who addressed (1582) a memorial on the matters much more useful or necessary and the exalta-
reformation of the calendar to Queen Elizabeth, speak- tion of philosophy over theology. Far from being
ing of those who had advocated this change, says: hostile to true philosophy, he bestows a lavish praise
"None hath done it more earnestly, neither with bet- on it. None could dehneate more clearly and con-
ter reason and skill, than hath a subject of this British vincingly than he, what ought to be the relation be-
Sceptre Royal done, named as some think David Dee tween theology and philosophy, what profit they
of Radik, but otherwise and most commonly (upon yield and what services they render to each other,
his name altered at the alteration of state into friarly how true philosophy is the best apology of Christian
profession) called Roger Bacon: who at large wrote faith (see especially "Opus Majus", II and VII;
thereof divers treatises and discourses to Pope Clem- "Compend. studii philos."). Bacon is sometimes
ent the Fifth [sic] about the year of our Lord, 1267. not very correct in his expressions; there may even
To whom he wrote and sent also great volumes ex- be some ideas that are dangerous or open to suspicion
quisitely compiled of all sciences and singularities, (e. g. his conviction that a real influence upon the

philosophical and mathematical, as they might be human mind and liberty and on human fate is exerted
available to the state of Christ his Catholic Church". by the celestial bodies etc.). But there is no real
'

Dee then remarks that Paul of Middleburg, in Paulina

' error in matters of faith, and Bacon repeatedly asks
de recta Paschse celebratione", had made great use the reader not to confound his physics with divina^
of Bacon's work: "His great volume is more than half tion, his chemistry with alchemy, his astronomy with
thereof written (though not acknowledged) by such astrology and certainly he submitted with all willing-
;

order and method generally and particularly as our ness his writings to the judgment of the Church. It
Roger Bacon laid out for the handling of the matter" is moving to note the reverence he displayed for the

(cited by Bridges, "Opus Majus", I, p. xxxiv). pope. Likewise he shows always the highest venera-
Longer time was needed before Bacon's merits in tion towards the Fathers of the Church; and whilst
the field of theological and philosophical sciences were his criticism often becomes violent when he blames
acknowledged. Nowadays it is impossible to speak the most eminent of his contemporaries, he never
 ROGER 116 ROGER
epeaks or writes any word of disregard of the Fathers cially among the poor for about sixteen years.
Search
or ancient Doctors of the Church, even when not ap- was made for him in June, 1605, but it wasnot till
proving their opinion; he esteemed them highly and Easter, 1610, that he was arrested at the house of
had iicquired such a, knowledge of their writings that Mrs. Winefride Soroope, widow, within eight miles of
he was no way surpassed by any of his great rivals. Hereford, He was then brought before the Bishop
Bacon was a faithful scholar of open character who Dr. Robert Bennet, who committed him to Hereford
franldy uttered what he thought, who was not afraid gaol where he was loaded with irons night and day.
to blame whatsoever and whomsoever he beUeved to On being transferred to Leominster gaol he was obliged
deserve censure, a scholar who was in advance of to walk all the way in shackles, though a boy was per-
his age by centuries. His iron will surmounted all mitted to go by his side and bear up by a string the
difficulties and enabled him to acquire a knowledge weight of some iron links which were wired to the
so far surpassing the average science of his age, that shackles. On his arrival he was treated with the
he must be reckoned among the most eminent scholars greatest inhumanity by his gaoler. He was con-
of all times. demned, merely for being a priest, some months before
Of the vast Baconian bibliography we can mention only the he suffered. A very full account of his sufferings in
most important books and articles in so far as we have made use prison and of his martyrdom is given by Challoner.
of them. Besides those already cited we must mention: Bal^us,
maims Brytann. Catalogus (Basle, 1577); Anecdota
Scriiil. ilbjstr. He hung very long, suffering great pain, owing to the
Osori. Indez Briiannicx SS. quos . .collegit Joan. BalmuSt
.
unskilfulness of the hangman, and was eventually
ed. Poole and Bateson (Oxford, 1902 —
); Wood, Hist, et antiq.
Unipers. Oxon., I (Oxford, 1674); Idem, Athenai Oxon. (London,
cut down and butchered alive. Pits praises his great
1721), new ed. by Buss (4 vols., London, 1813-20); Wharton, knowledge of Greek, from which he translated Theo-
Anglia sacra (London, 1691); Hody, De Bibliorum text, original., doret's "Philotheus, or the lives of the Fathers of the
versionibus grmc. et latina Vuloata, III (Oxford, 1705); Lelandus,
Comment, de Scriptor. Britannicis, ed. Hall (Oxford, 1709);
Syrian deserts " ; but it does not appear when or where
Oudin, Comment, de Script. Ecclesia; antiq., I (Frankfort, 1722), this translation was published.
II-III (Leipzig, 1722) Wadding-Fonseca, Annates Ord. Min.,
; Challoner, Missionary Priests, II, no. 147; Bibl. Diet. Eng.
IV-V; Wadding, Scriptores 0. M. (Rome, 1650, 1S06, 1906); Cath., I, 369; Cooper in Diet. Nat. Biogr., a. v. Cadwallador,
Taxneh, Bibl. Brilann.-Hihem. (London, 1748); Sbaealea, Roger; Calendar State Papers, Dom., 1603-10 (London, 1857),
Supplement, ad SS. 0. M. (Rome, ISOG) ; Bergeh, De Vhist. de 224, 225, 601. JoHN B. WaINEWRIGHT.
la Vulgate en France (Paris, 1887) ; Idem, Quam notitiam linquce
hebr. habuerunt chrisliani med. ievi (Paris, 1893) ; cf. the criticism Roger James, Blessed. See Richard Whitinq,
of tills book by Soury in Bibl. de VEcole des Charles, LIV (1893),
733-3S; Denifle, Die Handschr. der Bibel-Corrector. des 13. Blessed.
Jahrh. in Archiv /. Lit.- u. Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters, IV, Roger of Hoveden, chronicler, was probably a
263 sqq., 471 sqq.; DoRixG, Die beiden Bacon in Archiv f. Gesch.
d. Philos., XVII (1904), 3 sqq.; Feret, Les emprisonnements de
native of Hoveden, or, as it is now called, Howden, in
R. Bacon in Revue des quest, histor., L (1891), 119-42; Idem, La Yorkshire. From the fact that his chronicle ends
/aculte de thtol. de Paris (4 vols., Paris, 1894-96); Flugel, R^ rather abruptly in 1201 it is inferred that he must
Bac >ns Slellang in d. Gesch. d. Philologie in Philos. Studien, XIX
(1902), 164 sqq.; Heitz, Essai histor. sur les rapports entre la have died or been stricken with some mortal disease
phih's. et la foi, de Berenger de Tours d St. Thomas (Paris, 1909), in that year. He was certainly a man of importance
117 sqq.; HlRSCH, Early English Hebraists: R. Bacon and his Pre- in his day. He was a king's clerk {clericus regis)
decesKitrs in The Jewish Quarterly Review (Oct., 1890), reprinted
in Idiom, A Book of Essriys (London, 1905), 1-72; Hist, de la in the time of Henry II, and seems to have been at-
Franc:. XX (Paris, 1S42), 227 sqq.; Hoffmans, La synthase tached to the court as early as 1173, while he was also
dorlrinoJe de R. B. in Archiv }. Gesch. d. Philos. (Berne, 1907);
Idem, L'inlaUion mystique de la science in Revue Neo-Scholastique
despatched on confidential missions, as for example
(1909), 370 sqq. (cf. 1906, 371 sqq.; 1908, 474 sqq.; 1909, 33 sqq.); to the chiefs of Galloway in 1174. In 1189 he served
Jarrett, a Thirteenth-Century Reunion Committee of the Bible in as an itinerant justice in the north, but he probably
Irish Theological Quarterly, IV (Maynooth, 1910), 56 sqq.;
retired from public life after the death of Henry II,
JocHDAiN, Discussion de quelqv.es points de la biogr. de R. B. in
CoTiiptes rendus Acad. Inscr. el Belles-Lettres, I (1873), 309 sqq.; and it has been suggested that he became parish
Krpjmus, R. B.'s (Jptik in Xntur u.. Offenbarung (1900); Langex, priest of his native village, Howden, devoting the
R. Bacon in Histor. Zeit^chr., LI (1883), 434-50; Martin, La
rest of his life to the compilation of his chronicle.
Vulliolr hilinr. au A' 7/7" .^icde d'opris R. B. (Paris, IK.SS); Mon.
Ccriii. Kist.: tiS., XXVIII, .'lOO sqq.; Narbey, Le moine R. B. et Like most other historical writings of that date the
Ic nojuiement scienlifique au Xllh sikcle in Revue des quest, histor., earlier portion of his work is little more than a tran-
XX.XV (LS'Jt), 115 sqq.; Parrot, R. B., sa personne, son genie, script of some one narrative to which he had more
etc. (Paris, 1894) Pesch, De inspiratione S. Scripturm (Freiburg,
;

1906), 163 sq.; Pica^ et, Les editions de R. B. in Journal des convenient access or which he considered specially
Sava^ds (1905), 362-69; Idem, Deux directions de la thiol, et de worthy of confidence. His authority from 732 dijwn
I'exegkse au XIII" si^cle. Thomas et Bacon in Rii'ue de Vhist. des
religions (1905), 172, or printed separately (Paris, 1905); PoHL,
to 1154 was an abstract, still extant in manuscript,
Dos Virhaltnis der Philos. zur Theol. bei R. B. (Ncustrelitz, 1893) "Ilistoria Saxonum vel Anglorum post obitum
XXXIV
S \ls.sKT, R. B., sa rii' el .sc/^ o^uvre in Revue des deux mondes, Bedse" From 1154 to 1102 he uses his authorities
(IS(il), 361-9i; Idem, Precurseurs et disciples de Descartes (Paris,
1S62) Salembier, Une page inedite de Vhist. de la Vulgate (Amiens,
;
much more freely, basing his narrative upon the well-
1890): .Schneider, R. B.. eine Monographie als Beitrag zur Gesch. known "Gesta Henrici", commonly attributed to
der Philos. des 13. Jahrh. aus den Qudlen (Aug3l:)urg, 1873); Benedict of Peterborough. But from 1192 to 1201
Siebert, R. B., sein Leben u. seine Philos. (Marhurg, 1861);
Starhahn, Das opus maius des R. B. naeh sein^'lr^ Inhnlt u. seiner his work is all his own, and of the highest value.
Bedeuiung f. d. Wissenschaft betrachtet in Kirchl. Mi.inatsschr., Hoveden had a great appreciation of the importance
XII (1S93), 276-86; Strv^z, Gesch. der Natur ivissenschaflcn im of documentary evidence, and we should be very ill
Miltelnller (Stuttgart, 1910), 93-99; Ubald, Franciscan Enolnnd
in the Past in Franciscan Annals, XXXIII (1908), 369-71; informed regarding the political history of the last
XXXIV (I'.IOO), 11-14; Valdar.n'INi, Esperienza e ragionajnento quarter of the twelfth century if it were not for the
in R. B. (Rome, 1S95); Vehcellone, Dissertazioni accademiche state papers, etc., which Hoveden inserts and of which,
di vario argumenio (Rome, 1864); Vogl, Die Physik R. B.'s
(Erlangen, 1906); Werner, Kosmologie u. allgem. Naturlehre no doubt, his earlier connexion with the chancery
R. B.'s Psychol., Erkenntniss- u. Wi^senschaftslehre des R. B. in and its officials enabled him to obtain copies.
Sitzungsber. der k. k. Akad. d. W., XCIII (Vienna), 407-570; As a chronicler, he was impartial and accurate.
XCIV, 489-012; Witheford, Bacon as an Interpreter of Holy
.Scripture in Expositor (1897), 349-60; Wulf (de), 77is(. de la
His profoundly religious character made him some-
phih':\ medievale (2nd ed., Louvain, 1905), 419-27. what credulous, but there is no reason, as even his
Theophilus Witzel. editor. Bishop Stubbs, admits, to regard him on that
account as an untrustworthy authority.
Roger Cadwallador, Vexer.\ble, English mar- The one reliable edition of Hoveden is that prepared by
tyr, b. at Stretton Sugwas, near Hereford, in 15G8; Stubbs for the Rolls Series in four vols., 1868-71. A full account
ofHoveden and his works is given in the preface to these vols.
executed at Leominster, 27 Aug., 1610. He was or-
dained subdeacon at Reims, 21 Sept., 1.101, and Herbert Thurston.
deacon the following February, and in Aug., 1592, was Roger of Wendover, a Benedictine monk, date of
sent to the English College at Valladolid, where he birth unknown; d. 1236, the first of the great chron-
was ordained priest. Returning to England in 1.j94 iclers of St. Albans Abbey. He
seems to have been a
he laboured in Herefordshire with good success espe- native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire and must
 ROH 117 ROHRBACHER
have enjoyed some little consideration among hie or Heidelberg a book written by a Jesuit which taught
brethren as he was appointed prior of the cell of Bel- the principle that the end justifies the means. The
voir, but from this office he was deposed and retired prize is still unclaimed. Some of his sermons have
to St. Albans, where he probably wrote his chronicle, also been preserved; they were printed against his
known as the "Flores Historiarum", extending from will from stenographic notes. Father Roh's greatest
the Creation to 1235. From the year 1202 it is an strength lay in his power of speech and "he was the
original and valuable authority, but the whole mate- most powerful and effective preacher of the German
rial has been worked over and in a sense re-edited tongue that the Jesuits have had in this century".
with editions by Matthew Paris (q. v.) in his "Chro- Knabenbauer, Erinnerungen an P. Peter Roh S. J., reprint of
nica, Majora" the biography in Stimmen aus Maria-Laach (1872).
Wendover is less prejudiced than
Paris, but he is also less picturesque, and whereas N. ScHEID.
Paris in his generalizations and inferences as to the
Rohault de Fleury, a family of French archi-
causes of events anticipates the scope of the modern and archaeologists of the nineteenth century, of
tects
historian, Wendover is content to discharge the func- which the most distinguished member was Charles
tions of a simple chronicler. The "Flores Histori- Kohault de Fleury, b. in Paris 23 July, 1801; d. there
arum" was edited for the English Historical Society 11 August, 1875. After a scientific course pursued
in 1S41 by H. O. Coxe in five volumes, beginning with at the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris, he studied
the year 447, when Wendover for the first time turns sculpture, but abandoned this study for architecture
directly to the history of Britain. But in 1886-1889 in 1825. He designed several public and private
the more valuable part of the work (from 1154 to buildings which adorn one of the most artistic sec-
1235) was re-edited by H. G. Hewlett as part of the tions of the present Paris and was the author of the
Rolls Series in three volumes. first edition of the "Manuel des lois du bi,timent"
Hunt in DicL Nat. Biog., s. v. Wendover; Luard, prefacca to
the earlier volumea of Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora in the published by the Central Society of Architects
Rolls Series; Hardy, Catalogue of Materials of Brit. Hist., Ill (Paris, 1862). The last years of his life he devoted
(London, 1871), and the prefaces to the editions of Flores His- to religious archaeology and published the important
toriarum.
results of his studies in the following magnificently
Herbert Thurston. illustrated works: "Les instruments de la Passion",
Paris, 1870 (see Cross, IV, 531); "L'dvangile, etudes
Rob, Peter, b. at Conthey (Gunthis) in the canton
iconographiques et archeologiques". Tours, 1874;
of Valais (French Switzerland), 14 August, 1811; d.
May, 1872. Up to his thirteenth year
"La Sainte Vierge", Paris, 1878; "Un
Tabernacle
at Bonn, 17
he spoke only French, so that he had to learn German
chriStien du V
sifecle", Arras, 1880; "La Messe,
etudes archeologiques sur ses monuments", Paris,
from a German priest in the vicinity before he was 1883-98. Some of these works were published after
able to begin his gymnasial studies in the boarding-
his death by his son George (1835-1905) who was
school kept by the Jesuits at Brig in Switzerland.
himself a prominent archaeological writer. The
Later he became a day-pupil at the gymnasium kept
latter's works treat of Itahan art-monuments:
by the Jesuits at Sittin. While here he resolved to "Monuments de Pise au moyen age", Paris, 1866;
enter the Society of Jesus (1829) strange to say the
;
"La Toscane au moyen &ge, lettres sur I'architecture
external means of bringing him to this decision was
civile et militaire en 1400", Paris 1874; "Le Latran
the reading of Pascal's pamphlet "Monita Secreta". au moyen Age", Paris, 1877.
He taught the lower gymnasial classes at the lyeeum (Euvres de Charles Rohault de Fleury, architecte (Paris, 1884).
at Fribourg. During these years of study Roh N. A. Weber.
showed two characteristic qualities: the talent of
imparting knowledge in a clear and convincing man- Rohrbacher, Rifiisrfi Fkancois, ecclesiastical his-
ner, and an unusual gift for oratory. These abilities torian, b. at Langatte (Langd) in the present Diocese
determined his future work to be that of a teacher of Metz, 27 September, 1789; d. in Paris, 17 January,
and a preacher. He was first (1842-5) professor of 1856. He studied for several months at Sarrebourg
dogmatics at Fribourg, then at the academy at and Phalsebourg (Pfalzburg) and at the age of seven-
Lucerne which had just been given to the Jesuits. teen had completed his Classical studies. He taught
At the same time he preached and aided as oppor- for three years at the college of Phalsebourg; entered
tunity occurred in missions. These labours were in- in 1810 the ecclesiastical seminary at Nancy, and was
terrupted by the breaking out of the war of the Swiss ordained priest in 1812. Appointed assistant priest
Sonderbund, during which he was military chaplain; at Insming, he was transferred after six months to
but after its unfortunate end he was obliged to flee Lun^ville. A mission which he preached in 1821 at
into Piedmont, from there to Linz and Gries, finally Flavigny led to the organization of a diocesan mission
finding a safe refuge at Rappoltsweiler in Alsace as band. Several years later he became a member of the
tutor in the family of his countryman and friend Congregation of St. Peter founded by F61icit6 and Jean
Siegwart-MuUer, also expatriated. Here he stayed de La Mennais, and from 1827 to 1835 directed the
until 1849. A professorship of dogmatics at Louvain philosophical and theological studies of young eccle-
only lasted a year. When the missions for the com- siastics who wished to become the assistants of the
mon people were opened in Germany in 1850 his two brothers in their religious undertakings. When
real labours began; as he said himself, "Praise God, F(51icit6 de La Mennais refused to submit to the con-
I now come into my element. " Both friend and foe demnation pronounced against him by Rome, Rohr-
acknowledge that the success of these missions was bacher separated from him and became professor of
largely due to Roh, and his powerful and homely Church history at the ecclesiastical seminary of
eloquence received the highest praise. He was an Nancy. Later he retired to Paris where he spent the
extemporaneous speaker; the writing of sermons and last years of his life. His principal work is his monu-
addresses was, as he himself confessed, "simply im- mental "Histoire Universelle de I'Eglise Catholique"
possible" to him; yet, thoroughly trained in philoso- (Nancy, 1842-49; 2nd ed., Paris, 1849-53). Several
phy and theology, he could also write when neces- other editions were subsequently published and con-
sary, as several articles from him in the "Stimmen tinuations added by Chantrel and Guillaume. Writ-
aus Maria-Laach" prove. His pamphlet "Dasalte ten from an apologetic point of view, the work con-
Lied: der Zweck heiligt die Mittel, im Texte ver- tributed enormously to the extirpation of Gallicanism
bessert und auf neue Melodie gesetzt" has preserved in the Church of France. Though at times uncritical
a certain reputation until the present day, as Father and devoid of literary grace, it is of considerable use-
Roh declared he would give a thousand gulden to the fulness to the student of history. It was translated
person who could show to the faculty of law of Bonn into German and partially recast by Hiilskamp,
 ROJAS 118 ROLFUS
Rump, and numerous other writers. (For the other Antoing, Flanders. Ailbertus is said to have been
works of Rohrbaoher, see Hurter, "Nomenclator guided by a vision towards this chosen spot, which was
Lit.", Ill [Innsbruck, 1895], 1069-71.) in the domain of Count Adelbert of Saffenberch, who,
RoHKBACHEn, Hist. Univ. de I'Eglise Ciilh., ed. by Guillaume, before Bishop Othert of Lifege, turned over the property
XII (Paris, 1SS5), 122-33; McCaffrey, Hist, of the Cath. Ch. in destined for abbey and church in 1108. Ailbertus
the XIX Century, II (Dublin, 1909), I, 60, II, 448, 475.
was the first abbot (1104-11). Later he went to
N. A. Weber.
France where he founded the Abbey of Clairfontaine.
Rojas y Zorrilla, Francisco de, Spanish dramatic Desiring once more to see Rolduc, he died on the way,
poet, b. at Toledo, 4 Oct., 1607; d. 1680. Authentic at Sechtem, near Bonn, 19 Sep., 1122 (Acta SS.)!
information regarding the events of his life is Thirty-eight abbots succeeded Ailbertus, the last one
rather fragmentary, but he probably studied at the being Peter Joseph Chaineux (1779-1800). The
Universities of Toledo and Salamanca, and for a time abbey acquired many possessions in the Netherlands,
followed a military career. When only twenty-five and became the last resting-place of the Dukes of
he was well known as a poet, for he is highly spoken of Limburg. It possesses the famous "Catalogus Li-
in Montalbdn's "Para todos" (1632), a fact which brorum", made a. d. 1230, containing one hundred
shows that he enjoyed popularity, when Lope de
Vega, Tirso de Molina, and Calderon were in the
height of their fame. The announcement published
in 1638 of the assassination of Francisco de Rojas did
not refer to the poet, for the first and second parts of
his comedies, published by himself at Madrid, bear
the dates of 1640 and 1645 respectively. A third part
was promised but it never appeared. He was given
the mantle of the Order of Santiago in 1644. The
writings of Rojas consist of plays and autos sacramen-
tales written alone and in collaboration with Calderon,
«*
Coello, Velez, Montalbdn, and others. No complete
edition of his plays is available, but Mesonero gives a
very good selection with biographical notes. Among
t
the best of them are "Del Rey abajo ninguno", "^
"Entrebobos anda el juego", " Donde hay agravio no
hay celos", and "Casarse por vengarse", the last of
which is claimed to have been the basis of Le Sage's The Crypt, Rolduc Abbey
novel, "Gil Bias de Santillane". and forty theological and eighty-six philosophical and
TicKNOR, History of Spanish Litt-rature (Boston, 1866)
Mesonero, Biblioteca de Autores EspaHoles, LIV (Madrid, 1866). classical works. The beautiful crypt, built by Ail-
Ventura Fdentes. bertus, was blessed 13 Dec, 1106, and in 1108 the
church was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and St.
Rokewode, John Gage, b. 13 Sept., 1786; died at Gabriel. In 1122 Pope Calixtus II confirmed by a
Claughton Hall, Lancashire, 14 Oct., 1842. He was Bull, preserved in the archives of Rolduc, the dona-
the fourth son of Sir Thomas Gage of Hengrave, and tion of the property. The church, completed in 1209,
took the name Rokewode in 1838 when he succeeded was then solemnly dedicated by Philip, Bishop of
to the Rokewode estates. He was educated at Stony- Ratzeburg. Dr. R. Corten completed the restoration
hurst, and having studied law under Charles Butler he of the church in 1893, and transferred the relics of
was called to the bar, but never practised, preferring Ven. Ailbertus into a richly sculptured sarcophagus
to devote himself to antiquarian pursuits. He was in the crypt, 1897. The church possesses a particle
elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1818, of the Holy Cross, five inches long, reputed to be
and was director from 1820 till 1842. He also became authentic and miraculous (Archives of Rolduc, by
a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1822 he published Abbot Mathias Amezaga); also the body of St.
'
'The History and Antiquities of Hengrave in Suffolk " Daphne, virgin and martyr, brought over from the
and in 1838 "The History and Antiquities of Suffolk". Catacombs of Praetextatus in 1847. Rolduc became
His edition of Jocelin de Brakclond's chronicle pub- the seminary of Lifege in 1831, under Right Rev. Cor-
lished by the Camden Society in 1S40 furnished Car- nelius Van Bommel, and the little seminary of Roer-
lyle with much of his materials for "Past and Present" mond, and academy in 1841. The present institution
(1843). Many papers by him appeared in "Archse- has an attendance of 420 pupils.
ologia", many of these being republished as separate Heyendal, Artnales Rodenses usque ad annum 1700; Diarium
pamphlets, including the description of the Bene- rerum memorabihum ahhatioe Uodensis in the archives of Aix-la-
Chapelie; Acta SS.; H.\bet8, Geschiedenis van het Bisdom Roer-
dictionals of St. /Ethelwold and of Robert of Jumieges; mond. Ill (1875-92); Ernst, Histoire du Limhourg, (Lidge, 1837-
he also printed the genealogy of the Rokewode family o2) Daris, Notice Historique sur les Sglises du diockse de Ldige, XV
;

with charters relating thereto in "Collectanea Topo- (Liejjr., lS9i)

: Neujean, Notice historique sur Vahbaye de Rolduc
(.^ix-Ia-Chapelle, 1868) ; Helyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques,
graphica et Genealogica", II. He contributed to the rcluiiciix et militaires, II (Paris, 1714-19) Cuypers, Revue del'art
;

"Orthodox Journal" and the "Catholic Gentleman's chrStien (1892); Lennartz, Die Augustiner Abtei Klosterrath.;
Magazine". Many of his MSS. were sold after his Kehsten, Journal Historique et Litleraire, XIV (LiSge) CoRTEN,
;

Rolduc in Woord en Bedd (Utrecht, 1902).

death with his valuable library. The Society of An-
Theophile Stenmans.
tiquaries possess a bust of him by R. C. Lucas. He
died suddenly while out shooting.
Orthodox Journal, XV, 276; Cooper in
Rolfus, Hermann, Catholic educationist, b. af
Diet. Nat Bioa
GiLLOw, Bihl. Did. Eng. Caths. Freiburg, 24 May, 1821 d. at Biihl, near Offenburg,
;

Edwin Birton. 27 October, 1896. After attending the gymnasium at

Freiburg, he studied theology and philology at the
Roland, Chanson de. See Legends, Literary university there from 1840 to 1843, and was ordained
OR Profane. priest on 31 August, 1844. After he had served for
Roland de Lattre. See Lassus, Orlandus de. brief periods at various places, he was appointed
curate at Thiengen in 1851, curate-in-charge at Reisel-
Rolduc (RoDA Ducis, Roda, Closterroda or
also fingen in 1855, parish priest at the last named place
Hertogenrade), in S. E. Limburg, Netherlands. It in 1861, parish priest at Reuthe near Freiburg in 1867,
became an Augustinian abbey in 1104 under Ven. at Sasbach in 1875, and at Buhl in 1892. In 1867 the
Ailbertus, a priest, son of Ammoricus, a nobleman of theological faculty at Freiburg gave him the degree of
 ROLLE 119 ROLLIN
Doctor of Theology. Rolfus did much for practical show he was much influenced by the teaching of St.
Catholic pedagogics, especially in southern Germany, Edmund of Canterbury in the "Speculum Ecclesise".
by the work which he edited in conjunction with The Lollards, realizing the power of his influence,
Adolf Pfister, " Real-Encyclopadie des Erziehungs- tampered with his writings, interpolating passages
und Unterrichtswesens nach katholischen Principien" favouring their errors. To defeat this trickery, the
(4 vols., Mainz, 1863-66; 2nd ed., 1872-74). A fifth nuns at Hampole kept genuine copies of his works
volume ("Erganzungsband", 1884) was issued by at their house. His chief works are "De emenda-
Rolfus alone; a new edition is in course of prepara- tionevitse" and "De incendio amoris", both written
tion. Another influential publication was the "Siid- in Latin, of which English versions by Richard Misyn
deutsches katholisches Schulwochenblatt", which he (1434-5) have been published by the Early English
edited, also jointly with Pfister, from 1861 to 1867. Text Society, 1896; " Contemplacyons of the drede
Of his other literary works, the following may be and love of God" and "Remedy against Temp-
mentioned: "Der Grund des katholischen Glaubens" tacyons", both printed by Wynkyn de Worde in
(Mainz, 1862); "Leitfaden der allgemeinen Welt- 1506; and "ThePrickeof Conscience", a poem printed
geschichte" (Freiburg, 1870; 4th ed., 1896); "Die for the philological Society in 1863. This was his
Glaubens- und Sittenlehre der katholischen Kirche" most popular work and MSS. of it are very common.
(Einsiedeln, 1875; frequently re-edited), jointly with They have been collated by Andreae (Berlin, 1888)
F. J. Brandle; " Kirchengeschichtliches in ohrono- and Bulbring (Transactions of Philological Society,
logischer Reihenfolge von der Zeit des letzten Vatican- 1889-1890). Ten prose treatises found in the
ischen Concils bis auf unsere Tage" (2 vols., Mainz, Thornton MS. in Lincoln Cathedral Library were
1877-82; 3rd vol. by Siokinger, 1882); "Geschichte published by the Early English Text Society, 1866.
des Reiches Gottes auf Erden" (Freiburg, 1878-80: "The Form of Perfect Living", "Meditations on the
3rd ed., 1894-95); "Katholischer Hauskatechismus Passion", and many shorter pieces were edited by
(Einsiedeln, 1891-92). In addition to the works men- Horstman (London, 1896). Rolle translated ma,ny
tioned, he also wrote a large number of pedagogic, parts of Scripture into English but only his version
political, apologetic, and polemical brochures, ascetic of the Psalms has been printed. His English para-
treatises, and works for the young. phrase of the Psalms and Canticles was published
Keller, Festschrift zum fUnfzigjahrigen Priesterjuhil&um des in 1884 (Clarendon Press, Oxford). This work of
hocliw. Herm Pfarrers u. Geistl. Rats Dr. Hermann Rolfus (Frei-
burg im Br., 1894), with portrait; Knecht in Badische Bio- translation is noteworthy in face of the persistent
graphien, V (Heidelberg, 1906), 670 sq. though discredited Protestant tradition ascribing all
Friedrich Lauchbrt. the credit of translating the Scriptures into English
to Wyclif. Latin versions of RoUe's works are very
Rolle de Hampole, Richard, solitary and writer, numerous. They were collected into one edition
b. at Thornton, Yorkshire, about 1300; d. at Ham- (Paris, 1618) and again reprinted in the "Bibliotheca
pole, 29 Sept., 1349. The date 1290, sometimes as- Patrum Maxima" (Lyons, 1677). Modernized Eng-
signed for his birth-year, is too early, as in a work lish versions of the Meditations on the Passion have
written after 1326 he alludes to himself as "juven- been published by Mgr. Benson in "A Book of the
culus" and "puer", words applicable to a man of Love of Jesus" (London, 1905) and by the present
under thirty, but not to one over that age. He writer (C. T. S. London, 1906).
showed such promise as a school-boy, while living Bremarium Bed. Eboracensis. The lesaona in the Officium de
S. Ricardo, II, are the chief authority for the events of his life.
with his father WiUiam Rolle, that Thomas de Perry, Introduction to RoUe's English Prose Treatises (London,
Neville, Archdeacon of Durham, undertook to de- 1866); VON Ullman, Studien zu Richard Rolle de Hampole in
fray the cost of his education at Oxford. At the age englische Studien (Heilbronn, 1877), VII; von Kribel, Hampole-
Studien, ibidem, VIII; Abler, Ueber die Richard Rolle de Hampole
of nineteen he left the university to devote himself zugeschriebene Paraphrase der sieben Busspsalmen (1885) Midden-
;

to a Ufe of perfection, not desiring to enter any reli- DOEFF, Studien aber Richard Rolle (Magdeburg, 1888) Horstman,
;

gious order, but with the intention of becoming a Richard Rolle of Hampole and his followers (London, 1896) ; Har-
vey, Introduction to the Fire of Love, E. E. T. S. (London, 1896);
hermit. At first he dwelt in a wood near his home, Benson, Short lAfe of Richard Rolle in A Book of the Love of Jesus
but fearing his family would put him under restraint, (London, 1905); Inge, Studies of English Mystics (London, 1906);
he fled from Thornton and wandered about tUl he Hodgson, The Farm of Perfect Living (London, 1910).

was recognized by John de Dalton, who had been his

Edwin Burton.
fellow student at Oxford, and who now provided him
with a cell and the necessaries for a hermit's life. RoUin, Charles, b. in Paris, 1661; d. there, 1741.
At Dalton he made great progress in the spiritual life The son of a cutler, intended to follow his father's
as described by himself in his treatise "De incendio trade, he was remarkable for the piety with which he
amoris". He spent from three to four years in the served Mass and which secured for him a collegiate
purgative and illuminative way and then attained scholarship. He studied theology and received the
contemplation, passing through three phases which tonsure, but not Holy Orders. He was assistant
he describes as calor, canor, dulcor. They appeared professor, and then professor of rhetoric at the College
successively, but once attained they reinained with de Plessis; of Latin eloquence at the College Royal
him continually, though he did not feel them all (1688), and at the age of thirty-three was appointed
alike or all at the same time. Sometimes the calor rector of the university. In 1696 he became principal
prevailed; sometimes the canor, but the dulcor ac- of the College Beauvais, from which post he was dis-
companied both. The condition was such, he says, missed in 1722 because of his opposition to the Bull
"that I did not think anything like it or anything "Unigenitus" He was a member of the Academy
so holy could be received in this hfe". After this he of Inscriptions from 1701. His works were written
wandered from place to place, at one time visiting the during his retirement. He was nearly sixty when he
anchoress, Dame Margaret Kyrkby, at Anderby, began the "Traits des Etudes", sixty-seven when he
and obtaining from God her cure. Finally he settled undertook his "Histoire Ancienne", seventy-seven
at Hampole near the Cistercian nunnery, and there when he became engaged on his "Histoire Romaine",
he spent the rest of his life. After his death his tomb which death prevented him from finishing. The
was celebrated for miracles, and preparations for his "Traits des Etudes" (in 12°, 1726-31) explains the
canonization, including the composition of a mass and method of teaching and studying beUes-lettres; it
office in hishonour, were made; but the cause was contains ideas which seem hackneyed, but which then
never prosecuted. His writings were extremely were fairly new, e. g. the necessity of studying national
popular throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth history and of making use of school-books written in
centuries, and very many MSS. copies of his works the vernacular. The "Histohe Ancienne" (1730-38)
are still extant in Enghsh Ubraries. His writings consists of twelve volumes in 12°. The " Histoire Ro-
 ROLLS 120 ROMAN
maine", of which he was able to finish only five vol- Ralph de Dioeto, Walter of Coventry, and others, all
umes out of the nine composing the work, displays edited by Bishop Stubbs; the works of Giraldus
facility, interest, enthusiasm, but lack of a critical Cambrensis by Brewer, and the "Materials for the
spirit. Rollin was a talented \\Titer, though accord- History of St. Thomas Becket" by Canon Robert-
ing to his own statement he was sixty years old when son. But the scope of the Series is by no means
he decided to limited to the ordinary English Chroniclers. Legal
vrrite French.
in records and tractates, such as the "Year Books", the
He was upright "Black Book of the Admiralty", and Bracton's great
and serene, a pious work "De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Anglia";
and sincere Chris- materials of a more or less legendary character relat-
tian, whom it is ing to Ireland and Scotland, such as Whitley Stokes's
deplorable to find edition of "the Tripartite Life of St. Patrick", or the
concerned in the Icelandic Sagas edited by Vigfusson and Dasent;
ridiculous scenes rhymed chronicles like those of Robert of Gloucester
at the cemetery and Robert of Brunne in English, and that of Pierre
of St. Medar;d de Langtoft in French; even quasi-philosophical
near the tomb of works like those of Friar Roger Bacon and Alexander
the deacon Paris. Neckam, together with folklore materials like the
\\'ithout the an- three volumes of "Leechdoms, Worteunning and Star-
noyances due to craft" of Anglo-Saxon times, have all been included
his Jansenism, his in the Series. It need hardly be said that hagiograph-
pure conscience, ical documents, dealing for example with the lives
sweet gaiety, of St. Dunstan, St. Edward the Confessor, St. Hugh
vigorous health, of Lincoln, St. Thomas, as well as St. Wilfrid and other
and the esteem northern saints, occupy a prominent place in the
he enjoyed should collection. The vast bulk of the texts thus edited
have made him are in Latin, and these are printed without transla-
one of the most tion. Those in old French, Anglo-Saxon, Irish,
fortunate men of Gaelic, Welsh, old Norse, etc. always have a trans-
his times. lation annexed.
T R o G N o N, Eloge The progress of the Rolls Series may best be traced in the
(Paris, 1818); Gui- Annual Reports of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records, but
nea u DE M
U S 8 Y, a general account is also given in Gross, The Sources and Litera-
Traite des Etudes de Rollin (Paris, 1805) Sainte-Beute. Causeries
;
ture of English History (New Yorlc, 1900) ; Potthast, Bibliotheca
du lundi, VI (Paris, 1851-62) Historica (Beriin, 1896).
GeoRGES BerTRIN.
Herbert Thurston.
Rolls Series, a collection of historical materials
Rolph, Thomas, surgeon, b. 1800; d. at Ports-
of which the general scope is indicated by its official
mouth, 17 Feb., 1858. He was a younger son of Dr.
title, "The Chronicles and Memorials of Great
Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages" The Thomas Rolph and Frances his wife, and brother of
publication of the series was undertaken by the
John Rolph, the Canadian insurgent. Having quali-
fied as a surgeon, he began to practice in Crutched-
British Government in accordance with a scheme
friars, where he came into conflict with the Anglican
submitted in 1S57 by the Master of the Rolls (the
rector of St. Clave, Hart Street, on the subject of
official Custodian of the Records of the Court of
tithes, a dispute which led him to petition the House
Chancery and of the other Courts), then Sir John
of Commons on the subject and to publish two pam-
Romilly. A previous undertaking of the same kind,
phlets: "Address to the Citizens of London" and
the "Monumenta Historica Britannica", had come
"Letter addressed to the Rev. H. B. Owen, D.D."
to grief after the publication of the first volume
(1036 folio pages, London, 1848) owing partly to the (1827).He also took a prominent part in Catholic
death of the principal editor, Henry Petrie, partly In 1832 he went to the West Indies, the
affairs.

to its cumbrous form and other causes. Strong rep- United States, and Canada, where his brother John
resentations were, however, made by a very earnest had become chairman of committee in the Upper
worker in the field of historical research, Rev. Joseph Canada House of Assembly. For a time Thomas
Stevenson (q. v.), and the scheme of 1857 was the Rolph settled in Canada, acting as Government emi-
direct outcome of this appeal. In the new Series gration agent, but he returned to England in 1839 and
"preference was to be given in the first instance to pubUshed a series of works on emigration: "Compara-
such materials as were most scarce and valuable", tive advantages between the United States and Can-
each chronicle was to be edited as if the editor were ada for British Settlers" (1842); "Emigrants'
engaged upon an cditio princeps, a brief account was Manual" (1843); "Emigration and Colonization"
to be provided in a suitable preface of the life and (1844). In his earlier life he had published two
times of the author as well as a description of the pamphlets on the proceedings of the Religious Tract
manuscripts employed, and the volumes were to be Society, and one against phrenology. He was also a
issued in a convenient octavo form. In accordance constant contributor to the "Truthteller", a Catholic
with thisscheme 2.55 volumes, representing 99 magazine published by William Eusebius Andrews.
separate works, have now been published. With the He spent his last years at Portsmouth where he died
exception of the series of legal records known as the of apoplexy.
Allibone, Critical Diet, of Eng. Lit. (Philadelphia, 1869-71);
"Year Books" of Edward
and Edward III, the
I
GiLLOw, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath., s. v.
further issue of these materials has for some time Edwin Burton
past been suspended. Almost all the great medieval
English chronicles have in turn been included, for —
Roman Catechism. This catechism differs from
it was found that most of the existing editions pub- other summaries of Christian doctrine for the instruc-
lished by the scholars of the seventeenth and eigh- tion of the people in two points: it is primarily in-
teenth centuries were unsatisfactory. It would be tended for priests having care of souls (ad parochos),
impossible here to give a catalogue of the materials and it enjoys an authority equalled by no other
edited in the course of (his great undertaking. It catechism. The need of a popular authoritative
must be sufficient to mention the magnificent edition manual arose from a lack of systematic knowledge
of the "Chronica Majora" of Matthew Paris by among pre-Reformation clergy and the concomitant
Luard; the Hoveden, Benedict of Peterborough, neglect of religious instruction among the faithful.
 ROMAN 121 ROMAN
The Reformers had not been slow in taking advantage authority of conciliary definitions or other primary
of the situation; their popular tracts and catechisms symbols of faith; for, although decreed by the Council,
were flooding every country and leading thousands of it was only pubhshed a year after the Fathers had dis-
souls away from the Church. The Fathers of Trent, persed, and it consequently lacks a formal conciliary
therefore, "wishing to apply a salutary remedy to this approbation. During the heated controversies de
great and pernicious evil, and thinking that the auxiliis gratice between the Thomists and Molinists,
definition of the principal Catholic doctrines was not the Jesuits refused to accept the authority of the
enough for the purpose, resolved also to publish a Catechism as decisive. Yet it possesses high authority
formulary and method for teaching the rudiments of as an exposition of Catholic doctrine. It was com-
the faith, to be used by all legitimate pastors and posed by order of a council, issued and approved by
teachers" (Cat. prasf., vii). This resolution was taken the pope; its use has been prescribed by numerous
in the eighteenth session (26 February, 1562) on the synods throughout the whole Church; Leo XIII, in a
suggestion of St. Charles Borromeo, who was then letter to the French bishops (8 Sept., 1899), recom-
giving full scope to his zeal for the reformation of the mended the study of the Roman Catechism to all
clergy. Pius IV entrusted the composition of the seminarians, and the reigning pontiff, Pius X, has
Catechism to four distinguished theologians: Arch- signified his desire that preachers should expound it
bishops Leonardo Marino of Lanciano and Muzio to the faithful.
Calini of Zara, Egidio Foscarini, Bishop of Modena, The earliest editions of the Roman Catechism are:
and Francisco Fureiro, a Portuguese Dominican. "Romae apud Paulum Manutium", 1566; "Venetiis,
Three cardinals were appointed to supervise the work. apud Dominicum de Farris", 1567; "Colonise", 1567
St. Charles Borromeo superintended the redaction (by Henricus Aquensis); "Parisiis, in aedibus Jac.
of the original Italian text, which, thanks to his Kerver", 1568; "Venetiis, apud Aldum", 1575;
exertions, was finished in 1564. Cardinal William Ingolstadt, 1577 (Sartorius). In 1596 appeared at
Sirletus then gave it the final touches, and the famous Antwerp "Cat. Romanus . . qusestionibus dis-
Humanists, Julius Pogianus and Paulus Manutius, tinctus, brevibusque exhortatiunculis studio Andreae
translated it into classical Latin. It was then pub- Fabricii, Leodiensis". (This editor, A. Le Ffivre,
lished in Latin and Italian as "Catechismus ex decreto died in 1581. He probably made this division of the
Concilii Tridentini ad parochos Pii V jussu editus, Roman Catechism into questions and answers in
Romae, 1566" (in-folio). Translations into the ver- 1570) .George Eder, in 1569, arranged the Catechism
nacular of every nation were ordered by the Council for the use of schools. He distributed the main doc-
(Sess. XXIV, "De Ref.", c. vii). trines into sections and subsections, and added per-
The Council intended the projected Catechism to be spicuous tables of contents. This useful work bears
the Church's official manual of popular instruction. the title: "Methodus Catechismi Cathohci". The
The seventh canon, "De Reformatione", of Sess. first known English translation is by Jeremy Donovan,
XXIV, runs: "That the faithful may approach the a professor at Maynooth, pubhshed by Richard
Sacraments with greater reverence and devotion, the Coyne, Capel Street, Dublin, and by Keating &
Holy Synod charges all the bishops about to admin- Brown, London, and printed for the translator by
ister them to explain their operation and use in a way W. Folds & Son, Great Shand Street, 1829. An
adapted to the understanding of the people; to see, American edition appeared in the same year. Dono-
moreover, that their parish priests observe the same van's translation was reprinted at Rome by the Prop-
rule piously and prudently, making use for their ex- aganda Press, in two volumes (1839) it is dedicated to
;

planations, where necessary and convenient, of the Cardinal Fransoni, and signed: "Jeremias Donovan,
vernacular tongue; and conforming to the form to be sacerdos hibernus, cubicularius Gregorii XVI, P. M."
prescribed by the Holy Synod in its instructions There is another English translation by R. A. Buckley
{catechesis) for the several Sacraments: the bishops (London, 1852), which is more elegant than Donovan's
shall have these instructions carefully translated into and claims to be more correct but is spoiled by the
the vulgar tongue and explained by all parish priests doctrinal notes of the Anglican translator. The first
to their flocks .
". In the mind of the Church German translation, by Paul Hoffaeus, is dated Dil-
the Catechism, though primarily written for the parish lingen, 1568.
priests, was also intended to give a fixed and stable J. WiLHELM.
scheme of instruction to the faithful, especially with
regard to the means of grace, so much neglected at the Roman Catholic, a qualification of the name
time. To attain this object the work closely follows Catholic commonly used in Enghsh-speaking coun-
the dogmatic definitions of the council. It is divided triesby those unwilling to recognize the claims of the
in four parts: I. The Apostles' Creed; II. The Sacra- One True Church. Out of condescension for these
ments; III. The Decalogue; IV. Prayer, especially dissidents, the members of that Church are wont in
The Lord's Prayer. It deals with the papal primacy officialdocuments to be styled "Roman Cathohcs" as
and with Limbo (q. v.), points which were not dis- if the term Catholic represented a genus of which
cussed or defined at Trent; on the other hand, it is those who owned allegiance to the pope formed a par-
silent on the doctrine of Indulgences (q. v.), which is ticular species. It is in fact a prevalent conception
set forth in the "Decretum de mdulgentiis' ,
Sess. among Anglicans to regard the whole Catholic Church
XXV. The bishops urged in every way the use of as made up of three principal branches, the Roman
the new Catechism; they enjoined its frequent read- Catholic, the Anglo-Catholic and the Greek CathoUc.
ing, so that all its contents would be committed to As the erroneousness of this point of view has been
suflticiently explained in the articles Church and
memory; they exhorted the priests to discuss parts
of it at their meetings, and insisted upon its
being Catholic, it is only needful here to consider the his-
used for instructing the people. tory of the composite term with which we are now
To some editions of the Roman Catechism is pre- concerned. In the "Oxford English Dictionary",
fixed a "Praxis Catechismi", i. e. a division
of its the highest existing authority upon questions of Eng-
contents into sermons for every Sunday of the year Ush philology, the following explanation is given under
the heading "Roman Catholic" "The use of this
adapted to the Gospel of the day. There is no better
composite term in place of the simple Roman, Ro-
sermonary. The people like to hear the voice ot the
manist, or Romish, which had acquired an invidious
Church speaking with no uncertain sound; the many
their sense, appears to have arisen in the early years of the
Biblical texts and illustrations go straight to
these simple seventeenth century. For conciliatory reasons it was
hearts, and, best of all, they remember
famous employed in the negotiations connected with the
sermons better than they do the oratory of
orators. The Catechism has not of course the Spanish Match (1618-1624) and appears in formal
pulpit
 ROMAN 122 ROMAN
documents relating to this printed by Rushworth suspected by their opponents of subservience to the
(I, 85-89). After that date it was generally adopted government and of minimizing in matters of dogma.
as a non-controversial term and has long been the This feature is very conspicuous, to take a single
recognised leg;il and official designation, though in example, in "the Protestation of allegiance" drawn
ordinary use Cathohc alone is very frequently em- up by thirteen missioners, 31 Jan., 1603, in which
ployed" (New Oxford Diet., VIII, 766). Of the illus- they renounce all thought of "restoring the Catholic
trative quotations which follow, the earliest in date is religion by the sword", profess their wilhngness "to
one of 1605 from the "Europae Speculum" of Edwin persuade all Catholics to do the same" and conclude
vSandys: "Some Roman Catholiques will not say grace by declaring themselves ready on the one hand "to
when a Protestant is present"; while a passage from spend their blood in the defence of her Majesty" but
Day's "Festivals" of 1615, contrasts "Roman Catho- on the other "rather to lose their lives than infringe
liques" with "good, true Catholiques indeed". the lawful authority of Christ's Catholic Church"
Although the account thus given in the Oxford (Tierney - Dodd, III, p. cxc). We find similar
Dictionary is in substance correct, it cannot be con- language used in Ireland in the negotiations carried
sidered satisfactory. To begin with the word is dis- on by Tyrone in behalf of his Catholic countrymen.
tinctly older than is here suggested. When about the Certain apparent exceptions to this uniformity of
year 1580 certain Enghsh Catholics, under stress of practice can be readily explained. To begin with we
grievous persecution, defended the lawfulness of do find that Catholics not unfrequently use the
attending Protestant services to escape the fines im- inverted form of the name "Roman Catholic" and
posed on recusants, the Jesuit Father Persons pub- speak of the "Catholic Roman faith" or religion.
lished, under the pseudonym of Howlet, a clear expo- An early example is to be found in a little controver-
sition of the "Reasons why Catholiques refuse to goe to sial tract of 1575 called "a Notable Discourse" where
Church" This was answered in 1801 by a vn-iter we read for example that the heretics of old "preached
of Puritan sympathies, Percival ^^'iburn, who in his that the Pope was Antichriste, shewing themselves
"Checke or Reproof e of M. Howlet" uses the term verye eloquent in detracting and rayling against the
"Roman Catholic" repeatedly. For example he Catholique Romane Church" (p. 64). But this was
speaks of "you Romane Catholickes that sue for simply a translation of the phraseology common both
toUeration" (p. 140) and of the "parlous dilemma or in Latin and in the Romance languages "Ecolesia
streight which you Romane Catholickes are brought Cathohca Romana," or in French "I'Eglise catho-
into" (p. 44). Again Robert Crowley, another lique romaine". It was felt that this inverted form
Anglican controversialist, in his book called "A contained no hint of the Protestant contention that
DeUberat Answere", printed in 1588, though adopt- the old religion was a spurious variety of true Cathol-
ing by preference the forms "Romish Catholike" or icism or at best the Roman species of a wider genus.
"Popish Catholike", also writes of those "who Again, when we find Father Persons (e. g. in his
wander with the Romane Catholiques in the uncer- "Three Conversions," III, 408) using the term
tayne hypathes of Popish devises" (p. 86). A study "Roman Catholic", the context shows that he is
of these and other early examples in their context only adopting the name for the moment as con-
shows plainly enough that the qualification "Romish veniently embodying the contention of his adver-
Catholic" or "Roman Catholic" was introduced by saries.
Protestant divines who highly resented the Roman Once more in a very striking passage in the exam-
claim to any monopoly of the term Catholic. In ination of one James Clayton in 1591 (see Cal. State
Germany, Luther had omitted the word Catholic Papers, Dom. Ehz., add., vol. XXXII, p. 322) we
from the Creed, but this was not the case in England. read that the deponent "was persuaded to conforme
Even men of such Calvinistic leanings as Philpot (he himself to the Romaine Catholique faith." But
was burned under Mary in 1555), and John Foxe the there is nothing to show that these were the actual
martyrologist, not to speak of churchmen like Newel words of the recusant himself, or that, if they were,
and Fulke, insisted on the right of the Reformers to they were not simply dictated by a desire to concil-
call themselves Catholics and professed to regard iate his examiners. The "Oxford Dictionary" is
their own as the only true Catholic Church. Thus probably right in assigning the recognition of "Roman
Philpot represents himself as answering his Catholic Catholic" as the official style of the adherents of the
examiner: "I am, master doctor, of the unfeigned Papacy in England to the negotiations for the
Catholic Church and will hve and die therein, Spanish Match (1618-24). In the various treaties
and if you can prove your Church to be the True etc., drafted in connexion with this proposal, the
Catholic Church, I will be one of the same" (Philpot, religion of the Spanish princess is almost always
"Works", Parker Soc, p. 132). It would be easy to spoken of as "Roman Catholic". Indeed in sonie
tiuote many similar passages. The term "Romish few instances the word Catholic alone is used. This
Catholic" or "Roman Catholic" undoubtedly orig- feature does not seem to occur in any of the nego-
inated with the Protestant divines who shared this tiations of earlier date which touched upon religion,
feeling and who were unwilling to concede the name e. those connected with the proposed d'Alen^on
g.
Catholic to their opponents without qualification. rnarriage in Elizabeth's reign, while in Acts of Par-
Indeed the writer Crowley, just mentioned, does not liament, proclamations, etc., before the Spanish
hesitate throughout a long tract to use the term match. Catholics are simply described as Papists or
"Protestant Catholics" the name which he applies Recusants, and their religion as popish, Romanish,
to his antagonists. Thu,; he says "We Protestant or Romanist. Indeed long after this period, the use
Catholiques are not departed from the true Catho- of the term Roman Cathohc continued to be a mark
lique religion" (p. 33) and he refers more than once of condescension, and language of much more un-
to "Our Protestant Catholique Church," (p. 74) complimentary character was usually preferred.
On the other hand the evidence seems to show that It was perhaps to encourage afriendlier attitude in
the Catholios of the reign of Elizabeth and James I the authorities that Catholics themselves hence-
were by no means willing to admit any other desig- forth began to adopt the quahfied term in all official
nation for tliemselves than the unqualified name relations with the government. Thus the "Humble
Catholic. Father Simthwell's "Humble Supplica- Remonstrance, Acknowledgment, Protestation and
tion to her Majesty" (1591), though criticized by Petition of the Roman Catholic Clergy of Ireland"
eome as o\'er-adulatory in tone, always uses the simple in 1661, began "We, your Majesty's faithful subjects
word. AMiat is more surprising, the same may be the Roman Cathohck clergy of Ireland". The same
said of -v-arious addresses to the Crown drafted under practice seems to have obtained in Maryland; see
the inspiration of the "Appellant" clergy, who were for example the Consultation entitled "Objections
 ROMAN 123 ROMAN
answered touching Maryland", drafted by Father that such an adjunct can serve is to distinguish
R. Blount, S.J., in 1632 (B. Johnston, "Foundation your Catholic Church from another Catholic Church
of Maryland", etc., 1883, 29), and wills proved 22 which IS not Roman" (p. 368). It is this very com-
Sep., 1630, and 19 Dec, 1659, etc., (in Baldwin, mon line of argument which imposes upon Cath-
" Maryland Cat. of Wills", 19 vols., vol. i. Naturally olics the necessity of making no compromise in the
the wish to conciliate hostile opinion only grew matter of their own name. The loyal adherents
greater as Catholic Emancipation became a question of the Holy See did not begin in the sixteenth century
of practical politics, and by that time it would appear to call themselves "Catholics" for controversial
that many Catholics themselves used the quahfied purposes. It is the traditional name handed down
form not only when addressing the outside public to us continuously from the time of St. Augustine.
but in their domestic discussions. A short-lived We use this name ourselves and ask those outside
association, organized in 1794 with the fullest ap- the Church to use it, without reference to its sig-
proval of the vicars Apostolic, to counteract the nification simply because it is our customary name,
unorthodox tendencies of the Cisalpine Club, was just as we talk of the Russian Church as "the
officially known as the "Roman Catholic Meeting" Orthodox Church", not because we recognize its
(Ward, "Dawn of Cath. Revival in England", orthodoxy but because its members so style them-
II, 65). So, too, a meeting of the Irish bishops selves, or again just as we speak of "the Reforma-
under the presidency of Dr. Troy at Dublin in 1821 tion" because it is the term established by custom,
passed resolutions approving of an Emancipation though we are far from owning that it was a refor-
Bill then before a Parliament, in which they uni- mation in either faith or morals. The dog-in-the-
formly referred to members of their own communion manger policy of so many Anglicans who cannot
as "Roman Catholics". Further, such a represen- take the name of Catholics for themselves, because
tative Catholic as Charles Butler in his "Historical popular usage has never sanctioned it as such, but
Memoirs" (see e. g. vol. IV, 1821, pp. 185, 199, 225, who on the other hand will not concede it to the mem-
etc.,) frequently uses the term " roman-oatholic " [sic] bers of the Church of Rome, was conspicuously
and seems to find this expression as natural as the un- brought out in the course of a correspondence on
qualified form. this subject in the London "Saturday Review"
With the strong Catholic revival in the middle (Dec, 1908 to March, 1909) arising out of a review
of the nineteenth century and the support derived of some of the earlier volumes of The Catholic
from the uncompromising zeal of many earnest Encyclopbdia.
converts, such for example as Faber and Manning, The historical facts summarized in this article are given in an
an inflexible adherence to the name Catholic with- extended form in a paper contributed by the pre.sent writer to
The Month (Sept. 1911). See also "The Tablet" (14 Sept., 1901),
out qualification once more became the order of the 402, and Snead-Cox, Life of Cardinal Vaughan, cited above.
day. The government, however, would not modify Herbert Thurston.
the official designation or suffer it to be set aside in
addresses presented to the Sovereign on public Roman Catholic Relief Bill.— In England. —
occasions. In two particular instances during the With the accession of Queen Elizabeth (1558) com-
archiepiscopate of Cardinal Vaughan this point menced the series of legislative enactments, commonly
was raised and became the subject of correspondence known as the Penal Laws, under which the profession
between the cardinal and the Home Secretary. In and practice of the Catholic religion were subjected to
1897 at the Diamond Jubilee of the accession of severe penalties and disabilities. By laws passed
Queen Victoria, and again in 1901 when Edward VII in the reign of Elizabeth herself, any English sub-
succeeded to the throne, the Catholic episcopate ject receiving Holy Orders of the Church of Rome
desired to present addresses, but on each occasion and coming to England was guilty of high treason,
it was intimated to the cardinal that the only per- and any one who aided or sheltered him was guilty
missible style would be "the Roman Cathohc Arch- of capital felony. It was likewise made treason to
bishop and Bishops in England"- Even the form be reconciled to the Church of Rome, and to procure
"the Cardinal Archbishop and Bishops of the others to be reconciled. Papists were totally dis-
Catholic and Roman Church in England" was not abled from giving their children any education in
approved. On the first occasion no address was their own religion. Should they educate them at
presented, but in 1901 the requirements of the home under a schoolmaster who did not attend the
Home Secretary as to the use of the name "Roman parish church, and was not licenced by the bishop of
Catholics" were complied with, though the cardinal the diocese, the parents were liable to forfeit ten
reserved to himself the right of explaining subse- pounds a month, and the schoolmaster himself
quently on some public occasion the sense in which forty shillings a day. Should the children be sent
he used the words (see Snead-Cox, "Life of Car- to Catholic seminaries beyond the seas, their parents
dinal Vaughan", II, 231-41). Accordingly, at the were liable to forfeit one hundred pounds, and the
Newcastle Conference of the Catholic Truth Society children themselves were disabled from inheriting,
(Aug., 1901) the cardinal explained clearly to his purchasing, or enjoying any species of property.
audience that "the term Roman Catholic has two Saying Mass was punished by a forfeiture of 200
meanings; a meaning that we repudiate and a mean- marks; hearing it by one of 100 marks. The statutes
ing that we accept." The repudiated sense was of recusancy punished nonconformity with the Es-
that dear to many Protestants, according to which tablished Church by a fine of twenty pounds per
the term Catholic was a genus which resolved itself lunar month during which the parish church was not
into the species Roman Catholic, Anglo-Catholic, attended, there being thirteen of such months in the
Greek Catholic, etc. But, as the cardinal insisted, year. Such non-attendances constituted recusancy
"with us the prefix Roman is not restrictive to a in the proper sense of the term, and originally af-
species, or a section, but simply declaratory of fected all, whether Catholics, or others, who did not
Catholic." The prefix in this sense draws attention conform. In 1593 by 35 Eliz. c. 2, the consequences
to the unity of the Church, and "insists that the of such non-conformity were limited to Popish re-
central point of Catholicity is Roman, the Roman cusants. A Papist, convicted of absenting himself
See of St. Peter." from church, became a Popish recusant convict,
It is noteworthy that the representative Anghcan and besides the monthly fine of twenty pounds, was
divine, Bishop Andrewes, in his "Tortura Torti" disabled from holding any office or employment,
(1609) ridicules the phrase Ecclesia Catholica Romana from keeping arms in his house, from maintaining
as a contradiction in terms. "What," he asks, "is actions or suits at law or in equity, from being an
the object of adding 'Roman'? The only purpose executor or a guardian, from presenting to an advow-
 ROMAN 124 ROMAN
son, from practising the law or physic, and from although there was less and less disposition to put

holding office civil or military. He was likewise them in force, there was ever the danger, which upon
subject to the penalties attaching to excommunication, occasion grew more acute. In 1767 a priest named
was not permitted to travel five miles from his house Malony was tried at Croydon for his priesthood, and
without licence, under pain of forfeiting all his goods, condemned to perpetual imprisonment, which, at
and might not come to Court under a penalty of the end of two or three years, was commuted, "by
one hundred pounds. Other provisions extended the mercy of the Government" to banishment. In
similar penalties to married women. Popish re- 1768 the Reverend James Webb was tried in the Court
cusants convict were, within three months of con- of King's Bench for saying Mass, but was acquitted,
viction, eitlier to submit and renounce their papistry, the Chief Justice, Lord Mansfield, ruling that there
or, if required by four justices, to abjure the realm. was no evidence sufficient to convict. In 1769 and
If they did not depart, or returned without licence, on other occasions, seemingly as late as 1771, Dr.
they were guilty of a capital felony. At the outset James Talbot, coadjutor to Bishop Challoner, was
of Elizabeth's reign, an oath of supremacy containing tried for his life at the Old Bailey, on the charge of his
a denial of the pope's spiritual jurisdiction, which priesthood and of saying Mass, but was acquitted
therefore could not be taken by Catholics, was im- on similar grounds. Such instances were not soUtary.
posed on all officials, civil and ecclesiastical. The In 1870, Mr. Charles Butler found that one firm of
"Oath of allegiance and obedience" enacted under lawyers had defended more than twenty priests under
James I, in 1605, in consequence of the excitement prosecutions of this nature. In 1778 a Catholic
of the Gunpowder Plot, confirmed the same. By the committee was formed to promote the cause of relief
Corporation Act of 1661, no one could legally be for their co-rehgionists, and though several times
elected to any municipal office unless he had within elected afresh, continued to exist until 1791, with a
the year received the Sacrament according to the short interval after the Gordon Riots. It was always
rite of the Church of England, and likewise, taken the uniformly aristocratic in composition, and until
Oath of Supremacy. The first provision excluded all 1787 included no representation of the hierarchy and
non-conformists; the second Catholics only. The then but three co-opted members. In the same
Test Act (1672) imposed on all officers, civil and year, 1778, was passed the first Act for Catholic
military, a "Declaration against Transubstantia- Relief (18 George III, o. 60). By this, an oath was
tion", whereby Catholics were debarred from such imposed, which besides a declaration of loyalty to
employment. In 1677 it was enacted that all mem- the reigning sovereign, contained an abjuration of the
bers of either House of Parliament should, before Pretender, and of certain doctrines attributed to
taking their seats, make a "Declaration against Catholics, as that excommunicated princes may
Popery", denouncing Transubstantiation, the Mass lawfully be murdered, that no faith should be kept
and the invocation of saints, as idolatrous. with heretics, and that the pope has temporal as well
With the Resolution of 1688 came a new crop of as spiritual jurisdiction in this realm. Those taking
penal laws, less atrocious in character than those of this oath were exempted from some of the most
previous times, but on that very account more likely galling provisions of the Act of ^\'illiam III passed in
to be enforced, and so to become efTective, the 1700. The section as to taking and prosecuting
sanguinary penalties of the sixteenth century, having priests were repealed, as also the penalty of perpetual
in great measure defeated their own end, and being imprisonment for keeping a school. Catholics were
now generally left on the statute book in terrorem. also enabled to inherit and purchase land, nor was a
In 1689 (1 William and Mary, i, c. 9) a shorter form Protestant heir any longer empowered to enter
of the Oath of Allegiance and Supremacy was sub- and enjoy the estate of his Catholic kinsman. The
stituted, the clause aimed against Catholics being passing of this act was the occasion of the Gordon
carefully retained. It was likewise ordered that all Riots (1780) in which the violence of the mob was
Papists and reputed Papists should be "amoved" especially directed against Lord Mansfield who had
ten miles from the cities of London and Westminster. balked various prosecutions under the statutes now
In 1700 (11 and 12 William III, c. 4.) a reward of repealed.
one hundred pounds was promised to anyone who In 1791 there followed another Act (31 George
should give information leading to the conviction III, c. 32) far more extensive and far-reaching. By
of a Popish priest or bishop, who was made punish- it there was again an oath to be taken, in character
able by imprisonment for life. Moreover, any much like that of 1778, but including an engagement
Papist who within six months of attaining the age of to support the Protestant Succession under the Act
eighteen failed to take the Oath of Allegiance and of Settlement (12 and 13 W'illiam III). No Catholic
Supremacy and subscribe to the Declaration against taking the oath was henceforward to be prosecuted
Popery, was disabled in respect to himself (but not for being a Papist, or for being educated in the
of his heirs or posterity) from acquiring or holding Popish religion, or for hearing Mass or saying it, or
land, and until he submitted, his next of kin who was a for being a priest or deacon, or for entering into, or
Protestant might enjoy his lands, without being belonging to, any ecclesiastical order or community
obliged to account for the profits. 'The recusant was in the Church of Rome, or for assisting at, or per-
also incapable of purchasing, and all trusts on his forming any Catholic rites or ceremonies. Catholics
behalf were void. In 1714 (George I, c. 13) a new were no longer to be summoned to take the Oath of
element was introduced, namely Constructive Re- Supremacy, or to be removed from London; the
cusancy. The Oath of Allegiance and Supremacy legislation of George I, requiring them to register
might be tendered to any suspected person by any their estates and wills, was absolutely repealed;
two Justices of the Peace, and persons refusing it while the professions of counsellor and barrister at
were to be adjudged Popish recusants convict, and law, attorney, solicitor, and notary were opened to
to forfeit, and be proceeded against accordingly. them. It was however provided that all their as-
Thus the refusal of the Oath was placed on the same semblies for religious worship should be certified at
footing as a legal conviction, and the person so con- Quarter Sessions; that no person should officiate at
victed was rendered hable to all penalties under those such assembly until his name had been recorded by
statutes. M the same time an obligation was im- the Clerk of the Peace: that no such place of as-
posed on Catholics requiring them to register their sembly should be locked or barred during the meeting;
names and estates, and to enroll their deeds and and that the building in which it was held, should not
wills. have a steeple or bell. The Relief Act of 1791 un-
These penal laws remained on the statute book doubtedly marked a great step in the removal of
unmitigated till late in the eighteenth century, and Catholic grievances, but the English statesmen felt.
 ROMAN 125 ROMAN
along with the CathoHo body, that much more was The Irish Parliament soon enacted that all candidates
required. Pitt and his rival, Fox, were alike pledged for office should take the Oath of Supremacy; and by
to a full measure of Catholic Emancipation, but they the Act of Uniformity the Protestant liturgy was
were both thwarted by the obstinacy of King George prescribed in all churches. For a time, however, these
in, who insisted that to agree to any such measure Acts were but mildly enforced. But when the pope
would be a violation of his coronation oath. There excommunicated the queen, and the Spanish king
were also at this period considerable dissensions made war on her, and both, in attempting to dethrone
within the Catholic ranks. These concerned first the her, found that the Irish Catholics were ready to be
question of Veto on the appointment of bishops in their instruments and allies, the latter, regarded as
Ireland, which it was proposed to confer on the rebels and traitors by the English sovereign and her
English Government, and belongs chiefly to the his- ministers, were persecuted and hunted down. Their
tory of Emancipation in that country. There was chiefs were outlawed, their churches laid in ruins,
another cause of dissension, more properly English, their clergy driven to exile or death. The expecta-
which was connected with the adjuration of the sup- tions of a harassed people and an outlawed creed
posed Catholic doctrines contained in the oath im- that better times had come with the advent of the
posed upon those who wished to participate in the —
Stuarts were falsified by the repeated proclamations
benefits conferred by the Act of 1791, as previously against priests, by the Plantation of Ulster, and,
by that of 1778. The lay members of the Catholic later, by the attempted confiscations of Strafford.
committee who had framed this disclaimer were Charles II had special reasons for being grateful to
accused by the vicars Apostolic, who then adminis- large masses of Irish Catholics, who fought his
tered the Church in England, of tampering with battles at home and supported him abroad; yet at
matters of ecclesiastical discipline; and although the the Restoration he left them to their fate, and con-
bishops had their way in the matter of the oath, the firmed the gigantic scheme of confiscation which had
feud survi\ed, and was proclaimed to the world by been carried out by Cromwell. He was not indeed
the formation in 1792 of the Cisalpine Club (q. v.), much attached to any religion, and disliked religious
the members whereof were pledged "to resist any persecution; and more than once during his reign
ecclesiastical interference which may militate against he tried to interpose between the Catholics and the
the freedom of English Catholics" Acts of Uniformity and Supremacy. But the mili-
Such internal dissension, no doubt, did much to tant and aggressive Protestantism of the English
retard the course of Emancipation. Its final triumph Parliament would have no Catholic in any office,
was due more than aught else to the pressure which civil or military, and none in the corporations; and
the Catholic body in Ireland was able to put upon the Charles was too politic to strain unduly the allegiance
Government, for it was acknowledged by the Duke of these intolerant legislators. Had James II been
of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel themselves, who equally politic he would have gradually allayed Prot-
carried the Bill, that their action was due to the estant prejudice; and perhaps there would have been
necessity of pacifying Ireland, which had found so no long-drawn-out penal code, and no wearisome
powerful a leader in Daniel O'Connell (q. v.), and struggle for emancipation. But he insisted on
of thus averting the danger of a civil war. It would Catholic predominance, and soon picked a quarrel
take too much space to go into details regarding the with his Protestant subjects which resulted in the
provisions of the Act of Emancipation. Its general loss of his crown.
effect was to open public life to Catholics taking the The war which followed in Ireland was terminated
prescribed oath, to enable them to sit in Parliament, by the Treaty of Limerick, and had its terms been
to vote at elections (as previously they could not in kept, the position of the Catholics would have been
England or Scotland, though they could in Ireland) at least tolerable. Granted such privileges as they
to fill all offices of State with a few exceptions, viz.: had enjoyed in the reign of Charles II, with an Oath
A Catholic cannot succeed to the throne, and a of Allegiance substituted for the Oath of Supremacy,
sovereign becoming a Catholic or marrying one, and with a promise of a further relaxation of the
thereby forfeits the crown, and a Catholic cannot penal enactments in force, they could practice their
hold the office of Regent. It is uncertain whether religion without hindrance, sit in Parliament and vote
the English Chancellorship and the Irish Vice- for its members, engage in trade and in the learned
royalty are barred to Catholics or not. Like the professions, and fill all civil and military offices; and
previous Relief Acts, that of 1829 still retained the they were protected in the possession of the lands they
"Roman Catholic Oath", to be imposed upon those held. Wilham III, whose name has been made a
who desire to enjoy its benefits. It likewise added rallying-cry for bigotry, was in favour of these, and
something in the way of penal legislation by a clause even more generous terms. But the forces of in-
prohibiting religious orders of men to receive new tolerance on both sides of the Channel^ were too
members, and subjecting those who should disobey strong. A small minority of Protestants in Ireland,
to banishment as misdemeanants. This prohibi- pampered by privileges and_ possessing confiscated
tion is still upon the statute book, and within the lands, thought that their only chance of security
present century an attempt has been made to give was to trample upon the Catholic majority surround-
it effect. Finally, in 1871 (34 and 35 Victoria, c. ing them. Sustained and encouraged by England,
48) the invidious Roman Catholic Oath was abol- in defiance of the solemn obligations of public faith,
ished, as also the still more objectionable declaration they tore the Treaty of Limerick into tatters, re-
against Transubstantiation. fused to ratify its and elaborated a penal
concessions,
code which every Englishman now
fair-minded
Butler, Historical Account of the Laws Respecting the Roman
Catholics, and of the Laws passed for their Relief etc. (London, blushes to recall. For more than a quarter of a
1795) Idem, Historical memoirs of the English, Irish and Scottish
; century the work of outlawry and proscription was
Catholics from the Reformation to the present time, 4 volumes (1812- continued by an exclusively Protestant Parhament
1821); Amhebst, History of Catholic Emancipation (London,
1886)' Lilly and Walter, A Manual of the Law especially at Dublin; and when the work was completed the
affecting Catholics (London, 1893); BlStzer, Die
Kathohken position of the vast majority of Irishmen was that of
emanzipation in Grossbritannien u. Irland (Freiburg, 1905); slaves. An Irish Judge declared in 1760 that the law
Dain, Catholic Emancipation in Cambridge Modern History, X,
c 19
did not recognize the existence of an Irish Catholic,
John Gerard. and, assuredly the penal code had placed him ef-
fectually beyond its pale. It branded Catholics with

In Ireland.—tWhen Elizabeth became Queen of proscription and inferiority, struck at every form of
England, her Irish deputy was ordered "to set up Cathohc activity, and checked every symptom of
the worship of God in Ireland as it is in England Cathohc enterprise. It excluded them from Parha-
 ROMAN 126 ROMAN
ment, from the corporations, from the learned pro- 1782 willing to do more than to repeal the law com-
fessions, from civil and military offices, from being ex- pelling bishops to quit the kingdom, and the law
ecutors, or administrators, or guajdians of property, binding those who had assisted at Mass to give the
from holding land under lease, or from owning a horse celebrant's name. Further, Catholics were no longer
worth £5. They were deprived of arms and of the prohibited from owning a horse worth £5, and
franchise, denied education at home and punished Catholic schools might be opened with the consent
if they sought it abroad, forbidden to observe Catho- of the Protestant bishop of the diocese. These small
lic Holy Days, to make pilgrimages, or to continue to concessions were not supplemented by others for
use the old monasteries as the burial places of their ten years.
dead. For the clergy there was no mercy, nothing Dissensions and jealousies were largely responsible
but prison, exile, or death. for this slow progress. Between the Catholic landed
After the Cathohcs had vainly protested against gentry and the Catholic merchants there was little
the Bill "To Prevent the Further Growth of Popery" in common except their rehgion. The timidity and
of 1704, their protests ceased. The more energetic submission to authority of the former, and the bolder
of them went abroad; those at home were torpid and freer spirit of the latter were difficult to blend
and inert, the peasantry steeped in poverty and igno- and in 1763 the Catholic Association fell to pieces!
rance, the clergy and gentry sunk in servitude, and After ten years of inactivity a Catholic committee
all of them afraid even to complain of their condition was formed partly out of the debris of the defunct
lest the anger of their tyrants might be provoked. At association. Its chairman was the Earl of Kenmare,
last the tide turned. The Irish Parliament became and again it was sought to have all Catholics act to-
less bigoted, and after 1750 or thereabouts no more gether. But Kenmare was not the man to reconcile
penal laws were passed. Indeed the work of crush- divergent views and methods, to form a homogeneous
ing and debasing the Catholics had been so well party out of discordant elements, and then with such
done that they were paupers and slaves, and to crush a party to adopt a vigorous policy. His manner was
them still further would give the Protestants no ad- cold, his tone one of patronage and superiority; he
ditional security. Some Catholics had made money disliked agitation as savouring of vulgarity and sedi-
in trade and lent it to needy Protestant landlords, tion, and preferred to seek redress by submissive
and these and their friends in Parliament would petitions, slavish protestations of loyalty, aud secret
naturally favour toleration; the fact that the Catho- intrigue; and when an overwhelming majority of the
lics had so long been peaceable, and had given no Catholic Committee favoured manlier measures, he
support to the Pretenders showed that they no longer and sixty-eight others who sympathized with him
clung to the Stuarts; and this greatly strengthened seceded from its ranks. This was in 1791. The
their position both in England and Ireland. The committee then chose for its leader John Keogh, a
growth of a strong sentiment of nationality among Dublin merchant of great ability, strong, manly,
Irish Protestants also helped their cause. Claiming fearless, prudent but firm, a man who favoured
powers which it did not possess, the British Parlia- bolder measures and a decisive tone. Instead of
ment asserted and exercised the right to legislate for begging for small concessions he demanded the re-
Ireland, treated the Irish Parliament with disdain, peal of the whole penal code, a demand considered
and in the interests of English manufacturers im- so extravagant that it had few friends in Parliament.
posed ruinous commercial restrictions on Irish trade. When that assembly was made independent it had
Dissatisfied with their English friends, the Irish not been reformed; and Grattan had foolishly allowed
Protestants turned to their own Catholic country- the volunteers to lay aside their swords before the
men, and the more Catholics and Protestants came battle of reform had been won.
together, the better for the cause of religious tolera- Unrepresentative and corrupt. Parliament con-
tion. This turn of affairs inspired the Catholics tinued to be dominated by pensioners and placemen,
with hope and courage, and three of them, Dr. and under the influence of Fitzgibbon and Foster,
Curry, a Dublin physician, Mr. Wyse of Waterford, two Irishmen and two bigots, it refused to advance
and Mr. Charles O'Connor, formed, in 1759, a Catho- further on the path of concession. Even Charlemont
lic Association, which was to meet at Dublin, cor- and Flood would not join emancipation with parlia-
respond with representative Catholics in the country, mentary reform, and while willing to safeguard
and watch over Catholic interests. But such was Catholic liberty and property would give Catholics
the spiritless condition of the Catholics that the no political power. But this attitude of intolerance
gentry and clergy held aloof, and the new association and exclusion could not be indefinitely maintained.
was chiefly manned by Dublin merchants. Under The French Revolution was in progress, and a young
its auspices a loyal address was presented to the and powerful republic had arisen preaching the rights
viceroy, and another to George III on his accession of man, the iniquity of class distinctions and re-
to the throne, and the Catholics rejoiced that both ligious persecution, and proclaiming its readiness to
addresses were graciously received. aid all nations who were oppressed and desired to be
These friendlier dispositions, however, were slow to free. These attractive doctrines rapidly seized on
develop into legislative enactments, and not until men's minds, and Ireland did not escape the con-
1771 did the first instalment of emancipation come. tagion. The Ulster Presbyterians celebrated with en-
By the Act of that year Catholics were allowed to thusiasm the fall of the Bastille, and in 1791 founded
reclaim and hold under lease for sixty-one years fifty the Society of United Irishmen, having as the two
acres of bog, but it should not be within a mile of any chief planks in its programme Parliamentary reform
city or market town. Three years later an oath of and Catholic Emancipation. The Catholics and
allegiance was substituted for that of supremacy. Dissenters, so long divided by religious antagonism,
A further concession was granted in 1778 when were coming together, and if they made a united de-
Catholics were allowed to hold leases of land for 999 mand for equal rights for all Irishmen, without dis-
years, and might inherit land in the same way as tinction of creed, the ascendency of the Episcopalian
Protestants, the preamble of the Act declaring that Protestants, who were but a tenth of the population,
the law was passed to reward Catholics for their must necessarily disappear. Yet the selfish and cor-
long-continued peaceable behaviour, and for the rupt junta who ruled the Parliament, and ruled Ire-
purpose of allowing them to enjoy "the blessings of land, would not yield an inch of ground, and only
our free constitution". Distrust of them, however, under the strongest pressure from England was an
continued, and though they subscribed money to act passed in 1792 admitting Catholics to the Bar,
equip the volunteers, they would not be admitted legalizing marriages between Catholics and Protes-
within the ranks. Nor was the Irish Parliament of tants, and allowing Catholic schools to be set up
 ROMAN 127 ROMAN
without the necessity of obtaining the permission was one of the anomalies of the Irish constitution that
of a Protestant bishop. a change of measures did not involve a change of
Such grudging concessions irritated rather than men, and hence the viceroy and the chief secretary,
appeased in the existing temper of the Catholic body. who had opposed all concessions to Cathohcs, were
To consider their position and take measures for the retained in office, and Fitzgibbon was still left as if
future the Catholic Committee had delegates ap- to prevent further concessions and to n ullify what
pointed by the different parishes in Ireland, and in had been done.
December, 1792, a CathoUo convention commenced For a brief period, however, it seemed as if men as
its sittings in Dubhn. By the Protestant bigots it well as measures were to be changed. At the end of
was derisively called the Back Lane Parliament, and 1794 a section of the English Whigs joined Pitt's
every effort was made to discredit its proceedings and administration. The Duke of Portland became Home
identify it with sedition. Fitzgibbon excited the Secretary, with Irish affairs in his department, and
fears of the Protestant landlords by declaring that Earl Fitzwilliam became Lord Lieutenant. He came
the repeal of the penal code would involve the repeal to Ireland early in 1795. His sympathy with the
of the Act of Settlement, and invalidate the titles by Catholics was well known; he was the friend of Grat-
which they held their lands. The Catholic con- tan and the Ponsonbys, the champions of Emancipa-
vention, however, went on unheeding, and turning tion, and in coming to Ireland he beheved he had the
with contempt from the Dubhn Parliament sent dele- full sanction of Pitt to popularize Irish Government
gates with a petition to London. The relations be- and finally settle the Catholic question. At once he
tween Catholics and Dissenters were then so friendly dismissed Cooke, the Under Secretary, a determined
that Keogh became a United Irishman, and a Prot- foe of concession and reform, and also John Beresford
estant barrister named Theobald Wolfe Tone, the who, with his relatives filled so many offices that he
ablest of the United Irishmen, became secretary to was called the "King" of Ireland. Fitzgibbon and
the CathoUc Committee. And when the Catholic Foster he seldom consulted. Further, when Grattan
delegates on their way to London passed through at the opening of Parliament introduced an Eman-
Belfast, their carriage was drawn through the streets cipation Bill, Fitzwilliam determined to support it.
by Presbyterians amid thunders of applause. Had Of all that he did or intended to do he informed the
the Prime Minister, Pitt, advised the king to receive English Ministry, and got no word of protest in reply,
the Catholics coldly, he would certainly have earned and then when the hopes of the Catholics ran high,
the goodwill of a small clique in Ireland, to whom Pitt turned back and Fitzwilliam was recalled. Why
their own interests were everything and the interests he was thus repudiated, after being allowed to go so
of England little. But he would have intensified far, has never been satisfactorily explained. It may
disaffection among nine-tenths of the Irish people, be because Pitt changed his mind, and meditating a
and this at a time when the French had beheaded union wished to leave the Catholic question open.
their king, hurled back the Prussian attack at Valmy, It may be because of the dismissal of Beresford, who
conquered Belgium, and, maddened with enthusiasm had powerful friends. It may be that Fitzwilliam,
for liberty and with hatred of monarchy, were about misunderstanding Pitt, went further than he wished
to declare war on England. The king graciously re- him to go; and it seems evident that he managed the
ceived the Catholics, and Pitt and Dundas, the Home question badly and irritated interests he ought to
Secretary, warned the Irish junta that the time for have appeased. Lastly, it is certain that Fitzgibbon
concessions had come, and that if rebellion broke out poisoned the king's mind by pointing out that to ad-
in Ireland, Protestant ascendency would not be sup- mit Catholics to Parliament would be to violate his
ported by British arms. And then these Protestants, coronation oath.
whom Fitzgibbon and the viceroy painted as ready However the change be explained, it was certainly
to die rather than yield quietly, gave way; and in complete. The new viceroy was instructed to con-
1793 a bill was passed giving the Catholics the par- ciliate the Catholic clergy by establishing a seminary
liamentary and municipal franchise, and admitting for the education of Irish priests, and he established
them to the university and to office. They were Maynooth College. But all further concessions to
still excluded from Parliament and from the higher Catholics and every attempt to reform Parliament
offices, and from being king's counsel, but in all other he was firmly to oppose. He was to encourage the
respects they were placed on a level with Protestants. enemies of the people and frown upon their friends,
In the Commons Foster spoke and voted against and he was to rekindle the dying fires of sectarian
the Bill. In the Lords, though not opposing it, hate. And all this he did. Beresford and Cooke
Fitzgibbon spoiled the effect of the concession by a were restored to office, Foster favoured more than
bitter speech, and by having an Act passed declaring ever, Fitzgibbon made Earl of Clare, Grattan and
the Catholic convention illegal, and prohibiting all Ponsonby regarded with suspicion, and the corrupt
such conventions, Cathoho or otherwise, in the future. majority in Parliament petted and caressed. The
Relief from so many disabilities left the Catholics religious factions of the "Defenders" and the "Peep
almost free. Few of them were affected by exclusion o' Day Boys" in Ulster became embittered with a
from the higher offices, fewer still by exclusion from change of names. The Defenders became United
the inner Bar; and Liberal Protestants would always Irishmen, and these, despairing of Parliament, became
be found ready to voice Catholic interests in Parlia- republicans and revolutionists, and after Fitzwilliam's
ment if they owed their seats to Catholic votes. Be- recall were largely recruited by Catholics. Their
sides, inthe better temper of the times, it was certain opponents became identified with the Orange society
that these last relics of the penal code would soon recently formed in Ulster, with William of Orange as
disappear. Meantime what was needed was a sym- its patron saint, and intolerance of Catholicism as the
pathetic and impartial administration of the law. chief article in its creed. These rival societies spread
But with Fitzgibbon the guiding spirit of Irish govern- to the other provinces, and while every outrage done
ment this was impossible. The grandson of a Cath- by Catholics was punished by Government, those
olic peasant, he hated Catholics and seized upon done by Orangemen were condoned. In rapid succes-
every occasion to cover them and their religion with sion Parliament passed an Arms Act, an Insurrection
insults. Autocratic and overbearing, he commanded Act, an Indemnity Act, and a suspension of the
rather than persuaded, and since he became attorney- Habeas Corpus Act, and these placed the Catholics
general in 1783, his influence in Irish government was beyond the protection of law. An undisciplined
immense. His action on the regency question in 1789 soldiery recruited from the Orangemen were let loose
procured him the special favour of the king and of among them; destruction of Catholic property, free
Pitt, and he became a peer and Lord Chancellor. It quarters, flogging, picketing, half-hanging, outrages
 ROMAN 128 ROMAN
on women followed, until at last Catholic patience them as a "band of prostituted men engaged in
the
was exhausted. Grattan and his friends, vainly pro- service of Government". This language is unduly
testing, withdrew from Parliament, and Clare and severe, for they were clearly not actuated by merce-
Foster had then a free hand. They were joined by nary motives; but they certainly advanced the cause
\'iscount Castlereagh, and under their management of the union.
the rebellion of 1798 broke out with all its attendant Remembering this, and the assurances given by
horrors. Castlereagh, they looked for an early measure of
When it was suppressed Pitt's policy of a legislative emancipation, and when in 1801 the United Parlia-
union gradually unfolded and Foster and Clare,
itself, ment first opened its doors, their hopes ran high.
who had so long acted together, had reached the part- The omission of all reference to emancipation in the
ing of the ways. The latter, with Castlereagh, was King's Speech disappointed them; but when Pitt
ready to go on and support the proposed union; but resigned and was succeeded by Addington, an aggres-
Foster drew back, and in the union debates his voice sive anti-Catholic, they saw that they had been
and influence were the most potent on the opposition shamefully betrayed. In Parliament Pitt explained
side. His defection was considered a serious blow by that he and his colleagues wished to supplement the
Pitt, who vainly offered him offices and honours. Act of Union by concessions to the Catholics, and
Others followed the lead of Foster, incorruptible that, having encountered insurmountable obstacles,
amidst corruption; Grattan and his friends returned they resigned, feeling that they could no longer hold
to Parliament; and the opposition became so formid- office consistently with their duty and their honour.
able that Castlereagh was defeated in 1799, and had Cornwallis, on his own behalf and on behalf of the
to postpone the question of a union to the following retiring ministers, assured the Irish Catholic leaders,
year. During this interval, with the aid of Cornwallis and in language which was free from every shade of
who succeeded Camden as viceroy in 1798, he left ambiguity, that the blame rested with George III,
nothing undone to ensure success, and threats and whose stubborn bigotry nothing could overcome.
terrors, bribery and corruption were freely employed. He promised that Pitt would do everything to estab-
Cornwallis was strongly in favour of emancipation as lish the Catholic cause in pubhc favour, and would
part of the union arrangement, and Castlereagh was never again take office unless emancipation were con-
not averse and Pitt would probably have agreed with
; ceded; and he advised the Catholics to be patient and
them had not Clare visited him in England and loyal, knowing that with Pitt working on their behalf
poisoned his mind. That bitter anti-Catholic boasted the triumph of their cause was near. Cornwallis
of his success; and when Pitt in 1799 brought forward noted with satisfaction that this advice was well re-
his union resolutions in the British Parliament, he ceived by Dr. Troy and his friends. But those who
would only promise that at some future time some- knew Pitt better had no faith in his sincerity, and
thing might be done for the Catholics, dependent, their estimate of him was proved to be correct, when
however on their good conduct, and on the temper of he again became Prime Minister in 1804, no longer the
the times. friend of the Catholics but their opponent.
But something more than this was required. The The fact was that he had played them false through-
anti-Unionists were making overtures to the Catholics, out. He knew that the king was violently opposed
knowing that the county members elected by Catholic to them; that he had assented to the Union in the
votes could be decisively influenced by Catholic hope that it would "shut the door to any further
voters. In these circumstances Castlereagh was measures with respect to the Roman Cathohcs";
authorized to assure the leading Irish Catholics that that he believed that to assent to such measures would
Pitt and his colleagues only waited for a favourable be a violation of his coronation oath. Had Pitt been
opportunity to bring forward emancipation, but sincere he would have endeavoured to change the
that this should remain a secret, lest Protestant king's views, and failing to persuade he would have
prejudice be excited and Protestant support lost. resigned office, and opposed his successor. And if he
These assurances obtained Catholic support for the had acted thus the king must have yielded, for no
union. Not all of the Catholics, however, favoured it, government to which the great minister was opposed
and many of them opposed it to the last. Many more could have lived. Pitt's real reason for resigning in
would have been on the same side had they not been 1801 was, that the nation wanted peace, and he was
repelled by the bigotry of Foster, who stubbornly re- too proud to make terms with Napoleon. He sup-
fused to advocate emancipation, and in doing so failed ported Addington's measures; nor did he lift a finger
to make the fight against the union a national struggle. on behalf of the Catholics; and when the Treaty of
As for the uneducated Catholics, they did not under- Amiens was broken and the great struggle with France
stand political questions, and viewed the union con- was being renewed, he brushed Addington aside with
test with indifference. The gentry had no sympathy disdain. In 1801 the king had one of his fits of insanity,
with a Parliament from which they were excluded, nor and when he recovered complained that Pitt's agita-
the clergy for one whicli encouraged the atrocities of tion of the Catholic question was the chief cause of
the recent rebellion. Gratitude for the establishment his illness; in consequence of which, when Pitt returned
of Maynooth College inclined some of the bishops to to power, in 1804, he bound himself never again to
support the Government; and Pitt's assurances that agitate the question during the lifetime of the king.
concessions would come in the United Parliament in- In the meantime, one bitter enemy of the Catholics
clined them still more. From the first, indeed. Dr. disappeared, in 1802, with the death of Lord Clare.
Moylan, Bishop of Cork, was a Unionist, as was Dr. Hating Ireland and Catholicism to the last, he strove
Troy, Archbishop of Dublin. In 179S the latter in the British House of Lords to arouse anti-Irish
favoured a union provided there was no clause against prejudice by representing Ireland as filled with dis-
future emancipation, and, early in the following year, affection and hatred of England he defended all the
;

he induced nine of his brother bishops to concede to Government atrocities of 1798, and advocated for
the Go\-ernment a veto on episcopal appointments in Ireland perpetual martial law. Once he had declared
return for a pro\-ision for the clergy. The bent of his that he would have the Irish as tame as cats; and a
mind was to support authority, even when authority Dublin mob retorted by groaning and hooting before
and tyranny were identified, and through the terrible his house as he lay dying, by creating disorder at his
weeks of the rebellion his friendly relations with Dub- funeral, and at the graveside they poured a shower of
lin Castle were unbroken. He was foremost in every dead cats upon his coffin. Pitt himself died in 1806,
negotiation between the Government and the Cath- after having opposed the Catholic claims in the pre-
olics, and he and some of his colleagues went so far in ceding year. A brief period of hope supervened when
advocating the union, that Grattan angrily described the "Ministry of all the Talents" took office; but
 ROMAN 129 ROMAN
hope was soon dissipated by the death of Fox, and by when he cowed the Orange lawyer, or ridiculed the
the dismissal of Grenville and his colleagues. They chief secretary or viceroy, the exultation of the Cath-
had brought into Parliament a bill assimilating the olics knew no bounds.
English law to the Irish by allowing Catholics in
From 1810 his position was
that of leader, and the fight for emancipation was the
England to get commissions in the army. But the fight made by O'Connell. It was an uphill fight.
king not only insisted on having the measure dropped, Anxious to attract the Catholic masses, and at the
but also that ministers should pledge themselves same time not to infringe on the Convention Act, he
against all such concessions in the future; and when had drawn up the constitution of the Cathohc Com-
they indignantly refused he dismissed them. The mittee in 1809 with great care; but it went down before
Duke of Portland then became premier, with Mr. a viceregal proclamation, and the same fate befell its
Perceval leader in the Commons; and the ministry
going to the country in 1,S07 on a No Popery cry, were
successor, the Catholic Board. The fact was that the
viceroys of the time were advised by the Orangemen,
returned with an enormous majority. and governed by coercion acts. O'Connell's diffi-
Grattan was then in Parliament. He had entered culties were increased by the continued agitation of
it in 1805 with reluctance, partly at the request of
the Veto. In opposing it he was aided by the bishops
Lord Fitzwilliam, chiefly in the hope of being able to and the clergy; but Dr. Troy and Lord Fingall, aided
serve the Catholics. He supported the petition pre- by the English Catholics, procured a rescript from
sented by Fox; he presented Catholic petitions him- Rome in their favour. It was sent by Quarantotti,
self in 1808 and 1810; and he supported Parnell's
Prefect of the Propaganda, in 1814, while Pius VII
motion for a commutation of tithes; but each time was a prisoner of Napoleon. When the pope re-
he was defeated, and it was plain that the Catholic turned to Rome he disavowed it, though not at once;
cause was not advancing. The Catholic Committee, and the agitation of the question for years weakened
broken up by the rebellion, had been revived in 1805. all Catholic efforts for emancipation. In 1813, Grat-
But its mernbers were few, its meetings irregularly tan, supported by Canning and Castlereagh, passed
held, its spirit one of diffidence and fear, its activity through its second reading a Catholic Relief Bill,
confined to preparing petitions to Parliament. Nor which however was lost in Committee. Nothing
were its leaders the stamp of men to conduct a popular daunted, he continued his efforts. To allay the
movement to success. Keogh was old, and age and groundless fears of unreasoning bigotry he conceded
the memory of the events he had passed through the Veto, and yet each year the motion he brought
chilled his enthusiasm for active work. Lord Fin- forward was rejected. When he died in 1820 another
gall was suave and conciliatory, and not without great Irishman, Plunket, took the matter in hand,
courage, but was unable to grapple with great diffi- and in 1821 succeeded in passing a Bill througli the
culties and powerful opponents. Lords Gormanston House of Commons. Even the concession of the Veto
and Trimbleston were out of touch with the people; could not buy off the hostility of the House of Lords,
Lord French, Mr. Hussey, and Mr. Clinch were men who threw out the bill; and it seemed as if emancipa-
of little ability; Mr. Scully was a clever lawyer who tion would never come.
had written a book on the penal laws; and Dr. Drom- The visit of George IV to Ireland in 1821 brought a
goole was a lawyer with a taste for theology and brief period of hope. The king had once been the
Church history, a Catholic bigot ill-suited to soften declared friend of the Catholics, and if he had op-
Protestant prejudice or win Protestant support. As Cosed them since he became regent, in 1810, it might
for Dr. Troy, he was still the courtly ecclesiastic, and e because he disliked opposing his father's views
neither Pitt's treachery nor the contempt with which while his father lived. The Catholics by public
the Catholics were treated could weaken his attach- resolution in 1812 blamed the witchery of his mis-
ment to DubUn Castle. He still favoured the Veto, tress, and the regent was known to be very wroth
but an event which occurred in 1808 showed that he with what came to be called "The Witchery Resolu-
was no longer supported by his brethren of the tion". But the Catholics in a forgiving mood felt
episcopacy. An English bishop, Dr. Milner, who sure that their resolution was forgotten; that the
had sometimes acted as English agent for the Irish king was returning to his first and more enlightened
bishops, thought it right to declare to Grattan in their opinions; and that his visit meant friendship and con-
name that they were willing to concede the Veto and; cession. Thus disposed, they welcomed him with
Lord Fingall took a similar liberty with the Catholic enthusiasm. The king before leaving Ireland ex-
Committee. The former, as having exceeded his pressed his gratitude to his subjects, and counselled
powers, was promptly repudiated by the Irish bishops, the different classes to cultivate moderation and for-
the latter by the Catholic Committee, and this repudi- bearance. But he had no rebuke for Orange in-
ation of the Veto was hailed with enthusiasm through- solence and no message of hope for the Catholics, and
out Ireland. to the end of his reign continued to oppose their
By this time it was clear that the old method of claims. Depression settled down heavily on the
presenting loyal petitions was out of date, that the whole Cathohc body. Agitation ceased, outrages
time had come for more vigourous action, for a united commenced, coercion followed and continued; and
nation to demand its rights. For this a leader was re- in 1823, while the Catholics were apathetic and dis-
quired, and he was found in the person of Daniel pirited and the Orangemen more than usually ag-
O'Connell. Called to the Bar in 1800, he had already gressive, O'Connell founded the Catholic Association.
acquired a lucrative practice, and had given valuable His chief assistant was a young barrister named
assistance in the work of the Catholic Committee. Sheil. They were old friends, but had quarrelled
Having seen the horrors of the French Revolution about the Veto, and now composed their quarrels and
and those of 1798, he abhorred revolution and rebel- became friends again. To evade the Convention Act
lion, and believed that Catholic grievances might be the new association, specially formed to obtain
redressed by peaceful agitation, unstained either by emancipation "by legal and constitutional means",
violence or crime. And nature itself seemed to have was merely a club, its members paying a subscrip-
destined him for an agitator. Capable of extreme tion, its meetings open to the Press. At first its
endurance, mental and physical, he had great courage, progress was slow, and not infrequently it was diffi-
great resource, great perseverance, a readiness in de- cult to get a sufficient number together to form a
bate, an eloquence of speech, and a power of invective quorum. But it gradually made headway. Dr.
rarely combined in a single man. He spoke with a Doyle, Bishop of Kildare, joined it at an early stage,
voice of singular volume and sweetness, and under the as did Dr. Murray, Coadjutor Archbishop of Dublin,
influence of his words his audience were sad or gay, and many hundreds of the clergy. Subsidiary clubs
vengeful or forgiving, determined or depressed; and arose throughout the country, the members paying
XIIL—
 ROMAN 130 ROMAN
a penny a month, the "CathoUc Rent". They met strongest Government might haverecoiled. The
under the presidency of the priests, and discussed forty-shilling freeholders,
effectually protected by
all pubhc questions, transmitted the rent to the cen- the "NewRent" which was specially levied for their
tral association, and received in return advice and benefit, laughed at the threats of the landlords; the
assistance. The Government became so alarmed Catholic forces organized into parish and county
at the strength of an organization which had 30,000 Liberal Clubs, and in correspondence with the Cath-
collectors and hundreds of thousands of members, olicAssociation at Dublin as head club, sought out
that it was suppressed in 1.S2.5. At the same time and published every local grievance; Catholic
a Cathoho RcUef Bill passed the House of Commons, churchwardens in each parish collected subscriptions
but was thrown out in the Lords, and all that Ireland and sent the money to Dublin, getting in return ad-
got from Parliament was the act suppressing the vice in all their difficulties and legal assistance when-
Association, or the Algerine Act, as it was often ever it was necessary.
called. So discipUned were the Catholic masses that
It waseasily evaded. Its provisions did not affect 800,000 of them petitioned Parliament for the repeal
any religious society, nor any formed for purposes of the Test and Corporation Acts, which were re-
of charity, science, agriculture, or commerce; and pealed in 1828; and the same year in 1500 parishes
for these purposes the Catholic Association, changing throughout Ireland meetings were held on the same
its name into the New Catholic Association and re- day to petition for emancipation, and a million and
modelling its constitution, continued its work. It a half Catholic signatures were obtained. Foreign
was to build churches, obtain cemeteries, defend writers came to Ireland to see for themselves, and
Catholic interests, take a census of the different re- published in foreign papers and reviews what they
ligions, and for these the "New Catholic Rent" was saw, and in France, Germany, and Italy England
subscribed, and meetings were held in Dublin, where was held up to public odium because of her treatment
Catholic grievances were discussed. Aggregate meet- of Ireland. Across the Atlantic the Irish element
ings nominally independent of the association, but was already strong, and all over America meetings
really organized by it, were also held in different were held to demand justice for Ireland. At these
parishes, and larger assemblies took the form of meetings money was subscribed liberally and sent to
county and provincial meetings. Attended by the Ireland to swell the coffers of the Catholic Associa-
local gentry, by the priests, by friendly Protestants, tion, and language of menace and defiance was used
sometimes by O'Connell and Shell, the boldness and towards England. Yet Wellington and Peel were
eloquence of speech used gave courage to the Catho- still unyielding, and in the session of 1828 the latter
Ucs and struck terror into their foes. Nor was this opposed Sir Francis Burdett's motion in favour of
all. The Relief Act of 1793 had conferred the fran- emancipation, and Wellington helped to defeat it
chise on the forty-shilling freeholders, and landlords, in the Lords. The Catholic Association answered
to increase their own political influence, had largely these unfriendly acts by a resolution to oppose all
created such freeholds. These freeholders living Government candidates; and when Mr. Vesey Fitz
in constant poverty, frequently in arrears of rent, Gerald, on being promoted to the Cabinet, sought
always dependent on the forbearance of their land- re-election for Clare^ a Catholic Association candidate
lords, had hitherto been driven to the polls like cattle was nominated agamst him. As no Catholic could
to vote for their landlords' nominee. A new spirit sit in Parliament if elected, it was at first resolved
appeared at the General Election of 1826. Relying to nominate Major Macnamara, a popular Protestant
on these freeholders, the Catholic Association nomi- landlord of Clare; but after some hesitation he de-
nated Mr. Stewart against Lord Beresford for clined the contest. Then was remembered what
Waterford. The threats employed by a powerful John Keogh had once said: "John Bull thinks that
family were met on the other side by appeals to re- to grant emancipation would rekindle the fires of
ligion, to conscience, to the sacredness of the voter's Smithfield. But he is jealous of a subject's con-
oath; the priests craved of the voters to strike a stitutional privileges, and if a Catholic M.P. be de-
blow for country and creed; and O'Connell reminded barred from taking his seat on account of objection-
them that a Beresford had caused the recall of Lord able oaths he will have such oaths modified, so that
Fitzwilliam, that another flogged Catholics to death the constituency shall not be put outside the con-
in 179S, and that wherever the enemies of Ireland stitution." In all this there was wisdom, and O'Con-
were gathered together a Beresford was in their midst. nell himself determined to stand for Parliament and
The contest was soon decided by the return of the issued his address to the electors of Clare.
Catholic nominee; and Monaghan, Louth, and The historic contest opened in July. Dr. Doyle
Westmeath followed the lead of Waterford. sent O'Connell a letter of recommendation praying
The next year Canning became premier. His that the God of truth and justice might prosper him;
consistent advocacy of the Catholic claims brought Father Tom Maguire, a noted polemic, came all the
him the enmity of the king and exclusion from office way from Leitrim to lend his aid; Jack Lawless came
for many years. When he joined Lord Liverpool's from Ulster; O'Gorman, Mahon, and Steele from
government in 1S23, he insisted that emancipation Clare itself worked with a will; the eloquent Shell
should be an open question in the Cabinet, and on came from Dublin; above all the priests of Clare
the Catholic ReUef Bill of 182.5 the strange spectacle strained every nerve; and with the aid of all these
was seen of Peel, the home secretary, voting on one O'Connell had a noted triumph. The gentry and the
side while Canning, the foreign secretary, was on larger freeholders were all with Fitz Gerald; the
the opposite side. As premier the latter was power- forty-shilling freeholders were with O'Connell, and
less in consequence of the hostility of the king, but influenced by the priests bade defiance to their land-
had he hved he might probably have forced the king's lords; and the enthusiasm displayed was not more
hand. He died, however, in August, 1827, and by his remarkable than the discipline and self-restraint.
death the Catholics lost one of their stoutest cham- During the six days of the polling, 30,000 from all
pions. Ilis successor, Goderich, held office only for parts of Clare bivouacked in the streets ofEnnis,
a few months, and then, early in 1828, the Duke of and yet there was no disorder, no riot, no violence,
Wellington became premier, with Peel as his leader in no drunkenness, nothing to call for the interference
the House of Commons. These two were declared of soldiers or pohoe. Even the blindest could see
enemies of reform and emancipation, and instead of that a crisis had come. The Orangemen became res-
being willing to concede they would have wished to tive and aggressive. In compUment to the reigning
put down the Catholic Association by force. But family they formed clubs, modelled on the Liberal
such an undertaking was one from which even the clubs of the Catholics, and in language of menace
 ROMAN 131 ROMAN
proclaimed their determination to resist the Catholic tics; it equivalent to "seminary". While the
is
claims even by force. The Catholics were equally word seminario is applied occasionally, e. g. the
defiant, and all the efforts of O'Connell on the one Seminario Romano (S. Apollinare), the majority of
side and of the Lord Lieutenant, the Marquess of these institutions, and those especially which have
Anglesey, on the other, were scarcely sufficient to a national character, are known as "colleges". The
prevent Catholics and Orangemen from coming to training of priests in general is described in the
blows. Anglesey privately warned the prime minis- article Seminary; here it suffices to note that the
ter that even the soldiers were not to be relied on, Roman colleges, in addition to the obvious advan-
and were cheering for O'Connell; and Dr. Curtis, tages for study which Rome offers, also serve in
an old friend of the Duke of Wellington, implored of a certain measure to keep up in the various coun-
him to yield. His reply was that if the Catholics tries of the world that spirit of loyal attachment to
ceased to agitate, and if a period of quiet supervened, the Holy See which is the basis of unity. With this
something might be done; and when Anglesey ad- end in view the popes have encouraged the founding of
vised the Catholics to continue their agitation he was colleges in which young men of the same nationality
instantly removed from office. Excitement grew, might reside and at the same time profit by the
party passions were further inflamed, men's minds opportunities which the city affords. So too it is
were constantly agitated by hopes and fears; and as significant that within the last half century several
the gloorny days of winter passed and a new year was colleges have developed as offshoots of the Propaganda
ushered in, the conviction was general that peace (Urban College) in which the students from various
could not be maintained, and that there must be countries were received until each nationality became
concession or ci\'il war. nurnerous enough to form the nucleus of a distinct
At lastWelUngton and Peel surrendered. The institution. The colleges thus established are halls
former worked upon the fears of the king and com- of residence in which the students follow the usual
pelled him to yield; the latter managed the House seminary exercises of piety, study in private, and
of Commons with consummate ability, and in March review the subjects treated in class. In some colleges
a Catholic Relief Bill was introduced, and in the there are special courses of instruction (languages,
following month passed into law. Under its pro- music, archaeology etc.), but the regular courses in
visions Cathohcs were admitted to Parliament and philosophy and theology are given in a few large
to the corporations; but they were still excluded from central institutions, such as the Propaganda, the
some of the higher offices, civil and military, such as Gregorian University, the Roman Seminary, and the
those of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Commander- Minerva, i. e. the school of the Dominicans. The
in-chief of the Army, and Lord Chancellor both in Roman colleges are thus grouped in several clusters,
England and Ireland; priests were forbidden to wear each of which includes a centre for purposes of instruc-
vestments outside their churches, and bishops to tion and a number of affiliated institutions. Each
assume the titles of their dioceses; Jesuits were to college has at its head a rector designated by the epis-
leave the kingdom, and other religious orders were copate of the country to which the college belongs and
to be rendered incapable of receiving charitable be- appointed by the pope. He is assisted by a vice-
quests. Further, the franchise being raised to ten rector and a spiritual director. Discipline is main-
pounds, the forty-shilling freeholders were dis- tained by means of the camerata system in which the
franchised; and the Act not being retrospective, students are divided into groups each in charge of a
O'Connell on coming to take his seat was tendered prefect who is responsible for the observance of rule.
the old oath, which he refused and then had to seek Each camerata occupies its own section of the college
re-election for Clare. These concessions to bigotry building, has its own quarters for recreation, and goes
they were said to be made especially to placate the its own way about the city on the daily walk pres-
—
king helped to spoil the healing effect of the measure. cribed by the regulations. Meals and chapel exer-
The provisions regarding priests and bishops were cises are in common for all students of the college.
indeed of httle value, and were either evaded or de- While indoors, the student wears the cassock with a
spised; but the disfranchisement of the forty-shilling broad cincture; outside the college, the low-crowned
freeholders was a grievous wrong; and the denial of three-cornered clerical hat and a cloak or soprana are
his seat to O'Connell was a personal insult, and was added.
felt to be an insult to all Ireland. The scholastic year begins in the first week of
Journals of the Irish House of Commons; Irish Parliamentary November and ends about the middle of July. In
Debates (1781-97); Annual Register (1800-29); Leckt, History
of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1897) Mitchel, ;
most of the courses the lecture system is followed and
History of Ireland (Glasgow, 1869) D'Alton, History of Ireland
; at stated times formal disputations are held in accor-
(London, 1910) Plowden, History of Ireland, 1800-1810 (Dub-
;
dance with scholastic methods. The course of studies,
lin,1811); Castlereagh Correspondence (London, 1848); Cornwallis
CorrespoTidence (London, 1859) Ingham, History of the Legislative
;
whether leading to a degree or not, is prescribed and
Union (London, 1887) MacNeill, How the Union was carried
; it extends, generally speaking, through six years, two
(London, 1887) ; Grattan's Memoirs (London, 1839) ; Grattan's of which are devoted to philosophy and four to
Speeches (London, 1822); Stanhope, Life of Pitt (London, 1861);
Plunket's Speeches (Dublin) Wyse, History of the Catholic
;
theology. To philosophy in the stricter sense are
Association (London, 1829) Walpole, History of England (Lon-
; added courses in mathematics, languages, and natural
don, 1879); Greville's Memoirs (London, 1904); Fitzpatrick, sciences. Theology includes, besides dogmatic and
Correspondence of O'Connell (London, 1888); O'ConneWs Speeches,
ed.O'CoxNELii (Dublin) ;Sheil, Speeches (Dublin); MacDonagh,
moral theology, courses in liturgy, archaeology,
Life of O'Connell (London, 1903) Dunlop, Daniel O'Connell
; Church history, canon law and Scripture. An oral
(London and New York, 1900); Shaw Lefevre, Peel and examination is held in the middle of the year and a
O'Connell (London, 1887) Leckt, Leaders of Public Opinion in
;

Ireland (London, 1903); Colchester's Diary (London, 1861);

written examination (concursus) at the close. The
Pellew, Life of Lord Sidmouth (London, 1847) Canning's ; usual degrees (baccalaureate, licentiate, and doctor-
Conespondence, ed. Stapleton (London, 1887); Creevey Papers ate) are conferred in philosophy, theology, and canon
(London, 1903); Peel's Memoirs (London, 1856). law; since 1909 degrees in Sacred Scripture are con-
E. A. D' Alton.
ferred upon students who fulfil the requirements of the
Roman Colleges. —This article treats of the vari- Biblical Institute. Each college spends the summer
ous colleges in Rome which have been founded under vacation at its villegiatura or country house located
ecclesiastical auspices and are under ecclesiastical di- outside the city and generally in or near one of the
rection, with the exception of those that are treated numerous towns on the slopes of the neighbouring hills.
separately under their respective titles throughout Student life in the "villa" is quite similar to the
The Catholic Encyclopedia. The word "college" routine of the academic year in regard to discipline and
is used here to designate institutions established and religious exercises; but a larger allowance is made for
maintained in Rome for the education of ecclesias- recreation and for occasional trips through the
 ROMAN 132 ROMAN
surrounding country. And while each student has from other colleges and reUgious communities. Gre-
more time for reading along lines of his own choice, he gory XV, Clement IX, Innocent XIII, and Clement
is required to give some portion of each day to the XII were educated in this seminary.
subjects explained in the class-room during the year. Seminakio Pio, also situated in the Palazzo di S.
What has been said outlines fairly well the work of Apolhnare, was founded in 1853 by Pius IX for the
the Roman colleges. In matters of detail some dioceses of the Pontifical States. Each diocese is en-
variations will be found, and these are due chiefly to titled to send a student who has completed his human-
natural characteristics or to the special purpose for ities; Sinigagha may send two; the number of pupils
which the college was established. is limited to 62. AH must spend nine years in the
Almo Collegio Capranicense (Capranica). This — study of philosophy, theology, canon law, and liter-
is the oldest Roman college, founded in 1417 by ature; they are supported by the revenues of the sem-
Cardinal Domenieo Capranica in his own palace for inary and are distinguished by their violet sash. The
31 young clerics, who received an education suitable seminary has a villa outside the Porta Portese. The
for the formation of good priests. Capranica himself students bind themselves by oath to return to their
drew up their rules and presented the college with his dioceses on the completion of their studies.
own Ubrary, the more valuable portion of which was Seminaeio Vaticano, founded in 1636 by Urban
later transferred to the Vatican. The cardinal's VIII for the convenience of the clerics serving in the
brother, Angelo, erected opposite his own palace a Vatican Basilica (St. Peter's). Its government was
suitable house for the students. When the Con- entrusted to the Vatican Chapter which appointed the
stable de Bourbon laid siege to Rome in 1527 the Ca- rector. Shortly afterward a course of grammar and,
pranica students were among the few defenders of the' somewhat later, courses of philosophy and theology
Porta di S. Spirito, and all of them with their rector were added. Paying students were also admitted.
fell at the breach. The rector according to the uni- In 1730 the seminary was transferred from the Piazza
versity custom of those days was elected by the stu- Rusticucci to its present location behind the apse of
dents and was always one of themselves. Alexander St. Peter's. From 1797 till 1805 it remained closed;
VII decided that the rector should be appointed by the on reopening only 6 free students could be received,
its
protectors of the college. After the Revolution the but the number rose to 30 or 40. After the events of
college was re-established in 1807; the number of free 1870 the seminary dwindled. Leo XIII endeavoured
students was reduced to 13, but paying students were to restore it, re-establishing the former courses and
admitted. Those entering must have completed their granting it a country residence in the Sabine hills.
seventeenth year; they attend the lectures at the In 1897 it was authorized to confer degrees. In 1905
Gregorian University. The college counts among its Pius X
suppressed the faculties of philosophy and
graduates many cardinals and bishops; not a few of theology, the students of the former subject going to
the students have passed into the diplomatic service. S. Apolhnare, and of the latter to the Gregorian.
The country seat is a villa at Monte Mario. They wear a purple cassock with the pontifical coat-
—
Seminaeio Romano. Hardly had the Council of of-arms on the end of their sash.
Trent in its 23d session decreed the establishment of Seminario dei SS. Pietro e Paolo, established in
diocesan seminaries, when Pius IV decided to set a 1867 by Pietro Avanzani, a secular priest, to prepare
good example, and on 1 Feb., 1565, the seminary was young secular priests for the foreign missions. Piua
solemnly opened with 60 students. The rules were IX approved it in 1874 and had a college erected, but
drawn up by P. Lainez, General of the Society of this was later pulled down and since then the semi-
Jesus, and to this order Pius IV entrusted the man- nary has changed its location several times at present
;

agement of the college. Up to 1773 the students at- it is in the Armenian College. The students follow
tended the lectures in the Collegio Romano the resi-
; the courses at the Propaganda; at home they have
dence was changed several times before 1608, when lectures on foreign languages, including Chinese.
they settled in the Palazzo Borromeo in the Via del They number 12. The college has a country residence
Seminario (now the Gregorian University). A coun- at Montopoli in the Sabine hills. On finishing their
try seat was erected for the students in a portion of studies the students go to the Vicariate Apostolic of
the baths of Caravalla. Each year, at Pentecost, a, Southern Shen-si or to Lower California.
student delivered a discourse on the Holy Ghost in the Seminario Lombardo dei SS. Ambrogio e Carlo,
papal chapel. In 1773 the seminary was installed in founded in 1854 chiefly through the generosity of
the Collegio Romano of the Jesuits. After the Cardinal Borromeo and Duke Scotti of Milan, was
changes in 1798 the number of the students, gener- located in the palace of the confraternity of S. Carlo
ally about 100, was reduced to 9. Pius VII restored al Corso. Owing to the insufficiency of its revenues
the seminary which continued to occupy the Collegio it remained closed from 1869 to 1878. Leo XIII al-
Romano until 1S24, when Leo XII gave back this lowed the other bishops of Upper Italy as well as of
building to the Jesuits and transferred the seminary Modena, Parma, and Placenta to send their subjects
to S. Apolhnare, formerly occupied by the Collegio who, numbering over 60, pay for their maintenance
Germanico; the seminary, however, retained its own and follow the lectures at the Gregorian University;
schools comprising a classical course, and a faculty of not a few of these students are already priests when
philosophy and theology, to which in 1856 a course they enter the seminary. They may be known by
of canon law was added. The direction of the semi- their black sashes with red borders. Since 1888 the
nary and, as a rule, the chairs were reserved to the secu- seminary has had its own residence in the Prati di
lar clergy. After the departure of the Jesuits in 1848 Castello.
the seminary again removed to the Collegio Romano. Collegio Germanico-Ungarico, after the Collegio
In the seminary there are 30 free places for students Capranica, the oldest college in Rome. The initi-
belonging to Rome; the remaining students, who ative towards its foundation was taken by Cardinal
may be from other dioceses, pay a small pension. Giovanni Morone and St. Ignatius of Loyola, and by
The Collegio Cerasoli with four burses for students the energetic labour of the saint the plan was carried
of the Diocese of Bergamo endowed by Cardinal Cer- into effect. Julius III approved of the idea and
asoU, is connected with the seminary. The students promised his aid, but for a long time the college had
take part in the ceremonies in the church of the Se- to struggle against financial difficulties. The first
minario Pio. Their cassock is violet. The seminary students were received in November, 1552. The ad-
possesses an excellent library. At the present time, ministration was confided to a committee of six car-
by order of Pius X, a new building for the seminary is dinal protectors, who decided that the collegians
in process of construction near the Lateran Basilica. should wear a red cassock, in consequence of which
The schools of the seminary are attended by students they have since been popularly known as the gamberi
 ROMAN 133 ROMAN
cotti (boiled lobsters). During the first year the questrated the property situated in Lombardy and
higher courses were given in the college itself; but in forbade his subjects to attend the college. The build-
the autumn of 1553 St. Ignatius succeeded in estab- ings, however, were increased by the addition of the
lishing the schools of philosophy and theology in the palace opposite to S. Agostino.
CoUegio Romano of his Society .He also drew up the On the proclamation of the Roman Republic the
first rules for the college, which served as models for property of the foreign national colleges was declared
similar institutions. During the pontificate of Paul escheated to the Government and was sold for an
IV the financial conditions became such that the stu- absurdly small sum. On that occasion the library
dents had to be distributed among the various col- and the precious archives of sacred music possessed by
leges of the Society in Italy. To place the institution the college were scattered. Pius VII restored what-
on a firmer basis it was decided to admit paying ever remained unsold and ordered the rest to be re-
boarders regardless of their nationality, and without purchased as far as possible. In the first years the
the obligation of embracing the ecclesiastical state; revenues were employed to pay off the debts con-
German clerics to the number of 20 or more were re- tracted in this repurchase. In 1824 the palace of S.
ceived free and formed a separate body. In a short Apollinare as well as the villa at Parioli was reunited
time 200 boardmg students, all belonging to the flower to the Seminario Romano. The first students were
ot European nobility, were received. This state of received in 1818 and Uved in the professed house of
affairs lasted till 1573. Under Pius V, who had the Jesuits at the Gesil, and there the college re-
placed 20 of his nephews in the college, there was some mained till 1851. From that time the administration
idea of suppressing the camerata of the poveri tedeschi. was entrusted to the general of the Jesuits, who ap-
Gregory XIII, however, may be considered the real pointed the rector and other fathers in charge of the
founder of the college. He transferred the secular college. In 1845 the estate of S. Pastore near Zaga-
department to the Seminario Romano, and endowed rolo was acquired. In 1851 the residence was trans-
the college with the Abbey of S. Saba all' Aventino ferred to the Palazzo Borromeo in the Via del Semi-
and all its possessions, both on the Via Portuense and nario where it remained till 1886. In 1873 when the
on the Lake of Bracciano moreover he incorporated
; CoUegio Romano was taken away from the Jesuits,
with it the Abbeys of Fonte Avellana in the Marches, the CoUegio Germanico found a home in the Grego-
S. Cristina, and Lodivecchio in Lombardy. The new rian University. In 1886 owing to the necessity of
rector, P. Lauretano, drew up another set of regula- having more extensive quarters, the CoUegio Ger-
tions. manico was transferred to the Hotel Costanzi in the
The had already changed its location five
college Via S. Nicola da Tolentino. The college receives Ger-
times. In 1574 Gregory XIII assigned it the Palace man students from the old German Empire and from
of S. ApoUinare and in 1575 gave it charge of the ser- Hungary; places are free, but there are some stu-
vices in the adjoining church. The splendour and dents who pay (of. Steinhuber, "Geschichte des Col-
majesty of the functions as well as the music executed legium Germanicum-Hungaricum in Rom", Frei-
by the students under the direction of the Spaniard burg, 1896; Hettinger, "Aus Welt und Kirche," I,
Ludovico da Vittoria and other celebrated masters Freiburg, 1897).
(Stabile, Orgas, Carissimi, Pittoni, and others) con- CoLLEGio Tbtjtonico di S. Maria dell' Anima. —
stantly drew large crowds to the church. Too much In 1399 Theodoric of Niem founded a hospice for Ger-
attention indeed was given to music under P. Laure- man pilgrims. Aconfraternity in aid of the suffering
tano, so that regulations had to be made at various souls in purgatory was soon after formed, and in 1499
times to prevent the studies from suffering. The the first stone of the beautiful church was laid, near
courses were still given in the CoUegio Romano; but the Church of S. Maria della Pace. In 1859 this pia
when Bellarmine terminated his lectures on contro- opera was reorganized; a college of chaplains to offi-
versy, a chair for this important branch of learning ciate in the church was estabhshed; the chaplains
was established in the CoUegio Germanico and some- were to remain only two or at the most three years,
what later a chair of canon law. As a special mark and at the same time were to continue their studies.
of his favour, Gregory XIII ordered that each year on They devote themselves chiefly to canon law with a
the Feast of All Saints a student of the college should view to employing their knowledge in the service of
deUver a panegyric in presence of the pope. Mean- their respective dioceses; and they receive living and
while in 1578 the CoUegio Ungherese had been founded tuition gratis. Other priests also are admitted who
through the efforts of another Jesuit, P. Szint6 who come to Rome at their own expense for the purpose
obtained for it the church and convent of S. Stefano of study. At present there are 8 chaplains and about
Rotondo on the CseUan Hill, and of S. Stefanino be- 10 other priests residing there. The college continues
hind the Basihca of St. Peter, the former belonging to to assist poor Germans who come to Rome, either to
the Hungarian Pauline monks, and the latter to the visit the holy places or in search of occupation.
Hungarian pilgrims' hospice. In 1580 the union of CoLLBGio Teutonico DEL Campo Santo, estab-
the two colleges was decreed, a step which at first gave lished in 1876 to receive priests belonging to the Ger-
rise to difficulties. The students generally numbered man Empire or German provinces of Austria, who re-
about 100, sometimes, however, there were but 54, at main there for two or, at the most, three years pursuing
other times as many as 150. During the seventeenth their studies and officiating in the Church of S. Maria
century several changes occurred, in particular the della Piet& near St. Peter's. The revenues of the
new form of oath exacted from all the students of for- Campo Santo and the chaplaincies that have been
eign colleges. Mention must be made of the work of founded help to pay the expenses of the chaplains.
P. Galeno,the business manager who succeeded in con- Other priests may be received as boarders. As a rule,
soUdating the finances of the college so as to raise the the chaplains devote themselves to the study of Chris-
revenue to 25,000 scudi per annum. A country resi- tian archaeology or Church history; they publish a
dence was acquired at Parioh . In the eighteenth cen- quarterly review, the "Romische Quartalschrift fiir
tury the coUege became gradually more
aristocratic. christliche archaeologie und Kirchengeschiohte
'
The
' .

site of the Campo Santo dei Tedeschi goes back to the

Benedict XIV performed the ceremony of laying the
corner stone of the new church of S. Apollinare
in days of Charlemagne and was then called the Schola
Francorum. In the course of time the German resi-
1742, on the completion of which a new
Palace of S.
dents in Rome were buried in the church of the Schola,
ApoUinare was erected. At the suppression of the So-
entrusted to secular then caUed S. Salvatore in Turri. In 1454 a confra-
ciety (1773) the direction was
the college itself, ternity was established, and in addition the guilds of
priests; lectures were delivered in
and German bakers and cobblers had their quarters there.
and the professors were Dominicans. Discipline
Moreover, Joseph II se- In 1876 owing to the altered conditions of modern
studies decUned rapidly.
 ROMAN 134 ROMAN
timea the institute was put to its present purpose (of. Collegio Inglese (Venerabile Collegium Ang-
de Waal, Der Campo Santo der Deutsohen zu Rom lorum). See English College, The, in Rome.
'
'
'

Freiburg, 1897.) Collegio Beda is united to the English College

COLLEGIO PONTIFICIO GrECO (ThE GeEEK PoN- and intended for converted Anglican clergymen wish-
TTFicAL College) is also a foundation of Gregory ing to prepare for the priesthood. It was founded in
XIII, who established it to receive young Greeks be- 1852 by Pius IX; and increased under Leo XIII.
longing to any nation in which the Greek Rite was Cardinal Howard bequeathed to the two colleges his
used, and consequently for Greek refugees in Italy, as valuable library. The country seat of the two col-
well as the Ruthenians and Malohites of Egj'pt and leges is at Monte Porzio.
Syria. These young men had to study the sacred Collegio Scozzese (The Scots College), estab-
sciences, in order to spread later sacred and profane lished in 1600 by Clement VIII for the education of
learning among their fellow-countrymen and facilitate Scottish priests for the preservation of Catholicism in
the reunion of the schismatical Churches. The con- their Fatherland; it was assigned the revenues of the
struction of the College and Church of S. Atanasio, old Scots hospice, which were increased by the mu-
joined by a bridge over the Via dei Greci, was begun nificence of the pope and other benefactors. In 1604
at once. The same year (1577) the first students ar- the college was transferred to its present situation and
rived, and until the completion of the college were in 1649 the Countess of Huntley constructed a church
housed elsewhere. Gregory XIII endowed the college. dedicated to Saint Andrew and Saint Margaret,
The direction was entrusted to five cardinal protectors Queen of Scotland. From 1615 till 1773 it was under
the rector was selected at first either from the secu- the direction of the Jesuits. The students, number-
lar clergy or from the regulars. Under Sixtus V, but ing about 20, are supported partly by the revenues of
for the energetic resistance of Cardinal di S. Severina, the college and partly by the Scottish bishops and by
this promising college would have been suppressed. their own money. They attend the Gregorian Uni-
Gregory XIV on the suggestion of the learned Pietro versity and have a villa at Marino. They wear a pur-
Arendius, a former student of the college, entrusted ple cassock, with a crimson sash and black soprano.
the direction to the Jesuits (1591), who introduced a —
Collegio Irlandese. See Irish College, in
new method of government and a new disciplinary Rome.
spirit. Within a short time the number of collegians Collegio Urbano di Propaganda (The Urban
rose to 56; some paying students were admitted as College). —
The foundation of this college is due to
boarders. Studies were pursued in the college itself; the zeal of P. Ghislieri, a Theatine, and to the gen-
some of the professors were Jesuits, some secular erosity of Mgr. G. Batta Vives, a Spaniard, consultor
priests,and some laymen. of the Sacred Congregation of the Propaganda, then
In 1602 when Cardinal Giustiniani became cardinal established by Gregory XV. Urban VIII approved
protector, so many changes were introduced that the of the plan of erecting a college for the evangelization
Jesuits withdrew from the care of the college which of the East and enlarged the palace given by Mgr
was entrusted first to the Somaschians and then to the Vives; and under Alexander VII the Church of the
Dominicans; but in 1622, at the request of the stu- Three Magi was added. Vives estabhshed in addi-
dents, the Jesuits returned. Urban VIII ordered all tion six free scholarships; foundations were made by
the alumni to bind themselves by oath to remain in other pontiffs and prelates, especially by Innocent XII,
the Greek Rite, and this applied to Latins who en- Clement XII, and the brother of Urban VIII, Car-
tered the college surreptitiously the regulation, how-
; dinal Antonio Barberini. The college depends on the
ever, was frequently disregarded in the eighteenth Sacred Congregation of the Propaganda, which ap-
century. After 1773 secular priests took charge. The points the rector, who at first was a Theatine but for
college was closed during the Revolution and not re- centuries has always been a secular prelate, who is the
opened till 1849; in the meantime the Greeks were ad- parish priest of all who live in the Palace of the
mitted to the College of the Propaganda. The direc- Propaganda; there are also a vice-rector, a bursar,
tion was entrusted first to secular priests, then to the and an assistant. Alexander VII imposed on all the
Resurrectionists (1886), and finally to the Jesuits students an oath binding them to remain under the
(1889). In 1897 Leo XIII reorganized the college. jurisdiction of the Propaganda, not to enter a reUgious
Owing to the generosity of the Emperor of Austria and order without special permission, and to return after
to the Ruthenian episcopacy a college was provided ordination to the priesthood to their dioceses or prov-
especially for the Ruthenians, while the Rumanians inces to engage in the sacred ministry, and to send
were sent to the College of the Propaganda. The di- each year if in Europe, or every second year other-
rection of the College of S. Atanasio was entrusted to wise, a report of their apostoho work. Students are
the Benedictines, who adopted the Greek Rite. The recommended by the bishops subject to the Propa-
students perform the sacred functions of their rite ganda, and the governing body select the students ac-
with the greatest possible splendour in the Church of cording to the number of vacancies, the places always
S. Atanasio. Formerly the Latin Rite also was cele- being free. In 1798 the college was closed; some of
brated in the church, but Leo XIII reserved it en- the students were received by the Lazarists at Mon-
tirely for the Greek Rite. The students are all main- tecitorio. This lasted till 1809 when all that remained
tained gratuitiously out of the revenues of the college. of the college was suppressed. In 1814 some of the
They number about 30 to 35 and follow courses in the Propaganda students were again received by the Laz-
Propaganda, besides having lectures at home in Greek arists, and in 1817 the college was reopened. From
language and literature. They wear a blue cassock 1836 till 1848 it was under the direction of the Jesuits.
with a red sash, and an Oriental cloak with large The number of students is about 120. From the
sleeves (cf. De Meester, "Le College Pontifical Grec foundation of the college there have been courses of
de Rome", Rome, 1910). classics, philosophy, and theology, in which academic
Pontificio-Ruteno Collegio (The Rtjthbnian degrees are granted. The classical course lasts four
Pontifical College), was founded, as said above, in years; the course of philosophy, including physics, and
1897, and the Church of SS. Sergio e Bacco was as- chemistry, and the history of philosophy, two years;
signed to it. At first it was in charge of the Jesuits the course of theology, four years. On the feast of the
but some years later it was entrusted to the Ruthenian Epiphany the schools hold a solemn academy in vari-
Basihan monks. There are about 20 students, who ous languages. The college possesses a valuable li-
are supported partly by the Ruthenian bishops and brary. In addition to the many ecclesiastical digni-
partly by pa3dng a small fee. They follow the lec- taries among the past students there were four
tures at the Propaganda, and wear a blue cassock martyrs: the Belgian Jacques Foelech (1643) Pietro;

and soprana (cloak) with a yeUow sash. Cesy (1680, in Ethiopia); the Armenian Melchior
 ROMAN 135 ROMAN
Tasbas (1716, at Constantinople); Nicholas Bosco- of S. Chiara with the adjoining Poor Clare convent,
vich (1731). founded in 1560 by St. Charles Borromeo on the ruins
COLLEGIO DEI MaRONITI (ThE MaRONITB COL- of the Baths of Agrippa. The church was rebuilt on
LEGE) founded by Gregory XIII, had its first site near
, the plan of Notre-Dame-des-Victoires in Paris; in
the Church of S. Maria della Ficoccia near the Piazza 1883 the monastery was entirely remodelled to suit its
di Trevi. It was richly endowed by Sixtus V and Car- present purpose. Leo XIII declared it a pontifical
dinal Antonio Caraffa, and also by other popes, and seminary in 1902. The students pay a pension,
was entrusted to the Jesuits; the pupils attended the though in some cases it is paid from the funds of their
Gregorian University. During the Revolution of diocese; students not belonging to France are also ad-
1798 the College was suppressed, and the Maronites mitted. The seminarists generally number between
who wished to study at Rome went to the CoUegio 100 and 120 (cf. Eschbach, "Le s(§minaire pontifical
Urbano. In 1893 Mgr. Khayat, the Maronite frangais de Rome", Rome, 1903).
Patriarch, obtained the restoration of the college Collegio dbi Cappellani di S. Luigi dei Fran-
from Leo XIII. The Holy See gave part of the funds,
the remainder was collected in France, and in 1894
CBSi.— This is another French institution. The
church dating from 1496 served as a parish for the
the new college was inaugurated. In 1904 it acquired French residents at Rome. In 1840 on the proposal
its own residence, and is now under the charge of of Cardinal Bonnechose the parish was suppressed
Maronite secular priests. The students numbered 8 and the revenue applied to create chaplaincies for
at the beginning, there are now 19; the greatest young students^ French priests, who wished to spe-
number that can be received is 24. cialize at Rome m canon law, archaeology, or ecclesiasti-
CoLLEGio Belga (The Bblgian College), estab- cal history. Until 1906 the chaplains published the
lished in 1S44 through the initiative of Mgr Aerts, " Annales de St. Louis des Frangais ", devoted specially
aided by the nuncio in Belgium, then Mgr. Pecci, and to history. After the decease of Mgr Cadene, they
by the Belgian bishops. At first it was located in the undertook the continuation of the "Analecta Eccle-
home of Mgr Aerts, rector of the Belgian national siastica" containing the Acts of the Holy See, as well
Church of S. Giuliano. In 1845 the ancient monas- as moral and canonical dissertations.
tery of Gioacchino ed Anna at the Quattro Fontane Collegio Boemo (The Bohemian College), estab-
was purchased. The Belgian episcopate supports the lished in 1884 partly with the revenues of the ancient
students and proposes the president. The students, Bohemian hospice founded by Emperor Charles IV,
20 and more in number, attend the Gregorian; their and with contributions of Leo XIII and the Bohemian
dress is distinguished by two red stripes at the ends of bishops. The site was transferred several times, but
the sash. in 1888 the old monastery of S. Francesca Romana in
COLLEGIO DEGLI StATI UnITI DBLl' AMERICA DEL the Via Sistina was purchased. The rector is always
NoED. See American College, The, in Rome. one of the professors in the Propaganda, which the
—
CoLLEGio Pig Latino-Americano. See American students attend. They number from 24 to 28 and
College, The South, in Rome. are distinguished by their black sashes with two yel-
CoLLEGio PoLACco (The Polish College). In — low stripes at the extremities. They have a villa at
1583, St. Philip Neri, and in about 1600, King John Trevi in Umbria.
Casimir had begun the foundation of a college for Collegio Armbno (The Armenian College). —
Poles, but their institute was short-lived. In 1866 a Gregory XIII in 1584 had decreed the erection of a
college was finally opened due to the efforts of the college for the Armenians (Bull "Romana Ecolesia"),
Congregation of the Resurrection, which raised the but the plan fell through. When the Collegio Ur-
first funds to which Princess Odescalchi, Pius IX, and bano of the Propaganda was founded later there were
others contributed later. In 1878 the college was always some places for students of this nation. Fi-
transferred to its present location, the former Mar- nally, in 1885, Gregory's proposal was carried into
onite College, and the adjoining church was dedicated effect,thanks to the generosity of some wealthy Ar-
to St. John Cantius. The students, some of whom menians and of Leo XIII. The college was granted
pay a small pension, number 30 and are distinguished the Church of S. Nicola da Tolentino in the street of
by their green sashes; they attend the lectures in the that name. The president is an Armenian prelate;
Gregorian. The college is under the care of the Res- the students numbering from 20 to 25 attend the lec-
urrectionists and possesses a villa at Albano. tures at the Propaganda, and wear red sashes and
Collegio Illikico (The Illtrian College), es- large-sleeved Oriental cloaks.
tabhshed in 1863 by Pius IX to prepare priests for Collegio Spagnuolo (The Spanish College),
Dalmatia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Slavonia, and was lo- founded in 1892 through the initiative of Leo XIII
cated in the lUyrian hospice near the Church of S. and the generosity of the episcopacy, the royal family,
Girolamo degh Schiavoni; but after a few years no and other benefactors in Spain. Installed at first in
mor3 students were received. In 1900, Leo XIII the national hospice of S. Maria in Monserrato, it was
reorganized the lUyrian hospice and decided to form transferred later to the Palazzo Altemps near S. Apol-
a college of priests of the above-mentioned provinces, linare. The students numbering 70 are for the most
who would attend to the services in the church and part supported by their bishops; they attend the
at the same time pursue ecclesiastical studies. Gregorian, and are distinguished by a pelerine and a
Seminario Francesb (The French Seminary). sky-blue sash. The direction is entrusted to the pious
— The French bishops at the Council of La Roohelle Spanish Congregation of the Operaru Dicecesani.
Collegio Canadesb (The Canadian College). —
(1853) petitioned Pius IX to approve of their plan of
founding a French Seminary in Rome for the special Cardinal Howard took the first steps towards the erec-
purpose of training a body of priests strongly attached tion of this institute. The Canadian Congregation of
to the Holy See and prepared to counteract the influ- St. Sulpice undertook to defray the expenses. The
ence of Galilean ideas. The seminary was opened the building was soon erected (1887) in the Via delle
same year with 12 students under the direction of P. Quattro Fontane, and in 1888 the first pupils were
Lamurien of the Congregation of the Holy Ghost, enrolled. Some of the students are priests and fol-

which order still directs it, while the students attend low the lectures in the Propaganda, and those who
the lectures at the Gregorian. The students are m have already completed their studies in Canada are
part priests who wish to perfect their knowledge, and privileged to receive a degree after two years in Rome.
partly seminarists preparing for the priesthood. The The Sulpicians are in charge of the college.
seminary is located in the Via del Seminario; its first PoNTiFico Collegio Portoghesb (The Portu-
site was the old Irish College near the Trajan
Forum. guese Pontifical College), founded in 1901 by Leo
In 1856 Pius IX assigned to the seminary the Church XIII; its direction is entrusted to Italian secular
 ROMAN 136 ROMAN
priests, and the students attend the lectures at S. taining it for the defence of the Church's dominions;
Apollinare. an index of forbidden books; (8) for the execu-
(7) for
CoLLEGio Apostolico Leoniano owes its origin to tion and interpretation of the Council of Trent;
by a pious lady,
P. A'alentini, a Lazarist, who, aided (9) for relieving the ills of the States of the Church;
received in a private house the students who could not (10) for the University of the Roman study (or
gain admittance to the other colleges. This college school); (11) for regulations of religious orders; (12)
and the i('\cnue left by the lady were taken over later for regulations of bishops and other prelates; (13) for
by the Holy Sec and a large building was erected in taking care of roads, bridges, and waters; (14) for the
the Prati di CastcUo. The direction was committed Vatican printing-press; (15) for regulations of the af-
to the Jesuits. The students, mainly of the southern fairs of the Church's temporal dominions. From this —
provinces that have no special college at Rome, at- it will be seen that, while the chief end of the Con-
tend the lectures in the Gregorian University. gregations of Cardinals was to assist the sovereign
Varganisntion vl administration centrale de Veglise (Paris. pontiff in the administration of the affairs of the Church,
irtOO),600 sqq. Daniel; Baumgarten; de Waal, Rome, Le some of these congregations were created to assist in
chef auprimc : Moroni, Dizionario, XIII (Venice, 1842), LXIV
(ibid., 18S3). U. BenIGNI. the administration of the temporal States of the Holy
See. The number of these varied according to cir-
—
Roman Congregations, The. Certain depart- cumstances and the requirements of the moment.
ments have been organized by the Holy See at various In the time of Cardinal De Luca there were about
times to assist it in the transaction of those affairs nineteen of them, as he himseK tells us in his admi-
which canonical discipline and the individual interests rable work "Relatio Romance Curiae forensis", with-
of the faithful bring to Rome. Of these the most out counting other congregations of a lower order,
important are, without doubt, the Roman Congrega- consisting of prelates, as were, for example, the
tions (Sacrm Cardinalium Congregationes) as is evi-
, "Congregatio baronum et montium" and the "Con-
dent from the mere consideration of the dignity of gregatio computorum"-
their membership, consisting, as does, of cardinals
it Other congregations were added by different popes,
who are ofjeially the chief collaborators of the sover- until the present organization was established by
eign pontiff in the administration of the affairs of the Pius X in his Constitution "Sapienti consilio" of 29
Universal Church. Nevertheless it should be noted June, 1908, according to which there are thirteen con-
that cardinals have not always participated in the ad- gregations, counting that of the Propaganda as only
ministration of ecclesiastical affairs in the same way. one. As, however, the last-named congregation is
A research on the various usages that have obtained divided into two parts: Congregation of the Propa-
in this connexion would lead us too far from our pres- ganda for Affairs of the Latin Rite, and Congregation
ent subject, but is talien up under Cabdinal; Con- of the Propaganda for Affairs of the Oriental Rites, it
sistory, Papal. may well be considered as two congregations; so that
The Roman Congregations originated in the neces- the total number of the congregations is fourteen.
sity, felt from the beginning, of studying the questions Sixtus V granted ordinary jurisdiction to each of the
submitted for pontifical decision, in order to sift the congregations which he instituted within the limits
legal questions arising and to estabUsh matters of of the cases assigned to it, reserving to himself and to
fact duly. This work, at first entrusted to the papal his successors the presidency of some of the more im-
chaplains, was afterwards divided between the poeni- portant congregations, such as the Congregation of the
Icnliarii and the auditores, according as questions of Holy Inquisition and that of the Signature of Grace.
the internal or the external forum (i. e., jurisdiction) As time went on, the congregations of cardinals,
were to be considered. Thereafter, cardinals in greater which at first dealt exclusively with administrative
or less number were associated with them. Often, matters, came to pass upon the legal points of the
however, they were not merely entrusted with the cases submitted to them, until the congregations over-
preparation of the case, but were given authority to shadowed the ecclesiastical tribunals and even the
decide it. As, on the other hand, the increased num- Roman Rota in fact almost took their places. In
bers of cases to be passed upon occupied a great num- time the transaction of business was impeded by the
ber of persons, while the proper administration of cumulation of jurisdictions, different congregations
justice required that those persons should be of the exercising jurisdiction rendering decisions, and enact-
most experienced, it appeared to be advisable, if not ing laws in the same matters. Pius resolved toX
necessary, to divide this business into various and dis- define the competency of each congregation more
tinct groups. This division would evidently facihtate precisely and to provide otherwise for the better exer-
the selection of wise and experienced men in all cise of its functions. It would not be possible to re-
branches of ecclesiastical affairs. Hence also a nat- late here all the changes effected in this connexion.
ural division into executive cases, assigned to the The reader seeking detailed information may consult
offices (officio), judicial cases, reserved to the tribu- the commentaries that have already appeared on the
nals, and administrative cases, committed to the Constitution "Sapienti consiho" (see General Bibli-
Roman Congregations. ography at the end of this article) Mention will be
.

Sixtus V was the first to distribute this adminis- made here of only the chief among those innovations
trative business among different congregations of which, besides the principal one of the demarcation of
cardinals; and in his Constitution "Immensa" (22 competency, are to be found in the following provisions.
Jan., l.'i.ss) he geneiahzed the idea, already conceived All decisions of the sacred congregations require
and partly redueecf to practice by some of his prede- pontifical approval, unless special powers have been
cessors, of committing one or another case or a group given previously by the pope. The officials of the
of cases to the examination, or to the decision, of congregations are divided into two classes: minor
several cardinals. By a judicious division of admin- officers who are to be chosen by competitive exam-
istrative matters, he established that permanent ination and named by a letter of the cardinal pre-
organization of these dejiartments of the Curia, fect, and major officers, freely selected by the pope,
which since then ha\-e rendered such great services and named by a note of the cardinal secretary of
to the Church. The congregations at first estabhshed State. There is to be henceforth no cumulation of
li.\- Sixtus V were officially designated
as: (1) for Holy offices in the hands of one individual, not only to
Inquisition; (2) for the Signature of Grace; (.3) for the satisfy the requirements of distributive justice, but
erection of churches and consistorial provisions; (4) also because the tenure of several offices by the same
for the abundance of supplies and prosperity of the person often results in detriment to the service.
Church's temporal dominions; (.5) for sacred rites Wherefore, it is forbidden for an officer of one of the
and ceremonies; (G) for equipping the fleet and main- congregations to serve in any way as an agent, or as a
 ROMAN 137 ROMAN
procurator or advocate, in his own department or in Like all the other congregations, the Holy Office
any other ecclesiastical tribunal. The competency has officials of the second order. The first of these is
of the congresso in each congregation is determined. the assessor, one of the highest officers of the Curia;
The congresso consists of the major officers under the next comes the commissary, always a Dominican.
presidency of the cardinal who presides over the con- Sometimes, as an exception, these two officials are
gregation. It deals with the matters of less impor- invested with the episcopal character. Among the
tance among those that are before the congregation, other officers who complete the personnel of the Holy
while those of greater moment must be referred to the Office are a vice-commissary, a first associate (socius),
full congregations of cardinals. It is also the business and a second associate, all Dominicans, also a som-
of the congresso to prepare for their discussion those mista,^ a fiscal advocate, an advocatus reorum and some
matters that are to be considered by the full congre- notaries.
gation. On the other hand, the congresso is charged It may appear strange that so many positions in
with the execution of the orders of the full congrega- this congregation are filled by Dominicans. The
tion that have received the approval of the pope. As reason is to be found in the great solicitude of Pius V
examples of matters of greater importance which must for the Holy Office, which solicitude led him to re-
be considered by the full congregation, the special serve all these functions for his fellow-Dominicans,
rules {norma peculiares) mention the solution of especially those of the Province of Lombardy, to
doubts or of questions that may arise in regard to the which he himself had belonged, and in whose members
interpretation of ecclesiastical laws, the examination he reposed great confidence. It is to be observed
of important administrative controversies, and kin- that, whereas the assessor now takes precedence of
dred matters. The normm peculiares and the normce the commissary, the contrary order obtained in for-
communes, together with the Constitution "Sapienti mer times, even in the days of Cardinal De Luca
consilio", constitute the entire code of the new organi- (Relatio curia3 forensis disc, 14, n. 6), for the com-
zation of the Roman ecclesiastical departments. missary had the faculties of a true judge in ordinary,
I. C0NGHEGATI0>f OF THE HoLY OFFICE. As while the assessor was merely an assessor or consultor,
the Roman Inquisition {Romano Inquisitio) this con- as in other tribunals. According to Simier (La curie
gregation is of very ancient origin, dating from Inno- romaine, ch. i, n. I) this change occurred towards the
cent III (1194-1216), although some authorities at- middle of the seventeenth century. Besides the
tribute its establishment to Lucius III (1181-85). officers already mentioned, the Holy Office, like most
In the beginning of the thirteenth century Innocent other congregations, has a number of consultors,
III established at Rome an inquisitorial tribunal chosen from among the most esteemed and learned
against the Albigenses and other innovators of the relates and religious. Some are ex officio consultors
C
south of France. From its first title of Romana In- y virtue of a right anciently granted; these are called
quisitio was derived the usage of calling this body natural consultors {consuUori nati). They are the
Congregation of the Holy Roman Universal Inquisi- Master General of the Order of Preachers, the Master
tion. Sixtus V, in the BuU "Immensa", calls it Con- of the Sacred Palace (of the same order by a privilege
gregatio pro S. inquisitione and also Congregatio sanctae granted by Pius V), and a rehgious of the Order of
inquisitionis hcereticce pravitalis. Benedict XIV
calls Friars Minor added by Sixtus V, himself a Friar Minor.
it Romans Universalis Inquisitionis Congregatio This congregation also has certain officers peculiar
(Const. "SolUcita"). Later it had the official title to itself, required by the nature of its attributes.
Suprema Congregatio sanctce romance et universalis They are the qualifiers (qualificatores), explained by
inquisitionis. Pius X in his recent Constitution calls the function of these officials, theologians whose duty
it, simply, Congregatio S. Officii. The quaHfication it is to propose to the cardinals the particular note or
of Suprema was omitted, possibly to avoid the ap- censure by which objectionable propositions are to be
pearance of an inequaUty of dignity among the con- condemned, since all such propositions do not affect
gregations, they being all of the same rank and dignity, the Faith in the same degree, and therefore are con-
since they are composed of cardinals. According to demned by the Holy Office not in a general, but in a
Leitner, the name Inquisition was suppressed in order specific way, being termed heretical, erroneous, teme-
to shield this congregation from the hatred inspired rarious, false, injurious, calumnious, scandalous, or
by that name. It retains, therefore, the title of Holy qualified by the ancient special phrase piarum aurium
Office, so well suited to the most holy office to which offensives, "offensive to pious ears" Since the prom-
it is assigned, namely, that of removing the faithful ulgation of the recent Constitution by the reigning
from the danger of deviation from the Faith through pope, giving a new organization to the Curia, while all
the influence of false doctrine. In 1251 Innocent IV that has been referred to in regard to the internal
gave the Dominicans charge of this tribunal. In view status of this congregation has remained, a new divi-
of the progress of the Reformation, Paul III, by the sion, to deal with indulgences, has been added to the
Bull "Licet ab initio", of 21 July, 1542, declared the Holy Office. For this division a congresso has also
Roman Inquisition to be the supreme tribunal for the been established. Although no mention is made in
whole world; and he assigned to it six cardinals. the basic constitution of a congress {congresso) for the
Simier (La curie romaine, cf. S. n. I) is of opinion that main part of this congregation, the Holy Office itself,
Paul III appointed the six cardinals of S. Clemente, the fact that it is said in the "Norma3 pecuhares" that
S. Sisto, S. Balbina, S. Ceciha, S. Marcello, and S.
the Holy Office shall retain its former methods of pro-
Silvestro general inquisitors, with universal powers, cedure insures to it a kind of congress analogous to
not, however, to act collegialiter, as a tribunal, but
that of the other congregations and consisting of the
The assessor, the commissary, the first associate, and a few
individually and independently of one another.
Constitution "Licet ab initio" lends itself to that other officers. Its duties are to examine the various
cases, and to decide which of them must be submitted
interpretation. But the Holy Office did not begin
in the to the congregation of the consultors and which others
its existence as a congregation until 1558,
reign of Paul IV. As time went on, the number of may be disposed of without further proceedings, as
is the case in matters of minor importance or of well-
cardinals assigned to the Holy Office was increased,
estabhshed precedent. The Decree often makes it
and the tribunal took a form hke that of the other
clear that the case has been determined in this way, as
congregations. Formerly a cardinal used to be se-
when use is made of the formula: "D. N. Papa
lected to preside over the Holy Office with the
title . . . .

charge was per facultates R. P. D. Assessori S. Off. impertitas ..."

of prefect; the first to be appointed to this
Ihe The congresso of the new division consists of the
Cardinal Michele Ghislieri, afterwards Pius V.
been cardinal, secretary, the assessor, the commissary, and
prefecture of the congregation, however, has long
the surrogate for indulgences.
reserved by the pope to himself.
 ROMAN 138 ROMAN
The Congregationof the Holy Office defends Catho- loin de I'intelligence, il s'ensuit qu'^tre cit§ 4 ce tri-
lic teaching in matters of faith and morals: "Heec S. bunal n'est pas une recommendation, et en sortir
Congregatio .doctrinam fidei et morum tutatur.
.
meme par la porte d'un acquitement, ne sera jamais
Whence it follows, and is exphoitly affirmed in the un titre de gloire. Aussi doit-on b^nir ce mystere
"Sapienti consilio", that the Holy Office deals with qui protege celui qui comparait devant ce tribunal
all matters which, directly or indirectly, concern faith et dont le proces se d^roule sans qu'aucune phase n'eii
and morals; it judges heresy, and the offences that ait transpire dans le pubhc" (As the Holy Office has
lead to suspicion of heresy; it applies the canonical to deal not only with offences against the Faith, but
punishments incurred by heretics, schismatics, and also with others which are very remotely connected
the hke. In this the Holy Office differs from all the with the intelhgence, it follows that to be cited before
other congregations, which are without judicial power, this tribunal is no recommendation, and to leave it,
or, at least, may exercise it only at the request of the even by the door of acquittal, will never be a title to
parties interested, while the Holy Office has both glory. We should bless that mystery which protects
judicial and administrative power, since the legislator him who appears before the tribunal and whose trial
rightly believed that the congregation exclusively proceeds without any phase of it becoming pubhc).
empowered to pass upon a doctrine, and qualify and For the discussion of matters before the Holy Office
condenm it as heretical, should also be the judge in there are three kinds of reunions, or, as they are
heretical and kindred cases. From the fact that the called, congregations. The first is the so-called con-
purpose of this congregation is to defend the Faith, gregation of the consultors at which the consultors
it follows that dispensation from the impediments and the greater officials of the congregation are pres-
of disparity of worship and of mixed religion (which ent under the presidency of the assessor. This meet-
by their nature imperil faith, and which, by Divine ing is held on Monday of each week in the Palace of
law itself, is granted only upon guarantees given by the Holy Office behind the colonnade of St. Peter's.
the non-Catholic party) pertains to the Holy Office. The most important matters are discussed at this
The same is true of the Pauhne privilege. And as meeting, and the views of the consultors are given for
the judicial causes connected with this privilege and the enlightenment of the cardinals of the Holy Office,
with impediments of disparity of worship and mixed who, on the following Wednesday, consider the same
religion have a remote connexion with the Faith, it matters and pass judgment upon them at the congre-
was declared that these causes belonged to the juris- gation of cardinals which used to be held at the resi-
diction of the Holy Office (see decision of the Cong, dence of the general of the Dominicans near Santa
of the Consistory, January, 1910). With regard, how- Maria sopra Minerva, but since 1870 has been held
ever, to the substantial form of the celebration of at the Palace of the Holy Office. The third congre-
mixed marriages, the pope withdrew all authority gation is held in the presence of the pope, who ap-
from this congregation, wishing article 11 of the proves or modifies the decisions rendered by the car-
Decree "Ne temere" to remain in force. dinals on the previous day. This third congregation,
The Holy had a more ample juris-
Office formerly formerly held every Thursday, is now held only on
diction, by spontaneous development as
acquired occasion of the most exceptional cases. Instead of
time went on. Thus it dispensed from abstinence, the congregation, the assessor refers the decisions of
from fasting, and from the observance of feasts (all the cardinals to the Holy Father on Wednesday
of which now pertains to the Congregation of the evenings, after which the pope gives the final decision.
Council); it dispensed from vows made in religious It was formerly customary, both at the congregation
institutions, a function now exercised by the Con- of cardinals and at that of Thursdays in the presence
gregation of Religious, and it dealt with the nomina- of the pope (coram Sanctissimo), for the consultors to
tion of bishops, according to the Motu Proprio of Pius wait in the antechamber in case they might be called
X December, 190.'?), which business now belongs
(17 upon by the cardinals or the Holy Father for explana-
to the Congregation of the Consistory. In former tions. This custom has been abolished.
times the Holy Office even dealt with causes of can- As regards the doctrinal value of Decrees of the
onization, a matter which is now assigned to the Con- Holy Office it should be observed that canonists dis-
gregation of Rites. Grimaldi (op. cit. infra in general tinguish two kinds of approbation of an act of an in-
bibliography) gi^'cs as an example of such cases the ferior by a superior: first, approbation in common
Decree of the Holy Office in confirmation of the cult form (in forma cominuni), as it is sometimes called,
of the Blessed Culomba of Rieti, who died in the which does not take from the act its nature and qual-
odour of sanctity at Perugia in 1507; and he adds: ity as an act of the inferior. Thus, for example, the
"Ce genre dc causes est devenu ensuite I'apanage de decrees of a provincial council, although approved by
la congregation des Rites; mais si la vraie sainteti5 the Congregation of the Council or by the Holy See,
^chappe actuellement a la juridiction de I'inquisition, always remain provincial conciliar decrees. Secondly,
ce tribunal a conserve le privilege de juger la fausse specificapprobation (in forrna s-pecifica), which takes
saintete. Dans cct ordre d'idees nous trouvons les from the act approved its character of an act of
proces, qui se font en cour de Rome pour examiner the inferior and makes it the act of the superior
les prophetics et ri'\-elations" (Causes of this kind who approves it. This approbation is understood
afterwards became the province of the Congregation when, for example, the pope approves a Decree of
of Rites. But if true sanctity is no longer the juris- the Holy Office ex certa scientia, motu proprio, or
diction of the Inquisition, that tribunal has kept the plenitudine sum potestatis. Even when specifically ap-
privilege of judging questions of spurious sanctity. proved by the pope, decrees of the Holy Office are not
Of this order are the processes carried on in the Roman infallible. They call for a true assent, internal and
Curia to examine prophesies and revelations). All sincere, but they do not impose an absolute assent,
persons are subject to the Holy Office except cardi- like the dogmatic definitions given by the pope as in-
nals, who may be judged only by the pope. falUble teacher of the Faith. The reason is that, al-
Mention should be made of the strict secrecy which though an act of this congregation, when approved by
characterizes the proceedings of this congregation — the pope specifically, becomes an act of the sovereign
a most prudent measure indeed, for the protection of pontiff, that act is not necessarily clothed with the
the good name of individuals in a congregation which infallible authority inherent in the Holy See, since
must deal with most grievous offences against the the pope is free to make the act of an inferior his own
Faith. Grimaldi (op. cit.) rightly says, speaking of without applying his pontifical prerogative to its per-
the secrecy of the Holy Office: "Le saint-office ayant formance. Similarly, when he acts of his own voli-
£l s'occuper des d61its commis non seulement centre
la tion, he may teach ex cathedra or he may teach in a
foi, mais encore d'autres qui ne reinvent que de trSs
less decisive and solemn way. Examples of specific ap-
 ROMAN 139 ROMAN
probation of the Decrees of the Holy Office which yet dean was the prefect of this congregation, but later,
lack the force of ex cathedra definitions are given by the prefecture was reserved by the pope to himself.
Ghoupin ("Valeur des decisions doctrinales et disci- X
The recent Constitution of Pius has in part changed
phnaires du Saint-Siege ", Paris, 1907, ch. ix, g 9) The . the organization of this congregation. The prefec-
disciplinary Decrees of the Holy Office have the same ture is still retained by the sovereign pontiff, and the
force as those of the other congregations, that is, they congregation is formed exclusively of cardinals, se-
are binding upon all the faithful if they be formally lected by the pope; the secretary, however, is no longer
universal; and they are binding only upon the parties a prelate but a cardinal priest, who is appointed by
interested if they be merely personal, e. g., judicial the Holy Father himself and who, as will be seen, has
sentences, which are law for the parties in the case. become one of the most important officers of the
If, however, they be personal and at the same time Curia. To the cardinal in control of the congrega-
equivalently universal, canonists are not fuUy agreed tion is attached a prelate who has the title of assessor,
as to their force. For a discussion of this point see and who, at the present time also, is the secretary of
Choupin, op. cit., ch. iv, § 33, and the authors cited the Sacred College. There is, likewise, a surrogate.
by him. These are major officials, and therefore, together with
A QuBMADA, Tract, de fisco iaquisilionis (Toledo, 1564); the cardinal secretary, form the congresso.
LoCATi, Opus judiciale inquisilorum (Rome, 1672); Vanderani, This
Enchiridion inquisitionis (Venice. l.'iT.'t): Eymericus, Directorium congregation has numerous inferior officers. At
inquisitorum (Rome, 1578); BERNARons de Como, Lucerna present, its personnel is completed by several consult-
inquisilorum hcereticiB pravitalis (Rome, 1684); Mendez de
ors, as had been the case in former times, before that
Vasconcellos, De sententiis inquisitionis (Rome, 1596) ; De
Paramo, De origine et progressu sanctfs inquisitionis et de delegata office was suppressed. These consultors, with the
inquisitorum potestate (Madrid, 1698); Idem, Pro defensione exception of two, are selected by the pope; the ex-
jurisdictionis sanctce inquisitionis (Madrid, 1598); Farinacci,
Decisiones criminates de judiciis et tortura (Vieenza, 1607);
ceptions are the assessor of the Holy Office, and the
Garcia, Processus s. inquisitionis (Madrid, 1607); PeiSa, In- secretary of the Congregation of Extraordinary Ec-
quirendorum hcrreticorum lucerna (Milan, 1610) Masini, Sacro
; clesiastical Affairs, who are ex-officio consultors of the
arsenate, ovvero prattica deW Ojjicio delta S. Inquisitione (Genoa,
1626) Cabena, Tract, de officio S. Inquisitionis et modo proce- Congregation of the Consistory.
; _

dendi in causis fidei (Cremona, 1641) ; Alberghini, Manitale The work of the congregation formerly was to pre-
quatificatorum S. Inquisitionis, in quo omnia, qucE ad illud tri- pare the matters to be proposed and examined in the
bunal ac furresium ceasuram pertinent, hrevi methodo adducuntur
(Palermo, 1642) S.\llelle8, De materiis trihunalium s. inquisi-
Consistory, and to bestow such honours on ecclesias-
;

tionis seu de regulis multipticibus pro formando quovis eorum tics who sought them as it might seem fit to grant.
ministro, proesertim consuUore; prcemissis XII prolegomenis de The new constitution, however, has greatly extended
origine et progressu dictorum trihunalium (Rome, 1651); PeSa-
Carena, Instructio seu praxis inquisitorum (Cremona, 1655) the scope of the Congregation of the Consistory, to
Rodriguez, Attegationes fiscates, seu de confiscatione bonorum the degree that, although in that Constitution the lat-
in officio sanctcE inquisitionis (Lyons, 1663) ; Bordoni, Sacrum ter is named second among the congregations, it
tribunal judicum in causis sanctas fidei (Lyons, 1666) Saussay,
Aptiorismi inquisitorum (Lyons, 1669); Del Bene, De officio S.
;
might be considered the first in importance, on account
Inquisitionis (Rome, 1672) Macbdo, Schema S. Congregationis
;
of the great number of matters which have been as-
S. Officii romani cum elogiis cardinalium (Padua, 1676) De Luca,
; signed to it, and its great influence in the affairs of the
It Cardinale pratico (Rome, 1680), xxv; Albizi, De inconstantia
in fide (Amsterdam, 1683); Nehi, De judice s. inquisitionis
Church from both the disciplinary and the adminis-
(Florence, 1685) Menghini, Regole del tribunate di S. Offizio
;
trative point of view. The Holy Office, however,
(Ferrara, 1687) Albizi, De inconstantia in judiciis (Rome, 1698)
; retains its priority, whether by reason of ancient cus-
Masini, Sacro arsenate, ovvero pratica delV offizio delta s. inquisi-
tione (Rome, 1730) Danieli, Recentior praxis curice romaruE, IV
;
tom or because it deals with matters concerning the
(Rome, 1759), tit. 28; De Luca, Relatio curiai romanm (Venice, Faith. The great volume of the business which now
1759), dissert. 14; Camacho Guerrieho de Aboym, De privi- falls to the Congregation of the Consistory and the
legiis familiarum officialiumque s. inquisitionis (Lisbon, 1859)
SiMOR, De sacris congregationibus romanis et itlarum auctoritate
great importance of the matters with which it has to
in Archiv. f. k. KR., XI (Mainz, 1864), 410-23; SiMOR, De s. Con- deal have necessitated a division of the congregation
greg. romanis s. officii et concilii in Archin. /. k. KR., XV(1866), into two very distinct parts, corresponding to two
133-40; Cad^ne, De secreto s. officii in Anal. ecct. (Rome), V,
498; Cauzons, Hist, de Vinquisition en France: I. Les origines de
distinct classes of business. One section of the con-
rinquisiiion (Paris, 1909); Antonius Cordubensis, Opus de gregation has been formed for the purpose of
indulgentiis (Alcald, 1554) Thbodorus a Sp. Sancto, Tract,
; preparing the business to be brought before the
dogm. moratis de indulgentiis (Rome, 1743); Falise, 5. Congre-
gationis indulgentiarum resotutiones auth&nticx, pt. I (Louvain,
Consistory; to establish in places, not subject to
1862) ; Prinzivalli, Resotutiones seu decreta authentica S. Con- Propaganda, new dioceses and collegiate as well
gregationis indulgentiis sacrisque reliquiis prcepositce ab anno 1860 as cathedral chapters; to elect bishops, ApostoUc
ad ann. 1861 accurate coUecta (Rome, 1862); Decreta authentica
administrators, suffragans or assistants of other
S. Congregationis Indulgentiarum edita jussu et auctoritate Leonis
XIII (Ratisbon, 1883); Schneider (ed.), Rescripta authentica bishops; to prepare the processes in such cases
S. Ccmgr. Indulgentiarum, nee non summaria indulgentiarum and to examine the candidates in doctrine. As re-
(Ratisbon, 1885) Melata, Manuale de indutgentiis (Rome,
;
gards these processes, it may be observed that when
1892) ; MocCHEQiANi, Colleclio indulgentiarum iheologice, cano-
nice ac historice digesta (Quaracchi, 1897); Lepicier, Le in- the appointment is to be made in a place where the
dulgenze, loro origine, natura e svolgimento. Opera tradotta dalV Holy See has a diplomatic representative, the prepara-
originate ingtese del sac. Luigi Cappelli (Siena, 1897) ; Gottlob, tion of the necessary documents is left to the office of
Kreuzablass und Almosenablass (1905).
the cardinal secretary of State, which is in a position
II. Congregation op the Consistory. This — more easily to obtain the necessary information and
congregation was established by Sixtus V under the to collect the necessary documents. These docu-
title of Congregation for the Erection of Churches and ments and information are transmitted to the Congre-
for Consistorial Provisions (pro erectione ecclesia- gation of the Consistory, which prepares the report,
rum et provisionibus consistorialibus). Its original or official sheet, on the matter to be distributed
organization was somewhat diflferent from that of the among the cardinals. The other section of this con-
modem congregations of cardinals. It was a mixed gregation transacts all the business that relates to the
congregation composed of cardinals and of prelates, government of dioceses not under Propaganda within:

similar to the original Congregation of Propaganda its scope is the supervision of bishops in regard to
(De Luca, op. cit., dis. 23). It had also a secretary the fulfilment of their duties, the review of reports
who, as a rule, was not a prelate but an advocate on the state of their Churches presented by bishops,
(peritus iogatus). As time went on it took the form announcements of apostolic visitations, the review
of the other congregations, which consisted entirely of those previously made, and, with the approval of
of cardinals, to whom, in this congregation, two sub- the sovereign pontiff, the prescription of necessary
altern officers were added, one who fiUed the office of or opportune remedies; finally, the supervision of all
secretary and another who acted as surrogate (sosti- that concerns the government, discipline, temporal
tulo). These two prelates filled the same offices for administration, and studies in seminaries.
the College of Cardinals. Originally, the cardinal It is clear that the legislator intended to give to the
 ROMAN 140 ROMAN
Congregation of the Consistory complete authority matters referred to it, and who was later given three
in all that relates to a diocese as a juridical institu- sub-secretaries— a feature in which it differs from all
tion, including its establishment and its conservation; other congregations. Each one of these sub-secre-
whence the power ot elcicting bishops, of supervising taries is the director of one of the following sections
them in the performance of their duties, and of con- of the congregation.
troUing the seminaries so intimately connected with A. The first section deals with all matrimonial dis-
the future of the dioceses. For the same reason it pensations, except those that imply disparity of re-
would appear that the Congregation of the Consis- ligion, which pertain to the Holy Office. With regard
tory has autliority in all that pertains to the creation to these dispensations it is important to note the dis-
of diocesan societies or committees, rural banks, and tinction introduced by the Special Rules between
kindred establishments within a diocese. On the impediments in the major degree and impediments in
other hand, a very high function was given to this minor degree, and correspondingly between major and
congregation in the new organization of the Curia, minor dispensations. Minor dispensations concern
namely, the power of settling any doubts in relation impediments of relationship or affinity of the third
to the competency of the other congregations, excep- and the fourth degrees in the collateral line, whether
tion being made for the Holy Office, which is em- of equal degrees, or of unequal degrees — i. e., of the

powered to determine for itself all such doubts. fourth degree with the third or of the third degree
Nevertheless, the Holy Office did not disdain to with the second. Minor dispensations are also given
submit to the judgment of the Congregation of the from impediments of affinity in the first degree,
Consistory a question that arose in regard to the com- or in the second degree, whether simple or mixed
petency of the former, after the promulgation of the i. e., of the first with the second degree — when this ,
Constitution " Sapienti consilio " It is the duty of the
. impediment arises from illicit relations, or from spirit-
Congregation of the Consistory to send to bishops the ual kinship of whatever nature, or from impedi-
invitations to assist at solemn canonizations or other ments of public decorum, whether arising out of es-
solemn pontifical ceremonies, according to ancient pousals or out of ratified marriage already dissolved
custom. by pontifical dispensation. Dispensations from these
Its proceedings are characterized by the same strict minor impediments are now granted ex rationalibus
eecrecythat marks the deliberations of the Holy Office. causis a S. Sede probatis, which means that none of the
As to the division of business between the congresso reasons formerly required, called canonical, are now
and the full congregation of cardinals, the same ar- necessary for obtaining the dispensations in question.
rangement obtains as in the other congregations, Moreover, these dispensations are supposed to be
which is to leave t(j the congresso the matters of minor given motu propria and with certain knowledge, from
importance while matters of greater interest are con- which it follows that they are not vitiated by obreption
sid<Ted in the full congregation. Among such mat- or by subreption. The other impediments, and there-
ters are the nomination of bishops or of Apostolic fore the other dispensations, are considered as of the
administrators (except, in regard to the latter, in major order, and the Special Rules show that the dis-
cases of urgency, in which the congresso acts alone), pensations of this order more frequently granted are
the creation of new dioceses, or the unification of those relating to the impediment of consanguinity
existing ones, the erection of chapters, the drafting in the second collateral degree, or the mixed second
of general rules for the direction of seminaries, and or third degree with the first those relating to affinity
;

other similar matters the enumeration of which would of the first or of the second equal collateral degree, or
take us beyond the necessary limits of this article. of the second or third with the first; finally, those re-
M VRCELLI, De sacris cci rem. sive rilib. ecci. S. R. E, (Rome, lating to crime arising from adultery with a promise
156U); Paleotti, De Sacri con.s'ts^oru consultationibus (Rome,
1592) ; G.vDRiELLi, Tract, de sacri consistorii consultationibus (Ven- of future marriage.
ice, 1.394): CoHELLlus, X^^fitia cardinalatus . . . Congr. VII pro B. The second section of the Congregation of the
erectione eccle^ieirum et provision, consi^torinl. (Rome, 1653) LuNA- ;
Sacraments also deals exclusively with matrimony,
DORO, Rclazione dtlla corte <ii Roma (Venice, lG64),cap. vi, Delia
conqreg. concist.; Plettenberg, Notitia congregationum et tribu- and exercises its functions in all matters concerning
nahum citrice romaniB (Hildesheim, 1593); De Matta, De that sacrament, except dispensations from impedi-
consi^toriiUibus causis (Naples, 1(104); Platus, Tract.de cardinalis
ments. Of its competency, therefore, are the
dignitate et officio (Rome. 1746), cap. xxviii; App. un. de Consis-
torio et de S. R. E. cardin. Congreg. ac de aliis Papce magistrat.; concessions of sanalio in radice, the legitimation of
Danieli, Recentior praxis curios romanas (Venice, 1759) ; De Luca, illegitimate children, dispensations from marriage rati-
RrL .cur. rom. (Cologne, 1683), il cardinale pratico, cap. .\xx fied and not consummated, the solution of doubts con-
delta Congreg. Concist.
cerning matrimonial law, and the hearing of causes
III. Congregation of the Sacraments. —This concerning the validity of marriages. In regard to
congregation, which owes its existence to the recent the latter, however, it is to be noted that, the new
Constitution ".Sajjienti consilio", exercises a great Constitution on the Curia having established a com-
influence upon ecclesiastical discipline through the plete separation between those departments which
authority given to it in its establishment, to regulate exercise judicial power and those which are adminis-
all sacramental discipline. Its numerous and impor- trative, and, on the other hand, the very nature of
tant duties were formerly divided among the other matrimonial causes making it impossible to deter-
congregations and offices. As regards matrimony, for mine them administratively, this power granted to
example, causes of matrimony ratified and not con- the Congregation of the Sacraments should be inter-
summated were referred to the Congregation of the preted reasonably, in such a way as not to be at vari-
Council, dispensations for the external forum were ance with the spirit of the new Constitution. It
granted by the Dataria or, in certain oases, the Poeni- seems, therefore, that this faculty should be held to
tentiaria; many matters relating to the .Sacrament of signify only that, in special cases, in which the sover-
the Eucharist belonged to the Congregation of Rites. eign pontiff, for special reasons, might consider it
Many other examples could be cited; now, howe\'er, desirable to withdraw a matrimonial cause from the
all such matters pertain to the Congregation of the Rota, and submit it to the judgment of a congrega-
Sacrami'nts, excepting the rights of the Holy Office, tion, the Congregation of the Sacraments should be
as said abo\'e, and the power of the Congregation of considered the competent congregation under such
Rites to determine all that concerns the ceremonies circumstances. It must be admitted, further, that if
to be obser\-ed in the administration of the sacra- a rnatrimonial cause be brought before this congre-
ments. Witli so wide and important a field of activ- gation, the congregation may, if it please, hastily re-
ities, this congregation required a special organiza- view any matrimonial cause brought before it and
tion. Accordingly, besides its cardinals, one of whom reject it, if found futile, ah ipso limine. If, however,
is its prefect, it has a secretary, who deals with all the the cause be found admissible, the congregation should
 ROMAN 141 ROMAN
refer it to the Rota (unless there be a special commis- already decreed in the Constitution "Benedictus
sion of the pope to the contrary), seeing that the very- Deus", should be referred to him. In this Motu
nature of causes concerning the matrimonial bond, in Proprio, Pius IV referred to the congregation of cardi-
which not private interests are at issue, but the pub- nals thus created as "Congregatio super exsecutione
lic welfare, demands that those causes be determined et observatione S. Concilii Tridentini". As time
judicially, and not administratively. went on, and in view of the interpretation of frequent
None of this, however, applies to dispensation from doubts, the congregation received from the succes-
a ratified, but not consummated, marriage, because the sors of Pius IV the power also to interpret the De-
nature of such a case requu-es that it be determined crees of the Council of Trent, so that Sixtus V, in his
administratively, since it relates to the concession Constitution "Immensa", already calls it "Congre-
of a grace. This does not do away with the neces- gatio pro exsecutione et interpretatione Concihi Tri-
sity of estabhshing beyond doubt the non-consumma- dentini", a title given to it before his time. Gregory
tion, or the existence of the requisite conditions for XIV afterwards conferred upon it authority to reply
the dispensation, since these conditions constitute to questions in the name of the pope.
the proof that the sovereign pontiff has power, in the The number of cardinals composing the Congrega-
concrete case under consideration, to grant the dispen- tion of the Council was never restricted to eight,
sation validly and licitly, and therefore come within for to that number,. which had been assigned by Pius
the domain of administrative power. On the other IV, four more were soon added. The number was
hand the congregation is always free to refer to the generally greater than the original eight, and always
Rota the establishment of the fact of non-consumma- variable, depending upon circumstances and upon
tion. the wishes of the Holy Father. One of its cardinals
C. The third section of this congregation deals with has the office of prefect, it also has a secretary, and
all matters concerning the other six sacraments than that office has always been filled by eminent men,
matrimony. It has authority in ail matters touching —
some of them famous to take a few examples,
the vaUdity of ordinations, in all matters of discipline Fagnano, Petra, and Prospero Lambertini, afterwards
that concern these six sacraments and also the dis- Benedict XIV. A sub-secretary and other minor
pensations in such matters. In the Special Rules, as officials complete the personnel of the Congregation
examples to illustrate the competency of this congre- of the Council. In its origin, and indeed until the
gation, specification is made of some of the dispensa- new Constitution on the Curia, this congregation was
tions or graces reserved to it; these may be mentioned without consultors, although a special congregation
here for the guidance of those who may wish to apply created by Pius IX for the revision of provincial
to the Holy See. This section grants permission to councils had consultors from 1849, and these con-
preserve the Blessed Sacrament in churches or chapels sultors in course of time were employed in the trans-
which are not so authorized by common law; to cele- action of the business of the Congregation of the
brate Mass in private chapels, exercising over them Council. The recent Constitution, which suppressed
due supervision; to celebrate Mass before dawn, after the special congregation for the synods, endowed the
midday, or in the open air; to celebrate Mass on Holy Congregation of the Council with consultors, to be
Thursday, or the three Masses of Christmas, at night, selected by the pope, some of whom must be conver-
in private chapels; to wear a skull-cap or a wig either sant with matters of administration.
while celebrating Mass or in the exposition of the The competency of this congregation, extending
Blessed Sacrament; to blind and partially blind priests to the interpretation and to the execution of the
to celebrate the Votive Mass of the Blessed Virgin; Decrees of the Council of Trent, which relate to
to celebrate Mass aboard ship; to consecrate a bishop almost all the branches of canon law, was very great.
on a day other than those estabhshed by the Pontifi- When the Rota ceased to exercise judicial functions,
cal, or to confer Holy orders extra tempora, that is, on matrimonial causes were referred to the Congregation
other days than those appointed by law; finally, to of the Council. There were also added to this con-
—
dispense the faithful even members of religious or- gregation a Commission of prelates, estabhshed by
—
ders from the Eucharistic fast in cases of necessity. Benedict XIV, for the examination of the reports
The competency of this congregation is limited in of bishops on the state of their dioceses (which was
relation both to persons and to places; its authority commonly called "the Little Council"), and the
does not extend to places subject to Propaganda, or special congregation, mentioned above, created by
to members of religious orders, who for dispensa- Pius IX, for the revision of provincial councils.
tions, relating even to the sacraments, must go to the At present, the interpretation of the Decrees of the
Congregation of Religious (an exception being made Council of Trent is no longer of the exclusive compe-
in regard to the Eucharistic fast, as stated above). tency of the Congregation of the Council, but is shared
As to the sacrament of matrimony, however, the com- by each congregation within the hmits of its partic-
petency of the Congregation of the Sacraments is ular jurisdiction. On the other hand, the tribunals
universal in relation to place; objectively, however, of the Curia may, upon occasion, interpret those
all that concerns the impediments of mixed religion Decrees judicially, in their application to concrete
or of disparity of worship and the Pauline privilege cases. The present competency of the Congregation
pertains exclusively to the Holy Office. of the Council, although differing a good deal from
IV. Congregation of the Council. When the — what it formerly was, is nevertheless extensive. In
Council of Trent had brought its gigantic work to an general this congregation has the supervision of
end, the Fathers were greatly concerned for the prac- discipline of the secular clergy and of the Christian
tical apphcation of their disciplinary decrees. The people. From which it may be seen that, while this
council therefore made a strong appeal to the sovereign congregation has lost jurisdiction in many matters
pontiff to make provision for this important end, as —
that formerly pertained to it the sacraments, the
is shown by the last (the twenty-fifth) session of the rehgious orders, matrimonial causes, and other
council, entitled De recipiendis et observandis decretis. —
matters it has almost absorbed the business of the
—
Pius IV, in his zeal for the execution of the Decrees of former Congregation of Bishops and Regulars in so
It has charge of the observ-
the Council of Trent, besides other measures taken far as relates to bishops.
by him to this end (see the Constitution " Benedictus ance of ecclesiastical precepts; consequently, fasting,
Deus" of 26 January, 1563), by a Motu Proprio of abstinence, tithes, and the observance of feast days
2 August, 1564, commissioned eight cardinals to su- are within its jurisdiction, and to it recourse must
pervise the execution of the Tridentine Decrees and be had for dispensations in those matters. Parish
gave them ample faculties to that end, providing, priests and canons, pious sodalities, pious unions,
however that cases of doubt or of difliculty, as he had beneficent societies, stipends for Masses, rural banks,
 ROMAN 142 ROMAN
diocesan tributes, ecclesiastical benefices, and kindred of Pius X
abolishes the Congregation of Regulars and
interests are also under its jurisdiction. In brief, Bishops and transfers that part of its business which
it exercises jurisdiction over diocesan activities in concerns bishops to the Congregation of the Council,
regard to both clergy and laity, as the Congregation and that part of it which concerns regulars to a
of the Consistory exercises authority over the diocese congregation (congregatio negotiis reUgiosorum so-
in relation to its constitution, its conservation, and dahum prseposita) created by the new Constitution,
its development. and which, by common usage sanctioned by the legend
In this congregation, as in others, matters of on the official seal of the congregation, has received
greater importance arc considered by the full congre- the name of Congregation of Religious.
gation of the cardinals; among these matters are the This body has the usual organization of the Roman
interpretation of laws in doubtful cases, the granting Congregations. It is formed of several cardinals,
of unusual dispensations, the revision of provincial who are chosen by the pope, and one of whom is the
councils, and the Uke. Matters of less moment are prefect of the congregation; these cardinals are
determined by the congresso. To give an idea of the assisted by a secretary and a sub-secretary, who are
methods of procedure, it may be said, for example, the major officials of the congregation, and by several
that in the revision of a provincial council, all the minor officials. In regard to the latter it is to be
records of the council are referred to a consultor, who noted that, as the amount of its business necessitates
is required to give a written opinion upon them. a division of the congregation into three parts (as in
This report is printed, and is distributed to at least the case of the Congregation of the Sacraments),
five other consultors, if not to all of the consultors, the highest dignitaries among the minor officials are
together with the records of the council. After the the three assistants who are placed over the three sec-
private preparation which each is bound to make, tions. One of these sections has to deal with matters
the chosen consultors, or the entire college of consult- relating to religious orders; another, with the busi-
ors, meet and, in as many sessions as the case may ness of religious congregations or associations of
require, discuss all the Acts of the council. The men, of whatever nature those associations may
written opinion above referred to, with a report of be; the third, with business relating to congregations
the discussion of the consultors and of the proposed of women. This congregation also has a college of
corrections and modifications, is then submitted to consultors.
the full congregation of the cardinals, who, in turn, The Constitution of Pius X
clearly defines the
examine all the records of the matter, order the cor- competency of this congregation, which is to pass
rections to be made, and approve the council. judgment upon all matters relating to religious per-
Thesaurus resolutionum 5. Conor. Concilii (ab anno 1718); sons of either sex, whether bound by solemn or by
CoHELLiua, op. cit., Congr. VI super execuiione et interpretatione
Sacri Concilii Tri^kritini; Ltjnadoro, op. cit., x, Delia con- simple vows, or to those persons who, although they
gregatione del coiicitio a della congregazione particolare sullo be not religious in the canonical sense of the word,
stato delle chiese, del .^ecretario e di altri jninistri di deite congrega-
zioni; Fagnanus, Comm. in quinque libros Decretaliam, in cap.
live as religious —
such as the oblates of certain com-
Quoniam de constitutioitibus (Venice, 1674); De Luca, II Car- munities of men or of women, who, without being
dinale -pratico; cap. della congr. del Concilia di Trento; Danibli, bound by vows, live a common Ufe under an approved
op. cit., 8. v.; MtjHLBAUER, Thcsaurus resolutionum S. Congr. rule. The third orders, consisting of seculars, are
—
Conciliiusque ad annum 1871 (Munich, 1872 ) Zamboni. Colleciio
;

declarationum, S. Congr. Card. Cone. Trid. interpretum (Rome, also under this congregation. It decides in htigar
181G): Gamberini, Re^oiiiliones selecUe S. Congr. Concilii, quw tions between members of religious orders, or between
consentanee ad Trid. PP. di^crcia aliasque juris canonici sanctiones religious and bishops, and it is the competent tribimal
prodierunt in causis propositis per summa-ria precum, ann.
18:^3-18.^6 (1842): Stremler, TraiUs des peines eccl. de I'appel in cases which have to be dealt with in the way of
et des Conf/reg. rom. (Paris, 1860) Richter-Schulte, Canones
; discipline {in via disciplinari) where a religious ap-
et decreta Concilii Tridentini (Leipzig, 1853) Pallottini, Coll.
;
pears either as plaintiff or as defendant. Hence it is
omnium conclusionum et resolutionum QUfB in causis propositis
apud S. Congreg. Cardinalium prodierunt ab anno 1664 ad annum to be inferred, and indeed is expressly stated in the
—
1860 (Rome, 1868 ) Lingen-Reuss, Causa; selectee in S. Congr.
;

Card. Cone. Trid. interpr, propositce per summuria preeum ab

Constitution, that causes which have to be dealt with
in the judicial way must be referred to the Rota, the
anno 18S3 usque ad annum 1869 (Ratisbon, 1871); Parayre,
La 5. congregation du cuncite (1897); SAGMtJLLER, Die Geschichte rights of the Holy Office being always safeguarded.
der Con.gr. Cone. Trid. vnr d. Motuproprio ^^ Alias nos" v. £ aug., Finally, all common law dispensations to regulars
16i;'u in Arch. f. k. KR., LXXX (1900); Idem, Die visitatio pertain to this congregation, excepting dispensa-
Uminum SS. Apostolurumbis Bonifaz VIII in Theol. Quartalschr.,
LXXXII (1900), 69 sqq. tion from the Eucharistic fast, which, as said above,
pertains to the Congregation of the Sacraments.
v. Congregation of Reliqious. Sixtus —
first
erected by a Brief of 17 May, 1586, and afterwards,
V The Congregation of Religious is alone competent
to approve new religious institutes and their con-
by the Constitution "Immensa", confirmed, a con- stitutions, as well as to modify institutes already
gregation "super consultationibus regularium" dis- approved, and these being matters of grave impor-
tiiict from the congregation "super consultationibus tance, the full congregation deals with them.
episcoporum et aliorum praelatorum" mentioned in CoHELLlus, op. cit., Congr. VIII pro consultationibus episco'
the same Constitution. In 1601 these two congre- porum et aliorum prelatorum; Congr. IX pro consultationibus
regularium; Lxjnadoro, op. cit., cap. xi, Della congregazione
gations were already combined in the Congregation dei vescovi edei regolari, del segretario e di altri ministri di delta
of Bishops and Regulars, to which, in course of time, congregazione; cap. xiii, Delia congregazione della disciplina
were united three other congregations whose functions regolare; De Luc,^, Rel. rom. curite for., disc. 16: Idem, //
cardinale pratico, cap. xxvii, Della congregazione sopra i negozi
were closely related. These three were: the Congre- dei vescovi e dei regolari dell' uno e delV altro sesso; Danielli,
gation on the State of Religious (.'super statu regula- op. cit., a. v.; BizzARRi, Collectanea in usum secretarice S. Congr,
rium), created by Innocent X
on 1.5 August, 1652, episcoporum et regularium (Rome, 1885) ; Bastien, Directoire
canonique d I'usage des congregations d voeux simples (Maredsous,
for the reformation of regulars in Italy, and sup- 1904); Battandier, Guide canonique pour les constitutions des
pressed by Innocent XII on4 August, 1698; theCongre- instituts d voeux simples (2nd ed., Paris, 1905); Arndt, Rechts-
gation on Regular Discipline {super disciplina regu- bestimmungen fiir Orden und Kongregationen (Paderborn, 1908).
lari), instituted by Innocent XII on 18 .luly, 1695,
for the reformation of regulars not only in Italy
VI. Congregation of Propaganda. This is the —
abbreviated title of the congregation officially known
but throughout the whole world; the Congregation on as Sacra Congregatio de propaganda fide, or christiarw
the State of the Regular Orders (xuper statu regularium nomini propaganda, the chief functions of which con-
ordinum), created by Pius IX on 17 June, 1847. cern the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in what are
The last-named and the one on regular discipline comrnonly known as "missionary countries". It had
were suppressed by Pius X, by the Motu Proprio of its origin in a commission of cardinals estabUshed un-
26 May, 1906, which united these congregations with der Gregory XIII (1572-85), which became a congre-
that of Bishops and Regulars. The new Constitution gation properly so called under Gregory (1621-XV
 ROMAN 143 ROMAN
23). Before the Constitution "Sapienti consilio" which has a college of consultors whose office is to
(29 June, 1908) came into force, the Congregation of deliver written opinions on the books submitted to
Propaganda had jurisdiction over several countries their judgment by the congregation. The Congrega-
in which normal Catholic hierarchies of the Latin tion of the Index censures and condemns books which
Rite were established, but the Constitution adopted, it considers dangerous to faith or morals. Its juris-
in general, the plan of leaving to Propaganda only diction is universal, extending to all Cathohcs. It
those countries or districts (excepting for the Orien- can therefore grant permission for the reading of a
tal rites mentioned below) where ecclesiastical au- book that has been condemned, or for the publica-
thority is vested in vicars or prefects Apostohc. tion of corrected editions of books that have been
Thus, Great Britain, the United States, Canada, Hol- proscribed. Its functions are naturally related to
land, and the Duchy of Luxemburg were removed those of the Holy Office, of which it may with some
from the jurisdiction of Propaganda, although, as an reason be considered an appendix or auxihary con-
exception to the general rule, Australia, where a nor-
mal hierarchy exists, was allowed to remain under
gregation. The Constitution of Pius provides X
that, notwithstanding the strict secrecy to which the
that jurisdiction. Besides its territorial jurisdiction, officers of both congregations are held, they may
however, the congregation is invested with a personal communicate to each other, upon occasion, those
jurisdiction over the spiritual affairs of all Catholics, proceedings which relate to the prohibition of books,
in any part of the world, who belong to any of the though they may communicate nothing else. One
Oriental rites. (A full account of the history, change made by Pius X
in the functions of this con-
scope, methods, and work of this congregation will be gregation considerably widens the scope of its activi-
found in the separate article Propaganda, Sacred ties: the traditional rule was that the Index did not
Congregation op.) condemn any book which had not been denounced
VII. CoNGHEGATioN OP THE Indbx.
always been
—
There has to it; now, on the contrary, the congregation is
the Church, especially since the
felt in charged with the work of seeking out pernicious pub-
invention of printing, the necessity of preventing fications, and, after mature examination, condemning
the faithful from reading books that might ruin either and proscribing them.
faith or morals. As early as 1501 a Constitution of The procedure of the congregation was accurately
Alexander VI, addressed to the four ecclesiastical determined by an instruction of Clement VIII and
provinces of Germany, contains very wise prescrip- by a Constitution (9 July, 1753) of Benedict XIV.
tions, later confirmed and extended to the whole The oonsultor or consultors selected for the examine^
world by Leo X
in the Fifth Council of the Lateran tion of a book to be judged, having made their writ-
(1515). In keeping with these laws, catalogues of ten report, if it appears that the book should be con-
the books prohibited were published by private enter- demned, a preparatory congregation is held, which
prise, and sometimes with ecclesiastical authority, consists of the Master of the Sacred Palace, the Sec-
not, however, the supreme authority of the Church. retary of the Index, and six consultors, versed in
Among these mention should be made of the three the matter of which the book treats and selected by
of Louvain, 1546 (approved by the emperor and pub- the cardinal prefect. At this meeting, the passages
lished by the university), 1550, and 1558; that of of the publication of which complaint is made are
Spain; that of Paris, published by the Sorbonne in diligently examined, and the question whether or
1542; that of Cologne, published by the university not they contain errors is discussed. The secretary
in 1549; that of Venice, published by Casa, the Apos- prepares an accurate report of the views of the pre-
tolic nuncio, in 1549, and another, pubhshed in 1554 paratory congregation, and then refers it to the full
by the Inquisition; that of Florence, 1552, also pub- congregation of the cardinals, at which the cause is
hshed by the Inquisition; that of Milan, published carefully examined and final judgment is rendered.
in 1554 by the archbishop. Benedict XIV required great consideration to be
The custom of forming these indexes having been shown to any distinguished Catholic writer who en-
established (the catalogues being sometimes arranged joyed a good name. Not only did this pope pre-'
alphabetically) there soon asserted itself the necessity scribe that the work of such a writer should oot be
for a general index under the supreme authority of condemned without some formula calculated to miti-
the Church, and Paul IV commissioned the Holy gate the severity of the condemnation, such as donee
Office to prepare such an index, which was accord- corrigatur, or donee expurgetur ("until it be corrected,"
ingly published in 1557, and again, more accurately, "until it be expurgated"), but, he provided that the
in 1559. Later appeared the Tridentine Index, so matter should first be referred to the author himself,
called because its pubUcation was ordered by the and his attention called to the objectionable passages.
great council. It was approved and published by If the author then refused to deal with the congre-
Pius IV in 1564. This index was often reprinted, gation, or rejected the corrections that were required,
always with new additions, and it is now followed, the decree of condemnation was to be pubfished. If,
having been modified and corrected by Leo XIII however, the author prepared a new edition, the
who, in 1900, pubhshed it with his Constitution decree of condemnation was not to be pubhshed,
"Officiorum ac munerum", in which he abolished the unless a great number of the copies containing the
old laws and established new ones for the condemna- errors had been circulated, in which case, of course,
tion and for the preliminary censure of books. the public welfare would require the publication of
In 1571 Pius V created the Congregation for the the decree; but the pope provided that it should be
Reform of the Index and for the Correction of Books made clear that only the first edition was comprised
(de reformando indice et corrigendis lihris). In the in the condemnation.
following year Gregory XIV gave a better form to CoHELLius, op. Congr.
cit.: X
pro indice librorum prohibi-
torum; Gbetser, Dejure et more prohibendi expurgandi et abolendi
this congregation, which Sixtus V confirmed by his libros htsreticosnoxios (Ingoldstadt, 1653)
et R.\ynaudus,
;

Constitution "Immensa" It retains its primitive Erotemata de malis ac bonis libris deque justa aut injusta eorum
organization to the present day, the Constitution of confixione (Lyona, 1653) Lunadoro, op. cit., cap. ix, Delia congre-
;

gazione dell' indice e del segretario delta medesima; De Luca, Ret,

Pius X having introduced no notable alterations. rom. CuricB for., disc. 19; Francus, Disquisitio academica de
Like the other congregations it consists of a
all papistarum indicibus librorum prohibendorum et expurgandorum
number of cardinals, one of whom is its prefect; the (Leipzig, 1684) Ortlob, Diss. phil. de Ephesinorum libris curiosis
;

combustis (Leipzig, 1708) Boehmer, Dissert, jurid. de jure circa

master of the Sacred Palace (a Dominican) is ex officio
;

libros improbatcB lectionis (Magdeburg, 1726); Schottgen, De

its assistant. Pius V, by a Motu Proprio of 1570, indicibus librorum prohibit, et expurg. eorumque n(Bvis (Dresden,
1733); Ruble, Saggio dell' istoria delV indice romano (Rome,
had already amply authorized that functionary to 1739) Catalan!, De secretario S. Congregationis Indicis (Rome,
correct published books. Another Dominican is 1751)
;

ScHENElDT, Jus et obligatio prohibendi libros (WUrzburg,

:

the secretary of the Congregation of the Index, 1768): Fbitsch, Dissertationes de censura librorum et proposi'
 ROMAN 144 ROMAN
iionum in negotiis rdigionis (Breslau, 1775); Zaccaria, Storia the duties of this congregation are of the highest
poltmica delta proibizione dei libri (Rome, 1777); Peignot, Dic- importance: they are concerned with the solemnity
twiiTiaire critique, litteraire et bibliographique des principaux
/lifts cuitdamn6s au feu, supprim^s ou censures (Paris, 1806);
of the worship offered to God, the maintenance of
Men'dham, The Literary Policy of the Church of Rome exhitrited the Faith, and the development of demotion and of
in an Account of Her Damnatory Catalogues or Indices (London, Christian sentiment among the faithful. The same
1826); Ernesti, Ueber das recht bes. der Hierarchic auf
Censur and Biiclierverbole (1829); Heymans, De ecclesiastica congregation has another charge of no less impor-
librijrum aUorumque scriptorum in Belgio prohibitione (Brussels, tance: the decision of causes of beatification and
1.S19); Fkhsler, Das kirchtiche BUcherverbot (Vienna, 1858); canonization of servants of God, and of the venera/-
Die romi^elie Jiidexcongregation und iltr Wirken (Munich,
1863); BALiijs, Lu s. congregation de V index mieux connue et
tion of their relics.
vengee (ISGO); Sachse, Die Anfiliige der Biiehereensur in Deutsch- In the process of beatification and canonization
land (1870); dimittatur c la spiegazione datane
Zioliara, II the most important official is the promoter of the
dalla s. eongr. iletV indice ed il cardinal Zigliara (Rome,
18S2); Reumch, Der Index d. verbotenen Backer (Bonn, 1883); Faith, whose chief duty it is to diligently examine the
Poi'LAiN, Uindex; son origine, son but et sa vateur (Dieppe, local investigations carried out by the authority of
1884) Petit, L'index; son h istoire, ses lois, sa force obligatoire
;
the bishops, or, at Rome, of the pope, and to bring
(Paris, 1888) Paries, Du droit de I'Eglise de prohiber les livres
out in them all that may in any way cast doubt upon
;

dangereux in Journal du droit canon. (1892); Arndt, Delibris

prohibitis commentorii (Ratisbon, 1895) Dilgskron, De revisione
; the heroic virtue of the servant of God whose cause
et npprobatione librorum typis describendorum in Anal. eccl. is under consideration. It is on account of this duty,
(181)1-97); HoLLWEf Das
kirchliche BUcherverbot (Mainz,
K,
1897); Pl\nchard, L'index in Rev. thiol, franc. (March-June, which implies a systematic opposition to the proofs
1897); Desjardixb, Ln nouoelle constitution apostolique sur of sanctity, that the official in question has come
l'index in Etudes (March-May, 1897); Pennacchi, In conts.
to be popularly called "the devil's advocate" It is
ap. " OfUciorum ac muntrum" de prohibitione et censura librorum
a Leone d. pr. PP. XIII latam breris commentatio (Rome, 1898); easy to see, however, that this office conduces to the
PARIES, L'index, comment, de la constitution apostolique "Offi- splendour of the Church and to the honour of the
cv/rii,m" (Paris, 1898); Moureau, La nouvelle legi.dation de
Faith; for to declare a servant of God to be a saint
l'index (Lille, 1898); Boudinhon, La nouvelle legislation de
I Index (Paris, 1890); Hilgers, Zur kirch. Gesetzgebung iiber is to propose him as a model to the faithful, and one
verbot. Bucher in >itimmen aus Maria Laach, I (1899), 258 sqq.; cannot fail to see how necessary it is that this be done
Schneider, Die neuen Buchergesetze der katholischen Kirche only in the case of one truly heroic, of whose virtue
(Mainz, 1899) Arndt, Die Vor.^ehriften iiber das Verbot und die
;

Censur der Biicher (Trier, 1900) Hilgenreiner, D. kirchl.

;
in the heroic degree the pontiff has acquired the great-
Vorzensur u. d. Particularrecht (Vienna, 1901); Schneider, D. est moral certainty that human means can establish.
neue Index in Arch. f. k. KR., LXXXI (1901), 291, 302; Hilgen-
It is true that the assistance of the Holy Ghost can-
reiner, Der Index der varhatenen Biiclier in Tk. prat. Qrtschr.,
pt. II (1901); Sleutjes, De prohibitione et censura librorum not fail the head of the Church of Jesus. Christ in a
(Giilpen, 1903); Hilgers, Der Index der verbotenen Bucher in matter of this kind; but the sovereign pontiff is not
seiner neuen Fassung dargelegt und rechllich-historisch gewurdigt
(Freiburg i. Br., 1904); (Sennari, La costitnzione " Ofhciorum"
on that account exempt from the obligation of acting
breeemenle commcntata (Rome, 1905) ClOLLl, Comm. breve delta
;
in the premises with all the circumspection that
costituzione leonina riguardo ai libri proibiti (Rome, 1906); human prudenbe requires. And in this effort to
Ver-Meersch, De prohibitione et censura librorum dissertatio
canonico-moralis (Rome, 1906) Hilgers, Die Biicherverbote in
;
attain human certainty the pope is greatly assisted
Pabstbrieftn (Freiburg, 1907); Arendt, De quibusdam dubiis by the promoter of the Faith, who, after a prelim-
QUIT occurrunt in doctrinuli inter preiatione leoninee constitutionis inary study of the cause, has to propose objections
de prohibitione librorum tireeis di^reptatio (Rome, 1907) Hurley,
in regard to the validity of the proceedings and the
;

Comment, on the Present Index Legislation (Dublin, 1908).

credibility of the testimony as well as all the ob-
VIII. Congregation of Rites. This congregation — jections possibly to be found in the life of the servant
was e.stablished by Sixtus V in liis Constitution of God whose cause is being examined, and in the
" Immensa", to whicli frequent reference has already miracles alleged to have been performed by God at
been made. The organization of the Congregation the intercession of that servant. These objections
of Rites docs not differ from that of other Roman are presented in the three congregations, or meetings,
congregations, there being a certain number of cardi- held to consider the question of virtue, and in the
nals, a.ssisted by a secretary and a surrogate (sosli- other three which are held to consider the question
tulo), and also by an adequate number of minor of the miracles. The promoter of the Faith is al-
officials. Besides these, the Congregation of Rites, ways selected from among the Consistorial advocates,
in view of special functions to which reference will and always has the assistance of a sub-advocate who
be made further on, has a great number of prelates, takes his place, upon occasion, and who in every
officials, and consultors. The order of precedence instance acts in the name of the promoter. The
among the consultors is determined by length of latter official formerly had the power to appoint, and
service in their office. The prelate-officials sit in to remove, his assistant. Besides these two chief
the following order: first, after the secretary of the officials, the congregation has a special notary for
congregation, is the sacristan to His Holiness, after that part of its functions which concerns canonizar
whom comes one of the ApostoUc prothonotaries tion.
permanently attached to this office, next is the dean The congregations, or meetings held to consider
of the Rota, with the two oldest auditors, after these the question of virtue, like those at which the ques-
the master of the Sacred Palace, the promoter of the tion of miracles is considered, are generally three in
Faith, and the assessor, or sub-promotor. Although number. The first of them is called the ante-prepara-
there are no e.x-officio consultors, that is, no consultors tory, and is attended by the prelate-officials and the
who by reason of their office in the Curia are entitled consultors, under the presidency of the cardinal
to sit among the consultors of this congregation, relator of the cause, who does not vote, but who,
there are, nevertheless, certain rehgious orders the
Friars Minor, the Scrvites, the Barnabites, the Jesuits
— upon the votes of the others who are present, deter-
mines whether the case deserves to go beyond this
— which have obtained from different popes the privi- hearing. The second meeting, called the preparatory,
lege of being represented by one member each in is attended by all the cardinals of the congregation,
this college of consultors. by the prelate-officials, and by the consultors. At
The C'cmgrcKationof Rites has a double function. this meeting the cardinals do not vote, but, after
It IS charged with the direction of the Liturgy
of the hearing the votes of the others present, determine
Latin C^hurch, and therefore, with the supervision whether the cause may be carried to a discussion
of the performance of the rites prescribed by the before the pope, which is done only when there is
Church for the celebration of the sacred mysteries moral certainty of a successful issue. This meeting
and other ecclesiastical functions and offices, and is the most interesting of all; in it the cause not infre-
also, with the granting of all privileges, personal
quently falls to the ground. Assuming, however,
or local, temporary or perpetual, which relate to the that the cardinals do not throw out the case defini-
ntes or ceremonies of the Church. It is manifest that tively, it very often happens that another preparatory
 ROMAN 145 ROMAN
meeting called nova
prceparatoria is required, to IX. Congregation of Ceremonies. — It is not
elucidate some point relating to the virtue of the quite certain who created this congregation. Many
servant of God or to the miracles in question. Some- attribute its estabUshment to Sixtus V, others to
times there is even a third meeting for the same pur- his immediate predecessor, Gregory XIII. Haine
pose. The regular third meeting is called the gen- says that the latter opinion is proved to be correct
eral congregation. It is held under the presidency by the records of the congregation itself. Supposing
of the sovereign pontiff himself and is attended by this to be the case, the error of certain authors is
all the cardinals who form the Congregation of apparent, when they consider this congregation to
Rites, the prelate-officials, and the consultors, all of be little more than a branch of the Congregation of
whom —
vote the consultors and the prelate-officials Rites or to have derived its existence from the latter.
first,and then, when the consultors have withdrawn, It is, on the contrary, more ancient than the last-
the cardinals. The pope decides definitively; as a named congregation, and deals directly with the
rule, however, he does not pronounce his judgment highest division of the Liturgy, considering the person-
at once, but takes time to dehberate and to implore ages whom it concerns. For this congregation ia
Divine fight upon the question. Besides the above charged with the direction of all the papal ceremonies,
meetings, others, called ordinary and special ordinary, as well as of the ceremonial of cardinals, whether in
are held for the purpose of examining the proceed- the pontifical court (aula) or chapel {cappella ponti-
ings and the proof of the fame of sanctity which is ficia), or elsewhere. It is reasonable that a special
necessary for the introduction of a cause of beati- congregation should have under its care ceremonies
fication. (See also Beatification and Canoniza- so august and solemn, since it is of the highest impor-
tion.) tance that when the supreme head of the Church
Returning to the first duty of this congregation, participates in ecclesiastical functions attended by
which is the supervision and direction of the Liturgy, the most illustrious dignitaries of the Church, all
it may be said that the inspection, correction, and should be in keeping with that decorum which befits
condemnation of Uturgical books of whatever kind their exalted character. As in all courts there is a
pertain to the Congregation of Rites (saving always grand master of ceremonies, charged with the direc-
the prerogatives of the Holy Office in matters of tion of the sovereign's acts on occasions of State,
faith), as well as the approbation of new fiturgical so it was necessary that at the pontifical Court there
Offices and calendars, and especially the authorita- should be an authority to preside over such functions.
tive solution of all doubts which may arise on litur- This requirement is suppfied by the Congregation
gical matters. Recourse must be had, therefore, of Ceremonies, which, besides the direction of litur-
to this congregation for all faculties, indulgences, gical functions, is charged with the direction of the
and dispensations relating to Uturgical functions. pontifical court ceremonial for the reception of sov-
Thus, for example, it is for the Congregation of Rites ereigns or of ambassadors. It also communicates
to grant the faculty to bless sacred vestments, the instructions to the legates of the Holy See for the
authorization to expose upon the altar the image of maintenance of due decorum in transacting the
one who has been beatified, or to dedicate an altar affairs of their missions. This congregation also
to such a servant of God, the right to wear special instructs the members of the Noble Guard and the
insignia during choral offices, etc. In the performance ablegate who are sent to convey to new cardinals,
of these functions, the Congregation of Rites is assisted living in CathoUc states outside of Rome, the news of
by three commissions, established within its own their promotion, together with the cardinal's hat and
body. The first of these is the Liturgical Commission, the red biretta. It instructs newly-promoted cardinals,
created for the re\-ision of Decrees concerning rites. too, on the etiquette to be followed conformably with
This work was begun and finished by Leo XIII, their new dignity. Finally, it solves the questions
the congregation pubfishing an authentic edition of of precedence which arise among cardinals or among
its Decrees (1898-1900). Although the work for ambassadors to the Holy See.
which it was created has been done, this commission LuNADORO, op. cit., cap. xiv, Delia congregazione del cere-
remains, and is now consulted on more important moniale e dei Tnaestri delle ceremonie.
questions which may arise concerning the sacred rites.
The second commission, also instituted by Leo XIII, X. Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesi-
in 1902, is the Historico-Liturgical Commission, which astical, Affairs. —
In former times, when questions
has the function of judging historical questions con- of exceptional interest to the Church presented them-
cerning the sacred rites. The third is the Commis- selves, and circumstances required that they should
sion on Sacred Music, created by Pius X, in 1904, in prudence be treated with secrecy, the popes were
the functions of which are connected with the Motu wont to estabUsh special congregations of cardinals
Proprio on sacred music of 1903 and with other acts for the consideration of those matters. These con-
of Pius X on the same subject. (See the letter of gregations were called congregations of State. Pius
8 December, 190.3, to Cardinal Respighi, the Decree VI, following this custom, on the occasion of the
of 8 January, 1904, the Motu Proprio of the 25 revolutionary conditions of France in 1793, estab-
April, 1904, on the Vatican edition of the Uturgical lished a congregation of this kind, which he called
books, and the other two Decrees of 11 and 14 August, the Congregation for the Ecclesiastical Affairs of
1905.) France (Congregatio super negotiis ecclesiasticis
regni GaUiarum), a title which Pius VII, in 1805,
CoHELLlus, op. cit., Congr. V pro sacris ritibus el cmremoniU:
changed to Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesi-
LtJNADOBO, op. cit., cap. xir, Delia congregazione de' sagri riti,

del promotore delta fede e di allri personaggi di delta congregazione; astical Affairs (Congregatio de negotiis ecclesiasticis
De LucA, flei. rom. curia: for., Aiac. IS; D.inieli, op. cit., s. v.; extraordinariis). This congregation remained in ex-
Benedict XIV, De servorum Dei beatificalione et bealorum cano- istence until 1809, when the exile of Pius VII brought
nizatione (Rome, 1747-49); Ada canonimtionis SS. Fidelis a
Sigmaringa, Camilli de Lellis, Petri Regalali, losephi a Leonisaa, it to an end. In 1814, when Pius VII returned to
et Calharinm de Riciis una cum apostolicis lilt. SS. D.
N. Benedictl Rome, the needs of the Church being still exceptional,
XIV et valicana: basilica ornalus descriptione (Rome, 174!)),;
Appendices ad quatuor libros de servorum Dei the pope re-estabfished this congregation under the
Benedict XIV,
beatificationeet beatorum canonizatione (Rome, 1749)
SS. D. N.
; title of Extraordinary Congregation for the Eccle-
Benedidi XIV P M. acta et decretam causis beatificalionum siastical Affairs of the CatholicWorld (Congregatio
et canonizationum aliUque
ad sacrorum rituum rrmteriam perli-
decimum (Rome, 1751); extraordinaria praeposita negotiis ecclesiasticis orbis
nentibus ad annum pontificalus ski
De Azevedo SS. D. N. Benedidi PP. XIV doctrina de servorum catholici). In 1827, however, the congregation re-
Dei beatificatione el beatorum canonizatione in synopsim redacla
assumed its former name of Congregation for Ex-
Congr. Sacrorum Rituum ex
(Naoles 1854)' Decrela authenlica (Rome, traordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, which it retains to
ej'usdem collecta, ejusque audoritate promulgata
aclis
1898—). the present time. At the head of this congregation
XIII.— 10
 ROMAN 146 ROMAN
is the secretary of State, who presides over it not as VII, was extensive, since it included jurisdiction not
prefect, but in virtue of his office; and although it only over the Holy House of Loreto and its property,
has a secretary and a sub-secretary, the congrega- but also over civil and criminal matters connected
tif>n nevertheless has no secretary's office of its own, with that sanctuary. This jurisdiction was restricted
the first section of the office of the secretary of State by Pius VII, but was again extended by Leo XII.
Berving the purpose. The scope of the powers of The new Constitution of Pius X does not define the
this congregation is not fixed. It was created for powers of the Congregation of Loreto; thej- are cer-
e.xtraordinary affairs, and deals only with such tainly much diminished, however, by the events of
matters as the sovereign pontiff, through his secre- the last fifty years in Italy, and now relate chiefly
tary of State, may submit to its study and judg- to the restorations of the basihca and supervision
ment. of the numerous pilgrimages to the shrine. The
XI. Congregation of Studies. — Sixtus V, by Congregation of the Council transacts the business
his Constitution "Immensa", established a special of the Congregation of Loreto according to the
congregation for the Roman University (Congrega- rules of procedure in all other matters of its compe-
tio pro universitate studii romani). This estabUsh- tency.
ment of learning was founded by Boniface VIII in XIII. Coxgregation of the Fabric of St.
1303; it was later known by the name of Sapienza, —
Peter's. When the ancient Basilica of St. Peter
and in time became extinct. In 1824, Leo Xll was crumbling through age, Jufius II conceived the
created a new congregation to preside over the studies grand project of building a new temple in the place
not only of Rome, but of all the Pontifical States. of the old one, after the plans of Bramante; and on
After the events of 1870, this congregation remained the Saturday next after Easter, 1506, he laid its
intact, and acquired new importance. Consisting, foundation stone. He reaUzed the enormous expense
like all the others, of an adequate number of cardinals, that must be entailed by the realization of his proj-
the Congregation of Studies has a secretary of its ect, which was to be accomplished by the charity
own, under whom are several officials, and a college of the faithful, convinced of the glory that would
of consultors. Pursuant to the provisions of the new accrue to Jesus Christ and to His Church through
Constitution of Pius X, the jurisdiction of this con- the completion of so majestic a work. If in the Old
gregation is no longer limited to the Pontifical States, Testament, God had wished a most sumptuous temple
much less to Rome. On the contrary, the Congre- to stand in Jerusalem, it was right that in the New
gation of Studies exercises its influence throughout Testament another, most majestic, temple should
the Catholic world; for it directs the studies of all rise to the glory of His Christ, the Man God. And, to
the greater universities or faculties under the author- encourage the faithful to contribute to so holy a work,
ity of the Church, not excepting those under reli- the popes were bountiful in the concession of privi-
gious orders or congregations. It grants the faculty leges and of indulgences in favour of the generous
of conferring academic degrees, which it may also contributors to the great work. Clement VII, in
confer itself, in which case they have the same value 1523, estabhshed a college of sixty members which
as those conferred by an ecclesiastical university. was charged with providing for the building of the
It authorizes the establishment of new uni\-ersities basilica. This college having been suppressed,
as well as changes in the conditions of universities Clement VIII replaced it with a special congregation
already estabhshed, the authorization in either case which he named the Congregation of the Fabric of
being given by means of a pontifical Brief. As in other St. Peter's. From the time of Sixtus V, the cardinal
congregations, all graver matters must be referred archpriest of the basihca itself was the prefect of
to the full congregation of cardinals, which therefore this congregation. Benedict XIV introduced con-
determines the estabUshment of new uni\'ersities, siderable changes: he left to the congregation the
the more important changes in universities already constitution given it by Clement VIII, with its cardi-
existing,and the graver questions which may present nal prefect, its numerous prelates and officials, such
themselves for solution in such institutions, the gen- as the auditor and the treasurer of the Apostolic
eral conduct of which it also directs. Matters of Camera, and others, but to this congregation he
minor importance are determined by its congresso. added a special one consisting of the cardinal prefect
CoHELLlus, op. Cit., Congregatio XIX pro uniDersilaIr studii and three other cardinals, which was to have prece-
Tomani; Caterini, Collectio legum et ordinationum de recta
studiorum ratione iussu Emi. ac Rmi. Domini Cardinalis Aloysii dence in everything and to exercise and have the ex-
Lambru^chini SS. D. N. Gregorii XVI P. M. a Secretis Status, clusive economical control of the basilica. The general
SacrcE Conurcgationis studiis moderandis prw/fcti (Rome, 1841); congregation was to occupy itself thereafter only with
Capalti, C'olleclio legum et ordinaiionum de recta studiorum
ratione ab anno 18Jt2 usque ad annum 18B2 jussu Card, Raphaelis contentious causes, since the Congregation of the
Fornari prcFfecti continuata (Rome, 1852).
. Fabric still had jurisdiction in such cases, and in fact
was the only competent tribunal for causes connected
XII. Congregation of Loreto. From the time — with the building. Pius IX, having abolished special
of .Sixtus IV, the care of the famous sanctuary of tribunals, including that of the Fabric, saw that the
Loreto has been reserved exclusively to the Holy See, general congregation was left without any province.
the arrangement having been confirmed by many He thereupon abolished the two congregations of
successive pontiffs and especially by Julius II and Benedict XIV and estabhshed a single one, consist-
Paul V. Innocent XII, in 1698, established a con- ing not of three, but of more than three, cardinals,
gregation of cardinals to preside over the affairs of to which he confided the economical administration
the Sanctuary of Loreto; and this congregation was and the conservation of the basilica, adding to this
not abolished by the recent Constitution of Pius X, charge that of the administration of many pious
which, on the contrary, provides that the Congre- legacies and of Mass stipends, with authority to
gation of Loreto shall remain distinct from the modify them according to circumstances. This con-
others, although united to the Congregation of the gregation, therefore; was empowered to grant reduc-
Council. LTntil the time of Gregory XVI, the Con- tions of the obligations of Masses and permission
gregation of Loreto, which consists of a suitable num- to defer the celebrat'on of these Masses for a longer
ber of cardinals, had the cardinal secretary of State for time than that allowed by the rule; to allow the
its prefect; now, however, this office is filled b>' the executors of pious legacies to make adjustments for
prefect of the Congregation of the Council; while past omissions, to delegate this power more or less
the secretary of the latter congregation is also extensively to bishops, and so forth.
secretary- of the Congregation of Loreto, an office Pius X, by his new Constitution, has restricted
formerly belonging to the sub-datary. The compe- the competency of this congregation to the adminis-
tency of this congregation, until the reign of Pius tration of the property, and to the maintenance of
 ROMAN 147 ROMAN
the basilica, a task by no means light, seeing that orii pap. praedecessoris". Prior to 1205 Giraldus
immense sums are expended upon it. Grimaldi Cambrensis mentions Giovanni di S. Paolo, of the
(Les congregations romaines, xxii) asserts that the title of St. Priscilla, as one who heard confessions in
expense amounts to 190,000 lire (nearly $38,000) each the place of the pope; he was probably a cardinal of
year, which is not surprising, when it is considered that title. The office of penitentiary assumed greater
that the lay employees of the basihca and those of importance when the reservation of cases to the pope
the second class, called San Pietrini, alone amount to or the bishops began (see Reserved Cases). At the
nearly 300 in number. Under the authority of this end of the sixth century (592) St. Gregory the Great
congregation is also the Studio del mosaico estabhshed reserved to himself the excommunication with which
by Sixtus V, and famous throughout the world for he threatened Archbishop John of Larissa for unjustly
the perfection of its work and for the exquisite beauty deposing Adrian, Bishop of Thebes. The first uni-
of its art. versally recognized case of a general papal reservation
Vespignani, Compendium privilegiorum rev. fahricm S, Petri of an offence is that of Innocent II, who, at the Coun-
(Rome, 1674) ; Cancellieri, De secretariis basilica Vaticanw cil of Clermont (1130), reserved to himself in every
veteris et novce (Rome, 1786) ; de Nicolais, De Vaticana basilica
S. Petri ac de ejusaem privilegiis (Rome, 1817).
case absolution from the crime of striking a cleric.
—
General Bibliography. Aubery, Histoire gin&rale des This reservation was confirmed by him in the follow-
cardinaux (Paria, 1642) Cohellius, Notitia cardinalatus in qua
;
ing year at the Council of Reims, where he also
nedum de S. R. E. cardinalium origine dignitate praeminentia
et privilegiis sed de prcccipuis romance aulm officialibus pertractatur
reserved to himself the absolution of incendiaries
(Rome, 16.53); Lunadoro, Relatione della corte di Roma (Venice, and their accomplices. Thenceforth reservations in-
16f)4) ; De Lxjca, II cardinale pratico (Rome, 1680); Pletten- creased in number, and an office became necessary to
berg, Notitia congregationum ei tribunalium curiai romance
(Hildesheim, 1693); De Luca, Relatio curia: romance forensis answer those who, guilty of some offence, asked of the
eiusque tribunalium et congregationum (Venice, 1759); Platus, sovereign pontiff absolution from the censure incurred,
Tract, de cardinalis dignitate et officio (Rome, 1746), cap. xxviii, and reserved to the Holy See, or, being unable to re-
app.; Bangen, Die rOmische Kurie, ihre gegenwdrt, Zusam-
mensetzung und ihr Geschdftsgang (Mijnster, 1854) Haine,
;
pair to Rome, asked to be absolved from some sin re-
Synopsis S. R. E. Cardinalium CongregcUionum (Louvain, 1857) served to the pope by a priest of their own land, who
Idem, De la cour romaine sous le pontifical de Pie IX (Louvain, would of course require a special delegation. In the
1859) ; Phillips, Kirchenrecht, VI (Ratisbon, 1864) Simor,
time of Cardinal B^renger Fr^dol, penitentiary from
;

De sacr. congr. et illarum auctoritate in Arch, /. k, KR,, XI (1864),

410 sqq.; Grimaldi, Les congregations romaines (Siena, 1890), 1309 to 1323, the office of the Penitentiaria was in
this work is on the Index; Saqm^ller, Die T&tigkeit und existence, with various subordinates and employees,
Stellung der Kardin&le bis P. Bonifaz VIII (Freiburg, 1896) Lega,
under the direction of a cardinal penitentiary, whom
:

Prcelect. in textum jur. can. de judiciis ecclesiasticis, II (Rome,

1896), 6 sqq.; Idem, De origine et natura sacr. roman. congre- Clement V called poenitentiarius major [c. ii. de
gationum in Anal, eccl., IV (1896), 45 sqq.; Idem, De modo elect, etc. (I. 3) in Clem.]. Under Alexander IV and
procedendi congregationibus romanis communi in Anal, eccl., IV,
277 sqq.; Wernz, Jus decretalium, II (Rome, 1906), 619 aqq.; Urban IV, Cardinal Hugo of St-Cher (or of San Caro)
Hilling, Die rOmische Kurie (Paderborn, 1906) Hofmann,
; was called poenitentiarius summus, or sedis apostolicoe
Die Neuregelung der rom. Kurie durch Pius Xin Zeitschr, f, k. poenitentiarius generalis. For the earlier history of
Theol., XXXIII, 198 sqq.; Parayre, La nouvelle organisation
du gouvememeni central de I'Eglise (Lyons, 1908) Fourneret,;
this tribunal see the excellent work of P. Chouet,
La rSforme de la curie rom. in Le canoniste cont., 33, 16, 65; "La sacr^e p6nitencerie apostolique" (Lyons, 1908),
Chotjpin in Etudes (1908). 308, 604; Ojetti, De romana curia in which may be found the details of its original con-
(Rome, 1910); Simier, La curie romaine (Paris, 1909); Cap-
PELLO, De curia romana juxta reform, a Pio X sapient, inductam
stitution. The present article deals only with the re-
(Rome, 1911). cent constitution of this tribunal.
Benedetto Ojetti. The Sacred Penitentiary consists in the first place
of the cardinal chief penitentiary (poenitentiarius
Roman Curia, strictly speaking, the ensemble of major) appointed by a Brief of the sovereign pontiff.
departments or ministries which assist the sovereign Pius V, followed by Benedict XIV, decreed that this
pontiff in the government of the Universal Church. functionary should be chosen from among the car-
These are the Roman Congregations, the tribunals, dinal priests, and must be a master in theology or
and the offices of Curia {Ufficii di Curia). The Con- doctor of canon law (magister in theologia seu decre-
gregations, being the highest and most extensive de- torum doctor) . He must transact the business of his
partments of the Pontifical Government, are treated office personally, or if prevented from so doing, he
elsewhere under Roman Congregations. This arti- must provide a substitute in another cardinal qualified
cle deals in particular with the tribunals and the as above stated, and who takes the title of pro-chief
offices of Curia (Ufficii di Curia), in addition to which penitentiary. During his term of office he acts in his
something will be said of the commissions of cardinals own name, and not in that of the cardinal by whom he
and the pontifical family. is delegated. To the cardinal chief penitentiary is as-
I. Tribunals. —
According to the Constitution signed a regent of the Penitentiaria. This officer, lik&
"Sapienti consilio" of Pius X, the tribunals of the the others of whom we shall speak, is selected by the'
Curia are three: the Sacred Penitentiaria, the Sacred cardinal penitentiary and presented to the pope; and!
Roman Rota, and the Apostolic Signatura. if approved by him is appointed by a letter of the car-

—
A. The Sacred Penitentiaria. The origin of this dinal himself. After the regent comes the theologian,
tribunal cannot be assigned with any reasonable cer- whom it has long been usual to select from the Society
tainty. Some authors, like Cardinal De Luca (Re- of Jesus; then come the datary, the canonist, the
latio curiae rom. forensis, diss, xii), think that the corrector, the sealer [sigillalore) and some copyists,
,

office of penitentiary dates from the primitive Church; besides a secretary, a surrogate (sostituto), and an
Lega (Prael. de judiciis eccl., II, 263, not.) refers it to archivist. The signatura (Segnatura) of the Peniten-
the time of Pope CorneUus (204), who is said to have tiaria (its congress) is the meeting at which the most
appointed penitentiaries pro lapsis. Penitentiaries important cases are considered. It is formed of the
are certainly more ancient in the East than in the cardinal penitentiary, the theologian, the datary,
West. The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) ordained the corrector, the sealer (sigillalore) and the canonist,
,

the establishment of a penitentiary in each cathedral. the secretary also taking part in it, but without a vote.
The Roman Church, if not the first, was at least one The other members of the meeting are only consulted,
of the first in the West to estabhsh penitentiaries. the decision of the case being left entirely to the cardi-
According to some authorities, from the seventh cen- nal penitentiary, who, if in doubt as to the extent of
tury, that is from the pontificate of Benedict II, the his faculties, refers the matter to the Holy Father.
penitentiary of the Roman Church was a cardinal The minor penitentiaries of certain Roman churches
priest; this was certainly the case before Gregory
X and of the Holy House of Loreto must be mentioned
1276). Gregory IX calls Cardinal Nicola de as in some way related to the Sacred Penitentiaria.
(d.
Romanis "poenitentiarius fehcis recordationis Hon- At Rome, they are attached to the three BasiUcas of
 ROMAN 148 ROMAN
St. John Lateran, St. Peter, and St. Mary Major. At was constrained to define better the faculties of this
St.John Lateran the office is filled by the Friars Minor. tribunal,which that learned pontiff did by his famous
At St. Peter's it was formerly filled by Jesuits, but, at Constitution, "Pastor bonus", of April, 1744, wherein
the suppression of the Society by Clement XIV, their he enumerated the faculties of the Sacred Penitentiaria
place was taken by Minor Conventuals, who still re- more or less as they had been granted by Pius V, al-
tain it; these are thirteen in number, but there are also though broader in some respects. It is more remark-
at St. Peter's fourteen other "adjunct" penitentiaries able that he granted some powers of external jurisdic-
—Carmelites, Friars Minor, Augustinians, Servites. tion; hence until now the Penitentiaria has had, as an
At St. Mary Major the penitentiaries are Dominicans. exceptional faculty, the power of dispensing destitute
At Loreto the Jesuits served as penitentiaries until or needy persons from public matrimonial impedi-
their suppression, when they were succeeded by the ments.
Minor Conventuals, who still hold the office. The The Constitution "Sapienti eonsilio'' of Pius X
minor penitentiaries may not be removed by their has confined the competency of the Penitentiaria to
superiors, either from Rome or from Loreto, without its former scope, limiting it to internal jurisdiction.

the permission of the Holy See. They are authorized The power to dispense from matrimonial impediments
to hear the confessions of all the faithful, not excepting in relation to external jurisdiction, for all classes of
rehgious, who may come to the minor penitentiaries people, having been granted to the Congregation of
without the permission of their religious superiors. the Sacraments, the tribunal of the Penitentiaria re-
The faculties of these penitentiaries are very aniple; ceived jurisdiction in all internal matters, in relation
and care is taken, as a rule, that there may be priests to which it is empowered to grant graces of all kinds
of different languages among thern, to hear the con- absolutions, dispensations, commutations, ratifications
fessions of pilgrims or other foreigners who do not in matter of impediments, condonations. This tri-
speak ItaHan. bunal also deals with questions of conscience submitted
The cardinal penitentiary assists the pope at the to the judgment of the Holy See. It should be ob-
hour of death, reciting the customary prayers for the served here that the chief penitentiary's powers of in-
dying, etc. It is he, also, who at the beginning of a ternal jurisdiction, even before the recent Constitu-
jubilee, offers to the pope the golden hammer, to give tion, held during the vacancy of the Holy See, while
the first three knocks at the Holy Door (Porta Santa) his power of external jurisdiction, with a few excep-
of St. Peter's, which door is opened only during the tions, was suspended.
Holy Year, or year of the jubilee. After the pope, As to the procedure of the Penitentiaria, it follows
the cardinal penitentiary himself knocks twice with the rules set down in the Constitution "In aposto-
the hammer. It is also the office of the cardinal peni- hcae" of Benedict XIV, in all that is not at variance
tentiary, at the end of the jubilee year, when the Holy with the new Constitution of Pius X. It transacts its
Door is to be closed, to present to the pope the trowel business under the greatest secrecy, and gratuitously
and the mortar, to begin the walling up of the door. (omnino secreto et gratis). It is chiefly a tribunal of
In Holy Week, the cardinal penitentiary, surrounded mercy, as Benedict XIV asserts in his Constitution
by those officers who constitute the signatura, or "Pastor bonus"; wherefore it is appropriate that its
—
congress of the Penitentiaria, sits four times Palm seal should bear, as the case, an image of the Virgin
is

Sunday, Wednesday, Good Friday, and Holy Satur- Mother with the Child in her arms. Recourse is had
—
day in the penitential cathedra, or chair, set in each to the Penitentiaria by means of a letter (written by
of the three above-mentioned Roman basilicas, and the party interested or by that party's confessor) ex-
awaits for some time those who may wish to confess posing the case, without, however, naming the person
to him, striking lightly upon the head with his tra- concerned. The letter is addressed to the cardinal
ditional rod (also used by the minor penitentiaries) penitentiary, and may be written in any language.
those who may kneel before him with that intention, The name and address of the person to whom the
beginning with the officers of the Sacred Penitentiaria. answer is to be sent must be clearly given. The fol-
On the part of the faithful this ceremony is public con- lowing may serve as an example of applications to be
fession of having sinned against God, and a request made to the Penitentiaria: "Your Eminence: Tizio
for forgiveness by ecclesiastical authority of sins com- and Caia [which must be fictitious names] wishing to
mitted. be united in the bonds of holy matrimony ask Your
The Sacred Penitentiaria was always provided with Eminence for dispensation from the following impedi-
great powers, formerly of internal jurisdiction only, ments: (1) an impediment of the first degree in the
but as time went on, of external jurisdiction also. direct line, that now is, and most probably will re-
Under the latter head its work so increased that the main, concealed, originating in illicit relations between
administration of this tribunal was greatly hampered. Tizio and the mother of Caia, after the latter's birth;
Several popes disappro\-ed of this, especially Pius IV, (2) an impediment of crime, which is also concealed,
who planned a reform both of its constitution and of originating in adultery between the petitioners while
its field of action, or competency. Death prevented the first wife of Tizio still lived, with a mutual prom-
him from carrying this into effect: it was realized by ise of marriage in case of the first wife's death. The
St. Pius V, who, in 1569, by his Constitution "In reasons for this petition are .[here the facts are
,

omnibus", reformed the organization of the Peniten- given]. The answer may be addressed as follows. ." . .

tiaria, while he modified its competency by his other Fictitious names may be given, with the request that
Constitution "Ut bonus paterfamilias , both dated the answer be sent to the General Delivery, or, if pre-
18 May of that year. The competency of the Peni- ferred, to the confessor of the interested party. The
tentiaria was confined to matters of internal jurisdic- letter containing the petition should be addressed:
tion. Little by little, the successors of Pius V in- "To His Eminence the Cardinal Chief Penitentiary,
creased the faculties of this tribunal and, as many of
; Palace of the Holy Office, Rome ".
these new concessions were made by word of mouth We give this example of petitions to the Sacred
{vivm vocis oraculo) there arose new doubts to be solved
, Penitentiary as the faithful are in frequent need of
wherefore, to remove uncertainties Innocent XII, in recourse to that tribunal. The grace that is sought
1682, formulated a new list of faculties for the Peni- and the reasons why it should be granted vary, of
tentiaria; but, the sovereign pontiff having delayed the course, in different cases.
solution of some doubts, and difficulties having arisen Gomez, Tract, de -potestate pcenitentiarice (Venice, 1557);
in regard to the interpretation of his Constitution, the Leoni, Praxis ad litteras et bultas ynajoris Poenitentiarii et officii
desired end was not attained while, on the other hand, S. Ptenitentiarifs in quafuor partes distributa, in quibus declarantur
singutarum formuVirum clausutce et traditur modus prce/atas litteras
new faculties were granted to the Sacred Penitentiaria exequendi (Rome, 1644) Corradus, Praxis dispenscUionum
;

by succeeding popes. Consequently, Benedict XIV apostolicarum ex solidissimo Romance curiw stylo inconcusse servato
 ROMAN 149 ROMAN
excerpta, praxim guoque officii S. Panitentiarirc Urbis iuxta illius
ordinationeni novi status complectens (Venice, 1669); Syrus, whom IS its prefect. has a secretary, a notary, who
It
Diluadatio facultatum minorum pmnitentiariorum basilicarum must be a priest, some
consultors, and a few subor-
L^bis praxis executtmum ad litteras et rescripta S. pasnitmUariai
et
dinate officers. The present Signatura is a genuine
CKome, 1699); Petra, Tractatus de paenitmliaria apostolica
Rome, 1717); Gibbings, The Tax of the Apostolic Penitentiary tribunal which ordinarily has jurisdiction in four
(Dublin, 1872) Dupin de St-Andh^, Taxe de la Pinitencerie
;
kinds of cases, namely: accusations of suspicions
apostoltque a apris I edition publiee d Paris en 1620 (Paria 1879)-
against an auditor of the Rota; accusations of viola-
Denifle, Die tOXeste Taxrolle d. apostol. Pdnitentiarie v. Jahre
isas in Arch. f. Lilt. u. Kirchengesch. d. MA., IV, 201 sqq (1888) •
tion of secrecy by an auditor of the Rota; appeals
EvBEuDerRegisterband d.Kardinal-Grossptinitciitiars Bentevenad against a sentence of the Rota; petitions for the nulli-
in ^1. /. k. KB., LXIV, 3 sqq. (Mainz, 1890) Lea (ed.), A ; Formu- fication of a decision of the Rota that has already be-
lary of the Papal Penitentiary in the Thirteenth Century
phia, 1892); Batiffol, Les pritres pinitentiers romains au
(Philadel- come res judicata. As a temporary commission, the
Ve
Comple-rendu du Congrh internal, des catholiques A Bruxelles,
OTicte, pope gave to the Signatura the mandate and the
II (1894), 277 sqq.; Lecachecx, Un formulaire de la pinitencerie power to review the sentences passed by the Roman
aposlolique au temps du cardinal Albornoz (1357-8), in
M6lanoes Congregations before the Constitution "Sapienti Con-
Arch. Hist. Ecole Franc, Rome, XVIII (1898), 37 sqq.; Lang,
Beitrdge zur Geschichte der apostol. POnilenciers in Mitt d siho". This commission was given to the Signatura
Inslit. f. Oesterr. Geschichtsf., VII, Supplementary Number, 1904- through an answer by the Consistorial Congregation
Haskins, The Sources for the History of the Papal Penitentiary
in American Journal of Theol, LIX (1905), 422 sqq.; Tahani I on the subject of a doubt relating to a case of this
Spalannis, Manuale theorico-practicum pro minoribus paniten- kind. Of course the Holy Father may on special oc-
tiariis (Rome, 1906); GSller, Die papstliche POnitentiarie casions give other commissions of this nature to the
von
ihrem Ursprung bis zu ihrer Umgestaltung durch Pius V (Rome,
1907); Chouet, La sacrfe pinitencerie Aposlolique (Lyons, 1904)!
Apostolic Signatura.
Gomes, Compendium utriusqux signaturm (Paris, 1547) ; Sta-

MANA.
B. The Sacred —See Rota, Sacra Ro-
Roman Rota.
PHiL^Ds, De litteris gratia, de signatura gratia el litteris apostolicis
m forma brems (Paris, 1558); Mandosius, Praxis signatura
gratia (Rome, 1569); Mahchesani, Commissionum ac rescrip-
C. The Apostolic Signatura. — In former times, there torurn utriusgue signatura S. D. N. Papa praxis (Rome, 1615);
De Matienzo, Tract, de referendariorum, advocatorum, iudicum
was only one Signatura, i. e. there were a few assist- officio, requisitis, dignilale et eminentia (Frankfort, 1618); De
ants who were commissioned by the sovereign pontiff Fatinellis, De referendariorum votantium signatures iustitia col-
to investigate the petitions addressed to the Holy See, legia(Rome, 1696); Vitale, Comm. de iure signatura iustitia
(Rome, 1756).
and to report concerning them. These functionaries
were called Referendarii apostoUci. Vitale, in his
" Comm. de iure signaturae justitise ", says that there is
II. Offices of Curia.
The ApostoKc Chancery;
—These are five in number:
Apostolic Dataria; Apos-
record of the referendaries as such in 1243. Innocent tolic Camera; Secretariate of State; Secretariate of
IV mentions them. As time went on, recourse to the Briefs.
Holy See becoming more and more frequent, whether A. The Apostolic Chancery (Ca,ncelleria Apostolica).
to obtain graces or to submit cases to the decision of
the pope, the number of the referendaries increased
—This office takes its name from civil law and from
the imperial chanceries, and certainly of very an-
is
considerably. Alexander VI deemed it expedient to cient origin in its essence. The primacy
of the Ro-
define their office better, which he did by creating a man See made it necessary that the sovereign pontiff
—
double Signatura the Signatura of Grace, and the should have in his service officers to write and to trans-
—
Signatura of Justice to which the referendaries were mit his answers to the numerous petitions for favours
severally assigned. As the office of referendary was a and to the numerous consultations addressed to him.
very honourable one, it came to be conferred fre- This office, in course of time, underwent many trans-
quently as a merely honorary title, so that the number formations, to the most important of which only we
of the referendaries was unduly increased and Sixtus V ; shall refer. After Martin V
had instituted a large
was constrained, in 1586, to limit the referendaries of number of offices in the Chancery, Sixtus placed V
the Signatura of Justice to 100, and those of the Sig- many of them in the class of vacabili, as they were
natura of Grace to 70. Alexander VII combined the then called. The origin of this institution was as fol-
referendaries of both Signaturas into a college, with a lows: The pope was often compelled, in defence of
dean. These were called "voting referendaries", and Christendom, to wage war, to fit out expeditions, or at
actually exercised their office. The others remained least to give financial assistance to the princes who
as "supernumerary referendaries" (extra numerum). waged such wars at his exhortation. But the pontifi-
In 1834 Gregory XVI gave a new organization to the cal treasury, on the other hand, was often without
Signatura of Justice. On the other hand, the Signa- means to defray even the expenses of the Pontifical
tura of Grace gradually disappeared: no mention is States, and it became imperative to raise funds. Ac-
made of it after 1847 in the catalogues of the tribunals cordingly, the popes resorted to the expedient of sell-
and officials of the Curia. ing several lucrative offices of the Curia, and, as a
The Signatura of Grace, also called Signatura of the rule, to the highest bidder. It should be observed,
Holy Father (Signatura Sanctissimi) was held in the , however, that what was sold was not the office itself,
presence of the sovereign pontiff, and there were pres- but the receipts of the office, e. g., the taxes for the
ent at it some cardinals and many prelates, chief favours granted through the office in question. Some
among the latter being the voters of this Signatura. offices were sold with the right of succession by the
At the invitation of the Holy Father, the voters voted heirs of the purchaser. This, however, could be done
upon the matters under consideration, but that vote only in the case of an office of minor importance, in
was merely consultative. The Holy Father reserved the exercise of which no special abihty was required.
to himself the decision in each case, announcing it Those offices which entailed grave responsibilities, and
then and there, or later, if he chose, through his "do- which could be filled only by pious and learned men,
mestic auditor", as De Luca calls him, or "auditor of were sold on the condition that they should revert to
the Holy Father (auditor sanctissimi) as he was called
'
' , the Curia at the death of the purchaser. An aleatory
later. The Signatura of Justice was a genuine tribu- contract, therefore, was made, the uncertainty being,
nal, presided over in the name of the pope by a cardinal on the one side, the amount of the income of the
prefect. The voters of this Signatura were present at office and, on the other, the length of life of the pur-
it, and their vote was not consultative, but definitive. chaser. The prices of the offices, especially of the
As a rule, the cardinal prefect voted only when his more desirable ones, were considerable: Lorenzo Cor-
vote was necessary for a decision. sini, afterwards Clement XII, bought the office of re-
Pius X, in the Constitution by which he reor- gent of the Chancery for 30,000 Roman scudi a large —
ganized the Curia, abolished the two ancient Signa- fortune for those times. The hazard was not neces-
turas, and created a new one that has nothing in sarily confined to the life of the purchaser; he was free
common with the other two. The Signatura now con- to estabhsh it upon the life of another person, pro-
sists of six cardinals, appointed by the pope, one of vided the latter (called the intestatary) were expressly
 ROMAN 150 ROMAN
dosiEnati'fl. The purchaser was also allowed to tion of his own, witliout, however, insisting on its
hazard from one person to another, correctness. According to him, it was probable that the
change the life
were done forty days before the death title of vice-chancellor arose in the same way as the
pr(i\-idinji this
title of pro-datary, the custom having been to call the
of the lust preceding intestatary.
The offices of the Chancery which were transformed head of the datary office (dataria) the datary {datario),
\' were those of the regent, of the if he were not a cardinal, and the pro-datary {pro
into vaaihili]>\ Sixtus
twonty-fi\i' solicitors, of the twelve notaries, auditors datario), if he were a cardinal. The reason for this
of the cause.s of the Holy Palace, and others Sixtus V must be sought in the fact that the office of datary was
pro- really not that of a
assigned th(^
cardinal, but rather
ceeds of these sales
to the vii-e-chan-
of minor dignity;
below) wherefore it did not
cellor (see
as part of the lat-
seem well to give
emoluments; the title of datary
ter's
to a cardinal. The
but this too liberal
prescription in fa-
same custom still
obtains in the case
vour of the cardinal
of a nuncio who is
who presided over
elevated to the car-
the Chancery was
dinalate: he retains
revoked by Inno-
his position for a
cent XI, who as-
time, but with the
signed the revenue
title of pro-nuncio.
in question to the
Apostolic Camera. This theory of De
Alexander VIII re-
Luca's, if not alto-
stored these rev- gether certain, is at
enues to the viee- least probable. The
chancellor, who, at new Constitution,
that time, was the however, establishes
pope';^ nephew, that the head of the
Pietro Ottoboni. Chancery shall
Under Napoleon I hereafter be called
The Papal Cancellekia, Rome chancellor, a very
the Government re-
Formerly the Palazzo Riario reasonable pro-
deemed many of
the vacabili, and but few remained, Pius VII, after vision, seeing that this office has been filled for cen-
his return to Rome, undertook a reform of the Chan- turies by cardinals. For the rest, the office in question
cery, and wisely reduced the number of the offices. was always regarded as one of the most honourable
But, as he himself granted to the vacabili the priv- and most important of the Curia, as may be seen from
ilege that, by a legal fiction, time shoukl be regarded Moroni's account of the funeral of Cardinal Alexander
as not having transpired (quod tempus et tempi mi non Farnese, vice-chancellor, and arch-priest of the Vati-
currant), and many can BasiKca. The
proprietors of vaca- authority of the
bili having obtained vice-chancellor was
grants of what was increased when, un-
called snpravvivunza der Alexander VIII
]>y which deceased in 1690, there was
intestatarics were added to his office,
considered to be in perpetuity, that
living, il came to of compiler (som-
pass tliat certain of- mista).
remained vaca-
fices At present the
biliin name, but chancellor retains
not in fact. Fi- little of his former

nally, Leo XIII influence and attri-

(1901) Buppresso I butes. He acts as
all the piit-dhili of- notary in the con-
fices, ordering his sistories and directs
pro-datary to re- the office of the
deem them, when chancery. The
necessary, tlie da- greatest splendour
tary's ciffice being of the chancellor was
substituted for the under Leo X, from
proprietors. whose successor,
Since the Consti- Clement VII, this
Courtyard of the Can'Celleri.a
tution of Pins X, tlie functionary re-
Chancerv has been reduced to a forwarding office ceived as residence the Palazzo Riario, long known
(fj/ict'odi Sprdiziimr) with a small personnel; there as the Cancelleria Apostohca, where he resides
are, besides the cardinal who presides over the Chan- at the present day. His former residence was
cery, the regent, with the college of Apostolic prothono- in. the Palazzo Borgia, from which he moved
taries, a notary, secretan,- and arohi^^st, aprotocf)Iist, to the Palazzo Rforza Cesarini, the latter palace
and four amanuenses. The presiding cardinal, prior being, on this account, known for a long time^ as
to the recent Constitution, was called vice-chancellor. the Cancelleria Vecchia. The removal of the vice-
The authors who wrote on the Chancery gave many chancellor's residence and office to the majestic
ingenious reasons why that dignitan,- should not have Palazzo Riario, in the Carapo di Fiori, was due
received the more obvious Car-
title of chancellor. to the confiscation of the property of Cardinal
dinal De Luca regarded these explanations as sense- Raffaele Riario for his share, with Cardinals Petrucci,
less {simplicitates elfabellae), and proposed an explana- Sacchi, Soderini, and Castellesi, in a conspiracy
 ROMAN 151 ROIMAN
against the life ofLeo X. Contiguous to the Can- suppressed, the new Constitution providing that all
celleria, in fact forming a part of it, is the Church Bulls be issued by way of the Chancery, on order of
of 8an Lorenzo in Damaso. When Clement VII as- the Congregation of the Consistory for all matters of
signed this palace as the perpetual residence of the the competency of that body, and by order of the
vice-chancellor, he provided that the vice-chancellor pope for all others. This is in keeping with the new
should always have the title of that church and, as it
; organization of the Chancery as a merely issuing
happens that the chancellors are not always of the office. The Constitution "Sapienti oonsilio" pro-
same order in the Sacred College, being sometimes vided that the ancient formula; of Bulls should be
cardinal-deacons, sometimes cardinal-priests, and changed, and the duty of preparing new ones was
sometimes cardinal-bishops, this church does not fol- given to a commission of cardinals composed of the
low the rule of the other cardinahtial churches, which chancellor, the datary, and the secretary of the Con-
—
have a fixed grade, being titular that is churches sistorial Congregation. This commission has already
over which cardinals of the order of priests are reformed the Bulls for the Consistorial benefices, and
— —
placed or deaconries churches over which are Pius X, by his Motu Proprio of 8 December, 1910, ap-
placed cardinal-deacons. San Lorenzo, on the con- proved the new formulae and ordered them to be used
trary, is a titular when the chancellor is of the order exclusively after 1 January, 1911. The college of the
of priests, and a deaconry when he is a cardinal- abbreviators of the greater presidency having been
deacon. A\'hen, on the other hand, he is a sub- suppressed, and the abbreviators of the lesser presi-
urbicarian bishop, the chancellor retains this church dency having become extinct in fact, the Apostolic
in commendam. prothonotaries in actual office have been appointed to
The Regency, which is the next office in the order sign the Bulls. A very reasonable change has also
of precedence in the Chancery after the chancellor- been made in regard to the dating of Bulls. For-
ship, was created in 1377, when Gregory XI returned merly Bulls were dated according to the year of the
from France to his see. Cardinal Pierre de Mon- Incarnation, which begins on 25 March. This me-
t6ruc, who was the chancellor at that time, refused to dieval style of dating remained pecuhar to papal
follow the pope from Avignon to Rome and, as it was
; Bulls, and in time gave rise to much confusion. Pius
necessary that someone should direct the office of the X ordered these documents to be dated in future ac-
Chancery, the pope, leaving the title of vice-chancel- cording to common custom, by the year which begins
lor to JNIonteruc, appointed the Archbishop of Bari, on 1 January.
Bartolommeo Prignano, regent of this important Mention should here be made of what are known as
office. At the death of Gregory XI, in 1378, Pri- the Rules of the Chancery. This name was given to
gnano was elected pope, and he appointed a successor certain Apostolic Constitutions which the popes were
to himself in the office of regent of the Chancery, in the habit of promulgating at the beginning of their
which was thereafter maintained, even when the vice- pontificate, in regard to judicial causes and those con-
chancellor re-established his residence at Rome. cerning benefices. In many cases the pope merely
There is not space here to refer in detail to the other confirmed the provisions of his predecessor; in others
offices of the Chancery, and the subject is the less im- he made additions or suppressions. The result has
portant, since the greater number of those offices been an ancient collection of standing rules which re-
have now disappeared for good. mained unmodified even in the recent reorganization
At present the Chancery is charged only with the ex- of the Curia. These Rules are usually divided into
pedition of Bulls for consistorial benefices, the estab- three classes: rules of direction or expedition, which
lishment of new dioceses and new chapters, and other concern the expedition of Bulls; beneficial or re-
more important affairs of the Church. (For the vari- servatory rules, relating to benefices and reservations;
ous forms of Apostolic Letters, see Bulls and Briefs.) lastly, judicial rules, concerning certain prescriptions
One fact concerning the expedition of Bulls should be to be observed in judicial matters, especially with re-
mentioned. Formerly, there were four different ways lation to appeals. The Rules of the Chancery have the
of issuing these documents, namely, by way of the force of law, and are binding wherever exceptions have
Curia {per viain curice), by way of the Chancery (per not been made to them by a concordat. In ancient
cancellarium), secretly {per viam secretam), and by times, these rules ceased to be in force at the death of
way of the Apostolic Camera {per viam camerce). The the sovereign pontiff, and were revived only upon the
reason for this is that, while some Bulls were taxed, express confirmation of the succeeding pope. Urban
there was no taxation on others, and it was necessary VIII, however, declared that, without an express con-
to determine upon what Bulls the proprietors of the firmation, the Rules of the Chancery should be in force
vacabili offices had a right to receive taxes. Bulls, on the day after the creation of the new pope. It
therefore, which concerned the government of the would be outside of the scope of this article to enter
Catholic world, being exempt from all taxation, were into a minute examination of these rules, all the more
said to be issued by way of the Curia. Those Bulls because the commission of cardinals charged with the
of which the expedition was by way of the Chancery reformation of the formulae of Bulls has also charge of
were the common Bulls, which, after being reviewed revising the Rules of the Chancery.
by the abbreviators of the greater presidency (see
Cassiodorus, Super XIV reg. Cancellerim (Paris, 1545);
Abbre viators), were signed by them and by the pro- Barchin, Praiica CancellaritB apostolicx cum stylo et formis in
prietors of the vacabili, the latter of whom received the curia romana usitalis (Lyons, 1549); Mandosiub, Comm. in
regulas Cancellarice Iitlii III (Venice, 15.54) M1LL.EUS, A?mota-
established taxes. The Bulls said to be issued secretly ;

were those in favour of some privileged persons as — Hones in regulas Gomesii Cancelleriie apostolicce (Lyons, 1557);
Mandosius, In regulas Cancelleriw apostolicce commentar. (Rome,
the palatine prelates, the auditors of the Rota, and the 1558); Molina, Comm. in regulas Cancellerim apostolicce (Lyons,
1560) Gomes, In Cancellerice apost. regulas iudiciales (Venice,
relatives of cardinals. They were signed by the vice- 1575);
;

Rebuffus, Addit. in reg. Cancelleri<r (Paris, 1579);

chancellor, and they, too, were exempt from taxation. Bladius, Constitut. Pii IV, V et Gregor. XIII cum regulis
Finally, the Bulls of which the expedition was said to Cancellerim (1583); Gonzalez, Ad regulam VIII Cancell. de
reservatione Tnensium (Geneva, 1605); Buthilleri, Tract, ad
be by way of the Camera were those that concerned regul. Cancellari(B de infirmis resignationibus (Paris, 1612);
the Apostolic Camera. Since the style and the rules Peleus, In regulas Cancellaria; (Paris, 1615) A Chockier, Comm.
;

of the Chancery could not be adapted to these Bulls, in reg. Cancellarice apostolicte sive in glossemata Alphonsi Soto
nuncupati Glossnloris (Cologne, 1619); De Quesada, Regulce
they were issued by the sommista, whose office was Cancellarice apostoliciE Gregorii XV cum noiis et indicibus (Rome,
created by Alexander VI and later, as was said above, 1621); LouETlus, Nolo: ad comm. Caroli Molinai in regulas Can-
(Paris, 1656); Sperenqerus, Roma noni cum
united by Alexander VIII with that of the vice- cellarice apostolicce
regulis Cancellarix apostolicce et de privilegiis chricorum (Frank-
fort, 1667); ClAMPlNl, De abbreviatoribus de parco maiori ^-ive
At the presenttime, all the vacabili having been assistent. S. R. E. Vicecancellario in litterarum apostolicarum ez-
been dissertatio historica (Rome, 1669); Le
abolished, these various forms of expedition have
peditionibus
 ROMAN 152 ROMAN
Pelletier, Instructions pour its expcdiXiona de la cour de Rome organization of the Dataria, to make it harmonize
(Paris, llisO); C'AbTEL P^RARD, Parapftruse du commentuire de
with modern requirements, and Pius X, reducing the
M. Ch. Du Mouiin sur les regies de la Cftancellcrie romaine (Paris,
1U>.5); CiAMPiNi, De S. R. E. Vicecanceltaria (Rome, 1B97); competency of the office, gave it an entirely new
Anon, Compendiaria notitia abbreviatoTis de curia (Rome, 1696); organization in his Constitution "Sapienti consilio",
(JczENASSEK, Pnd. iur. can. seu coram, in Tegulns Caacellarix
according to which the Dataria consists of the cardi-
Clementis XI (Vienna, 1712); Bovio, La pietd trionfanle suUe
distrutte grandezze del gentiiismo . . . f degli ufficii della nal dataiy, the sub-datary, the prefect and his surro-
CancclUria Apodtolica e dei Cancellicri delta S. R. Chiesa gate (sostitulo), a few officers, a cashier, who has also
(Rome, 1729); Rkjanti, C ommentaria in regulas, constitutiones et the office of distributor, a reviser, and two writers of
ordinationes CancilnruE apo.^tolicce, opus posthnrnum (Geneva,
1571); Hedderich, Disputatio ad reaulam CiinrcUnrin de non Bulls. The new Constitution retains the theological
tollendo ius qucEsilum in (Urmania, <li^. XVII (Bnnn, 1783); examiners for the competitions for parishes. Among
Erlbr, Der Liber Cancelleria: aposlolicce v. J. 13S0 (Leipzig, ISSO) the Datary offices that have been abolished mention
V Ottenthal, Die pdpstlichen Kanzleiregeln von Johann
XXII bis Xtkolaus V (1888) Tangl, Die papstlichen Kanzlei-
;
should be made of that of the Apostolic dispatchers,
or'luiigen von 1200-1500 (Innsbruck, 1894); Kehr, Scrinium und which, in the new organization of the Curia, has no
Piilalium. Znr Gcsckirhte des pdpstlichen Kanzleiwessens im 11
longer a reason for being. Formerly these officials
Jakrh. in hhtt. des Instit. fiir osterr. Geschichisf., suppl. VI;
GoLLER, .Mittt'ilungen und Untersuchungen iiber das p&pstliche were necessary, because private persons could not
Register- und Kanzleiwessen im 14. Jahrh., besonders unter refer directly to the Dataria, which dealt only with
Johann XXII und Benedikt XII in Qucllen und Forschungen persons known to, and approved by, itself. Now,
des Preuss. histor. lastituts in Rom-., VI, 272 sqq.; Chiari,
Memoria giuridico-storica sulla Dataria Cancellaria, rev. Camera however, anyone may deal directly with the Dataria,
aposlolica, Com/xnso di Spagna, vacabili € vacabilisti (Rome, as with any of the other pontifical departments.
1900); Anon., Dw Vacabilia d. p&pstl. Kanzlei u. d. Datarie in
The Dataria, which, as noted above, was commis-
Arch. f. k. KR., LXXXII (1902), 163-165; yoN Hofmann,
Zur Geschichte der pdpstl. Kanzlei vomehmlich in der 2. Hdlfte sioned to grant many papal indults and graces, has
des 15. Jahrh. (Berlin, 1904) Schmitz-Kallenberg, Practica
;
now only to investigate the fitness of candidates for
Cancellaria; aposlolicce seculi xv exeuntis (Miinster. 1904); Baum-
Consistorial benefices, which are reserved to the Holy
GARTEN, Aus Kanzlei u. Kammer (Freiburg, 190.5); G5ller, Die
Kommentatoren der pdpstlichen Kanzleiregeln von Ende des I'j. See, to write and to dispatch the Apostolic Letters for
bis zutn Beginn des 17. Jahrhunderts in Arch. f. k. KR., LXXXV the collation of those benefices, to dispense from the
(1905), 441 sqq.; LXXXVI (1906), 20 sqq., 2.59 sqq.; InEM,
conditions required in regard to them, and to provide
Vcm d. apostol. Kanzlei (Cologne, 1908).
for the pensions, or for the execution of the charges
—
B. The Apostolic Dataria. According to some imposed by the pope when conferring those benefices.
authorities, among them Amydenus (De officio et ju- It would be both lengthy and difficult to retrace the
risdictione datarii necnon de stylo Datariae), this office former modes of procedure of this office, all the more
is of very ancient origin. It is not so, however, as ap- as it was mainly regulated by tradition, while this
pears from the fact that the business which eventually tradition was jealously guarded by the officers of the
fell to it was originally transacted elsewhere. The Datary, who were generally laymen, and who had in
Dataria was entrusted, chiefly, with the concession of that way established a species of monopoly as detri-
matrimonial dispensations of external jurisdiction, mental to the Holy See as profitable to themselves;
and with the collation of benefices reserved to the thus it happened that these offices often passed from
Holy See. To this double faculty was added that of father to son, while the ecclesiastical superiors of the
granting many other indults and graces, but these officials were to a great extent blindly dependent upon
additions were made later. Until the time of Pius IV them. Leo XIII began the reform of this condition
matrimonial dispensations were granted through the of things so unfavourable to good administration,
Penitentiaria; and as to the collation of reserved bene- and Pius Xhas totally abolished it.
fices, that authority could not have been granted in Amydenus, De officio et jurisdictione Datarii nee non de stylo
Datari'e: Macanar, Pedimento sobre abuses de la Dataria (Madrid^
very remote times, since the establishment of those 1S41); Anon., Die Vacabilia d. pdpstl. Kanzlei u. d. Datarie in
reservations is comparatively recent: although some Arclt. f. k. KR, 82, 163 (1902).
vestige of reservations is found even prior to the
twelfth century, the custom was not frequent before C. —
The Apostolic Camera. In the Constitution
Innocent II, and it was only from the time of Clement "Sapienti consilio" Pius X
provided that during
IV that the reservation of benefices was adopted as a vacancies of the Holy See its property should be ad-
general rule [c. ii, " De pract. et dignit. " (III, 4) in 6°]. ministered by this office. The cardinal-camerlengo
It may be said that, while this office certainly existed (see Cambrlengo) presides over the Camera, and is
in the fourteenth century, as an independent bureau, governed in the exercise of his office by the rulea
it is impossible to determine the precise time of its established in the Constitution, "Vacante sede
creation. apostolica", of 25 December, 1906. (For history and
The Dataria consists, first, of a cardinal who is its general treatment see Apostolic Camera.)
chief and who, until the recent Constitution, was
called the pro-datary, but now has the official title of
—
D. The Secretariate of Slate. After the promulga-
tion of the Constitution of Innocent XII, in 1692, the
datary. There was formerly as much discussion cardinal nephews were succeeded by the secretaries of
about the title of pro-datary as about that of vice- State. Of the cardinal nephews many authors have
chancellor (see above). Some are of opinion that it is written with greater severity than is justified by the
derived from the fact that this office dated the re- facts, although the dignitaries in question may on
scripts or graces of the sovereign pontiff, while others more than one occasion have given cause of complaint.
hold it to be derived from the right to grant and give In times when the life of the pope was in jeopardy
(dare) the graces and indults for which petition is from conspiracies formed in his own court (such, for
made to the pope. It is certain that, on account of instance, as that against Leo X
mentioned above,
these functions the datary enjoyed great prestige in under A. The Apostolic Chancery), it was a necessity
former times, when he was called the eye of the pope for the sovereign pontiff to have as his chief assistant
{oculus papre). After the cardinal comes the sub- one in whom he might repose implicit confidence, and
datary, a prelate of the Curia who assists the datary, such he could nowhere more surely find than in his
and takes the latter's place, upon occasion, in almost own family. The cardinal nephew was called Secre- '

'

all of his functions. In the old organization of the tarius Papae et superintendens status ecclesiastici".
Dataria there came after the sub-datary a number of The cardinal secretary of State, who fills the place of the
subordinate officials who, as De Luca says, bore titles nephew, has been, and is, in the present day, the con-
that were enigmatical and sibyllic, as, for example, fidential assistant of the pope. Hence the office is
the prefect of the per obilum, the prefect of the vacated upon the death of the reigning pontiff. Be-
conccssum, the ca.shier of the componeiida, an officer of fore the promulgation of the recent Constitution of
the missis, and the like. Pius X, this office of Curia comprised, besides the
Leo XIII had already introduced reforms into the cardinal secretary himself, a surrogate, also called
 ROMAN 153 ROMAN
secretary of the cipher, and some clerks and subaltern and the secretary of Ceremonies. Nearly all these
officials. Now, however, there have been amalga-
^ prelates live in the Vatican. It would be impossible
mated with it certain other offices which were formerly to refer, here, to each one of them in particular. The
independent. The Secretariate of State, therefore, is history of their offices is the same for each, connected
at present divided into three sections, the first of which with that of the Apostolic Palace, and with the lives
deals with certain extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs, of the popes. (See Maestro di Camera del Papa;
the second with ordinary afTairs, including grants of Majordomo.)
honours, titles, and decorations by the Holy See other- The majordomo and maestro di camera are followed
wise than through the majordomo, the third with the in order in the Pontifical Family by the domestic prel-
expediting of pontifical Briefs. ates of His Holiness. These are divided into colleges,
For the work of the first section, see what is said on the first of which is the College of the Patriarchs,
the subject of the Congregation of Extraordinary Archbishops, and Bishops, Assistants to the Pontif-
Ecclesiastical Affairs, under Roman Congregations. ical Throne; the second is the College of Apostolic
The second section deals with the relations of the Prothonotaries, active and supernumerary. After
Holy See with secular princes, whether through Apos- these come the Colleges, respectively, of the Prelate
toUc nuncios or legates or through the ambassadors Auditors of the Rota, of the Prelate Clerics of the
accredited to the Vatican. This section of the office ApostoUo Camera, and of the Domestic Prelates, sim-
of the secretary of State has charge of the distribution ply so called. Bishops assistants to the Throne (as-
of offices of the Curia, and of the election of the various sistentes solio pontificio) are named by a Brief of the
officers. Through this section titles of nobility Secretariate of State, and in virtue of their office are
as prince, marquis, count palatine, etc. —
are granted members of the Pontifical Chapel {Cappella Pontifi-
and the decorations of the Holy See, which, besides cia); they wear the cappa magna and wait on the
the golden cross pro Ecclesia et Pontifice, instituted by pope, assisting him with the book, and holding the
Leo XIII, include such distinctions as the Supreme candle (bugia). Moreover, they may wear silk robes
Order of Christ (or Order of the Militia of Jesus — an exclusive privilege of the Pontifical Family, al-
Christ, as it is called by Pius X
in his brief of 7 Febru- though many bishops, in ignorance of this rule, act at
ary, 1905), the Order of Pius IX, established by that variance with it.
pontiff in 1847, the Order of Saint Gregory the Great, For the College of Apostolic Prothonotaries see
created by Gregory XVI in 1831 the Order of Saint
; Prothonotary Apostolic. For the College of Prel-
Sylvester; the Order of the Golden Militia, or of the ate Auditors of the Rota see Rota, Sacra Romana.
Golden Spur, restored by Pius X, and the Order of the Of the clerics of the Apostolic Camera, enough has
Holy Sepulchre, of which Pius X
has reserved to him- already been said in the present article.
self the supreme mastership. The domestic prelates are appointed as a rule by a
As has already been said, the third section of the Motu Proprio of the pope, occasionally at the petition
Secretariate of State is exclusively concerned with the of their bishops, and they enjoy several privileges,
expediting of Briefs. among which are the use of the violet dress, which is
E. The Secretariate of Briefs to Princes and of Latin that of a bishop (without the cross) the ring, the violet
,

Letters. —
The Secretariate of Briefs to Princes con- biretta, and the cappa magna. These domestic prel-
sists of the secretary and two office assistants. The ates are appointed for life, and retain their dignity
secretary is a prelate whose duty it is to write the at the death of the pope. After them in the Pontifical
pontifical Briefs addressed to emperors, kings, civil Family come the camerieri segreti di spada e cappa par-
princes, or other exalted personages. He also pre- tecipanti, all of whom are laymen, the staff and the
pares the allocutions which the pope pronounces at higher officers of the Pontifical Noble Guard, the su-
Consistories, and the Encyclicals or Apostolic Letters pernumerary camerieri segreti or private chamberlains
addressed to the bishops and to the faithful. All this (ecclesiastics), the active and the supernumerary came-
he does according to the instructions of the pope. rieri di spada e cappa (laymen), the camerieri d'onore
He must be a proficient Latinist, since Latin is the in abito paonazzo (ecclesiastics), the camerieri d'onore
language in which these documents are written. The extra Urbem (ecclesiastics), the camerieri d'onore di
secretary for Latin letters is also a prelate or private spada e cappa, active and supernumerary (laymen),
chamberlain {cameriere segrelo), his duties being to the staff and the higher officers of the Swiss Guard
write the letters of less solemnity which the sovereign and of the Palatine Guard of Honour, the master of
pontiff addresses to different personages. He has an pontifical ceremonies, the private chaplains, the hon-
office assistant. orary private chaplains, the honorary private chaplains
III. Commissions op Cardinals and the Pontif- extra Urbem, the chierici segreti, the College of Or-
ical Family. —Certain
commissions of cardinals dinary Pontifical Chaplains. It would be impossible
which still Commissions for Biblical
exist are the to refer, here, to each of these ranks in particular. It
Studies, for Historical Studies, for the Administration may be said, however, of the supernumerary camer-
of the Funds of the Holy See or of the Peterspence, ieri segreti that, like the active and the partecipanti
for the Conservation of the Faith in Rome, and for the camerieri segreti, their office ceases at the death of the
Codification of the Canon Law. pope; while it lasts they have the right to use the vio-
In the wider sense of the term, the Curia includes let dress, of a cut slightly differing, however, from that
not only the departments already mentioned, but also of the prelates; on account of which difference, they
what is officially known as the Pontifical Family. are called monsignori di mantellone, while the prelates
The chief members of this body are the two palatine are called monsignori di mantelletta.
—
cardinals cardinal datary and the cardinal secretary Sestini, II Maestro di Camera (Florence, 162.3) Catalanus,
De Magisiro s. Palatii Aposlolici (Rome, 1751) Marini, Memone
;

Formerly the cardinal datary always lived

;

of State. istoriclie degli archivi delta S. Sede (Rome, 182.5) Rasponi, De

;

with the pope; the secretary of State, even now, lives Basilica et Patriarchio laleranensi (Rome, 1656) Galletti, Del ;

maggiori del
in the Vatican Palace and is the pontiff's confidential Primicero delta S. Sede Apostolica e di allri ufficiali
Sagro Palagio late:anense (Rome, 1776); Galletti, Del veslarana
officer. After these follow the palatine prelates ma-
:
delta S. Romana Chiesa (Rome, 1758) ;Conti, Origim fash e
jordomo, the maestro di camera, the master of the privilegi degli avvocati concistoriati (Rome, 1S9S) Renazi,:
Notizie
Patriarchio lateranense e del
Sacred Palace, and the camerieri segreti partecipanti storiche degli antichi Vicedomini del
moderni Prefetti del Sagro Palazzo Apostolico omero maggiordomt
(the private almoner, the secretary of Briefs to pontefici (Rome, 1787); Cancelliebi, Notizie sopra I anello

Princes, the surrogate for ordinary affairs of the Sec- pescatorio (Rome, 1823); Maubach, D. Knrdiiiale u. ihre Polit.
retariate of State and secretary of the Cipher, the sub- um d. Mitte d. XIII. Jahrh. (Bonn, 1902) Sagmuller, GeschicMe
;

d. Kardinalates (Rome, 1893); Sacchetti, PriMegm

protonota-
datary, the secretary for Latin Letters, the copyist, riorum apostolicorum (Cologne, 1689); Andheucoi, Tr. de pro-
the embassy secretary, and the master of the robes), tonolariis apostnlicis (Rome, 1742); Riganti. De protonolarus
apostolicis (Rome, 1751); Buonaccorsi, Anlichila del protono-
to whom are added, as palatine prelates, the sacristan
 ROMANESQUE 154 ROMANOS
tarialo apostolico partecipante (Faenza, 1751); Brunet, Le parfait I, 1876; three more in Pitra, "Sanctus Romanus
notaire aposloliqw pnicurnur des officialites el formuhs ecclcs-
el veterum melodorum princeps" (1888) Krumbacher ;
ladiques (Lyons, 17751; MlcKE, De protonolanis aposlohcis
dissertatio (Breslau, lsr,(;i; Ren.wd, Des prolonotaires aposto-
long ago promised a complete critical edition accord-
liques in Rn: des Sciences rccUs. (lsi;7); Trombetta, De juribus ing to the Patmian codices, but has not yet achieved
et prinlegim prcelatorum Romanw Curi't (Sorrento, 1906). it.
Benedetto Ojbtti. PiTBA, Jhimnographie de I'Eglise grecgue (Rome, 1867) Bouvt,
;

Poites et Melodes (Nimea, 1886); Krumbachek, Geseh. il. hij-:.

Romanesque Architecture. See Ecclesiasti- Lileratur,Munich, 312-lS; Idem, Studien zu Romanos (Municla.
cal Architecture. 1899); Idem, JJmarheilungen bei Romanos (Munich, 1899);
,Jacobi, Zur Ceschichle des grieckisehen Kircheiiliedes in BHe-
Roman Inquisition. See Inquisition; Roman gers Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte (1882), V, 177-250.
COXGHEG-^TION'S. J. S. Phillimore.
Roman Law. See Law.
Romanos, Saint, surnamed 6 /leKifdSi and 6 Beop- Romanos Pontiflces, Constitutio. —The res-
poet of the sixth century. The only authority
p-flTuip, toration by Pius IX, 29 Sept., 1850, by letters
for the hfe and date of this greatest of Greek hymn- Apostolic "UniversaUsecclesiae" of the hierarchy in
writers is the account in the Menaion for October; England, and the consequent transition to the new
his feast is 1 October. .Vccording to this account he order of things, necessarily gave rise to misunder-
was by birth a Syrian, served as deacon in the church standings and discussion in various matters of juris-
at Berytus, and came to Constantinople in the reign diction and discipline, particularly between the
of Anastasios. It was in the Church of the Most episcopate and religious orders. Bishops, as was in-
Holy Theotokos (eis t4 Kipov) that he received the cumbent upon them, strenuously maintained the
charisma of sacred poetry. "After a religious re- rights of the hierarchy, while religious superiors were
treat at Blaohernae he returned to his church, and one loath to surrender prerogatives previously exercised.
night in his sleep saw a vision of the Most Holy The chief points of controversy related to the ex-
Theotokos, who gave him a volume of paper, saying, emption of regulars from the jurisdiction of bishops;
'Take the paper and eat it'." The saint, in his the right of bishops to divide parishes or missions con-
dream, opened his mouth and swallowed the paper. ducted by regulars, and to place secular priests in
It was Christmas Day, and immediately he awakened charge of these newly-created missions; the obliga-
and marvelled and glorified God. Then, mounting tion of regulars engaged in parish work to attend
the ambo, he began the strains of his conferences of the clergy and diocesan synods; the
T) irapd^vos (T'/ipiepov Tbv virepoiKTioit riKrei. force of their appeal from synodal statutes; their
He wrote also about one thousand konlakia for other liberty to found new houses, colleges and schools,
feasts before he died. or to convert existing institutions to other purposes;
Beyond this passage, there are only two mentions the right of bishops to visit canonically institutions in
of Romanos's name, one in the eighth-century poet charge of regulars; and certain financial matters.
St. Germanos, and once in Suidas (s. v. ivaKKdiixevov), Inchvidual bishops sought to cope with the situation
who calls him "Romanos the molode". None of the until finally
u, proposition of Cardinal Manning,
Byzantine writers on hymnology allude to him: made in an annual meeting of the English hierarchy in
his fame was practically extinguished by the newer 1877, to submit these difficulties to Rome for definite
school of hymn-writers which flourished in the settlement, met with unanimous approval. In July,
eighth and ninth centuries. Krumbacher has made 1878, the bishops of Scotland formally associated
it fairly certain, by a number of critical arguments, themselves with their English brethren in the con-
that the emperor named in the Menaion as reigning troversy. Negotiations were opened with Propa-
when Romanos came to the capital is Anastasius ganda, but Cardinal Manning later suggested to
I (a. d. 491-518), not Anastasius II (a. d. 713-16); Pope Leo XIII the appointment of a special com-
Pitra and Stevenson are of the same opinion. Prob- mission to examine the claims of the contestants and
ably, then, he lived through the reign of Justinian to prepare a constitution. Repeated delays ensued,
(a. d. .'y27-6.j), who was himself a hymn-writer; this so that it was not until 20 Sept., 1880, that a special
would make him contemporary with t«o other commission of nine cardinals chosen to consider the
Byzantine raelodes, .Vnastasios and Kyriakos. "In question had its first sitting. Four other sessions
poetic talent, fire of inspiration, depth of feeling, and followed, and in Jan., 1881, a report was made to the
elevation of language, he far surpasses all the other pope. Finally the constitution "Romanos Ponti-
melodes. The literary history of the future will fices" of Leo XIII was issued 8 May of the same year,
perhaps acclaim Romanos for the greatest ecclesias- defining the relations in England and Scotland be-
tical poet of all ages", says Krumbacher, and all the tween bishops and religious. This constitution has
other critics of Byzantine poetry subscribe to this been extended to the United States (25 Sept., 1885),
enthusiastic praise. Some have called him the to Canada (14 March, 1911), to South America (1
Christian Pindar. Down till the twelfth century his Jan., 1900), to the Philippine Islands (1 Jan., 1910),
Christmas hynm was performed by a double choir and quite generally to missionary countries. The pro-
(from S. Sophia and the Holy Apostles) at the im- visions of the "Romanos Pontifices" may be grouped
perial banquet on that feast day. Of most of the into three heads: the exemption of religious from
others only a few strcjjihes survive. The long hymns episcopal jurisdiction; relations to bishops of re-
{konlnkin) consist of twenty-five strophes {troparia), ligious engaged in parochial duties; and matters
usually of twenty-one verses each, with a refrain. pertaining to temporal goods. The constitution
Besides the Christmas hymn we may cite the follow- makes clear the following though regulars according
:

ing titles to exemplify St. Romanos's choice of sub- to canon law are subject immediately to the Holy
jects: "Canticum Paschale", "de CrucisTriumpho", See, bishops are given jurisdiction over small com-
"de luda Proditore", "de Petri Negatione", "de Vir- munities. The constitution "Romanos Pontifices"
gine iuxtacruccm". Dramatic and pathetic dialogue makes a further concession exempting regulars as
plays a great part in the structure. The simple sin- such, living in parochial residences in small numbers
cerity of tone sometimes puts the reader in mind of or even alone, almost entirely from the jurisdiction
the Latin medieval hymns, or the earliest Italian of the ordinary. "We
hesitate not to declare", it
religious verse. Romanos, like the other melodes, states, "that regulars dwelling in residences on the
obeys a purely accentual or rhythmic law; the mission, no less than regulars living in their own
quantitative scansions are obsolete for those to whom monasteries, are exempt from the jurisdiction of the
he sings (see Byzantine Literature, IV). Edi- ordinary, except in cases expressly mentioned in law,
tions: 'Twenty-nine hymns in Pitra, "Analecta Sacra", and generally speaking in matters pertaining to the
 ROMAN 155 ROMAN
cure of souls and the administration of the sacra- dom. That it has advantages possessed by no other,
ments." the most archaic antiquity, unequalled dignitj',
In parocliial ministrations, then, regulars are sub- beauty, and the practical convenience of being com-
ject in all things to episcopal supervision, visitation, paratively short in its services will not be denied by
jurisdiction, and correction. If engaged in parochial any one who knows it and the other ancient liturgies.
work, religious are obliged to assist at conferences But it was not the consideration of these advantages
of the clergy as well as at diocesan synods. "We that led to its extensive use; it was the exalted po-
declare" says the constitution, "that all rectors of sition of the see that used it. The Roman Rite was
missions are bound by their office to attend the con- adopted throughout the West because the local
ferences of the clergy; and moreover we ordain and bishops, sometimes kings or emperors, felt that they
command that vicars also and other religious en- could not do better than use the rite of the chief
joying ordinary missionary faculties, living in resi- bishop of all, at Rome And this imitation of Roman
dences and small missions, do the same." The liturgical practice brought about in the West the
Covmcil of Trent prescribes that all having the cure application of the principle (long admitted in the
of souls be present at diocesan synods. The con- East) that rite should follow patriarchate. Apart
stitution says in regard to this question: Let the from his universal primacy, the pope has always been
Council of Trent be observed. Another point of unquestioned Patriarch of the West. It was then the
controvers>' related to appeals from synodal decrees. right and normal thing that the West should use his
Regulars are not denied this right. Their appeal liturgy. The irregular and anomalous incident of
from the ordinary's interpretation of synodal statutes liturgical history is not that the Roman Rite has been
in matters pertaining to common law has a devolutive used, practically exclusively, in the West since
effect only; in matters pertaining to regulars as such, about the tenth or eleventh century, but that before
owing to their exemption, an appeal begets a sus- that there were other rites in the pope's patriarchate.
pensive effect. The bishop's right to divide parishes, Not the disappearance but the existence and long
even though under the management of regulars, is toleration of the Galilean and Spanish rites is the
maintained, providing the formalities prescribed in difficulty (see Rites). Like all others, the Roman
law be observed. The opinion of the rector of the Rite bears clear marks of its local origin. Wherever
mission to be divided must be sought; while a bishop it may be used, it is still Roman in the local sense,
is not free to divide a mission in charge of rehgioua obviously composed for use in Rome. Our Missal
without consulting their superior. An appeal, dev- marks the Roman stations, contains the Roman
olutive in character, to the Holy See, should the saints in the Canon (see Canon of the Mass), hon-
case require it, is granted from the bishop's de- ours with special solemnity the Roman martyrs and
cision to di\-ide a parish or mission. The ordinary popes. Our feasts are constantly anniversaries of
is free to follow his own judgment in appointing rec- local Roman events, of the dedication of Roman
tors of new missions, even when formed from parishes churches (All Saints, St. Michael, S. Maria ad Nives,
in charge of regulars. The claim of regulars to pref- etc.). The Collect for Sts. Peter and Paul (29 June)
erence in these appointments is thus denied. It is supposes that it is said at Rome (the Church which
unlawful for rehgious to establish new monasteries, "received the beginnings of her Faith" from these
churches, colleges, or schools without the previous saints is that of Rome), and so on continually. This
consent of the ordinary and of the Apostohc See. is quite right and fitting; it agrees with all liturgical
Similar permission is required to convert existing history. No rite has ever been composed consciouslj'
institutions to other purposes, except where such for general use. In the East there are still stronger
change, affecting merely the domestic arrangements examples of the same thing. The Orthodox all over
or disciphne of regulars themselves, is not contrary the world use a rite full of local allusions to the city
to the conditions of the foundation. The bishop of Constantinople.
may exercise the right of canonical visitation in re- The Roman Rite evolved out of the (presumed)
gard to churches and parochial or elementary schools, universal, but quite fluid, rite of the first three cen-
though they be in charge of regulars. This right does turies during the (liturgioally) almost unknown time
not extend to cemeteries or institutions for the use from the fourth to the sixth. In the sixth we have it
of rehgious onlv; nor to colleges in which religious, fully developed in the Leonine, later in the Gelasian,
according to their rule, devote themselves to the Sacramentaries. How and exactly when the specifi-
education of youth. The temporal affairs of a cally Roman qualities were formed during that time
parish or mission are determined by a decree of will, no doubt, always be a matter of conjecture (see
Propaganda, published 19 April, 1869. All goods Liturgy; Mass, Liturgy op the). At first its use
given to parishes or missions must be accounted for was very restrained. It was followed only in the
according to diocesan statutes; not, however, dona- Roman province. North Italy was Galilean, the
tions made to regulars for themselves. It is the duty South, Byzantine, but Africa was always closely akin
of the ordinary to see that parochial goods are devoted to Rome liturgically. From the eighth century grad-
to the purposes designated by the donors. Inven- ually the Roman usage began its career of conquest in
tories (Propaganda, 10 May, 1867) will distmguish the West. By the twelfth century at latest it was used
parochial belongings from those of regulars. These wherever Latin obtained, having displaced all others
regulations of former decrees are embodied in "Ro- except at Milan and in retreating parts of Spain. That
manes Pontifices" has been its position ever since. As the rite of the
The constitutionmay be found in Cone. Plen. Bait. Ill, pp. Latin Church it is used exclusively in the Latin
212 sq.;Acta Apo.i. Sedis, II, pp. 254 aq., where it is officially Patriarchate, with three small exceptions at Milan,
republished. For the English controversy see Snead-L«x, MJe
Taunton, The Law Toledo, and in the still Byzantine churches of South-
of Cardinal Vaughan (London, 1910), xiv;
of the Church, s. v. Regulars. ern Italy, Sicily, and Corsica. During the Middle
Andrew B. Meehan. Ages it developed into a vast number of derived rites,
differing from the pure form only in unimportant de-
Roman Patriarchate. See Patriarch and Pa- tails and in exuberant additions. Most of these were
triarchate. abolished by the decree of Pius V in 1.570 (see Mass,
Roman Rite (ritus romanus), The, is the manner Liturgy of the). Meanwhile, the Roman Rite had
Sacra- itself been affected by, and had received additions
of celebrating the Holy Sacrifice, administering
from, the Galilean and Spanish uses it displaced. The
ments reciting the Divine Office, and performing other
ecclesiastical functions (blessings, all
kinds of Sacra- Roman Rite is now used by every one who is subject
to the pope's patriarchal jurisdiction (with the three
mentals etc.) as used in the city and Diocese oi Home.
The Roman Rite is the most wide-spread m Christen- exceptions noted above) that is, it is used in Western
;
 ROMANS 156 ROMANS
Europe, including Poland, in all countries colonized well have been aware of this fact, for the community
from Western Europe: America, Australia, etc., by was not entirely foreign to him. An epistle like the
Western (Latin) missionaries all over the world, in- present would hardly have been sent while the Prince
eludinx the Eastern lands where other Catholic rites of the Apostles was in Rome, and the reference to the
also oljtain. No one may change his rite without a ruler (xii, 8) would then be diflicult to explain. Paul
legal authorization, which is not easily obtained. So probably supposes that, during the months between the
the Western priest in Syria, Egypt, and so on uses composition and the arrival of the Epistle, the com-
his own Roman Rite, just as at home. On the same munity would be more or less thrown on its own re-
principle Catholics of Eastern rites in Western sources. This does not however indicate a want of
Europe, America, etc., keep their rites; so that rites organization in the Roman community; such organi-
now cross each other wherever such people live to- zation existed in every Church founded by Paul, and
gether. The language of the Roman Rite is Latin its existence in Rome can be demonstrated from this

everywhere except that in some churches along the very Epistle.

Western Adriatic coast it is said in Slavonic and on The inquiry into the condition of the community
rare occasions in Greek at Rome (see Rites). In is important for the understanding of the Epistle.
derived forms the Roman Rite is used in some few Complete unanimity concerning the elements form-
dioceses (Lyons) and by several religious orders (Bene- ing the community has not yet been attained. Baur
dictines, Carthusians, Carmelites, Dominicans). In and others (especially, at the present day, Theodore
these their fundamentally Roman character is ex- Zahn) regard the Roman community as chiefly Jewish
pressedby a compound name. They are the "Ritus Christian, pointing to vi, 15-17; vii, 1-6; viii, 15.
Romano-Lugdunensis", "Romano-monasticus", and But the great majority of exegetes incline to the
so on. opposite view, basing their contention, not only on
For further details and bibliography see Breviary; Canon individual texts, but also on the general character
OF THE Mass; Liturgy; Mass, Liturgy of the; Rites. of the Epistle. At the very beginning Paul introduces
Adeian Fortescue. himself as the Apostle of the Gentiles. Assuredly,
Romans, Epistle to the. —This
subject will be i, 5, cannot be applied to all mankind, tor Paul cer-

treated under the following heads: I. The Roman tainly wished to express something more than that the
Church and St. Paul; II. Character, Contents, and Romans belonged to the human race; in corroboration
Arrangement of the Epistle; III. Authenticity; IV. of this view we may point to i, 13, where the writer
Integrity; V. Date and Circumstances of Composi- declares that he had long meditated coming to
tion; VI. Historical Importance; VII. Theological Rome that he might have some fruit there as among
Contents: Faith and Works (Paul and James). the other "Gentiles". He then continues: "To the
I. The Roman Church and St. Paul. —Among Greeks and to the barbarians, to the wise and to the
the Epistles of the New Testament which bear the unwise, I am a debtor; so (as much as is in me) I am
name of the Apostle Paul, that written to the Roman ready to preach the gospel to you also that are at
Church occupies the first place in the manuscripts Rome" (i, 14 sq.); he names himself the Apostle of
which have come down to us, although in very early the Gentiles (xi, 13), and cites his call to the apostolate
times the order was probably otherwise. The Epistle of the Gentiles as the justification for his Epistle and his
is intended to serve as an introduction to a community language (xv, 16-18). These considerations eliminate
with which the author, though he has not founded it, all doubt as to the extraction of the Roman Christians.
desires to form connexions (i, 10-15; xv, 22-24, 28-29). The address and application in xi, 13 sqq., likewise
For years his thoughts have been directed towards presuppose a great majority of Gentile Christians,
Rome (xv, 23). The Church there had not been re- while vi, 1 sqq., shows an effort to familiarize the
cently established; but its faith had already become Gentile Christians with the dealings of God towards
known everywhere (i, 8) and it is represented as a firmly the Jews. The whole character of the composition
established and comparatively old institution, which forces one to the conclusion that the Apostle supposes
Paul regards with reverence, almost with awe. Con- a Gentile majority in the Christian community, and
cerning its foundation, unfortunately, the Epistle to that in Rome as elsewhere the statement about the
the Romans gives us no information. To interpret fewness of the elect (from among the Jews) finds ap-
this silence as decisive against its foundation by Peter pUcation (xi, 5-7; cf. xv, 4).
is inadmissible. It cannot indeed be ascertained with However, the Roman community was not without
complete certainty when Peter first came to Rome; a Jewish Christian element, probably an important
there may have been Christians in the capital before section. Such passages as iv, 1 (Abraham, our father
any Apostle set foot there, but it is simply inconceiv- according to the flesh) vii, i (I speak to them that
;

able that this Church should have attained to such know the law); vii, 4; viii, 2; 15, etc., can scarcely
firm faith and such a high standard of religious life be explained otherwise than by supposing the existence
without one of the prominent authorities of nascent of a Jewish Christian section of the community. On
Chri.stianity having laid its foundation and directed the other hand, it must be remembered that Paul
its growth. This Church did not owe its Faith solely was out and out a Jew, and that his whole train-
to some unknown members of the primitive Christian ing accustomed him to adopt the standpoint of the
community who chanced to come to Rome. Its Chris- —
Law the more so as the revelation of the Old
tianity was, as the Epistle tells us, free from the Testament is in the last instance the basis of the New
Law; this conviction Paul certainly shared with the Testament, and Paul regards Christianity as the heir
majority of the community, and his wish is simply of God's promises, as the true "Israel of God" (Gal.,
to deepen this conviction. This condition is en- vi, 16). St. Paul often adopts this same standpoint
tirely incomprehensible if the Roman Church traced
its origin only to some Jewish Christian of the com-
in the Epistle to the Galatians — an Epistle un-
doubtedly addressed to Christians who are on the point
munity in Jerusalem, for we know how far the fight of submitting to circumcision. Even if the Epistle
for freedom was from being ended about A. D. 50. Nor to the Romans repeatedly addresses (e. g., ii, 17 sqq.)
can the foundation of the Roman Church be traced Jews, we may deduce nothing from this fact concerning
to the Gentile Christian Churches, who named Paul the composition of the community, since Paul is deal-
their Ajiostle: their own establishment was too ing, not with the Jewish Christians, but with the Jews
reeent, and Paul would have worded his Epistle still subject to the Law and not yet freed by the grace
otherwise, if the community addressed were even of Christ. The Apostle wishes to show the r61e and
mediately indebted to his apostolate. The complete
silence as to St. Peter is most easily explained by sup-
efficacy of the Law — what it cannot and should not
and what it was meant to effect.
posing that he was then absent from Rome; Paul may II. Character, Contents, and Arrangement of
 ROMANS 157 ROMANS
THE Epistle.— A. Character.— The chief portion of tion which he employs and demands of the strong
tiiisEpistle to the Romans (i-xi) is evidently a theo- (xiv, 5-10; xiv, 13-xv, 7). In judging there was
logical discussion. It would however be inaccurate always a danger, and mistakes had occurred (xiv,
to regard it not as a real letter, but as a literary epistle. 13: "Let us not therefore judge one another any
It must be considered as a personal communication to more"). According to the nature of the mistake
a special community, and, hke that sent to the Corin- divisions might easily gain a footing; from what
thians or the cognate Epistle to the Galatians, must direction these were to be expected, is not declared
be judged according to the concrete position and the by the Apostle, but the cases of Corinth and Galatia
concrete conditions of that community. What the indicate it sufficiently. And even though Paul had
Apostle says, he says with a view to his readers in the no reason to anticipate the gross Jewish errors, it
Roman community and his own relations to them. sufiiced for him that divisions destroyed the unanimity
Language and style reveal the writer of the Epi- of the community, rendered his labours more difficult,
stles to the Corinthians and the Galatians. Its em- made co-operation with Rome impossible, and seri-
phatic agreement with the latter in subject-matter ously impaired the community itself. He therefore
is also unmistakable. The difference in the parties desires to send beforehand this earnest exhortation
addressed and between the circumstances, however, (xvi, 17 sq.), and does all he can to dispel the miscon-
impresses on either Epistle its distinctive stamp. The ception that he despised and fought against Israel
Epistle to the Galatians is a polemical work, and is com- and the Law. That there was good ground for these
posed in a polemical spirit with the object of averting fears, he learned from experience in Jerusalem
an imminent evil; the Epistle to the Romans is writ- during his last visit (Acts, xxi, 20-1).
ten in a time of quiet peace, and directed to a Church From this twofold consideration the object of
with which the author desires to enter into closer Romans may be determined. The exhortations to
relations. We thus miss in the latter those details charity and unity (xii sqq.) have the same purpose
and references to earlier experiences and occurrences, as those addressed to the weak and the strong. In
with which the former Epistle is so instinct. Not both oases there is the vigorous reference to the single
that Romans is a purely abstract theological treatise; foundation of the faith, the unmerited call to grace,
even here Paul, with his whole fiery and vigorous with which man can correspond only by humble and
personality, throws himself into his subject, sets be- steadfast faith working in charity, and also the most
fore himself his opponent, and argues with him. This express, though not obtrusive exhortation to complete
characteristic of the Apostle is clearly seen. Hence unity in charity and faith. For Paul these con-
arise unevenness and harshness in language and ex- siderations are the best means of securing the con-
pression noticeable in the other Epistles. This does fidence of the whole community and its assistance
not prevent the Epistle as a whole from revealing an in his future activities. The thoughts which he here
elaborately thought out plan, which often extends expresses are those which ever guide him, and we
to the smallest details in magnificent arrangement can easily understand how they must have forced
and expression. We might recall the exordium, to themselves upon his attention, when he resolved to
which, in thought and to some extent in language, seek a new, great field of activity in the West. They
the great concluding doxology corresponds, while correspond to his desire to secure the co-operation
the two sections of the first part deal quite appro- of the Roman community, and especially with the
priately with the impressive words on the certainty state and needs of the Church. They were the best
of salvation and on God's exercise of providence and intellectual gift that the Apostle could offer; thereby
wisdom (viii, 31-39; xi, 33-36). he set the Church on the right path, created internal
The immediate external occasion for the composi- solidity, and shed light on the darkness of the
tion of the Epistle is given by the author himself; doubts which certainly must have overcast the
he wishes to announce his arrival to the community souls of the contemplative Christians in face of the
and to prepare them for the event. The real object attitude of incredulity which characterized the Chosen
of this comprehensive work, and the necessity for People.
a theological Epistle are not thought out. The sup- B. Contents and Arrangement. — Introduction and
position that St. Paul desired to give the Romans a Reason for writing the Epistle arising from the obliga-
proof of his intellectual gifts (i, 11; xv, 29) is ex- tions of his calling and plans (i, 1-15) : (1) The Theo-
cluded by its pettiness. We must therefore conclude retic Part (i, 16-xi, 36). Main Proposition: The
that the "reason for the Epistle is to be sought in the Gospel, in whose service Paul stands, is the power of
conditions of the Roman community. The earliest God and works justification in every man who be-
interpreters (Ambrosiaster, Augustine, Theodoret) lieves (i, 16-17). This proposition is discussed and
and a great number of later exegetes see the occasion proved (i, 18-viii, 39), and then defended in the
for the Epistle in the conflict concerning Judaistic light of the history of the Chosen People (ix, 1-xi,
ideas, some supposing an antagonism between the 36).
Gentile and Jewish Christians (Hug, Dehtzsch) and (a) The justice of God is acquired only through
faith in Christ (1, 18-vin, 39). (i) The proof of the
others the existence of some typically Jewish errors or
at least of an outspoken anti-Pauhnism. This view necessity of justifying grace through faith (1, 18-
does not accord with the character of the Epistle: of iv, 25): without faith there is no justice, proved
errors and division in the Church the author rnakes no from the case of the pagans (i, 18-32) and the Jews
mention, nor was there any difference of opinion con- (ii, 1-iii, 20); (b) justice is acquired through faith
cerning the fundamental conception of Christianity in and redemption by Christ (the Gospel, iii, 21-31).
between Paul and the Roman Church. The polem- Holy Writ suppUes the proof: Abraham's faith
ics in the Epistle are du-ected, not against the (iv, 1-25). (ii) The greatness and blessing of
Jewish Christians, but against unbelieving Judaism. justification through faith (v, 1-viii, 39), reconcilia-
It is true that there are certain contrasts in the com- tion with God through Christ, and certain hope of
munity: we hear of the strong and the weak; of eternal salvation (v, 1-11). This is illustrated by
those who have acquired the complete understanding contrasting the sin of Adam and its consequences for
all mankind, which were not removed by the Law,
and use of Christian freedom, and who emphasize and
exercise it perhaps regardlessly; we hear of others
with the superabundant fruits of redemption merited
who have not yet attained to the full possession of by Christ (v, 12-21). Conclusion: Redemption by
freedom. These contrasts are as little based on the Christ (communicated to the individual through
standpoint of the Law and a false dogmatic outlook baptism) requires death to sin and life with Christ
as the "weak" of I Corinthians.
Paul would other- (vi, 1-23). To accomplish this the Law is ineffectual,
for by the death of Christ it has lost its binding power
wise not have treated them with the mild
considera-
 ROMANS 158 ROMANS
(vii, 1-6), and, although holy and good in itself, it with some degree of probability include the First
possesses only educative and not sanctifying power, Epistle of St. Peter in the series of testimonies: con-
:Lnd is thus impotent in man's dire combat against cerning the relation between Romans and the Epistle
sinful nature (vii, 7-25). In contrast to this im- of St. James we shall speak below. Precise informa-
])Otence, communion with Christ imparts freedom tion is furnished by Clement of Rome, Ignatius of
from sin and from death (viii, 1-11), establishes Antioch. Polycarp, and Justin: Marcion admitted
the Divine kinship, and raises mankind above all Romans into his canon, and the earliest Gnostics
earthly trouble to the certain hope of an indescribable were acquainted with it.

happiness (viii, 12-39). The internal evidence is equally convincing. Mod-

(b) Defence of the first part from the history of ern critics (van Manen and others) have indeed asserted
the people of Israel (ix, 1-xi, 36). The consoling that no attempt was ever made to prove its authentic-
certainty of salvation may appear threatened by the ity; they have even gone further, and declared the
rejection or obduracy of Israel. How could God for- Epistle an invention of the second century. Evanson
get His promises and reject the people so favoured? (1792) first attempted to maintain this view; he was
The Apostle must thus explain the providence of followed by Br. Bauer (1852, 1877), and later by
God. He begins with a touching survey of God's Loman, Steck, van Manen (1891, 1903), and others.
deeds of love and power towards the Chosen People A less negative standpoint was adopted by Pierson-
(ix, 1-5), proceeding then to prove that God's promise Naber, Michelsen, Volter, etc., who regarded Romans
has not failed. For (i) God acts within His right as the result of repeated revisions of genuine Pauline
when He grants grace according to His free pleasure, fragments, e. g., that one genuine Epistle, interpolated
since God's promises did not apply to Israel accord- five times and combined finally with an Epistle to the
ing to the flesh, as early history shows (Isaac and Is- Ephesians, gave rise to Romans (Volter). These critics
mael, Jacob and Esau) (ix, 1-13); God's word to find their ground for denying the authenticity of the
Moses and His conduct towards Pharao call into req- Epistle in the following considerations: Romans is a
uisition this right (ix, 14—17); God's position (as theological treatise rather than an epistle; the begin-
Creator and Lord) is the basis of this right (ix, 19- ning and conclusion do not correspond; the addresses
24); God's express prophecy announced through the cannot be determined with certainty despite a certain
;

Prophets the exercise of this right towards Jews and unity of thought and style, there are perceptible traces
pagans (ix, 24-2'.)) (ii) God's attitude was in a certain
;
of compilation and discordance, difficult transitions,
sense demanded by the
foolish reliance of Israel on periods, connexions of ideas, which reveal the work of
itsorigin and justification in the Law (ix, 30-x, 4) and the reviser the second part (ix-xii) abandons the sub-
;

by its refusal of and disobedience to the message of ject of the first (justification by faith), and introduces
faith announced everywhere among the Jews (x, an entirely foreign idea; there is much that cannot be
5-21); (iii) In this is revealed the wisdom and good- the composition of St. Paul (the texts dealing with
ness of God, for: Israel's rejection is not complete; the rejection of Israel lead one to the period after the
a chosen number have attained to the faith (xi, destruction of Jerusalem; the Christians of Rome ap-
1-10); (iv) Israel's unbelief is the salvation of the pear as Pauline Christians; the conception of freedom
pagan world, and likewise a solemn exhortation to from the law, of sin and justification, of life in Christ,
fidelity in the faith (xi, 11-22); (v) Israel's re- etc., are signs of a later development) ; finally there
jection is not irrevocable. The people will find are, according to Van Manen, traces of second-century
mercy and salvation (xi, 23-32). Thence the praise Gnosticism in the Epistle.
of the wisdom and the inscrutable providence of God We have here a classical example of the arbitrariness
(xi, 33-36). of this type of critics. They first declare all the writ-
(2) The Practical Part (xii, 1-xv, 13).— (a) The gen- ings of the first and of the early second century forgeries,
eral exhortation to the faithful service of God and the and, having thus destroyed all the sources, con-
avoidance of the spirit of the world (xii, 1-2). (b) struct a purely subjective picture of the period, and
Admonition to unity and charity (modest, active char- revise the sources accordingly.
ity, peacefulness, and love of enemies (xii, 3-21). (c) That the Epistle to the Romans was written at least
Obligations towards superiors; fundamental establish- before the last decades of the first century is established;
ment and practical proof (xiii, 1-7). Conclusion: A even by external evidence taken alone; consequently all
second inculcation of the commandment of love (xiii, theories advocating a later origin are thereby exploded.
8-10) and an incitement to zeal in view of the proximity Thetreatmentof a scientific (theological) problem in an
of salvation (xiii, 11-14). (d) Toleration and forbear- epistle can constitute a difficulty only for such as are
ance between the strong and the weak (treated with unacquainted with the literature of the age. Doubts
special application to the Roman community on ac- as to the unity of the Epistle vanish of themselves on a
count of the importance and practical significance of closer examination. The introduction is most closely
the question; it falls under (b): (i) fundamental criti- connected with the theme (i, 4, 5, 8, 12, etc.) the same
;

cism of the standpoint of both classes (xiv, 1-12); is true of the conclusion. An analysis of the Epistle
(li) practical inferences for both (xiv, 13-xv,
6); (iii) reveals incontestably the coherence of the first and
establishment through the example of Christ and the second parts; from chapter ix an answer is given to a
intentions of God (x\', 7-13). Conclusion: Defence of question which has obtruded itself in the earlier por-
the Epistle: (1) in \iew of Paul's calling; (2) in view tion. In this fact Chr. Baur sees the important point
of his intended relations with the community (xv, of the whole Epistle. Besides, the interrelation be-
22-23); (3) recommendations, greetings (warning) tween the parts finds express mention (ix, 30-32; x,
[

doxolog>' (xvi, 1-27). 3-6; xi, 6; xi, 20-23; etc.). The author's attitude
III. Authenticity.— Is the Epistle to the Romans towards Israel will be treated below (VI). The rejec-
a work of tlie ureat Apostle of the Gentiles, St. Paul? tion of the Chosen People could have become abundantly
Undoubtedh- it has the same authorship as the clear to the author after the uniform experiences of a
Epistles to the Corinthians and the Epistle to the wide missionary activity extending over more than ten
Galatians; consequently, if the authenticity of these years. The unevennesses and difficulty of the language
be proved, that of Romans is likewise established. show at most that the text has not been perfectly pre-
We shall howe\er treat the question quite indepen- served. Much becomes clear when we remember the
dently. 'The external evidence of the authenticity of personality of St. Paul and his custom of dictating his
Romans is uncommonly strong. Even though no Epistles.
direct testimony as to the authorship is forthcoming
Were the Epistle a forgery, the expressions concern-
before Marcion and Irensus, still the oldest writings ing the person and views of the author would be in-
betray an acquaintance with the Epistle. One might explicable and completely enigmatic. Who in the second
 ROMANS 159 ROMANS
century would have made St. Paul declare that he had xvi. In view of this uncertainty and of some ex-
not founded the Roman community, that previously pressions not found elsewhere in the writings of St.
he had had no connexions with it, since at a very early Paul (e. g., the only wise God, the scriptures of the
date the same Apostle becomes with St. Peter its co- prophets), the doxology has been declared a later
founder? How could a man of the second century have addition (H. J. Holtzmann, Jiilicher, and others),
conceived the idea of attributing to St. Paul the inten- a very unlikely view in the face of the almost un-
tion of paying merely a passing visit to Rome, when (as exceptional testimony, especially since the thought
would have been palpable to every reader of Acts, xxviii, is most closely connected with the opening of Romans,
30-31) the Apostle had worked there for two successive without however betraying any dependence in its
years? The Acts could not have supplied the sugges- language. The fullness of the expression corre-
fion, since it merely says: "I must see Rome also" sponds completely with the solemnity of the whole
(xix, 21) . Of Paul's plan of proceeding thence to Spain, Epistle. The high-spirited temperament of the
the author of Acts says nothing; in recording the author powerfully shows itself on repeated occasions.
nocturnal apparition of the Lord to St. Paul, mention The object with which the Apostle writes the Epistle,
is made only of his giving testimony at Rome (Acts, and the circumstances under which it is written,
xxiii, 11). The arrival at Rome is recorded with the offer a perfect explanation of both attitude and tone.
words: "And so we went to [the wished for] Rome" The addressees, the impending journey to Jerusalem
(Acts, xxviii, 14). Acts closes with a reference to with its problematic outcome (St. Paul speaks later
Paul's residence and activity in Rome, without even
hinting at anything further. Again, it would have
of his anxiety in connexion therewith — Acts, xx, 22),
the acceptance of his propaganda at Rome, on which,
occurred to a forger to mention Peter also in a forged according to his own a.dmission, his ApostoUc future
Epistle to the Romans, even though it were only in a
greeting or a reference to the foundation of the Church.
—
so much depended all these were factors which
must have combined once more at the conclusion of
Other arguments could be drawn from the concluding such an Epistle to issue in these impressively solemn
chapters. 'SMioever studies Romans closely will be thoughts. In view of this consideration, the removal
convinced that here the true Paul speaks, and will of the doxology would resemble the extraction of the
acknowledge that "the authenticity of the Epistle to most precious stone in a jewel-case.
the Romans can be contested only by those who venture The critical references to xvi, 1-24, of to-day are con-
to banish the personality of Paul from the pages of cerned less with their Pauline origin than with their
history" (Jiilicher). inclusion in Romans. The doubt entertained regard-
—
IV. Integrity. Apart from individual uncertain ing them is of a twofold character. In the first place it
texts, which occur also in the other Epistles and call has been considered difficult to explain how the Apostle
for the attention of the textual investigator, the last had so many personal friends in Rome (which he had
two chapters have given rise to some doubts among not yet visited), as is indicated by the series of greetings
critics. Not only did Marcion omit xvi, 25-27, but, as in this chapter; one must suppose a real tide of emi-
Origen-Rufinus express it, "cuncta dissecuit" from gration from the Eastern Pauline communities to
xiv, 23. Concerning the interpretation of these words Rome, and that within the few years which the
there is indeed no agreement, for while the majority of Apostle had devoted to his missions to the Gentiles.
exegetes see in them the complete rejection of the two Certain names occasion especial doubt: Epenetus,
concluding chapters, others translate "dissecuit" as the "first fruits of Asia", one would not expect to see
"disintegrated", which is more in accordance with the in Rome; Aquila and Prisca, who according to I
Latin expression Under Chr. Baur's leadership, the Corinthians have assembled about them a household
Tiibingen School has rejected both chapters; others community in Ephesus, are represented as having a
have inclined to the theory of the disintegration work little later a similar community in Rome. Further,
of Marcion. it is surprising that the Apostle in an Epistle to Rome,
Against chapter xv no reasonable doubt can be main- should emphasize the services of these friends. But
tained. Verses 1-13 follow as a natural conclusion the chief objection is that this last chapter gives the
from ch. xiv. The general extent of the consideration Epistle a new character; it must have been written,
reconunended in ch. xiv is in the highest degree Pauline. not as an introduction, but as a warning to the com-
Furthermore xv, 7-13 are so clearly connected with munity. One does not write in so stern and authorita-
the theme of the Epistle that they are on this ground tive a tone as that displayed in xvi, 17-20, to an
also quite beyond suspicion. Though Christ is called unknown community; and the words "I would"
the "minister of the circumcision" in xv, 8, this is in (xvi, 19) are not in keeping with the restraint evinced
entire agreement with all that the Gospels say of Him by St. Paul elsewhere in the Epistle. In consequence
and His mission, and with what St. Paul himself of these considerations numerous critics have, with
always declares elsewhere. Thus also, according to David Schulz (1829), separated all or the greater
the Epistle, salvation is offered first to Israel con- portion of chapter xvi from the Epistle to the Romans
formably to Divine Providence (i, 16) and the writer (without however denying the Pauline authorship),
of ix, 3-5, could also write xv, 8.
;

—
and declared it an Epistle to the Ephesians whether
The personal remarks and information (xv, 14- a complete epistle or only a portion of such is not
33) are in entire agreement with the opening of the determined. Verses 17-20 are not ascribed by some
Epistle, both in thought and tone. His travelling critics to this Epistle to the Ephesians; other critics
plans and his personal uneasiness concerning his are more liberal, and refer ch. ix-xi or xii-xiv to the
reception in Jerusalem are, as already indicated, sure imaginary Epistle.
proofs of the genuineness of the verses. The ob- We agree with the result of criticism in holding
jection to ch. XV has thus found little acceptance; as certain that xvi belongs to St. Paul. Not only the
of it "not a sentence may be referred to a, forger' language, but also the names render its Pauline
(Jiilicher). origin certain. For the greater part the names are
Stronger objections are urged against ch. xvi. not of those who played any r61e in the history of
In the first place the concluding doxology is not primitive Christianity or in legend, so that there was
universally recognized as genuine. The MSS. in- no reason for bringing them into connexion with St.
deed afford some grounds for doubt, although only Paul. Certainly the idea could not have occurred
a negligibly small number of witnesses have with to anyone in the second century, not merely to name
Marcion ignored the whole doxology. The old the unknown Andronicus and Junias as Apostles, but
MSS. in other respects regarded as authoritative, to assign them a prominent position among the
insert' it after xvi, 24; a small number of MSS. place Apostles, and to place them on an eminence above
it at the end of xiv; some have it after both xiv
and St. Paul as having been in Christ before him. These
 ROMANS 160 ROMANS
considerations arc supplemented by external evidence. 2.V2S; cf. I Cor., xvi, 1-4; II Cor., viii, 1-9, IS;
Finally, the situation exhibited by historical research Acts, XX, 3—4; xxiv, 17). The time of composition
is precisely that of the Epistle to the Romans, as is is thus exactlj' determined; the Epistle was written
almost unanimously admitted. at the end of the third missionary journey, which
The "division liypothesis" encounters a great dif- brought the Apostle back from Ephesus finally to
ficulty in the MSS. Deissmann endeavoured to ex- Corinth. The mention of the Christian Phebe of
]ilain the fusion of the two Epistles (Roman and Cenchrae (xvi, 1) and the greeting on the part of his
I'^phesian) on the supposition of collections of epistles host Caius (xvi, 23) very likely the one whom Paul
existing among the ancients (duplicate-books of the —
had baptized (I Cor., i, 14) conduct us to Corinth,
sender and collections of originals of the receivers). where the Epistle was written shortly before Paul's
E\-en if a possible explanation be thus obtained,^ its departure for Macedonia. Its composition at the
application to the present case is hedged in with im- port of Cenchrae would be possible only on the sup-
probabilities; the assumption of an Epistle consisting position that the Apostle had made a long stay there;
merely of greetings is open to grave suspicion, and, the Epistle is too elaborate and evinces too much
if one supposes this chapter to be the remnant of intellectual labour for one to suppose that it was writ-
a lost epistle, this hypothesis merely creates fresh ten at an intermediate station.
problems. The year of composition can only be decided ap-
While St. Paul's wide circle of friends in Rome proximately. According to Acts, xxiv, 27, St. Paul's
at first awakens surprise, it raises no insuperable imprisonment in Caesarea lasted two full years until
difficulty.We should not attempt to base our de- the removal of the procurator Felix. The year of
cisionon the names alone; the Roman names prove this change lies between 58 and 61. At the earliest
nothing in favour of Rome, and the Greek still less 58, because Fehx was already many years in office
against Rome. Names like Narcissus, Junias, at the beginning of Paul's imprisonment (Acts,
Rufus, especially Aristobulus, and Herodian remind xxiv, 10); Felix scarcely came to Judea before 52,
one of Rome rather than Asia Minor, although some and less than four or five years cannot well be
persons with these names may have settled in the called "many". At the latest 61, although this date
latter place. But what of the "emigration to Rome "? is very improbable, as Festus, the successor of Felix,

The very critics who find therein a difficulty must be died in 62 after an eventful administration. Ac-
well aware of the great stream of Orientals which cordingly the arrival of St, Paul in Jerusalem and
flowed to the capital even under Emperor Augustus the composition of the Epistle to the Romans, which
(Jiihcher). Why should not the Christians have occurred in the preceding few months, must be re-
followed this movement? For the second century ferred to the years 56-59, or better 57-58. The
the historical fact is certain; how many Eastern chronology of St. Paul's missionary activity does not
names do we not find in Rome (Polycarp, Justin, exclude the suggestion of the years 56-57, since the
Marrion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Apostle began his third missionary journey perhaps
and others)? Again for years Paul had turned his as early as 52-53 (Gallio, proconsul of Achaia Acts, —
mind towards Rome (xv, 23; i, 13). Would not his xviii, —
12-17 was, according to an inscription in
friends have known of t;his, and would he not have dis- Delphi, probably in office about 52).
cussed it with Aquila and Prisca who were from —
VI. Historical Importance. The Epistle gives
Rome? Besides, it is highly probable that the emi- us important information concerning the Roman
gration was not entirely the result of chance, but Church and St. Paul's early relations with it. We
took place in accordance with the views, and perhaps may recall the dangers and strained relations and
to some extent at the suggestion of the Apostle; the various groupings of the community referred to
for nothing is more likely than that his friends hurried in xvi, 5, 14, 15, and perhaps in xvi, 10, 11. That
before him to prepare the way. Three years later Paul's gaze was turned towards Rome for years,
indeed he is met by "the brethren" on his arrival and that Rome was to be merely a stopping place
in Rome (Acts, xxviii, 1.5). The long delay was not on his way to Spain, we learn only from this Epistle.
the fault of St, Paul and had not, by any means, been Did he ever reach Spain? All tradition affords only
foreseen by him. one useful piece of information on this point: "he
TheI'Hiphasizing of the services of his friends is went to the extremest west" (Clement of Rome,
easy to understand in an Epistle to the Romans; vi, 7); the Muratorian Fragment, 38 sq., is not suf-
if only a portion of the restless charity and self- ficiently clear.
sacrificing zeal of the Apostle for the Gentiles be- An interesting conception of the apostolate is
comes known in Rome, his active helpers may feel contained in the words: "But now having no more
assured of a kind reception in the great community of place in these countries" (xv, 23). Paul thus limited
Gentile Christians. The exhortation in xvi, 17-20, is his task to laying the foundation of the Gospel in
indeed delivered in a solemn and almost severe tone, large centres, leaving to others the development of
but in the case of St Paul we are accustomed to sudden
. the communities. The meaning of the words "unto
and sharp transitions of this kind. One feels that the Illyricum" (xv, 19) will always remain uncertain.
writer has become suddenly affected with a deep Probably the Apostle had at this period not yet
anxiety, which in a moment gets the upper hand. crossed the borders of the province. Whether the
And why should not St. Paul remember the well- remark in Titus, iii, 12, concerning a proposed resi-
known submissiveness Roman Church? Still
of the dence during the winter in Nicopolis (the lUyrian
less open to objection is the "I would" (xvi, 19), town is meant), is to be connected with a missionary
since the Greek often means in the -i^Titings of St. journey, must remain unsettled.
Paul merely "I wish" The position of verse 4 The Epistle is instructive for its revelation of
between the greetings is unusual, but would not be the personal feelings of the Apostle of the Gentiles
more intelligible in an Epistle to the Ephesians than towards his fellow- Jews Some have tried to represent
.

in the Epistle to the Romans. these feelings as hard to explain and contradictory.
V. Date .wd Circumstances of Compositiox. — But a true conception of the great Apostle renders
The contents of the Ejiistle show that the author has every word intelligible. On the one hand he main-
acquired a ripe ex]>erience in the apostolate. Paul tains in this Epistle the position of faith and grace
believes his task in the East to be practically finished; as distinct from the Law, and, addressing a people
he has preached the Faith as far as Illyricum, prob- who appealed to their natural lineage and their ob-
ably to the boundaries of the province (xv, 18-24) servance of the Law to establish a supposed right
he is about to bring back to Palestine the alms con- (to salvation), he insists unswervingly on the Divine
tributed in Galatia, Achaia, and Macedonia (xv. election to grace. But Paul emphasizes not less
 ROMANS 161 ROMANS
firmly that, according to God's word, Israel is first grace. God zealously watches over the recognition of
called to salvation (i, 16; ii, 10), explicitly proclaim- this truth; hence the emphasizing of faith (i, 16 sq.;
ing the preference shown to it (iii, 1-2; ix, 4-5 the— iii, 32, 24^30; iv, 2 sqq., 13-25; v, 1, etc.); hence
Divine promises, Divine sonship, the Covenant and the stress laid upon the redemptory act of Christ,
the Law, and, greatest privilege of all, the origin of which benefits us, the enemies of God (iii, 24 sq.; iv,
the Messias, the true God, in Israel according to the 24 sq.; v, 6-10, 15-21; vii, 25; viii, 29 sqq.); we owe
—
flesh XV, 8). Paul willingly recognizes the zeal our whole salvation and the inalienable certainty of
of the people for the things of God, although their salvation to the propitiatory and sanctifying power of
zeal is misdirected (ix, 31 sq.; x, 2). the Blood of Christ (viii, 35-39).
Such being his feelings towards the Chosen People, From this standpoint the second part (ix-xi) de-
it is not surprising that Paul's heart is filled with bitter scribes the action of Divine providence, which is
grief at the blindness of the Jews, that he besieges God more than once revealed under the Old Dispensation,
with prayer, that he is guided throughout his life of self- and which alone corresponds with the grandeur and
sacrificing apostolic labours by the hope that thereby sovereign authority of God. Hence the irresponsive
his brethren may be won for the Faith (ix, 1-2; x, 1; attitude of Israel becomes intelligible; the Jews
xi, 13-14), that he would be prepared — were it possible blocked their own path by considering themselves en-
— to forego in his own case the happiness of union with titled to claim the Messianic Kingdom on the grounds
Christ, if by such a renunciation he could secure for his of their personal justice In view of this repugnant
brethren a place in the heart of the Saviour. spirit, compelled to leave Israel to its own
God was
These utterances can offer a stumbling-block only to resources, until it should stretch out its hand after the
those who do not understand St. Paul, who cannot merciful love of its Creator; then would the hour of
fathom the depths of his apostolic charity. If we study salvation also strike for the People of the Covenant
closely the character of the Apostle, realize the fervour (ix, 30 sqq.; x, 3-21; xi, 32)

of his feelings, the warmth of his love and devotion —

Securing of Salvation. ^To the question how man
to Christ's work and Person, we shall recognize how obtains salvation, St. Paul has but one answer:
spontaneously these feelings flow from such a heart, not by natural powers, not by works of the Law,
how natural they are to such a noble, unselfish nature. but by faith, and indeed by faith without the works
The more recognition and confidence Paul won from of the Law (iii, 28). At the very beginning of the
the Gentiles in the course of his apostolate, the more Epistle Paul refers to the complete failure of natural
bitter must have been the thought that Israel refused powers (i, 18-32), and repeatedly returns to this idea
to understand its God, stood aloof peevish and hos- but he lays the greatest emphasis on the inadequacy of
tile, and in its hatred and bUndness even persecuted the Law. From the Jews this statement met with
the Messias in His Church and opposed as far as serious opposition. What does the Apostle mean then
possible the work of His Apostles. These were the when he preaches the necessity of faith?
hardest things for love to bear, they explain the abrupt, Faith is for St. Paul often nothing else than the
determined break with and the ruthless warfare against Gospel, i. e., the whole economy of salvation in Christ
the destructive spirit of unbeUef, when Paul sees that (Gal., i, 23; iii, 23, 25, etc.); often it is the teaching
he can protect the Church of Christ in no other way. of faith, the proclamation of the faith, and the life of
Hence he has no toleration for insistence on the faith (Rom., i, 5; xii, 6; xvi, 26; Gal., iii, 2; Acts,
practice of the Law within the Christian fold, since vi, 7; Rom., i, 8; II Cor., i, 23; xi, 15; xiii, 5; Acts,
such insistence is in the last analysis the spirit of Juda- xiii, 8; xiv, 21; xvi, 5). That according to all these
ism, which is incompatible with the spirit of Christ conceptions salvation comes only by faith without the
and the Divine election to grace, for such assistance works of the Law, needs no demonstration. But to
would by practice of the law supplement or set a seal what faith was Abraham indebted for his justification?
on Faith. But from the same apostolic bve springs also (iv, 3, 9, 13-22; Gal., iii, 6). Abraham had to believe
the truly practical spirit of consideration which Paul the word of God, that is hold it for certain. In the
preaches and exercises (I Cor., Lx, 20-22), and which he case of the Christian the same faith is demanded:
demands from others everywhere, so long as the Gospel "to believe that we shall live also together with Christ:
is not thereby jeopardized. One can easily understand knowing that Christ rising again from the dead, dieth
how such a man can at one moment become inflamed now no more" (vi, 8-9); "If thou confess with thy
with bitter resentment and holy anger, showing no mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in thy heart that
indulgence when his life's work is threatened, and can God hath raised him up from the dead, thou shalt be
later in a peaceful hour forget all, recognizing in the saved" (x, 9). This faith is undeniably belief on the
offender only a misguided brother, whose fault arises, authority of God (dogmatic faith). The same concep-
not from maUce, but from ignorance. In a soul which tion of faith underhes all the exhortations to submit
loves deeply and keenly one might expect the co- ourselves in faith to God; submission presupposes the
existence of such contrasts; they spring from a single conviction of faith (i, 5; vi, 16-19; x, 16; xv, 18).
root, a powerful, zealous, all-compelling charity — that The faith described in the Epistle to the Romans, as
certainty of St. Paul the Apostle of the Gentiles. elsewhere in St. Paul's writings and in the New Testa-
VII. Theological Contents: Faith and Works. ment in general, is furthermore a trusting faith, e. g.,
— ^The theological importance of the Epistle to the in the case of Abraham, whose trust is specially extolled
(iv, 17-21; cf. iii, 3, unbelief and the fidelity of God).
Romans lies in its treatment of the great fundamental
problem of justification; other important questions So far is this confidence in God's fidelity from excluding
—
(e. g., original sin v, 12-21) are treated in connexion dogmatic faith that it is based undeniably on it alone
and unconditionally requires it. Without the unswerv-
with and from the standpoint of justification In the
Epistle to the Galatians Paul had already defended
his ing acceptance of certain truths (e. g., the Messiahship,
teaching against the attacks of the extreme Jewish the Divinity of Christ, the redemptory character of
Galatians, Christ's death, the Resurrection, etc.), there is for St.
Christians in contrast with the Epistle to the
;

Paul, as he never fails to make clear in his Epistles,

that to the Romans was not evoked by
the excitement
of a polemical warfare. The discussion of the ques- no Christianity. Therefore, justifying faith comprises
The fundamental doc- dogmatic faith as well as hope. Again, it would never
tion in it is deeper and wider.
to all desirous of salvation have occurred to St. Paul to conceive baptism as other
trine which Paul proclaims
the case of all men the call to the than necessary for salvation; Romans itself offers the
is as follows- In
on the free surest guarantee that baptism and faith, viewed of
Messianic salvation is absolutely dependent
merit or ability of the individ- course from different standpoints, are alike necessary
election of God; no
among the descendants ot Abra- for justification (vi, 3 sqq.; Gal., iii, 26 sq.).
ual neither inclusion
The turning away from sin is also necessary for jus-
ham nor the practice of the Law, gives a
title to this

XIII.— 11
 ROMANS 162 ROMANS
titication. Paul cannot proclaim sufficiently the in- a scarcely intelligible position in view of the historical
compatibility of sin and the Divine sonship. If the conditions. If the Epistle of St. James were com-

Christian must avoid sin, those who seek salvation posed shortly after the year 60, it might, in view of
must also turn aside from it While St. Paul never the lively intercourse among the Christians, have been
speaks in his Epistle of penance and contrition, these influenced by the misunderstood views of the teach-
constitute so self-evident a condition that they do not ings of St. Paul, and James may have combated the
call for any special mention. Besides, chapters i-iii misused formula of St. Paul. The almost verbal con-
are only a grand exposition of the truth that sin sepa- nexion in the passages might thus be accounted for.
rates us from God. For the nature of justification it is (2) Does there exist any real opposition between
immaterial whether Paul is displaying before the eyes Paul and James? This question is answered in the
of the Christian the consequences of sin, or is making affirmative in many quarters to-day. Paul, it is as-
sentiments of contrition and a change to a Christian serted, taught justification through faith without
mode of life a necessary preliminary condition for the works, while James simply denied St. Paul's teaching
obtaining of grace What sentiments he requires, he (Rom., iii, 28), and seeks a different explanation for
describes in the words: "For in Jesus Christ, neither the chief passage quoted by St. Paul (Gen., xv, 6)
circumcision availeth any thing nor uncircumcision; concerning the faith of Abraham (Jtllicher and others).
but faith, which worketh by charity" (Gal., v, 6). It But does James really treat of justification in the
is merely a repetition of this sentence when the Apostle, same sense as St. Paul? Their formulation of the
after proclaiming freedom in Christ, seeks to remove the question is different from the outset. James speaks
misconception that the condition of Christian freedom of true justice before God, which, he declares, consists
might endure anything and become synonymous with not alone in a firm faith, but in a faith supported and
liberty to sin (Gal., v, 13-21; cf. Rom., xii, 1 sq.; xiii, enlivened by works (especially of charity). Without
12 sqq.; viii, 12 sqq.; xi, 20 sqq.). works faith is useless and dead (ii, 17, 20). James
We thus see what Paul would have us understand addresses himself to readers who are already within
by justifying faith. If he does not always describe the fold, but who may not lead a moral life and may
it from every standpoint as in the present instance, appeal in justification of their conduct to the word of
but designates it as dogmatic or trusting faith, the faith. To those who adopt this attitude, James can
reason is easily understood. He has no intention of only answer: "But he that hath looked into the per-
describing all the stages along the road to justification; fect law of liberty, and hath continued therein, not
he is so far from desiring to give a strict definition of becoming a forgetful hearer, but a doer of the work,
this man shall be blessed in his deed
'

its nature, that he wishes merely to indicate the fun- (i, 2.5) Through-
' .

damental condition on the part of man. This con- out his Epistle James aims at attaining the translation
dition is, from the standpoint of the supernatural of faith to life and works; in speaking of a faith that
character of justification, not so much the feeling of worketh by charity (Gal., v, 6), Paul really teaches
contrition or the performance of penitential works as exactly the same as James.
the trusting acceptance of the promise of God. When But what of the argument of James and his appeal
a person has once taken this first step, all the rest, if to Abraham? "Was not Abraham our father justified
he be consistent, follows of itself. To regard justify- by works, offering up Isaac his son upon the altar?
ing faith as the work or outcome of natural man and Seest thou, that faith did co-operate with his works;
to attribute grace to this work, is to misunderstand and by works faith was made perfect? And the
the Apostle. The free submission which lies in faith scripture was fulfilled, saying Abraham believed God,
:

prepares the soul for the reception of grace. Provided and it was reputed to him to justice, and he was called
that the teaching of St. Paul be studied in the context the friend of God" (ii, 21-23). Paul, like James, ap-
in which it is found in the Epistles to the Romans and —
pealed to the same Abraham both rightly from their
the Galatians, it cannot be misunderstood. If, how- individual standpoints. With entire right could Paul
ever, Paul in both Epistles forestalls an unjustified declare that Abraham owed his justice, not to cir-
practical consequence that might be drawn therefrom, cumcision, but to his faith with complete right could
;

this is a proof of his deep knowledge of mankind, but James appeal to Abraham's act of obedience and assert
in no way a limitation of his doctrine. The faith that faith accompanied it and by it faith was com-
which justifies without the works of the Law and pleted. And if James applies to this act the phrase:
the Christian freedom from the Law continue " It was reputed to him to justice ", he is quite entitled
unimpaired. The possibility of error would be to do so, since Abraham's obedience is rewarded with
afforded if one were to withdraw the words of the a new and glorious promise of God (Gen., xxii, 16
Apostle from their context; even shibboleths for sqq.).
libertinism might be extracted in that case from his from the whole passage that James does
It is clear
teaching. This leads us to the well-known sentence not use the word "justify ", in the sense in which Paul
in the Epistle of St. James concerning faith without speaks of the first justification, but in the sense of an
works (ii, 20, 21). Was this written in premeditated increasing justification (cf. Rom., ii, 13; Apoc, xxii,
opposition to St. Paul? 11), as corresponds to the object of the Epistle. Of
—
Paul and Jamex. Two questions must be dis- any contradiction between the Epistle to the Romans
tinguished in our inquiry: (1) Is there an historical and that of St. James, therefore, there can be no
connexion between the statements in the Epistles? question.
(2) How are the antitheses to be explained? Are Finally, there is a difference in the use of the term
they premeditated or not? faith. In the passage in question, James uses the
(1) The possibility of a direct reference in the term in a narrow sense. As shown by the refer-
Epistle of St. James to St. Paul (this hypothesis alone ence to the faith of the demons (ii, 19), nothing more
is tenable) depends on the question of the priority of is here meant by faith than a firm conviction and
the Epistle. For scholars (e. g., Neander, Beyschlag, undoubting acceptance, which is shared even by the
Th. Zahn, Belser, Camerlynck, etc.) who hold that damned, and has therefore in itself no moral value.
the Epistle of St. James was written before a.d. 50, Such a would never have been termed by St.
faith
the question is settled. But the grounds for the Paul a justifying faith. That throughout the whole
assigning of this date to the Epistle are not entirely course of the Epistle of St. James St. Paul's doctrine
convincing, since the Epistle fits in better with the of justification is never called into question, and that
conditions of the succeeding decades. An extreme St. Paul on his side shows nowhere the least opposition
attitude is adopted by many modern critics (e. g., Chr. to St. James, calls for no further proof. The funda-
Baur, Hilgenfeld, H. J. Holtzmann, von Soilen, Jii- mental conceptions and the whole treatment in the
licher), who assign the Epistle to the second century two Epistles exclude all views to the contrary.
 ROMANUS 163 ROMANUS
Consult the Introductions by Jacquieh, Cornelt, Belber,
confessorum'', c. xlv), and relates that St. Martin of
KaULEN, Th. ZaHN, HoLTZMANN, JttuCHEB; LlGHTFOOT, The
Structure and Destination of the Epistle to the Romans in Jour, Tours made ready the grave of the dead Romanus.
of Philolog., II (1869), reprinted in Biblical Essays (London, An old life of St. Romanus was published in the
1893-4), 285-374.
Commentaries: OmGEN-RnFiNus; Ephrabm; Chhysostom;
"Analecta BoUandiana", V (1866), 178 sqq. The
Ambbosiastee; Pelagtos; AnonsTiNE; Theophylactus; ' feast of the saint is observed on 24 November.
ODcnMEisiins; Thomas Aquinas; Erasmus; Cajetan; Tolet; (5) St. Romanus, Abbot of Condat, now St. Claude in
EsTlus; A Lapide; Calmet; Reithmatr; Adalb. Maiek the French Jura, b. about 400; d. in 463 or 464. When
(1847); BispiNG (2nd ed., Milnster, 1860), Mac Evilly (3rd ed.,
Dublin, 1875) Schabfer (Milnster, 1891) Cornelv (Paris, 1896).
; ;
thirty-five years old he went into the lonely region of
Protestant Commentaries: Luther, Vorlesungen iiber den Condat to live as a hermit, where after a while his
RUmerbrief lB15-ie., ed. by Picker (Leipzig, 1908); Melanch- younger brother Lupicinus followed him. A large
thon; Beza; Calvin; Zwingli; Grotius; Bengel; Wett-
stein; Tholuok (5th ed., 1856); Olshausen (2nd ed., 1840); number of scholars, among whom was St. Eugendus,
Fritzsche (3 vols., 1836^3) ; Meyer-Weiss (9th ed., Gottingen, placed themselves under the direction of the two holy
1899, Edinburgh, 1873-4); Lipsins, HoUznmnn, Handkom-
tr.,
brothers who founded several monasteries: Condat
mentar (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1892); Julicher (J. Weiss), Die
Schriften des N. T,, II (2nd ed., Gottingen, 1908); Lietzmann, (now Saint-Claude), Lauconne (later Saint-Lupicin,
Handbuch zum N. T., Ill (Tubingen, 1906); Zahn (Leipzig, as Lupicinus was buried there). La Balme (later Saint-
1910); GoDET (2nd ed., 1883-90, tr. Edinburgh, 1881); GlF- Romain-de-Roche), where St. Romanus was buried,
FORD, Speaker's Commentary (1881), separate (1886); Sanday-
Headlam, The International Crit, Commentary (5th ed., Edinburgh, and Romainmdtier (Romanum monasterium) in the
1905). For further hterature see Cornely; Sanday; Weiss. canton of Vaud in Switzerland. Romanus was or-
Theological Questions. Simar, Die Theol, des hi. Paulus (2nd dained priest by St. Hilary of Aries in 444, and with
ed., Freiburg, 1883); Prat, La thM. de s. P., I (Paris, 1908);
Holtzmann, Lehrbuch d, neutest. Theol. II (Freiburg, 1908; ^
Lupicinus he directed these monasteries until his
new ed. being published) Weiss, Lehrbuch d. bibl. Theol. d, N.
; death. His feast is observed on 28 February. Two
T. (7th ed. (Stuttgart, 1903); Peine, TheoL des N. T. (2nded., lives of him are in existence: one by Gregory of Tours
Leipzig, 1911); Bartmann, St. P. u. St. J. ilber die Rechtfer-
tigung in Bibl. Studien, XI (Freiburg, 1904) i. ,
in the "Liber vitae patrum" (Mon. Germ. Hist.:
A. Merk. Script. Merov., I, 663), and an anonymous "Vita
Sanctorum Romani, Lupicini, Eugendi" [ibid.. Ill,
Romanus, Saints. — (1) A Roman martyr Ro- 131 sqq.; cf. Benolt, "Histoire de St-Claude", I
manus mentioned in the "Liber Pontificalis" (ed.
is (Paris, 1890); Besson, "Recherches sur les origines
Duchesne, I, 155) with three other ecclesiastics as des 6veches de Geneve, Lausanne, et Sion" (Fribourg,
companions in the martyrdom of St. Lawrence (10 1906), 210 sqq.] (6) St. Romanus, monk in a monas-
August, 258). There is no reason to doubt that this tery near Subiaco, Italy, at the beginning of the sixth
mention rests upon a genuine ancient tradition. Like century. He aided St. Benedict when the latter with-
St. Lawrence Romanus was buried in the Catacomb drew into a solitary place and regularly brought Bene-
of the Cyriaca on the Via Tiburtina. The grave of dict bread to support life (St. Gregory the Great,
St. Romanus is exphcitly mentioned in the Itineraries "Dialogi", II, i). Romanus later (from 623) repre-
of the seventh century (De Rossi, "Roma sotter- sented St. Benedict at Subiaco, and is said to have
ranea", I, 178-9). In the purely legendary Acts of afterwards gone to Gaul and to have founded a small
St. Lawrence, the ostiary Romanus is transformed into monastery at Dryes-Fontrouge, where he died about
a soldier, and an account in accordance with this state- 550 and was venerated as a saint. His feast is ob-
ment was inserted in the historical martyrologies and served on 22 May. A St. Romanus, who is venerated
in the present Roman Martyrology which latter places , as Bishop of Auxerre on 8 October, is probably iden-
his feast on 9 August (cf. Duchfourcq, "Les Gesta tical with this Abbot Romanus whose relics were sub-
Martyrum remains", I, 201). (2) In 303 or 304, at sequently translated to Auxerre [cf. "Acta SS.",
the beginning of the Diocletian persecution, a deacon May, V, 153 sqq.; October, III, 396 sqq.; Adlhoch in
called Romanusof Caesarea in Palestine suffered " Studien und Mitteilungen aus dem Benedictiner- und
martyrdom at Antioch. Upon the proclamation of Cisterzienserorden" (1907), 267 sqq., 501 sqq.;
Diocletian's edict he strengthened the Christians of (1908), 103 sqq., 327 sqq., 587 sqq.; Leclerc, "Vie de
Antioch and openly exhorted the weaker brethren, St Remain, educateur de St B6noit" (Paris, 1893)].
who were willing to offer heathen sacrifices, not to (7) St. Romanus, Bishop of Rouen, date of birth un-
waver in the Faith. He was taken prisoner, was con- known; d. about 640. His feast is observed on 23
demned to death by fixe, and was bound to the stake; October. The legend of this saint has little historical
however, as the Emperor Galerius wasthenin Antioch, value (Acta SS., October, X, 91 sqq.), and there is
Romanus was brought before him. At the emperor's but little authentic information concerning him [cf.
command the tongue of the courageous confessor "Analecta BoUandiana" (1904), 337 sq.] (8) St.
was cut out. Tortured in various ways in prison he Romanus, "the Singer", the most important repre-
was finally strangled. Eusebius speaks of his martyr- sentative of rhythmic poetry in the Greek Church.
dom in "De martyribus Palestin.", c. ii. Prudentius According to the Greek "Menaia" he was born in
("Peristephanon", Xin "P. L.", LX, 444 sqq.) relates Syria, was ordained deacon at Berytus, then went to
other details and gives Romanus a companion in Constantinople, where he became one of the clergy
martyrdom, a Christian by name Barulas. On this at the Blachemen church. The era in which he lived
account several historians, among them Baronius, is not certainly ascertained; most probably, however,
consider that there were two martyrs named Romanus his residence in Constantinople was from about 515
at Antioch, though more likely there was but the one to 556. His feast is observed on 1 October. Several
whom Eusebius mentions. Prudentius has introduced of his poems were edited by Pitra, "Analecta sacra",
legendary features into his account, and his connexion I (Paris, 1876), 1-241 [cf. Maas, "Die Chronologie
of the martyrdom of Barulas with that of Romanus is der Hymnen des Romanus" in "Byzantin. Zeit-
probably arbitrary. The feast of St. Romanus is schrift" (1906), 1-44; Bardenhewer, "Patrologie"
observed on 18 November [cf. Allard, "Histoire des (3rd ed.), 486].
persecutions", IV, 173 sq.; Quentin, "Lesmartyro- J. P. KiBSCH.

loges historiques" (Paris, 1908), 183-5]. (3) The

" Martyrologium Hieronymianum " mentions mar- —
Romanus, Pope. Of this pope very little is known
tyrs of this name at several dates, chiefly in large com- with certainty, not even the date of his birth nor the
panies of Christians who suffered martyrdom. No exact dates of his consecration as pope and of his
further particulars are known of any of them. (4) death. He was born at Gallese near Civit^ Castellana,
A holy priest named Romanus laboured in the dis- and was the son of Constantine. He became cardinal
trict of Blaye, in the present French department of of St. Peter ad Vincula and pope about August, 897.
the Gironde, at the end of the fourth century. Greg- He died four months later. He granted the pallium
ory of Tours gives an account of him ("De gloria to Vitalis, Patriarch of Grado, and a privilege for his
 ROME 164 ROME
rhurch; and to the Spanish Bishops of Elna and City of Rome rises on the banks of the Tiber at a dis-
Gerona, he confirmed the possessions of their sees. tance of from 16 to 19 miles from the mouth of that
His coins bear the name of the Emperor Lambert, and ri\er, which makes a deep furrow in the plain which
his own monogram with "Ses. Petrus" The con- extends between the Alban hills, to the south; the
temporary historian Frodoard has three verses about hills of Palestrina and Tivoli, and the Sabine hills, to
him which ar^ue him a man of \'irtue. It is possible the east; and the Umbrian hills and Monte Tolfa, to
he was deposed by one of the factions which then dis- the north. The city stands in latitude 41° 54' N. and
tracted Rome, for we read that "he was made a longitude 12° 30' E. of Greenwich. It occupies, on
monk", a phrase which, in the language of the times, the left bank, not only the plain, but also the adjacent
often denoted deposition. heights, namely, portions of the Parioli hills, of the
Jakf£, I{i'q€i^ta Pont. Rom., I CLcipziK, 18SK), 441; Duchesne, Pincian, the Quirinal, the Viminal, the Esquiline
Li'ier P/mlificnUs. II (Paris, 1S92), 230; M.vnn, Lives of the Popes
(which are only the extremities of a mountain-mass
in the Early Middle Ages, IV (London, 1910), S6 sq.
of tufa extending to the Alban hills), the Capitohne,
Horace K. Mann.
the Ctelian, the Palatine, and the Aventine hills —
Rome. —The significance of Rome lies primarily in which are now isolated. On the right bank is the
valley lying beneath Monte Mario, the ^'atican, and
the fact that it is the city of the pope. The Bishop of
Rome, a.s the successor of St. Peter, is the Vicar of the Janiculan, the last-named of which has now
Christ on earth and tlie visible head of the Catholic become covered with houses and gardens. The Tiber,
Church. Rome is consequently the centre of unity traversing the city, forms two sharp bends and an
in belief, the source of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and island (S. Bartolomeo), and within the city its banks
the seat of the supreme authority which can bind by are protected by the strong and lofty walls which were
its enactments the faithful throughout the world. begun in 1S75. The river is crossed by fourteen
The Dioce.se of Rome is known as the "See of Peter", bridges, one of them being only provisional, while
the "Apostolic See", the "Holy Roman Church", the ten have been built since 1870. There is also a rail-
"Holy See" —
titles which indicate its unique position road drawbridge near St. Paul's. Navigation on the
in Christendom and suggest the origin of its pre- river is practicable only for vessels of light draught,
eminence. Rome, more than any other city, bears which anchor at Ripa Grande, taking cargoes of oil
witness both to the past splendour of the pagan world and other commodities.
and to tlie triumph of Christianity. It is here that For the cure of souls, the city is divided into 54
the history of the Church can be traced from the parishes (including 7 in the suburbs), administered
earliest days, from the humble beginnings in the partly by secular clergy, partly by regular. The
Catacombs to the majestic ritual of St. Peter's. .Vt boundaries of the parishes have been radically changed
every turn one comes upon places hallowed by the by Pius X, to meet new needs arising out of topo-
deaths of the martyrs, the lives of innumerable saints, graphical changes. Each parish has, besides its
the memoiies of wise and holy pontiffs. From Rome parish priest, one or two assistant priests, a chief
the bearers of the Gospel message went out to the sacristan, and an indeterminate number of chaplains.
peoples of Europe and eventually to the uttermost The parish priests every year elect a chamberlain
ends of the earth. To Rome, again, in e^-eiy age of the clergy, whose position is purely honorary;
countless pilgrims have thronged from all the nations, every month they assemble for a conference to dis-
and especially from English-speaking countries. With cuss cases in moral theology and also the practical
religion the missionaries carried the best elements of e.xigencies of the ministry. In each parish there is a
ancient culture and civilization which Rome had parochial committee for Catholic works; each has its
preserved amid all the vicissitudes of barbaric in- various confraternities, many of which have their
vasion. To these treasur(>s of antiquity have been own church and oratory. In the vast extent of coun-
added the productions of a nobler art uispired by higher try outside of Rome, along the main highways, there
ideals, that have filled Rome with masterpieces in are chapels for the accommodation of the few settled
architecture, painting, and sculpture. These appeal inhabitants, and the labourers and shepherds who
indeed to e\'ery mind endowed with artistic percep- from October to July are engaged in the work of the
tion; but their full meaning only the Catholic belie\er open country. In former times most of these chapels
<;an ;ippreciate, because he alone, in his deep^t thought had priests of their own, who also kept schools; now-
a,nd feeling, isat one with the spirit that pulsates adays, through the exertions of the Society for the
here in the heart of the Christian world. Rehgious Aid of the Agro Romano (i. e. the country
Many details concerning Rome have been set forth districts around Rome), priests are taken thither from
in other articles of The Catholic Encyclopedia. Rome every Sunday to say Mass, catechize, and
For the prerogatives of the p:ipacy the reader is preach on the Gospel. The houses of male rehgious
referred to Pope; for the ecclesiastical government of number about 160; of female religious, 205, for the
tli(- city and diocese, to Cardin.\l Vic^e; for litur- most part devoted to teaching, ministering to the
gical matters, to Roman Rite; for education, to sick in public and private hospitals, managing various
Ro.MAN Colleges; for literary development, to houses of retreat, etc. Besides the three patriarchal
Acade.mies, Roman; for history, to the biographical chapters (see below, under Churches), there are at
articles on the various popes, and the articles Con- Rome eleven collegiate chapters.
st.vntine the Great, Charlemagne, etc. There is In the patriarchal basilicas there are confessors
a si)ecial article on each of the religious orders, saints, for all the principal languages. Some nations have
and artists mentioned in this article, while the details their national churches (Germans, Anima and Campo
of the papal administration, both spiritual and tem- Santo; French, S. Luigi and S. Claudio; Croats, S.
poral, will be found treated under Apostolic Camera; Girolamo dei Schiavoni Belgians, S. Giuliano;
;

Ai'dien'oes, Pontifical; Exaaiiners, Apostolic; Portuguese, S. Antonio; Spaniards, S. Maria in

Holy See; Rescripts, Papal; Roman Congrega- Monserrato; to all which may be added the churches
tions; Roman Curia; Rota, Sacra Ro.mana; of the Oriental rites) Moreover, in the churches and
.

St.\tes of the Church, etc. Of the great Christian chapels of many

religious houses, particularly the
monuments of the Eternal City, special articles are generalates, as well as in the various national col-
devoted to St. Peter, Basilica of; St. Peter, Tomb leges, it is possible for foreigners to fulfil their re-
of; Lateran Basilica; Vatican; Chair of Peter. ligious obligations. For English-speaking persons
The present article will be divided: I. Topography the convents of the Irish Dominicans (S. Clemente)
and Existing Cimditions; II. General History of the and of the Irish Franciscans (S. Isidoro), the English,
City; III. Churches and other Monuments. Irish, and American Colleges, the new Church of S.
I. Topography and E.\.i.sting Conditions. — The Patrizio in the Via Ludovisi, that of S. Giorgio of the
 ROME 165 ROME
English Sisters in the Via S. Sebastianello, and par- the other civil and military officials of both the na-
ticularly S. Silvestro in Capite (Pallottini) should be tional Government and the provincial. For public
mentioned. In these churches, too, there are, regu- instruction there are the university, two technical
larly, sermons in English on feast-day afternoons, institutes, a commercial high school, five gymnasium-
during Lent and Advent, and on other occasions. lyceums, eight technical schools, a female institute
Sometimes there are sermons in Enghsh in other for the preparation of secondary teachers, a national
churches also, notice being given beforehand by boarding school, and other lay institutions, besides
bills posted outside the churches and by advertise- a military college. There are also several private
ments in the papers. First Communions are mostly —
schools for languages etc. the Vaticana, the Nazion-
made in the parish churches; many parents place ale (formed out of the libraries of the Roman College,
their daughters in seclusion during the period of of the AracoeU Convent, and other monastic libraries
immediate preparation, in some educational institu- partially ruined), the Corsiniana (now the School of
tion. There are also two institutions for the prepa- the Accademia dei Lincei), the Casanatense (see
ration of boys for their First Communion, one of Casanatta), the Angelica (formerly belonging to the
them without charge (Ponte Rotto). Christian doc- Augustinians), the Vallicellana (Oratorians, founded
trine is taught both in the day and night schools by Cardinal Baronius), the Militare Centrale, the
which are dependent either on the Holy See, or Chigiana, and others. (For the academies see
on rehgious congregations or Catholic associations. Academies, Roman.) Foreign nations maintain
For those who attend the public elementary schools, institutions for artistic, historical, or archaeological
parochial catechism is provided on Sunday and feast- study (America, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary,
day afternoons. For intermediate and university Prussia, Holland, Belgium, France) . There are three
students suitable schools of religious instruction astronomical and meteorological observatories: the
have been formed, connected with the language Vatican, the Capitol (Campidoglio), and the Roman
schools and the scholastic ripetizioni, so as to attract College (Jesuit), the last-named, situated on the
the young men. The confraternities, altogether 92 Janiculan, has been suppressed. The museums and
in number, are either professional (for members of galleries worthy of mention are the Vatican (see
certain professions or trades), or national, or for some Vatican), those of Christian and of profane an-
charitable object (e. g., for charity to prisoners; S. tiquities at the Lateran (famous for the "Dancing
Lucia del Gonfalone and others like it, for giving Satyr"; the "Sophocles", one of the finest of portrait
dowries to poor young women of good character; the statues in existence, found at Terracina; the "Nep-
Confraternita della Morte, for burying those who die tune", the pagan and Christian sarcophagi with decora-
in the country districts, and various confraternities tions in relief, and the statue of Hippolytus). In the
for escorting funerals, of which the principal one is gallery at the Lateran there are paintings by Crivelli,
that of the Sacconi; that of S. Giovanni DecoUato, Gozzoli, Lippi, Spagna, Francia, Palmezzano, Sasso-
to assist persons condemned to death), or again they ferrato, and Seitz. The Capitoline Museum contains
have some purely devotional aim, like the Con- Roman prehistoric tombs and household furniture,
fraternities of the Blessed Sacrament, of the Christian from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius, a head of
reliefs
Doctrine, of the various mysteries of religion, and of Amalasunta, a half-length figure of the Emperor
certain saints. Commodus, the epitaph of the infant prodigy Qumtus
For ecclesiastical instruction there are in the city, Sulpicius Maximus, the Esquiline and the Capito-
besides the various Italian and foreign colleges, three line Venuses, "Diana of theEphesians", the Capito-
great ecclesiastical universities: the Gregorian, under line Wolf (Etruscan work of the fifth century B. c),
the Jesuits; the Schools of the Roman Seminary, at Marforius, the Dying Gladiator, busts of the emperors
S. Apollinare; the CoUegio Angelico of the Dominicans, and other famous men of antiquity, and Vespasian's
formerly known as the Minerva. Several religious "Lex regia"; the Gallery contains works by Spagna,
—
orders also have schools of their own the Benedic- Tintoretto, Caracci, Caravaggio, Guercino (St. Pet-
tines at S. Anselmo, the Franciscans at S. Antonio, ronilla, the original of the mosaic in St. Peter's),
the Redemptorists at S. Alfonso, the Calced Carme- Guido Reni, Titian, Van Dyke, Domenichino, Paolo
lites at the College of S. Alberto, the Capuchins, the Veronese, and other masters. There are important
Alinor Conventuals, the Augustinians, and others. numismatic collections and collections of gold jewelry.
(See Roman Colleges.) For classical studies there The ViUa Giulia has a collection of Etruscan terra-
are, besides the schools of S. Apollinare, the CoUegio cotta; the Museo Romano, objects recently excavated;
Massimo, under the Jesuits, comprising also element- the Museo Kircheriano has been enlarged into an
ary and technical schools; the CoUegio Nazareno ethnographical museum. The Borghese Gallery is in
(Piarists), the gymnasium and intermediate school the villa of the same name. The National GaUery,
of which take rank with those of the Government; in the Exposition Building (Palazzo deW Esposizione),
the Istituto Angelo Mai (Barnabite). The Brothers is formed out of the Corsini, Sciarra, and Torlonia
of the Christian Schools have a flourishing technical collections, together with modern acquisitions. There
institute (de Merode) with a boarding-house {con- are also various private collections in different parts
vitto)
. There are eight colleges for youths under the of the city.
direction of ecclesiastics or religious. The Holy The institutions of public charity are aU consoli-
See and the Society for the Protection of Cathohc dated in the Congregazione di Cariti, imder the Com-
Interests also maintain forty-six elementary schools munal Administration. There are twenty-seven
for the people, mostly under the care of religious con- public hospitals, the most important of which are:
gregations. For the education of girls there are the Polyclinic, which is destined to absorb all the
twenty-six institutions directed by Sisters, some of others; S. Spirito, to which is annexed the lunatic
which also receive day-pupils. The orphanages are asylum and the foundhng hospital; S. Salvatore, a
nine in number, and some of them are connected hospital for women, in the Lateran; S. Giacomo;
with technical and industrial schools. The Salesians, S.Antonio; theConsolazione; two military hospitals.
too, have a similar institution, and there are two There are also an institute for the blind, two clinics
agricultural institutions. Hospices are provided for diseases of the eye, twenty-five asylums for aban-
for converts from the Christian sects and for Hebrew doned children, three lying-in hospitals, and numerous
neophytes. Thirty other houses of refuge, for in- private clinics for paying patients. The great public
fant.s, orphans, old people, etc., are directed by re- promenades are the Pincian, adjoining the Villa
ligious men or women. Borghese and now known as the Umberto Primo,
As the capital of Italy, Rome is the residence of where a zoological garden has recently been instaUed,
the reigning house, the ministers, the tribunals, and and the Janiculum. Several private parks or gardens,
 ROME 166 ROME
as the \'illa Pamphili, are also accessible to the public works weie the drains, or sewers
in this earliest period
every Juy. (cloacce), fordraining the marshes around the Pala-
The population of Rome in 1901 was 462,783. Of tine, the work of the Etruscan Tarquinius Priscus;
these 5000 were Protestants, 7000 Jews, 8200 of other the city wall was built by Servius Tullius, who also
religions and no religion. In the census now (1910) organized the Plebeians, dividing them into thirty
being made an increase of more than 100,000 is tribes; the Sublician Bridge was constructed to unite
expected. Rome is now the most salubrious of all the Rome of that time with the Janiculan.
the large cities of Italy, its mortality for 1907 being During the splendid reign of Tarquinius Superbus,
lS-8 per thousand, against 19'9 at Milan and 19-6 at Rome was the mistress of Latium as far as Circeii
Turin. The Press is represented by five agencies: and Signia. But, returning victorious from Ardea,
there are 17 daily papers, two of them Catholic the king found the gates of the city closed against him.
("Osservatore Romano" and "Corriere d'ltaUa"); S Rome took to itself a repubhcan form of government,
periodicals are issued once or oftener in the week with two consuls, who held office for only one year;
(") Catholic, 4 in English
— "Rome", "Roman Her- only in times of difficult}' was a dictator elected, to
ald", "Roman Messenger", "Roman World"); 88 wield unlimited power. In tlie expulsion of Tarquinius
are issued more than once a month (7 Catholic); Superbus some historians have seen a revolt of the
there are 101 monthlies (19 Cathohc); 5,5 periodicals Latin element against Etruscan domination. Besides
appear less frequently than once a month. wars and treaties with the Latins and other peoples,
—
General History of the City. Arms and imple- the principal events, down to the burning of Rome
ments of the Pala!olithic Age, found in the near vicin- by the Gauls, were the institution of the tribunes of
ity of Rome, testify to the presence of man here in the people (trihuni plebis), the establishment of the
tliose remote times. The most recent excavations laws of the Twelve Tables, and the destruction of
have established that as early as the eighth century Veil. In 390 the Romans were defeated by the Gauls
B. c. or, according to some, several centuries earlier, near the River AUia; a few days later the city was
there was a group of human habitations on tlie Pala- taken and set on fire, and after the Gauls had departed
tine Hill, a tufaceous ledge rising in the midst of it was rebuilt without plan or rule. Camillus, the
marshy ground near the Tiber. (That river, it may dictator, reorganized the army and, after long re-
be observed here, was known to the primitive peoples sistance to the change, at last consented that one of
by the name of Rumo, "the River".) Thus is the the consuls should be a plebeian. Southern Etruria
traditional account of the origin of Rome substantially became subject to Rome, with the capture of Nepi
verified. At the same time, or very little later, a and Sutri in 386. The Appian Way and Aqueduct
colony of Sabines was formed on the Quirinal, and were constructed at this period. Very soon it was
on the Esquiline an Etruscan colon}'. Between the possible to think of conquering the whole peninsula.
Palatine and the (,)uirinal rose the Capitoline, once The principal stages of this conquest are formed by
covered by two sacred groves, afterwards occupied the three wars against the Sanmites (victory of Sues-
by the temple of Jupiter and the Rock. Within a sula, 343); the victory of Bovianum, 304; those over
small space, therefore, were established the advance the Etruscans and Umbrians, in 310 and 308; lastly,
guards of three distinct peoples of different characters; the victory of Sentinum, in 295, over the combined
the Latins, shepherds; the Sabines, tillers of the soil; Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls. The Tarentine
the Etruscans, already far advanced in civilization, (282-272) and the First and Second Punic Wars
and therefore in commerce and the industries. How (264-201) determined the conquest of the rest of
these three villages became a city, with, first, the Italy, with the adjacent islands, as well as the first
Latin influence preponderating, then the Sabine, invasion of Spain.
then the Etruscan (the two Tarquins), is all enveloped Soon after this, the Kingdom of Macedonia (Cynos-
in the obscurity of the history of the seven kings cephalse, 197; Pydna, 168) and Greece (capture of
(753-509 B. c). The same uncertainty prevails as Corinth, 146) were subdued, while the war against
to the conquests made at the expense of the surround- Antiochus of Syria (192-89) and against the Galatians
ing peoples. It is unquestionable that all those con- (189) brought Roman supremacy into Asia. In 146
quests had to be made afresh after the expulsion of Carthage was destroyed, and Africa reduced to sub-
the kings. jection; between 149 and 133 the conquest of Spain
But the social organization of the new city during was completed. Everywhere Roman colonies sprang
this period stands out clearly. There were three up. With conquest, the luxurious vices of the con-
original tribes: the Ramnians (Latins), the Titians quered peoples also came to Rome, and thus the
(Sabines), and the Luceres (Etruscans). Each tribe contrast between patricians and plebeians was accen-
was divided into ten curiae, each curia into ten tuated. To champion the cause of the plebeians there
gentes, each gens into ten (or thirty) families. Those arose the brothers Tiberius and Caius Gracchus.
who belonged to these, the most ancient, tribes were The Servile W'ars (132-171) and the Jugurthine War
Patricians, and the chiefs of the threi' hundred gentes (111-105) revealed the utter corruption of Roman
formed the Senate. In the course of time and the society. Marius and Sulla, both of whom had won
wars with surrounding peoples, new inhabitants glory in foreign wars, rallied to them the two opposing
occupied the remaining hills; thus, under TuUus parties. Democratic and Aristocratic, respectively.
Hostilius, the Ciolian was assigned to the population Sulla firmly established his dictatorship with the
of the razed Alba Longa (Albano); the Sabines, victory of the CoUine Gate (83), reorganized the
conquered by Ancus ^lartius, had the Aventine. administration, and enacted some good laws to arrest
Later on, the Viminal was occupi(Hl. The new inhabi- the moral decay of the city. But the times were
tants formed the Plebeians (P/i/i.s), and their civil ripe for the oligarchy, which was to lead in the natural
rights were less than those of the older citizens. The course of events to the monarchy. In the year 60,
internal history of Rome down to the Imperial Period Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first Trium-
is nothing but a struggle of plebeians against patricians virate. While Caesar conquered Gaul (58-50), and
for the aer|uisition of greater civil rights, and these Crassus waged an unsuccessful war against the Par-
struggles resulted in the civil, political, and juridical thians (54-53), Pompey succeeded in gaining supreme
organization of Rome. The king was high-priest, control of the capital. The war between Pompey,
judge, leader in war, and head of the Government; to whom the nobles adhered, and Caesar, who had
the Senate and the Comitia of the People were con- the democracy with him, was inevitable. The battle
^-okeil Ijy him at his pleasure, and debated the of Pharsalia (48) decided the issue; in 45 Ca'sar
measures proposed liy him. Moreover, the kingly was already thinking of establishing monarchical
dignity was hereilitary. Among the important public government; his assassination (44) could do no more
 ROME 167 ROME
than delay the movement towards monarchy. An- doms attributed to this period are, with the exception
other triumvirate was soon formed by Antony, of St. Ignatius's, somewhat doubtful. At the same
Lepidus, and Octavian; Antony and Octavian dis- time the heads of various Gnostic sects settled at
agreed, and at Actium (32) the issue was decided in Rome, notably Valentinus, Cerdon, and Marcion;
Octavian's favour. Roman power had meanwhile but it does not appear that they had any great fol-
been consolidated and extended in Spain, in Gaul, lowing. Under Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, and
and even as far as Pannonia, in Pontus, in Palestine, Commodus, several Roman martyrs are known
and in Egypt. Henceforward Roman history is no Pope St. Telesphorus, Sts. Lucius, Ptoleniaeus, Justin
longer the history of the City of Rome, although it and companions, and the Senator Apollonius. Under
was only under Caracalla (a. d. 211) that Roman Commo<lus, thanks to Martia, his morganatic wife,
citizenship was accorded to all free subjects of the the condition of the Christians improved. At the
empire. same time the schools of Rhodon, St. Justin, and
In the midst of these political vicissitudes the city others flourished. But three new heresies from the
was growing and being beautified with temples and East brought serious trouble to the internal peace of
other buildings, public and private. On the Campus the Church: that of Theodotus, the shoemaker of
Martins and beyond the Tiber, at the foot of the Byzantium; that of Noetus, brought in by one
Janiculan, new and populous quarters sprang up, Epigonus; and Montanism. In the struggle against
with theatres (those of Pompey and of Marcellus) and these heresies, particularly the last-named, the priest
circuses (the Maximus and the Flaminius, 221 b. c). Hippolytus, a disciple of St. Irenaeus, bore a dis-
The centre of political life was the Forum, which had tinguished part, but he, in his turn, incurred the cen-
been the market before the centre of buying and sell- sures of Popes Zephyrinus and Callistus, and became
ing was transferred, in 3SS, to the Campus Martins the leader of a sohismatical party. But the con-
{Forum Holilorium), leaving the old Forum Romanum troversies between Hippolytus and Callistus were not
to the business of the State. Here were the temples confined to theological questions, but also bore upon
of Concord (366), Saturn (497), the Dl Consentes, discipline, the pope thinking proper to introduce
Castor and Pollux (4S4), the Basilica Emilia (179), certain restrictions. Another sect transplanted to
the Basilica Julia (45), the Curia Hostilia (S. Adriano), Rome at this period was that of the Elcesaites.
the Rostra, etc. Scarcely had the empire been con- The persecution of Septimius Severus does not ap-
solidated when Augustus turned his attention to the pear to have been very acute at Rome, where, before
embeUishment of Rome, and succeeding emperors this time, many persons of rank — even of the imperial
followed his example brick-built Rome became marble
: —
household had been Christians. The long period
Rome. After the sixth decade b. c. many Hebrews had of tranquilhty, hardly interrupted by Maximinus
settled at Rome, in the Trastevere quarter and that (235-38), fostered the growth of Roman church
of the Porta Capena, and soon they became a financial organization; so much so that, under Cornelius, after
power. They were incessantly making proselytes, the first fury of the Decian persecution, the city num-
especially among the women of the upper classes. bered about 50,000 Christians. The last-named per-
The names of thirteen synagogues are known as —
secution produced many Roman martyrs Pope St.
existing (though not all at the same time) at Rome —
Fabian among the first and many apostates, and the
during the Imperial Period. Thus was the way pre- problem of reconciling the latter resulted in the schism
pared for the Gospel, whereby Rome, already mis- of Novatian. The persecution of Valerian, too, fell
tress of the world, was to be given a new, sublimer firstupon the Church of Rome. Under Aurelian
—
and more lasting, title to that dominion the domin- (271-76), themenace of an invasion of the Germans,
ion over the souls of all mankind. who had already advanced as far as Pesaro, compelled
Even on the Day of Pentecost, "Roman strangers" the emperor to restore and extend the walls of Rome.
(advenoe Romani, Acts, ii, 10) were present at Jeru- The persecution of Diocletian also had its victims in
salem, and they surely must have carried the good the city, although there are no trustworthy records
news to their fellow-citizens at Rome. Ancient of them; it did not last long, however, in the West.
tradition assigns to the year 42 the first coming of St. Maxentius went so far as to restore to the Christians
Peter to Rome, though, according to the pseudo- their cemeteries and other landed property, and, if
Clementine Epistles, St. Barnabas was the first we are to believe Eusebius, ended by showing them
to preach the Gospel in the Eternal City. Under favour, as a means of winning popularity. At this
Claudius (c. a. d. 50), the name of Christ had become period several pretentious buildings were erected
such an occasion of discord among the Hebrews of baths, a circus, a basilica, etc. In the fourth and
Rome that the emperor drove them all out of the fifth centuries the city began to be embellished with
city,though they were not long in returnmg. About Christian buildings, and the moribund art of antiquity
ten years later Paul also arrived, a prisoner, and ex- thus received a new accession of vitality.
ercised a vigorous apostolate during his sojourn. Of the heresies of this period, Arianism alone dis-
The Christians were numerous at that time, even at turbed the religious peace for a brief space; even
the imperial Court. The burning of the city—by Pelagianism failed to take root. The conflict between
order of Nero, who wished to effect a thorough triumphant Christianity and dying Paganism was
renovation—was the pretext for the first official more bitter. Symmachus, Praetextatus, and Nico-
persecution of the Christian name. Moreover, it was machus were the most zealous and most powerful de-
fenders of the ancient religion. At Milan, St. Am-
very natural that persecution, which had been
oc-
casional, should in course of time
have become brose kept watch. By the end of the fourth century
unnecessary to the deserted temples were becoming filled with cob-
general and systematic; hence it is
the date of the Apostles' martyrdom
from webs; pontiffs and vestals were demanding baptism.
transfer
the year 67, assigned by tradition, to the
year 64 The statues of the gods served as public ornaments;
Domitian s reign precious objects were seldom plundered, and until
(see Peter, Saint; Paul, Saint).
the opponents of the year 526 not one temple was converted to the
took its victims both from among
absolutism and from the Christians;
among them uses of Christian worship. In 402 the necessity
rank-TitusFlavius once more arose of fortifying Rome. The capital
some who were of very exalted
of Pnscilla), and of the world, which had never beheld a hostile army
Clemens, Acilius Glabrio (Cemetery
of the emperor. It must since the days of Hannibal, in 408 withstood the
Flavia Domitilla, a relative
John according to a double siege of Alaric. But the Senate, mainly at the
have been then, too, that St.
(Tertunian) was brought to Rome. instigation of a pagan minority, treated with Alaric,
very ancient legend
,

The reien of Trajan and Adrian was

the culminat- deposed Honorius, and enthroned a new emperor.
at Rome. The Roman martyr- Attains. Two years later, Alaric returned, succeeded
ing point of the arts
 ROME 168 ROME
in taking the city, and sacked it. It is false, however, the pope was master of Rome, the power of the Sword
that the destruction of Rome began then. Under was wielded by the imperial missi, and this arrange-
Alaric, as in the Gothic war of the sixth century, ment came to be more clearly defined by the Constitu-
only so much was destroyed as military exigencies tion of Lothair (824). Thus the government was
rendered inevitable. The intervention of St. Leo the divided. In the ninth century the pope had to defend
Great sa\'etl the Eternal City from the fury of Attila, Rome and Central Italy against the Saracens.
but could not prevent the Vandals, in 456, from Gregoriopolis, the Leonine City, placed outside the
sacking it without mercy for fifteen days: statues, walls for the defence of the Basilica of St. Peter
gold, silver, bronze, brass —
whether the property of and sacked in 846, and Joannipolis, for the defence of
the State, or of the Church, or of private persons St. Paul's, were built by Gregory IV, Leo IV, and
were taken and shipped to Carthage. John VIII. The latter two and John X also gained
Rome still called itself the capital of the empire, splendid victories oxtv these barbarians.
but since the second century it had seen the emperors The decline of the Carlovingian dynasty was not
only at rare and fleeting moments; even the kings of without its effect upon the papacy and upon Rome,
Italy preferred Ravenna as a residence. Theodoric, which became a mere lordship of the great feudal
nevertheless, made provision for the outward mag- families, especially those of Theodora and Marozia.
nificence of the city, preserving its monuments so far When Hugh of Provence wished to marry IVIarozia,
as was possible. Pope St. Agapetus and the learned so as to become master of Rome, his son Alberic
Cassiodorus entertained the idea of creating at rebelled against him, and was elected their chief by
Rome a school of advanced Scripture studies, on the Romans, with the title of Patrician (Patricius)
the model of that which flourished at Edessa, but and Consul. The temporal power of the pope might
the Gothic invasion made shipwreck of this design. then have come to an end, had not John, Alberic's
In that Titanic war Rome stood five sieges. In son, reunited the two powers. But John's life and
536 Behsarius took it without striking a blow. Next his conduct of the government necessitated the inter-
year Vitiges besieged it, cutting the aqueducts, vention of the Emperor Otto I (963), who instituted
plundering the outlying villas, and even penetrating the office of proefechis urbis, to represent the imperial
into the catacombs; the city would have been taken, authority. (This office became hereditary in the ^'ico
had not the garrison of Hadrian's tomb defended family.) Order did not reign for long: Crescentius,
themselves with fragments of the statues of heroes and leader of the anti-papal party, deposed and murdered
gods which they found in that monument. Soon popes. It was only for a few brief intervals that
after the departure of Pope Vigilius from Rome Otto II (980) and Otto III (996-998-1002) were able
(November, 545), King Totila invested it and cap- to re-establish the imperial and pontifical authority.
tured a fleet bearing supplies sent by Vigilius, who by At the beginning of the eleventh century three popes
that time had passed over to Sicily. In December, of the family of the counts of Tusculum immediately
546, the city was captured, through the treachery of succeeded each other, and the last of the three, Bene-
the Isaurian soldiery, and once more sacked. Totila, dict IX, led a life so scandalous as made it necessary
obliged to set out for the south, forced the whole for Henry III to intervene (1046). The schism of
population of Rome to leave the city, so that it was Honorius II and the struggle between Gregory ^TI
left uninhabited; but they returned with Belisariua and Henry IV exasperated party passions at Rome,
in 547. Two years later, another Isaurian treachery and conspicuous in the struggle was another Crescen-
made Totila once more master of the city, which then tius, a member of the Imperialist Party. Robert
for the last time saw the games of the circus. After Guiscard, called to the rescue by Gregory VII, sacked
the battle of Taginae (552), Rome opened its gates the city and burned a great part of it, with immense
to Narses and became Byzantine. The ancient destruction of monuments and documents. The
Senate and the Roman nobility were extinct. There struggle was revived under Henry V, and Rome was
was a breathing-space of sixteen years, and then repeatedly besieged by the imperial troops.
the Lombards drew near to Rome, pillaging and de- Then followed the schism of Pier Leone (Anacletus
stroying the neighbouring regions. St. Gregory the II), which had hardly been ended, in 1143, when
Great has described the lamentable condition of the Girolamo di Pierleone, counselled by Arnold of
city; the same saint did his best to remedy matters. Brescia, made Rome into a republic, modelled after
The seventh century was disastrously marked by a the Lombard communes, under the rule of fifty-six
violent assault on the Lateran made by Mauricius, senators. In vain did Lucius II attack the Capitol,
the chartularius of the Exarch of Ravenna (640), by attempting to drive out the usurpers. The commune
the exile of Pope St. Martin (65.3), and by the visit was in opposition no less to the imperial than to the
of the Emperor Constans I (663). The imprisonment papal authority. At first the popes thought to lean
of St. Sergius, which had been ordered by Justinian on the emperors, and thus Adrian IV induced Barba-
II, was prevented by the native troops of the Ex- rossa to burn Arnold alive (1155). Still, just as in
archate. the preceding century, every coronation of an emperor
In the eighth century the Lombards, with Liut- was accompanied by quarrels and fights between the
prand, were seized with the old idea of occupying Romans and the imperial soldiery. In 1188 a modus
all Italy, and Rome in particular. The popes, from I'ii endi was established between the commune and
Gregor\' II on, saved the city and Italy from Lom- Clement III, the people recognizing the pope's
bard domination by the power of their threats, until sovereignty and conceding to him the right of coinage,
they were finally rescued by the aid of Pepin, when the senators and military captains being obliged to
Rome and the peninsula came under Prankish swear fealty to him. But the friction did not cease.
domination. Pro\'ision was made for the material Innocent III (1203) was obliged to flee from Rome,
well-being of the city by repairs on the wails and the but, on the other hand, the friendly disposition of the
aqueducts, and by the estabhshment of agricultural mercantile middle class facilitated his return and
colonies (domiis cuUa-) for the cultivation of the wide secured to him some influence in the affairs of the
domains surrounding the city. But in Rome itself communes, in which he obtained the appointment of
—
there were various Tactions favouring either the a chief of the Senate, known as "the senator" (1207).
Franks or the Lombards, or, later on. Prankish or The Senate, therefore, was reduced to the status of
Nationalist — and these factions often caused tumults, the Communal Council of Rome; the senator was
as, in particular, on the death of Paul I (767) and at the syndic, or mayor, and remained so until 1870.
the beginning of Leo Ill's pontificate (79^)). 'VVith In the conflicts between the popes, on the one hand,
the coronation of Charlemagne (799) Rome became and, on the other, Frederick II and his heirs, the
finally detached from the Empire of the East. Though Senate was mostly Imperialist, cherishing some sort of
 ROME 169 ROME
desire for the ancient independence; at times, how- porated in the empire. General Miollis, indeed,
ever, it was divided against itself (as in 1262, for deserved well of Rome for the public works he caused
Richard, brother of the King of England, against Man- to be executed (the Pincian), and the archaeological
fred, King of Naples) excavations, which were vigorously and systematically
In 1263 Charles of Anjou, returning from the con- continued in the succeeding pontificates, especially
quest of Naples, caused himself to be elected senator that of Pius IX. Of the works of art carried away to
for life; but Urban IV obliged him to be content Paris only a part were restored after the Congress of
with a term of ten years. Nicholas III forbade that Vienna.
any foreign prince should be elected senator, and in But the Revolutionary germ still remained planted
127S he himself held the office. The election was at Rome, even though it gave no signs of activity
always to be subject to the pope's approval. How- either in 1820 or in 1830 and 1831. A few political
ever, these laws soon fell into desuetude. The absence murders were the only indication of the fire that
of the popes from Rome had the most disastrous smouldered beneath the ashes. The election of
results for the city anarchy prevailed the powerful
: ; Pius IX, hailed as the Liberal pontiff, electrified all
families of Colonna, Savelli, Orsini, Anguillara, and Rome. The pope saw his power slipping away; the
others lorded it with no one to gainsay them; the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi and the riots before
pope's vicars were either stupid or weak; the monu- the Quirinal (25 November, 1848) counselled his flight
ments crumbled of themselves or were destroyed; to Gaeta. The Triumvirate was formed and, on 6
sheep and cows were penned in the Lateran Basilica; February, 1849, convoked the Constituent Assembly,
no new buildings arose, except the innumerable which declared the papal power abolished. The mob
towers, or keeps, of which Brancaleone degli Andald, abandoned itself to the massacre of defenceless
the senator (1252-56), caused more than a hundred priests, and the wrecking of churches and palaces.
to be pulled down; the revival of art, so promising Oudinot's French troops restored the papal power
in the thirteenth century, was abruptly cut off. The (6 August, 1849), the pope retaining a few French
mad enterprise of Cola di Rienzo only added to the regiments. Secret plotting went on, though at Rome
general confusion. The population was reduced to none dared attempt anything (the Fausti trial).
about 17,000. The Schism of the West, with the Only in 1867, when Garibaldi, the victor at Monte-
wars of King Ladislaus (1408 and 1460, siege and sack rotondo, defeated at Mentana, invaded the Papal
of Rome), kept the city from benefiting by the States, was the revolt prepared that was to have
popes' return as quickly as it should. Noteworthy, burst while Enrico Cairoli was trying to enter the
however, is the understanding between Boniface IX city ; but the coup de main failed the stores of arms
;

and the Senate as to their respective rights (1393). and ammunition were discovered; the only serious
This pope and Innocent VII also made provision for occurrence was the explosion of a mine, which de-
the restoration of the city. stroyed the Serristori Barracks in the Borgo Not unt il
.

With Martin V the renascence of Rome began. 20 September, 1870, was Rome taken from the popes
Eugene IV again was driven out by the Romans, and made the actual capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
and Nicholas V had to punish the conspiracy of
Stefano Porcari; but the patronage of letters by the
III. Churches and Other Monuments. —The
"Annuario Ecclesiastioo" enumerates 358
public
popes and the new spirit of humanism obliterated the churches and oratories in Rome and suburbs.
its
memory of these longings for independence. Rome Besides, there are the chapels of the seminaries,
became the city of the arts and of letters, of luxury colleges, monasteries, and other institutions. Since
and of dissoluteness. The population, too, changed in 1870 many churches have been destroyed, but many
character and dialect, which had before more nearly new ones have arisen in the new quarters. The
approached the Neapolitan, but now showed the principal patriarchal basihcas are St. Peter's (the
influence of immigration from Tuscany, Umbria, and Vatican Basilica), St. John Lateran (the Basilica of
the Marches. The sack of 1527 was a judgment, Constantine), and St. Mary Major (the Liberian
and a salutary warning to begin that reformation of Basilica). (For the first and second of these, see
manners to which the Brothers of the Oratory of Vatican; Lateran.) The Liberian Basilica dates
Divine Love (the nucleus of the Theatine Order) frorn the fourth century, when it was called the
and, later, the Jesuits and St. Philip Neri devoted Basilica Sicinini; in the fifth century, under Sixtus
themselves. In the war between Paul IV and Philip III, it was adorned with interesting mosaics of
II (1556), the Colonna for the last time displayed their Biblical subjects; Eugene III added the portico,
insubordination to the Pontifical Government. Until when the mosaics of the apse and the fagade were
1799 Rome was at peace under the popes, who vied restored and, to some extent, altered. On the two
with the cardinals in embellishing the city with sides are two chapels with cupolas: that of Sixtus V,
churches, fountains, obelisks, palaces, statues, and containing the altar of the Blessed Sacrament and
paintings. Unfortunately, this work of restoration the tombs of Sixtus V and St. Pius V; the other, that
was accompanied by the destruction of ancient and, of Paul V, with the Madonna of St. Luke, which
still more, medieval monuments. An attempt was existed as early as the sixth century. Benedict XIV
also made to improve the ground plan of Rome by caused it to be restored by Fuga (1743), who designed
straightening and widening the streets (Sixtus IV, the fagade which now almost shuts out the view of the
—
Sixtus V the Corso, the Ripetta, the Babuino, mosaics. Beneath the high altar, the baldacchino of
Giulia, Paola, Sistina, and other streets) The artists
. which is supported by four porphyry columns, are the
who have successively left their imprint on the City rehcsof St. Matthew and of the Holy Crib (hence the
are Bramante, Michelangelo, Vignola, Giacomo della name, S. Maria ad prcesepe). Here are buried St.
Porta, Fontana, Madema, Bernini, Borromini, and, Jerome, Nicholas IV, Clement VIII, IX, and X, and
in the eighteenth century, Fuga. The most important PaulV. (See also Saint Paul-outside-thb-W ALLS.)
popular risings of this period were those against Among the lesser basilicas is S. Croce in Gerusa-
Urban VIII, on account of the mischief done by the lemme {Basilica Sessoriana), founded, it is said, by St.
Barberini, and against Cardinal Cascia, after the Helena in the place called the Sessorium, restored by
death of Benedict XIII. Lucms II (1144) and by Benedict XIV (1743). Here,
The pontificate of Pius VI, illustrious for its works in the tribune, is the fresco of Pinturicchio represent-
of public utility, ended with the proclamation of the ing the Finding of the Cross, and here are preserved
Republic of Rome (10 February, 1798) and the pope's the relics of the Cross of Jesus Christ, the Title, one
exile. Pius VII was able to return, but after 1806 of the Thorns, the finger of St. Thomas, etc. The
there was a French Government at Rome side by church is served by Cistercians, whose convent,
side with the papal, and in 1809 the city was incor- however, has been converted into barracks. St.
 ROME 170 ROME
Lawrence-Outside-the-Walls, another minor basilica, by Cotignola, and below one of the pilasters is
which stands in the Cemetery of S. Ciriaco, where the Raphael's Isaias. In the basement of this church
saint was buried, was built under Constantine and, is the Madonna del Parto, the work of Jacopo Tatto,
next to tSl Peter's, was the most frequented sanctuary
. one of the most highly venerated images in Rome.
in Rome at the end of the fourth century (see Pruden- The adjoining convent, once the residence of the
tius's ill -script ion). Pelagius II (57S), Honorius III, general of the Augustinians, is now the Ministrj' of
and Pius IX made thorough repairs in this basilica, Marine; but the Angelica Library, founded (1605) by
the last-named adding frescoes by Fracassini, rep- Cardinal Angelo Rocca, an Augustinian, is still there.
resenting the martyrdom of St. Lawrence. The S. Alfonso, built in 1855 for the Redemptorists, who
frescoes of the atrium date from the thirteenth cen- have their generalate there, has fine pictures by von
tury. The high altar stands beneath a raised ambo, Rhoden. Its high altar possesses a Byzantine image
behind which is the simple tomb of Pius IX. The of unknown origin, called the Madonna del Perpetuo
mosaics of the triumphal arch date from the time of Socoorso. <S. Ambrogio della Massima, in the paternal
Pelagius II. Near this basilica is the Cemetery of mansion of St. Ambrose, belongs to the Cassinese
Rome, construrted in ls;>7, and surpassed by few Benedictines. S. Andrea dcUa Valle (Theatines),
in Italy for the sumptuousness of its monuments. notable for the severe majesty of its lines, was built
Both the church and the cemetery are served by by Carlo Maderna in 1591; it contains the chapel of
Capuchins. St. Sfbastian-Oulside-lhe-Walls, near the the Strozzi, the tombs of Pius II, of Nicol6 della
cemetery ad culacumbas (see Catacombs), built in Guardia, and, opposite, of Pius III, and the frescoes
the fourth or fifth century and altered in 1612, con- of Domenichino, his most perfect work, as well as
tains Giorgini's statue of the saint. The churches other very modern frescoes. In this church, on every
so far named are the "Se-\'enChurches" usually feast of the Epiphany, solemn Mass is celebrated in
visited by pilgrims and residents to gain the large every rite subject to Rome, and there are sermons in
indulgences attached to them. —
the various European languages a festival instituted
S. Aijmae fuori le Mura, near the catacombs of by Yen. Vincent Gallotta. S. Andrea de Quirinale be-
the same name, was built by Constantine, decorated by longs to the Jesuits, who ha-\-e their novitiate here, in
Pope Symmachus with mosaics, in which that pope's which the StanislausKostka is still to be seen.
cell of St.
portrait appears, and restored by Honorius II (portrait) .1
<S'. belonging to the Minims, was, in
ridrea delle Fratte,
by Cardinal GiuUano della Rovere (1479), and by Pius the Middle Ages, the national church of the Scots;
IX. It is served by Canons Regular of St. John it received its present form (a cupola and a fanciful
Lateran. In one of the adjacent buildings Pius IX, Campanile) from the architects Guerra and Borromini
in LS.5(J, fell with the flooring of a room, but without in the seventeenth century, and has two angels
suffering any injury. Not far off is S. Coslanza, the by Bernini. Before the Lady altar of this church
mausoleum of Constantine's daughter, which was made took place the conversion of Venerable Marie Al-
into a church in 1256. S. Giorgioin Velabro, Cardinal phonse Ratisbonne. <S. Angela in Pescheria, built
Newman's diaconal title, takes its name from the in the eighth century and restored in 1584, is occupied
ancient ^'elabrum, where it stands, and dates from by the Clerics Regular Minor, who were transferred
the fourth century; it has a fine tabernacle, but the to it from S. Lorenzo in Lucina. S. Anselmo, on
church is much damaged by damp. S. Lorenzo in the Aventine, is a, Romanesque building (1900),
Damaso, built by Pope Damasus (370), was, in the annexed to the international college of the Benedic-
time of Bramante, enclosed in the palace of the tines, and is the residence of the abbot primate of
Cancelleria; it contains modern frescoes and the their order. Santi Apostoli, adjoining the generalate
tombs of Annibale Caro and Pellegrino Rossi. <S. of the Minor Conventuals, dates from the fifth cen-
Maria ad Marlyres (the Pantheon) is a grandiose cir- tury; it was restored by Martin V, with frescoes by
cular building with a portico. It was built in 25 Melozzo da Forli, remodelled in 1702 by Francesco
B. c. by Marcus Agrippa and has often been restored; Fontana, and contains the tombs of Cardinals Riario
in 662 Constantine II caused the bronze which and Bessarion. The convent is occupied by the head-
covered its dome to be taken away; it contains the quarters of a military division. S. Barlolomeo all'
tombs of Raphael, Cardinal Consalvi and Kings Isola, Friars Minor, stands on the site of the ancient
Victor Emmanuel II and Humbert I. S. Maria in temple of jEsculapius, and was built by Otto III,
Cosmedin, which stands on the foundations of a temple in 1001, in honour of St. Adalbert. The relics of
of Hercules and a granary, dates from the sixth cen- St. Bartholomew were brought thither from Bene-
tury at latest; it was a diaconate and the seat of the ventum, those of St. Paulinus of Nola being given in
Greek colony, and was restored by Adrian I, Nicholas exchange. The church has been several times re-
I, and Cardinal Albani (1718), and at last was re- stored. S. Bernardo alle Terme, Cistercians, is a
modelled in its original form. It has a noteworthy round church built in 1598, its foundations being laid
ambo and tabernacle (c. 130), and its campanile, in the calidarium of the baths (Italian terme) of Dio-
with se\-en intercolumnars, is the most graceful in cletian. 5. Bonaventura, on the Palatine, Friars
Rome. This was the title of Reginald Cardinal Minor, contains the tomb of St. Leonard of Port
Pole. S. Maria in Trastevere, the title of Cardinal Maurice. S. Camillo, a very modern church, is the
Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore, dates from St. residence of the Camilline Attendants of the Sick,
Callistus or, more probabh', from St. Julius I, and and has a hospital connected with it. S. Carlo
was restored by Eugene III, by Nicholas V, and by (Carlino) of the Spanish Trinitarians belongs to the
Pius IX, to the last-named of whom are due the Borromini. <S. Carlo ai Calinari, Barnabites, formerly
mosaics of the faf;adc, the antique columns, and the dedicated to St. Biagius, was put into its present
rich baroque ceiling. The mosaics of the tribune are shape by Rosati in 1612, with frescoes and framed
of the twelfth centur>-, the others are by Cavallini pictures by Domenichino, Pietro da Cortona, Guido
(1291). It contains the tombs of Stanislaus Hosius Reni, and Andrea Sacchi. Its convent is occupied by
and other cardinals. The four basilicas enumerated a section of the Ministry of War. ,S. Carlo al Corso,
abo\-e have collegiate chapters. the church of the Lombards, was built by the Lunghi
.S. A,i„sli,io was built (1479^83) by Cardinal for the canonization of St. Charles Borromeo, on the
d'Estoutc\ille, with Giacomo di Pietrasanta for site of a little church dedicated to S. Niccolo del
architect. On the high altar, by Bernini, is the Tufo. The decorations of the cupola are by Pietro
Madonna of St. Luke, brought from Constantinople. da Cortona; there is a picture by Maratta and a
Its chapel of St. Augu.stine contains a picture by statue of Judith by Le Brun. The Rosminians have
Guercino; in its chape! of the Blessed Sacrament is the officiated in this church for some years past. S.
tomb of St. Monica; its altar of St. Peter has a relief Claudia dei Borgognoni is served by the Congregation
ROME
 ROME 171 ROME
of the Most Holy Sacrament; it has Exposition all the belongs to the Minims, the convent being now occu-
year around. by a technical institute.
<S. Clemente, the church of the Irish Dominicans The Gesii, connected with the professed house and
(1643), and titular church of William Cardinal general's residence of the Jesuits, is the work of
O'Connell, Archbishop of Boston, existed as early as Vignola (1568-73), completed by Giacomo della
the fourth century, dedicated to St. Clement, pope Porta, through the munificence of Cardinal Alessandro
and martyr. It is characterized by the two ambos Farnese. It became the model of the style known as
which project about half way down the nave and an "Jesuit" Its altar of St. Ignatius, who is buried
atrium which is also the courtyard of the convent there, has a silver statue of the saint which is ordi-
which stands in front of the basilica. The ambos narily covered by a picture painted by the Jesuit
date from John VIII (,872); the altar and tabernacle, Pozzo; the globe and four columns are of lapis
from Paschal II. The church was destroyed in the lazuli. Opposite is the altar of St. Francis Xavier,
conflagration kindled by Robert Guiscard (1084) its ; where an arm of that saint is preserved, and a picture
rebuilding was begun immediately, but the plan by Maratta. The ceiling is painted by Gaulli with
was adopted of raising somewhat the pavement of the the Triumph of the Name of Jesus. The Madonna
old church, which was filled in with debris; the new della Strada is venerated in one of the chapels. In
church was also less spacious. At this period the this church are the tombs of Cardinal Bellarmine and
mosaics of the apse w«rc executed. In the chapel of Ven. Giuseppe Maria Pignatelli. Gesit e Maria,
St. Catherine are some frescoes attributed to Masaccio Calced Augustinians, with its magnificent high altar,
(1428); in the chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, the is in the Corso. S. Gioacchino, Redemptorists, was
tombs of Cardinals Brusati and Roverella; in that erected for the sacerdotal jubilee of Leo XIII, its
of St. Cyril, who is buried in the basilica, modern side chapels being subscribed for by the various
frescoes. In 1858 the excavation of the old basilica nations. S. Giovanni Calihita, on the Island of S.
was begun, through the efforts of the Dominican Bartolomeo, belongs to the Fatebenefratelli, who have
prior, Mulhooly. The frescoes, seventh to eleventh a hospital. SS. Giovanyii e Paolo, on the Caelian,
century, are important; in them may be distinguished Passionists, was built by Pammachius in the house
the first indications of a new birth of Christian art, of these two saints, who were officials in the palace
and particularly interesting are those relating to Sts. of Constantia, daughter of Constantine, and were
Cyril and Methodius. The original basilica was slain by order of Julian. In 1154 the church was
raised upon the remains of a still earlier building, enlarged and adorned with frescoes, some of which are
in which, moreover, there was a spelceum, or grotto, preserved in the chapel of the Blessed Sacrament.
of Mithras; it is probable that this building was St. The chapel of St. Paul of the Cross is modern. Under
Clement's paternal home. Santissima Concenzione, the church are still to be seen thirteen interstices
Capuchins, near the Piazza Barberini, was built by of the house of the saints with other saints. This
the Capuchin Cardinal Barberini, twin brother of was the titular church of Edward Cardinal Howard,
Urban VIII (1624). Bl. Crispin of Viterbo is buried afterwards Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati (d. 1892).
here. The church is noted for a St. Michael by Guido <S. Gregorio al Celio, Camadolese, was built by
Reni, a St. Francis by Domenichino, a St. Fehx of Gregory II in the paternal home of St. Gregory the
Cantalico by Turchi, and other pictures by Sacchi Great, and was modernized by Soria (1633) and
and Pietro da Cortona. Beneath the church is the Ferravi (1734). It contains an altar of the saint,
ossarium of the friars. Sis. Cosmas and Damian, with his stone bed and his marble chair, and there
Franciscan Tertiaries, is made up of two ancient is an ancient image of the Madonna. In the monks'
buildings, the temples of Romulus, son of Maxentius, garden there are also three chapels; those of St.
and of the Sacra Urbs, which were given to the Silvia, mother of St. Gregory, with her statue by
Church by Theodoric and converted into a basilica Cordieri and frescoes by Guido Reni, of St. Andrew,
by Felix IV (528), to whom are due the mosaics of decorated by Reni and Domenichino, and of St.
the apse and the arch, retouched in the ninth and Barbara, with a statue of St. Gregory by Cordieri.
sixteenth centuries. Urban VIII caused its pavement The title of this church was borne successively by
to be raised ten feet. In the crypt are the tomb Henry Edward Cardinal Manning and Herbert
of Felix II and some objects belonging to the old Cardinal Vaughan, Archbishops of Westminster.
church. S. Ignazio, Jesuits, was built in 1626 by Cardinal
iS;. Crisogono, Trinitarians, dates at least as far Ludovisi, under the direction of the Jesuit Grassi.
back as the fifth century, and was restored by The frescoes of the vault, representing the apotheosis
Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1623). It has a fine of St. Ignatius, were painted by the Jesuit lay brother
tabernacle and, in the apse, mosaics by Cavillini Pozzo, whose are also some of the pictures on the
(1290). Excavations have recently been made under altars. Sts. Aloysius Gonzaga and John Berchmans,
this church, which is associated with English history buried here, have splendid altars; in the adjoining
as having been the titular church of Cardinal Langton Roman College (now the Ginnasio-Liceo and National
(see Langton, Stephen). S. Cuore al Castro Pretoria, Library) there are still other chapels with souvenirs
Salesians, a fine church built in 1887 by Vespegniani, of these two saints. On the highest point of the fagade
is due to the zeal of Don Bosco. Connected with Father Secchi caused to be erected a pole with a ball
it is a boarding-school of arts and industries. S. which, by a mechanical contrivance, drops precisely
Francesca Romana (S. Maria Nova), Olivetans, was at noon every day. S. Isidoro belongs to the Irish
erected by Leo IV in place of S. Maria Antiqua, Franciscans. In the adjoining convent the famous
which was in danger of being injured by the ruins Luke Wadding wrote his history of the Franciscan
of the Palatine, on a portion of the ruined temple of Order. 8. Marcello, Servites, is believed to be built
Venus and Rome, where once stood a chapel com- over the stable in which Pope St. Marcellus was
memorating tne Tall of Simon Magus. It was restored compelled to serve. It was restored in 1519 by order
by Honorius III and under Paul V. In the apse are of Giuliano de' Medici (Clement VII), completed in
mosaics of 1161; in the confession, the tomb of St. 1708 by Carlo Fontana, and contains paintings by
Frances of Rome (1440). There is a group by Meli, Pierin del Vaga and Federico Zuccaro. It was the
also the tombs of Gregory XI (1574), Cardinal titular church of Thomas Cardinal Weld (see Weld,
Vulcani, and Francesco Rido. S. Francesco a Ripa, Family of). S. Maria in Ara Codi, on the Capitol,
the provincialate of the Friars Minor (1229), has once the general's residence of the Franciscans
pictures by the Cavaliere d'Arpino and by Sabiati (beginning from 1250), is (1911) the titular church
(Annunciation), and the tomb of Lodovico Albertoni, of Cardinal Falconio. It stands on the site of the
one of Bernini's best works. S. Francesco di Paola ancient citadel of Rome and the temple of Juno
 ROME 172 ROME
Moneta, and is approached by a flight of 124 steps. by an angel, and Turkish standards captured at the
The facade is still of brick, and the church contains siege of Vienna (1683). ,S'. Maria in Aquiro, the
antique columns and capitals; in the Buffalini chapel ancient diaconate titulus Equitii, was restored in
are frescoes (Life of St. Bernardino) by Pinturicchio, 1590. It was formerly an asylum for the destitute;
and on the high altar is a Madonna attributed to Clement VIII gave it to the Somaschi Brothers, who
St. Luke, where was formerly the Madonna of still have an orphanage there under the supervision
Foligno. To the a small building, known as the
left of the municipality. S. Maria in Campilelli wa.s bviilt
Cappella Santa di Sant' Elena (Holy Chapel of St. in 1665 to receive the image of S. Maria in Portica
Helena) marks the spot where, according to a legend
, (now S. Galla) in thanksgiving for Rome's deliverance
which can be traced to the ninth century, the Emperor from the plague (1658). It contains a picture of St.
.\ugustus saw tlie Blessed Virgin upon an altar of Anne, by Luca Giordano, and the tomb of Cardinal
heaven (Lat. am cwli). To this legend something Pacca. It is served by the Clerics Regular of the
was contributed by Mrgil's fourth eclogue, in which Mother of God.
he speaks of the "nova progenies" descending from S. Maria in Vallicella (the Chiesa Nuova, or "Xew
heaven, and which was interpreted in Christian Church"), Oratorians of St. Philip Xeri, is associated
antiquity as a prophecy of the coming of Christ with the spiritual renewal of the City by the labours
(thus Constantine in the sermon "Ad sanctorum of St. Philip, who founded it. The frescoes of the
coetum"). In the sacristy is venerated the "Santo vaulting and of the cupola are by Pietro da Cortona,
Bambino", a little figure of olive wood from the the three pictures of the high altar by Rubens, and
Mount of Olives (sixteenth century) for which the others by Scipione Gaetano, Cavaliere d'Arpino,
Romans have a great devotion. The sepulchral Maratta, Guido Reni (St. Philip), Ronocelli, and
monuments of this church are numerous and im- Baroccio. The chapel of the saint is rich in voti^-e
portant, including those of Cardinal Louis d' Albert, offerings; in the adjoining house, until now almost
with figures of St. Michael and St. Francis; Michel- entirely occupied by the Assize Court, is his cell,
angelo Marchese di Saluzzo, by Dosio; Pietro de' with relics and souvenirs of him. The library
^'incenti, by Sansovino; Honorius IV and others of (Vallicelliana) now belongs to the State. S. Maria
the Savelli family in the Savelli chapel, which dates in ]'ia, Servites, is a fine church of the late Renais-
from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; Card- sance (1549). S. Maria Miiddnlcna, Servants of the
inal Matthew of Acquasparta; Catherine, Queen of Sick (formerly their generalate), is now occupied by
Bosnia (147S). The Crib, built every year in the the elementary communal schools. Here the cell
second chapel on the left, is famous; at Christmas of St. Camillus of Lellis is preserved, with the cruci-
and Epiphany children recite dialogues and little fix which encouraged him to found his order. S.
discourses near it. Marin Sopra Minerva, the only authentic Gothic
S. Maria in Traspontina, in the Borgo, Calccd church in Rome, belongs to the Dominicans, who had
Carmelites, was erected by Sixtus IV on the site of a their general staffand their higher schools in the
chapel that had been built there, in 1099, to drive adjoining convent, now the Ministry of Instruction,
away the demons which haunted the ashes of Nero. as well as the Casanatense Library, now in the
The architect was Meo del Caprina; Bramante and hands of the State. This was the titular church of
Cernini modified the building. It is one of the most the Cardinal of Norfolk (see Howard, Thomas
beautiful monuments of the Renaissance, its cupola Philip), Cardinal McCloskey, Archbishop of New
being the first of its kind built in Rome. It contains York, and Cardinal Taschereau, Archbishop of Que-
—
paintings by Pinturicchio the Adoration of the bec (see McCloskey John; Taschereau, Elz^iar
Shepherds, all the paintings of the Lady Chapel and Alexandre); its title is now (1911) held by Cardinal
the chapel of St. Augustine, the frescoes of the vault, Farley, Archbishop of New York. The church
etc. —Raphael designed the mosaics of the Chigi stands on the ruins of a temple of Miner^-a, one of
chapel, andtlicre are paintings by Caracci, Caravaggio those built bv Pompey. In the eighth century there
and Sebastiano del Piombo (the Birth of the Blessed was a Greek monastery here. In 1280 Fra Sisto
Virgin). The sepulchral monuments are costly, and Fra Ristoro, Dominicans, began the new church
including those of Giovanni della Rovere, Cardinal by order of Nicholas III, and with the aid of the
Costa, Cardinal Podocatharo, Cardinal Girolamo Caetani, Savelli, and Orsini. It was completed in
Basso, by Sansovino, and Cardinal Sforza, by the 1453. The pillars of the nave are clustered columns;
same sculptor, Agostiuo Chigi, in the Chigi chapel, the side chapels are in Renaissance or baroque style.
after suggestions, and decorated, by Raphael, and Beneath the high altar rests the body of St. Catherine
Cardinal Pallavicino. The painted windows, the of Siena. The chapel of the Annunziata has a con-
most beautiful in Rome, are by Guillaume de Mar- fraternity, founded by Cardinal Torquemada, which
cillot (1509) iS. Maria del Priorato, Knights of Malta,
. every year distributes dowries to 400 poor young
on the A\entine, was built in 9.39, when Alberic women, and there is a picture by Antoniazzo Romano
II gave his palace to St. Odo of Cluny. The present dealing with the subject. The Caraffa family chapel
form of the church, however, is due to Piranesi of St. Thomas contains frescoes by Filippo Lippi
(176.5). Some of the tombs of the grand masters of (1487-93); that of St. Dominic, pictures by Maratta;
—
the Order of Malta Caraffa, Caracciolo, and othera of the Rosary, by Venusti. There are also paintings
are interesting. The adjoining residence commands by Baronio and others. The statue of the Risen
a splendid panorama. S. Maria del Rosario, on Christ is by Michelangelo. Here, also, are the tombs
Monte Mario, belongs to the Dominicans. S. of Giovanni Alberini (1490), Urban VII, by Buon-
Maria della Scnln, Discalced Carmelites, built by vicino, the Aldobrandini family, by Giacomo della
Francesco da \'olterra, is so called from an image of Porta, Paul I\', by Sigorio and Casignola, Gulielmus
the Madonna found under the stairs of a neighbour- Durandus, by Giovanni di Cosma (1296), Cardinal
ing house, and contains paintings by Saraceni and Domenico Capranica (1458), Clement ^TI and Leo
Gerhard Honthorst. In the adjoining convent, a X, by Baccio Bandienelli, Blessed Angelico of
great part of which is occupied by the Guardie di Fiesole, with an epitaph by Nicholas V, and Cardinal
Publ-)lica Sicurezza, the friars have a pharmacy where Schonberg (1537).
they make the "Acqua della Scala" S. Maria S. Martina ai Monti, Carmelites, probably dates
della Villoria, Carmelites, was erected by Paul V from the time of Constantine, when the priest
in memoiy of the \ictory of the Imperialists over the Equitius built an oratory on his own land. Sym-
Protestants at Prague (1G23), and contains pictures machus rebuilt it, dedicating it to St. Silvester and
by Domenichino, Guercino, and Sorra (1884), also St. Martin of Tours, and then again to St. Martin,
a famous group by Bernini, of St. Teresa transfixed Pope. In 1559 it was given to the Carmelites, who
 ROME 173 ROME
in 1650 remodelled it. It is notable for landscapes
its cino and Domenichino (The Deliverance of St. Peter),
by Poussin. Under the more modern church is the a mosaic (St. Sebastian) of about the year 680, and
old church of St. Silvester, with remains of mosaics, the tombs of Julius II, with the celebrated statue of
frescoes, etc. Our Lady of the Sacred Heart of Jesus Moses, and of Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa, with a
(formerly S. Giacomo degli Spagnuoli), in the Piazza portrait in relief. In the adjoining monastery the
Navona, belongs to the Missionaries of the Sacred scuola di applicazione of the Engineers is established.
Heart, who have an apostolic school there. S. S. Prassede, Vallombrosans, was built by Paschal II
Onofrio on the Janiculum, Hieronymitcs, was built (822) at some distance from the older S. Prassede,
in 1439 by the de Cupis family and Nicol6 da Forca which, then in ruins, was restored by Nicholas V and
Palena. The frescoes of the portico are by Dorneni- St. Charles Borromeo. Its twenty-two antique col-
chino, three scenes from the life of St. Jerome; within umns are still standing, and there are interesting
are frescoes by Baldassarre Peruzzi, and the tombs mosaics of the ninth century (the chapel of St. Zeno
of Cardinal Mezzofanti and the poet Tasso, who died and the apse) and the thirteenth century (the crypt).
in the convent, where his cell contains a small museum In the crypt are antique sarcophagi with the relics of
of objects that belonged to him. S. Pancrazio Sts. Praxedes, Pudentiana, and others, and Paschal
fuori le Mura was built by Pope Symmaohus (c. caused the bones of 2300 (?) martyrs, brought by him
504) near the Coemeterium Calepodii; in 1849 it from the catacombs, to be laid in an enclosed cem-
was wrecked by the Garibaldians; the government etery. There are pictures by Giulio Romano, Federico
caussd it to be freshly decorated. Near S. Pancrazio Zuocaro, and the Cavaliere d'Arpino. Santi Quaranta
degli Scolopii is the generalatc of the FiaxiBtB(Scolopii) in Traslevere belongs to the Spanish Franciscans.
S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane belongs to the Trappists, Santi Quattro Coronati, Capuchins, was the Titulus
who have put the surrounding land under cultivation j£miliance as early as the fourth century, and is
The abbey contains three churches. The oldest, SS. dedicated to four soldiers (cornicularii) who were
Vincenzo e Anasiasio, founded by Honorius I, came martyred on the Via Labicana, with whom were
into the hands of Greek monks; Innocent II restored afterwards associated five martyrs, stonecutters of
and assigned it, with the abbey, to the Cistercians. Pannonia. Honorius built a vast basilica, which, how-
There is a fine cloister adjacent to this church, the ever. Paschal II reduced to the proportions of what
earliest example of its kind. S. Maria Scala Coeli, had been the nave. There are remains of the older
ninth century, was rebuilt in 1590 by Giacomo della basilica in the two atria and, in the church, frescoes
Porta, and contains a mosaic by Francesco Zueoa. by Giovanni Manozzi and a ciborium by Capponi
S. Paolo alle Tre Fonlana was built by the same (1493). Annexed to this church is the chapel of the
Giacomo della Porta (1599) on the three springs Corporation of Stonecutters, with pictures of the
which appeared, as the legend says, on the three thirteenth century. The Augustinian Sisters have a
places successively touched by the head of St. Paul, refuge for young women adjoining the church. <S.
who was beheaded here. The springs, however, SabinaaW Aventino, Dominicans, built under Clement
existed before St. Paul's martyrdom as the Aquse I by the Illyrian priest Petrus (424), is remark-
Salviae, and in 1869 some ancient mosaic pavements able for a half-door decorated with wood-carving
were dug up here. <S. Pietro in Moniorio, Friars of the fifth century, while its columns of Parian
Minor, was in earlier days known as S. Maria in marble were taken from the temple of Diana on the
Castro Aureo, and had connected with it a monastery Aventine. In the apse and above the door are mo-
which passed into the hands of various orders until, saics, and the picture by Sassoferrato (the Madonna
in 1472, it was given to the Franciscans for the train- of the Rosary) is famous. In the adjoining convent,
ing of subjects for the foreign missions. Ferdinand formerly the Savelli palace, are shown the cells of
the Catholic had the church and convent rebuilt, St. Dominic and St. Pius V.
and they were dedicated to St. Peter, following a S. Salvatore della Scala Santa, Passionists, contains,
behef which had gained acceptance owing to a some- according to the legend, the stairs of Pilate's praetor-
what unfortunate conjecture hazarded by Maffeo ium, which were bathed with the Blood of Christ,
Vegio, and which is even yet keenly debated. The but of which there is no mention earlier than 845.
rose-window of the facade is very fine, and there are By these stairs, which were restored by Nicholas III
frescoes and other paintings by Sebastiano del and by Cosmas II, pilgrims ascend on their knees
Piombo (the Flagellation), Vasari, Daniele da iginocchioni) to the Cappella Sancta Sanctorum, in
Volterra, Baluren (the Entombment), and others; which the most famous relics of the pontifical palace
Raphael's Transfiguration is on the high altar, and of the Lateran are preserved (see Scala Sancta).
there is a beautiful balustrade. Here, too, are the There is a ninth-century mosaic picture and a very
tombs of Cardinals Fabiano and Antonio del Monte ancient picture of the Saviour, on cedarwood, believed
(Ammannati), and of Giuliano, Archbishop of to have been made not by human hands. S. Silvestro
Ragusa (Dosio). In the courtyard of the convent, in Capite, Pallottini (see Pious Society of Missions),
on the spot where St. Peter is supposed by some to built by Paul I (761) in his paternal home, was given
have been crucified, stands Bramante's tempietto, to some Greek monks and subsequently passed into
the most graceful work of that genius. A splendid the possession of various orders. It was restored by
view of Rome may be had from the piazza in front Domenico de Rossi in 1681, and has a high altar by
of the church. It was the titular church of Paul Rinaldo. This is, in a sense, the national church of
Cardinal Cullen, Archbishop of Dublin. the English Catholics. Its monastery has now become
S. Pietro in Vincoli, Canons Regular of St. John the Postal Department. jS. Stefano degli Abissini,
Lateran, existed as the titulus Apostolorum as early Trinitarians, with an interesting doorway, was
as 431. Sixtus III made alterations in the church erected by St. Leo the Great, and was one of the
with funds given him by the Empress Eudoxia, who churches surrounding the BasiUca of St. Peter's.
also presented the Jerusalem chain of St. Peter S. Stefano del Cacco, Sylvestrines, was erected by
together with his Roman chain. These relics had Honorius I (630) on the ruins of the temple of Isis,
been venerated here long before Sixtus III, but the of which it contains twelve columns. S. Teresa, with
title, a vinculis S. Petri, occurs for the first time only the generalate of the Discalced Carmelites, in the
in 530. Filings from the chains were given as relics Lombard style, is one of the recently erected churches
like those taken to Spoleto by Bishop Achilles in 419. (1900). Santissima Trinita in the Via Condotti,
The chains themselves are kept in a precious rehquary Dominicans of the Philippines Province, was erected
attributed to PoUaiulo. The church was restored by in the sixteenth century, and has fine pictures on its
Sixtus IV and Juhus II. Its twenty monolithic col- altars. Santissima Trinita in the Via della Missione
umns are antique, and it contains pictures by Guer- belongs to the Lazarists, who have a house of retreat
 ROME 174 ROME
for the clergy there. S. Vctaitizio, Minor Conventuals, nected with the hospital for incurables (1338). S.
is at the foot of the Capitol. Sanli Vincenzo ed Giovanni dei Fiorentini is the work of Sansovino
Atanasio, in the Piazza di Trevi, ministers of the (1521) and contains a picture by Salvator Rosa.
sick, was built by Cardinal Mazarin (1650). Here are S. Girolamo dei Schiavoni was built by Sixtus IV
kept the urns containing the viscera of deceased for the Dalmatians, Croatians, and Albanians who
popes. had fled from the Turks; Sixtus V restored it; it
Other notable churches are the following: S. Agata contains fine frescoes by Gagliardi (1852). S. Giu-
dei Goli, or in .Suburra, built in 460 for the Arians seppe a Capo le Case, with its paintings by Andrea
(Goths and other Germans), by Ricimerus, who Sacchi (St. Teresa) and Domenichino (St. Joseph),
caused a mosaic to be made there (destroyed in 1633), has a convent of the Carmelite Sisters which is now
and who was buried there. In 591 St. Gregory the used as a museum of the industrial arts. iS. Giuseppe
Great dedicated it to Catholic worship, and it is dei Falegnami is built upon the ancient Tullian
connected with the Irish College. In it is the tomb of Dungeon, where, according to tradition, St. Peter
John Lascaris, the famous Greek humanist (1535). was imprisoned.
iS'. AgiuKc al Circo Agonale stands on a part of the S. Lorenzo in Lucina preserves the gridiron on
site of Ddmitian's stadium, where St. Agnes was ex- which St. Lawrence suffered martyrdom. It is be-
posed to shame (the vaults of the church), and where lieved that here was the house of the matron, Lucina,
she was put to death. The older church is not men- so often mentioned in the Acts of Roman martyrs;
tioned in any records earlier than the ninth century; this house was transformed by Sixtus III into a
the present one, in baroque style, is the work of basilica which was repeatedly restored. It has a
Carlo Rinaldi (1652); its turrets are by Borromini. fine campanile, a picture by Guido Reni (The [Cruci-
On the high altar is a tabernacle of 1123; there is an fixion), and the tomb of Poussin. S. Lorenzo iu
antique statue transformed into a St. Sebastian by Miranda was built over the temple of Faustina (141)
Paolo Campi and a monument of Innocent X. iS. in the Forum. In S. Lorenzo in Fonte, it is believed,
Alessio siiW Aventino was originally dedicated to the was the saint's prison. S. Marco, enclosed within
Roman martyr Boniface. S. Anastasia, at the foot the Palazzo di Venezia, is attributed to the pope of
of the Palatine, built in the fourth century and modern- that name (336). The Rogation procession (25
ized in 1721, contains the tomb of Cardinal Angelo April), instituted by St. Leo the Great, used to set
Mai. Here is preserved a chalice which was probably out from this church. It was restored in the ninth
used by Kt. Jerome. iS. Apollinare, the church of the century, in the fifteenth century, and by Cardinal
Roman Seminary, formerly of the German College, Quirini in 1727. In the tribune are mosaics of the
was restored by Benedict XIV and contains a picture time of Gregory IV; there are also pictures by Palma
of the school of Perugino. S. Balbina, on the Aven- il Giovane and Melozzo da Forli; two ciboria, in
tine, consecrated by St. Gregory the Great, has a, the sacristy, one of the twelfth century, the other by
house of correction for boys adjoining it. It was the Mino da Fiesole; the tombs of Pesaro, by Canova, and
titular church of Cardinal Kemp, Archbishop of Can- of Cardinal Gregorio Barbarigo. S. Maria degli
terbury (see KeiMP, John). 8. Benedetto in Piscinula Angeli was built by Michelangelo, at the command of
(Trastevere) stands on the site of the mansion of the Pius IV, within the baths of Diocletian. The church
AnicLi, St. Benedict's family, and contains a picture was given to the Carthusians. Here are to be seen
of the saint. <S. Caterina dei Funari, on the ruins of many of the original designs for the mosaics now in
the Circus Flaminius, was begun in 1549. Its facade St. Peter's; also Houdon's famous statue of St.
isby Giaeomo della Porta, and it contains pictures Bruno, and the tombs of Pius IV and Cardinal Ser-
by Caracci, Federico Zuccari, and others. Connected belloni. The adjoining monastery now contains the
with it is a refuge for penitent women founded by Museo Nazionale delle Terme.
St. Ignatius. S. Maria della Pace, the titular church of Michael
S. Cecilia, a very ancient church, stands on the site Cardinal Logue, Archbishop of Armagh, commem-
of that saint's house. Paschal I, admonished by a orates the peace concluded in 14S2 between the pope,
vision, restored it and transferred the body of the Florence, Milan, and Naples. It was built for Sixtus
saint thither from the Catacombs (821). Cardinal IV by Pietro da Cortona, who added a beautiful
Rampolla had its ancient character partly restored. semicircular portico in front. In the Chigi chapel
In the apse are some mosaics dating from Paschal. are the famous Sibyls of Raphael; there are also
The tabernacle of the high altar is by Arnolfo di frescoes by Peruzzi. The adjoining monastery
Cambio (1283); there are some ancient frescoes and (Canons Regular of the Lateran) contains a court-
some by Pietro Cavallini; in the confession is a yard by Bramante and the chapel of the St. Paul's
recumbent statue of the saint by Maderno, showing Association of the Clergy of Rome. <S. Maria in
her as she was found when the sarcophagus was Campo Marzio belongs to the Benedictine Sisters.
opened in 1599; also the tomb of the English cardinal, S. Maria di Loreto, an octagonal church with a cupola,
Adam of Hertford (d. 1398). It was the titular church is the work of Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane (1507),
of Cardinal Wolsey. S. Cesareo, on the Appian AA'ay, and has a statue of St. Susanna by Duquesnoy. The
erroneously identified with S. Cesareo m Palatio Churches of iS. Maria de' Miracoli and iS. Maria di
(which has recently been discovered on the Palatine), Monte Santo were built in 1662 by Cardinal Gastaldo,
is older than the da>-s of St. Gregory the Great, and and form the termination of three streets the —
has an interesting ambo of the thirteenth century and Ripetta, the Corso Umberto, and the Babuino
mosaics of about the year 1600. S. Cosbnato in which lead from the Piazza del Popolo. S. Maria
Trnnlcvcre, built in the ninth century and completely dell' Orto (1489) is the fruit-vendors' church. S.
transformed under Sixtus IV, is notable for paintings Maria in Trivio, in the Piazza di Trevi, has a beauti-
by Pinturicchio and a tabernacle taken from S. Maria ful fagade of the fifteenth century. S. Maria in
del Popolo. In the adjoining monastery, originally Lata, a very ancient diaconate, stood near the Arch
Benedictine and then Clarissan (12.34), is a fine of Diocletian, but was destroyed in 1485; its present
cloister with coupled columns (twelfth century). subterranean form is due to Pietro da Cortona.
This monastery is now used as a home for old women. Here, according to the legend, St. Paul and St. Mark
Snrdi Domniiclin c Shin, Dominican Sisters, thirteenth were imprisoned, and here are the remains of the
century, was restored in 1640, with a fine facade. Seepta Julia and of the ancient basilica, with some
S. Eligio dei Ferrari contains a fine picture by Sermon- frescoes. Snrdi Martina e Luca, in the Forum, oc-
eta; S. Eusebio, frescoes by I\Iengs. S. Eustaccliio cupies the site of the Secretarium Senatus; it existed
is an ancient diaconate and possesses the rehcs of the before the seventh century and contained the body
saint. S. Giaeomo in Augusta, in the Corso, is con- of St. Martina the Roman martyr; in 1640 the new
 ROME 175 ROME
church was built above the old by Pietro da Cortona bishop of Sydney. S. Teodoro, at the foot of the
(who made a statue of St. Martina), and was dedicated Palatine, also stands on a circular structure, an
to St. Luke, being the church of the Academy of St. ancient diaconate. It has a mosaic of the time of
Luke. Santi Nereo e Achillea, on the Appian Way, Adrian I. Santissima Trinitd, dei Monti is said to
a very ancient church, contains mosaics of the time have been built through the munificence of Charles
of Leo III and an ambo of the thirteenth century. VIII of France. Its great flight of stairs, leading from
S. Nicola in Carcere stands on the ruins of the three the Piazza di Spagna, was built by order of Louis
temples of Pietas, Juno Sospita, and Spes. San- XIV. It contains fine pictures of the school of
tissimo Nome di Maria, in Trajan's Forum, was built Perugino, also by Raphael, Pierin del Vaga, Veit,
to commemorate the deliverance of Vienna from the Daniele da Volterra (Taking down from the Cross).
Turks (1683) . One Church of S8. Pielro e Marcdlino The church belongs to the Ladies of the Sacred Heart
stands in the Via Merulana; the other is outside who have an institution (1827) in the chapel of which
the walls, on the Labicana, near the mausoleum of is venerated the Ter Admirabilis (Thrice Admirable)
St. Helena. 8. Prisca, on the Aventine, occupies the Madonna. Of the churches outside the City special
site of the temple of Diana Aventina. The legend mention should be made of the sanctuary of the
has it that Prisoilla, the wife of Aquila, mentioned in Madonna del Divino Amore (of the Divine Love) on
the Acts of the Apostles as entertaining St. Peter, the Via Ardeatina, near an old castle of the Orsini,
lived here. which is visited by a great concourse of people on
S. Pudenziana, again, is associated with memories of Whit-Monday.
St. Peter: it was the mansion of the senator, Pudens, National Churches. — S. Antonio (Portuguese);
whose daughters, Pudentiana and Praxedes, gave it S. Luigi (French— 1496); Maria
dell' Aninia
S.
to St. Pius I, and from that time it became a church. (German), with a hospice for pilgrims founded in
Since the time of Siricius (384) it has had the form of a 1399; the present church was built in 1500; pictures
basilica, and its apse has been adorned with the most by Saraceni, Seitz, and Giulio Romano (high altar);
beautiful mosaics in Rome. It was restored in tombs of Adrian VI and Duke Charles Frederick of
1598, and a cupola was added with frescoes by Cleves by Lucas Holstenius (see Roman Colleges) ;

Roncalli. At the altar of St. Peter is venerated the S. Maria della PietS,, with the German Burial Ground,
wooden table which St. Peter used for the celebration dating from the time of Charlemagne; S. Maria di
of the Eucharist. There is a marble group of Christ Monserrato (Spanish). Also the churches of various
giving the keys to St. Peter, by Giacomo della —Florence, Naples, Siena, Venice, Bergamo,
cities
Porta. The title of S. Pudenziana was borne by Bologna, the Marches—of —Churches of the
Italy.
Nicholas Cardinal Wiseman, first Archbishop of Oriental —Besides the churches of the various
rites.
Westminster. S. Saba, on the Aventine, existed in Roman Colleges), the following should
colleges (see
the time of St. Gregory, whose mother retired to a be mentioned: the Armenian Church of St. Mary
spot near by. To her were dedicated some ancient of Egypt, occupying the site of the ancient temple
frescoes recently brought to light. That it was even of Fortuna Virilis; the GrEeco-Melchite Basilian
then the abode of monks is indicated by the name Church of S. Maria in Domnica (mosaics of the eighth
cella and by an ancient burial-place of an earlier date century); S. Lorenzo ai Monti, for Gr»co-Ruthenian
(c. 649). Here a community of Greek monks was Uniats. Moreover there are eight Protestant
installed until the ninth century. After that it churches intended for propaganda work, each having
passed to the Benedictines, and then to the German one or two halls, known as sale cristiane, connected
College, which still possesses it. S. Salvatore in with it, while five others are principally for the bene-
Lauro, the church of the Sodality of the Piceni, fit of foreigners, and the Germans have decided to
earlier than the thirteenth century, was restored in build one more. The Orthodox Russians, too, have
1450 and in 1591. It has a fine cloister and the tombs a church, where the Bishop of Kronstadt officiates.
of Maddalena Orsini and of Eugene IV (transferred The Hebrews have a large new synagogue and an
hither from St. Peter's), the work of Isaia da Pisa. oratory, besides a school of religious learning and
S. Sisto Vecchio, earlier than the sixth century, has various benevolent organizations.
a fine campanile and frescoes of the fifteenth century. —
Non-reUgious Buildings. The Palace of the
Here was the first house of the Dominicans in Rome Cancelleria, by Bramante; the Curia of Innocent X,
The title was borne by Cardinal Langham, Arch- now occupied by the ItaUan Parliament; the Quirinal
bishop of Canterbury (see Langham, Simon). S Palace, the king's residence, built by Gregory XIII
Spirito in Sassia is so called because in this quarter and enlarged by Paul V and Pius VI, where the popes
(the Borgo) an Anglo-Saxon colony, led by King formerly resided, and the conclaves were held; the
Ina, was established, with a church called S. Maria in Palazzo di Giustizia, built by Calderari entirely of
Saxia. In 1201 Innocent III built a hospital and travertine; the Bank of Italy (Koch) and the Palazzo
foundling institute which was entrusted to the Hos- Buoncompagni, the residence of the queen-mother;
pitallers of the Holy Ghost. Sixtus IV removed the the Palazzo Braschi (offices of the Ministry of In-
hospital, and Paul III had the present church built ternal Affairs), Palazzi Capitohni (Michelangelo),
by Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane (1544); but the Palazzo del Consulta (Ministry of Foreign Affairs),
campanile dates from Callistus III. The residence Villa Medici (French Academy), Palazzo Venezia
of the superior (Palazzo del Commendatore dello (Austrian Embassy), built by Paul II, Palazzo
Spedale) is adjacent to the church, but about half Corsini (Accademia dei Lincei), Palazzo Farnese
of it has been pulled down for the construction of the (Michelangelo), now the property of France and oc-
Victor Emmanuel Bridge. S. Stefano Rotondo, cupied by the French Embassy. Among the private
built by Pope Simplicius on the foundations of an palaces are the Altieri (Clement X), Barberini
ancient building consisting of three concentric cir- (Bernini), Borghese (Paul V), Caetani (Ammannati),
cles divided by two rings of twenty columns in all, Pamfili, Esedra, Giraud (Bramante —
now belonging
is decorated with frescoes by Pomarancio and to the Torlonia family), Massimo, Odescalohi,
Tempesta. It was the titular church of Cardinal Farnesina (Sangallo) and Ruspoli. The chief private
,

Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrews (see Beaton, villas are the Doria Pamfili and the Massimo (fres-
David), and now belongs to the German College. coes by Overbeok). Of all the public monuments
S. Susanna, dedicated to the Roman martyr of that we need mention only that recently inaugurated to
name, dates back to the fourth century. In its the memory of Victor Emmanuel II at the back of
restoration by Maderno (1600) the mosaics of 796 the Capitoline Hill, consisting of a gilded equestrian
perished, and it was decorated with frescoes by Croce. statue, with a semicircular colonnade behind it. The
It was the titular church of Cardinal Moran, Arch- principal fountains are: the Acqua Paola, on the
 ROME 176 ROME
Janiculum (Paul V); Ihe Piazza S. Pietro fountain, the various operations of baking bread. That of the
the Tartarughe (Raphael), the Fontana del Tritone Scipios, near the Gate of St. Sebastian, was discovered
(Bernini), and, most magnificent of all, the Trevi in 1780, with the sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus,
(Clement XII, Nicola Salvi). consul in 298, which is now in the Vatican Museum.
Principal ancient Edifices and Monuments. — The The Appian Way was lined with numbers of sepul-
Flavian Amphitheatie, or Colosseum, begun by Ves- chral monuments; among these mention may be made
pasian. Much of its material, particularly on the here of the columbaria, or grottoes where a family
south side, has been pilfered, this destructive practice or an association was wont to deposit in niches the
having been effectively stopped only in the eighteenth cinerary urns of its members. The most important
century. The Arch of Constantine was erected in of these are in the Vigna Codini and near S. Giovaimi
312 to commemorate the victory over Waxentius, in Oleo.
the decorations being, in part, taken from the Arch With Septimius Severus a new architectural period
of Trajan. That of Marcus Aurelius, on the Flarnin- was inaugurated, which was continued by Helioga-
ian Way (Corso), was removed by Alexander VII; balus and Alexander Severus. The house of Augustus,
its decorations are preserved in the Capitol. That of that of Tiberius, the hippodrome, the library, the
Septimius 8cverus (203) is richly decorated with house of Livia, the pwdagogium, or quarters of the
statues and bas-rehefs; that of Titus, commemorating imperial pages (where the celebrated drawing of a
his victory over the Jews, has the celebrated bas- certain Alexamenos adoring a crucified ass was dis-
relief representing objects taken from the Temple covered) —
all these are still clearly distinguishable.
of Jerusalem; that of Drusus (Trajan?) is near the There were also a temple of the Great Mother
Porta S. Sebastiano. The Arch of Dolabella (a. (205 b. c), one of Jupiter Victor (295 b. c. — com-
D. 10) is surmounted by three conduits taken from a memorating the victory of Sentinum), and one of
branch of the Aqua Claudia. The Arch of Gallienus Apollo, surrounded by a great portico in the enclosure
dates from a. d. 262. The secular basilicas are the of which now stands the Church of S. Sebastiano
^mihan, or Fulvian (167 B. c), the Julian (54 B. c), in Palladio. In the substructures of the palace of
the Basilica of Constantine (a. d. 306-10), and the Caligula was discovered some years ago the ancient
Ulpian, on the Forum of Trajan, with which a hbrary basilica of S. Maria' Antiqua, probably dating from
was once connected. the fourth century, in which frescoes of the eighth
For Christian catacombs see Catacombs, Roman. and ninth centuries (including a portrait of Pope St.
The most important catacombs of the Hebrews are Zacharias, then living) were found. It is evident at
those of Vigna Randanini, on the Appian Way. certain points, where the paintings have been broken,
The Circuses are: that of Domitian, now the that two other layers of painting lie beneath. Other
Piazza Navona; the Flaminian (the Palazzo Mattel); temples are those of Concordia, three columns of
the Circus Maximus, the oldest of all, erected in the which are still standing in the Roman Forum, built in
Murcian Valley, between the Palatine and the Aven- 388 b. c. for the peace between the Patricians and the
tine, where, even in the days of Romulus, races and Plebeians, and in which the Senate often assembled;
other public amusements used to be held (as on the of the Deus Rediculus, outside the city, near the
occasion of the Rape of the Sabines); that of Nero, Appian Way, on the spot where' Hannibal, alarmed
near St. Peter's, where the Apostle was martyred; by a vision, resolved to retire without besieging Rome;
that of Maxentius, outside the city, near the Yie, of Castor and Pollux, built in 484 B. c. to com-
Appia. Trajan's Column, on the forum of the same memorate the victory of Lake Regillus, over the Lat-
name, with a spiral design of the emperor's warlike ins, and restored in 117 (three columns remaining);
exploits, is 100 Roman feet (about 97 English feet) of Faustina and Antoninus (S. Lorenzo in Miranda)
in height, erected by the senate and people A. D. of Fortuna Virilis (second century B. c; now the
113. That of Marcus Aurelius, with reliefs showing Church of St. Mary of Egypt); of Julius Caesar,
the wars with the Marcomanni, Quadi, Sarmati, etc. erected by Augustus in the Forum, on the spot where
(172-75), is interesting for its representation of the Caesar's body was burned; of Jupiter Capitolinus,
miraculous rainfall which, as early as TertuUian's now the German Embassy; of Mars Ultor (the
time, was attributed to the prayers of the Christian Avenger) erected in the Forum of Augustus to ful-
soldiers. This column bears a bronze statue of St. fil his vow made
at the battle of Philippi, where he
Paul, as Trajan's is crowned with a statue of St. avenged the assassination of Caesar; of Minerva
Peter (Sixtus V, 1589). That of Phocas was erected Medica, which is, indeed, rather a nymphaeum, or re-
in 608 by the exarch Smaragdus. The Roman servoir for distributing the water supply; of Neptune,
Forum was originally the swampy valley between the with its stone piazza, now the Exchange; of Peace,
Palatine, Capitoline, and Esquiline, which became built by Vespasian after his victory over the Jews;
a market and a meeting-place for the transaction of of Romulus (the son of Maxentius), which now, like
public business. Soon it was surrounded with Sacrae Urbis temple (of the Holy City), forms part
—
shops and public buildings basilicas, the Curia of Santi Cosmo e Damiano; of Saturn, in the Forum.
Hostilia, the Rostra, or platform for pubhc speakers, The two temples of Venus and Rome have their
and various temples. Other forums were those of apses touching each other, and were surrounded by
Augustus, of Peace, of Nero, the JuKan, and Trajan's, a common peristyle, a plan designed by the Emperor
all in the same neighbourhood. Hadrian himself; to the temple of Vesta, below the
The Mausoleum of Augustus, between the Corso and Palatine, is annexed the house of the Vestals; the
the Via Ripetta, is now a concert hall. The Mauso- small round temple of the Mater Matuba, in the
leum of Hadrian (Ca.stle of S. Angelo) was used as a Forum Boarium, has been commonly called Vesta's.
fortressby Goths and Romans as early as the sixth Characteristic of Rome are the lofty brick towers,
century; in the tenth and following centuries it often generally square, with few windows, which may still
serv'cd as a prison, voluntary or compulsory, for the be seen here and there throughout the city. They
popes; Boniface IX, Alexander VI, and Urban VIII were built, for the most part, in the twelfth and thir-
were the popes who did most to restore and trans- teenth centuries, and are monuments of the discord
form it. The Tomb of Caecilia Metella, on the Ma between the most powerful families of Rome. The
Appia, still fairly well preserved, was a stronghold most important of them are: the Torre Anguillara
of the Caetani in the Middle Ages, and from them in Trastevere, adjoining the palace of the Anguillara
passed to the Savelli and the Colonna. 'The Pyramid family, reconstructed and used as a medieval museum;
of Caius Cacstius (time of Augustus) is more than 120 the two Capocci towers, in the Via Giovanni Lanza;
feet in height. The tomb of Eurysaces, outside the that of the Conti, once the largest and strongest,
Porta Maggiore, has interesting bas-reliefs showing built by Riccardo, brother of Innocent III; that of
 ROME 177 ROME
the Scimmia, or of the Frangipani, near S. Antonio dei canon law) and profess the same for two years. There
Portoghesi, surmounted by a statue of the Madonna; exist documents from the year 1369 showing that de-
the Torre MiUina, in the Via dell' Anima; the Torre grees were then granted. But later, in the days of
Sanguigna. The Torre delle MiUzie has been anarchy that overtook the city, the Studium gradually
erroneously called "Nero's Tower", that emperor decayed. In 1363 the statutes were reformed; among
being supposed to have watched from it the burning other changes, provision was made for obtaining for-
of Rome; it was built, however, under Innocent III, eign professors, who would be independent of the
by his sons Piero and Alessio, partisans of the senator various factions in the city. In 1370, however, or a
Pandolfo, who opposed the pope's brother Riccardo. little later, the Studium was entirely closed. Towards
Guida Commerciale di Roma e Provincia (annual) Monoffrafia
;
the end of the century the Roman Commune tried to
delta cittA di Roma (publ. of the Italian Ministry oi Agriculture,
Rome, 1881). restore the university by offering very large salaries
—
History. Mommsen, tr. Dickson, The History of Rome to the professors. Innocent VII in 1406 gave it new
(London, 1886); Dyer, A History of the City of Rome (London, statutes and arranged with Manuel Chrysoloras to
1865) Gregorovius, History of the City of Rome in the Middle
accept the chair of Greek literature. But the death
:

Ages (London, 1894-1902) ; Ghisar, Geschichle Roms und der

P&pste im MittelaUer (Freiburg im Br., 1901); Reumont, Gesch. of Innocent and the subsequent political and eccle-
Roms im MittelaUer (Stuttgart, 1905) Adinolpi, Roma nelV etd siastical troubles frustrated this plan. The real re-
;

di mezzo (Rome, 1881); Tommassetti, La Campagna di Roma

1879-1910; Ehrle, Roma -prima di Sisto V (Rome, 1908); storer of the university was Eugene IV (10 October,
PoMPlLi-OuviEHi, II Senato Romano (lHS-1870) (Rome, 1886); 1431). He drew up regulations for the liberty and
Calvi, Bibliografia di Roma net Medio Evo (,476-1499) (Rome, immunity of the professors and students, and in-
1906); Appe/idiz (more complete) (1908).
—
Monuments, Antiquities, etc. Chandlery, Pilgrim Walks creased the revenues by adding to them the duties
in Rome (St. Louis and London, 1905); Crawford, Ave, Ronui imposed on wines imported from abroad. For the
Immortalis (London, 1905) ; de Waal, Roma Sacra (Alunich, purpose of government, four reformatores, Roman
1905); Stettiner, Roma nei suoi monuiiwrdi (Rome, 1911);
Angeu, Roma, in Italia Artistica, XXXVIL XL(Bergamo, 1908); citizens, were appointed to assist the rector. The
Petersen, Das alte Rom (Leipzig, s. d.) Steinmann, Rom in der position of chancellor was given to the cardinal-
;

Renaissance (Leipzig, 1902) ; Lanciaxi, Pagan and Christian camerlengo. The university was located near the
Rome (Boston, 1893); Idem, Ancient Rome (New York, 1889);
Idem, Forum, e Palatino; Boissier, Promenades arch^ologiquea Church of Sant' Eustachio, where it had first been
(Paris, ISSl); Richter, Topographic der Stadt Rom (Nordlinger, established. The first college for poor students was
1889); XiBBY, Roma e suoi dintorni (Rome, 1829); Hblbig, the Collegium Capranica (1458, see Roman Col-
Guide to the Public Collections of Classical Antiquities in Rome
(Leipzig, 1895-96)
; Armellini, Le chiese di Roma (Rome, 1891) leges) but the later plan of establishing another was
;

Angeli, Le chiese di Roma (Milan, 1906). not realized. The Studium of law soon flourished;
—
Archaeological Reviews. Bulletino d^Arch. Crist. (1863— ) but the theological faculty, on account of the com-
—
Nuovo Bulletino d'Areh. crist. (1895 ); Bulletino della Comis-
Archim della Societd petition of the Studium Curiae, was not so successful.
sione arch, comunale di Roma (1873 —— );
Romana di Storia Patria (Rome, 1877 ); Notizie degli scavi di Under Nicholas V the classical studies developed
antichitd (Rome, 1876— ); Ann. Ecclesiastico (Rome, 1911). rapidly owing to the labours of Lorenzo Valla, Poggio
U. Benigni. Bracciohni, Bruni, Francesco Filelfo, Pomponio Leto,
—
University of Rome. The University of Rome and the Greeks, Lascaris, Chalcocondylas, and Mu-
must be distinguished from the "Studium Generale suros. But the process against the Academia Romana
apud Curiam", established by Innocent IV in 1244-5 under Paul II reacted on the university. Sixtus IV
at Lyons for the convenience of the members of the intended to suppress it and reduced the salaries
pontifical Court and of the persons who flocked from of the professors. Better days returned with Alex-
all over the world to the Holy See. The Studium com- ander VI, who began the present building of the
prised the faculties of theology and of canon and civil Sapienza, which was remodelled in the seventeenth
law. Clerics and priests could not only attend the century. It seems, however, that it was Leo X who
lectures in the latter branch, but were allowed to suppressed the Studium Curiae in favour of the
teach it, despite the prohibition of Honorius III. The University of Rome. In 1514 the latter had 88 pro-
Studium accompanied the popes on all their journeys fessors 4 of theology, 1 1 of canon law, 20 of civil law,
:

and was thus transferred to Avignon. In accord- 15 of medicine, the remainder teaching philosophy,
ance with the Decree of the Council of Vienne, the mathematics, rhetoric, grammar, and botany. Lec-
Studium Curiae was the first, owing to the generosity tures were given even on feast days. The number of
of John XXII, to establish chairs of Arabic, Hebrew, students was very small, being frequently less than
and Chaldaic; there was, moreover, a professor of the number of professors. The blame is to be laid
Armenian. At Avignon professorships of medicine on the latter, whose other official and professional
were also instituted. During the Schism both the duties interfered with their lectures. Leo X estab-
popes at Avignon and those at Rome had a Studium lished in the Campidoglio a chair of Roman history,
Generale; but in the former theology alone was taught. the lectures to be open to the public; the first to fill
In the fifteenth century the Studium Generale was the position was Evangelista Maddaleni Capodiferro.
abolished in favour of the University of Rome. Pre- Leo also granted a new constitution to the university,
viously King Charles of Anjou, out of gratitude for obliged the professors to hold a "circle" with the
his election as senator of Rome, had decided, 14 students after their lectures, forbade them to exercise
October, 1265, to erect a Studium Generale "tarn any other profession, and imposed a penalty for
utriusque juris quam artium" (of civil and canon law lectures omitted. He appointed three cardinals pro-
and of arts), but his plan was not carried into execu- tectors of the university.
tion. The real founder of the University of Rome was As a result of the occurrences of 1527, the university
Boniface VIII (Bull "Insuprema?" of 20 April, 1.303), remained closed during the entire pontificate of Clem-
who established it in order that Rome, the recipient ent VII. Paul III immediately after his accession
of so many Divine favours, might become the fruitful reopened it, obtaining distinguished professors, such
mother of science. The chief source of revenue of the as Lainez, S.J., for theology, Faber, S.J., for Scrip-
university was the tribute which Tivoli and Ris- ture, Copernicus for astronomy, and Acoorambono
pampano paid the City of Rome. It is worthy of for medicine. It is from this date that the university
note that a school of law already existed in Rome in assumed the name of the Sapienza (a name used
the thirteenth century. previously elsewhere, as at Perugia). In 1539 the
The transference of the papal Court to Avignon did professors numbered 24 2 of theology, 8 of canon and
;

not at first injure the Studium Generale. John XXII civil law, 5 of medicine (one teaching anatomy and
took a deep interest in it, but limited the granting of one botany), 5 of philosophy, 3 of Latin, and 1 of
degrees to the two faculties of law. The Vicar of Greek literature. Julius III entrusted the administra-
Rome was to preside at the examinations; to obtain a tion to a congregation of cardinals. Pius V enlarged
degree the candidate had to study six years (five for the botanical garden of medical herbs previously estab-
XIII.— 12
 ROME 178 ROME
lished near the Vatican by Nicholas V, and allowed pope. Another Edict (1748) dealt with the rights
the bodies of Jews and condemned infidels to be used and duties of the professors and established chairs of
for the purposes of anatomical study. He also chemistry, botany, and experimental i)hysies. The
established chairs of Hebrew and mathematics. A following chairs were then in existence: G of juris-
mineralogical museum (the "Metalloteca", which prudence; 6 of medicine; 15 of arts (including theol-
was after abandoned) was founded in the Vatican. ogy). In 1778 the sciences were divided into five
Under GreKf>ry XIII adjunct chairs with salary at- classes: theology, 5 chairs; jurisprudence, 6; medicine,
tached were established tor the young doctors of 9; philosophy and arts, 5; languages (Latin, Greek^
Rome, who might later become ordinary professors. Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac). But a rector of that time
In that and the following centuries the professors of deplored the inertia of the professors and the laziness
theology were generally the procurators general of of the students. Pius VII (1804) founded the min-
the various religious orders. Sixtus V granted 22,000 eralogical and natural history museum, and in 1806
scudi to extinguish the debt encumbering the univer- a chair of veterinary science. From 1809 till 1813
sity. He gave to the college of consistorial advocates the French system was in force. Leo XIII in 1824
the exclusive right of electing the rector who, until estabUshed the Congregation of Studies, and gave it
then, had been elected by the professors and the
students, and he instituted a congregation of car-
dinals, "Pro Universitate Studii Romani" At the
end of the sixteenth century the university began to
decline, especially in the faculties of theology, philos-
ophj', and literature. This was due in part to the
formidable concurrence of the Jesuits in their Col-
legio Romano, where the flower of the intellect of
the Society was engaged in teaching. Moreover,
Plato was the favoured master in the Sapienza, while
Aristotle was more generally followed elsewhere.
Among the distinguished professors in this century
besides those already mentioned were Tommaso de
Vio, O.P., later the celebrated Cardinal Gaetano;
Domenico Jacovazzi; Felice Peretti (Sixtus V); Marco
Antonio Muret, professor of law and elegant Latinist;
Bartolomeo Eustacchio, the famous anatomist.
In the seventeenth century the decline was rapid.
Many of the professors had the privilege of lecturing
only when they pleased; most of them were foreigners.
The medical school alone continued to prosper owing
to the labours of Cesalpino and Lancisi. The Ac-
cademia dei Lincei promoted the study of the natural
sciences and was honoured by Benedettino CastelU,
the disciple and friend of Galilei, and Andrea Argoli;
later \'ito Giordani the mathematician attracted many
students. Only two jurisconsults of note are found
during this century, Farinacci and Gravina. Giuseppe
Carpani brought the students together at his home to
familiarize them with the practice of law. The most
important event of the century occurred in 1660,
under Alexander VII (1655-67), when the university
buildings begun by Alexander VI (1492-1503) were
completed. Alexander VII established moreover the
university library (the Alexandrine Library) by ob-
taining from the Clerks Regular Minors of Urbania, CORTILE OF THE SaPIENZA
whom he compensated by giving them permanently control of the universities in the pontifical state.
the chair of ethics, the printed books from the library Mariy professors at Rome as at Bologna had to resign
of the Dukes of Urbino. In addition he founded six their chairs on account of their political opinions,
new chairs, among which was that of controversial which resulted in the university faihng to keep pace
church history, first filled by the Portuguese Fran- with the universities in other states, for instance, the
cesco Macedo. Innocent XI erected a fine anatomical chairs of public and commercial law were not founded
hall. The most celebrated and relatively speaking till 1848; and that of political economy still later.
most frequented schools were those of the Oriental Among the distinguished professors of the eighteenth
languages. Under Innocent XII a move was made century were the jurists, Fagnano, Renazzi (also the
to suppress the university and assign the buildings to historian of the university), Petrocchi; the professors
the Piarists for the free education of young boys. of medicine, Baglivi, Tozzi, Pascoli; the mathema-
Fortunately the plan was not only not executed but tician, Quartaroni; the Syrian scholar, Assemani; and
resulted in ^ radical reform and the introduction Menzini and Fontanini the litterateurs; in the nine-
(1700) of a new regime which benefited in particular teenth century the Abbate Tortolini and Chelini,
the faculty of law. mathematicians. In 1870 there were 6 professors of
Clement XI purchased (170.3) with his private theology, 8 of law, 2 of notarial art, 13 of medicine,
funds some fields on the Janiculum, where he estab- 4 of pharmacy, 11 of surgery, 3 of veterinary science,
lished a botanical garden, which soon became the 15 of philosophy and mathematics, 8 of Italian and
most celebrated in Europe through the labours of classical philology, and 4 of Oriental languages. Under
the brothers Trionfetti. Benedict XIV, who had the new Government all the professors who refused
been a professor and rector of the university (1706- to take the oath of allegiance were dismissed, among
19), promulgated in 1744 new regulations concerning those refusing being the entire theological stafif.
especially the \-acations, the order of examinations, These alone then formed the pontifical university,
and the selection of profe.ss(jrs, which was to be by which came to an end in 1876.
competit;\'e examination, ^hereiis from the time of The university is now under the control of the
Innocent XII they were ordinarily appointed by the Itahan Government and is called the Royal Univer-
 ROMERO 179 ROMULUS
sity. Its present state is as follows: philosophy and the direction of a hermit named Marinus and lived a
letters, chairs ordinary, 23, extraordinary, 3; tutors, life of extraordinary severity. About 978, Pietro
13; physics and mathematics, chairs ordinary, 23, Orseolo I, Doge of Venice, who had obtained his oflSce
extraordinary, 7; tutors, 16; law, chairs ordinary, by acquiescence in the murder of his predecessor,
16; tutors, 8; medicine, chairs ordinary, 20, extraor- began to suff'er remorse for his crime. On the advice
dinary, 2; tutors, 15; philosophy and letters, of Guarinus, Abbot of San Miguel-de-Cuxa, in Cata-
professors, 33; docents, 33; physios and mathematics, lonia,and of Marinus and Romuald, he abandoned his
professors, 34 (with 4 assistants); docents, 41; law officeand relations, and fled to Cuxa, where he took
professors, 17; docents, 36; medicine, professors, 35; the habit of St. Benedict, while Romuald and Marinus
docents, 98. Annexed to the university are schools erected a hermitage close to the monastery. For five
of philosophy, hterature, and natural science, ar- years the saint lived a life of great austerity, gather-
chseology, medieval and modern art. Oriental lan- ing round him a band of disciples. Then, hearing that
guages, pharmacy, and applied engineering. There his father, Sergius, who had be-
are also institutes of pedagogy, chemistry, physics, come a monk, was tormented
mineralogy, zoology, botany, anatomy, anthropology, with doubts as to his vocation,
geology, physiology, the astronomical observatory he returned in haste to Italy,
of the CampidogUo, many medical institutes and subjected Sergius to severe dis-
clinics, and finally the Alexandrine library. The cipline, and so resolved his
number of students in 1909-10 was 3686. Owing to doubts. For the next thirty years
the growth of the university after 1870, the building St. Romuald seems to have
of the Sapienza was insufficient, consequently the wandered about Italy, founding
schools of physical and natural sciences had to be many monasteries and hermi-
located elsewhere. tages. For some time he made
See the Annuario della Reale University degli studi di Roma Pereum his favourite resting
(1870-71 to 1909-10); Renazzi, Storia dell' Universita degli
Studi di Roma (Rome, 1803-6) ; Carafa, De Gymnasio Romano place. In 1005 he went to Val-
eiusque professoribits ab Urbe condita (Rome, 1751) Dbnifle,
; di-Castro for about two years,
Die UniversU&ten des Mittelalters, I (Berlin, 1885) Relazione 6
;
and left it, prophesying that he
notizie intomo alia Regia University di Roma (Rome, 1873);
would return to die there alone
U. Benigni.
and unaided. Again he wan-
Romero, Juan, missionary and Indian linguist, b. dered about Italy: then at-
in the village of Machena, Andalusia, Spain, 1559; tempted to go to Hungary, but
d. at Santiago, Chile, 31 March, 1630. He entered was prevented by persistent ill-
the Society of Jesus in 1580, was assigned to the South ness. In 1012 he appeared at
American mission in 1588, and arrived in Peru in Vallombrosa, whence he moved
January, 1590, to take up his work among the Indians. into the Diocese of Arezzo.
From 1593 to 1598 he was superior of the missions of Here, according to the legend, a
Tucuman, the missionary centre for the wild tribes certain Maldolus, who had seen
of what is now northern Argentina. After a term as a vision of monks in white gar-
procurator in Rome, he returned to South America in ments ascending into Heaven,
1610 and was successively superior of the Jesuit college gave him some land, afterwards „ „ _
at Buenos Aires, rector of the colleges of Santiago del known Campus Maldoli,
as the ^^^'^^ °^
TiT- 11
cii.-i, TheBrothers^''n^nfSil^
DellaKoli>-
Estero, Argentina, and Santiago, Chile, and first vice-
y-f 7 7 7
or Camaldoh. St. Romuald built bia. Cathedral of San-
provincial of Chile. In his long service of nearly on this land five cells for hermits, sepolcro
forty years as active or directing missionary Father which, with the monastery at Fontebuono, built two
Romero acquired a more or less fluent knowledge of years later, became the famous mother-house of the
several Indian languages, particularly of the Guaranl Camaldolese Order (q. v.). In 1013 he retired to
(q. V.) of Paraguay, on which he was an authority. Monte-Sitria. In 1021 he went to Bifolco. Five
He was the author of numerous letters and
also years later he returned to Val-di-Castro where he
shorter papers and of an important manuscript work, died, as he had prophesied, alone in his cell. Many
"De Prsedestinatione." miracles were wrought at his tomb, over which an
SoMMERVOGEL, Biblioth^que de la C. de J., pt. I (Brussels and altar was allowed to be erected in 1032. In 1466
Paris, 1896), bibliogr. vii; sketch in Lozano, Historia de la Com-
pafiia de Jesus de la Provincia del Paraguay (2 vols., Madrid, his body was found still incorrupt; it was translated
1754-5). James Moonet. to Fabriano in 1481. In 1595 Clement VII fixed his
feast on 7 Feb., the day of the translation of his relics,
Romuald, Saint, b. at Ravenna, probably about and extended celebration to the whole Church.
its
950; d. at Val-di-Castro, 19 June, 1027. St. Peter He is represented in art pointing to a ladder on which
Damian, his first biographer, and almost all the are monks ascending to Heaven.
Camaldolese writers assert that St. Romuald's age at Ada SS., Feb., II (Venice, 1735), 101-46; Castaniza, Historia
de S. Romvaldo (Madrid, 1597); Collina, Vita di S. Romualdo
his death was one hundred and twenty, and that (Bologna, 1748); Grando, Dissertationes Camaldulenses (Lucca,
therefore he was bom about 907. This is disputed by 1707), II, 1-144; III, 1-160; Mabillon, Acta SS. 0. S. B., saec.
most modern writers. Such a date not only results in VI, par. I (Venice, 1733), 246-78; Mittahelli and Costadoni,
Annates Camaldulenses, I (Venice, 1756); St. Peter Damian in
a series of improbabilities with regard to events in the P. L., CXLIV (Paris, 1867), 953-1008; Trichaud, Vie de Saint
saint's life, but is also irreconcilable with known dates, Romuald (Amiens, 1879); Waitz in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Hist:
and probably was determined from some mistaken in- ScnpL, IV (Hanover, 1841), 846-7.
ference by St. Peter Damian In his youth Romuald Leslie A. St. L. Tokb.
indulged in the usual thoughtless and even vicious
life of the tenth-century noble, yet felt greatly drawn Romulus Augustulus, deposed in the year 476,
to the eremetical life. At the age of twenty, struck the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
with horror because his father had killed an enemy in a His reign was purely nominal. After the murder
duel, he fled to the Abbey of San ApoUinare-in-Classe of Valentinian III (455) the Theodosian dynasty
and after some hesitation entered religion. San was extinct in Western Europe and the Suevian
ApoUinare had recently been reformed by St. Maieul Rieimer, a grandson of Wallia, a king of the West
of Cluny, but still was not strict enough in its observ- Goths, governed the Western Empire for sixteen
ance to satisfy Romuald. His injudicious correction years as its real ruler. Like StiUcho and Aetius he
of the less zealous aroused such enmity against him raised five shadowy emperors to the throne and then
that he applied for, and was readily granted, permis- deposed them, partly in agreement with the Eastern
sion to retire to Venice, where he placed himself under Empire. After his death in 472 his nephew Gun-
 RONAN 180 RONSARD
dobad succeeded. At Ravenna Gundobad appointed February, 763. Another saint of this name is best
the soldfer Glycerius as emperor, but Leo, the Eastern known by the ruined church of Kilronan, Co. Ros-
Roman Emperor, chose Juhus Nepos, a relative of common, where Turlogh O'Carolan and Bishop
Empress Verina, who had succeeded his uncle Mar- O'Rourke are buried.
oellinus as Governor of Dalmatia. Nepos advanced Ada 5.S.; CoLGAN, Acta Sand, Hib. (Louvain, 1645) Lanigan,
;

Ecd. Hist, of Ireland (Dublin, 1829); 0'H.\nlon, Lives of the

with the fleet to Ravenna and forced Glycerius to Irish Sainis (Dublin, s. d.).
become Bishop of Salona. Leo's successor, Zeno W. H. Gbattan-Flood.
the Isaurian, withdrew the fleet which Nepos had had,
and thus the latter was forced to depend upon his Ronsard, Pierre db, French poet, b. 2 (or 11)
own resources, while the turmoil in Rome and Gaul Sept., 1524, at the Ch&teau de la Poissonniere, near
constantly increased. Nepos appointed Orestes Vendome; d. 27 Dec, 1585, at the priory of Saint-
"magister miUtum" and made him a patrician. Cosme-en I'lsle, near Tours. He was first educated
Orestes had been minister of Attila, after whose at home by a private tutor, and at the age of nine
death he had come to Rome. Nepos commissioned was sent to the College of Navarre, in Paris. Hav-
Orestes to ad\'unce into Gaul to restore order with ing left the college before graduating he was ap-
the troops still available. Orestes however prevailed pointed page to the Duke of Orleans, son of Francis I,
upon the mercenaries to march against R-avenna in- and soon afterwards to James V, King of Scotland.
stead of going to Gaul. Nepos fled to Dalmatia while After a sojourn of three years in Scotland and Eng-
Orestes entered Ravenna on 2S August, 47.5. land, during which he became thoroughly proficient
Orestes allowed two months to pass without ap- in the Enghsh language, he travelled in Germany,
pointing a new emperor, and the troops growing im- Piedmont, and other countries. In 1541, being
patient proclaimed his son. On account of the boy's afflicted with an in-
^•outh (he was only thirteen years old) he was called curable deafness, he
.lugustulus, the little emperor. The administration retired from pub-
was carried on cautiou.sly and shrewdly by Orestes, lic life and for seven
He obtained the recognition of his son by the emperor years devoted his
of the Eu.stern Empire, made treaties for the protec- entire time to st ud>-
tion of Italy with the German princes in Africa, Gaul, He studied CSrock
and Spain, and thus gained a few years of peace for under the famous
the country. However, the German warriors in his scholar Dor at, at
army, who had driven out the Emperor Nepos in the the College de Co-
belief that they would receive grants of land, now queret. His ambi-
demanded a third of the territory of Italj-, according tion was to find new
to the custom existing in the Roman army. \^'hen paths for French
Or<'stes refused the troops mutinied under the leader- poetry, and he was
.shij) of the Skyrian Odoacer. Orestes a(h-anced soon recognized as
against them, but was obliged to fall back on Pavia, the "Prince of
which city was stormed by Odoacer; Orestes was Poets", a title he
taken prisoner and beheaded at Piacenza in 47(.( merited by his
Odoacer was proclaimed king by his troops and "Odes" (15.50),
marched against Ravenna where Romulus waited "Amours de Cas-
in fear. Odoacer spared his life, ga\-e hiiu a year's sandre", etc. He
income, and sent him with his relatives to Ca])!' was a great favour-
Misenum opposit<' Baia. Odoacer now reigned as ite with Charles IX
first King of Italy, while three deposed emperors Elizabeth, Queen
of England, sent him a diamond;
ch-agged out inglorious and powerless lives: Romulus Mary Stuart found relief in her imprisonment in
-Vugustulus in private life on his estate in Campania, reading his poems; the City of Totdouse presented him
Glycerius as Bishop of Salona, and Julius Nepos as with a soUd silver Minerva; and the literary men of
commander in Dalmatia. The Roman Empire of that time acknowledged him as their leader. His
the West had ceased, and the conception of imperial last ten years were saddened by ill-health. He re-
power was henceforth exclusively connected with the tired to Croix-A'al-en-Vendomois, in the forest of Gas-
person of the Eastern emperor. tine, and then to the priory of Saint-Cosme-en I'lsle,
NiTZSCH, Deul^rhi Of.^cfi., I; von Ranke, Weltgeschichle,
where he died. The works of Ronsard are numerous
IV; Pfeilschifter, Thriuh,rich der Cro.^.^r in WeUgesch. in
Karakterbitdcrn (Mainz, 1910). and their chronology is very intricate. In twenty-
Karl Hoeber. four years (1560-84) six editions of his works were
published, and the number of occasional pieces is
Ronan, Saixt. —There are twelve Irish saints almost incalculable. The following are the most im-
bearing the name of Ronan commemorated in tlie portant: "Les Amours de Cassandre" (2 books of
"Martyrology of Donegal"; of these the most sonnets, Paris, 15.50), "Odes" (5 books, Paris, 1551-
celebrated are: St. Ronan of Ulster, brother of St. 1552), "Le bocage royal" (Paris, 1554), "LesHymnes"
Carnech, and grandson of Loarn, d. 11 January, 53.5; (2 books, Paris, 1556), "Poemes" (2 books, Paris,
St. Ronan, son of Berach, a disciple of the great 1560-7.3), " Discours sur les miseres du temps " (1.560),
St Fechin of Fore. He became first Abbot of Drum- "La Franciade " (Paris, 1572) His influence and his
,

shallon, and d. IN November, 665. St. Ronan reforms were far-reaching. He enriched the French
Fionn is honoured as patron of Lan Ronan voca})ulary with a multitude of words borrowed not
(Kelminiog) in Iveagh. His feast is celebrated on 22 only from Greek and Latin, but from the old romance
May, both in Ireland and Scotland. St, Ronan of dialects as well as from the technical languages of
lona explicitly referred to by St. Bede as one of the
is trades, sports, and sciences. His many rules con-
protagonists of the Rcjman custom of celebrating cerning verse-making were as influential as numer-
Easter as against the Irish tradition, and he had a ous. He invented a large variety of metres, adopted
warm controversy on the subject with his country- the regular intertwining of masculine and feminine
man St. Finan, Bishop of Lindisfarne, in 660. This rhymes, proscribed the hiatus, and introduced har-
controversy was end(>d at the Synod of AYhitby, in mony in French verse. He was perhaps the great-
664, when St. Ronan's views were upheld. St. est French lyrical poet prior to the nineteenth
Ronan of Lismore w:is a distinguished successor of century. His themes are as varied as their forms,
St, Carthage, and several Munster churches were simple and subUme, ironical and tender, solemn and
built in his honour. His feast is celebrated on 9 famiUar.
 ROOD 181 ROOD
BiNET, La me de Pierre de Ronsard (Paris, 1586), re-edited, black, and often was marked with a white cross.
with notes and commentaries by Laumonier (Paris, 1910) Brune-
;
When the rood was exceptionally large or heavy, its
TlfeRE, Hist, de la Hit. class., I (Paris, 1908)
; Laumonier, Umuvre
de Ronsard (Paris, 1910), wiiich work contains a full and complete weight was sometimes taken partly by wrought-
bibliograpliy. iron rood-chains depending from the chancel arch,
Louis N. Dblamarrb. which were generally of elaborate design; the staples
to which they were fixed may still be seen in some
Rood (Anglo-Saxon Rod, or Rode, "cross"), a churches from which the rood itself has been removed
term, often used to signify the True Cross itself, — e. g. at CuUompton, England. The rood, however,
which, with the prefix Holy, occurs as the dedication striking and prominent as it was intended to be, was
of some churches —
e. g. Holyrood Abbey, in Scot- often eclipsed by the rood-screen over which it was
land. But more generally it means a large crucifix, placed. The precise origin of the screen and its
with statues of Our Lady and St. John, usually connexion with the rood is somewhat obscure, and ap-
placed over the entrance to the choir in medieval parently yaried in different churches. The custom
churches. These roods were frequently very large, of screening off the altar is very ancient, and
so as to be seen from all parts of the church, and were emphasizing, as it did, the air of mystery surrounding
the place of sacrifice, was possibly a survival of
Judaism; but the placing of a screen, more or less
solid, between the chancel and nave — i. e. between
—
clergy and people must have originated from prac-
tical rather than from symbolic reasons, and was
probably an attempt to secure privacy and com-
fort for those engaged in the work of the choir, more
especially at times when there was no congregation
present. This was certainly the case with the heavy
closed screens, usually of stone, in the large conventual
and collegiate churches, where the long night offices
would have been impossible in winter without some
such protection.
Over such screens was a loft or gallery (rood-loft),
which, according to some authorities, was used for
the reading of the Epistle and Gospel, certain lec-
tions, the pastorals of bishops, the Acts of councils,
and other like purposes. The episcopal benediction
was also sometimes pronounced, and penitents ab-
solved, from the loft, and in some churches of France
the paschal candle stood there. The Blessed Sacra-
ment was exposed on the loft in Lyons cathedral and,
according to De Moldon, similarly also at Rouen in
the eighteenth century. The loft likewise frequently
provided convenient accommodation for the organs
and singers. In large monastic churches it was
called the pulpitum and was separate from the rood-
screen supporting the rood, the latter being placed
westward of the pulpitum; but in secular cathedrals
and parish churches there does not seem to have been
usually a separate rood-screen, the rood, in such
cases, being either on or over the pulpitum itself.
In France the rood-loft was called the jube, which
Rood Loft in the Church of St-Etienne, Paris
seems to imply that it was used liturgically for the
placed either on a gallery, or screen, or on a beam reading of lessons and the like. A gallery or loft
spanning the chancel arch. Roods are also occasion- corresponding to the medieval jube was not unknown
ally found sculptured outside churches, as at Sher- in the early Church, but there is no satisfactory
borne and Romsey, and on churchyard and wayside evidence to show that it was surmounted by a rood.
crosses. As to the antiquity of the rood in the church, Thiers, taking Sens cathedral as his example, suggests
there is no certain evidence. The silver crucifix that the loft began merely as a sort of bridge
set up in the middle of St. Peter's at Rome by Leo connecting the two ambos on either side of the
III, in 795, is sometimes claimed as an early example, chancel arch, and that it was gradually made more
but there is nothing to prove that this was a rood spacious as it proved useful for other purposes.
in the medieval sense. By the thirteenth or four- This could only have been so, however, in the
teenth century, however, the great rood or crucifix smaller churches where there was no pulpitum,
had become a common feature in almost every church unless perhaps it was itself the origin of the
of Western Christendom, and the addition of the pulpitum.
figures of Sts. Mary and John, in allusion to John, In smaller parish churches it seems probable that
xix, 2.5, came in about the fifteenth. Numerous ex- the loft was originally only a convenience for reach-
amples still remain, both in England and elsewhere. ing the rood-lights, and that its obvious suitability
They were usually of wood, richly carved, painted or for other uses caused its enlargement and elaboration.
gilded, with foliated or crocketed sides, and with Nothing, however, can be stated with absolute cer-
the arms of the cross terminating either in fleurs-de- tainty. Many of these medieval screens, both with
lys or in emblazoned medallions of the symbols of and without lofts, remain to the present day, in
the four evangelists. spite of the iconoclasm of the Reformation period.
Rood-lights were kept burning before the rood Notable screens that may be mentioned as typical
in medieval times, consisting either of a wick and oil examples are at Cawston, Ranworth, Southwold,
in a cresset, or rood-bowl, or of a taper on a pricket Dunster, and Staverton in England; at Troyes,
in the centre of a mortar of brass, lattem, or copper. Albi, St-Fiacre-le-Faouet, and St-Etienne-du-Mont|
During the whole of Lent, except at the procession of Pans, in France; at Louvain and Dixmude in Bel-
Palm Sunday, the Rood was covered with a veil gium; at Lubeck in Germany. Some are constructed
(rood-cloth), which in England was either violet or of stone, and some of the later ones of metal-work,
 ROONEY 182 ROOTHAAN
but tliey are mostly of wood and usually consist of Rooney, John. See Good Hope, Western Vica-
close panelling below —
often decorated with painted riate OP the Cape of.
figures of saints —
and open screenwork above,
supporting tracery and richly carved cornices and Roothaan, Johaxn Philipp, twenty-first General
crestings. In England they were generally lavishly of the Scjciety of Jesus, b. at Amsterdam, 2.3 Novem-
coloured and gilded. In some instances they ex- ber, 17S.5; d. at Rome, 8 May, 1853. Originally
tend across the aisles of the church as well. In Eng- Protestant, the Roothaan family emigrated from
land, also, the rood frequently stood not on or near Frankfort to Amsterdam, where it became Catholic.
the screen and loft, but on a separate transverse beam Johann Phihpp, the youngest of three brothers, was
called the rood-beam, which was similarly carved on account of his special talent destined for study,
and gilded. There were sometimes other beams also, and, before he was sixteen, graduated from the gym-
besides that supporting the rood, like those at St. nasium of his native town. Thence passing to the
David's, between the choir and sanctuary, and Lincoln athenaeum illustre (high school), he continued for
beyond the high altar, on which stood lights and four years his classical studies under the celebrated
reliquaries. Corbels, or stone brackets in English Professor Jakob van Lennep with the greatest suc-
— —
churches e. g., Worcester cathedral often indicate cess. Confronted with the necessity of choosing
the position of the rood-beam before its removal in the his vocation, he determined to join the Society of
sixteenth century. Leading up to the rood-loft were Jesus, which still survived in White Russia and had
the rood-stairs, many of which still remain even where been officially recognized by Pius VII. In 1804 he
the loft itself has been destroyed. In England these set out for the novitiate in Diinaburg; the descrip-
stairs were generally enclosed in the wall separating tions of his month's journey thither are very interest-
chancel from nave, but in other countries they often ing. On the conclusion of his novitiate, he was, on
constituted an architectural feature with elaborate account of his great knowledge of the classics, ap-
tracery, as at Rouen (since destroyed), Strasburg, pointed teacher at the Jesuit gymnasium at Diina-
iSt-Etienne-du-Mont, and La Madeleine at Troyes. burg (1806-9), and completely satisfied the expecta-
In churches where there were both pulpltuin and tions of his superiors. He had already mastered
rood-screen the latter usually had two doors, and be- Polish; as a native of Holland, he naturally spoke
tween them was placed, on the western side, the rood- also French, while the two classical languages and
altar, which, in monastic churches, often served as the Hebrew were among his favourite studies. He sub-
parish altar, the parishioners being accommodated in sequently began the higher study of philosophy and
the nave. This was the case in almost all the monastic theology at Polotsk, and in 1S12 was ordained priest.
cathedrals and greater abbeys of England, and the The following four years were spent as professor of
altar, being immediately under the great rood, was rhetoric at Pusza —
this was the stormy era of the
dedicated to the Holy Cross, except at Durham, Franco-Russian War. The joyous incident of the
where it was called the Jesus altar, and at St Albans, . restoration of the Society of Jesus by Pius VII also
where the dedication was to St. Cuthbert. The latter belongs to this period (1814). The other four years
still remains in situ as the parish altar. In Miinster which preceded the banishment of the Jesuits from
cathedral and at Lilbeck, in the hospital church, there Russia (1820) were passed by Roothaan partly as
were three altars, with the two doors of the screen teacher and partly in pastoral duties in Orsa. Dur-
between them. In smaller churches, with no separate ing this interval he took the final solemn vows, and
pulpilxim, but only a rood-screen with a central door- could thus enter courageously on his journey into
way, there was usually an altar on either side of the exile. This journey lasted three months, and ended
door, but it is doubtful whether these can strictly be in Brieg (Canton of Wallis, Switzerland). Here he
termed rood-altars. It seems probable that in some again taught rhetoric for three years, besides taking
cases the rood-altar was on the loft itself, instead of zealous part in popular missions. He thrice accom-
—
beneath e. g., at Lichfield, Lyons, and St-Maurice, panied, on his tour of visitation, the provincial of the
Vienne. In some old lofts drains have been found vice-province of Switzerland, to which also belonged
which may possibly be the remains of the piscinas for the Jesuit houses in Germany, Belgium, and Hol-
such altars. The daily parish Mass said at the altar land, and learned the conditions from personal
on or under the rood-screen, was called the rood Mass, examination. He was able, after a, seventeen years'
though occasionally this term is used to signify merely absence, to revisit his kindred at Amsterdam. Root-
the Mass of one or other of the feasts of the Holy Cross. haan's subsequent appointment to the rectorship
A few other terms used in connexion with the rood of the newly-founded college at Turin brought him
may here be briefly explained. The rood-arch was to his real life's task. On the death of A. Fortis,
the arch separating chancel from nave, under which General of the Society of Jesus, Roothaan was named
the rood and rood-screen were usually situated. A his successor
rood-door was either the central door of a rood-screen His labours as General were most fruitful in every
or one of the two doors on either side of the rood- domain for the newly-restored order. His first care
altar. Rood-gallery was another term for rood-loft. was for the preservation and strengthening of the
The rood-gap was the space vmder the chancel arch, internal spirit of the Society. To this object he
partially occupied by the rood. The rood-saints were devoted nine of his eleven general letters. Of still
the figures of Sts. Mary and John on either side of the greater fundamental importance than these valuable
rood; rood-steps, the steps leading up from the nave encyclicals were his labours on the new edition of the
into the chancel, under or immediately before the Exercises of St. Ignatius according to the original
rood-screen. Rood-steeple, or rood-tower, was a name text; this edition he provided with an introduction
sometimes given to the central tower of a church at and explanatory notes. The enlightened and re-
the intersection of nave and chancel with the tran- newed use of this precious work is his chief ser-
septs, as at Durham, Notre-Dame, Paris, and Lincoln. vice, which alone must have rendered his name im-
At the last-named place the name has since been cor- mortal in the Society. He also displayed great zeal
rupted into "Broad Tower." in raising the standard of studies; having himself
Puciv, Treatise on Chancel Screens and Roodlofts (London,
enjoyed such a splendid classical education, he was
18.51); WvLCOTT, Sacred Archaeology (London, 1868); Armfield,
in Diet, of Christian Antiquities, s. v. Rood (London, 1880); able to appreciate the value of the classics for a
Bond, Screens and Galleries in English Churches (London, 190.S) mental training. After careful investigation and
Thiers, Traits sur les juhes (PB-ria, \C,SS)
. Also numerous papers counsel, he published in 1832 the Revised Order of
and articlea in Transactions of the various English Archaeological
Societies. A list of the chief of these is given in Bond, op. cit. Studies, excellently adapted to the conditions of the
supra. time. Having thus provided for their spiritual and
G. Cyprian Alston. intellectual armour, he was also able to open up the
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 ROPER 183 ROSA
richest fields for the activity Throughout
of his brethren in the Church, for the coming of the Messias.
society namely the home
and foreign missions, Advent it occurs daily as the versicle and response at
admmistration, the order increased two- Vespers. For this purpose the verse is divided into
f
lold m
I!)""^iu'*
the number of its members
(5000) and in its the versicle, "Rorate cceli desuper et nubes pluant
apostolic activity, although it justum" (Drop down dew, ye heavens, from above,
had meanwhile to
sutler banishment and
persecution in many places, and let the clouds rain the just), and the response:
especially m
the year of revolution, 1848. The Gen- "Aperiatur terra et germinet salvatorem" (Let the
eral himself had to quit Rome for
two years. On his earth be opened and send forth a Saviour"). The
return his health was broken, his strength began to text is also used: (a) as the Introit for the Fourth
iail, and fits of weakness announced his approaching Sunday in Advent, for Wednesday in Ember Week,
end. Ihe characteristics of Roothaan arc well ex- for the feast of the Expectation of the Blessed Virgin,
pressed in the words which he himself declared the and for votive Masses of the Blessed Virgin during
principle of his administration: "fortiter et suaviter" Advent; (b) as a versicle in the first responsory of
The same idea is expressed in the words of his bio- Tuesday in the first week of Advent; (c) as the first
grapher: "Impetuous by nature, he governed all antiphon at Lauds for the Tuesday preceding Christ-
passions by the exercise of Christian self-denial, so mas and the second antiphon at Matins of the Ex-
that a most measured moderation in all things forms pectation of the Blessed Virgin; (d) in the second re-
his distinctive characteristic." sponsory for Friday of the third week of Advent and
Thym, Lecenschets Van P. Joannes Philippus Roothaan, General in the fifth responsory in Matins of the Expectation
der Societfil van Jesus (Ainsterdam, 1.S85), German tr. Mabtin
(Ravensburg, IS'JS) Terwecoren, Esquisse historique sur le T. R.
;
of the Blessed Virgin. In the "Book of Hymns"
P. Roothaan (Brussels, lSo7). (Edinburgh, 1910), p. 4, W. Rooke-Ley translates
N. SCHEID. the text in connexion with the O
Antiphons (q. v.):
Roper, Margaeet. "Mystic dew from heaven
See Thomas More, Blessed. Unto earth is given:
Roper, biographer of the Blessed
V,'iLLiAii, Break, O
earth, a Saviour yield —
Thomas More, b. 1496; d. 4 Jan., 1578. Both his Fairest flower of the field".
father and mother belonged to distinguished legal The exquisite Introit plain-song may be found in
families. He was educated at one of the English in the various editions of the Vatican Graduale and
universities, and received his father's office of clerk the Solesmes "Liber Usualis", 1908, p. 125. Under
of the pleas in the Court of King's Bench. He held the heading, "Prayer of the Churches of France
this post till shortly before his death. When he was during Advent", Dom
Gu^ranger (Liturgical Year,
about twentj'-three he seems to have been taken into Advent tr., Dublin, 1870, pp. 155-6) gives it as an
Sir Thomas Alore's household, and he married Mar- antiphon to each of a series of prayers (" Ne irascaris ",
garet, Sir Thomas's eldest daughter, in 1521. Eras- "Peccavimus", "Vide Domine", "Consolamini")
mus who saw much of the More family describes him expressive of penitence, expectation, comfort, and
as a young man "who is wealthy, of excellent and furnishes the Latin text and an English rendering of
modest character and not unacquainted with litera- the Prayer. The Latin text and a different English
ture" He became fascinated, however, by the rendering are also given in the Baltimore "Manual of
Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith, and pro- Prayers" (pp. 603^). A plain-song setting of the
fessed his heresy so openly as to be summoned before "Prayer", or series of prayers, is given in the So-
Wolsej'. Sir Thomas frequently reasoned with his lesmes "Manual of Gregorian Chant " (Rome-Tournai,
son-in-law: "Meg", he said to his daughter, "I have 1903, 313-5) in plain-song notation, and in a sUghtly
borne a long time with thy husband; I have reasoned simpler form in modern notation in the "Roman
and argued with him in these points of religion, and Hymnal" (New York, 1884, pp. 140-3), as also in
still given to him my poor fatherly counsel, but I "Les prinoipaux chants liturgiques" (Paris, 1875,
perceive none of all this able to call him home; and pp. 111-2) and "Recueil d'anciens et de nouveaux
therefore, Meg, I will no longer dispute with him, cantiques not^s" (Paris, 1886, pp. 218-9).
but will clean give him over and get me to God and H. T. Henry.
pray for him" To these prayers Roper attributed
his return to the Faith; henceforth he was an ardent Rosa, Salvatore, or Salvator (otherwise known
Cathohc. He sat in four of Mary's parliaments, as Renella, or Arenblla, from the place of his
twice as member for Rochester and twice as member birth), Neapolitan artist, b. at Renella, a little
for Canterbury. His Catholicism got him into dif- village near Naples, 1615; d. at Rome 15 March,
ficulties with the Government under Elizabeth and 1673. He was the son of poor parents; his father.
he was summoned before the Council in 1568; in Vita Antonio, was trained as an architect his mother,
;

the following year he was bound over to be of good Giulia Greca Rosa, belonged to one of the Greek
behaviour and to appear before the Council when families of Sicily. The boy was intended first of all
summoned. He does not seem to have been troubled for the Church, and by the assistance of a relative of
further. His reminiscences of Sir Thomas More his mother's was sent to a college in Naples to be
were written in the time of Queen Mary nearly trained, but his excitable and impulsive nature started
twenty years after the events with which they deal, all kinds of difficulties, and he had to leave before his

but his relations with his father-in-law had been so education was completed. His mother had come of a
close and the impressions he received in that delight- family of painters, and a Sicilian uncle had early in
ful household so vivid, that these rather disjointed his life given him some lessons in drawing, while his
notes form a most attractive biography. Ropers sister's husband was an artist who had been trained
"Life" was not printed till 1626, but it was used by by Spagnoletto, therefore there were divers reasons
the earlier biographers of More, and is the chief why the young lad should take up painting. He threw
authority for his personal history. his whole heart into his work, but succeeded so poorly
Bkidgett Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More (London, that presently he left home, joined a band of robbers
1891) Diet, of Nat. Biog.; Gillow, Bibl. Diet.
,
Eng. Cath.; Wood 8 who infested the southern part of Italy, and wandered
Athence Oxon, ed. Bliss (London, 1820).
F. F. Ueqtjhart. about with them, meanwhile making all kinds of
sketches, which were eventually very useful in his
Rorate Coeli (Vulgate, text), the opening words larger pictures. His father died when Salvatore was
xlv 8. The text is used frequently
both at seventeen; the income for the family ceased, and
of Is
Mass'and'in the Divine Office during Advent, as it young Rosa as its head, was regarded as its sole
gives exquisite poetical
expression to the longings support. He again took to painting, and worked ex-
of Patriarchs and
Prophets, and symbohcally of the ceedingly hard, exposing his pictures for sale in the
 ROSALIA 184 ROSARY
street,and in that way, by a fortunate accident, came Edinburgh, and in almost every important palace in
under the attention of Lanfranco, and through him Rome. He was a skilful etcher, leaving behind him
got to know Falcone. Both of these artists were of some thirty-five or forty well-etched plates, and was
the greatest possible assistance to him. His progress, a very powerful draughtsman in black and sanguine.
however, was exceedingly slow, and the members of Many of his pictures are signed by his conjoined
hi.s family took almost everything that he earned for initials arranged in at least a dozen different ways
their own support; meantime he was laid up almost and always skilfully combined.
periodically with a malignant fever, the seeds of which Most of the information concerning him ia obtained from
Passeri, Vile di piUori, scultori e architetti che hanno lavorato in
had been sown in his journeys with therobbers. Roma (Rome, 1772).
In 1634, he came to Rome, but fell very ill, and had George Charles Williamson.
to return again to Naples more dead than alive.
After a little while, however, he went back to Rome, Rosalia, Saint, hermitess, greatly venerated at
and there gained a patron in Cardinal Branoaccio, Palermo and in the whole of Sicily of which she is
who gave him various commissions both in the patroness. Her feast is celebrated on 4 September.
A special feast of the translation of her relics is kept
in Sicily 1.5 June. There is no account of her before
Valerius Rossi (about 1590), though churches were
dedicated in her honour in 1237. Her Vita (Acta
SS., 11 Sept., 278) which, according to the BoUandist
J. Stilting, is compiled from local traditions, paintings,

^^Effi^^^^yp^ '^^^ /,^^^BH

1
Mi
and inscriptions, says: She was the daughter of
Sinibald, Lord of Quisquina and of Rosa, descended
from the family of Charlemagne; in youthful days
she left home and hid herself in a cave near Bivona
and later in another of Monte Pellegrino near Palermo,
in which she died and was buried. In 1624 her re-
mains were discovered and brought to the Cathedral
* '
affl ^K^^^^ of Palermo. Urban VIII put her name into the
k ''^BTj ^B -^^
K^
Bk
( ^T
tfi^^' fi
'
i R \. Roman Martyrology. Whether before her retire-
ment she belonged to a religious community, is not
^^ ' 11
v"*?^?]*!
known. The Basilians, in their Martyrology, claim
1
her as a member. She is often represented as a

H1
Basilian nun with a Greek cross in her hand. Many
of her pictures may be found in the Acta SS.
Dunbar. Lives of Saintly Women (London, 1905) Baring- :

GouLB, Live!, of the SainU (London, 1877); Stadler in Heiligeii-

le-':icon. FrANCIS MeRSHMAN.
Rosary, The. — I. In the Western Church. —
"The Rosary", says the Roman Breviary, "is a
Salvator Rosa certain form of prayer wherein we say fifteen decades
Self-portrait, Palazzo Saracini Chigi, Siena or tens of Hail Marys with an Our Father between
each ten, while at each of these fifteen decades we
Eternal City and in Viterbo. In some of these works recall successively in pious meditation one of the
he was assisted by a fellow-pupil named Mercuri. mysteries of our Redemption." The same lesson
From this point he began to make progress, but for the Feast of the Holy Rosary informs us that
presently (lisi'ovcicil that he had a, genius for com- when the Albigensian heresy was de\'astating the
posing witty poems, sparkling and epigranmiatic, country of Toulouse, St. Dominic earnestly besought
wliich gained for him a sudden -reputation in Rome; the help of Our Lady and was instructed by her,
this 111' turned to good account; then suddenly drop- "so tradition asserts", to preach the Rosary among
ping his poetic work us quickly as he had taken it up, the people as an antidote to heresy and sin. From
turned again to his favourite profession of painting. that time forward this manner of prayer was "most
He worked \ery hard, and was a painter of consider- wonderfully published abroad and developed [prom-
able power, and of marked personality. His pictures ulgari augeriqiie cxplt] by St. Dominic whom differ-
as a rule are distinguished by gloom and mystery, ent Supreme Pontiffs have in various passages of
ricli colouring, magnificent shadows, and broad, free, their apostoUc letters declared to be the institutor
easy \sork, nervous and emotional. There is a gen- and author of the same devotion." That many
eral air of melancholy over almost all his works, and popes have so spoken is undoubtedly true, and
they appear to haxr been turned out at top speed, amongst the rest we have a series of encyclicals,
but there is an impressiveness about his pictures beginning in 1883, issued by Pope Leo XIII, which,
which can ne\er be mistaken. For a while they were while commending this devotion to the faithful in
regarded far too highly at a time when the Academic the most earnest terms, assumes the institution of
School was the only one in repute; the>' then passed the Rosary by St. Dominic to be a fact historically
under a cloud when the Primitives came into their established. Of the remarkable fruits of this devo-
own, but now their genius is again asserting itself, and tion and of the extraordinary favours which have
the landsca])rs of Rosa with their marvellous draughts- been granted to the world, as is piously believed,
manship and extraordinary', melancholy magnificence through this means, something mil be said under
are being appreciated by persons able to under- the headings Rosary, Feast of, and Rosary, Con-
stand the merits of a poetic interpretation. The fraternities OF. We will confine ourselves here
last few years of the artist's life were passed be- to the controverted question of its history, a matter
tween Naples and Rome, with one temporary visit which both in the middle of the eighteenth century and
to Florence, where he remained three or four years. again in recent ^'cars has attracted much attention.
It was in Rome that he died; but the best part of his Let us begin with certain facts which will not be
life was passed in his native town, where he was held contested. It is tolerably ob\'ious that whenever
in high repute, and reganled as one of its glories. His any prayer has to be repeated a large number of times
works are to be found in almost all the galleries of recourse is likely to be had to some mechanical
Europe, notably in the Pitti, the National Gallery of apparatus less troublesome than counting upon the
London, the Hermitage, the galleries of Dulwich and fingers. In almost all countries, then, we meet with
 ROSARY 185 ROSARY
something in the nature of prayer-counters or rosary- they had to say the Pater Noster a hundred times a
beads. Even in ancient Nineveh a sculpture has day for a week.
been found thus described by Layard in his "Mon- To count these accurately there is every reason
uments" (I, plate 7): "Two winged females standing to believe that already in the eleventh and twelfth
before the sacred tree in the attitude of prayer; they centuries a practice had come in of using pebbles,
lift the extended right hand and hold in the left berries, or discs of bone threaded on a, string. It
a garland or rosary." However this may be, it is is in any case certain that the Countess Godiva of
certain that among the Mohammedans the Tasbih Coventry (c. 1075) left by will to the statue of Our
or bead-string, consisting of 33, 66, or 99 beads, and Lady in a certain monastery "the circlet of precious
used for counting devotionally the names of Allah, stones which she had threaded on a cord in order that
has been in use for many centuries. Marco Polo, by fingering them one after another she might count
visiting the King of Malabar in the thirteenth cen- her prayers exactly" (Malmesbury, "Gesta Pont.",
tury, found to his surprise that that monarch employed Rolls Series 311). Another example seems to occur
a rosary of 104 (? 108) precious stones to count his in the case of St. Rosalia (a. d. 1160), in whose tomb
prayers. St. Francis Xavier and his companions similar strings of beads were discovered. Even more
were equally astonished to see that rosaries were important is the fact that such strings of beads were
universally familiar to the Buddhists of Japan. —
known throughout the Middle Ages and in some
Among the monks of the Greek Church we hear of the Continental tongues are known to this day as —
kombologion, or komboschoinion, a cord with a hundred "Paternosters" The evidence for this is over-
knots used to count genuflexions and signs of the whelming and comes from every part of Europe.
cross. Similarly, beside the mummy of a Christian Already in the thirteenth century the manufacturers
ascetic, Thaias, of the fourth century, recently dis- of these articles, who were know as "paternosterers",
interred at Antinoe in Egypt, was found a sort of almost everywhere formed a recognized craft guild
cribbage-board with holes, which has generally been of considerable importance. The "Livre des m(5tiers"
thought to be an apparatus for counting prayers. of Stephen Boyleau, for example, supplies full infor-
Still more primitive is the device of which Palladius mation regarding the four guilds of patendtriers in
and other ancient authorities have left us an account. Paris in the year 1268, while Paternoster Row in
A certain Paul the Hermit, in the fourth century, London still preserves the memory of the street
had imposed upon himself the task of repeating three in which their English craft-fellows congregated.
hundred prayers, according to a set form, every day. Now the obvious inference is that an appliance which
To do this, he gathered up three hundred pebbles and was persistently called a "paternoster", or in Latin
threw one away as each prayer was finished (Palla- fila de paternoster, numeralia de paternoster, and so
dius, "Hist. Laus.", xx; Butler, II, 63). It is probable on, had, at least originally, been designed for counting
that other ascetics who also numbered their prayers Our Fathers. This inference, drawn out and illus-
by hundreds adopted some similar expedient. (Cf. trated with much learning by Father T. Esser, O.P.,
"Vita S. Godrici", cviii.) Indeed when we find a in 1897, becomes a practical certainty when we re-
papal privilege addressed to the monks of St. ApoUi- member that it was only in the middle of the twelfth
naria in Classe requiring them, in gratitude for the century that the Hail Mary came at all generally
pope's benefactions, to say Kyrie eleison three hundred into use as a formula of devotion. It is morally
times twice a day (see the privilege of Hadrian I, impossible that Lady Godiva's circlet of jewels could
A. D. 782, in Jaffe-Lowenfeld, n. 2437), one would have been intended to count Ave Marias. Hence
infer that some counting apparatus must almost there can be no doubt that the strings of prayer-
necessarily have been used for the purpose. beads were called "paternosters" because for a long
But there were other prayers to bo counted more time they were principally employed to number
nearly connected with the Rosary than Kyrie elei- repetitions of the Lord's Prayer.
sons. At an early date among the monastic orders When, however, the Hail Mary came into use, it
the practice had established itself not only of offering appears that from the first the consciousness that it
Masses, but of saying vocal prayers as a suffrage was in its own nature a salutation rather than a prayer
for their deceased brethren. For this purpose the induced a fashion of repeating it many times in suc-
private recitation of the 150 psalms, or of 50 psalms, cession, accompanied by genuflexions or some other
the third part, was constantly enjoined. Already in external act of reverence. Just as happens nowadays
A. D. 800 we learn from the compact between St. in the firing of salutes, or in the applause given to a
Gall and Reichenau ("Mon. Germ. Hist.: Confrat.", public performer, or in the rounds of cheers evoked
Piper, 140) that for each deceased brother all the among school-boys by an arrival or departure, so
priests should say one Mass and also fifty psalms. also then the honour paid by such salutations was
A charter in Kemble (Cod. Dipl., I, 290) prescribes measured by numbers and continuance. Further,
that each monk is to sing two fifties (twa fiftig) for since the recitation of the Psalms divided into fifties
the souls of certain benefactors, while each priest was, as innumerable documents attest, the favourite
is to sing two Masses and each deacon to read two form of devotion for religious and learned persons,
Passions. But as time went on, and the conversi, so those who were simple or much occupied loved,
or lay brothers, most of them quite ilUterate, became by the repetition of fifty, a hundred, or a hundred and
distinct from the choir monks, it was felt that they fifty salutations of Our Lady, to feel that they were
also should be required to substitute some simple imitating the practice of God's more exalted servants.
form of prayer in place of the psalms to which their In any case it is certain that in the course of the
more educated brethren were bound by rule. Thus twelfth century and before the birth of St. Dominic,
we read in the "Ancient Customs of Cluny'', col- the practice of reciting 50 or 150 Ave Marias had
lected by Udalrio in 1096, that when the death of any become generally familiar. The most conclusive
brother at a distance was announced, every priest evidence of this is furnished by the "Mary-legends",
was to offer Mass, and every non-priest was either to or stories of Our Lady, which obtained wide circula-
say fifty psalms or to repeat fifty times the Pater- tion at this epoch. The story of Eulalia, in parti-
noster ("quicunque sacerdos est oantet missam pro cular, according to which a client of the Blessed Vir-
eo, et qui non est sacerdos quinquaginta psalmos aut gin who had been wont to say a hundred and fifty
toties orationem dominicam" P. L., CXLIX, 776). Aves was bidden by her to say only fifty, but more
Similarly among the Knights Templars, whose rule slowly, has been shown by Mussafia (Marien-legen-
dates from about 1128, the knights who could not den, Pts I, 11) to be unquestionably of early date.
attend choir were required to say the Lord's Prayer Not less conclusive is the account given of St. Albert
57 times in all and on the death of any of the brethren (d. 1140) by his contemporary biographer, who tells
 ROSARY 186 ROSARY
us: "A hundred times a day he bent his knees, and emphasis in his edition of the Cartulaire of La
fifty times he prostrated himself raising his body Prouille (I, cocxxviii), are equally silent. Neither
af;ain by his fiuf^ers and toes, while he repeated at do we find any suggestion of a connexion between
every genuflexion: 'Hail Mary, full of grace, the St. Dominic and the Rosary in the paintings and
Lorci is with thee, blessed art thou amongst women sculptures of these two and a half centuries. Even
and blessed is the fruit of thy womb'. " This was the the tomb of St. Dominic at Bologna and the number-
whole of the Hail Mary as then said, and the fact less frescoes by Fra Angelioo representing the brethren
of all the words being set down rather implies that of his order ignore the Rosary completely.
the formula had not yet become universally familiar. Impressed by this conspiracy of silence, the Bol-
Xot less remarkable is the account of a similar devo- landists, on trying to trace to its source the origin
tional exercise occurring in the Corpus Christi MS. of the current tradition, found that all the clues con-
of the Ancren Riwle (q. v.). This text, declared by verged upon one point, the preaching of the Domini-
Ivolbing to have been written in the middle of the can Alan de Rupe about the years 1470-75. He it
twelfth century (Englisohe .Studien, 1885, p. 116), undoubtedly was who first suggested the idea that
can in any case be hardly later than 1200. The the devotion of "Our Lady's Psalter" (a hundred
passage in question gives directions how fifty Aves and fifty Hail Marys) was instituted or revived by
are to be said divided into sets of teii, with prostra- St. Dominic. Alan was a very earnest and devout
tions and other marks of reverence. (See The Month, man, but, as the highest authorities admit, he was
July, 1903.) When we find such an exercise recom- full of delusions, and based his revelations on the
mended to a little group of anchoresses in a corner imaginary testimony of writers that never existed
of England, twenty years before any Dominican (seeQuetif and Echard, "Scriptores O.P.", I, 849).
foundation was made in this country, it seems diffi- His preaching, howe^-er, was attended with much
cult to resist the conclusion that the custom of re- success. The Rosary Confraternities, organized by
citing fifty or a hundred and fifty Aves had grown him and his colleagues at Douai, Cologne, and else-
familiar, independently of, and earlier than, the where had great ^•ogue, and led to the printing of
preaching of St. Dominic. On the other hand, the many books, aU more or less impregnated with the
practice of meditating on certain definite mysteries, ideas of Alan. Indulgences were granted for the good
which has been rightly described as the very essence work that was thus being done and the documents
of the Rosary devotion, seems to have only arisen conceding these indulgences accejjted and repeated,
long after the date of St. Dominic's death. It isas was natural in that uncritical age, the historical
difficult to prov(^ a negative, but Father T. Esser, data which had been inspired by Alan's writings and
(.).P., has shown (in the periodical "Der KathoUk", which were submitted according to the usual prac-
of Mainz, Oct., Nov., Dec, 1897) that the introduc- tice by the promoters of the confraternities them-
tion of this meditation during the recitation of the selves. It was in this way that the tradition of Domini-
.-Vves was rightly attributed to a certain Carthusian, can authorship grew up. The first Bulls speak of
Dominic the Prussian. It is in any case certain that this authonship with some reserve: " Prout in historiis
at the close of the fifteenth century the utmost pos- legitur" says Leo X in the earliest of aU, "Pastoris
sible variety of methods of meditating prevailed, and aeterni" 1520; but many of the later popes were less
that the fifteen mysteries now generally accepted guarded.
were not uniformly adhered to even by the Domini- Two considerations strongly support the view of
cans themselves. (See Schmitz, "Rosenkranzgebet", the Rosary tradition just expounded. The first is
p. 74; Esser in "Der Katholik" for 1904-6.) To the gradual surrender of almost every notable piece
sum up, we have positive evidence that both the of evidence that has at one time or another been
invention of the beads as a counting apparatus and reUed upon to vindicate the supposed claims of St.
also the practice of repeating a hundred and fifty Dominic. Touron and Alban Butler appealed to
Aves cannot be due to St. Dominic, because they are the Memoirs of a certain Luminosi de Aposa who pro-
both notably older than his time. Further, we are fessed to have heard St. Dominic preach at Bologna,
assured that tlie meditating upon the mysteries was but these Memoirs have long ago been proved to
not introduced until two hundred years after his be a forgery. Danzas, Von Loe and others attached
death. What then, we are compelled to ask, is there much importance to a fresco at Muret; but the fresco
left of which St. Dominic may he called the author? is not now in existence, and there is good reason for
These positive reasons for distrusting the current believing that the rosary once seen in that fresco
tradition might in a measure be ignored as archaeo- was painted in at a later date ("The Month" Feb.
logical refinements, if there were any satisfactory 1901, p. 179). Mamachi, Esser, Walsh, and Von
e\-idence to show that St. Dominic had identified Loe quote some alleged contemporary verses about
himself with the pre-existing Rosary and become its St. Dominic in connexion with a crown of roses;
apostle. But here we are met with absolute silence. but the original manuscript has disappeared, and it
Of the eight or nine early Lives of the saint, not is certain that the writers named have printed Domin-
one makes the faintest allusion to the Rosary. The icus where Benoist, the only person who has seen
witnesses who gave evidence in the cause of his the manuscript, read Dominus. The famous will of
canonization are equally reticent. In the great Anthony Sers, which professed to leave a bequest
collection of documents accumulated by Fathers to the Confraternity of the Rosary at Palencia in
Balme and Lelaidier, O.P., in their "Cartulaire de 1221, was put forward as a conclusive piece of testi-
St. Dominique" the question is studiously ignored. mony by Mamachi; but it is now admitted by Domin-
The early constitutions of the different provinces of ican authorities to be a forgery ("The Irish Ro-
the order have been examined, and many of them sary," Jan., 1901, p. 92). Similarly, a supposed ref-
printed, but no one has found any reference to this erence to the subject by Thomas k Kempis in the
devotion. We possess hundreds, even thousands, of "Chronicle of Mount St. Agnes" is a pure blunder
manuscripts containing devotional treatises, sermons, ("The Month", Feb., 1901, p. 187). With this may
chronicles, Saints' li\-es, etc., written by the Friars be noted the change in tone observable of late in
Preachers between r220 and 1450; but no single authoritative works of reference. In the "Kirch-
verifiable passage has yet been produced which Hches Handlexikon" of Munich and in the last edi-
speaks of the Rosary as instituted by St. Dominic tion of Herder's " Konversationslexikon " no attempt
or which e\'en makes much of the devotion as one is made to defend the tradition which connects St.
specially dear to his children. The charters and Dominic personally with the origin of the Rosar>'.
other deeds of the Dominican convents for men Another consideration which cannot be developed
and women, as M. Jean Guiraud points out with here is the multitude of conflicting legends concern-
 ROSARY 187 ROSARY
ing the origin of this devotion of Our Lady's Psalter II. In the Greek Church, Uniat and Schis-
which prevailed down to the end of the fifteenth —
matic. The custom of reciting prayers upon a string
century, as well as the early diversity of practice in with knots or beads thereon at regular intervals
the manner of its recitation. These facts agree ill has come down from the early days of Christianity,
with the supposition that it took its rise in a definite and is still practised in the Eastern as well as in the
revelation and was jealously watched over from the Western Church. It seems to have originated among
beginning by one of the most learned and influential the early monks and hermits who used a piece of
of the religious orders. No doubt can exist that the heavy cord with knots tied at intervals upon which
immense diffusion of the Rosary and its confraterni- they recited their shorter prayers. This form of
ties in modern times and the vast influence it has rosary is still used among the monks in the various
exercised for good are mainly due to the labours and Greek Churches, although archimandrites and bishops
the prayers of the sons of St. Dominic, but the his- use a very ornamental form of rosary with costly
torical evidence serves plainly to show that their beads. The rosary is conferred upon the Greek
interest in the subject was only awakened in the last monk as a part of his investiture with the mandyas
years of the fifteenth century. or full monastic habit, as the second step in the mo-
That the Rosary is pre-eminently the prayer of nastic life, and is called his " spiritual sword " This
.

the people adapted alike for the use of simple and Oriental form of rosary is known in the Hellenic
learned is proved not only by the long series of papal Greek Church as KoiJ.§o\6ytov (chaplet), or KofiPo<rxohioi'
utterances by which it has been commended to the (string of knots or beads), in the Russian Church aa
faithful but by the daily experience of all who are vervitza (string), chotki (chaplet), or liestovka (ladder),
familiar with it. The objection so often made against and in the Rumanian Church as m&tanie (reverence).
its "vain repetitions" is felt by none but those who The first use of the rosary in any general way was
have failed to realize how entirely the spirit of the among the monks of the Orient. Our everyday name
exercise lies in the meditation upon the fundamental of "beads" for it is simply the Old Saxon word bede
mysteries of our faith. To the initiated the words (a prayer) which has been transferred to the instru-
of the angelical salutation form only a sort of half- ment used in reciting the prayer, while the word
conscious accompaniment, a bourdon which we may rosary is an equally modem term. The intercourse
liken to the "Holy, Holy, Holy" of the heavenly of the Western peoples of the Latin Rite with those
choirs and surely not in itself meaningless. Neither of the Eastern Rite at the beginning of the Crusades
can it be necessary to urge that the freest criticism caused the practice of saying prayers upon knots or
of the historical origin of the devotion, which involves beads to become widely diffused among the monastic
no point of doctrine, is compatible with a full ap- houses of the Latin Church, although the practice
preciation of the devotional treasures which this had been observed in some instances before that
pious exercise brings within the reach of all. date. On the other hand, the recitation of the Rosary,
As regards the origin of the name, the word rosarius as practised in the West, has not become general in
means a garland or bouquet of roses, and it was not the Eastern Churches; there it has still retained its
unfrequently used in a figurative sense e.g. as the — original form as a monastic exercise of devotion,
title of a book, to denote an anthology or collection and is but little known or used among the laity, while
of extracts. An early legend which after travelling even the secular clergy seldom use it in their devo-
all over Europe penetrated even to Abyssinia con- tions. Bishops, however, retain the rosary, as indi-
nected this name with a story of Our Lady, who cating that they have risen from the monastic state,
was seen to take rosebuds from the lips of a young even though they are in the world governing their
monk when he was reciting Hail Marys and to weave dioceses.
them into a garland which she placed upon her head. The rosary used in the present Greek Orthodox
A German metrical version of this story is still ex- Church —whether in Russia or in the East —
is quite
tant dating from the thirteenth century. The different in form from that used in the Latin Church.
name "Our Lady's Psalter" can also be traced back The use of the prayer-knots or prayer-beads origi-
to the same period. Corona or chaplet suggests the nated from the fact that monks, according to the
same idea as rosarium. The old English name found rule of St. Basil, the only monastic rule known to
in Chaucer and elsewhere was a "pair of beads", in the Greek Rite, were enjoined by their founder to
which the word beads (q.v.) originally meant prayers. "pray without ceasing" (I Thess., v, 17; Luke, xviii,
A vast literature haa grown up around the Rosary devotion, 1),and as most of the early monks were laymen,
but from a historical point of view the older books are almost engaged often in various forms of work and in many
all quite uncritical. The
beat representatives of a devotional cases without sufficient education to read the pre-
and conservative treatment are: EasER, Unserer lieben Frauen
Rosenkranz (Paderborn, 1889); Ch^ry, TMologie du Rosaire scribed lessons, psalms, and prayers of the daily office,
(Paris, 1809); Proctor, The Rosary Guide (London, 1901); the rosary was used by them as a means of contin-
De Buschehe, Rosaire de Marie (Lille, 1901) Mother Loyola,
;
ually reciting their prayers. At the beginning and
Hail Full of Grace (London, 1902); Meschler, Rosengarten
w. L. Frauen (Freiburg, 1902); Leikes, Rosa Aurea (Diilmen, at the end of each prayer said by the monk upon
1886). each knot or bead he makes the "great reverence"
The critical discussion of the Rosary tradition was first seri- ()) ix.ey6.\-q /lerdvoia), bending down to the ground,
ously undertaken by the BoUandist Cuypers in the Acta Sanc-
torum for 4 August. In modern times it has been continued by so that the recitation of the rosary is often known as
Thurston in The Month (Oct., 1900, to April, 1901; Sep., 1902; a metania. The rosary used among the Greeks of
July, 1903; May and June, 1908, etc.); and Holzapfel, S, Do-
Greece, Turkey, and the East usually consists of
minikus und der Rosenkranz (Munich, 1903) Very valuable con-
.

tributions to the history of the subject have been made by Esser, one hundred beads without any distinction of great
Zur Archfiologie der Paternoster-Schnur, in Compie rendu of the or little ones, while the Old Slavic, or Russian, rosary
Cathohc International Congress (Fribourg, 1897) Idem in
;

Der Katholik (Mainz, Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1897), and also in
generally consists of 103 beads, separated in irreg-
a series of articles which appeared at intervals in the same period- ular sections by four large beads, so that the first
ical from 1904 to 1906. An important little historical essay is large bead is followed by 17 small ones, the second
that of ScHMlTZ, Das Rosenkranzgebet im 15. und in Anfange
large bead by 33 small ones, the third by 40 small
des le. Jahrhunderts (Fribourg, 1903). See also Beissel in
Geschichte der Verehrung Marias in Deutschland wdhrend des ones, and the fourth by 12 small ones, with an addi-
Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1909). RepUes to the criticisms of the tional one added at the end. The two ends of a
Rosary tradition have been made by Mamachi, Anrmles Ord.
Prwdicatorum, I (Rome, 1756), 317-44. Danzas, Etudes sur
Russian rosary are often bound together for a short
les temps primitifs, IV (Paris, 1864), 363 sq.; Walbh in The distance, so that the lines of beads run parallel (hence
Irish Rosary (Dublin, Dec, 1900, to July, 1901). The principal the name ladder used for the rosary), and they finish
papal documents connected with the Rosary will be found in the
Acta S. Sedis . with a three-cornered ornament often adorned with
. pro Societate SS. Rosarii (4 vols., Lyons,
1891). a tassel or other finial, corresponding to the cross
Herbert Thurston. or medal used in a Latin rosary.
 ROSARY 188 ROSARY
prescribed in Rule 87
The use of the Greek rosary is morte victor obruta) with the Five Glorious Mysteries.
of the "Nomoeanon", which reads: "The rosary The hymn for Second Vespers (Te gestientem gaudiis)
should have one hundred [the Russian rule says 103] maintains the symmetrical form by devoting three
beads; and upon each bead the prescribed prayer stanzas to a recapitulation of the three sets of mys-
should be recited." The usual form of this prayer teries (Joyful, Sorrowful, Glorious), prefacing them
prescribed for the rosary runs as follows: "O Lord with a stanza which sums up all three and devoting
Jesus Christ, Son and Word of the hving God, through a fifth stanza to a poetical invitation to weave a
tlie intercessions of thy immaculate Mother [Tijs crown of flowers from the "rosary" for the Mother
n-avaxp^''Tov (rov Mtjt/jJs] and of all thy Saints, have of fair love. The compression of a single "mystery"
mercy and Sii\e us." If, however, the rosary be into a single stanza may be illustrated by the first
saiil as a penitential exercise, the prayer then is: stanza of the first hymn, devoted to the First Joyful
"O Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy Mystery:
on me a sinner." The Russian rosary is di\'ided by Coelestis aulae nuntius.
the four large beads so as to represent the different Arcana pandens Numinis,
parts of the canonical Office which the recitation of Plenam salutat gratia
the rosary replaces, while the four large beads them- Dei Parentem Virginem.
selves represent the four Evangelists. In the mon-
asteries of Mount Athos, where the severest rule is "The envoy of the Heavenly Court,
obsen.'ed, from eighty to a hundred rosaries are said Sent to unfold God's secret plan,
daily by each monk. In Russian monasteries the The Virgin hails as full of grace,
rosary is usually said five times a day, while in the And Mother of the God made Man "
recitation of it the "great reverences" are reduced (Bagshawe).
to ten, the remainder being simply sixty "little The first (or prefatory) stanza of the fourth hymn
re\'(:Tenoes" (bowing of the head no further than the sums up the three sets of mysteries:
waist) and sixty recitations of the penitential form
of the prescribed prayer. Te gestientem gaudiis,
Among the Greek Uniats the rosary is but little Te sauciam doloribus,
used by the laity. The Basilian monks make use Te jugi amictam gloria,
of it in the Eastern style just described and in many O Virgo Mater, pangimus.
cases use it in the Roman fashion in some monasteries.
The more active life prescribed for them in following The still greater compression of five mysteries
the example of Latin monks leaves less time for the within a single stanza may be illustrated by the
recitation of the rosary according to the Eastern second stanza of this hymn:
form, whilst the reading and recitation of the Office
during the canonical Hours fulfils the original mo- Ave, redundans gaudio
nastic obligation and so does not require the rosary. Dum concipis, dum visitas,
Latterly the Melchites and the Italo-Oreeks have in Et edis, offers, invenis,
many jilaccs adopted among their laity a form of Mater beata, Filium.
rosary similar to the one used among the laity of the
Roman Rite, but its use is far from general. The "Hail, filled with joy in heart and mind,
Ruthenian and Rumanian Greek Catholics do not Conceiving, visiting, or when
use it among the laity, but reserve it chiefly for the Thou didst bring forth, offer, and find
monastic clergy, although lately in some parts of Thy Child amidst the learned men."
Galicia its lay use has been occasionally introduced
and is regarded as a latinizing practice. It may be Archbishop Bagshawe translates the hymns in his
said tluit among the Greeks in general the use of the "Breviary Hymns and Missal Sequences" (London,
rosary is regarded as a religious exercise peculiar s. d., pp. 114-18). As in the illustration quoted from
to the monastic life; and wherever among Greek one of these, the stanza contains (in all the hymns)
Uniats its lay use has been introduced, it is an imita- only two rhymes, the author's aim being "as much
tion of the Roman practice. On this account it has as possible to keep to the sense of the original, neither
never been popularized among the laity of the peoples, adding to this, nor taking from it" (preface). The
who remain strongly attached to their venerable other illustration of a fully-rhymed stanza is taken
Eastern Rite. from another version of the four hymns (Henry in
Maltzew, Afidachtsbuch (Berlin, 1895), pp. civ sqq.; De the "Rosary Magazine", Oct., 1891). Translations
Meester, Voyage de deux BiuhUctins d V Athos (Paris, 1908), 186. into French verse are given by Albin, "La Po^sie
Andrew J. Shipman. du Br^viaire", with slight comment, pp. 34.5-56.
H. T. Henry.
Bkeviaey Hymns of the Rosahy. The proper —
office granted by Leo XIII (.5 Aug., ISSS) to the feast Confraternity of the Holy Rosary. In accord- —
contains four hymns which, because of the pontifi''s ance with the conclusion of the article Rosary no
great devotion to the Rosary and his skilful work in sufficient evidence is forthcoming to establish the
classical Latin verse, were thought by some critics existence of any Rosary Confraternity before the
to be the compositions of the Holy Father himself. last quarter of the fifteenth century. Dominican
They have hcen traced, howe\-er, to the Dominican guilds or fraternities there were, but we cannot assume
Office published in Is.'A (see Chevalier, "Reperto- without proof that they were connected with the
rium Hymnologicum", under the four titles of the Rosary. We know, however, that through the
liymii.s) and were afterwards granted to the Dioceses preaching of Alan de Rupe such associations began
di' ScRovia and Venice (1N41 and 184S). Their author to be erected shortly before 1475; that estabfished
was a pious client of Mary, Eustace Sirena. Exclusive at Cologne in 1474 by Father James Sprenger is
of the common doxology (Jesu tibi sit gloria, etc.) especially famous. People from all parts of the world
each hymn contains five four-lined stanzas of classical desired to be enrolled in it. A casual English example
dimeter iaml:)ios. In the hymn for First Vespers occurs in the Plumpton Correspondence (Camden
(Coelestis aulae nuntius) the Five Joyful Mysteries Society, p. 50), where a priest in London writes in
are celebrated, a single stanza being given to a mvs- 1486 to his patron in Yorkshire: "I send a paper
terT,'. In the same symmetrical manner the hymn of the Rosary of our Ladie of Coleyn and I have
for Matins (In monte olivis consito) deals with the registered your name with both my Ladis names,
Fi\'c SorrowifUl Mysteries and that for Lauds (Jam as the paper expresses, and ye be acopled as brether
 ROSATE 189 ROSCELIN

and sisters." Even at that time the entry of the at Peterwardein in Hungary, commanded the feast
name of each associate on the register was an indis- of the Rosary to be celebrated by the universal
pensable condition of membership, and so it remains Church. A
set of "proper" lessons in the second
to this day. It was undoubtedly to this and similar nocturn were conceded by Benedict XIII. Leo
confraternities, which by degrees began to be erected XIII has since raised the feast to the rank of a double
in many other places under Dominican supervision, of the second class and has added to the Litany of
that the great vogue of the Rosary as well as the Loreto the invocation "Queen of the Most Holy
acceptance of a more uniform system in its recitation Rosary" On this feast, in every church in which
-was mainly due. The recitation of the Rosary is the Rosary confraternity has been duly erected, a
a,lone prescribed for the members —
at present they plenary indulgence toties quoties is granted upon
undertake to recite the fifteen mysteries at least certain conditions to all who visit therein the Rosary
—
once in each week but even this does not in any chapel or statue of Our Lady.
the "Portiunoula" of the Rosary.
This has been called
way bind under sin. The organization of these con-
fraternities is entirely in the hands of the Dominican
Kellner, Heortolooy (tr. London, 1908), 268 sqq.; see also
authorities mentioned under Rosary.
Order, and no new confraternity can be anywhere Herbert Thurston.
begun without the sanction of the general. It is
to the members of the Rosary confraternities that Rosate (Rosciate), Albeeico de, jurist, date of
the principal indulgences have been granted, and birthunknown; d. in 1354. He was born in the
there can be no need to lay stress upon the special Rosate (Rosciate) in the district of Bergamo,
village of
advantages which the confraternity offers by the and was of humble parentage. He studied law at
union of prayer and devotional exercises as well as Padua where he gained the degree of Doctor, without,
the participation of merits in this which is probably however, becoming a teacher. He passed his life
the largest organization of the kind within the Cath- at Bergamo where he was a lawyer and took part in
olic Church. Moreover, in the "patent of erection", various public affairs. He was employed in particu-
which is issued for each new confraternity by the lar by Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, and after Gal-
General of the Dominicans, a clause is added granting eazzo's death by Lucchino Visconti and Lucohino's
to all members enrolled therein "a participation in brother John, Bishop of Novara. In 1340 he was
all the good works which by the grace of God are commissioned by the bishop to go as his envoy in
performed throughout the world by the brethren and important matters to Pope Benedict XII at Avignon.
sisters of the said [Dominican] Order." An impor- In his later years Rosate devoted himself especially
tant "Apostolic Constitution on the Rosary Con- to scientific literary labours. The last certain report
fraternity", which may be regarded as a sort of new concerning his life belongs to the year 1350, when he
charter, was issued by Leo XIII on 2 Oct., 1898. went with his sons to Rome to attend the jubilee.
The "Perpetual Rosary" is an organization for His writings won him a high reputation, especially
securing the continuous recitation of the Rosary by among practical jurists. Special mention should
day and night among a number of associates who be made of his commentaries on the "Digests" and
perform their allotted share at stated times. This the "Codex", which were often printed later, as at
is a development of the Rosary Confraternity, and Lyons (1517, 1545-48); the "Opus Statutorum"
dates from the seventeenth century. (Como, 1477; Milan, 1511); and the "Dictionar-
The "Living Rosary" was begun in 1826, and is ium", a collection of maxims of law as well as a
independent of the confraternity; it consists in a dictionary, which was often reprinted.
number of circles of fifteen members who each agree Salvioni, Intorno ad Alberigo da Rosciate ed alle sue opere
to recite a single decade every day and who thus (Bergamo, 1842); Schulte, Gesch. des canon. Rechts, II, 245 sq.;
Saviqnt, Gesch. des rOm. Rechts im Mittelalter, VI (Heidelberg,
•complete the whole Rosary between them. 1831), 112-21; TlRABOaoHl, Storia letteraria Hal, V, pt. i (1807),
Nearly all the works mentioned in the last article devote more 312-14.
or less space to the Confraternity of the Holy Rosary. The gen-
eral treatises on indulgences by Berinqer (in French as well as
J. P. KlESCH.
German), Mocchegiani (Latin), Melata, etc., referred to in
Indulgences, give copious details concerning the special priv- Rosati, Joseph. See Saint Louis, Archdiocese op.
ileges of the members of the Rosary Confraternity. The rules
of the Cologne Rosary Confraternity were printed in German Roscelin, a monk of Compiegne, was teaching as
in 1476, and, in the same or the following year, the first edition early as 1087. He had intercourse with Lanfranc,
of the Quodlibet de veritate fraternitaiis Rosarii seu Psalterii St. Anselm, and Ivo of Chartres. Brought before
B. M. V. (frequently reprinted) by Michael Francisci. A a council at Soissons (1093), where he was accused
number of other booklets dealing with the confraternity belong
to the same period. of Tritheism, he denied the doctrines attributed to
Hehbeet Thurston. him; but this was done through fear of excommunica-
tion, for later he returned to his early theories. He
Feast op the Holt Rosary. —Apart from the was successively in England, at Rome, and finally
signal defeat of the Albigensian heretics at the battle returned to France. Of his writings there exists
of Muret in 1213 which legend has attributed to the only a letter addressed to Abelard. Haur^au brings
recitation of the Rosary by St. Dominic, it is beheved forward his name in connexion with a text: " Sen-
that Heaven has on many occasions rewarded the ten tia de universalibus secundum magistrum R."
faith of those who had recourse to this devotion ("Notices et extr. de quelques manuscr. lat.", V,
in times of special danger. More particularly, the Paris, 1892, 224), but this is a conjecture. On the
naval victory of Lepanto gained by Don John of other hand we have as evidences of his doctrine
Austria over the Turkish fleet on the first Sunday texts of St. Anselm, Abelard, John of SaUsbury, and
of October in 1571 responded wonderfully to the an anonymous epigram. His share in the history
processions made at Rome on that same day by of ideas and especially the value of his Nominalism
the members of the Rosary confraternity. St. Pius have been exaggerated, his celebrity being far more
V thereupon ordered that a commemoration of the due to his theological Tritheism. This article will
Rosary should be made upon that day, and at the study him from both points of view.
request of the Dominican Order Gregory XIII in I. Roscelin's Nominalism, or "sententia vocum" —
1573 allowed this feast to be kept in all churches According to Otto of Freisingen Roscelin "primus
which possessed an altar dedicated to the Holy Ros- nostris temporibus sententiam vocum instituit"
ary. In 1671 the observance of this festival was ("Gesta Frederici imp", in "Mon. Germ. Hist.:
extended by Clement X
to the whole of Spain, and Script.", XX, 376), but the chronicler of the "His-
somewhat later Clement XI after the important toria Francica" (cf. Bouquet, "Rec. des hist, des
victory over the Turks gained by Prince Eugene on Gaules et de la France", XII, Paris, 1781, 3, b, c)
6 Aug., 1716 (the feast of our Lady of the Snows), mentions before him a "magister Johannes", whose
 ROSCOMMON 190 ROSCOMMON
personality is much discussed and who has not yet stand the windy loquacity of Raimbert of Lille one
been definiti^'(ly ^\^lat constitutes the
identified, has but to breathe into his hand (manuque ori
"sententia vocum"? To judge of it we have be- admota exsufHans; "Mon. Germ. Hist.", NIV, 275).
sides the texts mentioned abo\'e which bear directly II. Tritheism of Roscelin. —
Roseelin considered
on Roscclin an exposition of the treatise "De generi- the three Divine Persons as three independent Ijeings,
bus et speciebu-s" (thirteenth cent.), wrongly attrib- hke three angels; if usage permitted, he added, it
uted to Abelard by \'ictor Cousin. The "sententia might truly be said that there are three Gods. Other-
\oeum" was one of the anti-Realist solutions of the wise, he continued, God the Father and God the Holy
problem of universals accepted by the early Middle Ghost would have become incarnate with God the
Anes. Resuming Porphyry's alternative (mox de Son. To retain the appearance of dogma he admit-
generibus et speciebus illud quidem sive subsistant ted that the three Divine Persons had but one will
sive in nudis intellectibus posita sint) the first medie- and power [Aucho . quod Roscelinus clericus
. .

val philosophers regarded genera and species (sub- dicit in tres personas esse tres res ab invicem separa-
stance, corporeity, animality, humanit}-) either as tas, sicut sunt tres angeli, ita tamen ut una sit
things or as having no existence (see Noiiinalism). voluntas et potestas aut Patrem et Spiritum sanctum
and applying to this alternative a terminology of esse incarnatum; et tres deos vere posse dici si usus
Boethius, they derived thence either res (things) or admitteret (letter of St. Anselm to Foulques)]. This
vocis (words). To the Nominalists universals were characteristic Tritheism, which St. Anselm and
"voces", which means: (1) above all that universals Abelard agreed in refuting even after its author's
are not "res", that is that only the individual exists: conversion, seems an indisputable application of
"nam cum habeat eorum sententia nihil esse prseter Roscelin's anti-Realism. He argues that if the three
individuum .
." (De gener. et spec, 524).
. Divine Persons form but one God all three have be-
NominaUsm was essentially anti-Realist. (2) that come incarnate, which is inadmissible. There are
universals are merely words, "flatus vocis", e. g., therefore three Divine substances, three Gods, as
the word "homo", divisible con-
into syllables, there are three angels, because each substance con-
sonants, and vowels. "Fuit autem, nemini magistri stitutes an individual, which is the fundamental
nostri Roscellini tam insana sententia ut nuUam rem assertion of anti-Realism. The ideas of the theo-
partibus constare vellet, sed sicut solis vocibus logian are closely Unked with those of the philosopher.
species, ita et partes ascridebat" (Abelard, "Liber Roscelin's letter to Abelard haa been re-edited by Reiners,
divisionum", ed. Cousin, 471). "Alius ergo con- DfT Nominalismus in der Friihscholastik in BeitruQe zur Gesch. der
Phil, der ilillclall, (Munater, 1910) De Wulf, Hi^t. of MedicBval
sistit in vocibus, licet hsec opinio cum Rocelino suo
;

Phil. (New York, 1909), 157-60; Taylor, The Mediaval Mind

fere omnino e\'anuerit" (John of Salisbury, (L.mdon, 1911), 303; II, 339; Barach, Zur Gesch. des Nominal,
I,

"Mctalog.", II, 17). The universal is reduced to vor Roscelin (Vienna, 1866) Picavet, Roscclin, phil. et IMologierL
;

(Paris, 1911); Reiners, op. cit.; Adlhoch, Roscelin und S.

an emission of sound (flatus vocis), in conformity with Anselm in Philos. Jahrbuch, XX
(1907).
Boethius's definition: "Nihil enim aliud est prolatio M. De Wulf.
(vocis) quam aeris plectro linguae percussio". Ros-
celin's universal corresponds to what is now called Roscommon, capital of County Roscommon, Ire-
the "universale in voce" in opposition to "universale land, owes origin and name to a monastery founded
in re" and "universale in intellectu". by St. Coman in the first half of the eighth century
But this theory of Roscelin's had no connexion on a "ros" or wooded point amidst marshes. Ware
with the abstract concept of genus and species. and his copiers make Coman author of a monastic
He did not touch on this question. It is certain that rule observed throughout three-fourths of Connaught;
he did not deny the existence or possibility of these but this statement is wrongly deduced from annalis-
concepts, and he was therefore not a NominaUst in tic records of the collection of dues by St. Coman's
the fashion of Taine or in the sense in which Nominal- successors, under the title of "Lex Comani", from
ism is at present understood. That is why, in ref- the Teora Connachta, tribes occupying a portion of
erence to the modem sense of the word, we have the province. The records indicate, indeed, that
called it a pseudo-Nominalism. John of Salisbury, with support from the King of Connaught St. Coman's
speaking of "nominalis seota" (Metalog., II, 10) foundation had some pre-eminence, if not jurisdic-
gives it quite another meaning. So Roscelin's tion. He himself may have been, as Colgan believed,
rudimentary, even childish, solution does not com- a bishop; some of his earliest successors certainly
promise the value of universal concepts and may were. Whilst the tribal system prevailed the
be called a stage in the development of moderate bishops at Roscommon, as pastors over the patri-
Realism. monial territory of the provincial king, would hold
Roseelin was also taken to task by St. Anselm and in the Church a position analogous to his in the state,
Abelard for the less clear idea which he gave of the and through this analogy would be the "high" or
whole and of composite substance. According to St. "noble bishops of the Connaughtmen". Roscom-
Anselm he maintained that colour does not exist mon became a seat of learning as well as of authority,
independently of the horse which serves as its sup- and had scholars and scribes celebrated in the na-
port and that the wisdom of the soul is not outside tional annals. From the middle of the tenth cen-
of the soul which is wise (De fide trinit., 2). He tury, if not earlier, it was closely united with Clonmac-
denies to the whole, such as house, man, real exis- noise and shared with that great school the fame of
teiiee of its parts. The word alone had parts, "ita Cormac O'Cillene and Tighernach O'Braoin, the
di\anam paginam pervertit, ut eo loco quo Dominus annalist. It shared also in the prosperity of the
partem piscis assi comedisse partem hujus vocis, Connaught kings, after they had risen to the mon-
quae est piseis assi, non partem rei intelligere cogatur" archy of Ireland. Toirdhealbhach O'Conchubhair's
(Cousin, "P. Aba?lardi opera", TI, 151). Roscehn son, Maol-Iosa, was Abbot of Roscommon, and he
was not without his supporters; among them was himself was a liberal benefactor; he bestowed on the
his contemporary Raimbert of Lille, and what the monastery a piece of the true cross brought him from
monk H(5riman relates of his doctrine agrees with the Rome in 112.3, and had it enshrined in the famous
statements of the master of Compiegne. Universal Baehal Buidhe, lately named the Cross of Cong, a
substances, says Ileriman, are but a breath, which masterpiece of design and workmanship, now one
means "eos de sapientium numero merito esse ex- of the greatest treasures in the collection of the
sufflandos" He merely comments on the saying Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, ^\'hen the Irish
of Anselm characterized by the same jesting tone: monasteries exchanged their primiti-\'e rules for those
"a spiritualium qua'stionum disputatione sunt of the great orders of the Church, the monks at Ros-
exsufflandi" (P. L., 25fja), and says that to under- common became Augustinian canons, but remained
 ROSE 191 ROSECRANS
till the latter part of the fifteenth century an Irish October, 1878, and consecrated bishop, 16 March,
community under native superiors despite the Nor- 1902. The diocese comprises the Islands of Do-
man ca,stle built within their fields in 1268 and minica, B. W. I., with 30,000 Catholics, 12 parishes,
the policy of ousting the Irish from their monas- 18 priests, 16 churches, and 4 chapels; Montserrat, B.
teries. During the great Western Schism, Thomas W. I., with 600 Cathohcs, 1 parish, 1 priest, 1 church;
Macheugan (Mao Aodhagain) whom the antipope Antigua, B. W. I., with 400 Cathohcs, 1 parish, 1
Clement VII made prior of this house, came from priest, 1 church; St. Kitts, B. W. I., with 1500 Catho-
Avignon as Clement's agent, and convening the lics, 1 parish, 2 priests, 1 church, 2 chapels; St.
prelates, clergy,and laity of Connaught at Roscom- Croix, D. W. I., with 4100 Catholics, 2 parishes, 4
mon, secured the adhesion of all except the Bishop priests, 2 churches, 1 chapel; St. Thomas, D. W. I.,
of Elphin, who did not attend, and the Bishop of with 3000 Catholics, 1 parish, 3 priests, 1 church, 1
Killala, who sent his archdeacon to uphold the right chapel. The total Protestant population of the
of Urban VI. When the O'Conors made terms with diocese is about 100,000. In the smaller British
Queen Elizabeth, the abbey and its possessions were Islands of Nevis, Anguilla, Barbuda, Sombrero, and
attached to the constableship of Roscommon Castle, in the Virgin Islands, Tostola, Anegada, and Virgin
and subsequently granted to Sir Nicholas Malbie; Gorda, as also in the Danish Island of St. John, the
even the site is scarcely traceable. Catholic Church has so few adherents that no priest
The Dominican friary that was situated at Ros- has ever been resident there. With the exception of
common was founded in the year 1253 by Fedh- two parishes, which are served by secular priests,
limidh O'Conchubhair, King of Connaught, and the whole diocese is under the care of the Redemp-
consecrated to the Blessed Virgin in 1257; in 1265 torist Fathers of the Belgian province, and the Fathers
the founder ended his stormy life within its walls, of Mary Immaculate (Chavagne en Paillers, France).
and was buried there. His monument, still extant, There are also 14 Redemptorist Brothers on the
represents him recumbent in long robes of peace and mission. In Roseau, the Religious of the Faithful
wearing a royal crown. In subsequent centuries this Virgin devote themselves to the education of the
church was the chosen burial-place of several of his girls of both the lower and higher classes, while the
and other princely families. After the confiscation Ladies of the Union of the Sacred Hearts conduct a
this friary, like the house of Augustinian Canons, was high school for girls in St. Thomas. In Dominica
first attached to the constableship of Roscommon, nearly all the schools are in the hands of the local
and then granted to Malbie; but the friars lingered Government; however, religious instruction is given
around the spot. Under Cromwell several of them, by the priests during school hours. In the other
amongst whom O'Heyne mentions Donald O'Neagh- islands, with the exception of Antigua, parochial
ten, Edmund O'Bern, Raymund MacEochaidh, and schools are attached to the mission.
Bernard O'Kelly, were put to death. Afterwards Ecclesiastical Bulletin of Roseau (Roseau, 1908-9), MSS.

they obtained a small house and land and assembled J. Moms.

a community numbering sixteen in 1791; but it died
out in 1844. Of the original buildings only ruins of Rosecrans, William Starke, at Kingston,
b.
the church remain. The Franciscans also had a Ohio, U. S. A., 6 Sept., 1819; near Redondo,
d.
convent at Roscommon for a brief period; founded California, 11 March, 1898. The family came orig-
in 1269, it was burned down in 1270, and on account inally from Holland and settled in Pennsylvania,
of the founder's death never rebuilt. moving thence to Ohio. His mother was a daughter
Ahchdall, Monasticon HibernicuTn (Dublin, 1786) ; Lanigan, of Samuel Hop-
Eccles. Hist, of Ireland (Dublin, 1829) ; Ware, De Scriptoribus
HibemicE (Dublin, 1639) Ussher, Britannicarum Ecclesiarum
;
kins, a soldier of
Antiquitates in Works (Dublin, 1847) O'Heyne, IHsh Dominicans
; the Revolution
ed. Coleman (Dundalk, 1902); De Burgo, Hibernia Dominicana and one of the
(Cologne, 1762) Weld, Statistical Survey of Co. Roscommon
signers of the Dec-
;

(Dublin, 1832).
Charles McNeill. laration of Inde-
pendence. He
Rose, The Golden. See Golden Rose. graduated at the
U. S. Military
Rosea, a titular see. The official catalogue of the Academy, West
Roman Curia mentioned formerly a titular see of Point, in July,
Rosea in Syria. The title is borne at present by Mgr 1842, and after a
F^lix Jourdan de la Passardiere, of the Oratory of brief service in the
France, who lives in Paris. The name Rosea being engineer corps re-
only a corruption of Rhosus was replaced by the latter turned to the
in 1884 (see Rhostjs). Academy as a pro-
S. P^TBIDfcs. fessor, remaining
there until 1847.
Roseau, Diocese of (Rosensis), suffragan of It was during this
WiLLiAM Starke Rosecrans
Port of Spain, Trinidad, B. W. I. The different isl- period that he be-
From a Photograph
ands of the Carribean Sea, which constitute the Dio- came a Catholic.
cese of Roseau, belonged to the Vicariate Apostolic In 1854 he resigned from the army, but at the breaking
of Port of Spain up to 1850, when Pius IX by Brief out of the Civil War he was made a colonel of volunteers,
of 30 April, 1850, erected the Diocese of Roseau, with and, in June, 1861, a brigadier-general of regulars.
the episcopal see at Roseau, the capital of Dominica. During the succeeding years he held various important
The Very Reverend Father Michael Monaghan was commands in West Virginia, Mississippi, and Ten-
elected first bishop of the new diocese and consecrated nessee, until 19 and 20 Sept., 1863, when he was de-
16 February, 1851. He died in St. Thomas, 14 feated by Gen. Bragg, at the battle of Chickamauga.
August, 1855, and was succeeded in 1856 by Rev. Then after a short period of service in the depart-
Father Michael Vesque, who died 10 August, 1859. ment of Missouri he was relieved of all command.
The third bishop was Renfi Marie Charles Poirier, Up to this he had been uniformly successful as a good
C.J.M., who governed the diocese from 1859 to fighter and military strategist. At the close of the
1878. Next came Bishop Michael Naughten from war he resigned from the army and, in 1868, served
1880 till 4 July, 1900. The present occupant is as U. S. Minister to Mexico, where from 1869 to
Philip Schelfhaut, C.SS.R., b. at St. Nicholas, 1881 he devoted himself to railroad and industrial
Belgium, 27 September, 1850, ordained priest 18 enterprises. He was elected to Congress as a Demo-
 ROSELINE 192 ROSE
crat, in 1880, and again in 1SS;2. From 1885 to 1893 nothing was done until Maria Theresa took up the
he was registrar of the U. S. Treasury. In 1889 Con- plan. In 1776 John Galg6czy was appointed first
gress restored him to the rank and pay of a brigadier- Bishop of Rosenau, but died before taking charge.
general of the regular army on the retired list. His successor. Count Anthony R^vay (1776-80)
His brother, Sylvester Horton Roseerans, first caused the church to be restored and the high altar
Bishop of Columbus, was also a convert. Born at to be renovated. Of his successors may be mentioned
Homer, Ohio, 5 Feb., 1827, he was sent to Kenyon John Scitovszky (1S27-3S), later Bishop of Fiinf-'
College, the leading Episcopalian institution of the kirchen and Archbishop of Gran; Ethelbert Barta-
state. While there in 1845 he received a letter from kovics (1845-50), later Archbishop of Eger. Since 1905
his brother A\ilham, then a professior at West Point, the see is governed by Louis Balds. The diocese is
announcing his conversion to the Catholic Faith. divided into 3 archdeaconries and has 2 abbeys and
It so impressed him that he also sought instruction 3 provostships. The chapter consists of 6 active
and became a Catholic. He then went to St. John's members and 6 titular canons. The parishes number
College, Fordham, New York, graduating there in 99, and there are 154 secular, 28 regular, priests;
1846. Electing to study for the priesthood he was 3 monasteries; 34 nunneries; 190,000 Catholics'
sent by the Bishop of Cincinnati as a student to the 10,165 Greek Uniats; 97,071 Lutherans; 44,609 Cal-
College of Propaganda, Rome, where he was ordained vinists; 11,220 Jews. The seminary was established
priest in 1852. Returning to Concinnati he officiated in 1814.
at St. Thomas's church, and was a professor in the A katoUkus Magyarorszdg (Catholic Hungary) (Budapest,
diocesan seminary. In 1859 a college was opened 1902), in Hungarian; ScheTnatisTnits (1910).

in connexion with the seminary and he was made its A. AldIst.

president. In 18<>2 he was consecrated titular Bishop
of Pompeiopolis and Auxiliary of Cincinnati. When Rose of Lima, Saint, virgin, patroness of America,
the Di(jc('so of Columbus was created, .3 March, 1868, b. at Lima, Peru, 20 April, 1586; d. there 30 August,
he was transferred to that see as its first bishop and 1017. At her confirmation in 1597, she took the name
died there 21 October, 1878 (see Columbus, Diocese of Rose, because, when an infant, her face had been
of). During his r<.'sidence in Cincinnati he was a seen transformed by a mystical rose. As a child she
frequent editorial contributor to the "Catholic was remarkable for a great reverence, and pronounced
Telegraph". love, for all things relating to God. This so took
Cn.LU.M. Biog. Tii'giaUr of the Officers and (Irnflurdpf^, U, S. possession of her, that thenceforth her hfe was given
Mililnr'/ Amrlrmy (li.jstDn, 1891); HoucK, A Illsl. „f Cfilholirily
ill Norlliern Uli"> (Cleveland, i;ill2); Am. Calh. Hist, ftc.s-earc/ies up to prayer and mortification. She had an intense
(Philadelphia, July, \H'.li'<): The Calhohr T<kuruph (Cincinnati), devotion t(j tlie Infant Jesus and His Blessed Mother,
files;Howe, H-hlarical '.'ulbrlions of Ohio (Cincinnati, 1!"H)); before whose altar she spent hours. She was scru-
BicKHORN, /?os(c^oJ^s' Campaign with the Fourteenth .irmory
CoTji^ (Cincinnati, 18G3) Clarke, Lives of the Deceased Bistiops
;
pulously obedient and of untiring industry, making
of Calh. Ch. U. .i'.. Ill (.Mijw York, 1888); The Catholic Directory, rapid progress by earnest attention to her parents'
files. instruction, to her studies, and to her domestic work,
Thomas F. Meehan. especially with her needle. After reading of St.
Catherine she determined to take that saint as her
Roseline (Rossolina), Saint, b. at the Chateau model. She began by fasting three times a week,
of Arcs in eastern Provence, 1263; d. 17 January, adding secret severe penances, and when her vanity
1329. Having overcome her father's opposition was assailed, cutting off her beautiful hair, wearing
Roseline became a Carthusian nun at Bertaud in the coarse clothing, and roughening her hands with toil.
Dauphin^. Her "consecration" took place
.Alps of All this time she had to struggle against the objections
in and about 1300 she succeeded her aunt.
1288, of her friends, the ridicule of her family, and the
Blessed Jeanne or Diane de Villeneuve, as Prioress of censure of her parents. Many hours were spent before
Celle-Robaud in the Diocese of Fr^jus near her home. the Blessed Sacrament, which she received daily.
In 1320 her brother H61ion, Grand Master (1319-46) Finally she determined to take a vow of virginity,
of the Knights of St. John, restored the monastery, and inspired by supernatural love, adopted extraor-
and in 1323 and 1328 John XXII, formerly Bishop of dinary means to fulfill it. At the outset she had to
Frejus, increased its revenue, granting indulgences for combat the opposition of her parents, who wished her
the anniversary of the dedication of the church. to marry. For ten years the struggle continued before
Roseline obtained leave to resign her office before
she won, by patience and prayer, their consent to con-
her death. Many visions together with extraor- tinue her mission. At the same time great tempta-
dinary austerities and great power over demons are tions assailed her purity, faith, and constancy, causing
ascribed to her. Her feast is given in the Acta SS.
her excruciating agony of mind and desolation of
on 11 June, the day of the first translation of her spirit, urging her to more frequent mortifications; but
remains in 1334 by her brother Elzear, Bishop of daily, also. Our Lord manifested Himself, fortifying
Digne; but by the Carthusian Order it is celebrated
her with the knowledge of His presence and consoling
on 16 October. There has always been a local her mind with evidence of His Divine love. Fasting
cultus and this was confirmed for the Diocese of
daily was soon followed by perpetual abstinence from
Fn'jiis by a Decree of 18.51, for the Carthusian Order
meat, and that, in turn, by use of only the coarsest
in 1S.57. The saint is usually represented with a food and just sufficient to support life. Her days were
reliquary containing two eyes, recalling the fact that
filled with acts of charity and indu.stry, her exquisite
her eyes were remo\ed and preserved apart. Tliis
lace and embroidery helping to support her home,
relic was still extant at .\rcs in 1nS;2. There is no while her nights were devoted to prayer and penance.
ancient life of the saint, but that given in the Acta
\\'hen her work permitted, she retired to a little grotto
SS., 2 June, 489 sq., was construetod by Papebroch
which she had built, with her brother's aid, in their
from ancient documents.
Le Couteulx, .liinales Ord. Cartu.^.. IV, V (Montreuil, ISSS- small garden, and there passed her nights in solitude
89): MouN, Historia Cartus., I. and prayer. Overcoming the opposition of her par-
Rayjiond Webster. ents, and with the consent of her confessor, she was
allowed later to become practically a recluse in this
Rosenau (Hung., Rozsny6), Diocese of (Rosna- cell, save for her visits to the Blessed Sacrament. In
viENSi.s), in Hungary, suffragan of Eger, established her twentieth year she received the habit of St.
by Maria Theresa, in 1775-76. In 1036 Cardinal Dominic. Thereafter she redoubled the severity and
Peter Pdzmdny ]iroposed to establish a distinct see variety of her penances to an heroic degree, wearing
for this part of Hungary, where the CathoHc Faith
constantly a metal spiked crown, concealed by roses,
was almost dead. Pdzmany's death intor\ened, and and an iron chain about her waist. Days passed with-
 ROSE 193 ROSICRUCIANS
out food, save a draught of gall mixed with bitter additions were prefixed the tract "AUgemeine und
herbs. When she could no longer stand, she sought Generaheformation der ganzen weiten Welt", a
repose on a bed constructed by herself, of broken glass, translation of Fr. Boccalini's "Dei Ragguagli di
stone, potsherds, and thorns. She admitted that the Parnasso", 1612. Beginning with the fourth edition
thought of lying down on it made her tremble with in 1615, the third Rosicrucian rudiment, "Confessio
der Fraternitat ", was added to the Fama " Accord-
'

dread. Fourteen years this martyrdom of her body ' .

continued without relaxation, but not without con- ing to these, the Rosicruoian brotherhood was founded
solation. Our Lord revealed Himself to her frequently, in 1408 by a German nobleman. Christian Rosenkreuz
flooding her soul with such inexpressible peace and (1378-1484), formerly a monk, who while travelling
joy as to leave her in ecstasy for hours. At these times through Damascus, Jerusalem, and Fez had been
she offered to Him all her mortifications and pen- initiated into Arabian learning (magic), and who con-
ances in expiation for offences against His Divine sidered an antipapal Christianity, tinged with theos-
Majesty, for the idolatry of her country, for the con- ophy, his ideal of a religion. Concerned above all else
version of sinners, and for the souls in Purgatory. that their names should appear in the Book of Life,
Many miracles followed her death. She was beatified the brothers were to consider the making of gold as
by Clement IX, in 1667, and canonized in 1671 by —
unimportant although for the true philosophers
Clement X, the first American to be so honoured. (Occultists) this was an easy matter and a parergon.
Her feast is celebrated 30 August. She is represented They must apply themselves zealously and in the
wearing a crown of roses. deepest secrecy to the study of Nature in her hidden
Hansem, Vita Mirabilis (1664), Spanish tr. by Parra. forces, and to making their discoveries and inventions
Edw. L. Atm^. known to the order and profitable to the needs of
humanity. And to further the object of the said
Rose of Viterbo, Saint, virgin, b. at Viterbo, order they must assemble annually at the "Edifice of
1235; d. 6 March, 1252. The chronology of her life the Holy Spirit", the secret head-quarters of the
must always remain uncertain, as the Acts of her order, cure the sick gratuitously, and whilst each one
canonization, the chief historical sources, record no procured himself a successor they must provide for
dates. Those given above are accepted by the best the continuance of their order. Free from illness and
authorities. Born of poor and pious parents. Rose was pain, these "Invisibles", as they were called in the
remarkable for holiness and for her miraculous powers vernacular, were supposed to be yearning for the time
from her earliest years. When but three years old, when the Church should be "purified"
she raised to life her maternal aunt. At the age of For two hundred years, while the world never had
seven, she had aheady lived the life of a recluse, de- the least suspicion of their existence, the brotherhood
voting herself to penances. Her health succumbed, transmitted by these means the wisdom of "Father"
but she was miraculously cured by the Blessed Virgin, Rosenkreuz, one hundred and twenty years after the
who ordered her to enroll herself in the Third Order latter's burial, until about 1604 they finally became
of St. Francis, and to preach penance to Viterbo, at known. The "Fama", which effected this, invited
that time (1247) held by Frederick II of Germany and "all of the scholars and rulers of Europe" openly to
a prey to poUtical strife and heresy. Her mission favour the cause, and eventually to sue for entrance
seems to have extended for about two years, and such into the fraternity, to which, nevertheless, only
was her success that the prefect of the city decided chosen souls would be admitted. The morbid pro-
to banish her. The imperial power was seriously pensity of the age for esoterism, magic, and confed-
threatened. Accordingly, Rose and her parents were eracies caused the "Fama" to raise a feverish excite-
expelled from Viterbo in January, 1250, and took ment in men's minds, expressed in a flood of writings
refuge in Sorriano. On 5 December, 1250, Rose fore- for and against the brotherhood, and in passionate
told the speedy death of the emperor, a prophecy efforts to win admission to the order, or at least to
realized on 13 December. Soon afterwards she went discover who were its members. All of these endeav-
to Vitorchiano, whose inhabitants had been perverted ours, even by scholars of real repute like Descartes
by a famous sorceress. Rose secured the conversion and Leibniz, were without results. From the mani-
of even of the sorceress, by standing unscathed
all, festly fabulous and impossible "History" of the
for three hours in the flames of a burning pyre, a brotherhood, it was apparent that it depended upon a
miracle as striking as it is well attested. With the "mystification". This mystification was directly ex-
restoration of the papal power in Viterbo (1251) Rose plained by an investigation of the author, who appears
returned. She wished to enter the monastery of St. unquestionably to have been the Lutheran theologian
Mary of the Roses, but was refused because of her of Wiirtemberg, John Valentin Andrea (1586-1654).
poverty. She humbly submitted, foreteUing her ad- According to his own admission, Andrea composed in
mission to the monastery after her death. The re- 1602 or 1603 the Rosicrucian book, "Chymische
mainder of her life was spent in the cell in her Hochzeit Christiani Rosenkreuz 1459", which ap-
father's house, where she died. The process of her peared in 1616. This book, called by Andrea himself
canonization was opened in that year by Innocent IV, a youthful literary trifle in which he intended to
but was not definitively undertaken until 1457. Her ridicule the mania of the times for occult marvels
feast is celebrated on 4 September, when her body, (Life, p. 10), bears the closest intrinsic relation to the
still incorrupt, is carried in procession through "Fama", which, in the light of this, is undoubtedly
Viterbo. a later work of Andrea's or at least of one of the circle
BullaT. Franc, L, 640; Acta Proc. Canonizationia, ann. 1456 in of friends inspired by him. Alchemistic occultism is
Acta SS., IV Sept.; Wadbing, Annates Min. (Rome, 1731), II,
423; III, 280; Andheucci, Notizie criticoistoriche di S. Rosa, Verg.
mocked at in these works and in the "General-
Viterbese (Rome, 1750) Briganti, S. Rosa ed it suo secoto (Venice,
; Reformation", the follies of the then untimely re-
1889) Leon, Lives of the Saints of the Three Orders of S. Francis
;
formers of the world are openly ridiculed. The fantas-
(Taunton, England, 1886). Tlie best modern life is that by
DE Kerval, Ste Rose, sa vie et son temps (Vanves, 1896) Pizzi,
;
tic form of the tracts is borrowed from contemporary
.Storia delta Cittd, di Viterbo (Rome, 1887). romances of knighthood and travel. The "Rosy
Gregoet Cleart. Cross " was chosen for the symbol of the order because,
first, the rose and cross were ancient symbols of occult-
Rosicrucians, the original appellation of the al- ism and, secondly, occur in the family arms of Andrea.
leged members of the occult-cabalistic-theosophic It recalls Luther's motto: "Des Christen Herz aut
"Rosicruoian Brotherhood", described in the pamph- Rosen geht, wenn's mitten unter'm Kreuze steht"
let "Fama Fratemitatis R.C." {Rosoe crucis), which (Hossbach, 121). As a result of his satirically ineant
was circulated in MS. as early as 1610 and first ap- but seriously accepted works, which soon gave rise to
peared in print in 1614 at Cassel. To the first two occult humbuggery (opposed by him) in new Rosi-
XIII.— 13
 ROSKOVANYI 194 ROSMINI
crucian raiment, Andrea openly renounced Rosicru- Bishop of Neutra. Roskovdnyi was also made a
cianism and frequently referred to it as a ridiculous Roman count, prelate, and assistant at the papal
comedy and folly. In spite of this, the Rosicrucian throne. His charity is shown by the foundations he
fraud, which served in many ways as a model for the established, valued at several himiired thousand gulden.
anti-Masonic Taxil-Schioindel, has continued effec- He was distinguished as an ecclesiastical writer. Among
tive until the present day. In the seventeenth cen- his works, all of which are in Latin, should be men-
tury Michael Maier and Robert Fludd were its cham- tioned: "De primatu Romani Pontificis ejusque juri-
pions. Pseudo-Rosicrucian societies arose, falsely bus" (Augsburg, 1839; 2nd ed., Agram, 1841); "De
claiming descent from the genuine fraternity of the matrimoniis mixtis" (5 vols., Fiinfkirchen, 1842;
"Fama" After 1750 occult Rosiorucianism was Pesth, 1854, 1870-1); "De matrimoniis in ecclesia
propagated by Freemasonry, where it led to endless catholica" (2 vols., Augsburg, 1837-40) "Monumenta;

extravagant manifestations (St. Germain, CagUostro, catholica pro independentia potestatis ecolesiasticse ab
Schr6pfer,\V6llner etc.). In the system of high degrees imperio civili" (14 vols. Funfkirchen, 1847; Pesth,
in "Scottish" Freemasonry, especially in the Rosen- 1856, 1865, 1870-71); "Coelibatus et breviarium, duo
krciiz degree, the Rosicrucian symbols are still retained gravissima clericorum officia", etc. (7 vols., Pesth,
with a i\Iasonic interpretation. Finally, since about 1867, 1875); "Romanus Pontifex tamquam primas
ISlK) there have existed in England and Scotland (Lon- ecclesiae", etc. (16 vols., Neutra and Comaromii, 1867,
don, Newcastle, York, Glasgow) and in the United 1878); "Beata Virgo Maria in suo conceptu immacu-
Stutes (Boston, Philadelphia) "colleges" of a Masonic lata" (12 vols., Budapest, 1873-4; Neutra, 1877).
Rosicrucian society, whose members claim to be direct Vagner, Adatok a nyitrai vdrosi plebdnidk iHrthietchez (Neutra,
1902), written in Hungarian; also in Hungarian, Szinntei, M<m~
descendants of the brotherhood founded in 1408. yar Irdk, XI, giving a complete list of Roskovdnyi's works and
Only Master Masons are eligible for membership. a full bibliography. A. AldAsy.
According to the definition of the president of the
London branch (Supreme Magus), Brother Dr. Wm. Rosmini and Rosminianism. —Antonio Rosmini-
Wynn Westcott, M.B., P.Z., it is "the aim of the Serbati, philosopher, and founderof the Institute of
K^ociety to afford mutual aid and encouragement in Charity, b. 24 ^Nlarch, 1797, at Rovereto, Austrian
working out the great problems of life and in searching Tyrol; d. 1 July, 1855, at Stresa, Italy; was educated
out the secrets of nature; to facilitate the study of at home until his twentieth year, and, after a three
philosophy founded upon the Ivabbalah and the doc- years' course at the University of Padua, returned to
trines of Hermes Trismegistus, which was inculcated Rovereto to prepare for Holy orders. He was or-
by the original Fratres Rosem Crucis of Germany, dained priest at Chioggia, 21 April, 1821, and in 1822
A. D. 1450; and to investigate the meaning and sym- received at Padua the Doctorate in Theology and Canon
bolism of that now remains of the wisdom, art,
all Law. In 1823 he went to Rome with Mgr. Pyrker,
and literature of the ancient world"- The view which Patriarch of Venice, met Consalvi and other prominent
has been lately revived, especially by Katsch and Pike, men, and was encouraged by Pius VII to undertake
that Rosicrucianism definitely or even perceptibly co- the reform of philosophy. The next three years
operated in the foundation of modern Freemasonry (1823-26) he spent in philosophical pursuits at Rover-
in 1717, is contradicted by well-known historical facts. eto, devoting himself especially to the study of St.
Arnold, Unparteiische Kirchen u. Ketzerhistorie, II (Frankfort, Thomas. He had already adopted as principles of
640 sq.; Herder, Samll. Werke (Berlin, ISSS), XV, 82 sq.;
ir,9:i),
conduct: (1) never to assume external works of
XVI, .^1(6 sq.; BuFlLE, Ursprunff u. d. vornehmsten Schicksale der
Rosenkreuz<^ u. Freimaurer (Gottingen, 1804); Nikolai, Eira(je charity on his own initiative, but, until summoned by
Bemerktingen uber den Vrsprung u. d. Gesch. d. Rosenkreuzer u. some positive outward manifestation of God's will, to
Freimaurer (Berlin, 1806); Hossbach, J. It". Andred u. sein busy himself with his own sanctification, a thing al-
Zeitalter (Berlin, 1819) Guhrauer, Zeitschr.f. hist. Theol. (1852),
;

208 sq.; Sierke, Schwanurr u. Schwinder zu Ende d. 18. Jahrh. ways pleasing in the Divine sight (principle of passiv-
(Leipzig, 1874); Kopp, Die Alchemie, II (Heidelberg, 1886); ity) ; (2) at any clear sign from God, to assume with
Waite, The real History of the Rosicriicians (London, 1887), alacrity any external work of charity, without, so far
needs revision; Katsch, Die Entstehunff u. d. wahre Endzweck d.
Frtxmaurerei (Berlin, 1897) Hefele [Raich] in Kirchenlex., a. v.
;
as concerned his higher will, personal preferences or
Rosenkreuzer; Hermelink in Realencyk. f. prot. Theol., s. v. repugnances (principle of inchff erence) On these .

Rosenkreuzer; .illg. llandbuch d. Freimaurerei, II (3rd ed., 1900), maxims he based the rules of the Institute of Charity
2.')'.t-6.1, Begemaxx, Monal.-^hrfle d. Comeniu-^-Gesellschaft (Ber-
lin), V (1896), 212 sq.; VI (1S!)7), 204 sq.; VIII (1899), 145 sq.; which, at the instance of Maddalena, Marchioness of
Zirkelkorrespondenz (Berlin, 180(5), 212; Vorgesch. u. Anf&nge d. Canossa, and of John Loewenbruck, a zealous priest
Freimaurerei in England, I (1909), II (1910), 16, 348; Gould, from German Lorraine, he founded in 1828 at Monte
Hist, of Freemasonry, II (London, 1884), 60 sq.; Concise Hist, of
Freemasonry (London, 1903), 61-93; .-Irs Quatuor Coronatorum, Calvario near Domodossola. In 1828 he again went
transactions (London), I (1888), 28, 54; V (1892), 67; VI (1893), to Rome, where he was encouraged by Leo XII and
202 sq.; VII (1894), 36 sq., 83; VIII (1895), 46; The Theosophist later by Pius VIII to pursue his philosophical
(Madras, 1886), VII, 451 sq., VIII, IX, X; Rosicrucian Society of
England: Rules and Ordinances (London, 1881; revised 1SS2); studies and consolidate his institute. During this
Transactions, etc. (1879-91); The Rosicrucian; A Quarterly Record visit he published his "Maxims of Christian Perfec-
(1868-70); Klohm, Bibliog. d. Freimaurerei, etc. (Frankfort, 1844),
174-201, gi\e3 274 works on the subject; Gardner, Bibliotheca
tion" and his "Nuovo saggio suU' origine delle idee"
Rof.icraciana; I, catalogue (London, privately printed, 1903), (1829; tr. "Origin of Ideas", London, 1883-84).
gives a list of 604 works on the subject. In the autumn of 1830 he inaugurated the observ-
Heh]mann Grdber. ance of the rule at Calvario, and from 1834 to 1835
had charge of a parish at Rovereto. About this time
Roskovanyi, August, Bishop of Neutra in Hun- the pope made over to Rosmini several missions ten-
gary, doctor of philosophy and theology, b. at Szenna dered him in England by the vicars Apostolic, as also
in the County of Ung, Hungary, 7 December, 1S07; d. the Abbey of S. Michele della Chiusa in Piedmont.
24 February, 1.S92. He took his gymnasial course in Later foundations followed at Stresa and Domo-
the college of the Piarists at Kis-Szeben from 1817-22, dossola. The Constitutions of the institute were pre-
studied philosophy at Eger, 1822-24, theology in the sented to Gregory XVI and, after some discussion re-
seminary for priests at Pesth, and completed his train- garding the form of the vow of religious poverty, were
ing at the Augustineum at \'ienna. ,\fter his ordina- formally approved 20 December, 1838. On 25 March,
tion to the priesthood in 1.S.31 he was for a short time 1839, the vows of the institute were taken by twenty
engaged in pastoral duties, then went to the seminary Fathers in Italy and by six in England (Spetisbury and
at Eger as prefect of studies, became vice-rector of the Prior Park), the Letters Apostolic ("In sublimi", 20
seminary, and in 1S41 rector. In 183(i he was made a Sept., 1839) formally recorded the approval of the in-
cathedral canon of Eger, in 18.39 received the Alsbey stitute and its rule, and appointed Rosmini provost
of S:i:ir, in 1 847 became auxihary bishop, in 1850 capit- general for life. The institute then spread rapidly in
ular vicar, in 18.51 Bishop of Waitzen, and in 1859 England and Italy, and requests for foundations came
 ROSMINI 195 ROSMINI
from various countries. The publication of Rosmini's human intelligence, thus terminating in its object, is
"Trattato della coseienza morale" (Milan, 1839) led intuition —
an attitude rather than an activity, in
to a sharp controversy. Against Rosmini were writers which the mind pronounces no judgment on what
like Meha, Passagha, Rozaven, Antonio Ballerini, all is known, but merely receives the communication
members of the Society of Jesus, in which Rozaven of the intelligible object. All our concepts, when
held the office of assistant to the general. On the analyzed, reveal being (somethingness) as their es-
defensive, along with Rosmini, were L. Eastaldi, Pes- sential constituent; or, conversely, human con-
talozza, Pagamini. For fifteen years the wordy war cepts are nothing but determinations more or less
was protracted, with a truce from 1843 to 1846, due complex of the simple and elementary notion of
to an injimction of Gregory XVI enjoining perpetual being. This fundamental idea is indeterminate and
silence on both sides. Pius IX, who succeeded general, conveying to the intellect no knowledge of
Gregory in 1846, showed himself favourable to the particular things, but simply manifesting itself as the
institute, and various new foundations in England essence of being. Our abstraction does not produce
attested its vitality. In 1848 Rosmini published it, but merely discovers it already present in thought.
"
(Milan) his " Costituzione secondo la giustizia sociale Being, as it appears within man's experience, has two
and "Cinque piaghe della chiesa"; the latter against modes, each governed by its own conditions and laws,
Josephism, especially in the matter of Austrian epis- each with well-defined attributes, diverse, but not
copal appointments in Northern contradictory. Manifesting it-
Italy. In August of the same self to the mind as the intel-
year, he was sent to Rome by ligible object, not exerting any
King Charles Albert of Pied- stimulus upon the intellect, but
mont to enlist the pope on the simply illuminating it, this is
side of Italy as against Austria. being in its ideal mode. As it
Pius IX appointed him one of acts or is acted upon in feeling,
the consultors to deliberate on modifying the human subject
the definability of the doctrine in sensation, constituting the
of the Immaculate Conception, sentient principle in action and
and at the outbreak of the rev- passion, this is being in its real
olution asked Rosmini to share mode. The former is essen-
his exile at Gaeta. Antonelli's tially objective, simple, and one
influence, however, prevailed —universal, necessary, immuta-
and Rosmini left Gaeta, 19 June, ble, eternal; the latter is sub-
1S49. His works, "Costitu- jective and, in our world, con-
zione" and "Cinque piaghe", tingent, particular, temporal,
were condemned in August, a manifold, and almost infinitely
sentence which he unhesitat- varied in aspect. Ideal being
ingly accepted. A further at- is not God, but we may call it,
tack was made on him in the says Rosmini, an appurtenance
"Postille" and the "Lettere di of God, and even Divine, for
un prete Bolognese" (1848). its characteristics are not those
Pius IX (1850) referred the of created finite things, and its
"Postille" to the Congregation Antonio RosMlNt-SERBATi ultimate source must be in God.
of the Index, which rejected
From a painting by F. Hayez
If thought had in it no element
it as false. In view of other charges the pope ordered transcending the contingent and finite, all knowledge
an examination of all Rosmini's works. The decision, of the absolute and infinite would be inexplicable,
rendered 3 July, 1854, was that all the works be and truth, uncertain and variable, would exist only
dismissed {esse dimittenda), that the investigation in name.
implied nothing disparaging to the author, to the To explain our knowledge of particular real en-
institute founded by him, or to his exceptional serv- tities, Rosmini says that our knowledge of realities
ices to the Church, and that to prevent any renewal reduces itself to a judgment whereby we predicate
and dissemination of charges and strife, silence was existence of what is felt by us. Real entities act upon
for the third time imposed on both parties. Within man's senses, and he immediately recognizes them as
a year after this decision Rosmini died. His body particular activities of that essence of being already
reposes in the Church of the Santissimo Crocifisso manifested under another mode in intuition. Be-
built by him at Stresa. (See Rosminians.) cause of its simplicity, the human ego, or subject-
Anon., La Vita di Antonio Rosmini (Turin, 1897), the standard principle, is constrained to bring together and collate
life, written by a prieat of tiie Institute of Charity; Anon.,
its feeling and its knowledge of being, and thus it
Piccola Vita di Antonio Rosmini (Casale, 1897) Dellu Missione
;

a Roma di Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, negli Anni 1848— 49 (Turin, perceives being energizing in the production of feel-
1881) Epistolario completo di Antonio Rosmini-Serbati (Casale,
: ing. This act of the human subject whereby it
Turin, 1887-94); Paoli, Memorie della vita di Antonio Rosmini-
Serbati (Turin, 1880-84) Antonio Rosmini e la sua trrosapia
;
cognizes real entities, Rosmini calls reason. By
(Rovereto, 1880) Life of Antonio Rosmini-SerbaH, ed. Lock-
;
sense we are introduced to realities, but we could
hart (London, 1886); The Life of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, tr. not know them as beings unless we already possessed
from the Italian of Pagani (London, 1907).
the idea of being. This is given to our mind prior
Geoege Coemack. to all perception or individual cognition; it is not ac-
quired by any act of thought, but is implanted in us
The Rosminian System. — According to Rosmini, by the Creator from the beginning of our existence:
philosophy is "the science of the ultimate reasons or it is innate, and constitutes for us the light of reason.
grounds of human knowledge" The philosopher at Furthermore, it is the very form of the human in-
the outset must answer the questions: What is telligence, a form not multiple, but one — not sub-
knowledge?
of
What
thought? Can we be certain
is
what we know? Rosmini's answer is given in his
jective, but objective— i. e., not a quality or attitude

or component of the human subject, but distinct

ideology and logic. Intellect, he holds, is essentially from it and superior to it, existing in an absolute
different from sense; thought is objective, sensation mode and called the form of the mind because, in
is subjective. The term of the intellectual act is manifesting itself to man, it draws forth and creates,
seen in such a way that the seer, at the moment, is so to speak, the act of his intelligence.
conscious neither of himself nor of any relation with Logic, says Rosmini, is "the science of the art of
himself as seeing. The primal and essential act of reasoning"- The scope of reasoning is certainty.
 ROSMINI 196 ROSMINI
i.e., a firm persuasion conformable to truth. The dissolved by death, and the soul's immanent percep-
truth of a thing is, in last analysis, its being, and since tion of its body has been for a period destroyed.
being is the form of the human intellect, it follows Cosmology, which considers the ordered universe,
that a criterion of truth and certainty lies at the the nature of contingent real being and its cause, is
base of all thought and reasoning. The principles not a complete science in itself; it must be treated in
which govern reflection and argument are founded connexion with the sciences of reasoning in which re-
on the primitive intuition of being. "Being is the flection, testing the observations of intuition and per-
object of thought"; this is the principle of cognition, ception, discovers new truths and arrives at the exist-
and it is antecedent to the principle of contradiction. ence of beings beyond the reach of intuition and
Error is found, not in the idea of being, which is perception.
without any determination, nor in the principles of The Sciences of Reasoning are ontological and de-
reasoning, which simply express the essential object ontological. The former comprise ontology and natu-
of the mind in the form of a proposition without ral theology. Ontology treats of being in all its extent
adding anything foreign, but in reflection, and hence as known to man, viz., ideal being, the necessary object
in the will, which usually initiates reflection. Logic of the intellect; real being, i.e., subjective force and
shows us how to use reflection so as to attain truth feeling; moral being, the relation between real and
and avoid error. ideal— a special act of recognition and adherence on
TheSciences of Perception are psychology and the part of the subject harmonizing it with the object.
cosmology. The subject of psychology is the ego —
Light, life, love; intellect, sense, will these are the
in its primal condition, i. c, stripped of its acquired forms under which the essence of being manifests
relations and developments. The soul is felt by and itself in man's world; they are also the foundation
through itself; it is essentially a principle of feeling. of the categories. Natural theology treats of the
"The human soul is an intellective and sensitive Absolute Being, God. The existence of God is known,
subject or principle, having by nature the intuition not through perception or direct intuition, but through
of being and a feeling whose term is extended, besides reasoning. Ideal being is being under only one of its
certain activities consequent upon intelligence and forms and therefore incomplete; in the real world we
sensitivity." This "extended term" is twofold: meet only partial realizations of being. Comparing
space, which, simple and immovable, underlies all in reflection the products of our perception with the
sense phenomena as the idea of being underlies the essence of being manifested in intuition, we see that
phenomena of thought; and body, a limited ex- they do not exhaust the possibilities of that essence;
tended force which the sentient principle passively yet this must find its full realization in some way far
receives and thereby acquires individuation. It is transcending our experience; it cannot, in that ful-
a favourite doctrine of Rosmini that the extended can ness, be finite and imperfect as are the things of this
exist only in synthesis with a simple, immaterial world. This knowledge of the Absolute Being Ros-
principle. Considered apart from this principle, the mini calls negative-ideal; it tells us not so much
material corporeal term lacks the unity and co- what God is as what God is not.
herence necessary for existence and permanence. Definite proofs of God's existence are furnished by
Our own body, the "subjective body", is felt directly being in its essence and in each of its forms. The
as the proper term of the human sentient principle essence of being is eternal, necessary, infinite; but
and is the seat of corporeal feelings. Other (external) these attributes it would not possess if it did not sub-
bodies, since they modify not the soul, but the bodily sist identical under the other two forms of reality and
term in connexion with the soul, are felt by an extra- morality, complete and perfect. Where it exists under
subjective perception. We
feel our own bodies as all these forms, it is being in every way infinite and
we feel external bodies, through vision, touch etc.; absolute, i. e., God. Again, the ideal form that creates
but we also feel them immediately with a funda- intelligence is an eternal object and hence demands an
mental feeling, always identical and substantial, in —
eternal subject with infinite wisdom God. The real
which no distinct limits, figure, or relation of parts form of being is contingent, and it therefore postulates
can be assigned. Shape, hardness, colour etc., belong a First Cause in whose essence subsistence is included.
to the extra-subjective world. But the body is Finally, the binding force of the moral law is eternal,
not merely felt by the soul; it is also intellectually necessary, absolute, and its ultimate sanction must be
perceived by the soul in a primordial and immanent found in an Absolute Being in whom the essence of
judgment, whereby being is applied to it (the body) holiness subsists. Thus man naturally does not per-
in the way above described. In this perception is ceive God; his knowledge of God is but of a negative
found the true nexiLS intimately uniting soul and body. kind. In the supernatural order of grace, the real
The body is the felt-understood term of the human communication of God to man, a new light super-
principle which in this intellective synthesis performs added to that of reason brings man into conjunction
act as a rational soul and exerts a real physical
its first with God's own reality, which reveals itself to him
influence on its bodily term. Hence Rosmini's defi- in an incipient and obscure manner, yet acts upon the
nition of life as "the incessant production of all soul with positive efficacy. Thus the Christian be-
those extra-subjective phenomena which precede, ac- comes a new creature, consors divinas natures.
company, and follow parallel with the corporeal and The deontological sciences treat of the perfections
material feeling (subjective)". of beings and the ways in which these perfections may
Every time that by generation an animated organ- be acquired, produced, or lost. Amongst them,
ism is produced, perfectly constituted according to the ethics, the science of virtue, is prominent (see "Com-
human type, the vivifying, sentient principle rises to pendio di Etica", Rome, 1907). Each moral act con-
the vision of the intelhgible object, ideal being. This tains three elements: the law, the subject's free will,
happens in virtue of a primordial law, estabhshed by and the relation (agreement or disagreement) between
God in the creative act. There is, however, no chrono- law and will. Man is not a law unto himself; the
logical passing from sentience to inteUigence, as if moral imperative must come from a higher source,
one could assign an instant in which the human soul from the necessary and universal object of the under-
was purely sentient and another following in which it standing Being, manifested to the mind, has an
had become rational. All is consummated in a single order of its own, and the various entities we know
point of time. The soul's immortality is deduced from though it occupy different places in the scale of
its nature as an intellective principle having for its excellence. We cognize them by an act of intellect;
object-term the eternal and necessary idea of being. we recognize them by a practical act of our will, ad-
This is independent of space and time, and the act of hering to the good we see in them with an intensity
intuition continues even after the bodily term has been determined by the moral exigence of the object. The
 ROSMINI 197 ROSMINI
idea of an entity, therefore, as the medium which 1893). His basic idea is that education must follow
reveals its excellence, clothes itself with the authority the natural order of development. The mind of the
of law; and as all ideas are but determinations of the child must be led from the general to the particular.
idea of being, the first of laws and the first principle The natural and necessary order of all human thoughts
of obligation is: "Follow the light of reason", or is expressed in the law: "A thought is that which be-
"Recognize being" Besides the testimony of con- comes the matter, or provides the matter of another
sciousness and the consent of mankind, the proofs for thought." The whole sum of thoughts which can
free-will, i. e., the power of choice between objective occur to the human mind is classified in divers orders
good (duty) and subjective good (pleasure, self-in- of which Rosmini enumerates five. To the first order
terest), are closely bound up with Rosmini's theory of belong thoughts whose matter is not taken from ante-
man and the soul. Man is stimulated by sensation cedent thoughts; each of the successive orders is
and his subjective modifications; at the same time he characterized by its matter being taken from the order
is illumined by the light of being eternal and absolute immediately preceding it. The ruling principle of
whence he can draw strength to overcome the allure- method is: Present to the mind of the child (and this
ments of sense and unite himself to the absolute good. applies to man in general), first, the objects which
In reference to the third element Rosmini used a belong to the first order of cognitions, then those
distinction which led to sharp controversy. By which belong to the second order, and so on, taking
peccatum (sin) he means the sinful condition of the care never to lead the child to a cognition of the second
will in its antagonism to objective good; by culpa order without having ascertained that his mind has
(sin as fault), the same condition considered relatively grasped those of the first order relative to it, and the
to its cause, free will. Ordinarily, peccatum is also same with regard to the cognitions of the third, fourth,
culpa, and every sin is traceable to a free agent. But, and other higher orders. In applying this principle
in abnormal circumstances, there may be peccatum to the different orders, Rosmini explains the cognitions
where there is not, at the moment, culpa. The acts proper to each, the corresponding activities, the in-
of an acquired sinful habit, when performed without struction which they require, the moral and religious
advertence or deliberation, are contrary to law, education which the child should receive. Both in his
though at the moment the will is not responsible. general theory of adapting education to the needs of
They are culpae and imputable, but to complete the the growing mind and in the importance he attached
imputability one must link them with the first free to instinpt, feeling, and play, Rosmini anticipated
wicked acts whence the habit resulted. Original sin much that is now regarded as fundamental in educa-
is a true sin yet not a culpa, not imputable to the tion. "The child", he says, "at every age must act."
person in whom it is found as to its free cause. The To regulate the different kinds of activity, and to make
responsible cause is to be sought in the free will of each kind reasonable, is really to educate. It is in the
Adam, whose sin was both peccatum and culpa. kindergarten system of Frobel, the contemporary of
Rosmini wrote voluminously in defence of the tradi- Rosmini, that these principles are most fully worked
tional Catholic doctrine of original sin. Conscience out.
he defines as "a speculative judgment on the morality The most important of Rosmini's posthumous
of the practical judgment"; and since morality, works, the "Teosofia" (ontology and natural theol-
he points out, belongs to an order of reflection anterior ogy), was published in five volumes (Turin, 1859-64;
to the conscience, there may exist in man moral or Intra, 1864-74). In 1876 some Catholic newspapers
immoral conditions apart from conscience a doc- — and periodicals in Italy, interpreting the "Dimittan-
trine which he also applied to original sin and to tur" decree of 1854, declared that Rosmini's works
certain states of virtue and vice. Regarding probabil- were open both to criticism and to censure. The
ism, he distinguishes, in the question of the doubtful Rosminian school on the contrary maintained that,
law, what is intrinsically evil from what is evil only while the decree gave no positive approval, it at least
on account of some extrinsic cause, for example, pro- guaranteed that the books examined contained noth-
hibition by positive law, and lays down the rule: " If ing worthy of censure and could therefore be safely
there is a doubt respecting the existence of the positive read, and their conclusions accepted by Catholics.
law, and the doubt cannot be resolved, the law is not This view seemed to be confirmed by the Master
binding; but if there is a doubt in a matter pertaining of the Sacred Palace, who, in a letter to the "Osserva^
to the natural law and relating to an evil inherent in tore Romano" (16 June, 1876), reminded the editor
action, the risk of the evil must be avoided. " This of the silence enjoined on both parties and stated that
theory provoked controversy, but Rosmini main- no theological censure could be inflicted. A month
tained that it accorded substantially with the teaching later, the "Osservatore Cattolico" of Milan, as
of St. Alphonsus Ligouri. ordered by the Prefect of the Congregation of the
The science of rational right arises from the protec- Index, acknowledged its interpretation to be erro-
tion which the moral law affords to the useful good. neous.
The classification of the goods and rights which we After the death of Pius IX, the controversy was
possess in our relations with our fellow-men, is based renewed. An answer of the Index was given (21
on freedom and property Freedom is the power, which June, 1880) that " dimittantur signifies only this —
—
.

each one has, to use all his faculties and resources so work dismissed is not prohibited" and another
long as he does not encroach on the rights of others. (5 Dec, 1881) that a work dismissed is not to be
Property is the union of goods with the human per- held as free from every error against faith and morals
sonality by a triple bond, physical, intellectual, and and may be criticized both philosophically and theo-
moral. The moral bond guards the other two, for the logically without incurring the note of temerity.
moral law forbids one man to wrest from another what Both answers were taken by the adversaries of
he has united to himself by affection and intelligence. Rosmini's doctrines to justify new censures, while
The subject of right may be either the individual man the Rosminian writers contended that these answers
or man in society. Concerning the three societies in no degree rendered untenable the position they had
necessary for the full development of the human race, always occupied. On 14 Dec, 1887, a decree of the
Rosmini speculates at length in his "Filosofia del Inquisition condemned forty propositions taken from
diritto" (Milan, 1841-43). the works of Rosmini. The decree, published 7
Rosmini applied his philosophical principles to edu- March, 1888, lays special stress on the posthumous
cation in ''Delia educazione oristiana" (Milan, 18.56) works which, it says, developed and explained doc-
and especially, " Del principio supremo della metod- trines contained in "germ in the earlier books; but
ica" (Turin, 1857; tr. by Grey, "The Ruling Prin- the propositions condemned have no theological
ciple of Method Applied to Education", Boston, nota attached. About one-half of the propositions
 ROSMINIANS 198 ROSMINIANS
refer to Rosmini's ontology and natural theology; was gradually and unconsciously led to consider the
the remainder, to his teachings on the soul, the intellectual and moral inheritance of Christendom
Trinity, the Eucharist, the supernatural order and as a whole, not in blind protest and reaction merely,
the beatific vision (Denzinger, "Enchir.", 1891 sq.). but with impartial contemplation of new ideas as
Some of the propositions were clearly taught in the well as of old. The one side of truth was to be cor-
works examined in 1S54; others repeated what rected by its counterpart, and secondary things
Rosraini had said over and over again in the principal which had usurped a primacy were to resume their
bodies published during his lifetime. The superior just order. Rosmini not only saw the Church's
general of the Institute of Charity enjoined obedience enemies roused to new vigour of attack, but also a
and submission on the members. Leo XIII in a growing danger among many who still remained
letter to the Archbishop of Milan (1 June 1889) within the Church of a practical denial or at least
plainly stated that he approved and confirmed the a belittling of the supernatural in man. There was
decree. Cardinal Mazclla discussed the proposi- ill-regulated activity and impatience of ancient tra-
tions exhaustively in " Rosminianarum proposi- dition, and by reaction from this in other quarters
tionum trutina theologica" (Rome 1892). This there was an equally ill-timed and fatal passiveness.
brought out a reply from an erudite layman. Prof. The world was too wrong, it seemed, ever to be set
Giuseppe Morando, under the title "Esame critico right; and nothing it could say was worthy of being
delle40 proposizioni Rosminiane" (Milan, 1905). even heeded. This was a spirit that shut itself up
Besides the works already mentioned, Rosmini in the past and anathematized all fresh thought.
wrote a large number of treatises the more important The Church was to renounce either tradition or
of which are: "II Rinnovamento della Filosofia in development, in either case abandoning her Divine
Itaha" (Milan, 1836); "Psicologia", (Xovara, 184.3; Guide.
Turin, 1887; tr., London, 1884-88); "Logica", On such a basis there could easily be set up a
(Turin, 18.53; Intra, 1868); "La Filosofia della spirit which looked on the whole Church as a party,
Morale" (Milan, 1831); "L'Antropologia in servizio and furthered her cause with partisan eagerness,
della Scienza Morale" (Milan, 1838); "Antro- or else substituted for the great end of the Church's
pologia sopranaturale" (Casale, 1884); "Teodicea" good the petty end of the good of some society or
(Milan, 184.5); "Filosofia della Politica" (Milan, persons within her. It tended to replace Catholi-
1858); "La societa e il suo fine" (Milan, 1839); cism by clericalism. But Rosmini judged these
"V. Gioberti e il Panteismo" (Milan, 1847); "In- domestic ills no less than the relentless attacks from
troduzione alia Filosofia" (Casale, 1850); "Introd. without to be traceable to one deeply-seated cause,
al Vangelo secondo S. Giovanni" (Turin, 1882). namely, that men were relaxing their grip on the
Davidson, Rosmini'^ Philosophical System (London, 1SS2) fundamental and general truths. AAhat was becom-
contains a copious bibliography of the works of Rosmini and his
school. ing blurred was God's own part in the world: first
Rosminian School: BuRONI, DeW Essere e del Conoscere, studii His creative part; then the Divine nature of that
s>i Parmeaide PliUone e Rosmini (Turin. 187S): Ferhe, Derjli
moral good which in some sort stands before the
I'niversali !:{:riuHlo Teoria Ro'.mirnana (Casale, ISSO-.sti);
la
Pestalozza, Le DiAiritie di A. Rosmini difese (Milan, 1S.51 Lodi, ;
human mind as truth itself; and again the Divine
18.53): Petri, A. Ro^tniin e i N>'o-Scol/isfi>:i Home, 1S7M:
I action of grace, causing truth and good to be felt in
BiLLIA, Quaranta Proiwsi:wni attribuilr ad A. Rosttiini (Milan, the depths of the soul as having not only infinite
1880) Per Aiif. Rosmini riel primo rrnlenario <l<lla iiiiscita (Milan,
;

1S1I7); MOR^NDO, II Rosminianisruo e I'Enciclica Pascendi, and rightness and bindingness but also supreme driving-
Ap-parrnti Contraddizioui di .S. Tommaso, reprinted from the power. The crying need then was for a clearer
Ritiista Rosmininna (190S) Manzoni, II Dialogo sulV lurenzione
;

recognition of God's place in nature, in the soul, and

(Milan, 187'J); Calza and Perez, Esposizione delta Filosofia di
A. Rosmini (Intra, 1S78): Casar\, La Luce dell' occhio corporeo e in the Church, and hence for the re-establishment of
qui-lla deW IidtUdlo (Parabiago, 1879). Christian first principles as a slow, indeed, but the
Periodicals: La Sapienza (Turin, 1879-SG) (ed. Papa); La
Rirista h'osii'iuiana (Voghera, 1905) (ed. Morando).
only radical, cure of the evils of the day.
Opposing .SrhoolH: Pastille (a. d.); Alcuiie Affermazioni del Sirf. Antonio Rosmini, an Italian from Rovereto, was
A. Rosmini prete roverclano can lui saggio di rijlessio/ii scritte da ordained in 1821. He was already organizing his
Eiisebio ( 'risliaiio (s. d.) Prinripj delta scaotn Rosminiana esposti
life on principles of order, an order which puts God's
;

i/i Letterc Famigliari da un Prete liatognc^e (Milan, 1850): Gio-

berti, Degli Errori Fitosofiri di A. Rosmini (Capologo, 1846): prompting first and man's instant and swift action
Cornoldi, // Rosminianismo siiiiesi dell' Ontologismo e del second. His two life-principles, written down at
Panteismo (Rome, 1881); Liberatore, Degli Vniversali (Rome,
lssl-.s;il, tr. Bering, On Uairersals (Leamington, 1889); this time for his own guidance, and forming the true
Mazzki.i.a, Rosminianarum propositionum trutina theologica harmony of humility with confidence and passive-
(Hiinir, 1.S9L'); ZiQLiARA, // Dtmittaiur e la spiegazione datane ness with activity, were: first, to apply himself to
dalla ,s'. CoNuregazione dell' Indice.
Indcpcndrnt: Sheldon, Tlie Teachings of A. Rosmini, in the amendment of his faults and the purifying of
Papers <-/ Un American Society of Church History 1897, VIII his soul without seeking other occupations or under-
Dyroff, l\a-:iiiini, in the series Kultur und Katholizismus (jNIunich takings on his neighbour's behalf, since of himself
19(11".); Orestano. Rosmini, in the series Biblioteca Pedagogica
(Rome, 19(l,s]; Palhori^s, Rosmini, in the series Les Grands he was powerless to do anyone real service; and,
Philosaplies (Paris, 1908). D. HiCKEY. second, not to refuse offices of charity when Divine
Providence offered them, but in fulfilling them to
Rosminians. —The Institute of Charity, or, offi- maintain perfect indifference and do the offered
a charitate nuncii])ata, is a religious
cially. Societal work as zealously as he would any other. The
congregation founded by Antonio Rosmini, first formulating of this rule and the putting of it into
organized in 1S28, formally approved by the Holy practice by living retired in prayer and study con-
See in 1838, and taking its name from "charity" as stituted the first step towards founding the Institute
the fullness of Christian virtue. In English-speaking of Charity; the second was this: the Venerable
lands its members are commonly called Fathers of Marchioness di Canossa, foundress of a society of
Charity, but in Italy, Rosminians. Daughters of Charity for poor friendless girls, had
Ftiitiiilaition of the Institute. —
The founder of this long desired a like institution for boys, and no sooner
society was, strictly speaking, Rosmini alone. Kever- was Rosmini a priest than she began to urge him to
thele.ss there existeil in the age into which he was establish one. On 10 December, 1S25, he wrote to
born many very potent directive elements which her that in accordance with his rules of life he could
gave a bent to his thoughts and supplied an oppor- not altogether refuse her request if God were to
tunity' for their embodiment in some organization. provide means, but that even then he could form
His life was in the immediate wake of the French such a society only on the basis of the two aforesaid
Revolution, and doubtless it was by the many principles.
tendencies and movements, some of them remote The rough sketch of the Priests of Charity written
enough, which culminated in that upheaval, that he on this date is really only the first brief form of what
 ROSMINIANS 199 ROSMINIANS
was approved by Rome more than twelve years is accustomed to hear some other consultor; and to
later. But he took no practical measures. He this end Zecchinelli, a Jesuit, was admitted by Cas-
still waited for God's signs. Led to Milan in Feb- traoane to write his opinion. It was unfavourable,
ruary, 1826, for a charitable work and better con- principally concerning the matter of poverty; and
venience for study, he received there a powerful his party further procured the appointment of a
stimulus in June, 1827, by meeting the Abb6 Loewen- new consultor, a Servite, whose hostile vote was
bruck. This zealous and impetuous priest intro- launched almost on the eve of the session in which
duced himself abruptly enough with the words: a decision was to be taken. This action drove
"I am thinking of a society directed to a reform Castracane to appeal to the pope that the meeting
of the clergy, and you must help me to carry this might be postponed, and the pope intervened at
into effect." Rosmini answered by confessing his once with such effect that the last vote was set aside
own aspirations and laying down the principles on and other consultors deputed instead. On 20 Decem-
which alone he would build. They conferred further, ber, 1838, the congregation met and gave its final
sought and received more light, and at last agreed sentence that the society and its rule deserved the
to spend the next year's Lent together in fasting and formal approbation of the Holy See, and that the
prayer in an almost ruinous house on Monte Cal- institute should have the status of a religious con-
vario above Domodossola, a town near the Italian gregation, with the usual privileges. The pope
end of the Simplon Pass. Here on 20 February, immediately ratified this decision. On the following
1828, Rosmini began his great work, but alone, as 25 March the vows were first made, by twenty in
Loewenbruck did not present himself again to co- Italy and five in England. Five of these then went
operate in the labour. Lent was passed by Rosmini to Rome and on 22 August, in the Catacombs of St.
in practising austerities and writing the constitutions Sebastian made the fourth vow of special obedience
of the institute. to the pope. Apostolic letters embodying Ros-
Still, this was no more than a plan. For forming mini's own summary of the constitutions were issued
a religious society a number of like-minded men are on 20 September, naming Rosmini as the first pro-
needed. Rosmini sought none, encouraged none. vost-general of the institute for life.
Two or three who knew his thoughts joined him; Spirit and Organization. — The end which the Insti-
their very principles made them at once into a com- tute of Charity sets before its members is perfect
munity practising many of the religious virtues. charity. Love of God is plenitudo legis, because it
These principles urged him to betake himself forth- extends of its very nature to all intelligent creatures
with to the Holy See and lay his society before it. who are in God's image. No special manner of life
He arrived at Rome in November, 1828, but would is added in this rule as an obligatory proximate end;
not do anything there to further his cause. Pius hence for a vocation to it nothing is required but a
VIII, who was elected pope in the following March, true and constant desire to love justice most. It
called him to an audience a few weeks after. "If is a universal vocation. It embraces all vocations,
you think", said the Pope, "of beginning with some- not indeed by taking all charitable works whatso-
thing small, and leaving all the rest to God, ^ye gladly ever as its province; rather it does not take one,
approve; not so if you thought of starting on a large but it refuses none. The field then is vast, but
scale." Rosmini answered that he had always pro- only with a negative vastness. Hcec est voluntas
posed a very humble beginning. His was no extra- Dei, sanctificatio vestra. But by focusing the will
ordinary vocation, he said, like that of St. Ignatius, on that one point the best way is opened to every-
but quite ordinary. In the autumn of 1830 he gave thing else. Thus the first or elective state of the
the institute something of its regular form, and all Rosminian is just the unum necessarium, the con-
the community began to pass through their stages templative life; not inactivity, not sluggishness, but
of religious training. Such was the state of affairs prayer and labour and study and the learning of
when on 2 February, 1831, Rosmini's friend and some mechanical or liberal art, that so he may be
protector at Rome, Cardinal Cappellari, was chosen ready for any call and not become a burden to
pope and took the name of Gregory XVl. others. It is a time for accumulating experience and
The new pope became from the outset the foster- strength, and those who avail themselves of it apply
father of the institute, and Rosmini shunned all themselves to their duties, awaiting the time when
initiative more than ever. An unsolicited papal they will go forth to answer the call of zeal. If no
Brief came forth in March, calling the new society such call comes, it matters little, for in the elective
by its name and rejoicing in its progress under the state all their end is achieved. If the call does come,
approval of the bishops. Special spiritual graces the elective is laid aside for the assumed state, this
were granted by a later Brief, and in 1835 the pope being accepted not of choice at all, but only because
made known his wish that, since solemn episcopal of God's will clearly manifested.
approval had been given the society in the Dioceses By what methods does the institute discern this
of Novara and Trent, Rosmini should no longer will? Apart from extraordinary inward motions
delay, but submit the constitutions of the society of the Holy Ghost, the common way is that of out-
to the formal examination of the Holy See. It was ward events, which give sure tokens of God's will
not, however, till March, 1837, that these were at to those who use the light of faith. The principal
length submitted, with a short letter in which Ros- events, as the institute views it, which make known
mini petitioned the pope to approve and confirm God's call to charitable work are: (1) a petition
them and to grant to the institute the privileges of made by a neighbour in need; (2) a request by some-
regulars, adding only that these seemed necessary one else on his behalf; (3) his needs themselves when
to the well-being of a society which was intended for they come before us. Among simultaneous re-
the service of the universal Church. quests there is a choice. The pope's come first, a
The matter was entrusted to the Congregation bishop's next; ceteris paribus, earlier petitions are
of Bishops and Regulars, which declared, on 16 June, accepted rather than later. But in general when-
its general commendation of the society, but also ever a neighbour, in the universal Christian meaning
its judgment that it was as yet too young to be of that word, seeks the help of the institute, it has
approved as a regular order, and its hesitation on to be given, unless one of the following conditions
one or two points in the constitutions, notably on be wanting: that the desired work be no hindrance
the form of poverty. They therefore deferred the to the fulfilment of duties already undertaken, that
approbation. Rosmini satisfied Cardinal Castra- the whole labour which such addition involves be
cane, the promoter of the cause, on these heads; but not beyond the brethren's strength, and that the
before proposing a new examination the promoter institute have at its disposal members sufficent in
 ROSMINUNS 200 ROSMINIANS
both number and endowment for its rightful dis- none may
keep or administer or use one farthing at
charge. his own Strenuous opposition was offered in
will.
Again, charity which is one in essence, is three- Rome to this form of religious poverty, which was
fold in exercise, and according as good things regard declared by one party to be merely affective, not
the bodily and sentient life or the intellectual or effective. Rosmini answered by indicating the con-
the moral, the charity which bestows them is divided ditions just named and also the nature of property
in the institute into temporal, intellectual, and itself; that it is a complexus of rights, that rights
spiritual. The temporal is the lowest and gives are relations, and are divisible; that they may be
the lowest kind of good. Inconceivably far above relative to the State or to the Church; and that a
it stands that which seeks to increase the life of the rehgious keeps property relatively to the State only,
under.standing by the knowledge of truth and above; and not absolutely. It is absolute ownership, not
both there is the spiritual charity which tends to relative, that offends Evangelical poverty. The
make men good and happy by loving the known founder's sagacity in leaving property under the
truth. Hence we see that the topmost point of the legal dominion of individuals has been abundantly
institute's activity is the cure of souls. Its whole illustrated since his time; the spiritual gains of the
theory leads to the religious and the pastoral life occasions thus given for continually renewed acts
wedded together, as the crowning achievement of of sacrifice are no less obvious. The true facts of
charity. The blending of the two types in the rule the rule are that board, lodging, and clothing are to
consists in this, that the brethren have to choose be those of poor men, and that all, even superiors,
and prefer a private state in the Church. They are do much of their own servile work. Chastity next,
of the ecclesia discens. The restless disposition considered as a vow, is understood in the sense of
which indirectly seeks honours or powers would be the subdeacon's obligation. The virtue of obedience
treason to their whole spirit. Passive in privacy is regarded as a director of charity and, therefore, as
till public work summons them, they must then be quite universal; as a vow, however, though its field
all courage, confidence, perseverance, and work. is still unrestricted, it comes more seldom into play.
There are three classes of persons who more or The institute is governed by a provost-general
less strictly belong to the Institute of Charity. The elected for life by certain presbyters according to a
first is of those who, led by a desire to keep the minutely prescribed form. He has full powers
Evangelical law perfectly, take on themselves the except for a few exceptional cases. It is he who
discipline of the society and bind themselves by admits to the various grades in the society and who
vows. The second is of Christians who desire per- appoints all the superiors. The institute is divided
fection, but are so bound by earlier engagements into provinces, and each province, at least in theory,
that they cannot make these vows, yet desire as far into dioceses, and each diocese into parishes; and
as possible to co-operate with the society, and these there may be rectories besides for more particular
are "adopted children". The third is of "ascribed works of charity. Having in view only the fullness
members", good Christians who do not aspire to the of Christian law, it has followed as nearly as possible
life of the counsels, yet according to their condition the organization of the Christian Church. Being
desire also to co-operate. But since only the relig- ordered to charity, the institute chooses a way of
ious are of the substance of the society, it is of their hving that will not sunder the brethren too far from
formation and regulation alone that we will here add other men. No habit and no special bodily mortifi-
a few words. cation is prescribed them, but in lieu of further aus-
The institute neither solicits nor insinuates voca- terities they embrace the lasting hardness of their
tions, but leaves the initiative to Divine Providence, chosen lot. Not the hedge of a multitude of regula-
being from its fundamental principles just as per- tions, but a strong conviction of lofty principles is
fect when small and hidden as if it was large and to make men such as the institute desires.
famous. Of the care used in examining and instruct- The institute as such holds no property and takes
ing the postulant and in implanting firm roots of no kind of civil action. From the State it does not
piety and charity in the novices and in trying his seek exemptions, but only common right. If guar-
vocation in many ways we need not here give de- antees of association were refused it, it could still live
tailed notice. After two years of noviceship his privately and contemplatively, and attain its whole
first profession is made, obedience being understood end. Its members remain citizens, with a citizen's
to comprehend the acceptance of any grade that interest and duties. Towards the Church it has this
superiors may assign. He thus becomes an "ap- chief relation, that it lives for her, not for itself, in-
proved scholastic", who is not, however, definitively sists on not confounding the interests of one religious
incorporated with the institute until he has fitted society with those of Christendom, and is so con-
himself by study or other preparation for taking the structed as to be altogether ancillary to the Christian
coadjutor's vows. Coadjutors, spiritual or tem- episcopate. Any exclusive esprit de corps is banned
poral, add the further promise of not seeking any throughout the rule and is quite contrary to its spirit;
dignity either within the society or outside and of for "the one groundwork of the institute," said its
not accepting and not refusing the spontaneous founder, "is the Providence of God the Father, and to
offer of it except under obedience. They are divided lay another would be to destroy it." Instead of
moreover into internal coadjutors if living in houses seeking its own aggrandizement, its tendency is to
of the institute, and external if elsewhere, the latter render the imion of all Catholics more intimate and
state being from the universality of charity quite sensible, to make them feel their own greatness, and
in harmony with the rule. From among the internal that they are stronger than the world and are fellow-
spiritual coadjutors presbyters are chosen, and these workers with Providence in putting all things imder
take a fourth ^ow of special obedience to the sover- Christ.
eign pontiff. Thus the body of the society con-
sists of prcsbj-iers and coadjutors, but it is the
—
History and Activities. The institute is too young
to have much history yet. As was to be expected
presbyters who give life and movement to the rest from its principles, it
has progressed but slowly. Its
anfl to «hom the more uni\-ersal works of charity are chief houses in Italy are Monte Calvario, which has
committed. long been both a novitiate and house of theological
Vows in the institute are life-long, and ordinarily, study; the college founded in 1839 for young boys at
though not necessarily, simple. Its form of poverty Stresa, and the large college for older
ones at Domo-
permits the retention of bare ownership in the eye dossola built in 1873 and
taking the place of a school
of the civil law, but each member must be ready to handed over to the institute by Count Mellerio in
surrender even that at the call of obedience, and 1837. Rosmini founded a house at Trent in 1830 at
 ROSS 201 ROSS
the bishop's invitation; but Austrian dislike of Italian one at Upton near Cork, and, one towards which
influences brought it to an end in 1835. The same CountMoore gave land and money, at Clonmel. The
spirit drove the institute from Rovereto in 1835 and latest mission established by the institute is that of
from Verona in 1849. The charge of the Sanctuary Bexhill-on-Sea. The Rugby house, which had from
of S. Michele della Chiusa, an ancient abbey on a 1850 the English novitiate, became in 1886 a junior-
steep mountain-peak near Turin, was accepted in ate, or preparatory school for novices. The present
1835 at the King of Sardinia's desire, and remains of novitiate stands in wooded grounds at Wadhurst,
deceased members of his house were transferred Sussex, and a house for Irish novices has been opened
thither. This sanctuary is still kept, but the king's at Omeath on the shores of Carlingford Lough in the
plan of a house of retreat was left unexecuted by his Archdiocese of Armagh.
Government. A good number of elementary schools In America Fr. Joseph Costa, after working single-
are conducted by the institute in various parts of handed in various parts of Illinois, gathered the first
northern Italy, and in 1906 it accepted the charge of community of the institute about him at Galesburg in
the Church of S. Charles in the Corso at Rome. that state. Here they have St. Joseph's Church,
Noteworthy also are Rosmini's plans of an English which existed before; and in addition they have built
college of missionaries for different parts of the Corpus Christi Church (1887) and College (1896) as
British Empire, with a special training for work in well as St. Joseph's Academy, directed by Sisters of
India; his college of elementary masters in the insti- Providence, and in 1906 St. Mary's schools.
tute, still flourishtog, and his project of a medical The provost-generals, since Rosmini's death have
college towards which Prince d'Aremberg offered a been Pagani, who succeeded in 1855, Bertetti (1860),
large sum. An orphanage, founded with this money Cappa (1874), Lanzoni (1877), and Bernardino Bal-
at Sainghin, near Lille, was closed in 1903 through sari in 1901. Other names deserving mention are
the hostility of the French Government. Vincenzo de Vit, known principally for two works of
The founding of the English province is inseparably vast labour and research, the "Lexicon to tins Latini-
linked with the name of Luigi Gentili. This cultured tatis", a new and greatly enlarged edition of Forcel-
and ardent young Roman threw himself whole- lini, and the "Onomasticon", a dictionary of proper
heartedly into religious life in 1831, and from the first names; Giuseppe Calza, noteworthy as a philosopher;
felt greatly drawn towards England. Ambrose de Paolo Perez, formerly professor at Padua, and master
Lisle was already inviting him to work in Leicester- of a singularly delicate Italian style; Gastaldi, after-
shire, and Bishop Baines, Vicar Apostolic of the West- wards Archbishop of Turin; Cardozo-Ayres, Bishop
ern District, had offered him a post at Prior Park. To of Pemambuco, who died at Rome during the Vatican
this college he was sent by Rosmini in 1835 with two Council, and whose incorrupt body has lately been
companions to teach both lay and church students. transported with great veneration to his see; and two
He became rector there the next year, but the entrance English priests, Richard Richardson, organizer of the
of two of the bishop's clergy, Furlong and Hutton, holy war against intemperance, and enroUer in it of
into the institute brought the engagement to an 70,000 names; and Joseph Hirst, member of the
abrupt close in 1839. Invited next to the Midland dis- Royal Archseological Institute. (See Rosmini and
trict, the fathers taught for a while at old Oscott, and RosMiNiANisM, Gentili, Lockhabt, Sisters op
in 1841 was opened the mission of Loughborough, Phovidenoe.)
which has since remained in the institute's hands. R08MINI, Maxims of Christian Perfection (London, 1888);
Idem, Letters CLondon, 1901); Lockhabt, Ldfe Bosmini (Lon-
Many converts were made and some missions founded don, 1886) Pagani, Life of Rosmini (London,
;
of
1907) Missions
;

in the neighbourhood, and in 1843 the first public in Ireland (Dublin, 1855) Yita di Rosmini da
; un sacerdote dell'
mission ever preached in England was given by Gen- /7.s(.(u(o (Turin, 1897). W. H. PoLLAKD.
tUi and Furlong. In the same year at Ratcliffe, near
Leicester, were laid the foundations of a novitiate de- Ross, Diocese op (Rossensis), in Ireland. This
signed by Pugin, but in 1846 the present college for see was founded by St. Fachtna, and the place-
boys of the middle class was opened there. The mis- name was variously known as Roscairbre and Rosail-
sion of Newport, Monmouthshire, was undertaken in ithir (Ross of the pilgrims). St. Fachtna founded
1847, that of Rugby in 1850 and Cardiff (of which the School of Ross as well as the see; and his death
only two churches are now retained by the institute) occurred about 590, on 14 August, on which day
in 1854. his feast is celebrated. The succession of bishops
The fathers were all this time giving zealous aid was uninterrupted till after the Reformation period.
towards dissipating that excessive fear of outward King John in 1207 granted the cantred of Rosailithir
devotion which English Catholics had inherited from to David Roche, regardless of the claims of the native
times of persecution. Rosmini's warm interest in chief, the O'Driscoll, but the episcopal manors were
England had led him to send thither some of the most left undisturbed. In 1306, the value of the bishop's
capable and apostolic men he had, Pagani (this J. B. mensa was 26 marks, while the cathedral was valued
Pagani, author of "The Science of the Saints" and at 3 marks; and the tribal revenue of the see was but
"Anima Divota", is to be distinguished from the Ital- 45 pounds sterling. The number of parishes was 29,
ian provincial of the same name, author of a "Life of divided into 3 divisions; and there was a Cistercian
Rosmini", and other Rosminian works), Gentili, Rin- abbey, Carrigihhy {de fonte vivo) also a Benedictine
;

olfi, Ceroni, Cavalli, Gastaldi, Bertetti, Caccia, Sig- Priory at St. Mary's, Ross. The Franciscans ac-
nini; and the mission of Gentili and Furlong, and also quired a foundation at Sherkin Island from the
of Rinolfi and Lockhart, in many parts of the British O'Driscolls in 1460. Owing to various causes the see
Isles produced a deep and lasting effect. Gentili died was not in a flourishing condition in the fourteenth
of fever in Dublin, in 1848, while preaching a mission century, and the Wars of the Roses contributed to
in a fever-stricken district. Of Lockhart it should be the unfortunate state of affairs which prevailed in the
added that in 1854 he began the mission of Kingsland second half of the fifteenth century. Blessed Thady
in North London, and here he worked for twenty MacCarthy was appointed Bishop in 1482, but was
years. The Church of St. Etheldreda, formerly forcibly deprived of his see in 1488. However he
chapel of the London palace of the bishops of Ely, was translated to the united Sees of Cork and Cloyne
and a fine specimen of thirteenth-century Gothic, was in 1490; was again a victim of political intrigues, and
restored by the institute to Cathohc worship in 1876, died a glorious confessor at Ivrea in 1492, being
and Lockhart became its first rector. Other houses beatified in 1895. In 1517 the revenue of the dio-
under the charge of the English province are the re- cese was but 60 marks. At that date the chapter
formatory called St. William's School at Market was complete with 12 canons and 4 vicars, and there
Weighton, Yorkshire, and two Irish industrial schools, were 27 parishes, including three around Berehaven.
 ROSS 202 ROSS

Thomas O'Herlihv assisted at the Council of Trent, early age of forty-six, in what year we cannot say,
and ruled from 15(12 till his death on 11 March, 1580. but probably late in the sixth century, and is buried
It was not until 1581 that Queen Elizabeth ventured in his own cathedral church at Ross. Like many
to appoint a Protestant prelate under whom, in other great Irish saints, he received his first lessons
1584, the Sees of Cork and Cloyne were annexed to in piety from St. Ita of Killeedy, the Brigid of Mun-
Ross. Howe^'cr, in the Catholic arrangement Ross ster, from whose care he passed, according to some
continued independent, and Owen MacEgan died writers, to St. Firmbar's seminary at Loch Eirce,
a confessor in January, 1602-3. In 1625 the bishop near Cork. He founded the monastery Molana, on
(de Torres) was a Spaniard, who ruled his diocese the little island of Dririnis in the Blackwater, not
through a vicar-general. In 1647 the nave and tower far from the town of Youghal. Returning to his
of the cathedral were levelled by the Puritans; native territory, he set about a more important
and the bishop (MacEgan) was basely hanged by foundation on a rocky promontory situated in the
Lord Broghill, on 10 April, 1650. At length, in midst of woods and green fields between two
1693, Bishop Sleyne of Cork was given Ross in lovely bays. This was the monastic School of Ross,
commcndnm, and the see continued under his suc- called in the "Life of St. Mochoemoo", magnum
cessors till 1748, when it was united to Cloyne, studium sckolarium, for it quickly became famous
under Bishop O'Brien. From 1748 Ross was ad- for its study of Sacred Scripture, and the attention
ministered by the Bishops of Cloyne, but it regained given to all the branches of a hberal education.
its autonomy under Bishop Crotty, and in 1857 One of the assistant teachers was St. Brendan the
Navigator, whom Fachtna had known and loved as a
companion when under the care of St. Ita. An old
document quoted by Usher represents Brendan as
being at Ross in 640. While engaged in teaching
here, St. Fachtna was stricken with total blindness.
On appealing to God in his distress, he was directed
by an angel to make application to Nessa, the sister
of St. Ita, who was about to become the mother of
St. Mochoemoc. Fachtna did as he was directed
and his sight was miraculously restored. Fachtna,
it is generally thought by the best authorities, re-
ceived episcopal orders, and became the first Bishop
of Ross. He is sometimes called Facundus, in al-
lusion to his eloquence, to which, as well as to his
sanctity, unmistakable testimony is borne by St.
Cuimin of Connor. Cuimin describes him as "the
generous and steadfast, who loved to address as-
sembled crowds and never spoke aught that was base
and displeasing to God".
His immediate successor in the School of Ross was
St. Conall, and we read also of a St. Finchad, a former
The Cathedral, Skiubereen
schoolmate at Loch Eirce. Both were probably tribes-
Bishop O'llea was consecrated to Ross. During men of his own, for we are told that he was succeeded
the episcopate of Dr. O'Hea (the Catholic popula- by twenty-seven bishops of his own tribe, whose names
tion was then 65,000) the episcopal see was trans- unfortunately have not been preserved. Under sev-
ferred to Skibbereen, and the diocese was materially eral ninth-century dates we find in the Four Masters
improved under his fostering His successor,
care. reference to the abbots of the School of Ross; and
William Fitzgerald (1877-97) laboured zeal-
also under date 840 we are told that the institution was
ously. The present bishop, the Most Rev. Denis ravaged by the Danes. Once only in the two centuries
Kelly, was born near Ncnagh, Co. Tipperary, in that followed is there mention of a bishop, Neachtan
1852, and was educated at Ennis and Paris. He was MacNeachtain whose death is set down under date
appointed president of the Killaloe Diocesan College 1085. In all other references to Ross the word air-
in 1890, and was consecrated 9 May, 1897. Bishop chimiect is used, as if showing that the government of
Kelly has acted on several Royal commissions, and the school had fallen into the hands of laymen, who
has recently (1911) been named one of the two no doubt employed ecclesiastics to perform the spiritual
commissioners for the projected Home Rule finance. duties and functions. Nevertheless the School must
In 1901 the Catholic population was 46,694, and there have continued to flourish, for we read under date
—
were eleven parishes two of which were mensal —
866 according to the "Chronioon Scotorum", 868—
served by 28 priests. The latest returns give the of the death of Feargus who is described as a cele-
number of churches as 22, and there are three Con- brated scribe and anchorite of Ross-Ailithir. But
vents of Mere}', respecti\-cly, at Skibbereen, Clona- more remarkable evidence still of the extent and
kilty, and Rosscarbery. There is no chapter, but variety of the literary work done at Ross is furnished
there are two vicars forane. by the geographical poem in the Irish language still
Calendar of Papal RegiMers (9 vols., London, 1893-1911); extant, composed by MacCosse or Ferlegind, a lecturer
Brady, Records of Cork. C'hjjne. and Ross (Dublin, 1S04^; Idem,
Episcopal Succf^^ion (Rome. 1S76); ARCHD.^.LL, Monasticon at this school, and used no doubt as a text-book in the
Hibernicum (Dublin, 1S73I: Smith, Cork (new ed., Cork, 1893)- different classes. When we take into account the
Irish Catholic Directory (1911).
period at which MacCosse lived, his geographical
W. H. Grattax-Flood. treatise may fairly be thought one of the most accu-
rate and interesting of its kind that has ever yet been
Ross, School of, now called Ross-Carbery, but written. Of the later history of the School we have
formerly Ross-Ailithir from the large number of monks but few details, but mention of the native spoiler is
and students who flocked to its halls from all over not missing in them. In 1127, according to the
Europe, was founded by St. Fachtna, who is generally "Chronicon Scotorum", one Toirdhealbach O Conor
regarded as the same who founded the Diocese of Kil- sailed to Ross-Ailithir, and laid waste the land of
fenora, for the feast in both cases is kept on 14 Desmond. He was followed by the Anglo-Normans
August and in both the saint's descent is traced to
; under FitzStephen, who towards the close of the cen-
the princely race of Corca Laighde. Faohtna was tury completed the devastation. All record of this
born at a place called Tulachteann, and died at the ancient seat of learning is then lost.
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 ROSSANO 203 ROSSI
CoLGAN, Acta SS.: O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, 14 whom restored and embellished the cathedral. The
August; Olden in Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy (Jan.,
1884); Hbalt, Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (5th ed., archdiocese is without suffragans. It includes the
Dublin, 1902). ancient Diocese of Turio (Thurii), a city which arose
John Healy. after the destruction of Sybaris; five of its bishops are
known, the first being Giovanni (501) and the last
Rossano, Archdiocese op
(Rossanbnsis), in Guglielmo (1170). Rossano has 39 parishes, 70,000
Calabria, province of Cosenza, Southern Italy. The
Catholics, 140 secular priests, 4 houses of nuns, and
city is situated on an eminence not far from the Gulf
3 schools for girls. For the famous "purple Codex
M /v^- « ^J Rossanensis", discovered in 1879 in the cathedral

M^"" sacristy, see Batiffol (below).

ment manuscript
St. Mark
of St.
This Greek parch-
Matthew (to
the oldest pictorial Gospel known, and
is
xvi, 14) and

is accorded by scholars various dates from the end

of the fifth to the eighth or ninth century; it is prob-
ably of Alexandrine origin (ed. Gebhardt and Harnack,
1880; A. Munoz, Rome, 1907).
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d'ltalia, XXI; De Rosis, Cenno storico
delta cittd diRossano (Naples, 1839) Rende, Cronistoria del
;

Monastero di S. Maria in Patiro (Naples, 1747) Batiffol, ;

L'abbaye de Rossano (Paris, 1891) Gay, Lea dioceses de Calabre

;

a Vipoque byzantine (MAcon, 1900). For the Codex Rossanen-

sis, as above, see Kraus. Geach. christl. Kunst (Freiburg,
1896-7); Kondakoff, Hist, de I'art byzantin, I (Paris, 1886),
114 sqq.
U. Benigni.
Rosselli, CosiMO (Lorenzo di Filippo), Italian
fresco painter, b. at Florence, 1439; d. there in 1507.
The master-works of this skilful artist are the four
panels in the Sistine Chapel which he painted for
Sixtus IV as a part of the decoration in that building.
Vasari tells us that they pleased the pope more than
the similar panels by Ghirlandajo, Signorelli, Perug-
ino, and Botticelli by reason of the glory of blue and
gold which distinguished them, but is not existent now.
The panels are skilfully composed, marked by clever
draughtsmanship, and harmonious in their colour
scheme, but vastly inferior to the other panels
in the same chapel. One is, therefore, more easily able
to understand Va-
sari's comment
upon them, be-
cause there must
iLLLSlltVilON lO tor JM^KK S i. J^PLL have been some
From the Rossano Codex, reason to account
the oldest Icnown pictorial copy of a Gospel
for Rosselli being
of Taranto. It was the ancient Roscianum, a Roman given so many
colon}', and was ravaged by Totile. The Saracens panels. His repu-
failed to conquer it. In 982 Otto II captured it tem- tation rests more
porarily from the Byzantines, who had made it the securely on his
capital of their possessions in Southern Italy. It pre- close friendship
served its Greek character long after its conquest by wi th Benozzo
the Normans. In the cathedral there is an ancient Gozzoli and on the
image of the "Madonna acheropita" (i. e. the "Ma- fact thatamongst
donna not made by hands"). Rossano was the birth- were Fra
his pupils
place of John VII, the antipope John VII (Phil- Bartolommeo and
agathus), St. Nilus, —
founder of the Abbey of Grotta- Piero di Cosimo.
ferrata, and St. Bartholomew, another abbot of that Amongst his other
monastery. The first known bishop of this see is works are three
Valerianus, Bishop of the "Ecclesia Rosana" in the frescoes at Berlin,
Roman Council of 680. Cappelletti, however, names a very important CcsiMO Rosselli
a certain Saturninus as first bishop. In the tenth cen- one from Fiesole Portrait of himself introduced into
tury, or perhaps earlier, the Greek Rite was intro- in the National his Preaching of Christ,
Sistine Chapel
duced at Rossano, and continued until the sixteenth Gallery, a fine ex-
century, although two attempts were made to intro- ample in Paris, and several at Florence, including one
—
duce the Latin Rite once in 1092, and again by in the Academy, and others in various churches.
Bryan, Diet, of Painters and Engravers, V (London, 1904), s. v.
Bishop Matteo de' Saraceni in 1460. Priests of the
Latin Rite, however, were often appointed bishops. George Charles Williamson.
The Greek Rite was maintained especially by the
seven Basilian monasteries in the diocese, the most Rossi, Bernardo de (de Rubeis, Giovanni Fran-
famous of which was S. Maria in Patiro. In 1571 the cesco Bernardo Maria), theologian and historian;
Greek Rite was abandoned in the cathedral, and half a b. at Cividale del Friuli, 8 Jan., 1687; d. at Venice, 2
century afterwards throughout the city. It is still Feb., 1775. He made
his religious profession with
observed in a few villages inhabited by Albanians. the Dominicans at ConegUano, 1704, after which
Noteworthy bishops were: Vincenzo Pimpinella he studied at Florence and Venice. He taught at
(1525), nuncio in Germany; Giovanni Battista Cas- Venice for fifteen years, and was twice general vicar
tagna (1553), afterwards Urban VII; Lucio Sanse- of his province. In 1722 he was theologian to a
verino, founder of the seminary; Pier Antonio Venetian embassy to Louis XV
and remained in Paris
Spinelli (1628) and Jacopo Carafa (1646), both of fivemonths. He resigned his chair in 1730 and de-
 ROSSI 204 ROSSINI

voted the remainder of his life to hterary activity. into private life, watching the development of the

His sanctity and learning won for him a wide reputa- Revolution in the first years of the pontificate of Pius
tion, and his correspondence with the great men of IX. He believed that the age demanded a regime of
his time fills nine volumes. His works, written in liberty, but that it should be granted gradually. The
elegant Latin, show a vast erudition and a mind at pope, who knew his opinions on this subject, appointed
once critical and profound. Amongst his dogmatic him minister of justice in the Fabbri ministry, on the
writings must be mentioned the masterly work "De fall of which Rossi was invited to draw up a pro-

Peccato Originali" (Venice, 1757). He is famous gramme. His intention was to re-establish the papal
especially for his new edition of the works of St. authority, together with a form of constitutional
Thomas with a commentary (Venice, 1745-60, 24 government, but above all to restore public order.
vols.). He was also the author of thirty-two excellent Such a programme was as displeasing to the Con-
dissertations on the life and writings of the Angehc servative Party, who distrusted the prevailing views,
Doctor, which have been placed in the first volume of as to the advanced Republicans, who hated Rossi as
the Leonine Edition of St. Thomas's works. De the representative of the constitutional monarchy.
Rossi also ranks high as a writer on historical, pa- Like Pius IX, he favoured the Italian league, but
and liturgical subjects. Besides his numerous
tristic, wished to preserve the independence of each state.
works which are pubhshed, he left thirty volumes in This programme, and the energy which Rossi ex-
manuscript. hibited against the disturbers of public order, caused
HuRTER, Nomenclator, a. v. him to be sentenced to death by the secret societies.
J. A. McHtjqh. On 15 November, 1848, Rossi was on his way to the
Legislative Assembly (in the Palazzo della Cancel-
Rossi, Behnabdo de. See Editions op the leria) to explain his programme; hardly had he seated
Bible. himself in his carriage, when an assassin stabbed him
Rossi, Pellbgeino, publicist, diplomat, economist, in the neck with a dagger. He expired almost im-
and statesman, b. at Carrara, Italy, 13 July, 1787; mediately. Pius IX, on hearing the tidings, exclaimed:
assassinated at Rome, 15 November, 1848. He "Count Rossi has died a martyr of duty." The
studied at the Universities of Pavia and Bologna, in assassination was for the secret societies the signal to
which latter city he practised law with great success. spread the flames of the revolution which drove Pius
In 1874 he obtained the chair of criminal law and IX into exile and established the Roman Republic.
civil procedure. Rossi being an advocate of Italian The most important of Rossi's writings is his
unity and independence, and a member of the Car- "Cours d'6conomie politique", a classic work, based
bonari, Joachim Murat, King of Naples, who then on the theories of Smith, Say, Malthus, and Ricardo.
aspired to the sovereignty of the entire peninsula, Like these authors, he favoured freedom of trade,
appointed him commissioner general of the provinces labour, and manufacture; and in general, not clearly
lying between the Po and the Tronto; but on Murat's foreseeing the difficulties of economic life, he wished
defeat at Tolentino, Rossi was forced to fly to France, to solve them by the free play of individual force and
whence, after Waterloo, he betook himself to Geneva. intelligence rather than by legislation. But he recog-
At Geneva he began a private course of Roman law nized the great economic utility of associations. A
which gained him a chair in the university of that characteristic note of his scientific speculations is his
city, notwithstanding the fact that he was a Catholic. fondness for considering social phenomena from a
Having married a Protestant Genevese lady, he was mathematical point of view, so that he was called the
elected to the Cantonal Council of Geneva, where he geometrician of economy. This made him attach
played a prominent r61e in the compilation of the great importance to statistics. In politics he is the
laws on mortgages, civil marriage, and court proce- father of the principle of non-intervention, and pub-
dure. In 1832 he presented to the Swiss Federal Diet lished an essay on the subject. A most distinguished
a plan of a constitution (called the Patto Rossi) based representative of the middle-class Liberal doctrinaireSj
on that of 1803, which was approved by the Diet, of the type of the "men of 1830", Pellegrino Rossi
but rejected by the communes. Notwithstanding died by the assassin's poignard as the inevitable result
his political activity he continued his deep study of of a policy too advanced for the supporters of the
law. Between 1819 and 1821, with the collaboration Holy Alliance, and too backward for the generation
of Sismondi and Bello, he published the "Annales de that was being prepared by Cavour.
legislation et d'^conomie politique", which in a short Garnieh, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Rossi (Paris,
time gained him a world-wide reputation. With 1849) : Reybau, Economistes modernes (Paris, 1862) Processi
;

dell' assn^sinio del conte P. Rossi (Rome, 1854) in Hist. pol. Bldt-
Guizot he established the doctrinaire school, the (er, XXVI. 109 sqq.; CiriZid Ca((., 2nd seriea, VIII; D'Ideville,
juridical principles of which did not differ fundament- Le comte Pellegrino Rossi (Paris, 1887)
ally from those of the eighteenth century. In 1829 U. Benigni.
he published his "Trait6 de droit p^nal", an author-
itative work of the time. Rossini, Gioacchino Antonio, b. 29 Feb., 1792, at
The hostility caused by his projected constitution Pesaro in the Romagna; d. 13 Nov., 1868, at Passy,
led him, in 1833, to seek the chair of political economy near Paris. He was twice married: in 1822 to Isabella
in the CoUdge de France, and although the Academie Colbrand; in 1847 to Oljonpe Pelissier, who survived
des Sciences Morales had presented another candi- him, but he had no children. Rossini was not only
date, Rossi was successful. In the beginning he met the chief operatic composer of his time, but also a
with some opposition, which, however, he overcame, great innovator. Lesueur, in 1824, the greatest com-
chiefly through the influence of Guizot, minister of poser of the French school, said that "his ardent
Louis Philippe, who knew that Rossi shared his politi- genius had opened a new road and marked a new epoch
cal and juridical views. In 1834 he taught constitu- in musical art " In the opera seria for long recitatives
tional law in the university; nor did he fail to gain he substituted more singing; in the opera buffa he
further honours and distinctions, being elected a inaugurated a new comedy style. He introduced
member of the Academie des Sciences Morales (1836) many new instruments into the Italian orchestras. To
and made a peer of France (1839), and an officer of him belongs the preghiera for a whole body of voices,
the Legion of Honour (1841). In 1845 he withdrew as first introduced in "Mose" He had a good bari-
from the professorial chair to embrace a diplomatic tone voice, and was an excellent pianist. In 1804 he
career. He was sent to Rome to negotiate the sup- had lessons in singing and pianoforte playing at
pression of the Jesuits, at first only as an envoy Bologna. Two years later he acted as musical director
extraordinary, later as an ambassador, with the title to a travelling company, but soon returned to Bologna
of Count. On the fall of Louis Philippe he withdrew to study composition at the Lyceum. His first sue-
 ROSTOCK 205 ROTA
cesseswere at Venice and Milan. In 1813 he wrote Catholic influence of Protestant teachers. He suc-
"Tancredi", the first of his operas which, with cumbed to an attack of apoplexy, superinduced by an
"L'ltaliana in Algeri", became celebrated throughout imperial decree which suspended a decision that had
Europe. In 1816 and 1817 he composed for the been previously granted and which was favourable
Teatro Valle at Rome his happiest, if not his greatest, to Catholic interests.
work, "The Bar- JuNGNlTZ, Sebastian von Rostock (Breslau, 1891).
ber of Seville" N. A. Weber.
and "Ceneren-
tola". Meanwhile Rostock, Univeesitt of, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
he had begun his founded in the year 1419 through the united efforts
career at the San of Dukes John IV and Albert V, and on 13 February
Carlo in Naples, of the same year granted a Bull of foundation by
and wrote for this Pope Martin V. At first the university included only
important opera- the three secular faculties; in 1432 a theological faculty
house in 1818 was added with the approval of Eugenius IV. The
"MosS", in 1819 Bishop of Schwerin was appointed chancellor of the
"La Donna del university; his present successors are the Grand Dukes
Lago" In 1823 of Mecklenburg. The majority of the professors came
came "Semira- from Erfurt, among them the first rector, Petrus Sten-
mide", written for beke. The city of Rostock endowed the university
Venice, his last most generously with lands, as did the Bishop of
work in Italy; it Schwerin, who presented his house at Rostock as a resi-
was his thirty- dence. At a later date it received contributions from
fourth opera. In Hamburg and Ltibeck. In 1427 it obtained from
1824 he spent the V
Martin a unique privilege, allowing the rector in con-
season in London, junction with several doctors to bestow a degree if the
and at the first chancellor refused without a valid reason to grant it.
GlOACCHiNO Antonio Rossini concert he himself When Rostock was placed under the bann of the
sang the solo. The empire and the Church on account of outbreaks
same year he undertook in Paris the direction, first of among the citizens, the university moved to Greifs-
the Italian Opera, and thenoftheAcadfimie. Hewrote wald (Easter, 1437). In 1443 it returned to Rostock,
for Paris in 1829 "William Tell", his last and finest but when the dukes wished to raise one of the churches
opera. Then followed the comparatively inactive period of the city to a cathedral-church in order to give the
of his life, in which he ceased to write for the stage, but professors the canonries as benefices, the town op-
stillproduced in 1832 his well known "Stabat", in posed the procedure and there developed what is
1847 his "Stanzas" to Pius IX, in 1864 a "Messe known as the cathedral feud. The university mi-
Solennelle' In 1836 he went to live with his father grated temporarily in the summer of 1487 to Wismar
at Bologna; but from 1855 till his death he was again and then to Ltibeck. It fell into complete decay
in France. after the beginning of the Reformation in (1523) when
Edwards, The Life of Rossini (London, 1869); Silvestri, the university revenues were lost and matriculations
Delia Vita e delle opere di G. Rossini (Milan, 1874) Azevedo,
;

Rossini, sa vie et ses ceuvres (Paria, 1864); Oettingeh, Joachim ceased. When an effort was made later to reorganize
Rossini (Leipzig, 1852). the university a dispute arose between the city of
A. Walteb. Rostock and the dukes of Mecklenburg as to the ad-
ministration and supervision of the school. In 1563
Rostock, Sebastian von. Bishop of Breslau, an agreement called the "Formula concordiae",
b. at Grottkau, Silesia, 24 Aug., 1607; d. at Breslau, was made between the contending parties, which
9 June, 1671. He studied classics at Neisse and granted nearly equal rights to both. The university
from 1627 to 1633, philosophy and theology at now enjoyed an era of prosperity. In 1758 Duke
Olmiitz. After his ordination to the priesthood in Frederick desired the appointment of a rigidly or-
1633 he was assigned to pastoral duty at Neisse, thodox professor, but the theological faculty opposed
and was distinguished for his courage and oratorical him; whereupon the duke obtained an imperial
talent. When the Swedes captured the city in 1642, patent for the founding of a university at Butzow
Rostock was taken prisoner and deported to Stettin. which was opened in 1760. The two universities
After his release he was ennobled by the emperor, proving too expensive for the country, the school
but remained pastor of Neisse until his transfer in at Butzow was closed and united with Rostock in
1649 to the cathedral of Breslau. Henceforth he 1789. In 1829 the town council renounced its right
played a prominent part in the administration of the of co-patronage. During the second half of the nine-
diocese, and in 1653 was appointed vicar-general. teenth century the University began steadily to de-
It was largely through his efforts that the right of velop and gain, so that in 1911 it had about 800
reformation (jus reformandi), granted the emperor students.
by the peace of Westphalia, was effectively exercised Krabbe, Die Universitat Rostock imXV. und XVI. Jahrhun-
dert (Rostock, 1854) ;HoFMEiSTER, Die Matrikel der Universitat
in the territory of Breslau, so that 656 Catholic Rostock (1899).
churches which had been seized by the Protestants Kabl Hoebeb.
were restored to their former owners. Considerable
difficulty was experienced in providing suitable Rosweyde, Hebibbrt. See Bollandists, The.
priests for these numerous churches, and in infusing
Roswitha. See Heoswitha.
new religious life into an almost completely-ruined
diocese. But Rostock consecrated his life to the task, Rota, Saoba —
Romana. In the Constitution
in spite of the additional difficulty from the almost "Sapienti Consilio" (29 June, 1908), II, 2, Pius X
uninterrupted absence from their diocese of the three re-estabhshed the Sacra Romana Rota, one of the
bishops under whom he served. In 1664 he was him- three tribunals instituted by that Constitution. To
self elected bishop, and shortly after the civil ad- it are assigned all contentious cases that must come
ministration of the district was also placed in his before the Holy See and require a judicial investiga-
hands. He continued with greater independence tion with proof, except the so-called major cases.
the work of Catholic reorganization, endeavoured to The Rota therefore tries in the first instance the cases,
suppress the power of the Protestants over affairs of including criminal cases, which the pope, either
the Catholic Church, and to neutralize the anti- motu proprio or at the request of the contesting par-
 ROTH 206 ROTH
ties, callsup for his own judgment and commits to the III and Martin IV temporarily appointed auditors
Rota; it decides these cases even in the second and general for civil suits in the papal dominions; Nicholas
third instance. Moreover, it is the court of appeal for IV (1288) appointed them permanently for the vari-
cases already tried judicially in the episcopal tri- ous provinces of the pontifical states. Clement V
bunals of first instance. Finally, it decides in the (1.307) instituted an auditor general with two others
last instance cases tried by any inferior tribunal of in the second instance for ecclesiastical beneficiary
second or further instance, as the cause has not then suits, and in 1309 an auditor general for contentious
become res judicata. In addition to major cases, epis- ecclesiastical cases, the litigant having the choice of
copal decisions which are given without judicial pro- going before the pope himself or the auditor general.
cedure are excluded from its authority, being under Thus arose an autonomous tribunal, but one in con-
the jurisdiction of other congregations. The Rota currence with the pope. From the year 1323 we have
is composed of the auditors, ranking as prelates, ap- the first document of a transaction adjudicated col-
pointed by the pope; they must be priests who have legialiter, and in a definitive way by that tribunal;
obtained a doctorate in theology and canon law. John XXII, by the Bull "Ratio Juris" (1331), laid
When they reach the age of seventy their office ceases down certain rules for it; but its sphere of competency
ipso facto, but they retain the title of "emeritus was not marked out, so through all the fourteenth
auditor". These form a college of which the oldest century the causes were referred in a special way to
among them is dean. Each auditor chooses an as- the pope. Sixtus IV fixed the number of auditors at
sistant, who must be a doctor of canon law, and whose twelve. Other popes, like Martin V ("Romani pon-
selection must be approved by the pope. Other tificis", 1422; "Statuta et ordinationes", 1414), In-
officers are a, promoter of justice, corresponding to nocent VIII ("Finem litibus", 1487), Pius IV ("In
the pubblico ministero in modern Italian civil courts, throno justitise", 1561), Paul V
("Universi agri",
and, for cases relating to matrimony, religious pro- 1611), determined their competency more definitely.
fession, and sacred ordination, a defender of the Civil appeals in the papal dominions were also en-
bond {defensor vinculi), who may have a substitute. trusted to the tribunals of the auditors of the sacred
These officers are appointed by the pope on the rec- palace, probably after the end of the Western Schism;
ommendation of the College of Auditors. There are but criminal cases were always excluded. With the
also notaries (at present three in number) selected institution of the Roman congregations the jurisdic-
by the College of Auditors after a concursus, to draw tion of the Rota in ecclesiastical matters was greatly
up acts etc. The auditors give their decision either curtailed, and it became, generally speaking, a civil
through three of their number or in plena; but some- tribunal, enjoying a world-wide reputation.
times the pope may in a particular case ordain other- —
Characteb. The civil character of the Rota was
wise. A case may also be submitted to the Rota not confirmed by the legislation of Gregory XVI, and
for a decision but for an opinion. The auditor who mixed suits and purely ecclesiastical suits concerning
prepares the report is called the ponente or relator. economical matters, if the subject matter did not
An appeal may be made from one judicial commission amount to over 500 scudi, were assigned to it. Leo
to another. The contestants may plead personally XIII entrusted to the auditors part of the process of
or, as more ordinarily happens, may employ a pro- beatification and canonization, as well .as the canon-
curator or advocate, whose selection must be con- ical suits of those employed in the Apostolic Palace.
firmed. The complaint and the defence must be in Formerly the auditors had many privileges. France,
writing or printed, and copies distributed among the Austria, Spain, Venice, and Milan each had the right
judges, the assistants, the promotor, and others con- of proposing one of their subjects as an auditor.
cerned. The written defence may be elucidated orally Austria still has the privilege, at present the auditors
in presence of the judges. The auditors decide by a being two in number. From 1774 there has been a
majority of votes. The sentence must contaLa not only tribunal of the Rota at Madrid, the president of
the conclusion arrived at, but the reasons therefor. which is the Nuncio. The origin of the name Rota is
—
History. The many and various ecclesiastical uncertain and has been a matter of discussion; it oc-
cases which were referred to the Holy See from every curs first in 1336.
quarter of the Christian world were, till near the end ConstU. de rom. curia in Acta Apost. Sedis, fasc. I; Lex propria
of the twelfth century, discussed and decided by the S. Rom. Rotoi (Rome, 1909): Decisiones S. Rotfs Rom. (published
and continued at various dates) ; Bebnino, 11 tribunate delta S.
pope, as a, rule, in the Consistory, which from the Rota Rom. (Rome, 1717) Sagmuller, Die Entwiclzelung der Rota
;

presence of many bishops became like a council. in Theol. QuartaUcJi., (1895); GdLLER, Ziir Gesch. der rOm. R. in
From the end of the twelfth century, however, owing Archiv. f. hatti. Kirctienrecht (1911), 19; Hilling, Die romische
Kurie (Paderborn, 1906); Capello, De curia Rom. (Turin, 1911).
to the increasing number of these cases and to the
U. Benigni.
more detailed and complicated procedure, the popes ap-
pointed for each case either a cardinal or one of their Roth, Heinrich, missionary in India and San-
chaplains, and sometimes a bishop, to arrange for the skrit scholar, b. of illustrious parentage at Augsburg,
suit, hear the evidence of the litigants (hence the 18 December, 1620; d. at Agra, 20 June, 1668. He
term auditor), and then make a, report to the pope, became a Jesuit in 1639; was assigned to the Ethio-
who would give his decision personally or in a Con- pian mission (Piccolomini, "Instructio pro P. Hen.
sistory. Sometimes, too, the auditor was empowered Roth, Ingolstadio, ad missionem Aethiopicam pro-
to decide, but his judgment had to be confirmed by fecturo", in Huonder, "Deutsche jesuitenmissionare
the pope. In the latter half of the thirteenth cen- im 17. und 18. Jahrh.", Freiburg, 1899, 213), and
tury we find the auditors as a class distinct from the arrived at Goa by the land route, via Ispahan. He
chaplains, with the title of "Sacri palatii causarum laboured first on the Island of Salsette off Goa,
generales auditores". This innovation was made where from time to time he acted as Portuguese
bj- Innocent IV, who entrusted to them cases re- interpreter. He was sent on an embassy to one of
lating to benefices (which had increased owing to the native princes, and finally reached the empire
the many expectative reservations granted by this of the Great Mogul, where, as rector of the residence
pope) and other minor ones, while he employed the at Agra, he was involved in the persecution under
cardinals in the other cases. Gradually the various Shah Jah^in. Here the French explorer, Francis
cases were almost always entrusted to them for de- Bernier, learned to know and appreciate him as one
cision, subject to the approval of the sovereign pontiff.
eminently versed in expert knowledge of the philoso-
The auditors consequently did not as yet constitute phy of religions in India ("Travels in Hindustan",
a tribunal with definitive jurisdiction, but only a col- new ed., Calcutta, 1904, p. 109 sqq.). In 1662 Roth
lege from which the pope selected at pleasure judges revisited Europe by the land route via Kabul to ob-
for the cases he chose to entrust to them. Nicholas tain new recruits for the mission, and returned to
 ROTHE 207 ROTTENBURG
Agra in 1664. Roth shares with the Jesuit, Hanxle- in the same year. Other works of his except some
den, thefame of being among Europeans the pioneer few fragments have long since disappeared. In
Sanskrit scholar, and of having compiled the first 1624 Bishop Rothe presided over a synod at Kil-
Sanskrit grammar (Wiener, Zeitschr. fiir die Kunde kenny, and he laboured zealously for religion and
des Morgenlandes, XV, 1901, pp. 303-320). "During country during a trying period. He joined the Con-
his stay in Agra, he succeeded in persuading some federates in 1642, and welcomed the papal nuncio,
Brahmins to teach him Sanskrit and, after six years Rinuccini, to Kilkenny, on 14 November, 1645.
of diUgent study, he obtained complete mastery of this Unfortunately, three years later, he refused to ac-
difficult tongue. He was the author of the interest- knowledge the validity of the censures issued by
ing description of the Sanskrit alphabet, published by Rinuccini, believing that the Supreme Council were
Athanasius Kircher in his China illustrata" (Max acting in the best interests of the country. Although
Alliller, "Lectures on the Science of Language", Lon- seriously ill in 1649, he continued to minister to the
don, 1866, p. 277). Roth's works, most of which were plague-stricken citizens of Kilkenny. He was com-
published by his learned friend, Athanasius Kircher, pelled by the Cromwellians to leave his episcopal
S.J., are: "Relatio rerum city 28 March, 1650, but,
notabilium Regni Mogor in being robbed on the way, he
Asia", which contains the was permitted to return.
first information concern- His remains were interred
ing Kabul which had reached in St. Mary's Church, but
Europe (Straubing, 1665, there is a cenotaph to his
Aschaffenburg, 1668) "Iter; memory in St. Canice's
ex Agra Mogorum in Euro- Cathedral.
pam ex relatione PP. Joh. Lynch, De prcesulibus HihernitB
(1672) Ware, De prasulibue Hi-
;

Gruberi et H. Roth" in Kir- hernim (Dublin, 1665); Meehan,

cher, "China illustrata" Franciscan Monasteries (Dublin,
(Amsterdam, 1667), pp. 91 1872); Moran, Spicilegium Os-
soriense (Dublin, 1874-84) ;Car-
sqq.; "Itinerarium St. RiGAN, History of Ossory (Dublin,
Thomae Apost. ex Judsea 1905) Report on Franciscan MSS.
;

in Indiam", and "Dogmata in Hist. MSS. Com. (Dublin, 1906).

varia fabulossissima Brach- W. H. Grattan-Flood.

manorum", ib., 156-162;
" Exactissimum opus totius Rottenburg, Diocese op
grammaticae Brachmanicae (RoTTENBURGENSis), Suffra-
cujus et rudimentais [Roth] gan of the ecclesiastical
primus Europae communi- Province of the Upper Rhine.
cavit" in "Romani CoUegii It embraces the Kingdom of
S.J. musaeum" (Amsterdam, Wiirtemberg, three parishes
1678), p. 65; a letter (Rome, in the Grand Duchy of Ba-
1664) in "Welt-Bott", I den, and one parish in the
(Augsburg, 1726), 35; manu- Prussian territory of Hohen-
script-letters and relations zoUern - Sigmaringen. The
in Royal Library, Brussels, diocese is divided into 29
Nos. 6828-29, fol. 415. deaneries, and in 1911 con-
HosTEN, Jesuit Miaaionaries in tained 698 parishes, 19
Northern India, 1680-180S (Cal-
cutta, 1906), 30 sqq.; Balfour,
Pfarrkuratien (incorporated
Encycl. of India (London, 1885), a. churches with an indepen-
v.; Benfey, Gesch, der Sprachwis- dent care of souls) 164 chap-
,

senschaft (Munich, 1869), 335; V.

ScHLEQEL, Sprache u. Weisheit der laincies, and 155 other pas-
Indier (Heidelberg, 1808), p. xi. toral charges; 1084 active
Anthont Huonder. and 75 pensioned secular
clergy; and 728,000 Catho-
Rothe, David, Bishop of lics. The cathedral chapter,
Ossory (Ireland), b. at Kil- which enjoys the right of
kenny in 1573, of a distin- The Gothic Cathedral at Ulm electing the bishops, consists
guished family; d. 20 April, Formerly Catholic, 1377-1494, Tower, 528 feet of a cathedral dean and vicar-
1650. Having studied at general, six capitulars, and
the Irish College, Douai, and at the University of six cathedral prebendaries. The bishop, cathedral
Salamanca, where he graduated doctor in civil and dean, and the six capitulars constitute also the or-
canon law, he was ordained in 1600, and proceeded to dinariate; the legal adviser of the ordinariate is the
Rome. From 1601 to 1609 he was professor of theol- syndicus, a lay official who is likewise director of the
ogy and secretary to Archbishop Lombard, and on 15 chancellery of the ordinariate, consisting of six mem-
June, 1609, was appointed Vice-Primate of Armagh. bers. The rights of the State circa sacra are entrusted
He arrived in Ireland in 1610, having been made pro- to a royal Catholic church council, which is composed
thonotary Apostolic, and held a synod for the Ulster of a director, two clerical, and several lay members.
Province at Drogheda, in February, 1614, and a The diocesan institutions are: the priests' seminary at
second synod in 1618. Though appointed Bishop of Rottenburg, with a regent, viceregent, and a Repetent,
Ossory on 10 October, 1618, he had, owing to the or private tutor the theological college 'Wilhelmsstift"
; '

severity of the penal laws, to seek consecration in at Tubingen with a director and 7 Repetenlen, supported
Paris, where he was consecrated early in 1620; he by theState, and placed under the supervision of the
returned to Ireland in the winter of 1621. As early bishop and church council; the gymnasial boarding-
as 1616, Dr. Rothe had published the first part of his schools at Ehingen and Rottweil, also maintained by
famous "Analecta" and the completed work was the State the diocesan boys' seminaries at Rottenburg
:

issued at Cologne (1617-19); a new edition was and Mergentheim. Theological students are trained
brought out by Cardinal Moran in 1884. In 1620 partly in the " Wilhelmsstif t " and partly in the theo-
he published "Brigida Thaumaturga", at Paris, fol- logical faculty of University of Tiibingen, which has
lowed by " Hibernise sive Antiquioris Scotiae " in 1621 four ordinary and three extraordinary clerical pro-
at Antwerp, and "Hibernia Resurgens" at Paris, fessors. The "Theologische Quartalschrift", the
 ROTULI 208 ROUEN
(Tubingen, 1869) Die kathol. Kirche unserer Zeit, II (Munich,
oldest theological periodical in Germany, is published
;

1900), 97-102; Neueb, Die kathol. u. evangel. Geistlichen WUrt-

by the professors of the theological faculty. Priests tembergs, 1813-1901 (Ravenaburg, 1904); Personalkatalog des
also act as instructors in the private boarding- Bistums Rottenb. (Rottenburg, 1910); Diozesanarchiv von
srhools at Ehingen, Ellwangen, and Rottweil, which
—
Schwaben (Stuttgart, 1882 ) concerning the churches see Kep-
;

PLEE. WiirUembergs kirchl. KunstaltertUmer (Rottenburg, 1888);

are under the patronage of the bishop, as well as in Das Koiiigreich Wurttemherg, ed. by the National Office of
the twenty-four State intermediate schools {Gym- Statistics, 4 vols., 2nd ed. (Stuttgart, 1904-07) ; Kunst und
AUertumsdenkmale im KOnigreich Wurttemherg (Esslingen, up to
nasicH, Hailschulen, Lateinschulen etc.)- 1909), 60 parts.
Despite every effort on the part of the Catholics, Joseph Lins.
the male religious orders have not yet been read-
mitted into the Kingdom of WUrtemberg. In 1910 Rotuli, i. e. rolls, in which a long narrow strip of
the following orders and congregations of women had papyrus or parchment, written on one side, was wound
establishments in the diocese: the Congregation like a bhnd about its staff, formed the earUest kind of
of the Third Order of St. Francis, who have a mother- "volume" {volumen from volvere, to roll up) of which
house at Bonlanden, a boarding school, and two we have knowledge. Many such rolls have been re-
branches (116 sisters); the Sisters of St. Francis covered in their primitive form from the excavations
from Heiligenbronn, with a mother-house and two at Herculaneum and elsewhere. In the fourth and
branches (188 sisters), who conduct an institute for fifth centuries, however, these rolls began to give place
the rescue, education, and boarding of poor neglected to books bound as we know them now, i. e. a num-
girls, an institute for boys, and a children's home; ber of written leaves were laid flat one on top of the
the School Sisters of Our Blessed Lady, with a niother- other and attached together by their corresponding
house at Ravensburg and one branch (79 sisters); edges. This was a gain in convenience, but for certain
the Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis, from purposes rolls were stiU retained. To this latter class
Reute, who have 103 nursing establishments, schools belonged certain legal records (from which is still de-
for manual work, and schools for children (783 rived the title of the judicial functionary known as the
sisters) the School Sisters of the Order of St. Francis,
; "Master of the Rolls"), also the manuscripts used for
who have a mother-house at Siessen and 30 branches the chanting of the Exsultet (q. v.), and especially
(373 sisteirs), and conduct several high schools for the documents employed in sending round the names
girls,and numerous public schools and schools for of the deceased belonging to monasteries and other
manual work; the Sisters of Mercy of St. Vincent de associations which were banded together to pray
Paul, who have a mother-house at Untermarchtal mutually for each other's dead. These "mortuary
and 127 branches (1245 sisters), and, besides nursing rolls" (in French "rouleaux des morts") were called
the sick, conduct schools for children, and schools in Latin "rotuM" They consisted of strips of parch-
for manual training, homes for working women, ment, sometimes of prodigious length, at the head of
boarding schools, and rescue institutions; the Sisters which was entered the notification of the death of a
of the Holy Cross, from Strasburg, Alsace, who have particular person deceased or sometimes of a group of
one establishment with 13 sisters. There are also such persons. The roU was then carried by a special
in the diocese 11 ecclesiastical boarding schools for messenger ("gerulus", "rotularius", "rollifer", "to-
poor children and one royal orphanage under religious miger", "breviator", were some of the various titles
direction. Of the numerous Catholic churches given him) from monastery to monastery, and at each
notable from the artistic standpoint may be mentioned an entry was made upon the roll attesting the fact
the Cathedral of St. Martin at Rottenburg, a that the notice had been received and that the req-
three-naved Gothic basilica, which was completely uisite suffrages would be said.
renovated after the fire of 1644 (a new cathedral is By degrees a custom grew up in many places of
being planned by the present bishop); the late- making these entries in verse with comphmentary
Roman Church of St. John at Gmiind (thirteenth amplifications often occupying many Unes. It will
century); the Gothic parish church of Gmfind (1351- be readily understood that these records, some of
1410); the church of the former Benedictine Monas- which are still in existence, preserving as they do
tery of Ellwangen, the largest Romanesque church specimens of ornate verse composition by a repre-
in the country (1124); the parish church of Wein- sentative scholar of each monastery or institution, and
garten; the "Sankt Petersdom Wtirttembergs ", engrossed on the roll by some skilful penman in each
erected in the Baroque style by the Benedictines community, afford valuable materials both for the
(1738-53); the Gothic Church of Our Lady, Stutt- study of palseography and also for a comparative
gart (1879). Of the churches which were formerly judgment of the standard of scholarship prevalent
Catholic, but which now are Protestant, the most in these different centres of learning. The use of
important is the Gothic cathedral at TJlm (1377- these mortuary rolls flourished most in the eleventh,
1494), which has the highest church tower in the tweKth, and thirteenth centuries. Some are of pro-
world (over 52S feet). Much frequented places of digious size. That of the Abbess Matilda of Caen,
pilgrimage are Weingarten, Weggental, near Rotten- the daughter of William the Conqueror, was seventy-
burg; Reute, with the grave of Blessed Elizabeth two feet long and eight or ten inches wide, but this
Bona; the Schonberg, near Ellwangen, the Drei- no doubt was altogether exceptional.
faltigkeitsberg, near Spaichingen. Concerning Delisle, Rouleaux des morts du IX>™' au X V*^ siicle (Paris,

the erection and beginnings of the diocese, see 1866); Idem in Bibl. de Vecole des Charles, series II, vol. Ill:
Sur I'usage de -prier pour les morts; Thurston, A
Meditsval
Uppeh Rhine, Ecclesiastical Province of the; Mortuary-card in The Month (London, Dec., 1896); Nichols in
concerning its further history and the relations be- Mem. Archceolog. Institute (Norwich, 1847) Molinier, ObUuaires
;

tween the Catholic Church and the State, see WtJR- franoais au moyen-dge (Paris, 1886); Ebner, Gebetsverbriider-
ungen (Freiburg, 1891); Wattenbach, Schriftwesen im Mittelaller
TEMBERG. It will be sufficient here to give a hst (3rd ed., Leipzig), 150-74.
of the bishops: Johann Baptist von Keller (1828-45), Herbert Thurston.
the first bishop; Joseph von Lipp (1848-69); Karl
Joseph von Hefele (1869-93); "Wilhelm von Reiser Rouen, Archdiocese of (Rothomagensis), re-
flS93-98); Franz Xaver von Linsenmann, d. 21 vived by the Concordat of 1802 with the Sees of
Sept., 1S9S, before his consecration; Paul Wilhelm Bayeux, Evreux, and S^ez as suffragans: it also in-
\on Keppler (elected 11 Nov., 1898; consecrated cludes the Department of the Seine Inferieure. The
18 Jan., 1899). Archdiocese of Rouen was curtailed in 1802 by giving
Die kathol. Kirchengesetze fur das Bi^lum Rottenburg, ed. the Archdeanery of Pontoise to the Diocese of Ver-
Lang (Rottenburg. 1S.3G): Golther, Der Stoat u. die kathol. sailles; the Deaneries of Pont Audemer and Bourg-
Kirche im Kdnigreich Wurttemherg (Stuttgart, 1874); cf. there-
with RtJMELiN, Reden und Aufsdtze, new series (Freiburg, 1S81), theroulde, and a part of the Deanery of P6rier, to the
20.5-77; Ruckgabeb, Die Di6zeae Rottenburg u. ihre Anklager Diocese of Evreux; several parishes of the Deanery
 ROUEN 209 ROUEN
of Aumale were annexed to the Diocese of Beauvais. chancellor of Clotaire II; legend relates how he de-
The Archbishop of Rouen bears the title of Primate livered the environs of Rouen from a monster called
of Normandy. Rouen, chief city of the Secunda Gargouille, having had him captured by a liberated
Provincia Lugdunensis under Constantine, and later prisoner; in commemoration of St. Romain in the
of Neustria, has been since 912 the capital of Nor- Middle Ages the Archbishops of Rouen were granted
mandy and residence of the dukes. the right to set a prisoner free on the day that the reli-
The episcopal catalogues of the ninth and tenth quary of the saint was carried in procession; St.
centuries and the " Liber Eburneus " of the cathedral Ouen (Audoennus) (641-684), previous to his appoint-
of Rouen, which extends to 1068, indicate St. Mellon ment as bishop, was chancellor of Dagobert, and
as first Bishop of Rouen; the "Liber Niger" of St. wrote a life of St. Eloy (Eligius); his episcopate was
Ouen which comes down to 1079 and the episcopal distinguished by the foundation of the monasteries
lists dating from the twelfth century mention the of Fontenelle, Jumieges, and Fecamp, by the unceas-
episcopate of a certain Nicasius (Nicaise) as ante- ing efforts he made to exterminate all traces of pagan-
dating that of St. Mellon. The legend of this Nicaise, ism in his dioceses, and by the arbitration effected
based on Hilduin, makes him and his two companions, through his influence between Austrasia and Neustria;
Quirinus and Soubiculus, disciples of St. Denis who his fame as a miracle-worker was great in the Middle
Ages; St. Ansbert (684-92 or 93) chancellor of Clotaire
III, and afterwards confined for political reasons by
Pepin of Heristal in the Abbey of Hautmont; recently
there was found in the library of Carlsruhe a curious
little poem of the seventh century written by him on
St. Ouen; this poem came originally from the Abbey
of Reichenau; St. Hugh (722-30) was a monk of
Jumieges before being made bishop; he subsequently
combined the Sees of Rouen, Paris and Bayeux, also
the abbeys of Jumieges and Fontenelle; St. Remi
(755-772), brother of King Pepin, was also arch-
bishop of Rouen.
Guntbaldus who had played a certain part in the
restoration of Louis the Pious, having become Bishop
of Rouen, was commissioned in 846 by Sergius II to
settle a dispute between Ebbo and Hincmar, and died
in 849. The name of a certain St. Leo who suffered
martyrdom at Bayonne sometimes appears incorrectly
on the lists of archbishops of Rouen at the end of
the ninth century and should be struck off. Among
the more famous archbishops of Rouen were: Arch-
bishop Franco (911-19), who baptized the North-
man chief RoUo; St. Maurille (1055-67), who reformed
his clergy and fought the heresy of Berengarius; John
of Bayeux (1069-79), whose book on ecclesiastical
services regulated religious devotions in Normandy;
WiUiara I (Bonne Ame) (1071-1119), first a Bene-
dictine and allowed St. Anselm to leave the Abbey of
Bee to occupy the See of Canterbury; Hugh of Amiens
(1130-74), author of numerous theological works;
under his episcopate Rouen was honoured in May,
Interior of The Cathedral, Rouen 1131, by a visit from Innocent II, the only pope who
ever entered Normandy; Gautier de Coutances called
came from Rome to Normandy but suffered martyr- the Magnificent (1184-1207) the favourite companion
dom at their arrivalon the banks of the river Epte. of Richard the Lion Hearted; Eudes II Rigaud (1247-
It was under the episcopate of William (Bonne Ame) 1274), one of the most eminent statesmen of the day;
the Good (1079-1110) that the name of Nicaise was he accompanied St. Louis on his Tunis crusade and
placed at the head of the episcopal lists of Rouen. A left a diary of his pastoral visitations which has the
number of saints were the successors of St. Mellon; most important bearing on the ecclesiastical history
according to the chronology of the Abh6 Sauvage they of the province; Gilles Aycelin (1311-18), Chancellor
were: St. Avitianus (about 314); St. Severus; St. of France; Pierre Roger (1330-39) became Pope
Victricius, bom about 330, a soldier in the beginning Clement VI; Peter de la Foret (1352-56) was at fu'st
of his career and as such a confessor of the Faith under Bishop of Paris and became a cardinal in 1356, as
Julian the Apostate; made Bishop of Rouen about 380 Chancellor of France he was one of the most faithful
and died, according to his biographer, Abb6 Vacan- adherents of the dauphin, afterwards Charles V.
dard, before 409; famous for his friendship with St. During the Hundred Years War the English oc-
Paulinus of Nola and St. Martin, also for going in 396 cupied Rouen from 1417-1449; the Duke of Bedford
to England where he worked zealously for the con- at his own request was formally made a member of
version of the English people; his treatise "De Laude the Chapter of Rouen in 1430. The English rule, so
Sanctorum" is a strong plea in favour of the devotion severe for the people, increased the privileges of the
to relics; Innocent I commissioned him in 404 to make clergy but dealt rigorously with such ecclesiastics
known in Gaul the "Liber Regularum", which con- as were thought rebellious; especially with Archbishop
tains urgent instructions for ecclesiastical celibacy, Louis de Harcourt who was deprived in 1421 of his
for the respect due to the hierarchy, and Roman possessions for refusing to pay homage to Henry V.
supremacy; St. Innocent; St. Evodius (about 430); St. The following should be added to the Kst of arch-
Goldardus (490-.52.5), brother of St. Medardus, one of bishops: John of la Rochetaill^e (1423-29), cardinal in
the assistants at the baptism and coronation of Clovis 1426; Louis of Luxembourg (1436-42), cardinal in
St. Flavius; St. Pretextatus (550-586), exiled in 577 1439, was the sworn agent in France of Henry VI,
by order of King Chilperic, was reinstated in the King of England; William of Estouteville (1453-83),
diocese in 584, and stabbed before the altar in 586 by cardinal in 1437 and commissioned by Nicholas V in
order of Fredegonde; St. Romanus (631-641) former 1453 to mediate between France and England, and to
XIII.— 14
 KOUEN 210 ROUEN
obtain from Charles VII certain modifications of the dates from the end of the fifteenth and the beginning
Pragmatic Sanction; Robert of Croismare (1483-93) of the sixteenth century, and is one of the most famous
and Cardinal Georges d'Amboise (1493-1510), both edifices in the flamboyant style. The ninety-six choir
of whom played an important part in the Renaissance stalls were carved in the fifteenth century under the
movement; the two Cardinals Charles of Bourbon direction of Philippot Viart and represent in their
(1550-90 and 1590-94), the first of whom was at one workmanship all the professions of the period. There
time a candidate for the throne of France; Frangois, are three celebrated tombs preserved in the cathedral;
Cardinal de Joyeuse (1604-15) who negotiated peace one, whether correctly or not, is said to be the tomb of
in the name of Henry IV between Paul V and the Archbishop Maurille, and dates from the twelfth and
Republic of Venice; the two Frangois de Harlay (1615- thirteenth centuries; that of the two cardinals d'Am-
51) and (1651-71); John Nicholas Colbert (1691- boise dates from 1520 to 1525, and on it is the statue
1707), son of the minister; Nicholas de Saulx Tavannes of George d'Amboise, the work of Jean Goujon; that
(1733-59), cardinal in 1756; Dominic de la Roche- of Louis de Bt&z6, attributed in part to Jean Goujon,
foucauld (1759-1800), cardinal in 1778, president of was executed from 1535 to 1544 at the expense of
the clergy at the States General, emigrated after 10 Diane de Poitiers, widow of Louis de Br6z6. The
August, 1792, and died in exile at Mtinster; Etienne present Church of St. Ouen, where a small Roman
Hubert de Cambac^res (1802-18), brother of the arch- apse is still preserved and some bases of Roman
chancellor of Napoleon, cardinal in 1803; Prince de pillars dating from the eleventh century, is one of the
Croy (1823-44), chief almoner of France under the rare examples that exists in France of a large and
Restoration, and cardinal in 1825; Henry de Bonne- beautiful church of the fourteenth century, almost
chose (1858-83), cardinal in 1863; L^on Thomas complete, and one of the most delicate pieces of archi-
(1S84-94), cardinal in 1893; William Sourrieu (1894- tecture extant. The Church of St. Maclou dates from
99), cardinal in 1897. the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; the folding doors
It is not known exactly whether Rouen became a are attributed to Jean Goujon. On one side of the
metropolitan at the time of St. Victricius or under church is a monument unique in its way, the aitre
Bishop Grimo, who in 744 received the pallium from St. Maclou. The word aitre is derived from Alrium.
Pope Zachary; in the Middle Ages it exercised metro- L'aitre St. Maclou, the old cemetery of the parish,
politan rights over Evreux, Avranches, Seez, Bayeux, is a large rectangular space surrounded by porticoes
Lisieux, and Coutances. It seems that in the seventh built in 1526-40, and shows the Renaissance style in
century Lillebonne (Juliobona) was for a short time all its purity. A Dance of Death (Danse Macabre)
the see of a bishop suffragan of Rouen. The Arch- sculptured on its columns was unfortunately badly
bishop of Rouen assumed at an early date the title of defaced by the Huguenots. The Palace of Justice
Primate of Normandy and Neustria, to indicate the in Rouen is one of the most celebrated buildings be-
entire independence of his metropolitan see which was longing to the end of the Gothic period.
directly subject to the Holy See. In vain did Gebuin, Among the twelve Benedictine abbeys for men
Archbishop of Lyons, obtain from Gregory VII two which the Diocese of Rouen possessed under the old
Bulls in 1070 which recognized his primacy over regime must be mentioned, besides Fontenelle and
Rouen they remained unexecuted as well as a similar
; Jumieges, the Benedictine Abbey of St. Ouen de
Bull of Celeatine II given in 1144. On 12 November, Rouen, founded in 548, where a school of theology
1455, Cardinal Dominic Capranica, papal delegate, flourished which was recognized by Gregory IX in
recognized the independence of the Church of Rouen 1238; and the Abbey of Fecamp, dedicated to the
by giving a definite decision, confirmed in 1457 and Trinity in 658 by St. Waningus (Vaning), Governor
1458 by two Bulls of Callistus III. The Archdeacon of Neustria and Count of the Palace under Clovis II.
of Rouen was known as the "grand archidiacre de la This was first occupied by nuns under the direction of
chretiente". The Chapter, in virtue of a Bull from St. Hildemarche, was ruined by the Normans in 841,
Gregory XI in 1371, was completely exempt from the and reopened for priests by Richard, first Duke of
archbishop's jurisdiction both spiritual and temporal. Normandy, who had the present beautiful church
Nicholas Oresme (d. 1382) was head master of the dedicated in 990. St. William (1001-28) was the
College of Navarre and Bishop of Lisieux; he trans- first Abbot of F6camp; he had among his successors
lated Aristotle and was dean of the Church of Rouen; the future Pope Clement VI and Jean Casimir, King
the famous Peter d'Ailly and the historian Thomas of Poland, who, after abdicating his throne, became
Basin, later Bishop of Lisieux, belonged to the Chap- Abbot of F6camp in 1669. The Abbey of St. George
ter of Rouen. St. Remy, Bishop of Rouen, was after de Boscherville was founded in 1060 by Raoul de
Chrodigang, Bishop of Metz, the principal initiator Tancarville, chamberlain of William the Conqueror.
in the reform which under Pepin replaced the Gal- The abbey of Tr^port was founded in 1056-59 by
ilean with the Roman hturgy. In 1729 the cathedral Robert, Count d'Eu, companion of William the Con-
of Rouen accepted the breviary of Urbain Robinet, queror. During the religious wars the Calvinists
vicar-general of Rouen, who revised the liturgy in a committed great ravages in Rouen; having become
Galilean sense. Later Cardinal Bonnechose insisted masters of the city 16 April, 1562, they devastated
on the use of the Roman liturgy in the diocese. The St. Ouen, made a pyre in the centre of the church with
Chapter of Rouen preserved the custom until the the stalls and fragments of the superb screen, and then
Re\-olution of chanting the Office by heart; it was
burnt the body of St. Ouen and other relics of the
forbidden even to bring a book into the choir. The
basilica. Rouen was retaken 26 October, 1562, by
faculty of Cathohc theology of Rouen was founded in
Fra,nQois de Guise and Antoine de Bourbon; the
ISOS and organized in 1809; it was however suppressed
majority of Charles IX was proclaimed there in 1563.
in 1S8.3.
Rouen, which had declared for the League, was in-
No town of France has produced such marvels of effectually besieged by Henry IV from December,
religious architecture as Rouen. The oldest part of 1591, to April, 1592, and only surrendered in 1594 to
the Cathedral, which has survived all fires, is the belfry
the new Bourbon king.
of St.Romanus's tower, which dates from about 1160' In the eleventh century an association of distin-
the construction of the nave began about 1200; the
guished men was founded at Rouen in honour of the
Calende portal, so called from an imaginary animal Immaculate Conception. Its chief or president was
and the portals of the libraries, famous for the richness called "prince". In 1486 Pierre Dar6, lieutenant-
of their ornamentation, were finished in the first general of the bailiwick of Rouen, was "prince" and
quarter of the fourteenth century. The Butter Tower
converted the association into a literary society which
(la Tour de Beurre), so called because it was
built awarded a prize for the best poems written on the
with the alms derived from the Lenten dispensations
Immaculate Conception. Every stanza of the poems,
 »iJ»r^ j:;7
^- '
'
««- -^ -"«

DISTANT VIEW OF THE CATHEDRAL, ROUEN

 ROUEN 211 ROUEN
according to a special rule, must end with the same Lady of Good Help (Notre Dame de Bon Secours) at
verse as the first; this repeated verse, which they Blosseville, a pilgrimage which existed in the thir-
called "palinodie", gave the name of "Palinod" to teenth century; Our Lady of the Waves (Notre Dame
the confraternity. Malherbe took the prize in 1555; des Plots) at St. Adresse, near the harbour of Havre,
Pierre Corneille competed in 1633, but does not seem is a chapel built in the fourteenth century. Before
to have been crowned; Jacqueline Pascal received the the Law of 1901 directed against the religious orders,
prize in 1640; Thomas Corneille in 1641. The three- there were in the Diocese of Rouen, Benedictines,
volume Bible, finished at the end of the twelfth cen- Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, Picpusiens, Fathers
tury for the Chapter of Rouen, is one of the finest of the Holy Ghost and of the Sacred Heart of Mary,
specimens of caligraphy of the Middle Ages. A copy and Brothers of the Christian Schools. Some religious
of the "Chroniques de Normandie", made at Rouen orders for women originated in the diocese, of which
about 1450 for the aldermen and given to Colbert in the most important are the Sisters of Providence, a
1682 for the royal library, is illustrated with ten teaching order founded in Rouen in 1666 by the Minim
miniatures which are among the most beautiful pro- Barr6 and the priest Antoine de Lahaye, and the
ductions of the fifteenth century. The finest copy Sisters of the Sacred Heart, hospitallers and teachers,
extant of the "Chroniques de Monstrelet" was made founded at Ernemont in 1698 by Archbishop Colbert.
at Rouen and contains drawings of the greatest im- The religious owned in the Diocese of Rouen at the
portance for the history of the fifteenth century. The end of the nineteenth century 6 infant asylums, 43
manuscripts, written in the sixteenth century by order infant schools, 1 asylum for deaf-mutes, 5 orphanages
of Cardinal George d'Amboise, who brought back for boys, 1 orphanage for children of both sexes,
with him the most beautiful manuscripts from the 28 girls' orphanages, 3 schools of apprenticeship, 7
royal library of Naples, compare favourably with those societies for preservation, 1 house of correction, 38
of the best Italian masters. hospitals, 1 dispensary, 26 houses of religious who care
Besides those already mentioned, many saints are for the sick in their homes, 4 houses of convalescence,
connected with the history of the Diocese of Rouen 2 homes for incurables, 1 asylum for the blind. In
or are the objects there of special devotion: St. 1910 the Diocese of Rouen had 863,879 inhabitants,
Severus (sixth century) who perhaps was the Bishop 5 archdeaconeries, 45 deaneries, 16 first-class parishes,
of Avranches and whose relics are preserved at the 47 second-class parishes, 599 succursal parishes, 53
cathedral of Rouen; St. Austreberta, Benedictine curacies and about 800 priests.
abbess (seventh century) St. Sidonius, of Irish origin
;
Gallia Christ, (nom) (1759), XI, 1-121, instr. 68; Fisquet,
La France (Rouen, Paris, 1866); Duchesne, Fastes
pontificals
(seventh century); the hermit St. Clair, of Vexin, Spiscopaux, II, 200-11; Sauvage, Elenchi episcoporum Rotoma-
martyr of the ninth century; St. Lawrence O'Toole, gensium in Anal, Boll, VIII (1889); Fallue, Histoire politique
et religieuse de Viglise mHropolitaine et du diockse de Rouen (Rouen,
Archbishop of Dublin, died at Eu in the diocese 1180;
1850) Vacandard, St Victrice ivSque de Rouen (Paris, 1903)
Blessed Joan of Arc was imprisoned at Rouen in the
;

Idem, Vie de St Ouen, clique de Rouen (Paris, 1902) Ch^ruel, ;

tower constructed in 1206 by King Philip Augustus, Histoire de Rouen sous la domination anglaise au V" sikcle (Rouen, X
and was burned in the old market place 31 May, 1431, 1840) Thierry, Armorial des archeviques de Rouen (Rouen,
;

1864) Loth, Histoire du cardinal de la Rochefoucauld et du diocese

;

after her so-called abjiuration at the cemetery of St. de Rouen pendant la Revolution (Rouen, 1893); CuSrambray, La
Ouen; St. John Baptist de la Salle, who established Terreur d, Rouen (Rouen, 1901) Tougard, Catalogue des saints
;

the first novitiate of the Brothers of the Christian du diochse de Rouen (Rouen, 1897); Idem, L'hagiographie Rouen-
naise in Revue catholique de Normandie, 1909; Longnon, Pouilles
Schools at St. Yon near Rouen in 1705 and died at de la province de Rouen (Paris, 1903) Palinods prisent^s au Buy
;

Rouen in 1719. The saints given to the diocese by de Rouen, ed. Robllard de Beatjrepaire (Rouen, 1896) Guiot, ;

Fontenelle and Jumi&ges must also be mentioned. Les trois si^cles palinodiques ou histoire g^n^rale des palinods, ed.
Tougard (Rouen, 1898) Sarrazin, Histoire de Rouen d^aprhs les
The saints of Fontenelle are: the founder, St. Wan-
;

miniatures des manuscrits (Rouen, 1904) Cook, The Story of ;

drille (Wandregesilus) (570-667) ; the abbots St. Bain Rouen (London, 1899) Collette. Histoire du brHiaire de Rouen
;

(about 729), St. Wando (742-756); St. Gerbold (d. (Rouen, 1902); Enlaht, Rouen (Paris, 1904); Perkins, The
Churches of Rouen (London, 1900) Laaland, ;Short Guide to A
806); St. Ansegisus (823-833), who compiled the Rouen (Rouen, 1907); Chevalier, Topobibl, 2618-28.
capitularies or statutes of Charlemagne and Louis the Georges Goyau.
Pious; St. Gerard (1008-31); and the monks St.
Gond (d. about 690); St. Erembert, who became, —
Rouen, Synods of. The first synod is generally
about 657, Bishop of Toulouse; St. Wulfram, Arch- believed to have been held by Archbishop Saint-
bishop of Sens and apostle of the Frisians (d. in 720) Ouen about 650. Sixteen of its decrees, one against
St. Agatho; St. Desir^; St. Sindoard; St. Cond6 simony, the others on liturgical and canonical mat-
(second half of the seventh century) St. Erbland or
; ters, are still extant. Pommeraye (loc. cit. infra.)
Hermeland, who died in 715 after founding the monas- and a few others place this synod in the second half
tery of Hindre (Indret) in the Diocese of Nantes; of the ninth century. Later synods were presided
St. Erinhard (d. 739); St. Hardouin (d. 811). The over by: Archbishop St. Ansbert some time between
saints of Jumifiges are the founder, St. Philcert (675)
: 689-93; Archbishop Mauger in 1048; the papal legate
St. Aicadre (d. 687), and St. Gontard (1072-95). The Hermanfrid of Sitten at Lisieux in 1055, at which
distinguished natives of the diocese should also be Archbishop Mauger of Rouen was deposed for his loose
mentioned the two Corneille brothers; the philoso-
:
morals; Archbishop Maurilius in 1055, which drew up a
pher, Fontenelle (1657-1757); the Jesuit, Brumoy creed against Berengarius of Tours to be subscribed
(1688-1742), famous for his translations of Greek to by all newly elected bishops; Archbishop John of
plays; the Jesuit, Gabriel Daniel (1649-1728), whose Bayeux, one in 1072 and two in 1074, urging ecclesiasti-
three-volume "History of France", published in 1713, cal reforms; Archbishop William in 1096, at which the
is considered the first reliable and complete history of decrees of the Council of Clermont (1095) were pro-
France; Cavelier de la Salle (1640-87), explorer of claimed; Archbishop Goisfred in 1118, at which the
the Valley of the Mississippi; the Protestant theolo- papal legate Conrad asked the assembled prelates and
gian, Samuel Bochart (1599-1677), a famous Oriental princes to support Gelasius II against Emperor Henry
scholar; the numerous Protestant family of Basnage, Vand his antipope, Burdinus (Gregory VIII) the same ;

the most distinguished member of which, Jacques Archbishop in 1119, and the cardinal legate Matthew
Basnage (1653-1723), is well known as a, historian of Albano, in 1 128, to enforce clerical celibacy Arch- ;

and diplomat; the liberal publicist, Armand Carrel bishop Gualterusin 1190, and the papal legate Robert
(1800-36); Boildieu, the composer (1775-1834) and de Courgon, in 1214, to urge clerical reform. Other
pupil of the cathedral music school of Rouen. synods were held in 1223, 1231, 1278, 1313, 1321,
The principal pilgrimages of the archdiocese are: 1335, 1342, 1445, and 1581. The synod held by Arch-
Our Lady of Salvation (Notre Dame de Salut), near bishop Colbert in 1699 condemned F^nelon's "Ma-
Fecamp, which dates from the eleventh century; Our ximes des Saints" The last provincial synod was
 ROUQUETTE 212 ROWSHAM
held by Archbishop Bailleul in 1830; for its Acts see in prose, "Le caf(5" (1694), two operas, "Jason"
"CoUectio Lacensis", IV, 513-36. (1696) and "V6nus et Adonis" (1697), and five
Hkfele, Bessin, Concilia Rotomagensis pro-
Concilieniiexch.; comedies in verse, only two of which were produced
vincLir (Rouen, 1717); Pommeraye, S. Rotomag. Eccles. Concilia
on the stage, "Le flatteur" (1696) and "Le capri-
(Rouen, 1677). MiCHAEL Ott. cieux" (1700); (2) four books of odes, the first
Rouquette, Adrien, b. in Louisiana in 1813, of being an adaptation of the Psalms, two books of
allegories and a score of cantatas; (3) his epigrams,the
French parentage; d. as a missionary among the
Choctaw Indians in 1SS7. The great passion of best part of his work, which will secure his fame;
his >-outh was de\'otion to the Choctaw Indians. (4) his letters. His works were repeatedly reprinted
He was sent north in 1824 to divert his mind from from 1710 to 1820. His lyrics are not esteemed now,
his sa\aKe associates. In 1829 he was sent to France but he is still regarded as the greatest epigrammatist
and finished his collegiate studies in Paris, Nantes, of the eighteenth century.
Brunetiere, Manuel del'h\:t. de la lilt, fran^aise (Paris, 1899)
and Rennes, winning his baccalaureate in 1833. He Faguet, Revue des cours et C'lnferenct-s (Paris, 1899-1900).
returned to New Orleans, but refused to mingle in Louis N. Delamarrb.
worldly pleasures, and spent much time alone or
among his Indian friends. Later he returned to Rovezzano, Benedetto da, sculptor and architect,
Paris to study law, but preferred hterature, and
Rovezzano, near Florence, or,
b. in 1490, either at
returning to Louisiana, led a desultory life until 1842.
according to some authorities, at Canapale, near
lie then made a third visit to France, where he pub-
Pistoia; d. at Flor-
lished his first poetic essay, "Les Savannes". This
ence, 1530. His
was well received and he returned to Louisiana to
family name is said
become editor of "Le Propagateur Catholique".
to have been Gra-
Ere Ions he found his true vocation and was ordained
priest in 1S4.5. Assigned to duty at the Cathedral of
tiniorGrazini. One
Saint Louis, at New Orleans, his eloquence crowded
of his most impor-
tant works was the
the building, and his holy life commanded the love
sculptures for the
and respect of all denominations. He served for four-
teen years as a priest at New Orleans, then suddenly,
Church of St. John
in 1859, he severed all connection with civilization
Gualbertus (1505);
and made his home for twenty-nine years as a these sculptures
missionary among the Choctaw Indians on the banks were injured during
the siege of Flor-
of Bayou La Combe. As a result of his patient
labours he won many con\'erts to the Faith. Among
ence, 1530. The
his publications are: "La Thi5biade de L'Am&ique",
mutilated frag-
"L'Antoniade", "LaNouvelle Atala", "Wild Flowers". ments, five reliefs

S. B. Elder.
from the life of the
saint, areintheBar-
Rousseau, Jean-Baptiste, a French poet, b. gello. Benedetto
in Paris, 16 April, 1670; d. at La Genette, near executed many
Brussels, 17 May, 1741. Although he was the son of tombs, chiefly archi-
a shoemaker, he was educated with the greatest care tectural in design,
and made his studies at the Jesuit College of Louis le with ornaments in
Grand, Paris. On sculpture. The
account of his wit, monument of Odde Altoviti, Church of SS. Apostoli,
he was admitted to Florence, done in 1507, is by him; the monument of Piero
the most exclusive Soderini in the choir, church of the Carmine, Florence;
snloits. After a and others. Leo X
sent to Card. Wolsey twelve terra
short sojourn in cotta medallions by Rovezzano and the sculptor him-
London, as pri- self went to England in 1524. The cardinal engaged
\'ate secretary to him upon a tomb for himself, but as he fell into dis-
the French am- grace before its completion, it was finished by the
bassador, Tallard, king's order. Charles I wished to be buried in it,
he frequented the but the tomb remained empty until the death of
irreligious society Nelson. Rovezzano is believed to have acquired
which gathered at prosperity in England. He returned to Florence in
the Temple, the later life, and endured long years of blindness before
e\-il influence of his death. Further works are the altar of St. Denis
which caused his in the S. Trinity, Florence; two altars in the church
misfortunes. His of the Badia; door of Badia; door of SS. Apostoh;
dramatic at-
first a St. John in marble in the Duomo; and in the
Jean-Baptiste Rou^sEAU tempts were fail- Bargello, marble niches from the Palazzo Cepparello
From ci portrait by Rigaud ures, but his epi- and a chimney piece.
grams gained him Perkins, Tuscan Sculitlor^ (London, 1886) Semper, Her^or-
;

ragende Bildhauer, Arrhilrkfcn der Renaissance (Dresden, 1880);

a great reputation. He was elected to the Acad- Singer, AUgemeines Kuu^Ucr Lexicon (Frankfort, 1901) Boc-
;

emy of Inscriptions ana and ceiies-Lettres

Belles-Lett res in 1700 cardo, Nuova Enciihpedia (Turin, ISSS).
In 1710 he was accu.sed of being the author of M. L. Handley.
"Couplets infames", a libel of a most hcentious
character. Having retorted that they had been Rowlands, Richard. See Verstegan, Richard.
written by Saurin, he was sentenced by the Parle- Rowsham, Stephen, a native of Oxfordshire, en-
ment to pay four thousand livres damages to tered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1572. He took orders
Saurin, and soon after sent to exile. He went first to in the English Church and was minister at the Univer-
Switzerland, where he was sheltered b>- the French sity Church about l.')7S, but becoming convinced of
ambassador. Count de Luc, then to A'ienna, to Prince the truth of the Catholic religion he went to Reims
Eugene's Court, and finally to Brussels. He tried (23 April, 1581), where he was ordained priest, and
several times to have the court's decision annulled, sent on the English mission (30 April, 1582). Being
but failed because of the hostility of ^'oltaire and a recognized almost immediately on his landing, he was
few others. His works consist of: (1) a comedy apprehended and sent to the Tower, 19 May, 1582,
 ROY 213 ROYER-COLLARD
and remained a prisoner for more than three years, the reference to the "adoration" of the Virgin Mary
during half of which time (14 Aug., 1582, until 12 and the saints "as now used in the Church of Rome",
Feb., 1584) he was confined to the dungeon known as while the existence of a supposed dispensing power is
the "Little Ease". On the latter date he was trans- assumed which the Catholic Church has never as-
ferred to the Marshalsea, from which prison he was serted. What added still more to the just resent-
carried into exile in the autumn of 1585. He arrived ment of Catholics at the continued retention of the
at Reims, 8 October, but set out for England again, Declaration was the consciousness that, in the words
7 Feb., 1586. The field of his labours, which were of Lingard, it owed its origin "to the perjuries of an
continued for about a year, was in the west of Eng- impostor and the delusion of a nation". The for-
land. He was taken at the house of the Widow mula was not one drafted by a Parliament in its
Strange in Gloucestershire. His trial and martyrdom sober senses. With the object of excluding Catholics
were at Gloucester in March, 1586-87. from the throne, the Bill of Rights, after the deposi-
Douay Diaries; Reg. Univ. Oxon.; Rishton, Diarium in Turri- tion of James II in 1689, exacted of the monarch a
Londin; Pollen, Acts of Eng. Martyrs (London, 1891) Prison
Lists, II (Catholic Record Society).
;

profession of faith or "Test". The test selected was

J. L. Whitfield.
one which already stood in the statute book, and
which was first placed there during the frenzy excited
Roy, Paul Eugene. See Quebec, Archdiocese by the supposed Popish Plot of 1678. It was amid
OP. the panic created by the fabrications of Titus Gates,
—
Royal Declaration, The. This is the name that this Test was drafted (not improbably by Gates
most commonly given to the solemn repudiation of himself), and it was imposed upon all officials and
Catholicity which, in accordance with the provisions public servants, thus effectually excluding CathoUcs
of the "Bill of Rights" (1689) and of "the Act of from Parhament and positions of trust. By a curious
Succession" (1700), every sovereign succeeding to inversion of history the declaration which was drawn
the throne of Great Britain was, until quite recently, up in 1678 to be taken by every official except the
required to make in the presence of the assembled king, had come two hundred years later to be exacted
Lords and Commons. This pronouncement has only of the king and of no one else. Although state-
been called "the King's Protestant Declara-
also often ments have been made contending that the substance
tion" or "the Declaration against Transubstantia- of the Royal Declaration is older than Titus Gates'
tion" and (but quite incorrectly) "the Coronation time, an examination of these earlier formulae shows
Oath". With regard to this last term it is important little to support such a conclusion (see a full discus-
to notice that the later coronation oath, which for sion in "The Tablet", 13 Aug., 1910, p. 243). A
two centuries has formed part of the coronation brief account of these formulae, and of the attempts
service and which still remains unchanged, consists which were made in 1891 and subsequent years to
only of certain promises to govern justly and to abolish or modify the Royal Declaration, has already
maintain "the Protestant Reformed Religion es- been given in the article Oaths. It will be sufficient
tablished by Law". No serious exception has ever to cite here the terms of the new Declaration which
been taken by CathoUcs to this particular formula, was formally carried by Mr. Asquith's Government
but the Royal Declaration, on the other hand, was in August, 1910, in time to relieve King George V
regarded for long years as a substantial grievance, from the necessity of wounding the feelings of his
constituting as it did an insult to the faith professed Catholic subjects by a repetition of the old formula.
by many millions of loyal subjects of the British In virtue of Mr. Asquith's "Accession Declaration Act
Crown. The terms of this Declaration, which from the brief statement, which now replaces that quoted
1689 to 1910 was imposed upon the sovereign by above, runs as follows: "I, N, do solemnly and sin-
statute, ran as follows: "I, A. B., by the grace cerely in the presence of God, profess, testify and
of God King (or Queen) of England, Scotland and declare that I am a faithful Protestant, and that I
Ireland, Defender of the Faith, do solemnly and will, according to the true intent of the enactments
sincerely in the presence of God, profess, testify, to secure the Protestant Succession to the Throne
and declare, that I do believe that in the Sacrament of my realm, uphold and maintain such enactments
of the Lord's Supper there is not any Transubstantia- to the best of my power."
tion of the elements of bread and wine into the Body See sections IV and V of the bibliography under the article
Oaths; Thurston in Dublin Review (Oct., 1909), 225-38;
and Blood of Christ at or after the consecration The Tablet (London, July and August, 1910), passim.
thereof by any person whatsoever: and that the invo- Herbert Thurston.
cation or adoration of the Virgin Mary or any other
Saint, and the Sacrifice of the Mass, as they are now Royer-Collard, Piebre-Paul, philosopher and
used in the Church of Rome, are superstitious and idol- French poUtician, b. at Sompuis (Marne), 21 June,
atrous. And I do solemnly in the presence of God pro- 1763; d. at Chdteauvieux (Loire et Cher), 4 Septem-
fess, testify, and declare that I do make this declara- ber, 1845. An advocate under the ancient regime, and
tion, and every part thereof, in the plain and ordinary assistant registrar of the municipality of Paris from
sense of the words read unto me, as they are com- 1790 till 1792, he withdrew to La Marne during the
monly understood by English Protestants, without any Terror. In 1797 he represented La Marne in the
evasion, equivocation, or mental reservation whatso- Council of the Five Hundred (Cinq-Cents) and be-
ever, and without any dispensation already granted came prominent through a celebrated discourse in
me by the Pope, or any other authority or person which he demanded liberty for the Catholic religion,
whatsoever, or without any hope of any such dispen- "which rallied under its ancient standards seven-
sation from any person or authority whatsoever, eighths of the French people", and accused of "pro-
or without thinking that I am or can be acquitted found folly" those who wished to substitute "I know
before God or man, or absolved of this declaration not what philosophical silliness". Driven from the
or any part thereof, although the Pope, or any other council by the stroke of the 18 Fructidor, he turned
person or persons, or power whatsoever, should dis- to the restoration of the Bourbons and began a cor-
pense with or annul the same or declare that it respondence with Louis XVIII; he was even, up to
was nuU and void from the beginning." 1804, a member of a secret council which sent messages
The terms of the document are important, for even to the future king. Under the empire he withdrew
the extravagant and involved wording of the "long from public life, but accepted from Napoleon (Decem-
rigmarole" at the end added much to the sense of ber, 1809) the chair ofphilosophy at the Sorbonne.
studied insult conveyed by the whole formula. Not His teaching, which was influenced by the School of
only is the Mass stigmatized as idolatrous, but a Reid, marked a reaction against the sensualism of the
false statement of Cathohc doctrine is implied in eighteenth century. He held to a certain spiritual-
 ROZSNYO 214 RUBENS
ism, based on "fonimon sense'', and an "under- Rozsny6. See Rosenau, Diocese of.
standing of human weakness". Under the Restora-
Ruadhan, Saint, one of the twelve "Apostles of
tion he ajjuin took up polities; he became deputy
Erin" (q. d. at the monastery of Lorrha, Co.
v.);
and was president for five years of the Committee Tipperary, Ireland, 5 Ajjril, 584. Ruadhan studied
of Pubhe Instruction as counsellor of state. As
under Saint Finian of Clonard. His embassy to King
deput>' he opposed both the intrigues of the Ultras,
Dermot at Tara, in 556, is worked into a romance
and tiie anti-constitutional manoeuvres of the Left.
known as the "Cursing of Tara", but the ardri con-
His discourses on the religious laws of the epoch
tinued to reside at Tara till his death (564). The
show that he was inclined to admit, as a consequence
legend as to Tara's halls having been deserted after
of the Concordat, the interference of the State in
564 is of comparatively late origin, and is contra-
Church matters. Educated by a Jansenist mother,
dicted by the fact that a Feis was held at Tara in 697.
and declaring voluntarily that "whoever did not
St. Ruadhan founded the monastery of Lorrha. His
know Port-Royal did not know humanity", he
bell is preserved in the British Museum; St. Rua-
preserved certain Roman in-
prejudices against
dhan's feast is kept on the anniversary of his death.
fluence and gave expression to them
in his discourses. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, IV (Dublin, s. d.); Healy,
He opposed the law punishing sacrilege with death, Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (4th ed., Dublin, 1902);
and the laws restraining the liberty of the Press. Ua Clerigh, History of Ireland (London, 1908).
In 1827 he was W. H. Grattan-Flood.
elected by seven Rubeis, Bernardus de. See Rossi, Bernardo de.
electoral colleges,
became president Ruben [Reuben], a proper name which designates
of the Chamber in in the Bible: (I) a patriarch; (II) a tribe of Israel.
1828,and presented I. Ruben, a patriarch, Jacob's eldest son (Gen.,
to Charles in X xlvi, 8; xlix, 3) by Lia, was born in Mesopotamia, and
1830 the address called Ruben ("see ye, a son") as an allusion to Lia's
of the two hundred distress because of Jacob's previous dislike of her:
and twenty-one in "The Lord saw my affliction: now my husband will
which the Chamber love me" (Gen., xxix, 32). Ruben was deprived of
refused to accept his birthright in punishment of an incest which he
Polignao. Royer- committed in Chanaan (Gen., xxxv, 22; xlix, 4).
Collard described It was at his suggestion that instead of killing Joseph,
himself when he his brothers threw the latter into a pit, whence Ruben
wrote to Barante vainly hoped to rescue him (Gen., xxxvii, 18-24;
(10 Sept., 1S33): 29-30; xlii, 22). AA'hen Jacob refused to allow
" Aly only vocation
Benjamin to go to P^gj'pt with his brothers, Ruben
as a liberal was on offered two of his sons as a pledge that Benjamin
the side of the Legi- would be brought back (Gen., xlii, 37). To these few
timists". For the biblical data concerning Jacob's firstborn, numerous
Fierre-Paul Royer-Collard "doctrinaires" of
From a portrait by Maurin '
and worthless Haggadic details are added in rab-
^jjom 'he was the binical and apocryphal literature.
head, the legitimist monarchy without liberty was II. Ruben, a Tribe op Israel, situated east of
an arbitrary absolutism, liberty without the legiti- Jordan, and sharing with the tribe of Gad, the original
mist monarchy, anarrhy. Under the monarchy of territory of the Amorrhite king, Sehon, between the
July he continued as deputy, but only as a spec- Arnon and the Jeboc and as far east as Jaser, the
tator. The "Restoration", writes Barante, "was border of the Ammonites. The respective lot of
for him a country", and from 1830 this country no Ruben and Gad cannot be given with perfect ac-
longer existed. He resigned from the Chamber in curacy (see Gad), although on the basis of Jos., xiii,
1842, and passed his last years in retirement, but 15-23, Ruben's territorial possessions are usually
his disciples, both in philosophy and politics described as on the east of the Dead Sea and Jordan,
Jouffroy, Cousin, Guizot, R(5musat perpetuated
the influence of certain of his writings; and M.
— between Gad on the north and Moab on the south.
Among the prominent towns of the Rubenites were
Faguet declares that in these one must seek "the Baalmaon, Bethphogor, Cariathaim, Dibon, Hesebon,
most penetrating, the most solid, and the most far- Jassa, Medaba, and Sabama. During the journey
seeing doctrine on parliamentary government" through the wilderness, the tribe of Ruben counted
This he developed with a grave, austere eloquence, over 40,000 men (Num., i, 21; xxvi, 7) and marched
trusting to logic for its strength. AA'hilst during the with Gad and Simeon on the south side of Israel.
first half of the nineteenth century the word "liberal"
To the same period are referred the rebellion of the
was generally synonymous with Voltaireanism and Rubenite chiefs, Dathan and Abiron, against Moses,
hostility to the Jesuits, certain speeches of Royer-
and its signal punishment (Num., xvi; Deut., xi, 6).
Collard quoted by Barante show that this liberal, After contributing to the conquest of Western
especially in his later years, professed a deferential
Palestine and sharing in the various incidents con-
attachment for the Church. "If Christianity", he nected with the erection of a great altar, the de-
w;rotc, "has been a degradation, a corruption, scendants of Ruben settled in a district favourable
\ oltuire in attacking it has been a benefactor of the
to pastoral pursuits (Num., xxxii; Jos., xxii). To-
human race; but if the contrary be true, then the gether with the Gadites, they held aloof from the
passing of Voltaire over the Christian earth has been
war against Sisara (Judges, v), were smitten by
a great calamity. " In a letter to P^re de Ravignan he
Hazael (IX Kings, .<, 32-3), and carried into cap-
comments upon the institution of the Jesuits as a tivity by Teglathphalasar (734 b. c).
wonderful creation. His death was that of a pro-
The Ruben-
ites were pre-eminently a pastoral race, little fitted
fessing and believing Catholic. He was the incarna- to resist invasion, and several of their cities fell into
tion of the upper middle class of his time. He was the hands of Moab (q. v.) long before the tribes east
a member of the French Academy from ls27.
of Jordan were carried captive by the Assyrians
Jouffroy, CEurrrs ile Thomas Raid, III, IV (Paris, 1828-36),
contains some lessons in philosophy and historical fragments by (cf. Is., xv; Mesa).
Royer-Collard; De Bara.vte, La me politique de de Royer-
Collard, .ses discoura et ees rcrits 12 vols., Paris, 1861); Faguet
M Francis E. Gigot.
Politiques et moralistes du 19 siecle, first series (Paris 1891)'' Rubens, Peter Pax-l, eminent Flemish painter,
Spuller, Royer-Collard (1S9.-,).
C!eoRGES GoYAU. b. at Siegen, Westphalia, 28 June, 1577; d. at Ant-
 RUBENS 215 RUBENS
werp, 30 May, 1640. His father, Jan Rubens, a Brant's sister. Meantime, he had become painter-
lawyer and alderman of Antwerp, was a Protestant in-ordinary to the new Governor of the Spanish
who had fled from his native city to Cologne at the Netherlands, the Infanta Isabella, who kept him very
time that the Spanish governor was making strong busy, both as artist and diplomatist, for which his
efforts to extirpate heresy in Flanders. After courtliness and sweetness of manner particularly
various troublous experiences in connexion with the fitted him. In 1629 he was sent to London by the
Dutch army, with the wife of Prince William of Count Olivarfes by way of Brussels and Paris, and was
Orange, and following upon more than one im- knighted by Charles I on 21 February, 1629-30.
prisonment, the father, who had temporarily to leave After his second marriage he purchased a great house
Cologne, returned to that city, where Peter Paul near Mechlin and there prepared his designs for the
commenced his studies. His mother, Maria Pype- pageant intended to commemorate the triumphal
linx, had continued a Catholic, although she tem- entry into Antwerp of the new governor. Archduke
porarily concealed the fact during her aggressive Ferdinand. This governor made him Court painter
husband's life, but she insisted upon the boy s educa- and showered various commissions upon him, among
tion at a Jesuit school. She herself was formally them the decorations of a shooting box which the
received back into the Catholic Church, immediately King of Spain was at that time erecting near Madrid.
upon the death of the elder Rubens, when, though By this time Rubens' wonderful energy and health
in reduced circumstances, she were so broken, that many of
was able to return to Ant- his later pictures were executed
werp. From her and from by his pupils under his super-
his schoolmaster Rombout vision and are to a very slight
Verdonck, Rubens acquired extent his own work.
the strong religious character He had become a man of
which marked the whole of his considerable means through
career. His earliest days were countless commissions not only
passed as a page in the house- in painting and designing pic-
hold of a princess, the, widow tures, but in etching, silver
of Count van Lalaing, former point work, preparing designs
Governor of Antwerp. When for tapestry, engraving on sil-
nearly thirteen the young Ru- ver, and scheming the entire
bens was sent to the studio of decoration for the wonderful
Tobias ^''erhaeoht, and thence pageants that were a feature
quickly removed to study under of his period and country. A
Adam van Noort where he man of prodigious energy and
made the acquaintance of Jor- overpowering enthusiasm, he
daens, a fellow-pupil in the was the author of perhaps a
same studio and a lifelong larger number of huge pictures
friend of the great artist. He than can be attributed to any
soon went to a third studio, other painter, and though very
that of Otto van Veen, and many of his works were en-
remained with this last master tirely executed by his own
until 1598, when he was ad- hand, he trained his pupils to
mitted to the Painters' Guild so skilfully copy his methods
of Antwerp, and started on his and carry out his ideas that in
first journey to Italy (1600). many cases all the rough and
He carried introductions to bolder work of the picture was
the Duke of Mantua, Vineenzo Peter Paul Rubens executed by them, he himself
Self-portrait, Uffizi, Florence
Gonzaga, received his patron- applying the final details and
age, and was sent by him to Florence, Genoa, and Rome glazes, which enabled the picture to be declared a mas-
to carry out important commissions. He then returned terpiece and gave to it that quality which his hand
to Mantua and was sent to Spain in charge of certain alone could supply. The best of his rehgious work is
portraits intended as diplomatic presents. On his at Antwerp, but the twenty-two pictures representing
return to Italy he entered into the Duke's per- the history of Marie de' Medici, on all of which he is
manent service, but was permitted to spend con- supposed to have worked to a certain extent, stand
siderable time in Rome where he continued his studies. supreme in decorative work. Several of his finest por-
In 1608 he left Italy and returned to his own city of traits are in Madrid, others in Munich, and one or
Antwerp, where he married Isabella Brant and settled two of his masterpieces in the National Gallery in
down as an artist of great renown. He joined more London, but almost all the great galleries of Europe
than one religious guild connected with the local contain representative examples of his work. Dres-
churches, and especially became attached to that of den, Brussels, Frankfort, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Ber-
St. Peter and St. Paul, in honour of whose great fes- lin, Florence, and Windsor must all be visited if any
tival on the day of his birth, Rubens had received adequate idea of the output of this extraordinary and
his two Christian names. At this time he com- remarkable painter is to be obtained.
menced his great house, splendidly built, lavishly He has been the subject of many biographies and of
decorated, and installed with many fine treasures constant research. He is always somewhat of a
which he had acquired in Italy. He hved there in mystery, for at first one is depressed by his very
great luxury, full of commissions, and surrounded exuberance, his unbridled artistic frenzy, and the
by a host of pupils, among whom was Anthony van vast show of flesh and power which characterize his
Dyck who rivalled and even surpassed him in por- pictures, while to many who love tenderness, mysti-
traiture, and the eminent painters Jordacns, Snyders, cism, a sensitive quality, and stately dignity, his
de Vos, and Justus von Egmont. impropriety and exaggerated enthusiasm is repugnant.
Here his two sons, Albert and Nicholas, were born. Soine of the greatest artists, such as Rossetti, were in
In 1622 he was commissioned to paint the great their early days unable to understand the anomahes
pictures representing Marie de' Medici, now in a ill the art of Rubens or to appreciate his greatest

gallery in the Louvre; this occupied him for two pictures even in theirmost lenient moods. There is
years. His wife died in 1626, and four years after. such an abundant glory, such powerful organic life in
he married Helena Fourment, the daughter of Isabella the work of this majestic colourist, that his pictures
 RUBRICS 216 RUBRICS
are not easy to appreciate until one is practically of Mass printedat the beginning of the Roman Missal
vanquished by the glory of their colour and the (twenty containing the general rules, thirteen
titles
luxuriance of their unrestraint. A deeper considera- others giving the rite to be followed in the celebration,
tion awakens fuller appreciation and the marvellous and ten others explaining the defects which may
conceptions of the artist and his exuberant ideas of occur); those which regulate the administration of
magnificence impress and reveal the high position of the sacraments (given by the Ritual at the beginning
the painter. of each of the sacraments, as also by the Pontifical
In his drawings he is almost supreme. His religious for the sacraments administered by a bishop). The
pictures, when properly regarded and thoughtfully particular rubrics are the special rules which determine
understood, are impressive in their intense rehgious during the course of the action what must be done at
quality apart from the fury of colour and extrav- each period of the year, on certain fixed days, as the
agance. His portraits are triumphant, sometimes days of Holy Week, or when a particular formula is
perhaps sensual, often dreamy, always impressive. recited. They are inserted in the midst of the form-
He is unequalled as to colours, and though fuller of ulse of Breviary, Missal, or Ritual.
the delights of earth than of heaven, yet when the III. Origin and Development. — The Rubrics are as
nature of the man is understood the intensely devout ancient as the Offices themselves. They were long
quality of his beautiful religious pictures can be appre- transmitted by oral tradition and when they were
ciated. It is, however, as a draughtsman and colour- consigned to writing it was not in the fulness known
ist, as a master of pageant and a decorator of the to us. Like the various elements of the Divine Office
highest position that the fame of Rubens has been and the Mass, the manner of celebrating them had at
created. first a local character; there were observances peculiar
Michel, Hisloire de la Vie de Rubens (Brussels, 1771) to certain churches. Thus St. Cyprian (Ep. Ivi, in
Gachet, Letters oj Rubens (Bnisaels, 1840); Rooses, The Work
of Rubens (Antwerp, 1886); Wauters, The Flemish School of
P. L., IV, 410) mentions the peculiarities of Carthage
Painting (London, 1885). See also various catalogues of Rubens in the administration of the sacraments; St. Augustine
exhibitions and articles upon him, specially those by Waagen, in his reply to Januarius (Ep. Iv, in P. L., XXXIII,
Sainsbuby, and Ruelens.
204) treats at length the rites of the Church, those
George Charles Williamson.
which might under no circumstances be neglected and
Rubrics. — I.Idea.— Among the ancients, accord- those which might be discontinued; St. Gregory the
ing to Columella, Vitruvius, and Pliny, the word Great, writing to St. Augustine of Canterbury (XI,
ruhrica, rubric, signified the red earth used by carpen- Ixiv, in P. L., LXXVII, 1186) suggests to him the
t(;rs to mark on wood the line to follow in cutting it; same wise direction with regard to local practices.
according to Juvenal the .same name was applied to It is difficult to determine the period at which these
the red titles under which the jurisconsults arranged rules were consigned to writing. The ancient Sacra-
the announcements of laws. Soon the red colour, at mentarics, the MSS. Missals, and even the early
first used exclusively for writing the titles, passed to printed Missals contain some, but very few, rubrics.
the indications or remarks made on a given text. This There is every reason to believe that they were con-
custom was adopted in liturgical collections to dis- tained in special collections known as Ordinaries,
tinguish from the formulae of the prayers the instruc- Dii-ectories, and Rituals. An Ordo Romanus has been
tions and indications which should regulate their attributed to Gregory the Great (see LiTnHGiCAL
recitation, so that the word rubric has become the Books), but it is difficult to say what it was. Relying
consecrated term for the rules concerning Divine on the "Ordines Romani" published by Mabillon,
service or the administration of the sacraments. Father Grisar (Civilt^ Cattolica, 20 May, 1905) gives
Gavanti said that the word appeared for the first time the oldest description of the solemn pontifical Mass
in this sense in the Roman Breviary printed at Venice as dating from the pontificate of Gregory the Great.
in 1550, but it is found in MSS, of the fourteenth cen- Hittorp's publication has been much discussed, Cardi-
tury, such as 4397 of the Vatican Library, fol. 227-28; nal Bona (De divina psalmodia, i, 604) regarding the
see also the fifteenth-century "Ordo Romanus" of collection as very ancient but overloaded with the
Peter Amelius. The word is used sometimes to indi- ceremonies of subsequent ages, which is the case with
cate the general laws, sometimes to mark a particular all the ritualistic books. Cardinal Tommasi (Opera,
indication, but always to furnish an explanation of the IV, p. xxxv) characterizes it as a confused mass in
use of the text, hence the saying: Lege rubrum si vis which it is impossible to distinguish the most ancient
intelligere nigrum (read the red if you would under- and authentic practices. In this primitive state
stand the black). Thus in liturgical books the red rubrics and ceremonies were generally mingled.
characters indicate what should be done, the black There were no rubricists until the fifteenth and
what should be recited, and the Rubrics may be de- sixteenth centuries. At first they were compilers and
fined as: the rules laid down for the recitation of the worked on separate parts. Cardinal Quign6nez found
Divine Office, the celebration of Mass, and the ad- the ancient rubrics obscure and confused; the new
ministration of the sacraments. In some respects the rubrics which still exist with some additions and
rubrics resemble ceremonies, but they differ inasmuch alterations form an excellent exposition borrowed from
as the ceremonies are external attitudes, actions con- the "Directorium Officii Divini", published in 1.540
.'iidercd as accidental rites and movements, while the
by the Franciscan L. Ciconialano with the approval
Rubrics bear on the essential rite. of Paul III. In 1502, under Leo X, Burchard edited
II. Kinds. — Writers distinguish between the rubrics the general rubrics of the Roman Missal; they were
of the Breviary, the Missal, and the Ritual, according printed in the edition of the "Missale Planum" and
as the matter regulated concerns the Divine Office, the have thus reached us. In collaboration with Aug.
Mass, or the sacraments; and again between essential Patrizi Piccolomini, Burchard also issued (1488) the
and accK loiital rubrics according as they relate to what is ordinary and the ceremonies of the pontifical Mass
of necessity or t o ext crnal circumstances in the act which under the title "Romans Ecclesise Caeremoniarum
they regulate, etc. But the chief distinction seems to libri tres"; these have passed into our present
be that which divides them into general and particular Pontifical. Finally the Roman Ritual, edited in 1614
rubrics. The first are the rules common to the same
under Paul V, was compiled, with the aid of the Ritual
sacred function, e. g. those which regulate the recita-
of Cardinal Giulio Antonio Santario, from which
tion of the Divine Office, whether considered as
a rnost of the rubrics are derived. Thus various collec-
whole, in its chief parts, or in its secondary parts'
tions of the rubrics compiled by individuals have re-
they are at present printed under thirty-four titles iii
ceived the approval of the sovereign pontiffs, and
the editions of the Roman Breviarv at the head of the
since Pius V, instead of being published as separate
part for autumn; those which regulate the celebration
treatises, they have been inserted in the liturgical
 PETER PAUL RUBENS
THE DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH PHILIP II OF SPAIN
THE PRADO, MADRID THE PRADO, MADRID
MARIA DE MEDICI THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS
THE PRADO, MADRID THE MUSEUM, ANTWERP
 RUBRUCK 217 RUBRUCK
books with which they dealt. The S. C. of Rites, conscience, and when they excuse infractions of the
by
instituted Sixtus V in 1587, is commissioned to rule it is in virtue of special reasons due to circum-
approve new rites, to suppress abuses in liturgical stances. It is also objected that certain rubrics are
matters, issue authentic editions of liturgical books, marked "Ad libitum", e. g. the third Collect of the
to interpret the rubrics, and to solve difficulties con- Mass for certain days, the optional recitation of the
nected therewith. Besides this interpreting authority, "Dies Irae" in low unprivileged Masses for the dead.
individual liturgists may also write commentaries aiid But even in these cases there is a certain prescription:
explanations on the subject. a third prayer must be said, which is left to the choice
IV. Ohligaiory Character. —In describing the kinds of the celebrant; half of the "Dies Irae" may not be
of rubrics we have intentionally omitted mention said, but it must either be omitted or said entire.
of distinctions which seem to us without sufficient Rubrical indications whose obligatory character is
foundation. Writers distinguish between Divine completely lacking, such as the prayers in preparation
and human rubrics, but as soon as rubrics are ap- for Mass, "pro opportunitate sacerdotis facienda",
proved by the sovereign pontiff and promulgated in are exceptional instances, the very terms of which
his name it seems to us that they emanate from a show what is to be understood, but these exceptions
Divine-human authority, and none save the Church merely confirm the thesis. To make them the start-
has the right to establish such rules. According to ing-point in establishing a distinction is merely to
a prevalent sentiment, we should do away with the multiply distinctions at will, a procedure that is
distinction between the preceptive rubrics (those all the more useless because it would eventually
which bind under pain of sin, mortal or venial ac- amount to saying that there are preceptive precepts
cording to the matter) and directive rubrics (those and non-preceptive precepts. We can only conclude
which are not binding in themselves, but state what that the distinction between preceptive and directive
is to be done in the form of an instruction or counsel). rubrics should be done away with, or if it be mentioned
It may be said that the rubrics of the liturgical at all, it should be simply as an historical reference
books are real laws; this follows from the definition: (see Ephemerides Liturgicae, I, 146). Under certain
they are prescriptions for the good order of external circumstances rubrics may be modified by custom,
worship in the Catholic Church, they emanate from but in this respect they do not differ from laws in
—
the highest authority the sovereign pontiff and — general.
Gavanti, Thesaurus sacr, rit. cum addit. Merati (Venice, 1769)
considering the terms in which they are promulgated
it does not appear that the supreme head of the Church
De Herdt, Sac. liturg. 'praxis (Louvain, 1803) Menghini,
:

Elem. juris liturg. (Rome, 1907) Van der .Stappen, Sac. liturg.
;

merely desires to give a counsel. Hence the dis- cursus (Mechlin, 1898); Zaccaria, Bib. ritual. (Rome, 1778);
tinction between the preceptive and directive rubrics Onomasticon (Fraenza, 1787).
is (a) in contradiction to the terms of the definition F. Cabrol.
of rubrics, which are rules, consequently ordinances,
laws, whose character is to be at once both directive Rubruck, William (also called William of Ru-
and preceptive, i. e. to impose an obligation: (b) it bruck and less correctly Ruysbrock, Ruysbroek, and
is contrary to the mind of the sovereign pontiffs Rubruquis), Franciscan missionary and writer of
as expressed in their Bulls, which in estabhshing and travels; b. at Rubrouc in northern France probably
promulgating rubrics intend to make them real laws. about 1200; d. after 1256. He became closely con-
Pius V in the Bull "Quod a nobis", for the publica- nected with St. Louis (Louis IX) in Paris, accom-
tion of the Roman Breviary (1508), expressed him- panied him on his crusade, and was at Acre and Trip-
self as follows: "Statuentes Breviarium ipsum nullo oli. Louis, notwithstanding his repeated ill-success,
unquam tempore, vel totum vel ex parte mutandum, again formed the plan of converting the Tatars to
vel ei aliquid addendum, vel omnino detrahendum Christianity, and at the same time of winning them
esse". The same pope uses similar terms in the as confederates against the Saracens. Consequently
Bull "Quo primum tempore", for the publication of at his orders Rubruck undertook an extended mission-
the Roman Missal (1870): "Mandantes, ac districte ary journey, going first to visit Sartach, son of Batu
. praecipientes ut coeteris omnibus rationibus and ruler of Kiptchak, then reported to have become
et ritibus ex aliis Missalibus quantumvis vetustis a Christian. In 1253 Rubruck started from Constan-
hactenus observari consuetis, in posterum penitus tinople, crossed the Black Sea, traversed the Crimea
omissis ac plane rejectis, Missam juxta ritum, modum towards the North, and then continued eastward;
ac normam qua per Missale hoc a Nobis nunc traditur nine days after crossing the Don he met the khan.
decantent ac legant, neque in Missse celebratione The latter was not inclined to agree to the schemes of
alias caeremonias, vel preces quam quae hoc Missali St. Louis and sent the ambassadors to his father Batu,
continentur addere vel recitare prsesumant". No living near the Volga. Batu would not embrace
less explicit are the expressions employed by Paul V Christianity and advised the envoys to visit the great
for the publication of the Ritual (Brief "Apostolicae Khan Mangu. In midwinter they reached the eastern
Sedi", 1614), by Clement VIII for the publication point of Lake Alakul, south of Lake Balkasch, and
of the Pontifical (Brief "Ex quo in Ecclesia", 1596), near this the Court of the khan, with which they
etc.; (c) this distinction is equally contrary to the arrived at Karakorum at Easter, 1254. After residing
Decrees of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, which for some time in this city they had to return home
constitute a real command, while it cannot be said without having obtained anything. On the return
that they involve a greater obligation than the rubrics journey they took a somewhat more northerly route
which they explain, which would be the case if the and arrived in the spring of 1255 by way of Asia
rubrics were not preceptive, when the commentary Minor at Cyprus, whence they proceeded to TripoU.
would have greater force than the text itself, (d) It The report of the journey which Rubruck presented
is contrary to the rubricists' manner of expressing to the king is a geographical masterpiece of the Middle
themselves. Thus Bissus declares that the rubrics Ages. It exceeds all earlier treatises in matter, power
are laws: "Leges tam Missalis quam Breviarii of observation, keenness of grasp, and clearness of
dicuntur RubricEe, cum legibus et aliis ordinationibus presentment, besides being but little spoiled by
et Solent esse firmae donee revocentur" De Herdt fabulous narratives. In it Rubruck gives a clear
is still more explicit: "Rubricae sunt regulae juxta account of the condition of China, of the character-
quas officium divinum persolvi, Missse sacrificum istics and technical skill of its inhabitants, of their
celebrari, et sacramenta administrari debent." peculiar writing, and of the manufacture of silk; he also
It is true that many others admit the distinction mentions paper money, printing, the division into
between preceptive and directive rubrics, a.s De castes, rice brandy, kumiss, speaks of the physicians
Herdt does, but they write from the standpoint of who diagnosed diseases by the pulse, and prescribed
 RUDOLF 218 RUDOLF
rhubarb. The Middle Ages also owed to him the crease the power of his house, especially in Switzer-
snlution of a disputed geographical question; he land. In his extensive domains, of which Swabia
provcil that the Caspian was an inland sea and did formed the centi-e, he showed himself a good, if stern
not, flow into the Arctic. He called attention to the ruler, and especially in the south won many friends.
relationship between German and the Indo-Germanic At the instigation of Gregory X, who threatened to
group of languages, and to the family unity of the appoint a regent to govern the empire if steps were
Hungarians, Bashkirs, and Huns in the great racial not taken to restore order to the country by the elec-
di\'ision of the Finns; and he also gave a circumstantial tion of a prince who would exercise an elTective
account of the religion of the Mongols and the various rule, Rudolf was chosen emperor 1 October, 1273.
ceremonies of the idolaters. Rubruck's account has Towering but lean of stature, with bony cheeks and
been edited by the Soci^td de Gdographie in the hooked nose, he was a courageous warrior, a skilled
"Recueil de voyages et de m^moires", IV (Paris, diplomat, and distinguished alike for unrelenting
1893), German translation by Kulb in the "Geschichte sternness and genial kindness. Six electors voted for
der Missionsreisen nach Mongolei", I, II (Ratisbin, Rudolf; the seventh, Ottakar of Bohemia, abstained
1860) English tr. by Rookhill, " The Journey of William
;
from voting. This powerful king ruled from Meissen
of Rubruk to the Eastern Parts" (London, 1900). and the mountains in the north of Bohemia as far as
Schmidt, Uber Rubruks Reise in Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft the Adriatic, having added Austria, Styria, Carinthia,
JUr Erdkunde zu Berlin, XX (Berlin, 188.5) Matkod, Le voyage
;
and Krain to his inherited domains. When Ottakar
de Ft. Guillaume de Rubrouck (Couvin, 1909); Schlaqer,
Mongolenfahrten der Franziskaner (Trier, 1911), 45-126. was summoned to answer for this alienation of the
Patbicius Schlager. imperial fiefs, Rudolf proved himself an astute
politician in the
Rudolf of Fulda, chronicler, d. at Fulda, 8 proceedings
March, 862. Fulda Rudolf
In the monastery of against Bohemia.
entered the Benedictine Order, studied under the cele- Recognizing that
brated Rabanus Maurus, and was himself a teacher.
He was undoubtedly associated with King Louis the
Pious, whose intimate friend he considered himself,
but it is not known how long he remained at court.
it was impossible
to force the Ger-
man princes to
the position of
y <^aHHHb;

It probable that, after the elevation of Rhabanus

is vassals,he utilized
to the Archiepiscopal See of Alainz, Rudolf followed every opportunity
him thence, and only towards the close of his life took to enhance the
up his permanent residence once more at Fulda. He power
was one of the most distinguished scliolars of his time.
The "Annales Fuldenses", begun by Einhard and
of his
house, for only the
possession of great
('

^^
t^^k>-
continued (838-63) on the same lines by Rudolf, domains could en-
are \'aluable contributions to the general history of the
period on account of his close connexion with the
court. Among the many editions of the "Annales
Fuldenses si ve Annales regni Francorum orientalis",
sure for a German
king a position
of prominence.
Supported by the
m 19
that of Kurze (Hanover, 1891) is the best (German tr.
by Wattenbach, " Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen
Vorzeit", XXIII, Leipzig, 1889). At the suggestion
Church, Rudolf
began the war in
1276, and on the
'
\'.^
^: m \

of his master Rabanus, Rudolf (838) compiled, from Marchfeld on 26 Rudolf of Habsbdrg
notes of the priest Mego and from oral tradition, a August, 1278, Ot- Engraving by Goltzius
life of St. Lioba or Leobgyth (published in "Acta takar lost his throne and his life. The ancient posses-
SS.", VII, Sept., Antwerp ed., 760-9, and in "Mon. sions of the Bohemian royal house were left to Ottakar's
Germ. Script.", XV, i, 121-31). It was St. Lioba son Wenceslaus, who was still a minor, but the Austrian
whom St. Boniface called to Bischofsheim on the lands had to be given up and were formally granted
Tauber to assist him by her activity. Under the mis- by Rudolf to his own sons, as according to the pre-
leading title, " Vitabeati Rabani Mauri, archiepiscopi vailing laws of the empire, the sovereign could not
Moguntini in Germania", there is extant a work upon retain confiscated lands. In this manner Ostmark
the miracles performed by the relics brought to Fulda came permanently into the possession of the Habs-
by Rabanus, interspersed, according to the spirit of burgs. Whether the downfall of Ottakar was a Ger-
the times, with important historical and ethnological man success or not, is still an open question among
notes. In the "Mon. Germ. Script." (XV, 329^1) scholars. In recent times, the opinion has prevailed
it is printed under the more correct title, "Miracula that, far from being hostile to the Germans, Ottakar
sanctorum in Fuldenses ecclesias translatorum". A favoured German immigration into Bohemia, and
similar work of much more importance historically is that, with the possession of the Austrian lands, he
" Translatio sancti Alexandri Wildeshusam anno 851
might perhaps have completely germanized Bohemia;
in "Mon. Germ. Script.", II, 673-81, begun by Rudolf and, had he secured the imperial crown, this powerful
in 863 at the request of Waltbraht, a grandson of prince might have given a new importance to the
W'idukin, and completed by Meginhart. Taking the imperial authority. The creation of a strong central
"Germania" of Tacitus for his model, he pictured the power was also the object of Rudolf's politics. For
history of ancient Saxony and the introduction of the consolidation of his kingdom about the Danube,
Christianity. peace and stability in Germany were necessary, and
\^ATTENBAOH, Deutschlands Geschichtsguellen im Mitlelaller,
II (Berlin, 1S93), 227 sq., 23Ssq.; Potthast, Bibliotheca hintorica these only a strong imperial power could guarantee.
medii csvi (Berlin, LS96), I, 67; II, 1151, 1429, 1540. There was no fixed imperial constitution, and the
Patricius Schlager. development such would have been resisted by the
of
territorial princes. Rudolf was shrewd enough to
Rudolf of Habsburg, German king, b. 1 May abstain from attempting forcibly to increase his con-
121S; d. at Speyer, 15 July. 1291. He was the soii stitutional powers, and contented himself with pre-
of Albert IV, the founder of the Habsburg line, and
serving such domains and rights as were still left to
Countess Heilwige of Kiburg. After the death of the crown. He sought to recover the many imperial
his father m
the Holy Land, Rudolf pursued an in- possessions which had been lost since 1245, moreover
dependent line of politics. In the conflict between he saw to it that the taxes laid upon the imperial
the papacy and the empire he supported the Hohen-
cities and towns were duly paid although he failed to
;

staufens, and, during the interregnum, strove to in-

establish uniform system of taxation owing to the
 RUDOLF 219 RUDOLF
resistance of many cities which had to be put down master. He then proceeded to Italy, graduated as
by force of arms before they came to an agreement doctor in ecclesiastical law and became auditor of
with the Emperor. the Rota. Numerous benefices were conferred upon
With Rudolf began a period of national peace him at an early date, particularly in the dioceses of
for Germany which was to last for two hun- Mainz and Worms. From 1438 onward he represented
dred years. Taking as his model the pacific the cathedral chapter of the latter city at the schismatic
settlement made by the Emperor Frederick II, in Council of Basle, where he formed a friendship with
the Landfrieden at Mainz, in 1235, he drew up a Enea Silvio de' Piccolomini, subsequently Pope
number of agreements which, though often broken, Pius II. The latter, his successor Paul II, and the
were the chief means of protecting commerce and Emperor Frederick III entrusted Rudolf with im-
trade. But here also he had to be content, if the portant missions and difficult negotiations. Pius
princes and towns really carried out these settlements II named him in 1463 Bishop of Lavant in Tyrol.
to do which they claimed as their right and if they The See of Breslau was conferred on him in 1468,
really checked the system of robbery, which, under at a time when the inhabitants were spiritedly re-
the form of "feuds", prevailed more and more. This sisting their ruler, George Podiebrad, King of
however was not always the case. Even in such cases Bohemia. The latter had been deposed and ex-
Rudolf did not take vigorous measures and prove communicated, but maintained his position as ruler.
practically that the maintenance of public peace was The war which resulted was protracted beyond
the duty of the Emperor. Lesser peace-breakers he Podiebrad's lifetime and terminated, with Rudolf's
punished; greater ones only in case they threatened co-operation, in the Peace of Olmiltz in 1479. Now
his dynastic interests. In Swabia his governor intent more exclusively upon the spiritual welfare
(Landvogt), Count Albert of Hohenberg, fought with- of his diocese, the bishop sought to heal the wounds
out much success against Count Eberhard the Il- of the war, endeavoured to imbue the diocesan secu-
lustrious of Wiirtemberg; against Siegfried, the am- lar and regular clergy with a sound ecclesiastical
bitious Metropolitan of Cologne, he proceeded by spirit, and insisted upon the importance of their
force of arms. But it was not the warlike measures proper theological training. The acts of the synods
of Rudolf, but the defeat of Siegfried near Wor- held in 1473 and 1475 bear witness to the zeal and
ringen in 1288 by the Duke of Brabant in the quarrel energy of the skilful prelate.
concerning the inheritance of Duke Walram of Lim- Zaun, Rudolf von Rudesheim (Frankfort, 1881) ; Pastor,
Hist, of the Popes, tr. Antrobhs, III (London, 1894), 174, 198-
burg that curbed the ambitious efforts of the arch- 201.
bishop. Rudolf was more successful in his efforts N. A. Weber.
(1289) to settle the disputes in the House of Wettin.
But his chief ambition, to secure the imperial crown Rudolf von Ems (Hohenems in Switzerland), a
for his house, he failed to realize. The electoral au- Middle High German epic poet of the thirteenth cen-
thority grew stronger during his reign, and the system tury. Almost nothing is known of his life. He him-
of electing its kings remained the canker of the German self tellsus that he was in the service of the Counts
Empire. Until the very last he endeavoured to in- of Montfort and from the anonymous continuator of
crease the power of his family; indeed, in the east of the "Weltchronik" we learn that the poet died "in
the empire, he created for his family such a position welschen richen", i. e. in Italy, whither he had prob-
that a little later it developed into a decisive factor in ably gone with King Konrad IV, about 1254. He
the subsequent historical evolution of the German professes himself a follower of Gottfried von Strass-
Empire. Meanwhile, considering the difficult con- burg, for whom he entertains the greatest admiration,
ditions, he did very much to restore the unity of the but his moralizing and didactic tendency differs strik-
empire. By his wise moderation he secured for him- ingly from Gottfried's joyous sensualism, and he is
self general recognition, being the first emperor for a prone to diffus.eness and redundancy. In the choice
long period to achieve this end. The many diets of subjects he shows a predilection for those that are
which he held must also have strengthened the feel- learned, and he generally draws from Latin sources.
ing of the unity of the empire. His foreign policy The earliest of his extant poems and one of the best
showed the same wise moderation. He abstained is "Der gute Gerhard" in which the simple piety of an
from taking any action in the Italian question, without humble merchant of Cologne puts to shame the Phar-
however resigning the rights of the empire. How- isaical ostentation of the Emperor Otto. The didactic
ever much the pope strove to secure the support of tendency is very conspicuous in the poem "Barlaam
the German king against the powerful Charles of und Josaphat", which treats a well known Christian
Anjou in order to check his power in the south of the legend that seems to have its root in Buddhist sources
peninsula, Rudolf was always able to skilfully avoid and which on account of its glorification of the
the overtures; even the attractions of the imperial ascetic life and its defence of Christianity against
crown were of no account in the eyes of this sober and Paganism was a favourite subject with medieval
calculating prince. In Burgundian affairs he inter- poets. Another poem on a legendary subject, the
fered only as far as his action was likely to increase conversion of St. Eustace, which Rudolf mentions
the power of his house, by strengthening it on the among his works, has not been preserved. "Wilhelm
imperial frontiers towards Burgundy. Otherwise his von Orlens", a courtly epic with a conventional love-
policy in the West was guided by the principle of story, is based on a French original and was written
preserving peaceful relations with France. The death for one Konrad von Winterstetten (d. 1241). Rudolf's
of this upright and popular monarch was received most ambitious efforts were the historical epics "Alex-
with lamentations throughout the empire. He was ander" and "Weltchronik" For the former the chief
buried at Speyer. sources are the "historia de preliis" and the work of
LiuDNER, Deutsche Gesch. unter den Habsburgern u. Luxem- Curtius Rufus. The "Weltchronik" was undertaken
burgern (Stuttgart, 1888-93); Kopp, Gesch. der eidgendssischen
Bunde (Basle, 1882) Michael, Gesch. des deutschen Volkes vom
;
at the request of King Konrad IV and was to be a
13. Jahrh. bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1897- complete history of the world from the beginning to
1903): ScHULTE, Gesch. der Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahr- the poet's own time. But death intervened and the
hunderten (Innsbruck, 1887) ; Redlich, Rudolph von Habsburg
(Innsbruck, 1903). story breaks off with King Solomon's reign. An
Franz Kampbrs. anonymous poet then took up the subject and, making
free use of Rudolf's material as well as drawing on
Rudolf of Rudesheim, Bishop of Breslau, b. at Godfrey of Viterbo's "Pantheon", he gave a version
Rudesheim on the Rhine, about 1402; d. at Breslau that carried the story as far as the Book of Judges.
in Jan., 1482. From 1422 to 1426 he studied at the This second recension, usually called the "Christ-
University of Heidelberg from which he graduated as Herre-Chronik", from its opening words, was sub-
 RUDOLPH 220 RTTFFORD
sequontly still further amalgamated with Rudolf's and maintained therein by succeeding governments.
version and amphfied by various continuators, notably A call to the chair of higher mathematics in Pavia he
one Heinrich \'on Munchen (fourteenth century). declined, because he did not wish to give up his medi-
In this form the work became \ery popular and was cal practice among his dear Modenese. The univer-
finally resolved into prose. sity having been degraded to the rank of a lyceum,
"Der gute Gerhard" was edited by Haupt (Leip- he accepted (1806) the chair of applied mathematics
zig, 1S40); "Barlaam und Josaphat" by Pfeiffer at the newly established military school. In 1814
(Leipzig, \S4:i). Of the other works there are as yet Francesco IV re-established the university and ap-
no critical editions. A MS. reprint of a "Willehalm pointed Ruffini rector for life, and at the same time
v(in Orlens" was given by Victor Junk in "Deutsche professor of practical medicine and applied mathe-
Texte des Mittelalters" (Berlin, 190.5), II; selections matics. By his lectures with the patients actually
from "Alexander" by Junk in "Beitrage zur Ge- present he revived the clinical studies which had
schichte der deutschen Spraohe" (1904), 29, 369-469; been neglected for several years. During the typhus
from "Weltchronik", by Vilmar, "Die zwei Rezen- epidemic of 1817 he sacrificed himself for his fellow
•sionen und die Handsohriftenfamilien der Weltchronik citizens, and finally succumbed. Although he re-
Rudolfs V. E." (Marburg, 1839). covered, he never regained his strength. He was
KRtjGER, Stilistische IhUersuchungen. uber R. v. E. als Nachahmer buried in the Church of Santa Maria di Pomposa,
C'll'frieds (Lubeck, 1896) Zingerle, Die Quellen zum Alex,
rle.t
;

R. V. E. in Weinhold and Vogt, GermanisHscke Abhand-

between the tombs of Sigonio and Muratori.
lufigen. IV (Breslau, 1885); Zeidler, Die Quellen von Rudolfs is a "Memoria sul
Ruffini's sole medical treatise
V. E. Wilhelm von Orlena (Berlin, 1894) ; Junk, Die Epigonen des tifo contagioso". As a mathematician his name is
hoff-chrn Epos in Sammlunff Gbschen, no. 289 (Leipzig, 1906),
l(i-B2.
inseparably associated with the proof of the im-
Arthue F. J. Remy. possibility of solving algebraically the quintic equa-
tion, on which subject he wrote several treatises
Rudolph Acquaviva, Blessed. See Cdncolim, ("Teoria generale delle equazioni, in cui si dimostra
Martyrs of. impossibile la soluzione algebraica delle equazioni
Rueckers, Faimily op, famous organ and piano- generali di grado superiore al 4°", 2 vols., Bologna,
forte builders of Antwerp. Hans Rueckers, the founder, 1798; " Delia soluzione delle equazioni alg. determi-
lived in Amsterdam at the end of the sixteenth and nate partioolari di grado sup. al 4°" in "Mem. Soc.
the beginning of the seventeenth century, where he Ital.", IX, 1802, which was awarded a prize by the
became a member of the Guild of St. Luke and was ac- National Institute of Alilan; "Delia insolubilita delle
tive principally as organ-builder. He died in 1640 or eq. alg. etc.", ibid., X, 1803; "Delia insolubility etc.
1641. In what year the house which he established qualunque metodo si adoperi, algebraico esso sia o
in Amsterdam was transferred to Antwerp is not trascendente" in "Mem.Inst. Naz. Ital.", I, 1806).
known, but it was in the latter city that it attained its He also proved the impossibility of the quadrature
renown. Hans Rueckers originated a spinet (fore- of the circle ("Riflessioni intorno alia rettificazione
runner of the piano-forte) with two keyboards, which ed alia quadratura del circolo" in "Mem. Soc. Ital.",
could be played singly or simultaneously. They IX, 1802). Less known, however, is the fact that
could be coupled, a higher octave on one keyboard, Ruffini published the now familiar " Horner's method"
with a lower octave on the other, thereby doubhng of approximation to the roots of numerical equations
the sonority. Hans Rueckers' son, Andreas, b. in fifteen years before Horner's first paper on it appeared
1579, further perfected the mechanism of their
still in the "Philosophical Transactions" of 1819 (pt. I,
instruments, which gained world-wide celebrity under pp. 308-35). In 1802 the Italian Society of Forty
.\ndreas the Younger during the second half of the offered a gold medal for the best method of deter-
seventeenth century, their importance continuing mining the root of a numerical equation of any de-
under his successors throughout the greater part of gree. In 1804 the medal was awarded to Ruffini, and
the eighteenth. Rueckers' pianos were exported to the dissertation was published under the title "Sopra
foreign countries, particularly to England, and sold la determinazione delle radice nelle equazioni nume-
for the price, in those days fabulous, of 3000 francs. riche di qualunque grado" In a paper read before
Many of these instruments were decorated by famous the Southwestern Section of the American Math.
painters, which caused some of them to be destroyed Soc. (26 Nov., 1910), Professor Florian Cajori pointed
so that the paintings might be preserved. out that the computation demanded by Ruffini is
RiMBAULT, The Pianoforte, its Origin, Progress, and Construc- identical with that in "Horner's method", and that
tion (London, 1860); Hopkins, Old Keyboard Instruments this method is elaborated by Ruffini with a clearness
(Ixtndon, 1887); Musikalisches Konversationslexikon (Berlin.
1S77). and thoroughness not surpassed in Horner's own ex-
Joseph Otten. position of 1819. In view of this fact, Professor
Cajori insists that the name of RuflSni should be
Rufi&ni, Paolo, phy.sician and mathematician, b. associated with that of Horner in the designation of
at Valentano in the Duch^' of Castro, 3 Sept., 1765; the method. Ruffini again wrote on this subject in
d. at Modena, 10 May, 1S22. At first he intended 1807 (Algebra elementare, cap. iv, v), and in 1813
to enter Holy orders and went so far as to receive the (Memorie Soc. It., XVI, XVII). Ruflini was during
tonsure, but changing his mind, he began the study his whole life a zealous Catholic. His convictions find
of mathematics and medicine in the University of expression in his apologetic works: "Dell' immortality
Modena, where he received the degree of doctor. At deir anima" (Modena, 1806), dedicated to Pius VII,
the age of twenty-three he was appointed professor who sent him a gold medal; "Riflessioni critiche sopra
of anal3'.sis after having substituted for a year for his saggio filosofico intorno alle probabilita del Sig.
teacher, Cas.siani. In 1791, the chair of elementary Conte de la Place" (Modena, 1821), in which he
mathematics was entrusted to him. In the meantime, proves himself to be as familiar with metaphysics as
he did not neglect the study and practice of medicine! with questions of religion.
At the tune of the French invasion of Italy (1796), he Fanto.\'Etti, Note Storiche sopra i socj rlefunti: Paolo Ruffini
was unexpectedly appointed a member of the Jim'iori in Mem. Imp. Reg. 1st. del Regno Lomb. Ven., V (1.S3S), 40-41;
in the legislative body at Milan.
LoMBAKDi, Notizie sulla vita di Paolo Ruffini (Florence,
It was not without 1824) PoGQENDORFF, Biogr.-Litt. Handworterb. zur Gesch. der
;

difficulty that he succeeded in returning to his Exact. Wiss. (1858-63); Cajori, Horner's Method of .ipproxi-
lectures
at Modena. Because he refused to take the republi- malion .Anticipated by Ruffini in Bull, of .American Moth. Soc.
caTi oath without the conditional declaration
(May, 1911).
dictated Stein.
by hi.s conscience, he was dismissed from his position J.

as a pubhf lecturer; but with the return

Austrians in 1799 he was restored to his former
of the Ru&ord Abbey, a monastery of the Cistercian
post Order, situated on the left bank of the Rainworth
 RUFINA 221 RUFINUS
Water, about two miles south of OUerton in Notting- brated martyr Mamas (Mammes), venerated at
hamshire, was founded by Gilbert de Gant in or about Caesarea in Cappadocia (cf. the various Passions of
1147, and colonized with monks from Rievaulx abbey. these saints in the "Bibl. hagiographica latina", II,
Gilbert endowed it with the manor of Rufford, and
shortly afterwards added "Cratil" (Wellow), Barton,
and Willoughby; these donations were confirmed by
Stephen and Henry II, who also granted exemption
from certain tolls and customs. Other benefactions
followed and the abbey grew rich enough to be re-
quired in 1310 to supply victuals for Edward II's
expedition to Scotland, and to be asked in 1319 for a
contribution towards making good the losses suffered
by the Archbishop of York through the Scottish war;
yet in 1409 it escaped payment of a tenth to the king
on the ground of extreme poverty. The published
lists of abbots, in Dugdale and the Victoria County
History, begin with Philip de Kyme, a well-known
Lincolnshire magnate, whose inclusion is due to a
mis-punctuation in a Pontefract charter. Both lists
also omit the following early abbots: Gamellus, who
occurs as witness to a Kirkstead charter of 1148-49
(Dugdale, V, 420) and is eulogized in two epitaphs
contained in a Rufford manuscript now in the British
Museum (Tit. D. xxiv, ff., 81b, 88); Elias (1156 and
1160), in Bulls of Adrian IV and Alexander III (Harl.
Ch. Ill, A. 2, 5); Matthew (c. 1170-80), in various un-
dated charters (Harl. MS. 1063, ff. 10b, 65b, etc.);
WiUiam, oc. between 1189-95 (''Reg. of Abp. W.
C;ray", Surtees Soc, p. 39); Walter, 1212 (Harl. MS.
106.3, f. 66); Robert, 1228 (ib., f. 127b); John, c. 1260-
70 (ibid., f. 22b). The last abbot but one, Rowland
Blyton, or Bliton, left Rufford in 1533 to become
Abbot of Rievaulx. His successor, Thomas Don-
caster, was given a pension of £25 at the dissolution
Sts. JtrsTA AND Rufina
in 1536; but relinquished it within a few months on
Murillo, Provincial Museum, Seville
becoming rector of Rotherham. The dissolved abbey,
with its estates, valued at £246 15s. 5d. yearly, was 771 sq., and in the "Bibl. hagiogr. graeca", 2nd ed.,
granted in 1537 to George Talbot, fourth Earl of 143). (4) On 24 or 25 August, the feast of two mar-
Shrewsbury. On the death of Edward, eighth earl, tyrs,Rufina and Eutyche, at Capua in Campania is
in 1618, it passed to Sir George Savile through his recorded in the "Martyrologium Hieronymianum"
marriage with Lady Mary Talbot; and it has remained (110). Nothing further is known of either of these
ever since in the possession of the Savile family, the saints.
present owner being John, Lord Savile. The remains J. P. KiRSCH.
of the monastic buildings are incorporated in the
modern mansion. —
Rufinus, Saint. The present Roman Martyrol-
Dugdale, Monast. Anglicanum, V(1825), 517-21; Page, ogy records eleven saints named Rufinus: (1) On 28
Victoria History of co, Nottingham, ii (1910), 101-5; Warner February, a Roman martyr Rufinus, with several
AND Ellis, Facsimiles of Brit. Mus. Charters, I (1903), no. 48;
authorities cited, especially Harl. MS. 1063, a seventeenth cent, companions in martyrdom; nothing is known con-
transcript of Abbot John Lyle's chartulary compiled in 1471. cerning them. (2) On 7 April, an African martyr
J. A. Herbert. Rufinus with two companions; their names are men-
tioned under 6 April in a list of martyrs in the
—
Ruflna, Saints. The present Roman Martyrology "Martyrologium Hieronymianum" (ed. De Rossi-
Duchesne, 40). (3) On 14 June, the two martyrs
records saints of this name on the following days: (1)
On 10 July, Rufina and Seeunda, Roman martyrs, Valerius and Rufinus who suffered at Soissons, France,
who according to the legendary Acts (Acta SS., July, during the Diocletian persecution; their names are
III, 30-1) suffered in 287 during the Aurelian per- given under this date in the " Martyrologium Hierony-
secution. Their place of burial was at the ninth mile- mianum" (ed.cit., 78; cf. 66 under 26 May; also Acta
stone of the Via Cornelia, as is stated in the Berne SS., June, II, 796 sqq.). (4) On 21 June, Rufinus
manuscript of the " Martyrologium Hieronymi- who suffered martyrdom with Martia at Syracuse;
anum" (ed. De Ros,si-Duchesne, 89). These mart3TS nothing is known concerning him. (5) On 30 July,
are also recorded in the Itineraries of the seventh R,ufinus of Assisi, who was according to legend the
century as on the road just mentioned (De Rossi, bishop of this city and a martyr. He is probaljly
"Roma sotterranea", I, 182-83). Pope Damasus identical with the "episcopus Marsorum" noted
erected a church over the grave of the saints. The under 11 August. The Acts of the martyrdom
town on this spot named after St. Rufina became the of this Rufinus are purely legendary [cf. "Biblio-
see of one of the suburbioarian dioceses that was later theca hagiographica latina", II, 1068; Elisei, "Studio
united with Porto (of. AUard, "Histoire des Per- suUa chiesa cattedrale di S. Rufino" (Assisi, 1893);
secutions", III, 96). (2) On 19 July, Justa and D. de Vincentiis, "Notizie di S. Rufino" (Avezzano,
Rufina, martyrs at Seville (Hispalis) in Spain. Only 1885)]. (6) On 19 August, Rufinus, confessor at Man-
St. Justa ismentioned in the "Martyrologium tua. (7) On 26 August, a confessor Rufinus venerated
Hieronymianum " (93), but in the historical martyrol- at Capua (cf. Acta SS., August, V, 819-820). His
ogies (Quentin, "Les martyrologes historiques", name is given in the "Martyrologium Hieronymi-
176-77) Justina is also mentioned, following the anum" under 26 and 27 August. (8) On 4 September,
legendary Acts. There is no doubt that both are a martyr Rufinus with his companions in martyrdom
historical martyrs of the Spanish Church. (3) On who suffered at Ancyra in Galatia he is also mentioned
:

31 August, Theodotus, Rufina, and Ammia, of whom in company with several others in the "Martyrol.
the first two are said to be the parents of the cele- Hieronym." (ed. cit., 113) under 31 August, and again
 RUFINUS 222 RUFUS
under 4 Septomber (ed. cit., 116). (9) On 9 September, of the works of Rufinus is that of Vallarsi (Verona,
Rufinus and Rufinianus, with no further particulars. 1745). It contains Fontanini's " Vita Rufini", which
(10) On 16 November, Rufinus, a martyr in Africa with is still a great authority. This edition has been re-
several companions in martyrdom; nothing is known printed by Migne in P. L., XXI. Unfortunately, it
concerning this saint. (11) Besides the saints al- does not contain the translations, and what is of more
ready- given mention should also be made of a martyr importance, the prefaces to the translations: these
Rufinus of Alexandria whose name is given under must be sought in the works of Origen, St Basil etc. .

22 June in the "Martyrol. Hieronym." (ed. cit., 81). The translation of Eusebius's "Church History"
J. P. KlBSCH. together with the continuation, has been recently
published in the Berlin edition of the Greek Christian
Rufinus Tyrannius, better known as Rufinus of writers of the first three centuries. The most im-
Aquileia, about 345, probably at Concordia in
b. portant of Rufinus's writings, including the aforesaid
Italy (Jerome, Ep. ii, 2); d. in Sicily about 410. prefaces, have been translated in the third volume of
Though both his parents were of the Christian Faith, Wace and Schaff's " Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers"
For further information concerning Rufinus and his writing.^
he was not baptized till he was about twenty-five consult the Prolegomena to the above-mentioned translations.
yeare old at Aqui- See also Fremantle in Diet. Christ. Biog., a. v. Rufinus (5). For
leia, where he lived the Origenist controversy see Duchesne, Hist, ancienne de
Veglise, III, ii; Thierry, Saint Jerome, I (Paris, 1867), 1. VII.
for a short time as
For Rufinus as a translator of Origen see Armitage Robinson's
a monk. During edition of the Phitocalia (Cambridge, 1893), pp. xxxi-xxxix;
this period he prob- this writer says: "His [Rufinus's] translation is in fact what we
ably composed his should now call a paraphrase. He gives as a rule sense; and for
the most part it is Origen's sense, if we have regard to the general
"Exposition of the thought rather than to the individual sentence."
Creed". Soon af- F. J. Bacchus.
ter his baptism he
went to Egypt, —
Rufus, Saints. The present Roman Martyrology
probably in the records ten saints of this name. Historical mention
company of Me- is made of the following: (1) On 19 April, a group of
lania; he there martyrs in Melitene in Armenia, one of whom bears
spent six years the name of Rufus. These martyrs are mentioned al-
among the her- ready in the " Martyrologium Hieronymianum " (ed.
mits, and from De Rossi-Duchesne, 46). (2) On 1 August, Rufus,
them imbibed his with several companions who, according to the most
love of Origen. reliable manuscripts of the "Martyrol. Hieronym."
Afterwards he set- died at Tomi, the place being afterwards by mistake
RuFiNus OP Aquileia tled in Palestine, changed to Philadelphia (cf. Quentin, "Les martyr-
"
From a woodcut in Thevet's book Dea and lived in a ologes historiques", 337). (3) On 27 August, two
Vrais Pourtraits," Paris, 1584
monastery on the mart3TS named Rufus at Capual one, whose name—
Mount of Olives with companions who dwelled in cells also appears as Rufinus in the " Martyrol. Hieronym."
built at his expense, for he was a wealthy man. He (ed. cit., 111). The other is said to have suffered with
later paid a second visit to Egypt which lasted about a companion, Carponius, in the Diocletian persecu-
two years. His friendship with St. Jerome, begun at tion (cf. "Bibhotheca hagiographica latina", II, 1070;
Aquileia if not earlier, was broken by the Origenist Acta SS., VI August, 18-19). (4) On 25 September,
controversy in Palestine stirred up by St. Epipha- several martyrs at Damascus, among them one named
nius (see Origenism), but the two were subse- Rufus. (5) On 7 November, a St. Rufus, who is said
quently reconciled. In 397 he returned to Italy in to have been Bishop of Metz; his history, however, is
the company of Melania. On his arrival there he legendary. His name was inserted at a later date in
composed a commentary on the "Benedictions of the an old manuscript of the "Martyrol. Hieronym." (ed.
Patriarchs", and began his labours as a translator of cit., 140). In the ninth century his relics were trans-
Origen with a Latin version of Pamphilus's "Apology ferred to Gau-Odernheim in Hesse, Diocese of Mainz.
for Origen" (see Pamphilus of C^sarea, Saint), to (6) On 12 November, Rufus, a supposed Bishop of
which he affixed by way of epilogue a short but his- A^'ignon, who is perhaps identical with Rufus, the
torically valuable treatise "The Adulteration of the disciple of Paul (21 November). Legend, without any
Works of Origen by Heretics" This was followed historical proof, has made him the first Bishop of
by a translation of Origen's "De principiis". .\s the Avignon [cf. Duchesne, "Pastes 6piscopaux de
original is no longer extant, Rufinus's concept of his I'ancienne Gaule", I, 258; Duprat in "M^moires de
office as a translator, though prudent at the time^ is I'Academie de Vaucluse" (1889), 373 sqq.; (1890),
aggravating to posterity. Assuming extensive falsi- 1 sqq., 105 sqq.]. (7) On 21 November, Rufus the
fication by heretics, he omitted and rectified, endeav- disciple of the Apostles, who lived at Rome and to
ouring howe\-(T to make his rectifications from what whom St. Paul sent a greeting, as well as he did also
Origen had- said elsewhere. He also indiscreetly, if to the mother of Rufus (Rom., xvi, 13). St. Marksays
not with malicious intent, lauded St. Jerome's eajlier in his Gospel (xv, 21) that Simon of Cyrene was the
zeal for Origen. This led to a fresh outbreak of the father of Rufus, and as Mark wrote his Gospel for
Origenist controversy and a final estrangement from the Roman Christians, this Rufus is probably the same
St Jerome. St. Jerome attacked Rufinus, who rephed
.
as the one to whom
Paul sent a salutation [cf Comely, .

with an ".\pology" in two books. It was in con- "Commentar. in Epist. ad Romanos" (Paris, 1896),
nexion with this controversy that he -nTOte his short 778 sq.]. (8) On 28 November, a Roman martyr
"Apology to Pope .Vnastasius " Rufinus translated
.
Rufus, probably identical with the Rufinianus who was
other writings of Origen besides those already named: buried in the Catacomb of Generosa on the Via
some treatises of St. Basil and of Gregory of Nazian- Portuensis, and who is introduced in the legendary
zus, the "Recognitions of Clement", the "Sayings" Acts of the martyrdom of St. Chrysogonus (cf Allard, .

cir "Ring of Xystus", some short tracts of

Evagrius "Histoire des pers(5cutions " IV, 371 sq.). (9) On 18
,

Ponticus, and Eusebius's "Church History"; to this December, the holy martyrs Rufus and Zosimus, who
last he added two books, bringing the narrative down were taken to Rome with St. Ignatius of Antioch and
to his own times. For the question whether the were put to death there for their unwavering confession
"Historia monachorum" was an original work or a of Christianity during the persecution of Trajan. St.
translation see Monasticism. II. Eastern MonasH- Polycarp speaks of them in his letter to the Philip-
cism Before Chalcedon (A. D. 451). The best edition plans (c. ix). J. P. Kirsch.
 RXnNART 223 RUIZ
Ruinaxt, Thieret (Th:6odore), church historian Massuet, Biog. de Ruinart in Annales ord, S. Benedicti, V
(Paris, 1713) Jadakt, Dam Th, Ruinart (Paris, 1886) Bhoolie,
and theologian, b. at Reims 10 June, 1657; d. at Mabillon et
; ;

Saint-Germain-des-Pris (2 vols., Paris,

la 80ciit6 de
the Abbey of Hautvillers near Reims, 27 September, 1888); HuETEB, Nomenclator, IV (3rd ed., Innsbruck, 1910),
1709. After completing his classical studies he en- 821-4.
tered (2 October, 1674) the Maurist Congregation J. P. KlESCH.
of the Benedictine Order at the Abbey of Saint-
Ruiz de Alarcdn y Mendoza, Juan de, Spanish
Remy at Reims which, in that era, produced in dramatic poet, b. at Mexico City, about 1580; d. at
France a briUiant company of distinguished scholars.
Madrid, 4 August, 1639. He received his elementary
His seriousness, deep piety, and fine intellectual
education in Mexico and finished his studies at the
gifts soon made him known throughout his order, and
University of Salamanca, obtaining the degree of
Mabillon requested the superiors to give him Ruinart
Bachelor of Laws. In 1606, he removed to Seville
as a fellow-worker. Thus in 1682 he came to the
with the object of practising his profession, and re-
Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pr6s, near Paris, where
mained in that city for three years. While there his
Mabillon was staying and, under the guidance of
friends and associates were the men of letters of the
this great investigator, became one of the most
city, among them the illustrious Miguel Cervantes
eminent church historians and critics of his time.
Saavedra, wilSi whom he formed a close friendship.
The first large, important work that Thierry The years between 1609 and 1611 he passed in his
Ruinart undertook was the publication of the Acts
native country. Returning to Spain, he settled in
of the martyrs that he regarded as genuine: "Acta
Madrid. A few years before Philip II had trans-
primorum martyrum sincera et selecta" (many ferred his court to that city, and it was not long before
editions; first ed. Paris, 1689; last ed., Ratisbon,
Alarc6n's dreams of a prominent position at the bar
1859). Taken as a. whole the collection is not sur- were shattered, for he saw that only through intrigue
passed even to-day, though individual documents
and adulation could he hope for preferment. This
are not regarded as genuine by the keener criticism
being distasteful to a man of his temperament, he
of modem times. In the introduction he ably dis-
turned to writing for the stage, attracted by the suc-
cussed the authorities for the history of the martyrs,
cess of Lope de Vega, Gabriel Tellez (Tirso de Molina),
the Christian persecutions, and in doing this refuted
and others of that period, which was so rich in literary
the opinion propounded by Dodwell ("De pauoitate
masters. He was successful almost from the start.
martyrum", Oxford, 1684), that there were only Unfortunately, he gained as well the envy and enmity
a small number of martyrs in the early Church. of some of the poets of the time, among them Lope de
A supplement to his work was published by Le Blant Vega, Gongora, and Montalvdn, who lampooned him
("Les actes des martyrs", Paris, 1883, in "M^moires
mercilessly. After his death he was gradually forgot-
de ITnstitut de France", XXX). After the "Acta" ten, save by plagiarists, who could safely pilfer from
he published the "Historia perseoutionis Van-
his unread works. Posterity, however, has given him
dalicse" of Victor of Vita, to which he added an ex-
his due, and he is considered the first great literary
haustive discussion of the persecution of the Catholics
product of the New World and perhaps even to this
in Africa at the hands of the Vandals (Paris, 1694;
day, one of the greatest. He is admittedly in the
Venice, 1732).
foremost rank of Spanish dramatists, being surpassed,
After this he edited the works of St. Gregory of Tours
if at all, only by Lope de Vega and Calder6n. Alarc<5n
(S. Gregorii Florentii episoopi Turon. opera omnia)
was the author of many plays, all of them master-
and the chronicle of Fredegar (Paris, 1699), with a pieces. Among the best known are: "Truth Sus-
comprehensive introduction and a large number of
pected", which drew forth the highest praise from
notes. With Mabillon he published volumes VIII Corneille, who used it as a basis for his "Le Menteur";
and IX of the "Acta Sanctorum ord. S. Benedicti"
"Walls have Ears" was meant to ridicule the habits
(Paris, 1700-01). In this same period he prepared
of gossip and slander; "The Weaver of Segovia", a
his "Apologie de la mission de Saint-Maur" (Paris,
drama of intrigue and passion, in two parts, the first
1702) as a contribution to the history of the Bene-
of which has been attributed to another author, being
dictine Order in France. He published the treatise so much inferior to the second. In general his plays
"Ecclesia Parisiensis vindicata" (Paris, 1706), in
are distinguished by their ingenious plots, moral tone,
defence of Mabillon's work, "De re diplomatica",
vigorous and pure style, and purity of versification.
which had been attacked by Bartholomew Germon. Hartzenbtjsch, Comedias de J, Ruiz de Alarcdn y Mendoza
Mabillon had begun, but had not been able to com- (1862); Antonio, Bibliotheca hispana nova (Madrid, 1783-88);
plete, a new edition of the "De re diplomatica"; Latour, Espagne, tradition, moeurs et litt^rature (1869); Guerre
Y Obbb, D. J, R. de Alarcdn y Mendoza (Madrid, 1871).
this edition was now issued by Ruinart, who published
in connexion with it an "Abr6g6 de la vie de J.
Ventura Fuentes.
Mabillon" (Paris, 1709). At the same time he had Ruiz de Montoya, Antonio, one of the most dis-
undertaken the continuation of the "Annales ord. S. tinguished pioneers of the original Jesuit mission in
Benedicti" and carried it further by nearly complet- Paraguay, and a remarkable linguist; b. at Lima,
ing the fifth volume. Peru, on 13 June, 1585; d. there 11 April, 1652.
While on a journey made during the year 1709, After a youth full of wild and daring pranks and
which he undertook to gather further material for adventures he entered the Society of Jesus on 1
this work, he was taken ill and died. The fifth November, 1606. In the same year he accompanied
volume, just mentioned, was edited (Paris, 1713) by Father Diego Torres, the first provincial of Paraguay,
Massuet after Ruinart's death. Several manu- to this mission, where he laboured for thirty years as
scripts left by Mabillon and Ruinart were edited one of its most capable and successful apostles.
by Thuillier ("Ouvrages posthumes de Mabillon et Father Ruiz de Montoya was one of the true tjrpe of
Ruinart", three volumes, Paris, 1724). Among these great Spanish missionaries of that era, who, as if
were three treatises by Ruinart: " Iter literarium in made of cast-iron, united a burning zeal for souls with
Alsatiam et Lotharingiam " "De pallio archiepis-
; an incredible fewness of wants and great power of
copaU"; "Vita S. Urbani, pp. 11". The letters of work. In co-operation with Fathers Cataldino and
the distinguished scholar were edited by Val^ry, Mazeta he founded the Reductions of GuajTa, brought
" Correspondance in^dite de Mabillon et de Mont- a number of wild tribes into the Church, and is said
faucon" (three volumes, Paris, 1846), by Jadart to have baptized personally 100,000 Indians. As
in his biography of Ruinart (see below), and head of the missions he had charge from 1620 of the
by Gigas, "Lettres des Bfin^diotins de Saint- "reductions" on the upper and middle course of the
Maur, 1652-1741" (three volumes, Copenhagen, Parana, on the Uruguay, and the Tape, and added
1892-93). thirteen further "reductions" to the twenty-six al-
 RUIZ 224 RUMANIA
ready existing. When the missions of Guayra were twenty years in Cordova and Seville. For a time he
endangered by the incursions of marauders from Brazil was rector of the College of Cordova, and represented
in search of slaves, Father Mazeta and he resolved to his province, Andalusia, at the Sixth General Con-
transport the Christian Indians, about 15,000 in num- gregation. The last years of his life were devoted to
ber, to the Reductions in Paraguay, partly by water viTiting. His ciistinguishing characteristics seem to
with the the aid of seven hundred rafts and numberless have been humility, a retiring disposition, and integ-
canoes, and partly by land through the mazes of the rity. Notwithstanding the fact that the Duke of
primeval forest. The plan was successfully carried out Lerma promised to obtain permission from Paul V to
in 1631 after the suffering of incredible hardships and publish his manuscripts " De Auxiliis ", if he furthered
dangers. "This expedition", says the Protestant von his plans, he declined to advise the citizens of Seville
Ihering, "is one of the most extraordinary undertak- to pay a certain tribute. Fray Miguel de San Jos^
in;;s of this kind known in history" [Globus, LX (1891), considers him a most finished theologian; Merlin a
17'.*|. In 1637 Montoya on behalf of the governor, of wise, subtle, prudent student and faithful interpreter
the Bishop of Paraguay, and of the heads of the orders of the Fathers, and Kleutgen and Mendndez-Pelayo
laid a complaint before Philip IV as to the Brazilian think that he combined positive historic theology
jiolicy of sending marauding expeditions into the with scholastic, in a manner not achieved by any of the
neighbouring regions. He obtained from the king theologians who preceded him. His published works
important exemptions, privileges, and measures of are: "Doctrina Christiana", wTitten by command of
protection for the Reductions (see Reductions of the Bishop of Cordova, published anonymously and
Paraguay) Soon after his return to America Mon-
.
several times reprinted; "Commentaria ac disputa-
toya died in the odour of sanctity.
He was a fine scholar in the beautiful but difficult
tiones in primam partem D. Thomse" (a) "De
Trinitate" (Lyons, 1625), his principal treatise and
—
language of the Guarani Indians, and has left works one of the best on this subject; (b) "De praedestina-
upon it which were scarcely exceeded later. These tione ac reprobatione hominum et angelorum " (Lyons,
standard works are: "Tesoro de la lengua guarani" 1628); (c) "De scientia, ideis, veritate ac vita Dei
(Madrid, 1639), a quarto of 407 pages; "Arte y (Paris, 1629); (d) "De voluntate Dei et propriia
vocabulario de la lengua guarani" (Madrid, 1640), a actibus ejus" (Lyons, 1630); (e) "De providentia"
luarto of 234 pages " Catecismo de la lengua guarani"
(
;
(Lyons, 1631); (f) "De nominibus Dei". These are
(Madrid, 1648), a quarto of 336 pages. Mulhall rare and much sought editions. In manuscript
pre-
calls Ruiz de Montoya's grammar and vocabulary served in various libraries: " De auxiliis", two volumes
"a lasting memorial of his industry and learning". classified as very good by Father Vitelleschi;
"De
The German linguist Von der Gabelentz regarded angelis"; "Commentarii in materiam de peccatis";
them as the very best soiu'ces for the study of the " Controversiae et quaestiones theologicae "De bene-
Guarani language, while Hervas declares that the ficiis parochialibus conferendis"; "De "
;

eliminandis e
clearness and comprehensive grasp of the rules to republica comoediis vulgaribus"; "De statu eorum,
which Montoya traced back the complicated structure qui petunt dimissionem in Societate
Jesu"; "De
and pronunciation of Guarani are most extraordinary. causis dimittendi a Societate Jesu"
All three works were repeatedly republished and re- MuNOZ DE GAlvez, Carta sobre la muerte y virtudes del
. . .

A'ised. In 1876 Julius Platzmann, the distinguished Padre Montoya. Uriarte aaya this waa signed in Seville in 1632
German scholar in native American languages, issued and was written by Father Feliciano de Figuero (Catalogue
No. 3797). Andrade, Varones ilustres, VII (Bilbao, 1891), 162-
. . .

at Leipzig an exact reprint of the first Madrid edition Michael a S. Joseph, Bibliogr. Crit. sacra et prof., IV (Madrid^
of this work "unique among the grammars and dic- 1742), 85; NioolAs Antonio, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova, I
(Matriti, 1793), 311; Sotwel, Bibliot. scrip, sociel. (Rome, 1676,
tionaries of the American languages". A Latin
1774); HuHTEB, Nomendator, I (Innsbruck, 1892), no. 265-
version was edited by the German scholar Christ. SoMMEBVOGEL, BibHotUque, VII (1896), col. 323; Memorial del
Friedr. Scybold at Stuttgart in 1890-91. A collected Colegio de Cdrdoba, I, cap. viii, p. iv, n. ii; Guilhehmy, Minolooe'
edition of all Montoya's works was published at Espagne, I, 433.
\'ienna under the supervision of the Vicomte de Porto Antonio P^bez Goyena.
Seguro in ISTli. Of much importance as one of the Rule, Religious. See Religious Life.
oldest authorities for the history of the Reductions of
Paraguay is Montoya's work, "Conquista espiritual Rule of Faith. See Faith.
hecha por los religiosos de la C. de J. en las provincias Rumania, a kingdom in the Balkan Peninsula,
del Paraguay, Parand, Uruguay y Tape" (Madrid, situated between the Black Sea, the Danube, the
1639), in quarto; a new edition was issued at Bilbao Carpathian Mountains, and the Pruth.
in 1892. In addition to the works already mentioned
Montoya wrote a number of ascetic treatises. Letters
I. History. —The modern Rumanians are generally
regarded as the descendants of the Dacians, a branch
and various literary remains of Ruiz de Montoya are of the ancient Thracians; they dwelt north of the
to be found in the "Memorial histor. espaiiol", XVI Danube in the territory now known as Transylvania,
(Madrid, 1862), 57 sqq.; in "Litter* annuse provinc. and formed at the beginning of the Christian era a
Paraguariae" (.\.ntwerp, 1600), and in the "^lemorial comparatively well-organized state. Under the rule
sobre llmites de la Repiibl. Argentina con el Para- of able princes (e. g. Decebalus) they frequently
guay" (Buenos Aires, 1807), I, appendix; II, 216- threatened the Roman civilization between the
252; cf. Backcr-Sommervogel, "Bibl. de la C. de Adriatic Sea and the Danube. Trajan first succeeded
Jdsus", VI, 1G75 sqq. after several campaigns (102-06) in bringing the
Dahlmann. Du' Sprachenkunde und die l\Ii.^sionen (Freiburg,
country under the Roman dominion: the new Roman
1891), 84 sqq.;Conquista espiritual (Bilbao), Prdlogo; Sal^
DAMANHO, Los antiguos Jesuz/as del Pirv, (Lima, 1882), 61 sqq.; province received the name of Daoia, and embraced
Xarque, Vida de P. Ant. Ruiz de Montoya (.^aragossa, 1662); the modern Transylvania, Banat, and Rumania. To
DE .\ndrade, Varones iluntres (Madrid, 1666); PlatzmannJ
Verzcichniss einer Auswahl amerikan. Grnmmatiken, Wnrter-
replace the Dacians, a portion of whom had emigrated
bUcher, etc. (Leipzig, 1876), a. vv. GuAnvNi and ilniz; Mul- northwards, Trajan introduced colonists into the land
hall, Between the Amazon and Andes (London, 1881), 248 sqq.- from every part of the Roman Empire, especially
Revista Peruana, IV, 119.
from the neighbouring Illyrian provinces; these settlers
Anthony Huonder. soon converted the Dacian territories wasted by the
wars into one of the most flourishing Roman provinces,
Ruiz de Montoya, Diego,
theologian, b. at Seville which was shortly known as "Dacia felix". From
1.562; there 15 March, lli32.
d. He entered the the fusion of the remaining Thracians and the Roman
Society of Jesus in 1572 and was professed 22 July, colonists, who possessed a higher culture, issued in
1 592. He taught philosophy in Granai la, moral theol- the course of the third and fourth centuries the Daco-
ogy for one year in Baeza, and theology for about Rumanian people. As early as the second century
 RUMANIA 225 RUMANIA
began the assaults of the Germanic tribes on the lachia, and successful wars against Charles I, King of
Roman Empire. After several unsuccessful attempts, Hungary, and Robert of Anjou enabled him to pre-
the Goths occupied the Dacian province in the third serve his independence and to extend his authority to
century, and in 271 Emperor Aurelian formally ceded the Danube and the Black Sea. A little later (about
the territory to them. In the fourth century the the middle of the fourteenth century) Bogdan, Voi-
Goths were followed by the Huns, who in similar vode of Maramaros in Transylvania, who rebelled
fashion brought the Romans and Goths into subjec- against the suzerainty of Hungary in 1360, founded
tion after several campaigns. In the fifth century the Principality of Moldavia by overrunning the Car-
came the Gepida;, and in the sixth the Avars, who pathians and reducing under his sway the hilly coun-
occupied Dacia for two centuries. Under the domin- try along the River Moldau. Both these Rumanian
ion of the Avars the Slavs made their appearance, principalities had to contend with great difficulties
settling peacefully among the inhabitants; they have from their foundation: on the one hand their inde-
left many traces of their presence in the names of pendence was threatened by the neighbouring king-
places and rivers. Gradually, however, they were doms of Hungary and Poland, while on the other do-
absorbed and Romanized, so that the Latin character mestic quarrels and a want of unity between the kin-
of the language was preserved. The influence of the dred principalities lessened their strength. But their
Slavs was greater on the right bank of the Danube, most dangerous enemy was the Turk, who extended his
where they overwhelmed the Thraoo-Roman popula- conquests into the Balkan Peninsula in the middle of
tion by weight of numbers, and denationalized the the fourteenth century. In wars against the Turks
Finnic Bulgars who settled in the country in the and vain efforts to shake off the Turkish yoke, almost
seventh century. In this way the Romanic popula- the whole activity of the two principalities was ex-
tion of the Balkan Peninsula was divided by the Slavs hausted for several centuries. By their unflinching
into two sections; the one withdrew northwards to defence of their religion, the ancestors of the present
the Carpathians, where people of kindred race had Rumanians protected the culture and civilization of
settled, while the other moved southwards to the the Christian West from the onslaught of Islam, and
valleys of the Pindus and the Balkan Mountains, thus played a role in universal history. Several of the
where their descendants (the modem Aromuni or princes who reigned during this heroic period of Ru-
Macedo-Vlachs) still maintain themselves. In the manian history are especially conspicuous: Mircea
history of the Southern Rumanians the erection of the Old or the Great (1386-1418) and Radul the
the Rumano-Bulgar Empire by the brothers, Peter, Great (1496-1508) in Wallachia, and Alexander the
Jonita, and Asen at the end of the twelfth century is Good (1400-33) and Stephen the Great (1457-1504)
especially noteworthy; this empire became disin- in Moldavia. Mircea organized his dominions and
tegrated in the middle of the thirteenth century on extended his frontiers to the Black Sea by seizing Do-
the extinction of the Asen dynasty (see Btjlgaria). brudja and the town of Pilistria from the Bulgars in
The Bulgar dominion over ancient Dacia exercised a 1391. To repel the onsets of the Turks, he formed
decisive influence on the ecclesiastical development of with King Sigismund of Hungary (afterward em-
the country. Christianity had been introduced peror) an offensive and defensive alliance, in accord-
especially into the modern Dobrudja, where there ance with which he participated in the ill-fated battle
—
was a strong garrison ^by Roman colonists and near Nicopolis in 1396. In 1402 he had to recognize
soldiers, the Latin form and liturgy being employed. the suzerainty of Turkey, to vacate the right bank of
In Tomi (now Constanta) existed an episcopal see, the Danube, and to pay a yearly tribute, in return for
nine occupants of which between the fourth and sixth which the Porte guaranteed the free election of the
centuries are known. During the dominion of the Wallachian princes and the independent internal ad-
Bulgars the ancestors of the Rumanians with their ministration of their territory. The immediate fol-
lords came under the jurisdiction of the Greek Patri- lowers of Mircea were weak princes, and disputes con-
arch of Constantinople, and were thus drawn into cerning the succession postponed the casting off of the
the Greek Schism. Consequently, even to-day the Turkish yoke. Radul the Great, son and successor of
vast majority of the inhabitants of Rumania belong the ex-monk Vlad I who had been appointed prince by
to the Orthodox Church (see below). The immigra- the Turks (1481), sought by reforms in the adminis-
tion of the Bulgars was followed by the campaigns tration and in eoclestiastical matters to mitigate the
of the Magyars, who however made no permanent general distress and to secure greater independence
settlement in the land, choosing for settlement the from Turkey.
plain between the Danube and the Theiss. At the For Moldavia the long reign of Alexander the
beginning of the tenth century the country was sub- Good (1401-32) was a time of prosperity: he or-
jected to the repeated attacks of the Peshenegs, and ganized the finances, the administration, and the
in the middle of the eleventh to those of the Cumans. army, drew up a code of laws after Byzantine models,
During the migrations and invasions of various tribes, and increased the culture of the people by founding
the population of the country was strongly impreg- schools and monasteries. Alexander had on three oc-
nated with Slav and other elements, and only in the casions to take the oath of fealty to the King of Po-
wooded hills of Northwestern Moldavia and Tran- land; his sons had Hkewise to recognize the suzerainty
Daco-Rumanian population
sylvania did the original of Poland, and his natural son, Peter (1455-57), had in
remain pure and unmixed. After peace had been addition to pay tribute to the Turks. After a period
restored, the people descended from these remote of almost uninterrupted wars for the princely dignity,
retreats, and united with the inhabitants of the plains Stephen the Great (1457-1504), a grandson of Alex-
to form the Rumanian people. ander, inaugurated a period of peace and splendour
During the tenth and eleventh centuries small prin- for Moldavia. Thanks to his valiant and well-organ-
cipalities called Banats were formed in the territory of ized army, he succeeded not only in keeping his coun-
ancient Dacia; those which extended from Trans- try independent of the Turks and Poland for nearly
sylvania northwards and westwards to the valley of half a century, but also increased his territory by sub-
the Theiss came gradually under the sway of the duing a portion of Bessarabia, organized the Church,
Magyars, while those extending eastwards and south- founded a new bishopric, and built several new
wards from the Carpathians maintained their inde- churches and monasteries. Under him Moldavia
pendence. From the latter originated the principali- reached its greatest power and extent. His son Bog-
ties of Wallachia and Moldavia. By uniting the dan III (1504r-17), in view of the superior forces of the
smaller districts on both sides of the River Olt, Voi- Turks, had to engage to pay a yearly tribute, in re-
vode Bassarab (d. 1340) founded toward the end of turn for which Moldavia was (like Wallachia) al-
the thirteenth century the Grand Banat, Little Wal- lowed the maintenance of the Christian faith, the free
XIII.— 15
 RUMANIA 226 RUMANIA
election of princes, and independent domestic
its sented to Greek monasteries, and much of its income
administration. In spite of these treaties, a period left the land and enriched Greek monasteries through-
of bondage began for both lands after the battle of out the East (especially Mount Athos). Meanwhile
iMohics, which had brought Turkey to the height of the Porte arbitrarily raised the tribute to many times
its power. The Turks created a military zone along its former amount. .Some Greek princes formed a
the Danube and the Dniester, established Turkish glorious exception, and, by introducing reforms in fa-
garrisons in important places, and compelled the vour of the peasants, rendered great services to both
princes to do personal homage to the sultan in Con- countries; especially notable in this respect were
stantinople every three years, to bring (in addition to Nicholas and Constantine Mavrocordatus in Walla-
the tribute) presents in token of their submission, to chia and Gregory Ghica in Moldavia. During the
perform mihtary service, to maintain a troop of jani- Fanariot dominion Rumania was frequently the scene
zaries in their retinue, and to give relatives as hos- of the wars waged by Turkey against Austria or
tages for their fidelity. The sultans finally arrogated against Russia. In 1718 the western portion fell to
to themselves the right of appointing and removing at Austria, but in 1739 it was recovered by Turkey.
will the vaivodes of both principalities; the princes After the Turco-Russian War of 1768-74 Russia
thus became mere blind tools of the Porte, were for the wished to occupy the Rumanian principalities; Aus-
most part engaged in harrying each other, and in very tria opposed this and, in return for this service, the
many instances fell by the hands of assassins. Tur- Porte ceded to Austria Upper Moldavia (the present
key abused its power to appoint new princes at short crownland of Bucovina). Moldavia had to bear the
intervals; as the princes had usually to purchase the cost of the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-12, the eastern
recognition of the Porte with large sums of money, portion of the country between the Pruth and the
they exacted from their subjects twice or three times Dniester (Bessarabia) being ceded by Turkey to
the amounts thus paid. The chief portions of these Russia. Of the Moldavia of Stephen the Great only
extortions were wrung from the peasants, who were re- half now remained. When Vaivode Alexander Ypsi-
duced by the large landowners and the nobles (the lanti, a Fanariot, utilized the princely office to pro-
boyars) to the condition of serfs. The nobles also be- mote the rebellion of the Greeks against the Turkish
came demoralized, and wasted their strength in rule, the Porte found itself compelled to cease ap-
scheming to obtain the vaivodeship. Both principali- pointing Greeks to the princely dignity, and to revert
ties, however, occasionally enjoyed a brief period of to the old practice of naming Rumanians. Russia
prosperity. Thus, Michael the Brave of Wallachia now began to interest itself in the principalities,
(1593-1601) succeeded in casting off the Turkish though only for interested reasons; by the Treaty of
yoke, defeating an army twenty times as numerous as Akerman it obtained that only boyars should be ap-
his own in 1595. In 1599 he occupied Translyvania pointed princes. A new war having broken out be-
and in 1600 Moldavia, and thus formed an united tween Russia and Turkey in connexion with the
Rumanian Kingdom which, however, again collapsed Greek struggle for freedom, Russia occupied the two
on his assassination in 1601. The reign of Matthias principaUties after the Peace of Adrianople (1828);
Bassarab (1632-54) was also beneficient for Wallachia; the Russian Count Kisselew, who governed the terri-
he protected his boundaries from the attacks of the tories at the head of the Russian army of occupation,
Turks on the Danube, restrained the previously inor- regulated anew the administration and the political
dinate influence of the Greeks, founded in 1652 the organization of the countries. After the Russian oc-
first Rumanian printing establishment, and had a code cupation Russia appointed as princes for life, for
of laws compiled after Greek and Slav models. His Moldavia Michael Sturdza (1834^49), and for Wal-
example was imitated by Vasili Lupu, Vaivode of lachia Alexander Ghica (1834r-43), who was suc-
Moldavia (1632-53), who in addition endeavoured by ceeded by another favourite of the tsar, George
the foundation of schools and charitable institutions Bibescu.
to promote the culture of the land. Thus, despite the The reforms introduced under the Russians subse-
oppressive political conditions of the seventeenth and quently prepared the way for the gradual economic
eighteenth centuries, became possible the existence development of the territories. However, this im-
of a flourishing ecclesiastical hterature and spiritual provement benefited almost exclusively the boyars
lyrical poetry, which kept alive the national con- and the great landowners, while the people remained
sciousness of the people. At this period were laid in their former pitiable condition. These circum-
the enduring foundations of Rumanian culture. Of stances, as well as the interference of Russia in the
great importance also was the circumstance that domestic affairs of the principahties, the spread of
the Old Slavonic language then began to be re- patriotic and liberal ideas, the desire for national
p!ace<l by the Rumanian both in public life and in unity, the curtailment of the privileges of the boyars,
the Church. and free institutions, finally led (owing to the example
When, towards the end of the seventeenth and the given by the French Revolution of February) to an
beginning of the eighteenth century, the Turkish insurrection, which was successful only in Wallachia.
power was broken by the victories of Austria, the in- On 21 June, 1848, George Bibescu was forced to abdi-
fluence of Austria and Russia began to make itself felt cate, a new constitution was proclaimed, and a pro-
in the affairs of the two Rumanian principalities. To visional government appointed. However, Russia
rid themselves of the Turkish domination, the princes and Turkey occupied the principaUties in common,
turned now to one power and now to the other, but set aside the constitution, and restored the old condi-
were deceived by both. To oppose these attempts tions by the Convention of Balta-Limani (1 May,
the Porte ceased to appoint native Rumanian nobles
1849) at the same time the election of princes for life
;

to the vaivodeship as previously, appointing Greeks and the national assembly were abolished. Barbil
especially from the Fanar district in Constantinople,
Stirbeia, Bibsecu's brother, was named Prince of Wal-
who were able to offer larger sums for their appoint- lachia, and Gregory Alexander Prince of Moldavia for
ment than the boyars; the princely dignity was thus a period of seven years. During the Crimean War
in the strictest sense of the word leased. For the both principalities were occupied first by Russia, and
Rumanian lands thus began the gloomiest period of then (after 1854) by Austria. The Congress of Paris
their history, the period of the Fanariots, which
rearranged their relations, setting aside the Russian
lasted from 1712 to 1821. Foreign princes succeeded
suzerainty and restoring that of Turkey. A commis-
one another at the shortest intervals, taking posses- sion of the great powers which had been sent to the
sion of the country with a numerous retinue of wards,
principalities having learned the wishes of the Ru-
relatives, and creditors, and reducing it to greater and
manian people, both were given autonomy to the ex-
greater po\erty. A great portion of the land was pre- tent of their ancient treaty with Turkey and a consti-
 RUMANIA 227 RUMANIA
tutional government by the Convention of Paris in the country in one connexion — the distribution of
(1858) the further wishes of the people for the union
; the land and real property. Almost half of the
of the two territories and the nomination of a prince landed interest (over 47 per cent) is vested in the
from one of the ruling houses of Europe were not ful- hands of scarcely 4200 persons, so that Rumania out-
filled, the two principalities being kept separate and rivals Southern Italy as the land of big estates with all
each electing a prince for Ufe. In 1859, however, a the resulting evils. As these great landowners possess
personal union was effected, Colonel Alexander John political as well as economical power, and exercise it
Cuza being elected for Moldavia on 17 January and to the detriment of the peasants, a serious rising of the
for Wallachia on 24 January; the double election was peasants broke out in 1907, and could be suppressed
by the Porte after some hesitation. In 1861
ratified only with the aid of the army after the proclaiming of
Cuza established, instead of the separate ministries, a martial law. To abolish gradually these evil condi-
common ministry and a common representative as- tions and to protect the peasants from the oppression
sembly, and in 1862 the union of the principalities, of the landowners and lessees and from usury, a series
henceforth known as Rumania, was proclaimed. of excellent agrarian reforms have been introduced
Prince Cuza introduced a series of reforms; the most since 1907 and have been in many cases already en-
important were the secularization of the Greek mon- forced.
asteries, the law dealing with public instruction, the II. Present Condition. — The area of Rumania
codification of the laws on the basis of the Napoleonic is 50,720 sq. miles; according to the census of 1899
Code, and especially the land laws of 1864, by which the population was 5,956,690 (at the beginning of
the peasants were given free possession of the land 1910 the estimated population was 6,865,800). In
and the remnants of serfdom, socage and tithes, were 1899 the population included: 5,451,787 Greek Ortho-
abolished. As the chamber, which was controlled by dox (over 91-5 per cent), 149,677 Catholics (2-5 per
the boyars, was particularly opposed to the last meas- cent), 22,749 Protestants, 15,094 Lippovans, 5787
ure, Cuza abolished the chamber in 1864 and gave the Armenians, 266,652 Jews, 44,732 Mohammedans, 222
country a new constitution with two chambers. Not- of other religions. According to nationality the popu-
withstanding all his services, Cuza brought the coun- lation was as follows: 5,489,296 Rumanians, 108,285
try into a financial crisis. A conspiracy was formed Austrians and Hungarians, 23,756 Turks, 20,103
against him, in which the army participated; on the Greeks, 8841 Italians, 7964 Bulgarians, 7636 Germans,
night of 22 February, 1866, he was seized by the 6859 foreign Jews, 11,380 of other nationalities. Ac-
conspirators and compelled to abdicate the following cording to the constitution of 19 June, 1866, Rumania
morning. is a constitutional monarchy, the legislative power
After Count Phihp of Flanders, brother of King being vested jointly in the king and parliament. The
Leopold of Belgium, had refused the sovereignty, the national assembly consists of two chambers, a senate
Catholic prince, Charles of Hohenzollem-Sigmarin- and a house of representatives. To the senate be-
gen, was elected hereditary prince at the instance of long the adult princes of the royal house, the eight
Napoleon III on 14 April, 1866. On 22 May he en- bishops of the Orthodox Church, one representative
tered Bucharest, and after some months was recog- of each of the two national universities, and 110
nized by the Porte, although Rumania had again to members elected by two electoral colleges; the house
recognize its obligation to pay tribute. From the be- of representatives consists of 183 members elected
ginning of his reign Charles had great difficulties to by adult Rumanians paying taxes organized into 3
overcome; the development of the country had been electoral colleges. The bills passed by Parliament
prevented by centuries of foreign occupation, com- receive the force of laws only when sanctioned by the
merce and manufacture were to a great extent in the king. While according to the constitution the Greek
hands of foreigners, the land was for the most part in Orthodox is the State Church, liberty in the practice
the power of a few great landowners, while the mass of of their religion is granted to all the other Churches,
the population were poor and burdened with heavy and the State refrains from all interference in the
taxation. Notwithstanding frequent rotation in election and appointment of the clergy of the various
power of the political parties, a series of reforms were denominations. State support is given only to the
passed, and the army, organized after the Prussian Orthodox Church. The Orthodox Church of Rumania
model, made creditably efficient. When the Russo- declared itself independent of the Patriarch of Con-
Turkish War broke out in 1878, Rumania made a stantinople in 1859, a declaration which was not
treaty with the tsar, allowing the Russian troops to recognized by the latter until 1885. The supreme
march through its territory, and on 22 May, 1877, de- ecclesiastical authority is the Holy Synod, consisting
clared its independence of the Porte. At the storm- of the two metropolitans, the six bishops, and the
ing of Plevna and the besieging of other places the eight titular archpriests of Rumania; its duties are to
Rumanian army rendered very important services to preserve the unity of the Rumanian with the Eastern
—
Russia services for which Russia showed no grati- Church in dogma and the canons, to maintain eccle-
tude. The complete independence of Rumania was siastical discipline within the territory of Rumania,
recognized by the Congress of Berlin (13 July, 1878), and to decide all purely ecclesiastical spiritual and
but it was compelled to cede to Russia Bessarabia, legal questions according to the holy canons. The
which it had acquired in 1856, and to content itself choice of bishops is vested in an electoral body com-
with the less important Dobrudja. In consequence of posed of the eight bishops, the titular archpriests,
this disappointment Rumania has since favoured Ger- and all the Orthodox representatives and senators;
many and Austria in its foreign pohcy. On 26 March, the election is by secret ballot. For ecclesiastical
1881, Charles had himself crowned king. The new administration the country is divided into eight
kingdom soon began to display a successful activity eparchies (dioceses), of which the eparchies Ungro-
in both the material and intellectual domains. The Wallachia, with its seat at Bukarest, and Moldau, and
natural richness of the land was developed, the build- Sucea, with its seat at Jassy, are metropolitan. The
ing of roads and railways promoted, and the standard Primate of Rumania is the Metropolitan of Bukarest.
of public instruction raised. Between 1882 and 1885 the For the Catholics of Rumania have been erected the
independence of the Orthodox Church in Rumania Archdiocese of Bukarest and the Diocese of Jassy.
from the Patriarchate of Constantinople was effected, The ancient Catholic Church of Rumania disappeared
and in 1883 the Archdiocese of Bukarest was erected when the people, influenced by the Bulgars, placed
for the Catholics. Thanks to its intellectual and themselves imder the jurisdiction of the Greek Church
material development and its military strength, Ru- in the ninth century and thus became involved in its
mania has become an important factor in European schism.
politics. Grievous conditions, however, still prevail The seed of the modem Catholic Church in Ru-
 RUMOHR 228 RUMOHR
mania developed in the thirteenth and fourteenth bishops of Sofia were chosen from the Franciscan
centuries in consequence of the immigration of the Observants, these friars gradually replaced the Con-
Hungarians and Poles, and various CathoUc dioceses ventuals as missionaries. In similar fashion the
were founded in the Middle Ages. However, the bishops of the Diocese of Marcianopolis (erected in
mass of the population was never won over to reunion 1643) were appointed administrators Apostolic foi
with Rome, and the dioceses soon vanished. In 1211 the Cathohcs of Moldavia, and the bishops of Nicop-
King Andreas II presented to the Teutonic Order the olis (1648) for the Cathohcs of Dobrudja. \^hen,
land about Kronstadt in Transylvania, but he with- subsequently to 1715, the See of Sofia was left vacant,
drew his donation in 1225 and entered into personal the admiiustration of Wallachia was transferred to
possession of the territory. Numerous Hungarians the Bishop of Nicopohs. During the plague of
and Germans had meanwhile settled in the plain of 1792-3 Bishop Paulus Dovanha of Nicopohs (1777-
the Danube, then occupied mostly by the pagan 1804) transferred the seat of his diocese to the Fran-
Cumans, and the majority of the latter were won for ciscan monastery in Bukarest; since then the bishops
Christianity. For these converted Cumans the Arch- of Nicopohs have resided in Bukarest, or at Ciople in
bishop of Gran erected the "Diocese of the Cumans", the neighbourhood. Dovanha's successors have been
which included not only the modem Rumania, but chosen mostly from the Passionists, who came to
also Bessarabia and a portion of Transylvania. Bukarest in 1781. The first was Francis Ferrari,
Theodorich, a Dominican, was the first occupant of who died of the plague in 1813. His successor, For-
the see, and fixed his seat at Milcov. In 1241, how- tunatus Ercolani (1815), became involved in a quarrel
ever, the diocese was ravaged by the Tatars; the title with his flock in consequence of his attitude towards
alone was retained, being given to Hungarian vicars- the Franciscans, who had won the affection of the
general (even to ordinary parish priests) until 1523. people, and was transferred to Civit^ Castellana in
To replace this see a Catholic bishopric was established 1822. The next bishops were Josephus Molajoni
in 1246 at Severin, a town on the Danube near the (1822-47) and Angelo Parsi (1852-63); the latter
Hungarian frontier which had been taken from the built a new church and episcopal residence at Bukar-
Bulgar-Rumanian Empire of the Asens by King est and introduced the Brothers of the Christian
Andreas 11 in 1230 and presented to the Knights of Schools and religious orders of women into the coun-
Malta in 1247. The first bishops, Gregory (about try, Parsi's successor, Joseph Pluym, became Patri-
1246) and another Gregory (about 1382), were actual archal Vicar of Constantinople in 1869. The number
bishops, but the remaining ten occupants of the see of Catholics so greatly increased in the nineteenth
(mentioned until 1502) were merely titular bishops, century, owing mainly to immigration from Austria
who lived mostly in Hungary. A third Catholic and Hungary, that a reorganization of the Catholic
diocese was founded at Sereth. When the Eastern Church in Rumania became necessary. This was done
emperor, John Palaeologus the Elder, made his sub- in 1883: the territory of Rumania was separated
mission to Rome in 1369, Latzco, the Rumanian ecclesiastically from the Diocese of Nicopohs, Bishop
Prince of Moldavia, followed his example, and asked Ignatius PaoU (1870-85) was named Archbishop of
Pope Urban V to erect a diocese at Sereth (1370). Bukarest in 1883, and the exempt Diocese of Jassy
The first bishop was the Conventual, Nicholas Andrea simultaneously re-erected. (Concerning the further
Wassilo; he became Administrator of Halicz in 1373, history and ecclesiastical statistics, see Bukarest and
and Bishop of Wilna in 1388. As the next two bishops Jasst.)
were also coadjutors of Cracow, this see was reduced Abt, Die katholische Kirche in RuTnanien (Wiirzburg, 1879);
to the rank of a titular see. In consequence of the Samuelson, Rumania, past and present (London, 1882) RuDOW, ;

efforts for reunion of Urban V, who wished to restore Gesch. des rumdn. Schrifttums (Wernigerode, 1892) de Mah-
;

TONNE, La Roumanie (Paris, 1900) Benger, tr. Keane, Rumania

;

the old Diocese of Milcov, another Catholic diocese in 1900 (London, 1901); Nbtzhammer, Aus Rumdnien (Ein-
was founded at Arges in 1381, and the Dominican aiedeln, 1909) Stitrdza, La terre et la race Roumaines depuis leurs
;

Nicholas Antonii appointed its first incumbent. Of origines^ jusgu'd nos jours (Paris, 1904) Onciul, Din Istoria
;

Romanici (Bulcarest. 1906) Bellessort, La Roumanie con-

his sixteen successors, known until 1664, all lived out-
;

temporaine (Paris, 1907); Xenopol, Les Roumains (Paris, 1909);

side the diocese, the title of which they added to their FoRQA, Istoria biscricii Romdnesti (2 vols., Bukarest, 1905-09);
other titles. A fifth diocese was founded at Baja, Creanqa, Grundbesetz verteilung u. Bauemfrage in Rumdnien
(3 vols., Leipzig, 1907-09); Le Pointe, La Roumaine moderns
the oldest town in Moldavia. The names of seven (Paris, 1910); Fischer, Die Kulturarbeit des Deutschtums in
bishops who hved before 1523 are known; in the six- Rumaniern (Hermannstadt, 1911).
teenth century the population almost unanimously Joseph Lins.
embraced Protestantism. The foundation of the Rumohr, Kael Feiedrich, art historian, b. at
Diocese of Bacau (l(i07), whose occupants resided Dresden, 1785; d. there, 1843. He became a Catho-
in Poland, did as little to strenghten the Catholic lic in 1804. He was blessed not only with worldly
Church. possessions, but also with a practically unquenchable
As the bishops of these dioceses resided almost thirst for knowledge, and especially with a keen sense
exclusively outside their sees, the ministration to the of form and beauty, which fitted him for the critical
CathoUcs, whose number was never very great, was treatment of art and social relations. Italy was
—
undertaken by the reUgious orders especially the frequently visited by him, and he was fond of varying
Franciscans and Dominicans, who founded many life in the large cities with the stillness and loneliness
monasteries in the territory of the present Rumania. of the country. Exercising a magnificent hospitality,
During the time of the Reformation most of the he himself was in many places, despite his very irri-
Cathohcs joined either the Greek scliismatics or the table temperament, a welcome guest even with King
Protestants. The spiritual care of the few who re- William IV of Prussia and Christian VIII of Den-
—
mained faithful was undertaken by the Conventuals mark. In his "ItaUenische Forschungen" (3 vols.,
from Constantinople; to these friars is due the main- 1826-31), he treated in masterly fashion the Um-
tenance of the Cathohc faith in Rumania, and the brian-Tusoan School of painting, and prepared the way
erection of a church in Bukarest (1633). When, at for a critical conception of art history in Italy. His
the beginning of the seventeenth century, an episcopal residence in Italy also gave rise to interesting works
see was established at Sofia, its first occupant, Petrus on the rural condition of Central and Upper Italy.
a Sohs (1610), was named Administrator Apostolic His "Drei Reisen nach Italien" appeared as a special
—
of Wallachia an office also fulfilled by his successors. work. As the result of searching study he wrote
The most famous of these admiifistrators was Petrus "Hans Holbein der Jiingere in seinem Verhaltnis zum
Deodatus Baksich (1641-74; from 1642 archbishop), deutschen Formschnittwesen", "Zur Geschichte
whose report of his canonical visitation is preserved und Theorie der Formschneidekunst", and "Ge-
In the Archives of the Propaganda. As most of the Bchichte der koniglichen
Kupferstichsammlung zu
 RUPERT 229 RURAL
Kopenhagen'' His "Novellen" are unimportant, his institutions upon a solid basis, Rupert repaired
his "Deutsche Denkwiirdigkeiten " (4 vols.), of little home, and returned with twelve companions besides
interest; his "Hunde-Filchsestreit" (Kynalope- his niece Ehrentraud (Erindruda), whom he made
komachie) and "Schule der Hoflichkeit" are written abbess over the Benedictine Convent of Nonnberg,
in a humorous vein. The "Geist der Kqchkunst" while he with his twelve companions formed the first
also extended his fame and popularity. King Chris- congregation of the famous Benedictine Monastery
tian VIII built a monument in his honour. of St. Peter at Salzburg, which remains to the present
Biography by Schulz (Leipzig, 1844); Poel in Allg. Deutsche day. St. Rupert thenceforth devoted himself en-
Biogr., XXI"
XXIX. tirely to the work of salvation and conversion which
G. GlETMANN. he had already begun, founding in connexion there-
—
with many churches and monasteries e. g. Maxglan,
Rupert, Saint (alternative forms, Ruprecht, near Salzburg, Maximilianszelle (now Bischofshofen
Hrodberttjs, Hrodperht, Hrodpeeht, Roud- in Pongau), Altotting, and others. After a life of
BERTUS, RUDBERTUS, RoBERT, RuPPRECHt), first extraordinarily successful activity, he died at Salz-
Bishop of Salzburg, contemporary of Childebert III, burg, aided by the prayers of his brethren in the
King of the Franks (695-711), date of birth unknown; order; his body reposed in the St. Peterskirche until
d. at Salzburg, Easter Sunday, 27 Ma,rch, 718. 24 Sept., 774, when his disciple and successor, Abbot-
According to an old tradition, he was a scion of the Bishop St. Virgil, had a portion of his remains removed
Frankish Merovingian family. The assumption of to the cathedral. On 24 Sept., 1628, these relics
660 as the year of his birth is merely legendary. were interred by Archbishop Paris von Ladron
According to the oldest short biographical notices (1619-54) under the high altar of the new cathedral.
in the "Mon. Germ. Script.", XI, 1-15, Rupert was Since then the town and district of Salzburg solem-
noted for simplicity, prudence, and the fear of God; nize the feast of St. Rupert, Apostle of Bavaria and
he was a lover of truth in his discourse, upright in Carinthia, on 24 September.
opinion, cautious in counsel, energetic in action, In Christian art St. Rupert is portrayed with a
far-seeing in his charity, and in all his conduct a vessel of salt in his hand, symbolizing the universal
glorious model of rectitude. While he was Bishop of tradition according to which Rupert inaugurated
Worms, the fame of his learning and piety drew many salt-mining at Salzburg; this portrayal of St. Rupert
from far and wide. The report of the bishop's is generally found upon the coins of the Duchy of
ability reached Duke Theodo II of Bavaria, who had Salzburg and Carinthia. St. Rupert is also represented
placed himself at the head of the current ecclesias- baptizing Duke Theodo; this scene has no his-
tical movement in Bavaria. Theodo sent Rupert torical foundation. St. Rupert was the iirst Abbot-
messengers with the request that he should come to Bishop of Salzburg, for, as he established his founda-
Bavaria to revive, confirm, and propagate the spirit tions after the manner of the Irish monks, he com-
of Christianity there. Despite the work of early bined in his own person the dignities of abbot and
missionaries, Bavaria was only superficially Christian; bishop. A similar combination of dignities existed
its very Christianity was indeed to some extent also in Ratisbon and Freising. This twofold charac-
Arian, while heathen customs and views were most ter of the bishop continued in Salzburg for nearly
closely interwoven with the external Christianity 300 years until the separation of the dignities was
which it had retained. St. Rupert acceded to effected in 987 by Archbishop Friedrich I of Salzburg,
Theodo's request, after he had by messengers made Count of Chiemgau, the twenty-first Abbot of the
himself familiar with the land and people of Bavaria. Monastery of St. Peter. The period of St. Rupert's
St. Rupert was received with great honour and cere- activity was until very lately a matter of great dis-
mony by Theodo in the old residential town of cussion. Formerly the opinion was held that the
Ratisbon (696). He entered immediately upon his end of the fifth and beginning of the sixth centuries
apostolic labours, which extended from the territory was the age of his missionary work, but, according
of the Danube to the borders of Lower Pannonia, to the most exhaustive and reliable investigations,
and upon his missionary journey came to Lorch. the late seventh and early eighth centuries formed
Thence he travelled to the lonely shores of the Waller- the period of his activity. This fact is established
see, where he built a church in honour of Saint especially by the "Breves notitiae Salzburgenses",
Peter, thereby laying the foundation of the present a catalogue of the donations made to the Churolx of
market-town of Seekirchen in the Newmarket dis- Salzburg, with notices from the ninth century. In
trict of Salzburg. From the Roman colony there these latter Bishop St. Virgil, whose ministry is
Rupert obtained an account of the ancient Roman referred to 745-84, appears as a direct disciple of St.
town of Juvavum, upon the site of which there still Rupert. It is forthwith evident that the assumption
remained many more or less dilapidated buildings, of the end of the sixth and beginning of the seventh
overgrown with briars and brushwood. centuries as the period of Rupert's activity is ex-
Having personally verified the accuracy of this tremely doubtful, even apart from the fact that this
account concerning the place and position, Rupert view also involves the rejection of the catalogue of the
requested Theodo, in the interests of his apostolic bishops of Salzburg and of Easter Sunday as the day
mission to the country, to give him the territory of of Rupert's death. Many churches and places bearing
Juvavum (which was still a place of considerable Rupert's name, serve as surviving memorials of his
commerce) for the erection of a monastery and an missionary activity. A successor of St. Rupert, the
episcopal see. The duke granted this petition, present scholarly Abbot of St. Peters in Salzburg,
bequeathing the territory of Juvavum (the modern Willibald Hauthaler, has written an interesting work
Salzburg), two square miles in area, to St. Rupert upon this subject entitled "Die dem hi. Rupertus
and his successors. At the foot of the precipice of Apostel von Bayern geweihten Kirchen und Kapel-
the Monchberg, where once St. Maximus, a disciple len" (with map, Salzburg, 1885).
of St. Severin,had suffered martyrdom with his com- De conversione Bagoarioxum et Carantavorum libellus in Mon.
Germ.: Script., XI, 1-15. A complete list of the literature is
panions (476), St. Rupert erected the first church in given in: Potthast, Bibl. hist, medii cm, II (Berlin, 1896),
Salzburg, the Church of St. Peter, in honour of the 1557-58; Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts^uellen im
Prince of the Apostles, as well as a monastery. MiUelaUer, I (7th ed., Berlin, 1904), 135-37; Lindnes, Mmas-
ticon melropolis Salzhurgensis antiquce (Salzburg, 1908), 66.
Upon the lofty prominences (Nonnberg) to the south- On the Rupert question of. Anthaller, Die Gesch. der Ruper-
east of the town, where the old Roman fortress once tusfrage (1885); Doebebl, Entmckelungsgesch. Bayerns, I
towered, he established a convent of nuns which, (Munich, 1908), 567-60.
like the monastery of the Monchberg, he placed under UIjRICH ScHMin,
the protection and Rule of St. Benedict. To set Rural Dean. See Dean.
 RUSADDIR 230 RUSSELL

titular scf of Mauritania Tmgitana. secrated in 508, died in 533; Felicianus, his com-
Rusaddir, a
Rusiddir is a Phcenician settlement whose name sig- panion in exile and successor, who assisted at the
This city is mentioned by Ptolemy Council of Carthage (about 534); Juhanus, who
nifies a lofty cape.
signed in 641 the Anti-Monothelite letter of the bish-
(IV 1) and Pliny (V, ISj who caU it "oppidum
et
portus", also by Mela (I, 33), under the corrupted ops of Byzancena to the Emperor Constantine.
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman geogr., s. v.; MCller, Notes
form Rusicada and by the "Itinerarium Antonim .

on Ptolemy, ed. Didot, I, 622; Toulotte, GSographie de VAfrique

During the Middle Ages it was the Berber city of chretienne: Byzac&ne et Tripolitaine (Montreuil, 1894), 164-6.
Mlila; it is now known as Melilla. In 1497 it fell into S. PfiTBIofes.
the hands of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and in 1506
was returned to the Crown of Spain. Since then its Russell, Charles, Baron Russell op Kil-
history is a succession of famines and sieges of which
LOWBN, b. atNewry, Ireland, 10 November, 1832;
the most renowned is that of 1774 and the most d. in London, 10 August, 1900. He was the elder son
recent that of 1893. In 1909 it was the seat of the of Arthur Russell of Killowen and Margaret MuUin
warfare carried on between Spain and the Rif tribes. of Belfast. The family was in moderate circum-
Melilla is, after Ceuta, the most important of the stances, their ancestors having suffered much for
Spanish fortresses or presidios on the African coast. the Faith in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
It has about 9000 inhabitants, and is built in the form Arthur Russell having died in 1845, the care of his
of an amphitheatre on the east slope of a steep rock large family devolved upon their talented mother and
1640 feet high, bounded by abrupt chffs, whereon is their paternal uncle, the celebrated Dr. Russell of
the Fort of Rosario. A free port since ISSl, Melilla Maynooth. Having studied at the diocesan seminary,
carries on an active commerce with the Rif. There Belfast, at a private school in Newry, and St. Vin-
is no record of any bishop of this see.
cent's College, Castleknook, Dublin, Charles Russell
Smith, Did. of Creek and Roman geoor. s. v.: MOller, Notes entered the law offices of Mr. Denvir, Newry, in
on Ptolemy, ed. Didot, I, 683; Meakin, The Land of the Moor 1849, and of Mr. O'Rorke, Belfast, in 1852. Ad-
(London, 1901); Bakr6, Mdilla et les presides espagflols in
Revue frangaise il90S) mitted a solicitor in 1854, he practised in the county
r^ >
S. Petrides. courts of Down and Antrim, and became at once the
champion of the Catholics who had resisted organized
Rusicade, a titular see of Numidia. It is men- attempts at proselytizing by Protestants in these
tioned by Ptolemy (IV, 3), Mela (I, 33), Pliny (V, 22) counties. His success was so striking that his legal
"Itinerarium Antonini", the "Tabula Peutmgeru" friends urged him to become a barrister in London,
etc. Nothing is known of its history. Situated near and in 1856 he entered at Lincoln's Inn. Having
the mouth of the Thapsus, it served as the commercial followed an extensive course by close private study
port of Cirta and exported grain to Rome. The port under the direction of Maine, Broom, and Birkbeck,
was called Stora or Ustura, where under Valentinian he was called to the bar in 1859. His success on the
and Valens granaries were built whose ruins are still northern circuit soon recalled him to London, where
visible. The city was known as Colonia Veneria he became "Queen's Counsel" in 1872, and divided
Rusicada. It was a total ruin when rebuilt by the the mercantile business of the circuit with Lord
French as Phihppeville. PhilippevUle is the capital Herschell. The increasing demand for his services
of the province of the Department of Constantine may be judged by his fees which averaged $15,000
(Algeria); it has 21,550 inhabitants of whom 8200 a year from 1862-72, $50,000 in the next decade,
are French, 5900 foreigners, mostly Italians and $80,000 in the third, and in 1893-4, his last year of
Maltese, 450 Jews, and 7000 Arabs. The ancient practice, reached $150,000. His knowledge of law,
name survives in Ras Skidda, a point of the Djebel business, and human character, a flexible and often
Addouna from which juts forth the great pier. The passionate eloquence which derived its force from in-
commerce is considerable. Ruins of a theatre, tense earnestness rather than oratorical device,
museum. Christian sarcophagus. Christian inscrip- marvellous dexterity in extracting the truth from
tions, and the remains of a basilica dedicated to Saint witnesses, and a manifest honesty of purpose gave
Digna may be found there. Six bishops of Rusicade him a power over judge and jury which made him
are known: Verulus, present at the Council of Car- universally regarded as the first advocate of his age.
thage (255), perhaps the martyr in the martyrology, Though in his first years in London he had been
21 February; Victor, condemned at the Council of weekly correspondent of the Dublin "Nation",
Cirta (305) as a traitor or betrayer of the Scriptures; an advanced Nationalist organ, he entered Parlia-
Nuvigius whose remains and epitaph have been re- ment as a Liberal being elected, after two defeats,
covered in the church which he erected to Saint Digna member for Dundalk in 1880. He generally acted
in the fourth century; Faustinianus, present at the with the Nationalists on Irish, and always on Catho-
Conference of Carthage (411) with his Donatist rival. lic, questions, and, when he visited the United States
Junior; Quintihanus (?) in 425; Eusebius, exiled by in 1883, bore a flattering introduction from Mr.
Huneric in 484. Parnell. Elected member for South Hackney
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman geogr,, s. v.; Muller, Notes
on Ptolemy, ed. Didot, I, 614 Toulotte, Geographic de VAfrigue
;
(1885-94), he was appointed attorney-general by Mr.
chrHienne: Numidie (Rennes and Paris, 1894), 258-63. Gladstone in 1886, and again in 1892 on the return
S. P^TRinfes. of the Liberals to power. He was a strenuous ad-
vocate of Home Rule in Parliament and on public
Ruspe, titular see of Byzacena in Africa, men- platforms, and was leading advocate for Mr. Parnell
tioned only by Ptolemy (IV, 3) and the "Tabula" at the Parnell Commission trial in 1888. His cross-
Pcutinger. According to the first it was on the examination of the witnesses of the "Times", and
coast between AehoUa (Kasr el Abiah) and Usilla especially his exposure of Pigott, the author of the
(Henshir Inshilla); the "Tabula", or map of Peut^ "Times" forgeries, made a favourable verdict in-
inger, states that it was six (doubtless twenty-six) evitable. His famous eight-day speech for the de-
miles from the latter place. It is identified with the fence was his greatest forensic effort. In 1893 he
ruins called Ksour iSiad, seventeen miles from Acholla. represented Great Britain in the Behring Sea Arbi-
Others beUc\'c it to be at Henshir Sbia, four miles tration, his speech against the United States' con-
west of Cape Kapoudia (north of the Gulf of Gabes, tentions lasting eleven days, and was knighted for his
Tunisia), its name being preserved at Koudiat services. Made Lord of Appeal, 1894, he was raised
Rosfa near Ras el Louza. It seems more probable to the peerage for life, taking his title from his native
that Koudiat Rospa is itself the ancient Ruspe. townland of Killowen. In the same year he was ap-
Four bishops of the see are known: Stephanus pointed Lord Chief Justice of England, the first
e-xiled by King Huneric (4S4); St. Fulgentius, con- Catholic to attain that office for centuries. He won
 RUSSELL 231 RUSSIA
speedily the public confidence and is ranked with the the eight- volume "Report on the Carte Manuscripts
most illustrious of his predecessors. He revisited in the Bodleian Library" (1871) and the "Calendar
the United States in 1896 as the guest of the American of Irish State Papers during the reign of James I"
Bar Association and delivered a notable address on (4 vols., 1872-77). He was also a frequent contribu-
arbitration. In 1899 he represented England on the tor to the "Dublin Review" which for thirty years
Venezuelan Boundaries Commission, and displayed he enriched by various papers, often writing more
all his old power of separating vital points from ob- than one for the same number. The last of these
scuring details. The following year he was attacked were the two masterly articles on the sonnet (1876-77)
while on circuit by an internal malady, and, after He wrote many articles for "Chambers's Encyclo-
a few weeks' illness, died piously in London, after —
pedia", and two "Palimpsests" and "Papyrus"
receiving the sacraments of the Catholic Church, — for the "Encyclopedia Britannica". He con-
of which he had been always a faithful and devoted tributed also to many other magazines such as the
member. He was survived by his widow (Ellen, "Edinburgh Review", the "Month", and "Irish
daughter of Dr. Mulholland of Belfast), whom he Monthly". A humbler but very popular work has
married in 1858, and by five sons and four daughters. been his translation of Canon Schmid's "Tales for the
The unanimous tribute paid him by the English Young" first published in 1846. Besides his literary
and American Bar and by the people and journals work and all that he accomphshed for Maynooth,
of the most diverse political and religious views at- he exercised a very powerful influence on the leading
tested that, despite his masterful character as lawyer, men of his age by the charm and force of his per-
judge, and parliamentarian, and his stalwart loyalty sonality. Wiseman and Newman alike counted
to his Faith and country, he had attained a rare and him as an intimate friend, and the latter wrote of
widespread popularity. In him were blended many him: "He had perhaps more to do with my conver-
qualities not usually found together. With a keen sion than any one else". Dr. Russell lived to wit-
and orderly mind, a resolute will, great capacity for ness the early success of his nephew Charles who
work, and severe official dignity, he combined sen- subsequently became Lord Chief Justice of England.
sibility of temperament, a spirit of helpfulness and Healy, Centenary History of Maynooth College (Dublin, 1895)
Carlyle in Diet. Nat. Biog.; Ward, Life and Times of Cardinal
comradeship, and a dreamer's devotion to ideals. Wiseman (London, 1897).
He was always ready to write and speak for educa- Edwin Burton.
tional, religious, and benevolent purposes, though
such action was not calculated to forward his polit- Russell, Richard, Bishop of Viz^u in Portugal,
ical ambitious. Devoted to his family, he crossed b. in Berkshire, 1630; d. at Viz6u, 15 Nov., 1693.
the continent on his first American trip to visit He was of humble station, and when twelve years old
Mother Mary Baptist Russell of San Francisco (who, became servant to Dr. Edward Daniel, newly ap-
with two others of his sisters, had entered the Order pointed President of Lisbon College. Five years
of Mercy), and found time to write for his children later, having meanwhile applied his leisure to study,
and send them day by day an admirable account of he was admitted an alumnus of the college and took
his experiences. This "Diary of a Visit to the United the oath, 14 Aug, 1647. In 1653 he went to Douai
States" has been since edited by his brother, Rev. College, and thence to Paris, where he was ordained.
Matthew Russell, S.J., and pubhshed (1910) by the In 1655 he returned to Lisbon as procurator, but two
U. S. Catholic Historical Society. His other pub- years later was summoned by the Chapter to Eng-
lished works include: "New Views of Ireland" land, where he spent three years as a chaplain to the
(London, 1880); "The Christian Schools of England Portuguese ambassador. On his return to Portugal
and Recent Legislation" (1883); his speech before he received the title of Secretary to the Queen, and a
the Parnell Commission (1888); essay on Lord pension, in consideration of his services to the crown
.Coleridge in the "North American Review" (1894), of Portugal. Shortly afterwards he was again in
and on the legal profession in the "Strand Maga- England on business connected with the marriage
zine" (1896); "Arbitration, its Origin, History, and treaty of Charles II and Catharine of Braganza, and
Prospects" (London, 1896). on this occasion he was elected a Canon of the Eng-
Barry O'Brien, Life (London, 1901) ; personal recollections lish Chapter (26 June, 1661). Having declined the
in The Times (London, 11 Aug., 1900), and files of the daily Bishopric of the Cape Verde Islands, Russell accom-
press; Irish Monthly and other magazines (Sept. and Oct., 1900);
Reports of American Bar Association (31 Aug., 1900), and of the panied the Infanta to England. The English Chap-
unveiling of the Lord Russell Statue (London, Jan., 1905); Foster, ter hoped that he might be consecrated bishop of a
Men at the Bar; Lincoln's Inn Reg,; Burke's Peerage (1900) Portuguese see and that then he would return to
CoKATNE, Complete Peerage (1900).
England, resign his diocese and become head of the
M. Kenny. Enghsh clergy with episcopal powers; for the Enghsh
Russell, Chables William, b. at Killough, Co. Catholics had long been without a resident bishop,
Down, 14 May, 1812; d. at Dubhn 26 Feb., 1880. and they had had no episcopal superior at all since
He was descended from the Russells who held the the death of Bishop Smith in 1655. This plan,
barony of Killough of Quoniamstown and Bally- however, came to nothing, and when Russell was
strew. He received his early education at Drogheda persuaded to accept the see of Portalegre in 1671 he
grammar school and Downpatriok, after which he decided to remain in his diocese. He was conse-
entered Maynooth in 1826. After a brilliant course crated bishop in the chapel of the English College,
he was ordained on 13 June, 1835, and became Lisbon, on 27 Sept., 1671. Overcoming the first
one of the professors of humanities at the college. opposition of his clergy to a foreign bishop, he spent
In 1842 he was chosen by Gregory XVI to be the first ten years in zealous and apostolic labour and effected
Vicar Apostolic of Ceylon, but he refused the dignity a complete reformation of the diocese. In 1682
as also the Bishopric of Down and the Archbishopric he was transferred to the diocese of Viz6u where he
of Armagh. Three years later he returned to May- spent the last eleven years of his life. His portrait
nooth as professor of ecclesiastical history. Having is preserved at the Enghsh College, Lisbon.
KiBK in Cboit, Historical Account of Lisbon College (London,
pubhshed his translation of Leibnitz's "System of
1902), with portrait; Dodd, Church History, III (Brussels vere
Theology'' in 1850, he was occupied on his "Life of Wolverhampton, 1737-42); Serjeant, Account of the Chapter
Cardinal Mezzofanti" which appeared in 1858. In (London, 1853); Brady, Episcopal Succession, III (Rome,
1877); GlLLOw, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath., s. v. Russell, Richard,
1857 he succeeded Dr. Renehan as President of May- Fifth Douay Diary in Catholic Record Society, X (London, 1911).
nooth. His profound antiquarian learning caused
Edwin Burton.
him to be appointed a member of the Historical
Manuscripts Commission in 1869, and in that capacity — —
Russia. Geography. ^Russia (Rossiiskaia Im-
he acted as joint editor (with John Prendergast) of periia; Busskoe Gositdarstvo) comprises the greater
 RUSSIA 232 RUSSIA

part of Eastern Europe, and a third of Asia; its area ous Aland group, eighty of which are inhabited;
is cmc-sixth of the land surface of the globe. In the the Islands of Dago, Oesel, ]\Iohn, Wornes, and
ri'ign of Alexander II the total area of the cmpu-e was Kothn; on the last is built the formidable fortress of
8,()M!),945 sq. miles, of which only 2,156,000 were in Kronstadt.
Europe. The greutest length of Russia from east to —
Climate. In European Russia the chmate is se-
west is 6666 miles, and its greatest breadth is 2666 vere, both in winter and summer, the rains are scanty,
miles; it lies between 35° 45' and 79° N. lat., and and the temperature is not as mild as in Western
17° 40' and 191° E. long. (i. e., 169 W. long.). The Europe. The coasts of the Baltic and the shores of
boundaries of Russia are: on the north, the Arctic the Vistula have a climate similar to that of Western
( Iccan; on the west, Sweden, Norway, the Baltic Sea, Europe. European Russia presents graduated varia-
(iermany, Austria-Hungary, and Rumania; on the tions of climate between 40° and 70° IST. lat., and also
south, the Black Sea, Turkey, Persia, the Caspian from east to west. At Nova Zembla the lowest win-
S(ia, Afghanistan, and China; on the east, the Pacific ter temperature is 16° F., while at the south of the
Dccaii. Russia forms a vast, compact territory, the Crimea it rises to 56-3° in summer. The isothermal
area of its islands being only 107,262 sq. miles, which fines of European Russia are not coincident with the
was greatly reduced by the cession of the southern parallels of latitude, but diverge towards the south-
part of SakhaUn to Japan. Geographers usually di- east. There are places situated onthe same parallel
vide Russia into European and Asiatic Russia, re- presenting considerable differences in mean tempera-
garding the natural boundary to be the Ural Moun- ture, e. g. Libau, 49-1°; Moscow, 39-2°; Kazan, 37-4°;
tains, the Ural River, the Don, and the Volga; this Yekaterinburg, 32-9°. In the valley of the Rion in
division is based neither on natural nor on political the Caucasus, cotton and sugar-cane are grown, while
grounds. The Ural Mountains form a chain of wooded the tundras of the Kola Peninsula are sparsely covered
highlands, which may be compared to the central with moss. In Western Russia, the cold of winter is
axis of the empire rather than to a dividing barrier; never greater than 31° below zero, while the heat of
moreover there is no natural boundary hne between summer is never in excess of 86° but in Eastern Rus-
;

the southern extremity of these mountains and the sia the thermometer falls to 40° below zero in winter,
Caspian Sea. The division between European and and rises to 109° in summer. European Russia may
Asiatic Russia can best be estabUshed ethnologically, be divided into four chmatic zones: the cold zone,
and this method is frequently used in Russian which includes the coasts of the Arctic Ocean and their
geographies. adjacent islands, and extends beyond the Arctic Cir-
—
Seas. The coasts of Russia are washed by many cle; itswinter lasts nine months, and its summer three;
the cold-temperate zone, from the Arctic Circle to
seas; the Arctic Ocean, the White Sea, the Bay of
Tcheskaya, the Bay of Kara, the Gulf of Obi, the 61° N. lat. its winter lasts six months, and each of the
;

Baltic Sea, the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga, other seasons two months; the temperate zone, ex-
the Black Sea, the Sea of Azof, the Caspian Sea, the tending from 61° to 48° N. lat.; each season lasts three
Pacific Ocean, Behring Sea, the Sea of Okhijtsk, and months, the winter being longer towards the north,
the Sea of Japan. But Russia is not destined to be- and summer longer towards the south the warm zone,
;

come a great maritime power, because for the most between 48° N. lat. and the southern frontier of Rus-
part the seas of Russia are in regions where naviga- sia; the summer lasts six months, and the other three
tion is impossible in winter; for periods of six months seasons two months each. European Russia is not
in the Arctic Orean, and from fifteen days to one unhealthy, although in the cold zone scurvy is fre-
month at some points in the Black Sea. And the quent, and near the Gulf of Finland ailments of the
future of Russia as a maritime power is moreover throat and the respiratory organs; plica polonica in-
obstructed by pohtical difficulties; the way from the fects the marshy regions of Lithuania and Russian
Black Sea to the Mediterranean is closed by the Poland; and there is the so-called Crimean fever in the
Bosphorus and the Dardanelles; the way from the neighbourhood of the Sivash and in a region on the
Baltic to the Atlantic is closed by Sweden, Germany, coast of the Black Sea.
Norway, and Denmark. The Arctic Ocean washes The climate of the Caucasus is not of a uniform
the extreme northern coasts of Russia, sterile, unin- character; it belongs in the north to the cold-temper-
habited regions, over which there hangs a winter of ate zone, and in Transcaucasia to the warm zone. In
nine months, paralyzing the activities of hfe. The the north, summer lasts six months, and the other
ice, whether fixed or floating, blocks the way of ships; seasons two months each. In Transcaucasia the sum-
these ply however in the White Sea, which is free of mer lasts nine months, and the other three months of
ice for three months of the year, and the waters of the year are like spring. Nevertheless the irregularity
which form the Gulfs of Mezen, the Dwina, Onega, of the mountain system of the Caucasus produces dif-
and Kandalak, the latter being the most frequented. ferences of temperature in places separated by short
There are but few islands in this immense extent of ice; distances. On the coast of the Black Sea, between
the more important ones are the islands of Kolguet, Batum and Sukhum, the temperature seldom falls be-
Vaigatch, Nova Zembla, New Siberia, and the islands low 32°; in January the temperature rises as high as
of Solovka, on one of which is a famous monastery 43°. Western Transcaucasia receives warm and hu-
founded in the fifteenth century by St. Sabbatius and mid winds, while the eastern part is exposed to dry
the Blessed Germanus. Among the most important winds from the north-east.
peninsulas may be cited that of Kola or Russian Lap- The part of Siberia that borders on the Arctic Ocean
land. Russia shares the possession of the Baltic Sea hes entirely within the cold zone the winter lasts nine
;

with Sweden, Germany, and Denmark, and its waters months, and the summer is Uke the beginning of spring
have been the highway of Russian commerce since the in European Russia. The portion of Siberia between
time of Peter the Great, although their shores are the Arctic Circle and 60° N. lat. has a winter that
rugged and reefs numerous. The Gulfs of Bothnia, lasts six months; the region below the parallel of 60°
Finland and Riga are frozen for several months of N. lat. has a winter a little longer than the summer.
the j'ear, while the Gulf of Livadia is frozen for six In proportion to the distance from the Ural Moun-
weeks, although it sometimes remains free of ice tains the chmate of Western Siberia experiences greater
through the whole year. Notwithstanding these extremes of temperature, the winter and the heat of
natural obstacles, Russian commerce has been devel- summer becoming more severe; and'the same is true of
oped on the Batlic, the shortest route for the exporta- Eastern Siberia in relation to the Pacific Ocean. The
tion of Russian products to European countries and greatest variations of temperature in Eastern Siberia
America. The Baltic Sea is studded with islands, of are observed at Irkutsk, Yakutsk, and Verkhoyansk,
which the following belong to Russia: the numer- where the thermometer registers at times 59-6° below
 RUSSIA 233 RUSSIA
zero in winter, and 4946° in summer. In midwinter Pohans, Duliebys, Buzhans, Tivercys, Ulitches,
the northern extremity of Siberia resembles the polar Radimitches, Viatics, and the Sieverians. The polit-
regions; during several days the sun does not rise, and ical cradle of Russia is the region of Kieff, where the
the vast plain of snow is lit up by the Aurora Boreahs, Varangian princes formed the first Russian state. The
while at times the region of the tundras is swept by vio- invasions of the Tatars exercised a great influence up-
lent snowstorms. The climate of Turkestan is simi- on the Russians; but it is a mistake to say that the
lar to Siberia. Those regions are far from the sea, and Russians disappeared entirely before the Tatars and
have cold winters and very warm summers, a sky that that, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the
is always clear, a dry atmosphere, and strong north- regions evacuated by the Tatars were peopled by
erly and north-easterly winds. The north winds de- Little Russians from Galicia. The population of
velop violent snowstorms. The summer is unbear- Russia has steadily increased in numbers during the
able; in the shade, the thermometer rises to 104°, and last two centuries, its rapid development being partly
even to 117-5°, while the ground becomes heated to 158°. due to the birth-rate, and partly to the conquest of
Mean tempeeatukb op certain Russian cities :
vast foreign territories. In 1724 Russia had a popula-
January July tion of 14,000,000, which had increased to 36,000,000
St. Petersburg 15-26 63-86 in 1793, to 69,000,000 in 1851, and to 128,967,694 in
Moscow 12-2 66-1 1897. The census of 1897 was the first official census
Kieff 20-84 66-56 of Russia. Its data, however, are only relatively
Kazan 7-16 67-46 correct, partly on account of the great extension of
Yekaterinburg 2-3 63-5 the Russian Empire, partly on account of the con-
Reval 42-8 53-96 tinuous emigration within the frontiers of that
Libau 36-14 62- country, partly because of the lack of information
Astrakhan 44-96 77-9 concerning some of the centres of population in Si-
Verkhoyansk -59-44 49-46 beria, and partly because of the resistance of some
The mean yearly rainfall is estimated at from 8 to tribes to submit to the control of European civiliza-
24 inches. In general, those parts of Russia that are tion. In view of the enormous excess of births over
exposed to the North, and are covered with snow during deaths, the progressive increase of the population is
the winter, abound in forests that preserve the humid- calculated to be 2,000,000 each year. In 1904, basing
ity, in which they have an advantage over the south- the calculation on the statistics of births, the popula-
ern part of the country. In the former, the rains are tion of Russia was 146,000,000; in 1908, 154,000,000;
not violent, but are lasting, and moisten the earth to and in 1910, 158,000,000. The greatest increase in
a considerable depth; in the South they are resolved the population is given by the region of New Russia,
into severe tempests, which pour down great quantities that of the Baltic, and the Province of Moscow. In
of water that are dispersed in torrents and rivers, and general, the number of births in Russia is calculated
do not sink deep into the ground. The greatest rain- at 48 per 1000, and that of the deaths at 34 per 1000.
fall of Russia is around the Baltic Sea (20 to 28 Compared with other European states, Russia is very
inches); and the least is in the Caucasus (4 to 8 thinly peopled, except in a few regions; for the whole
inches). The advantages of the western over the empire, it is 17-325 per sq. mile; for European Russia
eastern part of Russia are due to its greater proximity 65; for Poland, 214; and for Siberia, 1-35. The
to the Atlantic Ocean, the vapours of which are government in which the population appears to be
carried over Europe into Russia. The mean rainfall most dense is that of Piotrkow, where the correspond-
of Western Russia is calculated at 18-3 inches; that ing figures are 295 inhabitants per sq. mile; after
of the north-east, 15 inches; that of the east, from which follow in order the Governments of Moscow
12 to 15 inches; and that of the south is still less. The (187), Podolia (1845), and Kieff (180). In the Gov-
months of greatest rainfall are June, July, and Au- ernment of Archangel, there are 2-25 inhabitants per
gust. The yearly rainfall at St. Petersburg is 20 sq. mile, and in Yakutsk .225.
inches, there being rain on 150 days of the year. The The great mass of the population consists of
number of days upon which rain falls diminishes con- peasants; they form 84 per cent of the population
siderably towards the East and South. of European Russia, a percentage greatly in excess
—
Mineral Riches. The mineral riches of Russia of that of Rumania, Hungary, and Switzerland,
consist principally of salt, coal, and iron. Salt is nations that are essentially agricultural. The nobles
foimd in the mineral state in the Governments of and their servants constitute 1-5 per cent of the
Orenburg, Astrakhan, Kharkoff, and Yekaterinoslaff; population; the clergy, 0-5 per cent; the citizens
and as a sediment, deposited by salt waters, in the or merchants, 0-6 per cent; the burgesses (mieshan-
Government of Astrakhan, and in the Crimean lakes stvo), 10-6 per cent. The proportion of working men
of Sakskoe, Sasyk, and Sivash. The river basin that shows a notable increase: from 1885 to 1897 the in-
most abounds in coal is that of the Donetz; it is 233 crease in the mining centres was 91 per cent, and
miles in length, and 100 in breadth, and produces in the manufacturing centres 73 per cent; the
every known species of fossil coal. This basin also population of the cities also is continually increasing.
furnishes great quantities of peat, naphtha, gold, Some of these cities, as Kazan, Astrakhan, Tiflis,
silver, platinum, copper, tin, mercury, iron, emer- and Bakhtchisarai, are semi-Asiatic in character,
alds, topazes, rubies, sapphires, amethysts, porphyry, as are also the cities of Turkestan. The cities of
marble, granite, graphite, asphalt, and phosphorus. ancient Livonia, e. g., Riga and Reval, have the ap-
The Central Ural Mountains yield malachite and pearance of medieval German towns. The villages
jasper. There are abundant petroleum springs in the of Great Russia have a commercial character, and
Caucasus Mountains, especially in the vicinity of Baku. stretch along the principal roads and waterways.
In the Kolivan Mountains, which is a ramification of On the other hand the villages of Little Russia are
the Altai system, deposits of malachite are found. agricultural in character. The White Russian
Ethnography and Statistics op Population. — villages are noticeable for the small number of houses
The ethnographical history of primitive Russia is they contain. With relation to sex, according to
obscure. There is record of the Anti, a people who in the statistics of 1905, the population of Russia has
the fourth century inhabited the regions about the 103-2 women for each 100 men. In the villages, the
mouths of the Danube and Don, but their name is lost corresponding proportion of women is 106-1; in the
after that date. Constantine Porphyrogenitus and cities, it is 85-9. In 13 out of 50 of the governments
the Russian chroniclers refer to twelve tribes, col- of European Russia, the number of men is greater
lected under the general name of Russians; they are than that of the women; in 3 the numbers are equal,
the Slovenes, Krivitches, Dregovitches, DrevUana, and in 34 the number of women is in excess of that
 RUSSIA 234 RUSSIA

of the men; in 12 governments the proportion is sian is the official language of eighty-nine govern-
100 men to 110 women. ments and provinces, but it is the predominant lan-
With regard to religion, Christianity in various guage in only forty-one of them. Among the dialects,
denominations is the religion of the great majority Great Russian is the one that is most extensively
of the people. Tliere are 123,000,000 Christians used. The tongues of the Mongolian tribes that are
(St-S per cent of the entire population). The ma- subject to Russia are little developed, and are gen-
jority are of the Orthodox Church, which has 102,- erally without a literature. The population of
600,000 adherents (69-9 per cent of the population, Russia presents a great variety of races, united lay a
the corresponding figures for European Russia being political rule, by the community of the Russian
91,000,000 (7.5 per cent). Consequently among language, and to a great extent by the Orthodox
the Russians Orthodox and Russian are sjmonjrmous religion; it is characterized also by a great pre-
terms. Since the Ukase of 17 April, 1905, which ponderance of the rural over the urban population,
Eroclaimed freedom of conscience, Russian orthodoxy and by the presence of a high percentage of peoples
as lost 1,000,000 of followers, through conversions or tribes with little culture of their own, and little
to Catholicism, to Protestantism, and to Moham- aptitude for the assimilation of the culture of Europe.
medanism. The Catholics of Russia number 13,- —
Special Ethnography. Ethnographically the
000,000 (S-9 per cent); the Protestants, 7,200,000 population of the Russian Empire is divided into two
(4 9 per cent); other Christian denominations, races, the Caucasian, which predominates, and the
1,400,000 (1 per cent); Mohammedans, 1.5,900,000 Mongolian. Of the total population 121,000,000,
(10 per cent); pagans, 700,000 (0-4 per cent). or 82-6 per cent, are Caucasians; while the Mon-
Pagans, to the number of 300,000, are to be found, golian races in all Russia constitute 17 per cent of
not only in Siberia, but also in European Russia the whole population. Russians, properly so-called,
(Kalmucks and Samogitians) . The Catholics are constitute 87-7 per cent of the population in Western
chiefly in Poland, where, according to the census Siberia, 80 per cent in European Russia, 53-9 per
of 1S97, they constituted 74-8 per cent of the popula- cent in eastern Siberia, 8-9 per cent in central Asia,
tion. On the other hand, one-half of the Jews who 6-7 per cent in the region of the Vistula, and 0-2
are scattered over the earth arc^ in Russia, the number per cent in Finland. Notwithstanding the dif-
of them in that country being estimated at from ference in types, the Russians constitute a single
6,000,000 to 7,000,000, all concentrated within the people, ethnographically divided into three classes,
boundaries of fifteen governments. Great Russians, Little Russians, and White Russians.
From the standpoint of education, Russia does not These three ethnographical branches are differentiated
occupy even a secondary position in Europe. In from each other by dialectical diiferenoes, domestic
European Russia the percentage of those who know traditions and customs, character, and historical
how to read and write is 22-9. The regions in which tradition. It is difficult to determine the zones of
there are the least numbers of the educated are as fol- the three branches, or the numbers of individuals of
lows: Esthonia (79 per cent); Livonia (77-7 per cent); which they consist. According to the census of
Courland (70-9 per cent); the cities of St. Petersburg 1897, there were 55,667,469 Great Russians (Veli-
(.55- 1 per cent) and Moscow (40-2 per cent), and Po- korussi), 22,380,350 Little Russians (Malorussi),
land (41 per cent). and 5,885,547 White Russians (Bielorussi). At
Emigration, as a rule, takes place only within the present, there are 65,000,000 Great Russians. They
boundaries of the empire. From the most remote occupy the central and northern parts of European
times, the inhabitants of Novgorod founded colonies Russia, their centres of population extending from
as far away as the shores of the White Sea and the the White Sea to the Caspian Sea and the Sea of
Ural Mountains. Emigration to Siberia began in Azoff, and are to be found also in Siberia and in the
1.582; the first colonists of that country were the Caucasus. They have emigrated to Little Russia
exiles, the Cossacks, fishermen, and prospectors in in considerable numbers; at the beginning of the
search of gold; and this emigration was considerably nineteenth century, Kharkoff was inhabited almost
increased after the hberation of the serfs in 1861. entirely by Little Russians, but in 1897 Great
In 1891 the Siberian Railway Company undertook Russians constituted 58 per cent of the population,
the colonization of Siberia, and by opportune meas- and the Little Russians only 25 per cent. The Great
ures gave a great impulse to Siberian immigration. Russians are active and energetic, and have great
In 1SS9 the number of Russian emigrants to that aptitude for commerce and work in general. They
region was between 2.5,000 and 40,000; in 1900 it are regarded as the essentially Russian race, which
had increased to 220,000. These emigrants, who has not only preserved its known ethnical charac-
came from Central Russia and from Little Russia, teristicsunder difficult conditions, but has assimilated
spread at first over Western Siberia, and then over with itself other races, especially of the Finnish stock.
Central Siberia; but later they went farther and Their language is the predominant tongue of the
farther towards the extreme east, a movement to Russian Empire. The small commerce of the cities
which the war with Japan put a stop, but which was is in their hands, as is also the commerce of the
again taken up with greater activity when that war wines and fruit that come from Bessarabia, the Crimea
ended. In 1906, 200,790 emigrants passed through and the Don, and the fish from the Black Sea and the
Cheliabinsk to Siberia, and 400,000 in 1907. A part Ural River.
of the emigration is directed towards the south- The Little Russians inhabit the south of Russia
east of Turkestan. The first colonists arrived in the and the basin of the middle and lower course of the
Pro\'ince of Semiryetchensk in 1848, and in the Dnieper, and constitute 26-6 per cent of the total
Province of Sir-Daria in 1876. Emigration beyond population of the empire. Their greatest masses
the frontiers of Russia is very hmited, amounting are to be found in the Governments of Pultowa (93
in numbers at the present time to from 75,000 to per cent), Tchernigoff (85-6 per cent), Podolia
100,000, wlio for the greater part pass through the (80-9 per cent), Kharkoff (80-6 per cent),
ports of Bremen and Hamburg. From 1891 to 1906, Stavropol (80 per cent), Kieff (79-2 per cent),
out of every 1000 Russian emigrants, 900 went to Volh3mia (70-1 per cent), and Yekaterinoslaff
the United St,ates, and the majority of the others to (68-9 per cent). The Little Russians are an agri-
Brazil and the Argentine Republic. cultural people, and remain in their native districts.
The population of Russia is very much divided Their emigrations extend only to the steppes of
hnguistically, it being calculated that a hundred New Russia, and to the territories of the Don and
languages are spoken within the empire, of which of the Kuban ri\'ers. Of recent times they have
forty-two are in use in the city of Tiflis alone. Rus- furnished a large contingent to the agricultural
 RUSSIA 235 RUSSIA
colonization of Siberia. From the standpoint of cul- and Polish influence and to form a national literature.
ture, that of the Great Russians is superior to that Related to the Lithuanians are the Letts (Latyshi);
of the Little Russians, although the intellectual level they are a hard-working race and have a high moral
of Little Russia was much higher than that of Great standard. Their religion is chiefly Lutheranism; a
Russia during the Polish domination The musical and
. few of them are of the Orthodox Church.
poetical talents of this people are very much developed To the Germanic race belong the Germans and
and their popular literature abounds in beautiful Swedes. The Germans of Russia live on the Baltic
songs. The difference between Great and Little Sea and on the western frontier, while colonies of
Russians is not only anthropological, but is also one them are to be found in European Russia and in the
of temperament and character, the Little Russians region of the Volga. In the Baltic region they con-
protesting that they are not Muscovites; and to stitute the higher classes of the population, being for
emphasize their antipathy for the other race, in the the most part merchants and artisans. They own
nineteenth century they attempted to give a literary the greater portion of the land, because, after the im-
development to their dialect. perial manifesto of 19 February, 1861, they freed
The White Russians inhabit the forest and marsh their serfs (Letts and Esthonians), but did not divide
region that is comprised between the Rivers Dilna, their lands among them. There are over 100,000 of
Dnieper, Pripet, and Bug. They represent 7 per cent them in this region; in that of the Vistula, there are
of the total population, and are scattered through the German colonists, some of whom descend from those
Governments of Vilna, Vitebsk, Grodno, Kovno, who were called by the Polish nobility to occupy the
Minsk, Mohileff, Suwalki, and Yehsavetpol. Both free lands. At the present time, the Germans are
physically and intellectually they are less developed devoted chiefly to industry, and have established a great
than the Great and Little Russians. According to many factories, especially at Lodz .There are German
the Russians, the intellectual inferiority of that colonies on the steppes, which, having the authoriza-
people is due to the despotism of Polish masters, tion of the Government and special privileges, are
under which they lived for several centuries, to the prosperous, but which oppose effective resistance to
loss of their nobility, which became Polish, and to the all attempts to russianize them. The Swedes, about
economic supremacy of the Jews. Accordingly, the 400,000 in number, are concentrated in Finland,
White Russians are poor, ignorant^ and superstitious. especially in the Governments of Nyland (45 per
There is a great admixture of Polish and Lithuanian cent) and Vasa (28-8 per cent). They constitute the
terms in their dialect. At the present time, however, aristocratic and intellectual classes of Finland; but
national sentiment is awakening in the White Rus- their political and literary influence, which was con-
sians, who pubHsh newspapers in their own language, siderable, tends to diminish before the development
and aspire to better their economic conditions. of Finnish national sentiment.
Ethnographically, the Caucasians are Great and The Romanic races are represented by about
Little Russians. They are a race of warrior-merchants 1,000,000 Moldavians, and by the Wallachians, who
and agriculturists, who developed the characteristic inhabit Bessarabia and the western part of the Gov-
traits of their social and domestic life in struggles with ernment of Kherson. They are all of the Orthodox
the Tatars and Turks. According to the statistics religion, and as a rule are employed in wine production
of 1905, there were 3,370,000 Cossacks in all Russia, and gardening. They resemble the Little Russians
or 2-3 per cent of the population of the empire. Those both physically and morally. The Iranian races are
of the Don are Great Russians. They are famous for represented by about 1,000,000 Armenians, part of
their military qualities in general, and in particular whom inhabit the Little Caucasus; the rest are
for the part that they took in the Uberation of Mos- scattered about the various cities of the Caucasus
cow from Polish occupation in 1612, in the conquest and in European Russia. They are famous for the
of Siberia, and in the war of 1812. At present they beauty of their type and for their patriarchal habits.
devote themselves to agriculture, raising cattle, com- Families are to be found among them numbering as
merce, and military service, and they enjoy many many as fifty individuals, who are ruled by the eldest
exemptions and privileges. The Cossacks of the Urals of them. They devote themselves to agriculture and
are noted for their religious fanaticism. Those of the commerce, for the latter of which pursuits they have
Kuban and of the Black Sea are of Little Russian a special aptitude. They are Monophysites, and reject
origin. They are called Cossacks of "the Line", the Council of Chalcedon (Armenian-Gregorians),
because, after the Russian conquest of the Caucasus, being under the jurisdiction of a katolicos who resides
they built a line of fortified villages on the shores of at Etchmiadzin. They have the greatest attachment
the Kuban, to defend their new possessions against to their language and the traditions of their mother-
incursions of the so-called mountaineers of the country. Among those who live in the Caucasus,
Caucasus, the Tcherkesy, Tchetchency, Abkhazy, there is a considerable literary culture. Several
Osetiny, and Lezginy. In their life they have pre- thousands of them are Catholics.
served the Little Russian customs and traditions. On the shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azoff
Besides the Russian, properly so-called, there are there are several colonies of Greeks who devote them-
a great many other races that belong politically to selves to agriculture, and especially to the production
Russia. Among the Slav races within the Russian of tobacco. There are Greek colonies also in the chief
frontiers, the most numerous are the Poles, of whom centres of population of Russia, especially at Odessa
there are 12,000,000, and who chiefly inhabit the and St. Petersburg.
region of the Vistula. The Bulgarians and Servians The Jews are a scattered population, principally in
have emigrated to the region of New Russia since the Governments of Western and Southern Russia.
1752, forming colonies of peasants. The Servians Their presence in Russia is due to emigrations of
allowed themselves to be easily russianized; but the German Jews from Poland, and they still preserve
Bulgarians showed reluctance to this, and still pre- their dialect of Hebrew German, which is the language
serve their national character. The Lithuanians live of their Press. As elsewhere, they evince the greatest
along the Vilia River and the lower course of the aptitude for commercial matters, and the commerce
Niemen, at the Prussian frontier. Their number is and industry of Western Russia is in their hands.
given as 3,500,000. They come in succession under The severe laws that limit the civil rights of the Jews
Russian, Polish, Finnish, and Jewish influence. They in Russia, have concentrated the members of that race
are fervent Catholics, and their economic conditions in the cities, and the number of workmen and of
are prosperous. Their national sentiment, depressed artisans among them is very great, making their
for several centuries, has awakened in recent times, struggle for existence very difficult. Large fortunes
and nationalist Lithuanians seek to throw off Russian are to be found among the Russian Jews, but their
 RUSSIA 236 RUSSIA

masses constitute a proletariat that on various occa- Finland; (4) the Caucasus; (.5) Siberia; (6) Central
sions has been the victim of cruel massacres. Among Asia. These territories are divided into governments
these Russian Jews there is the greatest devotion to {gubernii) and provinces {ohlasli). The governments
the Jewish religion and the greatest racial brother- are ruled with laws that are called "Statutes of the
hood. The Government admits only a limited number Governments" {Polozhenie o guherniiazh); the
of them to the establishments of higher education; provinces, besides the general laws, have special laws
nevertheless, in the large cities, there is a great num- that are made necessary by the great number of
ber of Jews who exercise the liberal professions, and non-Russians and of the non-Orthodox who inhabit
especially that of medicine. The number of those who those regions. The governments are divided into
devot(t themselves to industrial pursuits increases districts called uiezdy, and the provinces into dis-
each year. tricts called okrugi. The number of these districts,
The Finns inhabit the regions of the Baltic Sea, the both in the governments and provinces, varies from
Volga, and the Ural Mountains. The Finns, properly four to fifteen. The districts are divided into
so-called, who inhabit Finland are 2,500,000 in num- volosti, selskiia obshestva, etc. The okrugi are divided
ber. For several centuries they were under the into military, judicial, scholastic, postal, etc. In Euro-
domination of Sweden, by which country they were pean Russia there are seven gradonatchalstva, i. e.,
barred from western civilization. They are famous for cities that have administrations independent of the
their honesty, love of their country and traditions governments and provinces in which they are situated
(they are Lutherans ), their high intellectual level (there these are St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Rostoff-
are sc-areely any illiterate among them), the status of on-the-Don, Sebastopol, Kertch-Yenikale, and Niko-
their women (the University of Helsingf ors has six hun- laieff. Kronstadt constitutes a separate military
dred women students, and the Parliament of Helsing- government.
fors has twenty-two women members), and their tenac- European Russia contains fifty-nine governments
ity of character, by which they have transformed the and two provinces. The governments of the Vistula,
poor soil of Finland. The progress of the Finns during consisting of the territory of the former Kingdom
the last fifty years has been considerable, but in 1910 of Poland that was annexed to Russia (carstvo
the Government suppressed the liberty and autonomy polskoe), belong to European Russia. They enjoyed
of Finland, and possibly thereby has placed a barrier a certain autonomy until the revolution of 1863 led
to the development of Finnish culture. Tlie Korely, the Russian Government to suppress all their privi-
who live to the north of Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and leges and to employ every means for their russian-
of whom there are 210,000, are Baltic Finns; there ization. After the liberal edicts of 1905 it was hoped
are also small groups of them between Lake Ilmen that autonomy would be restored to the Russian
and the Volga. They have been more amenable to Poles; but these hopes are far from being realized.
russianization, and have embraced the Orthodox The Grand duchy of Finland, which was united to
faith. The Esthonians occupy the southern part of the Russia in 1809 as an integral part of the empire,
plain of the Baltic. There are 1 ,.300,000 of them, who enjoyed a special autonomy that gave an admirable
constitute a class of poor peasants, among whom development to the culture and prosperity of that
remain many traditions and customs of paganism. land. The Finns had a code of special laws, a diet,
They are mostly Lutherans. senate, bank, coinage, and postal service. After
The Finns of the Volga comprise the Tcheremisy, 1905 there was universal suffrage, and the new
the Mordva, and the Tohuvashi. The first, to the chamber of deputies admitted women also to its
number of 400,000, live on the banks of the Volga, membership. In 1910, however, the Duma approved
in the Governments of Kazan and of Vyatka. They a bill relating to Finland, which, if carried into effect,
were converted to Christianity by the Russian mis- would bring Finnish autonomy to an end. Finland
sionaries, but they remain pagans at heart, and in is divided into eight governments. In the Caucasus,
their customs. They devote themselves to agriculture, where the Russian population is in a minority, be-
the chase, lumber commerce, and fishing. Their sides the various governments, there are provinces
villages are small, ha^ing each not more than thirty where special laws are in force. Siberia is divided
houses. They are poor but honest, theft being re- into governments and provinces. Among the latter
garded among them as a grave offence. The Tchu- the Island of Sakhalin, with an area of 14,836 sq.
vashi are 800,000 in number; they live on the right miles, has a population of 17,900. The southern
bank of the \'olga, and their chief centres of popula- portion of this island, however, was ceded to Japan
tion are in the Governments of Kazan, Orenburg, by the treaty of Portsmouth, 16-29 August, 1905.
Simbirsk, and Saratoff. Although they are Finns, The governments and provinces of Siberia are eight
they have adopted Russian customs, and tend more and in number. Asiatic Russia has provinces [ohlasli)
more to beeome russianized. From the eighteenth only, because the Russians constitute only a small
century the liussian missionaries have attempted minority of the population.
to convert them to orthodoxj-, and have baptized a Agriculture, and Condition of the Peasants.
great number of them; but the Tchuvashi preserve
a basis of paganism that is revealed in their rite and
—Russia is a great agricultural nation; three-
quarters of its population derive their support from
in their creed. Agriculture is their favourite pursuit, the soil, which furnishes the most important resources
but they devote themselves also to the culture of of the country. The statistics concerning agriculture
liees, and they supply the markets of St. Petersburg date from 1877-78, and were collected by the Central
with poultry and eggs. Committee of Statistics. More precise information
Other less important races are mentioned by was gathered by the same committee in 1886-88,
Kussian geographers. The total number of the and in 1905. According to the latest of these statis-
\'arious nationalities that constitute the Russian tics, there were in European Russia, exclusive of the
Empire is about one hundred. Their multiplicity, Kingdom of Poland, 1,067,019,596 acres of cul-
which transforms Russia into a true ethnographical tivated land, besides 17,609,124 acres in the Kalmuck
museum, is an obstacle in the way of civilization, steppes, and 19,133,296 in the steppes of the Kirghiz.
to the dissemination of instruction, and to the stabil- The cultivated lands are divided into three classes:
ity of the representative system.
(1) private property (274,685,426 acres); (2) lands
—
ADMiNi.sTn.\TivE Divisions. For the purposes
of administration Russia is divided into six great
granted by the government to the peasants or
nadiel'nyja zemli (374,672,484 acres); (3) lands be-
territorial regions: (1) European Russia, properly longing to the treasury, the churches, monasteries,
so-called; the Governments of the Vistula
(2)
(Privislanskiia gubernii);
cities, and institutions (417,661,685). A
comparison
(3) the Grand duchy of of these statistics with those of 1877 shows that in
 RUSSIA 237 RUSSIA

1905 the lands owned by the nobles had diminished winter grain (rye, corn) is sown; in the second, a
in area by 53,851,008 acres, and those of foreign sub- crop of summer grain is put in (wheat, barley, oats)
jects by 341,679 acres. On the other hand the landed and in the third, grass for pasture is allowed to grow;
property of the peasants had increased by 20,051,428 each year the crop of each section is changed for one
acres, and that of the other social classes had in- of the other two, thus allowing each section to rest
creased proportionately. In Siberia all the land, once in three years. In the regions of the Vistula
except the southern part of the Government of and the Baltic and in the south-western part of Fin-
Tomsk which belongs to the imperial family, is the land the intensive system of agriculture obtains;
property of the Government, for as yet only a small no portion of the land remains untilled, but the peas-
portion has been granted to public and private in- ants sow seed and plant vegetables in alternate
stitutions. years, so as not to exhaust the productiveness of the
The state lands of European Russia are distrib- soil. In several regions, especially in the Caucasus,
uted very irregularly. In the Governments of in Daghestan, Transcaucasia, and Turkestan, a
Archangel, Olonetz, and Vologda, the State owns remedy is found for the aridity of the soil in irrigation
from 83 to 90 per cent of the land; in the region of by means of canals. In other regions of a marshy
Tchernozom, 5 per cent, and in the Governments of character the work of draining the swamps is carried
Pultowa, Bessarabia, and in Esthonia less than 1 on, at times by the Government, and at times by
per cent. The lands granted to the peasants occupy private parties. In Podlachia alone, from 1874
more than half of the Governments of Orenburg, to 1892, there were reclaimed 6,210,000 acres of
Vyatka, Ufa, Kazan, Penza, Voronezh, Samara, the swamp lands. The same kind of work was accom-
Province of the Don, Vladimir, Ryazan, Kursk, plished in Siberia.
Moscow, Kaluga, Kharkoff, Tchernigoff, and Pultowa. Russia is a great cereal-producing country. Ac-
Of the lands that are private property, 52 per cent cording to the statistics of 1908, in 73 governments
belong to the nobility, 24 per cent to the peasants, (63 in Russian Europe, 1 in Transcaucasia, 4 in
16 per cent to the merchants, and the remainder is Siberia, and 5 in Central Asia), out of 327,642,983
divided among other classes. The possessions of the acres of land, 56-2 per cent were devoted to the
nobihty are chiefly in the Baltic region, Lithuania, culture of cereals, 3-2 per cent to the culture of the
and the Governments of Minsk, Perm, Podolia, potato, 13-9 per cent to the oat crop, and 26-7 per
and Kieff. In the period between 1860 and 1905 the cent to artificial meadow lands. In 1908 the grain
rural property of the nobility, which had reached crop amounted to 48,000,000 tons; the potato crop
213,300,000 acres, was reduced to 143,100,000 acres. yielded 29,000,000 tons; oats, 13,000,000 tons, and
The great landowners, possessing more than 2700 hay from artificial meadows, 47,000,000 tons. The
acres each, are chiefly in the eastern governments governments that are the most productive of cereals
and in those of the Baltic. The arable lands of the are those of Bessarabia, Kherson, Taurida, Yeka-
Kingdom of Poland occupy an area of 30,312,168 terinoslaff, and the Province of the Don Cossacks.
acres of which 44-56 per cent belong to private As a cereal-producing country, Russia is the second
owners, 45-58 per cent to the peasants through in the world, the United States being the first.
government concessions, 4-02 per cent to the cities, The development of potato culture, which was in-
and 5-84 per cent to the churches and other institu- troduced into Russia in 1767, is notable. The grain
tions. The land belonging to the churches and that Russia produces is not only sufficient to supply
monasteries in the whole of European Russia, in- the home market, but also constitutes one of the chief
cluding Poland, is estimated at 0-6 per cent of all exports. The amount of it that is exported amounts
the arable land of that division of the empire. on an average to 15,000,000 tons a year. It should
There are 591,788 rural villages in European be noticed, however, that in proportion to the area
Russia, with a total population of 81,050,300, of of the empire, the grain production of Russia is not
whom 84-5 per cent are peasants. According to high: Germany, France, and Austria, the combined
statistics, 38-8 per cent of the total surface is forest; area of which countries is only one-third of that of
26-2 per cent is arable land; 19-1 per cent is land European Russia, produce together more grain than
not available for cultivation; and 15-9 per cent is is produced in all Russia.
prairies and pasture lands. The lands unavailable There are abundant crops of other staples, also,
for cultivation are the salt steppes, the marshes, and that Russia produces; these are the flax crop, which
the tundras. In Finland these lands occupy 35-6 yields 500,000 tons a year, produced in several of the
per cent of the country, and the porportion is still governments of the north-east, north-west, and south;
greater in Siberia and Turkestan, where the arable hemp, 400,000 tons; cotton, raised in Transcaucasia
land is only 2 per cent. and Turkestan, especially in the Province of Ferg-
The "extensive" and the "intensive" systems of hana, annual yield more than 170,000 tons. Tobacco
cultivation are variously applied in Russia, according was introduced into Russia in the seventeenth cen-
to the region. In the governments of Northern tury; its use was prohibited by severe laws, but was
Russia (Archangel, Olonetz, Vologda, Novgorod, allowed from the time of Peter the Great; it is cul-
and in parts of Yaroslaff, Kostroma, Vyatka, and tivated in the Governments of Tchernigoff, Pultowa,
Perm) the system called podsietchnaja obtains, con- Samara, Saratoff, Taurida, Bessarabia, Kuban, etc.
sisting in stripping and uprooting the forests, plant- Its annual yield is about 100,000 tons, while the lands
ing wheat on their sites for intervals of from three to that are devoted to its cultivation cover an area of
nine years, and then allowing the forests to grow up 1,755,000 acres. The principal tobacco factories are
again when the fertility of the soil has been exhausted. at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Riga, Kiefi', and Odessa.
In the Governments of Kherson, Yekaterinoslaff, The culture of beets, introduced into Russia about
Taurida, Stavropol, Orenburg, the Province of the the beginning of the nineteenth century, has been
Urals, and the Province of the Don Cossacks is greatly developed during the last thirty years, there
practised the method called zalezhnaia (Fr. jachbre). being now devoted to it an aggregate area of 1,485,000
This consists in cultivating the land while its pro- acres, the greater portion of which is in the Govern-
ductive power endures; then it is transformed into ments of Kieff and FodoUa, the annual crop amount-
pasture, and its cultivation is not resumed for an ing to 10,000 tons. Wine is not extensively produced
interval of ten, twelve, or fifteen years, as occasion in Russia, and is of inferior quality. The best vine-
may require. The intensive method of agriculture yards are in the Crimea, in Kakhetia, and in the
obtains in the central governments of Russia, in the Province of the Don Cossacks. There are 729,000
zone of Tchernozom, and in other governments. acres devoted to vine culture, and the yearly product
A field is divided into three sections; in the first, amounts to not more than 88 million gallons. The
 RUSSIA 238 RUSSIA
Government seeks to encourage the home produc- mittee in 1857. In 1859 the committees of the nobil-
tion of wine by very high duties on foreign wines. ity and of the pomieshshiki in the various provinces
The culture of vegetables and fruit is not greatly discussed this question of the abohtion of serfdom,
developed; market gardens thrive in the neighbour- and the Press dealt with it in an active way, showing
hood of the large cities, especially in the District of Russia's moral and political need to solve it. An
Rostoff, and in the Governments of Saratoff and imperial commission, established in 1859, prepared
Samara. The production of fruit is abundant in a law which, after long deUberations and frequent
Transcaucasia and the Crimea. modifications, received the signature of the tsar 12
According to the statistics of 1908 there were in Feb., 1861, and was promulgated on 5 March of the
Russia 140,656,000 head of cattle, namely, 28,72.3,000 same year. The terms of this law made all peasants
horses, 42,031,000 horned cattle, 57,466,000 sheep and free, and secured to them, upon the payment of a tax
goats, and 12,436,000 hogs. The horned cattle are establi.shed by law, the use of their habitations (dvor)
scattered over the whole of European Russia: the and a grant of land, of which they could become own-
cattle of Siberia are of a better class, on account of ers in fee simple by pecuniary redemption. More-
the abundance of forests. There are numerous breeds over, the pomieshshiki were olDliged to grant to the
of horses in Russia, and special establishments are peasants or to the mir the lands occupied by them,
devoted to the improvement of these breeds in the conformably with a maximum or minimum estab-
Province of the Don Cossacks and the Governments lished by law. On the other hand, the dvorovie, or
of Voronezh, Kherson, TambofT, Pultowa, and servants, who numbered 1,500,000, in 1861 regained
Kharkoff. The annual product from the sheep is their freedom, with however the obligation of serving
calculated at 120,000,000 roubles (1 rouble=52 cents their mEisters for a further period of two years.
U. S. A.). The best wool is produced by the flocks The lands were so distributed that each peasant who
of the Governments of Novgorod and Voronezh, of was entitled to share in them received, on an average,
the Volga, the Vistula, the Baltic, the Caucasus, and fourteen acres; on an average, because the quality
Turkestan. The raising of hogs is especially pursued in of the lands was taken into account in the distribu-
the Governments of Minsk and Volhynia. The chicken tion; in the zone of the Tchernozom, the concessions
industry flourishes in Western and Central Russia; were of eight acres. Moreover, the distribution of
fowls and eggs are exported and yield an annual income lands was very unequal, and 42-6 per cent of the
of more than 70,000,000 roubles, of which 61,000,000 peasants who participated in it received concessions
are for eggs. The yearly production of honey is that were insufficient for their needs; to this may be
nearly 26,000 tons, and wax 5000 tons, yielding an added that many millions of peasants were not
aggregate income of from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 benefited by the law, and that the annual tax to be
roubles. The culture of the silk-worm is being paid to the Government by those who received portions
developed, chiefly in the Governments of Bessarabia, of land became a burden. The Government therefore
Kherson, and Taurida, and in Turkestan and the continued to enact laws to solve the agrarian question.
Caucasus. The yearly production of silk amounts to The taxes were diminished in 1881, and in 1882 the
about 1000 tons. Agrarian Bank was established, which helped the
The condition of the peasants, although greatly im- peasants to acquire possession of 19,000,000 acres in
proved, is far from being prosperous, and the agrarian a few years. In 1885 the per capita tax paid by the
question is one of the gravest with which Russian peasants was abolished, by which the Government lost
statesmen have to deal. Prior to 1861, or since 50,000,000 roubles. Other laws, some of them pro-
1592 according to some authorities, 1649 according to mulgated as late as 1900, are directed towards the
others, the peasants were legally reduced to servitude protection of the rights of the peasants. These
{kriepostnoe pravo). They were under serfdom to measures, however, are insufficient. The increase in
the landowners, were attached to the soil, and were the population has greatly reduced the average hold-
not allowed to change their place of residence or ing of land, which in 1893 amounted to 6-5 acres for
dispose freely of their property; they were obliged to each peasant. The improvidence of the peasants,
cultivate the lands of their employers and pay a tax drink, backward methods in agriculture, and bad
to the State. The pomieshshiki, or landowners, became crops have on more than one occasion caused famine
so many little tsars, and the peasants were reduced to to be felt in the agricultural regions. The agrarian
the condition of slaves. As a consequence there question, therefore, lies like an incubus on Russia, while
occurred the revolts of the peasants, in the seven- the various parties of the Duma propose different so-
teenth century, under Stenko Razin, and in the lutions for it. The moderate parties advise directing
eighteenth century, under Pugatcheff. During the the peasant emigration towards Siberia, dispersing
reign of Catherine II a Russian author, Radishsheff, the peasants in less populous governments, and im-
in his "\'oyage from St. Petersburg to Moscow", parting to them agricultural instruction; while the
suggested the necessity of freeing the peasants from more advanced parties demand that the crown lands
their servitude; the book was held to be dangerous, and the lands of the churches and the monasteries be
and its author was exiled to Siberia. Paul I in 1797 divided among the peasants, or again that the great
alle\'iated the condition of the peasants by decreeing landowners be deprived of their rural possessions
that they should work only three days on the lands (socialization of lands). Until now, however, the
of their employers. Alexander I attempted in vain debates that have taken place in the various dunms
to free them: his humanitarian efforts were thwarted on this subject have led to no practical results.
by the opposition of the nobles.
entertained the
Nicholas I
same purpose, but notwithstanding
—
Statistics of Commerce. According to the sta-
tistics of 1908 Russia occupies the ninth place among
his absolutism was unable to realize it; he promul- nations as regards her merchant fleet, which including
gated various laws, however (1826, 1835, 1839, 1845, that of Finland has 6250 ships, with a gross tonnage
1846, 1847, and 184S), by which the right of the of 1,046,195; this includes 1240 steamers with a
pe;isants and of their communities {mir) to acquire tonnage of 500,000. Finland has 2800 ships, with a
real estate was recognized; but these laws were not
tonnage of 346,195. The ships of more than 1000 tons
executed, and the pomieshshiki pretended to be unin- burden in the Russian merchant fleet number 114.
formed of them. Of Russian vessels, 1129 belong to the Black Sea
The European revolution of 1848 and the Crimean ports and the Sea of Azoff, and 1104 to the Baltic
A\ ar brought an awakening of Liberal ideas in
Russia, ports. According to the statistics of the same year,
and Alexander II, as one of the first measures of his there arrived at Russian ports during 1908 11,011
reign, abolished serfdom. The preparatory measures ships, of which 1777 were Russian, with an aggregate
for this consummation were studied by a secret com-
tonnage of 1,241,000, and 9519 foreign, aggregate
 RUSSIA 239 RUSSIA

tonnage 9,519,000. The chief centres of Russian oats, rye, and corn to Germany, England, Holland,
maritime commerce are the ports of the Baltic, the Italy, France, Austria, etc.; eggs, sugar, butter,
Black Sea, and the Sea of Azof. The foreign mari- caviare, fish, fowls, petroleum, cattle, and raw
time commerce of Russia is divided by tonnage as minerals; and imports woollen textiles amounting to
follows: England, 42 per cent; Germany, 16 per 25,000,0()0 roubles, worked metals, paints, and dyes,
cent; Denmark, 10 per cent; Greece, 8 per cent; and coal, silk, rubber goods, machinery, watches, tea
Sweden and Norway, 4 per cent. (in 1906, 90,000 tons of this commodity were im-
The coasting trade between small ports is reserved ported at a cost of 77,000,000 roubles), herrings,
exclusively for Russian shipping; it has found its wines (11,000,000 roubles), lemons and oranges
greatest development in the Black Sea and the Sea (4,500,000 roubles), other fruits, etc.
of Azof (36,590 ships, 15,098,000 tons), in the The internal commerce of Russia is greatly de-
Caspian Sea (16,538 ships, 8,884,000 tons), and in the veloped by the periodical markets or fairs, of which
Baltic Sea (10,809 ships, 1,230,000 tons). Thisshipping 26,000 are held in 6830 different places. The most
carries on an average 10,000,000 tons of merchandise important one of them is that of Nizhni-Novgorod,
a year, of which 4,400,000 tons are petroleum, and originating in the seventeenth century near the monas-
1,100,000 tons grain. The great coasting commerce tery of the Blessed Macarius, which was built within
between the Black and the Baltic Seas, between the the Government of Nizhni-Novgorod. To that market
ports of European Russia and those of Eastern Siberia, Turks, Tatars, and Persians went in great numbers.
and between the Murman coasts {Murmanskii bereg) In 1816 the fair was transferred to Novgorod, a city
and the Baltic Sea, employs 212 steamships, of an which, on account of its position at the confluence
aggregate tonnage of 450,000, carrying a yearly of the Volga and the Oka Rivers, possessed the
average of 270,000 tons of merchandise. The most requisites for becoming a great commercial centre;
important commercial ports of Russia are St. Peters- the commercial importance of the fair increased
burg, Riga, Libau, Reval, and Odessa. According rapidly; it was visited by as many as 200,000 mer-
to the most recent statistics, the river fleet consists chants from all parts of Russia and Siberia. The
of 3300 steam and 22,860 other craft, with an aggre- value of the merchandise brought to this market,
gate tonnage of 11,200,000. The yards that build which amounted to 32,000,000 roubles in 1817, at-
this shipping are at Nizhni-Novgorod, St. Petersburg, tained a sum of 246,000,000 roubles in 1881, after
Moscow, Perm, and in Finland. The river fleet which it fell to a, yearly average of from 160 to 170
carries a yearly average of 32,000,000 tons of mer- million roubles. The fair is held from 15 July to
chandise, of an aggregate value of 800,000,000 25 Aug., the chief commodities being silk, cotton,
roubles. linen and woollen goods, worked metals, and skins.
The first railway that was constructed in Russia Another important fair is that of Irbit, in the Govern-
was that of Tsarskoi Selo in 1837; in 1850, Russian ment of Perm. This fair originated in 1643; it
railways had 666 miles of line, which had increased is held from 1 Feb. to 1 March, the value of the mer-
to 7094 miles in 1870, to 14,786 in 1880, and to 20,- chandise brought to it being estimated at 30,000,000
000 in 1890. The greater portion of these was con- roubles each year. In Little Russia these fairs are
structed by private companies, and in 1882 13,582 frequently held; among them the most noted are
of a total of 15,724 miles of railway belonged to those of the Epiphany, at Kharkoff, from 6 to 26
those companies. In 1908 the railway mileage of Jan. (merchandise of a value of from 11 to 13 miUion
Russia amounted to 45,132 miles, of which 35,076 roubles) those of the Assumption, the Intercession
;

were in Europe, 2078 in Finland, and 7978 in Asia. of the Blessed Virgin, and the Holy Trinity, in the
At present four-fifths of these railways belong to the same city, from 15 Aug. to 1 Sept., 1 to 15 July,
State, and one-fifth to private parties. In 1909 there and 1 Oct. to 1 Nov. respectively; the fair of Kieff,
were 270 miles of new railways opened and the con- from 5 to 26 Feb.; those of Kursk, Simbirsk, Menzel-
struction of 3074 miles more was determined upon. insk, Ivanoffskaia etc. The growth of the railways
Russia has the second railway mileage of the world, tends to diminish the importance and volume of
being second only to the United States; but compared business of these fairs. The number of commercial
with the area of the empire, the railway mileage of establishments in Russia (statistics of 1907) is
Russia is small. The railway centre of Russia is 889,746, and the number of people engaged in com-
Moscow. The Trans-Siberian Railway is the great- merce is 1,600,000.
est enterprise of modern Russia: it has made possible Industries, and Condition of the Workers. —
the exploitation of the natural riches of Siberia, Russian industries have been greatly developed, al-
and has opened a way for the commerce of Europe though they are far from being in a position to supply
with the Far East. Its construction was begun in the home demand. In 1906 there were in Russia
1891, and finished in 1903, at a cost of 850,000,000 14,247 industrial estabUshments, in which there were
roubles. It has a length of 5532 miles. After the 1,684,569 workers; in 1907 the number of those
war with Japan, the branch to Port Arthur became a establishments had decreased to 14,190, while the
part of the Eastern China Railway. The voyage workers had increased to 1,723,173. The industrial
from Europe to Shanghai, which takes forty-five districts are those of St. Petersburg (2049 establish-
days by the Suez Canal, and thirty-five days by ments, 296,109 workers), Moscow (2485 estab-
Canada and the Pacific Ocean, is made in from lishments, 610,402 workers), Warsaw (2978 estabhsh-
eighteen to twenty days over the Trans-Siberian ments, 268,256 workers), Kieff (2791 establishments
Railway by way of Vladivostok. The total value 207,751 workers), the Volga(1768 establishments, 137,-
of the Russian railways is 5,500,000,000 roubles, and 235 workers), and Kharkoff (2119 estabhshments,
their average cost is estimated at 169,500 roubles per 203,424 workers). The number of women employed
mile. m these establishments increases continually, and
In foreign commerce, exports and imports, Russia grew from 383,782 in 1901 to 435,684 in 1906.
occupies the seventh place among commercial na- The metal industries are the most important.
tions, the imports and exports representing a value Under Peter the Great there was declared the so-
approximately of 2,000,000,000 roubles (in 1906, called freedom of mines (gornaia svoboda), according
800,000,000 roubles of imports, and 547,500,000 to which the ownership of a mine was independent
roubles of exports). This commerce to the amount of that of the land under which it was found.
This
of 1,545,000,000 roubles is carried on across the law was revoked by Catherine II in 1781, to the
European frontiers; 268,000,000 roubles across detriment of the metallurgical industries. Ac-
Asiatic frontiers; and 83,000,000 roubles across the cording to the latest statistics, the number of work-
frontiers of Finland. Russia exports wheat, barley, men employed in these industries is 700,000, of whom
 RUSSIA 240 RUSSIA

more than half are employedin the extraction and the Government of Baku (90 per cent), from the
working of iron. The value of the yearly output Provinces of Terek, Kuban, and Daghestan, from the
of the metallurgical industries is 300,000,000 roubles. Government of Tiflis, and from the Transcaspian
Russia holds an important position as a gold-pron region. In 1907 the total production of petroleum
ducing country: in 1906 Siberia, the Urals, and Fin- in Russia amounted to 8,300,000 tons. The petro-
land produced 30 tons of gold. The average leum exported in 1908 represented a value of 30,000 - '

production of gold eacli year, from sand and quartz, 000 roubles.
amounts to 80,960 lb., of a value of 60,000,000 Among salt-producing countries Russia holds the
roubles. Russia occupies the fourth place among fourth place, producing from mines and salt lakes a
gold-produciiiR countries. The Province of Irkutsk, yearly average of more than 1,770,000 tons of salt,
in Eastern Siberia, is the chief gold region of the chiefly from the Governments of Yekaterinoslaff, Astra-
country, and i-specially the District of Olekminsk, khan, Perm, and Taurida. The textile industry holds
which produces (i tons of the metal. By the laws of an important place, there being 2000 factories, em-
12 March, 1901, and 1 March, 1902, the prohibition ploying 700,000 workers, and producing fabrics valued
that had been placed upon free commerce in gold at 800,000,000 roubles a year. Of those estabhsh-
was removed. There are SO, 000 workers employed ments 730 are cotton factories, which employ 437,000
in the gold industries of the country. workers, and produce a yearly output valued at
Russia may be said to be the only platinum- 520,000,000 roubles. The principal establishments
producing countrj'. This metal is taken from for the cleaning of cotton are in Turkestan and the
the Urals, where it was discovered in 1819, the yearly Government of Erivan. Factories for spinning and
production of it amounting to 5 tons, although in weaving cotton first appeared in Russia during the
1906 the amount was 5^ tons. It is mined in the second half of the eighteenth century; the principal
Government of Perm, giving employment to 1292 ones among them at the present time are in the
men, and is usually sold to the British at a price of Governments of Vladimir, Moscow, Piotrkow, St.
800,000 roubles per ton; when refined in England, Petersburg, Kostroma, Terek, and YaroslafiF. The
it is sold for 1,240,000 roubles per ton. The pro- wool industry has 916 factories that produce an aggre-
duction of silver, which from 1886 to 1890 was 16 gate yearly income of nearly 170,000,000 roubles.
tons a year, has decreased to 6 tons yearly. The Russia has 145 linen factories that produce a yearly
metal is mined in the Districts of Nertchinsk and the income of 42,000,000 roubles. The silk industry,
Altai, and in the Governments of Viborg and Arch- which was introduced at the beginning of the
angel. eighteenth century, had in 1900 200 factories (Gov-
Russia has produced copper since the seven- ernments of Moscow, Vladimir, and Piotrkow),
teenth century, and her annual production of that and was producing a yearly income of 23,000,000
metal increases continually: from 8,300 tons in roubles.
190.5, it increased to 70,000 tons in 1906, and to The flour industry is an important one, there
14,000 in 1907. There are 22 establishments de- being 1400 large mills, the yearly products of which
voted to the copper industry; the metal is mined are valued at 225,000,000 roubles, besides which
chiefly in the Caucasus and in the Urals, and to a there are 20,000 small mills. The distillation of
small extent in the steppes of the Kirghiz and in the spirits, made free in 1863, is another important in-
Altai Mountains. Lead is usually found in Russia dustry, there being 2480 distilleries with a yearly
mixed with silver, and is obtained in the Province production of 89,100,000 gallons. There are 80
of Terek and the Districts of Nertchinsk and the distilleries for the production of vodka, which has
Altai. An exact average of the yearly production become a government monopoly, and the yearly
of lead cannot be established; in 1890 it amounted product of vphich is 2,160,000 gallons, chiefly in the
to 800 tons; in 1895 to 400 tons; in 1904 to only Governments of Moscow and St. Petersburg. The
80 tons, while it increased to 770 tons in 1905, and to brewing of beer was begun in Russia more especially
1000 tons in 1906. Zinc is furnished by four great in the nineteenth century, and as a beer-producing
estabUshments, situated respectively at Bendzin, country Russia occupies the sixth place, having 918
Constantin, Paulina (Government of Piotrkow), breweries with a yearly product of 162,000,000
and Alagir, in the Province of Terek. The pro- gallons. Russia also produces sugar. In the eigh-
duction of this metal yielded 8100 tons in 1902, teenth century it had 7 refineries. The first refinery
14,000 tons in 1904, and 10,000 tons in 1906. Mer- for the production of beet sugar was established in
cury was discovered in 1879 in the District of Bakh- 1802. At present there are 280 beet sugar factories
mut (Government of Yekaterinoslaff), and its yearly and refineries, which in 1908 produced 1,300,000 tons.
production amounts to 320 tons. Manganese, which There are 294 oil factories, where oil is extracted from
is worked chiefly in the Governments of Kutais sunflower seed, linseed, and hempseed.
and of Yekaterinoslaff, yielded a production of There are 827 workshops where industrial mar
320 tons in 1898, 790 tons in 1900, and 500 tons in chinery is made, the value of their annual products
1905. being estimated at 208,000,000 roubles. Fourteen
Russia produces great quantities of iron. The large establishments in the Governments of St.
first establishments for the working of this metal Petersburg, Livonia, Moscow, and Nizhni-Novgorod
originated in the seventeenth century and were the construct locomotives and railway cars, of a value
property of the State. In 1906 the total production of 92,000,000 roubles. The goldsmith's industry,
of iron amounted to 5,183,579 tons. There are 126 which flourishes in the Governments of Warsaw, St.
foundries which produce 2,700,000 tons of melted Petersburg, and Moscow, yields an annual income of
iron. Russia occupies the seventh place among the 5,500,000 roubles. Electrical works, of which there
coal-producing countries. The first coal was mined are 50 in the Government of St. Petersburg, have
in the reign of Peter I, but the coal industry was only made their appearance within recent years; their
developed to any extent under Catherine II, and that annual product is valued at 8,000,000 roubles.
development continues from year to year. The The paper industry is an ancient one in Russia,
production of this mineral amounted to 25,000,000 dating from the sixteenth century. There are at
tons in 1906. Russia is exceptionally rich in petro- present 451 factories. The wood industry is rep-
leum. Many of its oil deposits are yet undeveloped, resented in the first place by 956 saw-mills, the
especially in the Governments of Kielce and Taurida, yearly products of which are estimated at 70,000,000
and in the Urals. The greatest supply of Russian roubles; and secondly by 250 furniture factories,
petroleum now comes from the northern and southern with a yearly output of 14,000,000 roubles. The
slopes of the Caucasus Mountains, especially from yearly production of the 174 chemical factories in
 RUSSIA 241 RUSSIA
Russia is estimated at 32,000,000 roubles. Tanning, the organization and'administration of the universities,
which was practised in Russia as far back as the and conferred many privileges upon the professors
ninth and tenth centuries, is now carried on in 641 and students, which privileges were limited by the
tanneries that produce a yearly output of 55,000,000 law of 23 Aug., 1884. The regular professors receive
roubles. The glass industry also is important in a salary of 3000 roubles a yeai the supplementary
;

Russia, where it made its appearance in the seven- professors receive 2000 roubles, and the dozents 1000
teenth century, under the Tsar Michael Theodoro- roubles. The various universities have in their
vitch (212 factories, and a yearly output of 26,000,- faculties men of superior attainments, who are an
000 roubles). honour to science. Those institutions are distin-
The material and the moral conditions of the work- guished also for their Liberal sentiments, which in
ing people leave a great deal to be desired. The 1905-07 degenerated into excesses, and on various
wages are low in proportion to the cost of living in occasions transformed the universities into hotbeds of
Russian cities, and the law does not give the workman political agitation.
sufficient protection against exploitation by his em- The intellectual culture of women has its centres
ployer. It may be said that there are no sanitary in the so-called "Superior Course" {Vysshie kursy) of
laws with regard to workers in factories, although St. Petersburg (2396 students) and of Moscow (2177
this matter has been considered by various com- students), and in the women's medical school of
missions, established by the Government in 1859, St. Petersburg (1635 students). In the "Superior
1870, 1874, and 1892. Sickness and accidents are Courses", the greater portion of the women students
frequent among the workmen: in 1871 in 17,533 es- take up the study of history and of philosophy. The
tablishments, employing 1,700,000 workers, there were one at St. Petersburg is maintained at a cost of
24,744 accidents, of which 385 were fatal. To these 217,530 roubles a year; the corresponding one at
may be added 23,360 injuries through accident in Moscow at 153,000 roubles a year, and the women's
the mines, making a total of 48,104; these official school of medicine at a cost of 573,926 roubles. There
figures seem too low to represent the facts. The in- are many scholarships for poor students, men and
surance societies have only 600,000 workers inscribed women. The Russian women who frequent the
on their lists; and in case of accident it is very "Superior Courses" are, as a rule, from eighteen to
difficult to obtain payment from those companies. twenty-five years of age, and are distinguished by
There is want of medical assistance. The moral their quickness of intellect and energy of character,
standard is very low. It is therefore no wonder that and also by a decrease of womanly qualities.
the working class takes an active part in revolu- According to the statistics of 1907, secondary in-
tionary movements and furnishes a large percentage struction for men is given in 246 gymnasia and 37
of highway robbers. pro-gymnasia, having 2912 classes, 4668 masters,
—
Intellectual Russia. Intellectual culture is of and 107,296 students; for women, in 433 gymna-
recent date, and was first developed in Southern and sia and 172 pro-gymnasia, with 5432 classes, 10,-
Western Russia mider Polish influence. The first 272 teachers, and 200,761 students, and in 178
Russian academy was established at Kieff in the Bealschulen, 1590 classes, 2538 teachers, and 55,499
seventeenth century. In Muscovite Russia intellec- students. In the gymnasia, the course lasts seven
tual culture began under Peter the Great, who gave years; Greek, Latin, French, and German are taught
much attention to the education of the people. Cath- at these institutions, as also the natural sciences,
erine II established the first school for girls. Under history, geography, Russian literature, and the cate-
Alexander II a great number of schools and of estab- chism. The pro-gymnasia teach the same subjects,
lishments for higher education were opened, and this with the exception of the dead languages. The Real-
intellectual development was carried to Siberia by schulen impart a practical education. In the gym-
the foundation of the University of Tomsk under nasia for girls, the course is six years. To the number
Alexander III. Higher education is represented by ten of these schools must be added the institutes and the
universities: St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, Odessa, seminaries for the education of teachers {utchileV skie
Kharkoff, Warsaw, Kazan, Yurieff (Dorpat), Helsing- instituty, utchiteV skija seminarii), there being 10 of
fors, and Tomsk. Two other universities are about the former, with 143 professors, and 1738 students;
to be established by the Government, at Saratoff and and 73 of the latter, with 909 professors, and 12,355
Tobolsk. In 1909 the ten universities just named were students.
attended by 36,890 students, those having the great- There are in the whole of Russia, including Finland,
est number of students being the Universities of St. 111,427 schools for primary instruction, attended by
Petersburg (8805), Moscow (8698), Kharkoff (4048), 6,875,765 scholars, of whom 4,691,691 are boys. To
and Kieff (4230); on the other hand, Warsaw has this class belong the parochial schools that were in-
only fifteen students, being boycotted by the Poles stituted 13 July, 1884, and were placed under the
on account of the exclusive use of the Russian lan- direct control of the Synod. The scope of these
guage. The most frequented courses are those of law schools is chiefly rehgious; they teach the law of God,
(13,970 students), physics and mathematics (8778 reading, writing, and arithmetic; some of them have
students), and medicine (7068 students). There is a only one class; some two; in the second class, when
notable attendance of women (500) at the University there is one, ecclesiastical and national history are
of Helsingfors. The nine Russian universities are taught. The remuneration received by the teachers
maintained by the State at an expense of 5,405,660 of parochial schools is often as low as 150 roubles a
roubles a year, to which should be added other year. In the schools that depend upon the Ministry
amounts of regular receipts, making a sum total of of Public Instruction, the salaries of teachers are 500
7,684,000 roubles. The University of Helsingfors is or 600 roubles a year. In 1909 the ministry spent
supported by Finland at a cost of 806,700 roubles, of 54,000,000 roubles for the schools of primary instruc-
which 173,700 roubles are furnished by the public tion, while the Holy Synod spent 14,000,000 for the
treasury. schools dependent upon it, a sum that is increased to
Russian universities, some of which date from the 89,000,000 roubles by the contributions of other min-
eighteenth or even the seventeenth century, received istries or institutions. The primary schools neverthe-
their first impetus from Alexander I (1801-25), who less are insufficient in number, and the progressive
founded the Universities of Kharkoff, Kazan, and St. element in Russia calls for the establishment of
Petersburg. Under Nicholas I (1825-55), they ran 500,000 additional schools. Russia has also profes-
the risk of being closed, and were subjected to a rule sional schools: an institute of forestry (liesnai in-
of superintendence and severe discipline. In 1863 the stitut), attended by 460 students; 142 commercial
minister Golovin introduced important reforms into institutes, with 2775 professors and 33,397 students;
XIII.— 16
 RUSSIA 242 RUSSIA

87 commercial schools, with 1040 professors and 12,- loans which, from 2537 milhon roubles in 1856, in
510 students; and 37 professional schools and insti- creased to 5424 milhon roubles in 1883. The Russiar
tutes, with 717 professors and 4270 students. budget, both in receipts and in expenses, increase!
Among the scientific institutions, the Imperial continually: the highest budgets, for receipts and foi
Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg stands in the expenses, were those of 1905 (receipts, 2989 millior
first place. It was instituted by Peter the Great in roubles; expenses, 3194 milhon roubles); 1906 (re-
1724, and was opened by Catherine I in 1726, and has ceipts, 3423 milhon roubles; expenses, 3212 million
various museums, libraries, laboratories, and obser- roubles); and 1907 (receipts, 2195 million roubles
vatories. Its literary activity is intense, its numerous expenses, 2582 million roubles). The increased re-
scientific publications already forming a vast hbrary. ceipts are due to loans, and the increased expenses to
There are also the Imperial Archaeographical Com-
: the war with Japan. The expenses of the war from
mission of St. Petersburg, famous for its splendid edi- 1904 to 1909 amounted to 2,414,923,194 roubles. The
tions of Russian national chronicles; the Imperial budget that was submitted to the Duma and to the
Archaeological Commission of St. Petersburg; the Council of the Empire for 1908 fixed the receipts at
Imperial Archaeological Society of Moscow, which 2,478,677,241 roubles, and the expenditure at 2,631,-
publishes learned and artistic volumes on the sacred 495,495 roubles. That for 1909 fixed both the re-
and profane monuments of Russia; the Society of ceipts and the expenditure at 2,595,049,000 roubles.
Oriental Studies, at St. Petersburg (Vostotchnoviedie- Of the receipts 193,882,000 roubles are derived
nija Obshshestvo) the scientific researches of which
, (Statute of 1909) from direct taxation; 523,758,000
deal especially with Siberia and China; the Society from indirect taxation; 140,709,000 from the cus-
of NaturaUsts of St. Petersburg {Obshshestvo esiest- toms; 806,488,000 from the rights of the State
voispytatelei) which was founded in 1868; the So-
, {regain) 685,670,000 from the properties and capitals
;

ciety of Geographical Studies {Obshshestvo zemleme- of the State; and the remainder from other sources.
dienija), established at St. Petersburg in 190.3; the Of the expenditure, 473,919,000 roubles are for the
Imperial Institute of Experimental Medicine; the account of the Ministry of Marine; 393,363,000
philologioo-historical societies of Odessa and of Khar- roubles are absorbed by the payment of coupons of
koiT; the Imperial Historical Society of St. Peters- the Russian Rentes; 89,353,000 roubles are assigned
burg, which has pubUshed 130 volumes of historical to the Ministry of the Navy; 452,117,000 to the Min-
documents and the Russian biographical lexicon the ; istry of Finance; 553,156,000 to the Ministry of
Archaeological, Historical, and Ethnological Society of Railways and Communications; 154,378,000 to the
Kazan; the Society of the Friends of Ancient Litera- Ministry of the Interior; 63,937,000 to the Ministry
ture of St. Petersburg, which has published numerous of Public Instruction; 31,663,000 to the Holy Synod,
and valuable copies of ancient texts; the Historical and 71,488,000 to the Ministry of Justice. Among the
and Ancient Literature Society, connected with the direct taxes are those upon alcohohc liquors (34,-
University of Moscow, whose Tchtenija (lectures) 172,000 roubles), upon tobacco (49,028,582 roubles),
constitute the richest and most \-aluable historical on sugar (75,541,747 roubles), and on petroleum (31,-
collection of Russia; the Imperial Mineralogical In- 967,500 roubles). The monopoly of alcohohc drinks
stitute of St. Petersburg; the Slav Society of Moscow, yields to the State the enormous sum of 542,288,341
which publishes the periodical "Slavianski Viek"; roubles. The Government receives 36,500,000 roubles
the Polytechnical Institute of Moscow; the Imperial from the postal service, 21,500,000 roubles from the
Archaeological Society of St. Petersburg, with classical. telegraphs, and 453,500,000 roubles from the railways.
Oriental, Russo-Slavic, and numismatical sections; Russia has the largest budget in the world, but not
the Imperial Geographical Society of St. Petersburg, in proportion to the number of its inhabitants.
famous for its publications; the Juridical Institute of A great portion of the resources of Russia is ab-
St. Petersburg; the Lazareff Institute of Moscow, sorbed by the interest on its debt, which in 1907
famous for its learned publications on Oriental and amounted to 8,625,560,215 roubles. Of this sum,
other subjects. All of these institutions, to which 3,155,641,839 roubles were on account of the railways.
many of secondary importance, existing in all Russian In 1908 the debt amounted to 8,725,523,210 roubles.
cities, are to be added, furnish a notable contribution During 1903-07, on account of the war with Japan,
to the activities of Russian science, which in reahty the Russian debt increased by a sum of 2,081,596,540
are very considerable. These institutions are also roubles. For the payment of its foreign Rentes, the
endowed with very fine libraries. Russian Government needs several hundred miUions
The most important Russian library is the Imperial in gold, wherefore its financial poUcy tends to increase
Public Library, which is divided into thirteen sec- exportations, to favour home industries, and to aug-
tions, and rich in bibliographical treasures, among
is ment the metallic supply. The law of 29 Aug., 1897,
them the famous Codex Sinaiticus of the Bible. The put gold into circulation in Russia; and that of 28
second is the hbrary of the Academy of Sciences, April, 1900, guaranteed the payment in gold of notes
which is growing richer from year to year, and with of credit. In 1908 the bank notes in circulation aggre-
which is connected the library of the Asiatic Museum gated a sum of 1200 million roubles; and the gold
of St. Petersburg, where there are many Oriental 578,200,000 roubles, a decrease of 19,400,000 roubles
manuscripts of value. Two 'famous libraries at Mos- from the preceding year. The principal estabUshment
cow are: that of the Holy Synod, where there is a of credit in Russia is the state bank {gosudarstvennyi
very large collection of Greek codices; and the li- bank), which has 8 agencies and 107 branches. Its
brary of the Rumianzoff Museum. In the Caucasus gold reserve in 1908 amounted to 1200 milhon roubles,
there are; the Library of the Ecclesiastical Museum in Russian and in foreign coin, and in bars. Its de-
of Tiflis, which is rich in ancient Georgian codices; posits in precious metals and in securities amounted
and the library of the monastery of Etchmiadzin' to 8286 million roubles. In 1862 there were only 2
which has a valuable collection of Armenian codices,' savings banks in Russia; in 1880 their number had
Economics and Fixance.— It was only towards the increased to 76, and in 1890 to 1826; in 1900 to 5145,
end of the nineteenth century that the budget began and in 1908 to 6710, with an aggregate of 6,210,238
to free itself from its continuous fluctuations. In view depositors, and of 1,149,243,581 roubles of deposits.
of the disorder that obtained in its finances during Other important banks are: the Agricultural Bank of
that century, the Go\-crnment was compelled con- the Nobility, the assets of which, on 1 Jan., 1909,
tinually to increase the compulsory acceptance of amounted to 808,000,000 roubles; the Agricultural
bank-notes which, from a total of 568 million roubles Bank of the peasants, which on the same date had
in 1S57, increased to 1100 million roubles by 1SS3.
assets of 1134 million roubles; the agricultural stock
To meet its obUgations, it was obhged to resort to banks {akdonernye zemeVnye bauki), which were
 RUSSIA 243 RUSSIA
established between 1871 and 1873 in the Govern- their attempts at cities were few and far between, and
ments of Kharkoff, Pultowa, St. Petersburg, Tula, the httle states, devoid of a central Government, were
Bessarabia, Taurida, Nizhni-Novgorod, Samara, Kieff, the prey of internal discord, and too weak to resist
Vilna, Yaroslaff, Kostroma, and the Province of the the attacks of external enemies. The Slavs of the
Don Cossacks, the aggregate assets of which, on 1 south were tributaries of the Khazari; and according
Jan., 1909, amounted to 1164 milUon roubles. The to Nestor, those of the Ilmen, torn by dissensions, sent
first mutual credit society was established at St. messengers to the Vareghi, or Variaghi, inviting the
Petersburg in 1864; at the present time there are latter to the country of the Slavs of the Ilmen, which
401 of them, 13 of which are at St. Petersburg. In was a land of plenty, but devoid of order and of
1909 there were 368 of these associations, with an justice. Russian historians do not agree upon the
aggregate of 208,914 members, and assets of 403 ethnological relations of the Vareghi, who, according
milUon roubles. to some authorities, were Scandinavians, and accord-
Insurance societies are of long standing in Russia. ing to others, Slavs; while yet others regard them as
One of them, the Russian Fire Insurance Society, was adventurers made up of both of those races; more fre-
established in 1827. In 1907 there were 13 fire insur- quently however they are recognized as Normans.
ance societies in the empire, the aggregate receipts of Be that as it may, the Vareghi accepted the invitation
which in 1907 amounted to 107,000,000 roubles, as to establish themselves in the country of the Slavs of
compared with 99,000,000 in 1906, and 91,000,000 in the Ilmen, and opened the era of the national history
1905. The most important of these companies is the of Russia — of the Russia of the heroic period; and
Salamandra, which was established in 1846. Life the region of Kieff, according to ancient chronicles,
insurance policies are issued also by the State savings received the name of Russ.
banks, which in 1907 issued 1653 policies for the total The first to establish themselves in the territory
sum of 3,018,929 roubles. There are 7 Russian and 3 of the Russian tribes were the three Vareghian
foreignlife insurance companies, the first having a brothers, Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor, who came with
combined capital of 90,000,000 roubles, and the sec- their druzhine, or bands of warriors. Rurik pitched
ond 20,000,000 roubles. In 1907 there were 125 in- his tents on the shores of Lake Ladoga; Sineus
surance societies in operation in the various cities of on the shores of the White Sea; while Truvor es-
Russia. After the law of 2 July, 1903, which provided tablished himself at Isborsk. After the deaths of
for indemnity to workmen in case of accident at work, Sineus and Truvor, Rurik took up his abode at
nine accident insurance societies appeared, at the Novgorod, where he built a castle. Two other
industrial centres of Riga, Ivanovo, Warsaw, Moscow, Vareghians, Askold and Dir, installed themselves at
Kieff, Odessa, St. Petersburg, Tchernomoriia, and Kieff, and reigned over the Poliani; with their
Bielostok. These societies have a combined capital fleets of small vessels, they crossed the Bosphorus and
of 1,700,000 roubles, but the number of workers in- attacked Constantinople, which city, according to
sured is small (290,775). Besides the establishments the Byzantine chroniclers, owed its safety on this
that have been mentioned above, there are in Russia occasion to the intercession of Our Lady of the
34 commercial banks, 407 mutual credit societies, and Blachernae. Rurik was succeeded by Oleg, who
86 pawn offices (monts de piete). In all, there are 1502 treacherously murdered Askold and Dir, made him-
institutions of credit in Russia. self master of Kieff, to which he gave the name of
—
Morality: Statistics op Crime. Statistics show Mother of Russian Cities, collected a great fleet in
a continual increase of criminafity in Russia, due to 906 to attack Byzantium, and died in the height of
the increase of the population, the dissemination of his glory; leaving the kingdom to a son of Rurik,
sociaUstic and of revolutionary ideas among the lower Igor. The latter turned his arms unsuccessfully
classes, the want of culture, and the lack of moral in- against Byzantium, and died the victim of a bar-
fluence of the Orthodox religion. From a total of barous assassination at the hands of the Drevliani
266,261 crimes punished by the law in 1901, the figures in 945. The widow of Igor, Queen Olga, assumed
increased to 271,360 in 1902; 292,907 in 1903; 299,968 the regency in the minority of her son Sviatoslaff,
in 1904, and 351,710 in 1905. Thefts and crimes and cruelly punished the Drevliani for their crimes.
against the person represent the greatest number of Under Prince Sviatoslaff (964^72), the Khazari
these crimes. The number of homicides increased were completely defeated, the Petcheneghi put the
considerably in 1905-07, and likewise offences by the city of Kieff in danger of destruction, and the Rus-
Press. In 1905 there were 141,847 arrests (129,275 sians, after an heroic resistance, were defeated at
men). In the same year 3622 men and 720 women Silistria by the Byzantine army under Joannes I
were condemned for homicide. The highest percent- Zimiskes. On his return to Russia the Petcheneghi
age of criminals is furnished by the peasants. In 1906 prepared an ambuscade for Sviatoslaff, and killed
there were 111,403 arrests; in 1907, 138,501; and to him and the survivors of his defeated army. The
1 Jan., 1908, 160,025. In 1907 there were 903 prisons. kingdom of Sviatoslaff was inherited by his sons
Criminality has assumed great proportions, especially Jaropolk, Oleg, and Vladimir. Jaropolk, who re-
in the Caucasus and Poland, where, on account of ceived the Province of Kieff, killed Oleg, who reigned
political as well as of economic causes, outlawry has over the Drevliani, and in turn was killed by Vladimir,
increased its numbers to a considerable extent. Polit- who had inherited the Province of Novgorod. Be-
ical criminality has increased there to an alarming fore his conversion to Christianity, this prince gave
degree. In Poland in 1904r-06 760 civil, military, and himself up to the most unbridled dissipation. For-
poUce employees died by violence, and 864 were tunate in war, he fought successfully against the Poles,
wounded; 142 suffered from the eiqjlosion of bombs. the Viatitch, the Radimitchi, the Letts, and the
In Warsaw alone, from 1904 to 1907, 236 police were Petcheneghi, and owing to his military successes
killed, 179 of them in 1906. The Russian Government became the hero .of Russian popular songs. His
has answered these assaults by a multiplication of reign lasted from 972 to 1015. Upon the death of
death sentences, the number of which from 1905 to Vladimir, his dominions were divided among many
the present time amounts to several thousand. heirs, and there were consequent disputes and civil
— —
History. A. The Epoch of the Princes. Nestor, wars. Two of the sons of Vladimir, the princes
the Russian chronicler, speaks of the Drevliani, Boris and Ghebe, were assassinated by Sviatopolk,
Radimitchi, Viatitchi, Severiani, and of the primitive Prince of Turoff. Yaroslaff, Prince of Novgorod,
races of Russia as of beasts, and assails their polyg- another son of Vladimir, succeeded in avenging the
amy, indecency, and the roughness of their ways. A death of his innocent brothers, and driving Sviato-
few famihes would collect to form a village, and a few polk from his throne, he united all Russia under his
villages would constitute a voolst governed by a prince; own sceptre and established his seat of government at
 RUSSIA 244 RUSSIA

Kieff. His reign waa long and glorious. He in- this period the free cities of Novgorod, Pskof, and
flicted defeats upon the Petcheneghi, the
terrible Vyatka, hke the Italian republics of the Middle
Lithuanians, and the Finnish tribes, but sought in Ages, reached a high degree of splendour, and of
viun to take Constantinople. His far-sighted policy economic and artistic development; but, torn by
led him to seek intermarriages with the Kings internal dissensions, their power waned, while the
of Poland, Norway, France, and Hungary. Kieff power of the German military order of the Brothers
(adorned with its splendid Cathedral of St. Sophia) of the MiUtia of Christ, or Sword-Bearers, and that
became the artistic and intellectual centre of Russia. of the Teutonic Order increased; these two orders
From lO.i-t, however, the political conditions of were formed into a single society in 1237, and sub-
Russia went from bad to worse, and the want of jected the Letts, the Livonians, and the Finns to their
political unity remained a constant cause of internal influence.
weakness. In less than two centuries, according to B. Russia under the Tatars. — After uniting all the
Pogodin, there were sixty-four independent prin- Tatar tribes under his sceptre, Jenghiz Khan (1154-
cipalities, 293 princes, and 83 civil wars, to which 1227) extended his conquest to China, Turkestan,
must be added the continual incursions of the bar- Great Bokhara, and the plains of Western Asia as
barians. The history of Russia during this period far as the Crimea; and his successors, continuing
ia a mass of discordant notices. The chief prin- the advance, with their hordes crossed the steppes
cipalities of that time were Smolensk, Tchernigoff, of Southern Russia, and reached the frontiers of the
Northern Novgorod^ Ryazan, Murom, Tver, Suz- Polovcy; these turned to the Russian princes for
dal, Rostoff, Vladimir, Yaroslaff, Pereiaslaff-Zalieski, assistance. The latter responded to that appeal,
Volhynia, GaUcia, and others; and these states, and met the Asiatic hordes (1224) at the Kalka, a
upon the death of each of their respective princes, rivulet that flows into the Sea of Azoff. The princes
were subdivided into new fiefs. Yaroslaff was suc- Mstislav the Rash, Daniel of Galitch, and Oleg of
ceeded upon the throne of Kieff by his son Iziaslaff, Kursk performed prodigies of valour at the head of
who died in 1078. The son of Iziaslaff, Sviatopolk, their troops; but the numerical superiority of the
reigned from 1093 to 1113, during which period Tatars and the cowardice of the Polovcy brought de-
questions of the succession to the Principalities of feat upon the Russians, costing them the lives of six
Tchernigoff and Volhynia brought the horrors of princes and seventy hoyars. In 1237, led by Baty,
civil war upon Russia. Sviatopolk was succeeded by the Tatars returned to Russia, burned and destroyed
the prudent Vladimir Monomacus (1113-25), who the capital of the Bulgarians in the region of the
obtained important victories over the Polovcy, Volga, and assailed Ryazan, whose princes opposed
Petcheneghi, and Tcherkessi. When he died he a desperate resistance, without however being able
left as his testament to his sons an instruction, which to save the city from pillage and ruin. Having
is to some extent an autobiography, and which con- secured the possession of Ryazan, the Tatars invaded
tains wise advice for government. His sons and his the Principality of Suzdal (1238), and burned Suzdal,
grandsons, however, did not profit by it, for their Rostoff, Yaroslaff, and many other cities and villages.
rivalry contributed to the decadence of Kieff, which The Prince of Suzdal, George II, died on the battle-
in 1169 was besieged and taken by the armies of field. In 1239-40, the Tatars continued their de-
Rostoff, Vladimir, and Suzdal, commanded by vastations through Southern Russia, took Pereiaslaff,
Mstislav, son of Andrew Bogoljubski. The city was Tchernigoff, and Kieff, sowed death and ruin broad-
sacked and its churches profaned. In 1203 it was cast, and entered Volhynia and Galicia, Novgorod
again sacked by the Polovcy, and Kieff ceased to be alone escaping the fate of the other Russian cities.
the political centre of Russia. In the region of the lower course of the Volga, Baty
After the fall of Kieff, the Principalities of Suzdal, established his residence {Sarai, the castle), which
Galicia, Novgorod, and Pskof had a rapid but became the capital of a great Tatar empire, called
ephemeral development. The most famous of the the Kingdom of the Golden Horde, extending from
princes of Suzdal was Andrew Bogoljubski (11.57-74), the L'rals and the Caspian Sea to the mouth of
who owed his fame to his ambition, his military en- the Danube. About 1272 the Tatars of Russia
terprises, his lo\'e for the fine arts, and his attach- embraced Mohammedanism, became its fanatical
ment to the Orthodox Church. The city of Vladimir preachers, and on this account refrained from mixing
owes to him the splendid monuments that place it with the Russians. At the death of George II his
in the front rank of the cities of Russia from an dominions, devastated and pillaged, were inherited
archaeological standpoint. Autocracy found in him by Yaroslaff (1238-46), who was forced to traverse
its staunchest supporter, which, however, cost him the whole of Russia and Asia to pay homage to the
his life, for he was assassinated by the hoyars at Grand Khan of the Tatars, Oktai. He died of want
Bogoljubovo, where he had built a monastery. His in the desert, and was succeeded by his son Alexander
death was followed by turbulence, caused by the Nevski, whose name is famous in the national his-
rivalry of the cities of Rostoff, Suzdal, and Vladimir, tory of Russia on account of his victories over the
the last of which was victorious, and developed its Teutonic Knights, the Swedes, and the Finns (1246-
power still more under Prince Vsevolod (117(j- 52).
1212). Further wars of succession led in 1215 to the Following a policy of toleration the very opposite
terrible battle of Lipetsk, in which the troops of of the Turkish policy towards Christian peoples,
No\-gorod, Pskof, and Smolensk massacred the army the Tatars respected the dynasties and the political
of Suzdal and Murom. Their prince, George II, institutions of the Russian principalities. Suzdal,
at the death of his brother Constantine, Prince of Galicia, Volhynia, Tchernigoff, Polotsk, and Nov-
Vladimir, fought furiously against the Bulgarians gorod continued to live and to govern themselves
of the Volga, and in 1220, at the confluence of the as in the past. The Russians were not tatarized,
Oka with the Volga, laid the foundation of Nizhni- chiefly because differences of religion raised insur-
Novgorod. mountable barriers between them and the Tatars.
In Galieia, Romano, Prince of ^'olhynia (1188- The khans of the Golden Horde limited themselves
120.'i), assisted by the Poles, established himself at to requiring the external homage of the Russian
Galitch, became famous through his cruelty and his princes, to acting as arbiters in their quarrels, to
military enterprises, and died in battle against the imposing a poll-tax, to exacting a military contingent,
Poles. He was succeeded by his son Daniel (120.)- to reserving the right of investiture over them,
12li()); this prince allowed the Jews, the Armenians, and to forljidding them to carry on war without
and the Germans to enter his dominions, and thereby permission. This subjection of the Russians to the
greatly promoted industry and commerce. During Tatars exercised a great influence on Russia. For
 RUSSIA 245 RUSSIA
several centuries the Russians had no contact with not creditable to the princes of Moscow, who, ac-
Western civilization, and were subjected more directly cording to Rambaud, used intrigue, corruption,
to the weakening influence of the Byzantine civili- the purchase of consciences, servility towards the
zation. In their military, economic, and political Tatars, assassination, and delation. George Danil-
organization the Russians adopted a great many ovitch used the Tatars to destroy the power of the
Tatar institutions. The autocratic government of princes of Tver. He was assassinated in 1325 by
the Tatar helped to consolidate the autocracy of the Prince Demetrius of Tver, and was succeeded by
Russian princes, which was derived from Byzantium. Ivan Kalita, who turned his efforts to transforming
The Orthodox Russian Church grew in power under Moscow into the metropolis of Russia; he built the
the rule of the Tatars, on account of the privileges Cathedral of the Assumption (Uspenski Sobor) within
and exemptions accorded to it. Monasteries were the enclosure of the Kremlin; and he destroyed the
multiplied throughout Russia, and through the dona- power of the princely dynasty of Tver. His two sons,
tions of the faithful acquired enormous riches. On Simon the Superb (1340-53) and Ivan the Good-
the other hand, there are Russian writers who believe Natured (1353-59), continued the policy of their
that they discern Tatar influence in the condition father, the former holding the Russian princes in
of the women in Russia. submission, and taking the title of Grand Prince
Besides the Tatars, in the thirteenth and fourteenth of all the Russians; and the latter showing himself
centuries the Russians had to struggle in the western gentle towards his rivals and towards the Lithuanians
provinces against the aggressive ambition of the when they attempted to encroach upon his rights;
Lithuanians, the political union of which people had he was supported by faithful and intelligent men,
been established by Prince Mindvog, assassinated in among them the metropolitan Alexis, who pre-
1263. The territorial expansion of the Lithuanians served the throne for Demetrius Ivanovitch, son
reached its culmination under of Ivan. Demetrius Ivanovitch
Prince Gedimin (1315-40), who made the first decisive step
extended his conquests to towards liberating Russia from
Southern Russia, and subjected the Tatar yoke. After carry-
to his rule Grodno, Pinsk, Brest, ing on war with the princes of
Polotsk, Tchemigoff, Vladimir, Suzdal, of Tver, and of Ryazan,
and finally Kieff, which had en- he crossed the Don, with a
tirely lost its prestige. At his large army and the contingents
death, his son Olgerd (1345-77) of many Russian princes sub-
led his victorious armies into ject to him, and on the plain of
the territory of Novgorod, add- Kulikovo inflicted a bloody de-
ing to his father's conquests feat upon Mamai, Khan of the
Vitebsk, Mohileff, Bryansk, Golden Horde, who had led
northern Novgorod, Kamenetz, against the Russians an im-
and Podolia, and reached the mense multitude of Tatars,
shores of the Black Sea. He Turks, Polovcy, Tcherkessi,
would have established his etc. His victory won him the
power at Moscow also, if the epithet of Donskoi, but his suc-
Teutonic Knights and the Poles cess was not lasting, for the
had not opposed his ambitious Tatars, assisted by Tokhta-
projects. His successor Jagellon mitch, one of the generals of
(1377-1434) married Hedwig, Timur, laid waste Moscow, Vla-
Queen of Poland, converted the dimir, Mozhaisk, and Yurieff.
Lithuanians to Catholicism, and At the death of Demetrius,
established his capital at Cra- the Grand Principality of Mos-
cow. But the conversion of cow and Vladimir was inherited
the Lithuanians displeased the by Vassili-Dmitrievitch (1389-
obstinate pagans and the mem- 1425), was extended by new
bers of the Orthodox Church, conquests in the territory of
IVAN THE Terrible
and these two united under the Portrait in the "Titularnik", XVII Century Tchernigoff, Vyatka, and Nov-
flagof Vitovt (1392-1430), upon gorod, and thereafter consoli-
whom Jagellon was obliged to confer the title of Grand dated more and more its supremacy over the Tatars,
Prince of Lithuania. Vitovt, like his predecessors, whose empire was wasting away in consequence of in-
continued his conquests in Russia, and took and pil- ternal quarrels. During the reign of his successor,
laged Smolensk. He also conceived the design of VasiU the Bhnd ( 1425-62) a civil war that lasted twenty
,

bringing the Tatar domination to an end, and in 1399 years desolated the Grand Principality of Moscow, the
at the head of an enormous army of Lithuanians, Poles, political development of which was thereby arrested.
and Russians, he gave battle to the Tatars, who routed Nevertheless Muscovite supremacy was established
him completely. Vitovt, however, was not disheart- over Novgorod and Ryazan. From 1449 Vasili had
ened. In 1410 with a large army of Poles and associated with himself in the government his son Ivan,
Lithuanians, to which 40,000 Tatars and 20,000 mer- who was destined to acquire the epithets of
"Great"
cenaries were added, he assailed the army of the Teu- and "Consolidator of Russia''. Ivan the Great (1462-
tonic Knights at Tannenberg, and, notwithstanding 1505) found the territory that he inherited at the
their desperate efforts, destroyed their power, while death of his father surrounded by the Tatar conquests,
they left the flower of their order on the battlefield. the Lithuanian Empire, and Sweden. Among the
C. The Principality and the Grand Princes of first events of his reign should be mentioned the
com-
—
Moscow. The name of Moscow appears for the first plete submission of Novgorod to his rule: the
ancient
time in Russian chronicles in 1147. Its founder is and free city retained only the name
of republic; in
said to have been Prince George Dolgoruki, who 1495 Ivan destroyed its commerce also, and reduced
raised it from a humble village to a city that was it to the status of a city of his dominions.
At the same
destined to become the heart of the great Russian time Russian armies were
penetrating the north of
empire. In 1237 it was burned by the Tatars; but Russia, conquering the
Province of Perm and the city
having arisen again under Prince George Danilovitoh of Vyatka, marching to the
shores of the Petohora,
(1303-26), it began its political development. The and reaching the coast of the White Sea. The Prin-
means adopted for their aggrandizement are certainly cipality of Tver was annexed to that of
"Moscow, as
 RUSSIA 246 RUSSIA
were also the Dmitroff, Mozhaisk,
cities of Bielozersk, young brother of Feodor, the Tsarevitoh Demetrius,
and Seipukhoff. poUtical unity of Russia was
The and his relations put to death, and made the city of
being consoHdated in proportion as the Tatar empire Uglitch pay for having given them hospitality. At the
of the Golden Horde crumbled. In 1480 two great death of Feodor, Boris Godunoff, whose name was to
armies of Russians and Tatars almost decided the be immortalized by the beautiful tragedy of Pushkin
fate of Russia in open battle. In 14S7 the troops of placed the crown of the tsars upon his own head. He
Mosrow entered the Tatar city of Kazan, and took worked to introduce Western civilization into Moscow
its king, Alegam, prisoner to Moscow. Kazan, how- and died in 1605. He wished to leave the crown to his
fvri-, did not become Russian territory, for Ivan the son, Feodor Borisovitch; in 1603 however a man,
Great rightly feared that a general uprising of the whose identity is still shrouded in mystery, had pre-
Mussulman Tatars would follow if he annexed it sented himself to the court and to the Polish nobility
From 1402 Ivan turned his arms against Lithuania. as the son of Ivan the Terrible, the young Demetrius
The Lithuanians were supported by the Poles, the whom Boris Godunoff had attempted to murder, but
Teutonic Knights, and the Mussulman Tatars; but whom his relatives had saved. With the aid of the
many princes among the vassals of the Grand Prince Polish nobility, Demetrius, known to posterity as
of Lithuania passed to the side of the Muscovites. Pseudo-Demetrius, succeeded in entering Moscow,
The war was prolonged for many years, until a truce where Feodor Borisovitch and his mother paid with
was brought about by the mediation of Pope Alex- their hves for the short reign of Boris Godunoff. But
ander Vl and the King of Hungary in 1503. The most a year later Demetrius died, the victim of a conspir-
important event of the reign of Ivan the Great was acy, at the head of which was Prince \asi\i Shuiski,
his marriage to Sophia Palaeologus, daughter of who then ascended the throne of the tsars.
Thomas Palajologus, a brother of the last Emperor Russia then entered upon a period of troubles
of Byzantium. This marriage was concluded by (smuinoe vremia) that nearly brought about its polit-
Paul II and Cardinal Bessarion, and served as the ical dissolution. New false Demetriuses appeared.
pretext for the tsars to declare themselves heirs of the The serfs and the peasants, led by BolotnikofF, men-
Byzantine basileis, to take as their arms the two- aced Moscow. The nobles wished to drive the usurper
headed eagle, and to assume the role of defenders and Vasili from the throne. The Poles fomented troubles,
champions of the Orthodox Church. \^'ith Sophia and sought to establish their supremacy at Moscow.
Pateologus there went to Moscow the surviving A Polish army under the orders of the waywode John
representatives of Byzantine culture, and some Italian Sapieha and of Lissowski for sixteen months besieged
artists, among whom were the famous architects the shrine of the Holy Trinity and St. Sergius, forty
Aristotele Fioravanti and Pietro Antonio. Ivan the miles from Moscow. But the monks defended them-
Great then entered into relations with Venice. selves so resolutely that they compelled the enemy to
Through the Princess Sophia, Humanism and the raise the siege. Tsar Vasili Shuiski called the Swedes
Renaissance flourished for a period at the court of to his assistance, but the King of Poland, Sigismund
Moscow. III, casting aside all pretence, entered upon the con-
Under Basil Ivanovitch (1505-33), Muscovite quest of Russia. The inhabitants of Moscow re-
Russia grew by the annexation of the RepubUc of volted, and compelled Shuiski to abdicate (1610).
Pskof, the Principalities of Ryazan and Novgorod- Menaced from many quarters, they elected Vladislaff,
Seversk, and the Territory of Smolensk. The poUtical son of Sigismund, to be their tsar, on condition that
prestige of Russia increased in Europe, and Basil Ivano- he would adopt the Orthodox religion. The Polish
vitch had diplomatic relations with the pope, France, troops, commanded by the hetnian Tolkiewski, en-
Austria, Sweden, Turkey, and Egypt. The court of tered Moscow. But soon a popular revolt that cost
Moscow displayed Asiatic luxury in its feasts. The thousands of lives obliged the Polish army to shut
Tatars, who had again invaded Russian territory, and itself up in the Kremlin and to set fire to the capital.
had reached the walls of Moscow, were met by new Sigismund was victorious: Smolensk, after a heroic
campaigns against Kazan (1523 and 1524), which, defence, fell into his hands, and the Tsar Vasili
however, were not successful. In 1533 Ivan IV, a Shuiski died at Warsaw. Russia seemed destined to
son of Basil, ascended the throne. Posterity has given disappear as a political entity. The people, however,
to him the name of "Terrible" on account of his saved her a butcher of Nizhni-Novgorod instigated his
:

cruelty, although noted Russian historians like fellow-citizens to give their wealth and their sons to
Soloveff and Zabielin have sought to clear his memory free their country from the foreigner; and the Russian
and to proclaim his great services to Russia. After monks and bishops were ardent supporters of this'
freeing himself from the tutelage of the boyars, who struggle for the defence of Russian orthodoxy and of
lorded it according to their pleasure, in 1547 as heir the power of the tsars. A Russian army was formed
of the House of Palaeologus he caused himself to be at Yaroslaff, and under the command of Prince
crowned at Moscow as Tsar of all the Russias, con- Demetrius Pozharski marched against Moscow, where
quered Kazan (1552), and Astrakhan (1556), subju- the PoUsh troops, decimated by hunger, capitulated
gated the Tchermisi, Mordvy, Tchiuvashi, Votiaki, at the moment when Sigismund was drawing near
Bashkiri, and Xogais; he fought with varied fortunes with an army to assist them (1612). A great national
against the Teutonic Order in Livonia and against assembly convened at Moscow, and elected Michael
the Poles, and through the daring exploits of Gregory Romanoff tsar. He was a son of the metropolitan
Strogonoff and of the Cossack Irmak Timotheevitch Filarete, who was held a prisoner at Marienburg by
he conquered Siberia. He had the misfortune of seeing the Poles.
his capital burned by the Tatar Khan Devlet Ghirei, Under the new tsar (1613-45), Russia strove to heal
and of killing his eldest son Ivan in one of his violent its wounds. With Sweden in 1617 the peace of Stol-
excesses of rage. He died in 1584 and was succeeded bovo was concluded; but the Poles continued their
by his son Feodor (15S4-98), who was born the son of hostilities, and Vladislaff was ready to march on
Ivan and Anastasia Romanoff. He married Irene Moscow. In 1618 however a truce was concluded.
sister of Boris Godunoff, who coveted the throne, and
Filarete then returned to Moscow, where he became
who became the true tsar in the reign of Feodor. The the counsellor of his son, and was associated with him
young prince Demetrius, son of the seventh wife of in the empire. At the death of Sigismund III (1632),
Ivan the Terrible, was relegated to the city of Uglitch. Vladislaff, having ascended the throne of Poland as
To the advice of Boris Godunoff also were due the Wladislaw IV, took up arms against Russia once
two most important measures of this reign, the institu- more. The war, which was fought with ^aried for-
tion of serfdom, and of the patriarchate. tanes, terminated in the truce of Deulin, by the terms
To satisfy his thirst for power, Godunoff had the of which Wladislaw recognized Michael Romanoff as
 RUSSIA 247 RUSSIA
tsar. The successor of Michael was Alexis Mikhail- severe one in 1702 near Hummelsdorf, after which he
ovitch (1645-76). His first action was directed took the fortress of Nienschantz which the Swedes
against Poland, which, by its political and rehgious had built at the mouth of the Neva. Narva fell into
persecution of the Orthodox of Little Russia, had lost the hands of Peter the Great in 1704. In 1708 Charles
the good will of the Cossacks and of the lower classes. XII of Sweden invaded Russia at the head of an army
A Cossack leader, Bogdan Khelmnicki, raised the of 43,000 veterans, and took the way to Moscow
banner of revolt, and after several battles the tsar through Lithuania; but a most severe winter and the
also took up arms in 1654. The Russian armies want of provisions decimated his troops. On 8 July,
marched against the Poles, and in a short time in- 1709, under the walls of Pultowa, a Russian army of
vaded the whole of Little Russia and Lithuania. A 60,000 men attacked the Swedes, who were reduced
treaty of peace which was concluded in 1667 made to extremes by hunger and sickness. Both sides
Russia mistress of Kieff, Smolensk, and the right bank fought heroically, but the Swedish army was destroyed
of the Dnieper, but re-established Polish rule in and Charles XII was compelled to seek refuge in
Lithuania. This peace was made necessary by the Turkey. By this victory, which has remained famous
Cossacks, who, unwiOing to submit to authority, men- in history, Russia raised her flag on the shores of the
aced the interior tranquillity of Russia. One of them, Baltic, while Sweden fell from the rank of a great
Stenko Razin, put himself at the head of a large band European power.
of Cossacks of the Don, passed to the region of the Crowned with the halo of victory, Peter the Great
Volga, caused peasants, Tatars, Tchiuvashi, Mordvy, displayed greater energy in his purpose to combine
and Tchermisi to revolt, and desolated eastern Russia. Western civilization with the ancient Russian life,
His hordes were routed by George Bariatinski near preserving however those Russian customs that
Simbirsk, and he was decapitated at Moscow in 1670. seemed to him to be useful to his empire. For example,
Under the Tsar Feodor Alexievitch (1672-82) the the serfdom of the agricultural classes was sanctioned
Ukraine and the territory of the Zaporoghi Cossacks by laws, and all the peasants were bound to fixed resi-
definitively became Russian possessions, by the treaty dence and to per capita taxation. The inhabitants of
of 1681 with Turkey. the cities were divided into guilds, according to trades
D. Reforms —
of Peter the Great. Modern Russia and or professions; foreigners were authorized to carry on
its political greatness as a European state really begin commerce and to devote themselves to the industries
with Peter the Great. Without him Russia would in Russia; women were taken from their isolation and
probably have remained an Asiatic power. Peter I from the retirement of the lerem; he instituted the
the Great was the son of Alexis Mikhailovitch and his directing senate to take the place of the ancient duma
second wife Natalia Naryshkin. He was proclaimed of the boyars; the provincial administration was reor-
tsar at the age of nine years, and his youth was ganized; many abuses of the bureaucracy were rooted
threatened by the gravest perils. The ambitious out; the army received a European organization, and
Sophia, daughter of Alexis Mikhailovitch and his was increased to 210,000 men; the ancient organiza-
first wife, Maria Miloslavska, taking advantage of the tion of the Russian Church was destroyed by the in-
minority of Peter, succeeded, by intrigue and cunning stitution of the Holy Synod; religious tolerance was
beyond her age, in holding the regency of the empire established; commerce and industry were developed;
for seven years (1682-89), until she was driven from a great number of schools and printing-houses were
the throne and locked up in the Devici monastery, founded; and at the mouth of the Neva he built his
while her favourites and partisans died on the scaffold capital, St. Petersburg, the "window opened towards
or in exile. Sole and absolute sovereign, Peter the the West"; the head of Russia, as Moscow is its
Great wished to begin his reign with some great vic- heart. And in order to reduce so many reforms to
tory. Accordingly, he rapidly built a fleet, with which practice in the face of the hostility, sometimes open,
he compelled the capitulation of Azoff in 1696. This sometimes covert, of his subjects, Peter the Great
splendid success gave him great prestige. In 1697 he used all the resources of his iron will, all the arms that
undertook a journey to Western Europe, where he autocracy placed in his hands, not excluding violence
visited Holland, England, and Austria, becoming a and cruelty.
mechanic, visiting industrial establishments, and tak- The work of these reforms did not take the mind of
ing workmen and engineers into his employ, while at the great reformer from his military enterprises. In
the same time he busied himself with poUtics. This 1711 he crossed the Dniester at the head of 30,000
voyage to Europe had disastrous effects upon internal men, bent on the conquest of Constantinople; but
order in Russia, for the clergy and the lower classes, an army of 200,000 Turks and Tatars on the banks of
with superstitious terror, believed that it would estab- the Truth compelled him to abandon his ambitious
lish foreign influence in Russia, that is to say, would dream and to restore Azoff to Turkey. In 1713 the
destroy the ancient religious customs of the land. The Russian fleet, under the direction of Admiral Apraxin
lower classes considered it sacrilegious to shave off and of Peter the Great himself, took possession of
the beard, just as the raskolniki, who were very Helsingfors and Abo in Finland, and drew near to
numerous, regarded it as a crime to use tobacco. Both Stockholm. After a pause of a few years, war with
of these customs Peter the Great had brought to Sweden was renewed in 1719 and continued until
Russia; reports were spread that he was not of royal the peace of Nystad put an end to it in 1721, secur-
birth, but was the cliild of adultery, and that he was ing to Russia the possession of Livonia, Esthonia,
the Antichrist who was to be born in those times. Ingermanland, a part of Finland, and a part of
Peter the Great returned to Moscow, and quenched Kareha. In the following year Russian troops
the revolution in blood, causing a thousand people marched to the frontier of Persia, invaded Daghestan,
to be put to death amid tortures in a single week, and Ghilan, and Mazandaran, and took possession of
not hesitating to wield the axe himself to decapitate Derbent.
rebels. Two other military revolts, that of the Don But the military and political successes of Peter the
Cossacks (1706) and the Cossacks of the Ukraine, Great were embittered by domestic tragedies. His
which was brought about by the hetman Mazeppa, first wife, Eudocia Lapukhina, was opposed to the re-
who had allied himself to Charles XH of Sweden, forms, and was therefore compelled to lock herself up
were crushed by Peter's generals. in the Pokrovski monastery at Suzdal. The son of
The conquest of the Baltic led Peter the Great to Eudocia, Alexis, held to his mother's ideas, and hated
make war on Sweden. The Russian troops were de- his father's reforms. He left Russia while Peter the
feated in 1700 under the walls of Narva; but in 1701 Great was travelling in the West, and sought refuge at
Prince Seremeteff inflicted a severe defeat upon the Vienna and Naples. Having been discovered, he re-
Swedish general Shpenbaeh, near Ehresfer, and a more turned to St. Petersburg, where his father subjected
 RUSSIA 248 RUSSIA

him to torture, and thereby discovered that Alexis independence of the Tatars of the Crimea was recog-
and his mother were the soul of a conspiracy to destroy nized, while Azoff, Kinburn, and the strongholds of
Peter's worli. Eudocia was beaten with rods; the the peninsula were ceded to Russia, which received a,
counsellors and partisans of Alexis died amid the war indemnity of 4,500,000 roubles. The treaty of
most dreadful sufferings; and Alexis himself, having 15 Jan., 1772, between Russia and Prussia sanctioned
been subjected to torture several times, died in con- the iniquitous division of Poland, which was desired
sequence, or was executed, in 1718. By his ukase by Frederick II and was hastened by the policy of the
in 1723, Peter the Great declared Catherine em- Pohsh nobility and, to a great extent, of the clergy.
press. She was a native of Livonia who, after be- By this division Russia added to her dominions White
ing the mistress of Sheremeteff and Menshikoff, had Russia (Polotsk, Vitebsk, Orsha, Mohileff, Mstislavl,
become the mistress of Peter, who had married and Gomel), with 1,600,000 inhabitants; Austria re-
her in 1712. The great reformer died in 1725. ceived eastern Galicia and Ruthenia (or Red Russia),
However historians may differ in their opinions of with 2,500,000 inhabitants; and Prussia received the
him, Peter was certainly the founder of modern provinces of western Prussia (except Thorn and
Russia. Danzig), with 900,000 inhabitants.
—
E. The Successors of Peter the Great. The brief To these victories and conquests Catherine added
reigns of Catherine I (1725-27) and of Peter II her efforts to give to Russia a good internal govern-
Alexeevitch, son of Alexis and Charlotte of Bruns- ment: she established a commission, a species of
wick, offer nothing of interest, except the struggle for national representation of the different peoples of
political influence between the Menshikoff s and the Russia, to frame a new code of laws (1766-68); she
Dolgorukis. At the death of Peter II, Anna Ivanovna, suppressed the revolt of Emilius Pugatcheff, a
Duchess of Courland, became Empress of Russia, and Raskolnik Cossack, who, pretending to be Peter III,
an attempt by the aristocracy to establish a supreme escaped from his butchers, carried fire and sword
council to limit the autocratic power cost the lives of through the region of the Volga, stirred the serfs and
its authors, among whom were several of the Dolgo- the Cossacks to revolt, and massacred many nobles
ruki. The empress surrounded herself with Germans; (1773); by a ukase in 1775 she divided Russia into
and among them, a Courlander of low extraction, fifty governments, and the governments into dis-
named Biren, became very influential. On his ac- tricts; she reorganized the administration of justice,
count the reign of Anna Ivanovna received the name and established a better apportionment of the rights
of Bironovshshina. Very many nobles paid with their and privileges of the various social classes; she
lives for the antipathy they felt towards the new secularized the property of the clergy, and founded
regime, and measures of public finance reduced the at Moscow the V ospitatelnyi dom for orphans, gave
peasants to extreme poverty, while Anna indulged in efficient aid to the literary movement of her age, and
unheard-of luxury, and her court distinguished itself became famous also as a writer; she corresponded
for its immorality and dissipation. At the death of with learned Europeans (especially with the French
Anna in 1740 the regency passed to Anna Leopoldovna Encyclopaedists), promoted the arts, and enriched
of Mecklenburg, who continued the German regime the museums. Meanwhile skilful generals, among
and gave to Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, whom was Catherine's favourite, Potemkin, added
timely occasion to drive her from the throne and to new glories to the military history of Russia. Gus-
imprison her with her husband and her children at tavus III of Sweden, notwithstanding the naval
Kholmogory, while Elizabeth proclaimed herself Em- victory of Svenska-Sund (9 July, 1790), was unable
press of all the Russias. Elizabeth Petrovna (1756- to take land from Russia. Rumiantzeff, Potemkin,
1762), notwithstanding her dissolute habits, continued Suvaroff, and Soltikoff, one after another, defeated
the traditions of her father: the senate was re-estab- the Turkish armies, took Otohakoff and Ismail by
lished; industry was developed; great impulse was assault, and compelled Turkey, at the Peace of
given to commerce; the severity of corporal punish- Jassy (1792), to make new cessions of territory
ment was mitigated; the University of Moscow was (Otchakoff and the coast between the Bug and the
established; St. Petersburg was embellished with Dnieper) and to grant independence to the prin-
splendid buildings designed by the Italian architect cipalities of the Danube.
Rastrelli the Academy of Sciences, founded by Peter
; Under Catherine II there took place the third
the Great and Catherine I, began its period of fruitful Partition of Poland, which the heroism of Kosciuszko
literary work; while the Russian armies conquered was not able to avert. By this partition Russia
southern Finland and weakened the power of added Volhynia, Podolia, Little Russia, and the re-
Prussia, which suffered the disasters of Grossjagerns- mainder of Lithuania to her empire (1795). Catherine
dorf (1757) and Kunersdorf (1759). In 1760 the died 17 Nov., 1796, at the age of 67 years. Thanks
armies of EHzabeth made their triumphal entrance to her policy and to the victories of her generals
into Berlin. she had greatly increased the territory of Russia,
Elizabeth was succeeded by Peter III, a son of Anna extending its frontiers to the Niemen, the Dniester,
Petrovna and Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein. and the Black Sea. Paul I (1796-1801) at first
His reign was very short, for his ambitious consort, followed a policy of peace; he introduced wise
Princess Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst, who became cele- economic reforms, and re-established the principle
brated under the name of Catherine II, compelled of succession to the throne in the male line. But
him to abdicate, leaving her to reign alone in 1762. the French Revolution compelled him to enter an
The great events of her government were the war
first alliance with Turkey, England, and Austria against
with the Turks and the partition of Poland. Against France. The Russian troops, under the orders of
the Turks, Catherine sent Prince Galitzin, who in 1769 Rimsky-Korsakoff, entered Switzerland, and under
near Chotin defonted a Turkish army three times Suvaroff they marched into upper Italy. The cam-
larger than his own. In the following year (1770), paign was not a successful one for the Russians, but
Rumiantzeff obtained a still more decisive victorj' at their retreat under Suvaroff through the Alps, where
Kagul, where with 17,000 Russians he defeated a they were shut in by the French armies (1799), has
Turkish army of 150,000 men. In 1771 Prince remained famous. Paul I was assassinated by a
Dolgoruki took posse.'ssion of the whole of the Crimea, palace conspiracy on the night of 2.3-24 March, 1801,
from which he drove the Turks. At the same time| and Alexander I (1801-25) ascended the throne. The
the Russian Baltic fleet annihilated the Turkish fleet new emperor took part in the epic struggle of Europe
in the roads of Chios and in the port of Tchesme. against Napoleon. On 2 Dec, 1805, was fought the
Hostilities were resumed in 1772, and culminated in battle of Austerlitz, which cost Russia the flower of
the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji (1774), by which the her army and very nearly the hfe of Alexander him-
 RUSSIA 249 RUSSIA
self. On 6 Feb., 1807, at Eylau, the Russian troops establish a constitutional regime. Nicholas was most
under Bennigsen, after a bloody battle in which they severe. The Decembrists ended their lives in
lost 26,000 men killed and wounded, were compelled Siberia or on the scaffold. They are regarded as the
to retreat. On 25 April, 1807, Russia and Prussia most illustrious martyrs of liberty in Russia. In
signed the convention of Bartenstein, by which those his domestic policy Nicholas I continued the work of
two powers became allied against France; and on his predecessors with regard to the codification of
14 June of the same year the decisive defeat of the Russian laws. In 1830 there appeared the
Bennigsen at Friedland led Alexander to conclude "Complete Collection of Russian Laws"; in 1838
with Napoleon the treaty of Tilsit, which was ratified the "Collection of Laws in Force", and in 1845 the
12 Oct., 1808, at Erfurt. At peace with France, penal code. The work of canal-making was con-
Russia turned her arms against Turkey, whose armies tinued, and the first railways in Russia were built;
were defeated at Batynia by Kamenski (1810), and but every literary or political manifestation of Liberal
at Slobodsia by Kutuzoff (1811). The congress of ideas found in Nicholas I a fierce and inexorable
Bukarest (1812) insured to Russia the possession adversary.
of Bessarabia. At the same time Russia was at In his foreign policy Nicholas continued the war
war with Persia. with Persia, which by the treaty of 22 Feb., 1828,
The Polish question and the Russian national was compelled to cede the Provinces of Erivan and
sentiment, which was excited to a high degree against Nakhitchevan, to pay a war indemnity, and to grant
the French, brought about the great war between commercial concessions. The Russian fleet, to-
Russia and France, a war that led to the ruin of the gether with the French and the English fleets, took
Napoleonic empire. The French army, consisting part in the Battle of Navarino (20 Oct., 1827), in
of 600,000 men of the various European nationalities, which the Turkish fleet was destroyed, and by which
crossed the Russian frontiers, entered Vilna, and on the independence of Greece was established. Russia
18 Aug., 1812, fought the Russians in a bloody battle continued the war against Turkey in 1828 and 1829,
at Smolensk. The battle of Borodino was fought on until the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) secured to
7 Sept., and cost the Russians 40,000 men, while the her the gains which she expected from her victories:
French lost 30,000. On 14 Sept. Napoleon entered the acquisition of Ttirkish territory and commercial
Moscow to the sound of the Marseillaise. The city advantages. After a series of military expeditions,
was set on fire. On the other hand an exceptionally the Khan of Khiva finally became a vassal of the
severe winter set in. After a stay of thirty-five days tsar (1854). The Polish insurrection of 1830, which
at Moscow, Napoleon began the retreat, during which was desired by the people rather than by the cul-
he was obliged to defend himself, not only against the tured and leading classes, put Poland and Lithu-
regular Russian troops, but also against the Cossacks ania at the mercy of fire and sword in 1830 and 1831,
and the peasants in search of booty. Between 26 and cost Poland her autonomy, brought on her the
and 29 Nov., on the right bank of the Beresina, near policy of russianization, and led to the exile of thou-
Studienka, 40,000 men of the Grand Army held sands of victims to Siberia. Austria and Germany
140,000 Russians in check, and with Napoleon gave to Russia their moral support in her severe re-
succeeded in making a safe retreat. On 30 Dec, Eression of the Polish revolution, which on the other
afterHomeric struggles. Marshal Ney recrossed the and found many sympathizers in France. Nicholas
Niemen with the remnant of the army. The Grand I was the most determined enemy of the European
Army of Napoleon had left 330,000 men killed and revolution of 1848. In 1849 the Russian army sup-
wounded in Russia. Russia had repelled the in- pressed the Hungarian revolution, and saved the
vader from her soil, and on 28 Feb., 1813, allied her- throne of Francis Joseph. In 1853 the question of
self toPrussia by the Treaty of Kalish. the Holy Places, the antagonism of France and Rus-
The miUtary genius of Napoleon and his vic- sia in the East, and the ambition of Nicholas for a
tories were unable to save his throne. On 31 March, Russian protectorate over all the Orthodox states
1814, Alexander I and the allied armies entered Paris. of the Balkans brought about the war between
The Congress of Vienna (1815) placed the Kingdom Russia and Turkey, and in 1854 the Crimean War.
of Poland again under the sceptre of the Tsars, and Turkey, England, and France, and later Piedmont
withdrew that unhappy nation from the number of allied themselves against Russia. The allied fleets
the free peoples. Its autonomy, however, remained burned or bombarded the maritime strongholds of
to it under Alexander I, who also organized Finland Russia, and in 1854 the allied armies invaded the
as an independent grand duchy. That prince had Crimea, where on 20 Sept. the battle of the Alma
a mind that was open to Liberal ideas, which found opened to them the way to Sebastopol. The Rus-
a convinced promoter in the minister Speransky sians had prepared to make a desperate defence of
(1806-12); but the intrigues of Speransky's enemies that city, under one of the most daring and talented
undermined the influence that he exercised with generals of the Russia of our day, Todleben. But
Alexander, and his place was taken by Araktcheyeff, the fortunes of the Crimean campaign now ap-
a man whose name in Russia is synonymous with peared disastrous for Russia. Nicholas I was heart-
blind reaction and ferocity. The reformist policy broken by it, and unable to withstand the blow
of Speransky ceased, and measures of the severest that it dealt to his pride, he died of a broken heart
intolerance were adopted in politics, and even in the 3 March, 1855, while the star of Russian power in the
sciences and literature. Alexander I was becoming East waned.
more and more of a mystic, when death overtook The first care of his successor, Alexander II (1855-
him at Taganrog on 1 Dec, 1825. The popular 1881), was to bring the Crimean War to an honourable
imagination transformed him into a legendary hero, termination, and to prevent the political and eco-
into a sovereign who, to expiate his faults, adopted the nomic ruin of Russia. Sebastopol had fallen on 8 Sept
garb of a muzhik, and lived and died unknown among
.

1855. The war had cost Russia 250,000 men, and the
his most humble subjects. Government had not funds to continue it. The Con-
Alexander was succeeded on 24 Dec, 1825, by gress of Paris, on 25 Feb., 1856, obliged Russia to
Nicholas I, third son of Paul I. The beginning of his accept terms of peace by which all the efforts and
reign was marked by a revolution that broke out in sacrifices of Peter I, Catherine II, and Alexander I to
December, and brought to its authors the name of establish their power at Constantinople came to
Dekabristi or Decembrists. The most cultured and naught. The Black Sea was opened to all nations,
eminent men of Russia were engaged in this con- and Russia was refused the protectorate over Chris-
spiracy, among them Pestel, Ryleeff, Muravieff- tians in the East. Alexander II understood that, to
Apostol, and Bestuzheff-Riumin, who sought to remedy the evil results of the Crimean War, it was
 RUSSIA 250 RUSSIA
necrssary to establish great social reforms, and to Stefano. Russia's ideal would have been attained if
curtail the power and limit the abuses of the bureau- England had not stood in her way. On 3 March, 1878
cracy. On 19 Feb., 1861, an imperial decree pro- the Russian ambassador, Ignatieff, signed with the
claimed the end of the serfdom of the rural classes, and Sublime Porte the Treaty of San Stefano, by which the
restored to freedom 23,000,000 serfs. Important re- Balkan States were organized. Russia received a war
forms were introduced mto the administration of jus- indemnity of 310,000,000 roubles, the Armenian dis-
tice and that of the provincial governments; corporal tricts of Batum, Kars, Ardahan, and Bayazid, and the
punishment was abolished; the censorship of the part of Bessarabia that was united to the Danubian
Press was made less severe; foreigners were granted Principalities in 1856. But the advantages that Russia
the same privileges enjoyed by Russians, and the priv- obtained by the Treaty of San Stefano were revoked
ileges of the universities that Nicholas I had abolished in great measure by the Treaty of Berlin (13 July
were restored. By all of which Alexander II acquired 1878). The map of the Balkans was remodelled so as
the good will of his people, who gave to him the title to make Russia lose the influence that she had ac-
of Tsar Liberator. Other reforms were intended to quired over the Balkan States by her victories, while
mitigate the painful conditions of the Poles, whom the she saw the appearance in the East of a dangerous
iron hand of Nicholas I had despoiled of their auton- competitor, Austria, who had become the protector,
omy. But the imprudence of the Nationalist parties and later the master, of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
provoked the new Polish insurrection of 1863, which, Russia surrendered Bayazid, and the course of the
notwithstanding the pacific remonstrances of France, Danube from the Iron Gates to the Black Sea was
Austria, and England, brought its deathblow to Polish declared neutral and closed to ships of war.
free government, cost Poland thousands of victims, The victories obtained over the Turks had not bfeen
and transformed that land into a field open to all the sufficient to destroy the germs of revolution in Russia,
abuses of russianization. The Polish language was fomented by the Nihilists. Alexander II was prepar-
officially replaced by the Russian. Finland on the ing to give a constitution to his people when the
contrary was confirmed in all its privileges by Alex- Nihilist plot of 13 March, 1881, put a tragic end to his
ander II, who was exceptionally favourable to the life. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III
German nobility of the Baltic provinces. (1881-94). The
constitutional projects of Alexander
During the reign of Alexander II, Russia took an II were entirely abandoned; the counsellors of the
active part in the affairs of Asia and Europe. The tsar, and especially Ignatieff and Katkoff, bitter
Russian troops continued their slow, but persevering, enemies of Liberalism, induced the emperor to give
invasion of Asia. The Kirghiz and the Turkomans to the principle of autocracy his strongest sanction.
became the vassals of Russia; the Khanates of Kho- This reign was marked by the terrible massacres of the
kand and Samarkand were annexed to Russian terri- Jews in 1881 and 1882; by the disorders of the uni-
tory, while those of Khiva and Bokhara were declared versities in 1882 and 1887, which led the government
vassals; the influence of Russia over Persia was firmly to subject the universities to severe supervision; by
established; the treaty of Tientsin (18.58), and that the rigorous censorship of the Press; by the promulga-
of Peking (1860), secured to Russia the possession of tion of a collection of laws that were intended to com-
all the left bank and of part of the right bank of the plete the work of liberation of the serfs and to better
Amur; in all, 800,000 sq. miles. In 1867 Russia sold the economic condition of the rural classes; and
her American possessions to the United States. In lastly, by the great economic and military develop-
1875 Japan ceded the island of Sakhalin. rnent of Russia. The work of russianization was con-
In Europe, under the guidance of the imperial chan- tinued with activity, even with ferocity. The Cau-
cellor. Prince Alexander Gortchakoff, Russia recog- casus lost its administrative autonomy; cruel and
nized the unity of Italy, and remained indifferent to inhuman laws were framed against the Poles; the Jews
the aggrandizement of Prussia and the crushing of were reduced to despair and hunger; the German
France in 1870. On 21 Jan., 1S71, she recognized the Protestants of the Baltic provinces were treated like
German Empire. As the price of her neutrality, the Poles; and the autonomy of Finland lacked little
Russia demanded the abrogation of the clause of the of being destroyed by force.
treaty of 1856 which hmited her military power on Alexander III continued with the greatest success
the Black Sea. A convention with Turkey (18 March, the Russian invasion of Asia. Russian territory, not-
1872) stipulated that Russia and Turkey could erect withstanding the opposition of England, grew at the
fortifications on the coasts of the Black Sea, and expense of Afghanistan, China, and Korea; the build-
maintain fleets on its waters. The insurrection of ing of the Trans-Caspian Railway opened to Eussia
Bosnia and Herzegovina, the war of Servia and Mon- the strategic ways of Persia, Afghanistan, and India;
tenegro against Turkey (1876), the Bulgarian mas- the Trans-Siberian Railway was to endow Russia with
sacres (1S75), and the victory, and later the defeat, of an open sea, and to open a way of communication
the Servian army at Djunis (1876) provoked a new between Moscow and the Pacific Ocean. The in-
crisis in the affairs of the East. Russia took up arms fluence of Russia in the Balkans waned under Alex-
again in defence of the Slavs of the Balkans. In ander III. The severity of the court of St. Petersburg
April, 1S7S, the Russian armies crossed the Pruth and towards Prince Alexander of Battenberg, and towards
entered Rumania. The war was a bloody one. The the national sentiment of the Bulgarians, and the
Turkish generals, Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, and tenacity with which Stambuloff conducted the cam-
Mukhtar Pasha, fought with great bravery; but the paign against the Russian policy in his country,
tenacity of the Russians, their enthusiasm for a war greatly diminished the gratitude and good will of the
that seemed sacred to them, from the national and Bulgarians towards Russia. The most important
from the religious point of view, and the valour and event in the foreign relations of Russia during the
military genius of the Russian generals, especially of reign of Alexander III was the understanding with
Todleben and Skobeleff, triumphed. The most im- France. Russia at first leaned towards German j';
portant episodes of the campaign were the repeated but after the German conventions with Austria (1879
battles in the Shipka Pass (16 Aug.-17 Sept.) and the and 1882) and the formation of the Triple Alliance,
taking of Pleima (10 Dec), when the Russians them- she turned to France; for her friendly relations with
selves expressed their admiration of the heroism of this power Russia had also financial reasons, because
Osman Pasha and his troops. The Rumanians, Ser- she needed funds for the construction of her railways,
vians, and Montenegrins fought beside the Russians,
especially the Trans-Siberian; and as the money
and with equal valour. From victory to victory the market of Berlin had been closed to Russia by Bis-
Russians marched with rapid strides along the road marck, the French had lent her, in the years 1SS7,
to Constantinople, and established themselves at San
1889, 1890, and 1891, more than 3,000,000,000
 RUSSIA 251 RUSSIA
francs. In 1891 the French fleet, commanded by government reformed the electoral laws, and in that
Admiral Gervais, visited Kronstadt, where the French way was able to secure the election of a Duma that
sailors were received with an enthusiastic welcome. was more in accord with its wishes, containing among
In June, 1893, a commercial treaty created more in- its members forty-two priests and two bishops of the
timate relations between the two powers. Orthodox Church. Notwithstanding the proclama-
F. The Reign of Nicholas II. —
The successor of tion of liberty of conscience and of the Press, there
Alexander III is Nicholas II, b. 6 May, 1868, and was a return to the old policy, recourse being had to
married 14 Nov., 1894, to the daughter of Louis IV, the most severe methods of repression to put down
Grand Duke of Hesse, the Empress Alexandra Feodor- revolutionary movements and the ferocious banditism
ovna. The reign of Nicholas II has been unfortunate of Poland and the Caucasus. Exceptional laws against
for Russia. He was crowned at Moscow in May, 1896, the Poles and Finns were revived.
in the presence of delegates of nearly all the civilized From 1907 to 1911 the Russian Government, though
nations and of a special mission of the Holy See, at the constitutional in appearance, has endeavoured to
head of which was Cardinal Agliardi; and a few days strengthen its autocratic regime and to render illusory
after his coronation, on the occasion of a feast given all its promises of constitutional liberty. During this
in his honour, a thousand people were crushed to period, the reins of government were in the strong
death by crowding. In 1898 a convention between and energetic hands of Peter Arkadevitch Stolypin, b.
China and Russia placed Port Arthur under the con- at Srednikovo near Moscow, 1862, and governor of
trol of the latter power for a space of twenty-five years, Saratoff in 1906. Appointed to the Ministry of the
granted the right to connect that port with the Trans- Interior 26 April, 1906, and premier on 8 July, 1906,
Siberian Railway, and secured to the Russians a free he applied himself with unshaken purpose to re-estab-
way to the Pacific Ocean. By this convention Russia lish internal order in Russia. In the beginning he
took a preponderant position in the Far East, and al- seemed to be animated by Liberal sentiments, but
ready contemplated the conquest of Korea, to the pressure from the court party and on the other hand
detriment of Japan. In 1896 China had already the crimes of the Terrorists led him to ally himself with
granted to Russia the right of way for the prolonga- that faction of the Duma which opposed the constitu-
tion of the Trans-Siberian Railway as far as Mukden. tion as harmful to the solidarity of Russia. In inter-
The domestic policy, thanks especially to the inspira- nal politics he sought to limit the powers of the Duma,
tions of de Plehve and of Constantini Pobiedonostseff, to maintain in all their vigour the laws against the
was one of fierce repression and russianization. It Jews, to crush the obstinacy of the Finns by trans-
was intended to crush the Polish element and to de- forming the Government of Viborg into a Russian
prive Finland of its autonomy. To carry out this province and impeding in every way the Diet of Hel-
policy, General Bobrikoff was appointed governor of singfors, to suppress the Polish national movement by
Finland. He fell in 1898 a victim of the exasperated limiting the number of Polish deputies in the Zemstva
patriotism of a student. The Jews especially were of western Russia, and by dividmg administratively
made objects of legal as well as illegal persecutions, the Province of Chelm from the Kingdom of Poland.
which led to the massacres of Gomel and Kishineff In foreign politics Russia has suffered from its defeat
in 1903. This policy of russianization brought about in the war with Japan. The annexation of Bosnia and
a renewal of the activities of the terrorists, who in 1901 Herzogovina came near precipitating a conflict be-
and 1902 murdered the ministers of public instruction, tween Austria and Russia, almost involving all the
Bogoliepoff and Sipiagin, and in 1904 de Plehve. Slavs of the Balkan states, but Austria's military su-
In 1899 at the initiative of Nicholas II the confer- periority, in addition to the support of the German
ence of the Hague was convoked, to consider the ques- Emperor, induced Russian diplomacy to moderate its
tion of disarmament and the maintenance of universal demands. In the meantime, Russia has been pre-
peace. How commercial this initiative was, Russia her- occupied in reorganizing its own military and naval
self soon showed, for in 1904 she broke off diplomatic forces, in efficaciously directing colonizations in Si-
negotiations with Japan. The Japanese demanded beria, in penetrating tentatively into Persia, and in
that Russia should evacuate Manchuria and give up agitating its own political propaganda in the Austrian
her project of conquering Korea. The war was fought provinces of Galicia and Bukovina. The revolution
with equal valour by both combatants on land and sea; seemed to have been suppressed when, in Sept., 1911,
but the Russians lost Port Arthur, were driven from Stolypin, in the Imperial Theatre of Kieff, fell under
Korea, and saw their fleet annihilated at Tsushima. the dagger of a Jewish lawyer called Bogroff. He ex-
Russia could have continued her disastrous war, but pired exclaiming that he was always ready to die tor
the growth of the revolution at home compelled her the tsar. The tsar selected as his successor Kokov-
to consent to the proposals of peace that were made tzoff, an economist of European fame, who entertains
by President Roosevelt of the United States. On 16 the same political ideas as Stolypin and continues his
Aug., 190.5, there was concluded at Portsmouth, New methods of government.
Hampshire, U. S., a peace that was ratified on 1 Oct. Geography and Statistics: Buhle, Versuch einer krilischen
of the same year. Meanwhile Russia was in the Liieratur der russichen Geschichte (Moscow, 1810) Russkaja istori-
;

throes of the revolution. In Jan., 1905, the troops tcheskaja bibliografija (Russian Historical Bibliography) (St.
Petersburg, 1861-72), 77; Bestuzheff-Ridmin, Quellen und Lit-
fired upon thousands of workmen who were making teratur zur russichen Geschichte von der dltesten Zeit bis 1826 (Mi-
a demonstration and there were several hundred vic- tau, 1876) Ikonnikopf, Ovyt russkoi isioriografii (Essay on Rus-
;

tims. In February the Grand Duke Sergius was torn sian Historiography), t. I (1-2) (Kieff, 1891); t. II (1-2) (Kieff,
1908), a monumental work, of incalculable bibliographical value.
to fragments by a bomb. A man-of-war of the Black Hetm, Versuch einer vollstdndigen geographisch-topographischen
Sea fleet mutinied: a military revolt broke out at Encyklopddie des russischen Reichs (Gottingen, 1796) Vsevoloj-;

Viborg. The tsar, to stop the revolutionary flood, in 8KIJ, Dictionrmire giographigue-hislorique de I'empire de Russie
(2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1833); Semenoff, Dictionnaire geo-
October granted a constitution by an imperial decree graphique et statistique de V empire de Russie (5 vols., St. Peters-
in which he proclaimed hberty of conscience, of the burg, 1863-1873); Keuck and Stackemehg, Ortsverzeichniss von
Press, and of association, re-established the ancient Russland (Leipzig, 1903) Strahlenberg, Description historique
;

de I'empire russien (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1757); BOsching, Neue

privileges of Finland, and promised to alleviate the Beschreibung des russischen Reichs (Hamburg, 1763) d'Anville,
;

conditions of the non-Russian subjects of the em- Vempire de Russie (Paris, 1772) Geobqi, Beschreibung alter Na-
;

pire. tionen des russischen Reichs (3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1776-77)

SoNNTAG, Das russische Reich (2 vols., Riga, 1791-1792); Co-
On 27 April, 1906, the Duma, which consisted in MEIRA8, Tableau general de la Russie moderne (2 vols., Paris, 1807)
great part of Liberal members, was opened. It lasted DE Raymond, Tableau historique, g^ographique, militaire et moral
two months. The right of suffrage was Umited; de I'empire de Russie (2 vols., Paris, 1812) Schaffer, Beschrei-
;

bung des russischen Reichs (Berlin, 1812); von Bromsen, Russ-

nevertheless, the second Duma, which lasted a hundred land und das russische Reich (2 vols., Berlin, 1819) Hassel, Voll-
;

days, had a revolutionist and socialist majority. The stdndige und neueste Erdbeschreibung des russischen Reichs in
 RUSSIA 252 RUSSIA
Europa (Weimar, 1S21); Bulgarin, Ru^sJand in historisrher, schritteund die gegenwdrtige Verfassung der russischen Armee (Ber-
geographischer und litteraTischer Beziehung (3 vols.,
statist ISC her, lin, 1811); Tanski, Tableau etatistique, politique et moral du sys-
Riga, l.S3'J-41); Possart, Das Kaistrthum Russland (Stuttgart, teme militaire de la Russie (Paris, 1833); von Haxthausen, Die
1.S40); (.>i.DEKOP, Geographie des russischfn Rexchs (St. Peters- Kriegsmacht Russlands in ihrer historischen, sdilistischcn, elhno~
burg, 1841'); vox Redex, Das Kaiscrrtich Russland: statistisch- graphischenund j>olitischen Beziehung (Berlin, 1852) Fr. tr. (Berlin ;

oe-schichthchc DarUellung (Berlin, 1843); Reyxell, Russia as it is 183.)); Brix. Geschiehte der alien russischen Heereseinrichtungen
(Litndon, lS54i; Le Due, La Russie contemporaine (Paria, 1854); (Berlin, 1867); von Sarauw, Die russische Heeresmacht (Leip-
VuLTER, Das Kaiserthum Russland in Europa, A.^ien und Amcnka zig, 1875); Weil, Les forces militaires de la Russie (2 vols., Paris^
(Esslingen, 18.^)5); Schnitzler, L' Empire des Tzars (Paris, 1856); 1880) von Drygalski, Die russische Armee in Kreig und Frieden
;

JouRDiER, Des forces productive^, destructices et improductives de la (Berlin, 1882); von Steix, Geschichte des russischen Heeres (Han-
Russie (Paris, 1860) Buschex, Bevolkirang des russischen Kaiser-
; over, 1885); Drygalski, BeitrUge zur Orienlierung iiber die Ent~
reichs (Gotha, 1862); Fault, Description etknographique des peu- wicklungsgeschichte der russischen Armee von ihren Anfdngen bis
ples de la i?w.s.s(> (St. Petersburg, 18G2); Wahl, The Land of the auf die neueste Zeit (Berlin, 1892) Idem, Russland, Das Heer (Ber-
;

Czar (London, 1875); Roskoschnt, Russland: Land und Leute lin, 1898); MouRiN, Essai historique sur I'armee russe (Paris,
(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1882-83); Pypin, Istorija russkoi etnografii (St, 1899); Drygalski, Die Organisation der russischen Armee (Leip-
Petersburg, 4 vols., 1891-1892); Bigelow, The Borderland of Czar zig, 1902); Clarke, Russia's Sea Power, Past and Present; or, the
and Kaiser (London, 1895) Kowalewsky, La Russie a la fin du
; Rise of the Russian Navy (London, 1898); BSidge, History of the
XIX siecle (Paris, 1900); Semenoff and Lamansky, Polnoe geo- Russian Fleet During the Reign of Peter the Great (London, 1899)
grafitcheskoe opisanie nashego oie-<irhestva (Complete geographical Jane, The Imperial Russian Navy, Its Past, Present, and Future
description of our country) (16 vols., St. Petersbxirg, 1899-1907) (London, 1899) Ogorodnikoff, Istoritcheskij obzor razvitjia i
;

KupczANKO, Russland in Zahlen (Leipzig, 1902); Bonmabiage, diejateVnosti morskogo minister stva, za sto liet ego sushshestvovanja
La Russie (CEurope: topographie, relief, geologie, hydrologie, clima- {1802-1902) (An historical essay on the progress and work of
tologie, regions naturelles (Brussels, 1903) Drage, Russian Affairs
; the ministry of the Russian navy during the first century of its
(London, 1904) ; Schlesinger, Russland im XX. Jahrhundert existence) (St. Petersburg, 1902); Klado, Die russische Seemacht
(Berlin, 1908); Boustedt, Das russische Reich in Europa und (Berlin, 1905).
Asien (Berlin, 1910) works on the geography of the Russian Em-
; Customs, and Morality in Russia: Michalo, De moribus Tar-
pire by Janson (St. Petersburg, 1878); by Voroneckij (St. Pe- tarorum, Lithuanorum et Moschorum (Basle, 1615); I. C. M. D.,
tersburg, 1905); Elisieeff (Moscow, 1905), Jantchin (Moscow, The ancient and present state of Muscowy (London, 1698); Alga-
1905), LiMBERT (St. Petersburg, 1906). Bielokh (St. Peters- ROTTi, Saggio di lettere sopra la Russia (Paris, 1763); Meiners,
burg, 1907), Babanoff (St. Petersburg, 1907), Spiridonoff (St. Vergleichung des dltem, und neuern Russlands (2 vols., Leipzig,
Petersburg, 1907), Mattchenko (Kieff, 1907), and Timkhovskij 1798); DE Rechberg, Les peuples de la Russie (2 vols., Paria^
(Moscow, 1908). 1812-13); Russland, oder Sitten der Bewohner der sdmmtlichen
Commerce, Industry, Agriculture and Finance: Mabbault, Provinzen dieses Reichs (Schweidnitz, 1828) Dupr]6 de St. ;

Essai sur le commerce de Russie (Amsterdam, 1777) Fbeibe, Ueber ;

Maure, Observations sur les moeurs et les usages russes (3 vols.,
Russlands Handel, Industrie und Produkte (3 vols., St. Peters- Paris, 1829); Ger. tr. (2 vols., Leipzig, 1830); Russlands inneres
burg, 1796-98); Peltchinskt, De Vetai des forces industrielles de Leben (3 vols., Rrunswir-k, 1840); Turgenieff, La Russie et les
la Eussie (St. Petersburg, 1834); Dede, Der Handel des russischen Russes (3 vols., Pari.s, l,s47) von Haxthausen, Etudes surla situ-
;

Reichs (Mitau, 1844) Steinhaits, Russlands industriclle und

;
lion interieure, la vie nntionnle, et les institutions rurales de la
commercielle Verh&ltnisse (Leipzig, 1852); Tegoborski, Etudes Russie (Hanover, 1847-48; 3 vols., Berlin, 1853): Dolgoroukoff
sur les forces produclives de la Russie (4 vols., Paris, 1852-55) La verity sur la Russie (Paris, 1860); Lestrelin, Les paysans
Aristoff, Promyshlennost drevnei Rusi (The commerce of An- russes, leurs iisages, mceurs, caracth-e (Paris, 1861); Grenville-
cient Russia) (St. Petersburg, 18(1(3); Matthai, Der ausuiirtige MuRRAY, The Russians of To-Day (Leipzig, 1878) Leroy-Beau- ;

Hdiulil Rnssltirids (St. Petersburg, 1874); Idem, Die Industrie LiEu, L'empiredes Tzars et les Russes (3 vols., Paris, 1881, 1882,
Rus.'ilaiids in ihrcr bisherigen Entwickeluiig und gegenwiirtigen 1880); Ger. tr. (Berlin, 1884-90); Kovalevsky. Modern Customs
Ziistanrle (2 v(j1m., Leipzig, 1872-73); Grothe, Die Hauptmo- and Ancient Laws of Russia (London, 1891); Hehn, De moribus
mente wirihschaftlichen Entwickelung Russlands (Berlin, 1884)
iler Ruthenorum (Stuttgart, 1802); Brandes, Charakterbilder aus Le-
KowALEVMKY, The Industries of Russia (5 vols., St.' Petersburg, ben, Politik, Sitten Russlands (Leipzig, 1896); von Brijggen, Das
1893); Tug\x-Baranowsky, Gesrhichte der russischen Fabri/c heutige Russland (Leipzig, 1902); Poinsabd, La Russie: le peuple
(Berlin, 1900) Wittschewsky, Ru.-^slands Handels, Zoll und In-
;
et le gouvernement (Paris, 1904); Anfiteatroff, Die Frau in den

dusiriepolitik von Peter dem Grossen bis auf die Gegenwart (Berlin, gesellschaftlichen Kreisen Russlands (Geneva, 1905); Stern,
1905); ZwEiG, Die russische Handels- Politik seit 1S77 (L<'ipzig, Geschichte der offenflichen Si/lhchkeit in Russland (2 vols., Berlin,
1906); Lanwick, Uindustrie dans la Russie miridionale, sa situa- 1908); Haumant, La culture francaise en Russie (Paris, 1910);
tion, son avenir (Brussels, 1907); Sviatlovskij, Professionalnoe Schlesinger, Land und Leute in Russland (Berlin, 1909).
dvizhenie v Rossii (Professional movement in Russia) (St. Peters- Form of CJovernment and Political Institutions: de Mijn-
burg, 1907); RuBiNOFF, Russia's Wheat Trade (Washington, NiCH, Ebauche pour donner une idee de la forme du gouvernement de
1908); Idem, Russian Wheat and Wheat Flour in European Mar- V empire de jRus.sie (Copenhagen, 1774); Purgold, De diversisim-
kets (Washington, 1908); Lovjagin, Otetchestvoviedienie: prirod- perii russiciordinibus eorumque juribus atque obligationibus (Halle,
nyja usloinja, narodnoe khozjaistvo, duhovnaja kultura i gosvAar- 178(i); Hupel, Versuch die Staatsverfassung des russischen Reichs
stvenuyi stroj rossiiskoi imperii (Notes of the fatherland: natural darzustellen (2 vols., Riga, 1791-93); Peltschinski, Systeme de
conditions, national economy, intellectual culture, and political legislation, d' administration et de politique de la Russie en 1844
,

constitution of the Russian Empire) (St. Petersburg, 1901); (Paris, 1845); Walcker, Die gegenwdrtige Lage Russlands (Leip-
MoREFF, Otcherk kommertcheskoi geografii i khozjaistvennoi stat- zig, 1873) ; Kovalewsky, Le regime iconomique de la Russie
istiki Rossii (Essay on Russian commercial geography and (Paria, 1898) Kobf, Istorija russkoi gosudarstvennosti (History of
;

economic statistics) (St. Petersburg, 1907) ; Soboleff, XoT/imer- the form of government in Russia) (St. Petersburg, 1908)
trheskaja geografija Rossii (Moscow, 1907); Storch, Der Bauern- Mukhanoff and Nabokoff, Pervaja gosudarstvennaja duma (The
stand in Russland (St Petersburg, 1850) Etudes sur la. question de
;
first Imperal Duma) (3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1907); Salkind,
Vabohtion du servage eji Russie (Paris, 1859); von Haxthausen, Die russische Reichsduma, ihre GeschUftsordnung mit den Ges-
Die landliche Verfassung Russlands (Leipzig, 1866); von Wurs- chdftsordnungen anderer Volksvertretungen (Vienna, 1909); Chas-
temberger, Die gege/nndrtiger Agrarverh&ltnisse Russlands (Leip- LES, Le Parlement russe: son organisation, ses rapports avec I'em-
zig, 1873); VON Keussler, Zxir Geschichte und Kritik des bduer- pereur (Paris, 1910).
lichen Gemeindehesitzes in Russland (2 vols., Riga. 1876, 1882-83) General Political History of Russia; Collections of Documents;
Semenoff, Krcsijune v carstvovanie imperatricy Ekateriny II (The Chronicles and Manuals of General History; Ancient History;
peasants during the reign of Catharine II) (2 vols., St. Peters- Monographs: Rerum moscovitarum auctores varii: unum in cor-
burg, 18H1, 1901-03); Yermoloff, Memoire sur la production pus nunc primum congesti (Frankfort, 1600); Scheteug, Rerum
agricole de la Russie (St. Petersburg, 1878); Semenoff, Osrobozft- russicarum scriptores aliquot (Hamburg, 1768); Wichmann, Sammr-
denie hrestjan (The emancipation of the Russian peasants) (3 lung bisher ungedruckter kleiner Schriften zur dlteren Geschichte und
vols.. St. Petersburg. 1889-1892); Stepniak, Der russische Bauer Kenntniss des russischen Reichs (Berlin, 1820) Starczewski, His-
;

(Stuttgart, 1893); Simkhovitch, Die Feldgemeinschaft in Russ- tories ruthenici scriptores exteri seeculi XVI
(2 vols., Berlin, 1841-
land (Jena, 1S98) Katchorovskij, Russkaja obshshina (The Rus-
; 42); Turgenieff, Historica Russice monumenta (Scripta varia e
sian mir) (Moscow, lUUfj); Braude, Zur Agrarbewegung in Russ- secreto archivo \'aticano) (St. Petersburg, 1842); Theiner, Monu-
land (Leipzig, 1907); Massloff, Die Agrarfrage in Russland ments historiques relatifs aux rkgnes d' Alexis Mikhailovitch, Feodor
(Stuttgart, 1907); Ljashshenko, Otcherki agrarnoj evoljucii Rossii III et Pierre le Grand (Rome, 1859) Bodenstadt, Beitrdge zur
;

(Essaj-s on the agrarian evolution of Russia) (St. Petersburg, Kenntniss des Staats- und Volkslehens in seiner historischen Ent-
1908); Meyendohff, Otcherki pozemelnago zakonodateslra (Essay irickeluug (2 vols., Leipzig, 1862); Documents servant a ^clairctr
on the agrarian legislation of Russia) (St. Petersburg, 1909). Vhistoire des provinces orientates de la Russie et de la Pologne (St.
HAriEMEiSTER, Rozyskanija o finansakh drevnei Rossii (Re- Petersburg, 1865); Menagios, Repertoire des traites, conventions et
t^farrlifs on the finances of ancient Russia) (St. Petersburg, 1833) auires actes principaux de la Russie avec les puissances Uranglres
Woi.. iwsKi, Les finances de la Russie (Paris, 1864); Raffalo- depuis 1474 jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1874) Martens, Recueil des
;

viTfH, Les finances de la. Russie depuis la derni're guerre d'Orient Traites et conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances
(Paris, 1883); Le Clercq. Les finances de l'e?n pire de Russie (Am- Urangcres (15 vols., St. Petersburg. 1874-1909); the numerous
sterdam, 1886); Kruger, Rus'^hinds Finanzlage (BerHn, 1887); publications of the Imperial Historical Society and of the
Raffalovitcfi. Les finances de la Russie 1!^S7-J889 (Paris, 1889); Arpheographic Commission of St. Petersburg, and the tehtenja
Skalkowsky, Les mi nistres des finances de la Russie {ISO'i-ISfiO) (lectures) of the Society of Russian History and Antiquities
(Paris. INOl); Hoskier, Le^ finances de la Rust-ie (Paris, 1892); of AIoscow; Reutenfels. De rebus moschoviticis ad magnum
Moor, Dir Finanzen Russlands (Berlin, 1806); MiGULlN, Russkij Eirurim ducem Cosmum tertium (Padua, 1680); LaCOMBE, Hia-
toire des revolutions de I'empire de Russie (Amsterdam, 1760)
gosudorsirenm/i kredit (Public credit in Russia) (3 vols., Kharkoff, (jer. ;

1809-1907); de Btof-H, Les finances de la Ru-^sie au XIX' siirle tr. (Leipzig, 1701); continued by Joachim (Halle, 1764);
Lo-
(2 vnls., Pariy, 1800); Golovin, Russlands FinanzpoUHk und die MONOSOFF, Uistoire de la Russie depuis Vorigine de la nation
Aufgaben der Zukunft (Leipzig, 1900); Davidson, Die Finanz- jusgu'd la mort du grand-due Jaroslaw I (2 vols., Paris, 1769);
wirtschaft Russlands (Leipzig, 1902); Friedmann, Die russischen Schmidt, Versuch einer neuen Einleit}ino in die russische Ge-
Finanzen (Berlin, 1906). schichte (2 vols., Riga. 1773-74) Wacneh. Geschichte des russischen
:

Army and Navy: von Plotho, Ueber die Entstehung, die Fort Reiehes von den dltesten bis auf die neuesten Zeitm (6 vols., Ham-
 RUSSIA 253 RUSSIA
le Grand et de Catherine I^rs (Paris, 1853) Ustrjaloff.
burg, 1810); Shbherbatopf, Russische Gesckichte von den dltes- de Pierre ;

ten Zeiten (2 vols., Danzig, 1779); Levesque, Histoire de Russie Istorija carstvovanija Petra Velikago (History of the reign of
(5 vols., Paris, 1782) Le Clerc, Histoire physique, morale,
;
civile, Peter the Great) (3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1858); Golovin, His-
et politique de la Russie ancienne (3 vols., Paria, 1783-84) Meh- ; toire de Pierre appele le Grand (Leipzig, 1861); BrOckner, Peter
Schuyler, Peter the Great, Emperor of
KEL, Gesckichte des -russischen Reichs (3 vols., Leipzig, 1795) Le- ; der Grosse (Berlin, 1879);
SUR, Des progres de la puissance russe depuis son origine jusqu'au Russia (2 vols., London, 1884); Waliszewski, Pierre le Grand,
commencement du XIX siecle (Paris, 1812); Ewers, Geschichte der VMucation, I'homme, Vceuvre (Paris, 1897); Tchistjakoff, Is-
Russen (Dorpat, 1816); Kaeamsin, Histoire de Vempire russe torija Vetra Pelikago (History of Peter the Great) (St. Peters-
(11 vols., Paris, 1819-26; 10 vols.. Riga, 1820-33; 12 vols., Ath- burg, 1903) Knjazhkopf, Otcherki iz istorii Petra Velikago i ego
;

•ens, 1856-59); Wickmann, Chronologische Uebersickt de russi- vremeni (Essaya on the History of Peter the Great and on hia
schen Geschichte von der Geburt Peters des Grossen bis auf die neu- Times) (Moscow, 1909); Rousset, M&moires du regne de Cath-
€sten Zeiten (2 vols., Leipzig, 1821-25); de S^gur, Histoire de la erine, impSratrice de toute la Russie (Amsterdam, 1728); Mott-
Russie et de Pierre le Grand (Paris, 1829) Strahl, Geschichte des LET, The History of the Life and Reign of the Empress Catharine
russischen Staates (2 vola., Hamburg, 1832-39); Herrmann,
;

(2 vols., London, 1744); Waliszewski, U

Heritage de Pierre le
Geschichte des russischen Staates (4 vols., Hamburg, 1846-49); Grand {1725-1741) (Paris, 1900); Bahthold, Anna Johannovna
Ustrialofp, Die Geschichte Rmslands (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1840- (Leipzig, 1836) de Mauvillon, Histoire de la vie, du rhgne, et du
;

43) ; DE Caulaincourt, Das russische Reich (Leipzig, 1854) ; His- dUronement d'lvan III, empereur de Russie (London, 1766);
ioire pittoresque, dramatique, et caricaturale de la Sainte-Russie Bain, The Daughter of Peter the Great (Westminster, 1899);
(Paris, 1854); de Gerebtzofp, Essai sur I'histoire de la civilisa- Waliszewski, La demiire des Romanov, Elizabeth P''" impira-'
tion en Russie (Paris, 1858) Kostomaroff, Russische Geschichte ; trice de Russie (Paris, 1902) Molloy, The Russian Court in the
;

in Biographien (Leipzig, 188S) ; Kleinbchmidt, Russlands Ge- Eighteenth Century (2 vols., London, 1905) Laveaux, Histoire de ;

schichte und Politik dargestellt in der Geschichte des russischen hohen Pierre III empereur de Russie (3 vols., Paris, 1799) de Saldern, ;

Adels (Cassel, 1877) Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie (Paris, 1884,

; Histoire de h, vie de Pierre III, empereur de toutes les Russies
1900); Ger. tr. (Berlin, 18SG); von Golowin, Die geschichtliche (Frankfort, 1802); Schumacher, Geschichte der Thronensetzung
Entwickelung des russischen Volkes (Leipzig, 1887); Bruckner, und des Todes Peter des Dritten (Hamburg, 1858) Bain, Peter III, ;

Geschichte Russlands bis zum Ende des VIII. Jahrhunderts X Emperor of Russia (Westminster, 1902) Castera, Vie de Cathe- ;

(Gotha, 1896) Kleinschmidt, Drei Jahrhunderte russischer Ge-

; rine IlimpBratice de Russie (2 vols., Paria, 1797) tr. (3 vola., Lon- ;

schichte (Berlin, 1898) Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire

; don, 1798) TooKE, The Life of Katherine II, Empress of Russia
;

(London, 1899); Morfill, A

History of Russia from the Birth of (3 vols., London, 1800); Fr. tr. (Paria, 1801); BriJcknbr, Kathe-
Peter the Great to the Death of Alexander II (London, 1902) rine die Zweite (Berlin, 1883); Bilbasofp, Istorija Ekateriny vtoroi
Serine, The Expansion of Russia (Cambridge, 1903) Wauszew- ; (History of Catharine II) (2 vola., St. Petersburg and London,
SKi, Les origines de la Russie modeme (Paris, 1904) ; Pantenius, 1890, 1895) Ger. tr. (4 vola., Berlin, 1891-93) Waliszewski, Le
; ;

Geschichte Russlands von der Entstehung des russischen Reiches bis roman d'une impiratrice: Catherine II de Russie (Paris, 1893)
zur Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1908) ; Frahn Ibn-Foszlan's und anderer Idem, Autour d'un trdne: Catherine II de Russie (Paris, 1894) db ;

Araber Berichte uber die Russen alterer Zeit (St. Petersburg, 1823) Larivi:6re, Catherine la Grande d'apr^s sa correspondance (Paris,
ScHOLZER, Russiche Annalen in ihrer slavonischen Grundsprache 1895) Schilder, Imp. Pavel pervyi (The Emperor Paul I) (St.
;

(3 vols., Gottingen, 1802-09) the Chronicle of Nestor has been ; Petersburg, 1901); Golovkine, La cour et le rhgne de Paul I^
translated into French also, by Louis Paris (2 vols., Paria, 1834- (Paria, 1905); Morane, Paul I^r de iJussie (Paris, 1907); Rappo-
35), and by L^qer (Paria, 1884); and into Latin by Miklosich port, The Course of the Romanovs (London, 1907) Rabbe, His- ;

(Vienna, 1860) Schoettgenius, De originibus russicis disserta-

; toire d^ Alexandre P*; empereur de toutes les Russies (2 vols., Paris,
tiones (Leipzig, 1731) Potocki, Histoire primitive des peuples de la
; 1826) Schnitzler, Histoire intime de la Russie sous Alexandre et
;

Russie (St. Petersburg, 1802) Lehrberq, Untersuchungen zur ; Nicholas I^ (Paris, 1847) Joyneville, Life and Times of Alex-
;

Erl&uierung der dUeren Geschichte Russlands (St. Petersburg, ander I, Emperor of All the Russias (3 vola., London, 1875);
1816) Ewers, Stvdien zur griindlichen K&mtniss der Vorzeit Russ-
; Schilj>er, ImperatoT Aleksandr Pervyj ego zhizn i carstvovani
lands (Dorpat, 1830); Schloezer, Les premiers habitants de la (The Emperor Alexander I, His Life and hia Reign) (4 vols., St.,
Russie (Paris, 1846) Krug, Forschungen in der &lteren Geschichte
; Petersburg, 1897-98) Schiemann, Kaiser Alexander I und die
;

Russlands (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1848) Thomson, The Origin of^ ; Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit (Berlin, 1904) Golovine, La Rus- ;

the Russian State (Oxford, 1877) Zabielin, Istorija russkoi zhizni ; sie sous Nicholas /«' (Leipzig, 1845) Lacroix, Histoire de la vie
;

s drevnieishikh vremen (History of Russian Life from the Re- et du rigne de Nicolas /«'", empereur de Russie (Paris, 1864)
motest Times) (Moscow, 1908). Schilder, Imperator Nikolaj pervyi, ego zhizni carstvovanie (2 vola.
On the Varangians: Helsingius, De Varegis (Upsala, 1734); St. Petersburg, 1903) Golovin, Russland unter Alexander II
;

BiOERNER, Schediasma historico-geographicum de Varegis, heroi- (Leipzig, 1870); Kosma, La Russie et Vmuvre d' Alexandre II
bus scandianis et primis Rvssias dynastis
1743) (Stockholm, (Paris, 1882); Joyneville, Life of Alexander II, Emperor of All
Kbahmer, Die Urheimath der Russen in Europa (Moscow, 1862) the Rvssias (London, 1883) Tatishsheff, Imp. Alexander II, ego
;

Gedeonos, Varjagi i Rus (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1876). zhizn i carstvovanie (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903); Samson, Russ-
Invasions of the Tatars: Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte der land unter Alexander III (Leipzig, 1891); Flourens, Alexandre
goldenen Horde, das ist, der Mongolen in Russland (2 vols., Buda- III, sa vie, son ceuvre (Paris, 1894) Notovitch, ; empereur Nico- U
las II et la politique russe (Paris, 1895) Leudbt, Nicolas Ilintime
pest, 1840) ; ExBMPLARSKiJ, Les grands-princes de la Russie sep-
;

tentrionale durant la piriode tatare depuis 1238 jusqu'd 1605 (2 (Paris, 1898); Prince U., Leben und Thaten Nikolaus II (Berlin,
vols., St. Petersburg, 1889), in Russian.
1910) LoFPLER, Der russisch-japanische Krieg (Leipzig, 1907)
;

Trapani, La guerra russo-giapponese (Rome, 1908); Boujac, La

Monographs: Gonsiorovskij, Boleslav Jurij II, knjaz vsej
guerre russo-japonaise (Rome, 1908); Culmann, Etude sur les
Maloj Rusi (Bolesiaw George II, Prince of all Little Russia) (St. caractSres gineraux de la guerre en Extreme-Orient (Paria, 1909);
Petersburg, 1907) ; Nowakowski, De Demetrio I, Magnoe Russix
duce, Ivani filio (Berlin, 1839); Pierling, La Russie et I'Orient:
From the literary point of view, the beat history of Russia in the
Russian language is the Istorija gosudarstva rossiiskago (12 vola.,
mariage d'un tzar au Vatican: Ivan III et Sophie PaUologue
St. Petersburg, 1897) from the standpoint of biography the best
;
(Paris, 1891); Odbrbornius, Johannis Basilidis Magni Moscovim
is that of KosTOMAROPF, Russkaja istorija v jizneopisanijakh eja
duds vita (Wittenberg, 1585); Waliszewski, Ivan le Terrible glavniejshikh diejatelej(2 vols. St. Petersburg, 1903-07) but for the
(Paris, 1904) Idem, La arise revolutionnaire (Paris, 1906) La le-
; , ;
;
wealth of its documentation and for the interest of its recital, none
'

gende de la vie et de la mart de Demetrius Vimposteur (Amsterdam,

ia aa good as the Istorija Rossii s drevniejshikh vremen (History of
1606; Moscow, 1839); Ciampi, Esame critico dei documenti inediti Russia Since the Remotest Ages) (2nd ed., 29 vols., St. Peters-
delta storia di Demetrio di Ivan Vasiljevitch (Florence, 1827);
burg) unfortunately it is brought down only to the end of the
M^rim^e, Les faux Dimttrius (Paris, 1853) Lorentz, Der ;
;

seventeenth century.
falsche Demetrius (Berlin, 1862) ; Hirschberg, Dymitr Samoz-
vaniec (Lemberg, 1898) Pantenius, Der falsche Demetrius
;

(Bielefeld, 1904) Suvorin, O Dimitrii Samozvancie (St. Peters-

;
The Religion of Russia. A. The Origin of Rus- —
burg, 1906); Hirschberg, Marina Mniszchdwna (Lemberg,
1906); SoKOLOFF, Rossija pod skiptrom doma Romanovykh (Rus- —
sian Christianity. There are two theories in regard
sia under the Sceptre of the House of Romanoff) (St. Peters- to the early Christianity of Russia; according to one
burg, 1891); Bain, The First Romanoffs: a History of Muscovite of them, Russia was Cathohc from the times when
Civilization and the Rise of Modern Russia under Peter the Great
(London, 1905) Waliszewski, Le berceau d'une dynastie: les
;
she embraced Christianity until the twelfth century;
premiers Romanov (Paris, 1909); Berck, Carstvovanie Carja the other holds that Russia was always Orthodox, i. e.,
Mikhaila Romanova (The reign of Michael Romanoff) (2 vols., St. an adherent of the Greek schism, from the time when
Petersburg, 1832) Idem, Carstvovanie Carja Aleksieja Mikhailo-
;

vitch (St. Peteraburg, 1830) Galitzin, La Russie du VII siecle ; X Christian missionaries first crossed her frontiers.
dans ses rapports avec VEurope occidentale (Paria, 1855) Idem, La ; The first of these theories is held by Catholics, whose
ribellion de Stenko-Razin contre le grand due de Moscovie (Paris, arguments were condensed and developed by Viz-
1856) Shshebalskij. La regence de la tzarine Sophie (Karlsruhe,
;
zardelli (''Dissertatio de origine christianse religionis
1857); Nestesuranoi (Jean Rousset), Mimoires du r^gne de
Pierre le Grand, empereur de Rxtssie (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1725-26); in Russia", Rome, 1826), and, more amply ,^by Father
The History of the Life of Peter the Great, Emperor of All Russia Verdiere, S.J. ("Origines catholiques de I'Eglise russe
(London, 1740) de Mauvillon, Histoire de Pierre 7^" surnommi
;
jusqu'au Xlle siecle", Paris, 1856). Russian Ortho-
le Grand (Amsterdam, 1742); Catiforo, Vita de Pietro il Grande
imperatore della Russia (Venice, 1748) Gordon, The History of ;
dox writers unanimously reject the conclusions that
Peter the Great (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1755); Voltaire, Histoire de Verdiere demonstrated in the form of theses, which,
Russie sous Pierre le Grand (1759); Claudius, Peter der Grosse to us, appear to be without solid foundations. The
(Leipzig, 1805) Bergmann, Peter der Grosse als Mensch und Re-
;

gent (6 vola., Konigsberg, Riga, Mitau, 1823-29); Pelz, Ge-

history of Russian Christianity dates from the ninth
schichte Peters des Grossen (Leipzig, 1848); deVillebois, MSmoires century by which it is not implied that Christianity
;^

secrets pour servir d I'histoire de la cour de Russie sous les r&gnes was entirely unknown to the Russians before that
 RUSSIA 254 RUSSIA

period, for the merchants of Kieff were in frequent a church in honour of the Assumption of the Blessed
communication with Constantinople: one of the Virgin Mary, under the direction of Grecian artists.
quarters of the flourishing metropolis, St. Mamante, Thanks to his solicitude, the Russian Church was en-
was inhabited by them, and there is no doubt that dowed with a hierarchy, a metropolitan, bishops,
there were Christians among them. On the other and priests. At first this hierarchy was Greek; the
hand, some nucleus of Christianity must have existed metropolitans were appointed and consecrated by the
at Kieff before Photius, as he himself relates in his Patriarch of Constantinople, went to Russia as foreign-
encyclical letter to the Patriarchs of the East, sent a ers, and remained such. They succeeded, however, in
bishop and missionaries to that city. On account of inspiring the Russians with hatred for the Latin
this action, Photius is considered to have introduced Church. The metropolitans Leontius (dead in 1004)
Christianity into Russia. His testimony is repudiated George (1072), Ivan II (dead in 1089), and Nice-
by Catholic writers, who claim for St. Ignatius the phorus I (1103-21) wrote the first polemical works of
glory and the initiative of this evangelical mission to Russian literature against the Latins.
Russia. There are no valid arguments, however, to B. Catholicism in Russia, from the Twelfth Century
throw doubt upon the authenticity of the information to the Council of Florence. — Although the Russian
that has been handed down by Photius, as is proved Church in its earUest periods was completely dom-
in the present writer's work "La conversione dei Russi inated by the clergy of Constantinople who made the
al cristianesimo, e la testimonianza di Fozio", in schism, the relations between Russian princes and the
"Studii religiosi", t. I, 1901, pp. 133-61. Holy See, begun under Vladimir, subsisted for several
According to the national chronicler Nestor, many centuries. Russian documents testify that Vladimir
Russians were Christians in 945, and had at Kieff in 991 sent an embassy to Rome, and that three em-
the Church of St. Elias ("La chronique de Nestor", bassies went from Rome to Kieff, sent by John XV
t. I, Paris, 1834, p. 65). In 955 Olga, widow of Igor, (985-96), and by Sylvester II (999-1003). A German
went to Constantinople, where she was baptized by chronicler, Dithmar, relates that a Saxon missionary,
the Patriarch Poliutus (956-70), and, loaded with rich consecrated archbishop by the Archbishop of Magde-
gifts that she received from Constant ine Porphyro- burg, went to Russia, where he preached the Gospel,
genitus (912-59), she returned to Kieff, and devoted and was killed with eighteen of his companions on
herself to the conversion of her fellow-countrymen. 14 Feb., 1002. At about that time Reinbert, Bishop
The schism between the Churches of the East and of of Kolberg, went to Russia with the daughter of
the West was not yet accomplished; and therefore Boleslaus the Intrepid, bride of Sviatopolk, the son
Olga, who received in baptism the name of Helen, is of Vladimir. He strove to diffuse Catholicism in
venerated as a saint also by the United Rutheuians. Russia, and died a prisoner. Other missionaries con-
Western chroniclers relate that Olga sent an embassy tinued their Apostolic efforts; but Russia was already
to the Emperor Otto I, to ask for Latin missionaries, lost to Catholicism. The Metropolitan Nicephorus I
and that Otto charged Adaldag, Bishop of Bremen, (1103-21) regarded the Latin Church as schismatic,
to satisfy that request. Adaldag consecrated as and reproached it with a long list of errors. Russian
bishop of the Russians Libutius, a monk of the Con- canonical documents of the twelfth century refer to
vent of St. Albano, who died before entering Russia. the Latins as pagans, and prohibit all relations with
He was succeeded by Adalbertus, a monk of the con- them. The most virulent calumnies against the
vent of St. Maximinus, at Trier. The Russians, how- Roman Church were inserted in the "Kormtohaia
ever, received the Latin bishop badly, killed several kniga"; and Russian metropolitans down to Isidor
of his companions, and constrained him to return to (1437) had no relations with the Holy See.
Germany. It may be observed that Assemani and This does not mean to say, however, that the
Karamzin do not admit that Latin missionaries came Catholic Church neglected Russia as a field for its
to Russia with Adalbertus. apostolate; for the popes alway.s tried to lead her
The efforts of Olga to convert her son Sviatoslaff to back to the centre of unity, and to enter into rela-
Christianity were unsuccessful. Vladimir, son of tions with her princes. The prince Iziaslaff Yarosla-
S\'iaioslaff, has the glory of having established Chris- vitch (1054-68; 1069-73; 1076-78) sent his son to
tianity as the official State rehgion in Russia. Accord- Gregory VII, asking the assistance of that pontiff,
ing to the legend, Vladimir received Mohammedan, and promising to make Russia a vassal of the Holy
Latin, and Greek legates, who urged him to adopt See. Gregory answered him by letter of 17 April,
their respective religions. The Greeks finally tri- 1075. Under the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavitch
umphed. Vladimir marched with an army towards (1078-93) there was established the feast of the
the Taurida, and in 998 took Kherson; then he sent translation of the rehcs of St. Nicholas of Bari, ap-
ambassadors to the Emperors Basilius and Constan- proved by Urban II (1088-99), who in 1091 sent to
tine, asking for the hand of their sister Anna, which the same prince Bishop Teodoro, with relics. In 1080
he obtained on condition that he would become a Chris- the antipope Clement III sent a letter to the Metro-
tian. He was baptized by the Bishop of Kherson, poUtan Ivan II (dead in 1089), proposing to the latter
who, according to Russian chroniclers, made Vladimir the union of the Russian Church; Ivan answered,
read a profession of faith that was hostile to the however, enumerating the heresies of the Latins
"corrupt" doctrine of the Latins. Thereafter, taking (Mareovitch attributes this letter to the Metropolitan
with him the relics of Pope St. Clement and of that Ivan IV, who, according to Golubinsky, d. in 1166).
pope's disciple, Phebus, as well as sacred vessels and Clement III (1187-91) sent a letter to the Grand
images, Vladimir returned to Kieff, accompanied by Prince Vsevolod and to the Metropolitan Nicephorus
his consort, and by some Greek missionaries. Once II (1182-97), inviting them to take part in the
there he caused the idol of Rerun to be thrown into Crusade, but in vain. Innocent III (1198-1216) sent
the Dnieper, and on the site that it occupied built a two legations to the princes of Russia, exhorting them
Christian church, also commanding that all his sub- to be reunited to Rome. Under Honorius III (1216-
jects, without distinction of age, should be baptized.
1227) St. Hyacinth, with other religious of the Order
The inhabitants of Kieff yielded before his threats; of St. Dominic, preached the Catholic faith in south-
but those of Novgorod resisted and suffered severe ern Russia, and founded a convent at Kieff, while a
treatment. The Russians were baptized, but they religious of the same order in 1232 was appointed
did not receive Christian instruction and education; bishop of that city, out of which, however, the Domin-
the ancient beliefs and habits of Paganism endured, icans were driven in 1233. Another letter of Honorius
and survived for many centuries; consequently the III, and one of Gregory IX (1227-41) encouraged the
moral influence of Christianity was not efficiently Russians of Pskof to reahze their intention of em-
exercised upon the Russian people. Vladimir erected bracing Catholicism. All of these efforts were in
 RUSSIA 255 RUSSIA
vain. It was only in Galicia that the solicitude of the and staunch adherent of the cause of the union. This
popes was attended with some favourable results. prelate on 8 Sept., 1437, with Avraam, Bishop of
Innocent IV (1243-54) had continuous relations with Suzdal, and many clergymen and laymen, went to
the Grand Prince Daniel Romanovitch (1229-64), the Council of Florence, where he ardently defended
who hoped for the assistance of the West to throw off the union; and by a Brief of 17 Aug., 1438, Eugene IV
the Tatar yoke; the pope's nuncio to the King of named him legate a latere for Lithuania, Livonia, and
Poland in 1254 crowned the grand prince as liing at Russia. Avraam of Suzdal, however, was not a
the city of Dorogtchin. But through dissension partizan of the union; and leaving Isidor, returned
among the princes of the West the assistance that the alone to Russia. Isidor sent an encyclical letter to the
pope promised to Daniel was not given, and in 1256 Russians (5 March, 1440), extoUing the imion that
the latter repudiated his union with Rome. The same had been concluded at Florence. Upon his return to
pope made efforts to convert to Catholicism the na- Moscow, however. Prince Vasili Vasilevitch convened
tional hero, Alexander Nevski, whose father had ab- a council, condemned the work of the metropolitan,
jured the errors of the schism before the pontifical and imprisoned the latter in the Monastery of the
legate Giovanni da Plan Carpino. Inl248 Innocent IV Miracles (Tchudoff ) but Isidor succeeded in making
;

wrote to the Prince Alexander Nevski, exhorting the his escape, and found asylum in Italy. Wherefore,
Russia did not accept the decree of union of the
I!ouncil of Florence; on the contrary, she drew from it
W' WB §m- 'mi^ »i?-.as w&^w irguments to proclaim the superiority of her Orthodox
aith over the pliant faith of the Greeks, and to pre-
1 7
pare the way for her reUgious autonomy.
C. Catholicism in Russia from the Council of Flor-
— Isidor resigned the Metro-
rnce to the Present Time.
jolitan See of Kieff about 1458, and in the same year

m n Pius II appointed Gregor the Bulgarian, who was a

lisciple and companion of the former metropolitan,
md who, according to the historian Golubinski, re-
nained united to Rome until 1470, after which he
|! Ijecame Orthodox, and died in 1472. Among his suc-
;essors who were friendly to the union were Mikhail
Drucki (1475-80), Semion (1481-88), Jonah Glezna
1492-94), Makap (1495-97), and Josef Soltan, who
n 1500 wrote a letter to Alexander VI asking for
japal confirmation of his metropolitan dignity. At
;he death of Josef II, which according to Stroeff
vas in 1519, the MetropoUtanate of Kieff became
igain wholly Orthodox.
After the Council of Florence, the fanaticism of the
Russians in regard to the Latin Church increased.
Che Latins were not even considered citizens. They
vere not allowed to build churches in Russian cities.
The popes, however, did not cease their efforts to
iffect a reconciliation between Russia and the Roman
m iee. An event that should have hastened the attain-
nent of that end served only to widen the breach be-
ween Orthodoxy and Catholicism. There Uved at
•lome under the tutelage of the popes and the spirit-
lal guidance of Cardinal Bessarion the Greek Princess
.Loe, daughter of Thomas Palseologus, Despot of
Patriarch Nikon and Clergy
From a Contemporary Portrait Morea; and Paul II, wishing ardently to induce the
Russians to join the princes of the West in a crusade
latter toembrace Catholicism; and in another letter against the Turks, proposed to offer the hand of Zoe
the same pope asserts that the conversion of that to Ivan Vasilevitch III (1462-1505) but death over-
;

prince took place. Russian writers however are unani- took him before he was able to bring about the realiza-
mous in considering their national hero a champion tion of his purpose. Sixtus IV (1471-84) continued
of the Orthodox faith, who refused to submit to the pohcy of his predecessor. Ivan III received the
Rome. proposal with enthusiasm. On 12 Nov., 1472 Zoe
Under John XXII (1316-34) Catholicism was propa- with a numerous suite arrived at Moscow, and the
gated in Lithuania, where it had its martyrs. Gedimin Metropolitan Philip I (1464^73) united her in mar-
(1315-45), although a pagan, wrote a letter to John riage with Ivan. But the hopes of union to which this
XXII, declaring that Franciscans and Dominicans marriage had given rise vanished. Ivan would not
were authorized to preach in his principality. Pagan- hear the propositions of the Bishop Antonio, who as
ism was firmly rooted in the people, and in 1332 legate of the Holy See had accompanied Zoe; while
fourteen Franciscans were massacred at Vilna. In the latter passed over to the schism. Ivan III and the
1323 the same pope re-established the Latin Diocese Russians thought only of drawing profit from the
of Kieff, to which he appointed a Dominican. Cath- good win of the popes. The grand prince, having
ohcism became preponderant in Lithuania, when Hed- married a princess of the imperial house of Palseo-
wig, Queen of Poland, married Jagello, and the two logus, formulated claims to the throne of Byzantium;
states were united into a single kingdom. Jagello while the Russians began to regard Moscow as the
embraced Catholicism in 1386, called Polish priests third Rome, which should inherit the prerogatives of
to Lithuania, and, like Vladimir the Great, resorted the first and of the second.
to violence to convert his subjects. Many Russians Several embassies of Leo X and of Clement VII
were converted to Catholicism, and Vilna became the to the Prince Basil Ivanovitoh (1505-33) were without
see of a Latin bishop. favourable results for the union. Julius III and Pius
In 1436 the Russian Church, which was still de- IV invited Ivan the Terrible to send delegates to the
pendent upon Constantinople, had as metropolitan Council of Trent; while Pius V in his turn invited
Isidor (1436-41), a Greek, native of Thessalonica, him to join a crusade against the Turks; but Sigis-
 RUSSIA 256 RUSSIA

mund, King of Poland, and Maximilian II, Emperor The reforms of Peter the Great did not better the con-
of Germany, prevented the legates of the pope from dition of Catholicism in Russia. In the first years of
crossing the Russian frontiers, or rendered their his reign he showed deference to the Catholic Church;
missions fruitless. In 15S0 Ivan the Terrible, menaced he granted permission to the Catholics in 1691 to build
by the victorious arms of Bathori, King of Poland a church at Moscow, and to summon Jesuits for its
(157(j-S(i), and of the Swedes, sent to Gregory XIII service; in 1707 he sent an embassy to Clement XI,
an embassy at the head of which was Leontius to induce that pontiff not to recognize Stanislaus Lesz-
Tchevrigin." The Holy See, although placing httle czynski as King of Poland, to which dignity the latter
faith in the promises of the tsar, sent to Moscow one had been elected by the Diet of Warsaw on 12 July,
of the most eminent men of his day, the Jesuit 1704; he promised the pope to promulgate a constitu-
Antonio Possevino, who, on 22 Feb., 1582, had a tion that would establish, in favour of Catholicism,
theological disputation with the tsar. Possevino the freedom of worship that had been promised, but
was well received at the Court of Moscow, but his never maintained. During his sojourn at Paris in 1717
apostolic efforts were without result. He returned on he received from various doctors of the Sorbonne a
15 March, 15S2, in company with Jacob Molvianinoff, scheme for the union, to which he caused Theophanus
legate of the tsar, and bearer of a letter to Gregory Prokopovitch and Stepan Gavorski to reply in 1718.
XIII. In that letter Ivan the Terrible did not refer In order to captivate the Russians, the doctors of the
to the union. Possevino had relations also with the Sorbonne had worked Galilean ideas into that scheme,
successor of Ivan, Feodor Ivanovitch, and with Con- regarding the primacy of the pope and his authority.
stantine II, Prince of Ostrog, the great champion of Peter the Great, however, was inimical to CathoU-
Orthodoxy in the sixteenth century; always, however, cism. His religious views were influenced by Pro-
with unfavourable results. The advent of the False kopovitch, a man of great learning, but a courtier by
Demetrius and his marriage with the heiress of the nature, and a bitter enemy of the Roman Church.
Waywodes of Sandomir gave hopes that Russia would Peter the Great revealed his anti-Catholic hatred
see a Catholic dynasty on its throne. Demetrius, when, at Polotsk in 1705, he killed with his own hand
indeed, had been converted to CathoUcism in 1604, the Basilian Theophanus Kolbieczynski, as also by
and had entered into relations with the Holy See, many other measures; he caused the most offensive
which, through its nuncios in Poland, proceeded to calumnies against Catholicism to be disseminated in
confirm him in the Catholic faith, and to maintain Russia; he expelled the Jesuits in 1719; he issued
his devotion to the Roman Church. Demetrius gave ukases to draw Catholics to Orthodoxy, and to pre-
to the Holy See the happiest hopes for the conversion vent the children of mixed marriages from being
of Russia; but through a conspiracy on 27 May, 1606 Catholics; and finally, he celebrated in 1722 and in
he lost the crown and his life. Fanatical Russian 1725 monstrous orgies as parodies of the conclave,
writers charge the popes with responsibility for the casting ridicule on the pope and the Roman court.
turbulence that followed the advent to the throne of From the time of Peter the Great to Alexander I,
the False Demetrius; but the letters of the Roman the history of Catholicism in Russia is a continuous
pontiffs refute that calumny decisively. struggle against Russian legislation: laws that em-
In 1675 the Tsar Alexis (1645-76) sent, as ambas- barrassed the action of Catholicism in Russia, that
sador to Clement X, General Paul Menesius, a CathoUc. favoured the apostasy of Catholics, and reduced the
The object of this embassy was to promote an alliance Catholic clergy to impotence were multiplied each
of the Christian princes against the Turks. The year, and constituted a Neronian code. In 1727, to
Russian legate was received with great distinction. put a stop to Catholic propaganda in the Government
No happy results, however, attended his mission of Smolensk, Catholic priests were prohibited from
from a, religious point of view. During the reign of entering that province, or, having entered it, were pro-
Alexis, strenuous efforts were made to draw Russia hibited from occupying themselves with religious
towards Catholicism by a famous Croatian mission- matters; the nobility was forbidden to leave the Or-
ary, George Krizhanitch, a student of the Propaganda, thodox communion, to have Catholic teachers, to go
on whose life and works Professor Bielokuroff recently to foreign countries, or to marry Catholic women. In
wrote several valuable volumes rich in documents. 1735 the Empress Anna Ivanovna prohibited Catholic
Krizhanitch is regarded as one of the pioneers of propaganda among Orthodox Russians under the
Panslavism; but his efforts to bring Russia to the severest penalties. Illustrious converts, like Alexei
Catholic Church cost him, in 1G()1, an exile to Siberia, Ladygenski and Mikhail Galitzin, were treated with
whence he was unable to return to Moscow until 1676, the most inhuman barbarity on account of their con-
after the death of Alexis. version. In 1747 the government expelled from
In 1684 the Jesuit Father Schmidt established him- Astrakhan the Capuchins who were making many
self at Moscow as chaplain to the embassy from conversions to Catholicism among the Armenians.
Vienna. In 1085 another Jesuit, Father Albert De- Under Catharine II (1762-96) the condition of
bois, was the bearer of a letter from Innocent XI to Catholics became worse than before, notwithstanding
the tsar; and in 1(JS7 Father Giovanni Vota, also of the ukases of religious tolerance that the empress
the Society of Jesus, advocated at Moscow the need promulgated. The ukase of 22 July, 1763 authorized
of Russia to imite herself to the Church of Rome. the Catholics to build chapels and churches of stone.
The Emperor of Germany, Leopold I (1657-1705), Another ukase of 23 Feb., 1769 promulgated the
obtained permission for tlie Jesuits to open a school ecclesiastical constitution of the Catholics. This
at Moscow, where they established a house. Their constitution established two parishes, at St. Peters-
work would have been very favourable for the Church, burg and Moscow, and placed them in charge of the
for under the influence of Cathohc theology a band Reformed Franciscans and the Capuchins. It pro-
of learned Orthodox theologians, led by the higumeno vided that the number of parishes should not be
Sylvester Medvedeff, supported certain Latin doc- greater than nine; and it strictly prohibited Catholic
trines, especially the Epiklesis. Unfortunately how- priests, residing in Russia, from proselytizing among
ever two fanatical Greek monks, Joannikius and Orthodox Russians.
So|)hroniu3 Likhudes, excited the fanaticism of the The first dismemberment of Poland (1772) brought
Russians against the Latins at Moscow, and when a strong body of Cathohcs to Russia, and Catharine
Peter the Great freed himself of the tutelage of his II proposed to make of them a national Church, inde-
sister Sophia in 1689, the Jesuits were expelled from pendent of Rome. Unfortunately an ambitious Pol-
Moscow. The schismatic Patriarch Joachim, a man ish bishop, Stanislaus Siestrzencewicz, entered into
actuated by hatred for foreigners, and in particular her views, and a ukase of 23 May, 1774 established
for Cathohcs, had much to do with that expulsion. the Diocese of White Russia, with its episcopal see at
 RUSSIA 257 RUSSIA
Mohileff, its first bishop being Siestrzencewicz, Vicar- 1801. Siestrzencewicz of course was selected as its
General of Vilna. This personage is judged variously president; and the Russian Government, in its Note
by historians. Pierling, Zaienski, and Markovitch of 13 Dec, 1803, asked of the Holy See such powers
treat him as an ambitious man who sought to become for him as would have rendered him independent.
patriarch of all the Catholics in Russia, and who in The Sovereign Pontiff opposed a determined resistance
his heart hated the Roman See. Godlewski on the to these demands, and the Ecclesiastical College was
contrary is inchned to excuse him, and to believe that henceforward merely a name. In 1804 Mgr. Arezzi,
the difficult conditions of Catholicism in Russia, the Apostolic nuncio, in view of the disagreements
possibly led him to adopt measures that appear to between the Russian Government and the Holy See,
have been injurious to Cathohc interests. According left St. Petersburg; whereupon Siestrzencewicz had
to Markovitch, during his long episcopate (1774- a free hand, and devoted himself to discrediting
1826), Siestrzencewicz was the scourge of the Cathohc Cathohcism by proposing as bishops of the vacant
Church of both rites in Russia. By her manifestos of sees men who were corrupt or allied to the govern-
1779 Catharine II began the systematic destruction ment, by persecuting the rehgious orders, by granting
of the religious orders, withdrawing them from divorces arbitrarily, by favouring the English Bible
the authority of their reUgious superiors, and put- Society, and finally, by surrounding himself with
ting them under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of assistants of evil mind and heart. Diplomatic rela-
Mohileff. The latter in 1782 was raised to the archi- tions between the Holy See and Russia were resumed
episcopal dignity, and in 1784 received the pallium in 1815. The Russian plenipotentiary. Baron de
from the Apostolic legate, Mgr. Giovanni Andrea Tuyll, had colloquies with Cardinal della Somaglia in
Archetti, Archbishop of Chalcedon. He assumed regard to the union of the two Churches, which, how-
episcopal jurisdiction over all the Catholics of the ever, were without result, for the Russian Government
Russian Empire, and acted as if he were independent declared that the union was impossible so long as the
of the HolySee. Holy See wished to impose its dogmatic teachings and
The soundprinciples of Catholicism, however, were its disciplinary practices upon the Russians. Mean-
maintained and propagated by the Jesuits who, sup- while, Siestrzencewicz made use of the renewal of re-
pressed by the Holy See and exiled from the Catholic lations between Rome and St. Petersburg to seek
nations, found an asylum and the centre of their future through the Russian Government new favours and
revival in Russia. In 1779 Catharine II invited the concessions, e. g. the nomination of episcopal candi-
Jesuits to exercise their ministry in White Russia, dates by the tsar, the title of Primate, matrimonial
and in 1786 they had in Russia six colleges and 178 dispensations, etc. In other words, it was a question
members. Their number increased so much that of imitating the canonical legislation of the Orthodox
Pius VII re-established their order for Russia, where Church, and of harnessing Catholicism to the car of
it returned to hfe under Father Gruber. In 1801 the the State. The Holy See merely granted to the
society had 262 members, and 347 in 1811. The Metropolitan of Mohileff the honorary title of pri-
Jesuits retained a hvely gratitude for the hospitality mate, without any additional jurisdiction, and author-
that they had received in Russia, and worked with ized a small number of priests to administer the
zeal to convert it to CathoUcism. Sacrament of Confirmation with oil blessed by the
The Second and Third Partitions of Poland (1793- bishop. The various efforts of the Russian Govern-
94) considerably increased the number of Catholics ment to establish a primate, with patriarchal, almost
in Russia; Catharine II promised them the free exer- independent powers in Russia were always thwarted
cise of their religion, their rights of property and by the determined resistance of the Holy See.
those of their Church, and their complete independ- The most painful occurrence in the history of
ence of the power. These promises were decep-
civil Catholicism during the reign of Alexander I was the
tive, as was shown by the destruction of the Ruthenian expulsion of the Jesuits from Russia, the pretext for
Church, accomplished by her order. The Catholics which was the conversion of Prince Alexander Galit-
of the Latin Rite also soon had cause to remember zin to the Catholic faith. The Jesuits were expelled
that they were under the domination of implacable from St. Petersburg during the night of 22-23 Dec,
enemies. The Catholics had awaited the death of 1815, and the Catholic parish church of St. Catharine
Catharine and the advent to the throne of Paul I was given to the Dominicans. The Jesuits were
(1796-1801), to better theu- condition. In 1797 relegated to Polotsk; later, however, by the ukase of
Archbishop Lorenzo Litta, legate a latere of the Holy 25 March, 1820, they were exiled from Russian terri-
See, arrived at St. Petersburg, where he was received tory. On the other hand, as many nobles of the for-
with great honours. The Catholics who had been mer Polish provinces, subjects of Russia, sent their
exiled to Siberia were recalled; the Sees of Lutzk, children abroad to be educated by the Jesuits, the
Vilna, Kamenetz, Minsk, and Samogitia (the ancient government provided that young Catholics should not
Diocese of Livonia) were created; the archiepiscopal leave Russia. In the last years of his reign Alexander
See of Mohileff was declared metropolitan, which it I showed more sympathy for CathoUcism, and the
still is; and the government granted an indemnity to relations of the Holy See with the Russian Govern-
the clergy for the property that had been taken from ment were cordial during the pontificate of Leo XII
them. In 1802 the number of the faithful amounted and the sojourn of the Chevalier Italinski at Rome as
to 1,635,490, of adults alone. Paul I showed a special Russian minister. The Holy See obtained the con-
predilection for the Jesuits, and reposed great con- cession that the Russian Government would pay to
fidence in Father Gruber; he called them to St. Peters- the Datary 1000 scudi for the Bulls of Catholic arch-
burg, where he authorized them to open schools and bishops in Russia, and 800 scudi for those of bishops;
seminaries, while he obtained from Pius VII a Brief Alexander I also allowed a Cathohc chapel to be
(7 March, 1801), re-establishing the society in Russia. erected at the imperial residence of Tsarskoye Selo,
Under Alexander I diplomatic relations were estab- and gave 40,000 roubles for its construction. He pro-
lished between the Holy See and the Russian Govern- posed to visit Rome, and, according to an unauthenti-
ment. In 1802 a Russian legation was established at cated historical report, to abjure Orthodoxy. There
Rome, while Pius VII on his part named an Apostolic are Cathohc writers who affirm that Alexander I and
nuncio to St. Petersburg, Mgr. Arezzo, Archbishop of his consort became Catholics; but there is no docu-
Seleucia. The alTairs of the Catholic Church in mentary evidence in support of this.
Russia were to be administered by the Roman Catholic The reign of Nicholas I was a long period of per-
Ecclesiastical College, created in imitation of the secution and suffering for Catholics in Russia. In
Synod of St. Petersburg. This college had been ap- 1826 the Holy See sent Mgr. Bernetti to St. Peters-
proved by Alexander I, through his ukase of 21 Nov., burg, to be present at the coronation. He was well
XIII.— 17
 RUSSIA 258 RUSSIA

received by the tsar, and thereafter wrote optimisti- out reason that a Catholic writer has said that the
cally to Rome. Soon, however, the trials of the laws of Nicholas I against Catholicism constitute
Catholics began. By two ukases in 1S2S the admis- Neronian code.
sion of novices in tin.' religious orders, and of clerics The first years of the reign of Alexander II were nol
in the seminaries, was made very difficult, if not quite marked by anti-Cathohc violence. The Russian Gov-
impossible; and in the following year all the novitiates ernment promised the Holy See that the concordat
were closed. In 1830 other ukases encouraged di- would be scrupulously observed, and in 1856 thf
vorce among Cathohcs, prohibited Catholic religious episcopal sees of Russia and Poland were filled
propaganda among the Orthodox, the hearing the Soon however there was a return to the methods oi
confessions of foreigners, and changes of residence Nicholas I, notwithstanding the fact that Pius IX
among the clergy. wrote to the tsar, imploring liberty for Catholics ol
The Polish insurrection of 1830 and 1831 intensified both rites in Russia. In another letter, addressed in
the persecution against the Latin Catholics. In 1832 1861 to Mgr. Fialkowski, Archbishop of "Warsaw, Pius
the Russian Government asked of the "Roman IX referred to the continual efforts of the Holy See
Ecclesiastical College" that the number of convents to safeguard the existence of Catholicism in Russia,
be diminished. Of 300 monasteries in the Diocese and to the difficulties that were opposed to all measures
of MohilefT 202 were closed; while the administrator of hisand of his predecessors in that connection.
of that diocese, Bishop Szczyt, who had opposed this Encouraged by the words of the pope, the Polish
reduction, was sent to Siberia. In the same year the bishops presented a, memorandum to the representa-
publication of Papal Bulls in Russia was prohibited. tive of the emperor at Warsaw, asking for the abroga-
In June and September, 1832 respectively the Holy tion of the laws that oppressed Catholics and destroyed
See addressed two notes to the Russian Government, their hberty. A similar memorandum was presented
lamenting the disabilities to which Catholics were sub- to the tsar by the Archbishop of Mohileff and the
jected in Russia, and the innovations which had been bishops of Russia. Upon the basis of these memo-
introduced into ecclesiastical discipline. The govern- randa, the government accused the Catholic clergy of
ment blamed the Polish revolutionists for its severity. promoting the spirit of revolution and of plotting
On 9 June, 1.S32, yielding to the Russian Go\-ernment, revolts against the tsar. Most painful occurrences
Gregory XVI addressed his Encyclical to the Polish ensued; the soldiery was not restrained from profaning
clergy, urging obedience to the civil power in civil the churches and the Holy Eucharist, from wounding
matters. The encycli<-;i,l aroused great discontent defenceless women, or from treating AVarsaw as a city
among the Poles, and did not deter the Russian Gov- taken by storm. One hundred and sixty priests, and
ernment from its purpose of annihilating Catholicism. among them the vicar capitular Bialobrzeski, were
The Government directed its blows against Catholics, taken prisoners, and several of them were exiled to
more especially by laws concerning mixed marriages, Siberia. Mgr. Deckert, coadjutor of the Archbishop
by preventing Catholic priests from ministering to the Fialkowski, died of the sufferings that these events
United Catholics, and by calling to the episcopal sees caused him. The condition of the Poles were becom-
men who were devoted to its policy, e. g. Mgr. Paw- ing intolerable, and Catholicism suffered proportion-
low.ski, who was named Archbishop of Mohileff in ately. Amid the general indifference of Europe, one
1S41. The Holy See could no longer remain silent voice, that of Pius IX, was raised, firm and energetic,
in the presence of this violence, and in his Allocution in favour of an oppressed people and of a persecuted
to the solemn Consistory of 22 July, 1S42, Gregory faith. On 12 March, 1863, in his Allocution to the
XVI called the attention of the Catholic world to the Consistory, and on 22 April, 1863, in a letter to the
painful oppression to which CathoUcism was subjected tsar, Pius IX demanded that justice and equity be
in Russia; and his protests were more serious and no longer violated. The tsar Alexander II wrote to
energetic, when in 1845, upon the occasion of the the pope expressing regrets that the Polish clergy
visit of the tsar to Rome, he had an interview with should ally itself with the authors of civil disorder and
the latter, which resulted in the concordat of 3 Aug., should disturb the public peace.
1847, by which there were established in Russia an The Polish revolution of 1863 furnished the govern-
archbishopric and six episcopal sees, and in Poland, ment with a pretext for inhumanity towards the
the same number of dioceses that had been established Catholic clergy, both regular and secular. There is no
by the Bull of Pius VII of 30 June, 181S. The con- doubt that some priests and rehgious, moved by
cordat repealed several iniquitous laws that had been patriotic ardour, committed the error of taking part
promulgated against Catholics, placed the seminaries in an insurrection which was opposed by the more
and the ecclesiastical academy of St Petersburg under
. cultured and reasonable portion of the nation. The
the jurisdiction of the ordinary, and recognized to a Russian Government, however, did not take pains to
somewhat greater degree the authority of the Holy punish only the guilty, but dealt with all the Catholic
See over the bishops. The Tsar Nicholas, by a letter clergy alike. In 1863 the Archbishop of Warsaw,
of 1.5 Nov., 1847, ratified the concordat of 3 Aug., Mgr. Fehnski, was confined at YaroslafT, as was his
which, like so many other Russian laws, was destined coadjutor Mgr. Rzaewuski at Astrakhan in 1865;
to remain a dead letter. ( )bstacles were placed to the while their successors, the canons Szczygielski and
determination of the boundaries of dioceses; 21 con- Domagolski, were exiled to Siberia in 1867. Mgr.
vents were suppressed by a ukase of IS July, 1850; Krasinski, Archbishop of Vilna, was confined at
while Catholics were prohibited from restoring their Vyatka. Several priests in 1863 were either hanged
churches and from building new ones; from preach- or shot, as implicated in the revolt, while others were
ing sermons that had not previously been approved by sent to the interior of Russia, or were deported to
the government, and from refuting the calumnies of Siberia. The Poles and the Catholics in their dis-
the Press against Catholicism. It is not necessary tress received consolation only from Pius IX, who dis-
for us to recur to the authority of Catholic writers, tinguished between the right of a government to
like LesccEur, to prove how odious this violence was; punish an unjust revolt and the right of subjects to
we may be satisfied with a mere glance at the immense profess their Faith freely. In the encyclical "Ibi
collection of laws and governmental measures con- Urbaniano" of 30 July, 1864, addressed to the bishops
cerning the Catholic Church, from the times of Peter of Russia and Poland, he enumerated the grievous
and of Ivan Alexeievitch to 1867 ("Zakonopolozhenija evils that the Russian Government had inflicted on
i pravitelstvennyia rasporjazhenija do rimsko-kato Catholicism.
litcheskoi cerkvi v Rossii otnosjachtchijasja so The letters and the protests of the pope however
vremeni earstvovanija Tzarei Petra i loanna Aleksiee- were of httle avail. On S Nov., 1864 the government
vitchei, 1669-1867", Vienna, 1868). It is not with- suppressed the convents and religious orders of Rus-
 RUSSIA 259 RUSSIA
sian Poland; and a ukase of 16 Nov., 1866 abolished Church in Russia, and in 1911 closed two Russo-
the concordat of 1847. Another ukase, on 22 May, Catholic chapels that had been erected at St. Peters-
1867, made the "Roman Catholic College" the in- burg and Moscow. Denunciations against a zealous
termediary between the Catholic bishops of Russia Jesuit, Father Werczynski, who had established him-
and the Holy See. Unfortunately some prelates al- self atMoscow in 1903, and had converted a thousand
lowed themselves to be led astray by the promises or Russians to Catholicism, furnished the government
by the threats of the Russian Government, which with pretexts for renewed severity Father Werczynski
:

sought the ruin of Catholicism in Russia through the was exiled; the suffragan Bishop of Mohileff, Mgr.
establishment of a Polish national church. We may Denisewicz, was deposed (1911) without the previous
cite Mgr. Staniewski, administrator of the Diocese of consent of the Holy See, and was deprived of his
Mohileff, Mgr. Constance Lubienski, Bishop of Augus- stipend; and another most zealous prelate. Baron von
towo, who nobly expiated his mistake, and died in Ropp, Bishop of Vilna, was obliged to resign his see
exile at Diinaburg; and Mgr. Sosnowski, administrator and to retire to the Government of Perm.
of the Diocese of Lublin. A series of curious revela- Nevertheless Catholicism continues to exercise a
tions and documents, concerning the incredible abuses great influence upon the cultured classes of Russia,
of Russian legislation against Catholicism, is contained a fact due in great measure to Vladimir Soloveff, the
in the work "Das polnisch-russische Staatskirchen- greatest of Russian philosophers, who has rightly been
recht auf Grund der neuesten Bestimmungen und called the Russian Newman; and from these classes
praktischer Erfahrungen systematisch erzahlt von there have always been conversions that have brought
einem Priester", Posen, 1892. to the fold of the Catholic Church noble and exalted
Under Alexander III (1881-94) negotiations be- souls, as, for example. Princess Narishkin, Princess
tween the Holy See and the Russian Government Bariatinski, Princess Volkonski, Countess Nesselrode,
were renewed, and Russia maintained a legation at Miss Ushakova, Prince Gagarin, Prince Galitzin,
the Vatican. In 1882 Archbishop Felinski was re- Count Shuvaloff, and many others. Khomiakoff,
called from exile, and, instead of his See of Warsaw, the legislator and apostle of Slavophilism, said that if
received the title of Archbishop of Tarsus. The See liberty of conscience were established in Russia the
of Warsaw was given to Mgr. Vincent Theophilus upper and the cultured classes would embrace Catholi-
Popiel, who had energetically resisted the efforts of cism, which seems to be justified by the facts.
the Russian Government to establish an independent D. Statistics of the Catholic Dioceses of Russia. —
ecclesiastical college for the government of the Cath- The basis for the diocesan and clerical statistics of
olic Church in Russia. A new concordat was con- Russia is furnished by the very useful "Elenchi om-
cluded in 1SS2, but its clauses were nullified by new nium Ecclesiarum et universi cleri" which is published
laws. It should not be forgotten that, during the every year by the various dioceses as an appendix to
entire reign of Alexander II, the religious policy of the "Directorium divini officii". These "Elenchi"
Russia was inspired by Konstantin Pobiedonostseff, are useful not only for their statistics but also for
Procurator General of the Holy Synod, who, for their historical data, because they sometimes contain
political rather than religious motives, was a fierce documents and historical notes concerning the dio-
adversary of Catholicism. The Catholic clergy con- ceses. From the ecclesiastical point of view, the
tinued to endure the severest oppression, abandoned Catholic dioceses of Russia are divided into two
to the caprices of the police, greatly reduced in num- classes: the dioceses of the Kingdom of Poland, and
bers, and trammelled by a thousand obstacles in the those of Russia. The Kingdom of Poland, or Russian
exercise of its apostolic ministry. This condition of Poland, has seven sees: (1) Archdiocese of Warsaw;
things was prolonged into the reign of Nicholas II, (2) Diocese of Kielce; (3) Diocese of Lublin (with ad-
during which Pobiedonostseff exercised his dictator- ministration of Podlachia); (4) Diocese of Plock; (5)
ship until 1905. Diocese of Sandomir; (6) Diocese of Sejny and Au-
After the war with Japan, however, and in con- gustowo; (7) Diocese of Wladislaw. In Russia there
sequence of internal political troubles, Nicholas II are: (1) Archdiocese of Mohileff (with administration
promulgated the constitution in 1905, and published of Minsk); (2) Diocese of Lutzk, Zhitomir, and
the edict of religious toleration. Two years of liberty Kamenetz; (3) Diocese of Samogitia; (4) Diocese of
were sufficient to reveal the great vitality of Catholi- Tiraspol; (5) Diocese of Vilna. These are all treated
cism in Russia, for the number of conversions to the under separate heads. In 1866 the Russian Govern-
Cathohc faith, in so short a lapse of time, amounted to ment suppressed the Diocese of Podlachia in Poland,
500,000, including over 300,000 Uniate Catholics and Minsk and Kamenetz in Russia; the Holy See,
whom the Russian Government had compelled to de- however, did not sanction these arbitrary acts, and
clare themselves Orthodox; 100,000 of these, known in therefore the three dioceses in question exist canon-
Russian as Obstinates (uporstuujushshie) had not re- ically, although they have no bishops, and have been
ceived the sacraments for more than thirty years, incorporated into other dioceses. There are in the
during which time they frequented no church, in order Russian Empire more than 13,000,000 Catholics, of
not to be reckoned among the Orthodox. The whom more than 5,000,000 are in Russia; there are
Cathohc clergy developed the greatest activity in approximately 2900 parishes, 3300 churches, 2000
social and educational work, in the Press, and in the chapels, and 4600 priests. According to the illus-
awakening of Christian piety; and the reactionary trative tables of Father Urban, S.J., there may be
party of the Orthodox Church, centred in the Synod, reckoned an average of more than 3000 Cathohcs for
cried out against the danger, and called for new laws to each priest. In some dioceses, as for example in Pod-
protect Orthodoxy against the assaults of militant lachia, there is 1 priest for each 4800 Cathohcs; and
Catholicism. These protests and lamentations were in the Diocese of Minsk 1 priest for each 4670 Cath-
heard; the laws relating to liberty of conscience were olics. The division into parishes is irregular, and
submitted to revision, abolished, or modified; the some of the parishes have a very large population;
government refused to recognize as legitimate the that of Holy Cross at Lodz has a population of 142,000
conversions to Catholicism of the former Uniate Catholics with only 10 priests; and Praga, near War-
Catholics; the priests who baptized children of mixed saw, has 82,000 Cathohcs, with only 4 priests. In
marriages were punished with fines and imprisonment; Siberia the parishes have an enormous extent. Ac-
the parochial schools were closed; the confraternities cording to the convention between the Holy See and
and the Catholic social organizations were dissolved, the Government, the diocesan bishops should have 22
and the former severity against the Catholic Press auxiliaries: 3 for the metropolitanate of Mohileff; 3
was resumed. The government directed its action for the Diocese of Kovno; 3 for Lutzk, Zhitomir, and
especially against the re-establishment of the United Kamenetz; 3 for Vilna; 2 for Tu-aspol; 2 for Warsaw;
 RUSSIA 260 RUSSIA
and each for Kielce, Lublin, Wladislaw, Sandomir,
1 to adopt the severest measures for the re-establish
Plook, and Sejny and Augustowo. Unfortunately ment of religious disciphne there. In the same diocesi
ho\vc\'er the convention is not observed by the Rus- there are two convents of Friars Minor, at Kol(
sian Government; in 1911 there were only four suf- and at \Madislaw, with 10 reUgious; one convent o
fragan bishops; and it should be added that the dio- Dominican Tertiaries, at Przyr6w, with 12 religious
ceses remain vacant for long periods. The Diocese and one convent of Franciscan Tertiaries, with K
of Vihia has been vacant since 1905. There follows religious, at Wielun. There are 49 Sisters of Charity
consequently great disorganization and many abuses who have charge of 13 philanthropic establishments
in the ecclesiastical administration, which cannot be In the Diocese of Plock there are: a convent of Car-
remedied for lack of competent authority. melites, at Obory, with 6 religious; a monastery ol
Each diocese has its cathedral and its collegiate Felician Sisters, at Przasnysz, with 9 religious; and
chapters. A ukase of 1S6.5 fixed 12 as the number of 5 charitable institutions, in the care of the Sisters ol
canons of a cathedral. Each diocese has also its con- Charity.
sistory and to the twelve diocesan consistories, should
; In the Diocese of Sejny, besides a Benedictine
be added the consistories of Kalish, Piotrkow, and monastery, with 10 religious, there are two hospitals
Pultusk. The consistories are composed of "Offi- and_ one asylum, under the care of 13 Sisters ol
cers", "vice-officers", assessors, visitors of monas- Chanty.
teries, and also lay members in the Russian dioceses. In the Diocese of Sandomir there is a Franciscan
The efforts of the Russian Government to make auton- convent for women, with 13 religious; and 6 charitable
omous the consistories of the various dioceses and the institutions, under the care of 29 Sisters of Charity.
ecclesiastical college at St. Petersburg have failed, for The Diocese of Kielce has 35 Sisters of Charity, and
the Catholic hierarchy in Russia, taught by experience, that of Lublin 44. who are in charge of 8 charitable
remains faithful to the Roman See, and accepts no establishments.
innovations contrary to Catholic canon law. In the Archdiocese of Mohileff there are no con-
E. Religious Orders. — In the seventeenth and vents, properly so called. At St. Petersburg and
eighteenth centuries there were in Russian Poland Moscow there live some Dominicans of different
niany monasteries, and several thousand religious of nationalities, and it is by priests of that order that
the various orders. Among the latter the Jesuits the French parishes of those two cities are served. In
and the Piarists (founded by St. Joseph Calasanctius) 1907 eight Franciscan Sisters, Missionaries of Mary,
distinguished themselves by their services to educa- established themselves at St. Petersburg with the
tion; but the iniquitous laws of Catharine II and consent of the government. They direct a house of
Nicholas I, and the measures adopted by the Russian work. There are also in the archdiocese a few Sisters
Government in 1S64 after the Polish insurrection, of French and of Polish congregations.
almost extirpated Western monachism from Russia. The Diocese of Vilna has a Benedictine monastery
In 1864 it was provided that the monasteries of Russia at \'ilna, with 6 religious, and a Franciscan monastery,
should be divided into two classes, those approved with 3 religious, at Slonim. In the Diocese of Kovno
and recognized by the state, and those not approved there is: a Franciscan monastery, with 3 religious, at
or recognized. The monasteries of the first of these Kretinga; one Benedictine monastery at Kovno, with
two classes were allowed to have novices, and to be 9 religious; and a convent of Sisters of St. Catharine,
inhabited each by 14 religious; those of the second with 9 religious, at Kroki. At Zaslaff, in the Diocese
class were allowed to remain in existence until the of Lutzk, Zhitomir, and Kamenetz, the Franciscans
number of religious in each should be reduced to 7, have a monastery with 4 resident religious; and there
when the monastery was to be suppressed. The are about 10 religious of various other orders scattered
opening of the novitiates of the recognized monas- throughout the diocese. There are no rehgious in the
terieswas deferred to the time when the non-approved Diocese of Tiraspol.
monasteries should have ceased to exist. The number In all, therefore, of the 13,000,000 Catholics in
of the Paulist monks of the monastery of Czenstoch- Russia, 150 men and 550 women are religious, and
owa was fixed at twenty-four. Even these restrictive of the women 450 are Sisters of Charity. The
laws, however, were not observed. Only three or Catholic Church in Russia, therefore, is deprived of
four of the recognized monasteries were allowed to an important part of its militia, and there is small hope
receive novices, and the members of religious orders that religious life will flourish in that country. The
were prohibited from having relations with their small monasteries that remain depend on the bishops,
religious superiors outside of Russia. It is therefore and have, instead of provincials, visitors who are
not astonishing that the religious orders should have chosen from among the secular clergy. The several
nearly disappeared from that country. The Sisters attempts of the Polish religious of Galicia (Augustin-
of Charity alone have been able to develop their ians, Franciscans, Bemardists, Piarists, Redemptor-
organization; and, as elsewhere, they have won the ists) and others to establish themselves in Russia
admiration of all, even of the Orthodox. since 1905 have been futile.
The greater part of the religious are in Russian F. Moral and Intellectual Life of the Catholic Clergy
Poland. The Archdiocese of ^^'arsaw has a Capuchin in Russia. — From the moral and intellectual points
monastery at Nowe Miasto, with lr> religious, and the of view, in Russia, as in all Orthodox countries, the
convents of the Visitation (14 religious), the Perpetual Catholic clergy is very superior to that of other de-
Adoration (13 religious), and the Sisters of the Im- nominations, according to the confession even of the
maculate Conception (36 religious). The Sisters of Orthodox writers themselves. Any shortcomings
Charity, 3S2 in number, have under their charge there which may occur in the lives of the Catholic clergy
34 hospitals or philanthropic institutions. In 1905 arise out of circumstances beyond the control of the
the Redemptorists, five in number, had established ecclesiastical authority. The Holy See cannot exer-
themselves at Warsaw; but the Russian Government cise in Russia a more efficacious vigilance than it
expelled them in 1910. There are remnants of the exercises in other countries; but even if it were in a
old orders that were suppressed in 1S64, but their position to do so, it would find an obstacle to its
number is reduced from year to year. efforts in the laws of the country. On the other hand,
The Diocese of Wladislaw has the celebrated monas- the clergy is too scattered, its work too great, and
tery of Czenstochowa, belonging to a congregation of the civil offices imposed upon it by the bureaucracy
cenobitcs called Paulists (from St. Paul I the hermit). too arduous. Nevertheless, in the difficult circum-
There are about forty religious, priests and laymen, stances in which it is placed, its zeal has succeeded
in the convent . A
grievous crime that was committed in working marvels, in holding its fold firmly bound
in the convent in 1909 led the diocesan authorities to the Faith, and in conciliating the esteem of the
 RUSSIA 261 RUSSIA
Orthodox and the affection of Cathohcs. The gener- their best students, who after a course of four years
osity of the Catholics, especially Poles and Lithua- receive the Degree of Master of Theology. It has
nians, is considerable, and therefore the financial cir- 60 students. Among its professors mention should
cumstances of the Catholic clergy are of the best, be made of Mikhail Godlewski, author of important
notwithstanding the fact that the stipends which it publications on the history of Catholicism in Russia;
receives from the Russian Government are exceed- and Stanislaus Trzeciak, the author of an important
ingly small: parish priests receive from 230 to 600 work on the literature and religion of the Jews at the
roubles a year, and canons have the same stipend. time of Christ ("Literatura i rehgija u zyd6w za
The people are very pious, and their pilgrimages to czas6w Chrystusa Pana", Warsaw, 1911).
the sanctuaries are frequent. At the Feast of the The sect of the Mariavites is treated in the article
Assumption, the sanctuary of Czenstochowa is visited Poland.
at times by as many as 1,000,000 pilgrims. The The Orthodox Church op Russia. —Russian
sanctuary of Our Lady of Ostrabrama, at Vilna, is writers ordinarily divide the history of their national
also a centre of many pilgrimages, and the streets church into five periods. The first, from 989 to 1237,
that lead to it are always crowded with people on their was the period of the diffusion of Christianity in
knees. Russia. Christianity was spread slowly, but the
The Catholic clergy in Russia is unable to con- want of culture among the people caused pagan super-
tribute efficiently to the propagation of the Faith, for stitions to be maintained under the external appear-
its zeal is trammelled by very severe laws. In 1908- ances of Christian rites. The conditions of the lower
1911 many priests were fined, imprisoned, and even clergy, both as to culture and to apostolic spirit, were
exiled for having baptized children of mixed mar- wretched. Monastic life began to flourish in Russia,
riages; nevertheless the clergy contributes in some when the monk Anton, coming from Mount Athos in
measure to the work of the union. There had been 1051, established himself in a grotto near Kieff, and
hopes of restoring the Uniate Church in Russia collecting about him various followers, among them
through the agency of three or four Russian priests the famous Blessed Theodosius Petcherski, laid the
who were converted to Catholicism; and two chapels foundation of the great monastery called Kievo-
of the Slav Rite sprang up, at St. Petersburg and Petcherskaja. This monastery became a focus of
Moscow. In 1911, however, the Russian Govern- culture in the development of Russia, and is rightly
ment closed the two chapels, and forbade the exercise considered a national monument of that country.
of their ministry by the converted priests, one of Monasticism was so generally spread in the twelfth
whom returned to the schism. century that in the city of Kieff alone there were
The Catholic clergy, and Catholics in general, ab- seventeen monasteries.
stain from taking part in pohtics; but they do a great During this first period the Russian Church was
deal for the moral and intellectual development of totally dependent upon the Church of Constantinople,
their fellow-countrymen. The Poles are the staunch- and was governed by the Metropolitans of Kieff, the
est supporters of Catholicism and Polish nationalism list of which opens with Leo (dead in 1004), and closes
in Russia. The Lithuanian clergy has taken a very with the Metropolitan Josef in 1237. According to
active part in the awakening of Lithuanian national- Golubinski this first list contains twenty-four names.
ism, the restoration of the Lithuanian language to Some of them, Mikhail, Ilarion, Ivan II, Ephraim,
the churches of Lithuania, and the development of and Konstantin were placed upon the calendar of the
Lithuanian literature. From these points of view, saints. One of the most famous saints of this first
therefore, both the Polish and Lithuanian clergy have epoch was St. Cyril of Turoff.
rendered great service to their respective nationali- The second period, from 1237, in which year begin
ties. It is to be regretted, however, that there should the Mongolian invasions and the progressive develop-
frequently arise at Vilna, between the Polish and the ment of the power of northern Russia, extends to
Lithuanian clergy, disputes that are at variance with 1461, when Orthodox Russia was divided into two
Cathohc interests. The intellectual development of metropolitanates. During this period, Russia was
the clergy, as yet, is not all that might be desired. governed by the Metropolitans of all Russia, the list
The seminaries, in all that concerns the admission of of whom begins with Cyril III (1242-49), and closes
young men, are at the mercy of the government, with St. Gona (1448-61). Among these metropol-
which, possibly, prevents the more desirable youths itans, St. Pioter (1308-26), St. Alexei (1354-78), and
from entering those establishments. For the rest, St. Gona (1448-61) were raised to the honours of the
the course of studies in those seminaries is not very altar of the Russian Church. The latter fought
complete. At present, however, an intellectual and against the Tatars; while several Russian princes
moral reform in these establishments is being sought: suffered martyrdom for their Faith and were canon-
a considerable number of Catholic priests go to foreign ized. Some few missionaries attempted to spread
countries to complete their studies in Catholic uni- Christianity among the Tatars. In 1329 two Rus-
versities, and upon their return to Russia teach in sian monks, Sergei and Germanus, founded the famous
the seminaries. The Catholic Press, also, which had monastery of Balaam, on an islet of Lake Ladoga. In
been kept at a low standard by the Russian censor- the second half of the fourteenth century St. Stephen
ship, has improved greatly of recent times. In 1909 Bishop of Perm (d. 1396), preached Christianity to
the seminary of Wladislaw began the publication of the Zyriani. The efforts of the Russians, however,
the "Duchowni Kaplan", a monthly periodical that to win Lithuania over to the schism were not crowned
is on a level with the most learned Catholic publica- with success. During this period, there were eighteen
tions of Europe. Other Catholic periodicals are pub- eparchies mRussia. The Russian bishops gradually
lished at Warsaw, Vilna, Sandomir, etc., and seek to leaned towards Moscow, which had aspirations to
neutralize the anticatholic propaganda, and the prop- spiritual supremacy. The moral and intellectual con-
aganda of atheism, which latter has its centre at ditions of the clergy were very low.
Warsaw, where it publishes its organ the "MySl Towards the
latter end of the fourteenth centurv, there arose
Nepolegla" (Independent Thought). the
heresy of the Slrigolniki, who rejected the hierarchy.
The chief centre of Catholic study in Russia is the Monasticism attained its highest development, there
Roman Cathohc Ecclesiastical Academy of St. Peters- appearing 180 new monasteries. St. Sergei Radonej-
burg, established in 1833, in place of the seminary of ski (dead in 1392), a saint whom popular legends
Vilna, which was considered the university of the represent as endowed with supernatural powers, be-
Catholic clergy in Russia. The academy has a rector, came the legislator of the new monasticism. At
a,n inspector, a spu'itual director, 15 professors, and a
Sergievo, 40 miles from Moscow, he founded the
librarian. The dioceses send to this estabhshment celebrated monastery of the Most Holy Trinity, a
 RUSSIA 262 RUSSIA

great religious and national monument of Russia. polemical works, and to oppose Catholic influence
The monasteries at this epoch contained possibly 300 through the schools. For want of bishops and
reUgious. priests of their own, members of the Orthodox Church
The third period is from 1461 to 1589, when the passed over to the Union. In 1620, however, Theo-
Russian Church was divided into the two metropoli- phanus. Patriarch of Jerusalem, consecrated Job
tanatcs of Moscow and Kieff. The former was Borecki Metropolitan of Kieff, and six members of
Ijounded by the frontiers of Great Russia, and was the Orthodox Church as bishops respectively of
strictly Russian and Orthodox. That of Kieff at- Polotsk, Vladimir, Lutzk, PrzemySl, Chelm, and
tempted to assimilate the culture of the West, and Pinsk; and thus the Orthodox hierarchy was re-
developed great literary activity. In the metropolis estabhshed. In the domain of theology the sixteenth
of Moscow, Tihon of Vyatka (dead in 1612) worked and seventeenth centuries were prolific of works,
for the conversion of the Voguli and of the Ostiaki of written by Orthodox theologians, to combat the ar-
of the Government of Perm. The monks of the mon- guments of the CathoUcs and Uniates. The most
astery of Solovka evangelized the Lopari, in which salient personality of the Orthodox hierarchy of
efforts the Blessed Theodoretus (dead in 1577) and Kieff during this period was the Metropolitan Peter
the Blessed Tihon Petchengski (1495-1583) distin- Moghila (d. 1646).
guished themselves. In the work of the conversion The fourth period of the Russian Church is that of
to Christianity of the Tatars of Kazan, the higumeno the Patriarchate of Moscow (1589-1700) . The Patri-
George (Gurij Rugotin became famous. He died 4
) archate of Moscow was created in 1589 by Jeremias
Dec, 1563, and was canonized by the Russian Church; II, Patriarch of Constantinople. The first patriarch
so also was the archimandrite Barsonofius (dead in was Job (1589-1605) he was succeeded by Ignatei
;

1576, and Germanus (d. 1567). Other Russian monks (1605-06), Hermogenes (1606-11), Filarete Romanoff
devoted their energies to the conversion of the pagans (1619-33), Joshaphat (1634-40), Josef (1642-.S2),
of Astrakhan and of the Caucasus. Nikon (16.52-66), Joshaphat (1667-72), Pitirim
The Russian Church became more and more sep- (1672-73), Joachim Savoloff (1674-90), and Adrian
arated from the Greek Church, and towards the end (1690-1700). Among the most famous of these
of the fifteenth century refused to receive Greek mention should be made of Filarete and Joachim,
metropolitans and bishops. Among the metropoli- bitter enemies of Catholicism; and of Nikon, who with
tans of this time, Macarius (1542-63), and the ener- uncurbed energy upheld the rights of his Church
getic Philippus II, who was slain by order of Ivan against the usurpations of the civil power, on which
the Terrible in 1473, were distinguished by the extent account he was deposed in 1666. The patriarchs
of their learning. In the Metropolitanate of Moscow formed at Moscow a court, which, especially under
there were ten eparchates. The clergy was very nu- Filarete Romanoff, was a rival of that of the tsars,
merous, and many of its members, unable to sub- both as to wealth and authority, and which for these
sist in the villages, lived a vagabond life at Moscow, reasons was suppressed by the tsars. The patriarchs
to the detriment of discipline. With a view to re- exercised superintendence over the metropolitans and
forming the clergy there was convened at Moscow over the bishops, the number of whom was increased
in 1551 the famous Council of the Hundred Chap- and diminished by turns. After the establishment
ters (Sloglav). Monasticism spread more and more. of the patriarchate, Novgorod, Kazan, Rostoff, and
From the fifteenth to the seventeenth century there Kruticki became metropolitanates, and Suzdal,
appeared three hundred new monasteries, which Ryazan, Tver, Vologda, and Smolensk were made
accumulated enormous wealth. The Blessed Nil archiepiscopal sees. The number of dioceses was
Sorski (1433-1508) made himself the champion of a fixed at eight. In 1620 Siberia was given an episcopal
reform among the monks, which implied on their part see at Tobolsk. In 1682 the Tsar Feodor Alexeie-
the renunciation of all real property and seclusion in vitch proposed the establishment of 12 metropolitan-
the monasteries. His doctrines found numerous ad- ates and 72 dioceses; but a council of bishops reduced
versaries, among whom was the Blessed Josef of the latter number to 34, later to 22, and thereafter to
Volock (1440-1515). Many monks and ascetics of 14. There was a lack of funds for the support of the
this time were venerated as saints. Among the more new dioceses, and at the end of the seventeenth cen-
famous of these, were Alexander Svirski (dead in 1533) tury the patriarchate of Moscow had 13 metropolitan-
and Daniel of Pereiaslaff (d. 1540). The want of ates, 7 archbishoprics, and 2 dioceses.
religious instruction favoured superstition and the Meanwhile the tsars, seeing the growth of the in-
germination of heresies. In the fifteenth century fluence and power of the Church under the rule of the
there broke out, at Novgorod and its surroundings, patriarchs, adopted the policy of diminishing the pre-
the heresy of the Judaizers {zhidovsivujushshie) rogatives of the clergy. The Tsar Alexis Mikhailo-
against which the Archbishop Gennadius (a saint who vitch published a statute (ulozhenie) which prohibited
died in 1505) and the Blessed Josef of Volock struggled the further acquisition of property by the clergy.
with much energy. In the sixteenth century Matwei The judicial position of the clergy received another
Baksin and Theodosius Kosoi taught rationalist doc- blow by the promulgation of the so-called monastyr-
trines, abjuring the sacraments and ecclesiastical skij prikaz (monasterial ordinance). The clergy re-
government, which evoked refutations and anathemas ceived this diminutio capitis with evident displeasure;
from Maxim the Greek, and from the monk Zinovii and when Nikon, Metropolitan of Novgorod, was
Otenski. The Protestants established themselves at raised to the patriarchal dignity in 1652, protests were
Moscow. redoubled, and the conflict between the patriarch and
There were fifteen metropolitans of Kieff, from the tsar became acute. The bishops, who were par-
Gregor the Bulgarian (1458-73), who, according to tisans of the tsar, had the support of the Greek hier-
Golubinski, after embracing the union, returned to archy. The Council of Moscow, to please the tsar,
the Orthodox Church, to Onisiphorua Dievotchak deposed the patriarch, who died after a long captivity,
(1579-80), who was succeeded by Mikhail Ragosa at Bielo-ozero, in 1681. With the death of Nikon
the latter having embraced the Union. The Ortho- the Russian Church was yoked to the chariot of the
dox of the metropolitanate, after the Union of Brest, State. Peter the Great found that the patriarchate
fanatically opposed the progress of the Unionists. was useless, and in fact an obstacle in the way of the
Russian writers mention with praise, among these realization of his purposes; and accordingly, at the
champions of Orthodox^' against the Union, Prince death of Adrian in 1700, he suppressed it. The
Andrei Kurbski and Prince Konstantin of Ostrog. Patriarchate of Moscow had succeeded in unifying
The followers of Orthodoxy also established con- the Orthodox Church of Russia. After the conven-
fraternities for the printing and dissemination of tion of 1686 between Russia and Poland, which made
 RUSSIA 263 RUSSIA
the tsars of Moscow masters of Kieff and Little Russia, tors of the Holy Synod ") . In 1881 there was called to
the Patriarch Joachim named Gedeon Tchetvertinski the government of the synod Konstantin Pobiedon-
metropoUtan of Kieff, and in 1687 Dionysius, Patri- ostseff, a man of great culture but of reactionary
arch of Constantinople, recognized the dependency ideas, who wished to unite all the religions professed
of the Metropolitanate of Kieff upon the Patriarchate in Russia in the Orthodox Church. The epoch of
of Moscow. Pobiedonostseff was one of complete thraldom for
In the seventeenth century under the Patriarch the Russian Church. His dictatorship however came
Nikon a great schism broke out in the Orthodox to an end in 1905, when the edict of toleration was
Church, called the Schism of the Old Believers. The promulgated. The Liberal Russian clergy attacked
liturgical books in use in the Russian Church were the synod and the anti-canonical constitution of the
replete with errors. Their correction was an urgent Russian Church in the Press, and demanded the re-
necessity, and had been undertaken in the sixteenth establishment of the patriarchate. The Government
century. The fanatics opposed this "corruption" of proposed the convocation of a great national synod,
the sacred texts, and Maxim the Greek, who had to return its liberties to the Church of Russia and to
worked upon it, paid for his participation in the work give it a new constitution, but this purpose was frus-
with a long imprisonment. Under Nikon in 1654 a trated by the friction between the "white" (secular)
council held at Moscow recognized the necessity of and the "black" (regular) clergy, by the triumph of
the reform in question. Accordingly the hturgical the revolutionary parties, and by the outbreak of
books were corrected, but many Russians, influenced the revolution. The synod continued to exercise
by the monks, refused to accept the corrected versions. its deleterious authority under various procurators:
It began to be rumoured that Antichrist, personified Prince Obolenski, Izvolski, Lukianoff (a mental
by the pope, had in view the destruction of the Or- specialist), and finally, in 1911, Carolus Vladimiro-
thodox Russian Church, through the Latin Catholics vitch Sabler, a former associate of Pobiedonostseff,
of western Russia. But a council held at Moscow but a man of broader and more liberal ideas.
in 1666 approved the reform of Nikon, and pro- Other changes were made in the eparchies. When
nounced its anathema against those who had not ac- the synod was established, there were 18 eparchies and
cepted his decisions. Anathemas, were however, like 2 vicariates in Russia; in 1764, the number of the for-
the severity of the government, without effect against mer had increased to 29, and to 36 at the beginning of
these deserters from the official Church. The monks the nineteenth century; which latter number was in-
who were averse to the reform withdrew to solitary creased under Nicholas I, and became 65 in our day.
places, and founded clandestine monasteries, among The eparchies are ruled by metropolitans (St. Peters-
which those of Vyg, Starodub, and Vyatka became burg, Moscow, and Kieff), archbishops, and bishops.
famous. The more violent schismatics were burnt According to the most recent statistics, there were 133
alive or decapitated. But persecutions invigorated Russian bishops, including the bishop-vicars of the
the schism, called in Russian raskio, whence the name eparchies, and the bishops without a charge. In re-
of its adherents, Raskolniki. gard to the moral character of the Russian episcopate,
The fifth, called the synodal, period begins with and concerning the various institutions of the Russian
1700, and extends to the present time. At the death dioceses, see the present writer's work "La Chiesa
of Adrian (1700), Stepan Tavorski, Metropolitan of russa", pp. 105-160. The Russian clergy, which is
Ryazan, and a learned theologian, was appointed divided into two castes, the "white" clergy, or secu-
patriarchal vicar, and charged to reform the entire lars, and the "black" clergy, or regulars, has not ac-
constitution of the Russian Church. Tavorski found quired, among the Russians, the moral prestige that
an excellent co-operator in Theophanus Prokopovitch, the Catholic clergy has acquired in Catholic countries.
who was Bishop of Pskof in 1718, and who, although According to the latest statistics, there are in the
educated at Lemberg, Cracow, and Rome, and ac- "white" clergy 45,000 priests, 2400 archpriests, 15,000
cording to some, a convert to Catholicism, nourished deacons, and 44,000 singers, while there are 60,000
a bitter hatred for Catholics. Peter the Great gave churches and chapels in the country. This clergy
to Prokopovitch the task of preparing the "Eccle- exercises its ministry over more than 90 millions of
siastical Regulations" which became the Magna Orthodox faithful; but it is rendered incapable of
Carta of the Russian Church. This code was fin- accomplishing its mission by poverty, want of educa-
ished in 1720. It is divided into three parts, con- tion, the lack of sound vocations, the oppression of
cerning respectively the functions of the synod, the the Government, contempt ahd social isolation, family
matters put under its jurisdiction, and the duties of cares, and not infrequently by drink. Only in the
its members. The synod was solemnly opened on cities are there to be found priests of culture and in
14 Feb., 1721. By the "Ecclesiastical Regulations", comfortable circumstances; those who work in the
the tsar is the supreme judge of the ecclesiastical col- rural parishes are deserving of pity and compassion.
lege. His representative in that capacity was a lay- In the eighteenth century, the "black" clergy suf-
man, who in a document of 1722 is called the eye of fered vicissitudes that greatly reduced the number
the tsar. This functionary, bearing the title of Ober- of monasteries and monks. Peter the Great espe-
Prokuror, was to be chosen preferably from the pecially and Anna Ivanovna treated the monks with
military class. the greatest severity. Nevertheless the "black"
The synod in the early period of its existence had clergy preserved the moral and economic superiority
ten members, besides the president, and maintained in Russia; bishops, rectors, and inspectors of acade-
its ecclesiastical character. After the death of Peter mies and seminaries are taken from the ranks of the
the Great, however, that ecclesiastical character was "black" clergy, and the monasteries still possess im-
lost by degrees, and the synod became a vast political mense riches. According to the most recent statistics
bureaucracy. The bishops were at the mercy of the there are 298 monasteries that are recognized and sub-
procurators-general, who at times, as in the case of sidized by the Government, while there are 154 not
Prince Sharkhovski, regarded the synod as a political subsidized {zaslatnij). There were 9317 monks and
institution, and sometimes maltreated the prelates 8266 novices. There were 400 religious houses of
who formed that body. There were procurators- women, inhabited by 12,652 nuns and 40,275 novices.
general who made public profession of atheism, as Many of these religious houses are of the Russian
Tchebysheff (1768-74), or of rationalism, as Prince Sisters of Charity, who maintain 184 hospitals, and
A. Golycin (1803). The Russian Church suffered 148 asylums. The life of the regular clergy, except
humiliation under the lay rule of the synod (see the in a few monasteries of strict observance, is very lax.
important work of Blagovidoff, an ex-professor of the The Orthodox clergy receives its education in the
Ecclesiastical Academy of Kazan, on "The Procura- ecclesiastical schools, preparatory for the seminaries
 RUSSIA 264 RUSSIA
(dukhovnyja ulchilishsha) of which there are 185, with directed to the conversion of the Uniate Ruthenians
1IJ02 instructors, and which are maintained at an ex- who emigrate to that continent. In other countries
pense to the state of (3,153,353 roubles yearly; in the their efforts are almost without result, with the excep-
ecclesiastical seminaries, of which there are 57, with tion of Japan, where Ivan Kasatkin, who is now an
866 instructors and 20,500 students; and also in the archbishop, and who went to those islands in 1860
ecclesiastical academies of St. Petersburg, Moscow, succeeded in establishing a Japanese branch of the
Kieff, and Kazan, in which there are 120 instructors Orthodox Church, which numbers about 30,000 ad-
and XC)2 students; these academies possess very valu- herents and about 40 native priests (cf. "La Chiesa
able libraries, and have professors of great scientific russa", pp. 397-539).
merit. The seminaries both morally or intellectually The Church of Russia is the support and strength
are in a wretched condition; from these seminaries of Orthodoxy, which, counting Russians, Greeks, and
the moral and intellectual shortcomings of the Rus- Rumanians, has more than 110 millions of adherents.
sian clergy are derived, their students, as a rule, enter- The conversion of Russia to Catholicism, therefore
ing the priesthood without the least vocation. In would end the Eastern Schism. But the hour of a
1906-08 these institutions became hotbeds of revolu- reconciliation between the East and the West is yet
tionists, and even of anarchists. The ecclesiastical far distant, however much desired by Catholics and
sciences are cultivated in the academies, which pub- also by Russians, such as Vladimir Soloveff. There is
lish periodicals of great merit, as the " Khristianskoe no doubt that among the cultured classes of Russia
Tchtenie" (Christian Reading) at St. Petersburg; there are to be found persons who desire this union,
the "Bogoslovski Viestnik" (Theological Messenger) and who readily recognize the defects of their national
at Sergievsk Posad; the "Trudy" (Works) of the Church; but there is no movement towards union with
Ecclesiastical Academy of Kieff, and the "Pravos- Catholicism. As a rule, the cultured classes of Rus-
lavnyi Sobesiednik" at Kazan. Other important sia are contaminated with the poison of infidelity;
periodicals are the "Strannik" (St. Petersburg Travel- while the lower classes are slaves of superstition or
ler),the "Tcherkovnij Viestnik" (Ecclesiastical Mes- ignorance, and most attached to the formalities of
senger), the "Cerkovnija Viedomosti" (Ecclesiastical their rite. They are the easy prey of the rationalist
News), the organ of the synod at St. Petersburg; or mystic Russian sects. Possibly Russia would have
" Dushepoleznoe Tchtenie" (Edifying Reading), at been Catholic if, after the Union of Brest, politics and
Moscow, and the " Khristianin " (The Christian), at human passions had not rendered the condition of
Sergievsk Posad. Among the most famous professors the Uniates most unhappy, and placed obstacles in
of the ecclesiastical academies of the present day, the way of the development of the Ruthenian clergy.
mention should be made of the great exegete Nikolai But it is useless to lament the past; and every effort
Glubokovski, the canonists Zaozerski and Berdnikoff, should be made that the latent religious forces of
the historian Znamenski, etc. The most famous of Russia may some day find their full development in
them all, at present, is the archpriest Malinovski. A union with Cathohcism under a single shepherd.
comprehensive study on the Russian seminaries and
academies may be found in the work "La Chiesa The Religion of Russia: Catholicism; Orthodox Church; Prot-
russa", pp. 541-679.
estaiiti'im: —
EucEDlus, AulcEum Dunaidum, continens seriem ac
successions^ archiepiscoporum Rigensium in Livonia (Wittenberg,
The educating influence of the Russian clergy upon 1564) PossEviNUS, Lettera alia Duchessa di Mantova sopra le cose
;

pertinenii alia religone cattolica, le quali desiderava intendere di

the people is very slight. On the other hand the Livonia, di Suetia, et di Transilvania (Mantua, 1580) Idem, Li- ;

bureaucracy would suppress any effort of the clergy vonice commentarius (Riga, 1852) Bellettus, Visitaiionis apos-
;

to give to the people a higher sense of its rights. The toliccB sanctce Ecclesice Vendensis et Livonice, constituliones (Vilna,

clergy maintains a great many elementary schools, 1611): Okolski, Russia fiorida rosis et Uliis (Lemberg, 1646);
Idem, Chioviensium et Czernichoviensium episcoporum ordo et nu-
the number of which was much increased in the time merus (Lemberg, 1646: Cracow, 1853): 'KoiAl.o^lcz, Miscellanea
of PobiedonostsefT. These establishments are divided TCrum ad statum ecclesiasticum in magna Lithuanics ducatu per-
into schools of two classes, and schools of one class; iinentium (Vilna, 1650) Scarin, Dissertatio historica de Sancto
:

Henrico, Fennorum Apostolo (Abo, 1737) Ohlowski, De/ensa bis-

;

of the former there are 672, with 77,000 students of kupstva ij dyecezyi kiowskiej (Lemberg, 1748); Friesius, De epia-
both sexes; while there are 25,425 one-class schools, copatu kioviensi cuius sedes olim fuit Kiovia^, nunc vero Zytomirice
in Ukraina eiusque prcESulibus brevis commentatio (Warsaw, 1763);
with 1,400,000 students of both sexes; and in addition
Czarnewski, De SemgallitE episcopalu nee non de episcopis Sem-
13,650 schools in which reading is taught, with 436,000 gallitE seu Selburgensibus (Mitau, 1790) Maciejowski, Essai his-
;

pupils. There are 426 secondary schools, with 22,300 torique sur I'Eqlise chretienne primitive des deux rites chez les Slaves
students, the yearly maintenance of which costs a sum (Leipzig, 1840); Theiner, Die neuesten Zustdnde der katholischen
Kirche beider ritus in Polen und Russland (Augsburg, 1841);
of 17,000,000 roubles. SzANTYR, Zbior wiadomOBci o kosciele i religii katolickiej w cesarst-
The apostolic work of the Russian clergy has small wie rossyiskiem (Collection of Data on the Catholic Church and
result. The internal missions are against the Raskol- the Catholic Religion in the Russian Empire) (Posen, 1843):
Tolstoi, Le Catholicism romain en Russie (2 vols., Paris, 1863-64)
niki, the mystic and the rationalist sects, the Moham- Lescceuh, UEglise catholique et le pouvernement russe (Paris, 1903)
medans, the Catholics, the Lutherans, and the Jews. RdTTiNGER, Leiden und Verfolgungen der katholischen kirche in
The missionaries direct their efforts towards the con- Russland und Polen (Ratisbon, 1844) Krasinski, Histoire re-
;

ligeuse des peuples slaves (Paris, 1853) Lescceur, Le schisme mos-

;
version of dissidents to Orthodoxy rather by the covite et la Pologne catholique (Paris, 1859) Idem, UEglise calho~
;

assistance of the police and by human means than by lique en Pologne sous le gouvernement russe (Paris, 1860); Idem.
a supernatural spirit and by convincing arguments. UEglise catholique et le gouvernement russe (Paris, 1903) Gagarin, ;

Tendances catholiques dans la sociHc russe (Paris, 1860); Slecz-

All efforts, not excluding deportation to Siberia, have KOWBKi, Wiadomosci niektdre do dziejdw kosciola katolickiego w
failed to secure the conversion of the Raskolniki, who polako-rossyiskikh prowincyakh od rozbioru Polski az do najnow-
sinc^c 1905 have enjoyed a certain liberty, and azuch czasdw (Jaslo, 1861) Tolstoi, Le catholicisme romain en
at the
;

Russie (2 vols., Paris, 1863-64); Pierling, Rome et Demetrius

present time maintain a great propaganda. Their
d'apr^s des documents nouveaux (Paris, 1878) Idem, Antonii Pos-
;

number is estimated at 15,000,000. Among Catholics sevini missio moscovitica ex annuls litteris S. J. excerpta et adno-
and Lutherans the Russian missions are without effect" tationibus illustrata (Paris, 1882); Idem, Rome et Moscou (1883);
in fact since 1905 many of the Orthodox have Idem, Un nonce du Pape en Moscovie (Paris, 1884) Idem, Le ;

em- Saint-Si?ge, la Pologne, et Moscou (Paris, 1885); Idem, Rapes et

braced Catholicism or Lutheranism. For three cen- Tzars (Paris, 1890) Idem, Lettre de Dmitri, dit le faux, A Cle-
;

turies Russian missionaries ha\'e worked for the ment VIII (Paris, 1898); Idem, Les relations diplomatiques entrele
con- Saint-Siige et la Russie (24 vols., Paris, 1890-1907) Sehpignt,
version of the Mohammedan Tatars; but the trivial ;

nature of the propaganda among that people was

Un arbitrage pontifical au XVI silcle (Possevin) (Paris, 1886);
Vannutelli, La Russia e la Chiesa cattolica (Rome, 1895) HlLDE- ;

shown in 1905, when 500,000 Christian Tatars re- brand, Sveriges stdllning till Antonio Possevinos Jredsemdling mel-
turned to the faith of Islam. lan Polen och Russland (Stockholm, 1897) Marcovitch, Roma ed
;

i Papi (2 vols., Zagabria, 1902); .\braham, Powstanie organizacyi

^ The foreign missions of Russia are in North and kn^ciola lacinskiego na Rusi (Lemberg, 1904) Carykoff, Posol- ;

South America, Japan, Corea, and Persia. In North stvo V Rim i sluzhba o Moskvie Pavla Menezija (The Embassy to
America the efforts of the Orthodox missionaries are Rome, and the Acts of Paolo Menesio at Moscow) (St. Peters-
burg, 1906).
 RUSSIA 265 RUSSIA
Chytr^us, Z)e Russorum religione (Leipzig, 1586); Prytz, VII. Russian Literature op the Time of Peter
Vtrum Moscovitw sint christiani (Stoclcholm, 1620) Schwabe, De
religione ritibusque ecclesiasticis moscovitarum (Jena, 1665) von
;

;
THE Great; VIII. Literature op Russia in the
Oppenbubch, Religio Muscomtarum (Strasburg, 1667); Wahh- Eighteenth Century; IX. Literature op Rus-
MUND, La religion ancienne et moderne des Moscovites (Cologne, sia IN THE Nineteenth Century; X. Contem-
1698); Khook, Exercitatio kistorico-theologica de statu Ecclesiai et
religionis moscoviticm (Leipzig, 1722) Fenerlin, Dissertat^o his- porary Russian Literature.
torica de religione Ruihenorum hodierna (Gdttingen, 1745)'; Bel-
LERMANN, Kurzer Abriss der russischen Kirche (Erfurt, 1788);
;

I. Russian Language. —
Russian is a Slav lan-
guage belonging to the Indo-European family. The
Strahl, Zustand der griechisch-russischen Kirche in dltester und
neuester Zeit (Tiibingen, 1823) Idem, Geschichte der Grilndung und
;
dispersion of the Slav tribes in prehistoric times
Ausbreitung der christlichen Lehre unter den Valkern des ganzen resulted in the formation of various Slav dialects, of
russischen Reiches (Halle, 1827) Idem, Beytrdge zur russischen ;
which Shaf arik counted twelve, although other writers
Kirchengesch. (Halle, 1827) Idem, Geschichte der russischen Kirche
recognize only six or seven. The Slav dialects are
;

(Halle, 1830) Muraveff, Istorija rossiiskoi cerkvi (History of the

;

Russian Church) (St. Petersburg, 1845) Ger. tr. (Karlsruhe, ; divided into the South-Eastern dialects and the
1857); Philarete, Istorija russkoi cerkm (Tchernigoff, 1862); Western dialects. To the former, which culminate
Ger. tr. (Frankfort, 1872) Boissard, UEglise de Russie (2 vols.,
;

Paris, 1867); Heard, The Russian Church (London, 1887);

in the Bulgarian, belongs the Russian, or rather the
Frank, Rttssisches Christentum (Paderborn, 1889) Vannutelli, ; three Russian dialects of Great Russia, Little Russia,
Studio religioso sopra la Russia (2 vols., Rome, 1892) Runke- ;
and White Russia. Russian has many affinities with
VITCH, Istorija russkoi cerkvi pod upravleniem sv, synoda (History
of the Russian Church under the Government of the Holy Synod)
the Bulgarian and Servian languages, because Russia
(St. Petersburg, 1900) Denisoff, Pravoslavnye monastyri ros-
; received her primitive literature from the Bulgarians
siiskoi imperii (The Orthodox Monasteries of the Russian Em- and Servians. The absence of documents, however,
pire) (Moscow, 1908). The most complete history of the Rus-
sian Church is that of the Metropolitan Macarius, Istorija
makes it impossible to define with precision the char-
russkoi cerkvi (12 vols., St. Petersburg, 1883-1903). complete A acter of the primitive language of Russia, or rather
bibhography of the Orthodox Russian Church is to be found in the relations between that language and the Russian
Palmieri, La Chiesa russa (Florence, 1908), and Idem, Theologia
dogmatica orthodoxa, I (Florence, 1911).
of literature. According to Sreznevski and Lavroff,
Semler, De primis initiis christiance religionis inter Russos the similarity between the two languages was almost
(Halle, 1762); Dissertatio de origine christians religionis in Russia complete, and consisted in turns of expression rather
(Rome, 1826) Goetz, Staat und Kirche in AUrussland (Berlin,
;

1908) BoTCHKAREFF, Stoglav i istorija sobora (The Council of the

;
than in grammatical forms. Before the thirteenth
Hundred Chapters and its History) (Jukhnoff, 1906) Kaptereff, ; century, the literary, ecclesiastical, and adminis-
Kharakter oinoshenii Rossii ko pravoslavnomu vostoku v i XVI trative language was one. But in the fourteenth
XVII stolietijakh (Nature of the Relations of Russia with the century the ecclesiastical language began to differ
Orthodox East in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries)
(Moscow, 1885); Bacmeister, Beytrdge zur Lebensgeschichte des from the literary language and this difference grew
Patriarchen Nikon (Riga, 1788) Hubbenet, Istoritcheskoe izsliedo-
;
considerably in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
vanie diela patriarkha AHhona (Historical Researches on the Case
of the Patriarch Nikon) (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1882-84); Pai^
The Palaeoslavic or ecclesiastical language, however,
MER, The Patriarch and the Tsar (London, 1871), 73, 76; Kap- varied little in either case from the language of the
tereff, Patriarkh Nikon i car Aleksiej Mikhailovitch (Sergievo, people. In time Russian underwent local changes
1909); Blagovidoff, Ober-prokurory Svj. Synoda v XVIII i v
pervoi polovinie XIX stoljetija (The Procurators General of the
of form that gave rise to the dialects of Kieff, Nov-
Holy Synod in the eighteenth and the first part of the nineteenth gorod, Vladimir, and Moscow. The Vareghi, the
centuries) (Kazan, 1900) Titlinoff, Pravitelstvo imperatricy
;
Greeks, the Tatars, the Lithuanians, and the Poles
Anny Joannovny v ego otnoshenjiakh k dielam pravoslavnoi cerkv left traces of their political domination on the lan-
(The Government of the Empress Anna Joannovna and her rela-
tions with the Orthodox Church) (Vilna, 1905) Theiner, Die ; guage of Russia, and in the time of Peter the Great
Staatskirche Russlands im J. 1839 (Schaffhausen, 1844) Gold- ; many words were added from German, French, and
vine, Memoires d'un pritre russe ou la Russie religeuse (Paris,
1849); Lenz, De Duchoborzis (Dorpat, 1829); Ignace, Arch-
English. The question of the primitive language of
bishop OF Voronezh, Istorija o reaskolakh v cerkvi rossiiskoi (His- Russia is connected with the ethnological question,
tory of the sects of the Russian Church) (St. Petersburg, 1849); and in the nineteenth century gave rise to lengthy
Le raskol: essai historique et critique sur les sectes religieuses en
Russie (St. Petersburg, 1859) Orlof, Quelques reflexions sur les
and spirited polemics which, however, led to no defi-
A
;

secies religieuses en Russie (Paris, 1858, 1882) Pfizmaier, Die ;

nite results. leading work for the study of this
Gottesmenschen und Skopzen in Russland (Vienna, 1883); Idem, controvery is Buslaeff's "Historical Grammar of the
Die Gefuhlsdichiungen der Chlysten (Vienna, 1885) VON Gerbel,
Embach, Russische Sektirer (Heiibr nn, 1883) Tsakni, La Russie ;
;
Russian Language" (1858). Political and nation-
sectaire (Paris, 1887) Dalton, Der Stundismus in Russland
;
alist questions also enter into the philological re-
(Giitersloh, 1896) Gehring, Grundziige zur Geschichte der rus-
; searches concerning the primitive language of Russia.
sischen Sekten (Leipzig, 1898) Idem, Die Sekten der russischen
;

Kirche (Leipzig, 1898) Borozdin, Protopop Avvakum (St. Peters-

;
The Ruthenians, or Little Russians, claim that their
burg, 1898) Grass, Die geheime heilige Schrift der Skopzen (Leip-
;
language was the original Russian, and therefore
zig, 1904); Idem, Die russischen Sekten (Leipzig, 1905); S^v^rac, that primitive Russian literature should rather be
La secte russe des hommes de Dieu (Paris, 1906); Anderson, Sta- On the other hand Sobolevski
roobrjadtchestvo i sektantsvo (The Old Believers and the Russian
called Ruthenian.
Sectarians) (St. Petersburg, 1908). The best historical works on and the nationalists of Great Russia declare that the
the Russian Raskol are those of Smirnoff (St. Petersburg, 1882) present Ruthenian is not the primitive language of
IVANOvsKij (Kazan, 1905); and Plotnikoff (St. Petersburg,
1905).
Kieff. This philological controversy between the
BtJsCHiNG, Geschichte der evangelisch-lutherischen Gemeinen im nationalists of Little Russia and those of Great Russia
russischen Reich (2 vols., Altona, 1766) Grots, Beytrag zur Ge~ ; has not yet terminated.
schichte der evang.-lulherischen Kirchen in Russland (1772) Jung-
blut. Die Griindung der evangelisch-luierischen Kirchen in Russ-
;
Ancient Popular Literature.— From its ear-
II.
land (St. Petersburg, 1855) Feommann, Die evangelische Kirche
;
liesthistory Russia has possessed a literature that
im Russland (Berlin, 1868) Hunnius, Die evangelisch-lutherische
; was handed down by tradition from generation to
Kirche Russlands (Leipzig, 1877); Dalton, Beytrdge zur Ge-
generation. It was not before the seventeenth cen-
schichte der evangelischen Kirche in Russland (Gotha, 1887, 1889,
1905): Cvietaeff, Protestanty i protestantsvo v Rossii (Moscow, tury that this literature took a written form. The
1890) Dalton, Zur Geschichte der evangelischen Kirche in Russ-
; collection of Russian proverbs was begun: in the
land (Leipzig, 1903) Eggers, Die evangelisch-lutherischen Ge-
;
eighteenth century Daniloff published the first col-
meinden in Russland (St. Petersburg, 1909) Gernet, Geschichte ;

der allerhOchst bestdtigten Unterstutzungskasse fur evangelisch- lection of Russian byline: at the end of the same cen-
lutherische Gemeinden in Russland (St. Petersburg, 1909). tury and at the beginning of the nineteenth, Tchulkoff,
Popoff, and Macaroff published the first collections
Russian Language and Literature. The sub- — of popular songs. Upon this literature, which con-
ject willbe treated under the following heads, viz. veys so much information on the religious, civil, and
I. Russian Language; II. Ancient Popular Lit- social life of primitive Russia, great light was thrown
erature; III. First Monuments of Russian by the studies of Kalaidovitch, Snegireff, Sakha-
Literature; IV. Literature from the Eleventh roff, Kirieevski, Bielinski, Athanasieff, Kostomoroff,
to the Thirteenth Centuries; V. Literature Maikoff, Buslaeff, Bezsonoff, and Vselovski. The
from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Cen- popular Russian songs are divided into several classes.
turies; VI. Literature of Little Russia and There are the mystic or ritual songs {obriadnyia
Great Russia in the Seventeenth Century; piesni), which were sung in the sacred games, and on
 RUSSIA 266 RUSSIA

other solemn occasions; they contain many memories ical compositions. Others are derived from Western
of the ancient pagan feasts, celebrating the glories novels, especially the Italian. The proverbs also be-
of Dazh-Bog (the sun-god), of Koliada (traced by long to popular literature. They are called poslovicy,
Russian writers to the Latin Caletulce), and of Ovsen. and are very abundant, the first complete collection
Others, illustrating the promiscuity of pagan tradi- of them having been made by D. Kniazhevitch in
tion, celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ {sviatolchnyja 1822. They are the spontaneous product of the wis-
piesni); others relate to the spring feasts {vesnianki), dom, caustic spirit, and rudimentary culture of the
or accompany the dance (khorovodnyja) . To this Russian people, and reflect the various historical
same class belong the nuptial songs {svadebnyja) ages of Russia. Some of them date from pagan times
the kiipal'sldja (literally, songs of the baths), the others emanate from the people's knowledge of Holy
rusal'nyja, in honour of the Rusalke, a term that Scripture, and others originate in the events that
probably served to designate the souls of the de- produced the greatest impressions on the popular
parted. imagination. To popular literature belong also the
The byline are the most beautiful treasures of this enigmas or riddles (zagadki), collected by Khudiakoft
popular literature, of which they form the heroic (Moscow, 1861) and by Sadovinikoff (St. Peters-
cj'cle. The term byli7}e is derived from the verb burg, 1876); the incantations (zagovory), the conjura-
byl (it was), and etymologically signifies the recital tions (zaklialia), and the lullabies {plalchi), which are
of that which happened in times gone by. They tell most useful for the study of Russian folk-lore and
of the deeds of the legendary heroes of primitive primitive Russian life.
Russia. History, legend, and mythology together fur- III. First Monuments of Russian Literature.
nish the matter of these epic songs. In them the —The written literature of Russia is coincident
first
Russian heroes are called hogatyr, a name that some with the conversion of Russia to Christianity. Bul-
believe to be derived from Bog (God), as if they were garia was the first Slav educator of Russia, and the
demigods; others believe that the term is derived first translations of the Scriptures and the liturgies
from Tatar or Mongolian; and yet others from the were Bulgarian. The most ancient monument of
Sanskrit {bhaga, force, happiness). The heroes who Russian literature, and at the same time of the ec-
are immortalized in the byline belong to the epoch clesiastical Palseoslavic language common to the
of Vladimir the Cireat, or to more ancient times, and primitive Slav Christians, is the Gospel called "Ostro-
partake of a mythological character. These heroes, mirovo", written at Novgorod in 1056-57 by the
who act together with those of the time of Vladi- Deacon Gregor, by order of Ostromir, first magistrate
mir the Great, but nevertheless are endowed with a (posadnik) of the city. This valuable document was
mythological character, are .Sviatogor, Mikula Scli- published by \'ostokoff in 1843. Ancient Russian
aninovitch, A'olga S\'iatoslavitch, Sukhman Odikh- literature is of an eminently
religious character. The
mantevitch, and Don Ivanovitch; the historians of greater portion of its monuments
are sermons, homi-
Russian literature designate them by the epithet of lies, letters, lives of saints, pilgrimages; even the
slarshie ("ancient heroes"). The "young heroes" profane works, as chronicles and voyages, have a
(mladshie) belong historically to the epoch of Vladimir; religious tone. On the other hand, owing to the fact
their names are Elia Muromec, Dobrynja Nikititch, that the Russians received their Christianity from
Alesha Popovitch, Solovei Budimirovitch, etc. Kieff Byzantium, their literature was openly Byzantine
is, so to speak, their geographical centre, and Vlad- in character, the early Russians either translating the
imir their star. In the Russian chronicles they are Byzantine works, or being inspired by the spirit of those
mentioned between the eleventh and thirteenth cen- works, and writing as if they were Byzantines. Primi-
turies. Elia of Murom lived at the end of the twelfth tive Russian literature, however, was subject also to
century, and his remains rest in the grotto of the sanc- other influences. The Slav influence was due to the
tuary of Petcherskaia at Kieff. They combat the mon- Bulgarians and Servians, who, until the fifteenth cen-
sters that assail Russia from within or from without, tury, gave many cultured men to Russia, e. g., the
that is, paganism and thieves among the first, and Metropolitan Cyprian and Gregor Camblak. Greek
the Petchenegi, the Polovcy, and the Chozari among influence lasted a longer time, and flourished in the
the second. The historical, philological, and poetical seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
importance of these ancient monuments of literature Russian literature in the beginning consisted of
is very great. Other byline of later date, more com- translations from the Greek and of original works.
monly called historical songs, refer to the Tatar in- Its development was very slow, because the prices of
vasions, to the period of Ivan the Terrible, and also codices were very high. The copying of books was
to that of Peter the Great. The songs and legends considered not only a useful contribution to culture,
of Little Russia are called dumy (elegies, ballads), but a supernatural work. The Princess of Polotsk,
and celebrate the struggles of the Cossacks and St. Euphrosyne (twelfth century), copied books, a
Little Russians against the Turks or Tatars and the work to which monks, and even bishops, devoted
Poles, and the union of Little Russia with Great themselves. Russian monks were wont to go to
Russia. The songs that refer to domestic life are Constantinople, or to Mount Athos, and there to be-
called bytovyja piesni. They sing the popular feasts come amanuenses and enrich the first Russian libra-
and games, and the sad as well as happy events of ries by their work. The first books that were trans-
domestic life, while they preserve many traces of lated were those of the Holy Scriptures that were most
paganism. The best collections of them are those used by the people (Psalms, the Gospels, Proverbs,
of Tchulkoff (St. Petersburg, 1770-74); Novikoff Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Wisdom of Jesus
(Moscow, 1780-81); and Sakharoff (St. Petersburg, the son of Sirach). There were also collections of
I8;is-:i!9). extracts from the Holy Scriptures, called Paremii.
To popular hterature belong the fanciful novels The translation of all the books of the Holy Scrip-
called skazki, which resemble somewhat the stories tures in a single codex was made in 1499, by order of
of the Fates. Their protagonists are strange beings Gennadius Gonzoff, Archbishop of Novgorod (1484-
created by the ardent popular fancy, Baba-Iaga, 1504).
serpents with si.x or twelve heads, stags, horses, etc. Simultaneously with the Holy Scriptures, the writ-
The forces of nature are personified. At times the ings of the Fathers of the Church were greatly in
mythological element predominates in them entirely; vogue, especially those of St. John Chrysostom.
and again it is blended with Christianity. The old- Highly esteemed also were the doctrinal explana-
est novels are characterized by their simplicity and by tions of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, the canons of St.
the repose of their recital. Some of them, like the Basil, the homilies of St. Theodore the Studite, the
one entitled "The Judgment of Shemjaka", are satir- discourses of St. Athanasius against Arianism, the
 RUSSIA 267 RUSSIA
discourses of St. Gregory of Nazianzus, the "Klimax" in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. One of
of St. John Climacus, and the works of St. Isaac the most famous novels, taken from the literature of
the Syrian, St. Ephraem the Syrian, and St. John Constantinople, is the history of Barlaam and Josa-
Damascene. Until the seventeenth century, the phat. At the end of the sixteenth century, the in-
theological writings of St. John Damascene were the fluence of Polish literature helped to spread in Russia
sources of Russian Orthodox theology. The great two works that were much in vogue in the West, the
popularity of the works of the Fathers gave rise to the " Gesta Romanorum ", and the "Speculum Magnum.
formation of collections of extracts from their dis- The apocryphal books of the Old Testament (story
courses, and to annotated copies, with explanations, of Adam and Eve; story of the Tree of the Cross;
for the stud}' of their writings, called sborniki, of story of the Just Enoch, etc.), and those of the New
which there are several: "Zlatoust", a collection of Testament (story of Aphroditian on the miracles in
moral sermons and homilies (112), mostly from St. Persia; dispute of Christ with the Devil; conversa-
John Chrysostom; "Margarit", another collection tion of Adam and Lazarus in Limbo, etc.) were also
from St. John Chrysostom, included in the monologue widely disseminated in the literature of that time.
of the Metropolitan Macarius, and published for There were also translated into Palajorussian the
the first time at Ostrog in 1596; "Izmaragd", a col- "Elucidarium sive dialogus de summa totius reli-
lection of sermons and homilies from St. Basil, St. gionis christiante", attributed to Honorius of Autun
John Chrysostom, St. Ephraem, St. Gregory the by Migne; books of magic and books of astrology
Great, and St. Cyril of Alexandria; "Andriatis", a ("Gromnik", "Molnianik", "Koliadnik", etc). Un-
collection of the homilies recited by St. John Chrysos- der the influence of this literature, religious songs were
tom at Antioch; "Zlataia ciep" (golden chain), a created that became very popular with the people
{Dukhovnye stikhi) . These little poems or songs treat
of the most varied subjects, and it is very difficult
to divide them into different classes. They are of a
moral and religious character, referring to the Creation,
to St. Michael the Archangel, to the sufferings of the
damned, to the birth or passion of Jesus Christ, to the
Russian saints, etc. And beside these poetical pro-
WfldrtCtMrlrti./vMJf . f*rfcfHAnHW'rtni>A«r*:H. JlKOtfytrKTtflKArt'Ji ductions sprang up the hagiological legends, of which
the best known refer to St. Nicholas of Myra, St.
Parasceve, and St. Cassian. The deep researches
(HCBh(*^KTTri>« • TIAKH riC/^HC* of Arkhangelski and Sobolevski throw a great deal
of light on the Russian versions of the Fathers and
of the Byzantine writings.
IV. Literature prom the Eleventh to the
—
Thirteenth Centuries. Russian literature, prop-
erly so called, from the period of the advent of Chris-
tianity in Russia to the time of Peter the Great, com-
prises discourses, instructions, and letters that are
intended to infuse Christian sentiments, and to draw
the people from pagan practices; polemical works,
directed at first against the Latins, and later against
the first Russian heresies; lives of saints, chronicles,
and historical works, pilgrimages and voyages, and
The Latjrentinb Chronicle juridical monuments. There is almost a total ab-
From the Radziwil Manuscript (page 93) sence of poetry. The first centres of culture were
collection of discourses on the moral virtues, taken Kieff and Novgorod; in the sixteenth century, Mos-
from the Fathers of the Church and from Russian cow. Among the writers who left a name for sacred
writers; the "Ptchely" (bees), a collection of the eloquence in the period from the eleventh to the
literary flowers of St. Maximus the Confessor. The thirteenth centuries, mention is made of Luke
famous "Sbornik" of Sviatoslaff Yaroslaffitoh, Prince Zhidiata, Archbishop of Novgorod (1035-59), whose
of Tchernigoff, which was translated in Bulgaria from discourse is a brief recapitulation of the truths of the
the Greek, for the Tsar Simeon, in 1073, also has texts Faith; St. Hilarion, Metropolitan of Kieff in 1051,
from the Fathers and from profane writers. whose discourses contain very valuable data for the
The Greek synaxaria, the JiarepTiKi. of Sinai and early history of Russian Christianity; the Blessed
Jerusalem, translated in the twelfth and thirteenth Theodosius Petcherski, who wrote discourses for
centuries, and the "Patericon" of the Petcherskaia the people and the monks; Nicephorus, Metropoli-
Shrine of Kieff, which is very valuable for the study tan of Kieff (1104^20), whose discourses and letters,
of primitive Russian hagiology, are of a sacro-his- written in Greek, were translated later into Russian;
torical character. The Greek synaxaria took in Cyril of Turoff (1171-82), a brilliant writer who, on
Russian the name of U.pb\oyos. Collections of dis- account of his natural and vigorous eloquence,
courses in honour of the feasts of Our Lord, of the resembling that of St. John Chrysostom, is called
Blessed Virgin, and of the saints received the name the Chrysostom of Russia. His discourses, homilies,
of " Torzhestvenniki " An historical compendium of
. writings on monastic life, and prayers are among the
the Old Testament, called " Palei", from iraKaii SiaB'/iKti, inost important monuments of the ancient ecclesias-
dates from the earliest times of Russian Christianity. tical literature of Russia.
The oldest codices of the "Palei" are of the four- The polemics against the Latins found almost
teenth century, but their origin is much older. To their only exponents among the Greeks who in the
sacred and profane literature belong the so-called beginning governed the Russian dioceses. Leontius,
Xpov6ypacf>oi, collections and transformations of writ- metropolitan (992-1008), wrote against the Arians;
ings of Byzantine chroniclers, especially of Malala, George, metropolitan (1065-73), wrote a "Dispute
Amartolos, Manasses, and Zonaras, as also the Slav with a Latin", in which the various pretended in-
version of the "Christian Topography" of Cosmas novations of the Roman Church are attacked;
Indicopleustes. Ivan II (1186-89) is the author of a letter to Clement
Partly to sacro-profane and partly to profane III, in which the Latins are reproved only on account
literature belong many novels and stories translated of the insertion of the Filioque in the Creed. The
from Byzantine, Servian, and Bulgarian writings, letter on the Faith of the Vareghi (or Variazhskoi
 RUSSIA 268 RUSSIA
vierie), which by some is attributed, although with- of that century are cited a letter of Simon, Bishop of
out strong arguments, to St. Theodosius Petcherski, Vladimir (121.i-26), to Polycarp, a monk of the
is bclicveil by some to be of Russian origin. Among Petcherskaia hermitage; the life of Abraham of
the first Russian hagiologists mention should be made Smolensk, a most important historical document'
of Jaeob, a monk of the Petcherskaia hermitage, who the sermons of Serapion, Bishop of Vladimir (1274-
wrote an account of the martyrdom of Sts. Boris and 75), and a synodal and canonical decision of Cyril
Glieba, and the panegyric of St. Vladimir; of Nestor, II, Metropolitan of Kieff (1243-80), which is inserted
the most famous of the ancient Russian writers, a in the Kormtchaia kniga.
monk of the hermitage of KiefT, who died in 1114. V. Literature from the Fourteenth to the
He is the author of the lives of Boris and Glieba, of —
Sixteenth Centuries. In the period from the
the Blessed Theodosius, and of a chronicle ("Lie- fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries, literary culture
topis") The original of the chronicle of Nestor has paralyzed by Tatar oppression in the region of Kieff,'
not come down to us; the most ancient copy of it is continued to flourish at Novgorod and Pskof, and
that of the monk Lawrence, made in 1.377 for Deme- from there was carried to other centres, viz., Vladi-
trius Constantinovitch, Prince of Suzdal. Nestor was mir, Rostoff, Murom, Yaroslaff, Tver, Ryazan, and
not the first Russian chronicler. Other chroniclers, finally Moscow, which received the name of the
whose names and works have not been handed down Third Rome. In the fourteenth century sacred ser-
to our times, wrote before him at Novgorod. The mons were written by various authors, among whom
national and literary importance of the chronicle of were Peter, Metropolitan of Moscow; Alexei, another
Nestor is very great. The Russians rightly consider metropolitan of Moscow (1293-1377) who, in a codex
it as an epic historj', warm with the love of country. of the Gospel which he transcribed, corrected the
It finishes with the year 1110, but was continued by ancient Slav version in many points, by the Greek
other writers, under various names, as "Chronicle original; Matvei, Bishop of Sarai; the metropolitan
of Kieff", "Chronicle of Volhynia", "Chronicle of Cyprian (1376-1406), a Servian by birth, who also
Suzdal", etc. They are of an eminently religious left various letters and translated the Psalter, the
character, and abound in texts from the Scriptures Missal (Sluzhebnik) the Nomocanon, etc.; the Blessed
,

and in ascetic considerations. Cyril, founder of the monastery of Bielozero, the

Another important work in which the Russian na- author of several letters to the sons of Prince Deme-
tional sentiment predominates is the journey of the trius Donskoi; Basil, Archbishop of Novgorod (1331-
higumeno Daniel (thirteenth century) to the Holy 1352), who wrote a letter to Feodor, Bishop of Tver,
Places: before the Holy Sepulchre he prays "for to convince him of the existence of a terrestrial para-
all the land of Russia". Anthony, Archbishop of dise. Brief descriptions of Constantinople and its
Novgorod, visited Constantinople four years after the churches in the fourteenth century were left by
taking of that city by the Latins (1204), and left a Stephen, a monk of Novgorod, by Ignatius, a deacon
short but very important description of its churches of Smolensk, and by Alexandr D'jak ("judge",
and monasteries. "magistrate"). Among the novels special mention
To profane literature belong the "Testament" should be made of the "Zadonshina", written by
of Vladimir Monomachus, written in 1099, in which Sofronio or Sofonio of Ryazan, an epic story that
its author gives a recital of his enterprises; and the relates the military acts of Prince Demetrius Donskoi,
celebrated account of the battle of Igor ("Slovo" or who vanquished the Tatars at Kulikovo (1380).
"Polku Igorevie"), which was found in 1795 in the In the fifteenth century the beginning of heresies
library of Count Musin Pu.shkin. It is the only in Russian Christianity, which originated in the deca-
poetical work of the Russia of the princes, and re- dence of monastic asceticism as well as in the gross
lates the military expedition of Igor Sviatoslavitch, ignorance of the clergy and laity, opened up new
Prince of Novgorod-Sieverski, against the Polovcy fields to Russian religious polemics. Photius, Metro-
(11S5). It is characterized by the grandeur of its politan of Moscow (1410^31) and Gregor Camblak,
poetical sentiment, the beauty of its descriptions, Metropolitan of Kieff (1416) composed letters and
and love of country. In the twelfth century was moral sermons; Gennadius, Archbishop of Novgo-
written the discourse of Daniel Zatotchnik {Caplivus), rod (1485-1504), wrote against the sect of the Ju-
who, imprisoned in the Government of Olonetz, daizers, which originated in that city about 1471;
writes to a prince to ask for his liberty, making a the higumeno Josef Sanin of Polotsk assailed the same
great display of his learning. Among "the juridical sect in his tedious work " Prosvietitel " ("the illu-
monuments of that age we may cite the "Russkaia minator"). Nil Sorski (1433-1.508), founder of a
Pravda" (Russian code) of Prince Yaroslaff I, and hermitage on the banks of the Sora River, is the au-
the Greek Nomocanon, translated in the earliest thor of writings that were directed towards the ref-
times of Russian Christianity, and qualified with the ormation of the ideals and the life of Russian
epithet of Kormtchain kniga, corresponding to the monastioism. Among the travellers of this period
Greek T-nSdXMv. To the nomocanon were added the Zosimus, hiero-deacon of the hermitage of St. Sergius,
"Ecclesiastical Regulations" ("Cerkovnye ustavy") and a merchant, Basil, left accounts of their pil-
of Madimir and Yaroslaff, which however are not grimages to the Holy Land. Simeon, hiero-monk of
of those princes, at least in the form in which they Suzdal, accompanied Isidore, Metropolitan of Mos-
have been transmitted to us in codices of the thir- cow, to the Council of Florence, and left an interest-
teenth century. The monasteries were centres of the ing recital of his voyage to Italy, and a short but im-
literary culture of Russia in the eleventh and twelfth
portant account of the council, which is one of the
centuries; and the Greco-Russian clergy laboured
monuments of the Russian polemics against the Latins.
for the diffusion of it. From the Greek clergy came Anthony Nikitin, a merchant of Tver, went to India
the polemical works, and the hatred of the Latins through Persia in 1466, returned to his country in
that became fixed in the hearts of the Russian people. 1472, and in the account of his travels gave important
The first Greek polemics who lived in Russia
spread information on the religious beliefs of the people of
the most absurd calumnies against the Latins, and India. In historical literature, besides the valuable
anathematized as heretical the most simple liturgi- sketch of the Council of Florence, there should be
cal customs: the Metropolitan George enumerated
mentioned the account of the foundation and the
twenty-seven points of divergence between the Greeks
taking of Constantinople, which was very popular
and Latins. The thirteenth century is very poor among the Russians.
from the standpoint of literature. The Tatar in-
The sixteenth century, as Porfir^ff rightly states,
vasions stopped the progress of culture, and prevented
was one of criticism and restoration. Its literature,
mtellectual work. Among the hterary monuments always eminently religious, proposed to revive the
 RUSSIA 269 RUSSIA

ancient customs, and the ancient traditions, and to Russia, which became the instructor of Great Russia.
restore religion and the family. The most famous Under Catholic and Pohsh influence Little Russia
and most learned champion of these reforms was drew near to the West, assimilated Western scierice,
Maximus the Greek, born at Arta, in Albania, and and modelled its schools upon those of the Latins.
educated in Italy. He entered monastic life on The "Union" of Brest in 1596 gave an efficient im-
Mount Athos, and in 1518 repaired to Russia, where pulse to Orthodox cultiire. Confraternities were es-
he took an active part in the religious life of the coun- tablished to open schools and printing-offices for
try, and in the correction of the liturgical books; the publication and dissemination of polemical works;
he suffered a painful imprisonment in various monas- among them those of Lemberg, Vilna, and Kieff were
teries, from 1525 to 1553, and died at the hermitage famous. Scholastic theology and philosophy en-
of St. Sergius in 1556. A most learned theologian, tered into and dominated the Russian academies
he wrote polemical works against the Gentiles, the and seminaries. Latin became the official language
Jews, the Judaizers, the Mohammedans, and the in the teaching of theology. Peter Mogilas, Metro-
Latins, especially in opposition to the supremacy of politan of Kieff, transformed into a superior school
the pope and to the Filioque; he combatted astrology, of theology the school established by the Confra-
and wrote short works and discourses on moral sub- ternity of the Church of the Apparition of the Lord.
jects. Among the Russian prelates of the sixteenth The works of St. Thomas Aquinas exercised a great
century, Daniel, elected Metropolitan of Moscow in influence on Orthodox theology, and in the academy
1522, acquired fame. He was the author of sixteen of Kieff the Immaculate Conception was upheld.
discourses that prove him to have read assiduously, The literature of the religious polemics against the
and to have had a profound knowledge of patristic Latins, to which the Union of Brest gave rise, is
literature. The most important monument of the very rich. In 1597 was pubhshed the "Ekthesis",
Uteratureof the sixteenth century is the"Domostroi", or Orthodox history of the Union of Brest; Kris-
attributed to Sylvester, a priest who was the con- tofor Bronski, under the pseudonym of Filalete,
temporary of Ivan the Terrible; Sylvester was, how- wrote the "Apokrisis" against Peter Skarga, and
ever, the compiler rather than the author of the later the "Perestroga'' (admonishment). Meletius
work. It is a book of a moral character, in which are Smotricki, Archbishop of Polotsk (d. 1633), wrote
propounded the rules for living according to the pre- the "Threnos" and other works of religious polemic,
cepts of the Faith and Christian piety, the duties and finally embraced Catholicism; in 1622 Zacharias
of man as a member of the family, and the way to Kopystenski wrote the "Palinodia", the most im-
govern the home well and to care for domestic econ- portant work in this polemical literature. The
omy. The " Domostroi", therefore, is a compendium writings of Meletius Smotricki in defence of Catholi-
of the duties of a Christian man, and at the same time cism, which he had on other occasions so strenuously
a true picture of the social and domestic organiza- opposed, were confuted by Andrew Muzkilovski,
tion of Russia in the sixteenth century. Another by Job Borecki, Metropolitan of Kieff, and by
great work, which had remained unpublished until Gelasius Diplic. Joannikius Galiatovski, rector of
now, but which the Archseographical Commission of the academy of Kieff (d. 1688), wrote several works
St. Petersburg is now bringing to Ught, is the against the Catholics, one of them against the
"Tchet'y Minei" of the Metropolitan Macarius of Filioque, confuted the Hebrews in his work "The
Moscow (1542-64). From the beginnings of its lit- True Messias", and also wrote several works in ref-
erature, Russia possessed lives of saints, the num- utation of the Koran. Another polemic against the
ber of which increased from century to century. Latins was Lazarus Baranovitch, Archbishop of
The Metropolitan Macarius collected into a vast Tchernigoff (d. 1694); in a work that was directed
work the lives of all the saints of the Greco-Russian against the Jesuit Boyme, he opposed the supremacy
Church, adding panegyrics and discourses in their of the pope and the Procession of the Holy Ghost
honour, and also whole books of Scripture, with com- from the Son.
mentaries, writings of the Fathers, and synaxaria, The first Orthodox catechisms appeared in the
so that his menologies are almost a complete reper- seventeenth century, written by Laurence Zizanii and
toire of the ancient literature of Russia, rather than a by Peter Mogilas the latter, in the work AWos (attrib-
;

simple hagiological collection. To the same century uted to him), defends the Orthodox Church against
belong the hagiological legends, which are lives of the the charge of Protestantism; he is considered to be
saints, or episodes in them, embeUished by popular the author of the famous Orthodox Confession of the
fancy, examples of which are the legends of the Eastern Church, approved by the special Council
Tsarevitch Peter (thirteenth century), of St. Mer- of Jassy in 1643. Among the preachers whom the
curius, of Martha and Mary, of Prince Peter of sacred orators of the East sought to imitate, mention
Murom, and of his consort, Febronia. may again be made of Joannikius Galiatovski,
Prince Andrew Kurbski, a warm defender of the who wrote a treatise on the art of oratory, entitled
Orthodox Church, translated the dialectics and the "Kliutch razumienia"; Anthony Radivilovski, higu-
Ilr]yi) yviiffem of St. John Damascene, and wrote a meno of the hermitage of Kieff; and Lazarus Bara-
brief history of the Council of Florence and a history novitch. In 1591 there was published at Lemberg
of Ivan the Terrible, with whom he was in corre- the first Slavo-Greek grammar; Lawrence Zizanii
spondence; these letters are preserved to our day. An wrote a Slav grammar in 1596, and the grammar of
important work of religious polemics was written by Meletius Smotricki was published in 1619. Zizanii
the monk Zinovii of Otna, who refuted the heretical added a small Slav dictionary to his grammar, but
and Judaistic doctrines of Kosoi. The title of the work the first Slavo-Russian lexicon was published by
is "Istiny pokazanie" (demonstration of the truth), Berynda, hiero-monk of Kieff, in 1627. Western
and it consists of fifty-six chapters. Of the sixteenth influence is revealed also in the poetry of the academy
century there are also two small works, written in of Kieff. Besides the sacred cantata, the " Mysteries"
refutation of Protestantism, which at that time was were introduced to the schools and colleges; these
beginning to spread in Russia. Among the Russian "Mysteries" were sacred plays, modelled upon those
pilgrims who visited the Holy Places and who wrote of the Jesuit colleges. Among the historical works
an account of their travels the most distinguished are of Little Russia, mention should be made of the
Trifon Korobeinikoff and George Grekoff, who went "Synopsis" of the history of Russia by Innocent
to Jerusalem in 1583. Gizel, Archimandrite of Kieff, the "Enegesis" or
VI. LiTEBATDRE OP LiTTLB RtJSSIA AND GeEAT history of the school of Kieff, and the"Paterikon"
—
RtJssiA IN THE Seventeenth Century. The seven- of the Petcherskaia hermitage by Sylvester Kossoff,
teenth century witnessed the Renaissance of Little Metropolitan of Kieff (d. 1657).
 RUSSIA 270 RUSSIA

From Kieff Western culture was carried to Moscow, VII. Russian Literature op the Time op
to which city masters and learned men of Little —
Peter the Great. Under Peter the Oeat there
Russia were called to organize schools, compose began a new period in Russian literature. The
works, and print books; but they did not receive foundation of St. Petersburg put Russia in more
a friendly welcome. Their orthodoxy was suspected; direct contact with the West. Peter the Great, by
the more so since several of the most illustrious theo- violence and absolutism, dragged Russia out of her
logians of Kieff admitted with the Latins the dog- isolation, and directed her upon a new way. A new
matic truth of the Immaculate Conception, and the and more simple alphabet took the place of the old
efficacy of the words of consecration alone to effect Slav alphabet, the new characters being adapted from
Transubstantiation. The suspicion against the purity the Latin. The first book that was printed with the
of their theological teachings became so strong that new characters is a treatise on geometry (1708).
the Russians turned to the Greeks for masters. In In arithmetical books, Arabic figures were substituted
1685 the Greek school was established at Moscow, for the Slav letters that represented numerals (1703).
and in time took the name of Greco-Slav-Latin Schools of navigation, of military science, and of
Academy. Its first masters were the Greek hiero- medicine were established. Peter the Great de-
monks Joannikius and Sophronius Likhudes, who had termined to establish an academy of sciences at St.
studied in Italy, and who taught Greek literature Petersburg, and Catherine I carried out his project in
at Moscow from 1685 to 1694. They wrote many 1726. Many foreign books were translated into
polemical works against the Latins, against Prot- Russian, and the most intelligent students were sent
estants, and against the theologians of Little Russia to foreign countries to complete their studies. Rus-
who leaned towards the Latins, especially against sian literature lost its ecclesiastical character and
Sylvester Medviedeff . In ecclesiastical literature the assumed a lay form; and in ecclesiastical literature
most distinguished authors were Epiphanius Slavi- itself there was effected a transformation towards
necki, the first of Russian bibliographers; Arsenius Su- the modern, due to the reforms of Peter the Great.
khanoff, author of "A Voyage to the Holy Land" The first period of this new literature begins with
("Proskynitarion"); Simon Polocki (of Polotsk), Peter the Great, and closes with Lomonosoff and
author of one of the first systematic treatises on Or- Sumarokoff. In the realm of sacred literature there
thodox theology ("Vienec viery"), and also of ser- became famous Stephen Javorski (1658-1723), pa-
mons that are highly prized, of sacred poems, and of triarchal vicar and Metropolitan of Ryazan, and
sacred plays; St. Demetrius of Ilostoff (1651-1709), Theophanus Procopovitch, Archbishop of Novgorod
one of the most illustrious bishops of the Russian (1681-1736). The former, in his "Kamen viery"
Church, a theologian, historian, poet, polemic, and (Rock of Faith), wrote a most learned refutation of
hagiologist. He was the author of two Orthodox Protestantism, taking much from Bellarmine; the
catechisms, of a very strong work against the Ras- second, who was the author of the "Ecclesiastical
kolniki ("Rozysk"), of a diary of his life, the "Tcheti Regulations" of Peter the Great, wrote a voluminous
minci" (menologies), a work upon which he spent course of Orthodox theology in Latin, and acquired
twenty years; many sacred discourses that are ap- fame as a man of letters and orator. In profane
preciated for the simplicity of their style and for literature the influence of the French entirely pre-
their depth of religious sentiment, and, finally, of dominated. There began the period of the new
several sacred plays, one of the most interesting of Russian poetry, the rules of which were propounded
which is the "Birthday". by Tredianovski (1703-69), who translated into Rus-
Epiphanius Slavinecki and an unnamed priest of sian the "Ars Poetica" of Horace, and the work
Orel were also distinguished as sacred orators. The bearing the same title by BoUeau. Prince Antiochus
former rendered a great service to Patristic literature Dmitrievitch (1708-44), a Rumanian in the service
by translating into Russian a great many of the of Russia, inaugurated the era of classicism in Rus-
writings of the Fathers (St. Justin, St. Gregory of sian poetry with his satires, which are often servile
Nazianzus, St. Basil, and St. John Damascene). imitations of Horace, Juvenal, and Boileau. Michael
One of his scholars, Eutimius, wrote a polemical work, Vasilevitch Lomonosoff (1711-65) deserves to be
called "Osten", against the theories of Sylvester called the Peter the Great of Russian literature on
Medviedeff, who sided with the Latins in the ques- account of his versatility, of the multiplicity of his
tion of the Epiklesis. Against the Raskolniki, be- works, and of his great literary influence: he wrote
sides St. Demetrius of Rostoff, there wrote Simeon a treatise on Russian poetry (1739), on rhetoric
of Polotsk in 1666 ("Zhely pravlenija"); in 1682 the (1748), on grammar (1755); he composed an epic
Patriarch of Moscow, Jacob ("Uviet dukhovnii"); poem on Peter the Great, two tragedies (Tamira and
likewise, the Metropolitan of Siberia, Ignatius, and Sahm, and Damofonte); he translated the Psalms
George Krizhanitch. The latter, who was a student into verse and wrote lyric poems, among which the
of the Greek College of St. Athanasius at Rome ode to the Empress Elizabeth has remained far
(1640), became famous on account of his theories mous. Alexander Petrovitch Sumarokoff composed
of the cause of the schism between East and West, many tragedies, some of them with Russian sub-
which he attributed to politics and the antagonism jects (Yaropolk and Dimisa, Vysheslaff, Demetrius,
between Greeks and Latins, due to Panslavist ideas Mstislav) ; he founded the national Russian drama,
and political doctrines. The learned Sergius Bielo- wrote the comedies "Opekun" (The Tutor), and
kuroff devoted four volumes to the life and works of "Likhoimec" (The Concussionist), composed satires,
Krizhanitch. In the seventeenth century there be- and in 1759 established the first Russian literary
gan to be published the first Greco-Latin lexicons, periodical, the "Trudoliubivaia Ptchela" (The
and also the first scientific books, arithmetics and Working Bee).
geographies. Historical hterature is represented by Among the prose writers, Ivan Pososhkoff (1670-
the chronicle of the Patriarch Nicomachus, which 1725), in his "Zavieshanie otetcheskoe" (testament
is brought down to 1631; by the chronicle called of the Fatherland), shows the necessity of well-
"\'oskresonski", after the monastery where it was ordered reforms in Russia, and in his book on poverty
written, of which the relation finishes with the year and wealth ("Kniga o skudosti i bogatstvie") he
1560; and by several special chronicles, as the account develops in an original way his theories on politi-
of the siege of the Shrine of St. Sergius by the Poles cal and social economy. Basil Nikititch Tatishsheff
in 1610, by Abraham Polycin, and by others of the (1685-1750) gathered the chronicles, the syruixaria,
diak Feodor Griboiedoff, of the deacon Timothy and the historical documents, and subjecting them to
Kamevevitch Rvovski, of Andrew Lyzloff, a priest critical analysis, wrote the "History of Russia .

of Smolensk, and of Sergius Kubasoff. The academician Schlotzer spent forty years elucidatr
 RUSSIA 271 RUSSIA

ing the origin and the historical problems of the foreign imitation, perfected the language, making it
primitive national chronicles of Russia. In 1728 a most adequate means for the expression of the
the Academy of Sciences began the publication of the highest conceptions of the mind and the most delicate
"S. Petersburgskija Viedomosti", under the direction affections of the heart, and through a number of men of
of the academician Miiller, who in 1755 also founded genius, won a place of honour in the history of uni-
the first scientific-literary periodical, called the versal literature. The merit of t"his transformation,
of this new direction of Russian thought, is in great
' '

Ezhemiesatohny i a sotchinenia
' '

VIII. Literature op Russia in the Eighteenth measure due to Nikolai Mikhailovitch Karamzin
—
Century. During the reign of Catherine II French (1766-1826), who acquired a great fame in his coun-
influence upon Russian literature became greater try through his letters on travels that he made in
instead of decreasing. The writings of the French Europe, his novels, and the part that he took in the
Encyclopedists and materialist philosophy became establishment of the periodicals " Moskovski Zhurnal
popular; Voltaire and Rousseau were much esteemed, and the "Viestnik Europy" (Courier of Europe).
and Catherine II entirely imbued with a
became But his greatest claim to glory is the "Istorija go-
Voltairean spirit. She did not limit herself to favour- sudarstva rossiiskago" (History of the Russian Em-
ing scientific institutions, and to creating new ones, pire), a masterpiece of style, exposition, and elo-
but aspired to literary laurels. She wrote spelling- quence, which contributed more than anything else
books, stories for children, letters on education, to the formation of Russian prose. Historical crit-
comedies, newspaper articles, and several volumes icism may find more to say of this work, but the
of memoirs in French, in which, with a cynical sim- literary merit of it will never be eclipsed. T?he work
plicity of style, she relates some of the ugliest episodes formed a literarjr school, to which belong Ivan
of her unchaste life. During her reign many liter- Ivanovitch Dmitrieff (1760-1837), an exponent of
ary publications were established. The empress her- elegance in poetry, author of poetical stories, satires,
self did not disdain to contribute to the "Vsiakaja and fables; and Izmailoff, who became famous
vsiatchina" (General Miscellany) Dionysius Ivano-
. through his "Journey in Southern Russia" etc. In the
vitch Fonvizin (1744-92) wrote comedies which, like realm of dramatic poetry, there became famous
the "Brigadier", and the "Nedorosl" (Pupil), be- Ozeroff, by his tragedy "CEdipus in Athens" (1804);
came popular in Russia. Gabriel Romanovitch Der- "Fingal" (1805); "Dmitri Donskoi" (1807), and
zhavin (1743-1816), of Tatar origin, assimilated the "Polissena" (1809); the most noted satirists were
classical and modern literatures, and as a lyric poet Gortchakoff and Nakhimoff. But the greatest po-
sought to rise to the height of Horace and Pindar. etical glory of this period was Vassili Andreievitch
His encomiastic odes are an apotheosis of the reign Zhukovski (1783-1852), the master of romanticism
of Catherine II. In his religious songs, with his in Russia, author of the Russian national hymn
"Ode to God" (17S4), which the Russians regard "Bozhe, carja Khrani", and an indefatigable trans-
as the most beautiful monument of their national lator of Homer, Schiller, Goethe, Biirger, Uhland,
poetry, he perhaps attains sublimity of inspiration. Rilkkert, Byron, and Scott. His elegies are full of
His moral and philosophical odes and his Anacreontic passion and sentiment; his ballads, imitations of the
verses reveal in him a great poetical genius. His German, became popular; they reveal in him a
tragedies "Pozharski", "Tiemnji" and "Euprassia" vivid poetical imagination.
do not join dramatic quality to their elegance of form. Ivan Andreievitch Kryloff (1768-1844) owes his
Mikhail Matveievitch Kheraskoff, of Wallachian celebrity rather to his comedies than to his fables,
origin, by his poems "Rossiada" and "Vladimir", which, it is true, are imitations of La Fontaine,
which have been forgotten, deserves the title of but are written with so much simplicity, elegance,
the Virgil or the Homer of Russia. Ippolit Feo- and richness of style, with such variety of rhythm
dorovitch Bogdanovitch (1743-1803), in his poem and expression, that they form a veritable literary
"Dushenka", imitated La Fontaine's "Amours de jewel, the value of which can be appreciated only by
Psyche et de Cupidon". Basil Ivanovitch MaikofE those who have a thorough knowledge of Russian.
(1728-78 ) distinguished himself as a writer of comic His comedies, "Modnaja lavka" (The Custom Shop)
poetry; Kniazhnin (1742-91) wrote tragedies and and "Urok dotchkam" (A Lesson to Girls), are of
comedies; "labeda" (The Calumny), a comedy by less literary merit. As a writer of comedy, Alexan-
Kapnist (1757-1828), was also among the plays that der Sergeievitch Griboiedoff (1790-1829) rose to the
became popular. pinnacle of the art in a play that is the masterpiece
The scientific movement was greatly promoted by of Russian theatrical composition, "Gore ot uma"
the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, by the (The Misfortune of Having Talent), a work which is
University of Moscow, and by the Russian Academy, full of pessimism on the social conditions of Russia
which was opened in 1783. Among those who dis- and civilization generally; many of its verses have
tinguished themselves in historical work or in the become proverbs.
study of the social and political conditions of Russia The epoch of Nicholas I, which was one of fierce
were Shsherbatoff (1733-90), who wrote six volumes absolutism, was nevertheless one of glory in the
of a "History of Russia"; Boltin (1735-92), whose development of Russian literature. Russian genius
learned volumes of "Observations on the History being oppressed, withdrew within itself, and revealed
of Russia", edited by Leolerc, were much praised to the world the treasures of the aesthetic sentiments
by Soloveff; Radishsheff (1749-1802), whose "Jour- of the Russian soul. Among the greatest poets of
ney from St. Petersburg to Moscow", describing the this period there stands pre-eminent Alexander
miseries of the peasants and the abuses of the Rus- Pushkin (1799-1837), whose career was brought to
sian bureaucracy cost its author an exile of ten years an end in a duel, when his genius was at its height.
in Siberia. The archpriest of Moscow, Alekseieff, Melchior Vogii6 rightly considers him one of the great-
wrote the first ecclesiastical encyclopedia, while the est poets that ever hved. He began his literary
Bishop Damascenus Rudneeff, who died in 1795, career at the age of fifteen, when he was a student in
published his "Russian Library", which contains an the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo. His first lyric poems
account of Russian literature, from its origin to the bear the date of 1814, and are a revelation of his
eighteenth century. Tchulkoff and Mikhail Popoff genius. He adopted Byron and Zhukovski for his
collected the monuments of the popular literature models. Among those lyric poems his invective
of their country. against the calumniators of Russia ("K klevetnikam
IX. Literature of Russia in the Nineteenth Rossii"), written in 1831, is famous. Of his epic
—
Century. In the nineteenth century, Russian works we may cite the famous "Rusalka, the Prisoner
literature freed itself little by little from the yoke of of the Caucasus" ("Kavkazski pliennik") in 1821;
 RUSSIA 272 RUSSIA

the "Fountain of Bakhtchlsorai " a822-33); the I. Pogodin, Butkoff, Ivanoff, Venelin, Grigor'eff,
"Tzigani" (1S24); "Poltava" (1S28), one of Pushkin's and Muravieff worked to defend the Russian chron-
most perfect poems, written in glorification of Peter icles against the charge of lack of authenticity, to
the Great; " Eugene Oniogin " (1823-:}!), an original throw light on the origin of the Russian nation, and
imitation of Byron's "Childe Harold", admirable to investigate the historical past of Russia and the
on account of the freshness of its inspiration and of various European nations. In the study of the an-
its exfiuisite versification; and finally "The Hussar" cient Slav language, and of the primitive literature
(is:!:}). Among his romances, three became popular of Russia, and in the collection of ancient texts,
at once, the "Dubrovski (1832-33), "The Daughter fundamental works that are yet esteemed were writ-
of the Captain" (1833-36), and "Pikovaja dama" ten by Kalaidovitch, Vostokoff, Undolski, Kliutcha-
(The Queen of Spades), a work that is admirable reff,Maximovitch, CertelefT, Snegireff, Sakharoff,
on account of the subtihty of its psychological and Bodianski. This class of studies were greatly
analysis. In the realm of dramatic poetry Pushkin promoted by the Society of Russian History and
gave to his country a great masterpiece, the tragedy Antiquities, estabhshed at Moscow in 1814 and still
"Boris Godunoff" (1825-31), and in that of drama, flourishing. Eugene Bolkhovitinoff, Metropolitan of
"Skupoi rycar" (The Avaricious Knight), "Mozart Kieff, prepared two historical lexicons of the clerical
and Salery", and "Rusalka". Among his works in and lay writers of Russia; Polevoi, Shevyreff, and
prose, mention should be made of the "Outlines of Nikitenko wrote histories of Russian literature;
the History of Peter the Great", and of the "His- while Prince A. Viazemski, Nadezhdin, and especially
tory of the Sedition of Pugatcheff". Pushkin was Bessarion Grigorievitch Bielinski (1810-48) were the
the first great original poet of Russia, and the one chief hterary critics. Literary and scientific progress
who excelled in classic style. At the same time he was assisted by the periodicals "Viestnik Evropy",
was the author of a school that has among its members "Russki Viestnik", "Syn Otetchestva" (The Son
Ivan Ivanovitch KozlofT, author of two most touch- of the Fatherland), "Sievernaja Ptchela" (The Bee
ing poems, "Tchernec" (The Monk) and "NataUa of the North), "Russki Invalid", and "Otetchest-
Dolgorukaja"; Delvin (1798-1831); Jazykoff (1803- vennyja zapiski" (Memoirs of the Fatherland).
46), and Eugene Baratynski (1800-44). During the reign of Alexander II the literary genius
Nikolai Vassilievitch Gogol (1808-52), a native of Russia continued to shine brightly, and to assume
of Little Russia, was another genius of the Russian always a more national character, although the
literature of the nineteenth century. His comedy, influence of foreign writers, especially of Dickens,
"The Reviser", published in 1836, is one of the George Sand, and Balzac, was felt. There appeared
masterpieces of the Russian theatre, a true portrait the school of Slavophils, the most illustrious repre-
of the malversations of the bureaucracy. Among sentatives of which are the two Kireievski (Ivan and
his romances and novels, he acquired merited fame Peter), Khomiakoff, Valueff, Konstantin and Ivan
through "Taras Bul'ba", an historical romance of Aksakoff, Kosheleff, Elagin, Tiuttcheff, Grigorieff,
Southern Russia, "The Dispute between Ivan Strakhoff, and Danilevski. This school was domi-
Ivano\'itch and Ivan Xikiforovitch", "The
Portrait", nated by a spirit of stingy patriotism; it invaded the
"The Arabesques", "Koliaska" (The Calash), "Za- domain of theology, preached the superiority of
piski sumasshedshago " (Memoirs of a Madman), Orthodoxy over Catholicism, and in the person of
and lastly "Mertvyja dushi" (The Dead Souls), in their theological legislator, Alexei Khomiakoff, a
two parts, a mastoriiiecc in the romantic literature genial poet, historian, and philosopher, it proclaimed
of Russia, which makes its author the rival of Cer- that Orthodoxy is the expression of the religious ideal
vantes and Lesage. It is a suggestive and faithful of Christianity. The religious and political para-
picture of Russian society: a vast theatre in which doxes of the Slavophils found their opponents in the
the most varied types of the Russian people are in school of the Oocidentalists {Zapadniki). The philos-
action. Mikhail Yurievitch Lermontoff (1814-41) opher Tchaaflaeff, in his philosophical letters pub-
is also of the school of Pushkin and Byron. He was hshed in 1836, wrote of Russian barbarity, and pro-
one of the most delicate lyric poets of modern Russia, claimed Catholicism to be the only means of bringing
whose lyric poetry, tinged with sadness, touches the Russia into the civilization of the nations of the
deepest chords of the heart, and exhibits the soft West.
melody of the literary language of Russia in its The most illustrious representatives of this school,
fullness. The most famous of his epic poems are which had not many followers, were Hercen (1812-
"The Demon", which is based upon a Georgian 70), who became one of the leaders of Nihilism;
legend, and in which the beauties of the Caucasus the poet Ogareff, Granovski, Soloveff, Kavelin,
are described in admirable verses; "Ismail Bey"; Kalatchoff, and Pavloff, illustrious names in the
"Khadzhi-Abrek, the Boyard Orsha", an episode realms of Russian history and Russian philosophy.
of the times of Ivan the Terrible; "Mcyr", a legend The most famous writer of the time of Alexander
of the Caucasus. Lermontoff is the author of the II was Ivan Sergeievitch Turgenieff (1818-83), the
very popular romance "Geroi nashego vremeni" (A magician of Russian prose. As a poet his title to
Hero of our Times), which reveals him as one of fame rests on the poems "Parasha", "Yakoff
the masters of Russian prose, and as having a pro- PasynkofI", "Rudin", "Faust", "Asja", "A Nest
found knowledge of the human heart. He died at the of Nobles". In 1862 he pubhshed one of the most
age of t,\venty-sc\'en years, and like Pushkin, in the famous of Russian novels, "Otcy i dieti" (Fathers
plenitude of his intellectual acti\-ity. Alexei Vas- and Sons). Among the other novels of Turgenieff,
silievitch Kolcoff (1809-42) also distinguished him- the most successful were "Zapiski Okhotnika" (Me-
self as a lyric poet of the school of Pushkin and moirs of a Huntsman), rich in admirable descriptions
Lermontoff. He was the poet of the peasants and of of nature; "Dym" (Smoke); "Nov" (Virgin Soil);
nature, and the in^•entor of a special kind of poems and among his stories: "Lear of the Steppe' ,

(Dinny), in which a question to be resolved is proposed "Waters of Spring", "The Brigadier", "The Dream",
and is ansxsered. Other poets who also were orna- "The Story of Father Alexis", "The Song of Trium-
ments nf Russian literature, although they did not phant Love", "The Desperado" etc. He enriched
attain the height of those already mentioned, were Russian hterature with several plays, among which
Odoevski, Count Sollogub, Marlinski, Welt'mann, the most beautiful is called "Zavtraku predvo-
Polc\'oi, and Kukolnik, a prolific writer of historic
ditelja" (The Collation with the Marshal of the
dramas. Nobility). Ivan Alexandrovitoh Gontcharoff (1812-
History, philology, and critical studies had a period
91) acquired no less fame as a novelist through his
of growing prosperity during the reign of Nicholas
novels "Obyknovennaja istorija" (A Simple Story),
 RUSSIA 273 RUSSIA

"Oblomoff", which personifies the want of initiative sobs and pains, the muse of the hungry and the
and semi-fatalism of the Russian character, and mendicant; of his songs, there became famous
"Obryff" (The Precipice), which was considered a "Moroz Krasnyi Noz" (Red-nosed Frost), a per-
decadent production. Greater fame was acquired sonification of the Russian winter, "Troika", and
by Feodor Mikhailovitch Dostoievski (1822-81), "The Sons of the Peasants'"; in his poems he has
whose first novel, "Biednye liudi" (Poor People), a predilection for popular types; A. Pleshsheeff, who
published in 1846, made its author famous^ at once, to his lyric poems added beautiful translations of the
by the depth of its psychological analysis. After principal German and English lyric poets; Kurot-
four years of a most painful imprisonment and exile chkin, who translated B^ranger, and Minaeff. The
to Siberia, he wrote the "Zapiski iz Mertvago Doma" most noted of the dramatists was Alexander Nico-
(Memoirs of the House of the Dead), in which he laevitch Ostrovski (1823-86), whose theatrical com-
describes the tortures of the exiles with a most ef- positions, admirable for the richness of their lan-
fective vigour of sty le the famous novel " Prestuplenie
;
guage, are partly original, and partly imitations of
Nakazanie" (Crime and Punishment), a psychological Shakespeare and Goldoni. The best known one is
masterpiece, "The Idiot", "Biezy" (The Possessed), "Groza" (The Tempest), which describes the dis-
and "The Brothers Karamazoff". solution of the Russian family; it was written in
To romantic literature also belong Dimitri Vassi- 1860. Two of his comedies that obtained great suc-
lievitch Grigorovitch, an imitator of George Sand, cess are "We will agree among ourselves", and
and a faithful portrayer of the sufferings of the lower "Each one in his place". The number of his the-
classes, in his romances and novels, among which atrical works is very great. Another among the best
we will mention "Derevnia" (The Village), "An- of Russian dramatists was A. Palm (1822-85), au-
thony Goremyka", "The Valley of Smiedoff", "The thor of the drama "Alexis Slobodin", and of the
Fishermen", and "The Colonists". In other novels comedies "Staryi barin" (The Old Lord), and "Our
he described the life and condition of the middle Friend Nekliuzheff". Mention should be made also
and higher classes, as in "Neudavshaajasja zhizn" of A. Potiekhin, N. Tohernyshefif, N. Soloveff,
(An Uneventful Life), "Suslikoff the Kapelmeister", Sukhovo-Kobylin, Sollogub, Diakonoff, Ustrialoff,
"The School of Hospitahty", etc. The naturahst Mann, Diatchenko, Shpazhinski, and Kryloff.
school was represented by Alexei Teofllaktovitoh Women also distinguished themselves in the literary
Pisemski (1820-81). In the novel "Bojarshshina" life of the nineteenth century. The best known
(The Time of the Boyars), he preached free love: among those who wrote poetry and novels were
the censorship prohibited the circulation of the book. Elizabeth Kulmann, Countess Rostoptohina, N.
In another novel, "Tiufiak" (The Plaster), his realism Khboshshinska (1825-89), who under the pseudonym
goes beyond that of Zola. His best novel is "Tys- of Krestovski wrote many novels to describe pro-
jatcha dush" (A Thousand Souls), a gloomy butfaith- vincial life; Sokhanska (1825-84), who under the
ful picture of the corruption of Russian society, which pseudonym of Kokhanovska acquired celebrity
is portrayed also in his novel " Vzgalamutchennoe through her novels "After Dinner Among the Guests"
More" (Tempestuous Sea); his novel "Liudi so- and "Provincial Portrait Gallery".
korovykh godoff" (Men of Forty Years) deals with Among the writers who became distinguished in
the agrarian question. His play "Gorkaja sudbina" the realm of historical fiction were N. Kostomaroff,
(Bitter Destiny) places him in a high position among whose story "The Son" (1865) presents a vigorous
Russian dramatists. Other writers proposed to scourge picture of the agrarian revolt of Stenko Razin;
the corrupters of society, to pierce them with the Count Alexe'. Tolstoi (1817-75) achieved fame with
arrows of their satire. They form a literary school his novel "Prince Serebrany", and his trilogy "Ivan
known in Russia as oblitchitel naja (accusing, refut- the Terrible" (1858), "Tsar Feodor Ivanovitch"
ing). The master of this school was Mikhail Evgra- (1868), and "Tsar Boris" (1869); G. Danilevski,
fovitch SaltykofE (1826-88), better known by the author of the novels "Mu-ovitch" (1879), "The
pseudonym of Shshedrin. The characters in his Fire of Moscow" (1885-86), and "Tchernyi god"
novels recall those of Gogol, but his pessimism is (The Black Year); Mordovceff, whose novels "Deme-
much more bitter and exaggerated. Among the trius the Tsarevitch" and "Fall of Poland" deal with
best-known of his novels and other writings are the history of Little Russia; Karnovitch, Salias-de-
"Protivorietckia" (Contradictions), "Gubernskie Tournemir, Mei (1822-62), author of several his-
otcherki" (Sketches of Government Personages), torical dramas based upon the primitive history of
"Tashkeucy" (The Lords of Tashkend), and "The Russia; and finally Averkieff. Among the lyric
Brothers Golovleff", a novel that is considered the poets who did not treat of the social conditions of
best work of Saltykoff, but is displeasing on account their country, who loved their art for its own sake,
of the cynicism of its characters. Other writers the most famous are A. Tolstoi, an imitator of Dante,
worked with the same end of laying bare the moral Heine, and Goethe; Maikoff, a passionate admirer
and social defects of the Russian people; the most of ancient Rome, the struggle of which with Chris-
famous among them are Pomialovski (1835-63), tianity he essayed to depict in his tragedy "Dva
whose novel "Otcherki bursy" is famous; it describes mira" (Two Worlds); A. Feth, author of light poems
in dark colours the methods of education that ob- and madrigals; Polonski, whose poem " Kuznievitch-
tain in the ecclesiastical seminaries of Russia; A. Muzykant" (The Musical Cricket) became popular,
Sliepcoff, author of the novel "Trudnoe Vremja" and whose poetry is distinguished by the beauty of its
(Difficult Times); A. Mikhailoff, the pseudonym style and the harmony of its verse; Zhadovski,
of Scheller, who wrotethe novels "Gnilyja bolota" Shsherbin, Herbel, Weinberg, and Nadsohn.
(Putrid Swamps), and "The Life of Shupoff";
Zasodimski; Bazhin; Thedoroff; Staniukovitch; and
X. Contemporary Russian Literature. The —
literaturefrom the death of Alexander II to the pres-
Girs. More moderate in their criticism of Rus- ent day is essentially one of novels. The novel,
sian society were the novelists Boborykin, Markoff, in view of the severity of Russian censorship, seems
Nemirovitch-Dantchenko, and Terpigoreff (better to be the most adequate literary channel for the dif-
known by his pseudonym of Atava), Saloff, Akhsh- fusion of political, social, and moral theories. The
arumoff, Leikin, Kliushnikoff, Lieskoff, Krestovski, most salient character of all the writers of the reign
Prince Meshsherki, Markeviteh, Avsieensko, Golovin, of Alexander II, and of more recent times by the force
and Avenarius. of his genius and the sharpness of his psychological
The most noted authors of lyric and satirical analysis, was Count Lyeff (Leo) Tolstoi, b. at
poetry were: Nikolai Alexeievitch Nekrasoff (1821- Yasnaja Poliana, 28 Aug., 1828; d. at Astapovo, 20
76), whose muse, as he himself wrote, was one of Nov., 1910. He inaugurated his literary career by
XIII.— 18
 RUSSIA 274 RUSSIA

the publication of his autobiographical memoirs, Red Laughter", "The Thought", "The Cloud",
which appeared in the "Sovremennik" of St. Peters- "Silence", etc. are to be condemned from every
burg in 1S52; they are a masterpiece of psychological point of view, reUgious and moral, and the Russian
analysis of the mind of a child. This work was fol- religious press has blamed him for them in vehement
lowed by "Adolescence", "Youth", "The Cossacks", language.
and "Recollections of Sebastopol", all of which are Among writers of the present day mention should be
filled with horror of the sights he beheld at Sebas- made of Sofija Ivanovna Smirnova, who wrote the
topol. But the masterpieces among his novels are novels "Salt of the Earth", and "Force of Character" •

"War and Peace", a powerful romance that for all Valentine Dmitrieva, writer of stories Olga Andreevna
;

its apparent confusion and disorder is an epic and Shapir, who wrote "Without Love", and "Tin-
imposing picture of the Napoleonic war in Russia; sel"; Lydja Vesehtskaja, Alexandra Shabelskaja,
"Anna Karenina", a profound analysis of the feminine Anastasia Verbickaja, who wrote "The History
soulthat, led astray by passion, forgets dignity of a Life" Among those who achieved fame as
and family for adultery, and finds its punishment in lyric poets are Simon Frug (of Jewish origin),
its sin;"Resurrection", a novel that is a study of Nikolai Maksimovitch Vilenkin, famous under the
the rehabilitation of the culprit. There is also the pseudonym of Minski, Dimitri Merezhkovski, whose
play "The Power of Darkness", strong in its vigour poems have the defect of too much rhetorical effort;
and dramatization. And yet this genius, who made Alexei Apukhtin, Konstantin Rozanoff, Arsenius
Russian literature popular all over the world, at- Golenishsheff-Kutuzoff, Sergei Andreevski, etc. These
tained religious, ethical, and political nihilism: in poets, however, are not original; their works recall
the "Kreutzer Sonata" he preaches the abjection too much the great poets who preceded them. The
of woman; "The Gospels" is a criticism of dogmatic fiction of Russia generally uses, as a channel of pub-
theology, while "My
Religion", "The Church and lication, the literary periodicals, among which some
the State", and "The Theories of the Apostles" that were famous in the nineteenth century have
strip Christian revelation from its base, and for- now disappeared, as the "Sovremennik" (The Con-
swear the Divinity of Jesus Christ, His Church, and temporary), the "Otetchestvennyja Zapiski", and
His sacraments; in the book "What is Art?", he the "Moskvitjanin" The best-known of those
disparages the most illustrious intellects of the human that are yet published are the "Viestnik Evropy",
race;his work "The Kingdom of God Is within and the "Pycck mysl".
>ou" preaches non-resistance to evil. PoUtical and The historical literature of Russia in the second
religious conception.s took Tolstoi out of his orbit, half of the nineteenth century furnishes illustrioua
and transformed him into a, visionary, an incen- names. Sergei Soloveff is the author of a "History
diary, so to speak, of all institutions, Divine and of Russia", in thirty volumes, which begins with the
human. most ancient times, and terminates with the reign
Among the other modern novelists, mention should of Alexander I; it is a work of greater historical
be made of:A. Novodvorski, author of "Xi pavy, Ni than literary merit; Zabielin devoted his studies by
Vorony" (Neither Peacock nor Crow), and of other preference to the Russia of the sixteenth and seven-
stories; B. Garshin, who in his principal novels teenth centuries; A. Nikitski wrote on the historical
is sometimes a follower of Tolstoi and sometimes past of Novgorod and Pskof; Kostomaroff wrote on
of Turgenieff. Those works are "TchetjTe dnja" Little Russia; the historical monographs of this
(The Four Days), "Trus" (The Coward), "Krasnyj author are held in high esteem, as also his "History
cvietok" (The Red Flower), "Attalea princeps", of Russia", composed of biographical narratives.
"Vstrietcha" (The Encounter), and "Nadezhda Pypin devoted his researches to the reign of Alexan-
Nilcolaevna"; I. Yasinski was famous under the der I; Shsapoff studied the social and educational
pseudonym of Maxim Bielinski; his most important development of Russia; Briickner dealt with the ,

works are "The City of the Dead", and "The hfe of Peter the Great; Bestuzheff-Riumin wrote a
Guiding Star" Alboff ; M . ; K . Barantchevitch A. Ertel
; classic history of Russia, and Biblasoff a life of Cath-
Matchtet; Korolenko, a beautiful story-teller, who arine II. We cannot name the great number of his-
reminds his readers of Dostoievski and Tolstoi in torians who, hke Ilovaiski, Lambin, KUutchevski,
his novels "The Dream of Macarius" (a fantastic Golubinski, etc. have thrown light on the history of
story), "The Sketches of a Tourist in Siberia", Russia, but we cannot omit to mention the Impe-
"Easter Night," "The Old Music Player", and rial Historical Society of St. Petersburg, the Archeo-
"S d\-ukh storon" (Two Points of View); Ignatius graphic Commission, and the Society of Russian
Potapenko, who views life in the hght of optimism, History and Antiquity of Moscow, which, with hun-
and not with the pessimism so much in vogue among dreds of learned publications, and especially of the
Russian writers; one of his novels, "Sviatoe iskus- Russian chronicles, have greatly facilitated the task
stvo", describes the Bohemia of the students of St. of the student. Yushkevitch, Yakushkin, Metlinski,
Petersburg; Demetrius Mamin, under the pseudo- Ribnikoff, Khudiakoff, and Barsoff distinguished
nym of Siberian, describes the customs of Western themselves in the collection of ancient Russian liter-
Siberia; and finally Prince Galitzin. Among novel- ary documents, upon which light was thrown by
ists of the new school are Anton Pavlovitch Tche- BuslaefJ, Miller, Stasoff, Maikoff, Kolosoff, Rozoff,
hoff (1860-1904), whose novel "Skutchnaja istorija" Dashkevitch, Vselovski, and above all Sreznevski,
had a great success. He is without a superior in who for several years edited the "Izviestija", and
the narrative of his novels; the heroes of his stories the "Utchenyja Zapiski" of St. Petersburg (Academy
are always morally corrupt, and of distracted minds. of Sciences). Buslaeff, with his "Historical Chres-
Alexci .\Iaksimovitch PieshkofI, better known by the tomathy", wove together the literary annals of
pseudonym of Maxim Gorky (b. 1869); he is the Russia. Pekarski related the scientific and literary
noxelist of the beggars and the populace, whose
transactions of Peter the Great, Pypin and Porfireff
works contain page.s of nauseating naturaUsm, and wrote full and classic histories of the Uterature of
shameful immorality. Vincent Smidlvski, b. at Tula, Russia. Special works on the greatest Russian
18C7; under the pseudonym of VeresaeiT he came writers are so numerous that the "Bibhography of
to celebrity through his work "Zapiski vrateha" the Russian Literature of the Nineteenth Century",
(Memoirs of a Doctor), which eUcited violent re- ed. Mpzier, St. Petersburg, 1902, devotes 650 octavo
criminations in the medical profession. One of the pages to the titles of those works alone.
most famous of the Russian writers of the present In philosophy Russian works until now have not
day is Leonid .Vndreeff, b. at Orel in 18,m. He is been original. They have been produced under the
the novelist of the degenerate. His novels "The supreme influence of German philosophy, inspired
 RUSSIAN 275 RUSTICUS

by Kant, Hegel, and Schelling. Positivism, Material- erature) (St. Petersburg, 1907); Savodnik, Olcherki po istorii rus-
ism, and Spiritualism have succeeded each other
skoi literatury XIX vieka (Essays on the History of the Russian
Literature of the nineteenth century) (Moscow, 1908).
without developing originality. Galitch, professor of PoKROVSKiJ, Nikolaj Vasilevitch Gogol (Moscow, 1908); Flach,
philosophy at St. Petersburg (d. 1848), was an atheist; Un grand poke russe: Alexandre Pouchkine (Paris, 1894); Du-
chesne, Michel JouriSvitch Lermontov; sa vie et ses muvres (Paris,
Davidoff (d. 1862) reduced philosophy to psychology 1910); PoKROVSKiJ, Ivan Alexandrovitch Gontcharoff (Moscow,
alone. The philosophy of Schelling influenced even 19()7); Brandes, Dostojewski: ein Essay (Berlin, 1889); Sait-
ecclesiastical writers, as Skvorcoff and the archi- BCHIK, Die Weltanschauung Dostojewski's und Tolstoi's (Leipzig,
1893) Hoffmann, Eine biographische Studie (Berlin, 1899) Mul-
mandrite Theophanus Avseneff. Orest. Novicki is ;

LER, Dostojewski, Ein Charakterbild (Munich, 1903); Loygree,

;

a convinced partisan of the system of Fichte; he was Un homme de ginie; Th.-M. Dostojewski (Lyons, 1904); Pokhov-
a professor of the University of Kieff. Hegelianism, BKij, Theodor Mikhailovitch Dostoevski] (Moscow, 1908); Zavit-
NEViTCH, Aleksiej Stepanovitch Khomjakoff (2 vols., Kieff, 1902);
however, was the most popular of all, and was at LoWENTHAL, Anton Schehoff (Moscow, 1906); Pokrovskij, An-
once accepted by the Occidentahsts Stankevitch, ton Pavlovitch Tchehoff (Moscow, 1907); Ernst, Leo Tolstoi und
Granovski, Bielinski, and Ogareff, and by the Slavo- der slavische Roman (Berlin, 1889) Merezhkovskij, Tolstoi i
;

Dostojevskij (St. Petersburg, 1901-02); Ger. tr. (Leipzig, 1903);

philes Kirieevski, KhomjakoS, Samarin, and Aksakoff. Berneker, Graf Leo Tolstoj (Leipzig, 1901); Zabel, L. N. Tol-
Between 1859 and 1873 Professor Gogocki of the stoi (Leipzig, 1901); Bitovt, Graf. L. Tolstoj v literaturie i is-
ecclesiastical academy of Kieff published his philo- kusstve (Count L. Tolstoi in literature and in art) (Moscow, 1903)
Crosby, Tolstoi and His Message (New York, 1903); Birjukoff,
sophical dictionary. The materialist theories of
Leo N. Tolstoi: Biographie und Memoiren (Vienna, 1906); Li's-
Moleschott and Btichner were defended by M. An- BEN, Leo Tolstoi: der Fuhrer von Jung-Russland (Berlin, 1907);
tonovitch and D. Pisareff, and refuted by Yurkevitch, Staub, Graf L. N. Tolstois Leben und Werke (Kempten, 1908);
Strakhoff, Kudriavceff, Samarin, and Vladislaveff.
Maude, The Life of Tolstoi (2 vols., London, 1908-10); Persky,.
Tolstoi intime (Paris, 1909) Isaeff, Graf N. Tolstoi kak myslitel
;

Darwinism found defenders in Timiriazeff and (Count N. Tolstoi as a thinker) (St. Petersburg, 1911); Glagau,.
Pamincyn, and opponents in Troicki, Dokutchaeff, Die russische Literatur und Ivan Turgueniev (Berlin, 1872); Jous-
The Positivism of BOUPOFF, Ivan Tourguiniev et I'esprit de son temps (Paris, 1883);
Guseff, Popoff, and Strakhoff.
Zabel, Ivan TourguSniev (Leipzig, 1884) Kuhnemann, Tourgue-
;

Comte was upheld by de Roberti and Mikhailovski. nev und Tolstoi (Berlin, 1893) Borkovskij, Tourgeniev (Berlin,
;

The most original philosophers of Russia were: 1903) Gutjahh, Ivan S. Turgenev ( Jurev, 1907) Splettstosser,
; ;

Kavelin (1818-85), who dealt more especially with Maxim Gorki: eine Studie iiber die Ursachen seiner Popularit&t
(Charlottenburg, 1904); Ostwald, Maxim Gorki (Berlin, 1904);.
psychological problems, an historian and profound Usthal, Maxirn Gorki (Berlin, 1904) Meincke, Maxim Gorki,
;

psychologist, to whom Russia owes the establish- Seine Persdnlichkeit und seme Schriften (Hamburg, 1908); Bara-
ment of the *' A^oprosy filosofii i psikhologii", a period- NOFF, Leonid Andreev, kak khudozhnik i myslitel (Leonidas An*
dreeff, as an artist and as a thinker ) (Kieff, 1907); Rejsner, L.
ical devoted to philosophy, which is held in very high Andreev i ego socialnaja ide ologija (Leonidas Andreeff and his so-
esteem; Kudriavceff -Platonoff, who excels in reli- cial ideology) (St. Petersburg, 1909); Martynoff and Snegi-
gious philosophy, and whose studies in apologetics are REFF, Russkaja starina v pamjatnikakh cerkovnago igrazhdanskago
zodtchestva (Russian antiquity in the monuments of civil and
admirable for their vigour and power of argument; religious architecture) (Moscow, 1851-57); Rovinskij, Istorija
Vladimir Soloveff, an ardent defender of CathoUc russkikh shkol ikonopisanija do konca X
VII C (History of the Rus-
principles in Russia, and a spiritual philosopher, the sian schools of iconography to the end of the seventeenth century)
(St. Petersburg, 1856); Petroff, Sbornik materialov dlja istorii
most eminent that Russia has produced. His ex- imp. akademii khudozhestv (Collection of materials for the history
tensive treatise on ethics, "Opravdanie dobra" of the Imperial Academy of Arts) (St. Petersburg, i864-66)
(Justification of the Good), is a masterpiece of specula- Viollet le Due, L'art russe, ses origines, ses iUments constitutifs,
son apogie, son avenir (Paris, 1877); Hasselblatt, Historischcr
tion; Prince Troubetzkoi, a follower of Soloveff; and Ueberblick der Entwickelung des kaiserlich-russischen Akademie der
finally, Nesmieloff, professor of the ecclesiastical Kiinste (St. Petersburg, 1886); Prakhoff, Kiev skie pamjatniici
academy of Kazan, whose work **The Science of vizantiisko-russkago isskistva (The Russo-Byzantine monuments
of arts at Kieff) (Moscow, 1887) Bulgakofp, Nashi khudozhniki
Man" gives to him the first place among the Christian ;

(Our Artists) (St. Petersburg, 1890) Pavlinoff, Drevnosti jaros-

;

philosophers of Russia at the present time. lavskija i rostovskija (The Antiquities of Yaroslaff and Rostoff)
Otto, Lehrbuch der ritssischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1837) Pole>
;
(Moscow, 1892); Idem, Istorija russkoj arkhitektury (Moscow,
voi, Otcherki russkoi literatury (Essays on Russian Literature) 1894).
(2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1839); Neveroff, Blick auf die Ge- EvDOKiMOFF, Russkaja zhivopis v XVIII viekie (Tlussia.nPsLmt-
schichte der mssischen Liicrafur (Riga, 1840) Jordan, Geschichte
;
ing in the eighteenth century) (St. Petersburg, 1902) Wrangel, ;

der rxLssischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1846); Shevireff, Istorija rus- Podrobnyi illjustrirovannyi Katalog vystavski russkoi porlretno)
skoi literatury (4 vols., Moscow, 1858-60) ; Minzloff, Beitrdge zur zivopisi za 150 liet (Complete and illustrated catalogue of the Ex-
Kenntniss der poetischen und wissenschaftlichen Literatur Russ- gositions of Russian portraits from 1700 to ISSO) (St. Peters-
lands (Berlin, 1854); PiStrofp, Tableau de la littirature russe de- urg, 1902) ; Rovinskij, Obozrienie ikonopisanija v Rossii do
puis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1872); Honegger, konca XVII vieka (Sketch of the painting of icons in Russia to the
Russische Literatur und Kultur (Leipzig, 1880) Wiskowatoff,
;
end of the seventeenth century) (St. Petersburg, 1903); Uspen-
Geschichte der mssischen Literatur (Dorpat, 1881); Haller, Ge- SKij, Carskie ikonopiscy v XVII v. (The Imperial painters of
schichte der russischen Literatur (Riga, 1882) Smith, Russisk Lit-
;
icons in the seventeenth century) (St. Petersburg, 1906).
eraturhistorie (Copenhagen, 1882) von Reinholdt, Geschichte der
;
A. Palmieri.
russischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1885) Maikoff, Otcherki iz istorii
;

russkoi literatury X X
VII i VIII stoliettii (Essay on the History of Russian Orthodox Church. See Greek Church ;
the Russian Literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies) (St. Petersburg, 1889); Waliszewski, Littirature russe
Russia.
(Paris, 1900); tr. (London, 1900); Woltnskij, Die russische Lit-
eratur der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1902); Petroff, Russlands Dichter
Rusticus of Narbonne, Saint, b. either at Mar-
und Schriftsteller (Halle, 1905); Bruckner, Geschichte der rus- or at Narbonnaise, Gaul; d. 26 Oct., 461.
seilles Ac-
sischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1905); tr. (London, 1908). The best cording to biographers, Rusticus is the one to whom
histories of Russian literature in Russian are those of Pypin,
Istorija russkoi literatury (4 vols., St. Petersburg, 1908-1910);
St. Jerome (about 411) addressed a letter, commend-
PoRFiREFF, Istorija russkoi slovesnosti (4 vols., Kazan, 1898, 1904, ing him to imitate the virtues of St. Exuperius of
1907); Polevoi (12 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903). Toulouse and to follow the advice of Procule, then
Monographs: Woelffing, Stricturce de statu scientiarum et
artium in imperio rus&ico (Tubingen, 1766); Konig, Literarische
Bishop of Marseilles. When he had completed his
Bilder aus Russland (Berlin, 1840); Vakcel, Qu^dros da littera- education in Gaul, Rusticus went to Rome, where he
tura, das sciencias e artes na Russia (Funchal, 1868); CourriIire, soon gained a reputation as a public speaker, but he
Histoire de la littirature contemporaine en Russie (Paris,
EvBTRAFiEFF, Novaja russkaja literatura (St. Petersburg, 1877)
1875J wished to embrace the contemplative life. He wrote
Palander, Uebersicht der neueren russischen Literatur (Tavaste- to St. Jerome, who advised him to continue his studies.
hus, 1880); Zabel, Literarische Streifziige durch Russland (Ber- Then Rusticus entered the monastery of St. Vincent
lin, 1885) Strakhoff, Iz istorii Uteraturnago nihilisma (St. Pe-
;

tersburg, 1890) Bauer, Naturalisraus, Nihilismus, Idealismus in

;
of L^rins. He was ordained at Marseilles, and on
der russischen Dichtung (Berlin, 1890); Skabitchevskij, Istorija 3 Oct., 430 (or 427) was consecrated Bishop of Nar-
noviejshej russkoi literatury (History of Contemporary Russian bonne. With all his zeal, he could not prevent the
Literature) (St. Petersburg, 1891); Soloveff, Otcherki po istorii
russkoi literatury XIX vieka (St. Petersburg, 1902); Vengeroff, progress of the Arian heresy which the Goths were
Kritiko-biografitcheskij slovar russkih pisatelej (Criti co-Biographi- spreading abroad. The siege of Narbonne by the
cal Dictionary of Russian Writers) (7 vols., St. Petersburg, 1889- Goths and dissensions among the Cathohcs so dis-
1903) DoBRTv, Biografii russkih pisatelej (Biographies of the
;

Russian Writers) (St. Petersburg, 1900) Ossip-Louri^, La psycho-

;
heartened him that he wrote to St. Leo, renounc-
logie des romanciers russes du XIX siScle (Paris, 1905); Sipovskij, ing the bishopric, but St. Leo dissuaded him. He
Istorija novoi russkoi literatury (History of the New Russian Lit- then endeavoured to consolidate the Catholics. In
 RUTH 276 RUTH
444-^8, he built the church of Narbonne; in 451, he Version, and consequently should not be regarded as
assisted at the convocation of forty-four bishops of conforming strictly to the arrangement of those books
Gaul und appro\'(d k^t. Leo's letter to Flavian, con- in the Hebrew Canon. It has indeed been asserted
cerning Nestorianism; he was present also at the that the Book of Ruth is really a third appendix to
Council of Aries, with thirtec^n bishops, to decide the the Book of Judges and was, therefore, originally
debate between Theodore, Bishop of Fr6jus, and the placed in immediate connexion with the two narra-
Abbey of LiSrins. A letter from Ravennius, IJishop of tives which are even now appended to this latter
Aries, sent to Rustious, proves the high esteem in Isook (Judges, xvii-xviii; xix-xxi); but this view is
which he was held. His letters are lost, with the not probable owing to the differences between these
exception of the one to St. Jerome and two others two works with respect to style, tone, subject, etc.
to St. Leo, written either in 452 or in 458. His —
III. Purpose. As the precise object of the Book
feast is celebrated on 20 October. of Ruth is not expressly given either in the book it-
AcHAHD, Hommes ill. Provence, II (Paris, 1787), 184-5; Hist. self or in authentic tradition, scholars are greatly
lilt, de France. II (Paris, 173.5), 362-.5; Le Buant, Inxcriptinns at variance concerning it. According to many, who
chri-t.. Gault, II (Para, 1SG.J), 711.5-71; DE Rby, ,SS. egl. Mar-
seille (Paris, 1S8.5), 299-303; Tillemont, Mem. hist, eccl, XV
lay special stress on the genealogy of David in the
(Paris, 1711), 401-09. second part of the book, the chief aim of the author
Joseph Dedietj. is to throw light upon the origin of David, the great
King of Israel and royal ancestor of the iMessias.
Ruth, Book of, one of the proto-canonical writ- Had this, however, been the main purpose of the
ings of the Old Testament, which derives its name writer, it seems that he should have given it greater
from the heroine of its exquisitely beautiful story. prominence in his work. Besides, the genealogy at
—
L Contents. The incidents related in the first the close of the book is but loosely connected with the
part of the Book of Ruth (i-iv, 17) are briefly as preceding contents, so it is not improbably an ap-
follows. In the time of the judges, a famine arose pendix added to that book by a later hand. Ac-
in the land of Israel, in consequence of which Elime- cording to others, the principal aim of the author was
lech with Noemi and their two sons emigrated from to narrate how, in opposition to Deut., xxiii, 3, which
Bethlehem of Juda to the land of j\If)ab. After forbids the reception of Moabites into Yahweh's
Elimelech's death Mahalon and Chelion, his two assembly, the Moabitess Ruth was incorporated with
sons, married Moabite wives, and not long after died Yahweh's people, and eventually became the an-
without children. Noemi, deprived now of her hus- cestress of the founder of the Hebrew monarchy.
band and children, left Moab for Bethlehem. On her But this second opinion is hardly more probable than
journey thither she dissuaded her daughters-in-law the foregoing. Had the Book of Ruth been written
from going witli her. One of them, howe\-er, named in such full and distinct view of the Deuteronomic
Ruth, accompanied Noemi to Bethlehem. The prohibition as is affirmed by the second opinion, it is
barley harvest had just begun and Ruth, to relieve most likely that its author would have placed a
Noemi's and her own poverty, went to glean in the direct reference to that legislative enactment on
field of Booz, a rich man of tlie place. She met with Noemi's lips when she endeavoured to dissuade her
the greatest kindness, and following Noemi's advice, daughters-in-law from accompanying her to Juda, or
she made known to Booz, as the near kinsman of particularly when she received from Ruth the pro-
Elimelech, her claim to marriage. After a nearer testation that henceforth Noemi's God would be her
kinsman had solemnly renounced his prior right, God. Several recent scholars have regarded this
Booz married Ruth who bore liim Obed, the grand- short book as a kind of protest against Nehemias's
father of David. The second part of the book (iv, and Esdras's efforts to suppress intermarriage with
18-22) consists in a brief genealogy which connects women of foreign birth. But this is plainly an in-
the line of Da\'id through Booz with Phares, one of ference not from the contents of the book, but from
the sons of Juda. an assumed late date for its composition, an inference
II. Place in the Canon. — In the series of the therefore no less uncertain than that date itself.
sacred writings of the Old Testament, the short Others finally, and indeed with greater probability,
Book of Ruth occupies two different principal places. have maintained that the author's chief purpose was
The Septuagint, the A'ulgate, and the English Ver- to tell an edifying story as an example to his own age
sions give it immediately after the Book of Judges. and an interesting sketch of the past, effecting this
The Hebrew Bible, on the contrary, reckons it among by recording the exemplary conduct of his various
the Hagiographa or third chief part of the Old Testa- personages who act as simple, kindly. God-fearing
ment. Of these two places, the latter is most likely the people ought to act in Israel.
original one. It is attested to by all the data of —
IV. Historical Character. The charming Book
Jewish tradition, namely, the oldest enumeration of of Ruth is no mere "idyll" or "poetical fiction". Itis
the Hagiographa in the Talmudic treatise "Baba plain that the Jews of old regarded its contents as
Bathra", all the Hebrew MSS. whether Spanish or historical, since they included its narrative in the Sep-
German, the printe<l editions of the Hebrew Bible, tuagint within the prophetic histories (Josue-Kings).
and the testimony of St. Jerome in his Preface to the The fact that Josephus in framing his account of the
Book of Daniel, according to which eleven books are Jewish Antiquities utilizes the data of the Book of
included by the Hebrews in the Hagiographa. The Ruth in exactly the same manner as he does those of
presence of the Book of Ruth after that of Judges in the the historical books of the Old Testament shows that
Septuagint, whence it passed into the Vulgate and the this inspired writing was then considered as no mere
EngUsh Versions, is easily explained by the systematic fiction. Again, the mention by St. Matthew of sev-
arrangement of the historical books of the Old Testa- eral personages of the episode of Ruth (Booz, Ruth,
ment in that ancient Greek Version. As the episode Obed), among the actual ancestors of Christ (Matt.,
of Ruth is connected with the period of the judges i, 5), points in the same direction. Intrinsic data
by its opening words "in the days . . . when agree with these testimonies of ancient tradition.
the judges ruled", its narrative was made to follow The book records the intermarriage of an Israelite
the Book of Judges as a sort of complement to it. The with a Moabitess, which shows that its narrative does
same place assigned to it in the lists of St. Melito, not belong to the region of the poetical. The his-
Origen, St. Jerome (Prol. Galeatus), is traceable to torical character of the work is also confirmed by the
the arrangement of the inspired writings of the Old friendly intercourse between David and the King of
Testament ip the Septuagint, inasmuch as these lists Moab which is described in I Kings, xxii, 3, 4; by the
bespeak in various ways the influence of the nomen- writer's distinct reference to a Jewish custom as
clature and grouping of the sacred books in that obsolete (Ruth, iv, 7), etc.
 RUTHENIAN 277 RUTHENIAN
In view of this concordant, extrinsic and intrinsic, the Greek as used at Constantinople, and the correc-
evidence, little importance is attached by scholars tion of these differences by the Patriarch Nikon gave
generally to the grounds which certain critics have rise to the Old Ritualists (see Raskolniks). When,
put forth to disprove the historical character of the therefore, the Ruthenians came into union with the
Book of Ruth. It is rightly felt, for instance, that Holy See in 1595, they brought with them in their
the symbohoal meaning of the names of several persons liturgical books several of the usages and formulae
in the narrative (Noemi, Mahalon, Chelion) is not a which Nikon afterwards corrected at Moscow in the
conclusive argument that they have been fictitiously Orthodox Church. Where these differences presented
accommodated to the characters in the episode, any no denial or contradiction of the faith the Holy See
more than the similar symbolical meaning of the allowed them to remain, just as they have allowed
proper names of well known and fully historical per- the rites of many religious orders. In the second place,
sonages mentioned in Israel's annals (8aul, David, after the union had become a fixed fact, numbers of
Samuel, etc.). It is rightly felt likewise that the the Polish Latin clergy and laity seemed to find in
striking appropriateness of the words put on the lips the Greek ceremonies and forms of language some
of certain personages to the general purpose of edifica- apparent contradictions of the faith as more fully
tion apparent in the Book of Ruth does not necessarily elaborated in the Roman Rite. This seemed to them
disprove the historical character of the work, since to indicate a lack of unity of the faith, and the Greek
this is also noticeable in other books of Holy Writ Ruthenian clergy in the Synod of Zamosc (1720)
which are undoubtedly historical. Finally, it is made a number of changes in the Byzantine Rite,
readily seen that however great the contrast may ap- particularly that of the Mass, so as more clearly to
pear between the general tone of simplicity, repose, express the unity and identity of their faith with that
purity, etc., of the characters delineated in the episode of their brethren of the Roman Rite. These changes
of Ruth, and the opposite features of the figures which are sometimes bitterly spoken of by Russian authors
are drawn in the Book of Judges, both writings describe as "latinizing", and the majority of them were prob-
actual events in one and the same period of Jewish ably unnecessary. When we consider that the Mel-
history; for all we know, the beautiful scenes of chites, Rumanians, and Italo-Greeks have kept the old
domestic life connected in the Book of Ruth with the forms thus changed, it does not seem that they were
period of the judges may have truly occurred during required in order to express the complete unity of the
the long intervals of peace which are repeatedly faith. Nevertheless they were sufficient to cause them
mentioned in the Book of Judges. to be spoken of as the Ruthenian Rite, as distinguished
V. Author and Date of Composition. The — from the older form of the Byzantine Rite (see Con-
Book of Ruth is anonymous, for the name which it stantinople, Rite of; Greek Catholics in Amer-
bears as its title has never been regarded otherwise ica; Greek Church).
than that of the chief actor in the events recorded. In The chief modifications introduced were the addi-
an ancient Beraitha to the Talmudic treatise "Baba tion of the Filioque (i ot Syna) to the Creed, and the
Bathra" (Babylonian Talmud, c. i), it is definitely commemoration of "the holy universal Chief Bishop
stated that "Samuel wrote his book. Judges, and N. the Pope of Rome", in the Ektene and in the
Ruth"; but this ascription of Ruth to Samuel is general commemoration at the Great Entrance;
groundless and hence almost universally rejected at while the emphasis laid on the words of consecration
the present day. The name of the author of the book rather than on the Epiklesis (invocation) may be
of Ruth is unknown, and so is also the precise date of said to also constitute a difference from the Orthodox
its composition. The work, however, was most likely Rite. The addition of the Filioque is not required
written before the Babylonian exile. On the one even in Italy, for at Rome the Creed is still said in
hand, there is nothing in its contents that would com- Greek without it; but there it is simply an ancient
pel one to bring down its origin to a later date ; and, custom and no indication of any difference in doctrine.
on the other hand, the comparative purity of its style As to the prayers for the pope, the various Orthodox
stamps it as a pre-exilic composition. The numerous Churches of Russia and Eastern Europe have never
critics who hold a different view overrate the im- hesitated to change the Byzantine liturgy in order to
portance of its isolated Aramaisms which are best insert prayers for the Holy Synod, imperial family,
accounted for by the use of a spoken patois plainly etc., even carrying them out to great length. The
independent of the actual developments of literary Ruthenians however differ from the other Greek
Hebrew. They also make too much of the place oc- Catholic nationalities and from the Orthodox churches
cupied by the Book of Ruth among the Hagiographa, in many other peculiarities of rite.
for, as can be easily realized, the admission of a In the Proskomide of the Divine Liturgy the Ruthe-
writing into this third division of the Hebrew Canon nians are allowed to prepare for Mass with one altar-
is not necessarily contemporary with its origin. But, bread {prosphora) or with three, or even with the dry
while the internal data supplied by the Book of Ruth Agnetz (the square Greek host) if no prosphorm can
thus point to its pre-exilic origin, they remain inde- be had, instead of requiring five prosphorcE. Then too
cisive with regard to the precise date to which its the Ruthenian priest may omit the full number of
composition should be referred, as clearly appears particles to be placed on the paten, and may place
from the conflicting inferences which have been drawn only one for the various ranks he is required to com-
from them by recent Catholic scholars. memorate, or in exceptional cases where there are no
Commentaries.—Catholic: Claik (Paris, 187S); ton Hum- particles "the priest may celebrate with the Agnetz
MELAHER (Paris, 1888); Fillion (Paris, 1889); Vigouroux alone" (Decretum Syn. Leopoliensis, p. 83).
(Paris, 1901); Cramponi. Protestant: Wright (London, 1864); The
Keil (Leipzig, 1874); Bertheatt (Leipzig. 1883); Oettlb number of the saints to be commemorated has also
(Nordlingen, 1889) Bertholet (Freiburg, 1898) Nowack (Goet-
; ;
been out down to a few principal names. When the
tingen, 1902). Mass of the Catechumens or public part of the Divine
Francis E. Gigot.
Liturgy begins, the Royal Doors of the Iconostasis
—
Ruthenian Rite. There is, properly speaking, no are thrown wide open and continue so during the
entire Mass. There are no rubrics directing them to
separate and distinct rite for the Ruthenians, but
inasmuch as the name is often used for the modifica^ be open and shut during the service, nor is there any
tions which the Ruthenians have introduced in the veil to be drawn. Formerly this was the practice in
Byzantine or Greek Rite as used by them, a brief the old Slavonic Churches and Missals, and is still
description of them is proper. These modifications followed in the Court Church until after the Great
have come about in two ways. In the first place, the Entrance is completed. The custom of reverencing
ancient Slavonic missals used in Russia and in Little during the singing of the Edinorodny Syne (Filius
Russia (Ruthenia) differed in many instances from unigenitus) and the Creed at the word vocheloviech-
 RUTHENIANS 278 RUTHENIANS
shasia (Homo factus est) and the addition of the i at also called Ukrainians {u, at or near, and krai, the
Syiui {Filtuqtie) were adopted to conform to the prac- border or land composing the border), from the
tice of the lloman Rite. The same may be said of the Ukraine, comprising the vast steppes or plains of
practice of covering the chalice while on the altar, Southern Russia extending into Galicia. In the
and this in turn lias made the ripidia or fans disappear Austro-Hungarian Empire the Ruthenians are
as altar ut("nsils. In the prayer of contrition before separated from one another by the Carpathian
communion the Ruthenian priest strikes his breast Mountains, which leave one division of them in
t'lree times as in the Roman Rite. Among the special Galicia and the other in Hungary. The Ruthenians
modifications in the Liturgy by the Ruthenians is the or Little Russians in Russia and Bukowina belong
•order of the antiphons. The three week-day antiphons, to the Greek Orthodox Church, whilst those of
Psalms xci, xcii, xciv, are introduced directly into Galicia and Hungary are Greek Catholics in unity
the text of the Missal, while on Sundays in their stead with the Holy See. For this reason the word
(when there is no feast-day having special antiphons) Ruthenian has been generally used to indicate those
Psalms Ixv, lx\'i, and xciv take their place. The of the race who are Catholics, and Little Russian
Ti/ptkn, Psalms cii and cxlv, as well as the Blazhenni those who are Greek Orthodox, although the terms
(beatitudes) are not said except in monasteries and are usually considered as fairly interchangeable.
monastic churches. At the recital of the Creed the It must be remembered that in the Russian and
priest holds up the aer without moving it to and fro. Ruthenian languages (unlike in English) there are
Just before the ante-communion prayer the priest two words which are often indiscriminately trans-
performs an ablution of the tips of his fingers. The lated as Russia, but which have quite different
Ruthenians do not add hot water to the chalice after meanings. One is Russ, which is the generic word
the Fraction, as all other Greeks do, for this was denoting an abstract fatherland and all who speak
abolished by the Synod of Zamosc (tit. iii, sec. iv). a Russo-Slavie tongue, who are of Russo-Slavic race
They have also abolished the use of the sponge in and who profess the Greek-Slavonic Rite; it is of
purifying the paten and chalice, and use instead the wide and comprehensive meaning. The other word
finger for the paten and a veil on the chalice. A final is Rossia, which is a word of restricted meaning and
ablution is introduced, and the holy vessels remain on refers only to the actual Russian Empire and its
the altar until the Mass is finished, instead of being subjects, as constituted to-day. The former word
carrie<l to the side altar (prothesis) as in the Byzantine Russ may be applied to a land or people very much
Rite. as our own word "Anglo-Saxon" is to English or
The absence of the deacon or deacons in the Ruthe- Americans. It not only includes those who live in
nian Mass will be particularly noticed, for that is the the Russian Empire, but millions outside of it, who
rule except in cases of cathedral Masses or pontifical are of similar race or kin, but who are not politically,
Masses, corresponding to the usages of the Roman religiously, or governmentally united with those
solemn high Mass, and then the deacon is usually a within the empire. From the word Russ we get the
priest who reverts to his former order. The diaconate derivative Russky, which may therefore be translated
among the Ruthenians is now chiefly a grade to the in English as "Ruthenian" as well as "Russian",
priesthood, and not a permanent order for parochial since it is older than the present Russian Empire.
work. There is no distribution of the antidoron or From Rossia we have the derivative Rossiisky, which
blessed bread at the end of the Mass in the Ruthe- can never be translated otherwise than by "Russian",
nian Rite. Nor do they have the custom of giving pertaining to or a native of the Russian Empire.
communion (by a tiny drop from the chaUce) to Indeed the word "Ruthene" or "Ruthenian" seems
infants and children under four years, as in the to have been an attempt to put the word Rusin
Russian Orthodox Church. The clergj' among the into a Latinized form, and the medieval Latin word
Ruthenians usually follow the Roman rule and are Ruthenia was often used as a term for Russia itself
shaven, unlike the general rule among the Greek before it grew so great as it is to-day.
clergy of other countries, whether Catholic or Or- The name Ruthenian {Rutheni) is found for the
thodox. They do not wear the knmUnfkn or straight first time in the old Polish annalisti, Martinus Gallus,
cylindrical Greek biretta, but have invented for who wTOte towards the end of the eleventh and the
themselves a round headiiiece or crown, something beginning of the twelfth century; he uses this name
like the mitre of a (ireek bishop, and they also wear as one already well known. The Danish historian,
the close-fitting cassock of the Roman Rite, instead Saxo Grammaticus (r2f).3), also uses it to describe the
of the loose robe with flowing sleeves used by the Slavs living near the Baltic Sea. These Slavs were
Greeks in other covuitries.
already converted to Christianity and the name was
BociAN, Di- modificatiiiFiihu.^ apud Ruthenos subintroductis in probably used to distinguish them from the pagans.
Chrysostomihi (Rome, l'.10S), 929-09: Khoinatski, Zapadno-
Ruxskayn Tsrrkomaua Unia yrija
v Bogoslmhmii i Obriadakh The term Ruthenian was well known in the eleventh
(Kioff, 1N71); Pelesz, Union,
(Jeschichti- dcr U
{Vienna, 1880); century and its origin seems to be considerably older.
LituTgia .St'. loanna ZUiloustaho (Zolkieff, 1900).
It is said to ha-\'e really originated in the southern part
Andrew J. Shipman. of Gaul in the time of Charlemagne. When the Huns
overran Europe in the fifth century, they subdued
Ruthenians (Ruthenian and Russian: Riisin, the Slavic tribes with whom they came in contact and
plural liunini), a Slavic people from Southern Russia, made them a part of their victorious army. Under
•Cialicia and Bukowina in Austria, and North-eastern Attila's leadership they pressed still farther west,
Hungary. They are also called in Russian, Maloros- devastating everything in their path, and penetrated
siaiii. Little Russians (in allusion to their stature), into Northern Italy and the south-eastern part of
and in the Hungarian dialect of their own language, Gaul. In the great battle at Chalons the Christian
Riixsninks. They occupy in Russia the provinces or armies overcame them a portion of the Huns' forces
;

g()\'ernments of Lublin (Poland), ^'olhynia, Podolia, was slaughtered, but other portions were divided and
Kieff, Tchcrnigoff, Kharkoff, and Poltava, in Russia, scattered in small detachments throughout the coun-
and number now about IS, 000,000. In Austria they try, and the greater part of these were the Slavs who
occupy the whole of Eastern Gahcia and Bukowina, had been made captive and forced to join the army.
and in Hungary the northern and north-eastern After the death of Charlemagne they had settled
counties of Hungary: Szepes, Saros, Abauj, Zemplin, largely throughout the land, and their names are still
Vng, Alaramaros, and Bereg, and amount to about retained in various Latin names of places, as Rouerge
4,r)00,(ll)0 more. The Ruthenians along the border- (Provincia Rulhenorum), Rodez (Segdunum Rutheni),
land of the ancient Ivingdom of Poland and the present and Au^ergne (Augiista Ruthenorum). As these Slavic
boundary separating Austria from Russia proper are tribes furnished the name for the Latin writers of
 RUTHENIANS 279 RUTHENIANS
Italy and France, this same word was also used later of toleration, perhaps lends countenance to the belief
in describing them in their native land, where descrip- in Russian minds. The Ruthenian language is very
tions came to be written by western writers who first close to the Russian and both are descendants of the an-
came in contact with them. Indeed the word " Ruthe- cient Slavonic tongue which is still used in the Mass
nian " is considerably older than the word "Russian", and in the liturgical books. The Ruthenian, however,
in describing Slavic nationality; for the term Russia in the form of its words, is much nearer the Church
(Rossia), indicating the political state and govern- Slavonic than the modern Russian language is. Still
ment, did not come into use until the fourteenth or it does not differ much from the modern Russian or
fifteenth century. the so-called Great Russian language; it bears some-
The Ruthenians may well claim to be the original what the same relation to the latter as the Lowland
Russians. Theirs was the land where Sts. Cyril and Scotch does to English or the Plattdeutsch to German.
Methodius converted the Slavic peoples, and that The Ruthenians m Austria-Hungary and the Little
land, with Kieff as the centre, became the starting Russian's in Russia use the Russian alphabet and write
point of Greco-Slavic Christianity, and for centuries their language in almost the same orthography as the
that centre was the religious and political capital of Great Russian, but in many cases they pronounce it
the present Russia. Great Russia was then merely a differently. It is almost like the case of an Englishman
conglomerate of Swedish, Finnish, and Slavic tribes, and a Frenchman who write the word science exactly
and although it has since become great and has sub- alike, but each pronounces it in a different manner.
dued its weaker brethren, it does not represent the Many words are unlike in Ruthenian and Russian, for
historic race as does the Ruthenian in the south. They example, hachili, to see, in Ruthenian, becomes videt
were never so thoroughly under the rule of the con- in Russian; pershy, first, in Ruthenian, is pervy in
quering Tatar as the Great Russians of Moscow, Russian. AH this tends to differentiate the two lan-
Vladimir, and Kazan. Besides, Little Russia was guages, or extreme dialects, as they might be called.
separated from Great Russia and was for nearly five In late years a recession of the Russian alphabet in
centuries subject to Poland and Lithuania. Yet Great Galicia and Bukowina has provoked much dissension.
Russia has become in Russia the norm of Russian For the purpose of more closely accommodating the
nationality, and has succeeded largely in suppressing Russian alphabet to the Ruthenian, they added two
and arresting the development of the Little Russians new letters and rejected three old ones, then spelled
within the empire. It is no wonder that the old all the Ruthenian or Little Russian words exactly
dreams of Mazeppa, Chmielnicki, and Shevohenko of as they are pronounced. This "phonetic" alphabet
Little Russia, independent both of Russia and Poland, differentiates the Ruthenian more than ever from the
have found a lodgment in the hearts of the Southern Russian. It has divided Ruthenian writers into two
Russians the same feeling has gained ground among
; great camps: the " etjTiiological " which retains the
,

the Ruthenians of Galicia and Hungary, surrounded old system of spelling, and the "phonetic", which
as they are by the German, Polish, and Hungarian advocates the new system. It has even been made a
peoples. However, the milder and more equitable basis of political action, and the phonetic system of
rule of Austria-Hungary has prevented direct political orthography is still strongly opposed, partly because
agitation, although there is occasional trouble. The it was an Austrian governmental measure and partly
resultant of such forces among the Ruthenians of because it is regarded as an effort to detach the Ru-
Galicia and Hungary has been the formation of polit- thenians from the rest of the Russian race and in a
ical parties, which they have brought to America measure to Polonize them. The phonetic system of
with them. These may be divided into three large writing has never been adopted among the Hungarian
groups: the Ukraintzi, those who believe in and foster Ruthenians, and it is only within the last two or three
the development of the Ruthenians along their own years that anyone has dared to use it in Little Russian
lines, quite independent of Russia, the Poles or the publications issued in the Russian Empire. Yet in
Germans, and who actually look forward to the inde- many parts of Hungary the Ruthenian language is
pendence of Little Russia, almost analogous to the printed in Roman letters so as to reach those who are
Home Rulers of Ireland; the Moscophiles, those who not acquainted with the Russian alphabet. The lan-
look to present Russia as the norm of the Russo- guage question has led to many debates in the Austrian
Slavic race and who are partisans of Panslavism; parliarnent and has been taken up by many Ruthenian
these may be likened to the Unionists of Ireland, in magazines and reviews. The Ruthenians have also
order to round out the comparison the Ugro-RussM,
; brought their language and political difRculties with
Hungarian Ruthenians, who while objecting to Hun- them to America (see Greek Catholics in America,
gary, and particular phases of Hungarian rule, have under auhtitle Ruthenian Greek Catholics), where they
no idea of losing their own peculiar nationality by encounter them as obstacles to racial progress. Not
taking present Russia as their standard; they hold only in history but in literature have the Ruthenians
themselves aloof from both the other parties, the ideas or Little Russians held an honourable place. Their
of the Ukraintzi being particularly distasteful to them. chief city, Kieff, was the capital of the country before
(See Greek Catholics in America.) In Russia all Moscow was founded in the middle of the twelfth
political agitation for Little Russia and for Little century. A portion of them led the wild, stirring life
Russian customs and peculiarities is prohibited; it is of the Cossacks, painted in Gogol's romance of "Taras
only since 1905 that newspapers and other publica- Bulba"; their revolt under Chmielnicki in 1648 is
tions in the Little Russian language have been per- pictured by Sienkiewicz in his historical romance
mitted. It was Little Russia which united with the "With File and Sword"; that of half a century later
Holy See in 1595, in the great reunion of the Greek under Mazeppa is made known to most of us by
Church; and it was in Little Russia where the press- Byron's verse. They had free printing presses for
ure of the Russian Government was brought to bear secular as well as religious literature in the sixteenth
in 1795, 1839, and 1875, whereby the Greek Catholics century; still many of their best writers, such as
of Little Russia were utterly wiped out and some Gogol, have used the Great Russian language even
7,000,000 of the Uniats there were compelled, partly when their themes were Little Russian, just as so
by force and partly by deception, to become part of much of the text of Scott's Scotch novels is pure
the Greek Orthodox Church. English. The Ruthenian language, however, has been
In some indefinable manner the Ruthenian or employed by authors of international repute, the
Little Russian speech is considered as leading away greatest of whom is the poet Shevchenko. Other
from Russian unity, whether of State or Church; the authors of widening reputation have followed in the
prompt return of a quarter of a million of Little Rus- present century, and some like Gowda have trans-
sians to Catholicism in 1905-06, at the time of the decree ferred their literary efforts to American soil.
 RUTTER 280 RUYSBROECK
The Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church in Austria- Ruvo and Bitonto, Diocese of (Rubensis et
Hungary isrepresented by one province in Galicia, BiTUNTiNENSis), in the Province of Bari, Aquileia,
Austria,' and three dioceses in Hungary. The former Southern Italy. Ruvo, the ancient Rubi, situated on
is composed of the Greek Archdiocese of Lemberg a calcareous hill, contains a fine Norman cathedral of
with the two subordinate dioceses of Przemysl and the eleventh century. Outside of the city are the
Stanislau. In Hungary there are the separate dio- ruins of a more ancient cathedral, possibly of the late
ceses of Eperies and Munkacs in the north and the fourth or early fifth century. According to a legend
Diocese of Kreutz (Crisium, Kriievac) in the south. St. Peter preached the Faith here and appointed to
These northern two are subject to the Latin Arch- the see as its first bishop St. Cletus, later pope. We
bishop of Gran, and the southern one to the Latin read also of a St. Procopius, Bishop of Ruvo, of un-
Archbishop of Agrara. The Ruthenian immigration to known date; Bishop Joannes, spoken of in 493, is the
America comes almost wholly from these dioceses, first prelate of the city known with certainty; of the
and their efforts and progress in solidly establishing others mention may be made of Pietro Ruggieri
themselves in the United States and Canada have been (1759-1804); Bishop Anderano (about 734) belonged
described. They have built many fine and flourishing either to Bitonto or Bisignano; Arnolfo (1087), the
churches, have established schools and now have a first undoubted Bishop of Bitonto; Enrico Minutolo
bishop here of their own rite (see Greek Catholics (1382), later cardinal; Cornelio Musso (1544), a Con-
IN America). Some of them are becoming wealthy, ventual, ('istinguished at the Council of Trent;
and in some places in Pennsylvania are reckoned as a Fabrizio Carafa (1622), founder of a literary academy;
factor in American politics. Nevertheless, they have Alessandro Crescenti (1652), later cardinal. In 1818
been subjected in America to strenuous proselyting, the Diocese of Ruvo, which comprised only the com-
both on the part of the Russian Orthodox mission mune of Ruvo, was united ceque principaliter to the
churches, which preach Panslavism in its most alluring See of Bitonto, which included only the commune of
forms, and which are at times bitterly hostile to Ca- Bitonto. It has a fine cathedral with four rows of
tholicism (see Greek Orthodox Church in America, beautiful marble columns. The chief historic events
under Russian Orthodox), and on the part of various relating to the dioceses are the capture of Ruvo in
Protestant missionary activities, which have suc- 1503 by Gonsalvo di Cordova, who defeated the
ceeded in establishing in many localities "independ- French, and the battle of Bitonto (1734) in which
ent" Ruthenian communities apparently practising the Austrians were defeated by the Spaniards. The
the Greek Rite in connexion with the Presbyterian, united dioceses contain 25,000 inhabitants, a Fran-
Baptist, and other churches. Much has been effected ciscan friary, 7 houses of rehgious, 3 of which are
by both proselyting parties because of a lack of a suit- enclosed, 2 having hospitals attached, and 2 others
able Ruthenian Catholic press and literature, and of charitable establishments.
Bufficient priests. For instance, there is a Protestant Cappelletti, Le Chiese d'ltalia, XVI (Venice, 1857).
catechism using the name of the Catholic Church and U. Benigni.
teaching the seven sacraments, and there are Protes- Ruysbroeck, John, Blessed, surnamed the Ad-
tant so-called evangelical missionaries who use vest- mirable Doctor, and the Divine Doctor, undoubtedly
ments, candles, censers, crucifixes, and holy water, with the foremost of the Flemish mystics, b. at Ruysbroeck,
apparently all the Greek Catholic ritual, having even near Brussels, 1293; d. at Groenendael, 2 Dec, 1381.
the official Greek Catholic mass-books on the altar. He was blessed with a devout mother, who trained
The Russian Orthodox clergy find the task even easier, him from infancy in the ways of piety and holiness.
for they appeal to the Slavic national feeling and adopt Of his father we know nothing; John's only family
the usual religious practices of the Greek Catholic name, van Ruysbroeck, is taken fro'm his native ham-
clergy, and are thus enabled to win over many an im- let. At the age of eleven he forsook his mother, de-
migrant by offering sympathy in a strange land. parting without leave or warning, to place himself
Hbuszewski, Gesch. des Ukrainischen (Ruihenischen) Volkes under the guidance and tuition of his uncle, John
(Leipzig, 1906) ; Romanczuk, Die Ruthenen u. ihre Gegner in
Galizien (Vienna, 1902) Jandaueek, Das Konigreich Galizien
;
Hinckaert, a saintly priest and a canon of St. Gudule's,
u. Lodomerien, u. das Herzogihum Bukowina (Vienna, 1884) Brussels, who with a fellow-canon of like mind, Francis
Pelesz, Gr.-:ch. der Union, I (Vienna, 1878); Sembhatowicz, Das van Coudenberg, was following a manner of life
Zarenlhum im Kamp/e mil der Civilisation (Vienna, 1905); Fran-
zos, .i '/s IlaUj-A^ien; CuUurhilder aus Galizien, der Bukowina u. modelled on the simphcity and fervour of ApostoHc
Sad RuxKland (Berlin. 1x78); CAortltes, XIII (New York, Dec., days. This uncle provided for Ruysbroeck's educa-
1904); Thr Messenger, XLII, Sept.-Dcc. (New York, 1904); tion with a view to the priesthood. In due course,
Gkushevbkt, Istoria Ukriiini-Rusi (Lemberg, 1904—11).
Andrew J. Shipman. Blessed John was presented with a prebend in St.
Gudule's, and ordained in 1317. His mother had fol-
Rutter Banister), Henry, b. 26 Feb.,
(vere lowed him to Brussels, entered a B^guinage there, and
17.5.5; d. 17 September, 1838, near Dodding Green, made a happy end shortly before his ordination. For
Westmoreland. He was the son of Adam Banister twenty-six years Ruysbroeck continued to lead, to-
of Hesketh Bank and Agnes, daughter of Richard gether with his uncle Hinckaert and van Couden-
Butler, of Mawdeslcy (Lancashire). On 26 Sept., berg, a life of extreme austerity and retirement. At
176s, he went to Douai College, where he found his vhat time the Brethren of the Free Spirit were causing
uncle. Rev. Robert Banister. In May, 1781, he be- considerable trouble in the Netherlands, and one of
came professor at St. Omer's College for the secular them, a woman named Bloemardinne, was particu-
clergy. On the English mission, he served several larly active in Brussels, propagating her false tenets
places in the north before his appointment in 1S17 to chiefly by means of popular pamphlets. In defence
Yealand (Lancashire), where he remained till Jan., of the Faith Ruysbroeck responded with pamphlets
1831. The rest of his life was spent at Dodding also written in the native tongue. Nothing of these
Green. The -'Orthodox Journal" (VII, 223) gives a treatises remains; but the effect of the controversy
SA-mpathetic notice of this sterling priest, character- was so far permanent with Ruysbroeck that his later
ized by his old-world learning and solid piety. Rutter writings bear constant reference, direct and indirect,
wrote an "Evangelical Harmony", re-edited (1S57) to the heresies, especially the false mysticism, of the
b>- Huscnbeth. His other works, cliiefly scriptural day, and he composed always in the idiom of the
exegeses and devotional translations, are enumerated country, chiefly with a view to counteracting the mis-
and described by Gillow. The "Answer to Dr. chief of the heretical writings scattered broadcast
Southry" (the poet-lauroite) is a contribution to among the people in their own tongue.
the controversy provoked by Southev's "Book of The desire for a more retired life, and possibly also
the Church" (1824), in which Charles Butler (q. v.) the persecution which followed Ruysbroeck's attack
was the Catholic protagonist. Patrick Ryan. on Bloemardinne, induced the three friends to quit
 RUTSBROECK 281 RUYSBROECK
Brussels in 1343, for the hermitage of Groenendael, in it is in his mystical writings that the peculiar genius
the neighbouring forest of Soignes, which was made ofRuysbroeck shines forth. Yet here again it is the
over to them by John III, Duke of Brabant. But manner rather than the matter that is new, and it is
here so many disciples joined the little company that especially in the freshness, originality, boldness, vari-
it was found expedient to organize into a duly- ety, detail, and truth of his imagery and comparisons
authorized religious body. The hermitage was that the individuality of Ruysbroeck stands out.
erected into a community of canons regular, 13 Students of mysticism from the pages of the Are-
March, 1349, and eventually it became the mother- opagite onwards will scarcely discover anything for
house of a congregation, which bore its name of Groe- which they cannot recall a parallel elsewhere. But
nendael. Francis van Coudenberg was appointed there are many who maintain that Blessed John
first provost, and Blessed John Ruysbroeck prior. stands alone, unrivalled, in his grasp of what we may
John Hinckaert refrained from making the canonical term the metaphysics of mysticism, in the delicate-
profession lest the discipline of the house should suffer ness and sureness of his touch when describing the
from the exemptions required by the infirmities of phenomena and progress of the mystic union, and in
his old age; he dwelt, therefore, in a cell outside the the combined beauty, simplicity, and loftiness of his
cloister, and there a few years later happily passed language and style.
away. This period, from his religious profession In common with most of the German mystics Ruys-
(1349) to his death (1381), was the most active and broeck starts from God and comes down to man, and
fruitful of Ruysbroeck's career. To his own com- thence rises again to God, showing how the two are so
munity his life and words were a constant source of closely united as to become one. But here he is care-
inspiration and encouragement. His fame as a man ful to protest: "There where I assert that we are one
of God, as a sublime contemplative and a skilled di- in God, I must be understood in this sense that we are
rector of souls, spread beyond the bounds of Flanders one in love, not in essence and nature. " Despite this
and Brabant to Holland, Germany, and France. All declaration, however, and other similar saving clauses
sorts and conditions of men sought his aid and coun- scattered over his pages, some of Ruysbroeck's ex-
sel. His writings were eagerly caught up and rapidly pressions are certainly rather unusual and startling.
multiplied, especially in the cloisters of the Nether- The sublimity of his subject-matter was such that it
lands and Germany; early in the fifteenth century could scarcely be otherwise. His devoted friend,
they are to be found also in England. Among the Gerard Groote, a trained theologian, confessed to a
more famous visitors to Groenendael mention is made feeling of uneasiness over certain of his phrases and
of Tauler, but though the German preacher certainly passages, and begged him to change or modify them
knew and appreciated his writings, it is not estab- for the sake at least of the weak. Later on, Jean Ger-
lished that he ever actually saw Ruysbroeck. Ge- son and then Bossuet both professed to find traces of
rard Groote in particular venerated him as a father unconscious pantheism in his works. But as an off-
and loved him as a friend. And through Groote, set to these we may mention the enthusiastic com-
Ruysbroeck's influence helped to mould the spirit of mendations of his contem.poraries, Groote, Tauler,
the Windesheim School, which in the next generation k Kempis, Scoenhoven, and in subsequent times of the
found its most famous exponent in Thomas a Kempis. Franciscan van Herp, the Carthusians Denys and
Just now strenuous efforts are being made to discover Surius, the Carmelite Thomas of Jesus, the Benedic-
authentic Flemish MSS. of Blessed John Ruysbroeck[s tine Louis de Blois, and the Jesuit Lessius. In our
works; but up to the present the standard edition is own days Ernest Hello and especially Maeterlinck
the Latin version of Surius, all imperfect and probably have done much to make his writings known and even
incomplete as this is. Of the various treatises here popular. Andat present, particularly since his beati-
preserved, the best-known and the most characteristic fication, there is a strong revival of interest in all that
is that entitled "The Spiritual Espousals". It is di- concerns Ruysbroeck in his native Belgium.
vided into three books, treating respectively of the Aword of warning is needed against the assump-
active, the interior, and the contemplative life; and tion of some writers who would exalt the genius of
each book is subdivided into four parts working out Ruysbroeck by dwelling on what they term his illit-
the text; Ecce Sponsus venit, exile obviam ei, as fol- eracy and ignorance. As a matter of fact the works
lows: (1) Ecce, the work of the vision, man must turn of Blessed John manifest a mastery of the sacred
his eyes to God; (2) Sponsus venit, the divers com- sciences, and a considerable acquaintance even with
ings of the Bridegroom; (3) exile, the soul going forth the natural science of his day. His adaptation of the
along the paths of virtue; and finally (4) the embrace slender resources of his native tongue to the exact
of the soul and the heavenly Spouse. expression of his own unusual experiences and ideas
Literally, Ruysbroeck wrote as the spirit moved is admirable beyond praise; and though his verse is
him. He loved to wander and meditate in the soli- not of the best, his prose writings are vigorous and
tude of the forest adjoining the cloister; he was ac- chaste, and evidence not only the intellect of a meta-
customed to carry a tablet with him, and on this to jot physician, but the soul also of a true and tender poet.
down his thoughts as he felt inspired so to do. Late Blessed John's relics were carefully preserved and
in life he was able to declare that he had never com- his memory honoured as that of a saint. When Groe-
mitted aught to writing save by the motion of the nendael Priory was suppressed by Joseph II in 1783,
Holy Ghost. In no one of his treatises do we find the relics were transferred to St. Gudule's, Brussels,
anything hke a complete or detailed account of his where, however, they were lost during the French
system; perhaps, it would be correct to say that he Revolution. A
long and oft-interrupted series of at-
himself was not conscious of elaborating any system. tempts to secure official acknowledgment of his heroic
In his dogmatic writings he is emphatically a faithful virtues from Rome was crowned at length by a De-
son of the Catholic Church, explaining, illustrating, cree, 1 Dec, 1908, confirming to him under the title of
and enforcing her traditional teachings with remark- " Blessed " his cultus ab immemorabili tempore. And
able force and lucidity; this fact alone is quite suffi- the Office of the Bealus has been granted to the clergy
cient to dispose of the contention, still cherished in of Mechlin and to the Canons Regular of the Lateran.
certain quarters, that Ruysbroeck was a forerunner of No authentic portrait of Ruysbroeck is known to ex-
the Reformation, etc. In his ascetic works, his fa- ist; but the traditional picture represents him in the
vourite virtues are detachment, humility, and char- canonical habit, seated m
the forest with his writing
ity; he loves to dwell on such themes as flight from tablet on his knee, as he was in fact found one day by
the world, meditation upon the Life, especially the —
the brethren rapt in ecstasy and enveloped in flames,
Passion of Christ, abandonment to the Divine Will, which encircle without consuming the tree under
and an intense personal love of God. But naturally which he is resting.
 RUYSCH 282 RYAN
Arthur, The Frmndirs of the New Devotion (London, 1905); exercised the ministry in New Orleans, and was editor
from the Mirror of a Mystic (London, 1905);
Baillie, Reflictiorix of "The Star," a Cathohc weekly; later he founded
SotiLLT, Life of Bl. John Ruyittiroeck (London, 1910) Stoddart,
;

Ruysbroeck ami the Mi/^tics by Maurice Maeterlinck (London, "The Banner of the South" in Augusta, Ga., a reli-
IS'H); Undehhill, Mylicism (London, 1911); Auger, Etudes gious and political weekly; then he retired to Mobile.
sur les Mi/stiques des Paij^-Bns au moyen dge in Acad. Roy. de Belg., In 1880 he lectured in several Northern cities. As
torn, xlvi; Auger, De doctrina ft meritis Joannis van Ruysbroeck
(Liiavain, 1S02) Bourqignon, Le b. Jean Rusbrok (Li^ge, 1910)
;
a pulpit orator and lecturer, he was always interesting
EncelhaRdt, Richard von St. Victor und Joannes Rusbroek (Er- and occasionally brilliant. As a man he had a subtle,
langen, 1S3S) Fori, Vila e Dottrine del B. G. Rusbrochio (Rome,
;
fascinating nature, full of magnetism when he saw
1909);' Gehson, Op'Tn (Antwerp, 170S); Grube, Gerhard Groot
und seine Stiftunoen (Ooloene, 18N3); Hello, Ruysbroeck V Ad- fit to exert it; as a priest, he was full of tenderness,
mirable (Paris, 1902) Maeterlinck, L'amement des noces spiri-
; gentleness, and courage. In the midst of pestilence
luelles de Ruysbroeck V Admirable (Bruasels, 1908) Mierlo, arti-
;

he had no fear of death or disease. Even when he

cles in Dietsche Warande en Belfort, Feb.-Nov. (Antwerp, 1910)
Muller, Jan van Ruysbroeck, Van den VII Trappen (Brassels, was young his feeble body gave him the appearance
1911); Pennottus, Ordinis canonicorum historia tripartita (Co- of age, and with all this there was the dreamy mysti-
logne, 1630) FoMsmxja.'m Bollandists,toni.W; Surios, Opera
;

cism of the poet so manifest in the flesh as to impart

(Cologne, 1692); Thomas A Kempis, Opera (Freiburg, 1901);
Ullmann, Reformatoren vor der Reformation (Hamburg, 1842); to his personality something which marked him off
\'HEE3E, Jean de Ruysbroeck (Brussels, 1909); Processus, anno from all other men. His "Poems, Patriotic, Rehgious,
1634 de vita et miraculis Ruysbrochii, in Mechlin archives;
. .

Decretum Mechlin confirmationis cuUus (Rome, 1909).

and Miscellaneous" have reached a twenty-fourth
Vincent Scullt. edition.
RuTHERFORo, The South in Hist, and Lit. (Atlanta, 1907);
Manly, Southern Lit. (Richmond, 1895) Irish Monthly, xix
;

Ruysch, John, astronomer, cartographer, and (Dublin, 629).

painter, b. at ITtrecht about 1460; d. at Cologne, 1533. Hannis Taylor.
Little is known of his early life. He became a secular Ryan, Jambs. See Alton, Diocese op.
priest, but joined the Benedictine Order in the
monastery of St. Martin's at Cologne, where he Ryan, Patrick John, Bishop and second
sixth
made his profession in 1492. He devoted himself to Archbishop of Philadelphia, b. at Thurles,County
the study of astronomy and to painting, in which art Tipperary, Ireland, 20 February, 1831; d. at Phila-
delphia, 11 February, 1911. His early education
he acquired much sldll. He gave proof of his talent
was received at the school of the Christian Brothers
by decorating the refectory of the monastery with
artistic designs, representing the lunar month and the in his native town. In his twelfth year he entered
signs of the zodiac. He went to Rome about 1508 and the select school of Mr. J. L. Naughton, Richmond
received a post in the pontifical palace. While here Street, Dublin, where he began his Classical studies.
he published his famous map of the world entitled In 1844, while a pupil at Mr. Naughton's school,
"Nova et universalior orbis cogniti tabula". It con- he headed a delegation of students, and in their name
tains in particular the new Spanish and Portuguese made an address to Daniel O'Connell, then a prisoner
discoveries in America. He assisted Raphael in his in Richmond Bridewell Prison. It is said that the

great paintings in the Vatican. Leaving Rome he great Liberator comphmented the young speaker,
journeyed to Portugal, where he became known to the and predicted a briUiant future for him. In 1847
king, who esteemed him highly on account of his he was adopted for the Diocese of St. Louis in the
knowledge of astronomy and cosmography, and made United States by Archbishop Peter Richard Kenrick,
him astronomer to the fleet. He finally returned to and entered St. Patrick's College, Carlow. In 1852
Cologne and spent his last years in the monastery of he finished his course and was advanced to deacon's
his profession. He possessed considerable mechanical orders, but being too young to be ordained priest,
skill, and left a number of astronomical instruments
he set out for St. Louis with Rev. Patrick Feehan,
of his own construction. He was also the author of a suljject of the same diocese, and afterward Arch-
the " Admonitiones ad spirituaha trahentes", which bishop of Chicago, and on his arrival was appointed
he wrote in 1494, and of a treatise on the mixing of to teach in the Diocesan Seminary at Carondelet.
colours and on painting on canvas. On account of his exceptional ability as a public
Holthausen, Chronicon Breve Sti Martini apud Ubios (about speaker, Archbishop Kenrick permitted the young
1556);Hartzheim, Bibliotheca Coloniensis (174G). deacon to preach frequently in the cathedral. His
Henry M. Brock. fame went forth at once, and he drew large audiences,
made up not only of the regular members of the
Ryan, Abram J., the poet-priest of the South, b. congregation, but of the most prominent people of
at Norfolk, Va., 15 Aug., 1839; d. at Louisville, Ky., all denominations from various parts of the city
2'2 April, 188G. He inherited from his parents, in its and more distant points. On 8 September, 1853,
mcist poetic and religious form, the strange witchery by special dispensation, he was ordained priest and
of the Irish temper. Fitted for the priesthood by a was appointed assistant rector at the cathedral. He
nature at once mystic and spiritual, he was ordained served there as assistant and as rector until 1861,
just before the beginning of the Civil War, entered when he was appointed to build the Church of the
the Confederate army as a chaplain, and served in Annunciation at St. Louis. Having completed this
this capacity until the end of the war. In the hour task promptly and successfully, he was transferred
of defeat he won the heart of the entire South by to the rectorship of St. John's parish at St. Louis.
his "Conquered Banner," whose exquisite measure During all these years he was noted for his zeal in
was taken, as he told a friend, from one of the Gre- the work of the ministry, for his faithfulness in
gorian hymns. The Marseillaise, as a hymn of attending the military prisoners in Gratiot Street
victory, ne\-cr more profoundly stirred the heart of Prison during the Civil War, for the frequency and
France than did tliis hymn of defeat the hearts of effectiveness of his sermons, and for the large number
those to whom it was addressed. It was read or sung of converts, many of them persons of note, who by
in every Southern household, and thus became the his influence were brought into the Church.
ajiotheosis of the "Lost Cause". While much of his In 1866 he attended the Second Plenary Council
later war poetry was notable in its time, his first of Baltimore as one of Archbishop Kenrick's theo-
effort, which fixed his fame, was his finest production. logians, and was one of three priests chosen to preach
The only other themes upon which he sang were those on that ofcasion, the others being Archbishop John
inspired by religious feeling. Among his poems of Lancaster Spalding, and the late Rev. Isaac Hecker,
that class are to be found bits of the most weird and C.S.P. In 1868 he spent a year in Europe with
exquisite imagery. Within the limits of the Southern Archbishop Kenrick. His fame as an orator had
Confederacy and the Catholic Church in the United preceded him, and he received calls from all sides.
States, no poet was more popular. After the war he At Rome, at the request of Pope Pius IX, he deliv-
 RYDER 283 RYDER
ered the English Lenten course for thai year. Arch- of the pallium on Archbishop Corrigan, and his
bishop Kenrick appointed him vicar-general and funeral sermon; the consecration and funeral of Arch-
administrator of the diocese, during his attendance bishop Hennessy of Dubuque; and the funeral of
at the Vatican Council. On 14 February, 1872, he Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis. He addressed the
was consecrated titular Bishop of Tricomia, and St. Louis Legislature twice; opened the St. Louis
Coadjutor Bishop of St. Louis with right of suces- University on two occasions; spoke before the Com-
sion. After serving faithfully and successfully in mittee of the United States Senate on Indian affairs;
this capacity for twelve years, he was made titular opened the Republican National Convention in
Archbishop of Salamis on 6 January, 1SS4. Philadelphia in 1900, and was the principal speaker
In the meantime the See of Philadelphia had be- at the McKinley Memorial service in Philadelphia,
come vacant by the death of Archbishop Wood, and after the president's assassination.
on 8 June, 1884, Archbishop Ryan was appointed He lectured on various occasions, the most impor-
to succeed him. During his reign in Philadelphia tant of his lectures probably being on "What Cath-
the Church grew rapidly, as can be seen by the olics do not believe", St. Louis, 1877, and on "Agnos-
following table: ticism", Philadelphia, 1894. He received the degree
In 1884 In 1911 of Doctor of Laws from the University of St. Louis
Churches 127 297 and from the University of Pennsylvania. Under
his guidance the Catholic "Standard and Times"
Priests 260 582
Nuns 1020 of Philadelphia, his official organ, obtained a reputa-
2565
Schools tion unexcelled in Catholic joumahsm; and under his
59 141
Pupils editorial direction the "American Catholic Quarterly
22,000 63,612
Orphans supported 998 3,230
Review " preserved and extended the reputation which
it had already made as a leading exponent of Catholic
CathoUc population 300,000 625,000
thought. The celebrations of the Silver Jubilee of
During that time also the Roman Catholic High the archbishop in the episcopacy, 1897, and of his
School for Boys, which was endowed by Mr. Thomas Golden Jubilee in the priesthood, 1903, proved the
Cahill, was built, and put in operation; high school esteem in which he was held by the whole community,
centres for girls taught by the different communities irrespective of creed, because the whole city rejoiced;
were established; a new central high school for girls while his death showed how universally he was loved,
was partly endowed and begun; St. Francis' Indus- for the whole city wept. The archbishop was best
trial School for Boys was endowed and successfully known as an orator and a wit. He was adorned most
operated; the Philadelphia Protectory for Boys was by strong faith and piety, by great meekness and
erected: it has since been enlarged, at a. cost of over humility, and by a prudence that was far-reaching
balf a million dollars and with capacity for six hun- and admirable. He has left no pubhshed works
dred; St. Joseph's Home for Working Boys was except some lectures. These are: "Modem Reli-
founded; a new foundling asylum and maternity gious Skepticism"; "What Catholics do not Believe";
hospital was built; a new St. Vincent's Home for "Christian Civilization"; and "Agnosticism": all
younger orphan children was purchased with the are published by the Catholic Truth Society of San
archbishop's Golden Jubilee Fund of $200,000 ; a Francisco as well as by similar organizations in this
third Home for the Aged was erected; a Memorial country and London. There is a fifth lecture on
Library Building, dedicated to the Archbishop, was "Rehgion and the Fine Arts"
begun at St. Charles' Seminary, Overbrook; and the O'Hanlon, Life and Scenery in Missouri (Dublin, 1890);
Cowley, The Episcopal Silver Jubilee of the Most Reverend Patrick
three Catholic hospitals of the city doubled their John Ryan, D.D., LL.D. (Philadelphia, 1897); Kiblin, lAfe of
capacity. The extent of the archbishop's zeal is ilfos(ijei). P. /.Ki/an,D.D.,LL.Z). (Philadelphia, 1903); Tubneh,
shown by his care for the emigrants who came into The Late Archbishop Ryan in The Catholic World (April, 1911);
Halvey, Bas Le M&r Mor Cluidh, Personal Reminiscences of
the diocese during his time. In 1884 there were very Archbishop Ryan in Good Counsel Magazine (Philadelphia,
few foreign churches in the diocese; now there are March, 1911).
20 for the Itahans, 23 for the Poles, 18 for the Greeks, Jambs P. Tuknee.
15 for the Slovacs, 6 for the Lithuanians, and several
for other nationalities. Ryder, Henry Ignatius Dudley, English Orato-
The archbishop took special interest in the Indians rian priest and controversialist, b. 3 Jan., 1837; d. at
and negroes. He established two congregations for Edgbaston, Birmingham, 7 Oct., 1907; was the eldest
the latter in Philadelphia, and invited the Holy son of George Dudley Ryder, one of the numerous
Ghost Fathers to build their college and mother- clergymen of the Estabhshed Church of England who
bouse at Cornwells, near the city. Under his direc- followed in the steps of Newman. He was received
tion Mother Katharine Drexel founded the Sisters into the Cathohc Church at Rome in 1846. The grand-
of the Blessed Sacrament, who devote themselves father, Henry Dudley Ryder, a son of the first Lord
entirely to the Indians and negroes, with their mother- Harrowby, was a prominent Evangehcal in the early
house, novitiate and orphan asylum at Cornwells, years of the last century, and was the first of the party
and several convents and schools in the West and to be raised to the episcopate. He was successively
South. Another proof of this interest is found in the Bishop of Gloucester and Lichfield and Coventry. His
archbishop's attendance at the Lake Mohonk con- kneeling statue by Chantrey will be remembered by all
ferences, and at the meetings of the U. S. Indian visitors of Lichfield cathedral. Newman, in his "Apol-
Commission, to which he had been appointed by ogia", speaks of the veneration in which he held
President Roosevelt. By his prudence and tact he Bishop Ryder. George Ryder married Sophia, a
removed much prejudice against the Church, and daughter of the Rev. John Sargent. The three other
obtained special privileges for Cathohcs in public Misses Sargent married respectively Samuel Wilber-
institutions. His great reputation as an orator force, who became Bishop, first of Oxford, and then of
brought him invitations to speak, not only at the Winchester; Henry Wilberforce; and Henry Edward
most important ecclesiastical functions, but also Manning, the future cardinal and Archbishop of
on secular occasions. In addition to his monthly Westminster.
sermons, in St. Louis on the first Sunday, and in Father Ryder's lifelong connexion with Newman
Philadelphia on the second, he preached frequently and the Oratory began as a private pupil, when he
at the laying of comer-stones, at the consecration of was about twelve years old. The only interruption
bishops, and churches, and at funerals. Some of was a year at the English College at Rome and a few
the more remarkable instances were the dedication months at the Catholic University at Dublin, of
of St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, the conferring which Newman was rector, before he began in
 RYKEN 284 RYKEN
December, 1856, his Oratorian novitiate. In 1863 Infallible Instruction'' (London, 1868); "Post-
he was ordained priest. After Cardinal Newman's scriptum to Letter, etc." (London, 1868); "A Cri-
death he was elected superior of the Birmingham tique upon Mr. Foulkes' Letter" (London, 1869)-
Oratory and held this office till his health gave "Cathohc Controversy", a reply to Littledale's
way. He was the last survivor of "my dearest "Plain Reasons" (London, 1880); "Poems Original
brothers of this House, the Priests of the Birming- and Translated" (Dubhn, 1882). There is besides
ham Oratory" to whom Newman dedicated his "Essays of the Rev. H. I. D. Ryder, edited by Francis
"Apologia". His grave is with theirs and Cardinal Bacchus" (London, 1911). "His literary ideal"
Newman's at Rednal, a small country house belong- writes Mr. Wilfrid Ward, "was so high; his self-
ing to the Birmingham Oratory, about seven miles criticism so unsparing, that much which might have
from Birmingham. His life was uneventful. He cared secured him a wider reputation was set aside. Quan-
Uttle for notoriety tity was sacrificed in preference to letting the world
or even fame. see anything which he himself felt to fall short of his
Once only did he own high standard in quality."
push himself for- Wilfrid Ward, Father Ignatius Ryder in The Dublin Review
(January, 1898), republished in Idem, Ten Personal Studies
ward, and then (London, 1908); Chapman, Dr. Ryder's Essays in The Dublin
it was to incur Review (April, 1911).
obloquy rather J. F. Bacchus.
than applause.
This was in 1867- Ryken, Theodore James, known as Bhothee
8, when he at-
Francis Xavier, founder of the Xaverian Brothers,
tacked W. G. b. at Elshout, North Brabant, Holland, 30 August,
Ward, at that time 1797; d. at Bruges, 1871. His parents, who were
editor of "The devout CathoUcs, died while he was yet a child, and
Dublin Review", a pious uncle reared him. Even in youth he loved
and a leading spirit works of charity and zeal, and at nineteen he became
among an influen- a catechist. At twenty-five he became secretary to
tial section of a well-known convert, M. Le Sage-ten-Broek, and
English Catholics acted in that capacity for four years, until cholera
who were singu- jaroke out at Groningen. While helping to nurse the
larly intolerant to- patients, he caught the infection, and came near to
wards those who death. In 1826 he made a pilgrimage to Rome, and
Henry Ignatius Dudley Ryder differed from Leo XII gave him a medal in commemoration. He
t hem . Ward made a second visit in 1838, and had an audience with
seemed to think of the pope as unceasingly exer- Gregory XVI. In 1827 he entered a Trappist mon-
cising his very highest prerogative. All doctrinal astery in Germany but, as his confessor told him that
instructions contained in papal documents, such God had other designs for him, his stay was short.
as encyclicals and the like were infalhble utter- Ryken came America in 1831, and remained for
to
ances. The Syllabus, together with all the documents three years. His observations in the United States
which it quotes, was certainly infallible. So also, convinced him that Catholic teachers were needed,
most probably, were the doctrinal Decrees of the Index and, returning to Europe, he planned to establish a
and the Holy Office, when sanctioned by the pope and teaching institute. In 1837 he returned to America
promulgated by his order. These opinions were put and obtained written approval from seven bishops.
forward not tentatively, but as the only possible ones Thereupon he asked permission from Bishop Boussen,
for a loyal Catholic. In other words, the doctrine of Bruges, to found a congregation. The bishop con-
of InfallibiUty was caricatured by its would-be de- sented, but, before the actual foundation, required
fender in almost exactly the same way that it was Ryken to pass a year's novitiate, which he fulfilled
caricatured a few years later by the Old Cathohc with the Redemptorists.
Schulte (see Fbssler). Against these extravagances The Xaverian Brothers (q. v.) were established at
Ryder delivered his protest in three pamphlets, re- Bruges in 1839. The beginning was hard, the founder
markable both for their Uterary style and the theo- having, with two or three companions, to struggle
logical knowledge they displayed. He earned for his against disheartening obstacles. Courage and energy
reward, as he himself in later years expressed it, came brighter days.
prevailed, and after a few years
"the prophet's portion of stones"; but time has Brother Francis pronounced the vows of religion in
shown that he was mainly in the right; within a very 1846. In 1860, after holding the office of Superior
few years his opponent had to retract many of his General of the Xaverians for twenty-seven years, he
more pronounced opinions in deference to the teach- was relieved of his duties on account of failing
ing of Roman theologians. It should be added that strength. At the time of his death the Xaverians
Ryder fully b('lie\-ed in the doctrine of Papal InfaUi- were firmly settled in Belgium, England, and the
bility before it was defined. United States. In Ryken's character the conspicuous
His literary output was small. Apart from a traits were optimistic faith, rigour towards self, and
number of articles in American and EngUsh magazines, zeal for the observance of the rule.
he published "Idealism in Theology, a Review of Dr. Brother Francis Xavier {Theodore James Ryken): A Life
Skrtch (Baltimore, 1904); Van Touhnhoxtt, Fragments from the
Ward's Scheme of Dogmatic Authority" (London, History of the Xaverian Brothers (Baltimore, 1011).
1S07); "A Letter to W. G. Ward on his Theory of Brother Isidore.
 Sa (Saa), Manoel de, a Portuguese theologian and as ambassador to Naples where he remained until
exegete, b. at Villa do Conde (Province Entre-Minho- 1850. Besides being a poet of great merit, Saavedra
e-Douro), 1530; d. at Arona (Italy), 30 Dec, 1596. had considerable skill as a painter, and during his
He distinguished himself as a student at the Univer- exile in France, earned a living for himself and family
sity of Coimbra, and at the age of fifteen joined the by conducting a school for painting and by selling
Society of Jesus. He soon afterwards taught philos- his pictures. But it is as a poet that he is best known.
ophy, first at Coimbra, and next at Gandia, where he He published his first volume of "Poesias" in 1813
also acted as tutor to St. Francis Borgia, then Duke and in 1814, two tragedies, "AUatur" and "El
of Gandia. In 1557, he became one of the early pro- Duque de Aquitania". Only the first was presented.
fessors of the Roman College, and commented for two The works which place him in the front rank of
years on the prophecies of Osee and the "Summa" Spanish poets are "El moro exp6sito", a narrative
of St. Exhausted by his labours, he discon-
Thomas. poem breathing a spirit of patriotism (1834), and the
tinued his lectures, and visited the houses of the tragedy "Don Alvaro" (1835), presented with great
Society in Tuscany. Restored to health, he returned success in Madrid and considered his best work. A
to the Roman College, where he filled the chair of complete edition of his works was pubhshed (5
exegesis, and found time to give missions in various vols., Madrid, 1854), under the title "Obras Com-
places, preaching with an eloquence truly apostolic. pletas", and in 1885 a complete edition with illus-
His reputation for scholarship induced Pius v to ap- trations appeared at Barcelona in two volumes.
point him as a member of the commission in charge of De Bena in La Biblioteca de Autores Espafloles, II (Madrid,
1848); Canbte, Autares dramdticos conteinpordneos, I (Madrid,
preparing the authentic edition of the Septuagint. 1881).
This did not prevent him from continuing his apos- Vbntuba Ftjentes.
tolic labours and from founding several houses of his
order in Upper Italy. After residing for a time at
Genoa, he withdrew to the professed house of Arona
—
Saba and Sabeans. This Saba (Sheba) must not
be confounded with Saba (Seba) in Ethiopia of Is.,
(Diocese of Milan), where he died. His exegetical xliii, 3; xlv, 14. It lies in the Southern Arabian
works are: "Scholia in QuatuorEvangelia" (Antwerp, J6f about 200 miles north-west of Aden. The
1596) and Notationes in totam Scripturam Sacram
' '
, '
Sabeans are mentioned in the Bible as a distant
(Antwerp, 1598), both of which passed through several people (Joel, iii, 8), famous traders (Ez., xxvii, 22-3;
editions. However short, Sa's annotations clearly xxxviii, 13; Job, vi, 19), who exported gold (Is.,
set forth the Uteral sense of Holy Writ, and bespeak Ix, 6; Ps., Ixxii, 15 (R. V.); Ez., xxxviii, 13), precious
a solid erudition, despite a few inaccuracies which stones (Ez., xxvii, 22), perfumes (Jer., vi, 20), incense
have been sharply rebuked by Protestant critics. . (Is., Ix, 6), and perhapsslaves (Joel, ibid.), and prac-
His theological treatise entitled "Aphorismi Con- tised brigandage. The genealogies of Genesis con-
fessariorum ex Doctorum
sententiis coUecti" (Venice, nect them now with Dadan, as sons of Regma (x,
1595), however remarkable, was censured in 1603, 7; of. I Par., i, 9) and of Jecsan (xxv, 3; cf. I Par.,
apparently because the Master of the Sacred Palace i, 32), now with Asarmoth (Hadhram6t), as sons of
treated some of its maxims as contrary to opinions Jecsan (x, 26-8, cf., I Par., i, 20-22). These details
commonly received among theologians, but it was point to two Sabas, one in the south contiguous to
later corrected and has recently been removed from Hadhramot, another in the north near Taima (Job,
the Roman Index (1900). Sa's life of John of Texeda, i, 15; vi, 19) and El 'Ela (of. "Comptes rendus de
the Capuchin confessor of St. Francis of Borgia, when I'AcadSmie des Inscriptions" etc., June, 1910); but
Duke of Gandia, has not been published. which was the original home of the Sabeans, cannot
De Backeb, Bihlioth. des Ecrivains de la CoTnpagnie de Jisus yet be decided. Hommel indeed places it in the north,
(Lifige, 1853); Huhter, Nomenclator (Innsbruck, 1907).
Francis E. Gigot. near Idumean Dedan, and identifies it with Aribi-
Yareb (whose queens figure in Assyrian inscriptions),
Saavedra Remirez de Baquedano, Angel de, with the Saba, whose queen visited Solomon (III
Spanish poet and statesman, b. at Cordova, 10 Kings, x), which is probably mentioned as tributary
March, 1791; Madrid, 22 June, 1865. He was
d. at to Theglathphalasar III (745-27 B. c), and whose
the second son of Juan Martin de Saavedra, Duque de ruler, Ithamara, paid tribute to Sargon in 715 B. c.
Rivas, and succeeded to the title upon the death Thence (according to Glaser) the Sabeans moved
without issue of his elder brother in 1834. At eleven south in the eighth or ninth century and estab-
he entered the Seminario de Nobles at Madrid but lished their kingdom on the ruins of the Minaean
left at sixteen to join the army. From 1808 to 1813 power. This theory is plausible and solves the dif-
he took an active part in the Spanish War of In- ficulty of III Kings, x; but the identification of Saba
dependence. From 1813 to 1820 he lived quietly with Aribi-Yareb is arbitrary, and all present evi-
in Seville, devoting his time to literary pursuits, and dence disproves the existence of kings in Saba till
from 1820 to 1823 he distinguished himself as a much later. Sargon, who lavishes the title of King
member of the Cortes. He sided with the revolu- on his tributaries, refuses it to Ithamara, the Yetha-
tionary party, and as a, result, when Ferdinand VII mara of Sabean inscriptions, and these inscriptions
came into power, he was forced to flee, escaping with point to u, long period of rule by Mukarribs (priest-
difficulty to Gibraltar. From there he proceeded to kings), ten of whose names have been preserved.
London, and later to Malta where he remained five Their capital was Qirwah. Authorities agree in
years during which he continued his literary activities, dating their rule from the beginning of the tenth
and then went to live in France. Upon the death of century b. c, and in making the advent of the kings
Ferdinand VII, he was able to return to Spain(1834). contemporaneous with the destruction of the Minsean
In 1836, he became minister of the interior in the kingdom. Here agreement ceases. Glaser, o. g.
cabinet headed by Isturiz, and in 1844 he was sent dates the Sabean kings from 820, MilUer from 750,
285
 SABAISM 286 SABBAS
and they can certainly not be placed later than 500 in gilt images of the object, and one king dedicated
B. c, since at least seventeen of them reigned before as many as thirty golden (gilt?) statues on one oc-
115 B. c. At that date a new era begins. The casion. We
can only make a passing allusion to the
Himyarites (Homeritit of classical geography) over- predominant influence attributed by some savants
threw in that year the Kingdom of Saba, and founded to Southern Arabia on the formation of the Mosaic
the "Kingdom of Saba and Raidan". In 25 B. c. institutions. Especial stress is laid on the Arabian
the army of ^Elius Gallus failed miserably before the origin of the Divine name and of many religious terms
walls of Marib, the Sabean capital. About a. d. 300 on the scruple of the Arabians about using the
the ever-increasing Abyssinian immigrants over- Divine name, their designation of priests as Lentes
threw the Himyarite dynasty, and inaugurated the their laws of ceremonial purity, their imageless wor-
"Kingdom of Saba, Raidan, Hadhramot, and ship, their sin-offerings etc., especially when viewed
Yemen", which, after yielding place for an interval in the light of Abraham's ancestry, and of the inti-
to a Judseo-Sabean kingdom and violent religious mate connexion of Moses with Midian. Apart, how-
persecution (cf. Pereira, "Historia dos Martyres de ever, from the fact that the question belongs to the
Nagran", Lisbon, 1899), was re-established by Minaean rather than to the Sabean problem, the
Byzantine intervention in 525. After the rout of rriaterials at present at our disposal do not warrant
the Viceroy Abraha at Mecca in 570, the Persians any probable solution of the question.
seized their opportunity, and Southern Arabia be- Claasical Geographers: Gl.a.ser, Skizze der Geschichte u. Geo-
came a Persian province graphi€ Arabiens (Berlin, 1890). Arabic Geographers: see espe-
till its incorporation in
cially AIuLLEE, Die Burgen u. SchWsser Sudarabiens nach dem IklU
Islam. (/<'.s- Hnmddni (Vienna, 1879). Sabean Inscriptions: Corpus Inscr.
Modern discoveries confirm the classical and Semil., IV
(Munich, 1892);
(Paris, — Hommel, Siidarabische Chrestomathie
18S9 );
Muller and Mordtmann, Sabdiscke
Biblical accounts of Sabean prosperity. Ruins Denk-
maler (Vienna, 1883) Muller, Siidarabische Altcrthilmer im
;

of fortresses and walled towns, of temples and irri- Kunsthistorische Ho/mtisevm (Vienna, 1889).
gation-works, cover the land. Of the immense dams General Reference: Hommel, Aufsdize u. Abhandlungen (Mu-
the most famous is that of the capital, Marib, which nich, 1892) Weber, Arahien vor dem Islam (Leipzig, 1901):
;

Idem, SlLulien zur Swlarfih. Altertumskunde, I-III (Berlin

did service, after repeated restoration, down to the 1901-7); Grimme, Mohammed (Munster, 1S9.5); K6nig, Ftinf
sixth century of our era. Thanks to irrigation, ne>i,e Lnndschaflenamen im a. Tefjt. (Berlin, 1902); Hartmann
agriculture flourished. Gold, too, abounded, with Dir islamisehe Orient, II (Leipzig, 1909) ; Hastings, Diet, of the
Bible.
silver and precious spices. Brigandage reinforced For Biblical Aspect: Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition (New
the natural products. But the chief source of wealth York and London, 1897) Idem in Hilprecht, Explorations in
;

was the trade route from India to Egypt and Northern Bible Lands (Edinburgh, 1903), 741-52; Laxdsdorfer, Die
Bibel u. die siidarab. Aliertumsforschung (Miinster, 1910)'
Ssrria, which passed through the Sabean capital Ghimme in Zeitschrift der morgenldndiscken Geschichte, LXl'
(cf. MilUer, "Der Islam im Morgen- und Abend- 38 sqq.
land", I, 24 sqq.). Accordingly, when, in the first Sabtean Religion: Nielsen, Die altarab. Mondreligion
(.Strasburg, 1904); Idem, Der Sabdische Gott Il-Makah (Leioziiz
century after Christ, the Ptolemies exchanged the 1910). ^ ''

Southern Arabian route for a direct road from Modern Explorations: Hommel in Hilprecht, 697-726;op. cit.,
Alexandria to Egjrpt, the decline of Sabean pros- Weber, Forschungsreisen in SUdarabien bis zum Auftreien Glaser's
(Leipzig, 1906) Idem, E. Glasers Forschungsreisen in SUdarabien
perity began. Thus the bursting of the dam of (Leipzig, 1908).
;

Marib was the consequence, not, as Arabic legend pre- J. A. Hartigan.

tended, the cause, of the disintegration of the Sabean Sabaisiu. See Nasor^ans.
tribes. The Sabean polity seems to have been based
on the feudal system. Two kings appear to have Sabaoth (mXJiJ, plur. of N2^J =host or army).— The
shared the supreme power, but the monarchy was word is used almost exclusively in conjunction with

not hereditary, and passed on the king's death to the the Divine name as a title of majesty: "the Lord of
first male born during the reign to one of the leading Hosts", or "the Lord God of Hosts". The origin
families. The heads of these families shared with and precise signification of the title are matters of
the king the exclusive right to sanction the building more or less plausible conjecture. According to some
of castles, and are even called kings of their own tribes. scholars the "hosts" represent, at least primitively,
—
Of other magistrates e. g. the eponymous magis- the armies of Israel over whom Jehovah exercised a
trates —we know little more than the names. A wide protecting influence. Others opine that the word
refers to the hosts of heaven, the angels, and by meta-
principle of individual equality seems to have pre-
vailed; strangers were admitted as clients; slaves phor to the stars and entire universe (cf. Gen., ii, 1).
abounded. Women appear to have enjoyed equal In favour of the latter view is the fact that the title
rights with their consorts and are sometimes called does not occur in the Pentateuch or Josue though the
"mistress of the castle" Concubinage prevailed, armies of Israel are often mentioned, while it is quite
but not polygamy. Sabean art has in some respects common in the prophetic writings where it would
meritetl high praise, but it lacks originality-, and be- naturally have the more exalted and universal mean-
trays at different jjeriods the influence of the sur- ing.
rounding civilizations. The coins, the king's head VON Hummelauer, Comment, in Genesim, ii, 1; Vigouroux,
Diet, de la Bible, s. v.
with an owl on the re\-erse, are sometimes of fine
workmanship (cf. Schlumberger, "Le tr&or de San'a Jaiies F. Driscoll.
Dans", 18,S0). The earliest date from the fifth Sabbas (Sabas), Saint, hermit, b. at Mutalaska
century b. c. Main- recent writers attribute to the near Caesarea in Cappadocia, 439; d. in his laura 5
Saljeans the invention of the Semitic alphabet.
Dec, 532. He entered a Basilian monastery at the
The supreme god of Saba was Il-Mukah, to whom age of eight, came to Jerusalem in 456, lived five years
was joined in the inferior capacity of spouse or daugh- in a cavern as a disciple of St. Euthymius, and, after
ter, the sun-goddess Shamsh. Other deities were spending some time in various monasteries, founded
Athtar,^ the morning or evening star, Ta'lab, "Patron
(483) the Laura Mar Saba (restored in 1840) in the
of Riyam", Haubas, Rammam, and others names
which may be merely epithets of the moon-god.
— gorges of the Cedron, south-east of Jerusalem. Be-
cause some of his monks opposed his rule and demanded
Submission towards and intimate affinity to the deitv a priest as their abbot. Patriarch Salustius of
is the characteristic of the Sabean
religion. The Jerusalem ordained him in 491 and appointed him
inscriptions commemorate gratitude for success in archimandrite of all the monasteries in Palestine
arms, "man-slaying", health, preservation, safe re- in 494. The opposition continuecl and he withdrew
turn, booty, and rich crops. Worshippers offer to to the new laura which he had built near Thekoa.
the gods themseh-es and their children, register vows
A strenuous opponent of the Monophysites and the
and attest their fulfilment. \'ot ive offerings consisted Origenists he tried to influence the emperors against
 SABBATARIANS 287 SABBATH
them by calling personally on Emperor Anastasius at Sabbatarian Baptists in London. He suffered im-
Constantinople in 511 and on Justinian in 531. His prisonment for his heterodoxy and eventually died in
authorship of "Typicon S. Sab£e" (Venice, 1545), a Newgate. In America the Baptists who profess Sab-
regulation for Divine worship throughout the year, batarianism are known as Seventh-Day Baptists.
as well as his authorship of a monastic rule bearing But if the greater number of Sabbatarians have
the same title (Kurtz in "Byzant. Zeitschrift", III, come from the Baptists, the most amazing of them
Leipzig, 1894, 167-70), is doubtful. After him was was at one time associated with the Wesleyan Metho-
named the Basilica of St. Sabas with its former monas- dists. This was the prophetess Joanna Southcott
tery on the Aventine at Rome. His feast is on 5 (1750-1814), like Bampfield a native of Devonshire,
December. Other saints of this name are: St. who composed many spiritual poems and prophetical
Sabbas, a Goth, martyred 12 April, 372, by being writings, and became the mother of a sect of Sabba^
drowned in the Musteus, a tributary of the Danube; known as Southcottians or Joannas.
tarians, also
St. Sabbas, also a Goth, martyred with about Modern Englishmen who are apt to smile at medieval
seventy others at Rome, under Aurelian; St. JuUanus credulity can scarcely find in Catholic countries in
Sabbas, a hermit near Edessa, d. about 380; St. the "darkest" days of ignorance any instance of a
Sabbas the Younger, a Basilian abbot, d. 6 Feb., more amazing credulity than that of Joanna South-
990 or 991, at the monastery of St. Csesarius in Rome; cott's disciples, who confidently awaited the birth of
St. Sabbas, Archbishop of Servia, d. at Trnawa, the promised Messiah whom the prophetess of sixty-
14 January, 1237. four was to bring into the world. They gave practical
A Life in Greek by Cyril op Sctthopolis was edited by proof of their faith by preparing a costly cradle.
CoTELiEK in Eccl. Grcecce Monum., Ill (Paris, 1686), 220-376, Nor did they abandon all hope when the poor deluded
and by Ponjalovskij together with an Old-Slavonian version
(St. Petersburg, 1890); another old Life in Greek was edited by
woman died of the disease which had given a false
KoiKLYDES (Jerusalem, 1905). MiCHAEL OtT. appearance of pregnancy. The sect survived for
many years; and when in 1874 her tombstone was
Sabbatarians, Sabbatarianism (Heb. n'S) rest). shattered by an accidental explosion, the supposed
—The name, as appears from its origin, denotes those portent re-enkindled the faith of her followers.
individuals or parties who are distinguished by some The American sect of Seventh-Day Adventists may
peculiar opinion or practice in regard to the observ- be added to the list of Sabbatarian communities, among
ance of the Sabbath or day of rest. In the first which their large numbers should give them a con-
place it is applied to those rigorists who apparently spicuous place. To these may be added the Jewish
confound the Christian Sunday with the Jewish sect of Sabbatarians, though these derive their name
Sabbath and, not content with the prohibition of not from the Sabbath, but from their founder, Sab-
servile work, will not allow many ordinary and inno- batian Zebi or Zevi (1626-76). His teaching was
cent occupations on the Sunday. This form of not concerned with any special observance of the
Sabbatarianism has chiefly prevailed among Scottish Sabbath, but as a form of false Messianism it may be
and English Protestants and was at one time very compared with the mission of Joanna Southcott.
common. Of late years it has sensibly declined; and The two stories show some strange points of resem-
there is now a tendency towards the opposite extreme blance especially in the invincible credulity of the
of laxity in observing the law of Sunday rest. These disciples of the pretended Jewish Messiah and of the
Sabbatarians never formed a distinct sect; but were deluded Devonshire prophetess. (See bibliography
merely a party of rigorists scattered among many and of Adventists.)
various Protestant denominations. At the same W. H. Kent.
time it is not only in their name that they have some-
thing in common with the distinctive sects of Sab- Sabbath (."32), shdbbdth, cessation, rest; Gr. ird^^a-
batarians properly so-called, for their initial error Toii;Lat. sabbatum), theseventh day of the week among
in neglecting the distinction between the Christian the Hebrews, the day being counted from sunset to
weekly festival and the Jewish Sabbath is likewise sunset, that is, from Friday evening to Saturday
the starting-point of the Sabbatarian sects; and these
carry their mistaken principle to its logical conclusion.
evening. Prescriptions concerning the Sabbath. —The
Sabbath was a day of rest "sanctified to the Lord"
This logical development of judaizing Sabba- (Ex., xvi, 23; xxxi, 15; Deut., v, 14). All work
tarianism- is curiously illustrated in the history of a was forbidden, the prohibition including strangers
sect of Sabbatarian Socinians founded in Transylvania as well as Israelites, beasts as well as men (Ex., xx,
in Hungary towards the end of the sixteenth century. 8-10; xxxi, 13-17; Dent., v, 12-14). The following
Their first principle, which led them to separate from particular actions are mentioned as forbidden: cook-
the rest of the Unitarian body, was their belief that ing (Ex., xvi, 23); gathering manna (xvi, 26 sqq.);
the day of rest must be observed with the Jews on plowing and reaping (xxxiv, 21); fighting a fire
the seventh day of the week and not on the Christian (for cooking, xxxv, 3); gathering wood (Num., xv,
Sunday. And as we learn from Schrodl the greater 32 sqq.) carrying burdens (Jer., xvii, 21-22) press-
;
;

part of this particular Sabbatarian sect joined the ing grapes, bringing in sheaves, and loading animals
orthodox Jews in 1874, thus carrying out in practice (II Esd., xhi, 15) trading (ibid., 15 sqq.). Travelling,
;

the judaizing principle of their founders. Although at least with a reUgious object, was not forbidden, the
there does not seem to be any immediate or obvious prohibition of Ex., xvi, 29, referring only to leaving
connexion between the observance of the seventh day the camp to gather food; it is implied in the institu-
and the rejection of infant baptism, these two errors tion of holy assembUes (Lev., xxiii, 2-3, Heb. text),
in doctrine and discipline are often found together. and was customary in the time of the kings (IV Kings,
Thus Sabbatarianism made many recruits among the iv, 23) . At a later period, however, all movement was
Mennonite Anabaptists in Holland and among the restricted to a distance of 2000 cubits (between five
English Baptists who, much as they differ on other and six furlongs), ora " sabbath day's journey " (Acts,
points of doctrine, agree in the rejection of paedo- i, 12). Total abstention from work was prescribed
baptism. And it is presumably a result of this con- only for the Sabbath and the Day of Atonement on ;

tact with Anabaptism that Sabbatarianism is also the other feast-days servile work alone was prohibited
found in association with fanatical views on political (Ex., xii, 16; Lev., xxiii, 7 sqq.). Wilful violation of
or social questions. The most conspicuous of English the Sabbath was punished with death (Ex., xxxi,
Sabbatarian Baptists was Francis Bampfield (d. 1683), 14-15; Num., xv, 32-36). The prohibition of work
brother of a Devonshire baronet and originally a made it necessary to prepare food, and whatever might
clergyman of the English Church. He was the author be needed, the day before the Sabbath, hence known
of several works and ministered to a congregation of as the day of preparation, or Parasceve {irapaffKevfi;
 SABBATH 288 SABBATH
Matt., xxvii, 62; Mark, xv, 42; etc.). Besides ab- was the 49th (7 x 7) day from the beginning of the
stention from work, special religious observances preceding month, as days on which the king, the
were prescribed, (a) The daily sacrifices were magician, and the physician were to abstain from cer-
doubled, that is two lambs of a year old without tain acts. The king, for instance, was not to eat food
blemish were offered up in the morning, and two in prepared with fire, put on bright garments, ride in a
the evening, with twice the usual quantity of flour chariot, or exercise acts of authority. These days
tempered with oil and of the wine of Ubation (Num., were, then, days of propitiation, and therefore
xxviii, 3-10). (b) New loaves of proposition were shabattu days. We have thus periods cf seven days
placed before the Lord (Lev., xxiv, 5; I Par., ix, 32). the last day of which is marked by abstention from
(c) A sacred assembly was to be held in the sanctuary certain actions, and called shabattu, in other words
for solemn worship (Lev., xxiii, 2-8, Heb. text; Ezech., the equivalent of the Sabbath. A Babylonian ori-
xlvi, 3). We have no details as to what was done by gin is not in itself improbable, since Chaldea was the
those living at a distance from the sanctuary. Syna- original home of the Hebrews, but there is no proof
gogal worship belongs to the post-Exihc period; still that such is actually the case. The reading shabattu
it is probably a development of an old custom. In is uncertain, shapattu being at least equally probable.

earUer days the people were wont to go to hear the Besides, there is no evidence that these days were
instructions of the Prophets (IV Kings, iv, 23), and it called shabattu; the signs so read are found affixed
is not unlikely that meetings for edification and prayer only to the 15th day of the month, where, however,
were common from the oldest times. sha patti, "division" of the month, is the more
—
Meaning of the Sabbath. The Sabbath was the con- probable reading. These days, moreover, differed
secration of one day of the weekly period to God as entirely from the Sabbath. They were not days of
the Author of the universe and of time. The day thus general rest, business being transacted as on other
being the Lord's, it required that man should abstain days. The abstention from certain acts had for
from working for his own ends and interests, since by object to appease the anger of the gods; the days
working he would appropriate the day to himself, were, therefore, days of penance, not of joy like the
and that he should devote his activity to God by Sabbath. Lastly, these days followed the phases
special acts of positive worship. After the Sinaitic of the moon, whereas the Sabbath was independent
covenant God stood to Israel in the relation of Lord of them. Since the Sabbath always appears as a
of that covenant. The Sabbath thereby also became weekly feast without connexion with the moon, it
a sign, and its observance an acknowledgment of the cannot be derived, as is done by some writers, from
pact: "See that thou keep my sabbath: because it is the Babylonian feast of the full moon, or fifteenth
me and you in your generations: that
a sign between day of the month, which, moreover, has only a
you may know that I am the Lord, who sanctify you" doubtful claim to the designation shabattu.
(Ex., xxxi, 13). But while the Sabbath was primarily Observance of the Sabbath. — Violations of the Sab-
a religious day, it had a social and philanthropic side. bath seem to have been rather common before and
It was also intended as a day of rest and relaxation, during the exile (Jer., xvii, 19 sqq., Ezech., xx, 13,
particularly for the slaves (Deut., v, 14). Because 16, 21, 24; xxii, 8; xxiii, 3.S); hence the Prophets
of the double character, religious and philanthropic, laid great stress on its proper observance (Amoa,
of the day, two different reasons are given for its viii, 5; Is., i, 13; Iviii, 13-14; Jer., loc. cit.; Ezech.,
observance. The first is taken from God's rest on. xx, 12 sqq.). After the Restoration the day was openly
the seventh day of creation: "For in six days the profaned, and Nehemias found some difficulty in
Lord made heaven and earth, and rested
. . . stopping the abuse (II Esd., xiii, 15-22). Soon,
on the seventh day: therefore the Lord blessed the however, a movement set in towards a meticuloua
seventh day, and sanctified it" (Ex., xx, 11; xx.xi, 17). observance which went far beyond what the law con-
This does not mean that the Sabbath was instituted templated. At the time of the Machabees the faith-
at the Creation, as some commentators have thought, ful Jews allowed themselves to be massacred rather
but that the Israelites were to imitate God's example than fight on the Sabbath (I Mach., ii, 35-38) Matha-
;

and rest on the day which He had sanctified by His thias and his followers realizing the folly of such a
rest. The Sabbath as the sign of the Sinaitic covenant policy decided to defend themselves if attacked on the
recalled the deUverance from the bondage of Egjrpt. Sabbath, though they would not assume the offensive
Hence, in the second place, the Israelites are bidden (I Mach., ii, 40-41 II Mach., viii, 26).
; Under the in-
to remember that they were once slaves in Egypt, and fluence of Pharisaic rigorism a system of minute and
should therefore in grateful remembrance of their burdensome regulations was elaborated, while the
deliverance rest themselves and allow their bond- higher purpose of the Sabbath was lost sight of. The
servants to rest (Deut., v, 14, 15). As a reminder of Mishna treatise Shabbath enumerates thirty-nine main
God's benefits to Israel the Sabbath was to be a day heads of forbidden actions, each with subdivisions.
of joy (Is., Iviu, 13), and such it was in practice (cf. Among the main heads are such trifling actions as
Osee, ii, 11; Lam., ii, 6). No fasting was done on weaving two threads, sewing two stitches, writiiig two
the Sabbath (Judith, vm, 6), on the contrary the letters, etc. To pluck two ears of wheat was considered
choicest meals were served to which friends were in- as reaping, while to rub them was a species of thresh-
vited (cf. Luke, xiv, 1). ing (cf. Matt., xii, 1-2; Mark, ii, 23-24; Luke, vi, 1-2).
—
Origin of the Sabbath. The Sabbath is first met To carry a)n object of the weight of a fig was carrying a
with in connexion with the fall of the manna (Ex., burden; hence to carry a bed (John, v, 10) was a gross
xvi, 22 sqq.), but it there appears as an institution breach of the Sabbath. It was unlawful to cure on the
already known to the Israehtes. The Sinaitic legis- Sabbath, or to apply a remedy unless life was endan-
lation therefore only gave the force of law to an exist- gered (cf. Matt., xii, 10 sqq.; Mark, iii, 2 sqq.; Luke,
ing custom. The origin of this custom is involved vi, 7 sqq.). This explains why the sick were brought
in obscurity. It was not borrowed from the Egyp- to Christ after sundown (Mark, i, 32) It was even for-
.

tians, as the week of seven days closing with a bidden to use a medicament the preceding day if it
day of rest was unknown to them. In recent years produced its effect on the Sabbath. In the time of
a Babylonian origin has been advocated. A lexi- Christ it was allowed to lift an animal out of a pit
cographical tablet gives shabattu as the equivalent (Matt., xii, 11; Luke, xiv, 5), but this was later
of dm niXh libbi, "day of the appeasement of the modified so that it was not permitted to lay hold of
heart" (of the gods). Furthermore, a refigious it and Uft it out, though it might be helped to come
calendar of the intercalarj- month Elul and of the out of itself by means of mattresses and cushions.
month Marchesvan mentions the 7th, 14th, 21st, These examples, and they are not the worst, show
2sth, and 19th days, the latter probably because it the narrowness of the system. Some of the rules
 SABBATH 289 SABBATINE
were, however, found too burdensome, and a treatise the gates, that they might know, and fear the Lord,
of the Mishna (Erubin) tempers their rigour by subtle and fulfill all the words of the Law (Deut., xxxi, 10-
devices. 13). The law concerning the release of Hebrew
—
The Sabbath in the New Testament. Christ, while slaves in the seventh year (Ex., xxi, 2 sqq.; Deut.,
observing the Sabbath, set himself in word and act XV, 12 sqq.) is wrongly connected by some writers
against this absurd rigorism which made man a with the sabbatical year. That there was no special
slave of the day. He reproved the scribes and connexion between the two is sufficiently shown by
Pharisees for putting an intolerable burden on men's the requirement of six years of servitude, the be-
shoulders (Matt., xxiii, 4), and proclaimed the prin- ginning of which was not affixed to any particular
ciple that "the sabbath was made for man, and not year, and by the law prescribing the liberation of
man for the sabbath" (Mark, ii, 27). He cured on Hebrew slaves in the year of jubilee, which imme-
the Sabbath, and defended His disciples for plucking diately followed the seventh sabbatical year (Lev.,
ears of corn on that day. In His arguments with the XXV, 39 sqq.).
Pharisees on this account He showed that the Sab- Since the sabbatical year was preceded by six
bath is not broken in cases of necessity or by acts of sowings and six harvests (Ex., xxiii, 10), it began with
charity (Matt., xii, 3 sqq. Mark, ii, 25 sqq. Luke, vi,
; ; autumn, the time of sowing, and probably coincided
3 sqq.; xiv, 5). St. Paul enumerates the Sabbath with the civil year, which began with the month of
among the Jewish observances which are not obligatory Tishri (Sept.-Oet.); some commentators, however,
on Christians (Col., ii, 16; Gal., iv, 9-10; Rom., xiv, think that like the year of jubilee it began on the
6). The gentile converts held their religious meetings tenth of the month. The year was not well observed
on Sunday (Acts, xx, 7; I Cor., xvi, 2), and with the before the Captivity (of. II Par., xxxvi, 21 and Lev.,
disappearance of the Jewish Christian churches this xxvi, 34, 35, 43). After the return, the people
day was exclusively observed as the Lord's Day. covenanted to let the land lie fallow and to exact no
(See Sunday.) debt in the seventh year (II Esd., x, 31), and there-
Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus II (New York, 1897), after it was regularly kept. The occurrence of a
52-62, 777 sqq.; ScHtJRER, Hist, of the Jewish People (New York,
sabbatical year is mentioned in I Mach., vi, 49, 53,
1891), see index; Pixches, Sapattu, the Babylonian Sabbath in
Proceed, of Soe. of Bibl. Archceol. (1904), 51-56; Lagrange, and its observance is several times referred to by
Relig. semit. (Paris, 1905), 291-5; Dhohme in Rev. bibl. (1908), Josephus (Bell. Jud., I, ii, 4; Ant., XI, viii, 5, 6; XIII,
462-6; Siebenzahl und Sabbath bei den Babyloniern un im A.
Hehn,
T. (Leipzig, 1907) ; Idem, Der Israelitische Sabbath (MUnster,
viii, 1; XIV, xvi, 2). The absence of any allusion
1909); Keil, Babel und Bibelfrage (Trier, 1903), 38-44; Lotz, to the celebration of the sabbatical year in pre-exilie
QucBstiones de histor. sabbati (1883); Les^tre in Vigotjroxjx, times has led modern critics to assert that it was
Diet, de la bible, s. v. Sabbat.
instituted at the time of the Restoration, or that at
F. Bechtel. least the custom of allowing all fields to lie fallow
Sabbath Observance. See Sunday. simultaneously was then introduced. But it is
hardly credible that the struggling community would
Sabbatical Year Ci^njli' n32 (shendth shdbbathdn), have adopted a custom calculated to have a seriously
"year of rest"; Sept. imavrb! di/oTraiio-cws; Vulg. disturbing effect on economic conditions, and without
annits requietionis), the seventh year, devoted to example among other nations, unless it had the sanc-
cessation of agriculture, and holding in the period tion of venerable antiquity. The main object for
of seven years a place analogous to that of the Sab- which the sabbatical year was instituted was to
bath in the week; also called "year of remission". bring home to the people that the land was the Lord's,
Three prescriptions were to be observed during the and that they were merely His tenants at will (Lev.,
year (Ex., xxiii, 10-11; Lev., xxv, 1-7; Deut., xxv, 23). In that year He exercised His right of
XV, 1-11; xxxi, 10-13). (1) The land was to lie sovereign dominion. Secondarily it was to excite
fallow and all agricultural labor was to be suspended. their faith and reliance on God (ibid., 20-22), and
There was to be neither plowing nor sowing, nor were to stimulate their faithfulness to His Law (Deut.,
the vines and olives to be attended to. The spon- xxxi, 10-13).
taneous yield was not to be garnered, but was to be HuMMELAUER, Comm. in Ex. et Lev.; Comra. in Deut.; and
other commentaries on the texts cited; Schijrer, Hist, of Jewish
left in the fields for common use, and what was not
People (New York, 1891), I, i, 41-43; Keil, Man. of Bibl.
used was to be abandoned to the cattle and wild Archceol. (Edinburgh, 1887-88), II, 10-13; Zuckekmann,
animals (Ex., xxiii, 10-11; Lev., xxv, 1-7). Of the Ueber Sabbathjahrcyklus u. Jobelperiode (Breslau, 1857) Cas-
;

pari, Die geschichtlichen Sabbatjahre in Studien u. Kritiken (1876),

fruit trees the olive is alone mentioned, because its
181-190; LESfeTKE in VioonRonx, Diet. d. I. Bib., V, 1302sqq.;
oil was one of the three great agricultural products; Jewish Encyc., X, 605 sqq.
but the law probably applied also to other trees. F. Bechtel.
The law prescribed rest for the land, not for man.
Hence work other than agricultural was not forbidden,
nor even work in the fields which had no direct con-
—
Sa,bbatine Privilege. The name Sabbatine Privi-
lege is derived from the apocryphal Bull ".Sacratissimo
nexion with raising crops, such as building walls of uti culmine" of John XXII, 3 March, 1322. In this
enclosure, digging wells, etc. Bull the pope is made to declare that the Mother of
(2) No
crops being reaped during the sabbatical God appeared to him, and most urgently recommended
year, the payment of debts would have been a great to him the Carmelite Order and its confratres and con-
hardship, if not an impossibility, for many. Hence sorores. The Blessed Virgin asked that John, as Christ's
the creditor was commanded "to withhold his hand" representative on earth, should ratify the indulgences
and not to exact a debt from an Israelite, though he which He had already granted in heaven (a plenary
might demand it of strangers, who were not bound indulgence for the members of the Carmelite Order
to abstain from agricultural pursuits (Deut., xv, and a partial indulgence, remitting the third part of
1-3, Heb. text). The Talmudists and many after the temporal punishment due to their sins, for the
them understand the law to mean the remission of members of the confraternity); she herself would
the debt; but modem commentators generally hold graciously descend on the Saturday (Sabbath) after
that it merely suspended the obligation to pay and their death and liberate and conduct to heaven all
debarred the creditor from exacting the debt during who were in purgatory. Then follow the conditions
the year. The Douay translation "He to whom which the confratres and consorores must fulfill. At
anything is owing from his friend or neighbour or the end of the Bull the pope declares: "Istam ergo
brother, cannot demand it again" is incorrect. sanctam Indulgentiam accepto, roboro et in terris
(3) During the sabbatical year the Law was to be confirmo, siout, propter merita Virginis Matris,
read on the Feast of Tabernacles to all Israel, men, gratiose .lesus Christus concessit in coelis" (This holy
women, and children, as well as to the strangers within indulgence I therefore accept; I confirm and ratify
XIII.— 19
 SABELLIUS 290 SABINA

it on earth, just as Jesus Christ has graciously granted help which the souls of brothers and members, who
it in heaven on account of the merits of the Virgin have departed this life in charity, have worn through-
Mother). Our first information of this Bull is de- out life the scapular, have ever observed chastity
work of the Carmelite Balduinus Leersius
rived from a have recited the Little Hours [of the Blessed Virgin]'
("CoUectaneum exemplorum et miraoulorum" in or, if they cannot read, have observed the fast days
"Bibliotheca Carmelit.", I, Orleans, 1752, p. 210), of the Church, and have abstained from flesh meat on
who died in 1483. The authenticity of the Bull was Wednesdays and Saturdays (except when Christmas
keenly contested especially in the seventeenth century, falls on such days), may derive after death especially—
but was vigorously defended by the Carmelites. on Saturdays, the day consecrated by the Church to
The chief opponents of its authenticity were Joannes the Blessed Virgin —
through the unceasing interces-
Launoy and the Bollandist, Daniel Papebroch, both sion of Mary, her pious petitions, her merits, and her
"
of whom published works against it. To-day it is special protection.'
universally regarded by scholars as inauthentic, even With this explanation and interpretation, the
the "Monumenta histor. Carmel." of the Carmelite Sabbatine privilege no longer presents any difficulties,
B. Zimmerman (I, L6rins, 1907, pp. 356-63) joining and Benedict XIV adds his desire that the faithful
in rejecting it. should rely on it (Opera omnia, IX, Venice, 1767,
In 1379, in consequence of the hostility still shown pp. 197 sqq.). Even apart from the Bull and the
to their order and especially to its name, the Carmel- tradition or legend concerning the apparition and
ites besought Urban VI to grant an indulgence of promise of the Mother of God the interpretation of
3 years and 3 quarantines to all the faithful who the Decree cannot be contested. The Sabbatine
designated them and their order "Ordinem et Fratres privilege thus consists essentially in the early hbera-
B. Mariae Genetricis Dei de Monte Carmcli" (BuUar. tion from purgatory through the special intercession
Carmelit., I, 141); this was granted by Urban on 26 and petition of Mary, which she graciously exercises
April, 1379. It is difficult to understand why, in- in favour of her devoted servants preferentially as —
stead of asking for this indulgence, they did not appeal —
we may assume on the day consecrated to her,
to the old promise and the recent "Bulla sabbatina", Saturday. Furthermore, the conditions for the gain-
if the scapular was then known and the promise ing of the privilege are of such a kind as justify a
to St. Simon Stock and this Bull were genuine and special trust in the assistance of Mary. It is espe-
incontestable. While the Bull of John XXII was cially required of all who wish to share in the privilege
ratified by some later popes in the sixteenth cen- that they faithfully preserve their chastity, and recite
tury (cf. Bullar. Carmelit., II, 47, 141), neither the devoutly each day the Little Hours of the Blessed
Bull itself in its wording nor its general contents Virgin. However, all those who are bound to read
were thereby declared authentic and genuine. On their Breviary, fulfil the obligation of reciting the
the contrary, the ratification by Gregory XIII on Little Hours by reading their Office. Persons who
18 September, 1577 (Bullar. Carmelit., II, 196), must cannot read must (instead of reciting the Little
be interpreted quite in the sense of the later Decree Hours) observe all the fasts prescribed by the Church
of the Holy Office. This Decree, which appeared in as they are kept in their home diocese or place of
1613, expresses no opinion concerning the genuine- residence, and must in addition abstain from flesh
ness of the Bull, but confines itself to declaring what meat on all Wednesdays and Saturdays of the year,
the Carmelites may preach of its contents. The Bull except when Christmas falls on one of these days.
forbids the painting of pictures representing, in ac- The obhgation to read the Little Hours and to abstain
cordance with the wording of the Bull, the Mother from flesh meat on Wednesday and Saturday may
of God descending into purgatory (cum descensione on important grounds be changed for other pious
beatae Virginis ad animas in Purgatorio liberandas). works: the faculty to sanction this change was
It must be also remembered that the latest authentic granted to all confessors by Leo XIII in the Decree
summary of indulgences of the Carmelite Order of of the Congregation of Indulgences of 11 (14) June,
31 July, 1907 (Acta S. Sedi.s, XL, 753 sqq.), approved 1901.
l)y the Congregation of Indulgences, says nothing For the text of the Bull see Bullarium Carmelit., I (Rome,
1715), 61 gq.; for its defence cf. Carmelite authors, e. g. Brocard,
eitliir of the Bull of John XXII, of the indulgences
Recueil d' instructions (4th ed., Ghent, 1875); Raynaud, Scapu-
granted by him, or of the Sabbatine privilege for the lare Partheno-Carmetiticum (Cologne, 1658). For the explana-
Carmelites. To learn the meaning and importance of tion of the privilege, consult Beringer, Die Abldsse (13th ed.),
the Sabbatine privilege, we may turn only to the 659 aqq.
abo\e-mentioned Decree of the Holy Office. It was Joseph Hilgers,
inserted in its entirety (except for the words forbid-
Sabellius and Sabellianism. See Monaschi-
ding the painting of the pictures) into the list of the ANS.
indulgences and privileges of the Confraternity of the
Scapular of Mount Carmel. Saben. See Brixbn, Diocese op.
We reproduce here the whole passage dealing with
the Sabbatine privilege, as it appears in the summary Sabina, Saint, widow of Valentinus and daughter
approved by the Congregation of Indulgences on 4 of Herod Metallarius, suffered martyrdom about 126.

Julv, 190.'-;. It is noteworthy that the Bull of John According to the Acts of the martyrdom, which how-
XXII, which was still mentioned in the previous ever have no historic value, she lived at Rome and
sunmiary approved on 1 December, 1866, is no longer was converted to Christianity by her female slave
referred to "Rescript, authent. S. C. Indulg.",
(cf.
Serapia. Serapia was put to death for her faith and
later, in the same year, Sabina suffered martyrdom.
Ratisbon, 1SS5,
p. 475). Among the privileges,
which are mentioned after the indulgences, the fol- In 430 her reUcs were brought to the Aventine, where
lowing occurs in the first place; "The privilege of a basilica, which is very interesting in the history of
Pope John XXII, commonly [vidgo] known as the art, is called after St. Sabina. Originally the church
Sabbatine, \shioh was approved and confirmed by was dedicated to both saints. The feast of St. Sabina
Clement VII ("Ex dementi", 12 August, 1530), St. is celebrated on 29 August.
Acta SS., VI, August, 496-504; Bibliotheca hagiogravhicn
Pius V ("Superna di.spositione" 18 Feb., 1566) lalina (Brussels, 1898-1900), 1075.
Gregory XIII ("Ut laudes", l.s Sept., 1577), and Klemens Lofflbr.
others, and also by the Holy Roman General In-
quisition under Paul Y on 20 January, 1613, in a Sabina (Sabinbnsis), a suburbicarian diocese, with
Decree to the following effect: residence in Magliano Sabino, formed from the tern-
" 'It is permitted to the Carmelite Fathers
to preach tory of the three ancient dioceses: Forum novum (S.
that the Christian people may piously believe in the Maria in Vescovio), Cures (Corese), and Xomentum
 SABINIANUS 291 SABRAN
(Mentana). When these sees were united, the diocese convent for Reformed Friars Minor, later replaced by
was called Sabina because it included that part of the Order of Mercy. In 1733 Clement XII suppressed
Sabina which at the time of the Lombard invasion the chapter. In the subterranean crypt of the church
remained united to the Roman territory (Sabina are many traces of frescoes which have been brought
Romana), while the remainder became part of the to light through the munificence of the present cardi-
Duchy of Spoleto. Cures was the ancient capital of nal-bishop, among whose predecessors may be men-
thfc Sabines, which territory lay between the Tiber, tioned: Alessandro Farnese (1523), later Paul III;
the Anio, and the Apennines (Gran Sasso e Maiella). Lorenzo Campeggio (1537); G. P. Caraffa (1546),
Nomentum is frequently mentioned in ancient Roman later Paul IV; Giovanni Morone (1561); Cristoforo
history. After Charlemagne, Sabina was ruled by a Madruzzi (1562); Gio. Antonio Serbelloni (1578);
count; later its territory was divided between some Gabr. Paleotto (1591), a reformer of discipline and
barons and the Abbot of Farfa; the Senate of Rome founder of the seminary; Pietro Aldobrandini (1620);
exercised feudal jurisdiction over its territory, e. g. Scipio Borghese (1629), who procured an auxiliary;
Magliano. During the persecutions Nomentum had Francesco Barberini (1645) Blessed Nicol6 Albergati
;

two cemeteries, one at St. Restitutus, a third century (1677); Pietro Ottoboni (1681), later Alexander VIII;
martyr, at the sixteenth mile on the Via Nomentana, Carlo Pio of Savoy (1683); Paluzio Altieri (1689);
belonging to Justa, a pious matron, and one at Sts. Ippolito Vincenti Carreri (1805), who died in exile in
Primus and Felicianus, martyrs under Diocletian, at Paris; Lorenzo Litta (1814); Venerable Carlo Ode-
the fourteenth and fifteenth miles. Bishop Stephanus, scalchi (1833); Luigi Lambrusohini (1842). In 1841
a contemporary of St. Restitutus, is mentioned in the the territory now forming the Diocese of Poggio
Acts of the martyr. Ursus is the first known Bishop Mirteto was separated from Sabina. The Diocese of
of Nomentum (415). Others are known from Grati- Sabina contains 35 parishes with 55,000 inhabitants,
anus (593) till St. Gregory the Great united the Sees 66 secular and 32 regular priests, 4 houses of reU-
of Cures and Nomentum. Tiberius (465) was the gious, and 13 monks.
first Bishop of Cures, "called also bishops of Sabina C>ppELLETTi, Le chiese (Vlialia, I; Tomassetti and Bia-
siOTTi,La diocesi di Sabina (Rome, 1909).
or of St. Anthimus, as that martyr's basilica, adjoining
U. Benigni.
the bishop's residence, was all that remained of the
town in the fifth century". It was destroyed in 870,
and the city fell into decay. The last Bishop of
—
Sabinianus, Pope. The date of his birth is un-
known, but he was consecrated pope probably 1 3 Sept.,
Nomentum was Joannes, who assisted at the Council 604, and died 22 Feb., 606. The son of Bonus, he was
of Rome (964). The small town of Mentana arose born at Blera (Bieda) near Viterbo. In 593 he was sent
around the castle of the Crescenzi and came into the by St. Gregory I as apocrisiarius or Apostolic nuncio
hands of the Orsini. Here Garibaldi was defeated by to Constantinople; but in some respects his admin-
the pontifical and French troops (1867). istration of the office did not come up to Gregory's
In 984 Nomentum was united to the See of Forum expectations. He was not astute enough for the rulers
Novum, called also Vicosabinas, situated on the Via Sal- of Byzantium. He returned to Rome in 597, and was
aria, having bishops from the fifth century, e. g. Paulus chosen to succeed Gregory soon after the death of
(465). The dignity of "hebdomadary " bishop of the that great pontiff; but as the imperial confirmation
Lateran basilica was then conferred on the Bishop of his election did not arrive for some months, he
of Nomentum, the closest to Rome; later the Bishop was not consecrated till September. The difficulties
of Sabina became a cardinal-bishop. The following of his pontificate were caused by fear of the Lom-
deserve mention Joannes (1044), afterwards Antipope
:
bards and by famine. When the Lombard danger
Sylvester III; Gregory, legate to Emperor Henry IV had passed, Sabinianus opened the granaries of the
in 1078; Cintius (1106) planned the imprisonment of Church, and sold corn to the people at one solidus
Paschal II; Conrad (1153), later Anastasius IV; Con- (twelve shillings) for thirty pecks. Because he was
rad of Wittelsbach (1163), legate in the Holy Land unable or unwilling to allow the people to have the
and Germany; John (1202), legate; Peter (1216), corn for little or nothing, there grew up in later times
legate against the Albigenses and in Syria; Gaufredo a number of idle legends in which his predecessor
Castiglioni (1237), later Celestine IV; GugUelmo was represented punishing him for avarice. He ia
(1244), Bishop of Modena and apostle of Livonia and reputed to have restored to the secular clergy posts
Lithuania; Guido Gros (1261), later Clement IV; which St. Gregory had filled with monks. He was
Egidio Albomoz (1355); Guillaume d'Aigrefeuille buried in St. Peter's.
(1768). During the Western Schism, the Avignon Liber Pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, I (Paris, 1886), 315; Epp,
Gregorii I, ed. EwALD (Berlin, 1891); Mann, Lives of the Popes
popes also created cardinal-bishops of Sabina: the in the early Middle Ages, I, 251 sq.
transference of Giordano Orsini (1427) to the See of
Horace K. Mann.
Ostia (1439) was the first example of the optatio still
existing in regard to suburbicarian sees; Bessarione Sabran, Lotris de, Jesuit; b. in Paris, 1 March,
(1443); Amadeus of Savoy (1449-51), previously 1652; d. at Rome, 22 Jan., 1732. His father, after-
Antipope Felix V; Isidore (1452), former metropolitan wards a marquis, was attached to the French embassy
ofKieff; John Torquemada (1464). Forum Novum, in London during the Commonwealth, and piously
having recovered from its destruction in the Gothic visited the martyrs Corby and Duckett (q. v.) before
war, was again destroyed in 876 by the Saracens and their deaths. He married an English lady (a Go-
remained deserted for fifty-eight years. The basilica, ring?), and Louis was sent to the English college of
at first dedicated to S. Valentine, was later restored St. Omer, and entered among the English Jesuits.
under the title of S. Maria al Vescovio, but remained Distinguished for many talents, he became one of
unimportant. the royal chaplains to King James II, in 1685,
During the Avignon period only a few inhabitants preached with great diligence and was engaged in
remained, so Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa (1479) induced controversy with WilHam Sherlock, dean of St.
Alexander VI (1495) to transfer the episcopal resi- Paul's, and Edward Gee. On the outbreak of the
dence to Magliano, erecting the collegiate church of Revolution in 1688 he was first sent to Portsmouth
that city into the cathedral. Magliano (Manlianum) with the infant Prince of Wales, and then became
overlooks the valley of the Tiber, on which river the involved in many adventures. He was repeatedly
inhabitants formerly carried on an extensive trade seized by the mob and maltreated, but as often
with Rome. Sixtus V caused the Ponte Felice to be escaped, and finally managed to slip over to France.
constructed. The jealousy of the other Sabina cities He was subsequently appointed visitor of the Nea-
caused Leo X to restore the title of cathedral to the politan Jesuits, and represented his province at Rome
church of Vescovio. Cardinal Paleotti established a in the congregation of 1693, when the case of Father
 SABRATA 292 SACRAMENTALS
Gonzd,lez (q. v.) was discussed. In 1699 the Prince- and yet unable to put him to death, the heretics
Bishop of Liege appointed him president of his epis- finally succeeded in having him sent into exile.
copal seminary, which excited a furious attack from the Thereafter we have no further mention of him except
Jaiisenistio party, and the bishop had to enforce order in the Brief of Urban IV. The "Summa
de catharis
with soldiers. But once the crisis was past, Father et leonistis, sive pauperibus de Lugdimo" (Paris
Sabran's rule became perfectly successful, and in 154S, and by Martene in "Thes. Aneod.". V, 1759)
ITIJS or 1709, he was made provincial. He then is the only authentic work ascribed to him. This
wrote to Father Medcalfe, a Jesuit in the North, work is a collection of the heretical doctrines of his
about the progress of Jansenism, but his letter was time, and was regarded as a great authority during
intercepted, and was declared by some to portend the Middle Ages. The edition of Gretser (Ratisbon,
that he intended to gain possession of Douai College, 1738) is much interpolated.
as he had done that of Liege. A
long-drawn and some- EcHARD, Script. Ord. Prced., I, 154 sq. HuRTER, Nomenclator,
;

II, 336 sq.; Totjron, Hist, des hommes ill., I (Paris, 1743)
what bitter controversy ensued. After his provincial- 313 sq.
ship he became rector of St. Omer (1712-5), then Chas. J. Callan.
spiritual director at the Enghsh College, Rome, till
death. The titles of his controversial tracts, will Sacra Jam
Splendent, the opening words of the
be found in Sommervogel, and he is alleged to have hymn Matins of the Feast of the Holy Family.
for
\\Titten a paper "Artes Bajanse" about 1701 against The Holy See instituted the feast in 1893, making
Jansenism. it a duplex majus (greater double) and assigning
Sommervogel, Bibl. de la comp. de J4sus, VII (Paris, 1896),
it to the third Sunday after Epiphany. Leo XIII
359; Foley, Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus,
VII (London, 1883), 676; Kirk, Biographies of English Catholics composed the three hymns (Vespers, Matins, Lauds)
in the Eighteenth Century, ed. Pollen (London, 1903), 203; of the Breviary Office. The hymn for Matins con-
M8S. at Stonyhxnrst, etc.
tains nine Sapphic stanzas of the classical tj^pe of the
J. H. Pollen.
first stanza:
Sabrata, a titular see in Tripolitana. Sabrata was Sacra jam splendent decorata lychnis
a Phcenician town on the northern coast of Africa, Templa, jam sertis redimitur ara,
between the two Syrta. With Oca and Leptis Magna Et pio fumant redolentque acerrae
it caused the Greek name Tripolis to be given to the
Thuris honore.
region. Its Phcenician name, which occurs on coins
and in an inscription at Thevesta, was hellenized (A thousand lights their glory shed
Abrotomon, though Pliny (V, 4) makes these two On shrines and altars garlanded,
separate towns. Sabrata became a Roman colony; While swinging censers dusk the air
Flavia Domitilla, Ves])a.sian's first wife, was the With perfumed prayer.)
daughter of Statilius Capi 11a of Sabrata. Justinian
The hymns (O lux beata caeHtum)
for Vespers
fortified the town and built there a beautiful church. and Lauds (O gente hospita) are in classical
felix
In the Middle Ages it continued to be an important dimeter iambics, four-lined stanzas, of which the
market, to which the nati\'es of the interior brought Vespers hymn contains six and the Lauds hymn
their corn the Arab writers call it Sabrat en-Nef ousa,
;
seven exclusive of the usual Marian doxology (Jesu
from a powerful tribe, the Nefousa, formerly Chris- tibi sit gloria). All three hymns are replete with
tian. Sabrata is now represented by Zouagha, a
spiritual unction, graceful expression, and classical
small town called by Europeans Tripoli Vecchia, in dignity of form. They reflect the sentiment of the
the vilayet of Tripoli, fifty miles west of the town of
pope in his letter establishing a Pious Association in
Tripoli. Its ruins fie a little north of the village; they
honour of the Holy Family and in his Encycfical deal-
consist of crumbled ramparts, an amphitheatre, and
ing with the condition of working-men.
landing-stage. Four of its bishops are known: Pom- Translations of the three hymns are given in Henry, Poems,
pey in 255; Nados, present at the Conference of Charades, Inscriptions of Leo XIII (Philadelphia, 1902), with
Carthage, 411; Vincent, exiled by Genseric about Latin text, pp. 104-15, and comment., pp. 282-84. The hymna
for Vespers and Lauds are translated by Bagshawe, Breviary
450; Leo, exiled by Huneric after the Conference of Hymns and Missal Sequences (London, a. d.), nos. 52, .o3.
Carthage, 484. H. T. Henry.
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog., s. v. Sabrata and
Abrotonum, with a bibliography of ancient authors; Barth, Sacramental Character. See Character; Sac-
Waiirltruniifn,277\TovhOTTE, Glographie de VAfriquechri'lienne
(Montreuil. 1S04}, 25S-60; Diehl, V
Afrique byzantine (Paris, raments.
1896), passim.
S. PlETHIDfes.
—
Sacramentals. In instituting the sacraments
Christ did not determine the matter and form down
Sabunde, Raymond of. See Raymond op Sa- to the sfightest detail, leaving this task to the Church,
BUNDE. which should determine what rites were suitable
in the administration of the sacraments. These
Saccas, Aii.MONitrs. See Neo-platonism.
rites are indicated by the word Sacramentalia, the
Sacchoni, Raixerio (Reiner), a learned and object of which is to manifest the respect due to the
zealous Dominican, b. at Piacenza about the begin- sacrament and to secure the sanctification of the faith-
ning of the thirteenth century; d. about 1263. It is ful. They belong to widely different categories,
generally said that he died in 12.5X or 1259, but this e. g. substance, in the mingling of water with
:

is an error, as we learn from the Brief of Urban IV, Eucharistic wine; quantity, in the triple baptismal
by wliich he was called to Rome, 21 July, 1262. effusion; quafity, in the condition of unleavened
Little is known as to his youth and early manhood. bread; relation, in the capacity of the minister; time
That, however, at an early age, he was perverted by and place, in feast-days and churches; habit, in the
the Cathari, became one of their bishops, and re- liturgical vestments; posture, in genuflexion, pros-
mained amongst them for seventeen years, we are trations; action, in chanting etc. So many external
assured by his own humble avowal ("Summa contra conditions connect the sacramentals with the virtue
\\aldenses ", v\) .He was led back to the Faith, most of religion, their object being indicated by the Council
probably, by the preaching of St. Peter Martyr, of Trent (Sess. XXII, 15), that it is asserted that apart
joined the Order of Preachers, then recently established, from their ancient origin and traditional maintenance
and laboured zealously for many j'ears among the ceremonies, blessings, lights, incense etc. enhance the
heretics of Upper Italy. After the martyrdom of dignity of the Holy Sacrifice and arouse the piety
St. Peter he was made inquisitor for Lombardy and of the faithful. Moreover the sacramentals help to
the Marches of Ancona. Being enraged against him. distinguish the members of the Church from heretics,
 SACRAMENTALS 293 SACRAMENTALS
who have done away with the sacramentals or use lege. Theologians do not agree as to whether the
them arbitrarily and with little intelligence. sacramentals may confer any other grace ex opere
Sacramental rites are dependent on the Church operantis through the action of the one who uses
which established them, and which therefore has the them, but the negative opinion is more generally
right to maintain, develop, modify, or abrogate them. followed, for as the Church cannot confer sanctifying
The ceremonial regulation of the sacraments in grace nor institute signs thereof, neither can she
Apostolic times is sufficiently proved by the words of institute efficacious signs of the other graces which
St. Paul to the Corinthians with regard to the God alone can give. Moreover, as experience
Eucharist: "Cetera autem, cum venero, disponam" teaches, the sacramentals do not infallibly produce
[the rest I will set in order when I come (I Cor., their effect. Finally in the euchologic formulas of
xi, 34)], which St. Augustine, on what ground we the sacramentals the Church makes use, not of
know not, supposes to refer to the obligation of the affirmative, but of deprecatory expressions, which
Eucharistic fast (Ep. liv, "Ad Januarium", c. 6, shows that she looks directly to Divine mercy for
n. 8, in P. L., XXXIII, 203). The Fathers of the the effect.
Church enumerate ceremonies and rites, some of Besides the efficacy which the sacramentals possess
which were instituted by the Apostles, others by the in common with other good works they have a special
early Christians (cf. Justin Martyr, "Apol. I", n. efficacy of their own. If their whole value proceeded
61, 65 in P. G., VI, 419, 427; TertuUian, "De from the opus operantis, all external good works
baptismo", vii in P. L., I, 1206; St. Basil, "De could be called sacramentals. The special virtue
Spiritu Sancto", I, xxvii, n. 67 m
P. G., XXXII, 191). recognized by the Church and experienced by
The Catholic Church, which is the heiress of the Christians in the sacramentals should consist in the
Apostles, has always used and maintained against official prayers whereby we implore God to pour
heretics this power over sacramentals. To her and forth special graces on those who make use of the
to her alone belongs the right to determine the matter, sacramentals. These prayers move God to give
form, and minister of the sacramentals. The Church, graces which He would not otherwise give, and when
that the supreme authority represented by its
is, not infallibly acceded to it is for reasons known to His
visible head, alone legislates in this matter,
because Wisdom. God is aware of the measure in which
the bishops no longer have in practice the power to He should bestow His gifts. All the sacramentals
modify or abolish by a particular legislation what is have not the same effect; this depends on the prayer
imposed on the universal Church. What concerns of the Church which does not make use of the same
the administration of the sacraments is contained in urgency nor have recourse to the same Divine sources
detail in the Roman Ritual and the Episcopal of merit. Some sacramentals derive no special
Caeremoniale. efficacy from the prayer of the Church; such are
Apart from the ceremonies relating to the ad- those which are employed in worship, without a
ministration of the sacraments the Church has in- blessing, or even with a blessing which does not
stituted others for the purpose of private devotion. specify any particular fruit. This is the case with
To distinguish between them, the latter are named the blessing of vessels meant to contain the holy
sacramentals because of the resemblance between oils: "Give ear to our prayers, most merciful Father,
their rites and those of the sacraments properly and deign to bless and sanctify these purified vessels
so-called. In ancient times the term sacrament alone prepared for the use of the sacred ministry of Thy
was used, but nimierous confusions resulted and the Chm-ch". On the other hand, some sacramentals,
similarity of rites and terms led many Christians to among them one of those most frequently used,
regard both as sacraments. After Peter Lombard holy water, are the object of a benediction which
the use and definition of the word "sacramental" details their particular effects.
had a fixed character and was exclusively applicable One of the most remarkable effects of sacramentals
to those rites presenting an external resemblance to is the virtue to drive away evil spirits whose myste-
the sacraments but not applicable to the sensible rious and baleful operations affect sometimes
signs of Divine institution. St. Thomas Aquinas the physical activity of man. To combat this occult
makes use of the terms sacra and sacramenlalia power the Church has recourse to exorcism and
(Summa I-II, Q. cviii, a. 2, ad 2um; m, Q. ixv, a. sacramentals. Another effect is the delivery of the
1, ad Sum), which the theologians of a later period soul from sin and the penalties therefor. Thus in the
adopted, so that at present sacramentalia is ex- blessing of a cross the Church asks that this sacred
clusively reserved for those rites which are practised sign may receive the heavenly blessing in order that
apart from the administration of the seven sacra- all those who kneel before it and implore the Divine
ments, for which the word ceremonies is used. Majesty may be granted great compunction and a
The number of the sacramentals may not be limited; general pardon of faults committed. This means
nevertheless, the attempt has been made to determine remission of venial sins, for the sacraments alone,
their general principles or rather applications in the with perfect contrition, possess the efficacy to remit
verse: "Orans, tinctus, edens, confessus, dans, mortal sins and to release from the penalties attached
benedicens". Orans indicates public prayer, whether to them. St. Thomas is explicit on this point:
liturgical or private; tinctus, the use of holy water "The episcopal blessing, the aspersion of holy water,
and the unctions in use at various consecrations; every sacramental unction, prayer in a dedicated
edens, the eating of blessed foods; confessus, the church, and the like, effect the remission of venial
general avowal of faults which is made in the Con- sins, implicitly or explicitly" (Summa III, Q. Ixxxvii,
fiteor recited at Mass, at Communion, in the Divine a. 3, ad lum). Finally the sacramentals may be em-
Office; dans, alms; benedicens, papal and episcopal ployed to obtain temporal favours, since the Church
blessings etc., blessings of candles, ashes, palms etc. herself blesses objects made use of in every-day life,
Another distinction classifies sacramentals according e. g. the blessing of a house on which is called down the
to whether they are acts, e. g. the Confiteor men- abundance of heavenly dew and the rich fruitfulness
tioned above, or things, such as medals, holy water of the earth; so likewise in the benediction of the
etc. The sacramentals do not produce sanctifying fields, in which God is asked to pour down His bless-
grace ex opere operato, by virtue of the rite or sub- ings on the harvests, so that the wants of the needy
stance employed, and this constitutes their essential may be supplied by the fertile earth.
difference from the sacraments. The Church is Probst, Sakramente u. Sakramentalien (Tubingen, 1872),
unable to increase or reduce the number of sacra- h\M-BlNO, Sacramentals of the Holy Catholic Church (New York,
ments as they were instituted by Christ, but the 1892); Bebinqeb Les Indulgences (Palis, 1905),
sacramentals do not possess this dignity and privi- H. Lbclercq.
 SACRAMENT ARY 294 SACRAMENTO
Sacramentary. See Liturgical Books. the priesthood, and from there went to St. Sulpice
Sacramentines. See Perpetual Adorers of the
Paris, for his ecclesiastical studies. He was ordained
there by Cardinal Morlot in 1861, and returned to
Blessed Sacrament.
California. Father Manogue was sent to work in
Sacramento, Diocese of (Sacramentensis), the territory of Nevada about 1864. He devoted
was formed out of the Vicariate of Marysville, which himself to the Indian tribes and attained great re-
comprised the regions lying between the parallels sults in gaining converts. His usual way of teaching
of latitude 39° and 42° N., and between the Pacific them Christianity was to assemble the roving bands
Ocean on the west and the Colorado River on the in the church and explain the stations, the altar
cast. The diocese at present covers 54,449 square statuary, etc. He succeeded to the see, 17 March
miles in California, and 38,162 square miles in Nevada. 1884. Leo XIII changed the boundaries of the
It includes the counties of Alpine, Amadok, Butte, diocese, 16 May, 1886, and the episcopal see was
Colusa, Calaveras, Del Norte, Eldorado, Humboldt, moved to Sacramento. Bishop Manogue built
Lassen, Mariposa, Modoc, Mono, Nevada, Placer, there a cathedral in the Italian Renaissance style
Plumas, Sacramento, Shasta, Sierra, Siskiyou, with a seating capacity of over sixteen hundred. 'The
Sutter, Toulumne, Tehama, Trinity, Yolo, and architect was Mr. Brian J. Chneh. Bishop Manogue
"\'uba in California; and the counties of Churchill, took a leading part in public affairs and was a suc-
Douglas, Esmeralda, Humboldt, Lyon, Ormsby, cessful arbitrator between the mine owners and the
Storey, and Washoe in Nevada. miners in their conflicts. He was of large stature,
The Vicariate of Marysville (Marysvillensis) was of a humorous turn of mind, and a good musician.
formed in IfSGl; four priests were in the territory. He died on 27 February, 1895, and lies buried in St.
There are now 65 priests and about 50,000 Catholic Joseph's Cemetery, Sacramento, surrounded by the
people within the Diocese of Sacramento. Grass remains of eleven priests. The Rev. Thomas Grace
Valley, Marysville, and Virginia City, Nevada, were succeeded Bishop Manogue. He was preconized as
the most populous and notable of the early missions. bishop on 27 February, 1896. He was born at Wex-
Amongst the pioneer priests, the names of Very Rev. ford, Ireland, on 2 Aug., 1841 educated at St. Peter's
;

T. J. Dalton, vicar-general for fifteen years, and Rev. College, Wexford; made his ecclesiastical studies
J. J. Callan stand out prominently. The Very Rev. C. at All Hallows College, Dublin, and was ordained on
M. Lynch, vicar-general and pastor of St. Patrick's, 11 June, 1S76. He came to California the same year
Grass Valley, who figured largely since 1864 in the by the way of the Isthmus of Panama in company with
pioneer work, chiefly in the mining country, died on Fathers M
Coleman, L. Kennedy, V. G. and J. J. Claire.
. ,

29 Sept., 1911. The site of the first permanent church He was rector at Marysville for eight years, pastor
at Sacramento was given by the CiO\'ernor of Cali- at Sacramento (1881-96), and was consecrated bishop
fornia, Peter H. Burnett, a devout convert and a on 16 June, 1896, in the Cathedral of the Blessed
brilliant lawyer. The early mission centres were Sacrament, Sacramento.
chiefly in the gold and silver regions. The rich pas- Statistics. —
The diocese was incorporated on 24 Nov.,
ture, timber, fruit, and agricultural lands began 1897. Its legal title is " The Roman Cathohc Dio-
later to attract settilers, until these at present form cese of Sacramento"; the bishop is the corporation
the most populous parts of the diocese. The Rev. sole; 53 priests are from Ireland, 3 from Italy, 2
Eugene O'Connell was chosen the first ^'icar Apos- from Portugal, 3 German, and 2 American. All
tolic of Marysville in 1861. Until that time the terri- Hallows College, Dublin, has supplied by far the largest
tory was under the jurisdiction of the .Archbishop of number of priests and continues to do so. In the
San Francisco. Bishop O'Connell was bom in June, episcopal city there are distinct parishes for Por-
1815, at Kingscourt, in the Diocese of Meath, Ire- tuguese, Italians, and Germans. Four priests minister
land; he studied and was ordained in St. Patrick's at the cathedral. Nine Brothers of the Christian
College, Mayriooth, in June, 1842. He taught for Schools teach a primary and high school adjacent to
several years in Navan seminary, which he left to the cathedral. The Sisters of Mercy conduct a
direct a college at Santa Inez, California, in 1S.51, and primary school and academy. The Sisters of St.
spent one year there. He was next sent to take charge Francis (Lewiston, New York) conduct two parochial
of the theological seminary of St. Thomas near San schools. In all about 1100 children attend Catholic
Francisco, where he remained three years. In 1854 schools in the city. The Notre Dame Sisters, Sisters
he returned to Ireland, was dean and taught theology of the Holy Cross, Dominican Sisters, and Sisters
in .\11 Hallows College. From there he was con- of Mercy conduct schools in various parts of the
secrated titular Bishop of Flaviopolis and Vicar diocese. The Sisters of Mercy also conduct a home
Apostolic of Marysville by Cardinal Cullen at for destitute children at Sacramento, a home for the
Dublin, 3 February, 1861. He was installed at St. aged, and a hospital for 75 patients, with a training
Joseph's Pro-Cathedral, Marysville, by Archbishop school for nurses attached; the classes contain 36 at
Alemany, xMarch, 1862.
2,S present. At Grass Valley they have two orphanages
Pius iX formedthe vicariate into the Diocese of providing for 100 boys and 123 girls. The State
Grass \'alley (Vallispratensis) on 29 March, 1868. makes an allowance for each orphan and half orphan.
Bent with work and care the learned and apostolic The state prison at Folsom has a priest for chaplain.
prelate of Marysville resigned his see, 17 March, 1884, The largest towns in the diocese are Sacramento,
was ajipointed titular Bishop of Joppa, and retired which has 12 priests and a population, including
to the hospital of the Sisters of Charity in Los Angeles suburbs, of 56,000; Eureka, 2 churches and 2 priests,
where he died, 4 December, 1891. His remains lie population, 11,845; Marysville, 2 priests and 1
in Calvary Cemetery, Los Angeles. The Rev. church, 5430; Grass Valley, 1 church and 1 priest,
Patrick Manogue, then pastor of Virginia City, 6250; Reno, 1 church and 1 priest, 10,867; Chico, 1
Nevada, was appointed coadjutor and titular Bishop priest and 1 church, 11,775. A Catholic weekly
of Ceramos, and was consecrated, 16 January, 1881 paper is published at Sacramento. A public libraiy
in St. Mary's Cathedral, San Francisco^ by Arch- is attached to the cathedral, and works in conjunc-
bishop J. S. .\lemany. He was born m 1831 at tion with the state and city libraries. Aclerical aid
Desart, Kilkenny, Ireland, of a family that numbered fund helps to maintain infirm and aged priests. The
many distinguished ecclesiastics. He received his Friars Minor (St. Louis province) have a church
early education at Callan, came to the United States at Sacramento. Annual collections are made for
and settled in New England, and later engaged in Indian and negro missions, orphanages, the Catholic
mining in California. .Ifter some years he returned University, Peterspence, and Holy Land shrines. The
to St. Mary's of the Lake, Chicago, to prepare for Priests' Euoharistic League meets annually at the
 SACRAMENTS 295 SACRAMENTS
Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament. The priests may be taken as characteristic documents. Nor
make a retreat every year at the House of Retreats, was itotherwise with the more conservative of the
Grass Valley. The following confraternities are in reformed bodies of the sixteenth century. Martin
the diocese: Men's Sodality of the B. V. M.; Wom- Luther's Catechism, the Augsburg, and later the
en's SodaUty of the B. V. M.; Holy Angels; and Westminster, Confessions are strongly sacramental
the Holy Childhood; St. Aloysius Society; Altar in their tone, putting to shame the degenerate fol-
Societies; Apostleship of Prayer; Catholic Truth lowers of those who compiled them"(ibid., p. 7, 8).
Society; Catholic Ladies' Aid Society; Young (2) Why the sacramental system is most appropriate.
Ladies' Institute; Young Men's Institute; Cathohc — The reasons underlying a sacramental system are
Library Association; and Knights of Columbus. as follows: (a) Taking the word "sacrament" in its
The growth of the Catholic population is steady. broadest sense, as the sign of something sacred and
Converts are many. hidden (the Greek word is "mystery"), we can say
Shea, The Hierarchy of the Cath. Church in the U. S. (New that the whole world is a vast sacramental system,
York, 1886) Shea, Hist, of the Cath. Church in the United
in that material things are unto men the signs of
;

Siaies, IV (New York, 1880-93); Catholic Directory (1911);

Lives of American Prelates in Mem. Vol. 3rd Plenary Council things spiritual and sacred, even of the Divinity.
(Baltimore, 1885); Sacramento Union, files; Catholic Herald "The heavens shew forth the glory of God, and the
(Sacramento, 26 Dec, 1908); Monitor (San Francisco, 16 July,
i910): Statistics of Population of California, compiled for the firmament declareth the work of his hands "(Ps.
use of tlie Legislature (1911); Missiones Catholicce (Rome, 1901). xviii, 2). "The invisible things of him [i. e. God],
John Henry Ellis. from the creation of the world, are clearly seen, being
understood by the things that are made; his eternal
Sacraments, outward signs of inward grace, insti- power also, and divinity" (Rom., i, 20). (b) The
tutedby Christ for our sanctification (Catechismus redemption of man was not accomplished in an in-
concil. Trident., II, n. 4, ex S. Aug. "De catechi- visible manner. God renewed, through the Patriarchs
zandis rudibus"). The subject may be treated and the Prophets, the promise of salvation made
under the following headings: (I) The necessity to the first man; external symbols were used to express
and the nature of a sacramental system. (II) The faith in the promised Redeemer: "all these things
nature of the sacraments of the new law. (Ill) The happened to them [the Israelites] in figure" (I Cor.,
origin (cause) of the sacraments. (IV) The number x, 11; Heb., x, 1). "So we also, when we were chil-
of the sacraments. (V) The effects of the sacraments. dren, were serving under the elements of the world.
(VI) The minister of the sacraments. (VII) The But when the fulness of the time was come, God sent
recipient (subject) of the sacraments. his Son, made of a woman" (Gal., iv, 3, 4). The
I. Necessity and Nature. (1) In what sense Incarnation took place because God dealt with men
necessary. — Almighty God can and does give grace in the manner that was best suited to their nature,
to men in answer to their internal aspirations and (c) The Church established by the Saviour was to
prayers without the use of any external sign or cere- be a visible organization (see Church: The Visibility
monj'. This wiU always be possible, because God, of the Church) consequently it should have exter-
:

grace, and the soul are spiritual beings. God is not nal ceremonies and symbols of things sacred, (d)
restricted to the use of material, visible symbols in The principal reason for i sacramental system is
dealing with men; the sacraments are not necessary found in man. It is the nature of man, writes St.
in the sense that they could not have been dispensed Thomas (III, Q. Ixi, a. 1), to be led by things corporeal
with. But, if it be shown that God has appointed and sense-perceptible to things spiritual and intelli-
external, visible ceremonies as the means by which gible; now Divine Providence provides for everything
certain graces are to be conferred on men, then in in accordance with its nature (secundum modum sues
order to obtain those graces it wiU be necessary for conditionis); therefore it was fitting that Divine
men to make use of those Divinely appointed means. Wisdom should provide means of salvation for men
This truth theologians express by saying that the in the form of certain corporeal and sensible signs
sacraments are necessary, not absolutely but only which are called sacraments. (For other reasons
hypothetically, i. e., in the supposition that if we wish see Catech. Cone. Trid., II, n. 14.)
to obtain a certain supernatural end we must use the (3) Existence of sacred symbols. — (a) No sacra-
supernatural means appointed for obtaining that —
ments in state of innocence. According to St. Thomas
end. In this sense the Council of Trent (Sess.VII, (1. c, a. 2) and theologians generally there were no

can. 4) declared heretical those who assert that the sacraments before Adam sinned, i. e., in the state
sacraments of the New Law are superfluous and not of original justice. Man's dignity was so great that
necessary, although all are not necessary for each he was raised above the natural condition of human
individual. It is the teaching of the Cathohc Church nature. His mind was subject to God; his lower
and of Christians in general that, whilst God was faculties were subject to the higher part of his mind;
nowise bound to make use of external ceremonies his body was subject to his soul; it would have been
as symbols of things spiritual and sacred, it has against the dignity of that state had he been depen-
pleased Him to do so, and this is the ordinary and dent, for the acquisition of knowledge or of Divine
most suitable manner of deaUng with men. Writers grace, on anything beneath him, i. e. corporeal
on the sacraments refer to this as the necessitas con- things. For this reason the majority of theologians
venienticE, the necessity of suitableness. It is not hold that no sacraments would have been instituted
really a necessity, but the most appropriate manner even if that state had lasted for a long time.
of dealing with creatures that are at the same (b) Sacraments of the law of nature. — Apart from
what was or might have been in that extraordinary
time spiritual and corporeal. In this assertion all
Christians are united: it is only when we come to state, the use of sacred symbols is universal. St.
consider the nature of the sacramental signs that Augustine says that every reUgion, true or false, has
Protestants (except some Anglicans) differ from Catho- its visible signs or sacraments. "In nullum nomen
Ucs. "To sacraments considered merely as outward reUgionis, seu verum seu falsum, coadunari homines
forms, pictorial representations or symboUc acts, possunt, nisi aliquo signaculorum seu sacramentorum
there is generally no objection", wrote Dr. Morgan visibiUum consortio coUigantur" (Cont. Faust.,
Dix ("The Sacramental System'', New York, 1902, XIX, xi). Commentators on the Scriptures and theo-
p. .46). "Of sacramental doctrine this may be truly logians almost unanimously assert that there were
said, that it is co-extensive with historic Christianity. sacraments under the law of nature and under the
Of this there is no reasonable doubt, as regards the Mosaic Law, as there are sacraments of greater dig-
very ancient days, of which St. Chrysostom's treatise nity under the Law of Christ. Under the law of nature
on the priesthood and St. Cyril's catechetical lectures — so called not to exclude supernatural revelation
 SACRAMENTS 296 SACRAMENTS
but because at that time there existed no written (2) The ceremonies which consisted in the use of
—
supernatural law salvation was granted through things pertaining to the service of God, i. e. (a)
faith in the promised Redeemer, and men expressed the paschal lamb for all the people, and (b) the loaves
that faith by some external signs. What those of proposition for the ministers. (3) The ceremonies
signs should be God did not determine, leaving this of purification from legal contamination, i. e. (a)
to the people, most probably to the leaders or heads for the people, various expiations, (b) for the priests
of famihes, who were guided in their choice by an the washing of hands and feet, the shaving of the head'
interior inspiration of the Holy Ghost. This is the etc. St. Augustine says the sacraments of the Old
conception of St. Thomas, who says that, as under Law were abohshed because they had been fulfilled
the law of nature (when there was no written law), (cf. Matt., V, 17), and others have been instituted
men were guided by interior inspiration in worshiping which are more efficacious, more useful, easier to
God, so also they determined what signs should be administer and to receive, fewer in number ("virtute
used in the external acts of worship (III, Q. Ix, a. 5, majora, utihtate meliora, actu facihora, numero pau-
ad Sum). Afterwards, however, as it was necessary to XIX, xiii). The Council of Trent
ciora", Cont. Faust.,
give a written law: (a) because the law of nature had condemns those who say that there is no difference
been obscured by sin, and (b) because it was time to except in the outward rite between the sacraments of
give a more expUcit knowledge of the grace of Christ, the Old Law and those of the New Law (Sess.
then also it became necessary to determine what VII, can. ii). The Decree
for the Armenians, pub-
external signs should be used as sacraments (ibid., and lished by orderof the Council of Florence, says that
Q. Ixi, a. 3, ad 2uni). This was not necessary imme- the sacraments of the Old Law did not confer grace
diately after the Fall, by reason of the fullness of faith but only prefigured the grace which was to be given
and knowledge imparted to Adam. But about the by the Passion of Christ. This means that they
time of Abraham, when faith had been weakened, did not give grace of themselves (i. e. ex opere operato)
many had fallen into idolatry, and the light of reason but only by reason of the faith in Christ which they
had been obscured by indulgence of the passions,
—
represented "ex fide significata, non ex circumci-
even unto the commission of sins against nature, God sione significante" (St. Thomas, loc. cit.).
intervened and appointed as a sign of faith the rite II. Nature op the Sacraments of the New
of circumcision (Gen., xvii; St. Thomas, III, Q. Ixx, Law. — Definition of a sacrament.
(1) —The sacra-
a. 2, ad 1"™; see Circumcision). ments thus far considered were merely signs of sacred
The vast majority of theologians teach that this things. According to the teaching of the Catholic
ceremony was a sacrament and that it was instituted Church, accepted to-day by many Episcopalians,
as a remedy for original sin; consequently that it the sacraments of the Christian dispensation are not
conferred grace, not indeed of itself (ex opere operato), mere signs; they do not merely signify Divine grace,
but by reason of the faith in Christ which it ex- but in virtue of their Divine institution, they cause
pressed. "In circumcisione conferebatur gratia, non that grace in the souls of men. "Signum saoro sanc-
ex virtute circumcisionis, sed ex virtute fidei pas- —
tum efficax gratiae" a sacrosanct sign producing
sionis Christ! futurae, cujus signum erat circumcisio grace, is a good, succinct definition of a sacrament
— quia scilicet justitia erat ex fide significata, non ex of the New Law. Sacrament, in its broadest accep-
circumcisione significante " (St. Thomas, III, Q. tation, may be defined as an external sign of some-
Ixx, a. 4). Certainly it was at least a sign of some- thing sacred. In the twelfth century Peter Lombard
thing sacred, and it was appointed and determined by (d. 1164), known as the Master of the Sentences,
God himself as a sign of faith and as a mark by wbich author of the first manual of systematized theology,
the faithful were distinguished from unbelievers. gave an accurate definition of a sacrament of the New
It was not, however, the only sign of faith used under Law: Asacrament is in such a manner an outward
the law of nature. It is incredible, writes St. Augus- sign of inward grace that it bears its image (i. e.
tine, that before circumcision there was no sacrament signifies or represents it) and is its cause
—
"Sacra-
for the relief (justification) of children, although for mentum proprie dicitur quod ita signum est gratise
some good reason the Scriptures do not tell us what Dei, et invisibilis gratiae forma, ut ipsius imaginem
that sacrament was (Cont. Jul., Ill, xi). The sacri- gerat et causa existat" (IV Sent., d. I, n. 2). This
fice of Melchisedech, the sacrifice of the friends of definition was adopted and perfected by the medieval
Job, the various tithes and oblations for the service Scholastics. From St. Thomas we have the short
of God are mentioned by St. Thomas (III, Q. Ixi, ^. but very expressive definition: The sign of a sacred
3, ad 3um; Q. Ixv, a. 1, ad 7um) as external observ-
—
thing in so far as it sanctifies men "Signum rei
ances which may be considered as the sacred signs sacrae in quantum est sanctificans homines" (III, Q.
of that time, prefiguring future sacred institutions: Ix, a. 2).
hence, he adds, they may be called sacraments of the All the creatures of the universe proclaim some-
law of nature. thing sacred, namely, the wisdom and the goodness
{(} Sacraments of the Mosaic Law. — As the time
for Christ's coming drew nearer, in order that the
of God, as they are sacred in themselves, not as they
are sacred things sanctifying men, hence they can-
Israelites might be better instructed God spoke to not be called sacraments in the sense in which we
Moses, re\'ealing to him in detail the sacred signs and speak of sacraments (ibid., ad lum). The Council
ceremonies b>' which they were to manifest more of Trent includes the substance of these two defini-
ex-plicitly their faith in the future Redeemer. Those tions in the following: "Symbolum rei sacra?, et in-
signs and ceremonies were the sacraments of the visibilis gratiae forma visibilis, sanctificandi vim
Mosaic Law, "which are compared to the sacraments
which were before the law as something determined
habens" —Asymbol of something sacred, a visible
form of invisible grace, having the power of
to something undetermined, because before the law sanctifying (Sess. XIII, cap. 3). The "Catechism
it had not been determined what signs men should
of the Council of Trent" gives a more com-
use" (St. Thomas, III, Q. Ixi, a. 3, ad 2um). -with plete definition: Something perceptible by the
the .Vngelic Doctor (I-II, Q. cii, a. 5) theologians senses which by Divine institution has the power
usually divide the sacraments of this period into both to signify and to effect sanctity and justice
three classes; (1) The ceremonies by which men were (II, n. 2). Cathohc catechisms in English usually
made and signed as worshippers or ministers of God. have the following: An outward sign of inward grace,
Thus we have (a) circumcision, instituted in the time a sacred and mysterious sign or ceremony, ordained
of Abraham (Gen., x\-ii), renewed in the time of Moses by Christ, by which grace is conveyed to our souls.
(Lev., xii, 3) for all the people; and (b) the sacred Anglican and Episcopalian theologies and catechisms
rites by which the Levitical priests were consecrated. give definitions which Cathohcs could accept (see,
 SACRAMENTS 297 SACRAMENTS
e. g.Mortimer, "Catholic Faith and Practice", tation through the merits of Christ, which will cover
New York, 1905, part I, p. 120). his soul as a cloak, there is no place for signs that cause
In every sacrament three things are necessary grace, and those used can have no other purpose
the outward sign; the inward grace; Divine institu- than to excite faith in the Saviour. Luther's con-
tion. A sign stands for and represents something venient doctrine on justification was not adopted by
else, either naturally, as smoke represents fire, or all his followers and it is not baldly and boldly pro-
by the choice of an intelligent being, as the red cross claimed by all Protestants to-day: nevertheless they
indicates an ambulance. Sacraments do not natu- accept its consequences affecting the true notion of
rally signify grace; they do so because they have been the sacraments.
chosen by God to signify mysterious effects. Yet (3) Catholic Doctrine. —
Against all innovators the
they are not altogether arbitrary, because in some Council of Trent declared: "If any one say that
cases, if not in all, the ceremonies performed have a the sacraments of the New Law do not contain the
quasi-natural connexion with the effect to be produced. grace which they signify, or that they do not confer
Thus, pouring water on the head of a child readily grace on those who place no obstacle to the same, let
brings to mind the interior purification of the soul. him be anathema" (Sess. viii, can. vi). "If any one
The word "sacrament" {sacramentum) even as used
, say that grace is not conferred by the sacraments ex
by profane Latin writers, signified something sacred, opere operato, but that faith in God's promises is alone
viz., the oath by which soldiers were bound, or the sufficient for obtaining grace^ let him be anathema"
money deposited by htigants in a contest. In the (ibid., can. viii; cf can. iv, v, vii). The phrase " ex opere
.

writings of the Fathers of the Church the word was operato", for which there is no equivalent in English,
used to signify something sacred and mysterious, probably was used for the first time by Peter of Poi-
and where the Latins use sacramentum the Greeks tiers (d. 1205), and afterwards by Innocent III (d.
use iui(TTi)pi.ov (mystery). The sacred and mysterious 1216; de myst. missae. III, v), and by St, Thomas (d.
thing signified is Divine grace, which is the formal 1274; IV Sent., dist. 1, Q. i, a. 5). It was happily in-
cause of our justification (see Grace), but with it we vented to express a truth that had always been taught
must associate the Passion of Christ (efficient and and had been introduced without objection. It is
meritorious cause) and the end (final cause) of our not an elegant formula but, as St. Augustine remarks
sanctification, viz., eternal life. The significance of (In Ps. cxxxviii) It is better that grammarians should
:

the sacraments according to theologians (e. g. St. object than that the people should not understand.
Thomas, III, Q. Ix, a. 3) and the Roman Catechism " Ex opere operato ", i. e. by virtue of the action, means
(II, n. 13) extends to these three sacred things, of that the efficacy of the action of the sacraments does
which one is past, one present, and one future. The not depend on anything human, but solely on the will
three are aptly expressed in St. Thomas's beautiful of God as expressed by Christ's institution and promise.
antiphon on the Eucharist: "O sacrum convivium, "Ex opere operantis ", i. e. by reason of the agent, would
in quo Christus sumitur, recoHtur memoria passionis mean that the action of the sacraments depended on
ejus, mens impletur gratia, et futurae gloriae nobis the worthiness either of the minister or of the recipient
pignus datur—-O sacred banquet, in which Christ (see Pourrat, "Theology of the Sacraments", tr., St.
is received, the memory of the passion is recalled, Louis, 1910, 162 sqq.). Protestants cannot in good
the soul is filled with grace, and a pledge of future life faith object to the phrase as if it meant that the mere
is given to us". outward ceremony, apart from God's action, causes
(2) Errors o/ Protestants. —Protestants generally grace. It is well known that Catholics teach that the
hold that the sacraments are signs of something sacraments are only the instrumental, not the princi-
sacred (grace and faith), but deny that they really pal, causes of grace. Neither can it be claimed that
cause Divine grace. Episcopalians, however, and the phrase adopted by the council does away with all
Anglicans, especially the Ritualists, hold with Catho- dispositions necessary on the part of the recipient, the
lics that the sacraments are "effectual signs" of sacraments acting like infallible charms causing grace
grace. In article XXV of the Westminster Confes- in those who are ill-disposed or in grievous sin. The
sion we read: "Sacraments ordained of God be not fathers of the council were careful to note that there
only badges or tokens of Christian men's profession, must be no obstacle to grace on the part of the re-
but rather they be certain sure witnesses and effectual cipients, who must receive them rite, i. e. rightly and
signs of grace and God's good will towards us by worthily; and they declare it a calumny to assert that
which He doth work invisibly in us, and doth not only they require no previous dispositions (Sess. XIV, de
quicken but strengthen and confirm our faith in Him" poenit., cap. 4). Dispositions are required to pre-
(cf. art. XXVII). "The Zwinglian theory", writes pare the subject, but they are a condition (conditio
Morgan Dix (op. cit., p. 73), "that sacraments are sine gya non), not the causes, of the grace conferred.
notiiing but memorials of Christ and badges of Chris- In this case the sacraments differ from the sacramen-
tian profession, is one that can by no possible jugglery tals, which may cause grace ex opere operantis, i. e.
with the Enghsh tongue be reconciled with the for- by reason of the prayers of the Church or the good,
mularies of our church." Mortimer adopts and pious sentiments of those who use them (see Sacra-
explains the Catholic formula "ex opere operato" mentals).
(loc. p. 122).
cit., Luther and his early followers (4) Proofs of the Catholic Doctrine. —
In examining
rejected this conception of the sacraments. They do proofs of the Catholic doctrine it must be borne in
not cause grace, but are merely "signs and testimo- mind that our rule of faith is not simply Scripture,
nies of God's good will towards us " (Augsburg Confes- but Scripture and tradition, (a) In Sacred Scrip-
sions) they excite faith, and faith (fiduciary) causes
; ture we find expressions which clearly indicate that
justification. Calvinists and Presbyterians hold the sacraments are more than mere signs of grace and
substantially the same doctrine. Zwinglius lowered faith: "Unless a man be born again of water and the
still further the dignity of the sacraments, making Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of
them signs not of God's fidelity but of our fidelity. God" (John, iii, 5); "He saved us, by the laver of
By receiving the sacraments we manifest faith in regeneration, and renovation of the Holy Ghost"
Christ: they are merely the badges of our profession (Tit., iii, 5); "Then they laid their hands upon them,
and the pledges of our fidefity. Fundamentally and they received the Holy Ghost" (Acts, viii, 17);
all these errors arise from Luther's newly-invented "He that eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood,
theory of righteousness, i. e. the doctrine of justi- hath everlasting life For my flesh is meat indeed
. .

fication by faith alone (see Grace). If man is to be and my blood is drink indeed" (John, vi, 55, 56).
sanctified not by an interior renovation through grace These and similar expressions (see articles on each
which will blot out his sins, but by an extrinsic impu- sacrament) are, to say the least, very much exagger-
 SACRAMENTS 298 SACRAMENTS
ated they do not mean that the sacramental cere-
if more important element in the composition, because
mony in some sense the cause of the grace conferred.
is men express their thoughts and intentions principally
(b) Tradition clearly indicates the sense in which by words. "Verba inter homines obtinuerunt prin-
they have been interpreted in the Church. From cipatum significandi" (St. Augustine, "De doct.
the numerous expressions used by the Fathers we Christ.", II, iii; St. Thomas, III, Q. Ix, a. 6). It must
select the following: "The Holy Ghost comes down not be supposed that the things used for the acts per-
from heaven and hovers over the waters, sanctifying formed, for they are included in the res, remarks
them of Himself, and thus they imbibe the power of St.Thomas (loc. cit., ad 2"™) have no significance.
sanctifying " (TertuUian, De bapt., c. iv.). " Baptism They too may be symbolical, e. g. anointing the body
i.s the expiation of sins, the remission of crimes, the with oil relates to health; but their significance is
cause of renovation and regeneration" (St. Gregory clearly determined by the words. "In all the com-
of Xyssa, "Orat. in Bapt."). "Explain to me the pounds of matter and form the determining element is
manner of nativity in the flesh and I will explain to the form" (St. Thomas, loc. cit., a. 7).
you the regeneration of the soul . Throughout, The terminology was somewhat new, the doctrine
by Divine power and efficacy, it is incomprehensible: was old: the same truth had been expressed in former
no reasoning, no art can explain it" (ibid.). "He that times in different words. Sometimes the form of the
passes through the fountain [baptism] shall not die sacrament meant the whole external rite (St. Augus-
Ijut rises to new life" (St. Ambrose, De sacr., I, iv). tine, "De pecc. et mer. ", xxxiv; Cone. Milev., De
"WTience this great power of water", exclaims St. bapt.). What we call the matter and form were re-
Augustine, "that it touches the body and cleanses the ferred to as "mystic symbols" "the sign and the thing
;

soul?" (Tr. 80 in Joann). "Baptism", writes the invisible"; "the word and the element" (St. Augus-
same Father, "consists not in the merits of those tine, tr. 80 in Joann.). The new terminology imme-
by whom it is administered, nor of those to whom diately found favour. It was solemnly ratified by
it is administered, but in its own sanctity and being used in the Decree for the Armenians, which was
truth, on account of Him who instituted it" (Cont. added to the Decrees of the Council of Florence, yet
Cres., IV). The doctrine solemnly defined by the has not the value of a conciliar definition (see Den-
Council of Trent had been announced in previous zinger-Bannwart, 695; Hurter, "Theol. dog. comp.",
councils, notably at Constantinople (381 Symb. Fid.),
; I, 441; Pourrat, op. cit., p. 51). The Council of Trent
at Mileve (416; can. ii) in the Second Council of used the words matter and form (Sess. XIV, cap. ii,
Orange (529; can. xv); and in the Council of Florence iii, can. iv), but did not define that the sacramental

(1439; Deer. pro. Armen., see Denzinger-Bannwart, rite was composed of these two elements. Leo XIII,
nn. 86, 102, 200, 69.5). The early Anglican Church in the "Apostolicse Cura3" (13 Sept., 1896) made the
held fast to the true doctrine: "Baptism is not only Scholastic theory the basis of his declaration, and pro-
a sign of profession and a mark of difference, whereby nounced ordinations performed according to the an-
christened men are discerned from those that be not cient Anglican rite invalid, owing to a defect in the
christened, but is also a sign of regeneration or New- form used and a lack of the necessary intention on
Birth, whereby as by an instrument they that receive the part of the ministers. The hylomorphistic theory
Baptism rightly are grafted into the church" (Art. furnishes a very apt comparison and sheds much light
XXVII). on our conception of the external ceremony. Never-
(c) Theological —
Argument. The Westminster theless our knowledge of the sacraments is not depend-
Confession adds: "The Baptism of children is in any ent on this Scholastic terminology, and the comparison
wise to be retained in the church as most agreeable must not be carried too far. The attempt to verify
with the institution of Christ. " If baptism does not the comparison (of sacraments to a body) in all de-
confer grace ex opere operato, but simply excites faith, tails of the sacramental rite will lead to confusing
then we may ask: (1) Of what use would this be if the subtilities or to singular opinions, e. g., Melchior
language used be not understood by the recipient, i. -i. Cano's (De locis theol., VIII, v, 3) opinion as to the
an infant or an adult that does not understand Latin? minister of matrimony (see Maeriaqe cf Pourrat, ; .

In such cases it might be more beneficial to the by- op. cit., ii).
standers than to the one baptized. (2) In what does III. Origin (cause) op the Sacraments. It —
the baptism of Christ surpass the baptism of John, might now be asked: in how far was it necessary that
for the latter could excite faith? Why were those the matter and form of the sacraments should have
baptized by the baptism of John rebaptized with the been determined by Christ? (1) Power of God. —
baptism of Christ? (Acts, xix). (3) How can it be The Council of Trent defined that the seven sacra-
said that baptism is strictly necessary for salvation ments of the New Law were instituted by Christ
since faith can be excited and expressed in many other (Sess. VII, can. i). This settles the question of fact
wa,\'s? Finally Episcopalians and Anglicans of to- for all Cathohcs. Reason tells us that all sacraments
day would not revert to the doctrine of grace ex opere must come originally from God. Since they are the
operato unless they were convinced that the ancient signs of sacred things in as far as by these sacred
faith was warranted by Scripture and Tradition. things men are sanctified (St. Thomas, III, Q. Ix, a. 2
(•')) —
Mailer and Form of the Sacramenls. Scho-
lastic writers of the thirteenth century introduced into
c. et ad I) since the external rite (matter and form)
;

of itself cannot give grace, it is evident that all sacra-

their ex-planations of the sacraments terms which were ments properly so called must originate in Divine
derived from the philosophy of Aristotle. William appointment. "Since the sanotification of man is
of Auxerre (d. 1223) was the first to apply to them the in the power of God who sanctifies", writes St.
words matter (materia) and form (forma). As in Thomas (loc. cit., a. 5), "it is not in the competency
physical bodies, so also in the sacramental rite we find of man to choose the things by which he is to be sanc-
two elements, one undetermined, which is caUed the tified, but this must be determined by Divine insti-
matter, the other determining, called the form. For tution". Add to this that grace is, in some sense, a
instance, water may be used for drinking, or for cool- participation of the Divine nature (see Grace) and
ing or cleansing the body, but the words pronounced our doctrine becomes unassailable: God alone can
b>- the minister when he pours water on the head of decree that by exterior ceremonies men shall be par-
tlic child, with the intention of doing what the Church takers of His nature.
does, determines the meaning of the act, so that it
signifies the purification of the soul by grace.
(2) Power of Christ. —
God alone is the principal
The cause of the sacraments. He alone authoritatively
matter and form (the res et verba) make up the exter- and by innate power can give to external material
nal rite, which has its special significance and efficacy rites the power to confer grace on men. Christ as
from the institution of Christ. The words are the God, equally with the Father, possessed this principal,
 SACRAMENTS 299 SACRAMENTS
authoritative, innate power. As man He had another Pius X condemned twelve propositions of the Mod-
power which St. Thomas
"the power of the prin-
calls ernists, who would attribute the origin of the sacra-
cipal ministry" or "the power of excellence" (III, ments to some species of evolution or development.
Q. Ixiv, a. 3). "Christ produced the interior effects The first sweeping proposition is this: "The sacra-
of the sacraments by meriting them and by effecting ments had their origin m this that the Apostles, per-
them. . .The passion of Christ is the cause of our suaded and moved by circumstances and events,
justification meritoriously and effectively, not as the interpreted some idea and intention of Christ" (Den-
principal agent and authoritatively, but as an instru- zinger-Bannwart, 2040). Then follow eleven proposi-
ment, inasmuch as His Humanity was the instru- tions relating to each of the sacraments in order (ibid.,
ment of His Divinity" (ibid.; cf. Ill, Q. xiii, aa. 1, 3). 2041-51). These propositions deny that Christ im-
_

There is theological truth as well as piety in the old mediately instituted the sacraments, and some seem
maxim: "From the side of Christ dying on the cross to deny even their mediate institution by the Saviour.
flowed the sacraments by which the Church was (4) What does Immediate Institution Imply f
saved" (Gloss. Ord. in Rom. 5; St. Thomas, III, Q. —
Power of the Church. Granting that Christ immedi-
Ixii, a. 5). The principal efficient cause of grace is ately instituted all the sacraments, it does not neces-
God, to Whom the Humanity of Christ is as a con- sarily follow that personally He determined all the
joined instrument, the sacraments being instruments details of the sacred ceremony, prescribing minutely
not joined to the Divinity (by hypostatic union): every iota relating to the matter and the form to be
therefore the saving power of the sacraments passes used. It is sufficient (even for immediate institution)
from the Divinity of Christ, through His Humanity to say: Christ determined what special graces were
into the sacraments (St. Thomas, loo. cit.). One who to be conferred by means of external rites: for some
weighs well all these words will understand why Catho- sacraments (e. g. baptism, the Eucharist) He deter-
lics have great reverence for the sacraments. Christ's mined minutely (in specie) the matter and form: for
power of excellence consists in four things: (1) Sacra- others He determined only in a general way (in ge-
ments have their efficacy from His merits and suffer- nere) that there should be an external ceremony, by
ings; (2) they are sanctified and they sanctify in His which special graces were to be conferred, leaving to
name; (3) He could and He did institute the sacra- the Apostles or to the Church the power to determine
ments; (4) He could produce the effects of the sacra- whatever He had not determined, e. g. to prescribe
ments without the external ceremony (St. Thomas, the matter and form of the Sacraments of Confirma-
Q. Ixiv, a. 3). Christ could have communicated this tion and Holy Orders. The Council of Trent (Sess.
power of excellence to men: this was not absolutely XXI, cap. ii) declared that the Church had not the
impossible (ibid., a. 4). But, (1) had He done so power to change the "substance" of the sacraments.
men could not have possessed it with the same per- She would not be claiming power to alter the substance
fection as Christ: "He would have remained the head of the sacraments if she used her Divinely given au-
of the Church principally, others secondarily" (ibid., thority to determine more precisely the matter and
ad 3). (2) Christ did not communicate this power, form in so far as they had not been determined by
and this for the good of the faithful: (a) that they Christ. This theory (which is not modem) had been
might place their hope in God and not in men; (b) adopted by theologians: by it we can solve historical
that there might not be different sacraments, giving difficulties relating, principally, to confirmation and
rise to divisions in the Church (ibid., ad 1). This Holy orders.
second reason is mentioned by St. Paul (I Cor., i, (5) May we then say that Christ instituted some
12, 13): "every one of you saith: I indeed am of sacraments in an implicit state? That Christ was
Paul; and I am of Apollo; and I of Cephas; and satisfied to lay down the essential principles from
I of Christ. Is Christ divided? Was Paul then which, after a more or less protracted development,
crucified for you? Or were you baptized in the name of would come forth the fully developed sacraments?
Paul?" This is an application of Newman's theory of develop-
(3) Immediate or Mediate Institution. —
The Coun- ment, according to Pourrat (op. cit., p. 300), who pro-
cil of Trent did not define explicitly and formally that poses two other formulae Christ instituted all the sac-
;

all the sacraments were instituted immediately by raments immediately, but did not himself give them
Christ. Before the council great theologians, e. g. all to the Church fully constituted; or Jesus instituted
Peter Lombard (IV Sent., d. xxiii), Hugh of St.Victor immediately and explicitly baptism and Holy Euchar-
(De sac, II, ii), Alexander of Hales (Sumnia, IV, Q. ist: He instituted immediately but implicitly the five
xxiv, 1) held that some sacraments were instituted by other sacraments (loc. cit., p. 301). Pourrat himself
the Apostles, using power that had been given to them thinks the latter formula too absolute. Theologian.s
by Jesus Christ. Doubts were raised especially about probably will consider it rather dangerous, and at
confirmation and extreme unction. St. Thomas re- least "malesonans " If it be taken to mean more than
jects the opinion that confirmation was instituted by the old expression, Christ determined in genere only
the Apostles. It was instituted by Christ, he holds, the matter and the form of some sacraments, it grants
when he promised to send the Paraclete, although it too much to development. If it means nothing more
was never administered whilst He was on earth, be- than the expression hitherto in use, what is gained
cause the fullness of the Holy Ghost was not to be by admitting a formula which easily might be mis-
given until after the Ascension: "Christus instituit understood?
hoc sacramentum, non exhibendo, sed promittendo" IV. Number of the Sacraments. (I) Catho-
(III, Q. Ixii, a. 1, ad lum). The Council of Trent lic Doctrine: Eastern and Western Churches. The—
defined that the sacrament of Extreme Unction was Council of Trent solemnly defined that there are
instituted by Christ and promulgated by St. James seven sacraments of the New Law, truly and properly
(Sess. XIV, can. i). Some theologians, e. g. Becanus, so called, viz., baptism, confirmation, Holy Eucharist,
Bellarmine, Vasquez, Gonet, etc. thought the words penance, extreme unction, orders, and matrimony.
of the council (Sess. VII, can. i) were exphcit enough The same enumeration had been made in the Decree
to make the immediate institution of all the sacra- for the Armenians by the Council of Florence (1439),
ments by Christ a matter of defined faith. They are in the Profession of Faith of Michael Palseologus, of-
opposed by Soto (a theologian of the council), Estius, fered to Gregory X in the Council of Lyons (1274)
Gotti, Toumely, Berti, and a host of others, so that and in the council held at London, in 1237, under
now nearly all theologians unite in saying: it is theo- Otto, legate of the Holy See. According to some
logically certain, but not defined (de fide) that Christ writers Otto of Bamberg (1139), the Apostle of Pome-
immediately instituted all the sacraments of the New rania, was the first who clearly adopted the number
Law. In the Decree "LamentabiU", 3 July, 1907, seven (see Tanquerey, "De sacr. "). Most probably
 SACRAMENTS 300 SACRAMENTS
this honour belongs to Peter Lombard (d. 1164) who the Augsburg Confession retained three as "having
in his fourth Book of Sentences (d. i, n, 2) defines a the command of God and the promise of the grace of
sacrament as a sacred sign which not only signifies but the New Testament". These three, baptism, the
also causes grace, and then (d. ii, n. 1) enumerates Lord's Supper, and penance were admitted by Luther
the seven sacraments. It is worthy of note that, al- and also by Cranmer in his "Catechism" (sec Dix
though the great Scholastics rejected many of his "op. cit.", p. 79). Henry VIII protested against
theological opinions (hst given in app. to Migne edi- Luther's innovations and received the title "Defender
tion, Paris, 1841), this definition and enumeration of the Faith" as a reward for pubUshing the "Assertio
were at once universally accepted, proof positive that septem sacramentorum " (recently re-edited by Rev.
he did not introduce a new doctrine, but merely ex- Louis O'Donovan, New York, 1908). Followers of
pressed in a convenient and precise formula what had Luther's principles surpassed their leader in opposi-
always been held in the Church. Just as many doc- tion to the sacraments. Once granted that they were
trines were beUeved, but not always accurately ex- merely "signs and testimonies of God's good will
pressed, until the condemnation of heresies or the towards us", the reason for great reverence was gone.
de\'plopment of religious knowledge called forth a Some rejected all sacraments, since God's good will
neat and precise formula, so also the sacraments were could be manifested without these external signs.
accepted and used by the Church for centuries before Confession (penance) was soon dropped from the list
Aristotelean philosophy, applied to the systematic of those retained. The Anabaptists rejected infant
explanation of Christian doctrine, furnished the ac- baptism, since the ceremony could not excite faith in
curate definition and enumeration of Peter Lombard. children. Protestants generally retained two sacra-
The earlier Christians were more concerned with the ments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, the latter
use of sacred rites than with scientific formulae, being being reduced by the denial of the Real Presence to a
like the pious author of the "Imitation of Christ", mere commemorative service. After the first fervour
who wrote "I had rather feel compunction than know
: of destruction there was a reaction. Lutherans re-
its definition" (I, i). tained a ceremony of confirmation and ordination.
Thus time was required, not for the develop- Cranmer retained three sacraments, yet we find in
—
ment of the sacraments except in so far as the the Westminster Confession: "There are two Sacra-
Church may have determined what was left ments ordained of Christ Our Lord in the Gospel, that
—
under her control by Jesus Christ but for the growth is to say. Baptism, and the Supper of the Lord. Those
of knowledge of the sacraments. For many centuries five commonly called sacraments, that is to say Con-
all signs of sacred things were called sacraments, and firmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and Extreme
the enumeration of these signs was somewhat arbi- Unction, are not to be counted for sacraments of the
trary. Our seven sacraments were all mentioned in Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt
the Sacred Scriptures, and we find all of them men- following of the Apostles, partly are states of life al-
tioned here and there by the Fathers (see Theology; lowed in the Scriptures but yet have not like nature
and on each sacrament). After the ninth
articles of sacraments with Baptism and the Lord's Supper,
century, writers began to draw a distinction between for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony
sacraments in a general sense and sacraments prop- ordained of God" (art. XXV). The Wittenberg
erly so called. The ill-fated Abelard ("Introd. ad theologians, by way of compromise, had shown a
Theol.", I, i, and in the "Sic et Xon") and Hugh of willingness to make such a distinction, in a second
St. Victor (De sacr., I, part 9, chap, viii; cf. Pourrat, letter to the Patriarch of Constantinople, but the
op. cit., pp. 34, 3.5) way for Peter Lom-
prepared the Greeks would have no compromise (Pourrat, loc. cit.,
bard, who proposed the precise formula which the 290).
Church accepted. Thenceforward until the time of For more than two centuries the Church of England
the so-called Reformation the Eastern Church joined theoretically recognized only two "sacraments of the
with the Latin Church in saying: by sacraments Gospel" yet permitted, or tolerated other five rites.
proper we understand efficacious sacred signs, i. e. In practice these five "lesser sacraments" were ne-
ceremonies which by Divine ordinance signify, contain glected, especially penance and extreme unction. An-
and confer grace; and they are seven in number. In ghcans of the nineteenth century would have gladly
the history of conferences and councils held to effect altered or aboUshed the twenty-fifth article. 'There
the reunion of the Greek with the Ijatin Church, we has been a strong desire, dating chiefly from the Trac-
find no record of objections made to the doctrine of tarian Movement, and the days of Pusey, Newman,
seven sacraments. On the contrary, about 1576, Lyddon, etc. to reintroduce all of the sacraments,
when the Reformers of tt'ittenberg, anxious to draw ^lany Episcopahans and Anglicans to-day make
the Eastern Churches into their errors, sent a Greek heroic efforts to show that the twenty-fifth article
translation of the Augsburg Confession to Jeremias, repudiated the lesser sacraments only in so far as they
Patriarch of Constantinople, he repUed: "The mys- had "grown of the corrupt following of the Apostles,
teries received in this same Catholic Church of ortho- and were administered 'more Romamensium'", after
dox Christians, and the sacred ceremonies, are seven the Roman fashion. Thus Morgan Dix reminded his
in number
cit., p. 2S9).
—
just seven and no more" (Pourrat, op.
The consensus of the Greek and Latin
contemporaries that the first book of Edward VI al-
lowed "auricular and secret confession to the priest",
Churches on this subject is clearly shown by Arca- who could give absolution, as well as "ghostly coun-
divis,"De con. ecc. Occident, et orient, in sept. sacr. sel, advice, and comfort", but did not make the prac-
administr. " (1619); Goar (q. v.) in his " Euchologion tice obhgatory: therefore the sacrament of Absolu-
by Martene (q. v.) in his work "De antiquis ecclesife tion is not to be "obtruded upon men's consciences as
ritibus", by Renaudot in his "Perp6tuit6 de la foi a matter necessary to salvation" (op. cit., pp. 99, 101,
sur sacraments" (1711), and this agreement of the 102, 103). He cites authorities who state that "one
two Churches furnishes recent writers (Episcopalians) cannot doubt that a sacramental use of anointing the
with a strong argument in support of their appeal for sick has been from the beginning", and adds, "There
the acceptance of se\'en sacraments (cf. Tanquerey, are not wanting, among the bishops of the American
"De sacr.", i, 24; Pourrat, op. cit., pp. S4, 8.5). Church, some who concur in deploring the loss of this
(2) Protestant Errors. —
Luther's capital errors, primitive ordinance and predicting its restoration
viz. private interpretation of the Scriptures, and jus- among us at some propitious time" (ibid., p. 10.5). At
tification by faith alone, logically led to a rejection of a convention of Episcopalians held at Cincinnati, in
the CathoUc doctrine on the sacraments (see Ldther; 1910, unsuccessful effort was made to obtain appro-
Grace) Gladly would he ha^'e swept them all away,
.
bation for the practice of anointing the sick. High
but the words of Scripture were too convincing and Church pastors and curates, especially in England,
 SACRAMENTS 301 SACRAJMENTS
frequently are in conflict with their bishops because Of the two penance is the first in necessity: extreme
the former use all the ancient rites. Add to this the unction completes the work of penance and prepares
assertion made by Mortimer (op. cit., I, 122) that all souls for heaven. Matrimony has not such an im-
the sacraments cause grace ex opere operato, and we portant social work as orders (loo. cit., ad 1 um). If
see that "advanced" Anglicans are returning to the —
we consider necessity alone the Eucharist being left
doctrine and the practices of the Old Church. Whether out as our daily bread and God's greatest gift three—
and in how far their position can be reconciled with are simply and strictly necessary, baptism for all,
the twenty-fifth article, is a question which they must penance for those who fall into mortal sin after re-
settle. Assuredly their wanderings and gropings ceiving baptism, orders for the Church. The others
after the truth prove the necessity of having on earth are not so strictly necessary. Confirmation completes
an infallible interpreter of God's word. the work of baptism; extreme unction completes the
(3) Division and Comparison of the Sacraments. — work of penance; matrimony sanctifies the procrea-
(a) AH sacraments were instituted for the spiritual tion and education of children, which is not so im-
good of the recipients; but five, viz. baptism, confirma- portant nor so necessary as the sanctification of minis-
tion, penance, the Eucharist, and extreme unction, ters of the Church (St. Thomas, loc. cit., a, 4).
primarily benefit the individual in his private char- (d) Episcopalians and Anglicans distinguish two
acter, whilst the other two, orders and matrimony, great sacraments and five lesser sacraments because
primarily affect man as a social being, and sanctify the latter "have not any visible sign or ceremony
him in the fulfillment of his duties toward the Church ordained by God" (art. XXV). Then they should
and society. By baptism we are born again, confirma- be classed among the sacramentals since God alone
tion makes us strong, perfect Christians and soldiers. can be the author of a sacrament (see above III).
The Eucharist furnishes our daily spiritual food. On this point the language of the twenty-fifth article
Penance heals the soul wounded by sin. Extreme ("commonly called sacraments") is more logical and
unction removes the last remnant of human frailty, straightforward than the terminology of recent An-
and prepares the soul for eternal hfe, orders supplies glican writers. The Anglican Catechism calls bap-
ministers to the Church of God. Matrimony gives tism and Eucharist sacraments "generally (i. e. uni-
the graces necessary for those who are to rear children versally) necessary for salvation" Mortimer justly
in the love and fear of God, members of the Church remarks that this expression is not "entirely ac-
militant, future citizens of heaven. This is St. curate", because the Eucharist is not generally neces-
Thomas's explanation of the fitness of the number sary to salvation in the same sense as Baptism (op.
seven (III, Q. Iv, a. 1). He gives other explanations cit., I, 127). The other five he adds are placed in a
offered by the Schoolmen (see Pourrat, op. cit., pp. lower class because, "they are not necessary to salva-
177, sqq.) but does not bind himself to any of them. tion in the same sense as the two other sacraments,
In fact the only really sufficient reason for the existence since they are not necessary for everyone" (loc. cit.,
of seven sacraments, and no more, is the will of Christ 128). Verily this is interpretation extraordinary;
there are seven because He instituted seven. The yet we should be grateful since it is more respectful
explanation and adaptions of theologians serve only than saying that those five are "such as have grown
to excite our admiration and gratitude, by showing partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly
how wisely and beneficiently God has provided for are states of life allowed in the Scriptures " (art. XXV).
our spiritual needs in these seven efficacious sings of Confusion and uncertainty will be avoided by accept-
grace. ing the declaration of the Council of Trent (above.)
(b) Baptism and penance are called "sacraments V. Effects of the Sacraments. — (I) Catholic
of the dead", because they give life, through sancti- Doctrine.— (a) The principle effect of the sacrament
fying grace then called "first grace", to those who are is a two-fold grace: (1) the grace of the sacrament
spiritually dead by reason of original or actual sin. which is "first grace", produced by the sacraments
The other five are "sacraments of the living", be- of the dead, or "second grace", produced by the sacra-
cause their reception presupposes, at least ordinarily, ments of the living (supra, IV, 3, b) (2) The sacra-
:

that the recipient is in the state of grace, and they mental grace, i. e., the special grace needed to attain
give "second grace", i. c. increase of sanctifying grace the end of each sacrament. Most probably it is not
(q. v.). Nevertheless, since the sacraments always a new habitual gift, but a special vigour or efficacy
give some grace when there is no obstacle in the recipi- in the sanctifying grace conferred, including on the
ent, it may happen in cases explained by theologians part of God, a promise, and on the part of man a per-
that "second grace" is conferred by a sacrament of manent right to the assistance needed in order to act
the dead, e. g. when one who has only venial sins to in accordance with the obligations incurred, e. g., to
confess receives absolution and that "first grace" is live as a good Christian, a good priest, a good husband
conferred by a sacrament of the living (see St. Thomas, or wife (cf. Pourrat, op. cit., 199; St. Thomas, III, Q.
III, Q. Ixxii, a. 7 ad 2 um; m, Q. Ixxix, a. 3). Con- Ixii, a. 2). (b) Three sacraments, baptism, confir-
cerning extreme unction St. James explicitly states mation, and orders, besides grace, produce in the soul
that through it the recipient may be freed from his a character, i. e. an indelible spiritual mark by which
sins: "If he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him" some are consecrated as servants of God, some as
(James, v. 15). soldiers, some as ministers. Since it is an indelible
(c) Comparison in dignity and necessity. —The mark, the sacraments which impress a character can
Council of Trent declared that the sacraments are not be received more than once (Cone. Trid., sess.
not all equal in dignity; also that none are superfluous, VII, can. 9; see Character).
although all are not necessary for each individual (2) How the Sacraments cause Grace. — Theological
(Sess. VII, can. 3, 4). The Eucharist is the first in controversies. Few questions have been so hotly
dignity, because it contains Christ in person, whilst controverted as this one relative to the manner in
in the other sacraments grace is conferred by an in- which the sacraments cause grace (St. Thomas, IV,
strumental virtue derived from Christ (St. Thomas, Sent., d. 1, Q. 4, a 1.). (a) All admit that the sacra-
III, Q. Ivi, ^. 3). To this reason St. Thomas adds ments of the New Law cause grace ex opere operato,
another, viz., that the Eucharist is as the end to which not ex opere operantis (supra, II, 2, 3). (b) All admit
the other sacraments tend, a centre around which they that God alone can be the principal cause of grace
revolve (loc. cit.). Baptism is always first in iieces- (supraS, I), (c) All admit that Christ as man, had
sity; Holy orders comes next after the Eucharist in a special power over the sacraments (supra, 3, 2).
the order of dignity, confirmation being between these (d) AH admit that the sacraments are, in some sense,
two. Penance and extreme unction could not have the instrumental causes either of grace itself or of
a first place because they presuppose defects (sins). something else which will be a "title exigent of grace"
 SACRAMENTS 302 SACRAMENTS
{infra e). The principal cause is one which produces by St. Thomas seem clearly to indicate that the sacra-
an effect by a power which it has by reason of its own ments act after the manner of physical causes. He
nature or by an inherent faculty. An instrumental says that there is in the sacraments a virtue produc-
cause produces an effect, not by its own power, but tive of grace (III, Q. bdi, a. 4) and he answers objec-
by a power which it receives from the principal agent. tions against attributing such power to a corporeal
\Vhen a carpenter makes a table, he is the principal instrumeiit by simply stating that such power is not
cause, his tools are the instrumental causes. God alone inherent in them and does not reside in them per-
can cause grace as the principal cause; sacraments manently, but is in them only so far and so long as
can be no more than his instruments "for they are they are instruments in the hands of Almighty God
applied to men by Divine ordinance to cause grace (loc. cit., ad lum and 3"™). Cajetan, Suarez, and
in them" (St. Thomas, III, Q. Ixii, a. 1). No theo- a host of other great theologians defend this system,
logian of to-day defends Occasionahsm (see Cause) which is usually termed Thomistic. The language of
i. e. the system which taught that the sacraments the Scripture, the expressions of the Fathers, the De-
caused grace by a kind of concomitance, they being crees of the councils, they say, are so strong that noth-
not real causes but the causae sine quibus non: their ing short of an impossibiUty will justify a denial of
reception being merely the occasion of conferring this dignity to the sacraments of the New Law.
grace. This opinion, according to Pourrat (op.cit., Many facts must be admitted which we cannot fully
167), was defended by St. Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, explain. The body of man acts on his spiritual soul;
Durandus, Occam, and all the Nominalists, and "en- fire acts,in some way, on souls and on angels. The
joyed a real success until the time of the Council of strings of a harp, remarks Cajetan (In III, Q. Ixii)
Trent, when it was transformed into the modern sys- touched by an unskilled hand, produce nothing but
tem of moral causality". St. Thomas (loe. cit., Ill, sounds: touched by the hands of a skifful musician
Q. Ixii, aa. 1, 4; and "Quodlibeta", 12, a. 14), and they give forth beautiful melodies. Why
cannot the
others rejected it on the ground that it reduced the sacraments, as instruments in the hands of God,
sacraments to the condition of mere signs. produce grace?
(e) In solving the problem the next step was the Many grave theologians were not convinced by
introduction of the system of dispositive instrumental these arguments, and another school, improperly
causality, explained by Alexander of Hales (Summa called the Scotistic, headed by Melchior Cano, De
theol., IV, Q. v, membr. 4), adopted and perfected Lugo, and Vasquez, embracing later Henno, Tournely,
by St. Thomas (IV Sent., d. 1, Q. i, a. 4), defended by Franzelin, and others, adopted the system of instru-
many theologians down to the sixteenth century, and mental moral causality. The principal moral cause
revived in our days by Father Billot, S. J. ("Dc eccl. of grace is the Passion of Christ. The sacraments
sacram.", I, Rome, 1900, pp. 96 sq., 107 sq.). For are instruments which move or entreat God effec-
controversy on this subject, see "Irish Eccles. Rec- tively and infallibly to give his grace to those who re-
ord", Nov., 1899; "Amer. Eccl. Review", May and ceive them with proper dispositions, because, says
June, 1900, Jan. and May, 1901. According to this Melchior Cano, "the price of the blood of Jesus Christ
theory the sacraments do not efficiently and immedi- is communicated to them" (see Pourrat, op. cit.,
ately cause grace itself, but they cause ex opere op- 192, 193). This system was further developed by
erato and instrumentally, a something else the char- — FranzeUn, who looks upon the sacraments as being
acter (in some cases) or a spiritual ornament or form morally an act of Christ (loc. cit., p. 194). TheThom-
which will be a "disposition" entitling the soul to ists and Suarez object to this system: (a) Since the
grace ("dispositio exigitiva gratiae"; "titulus exigi- sacraments (i. e. the external rites) have no intrinsic
tivus gratiae"-. Billot, loc. cit.). It must be admitted value, they do not, according to this explanation, exert
that this theory would be most convenient in explain- any genuine causahty; they do not really cause grace,
ing "reviviscence" of the sacraments {infra, VII, c). God alone causes the grace: the sacraments do not
Against it the following objections are made: (o) operate to produce it; they are only signs or occasions
From the time of the Council of Trent down to recent of conferring it. (;3) The Fathers saw something
times little was heard of this system. (^) The "orna- mysterious and inexplicable in the sacraments. In
ment", or "disposition", entitling the soul to grace this system wonders cease or are, at least, so much re-
is not well explained, hence explains very little. (7) duced that the expressions used by the Fathers seem
Since this "disposition" must be something spiritual altogether out of place. (7) This theory does not suffi-
and of the supernatural order, and the sacraments ciently distinguish, in efficacy, the sacraments of the
can cause it, why can they not cause the grace itself? Gospel from the sacraments of the Old Law (cf. Bil-
(5) In his "Summa theologica" St. Thomas does not luart, "Summa St. Thomae", ed. Lequette, tomeVI,
mention this dispositive causality: hence we may rea- p. 137). Nevertheless, because it avoids certain dif-
sonably believe that he abandoned it (for controversy, ficulties and obscurities of the physical causality
see reviews sup. cit.). theory, the system of moral causality has found many
(f) Smce the time of the Council of Trent theolo- defenders, and to-day if we consider numbers alone,
gians almost unanimously have taught that the sacra- it has authority in its favour.
ments are the efficient instrumental cause of grace Recently both of these systems have been vigor-
itself. The definition of the Council of Trent, that ously attacked by Father Billot (op. cit., 107 sq.),
the sacraments "contain the grace which they sig- who proposes a new explanation. He revives the old
nify", that they "confer grace ex opere operato" (Sess. theory that the sacraments do not immediately cause
VII, can. 6, 8), seemed to justify the assertion, which grace itself, but a disposition or title to grace {supra
wa.s not contested until quite recently. Yet the end e). This disposition is produced by the sacraments,
of the controversy had not come. What was the neither physically nor morally, but imperatively.
nature of that causality? Did it belong to the phy- Sacraments are practical signs of an intentional order:
sical or to the moral order? A physical cause really they manifest God's intention to give spiritual bene-
and immediately produces its effects, either as the fits; this manifestation of the Divine intention is a
principal agent or as the instrument used, as when a title exigent of grace (op. cit., 59 sq., 123 sq.; Pourrat,
sculptor uses a chisel to carve a statue. A moral op. cit., 194; Cronin in reviews, sup. dt). Father
cause is one which moves or entreats a physical cause Billot defends his opinions with remarkable acumen.
to act. It also can be principal or instrumental, e. g. Patrons of the physical causality gratefully note his
a bishop who in person successfully pleads for the attack against the moral causality, but object to the
liberation of a prisoner is the principal moral cause, a new explanation, that the imperative or the intentional
letter sent by him would be the instrumental moral causality, as distinct from the action of signs, occasions,
cause, of the freedom granted. The expressions used moral or physical instruments (a) is conceived with
 SACRAAIENTS 303 SACRAMENTS
difficulty and (/3) does not make the sacraments (i. e. efficacy. No one can give, in his own name, that which
the external, Divinely appointed ceremonies) the real he does not possess; but a bank cashier, not possessing
cause of grace. Theologians are perfectly free to dis- 2000 dollars in his own name, could write a draft
pute and differ as to the manner of instrumental caus- worth 2,000,000 dollars by reason of the wealth of the
ality. lAs est adhuc sub judice. bank which he is authorized to represent. Christ
VI. Minister of the Sacraments. —(1) It was left to His Church a vast treasure purchased by His
altogether fitting that the ministration of the sacra- merits and sufferings: the sacraments are as creden-
ments be given, not to the angels, but to men. The tials entitling theirholders to a share in this treasure.
efficacy of the sacraments comes from the Passion of On this subject the Anglican Church has retained
Christ, hence from Christ as a man; men, not angels, the true doctrine, which is neatly proved in article
are like unto Christ in His human nature. Miracu- XXVI of the Westminster Confession: "Although in
lously God might send a good angel to administer a the visible church the evil be ever mingled with the
sacrament (St. Thomas, III, Q. Ixiv, a. 7). (2) For good, and sometimes the evil hath the chief authority
administering Baptism validly no special ordination in the ministration of the Word and Sacraments, yet
is required. Any one, even a pagan, can baptize, forasmuch as they do not the same in their own name,
provided that he use the proper matter and pronounce but in Christ's, and do minister by His commission and
the words of the essential form, with the intention authority, we may use their ministry both in hearing
of doing what the Church does (Deer, pro Armen., Den- the Word of God and in receiving the Sacraments.
zinger-Bannwart, 696). Only bishops, priests, and in Neither is the effect of Christ's ordinance taken away
some cases, deacons may confer baptism solemnly by their wickedness nor the grace of God's gifts from
(see Baptism). It is now held as certain that in such as by faith, and rightly, do receive the sacra-
matrimony the contracting parties are the ministers ments ministered unto them; which be effectual, be-
of the sacrament, because they make the contract and cause of Christ's institution and promise, although
the sacrament is the contract raised by Christ to the they be administered by evil men " (cf BiUuart, de
.

dignity of a sacrament (cf. Leo XIII, Encycl. sacram., d. 6, a. 3, sol. obj.)

"Arcanum", 10 Febr., 1880; see Matrimony). For (5) Intention of the Minister.— (a) To be a minister
the validity of the other five sacraments the minister of the sacraments under and with Christ, a man must
must be duly ordained. The Council of Trent anathem- act as a man, i. e. as a rational being; hence it is abso-
atized those who said that all Christians could ad- lutely necessary that he have the intention of doing
minister aU the sacraments (Sess. VII, can. 10) Only
. what the Church does. This was declared by Eu-
bishops can confer sacred orders (Council of Trent, gene IV in 1439 (Denzinger-Bannwart, 695) and was
sess. XXIII, can. 7). Ordinarily only a bishop can solemnly defined in the Council of Trent (Sess. VII,
give confirmation (see Confirmation) . The priestly can. II). The anathema of Trent was aimed at the
order is required for the vahd administration of pen- innovators of the sixteenth century. From their
ance and extreme unction (Cone. Trid., sess. XIV, fundamental error that the sacraments were signs of
can. 10, can. 4). As to the Eucharist, those only who faith, or signs that excited faith, it followed logically
have priestly orders can consecrate, i. e. change bread that their effect in no wise depended on the intention
and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ. Con- of the minister. Men are to be "ministers of Christ,
secration presupposed, any one can distribute the and the dispensers of the mysteries of God" (I Cor., iv,
Eucharistic species but, outside of very extraordinary 1), and this they would not be without the intention,
circumstances this can be lawfully done only by bish- for it is by the intention, says St. Thomas (III, Q.
ops, priests, or (in some cases) deacons. (3) The bdv, a. 8, ad l"m) that a man subjects and unites
care of all those sacred rites has been given to the himself to the principal agent (Christ). Moreover,
Church of Christ. Heretical or schismatical minis- by rationally pronouncing the words of the form, the
ters can administer the sacraments validly if they have minister must determine what is not sufficiently de-
valid orders, but their ministrations are sinful (see termined or expressed by the matter appUed, e. g.
Billot, op. cit., thesis 16). Good faith would excuse the significance of pouring water on the head of the
the recipients from sin, and in cases of necessity the child (St. Thomas, loc. cit., a. 8). One who is de-
Church grants the jurisdiction necessary for penance mented, drunk, asleep, or in a stupor that prevents a
and extreme unction (see Excommunication: V, Ef- rational act, one who goes through the external cere-
fects OF Excommunication). mony in mockery, mimicry, or in a play, does not
(4) Due reverence for the sacraments requires the act as a rational minister, hence cannot administer
minister to be in a state of grace: one who solemnly a sacrament, (b) The necessary object and quali-
and officially administers a sacrament, being himself ties of the intention required in the minister of the
in a state of mortal sin, would certainly be guilty of a sacrament are explained in the article Intention.
sacrilege (cf. St. Thomas, III, Q. Ixiv, a. 6). Some Pourrat (op. cit., ch. 7) gives a history of all contro-
hold that this sacrilege is committed even when the versies on this subject. Whatever may be said specu-
minister does not act officially or confer the sacra- latively about the opinion of Ambrosius Catherinus
ment solemnly. But from the controversy between (see Politi, Lancelot) who advocated the sufficiency
St. Augustine and the Donatists (q. v.) in the fourth of an external intention in the minister, it may not be
century and especially from the controversy between followed in practice, because, outside of cases of neces-
St. Stephen and St. Cyprian (q. v.) in the third cen- sity, no one may follow a probable opinion against
tury, we know that personal holiness or the state of one that is safer, when there is question of something
grace in the minister is not a prerequisite for the valid required for the vaUdity of a sacrament (Innoc. XI,
administration of the sacrament. This has been 1679; Denzinger-Bannwart, 1151).
solemnly defined in several general councils including (6) Attention in the minister. — Attention is an act
the Council of Trent (Sess. VII, can. 12, ibid., de bapt., of the intellect, viz. the application of the mind to
can. 4). The reason is that the sacraments have their what is being done. Voluntary distraction in one
efficacy by Divine institution and through the merits administering a sacrament would be sinful. The sin
of Christ. Unworthy ministers, vaUdly conferring the would however not be grave, unless (a) there be dan-
sacraments, cannot impede the efficacy of signs or- ger of making a serious mistake, or (b) according to
dained by Christ to produce grace ex opere operate the common opinion, the distraction be admitted in
(cf. St, Thomas, III, Q. Ixiv, aa. 5, 9). The knowl- consecrating the Eucharistic species. Attention on
edge of this truth, which follows logically from the the part of the minister is not necessary for the valid
true conception of a sacrament, gives comfort to the administration of a sacrament, because in virtue of
faithful, and it should increase, rather than diminish, the intention, which is presupposed, he can act in a
reverence for those sacred rites and confidence in their rational manner, notwithstanding the distraction.
 SACRAJVIENTS 304 SACRAMENTS
—
VII. Recipient op the Sacraments. When all erly disposed; and the sacrament is said to be validum
—
conditions required by Divine and ecclesiastical law sed informe, vahd, but lacking its proper form, i e
are complied wdth, the sacrament is received vaUdly grace or charity (see Love). Can such a person re^
and licitly. If all conditions required for the essential cover or receive the effects of the sacraments ? The
rite are ob.scr\'ed, on the part of the minister, the re- term revivisoence [reviviscentia) is not used by St.
cipient, the matter and form, but some non-essential Thomas in reference to the sacraments and it is not
condition is not complied with by the recipient, the strictly correct because the effects in question being
sacrament is received vahdly but not licitly; and if the impeded by the obstacle, were not once "living"
condition wilfully neglected be grave, grace is not then (cf. Billot, op. cit., 98, note). The expression which
conferred by the ceremony. Thus baptized persons he uses (III, Q, Ixi.x, a. 10), viz., obtaining the
contracting matrimony whilst they are in the state of effects after the obstacle has been removed, is more
mortal sin would be validly (i. e. really) married, but accurate, though not so convenient as the newer term,
would not then receive sanctifying grace. (a) Theologians generally hold that the question
(1) Conditions for Valid Reception. — (a) The pre- does not apply to penance and the Holy Eucharist.
vious reception of baptism (by water) is an essential If the penitent be not sufficiently disposed to receive
condition for the valid reception of any other sacra- grace at the time he confesses his sins the sacrament is
ment. Only citizens and members of the Church not validly received because the acts of the penitent
can come under her influence as such; baptism is the are a necessary part of the matter of this sacrament,
door by which we enter the Church and thereby be- or a necessary condition for its reception. One who
come members of a mystical body united to Christ unworthily receives the Eucharist can derive no bene-
our head (Catech. Trid., de bapt., rm. 5, 52). (b) fit from that sacrament unless, perhaps, he repent of

In adults, for the valid reception of any sacrament ex- his sins and sacrilege before the sacred species have
cept the Eucharist, it is necessary that they have the been destroyed. Cases that may occur relate to the
intention of receiving it. The sacraments impose five other sacraments, (b) It is certain and admitted
obligations and confer grace: Christ does not wish to by all, that if baptism be received by an adult who is
impose those obligations or confer grace without the in the state of mortal sin, he can afterwards receive
consent of man. The Eucharist is excepted because, the graces of the sacrament, viz. when the obstacle
in whatever state the recipient may be, it is always the is removed by contrition or by the sacrament of
body and blood of Christ (see Intention; cf Pourrat, Penance. On the one hand the sacraments always
.

op. cit., 392). (c) For attention, see supra, VI, 6. produce grace unless there be an obstacle; on the other
By the intention man submits himself to the opera- hand those graces are necessary, and yet the sacrsr
tion of the sacraments which produce their effects ment can not be repeated. St. Thomas (III. Q, Ixix,
ex opere operato, hence attention is not necessary for a. 10) and theologians find a special reason for the con-
the valid reception of the sacraments. One who ferring of the effects of baptism (when the "fiction"
might be distracted, even voluntarily, during the con- has been removed) in the permanent character which
ferring, e. g. of baptism, would receive the sacrament is impressed by the sacrament validly administered.
vahdly. It must be carefully noted, however, that Reasoning from analogy they hold the same with
in the case of matrimony the contracting parties are regard to confirmation and Holy orders, noting how-
the ministers as well as the recipients of the sacra- e^'er that the graces to be received are not so necessary
ments; and in the sacrament of Penance, the acts of as those conferred by baptism.
the penitent, contrition, confession, and willingness (c) The doctrine is not so certain when applied to
to accept a penance in satisfaction, constitute the matrimony and extreme unction. But since the
proximate matter of the sacraments, according to the graces impeded are very important though not strictly
commonly received opinion. Hence in those cases necessary, and since matrimony cannot be received
such attention is required as is necessary for the vahd again whilst both contracting parties are hving, and
application of the matter and form. extreme unction cannot be repeated whilst the same
(2) Conditions for the Licit Reception. — (a) For the danger of death lasts, theologians adopt as more prob-
licit reception, besides the intention and the atten- able the opinion which holds that God will grant the
tion, in adults there is required (1) for the sacraments graces of those sacraments when the obstacle is re-
of the dead, supernatural attrition, which presupposes moved. The "reviviscence" of the effects of sacrar
acts of faith, hope, and repentence (see Attrition ments received vahdly but with an obstacle to grace
and Justification); (2) for the sacraments of the at the time of their reception, is urged as a strong
hving the state of grace. Knowingly to receive a argument against the system of the physical causality
sacrament of the living whilst one is in the state of of grace (supra, V, 2), especially by Billot (op. cit.,
mortal sin would be a sacrilege, (b) For the hcit re- thesis, VII, 116, 126). For his own system he claims
ception it is also necessary to observe all that is pre- the merit of establishing an invariable mode of caus-
scribed by Divine or ecclesiastical law, e. g. as to ahty, namely, that in every case by the sacrament
time, place, the minister, etc. As the Church alone validly received there is conferred a "title exigent of
has the care of the sacraments and generally her duly grace" If there be no obstacle the grace is conferred
appointed agents alone have the right to administer then and there: if there be an obstacle the "title"
them, except baptism in some cases, and matrimony remains calling for the grace which will be conferred
(supra VI, 2), it is a general law that application for as soon as the obstacle is removed (op. cit., th. VI, VII).
the sacraments should be made to worthy and duly To this his opponents reply that exceptional oases
appointed ministers. (For exceptions see Excom- might well call for an exceptional mode of causahty.
munication.) In the case of three sacraments the character suffi-
(3) Reinviscence of the Sacraments. — Much atten- ciently explains the revival of effects (of. St. Thomas,
tion has been given by theologians, especially recently, III, Q. 66, a. 1; Q. 3, Q. 66, a. Ixix, aa. 9, 10). The
to the re\dval of effects which were impeded at the doctrine as applied to extreme unction and matri-
time when a sacrament was received. The question mony, is not certain enough to furnish a strong argu-
arises whenever a sacrament is received vahdly but ment for or against any system (see " Irish. Theol.
unworthily, i. e. with an obstacle which prevents the Record"; "Amer. Eccl. Review", cited above V, 2).
infusion of Di\'ine grace. The obstacle (mortal sin) Future efforts of theologians may dispel the obscurity
is positive, when it is known and voluntary, or nega- and uncertainty now prevaihng in this interesting
tive, when it is involuntary by reason of ignorance or chapter.
good faith. One who thus receives a sacrament is Literature on the sacraments is very extensive: we can give
said to receive it feignedly, or falsely (Jicte), because only a few of the most important or most interesting works on
the sacraments in general. (For each sacrament see special
bj- the very act of receiving it he pretends to be prop- articles.)
 SACRED 305 SACRED
Official declarations of Catholic doctrine are found principally upon the constitutions of St. Ignatius based upon the
in the Decrees of the Council of Florence and the Council of
Trent. Other authentic declarations are given by Denzinger- Rule of Saint Augustine. Its members bind them-
Bannwart, Enchiridion sijmbolarum (11th ed., Freiburg, 1911). selves for life by the simple vows of religion. There are
The Catechisvius ex deer. Cone. Trid. ad Parochos, quasi-official, no priests in the congregation, the objective purpose
Eng, tr. by Donovan, Catechism of the Council of Trent (New
York) new French tr. with excellent commentaries by Bareille,
;
of which is the Christian education of boys in asylums,
Le caiechisme romain (Montrejeau, 1906 sq.) is a mine of informa- parochial and select schools, and commercial colleges.
tion. On this see Doctrine, Christian; Roman Catechism. The growth of the congregation was slow. At the
For definitions, Polman, Breviarium theologicum (Milan, 1883) is
unsurpassed. period of its origin the poUtical condition of France
—
Patristic Age. Justin, I Apologia, xxix, and St. Ignatius, was very unfavourable. It was a day of pohtical
Ep. ad Smyr., treat especially of baptism and the Eucharist; agitation and revolution. Lyons, the cradle of the
St. Clement of Alexandria, Paed., I, vi; Origen, Cont. Cels.;
Idem, In Matt.; Idem, In Joan.; St. Cyril of Jerusalem, congregation, suffered sorely in these revolutions.
Catech, mystag., iv, 3, 7, 9; St. Basil, In Matt.; St. Gregory But a more hampering difficulty to its growth lay in
Nazianzus, Oral., xl, 8; St. Cyprian, Episi., Ixx; Tertullian, the ill-defined government imposed upon the congrega-
De bapt., I; Idem, Adv. Marc, IV, xxxiv; St. Chrysostom,
Horn, in Matt., Ixxxii, 2, 4; St. Ambrose, De Spir. Sancto, I, tion. P^re Andr6 Coindre was the superior-general
Ixxxviii; Idem, De
mysteriis, xix; and especially St. Augustine, and continued such till his death in 1821. P^re
De 4; Idem, De civ. Dei, X, v; Idem, In Joann.,
doct. Christ., I, i,
Vincent Coindre, his brother, succeeded him in this
tr. Ixxx, 3; Idem, Contr. Faustum, XX, xiii, laboured to explain
the notion of a sacrament, called "sacramentum" first by Ter- office.
tullian, called "signum rei sacrse" by St. Augustine. On the In 1840 Pdre Coindre assembled the general chapter
efficacy of the sacramental rite according to the Fathers see
above, II, (4), (b). Many other texts could be adduced, see works
of the congregation. During the discussions of the
of theology "Sacramenta causant gratiam ex opere operate". chapter, opinion among the brothers was unanimous
—
Scholastic Period. St. John Damascene, De fide orthodoxa, that it was necessary for the success of the congrega-
IV, xiii, and St. Anselm, De sacrm. divers., were the forerunners tion that its temporal affairs should be in the hands
of the Scholastics. St. Peter Damian, Op. VI, serm. 69, and
St. Bernard, Serin, in Casna Domini, accepted the word sacra- of the brothers themselves, and that one of their num-
ment in a broad sense (see textbooks of theology, "De numero ber should be superior-general. The question was
sacramentorum"); Abelard, Introd. ad theol.; Sic et Non; but referred to Mgr de Bonald, Archbishop of Lyons,
especially Hugh of St. Victor, De sacramentis, continued to
develop the conception of a sacrament. Peter Lombard in his who, after an exhaustive examination, judged it ad-
Fourth Book of Sentences gave to Catholic doctrine the definite visable that P^re Coindre should resign the office.
and accurate expressions which it has since retained (substan- On 13 Sept., 1841, Brother Polycarp was unanimously
tially). St. Thomas gives a treatise De sacramentis, -which for
conciseness, clearness, and comprehensiveness has been unex- chosen by the brothers as their superior-general. He
celled, in his Summa
theol.. Ill, Q. Ix sq.; and his Con. Gentes, reconstructed .the government of the community and
IV, Ivi sq. It is of interest to note that the Decree to the Ar-
gave it stabiUty and permanency. At the time of his
menians is a summary of a chapter of one of the Opuscula of this
great doctor: De ariiculis fidei et sacramentis ecclesice (Paris, death in 1859, there were in France alone seventy-
1856). Contemporaneous with St. Thomas were St. ven- Bona three establishments, an increase of sixty during his
ture, Comm. in IVlib. Sent., and later Duns
Scotus, Comm. in administration. He had, moreover, in 1846 opened
IV lib. These theologians were followed by the great com-
Sent.
mentators; Salimanticenses, Cursus theol. (18 vols., Paris, up in the United States, at Mobile, Ala., a new field
1880); Cajetan; Ferrariensis; Suarez, De sacramentis; of labour for the institute. In 1872 the province of
Bellarmine, Controv. de sacram. in gen.; Billuart, Summa de the United States extended its schools into Canada,
sacT., and a host of others. A list may easily be procured from,
most of our manuals of theology before the tract "De Sacra- and in 1880 transferred its novitiate from Indianapolis
mentis in genere", e. g., Tanquerey, Pohle, etc. to Arthabaskaville, P. Q., Canada. The growth of
Other theological treatises on the Sacraments in general are: the congregation was here so rapid that it was deemed
Drouv'exius, De sacramentaria contra perduellos hceretieos
re
(Venice, 1737); Muszka, De sacr. novce legis (Vienna, 1758); advisable to erect the establishments in Canada into
Katchthaler, Theol. dogm. specialis, IV (Ratisbon, 1884); a separate province. This was effected by a decree of
Franzelin, De sacramentis in genere (Rome, 1888); de Au- the general chapter of the society held at Paradis,
gustinis, De re sacramentaria (Rome, 1889); Billot, De eccl.
sacr., I (Rome, 1907); Sasse, De sacr. eccl., I (Freiburg, 1897); near Le Puy, France, in 1900. About the same time
Lahousse, De sacr. in genere (Bruges, 1900); Paquet, De sacr., a house of studies for postulants and a novitiate for
I (Quebec, 1900); Noldin, De sacr. (Innsbruck, 1901); Capre-
the United States province were established at
olus, Comm. in IV lib. Sent.; John of St. Thomas, Theol. de
sacr.; MartInez de Prado, De sacrum, in genere; Gonet, De Metuchen, N. J.
sacr. in communi: Sylvius, In 3 par. s. Thomce; Jocobatus, The congregation has at the present time (1907) in
Doctr. dogm. de sacram.; Gotti, De sacr.; Drouin, De re sacram.;
the United States and Canada forty-eight establish-
WiRCEBURGENSES, De sacramentis; Tournely, De sacramentis;
Gerbert, Principia theol. sacram, ments directed by 460 brothers, educating more than
ScHAKz. Die Lehre non der Sakramenten der kath. Kirche (Frei- 9000 pupils. Just previous to the French Law of 1901,
burg, 1893) Oswald, Die dogmatische Lehre von den hi. Sakra-
;
suppressing religious communities in France, there
menten (Munster, 1894) Heinrich-Guthberlet, Dogmatische
;

Theol., IX (Mainz, 1901); Gihr, Die hi. Sakramenten, I (Frei- were in that country alone 1100 brothers, 150 schools,
burg, 1902) Probst, Sacramenten unA Sakramentalien in der
; academies, colleges, asylums, deaf and dumb institu-
ersten drei Jahrkunderten (Tubingen, 1872); Hahn, Die Lehre
tions, with 25,000 pupils, in twenty dioceses. Owing
von den Sakramenten (1864) Shatzler, Die Lehre von der
;

Wirksamkeit der Sakramenten ex opere operato (Munich, 1860) to the present religious persecution in France, the
Bach, Die siebenzahl der sakramente (Ratisbon, 1864) Haas, ; congregation has been obUged to seek new fields of
Die nothwendige Intentionen des Ministers (Bamberg, 1903) labour, and twenty establishments have recently been
Besson, Les sacrements on la grace de VHomme-Dieu (Paris, 1876)
HuGON, La causaliti instrumentale (Paris, 1907), iv; Monsabre, founded in Spain and Belgium.
Sacraments in Exposition du dogme catholique (Paris, 1883). Brother Charles.
For historical treatises on the sacraments see the following:
Hahn, Doctrince Romce de numero sacr. septen. rationes historicce Sacred Heart Abbey. See Oklahoma.
(Breslau, 18.59, Protestant); Juenin, De sacr. comment, his-
toricus et dogmaticus; Grone, Sacramentum oder Begriff und
Sacred Heart of Jesus. See Heart of Jesus,
Bedeutung vom Sakrament in der alte Kirche bis zur scholastik Devotion to the.
(Brilon, 1853); Schmalzl, Die Sakramente des Alt. Test. (Eich-
stadt, 1883) Schanz, Der Begriff des Sakr. bei den Vaentern
;
Sacred Heart of Jesus, Missionary Sisters of
(Tubingen, 1891); ^IERLIN, Traite histor. et dogmat. sur les THE, a reUgious congregation having its general mother-
paroles ou les formes des sacr. de I'Eglise ; Chardon, Hist, des house at Rome, founded in 1880 by Mother Francis
sacr,; Turmel,Hist, de la Thiol, pos.; Schwane, Ilistoire des
dogmes; Diet, d'arch, chrit. et de Lit.; Hefele, Hist, of the Xavier Cabrini, who is still living. The aim of the in-
Councils ; Harnack, History of Dogma; Moehler, Symbolism stitute is to spread devotion to the Heart of Jesus by
(London, 1906). D. J. KENNEDY. means of the practice of spiritual and corporal works
Sacred College. See Cardinal. of mercy. The sisters conduct homes for the aged
and the sick, orphanages, industrial schools, sewing
Sacred Congregations. See Roman Congrega- classes; they visit hospitals and prisons, and give re-
tions. ligious instruction in their convents, which are open
Sacred Heart, Brothers of the, a congregation to women desirous of making retreats. The congre-
founded in 1821 by Pdre Andr^ Coindre, of the Diocese gation has spread rapidly in Europe and America. In
of Lyons, France. Its constitutions were modelled 1899, at the suggestion of Leo XIII, the sisters came to
XIII.—20
 SACRED 306 SACRED
New York, and have since opened convents in the Annals, its monthly bulletin, and conduct five missions
Dioi'cses of Brooklyn, Chicago, Denver, Los Angeles, and retreats. They also have a public chapel.
Newark, .Scranton, and Seattle. At the beginning of The novitiate for Canada and the States is at Beau-
1911 the institute had in the United States: 253 sis- port. The other Canadian communities are engaged
ters; 11 schools with 4850 pupils; 6 orphanages with in parochial and missionary work. In England
713 orphans; 2 hospitals with about 3520 patients an- besides Glastonbury, the Missionaries of the Sacred
nually; and 1 dispensary where 21,630 persons were Heart have communities at St. Albans, Herfordshire
treated during the preceding years. and at Braintree, Essex. They engage in parish
This congregation is to be distinguished from the work and act as chaplains.
Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, In the United States the Society has communities
founded by Father Hubert Linckens, provincial of at Watertown, N. Y.; Natick, R. I.; Onawa, Iowa'
tlie Missionaries of the Sacred Heart, Hiltrup, near Cazenovia and Sioux City, ^Yis., this last being
MUnster, on 3 August, 1899, and approved episco- a dependency of the German Province; the first
])ally in 1900. The latter sisters are engaged teach- four form an American Quasi-Province with head-
ing in New Guiana, New Pomerania, and the Marshall quarters at Natick. In all these places the Fathers
Islands, in the districts confided to the care of the have charge of parishes, except those at Sioux City,
Missionaries of the Sacred Heart. who preach missions, supply the places of absent
A. A. MacErlean. priests, and assist the clergy. The Natick community
supphes chaplains to St. Joseph's Hospital for tuber-
Sacred Heart of Jesus, Missionaries of the cular patients at Hills Grove, and to the Rhode Island
(Issoudun). — A religious congregation of priests and State charitable and correctional institutions at
lay brothers with the object of promoting the knowl- Howard, Cranston, and Sackanosset.
edge and practice of devotion to the Heart of Jesus, For the past quarter of a centurj' the efforts of the
as embodied in the revelations of Our Lord to Blessed Missionaries of the Sacred Heart have been expended
Margaret Mary Alacoque, and of offering personal chiefly in foreign mission fields. On 1 Sept., 18S1,
reparation to the Divine Heart. The society's three Fathers set out from Barcelona for the South
motto is, "Ametur ubique terrarum Cor Jesu Sacra- Sea Islands at the request of Leo XIII, and es-
tissimum" (May the most Sacred Heart of Jesus be tablished a station in New Britain now New —
loved everywhere). It was founded at Issoudun, Pomerania. To-day the priests and brothers doing
in the Archdiocese of Bourges, France, by the Abb6 missionary work in divers islands and archipelagoes
Jules Chevalier. Until very recent years the mother- of the South Pacific number upward of 300, exclusive
house was in the above-named town, but since the of the new mission lately opened in Mindanao,
separation of Church and State in France the society —
Philippine Islands where thirty or more apostolic
has its headquarters in Rome. The origin of the labourers from the Dutch Province are already em-
Missionaries of the Sacred Heart is closely connected —
ployed and the vast territory comprised in the dio-
with the Papal definition of the dogma of the Im- cese of Port Victoria and Palmerston, South Australia,
maculate Conception of the B. V. M., the means to in charge of Father F. X. Gsell as Administrator
lay their foundation being the outcome of special Apostolic, with residence at Port Darwin. The
prayers addressed to the Mother of God during the Bishop of Ponso-Alegre has just entrusted the direc-
nine days preceding the great religious event of 8 tion of his episcopal college to the congregation.
Dec, 1854. The founder had pledged himself to Chevalier, Le Sacri-Casur de Jenus dans ses rappoHs avec
honour the Blessed Virgin in a special manner. He re- Marie, ou Notre Dame du Sacre-Cfeur (Paris, 1884) Vaudon,
;

deemed his promise the following year by erecting Mgr Henry Verjus (Paris, 1899) CarbiIire, Le P. Jean Vandet
;

(Issoudun, 1908) Album

; societatis Tnissionariorum SSmi
a shrine dedicated to the honour of the Blessed Cordis Jesu (Rome, 1911).
Virgin under the title of "Our Lady of the Sacred ZfiPHYHIN PfiLOQUIN.
Heart".
In 1864 an association of prayer was founded which Sacred Heart of Jesus, Society op the (Pac-
has since been honoured with the official title of Uni-
versal Archconfratemity of Our Lady of the Sacred
Canarists). —
This society was founded by two young
seminarists of Saint-Sulpice who had emigrated to
Heart, and enriched with numerous indulgences. Belgium during the French Revolution, Frangois-
The central governing body is at Rome, with local Eleonor de TourmSly and Prince Charles de Broglie,
directors in various countries. The official centre for a son of the marshal. Their object was to form a
the United States is at Watertown, New York; those society similar in respects to the order founded by
all
for other English-speaking countries are at Glaston- St. Ignatius Loyola. Their first residence was the
bury, Somerset, England; Sydney, New South Wales, old country house of the Louvain Jesuits, into which
and Cork, where the society's first house in Ireland the community under Toum^ly entered 8 May, 1794,
was founded, and an ecclesiastical college opened, numbering four members. These four were the two
in 1909. founders and two young officers of the army of Cond4
On 2 Oct., 1S67, an apostolic school was founded Xavier de Tourni51y, brother of the superior, and
by Father Vandel at Chezal-Benoit in France, with Pierre-Charles Le Blanc. The victory of the French
twelve pupils. It grew and prospered, and in course forces at Fleurus (26 June, 1794) obliged them to
of time other similar institutions arose in different leave Belgium just as they were joined by a recruit
countries. From these the priests of the society are who was destined to play a part of great importance,
chiefly recruited. The work is represented in the Joseph Varin de Solmon, who had also been in the
United States by St. Joseph's Apostolic School at army of Cond6. The fugitives hved for some time
Watertown, N. Y. at Leutershofen near Augsburg. In the church of
The personnel of the society is composed of 825 the Benedictines at Augsburg, on 15 Oct., 1794, they
professed religious, with provincial houses in Italy, consecrated themselves by a special vow to the
Germany, Holland, Australia, and a Provincial Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Most Holy Heart of
Superior residing in Paris, who rules over the dis- Mary, to continue the work they had begun, to offer
persed members of the French Province, and its themselves to the sovereign pontiff, and to obey him
establishments in Switzerland; Belgium; Canada as St. Ignatius and his companions had done. )^'hen
Quebec; Beauport, Province of Quebec; South it had to leave Augsburg, the Society of the Sacred
()u'.\ppelle. Medicine Hat, Siiskatchewan, and North Heart numbered sixteen subjects. It wandered
Cobalt, Ont. about for some time in Southern Germany and
The Fathers at Quobec direct the Archconfra- several of its members. Father Varin among them,
temity of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart, publish the were ordained priests. At length, on Easter Tuesday,
 SACRED 307 SACRED
1797, it settled in the village of Hagenbriinn, three the Fathers of the Sacred Heart as a command, and
leagues from Vienna. There the founder, not more their already numerous congregation allowed itself
than thirty years of age, died of smallpox, 9 July, to be absorbed by Paccanari's httle society. On
1797, and Father Varin, but twenty-eight years of 18 April, Paccanari, still only a tonsured cleric, was
age, was chosen his successor. received as superior-general, and the name Fathers
The new superior submitted the statutes of the of the Sacred Heart was changed to that of Fathers
society for the endorsement of the exiled French of the Faith. The general, deeming the manner of
bishops in Germany and the approbation of Pius life of the Hagenbriinn Fathers too austere and too
VI, then detained at Florence. The number of confined, shortened their hours of prayer, increased
postulants having greatly increased, a novitiate was the time devoted to studies and recreation, and
opened at Prague under the protection of the Arch- launched his subjects on the external life and the
duchess Maria Anna, and Hagenbninn was con- work of preaching. Having been introduced by
certed into a boarding-school. This was at the close Father Varin to the Archduchess Maria Anna, Pac-
of the year 1798. Nicholas Paccanari, a nati\'e of canari gained an extraordinary ascendency over that
Valsugnana, near Trent, had at one time been a princess, through whose good offices he received minor
sergeant in the garrison of S. Angelo, had then be- orders, the subdiaconate, and the diaconate from the
come a merchant and, having met with financial hands of the nuncio at Vienna.
disaster, was reduced to earn his living as a sort of At the request of his new subjects, who were al-
guide or cicerone. Though entirely without educa- ready beginning to be uneasy about his tendencies,
tion, he possessed a remarkable natural gift of elo- he gave out (11 Aug., 1799) a somewhat vague state-
quence. ment of his intentions in regard to the original Jesuits.
At about this period Paccanari was attached At last he left Germany, but only after distributing
to the Oratory of the Carac-ita, a pious association his men among the different countries of Western
at Rome under the direction of Father Gravita, who Europe. A college was opened at Dillingen, a foun-
had been a Jesuit. Here Paccanari conceived a dation which lasted five or six years was made at
desire to re-constitute the Society of Jesus. He won Amsterdam, and Fathers Rozaven and de Broglie
over to his project those priests who were his asso- with some scholastics set out for England, where,
ciates at the Caravita: Joseph della Vedova, a doc- in March, 1800, they opened a boarding-school
tor of the Sapienza; Halnat, of the Diocese of Rennes, at Kensington. Paccanari himself, returning to
formerly a missionary in Madagascar; Epinette, of Italy, established a novitiate at Cremona, then at
the Diocese of Le Mans. He drew up a rule of life Este.
for them and shut himself up at Loreto in a retreat He scattered many of his religious among the hos-
which lasted eleven months. Returning to Rome pitals —at that time overcrowded with wounded
in May, 1797, he obtained for his project the approval soldiers — in Italy and Germany. In the midst of
of Cardinal della Somagha, the pope's vicar, and on his labours he was ordained priest at Padua, and
15 August, in the Chapel of the Caravita, the founder soon after this he received from the new pope, Pius
and his three companions made the three vows of VII, permission to have a house at Rome. The Arch-
reUgion and the vow of obedience to the sovereign duchess Maria Anna bought from the Theatines
pontiff. They adopted the habit of the original the Church of St. Sylvester, with its convent and
Jesuits and settled themselves at Spoleto. In gardens, at Monte-Cavallo and in 1801 the pope
;

August, 1798, Paccanari, having been received by in person came to install the Fathers there. In the
Pius VI who was then at Sienna, obtained from the month of August, 1802, the first congregation was
pope several privileges and a Rescript in which the held; with some temporary modifications, the old
society was designated "The Company of the Faith constitution of the Society of Jesus was adopted.
of Jesus" The pope charged him with the care In 1803 and 1804 Paccanari summoned to the College
of the Propaganda students who had been expelled of St. Sylvester the young religious of the society,
from their seminary. and the courses in philosophy and theology, as well
Paccanari made three journeys to Rome to collect as the solemn theses, of this house of studies shed
these young men; the third time he and his compa,n- great lustre upon the nascent order. At that time
ions were arrested by the French military authorities there were 110 reUgious at St. Sylvester. In the
and lodged in the Castle of S. Angelo. They re- beginning of 1804, again under the archduchess's
mained there four months, were then expelled from patronage, the Salviati Palace, near St. Peter's, was
the Roman RepubUc and retired to Parma, where opened as a boarding-school for young nobles, the
many of the former Jesuits had established them- institution being named, after its benefactress, the
selves under the protection of the duke. Father "Collegio Mariano"
Halnat, having learned of the existence of the Sacred Throughout Italy, but particularly at Spoleto, the
Heart Fathers, suggested to Paccanari the idea of Paccanarists gave missions with great success. In
one foundation for the two institutes devoted to the Nov., 1805, the Council of the Republic of Le Valais
same object. Negotiations were opened, but were in- offered Paccanari the College of Sion, which was
terrupted by the imprisonment of Paccanari, and were accepted. To Father Varin France had been assigned
resumed in 1799. The founder of the Fathers of the as the field of his apostolate; he returned thither in
Faith, after a visit to Pius VI who heartily encour- the spring of 1800 and began by preaching to the sick
aged his project, repaired to Vienna. The society in the hospitals of Bic6tre and la SalpStriere. It was
numbered about a score of members, only three of at this time that, with Blessed Sophie Barat, he es-
them priests. It had at first been well received by tablished the Society of the Ladies of the Sacred
the Jesuits of Parma and of Venice, but its leader's Heart (21 Nov., 1800). The Fathers of the Faith
lukewarmness towards the idea of union with the rapidly increased in number; in 1801 they were able
Jesuits of Russia rendered it suspect to those re- to open at Lyons a boarding-school, which was trans-
ligious. ferred in the following year to the old Jesuit college
Fusion with the French community at Hagenbriinn at Belley. Lamartine was educated there. Another
therefore offered the only opportunity for its devel- school was established in 1802 at Amiens, and then
opment. Conferences were inaugurated at Hagen- another at Roanne in 1804. These foundations
brunn, 9 April, 1799, and lasted nine days. Father aroused the suspicions both of Fouch6, the minister
Binpo della Torre, one of the Sacred Heart Fathers, of police, and of Napoleon; but Portalis and, still
acting as interpreter between Father Varin and more. Cardinal Fesch quieted them for a time. Mis-
Paccanari, who knew neither French nor Latin. The sions were preached with brilliant success; at the
encouragement given by Pius VI was accepted by first mission, at Tours, the extraordinary power which
 SACRED 308 SACRED
Father Enfantin exercised over the crowds was to die a holy death. She obtained permission for
unexpectedly revealed; at the second, at Amiens, the last remnants of the Paccanarists to live, though
more than six hundred marriages were rehabiU- without the religious habit, in the house of St. Syl-
tated. vester. The Collegio Mariano was sold, and in 1814
Meanwhile Paccanari's administration, his taste most of the Paccanarists entered the Society of
for display, his festivals, and the premature thrusting Jesus.
of his subjects into publicity displeased the Fathers As for the French Fathers, the fall of Napoleon
of the Faith. Besides, Father Rozaven, the provin- enabled them to meet in Paris and dehberate as
cial of England, who had learned in 1802 certain to what course they should take. Father de Clor-
unsavoury details of the general's private life, pur- iviere, one of the old Jesuits, and Monsignori di Grc-
sued his inquiries, and, having attained certainty, gorio and della Genga (the latter afterwards Leo
visited Rome in 1803 to communicate the melan- XII), the pope's representatives, advised them to
choly facts to Pius VII. During his absence most remain in France. Father Varin, however, had al-
of his brethren in London wrote to Father Griiber, ready set out for Russia to ask the general to appoint
the Vicar-General of the Society of Jesus in Russia, a commissary to re-establish the Society of Jesus in
to obtain admission individually. Father Rozaven France, when the commission was given to Father
on his return to England imitated their example, Cloriviere himself. Father Varin was received by
and in March, 1804, he set out for Russia. Only him into the Society on 19 July, 1814. Nearly all
Father Charles de Broglie remained in London, as a the former Fathers of the Faith followed him; the
secular priest; he broke with his former friends, rest remaining among the secular clergy.
allied himself closely with the anti-concordataire GuiD^E, Vie du p. Joseph Varin (2nd ed., Paris, 1860); Idem,
bishops, and persisted in his protestations against Notices hist, sur quelques membres de la Soc. des Pires du Sacri-
the act of Pius VII as late as 1842. Father Varin, Coeur et de la C. de J. (Paris, 1860) Speil, Leonor v. Tournely u.
;

die Gesellschaft des hi. Herzens Jesu (Bresiau, 1874).

apprised of the course of events by Father Rozaven,
referred the matter to the cardinal-legate in France, Marc Dubeuel.
and on 21 June, 1804, broke with Paccanari. His
society, having become independent, remained in Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, Congrega-
Franite on the advice of the legate and of Pius VII tion OF THE, AND OF THE PerPETDAL AdORATION OF
himself. It flourished in that country until 1807; THE Blessed Sacrament of the Altar, better known
missions were given at Grenoble, Poitiers, Niort, as the Congregation of Picpus, was founded by
Bordeaux, and elsewhere; seminaries were opened Father Couclrin, b. at Coursay-les-Bois, in Poiton on
at Roulers (Gand), Marvejols (Mende), Bazas 1 March, 1768. He was only deacon when the perse-
(Bordeaux), and a college at Argentiere (Lyons). cution, directed against the clergy, dispersed the stu-
This progress alarmed F(juch6; Napoleon issued an dents of the seminary of Poitiers, where he was being
order for the suppression of the congregation, which trained. Having learned that Mgr de Bonald, Bishop
was executed in Nov., l.sOT; the connivance of of Clermont, was in Paris and would confer Holy
local authorities enabled it to continue the work Orders upon him, he set out for that city, and on 4
of the seminaries, but its missions were stopped. March, 1792, was ordained priest in the Irish Sem-
Many of the Fathers entered the parochial minis- inary. The ordination took place in the library, be-
try. cause the revolutionaries had invaded the chapel in
In August, 1806, Father Sineo della Torre and the which they were actually holding their meetings.
Fathers in Switzerland in their turn abandoned Pac- After ordination he returned to Coursay, but the
canari. In 1810 they were received as a body into violence of the persecution soon compelled him to hide
the Society of Jesus, though only in foro interna, elsewhere. During October of the same year, dis-
the official aggregation not taking place until 1S14. guised, he laboured in the Dioceses of Poitiers and
Also about the year 1806 some of the Fathers of Spo- Tours.
leto, Padua, Lombardy, and Amsterdam seceded. Father Coudrin gathered around him a few com-
The Suciet\' of Jesus having been restored at Naples panions, to whom he communicated his views to
by Pius Vil (31 July, 1S04), many Fathers of the promote devotion to the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and
Collegio Mariano went there and were admitted as of Mary, and who were also willing to assist him in
novices. his great work. On Christmas night, 1800, he sol-
In July, 1807, Paccanari received positive commands emnly made his rehgious vows, devoting himself
from the pope to retire to Spoleto. A first canonical entirely to the love of the Sacred Hearts. During the
process was begun during the winter. Relegated to year 1805 Father Coudrin bought some dilapidated
the convent of the Franciscans at Assisi, the general houses in the Rue Picpus in Paris, and there estab-
made a confession of his whole life and appeared lished himself with a few of his religious. A college
penitent. At the end of five months he was trans- for the training of youths and a seminary were
ferred to the prisons of the Holy Office. A new trial soon started. "The Good Father", as his religious
resulted, in August, 1.S06, in a sentence of ten years' used to call him, governed his congregation with
imprisonment. The sentence paid a tribute to the tactand prudence, and in spite of many difficul-
innocence and virtue of the other Fathers of the Faith; his work prospered.
ties, Several new monasteries
nevertheless it was the annihilation of their soceity. and colleges were founded and opened in various
In 1S09, when the French army opened the pontif- towns.
ical prisons, Paccanari at first refused to go out, but In 1825 the evangelization of the Sandwich Islands
e\entually left and disapjicared. It is uncertain in the Pacific Ocean was entrusted by the Holy See to
whether he withdre%v to Switzerland under an as- the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts, and the follow-
sumed name, as some have asserted, or whether, ing year the first band of missionaries of the Sacred
under some regrettable circumstances, he was stabbed Hearts left France to carry the Faith to the inhabi-
by a domestic ser\ant and his bod)- thrown into the tants. In 1833 the Archipelagos of Oriental Oceanica
Tiber, as another tradition has it. No one knows were likewise confided to the same Congregation and
what his end was. immediately missionaries were sent to the Gambler
The Archduchess Maria Anna, who, in spite of the Islands; some of these fathers established houses of
commands of her brother the Emperor Leopold, had the congregation in Peru and Chile, South America.
at first refused to abandon Paccanari and his work, Not long afterwards other evangelical labourers were
was obliged to submit, overcome by the miserable sent to the Marquesa Islands at the death of the
life which her brother allowed her to five and
the founder in 1837. The perpetual adoration of the
shame of her condemnation. She retired to Styria Blessed Sacrament was made day and night in nineteen
 SACRIFICE 309 SACRIFICE

houses, while several other houses had also been dic sacrificial prayers expressno spirit of humility or
founded abroad. submission; even the word "thank" is unknown in
In 1817 it was formally approved by Pius VII, in the Vedic language. The gods thus sank to the level
1825 by Leo XII, and in 1840 by Gregory XVI, under of mere servants of man, while the high-priests or
the name of Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Brahmins entrusted with the complicated rites gradu-
Jesus and Mary and of the Perpetual Adoration of the ally acquired an almost divine dignity. In their
Most Holy Sacrament of the Altar. Its special aim hands the sacrificial ceremonial, developed to the ex-
is to honour and imitate the four ages of our Lord: tremest detail, became an irresistible power over the
His infancy by the instruction of children, and by the gods. A proverb says: "The sacrificer hunts Indra
formation of youths for the priesthood; His hidden like game, and holds him fast as the fowler does the
life by the exercise of the Adoration; His public life, bird; the god is a wheel which the singer understands
by preaching and by missionary work; His crucified how to turn." The gods derive their whole might
life by the works of Christian mortification. At the and power from the sacrifice as the condition of their
present day the missions confided to the Congregation existence, so that the Brahmins are indispensable for
of the Sacred Hearts comprise three Apostolic Vicar- their continued existence.
iates: the Tahiti Islands, Marquesa Islands, and the However, that the tods were not entirely indifferent
Hawaiian Islands, where Father Damien fell a victim to man, but gave him their assistance, is proved
to his humble and generous devotion for the poor among other things by the serious expiatory char-
lepers of Molokai. The Congregation of the Sacred acter which was not quite eliminated from the Vedic
Hearts, which depends directly upon the Propaganda, sacrifices. The actual offering of the sacrifices, which
is governed by a Superior General, who is elected for was never effected without fire, took place either in the
life. The members make perpetual but simple vows houses or in the open air; temples were unknown.
after a probation of eighteen months' novitiate. Inl898 Among the various sacrifices two were conspicuous:
the Congregation was divided into three provinces. the soma offering and the sacrifice of the horse. The
The Belgian province, under which England and the offering of the soma (Agnisloma) —a nectar obtained by
United States of America are comprised, has a novi- —
the pressing of some plants took place in the spring
tiate and a house of studies at Courtray. The pro- the sacrifice lasted an entire day, and was a universal
vincial has his residence in the monastery of the holiday for the people. The triple pressing of the
Sacred Hearts in Louvain, Mount St. Antoine, soma, performed at certain intervals during the day,
Belgium. The superior in England is in the Damien alternated with the offering of sacrificial cakes, liba-
house of Eccleshall in Staffordshire; in the United tions of milk, and the sacrifice of eleven he-goats to
States in the monastery of the Sacred Hearts at Fair- various gods. The gods (especially Indra) were eager
haven in Massachusetts. for the intoxicating soma drink: "As the ox bellows
Heimbucher, Die Orden u. Kongregationen (2nd ed., Pader- after the rain, so does Indra desire the soma." The
born, 1908), 471.
sacrifice of the horse (oQvamedha) executed at the
William De Bedeck. ,

command of the king and participated in by the

Sacrifice (Lat. sacrificium; Ital. sacrificio; French whole people, required a whole year's prepara-
sacrifice). —
This term is identical with the English tion.
offering (Latin offerre) and the German Opfer; the It was the acme, "the king of the sacrifices", the
latter is derived, not from offerre, but from operari solemnities lasting three days and being accompanied
(Old High German opfdron ; Middle High German by all kinds of public amusements. The idea of this
opperu, oppardn), and thus means "to do zealously, to sacrifice was to provide the gods of light with another
serve God, to offer sacrifice" (cf. Kluge "Etymolo- steed for their heavenly yoke. At first, instead of the
gisches Wijrterbuch der deutschen Sprache", Strass- sacrifice of the horse, human sacrifice seems to have
burg, 1899, p. 288). By sacrifice in the real sense is been in vogue, so that here also the idea of substitu-
universally understood the offering of a sense-per- tion found expression. For the later Indians had a
ceptible gift to the Deity as an outward manifestation saying: "At first the gods indeed accepted men as
of our veneration for Him and with the object of at- sacrificial victims. Then the sacrificial efficacy passed
taining communion with Him. Strictly speaking, from them to the horse. The horse thus became effi-
however, this offering does not become a sacrifice until cacious. They accepted the horse, but the sacrificial
a real change has been effected in the visible gift efficacy went to the steer, sheep, goat, and finally to
(e. g. by slaying it, shedding its blood, burning it, or rice and barley: Thus for the instructed a sacrificial
pouring it out). As the meaning and importance of cake made of rice and barley is of the same value as
sacrifice cannot be established by a priori methods, these [five] animals" (cf. Hardy, "Die vedisch-brah-
every admissible theory of sacrifice must shape itself manische Periode der Religion des alten Indiens",
in accordance with the sacrificial systems of the pagan Munster, 1892, p. 150). Modern Hinduism with its
nations, and especially with those of the revealed re- nuniberless sects honours Vishnu and Shiva as chief
Ugions, Judaism and Christianity. Pure Buddhism, deities. As a cult it is distinguished from ancient
Mohanamedanism, and Protestantism here call for no Vedism mainly by its temple service. The Hindu
attention, as they have no real sacrifice; apart from temples are usually artistic and magnificent edifices
these there is and has been no developed religion with numerous courts, chapels, and halls, in which
which has not accepted sacrifice as an essential por- representations of gods and idols are exposed. 'The
tion of its cult. We shall consider successively: I. smaller pagodas serve the same purpose. Although
Pagan Sacrifice; II. Jewish Sacrifice; III. Christian the Hindu religion centres in its idolatry, sacrifice has
Sacrifice; IV. Theory of Sacrifice. not been completely evicted from its old place. The
I. Pagan Sacrifice. — (1) Among the Indians.
— symbol of Shiva is the phallus (linga); linga stones
The Vedism of the ancient Indies was, to an extent are indeed met throughout India (especially in the
never elsewhere attained, a sacrificial religion con- holy places) in extraordinary numbers. TThe darker
nected with the deities Agni and Soma. A Vedic shades of this superstition, degenerated into fetichism,
proverb runs: "Sacrifice is the navel of the world" are somewhat relieved by the piety and elevation
Originally regarded as a feast for the gods, before of many Hindu hymns or songs of praise {stolras),
whom food-offerings (cakes, milk, butter, meat, and which surpass even the old Vedic hymns in religious
the soma drink) were set on the holy grass before the feeling.
altar, sacrifice gradually became a magical agency
for influencing the gods, such as might be expressed
(2) —
Among the Iranians. The kindred religion
of the ancient Iranians centres, especially after its
in the formula, "Do ut des", or in the Vedic proverb: reform by Zoroaster, in the service of the true god
"Here is the butter; where are thy gifts? " The Ve- Ormuzd (Ahura Mazda), whose will is the right and
 SACRIFICE 310 SACRIFICE

whose kingdom is the good. This ethically very a subsidiary offering with most sacrifices, although
elevated religion promotes especially a life of purity, there were also special offerings of incense. The
the conscientious fulfilment of all liturgical and offerer of sacrifice wore clean clothes and chaplets
moral precepts, and the positive renunciation of the around his head, sprinkled his hands and the altar
Devil and all demoniacal powers. If the ancient with holy water, and strewed with solemn pra>ers
Indian religion was essentially a religion of sacrifice, sacrificial meal over the heads of the victims (pigs,
this religion of the ancient Persians may be described goats, and cocks). Flutes were pla>'ed while the
as a religion of observance. Inasmuch as, in the victim was being slain, and the blood was allowed
old Avesta (q. v.), the sacred book of the Persians, to drop through holes into the sacrificial trenches.
the war between the good god Ormuzd and the The meritoriousness of the sacrifice was regarded as
Devil ends eschatologically with the complete factory to a great extent dependent on its costliness. The
of the good god, we may designate the earliest Par- horns of the victims were gilded, and on great festi-
seeism as Monotheism. However, the theological vals whole hecatombs were slain; sacrifices of twelve,
Dualism taught in the later Avesta, where the wicked and especially of three victims (t/jitti/cs) were the most
anti-god Ahnman is opposed to the good god Ormuzd usual. In times of great affliction human sacrifices
as an absolute principle, is already foreshadowed and were offered even down to the historical era. The
prepared for in many didactic poems (g&thas) of the sacrifice was the centre of the Greek cult, and no
old Avesta. Sacrifice and prayer are intended to meal was partaken of until a libation of the wine
paralyze the diabolical machinations of Ahriman and about to be consumed was poured out to the gods.
his demons. The central feature of the Avestic Among the characteristic peculiarities of the Greek
divine service was the worship of fire, a worship, religion may be mentioned the votive offerings
however, unconnected with special fire-temples. {ava$r)aaTa) which (besides firstlings, tithes, votive
,

Like the modern Mobeds in India, the priests car- tablets, and objects of value) consisted chiefly of chap-
ried portable altars with them, and could thus offer lets, cauldrons, and the popular tripods (Tp«r65es).
sacrifice everywhere. Special fire-temples were, how- The number of the motive offerings, which were fre-
e\XT, early erected, in which five times daily the quently hung up on the sacred oaks, grew in time
priests entered the sacred fire-chamber to tend the so immeasurably that various states erected their
fire in a metal vessel, usually fed with odoriferous special treasuries at Olympia and Delphi.
wood. In a roomy antechamber the intoxicating (4) —
Among the Roiiititis. To a still greater extent
haoma (the counterpart of the Indian soma drink) than among the Greeks was religion and the whole
was brewed, the holy water prepared, and the sacri- sacrificial system a business of the state among the
fice of flesh (iiiyazihi) and cakes (darun) offered to the ancient Romans. Furthermore, no other people
gods. The precious haoma, the drink of immor- of antiquity developed Polytheism to such extremes.
tality, not only conduced in the case of mankind to Peopling the world with gods, genii, and lares, they
eternal life, but was likewise a drink for the gods placed almost every action and condition under a
themselves. In the later A\-c!Sta this drink, origi- specially-conceived deity (god or goddess). The
nally only a medium of cult, was formally deified, calendar prepared bj' the pontifices gave the Romans
and identified with the divinitj'; nay even the very detailed information as to how they should conduct
vessels used in the fabrication of this drink from the themselves with respect to the gods throughout the
haoiiin branches were celi'brated and adored in year. The object of sacrifice was to win the favour
hynms of praise. W'orthj' of mention also are the of the gods and to ward off their sinister influence.
sacrificial twigs {barcsiiidii, later barsom), which were Sacrifices of atonement (piacula) for perpetrated
u.sed as praying twigs or magical wands and solemnh' crimes and past errors were also scheduled. In the
stictclicd out in the hand. After the reduction of earliest times the ancient Indo-Germanic sacrifice of
the kingdom of the Sassanids by the Arabians (a. d. the horse, and also sacrifices of sheep, pigs, and oxen
642) the Persian religion was doomed to deca>-, were known. That human sacrifices must have been
and the vast majority of its followers fell away into once usual may be concluded from certain customs
Islamism. Besides some small remnants in modern of a later period (e. g. from the projection of straw
Persia, large communities still exist on the west coast puppets into the Tiber and the hanging of woollen
of India, in Guzerat and Bombay, whither many Par- puppets at the cross\\ays and on the doors of the
sees then immigrated. houses). Under the empire various foreign cults
(3) Among the Orecl;s.— The universal religion were introduced, such as the \'eneration of the Egyp-
of ancient Greece was a glad and joyous Polytheism tian deities Isis and Osiris, the Syrian Astarte, the
most closely connected with civic life. Even the Phrygian goddess C\bcli-, etc. The Roman Pan-
ancient Amphictyonic Council wa.s a confederacy of theon united in peace the most incongruous deities
states with the oljject of maintaining in common a from e-i-ery land. Finally, however, no cult was so
certain shrine. The object of the religious functions, popular as that of the Indo-Iranian Light-god Mithra,
which consisted in prayer, sacrifice, and vot ive offer- to whom especially the soldiers and officials of the
ings, was the winning of the favour and assistance empire, even in such distant places as the Danube
of the gods, which were always received with feel- and the Rhine, offered their sacrifices. In honour
ings of awe and gratitude. The sacrificial offerings, of the steer-killing Mithra the so-called taurobolia
bloody and unbloody, were generally taken from were introduced from the East; by tauroboUum is
articles of human food; to the gods above pastry, meant the loathsome ceremony wherein the wor-
sacrificial cakes, pap, fruits, and wine were offered, shippers of Mithra let the warm blood of a just-
but to the nether gods, cakes of honey and, as a drink, slaughtered steer flow over their naked backs as they
a mixture of milk, honey, and water. The sacrifi- lay in a trench with the idea of attaining thereby
cial consecration often consisted merely in the expo- not only physical strength, but also mental renewal
sition of the foods in pots on the roadsides or on the and regeneration.
funeral mounds with the idea of entertaining the
gods or the dead. Usually a portion was retained
(5) Among the Chiriese. —The religion of the
Chinese, a peculiar mixture of nature and ancestor-
wherewith to solemnize a sacrificial feast in union worship, is indissolubly connected with the consti-
with the gods; of the sacrifices to the nether gods in tution of the state. The oldest Sinism was a perfect
Hades, ho\\ever, nothing was retained. Great Monotheism. However, we are best acquainted
banquets of the gods (SeoJ^na) were well known to with the Cliinese sacrificial system in the form which
the Greeks as were the Lcnliitcniia to the Romans. was given it by the great reformer, Confucius (sixth
As a rule, however, the sacrifices were burned on the century before Christ), and which it has retained
altar, at times as holocausts. Incense was added as practically unaltered after more than two thousand
 SACRIFICE 311 SACRIFICE
years. As the "Son of Heaven'' and the head of The Babylonian temple contained in the sanctuary
the State rehgion, the Emperor of China is also the the image of the god to whom it was consecrated,
high-priest who alone may offer sacrifice to heaven. and in adjoining chambers or chapels the images of
The chief sacrifice takes place annually during the the other gods. The Babylonian priests were a
night of the winter solstice on the "altar of heaven" private caste, the mediators between the gods and
in the southern section of Peking. On the highest man, the guardians of the sacred literature, and the
terrace of this altar stands a wooden table as the teachers of the sciences. In Assyria, on the other
symbol of the soul of the god of heaven; there are in hand, the king was the high-priest, and offered up
addition many other "soul tables" (of the sun, moon, sacrifice. According to the Babylonian idea, sac-
stars, clouds, wind, etc.), including those of the ten rifice (libations, offerings of foods, bloody sacrifices)
immediate predecessors of the emperor. Before is the due tribute of mankind to the gods, and is as
every table are set sacrificial offerings of soup, flesh, old as the world; sacrifices are the banquets of the
vegetables, etc. To the ancestors of the emperor, gods, and the smoke of the offerings is for them a
as well as to the sun and moon, a slaughtered ox is fragrant odour; a joyous sacrificial banquet unites
offered; to the planets and the stars a calf, a sheep, the sacrificers with their divine guests. Both burnt
and a pig. Meanwhile, on a pyre to the south-east and aromatic offerings were common to the Baby-
of the altar, a sacrifice of an ox lies ready to be burned lonians and the Assyrians. The sacrificial gifts
to the highest god of heaven. \\'hile the ox is being included wild and tame animals, fowl, fish, fruit,
consumed, the emperor offers to the soul-table of curds, honey, and oil. Sacrificial animals were
heaven and the tables of his predecessors a staff of usually of the male sex; they had to be without
incense, silk, and some meat broth. After the per- defects, strong and fat, for only the unblemished is
formance of these ceremonies, all the articles of sac- worthy of the gods. Only in the rite of purification
rifice are brought to special furnaces and there con- were female animals allowed, and only in the lesser
sumed. Similarly the emperor sacrifices to the earth ceremonies defective animals. The offering of bread
at the northern wall of Peking, the sacrificial gifts on tables (showbread) was also usual. To the sac-
being in this case not burned, but buried. The rifices was attributed a purifying and atoning force,
gods of the soil and of corn, as well as the ancestors and the idea of substitution, the sacrificial victim
of the emperor, have also their special places and days being substituted for man, was clearly expressed.
of sacrifice. Throughout the empire the emperor is In the Babylonian penitential psalms especially, the
represented in the sacrifices by his state officials. In deep consciousness of sin and guilt often finds touch-
the classical book of ritual, "Li-ki", it is expressly ing expression. Men were slain only with lamenta-
stated: "The son of heaven sacrifices to the heaven tions for the dead.
and the earth; the vassals to the gods of the soil and The demonstration that the Chanaanites origi-
of corn." Besides the chief sacrifices, there are a nally came from Arabia (that ancient home of the
number of others of the second or third rank, which races) to Palestine, and there disseminated the cul-
are usually performed by state officials. The popu- ture of the ancient Arabians, is an achievement of
lar religion with its innumerable images, which have modern investigators. While the Babylonian reli-
their special temples, is undisguised idolatry. gion was governed by the course of the stars (astrol-
(6) Among the Egyptians. —The ancient religion ogy), the spiritual horizon of the Chanaanites was
of the Eg}T3tians, with its highly developed priest- fixed by the periodical changes of dying and reawak-
hood and its equally extensive sacrificial system, ening nature, and thus depended secondarily on the
marks the transition to the religion of the Semites. vivifying influence of the stars, especially of the sun
The Egyptian temple contained a dark chapel with and the moon. Wherever the force of nature
the image of the deity; before it was a pillared hall, revealed evidence of life, there the deity had his seat.
(hypostyle) faintly lit by a small window under the At fountains and rivers temples arose, because water
roof, and before this hall a spacious court-yard, brings life and drought, death. Feeling themselves
enclosed by a circular series of pillars. The ground- nearest to the deity on mountains, hill-worship
plan proves that the temple was not used either for (mentioned also in the Old Testament) was the most
assemblies of the people or as the residence of the popular among the Chanaanites. On the height
priests, but was intended solely for the preservation stood an altar with an oval opening, and around it
of the images of the gods, the treasures, and the was made a channel to carry off the blood of the
sacred vessels. To the sanctuary proper only the sacrificial victim. To the cruel god Moloch sacri-
priests and the king were admitted. The sacrifices fices of children were offered —
a horrible custom
were offered in the great court-yard, where also the against which the Bible so sternly inveighs. The
highly popular processions, in which the images of kindred cult of the Phoenicians originated in a low
the gods were borne in a ship, took place. The idea of the deity, which inclined towards gloominess,
rites of the daily service of the temple, the move- cruelty, and voluptuousness. We need only men-
ments, words, and prayers of the officiating priest, tion the worship of Baal and Astarte, PhaUism and
were all regulated down to the smallest detail. The the sacrifice of chastity, the sacrifice of men and
image of the god was entertained daily with food and children, which the civilized Romans vainly strove
•drink, which were placed on the sacrificial table. to abolish. In their sacrificial system the Phoe-
At the laying of the foundation-stone of a new tem- nicians had some points in common with the Israel-
ple human sacrifices were offered, being abolished ites. The "sacrificial table of Marseilles", which,
only in the era of the Ramassides; a trace of this like the similar "sacrificial table of Carthage", was of
repulsive custom survived in the later ceremony of Phoenician origin, mentions as sacrificial victims:
impressing on the sacrificial victim a seal bearing the steers, calves, stags, sheep, she-goats, lambs, he-
image of a man in chains with a knife in his throat. goats, fawns, and fowl, tame and wild. Sick or
To the favourite god of the Egyptians, Ammon-RA, emaciated animals were forbidden. The Phoenicians
the rulers of the New Empire made such extraordinarily were also acquainted with holocausts (kalil), which
numerous and costly votive offerings that the state were always supplicatory sacrifices, and partial
became almost bankrupt. The Egyptian religion, offerings, which might be sacrifices of either suppli-
which developed into abominable bestiolatry,
finally cation or thanks. The
chief efficacy of the sacrifice
fell into decay with the destruction of the Serapeum of men and animals was regarded as lying in the
in Alexandria by the Eastern Emperor, Theodosius blood. When the victim was not entirely consumed,
I (391). the sacrificers participated in a sacrificial banquet with
(7) Among the Semites. —Among the Semites the music and dancing.
Babylonians and Assyrians deserve first mention. Concerning pagan sacrifice in general see Creuzer, Symbolik it.
 SACRIFICE 312 SACRIFICE
Ml/lhologieder alien Vdlker (3rd ed„ Darmstadt, 1877); Werner, (Gen., xxii, 1 sqq.) ended with the prohibition of the
Die Religionen u. KuUe des vorchristl. Heideiitunis (Ratisbon, slaying of Isaac, God ordering instead the sacrifice of
ISSS) VoLLERs, Die Weltreligionen in ihrem geschichtl. Zusammen-
the ram caught in the briers. Among the Children of
;

hang (Jena, 1909); de La Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgesch.

(2 vols., 3rd ed., Tubingen, 191)5). Concerning the sacrifices of Israel human sacrifice meant the profanation of Jah-
tlie ancient Indians see Miller. Hibbert Lectures on the Origin
as illustrated by the Religion of India (Lon-
weh's name (Lev., xx, 1 sqq., etc.). The later
and Growth of Religion
don, 1S7.S}; Lindner, Die Dtic-'^hd oder die Weihe filr das Somaop- prophets also raised their mighty voices against the
fir (1S78); Bergaigne. La religion vtdique (3 vols., Paris, 1878- disgraceful service of Moloch with its sacrifice of
8:i); Weber, Zur Kenntnis des rea. Opferrituals in Indische Stu- children. It is true that the baneful influence of pa-
dii.n, X and XIII; Hillebrandt, Das altin<t. Ntu- u.VoUmonds-
oiifer ilS79); Idem, RUual-Literatur, ved. Opfer u. Zauber {1897) gan environment won the upper hand from the time
Mlir, Oraiinal Sanscrit Texts, III-V (London, 1890); Hopkins, of King Achaz to that of Josias to such an extent that
The Rrliiiiuns of Indin (London, 1893); Hardy, Die vedisch- in the ill-omened Valley of Hinnom near Jerusalem
brahmanische Periode der Religion des alien Indiens (1893); Idem,
Indische Rehaionsucsch, (1S9S) Oldenbehg, Die Religion des
;
thousands of innocent children were sacrificed to Mo-
Veda (1894); Schwab, Das altindische Tieropftr (1896); Mac- loch. To this infectious pagan example, not to the
donell, Vedic Mythology (1897); Dahlmann, Der Idealismus der spirit of the religion of Jahweh, is also to be referred
indi'^chen Religionsphilos. im Zeitalter der Opfermystik (Freiburg,
1901); RoussELL, La religion vedique (Paris, 1909). Concern- the sacrifice which Jephte, in consequence of his vow,
ing Hinduism consult: Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and reluctantly performeii by slaying his own daughter
Hinduism (London, 1891); Guru Prosad Sex, An Introduction (Judges, xi, 1 sqq.). The assertion of many investi-
to the Study of Hinduism (Calcutta, 1893) Crooke, Introduction
;

to the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (London, gators (Ghilany, Daumer, Vatke) that even in the
1896); Dubois, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies (Ox- legitimate service of Jahweh human sacrifices oc-
ford, 1897) Slater, The higher Hinduism in relation to Christi-
;
curred, is historically untenable; for, though the
anity (London, 1902). Concerning the Iranians, ef. Hyde, His-
toria religionis reterum Persarum (Oxford, 1700) Windischmann, ;
Mosaic Law contained the provision that, not only
Zoroastrische Studien (1863) Spiegel, Eranische Altertums-
;
the firstlings of beasts and fruits, but also the first-
kuiide, II (1878) DE Harlez, Les origines du Zoroastrisme (Paris,
;

1879); Haug, Essai/s on the Sacred Language, Writings and Re-

bom of men were due to Jahweh, it was expressly pro-
ligion of the Par-iis (London, 1884); Dosabhai Franiji Karaka, vided that these latter should be redeemed, not
History of the Parsis, including their Manners, Customs, Religion sacrificed. The offering of the blood of an animal in-
and Present Position (2 vols., London, 1884) Casartelli, La ;
stead of a human life originated in the profound idea
philos. religeuse du Mazdeisme sous les Sassanides (Paris, 1884)
Jackson, Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (New York, 1899). of substitution, and has its justification in the prophet-
Concerning the Greeks, cf. Maury, Hist, des religions de la Grece ical metaphorical references to the unique vicarious
antique (3 vols., Paris, 18.57-9); Girard, Le sentiment religieux sacrifice offered by Christ on Golgotha.
en Grece d'Homire a Eschyle (Paris, 1879); Roscher, Ausfuhr-
The Israel-
liches Lexikon der griech. u. rSm, Mythologie (1884); Reisch, itic blood vengeance (cherem), in accordance with
Grieelnscbe Weihegeschenke (Vienna, 1890); Stengel, Z>te srtfc)i. which impious enemies and things were utterly ex-
,Sa^ra/a.^(er(iimer (1890) Rhode, P.?2/c/ie (1891) Gardener and
; ;

terminated (cf. Jos., vi, 21 sqq.; 1 Kings, xv, 15,

Jevons, Manual of Greek Antiquities (London, 189.5); I'.'^ener,
Gdtiernamen (1896); Farnell, Cults of the Greek Stales (2 vols., etc.), had absolutely nothing to do with human sacri-
London, 1896); Gruppe, Griech, Mythologie u. Religionsgesch. fice. The idea of the blood vengeance originated, not
(Munich, 1897-1906); Rouse, Greek Vutice Offerings (Cam-
as in various pagan religions in the thirst of Goil for
bridge, 1910); Reitzenstein, Die helleni.^liscfien Myslerienre-
ligionen (1910); Piepers, Qucestiones anathematicce (Leiden, human blood, but in the principle that the powers
1903). Concerning the Romans, cf. Bouch^-Leclerc, Manuel hostile to God should be removed by a bloody chas-
des institutions romaines (Paris, 1896); Wissowa, Religion u.
Kultus der ROmer (Munich, 1902); von Pohlmann, Die rom.
tisement from the path of the Lord of life and death.
Kai^iTzeit u. der Untergang der aniiken Welt (1910); Gasqvet. The accursed were not sacrificed but removed from
Essai sur le culte el les mystires de Mitlirn (Paris, 1899) Cr.MONT, :
the face of the earth. According to Jewish tradition,
Die Mysterien des Mithra (Leipzig, 1903); Preller, Romische
Mythologie (3rd ed., 1881-83); Beurlier, Le culte rendu aux
sacrifice in its bloody and its unbloody form extends
empereurs romains (Paris, 1890); Wendland, Die hellenisl.- back to the beginning of the human race. The first
rnm. Kullur in ihren Beziehungen zum Judentum u. Christen- and oldest sacrifice mentioned in the Bible is that of
tum (1907); DiETERlCH, Eine M
ithrasliturgie (2nd ed., 1910).
Cain and Abel (Gen. iv, 3 sq.). With sacrifice an
Concerning the Chinese, cf. Douglas, Confucianism and Taoism
(London. 1892); de Harlez, Les religions de la Chine (Brussels, altar was associated (Gen., xii, 7 sq.). Even in patri-
1891); Dvorak, Chinas Religionen (2 vols., Leipzig, 189.5-1903). archal times we meet also the sacrificial meal, espe-
Concerning the Egyptians, cf. Le Page Renouf, Lectures on the
Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of An-
cially in connexion with treaties and the conclusion
cient Egypt (London, 1879) Erman, Aegyplen u, dgyptisches Leben
; of peace. The conclusion of the covenant at Mount
im Altertum (2 vols., 1885-88); Idem, Die dgyplische Religion Sinai was also effected under the auspices of a solemn
(2nd ed., Berlin, 1909) Brugsch, Religion u. Mythologie der alien
;

Aegypter (IS.SS); Budge, The Mummy (London, 1893); Idem, sacrifice and banquet (Ex., xxiv., 5 sqq.). Subse-
The Gods of the Egyptians (London, 1904) Idem, History of ; quently Moses, as the envoy of Jahweh, elaborated
Egypt (8 vols., London, 1902 ); Wiedemann, Die Religion der the whole sacrificial system, and in the Pentateuch
alien Aegypter (1890); Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt (Lon-
don, 1894); Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia fixed with most scrupulous exactness the various
(London, 1902); Otto, Priesler u. Tempel im helleidst. Aegyplen kinds of sacrifice and their ritual. Like the whole
(2 vols., 1902-08). Concerning the Semites, cf. vox Baudissin, Mosaic cult, the sacrificial system is governed by the
Beitr&ge zur semilischen Religionsgesch. (Berlin, 187.5-78) Rob-
ertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (Lonclon,
;

one central idea, peculiar to the religion of Jahweh:

1899); Laghaxge, Sur les religions s^mitiques (Paris, 1903); "Be holy because I am holy" (Lev., xi, 44).
ZiMMER, BcUrdge zur Kenntnis der babylon. Religion (1896);
Haupt, Babylonian Elements in the Lciitical Ritual (1900) Hii^
—
(2) Material of the Sacrifices. The general name for
Jewish sacrifice was originally minchah ("n;", dm(j>opi,
;

PRECHT, Die Ausgrabungen im Bel-Tempel zu Nippur (1903);

Jeremias, Moniheistisciie Strbmungen innerhalb der babylon- donum), afterwards the special technical term
ischen Religion (1904) Winckler, Die Gesetze Hammurabis
;
for the unbloody food-offering. To the latter was
(1904) Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens u. Assyriens (1905)
;

KoLDEWEY, Die Tempel von Babylon (1911) Movers, Das Opfer- ;

opposed the bloody sacrifice (n^t, Bvcni, victima).
wesen der Karlhager (1847) Chbyne-Black, Encycl. biblica, s. v.
; According to the method of offering, sacrifices were
Phanida; Scholz, Gbtzendienst u. Zauberwesen bei den alien He- known as korban (]'2''.7', bringing near) or 'okih ("":",
bretern u. benachbartcn Yolkern (1877); Schanz, Apologie des
Chriiteiilums, II (1905). Sec also the literature to Priesthood. ascending), the latter term being used especially of
the holocaust (q. v.). The material of the bloody
II. Jewish S.\crifice. — (1) In General. —That sacrifice must be taken from the personal possessions
many general ideas and rites, which are found in of the offerer, and must belong to the category of clean
pagan rehgions, find their place also in the Jewish animals. Thus, on the one hand, only domestic
sarrificial sy.stem, should excite as little surprise as animals (oxen, sheep, goats) from the stock of the
the fact that revealed religion in general does not re- sacrificer were allowed (Lev., xxii, 19 sqq.), and hence
ject at all natural religion and ethics, but rather neither fish nor wild animals; on the other hand, all
adopts them in a higher form. The ethical purity unclean animals (e. g. dogs, pigs, asses, camels) were
;ind excellence of the Jewish sacrificial system is at excluded, even though they were domestic animals.
once seen in the circumstance that the detestable hu- Doves were about the only sort of birds that could be
man sacrifices are spurned in the official religion of used. The substitution of turtle doves or young
Jahweli (cf.Deut., xii, 31; xviii, 10). Abraham's trial pigeons for the larger animals was allowed to the poor
 SACRIFICE 313 SACRIFICE
(Lev., V, 7; xii, 8). Concerning the sex, age, and gesture the sacrificer transferred to the victim his
physical condition of the animals there were also exact personal intention of adoration, thanksgiving, peti-
precepts; as a rule, they had to be free from defect, tion, and especially of atonement. If sacrifice was
since only the best were fit for Jahweh (Lev., xxii, 20 about to be offered for the whole community, the
sqq.; Mai., i, 13 sq.). The material of the unbloody ancients, as the representatives of the people, per-
sacrifices (usually additions to the bloody sacrifice or formed the ceremony of the imposition of hands
subsidiary sacrifices) was chosen from either the soUd (Lev., iv, 15). This ceremony was omitted in the
or the hquid articles of human food. The fragrant case of certain sacrifices (first fruits, tithes, the pas-
incense, the symbol of prayer ascending to God, was chal lamb, doves) and in the case of bloody sacrifices
an exception. The sacrifice of solids {minchah) con- performed at the instance of pagans. From the
sisted partly of toasted ears of corn (or shelled grain) time of Alexander the Great the offering of burnt
together with oil and incense (Lev., ii, 14 sqq.), partly sacrifices even by Gentiles was permitted in recogni-
of the finest wheaten flour with the same additional tion of the supremacy of foreign rulers; thus, the
gifts (Lev., ii, 1 sqq.), and partly of unleavened bread Roman Emperor Augustus required a daily burnt
(Lev., ii, 4 sqq.). Since not only leaven, but also offering of two lambs and a steer in the Temple
honey produced fermentation in bread, which suggests (ch. Philo, "Leg. ad Caj.," §10; Josephus, "Contra
rottenness, the use of honey was also forbidden (Lev., Ap.", II, vi). The withdrawal of this permission
ii, 11; cf. 1 Cor., v, 6 sqq.). Only the bread of the at the beginning of the Jewish War was regarded as
first fruits, which was offered on the feast of Pente- a public rebellion against the Roman rule (cf.
cost, and the bread added to many sacrifices of praise Josephus, "De bello jud.", II, xvii, 2). The cere-
were leavened, and these might not be brought to the mony of the imposition of hands was usually pre-
altar, but belonged to the priests (Lev., ii, 4 sqq. vii, ; ceded by a confession of sins (Lev., xvi, 21; v, 5 sq.;
13 sq., etc.). On the other hand salt was regarded Num., V, 6 sq.), which, according to Rabbinic tradi-
as a means of purification and preservation, and was tion, was verbal (cf. Otho, "Lex rabbin.", 552). The
prescribed as a seasoning for all food-offerings pre- third act or the slaying, which effects as speedy and
pared from corn (Lev., ii, 13). Consequently, among complete a shedding of the blood as possible by a
the natural productions supplied to the (later)Temple, deep cut into the throat, had also, like the leading
was a vast quantity of salt, which, as "salt of Sodom ", forward and the imposition of hands, to be performed
was usually obtained from the Dead Sea, and stored by the sacrificer himself (Lev., i, 3 sqq.); only in the
up in a special salt chamber (Esd., vi, 9; vii, 22; Jose- case of the offering of doves did the priest perform
phus, "Antiquities", XIL iii, 3). As an integral por- the slaying (Lev., i, 15). In later times, however,
tion of the food-offering we always find the libation the slaying, skinning, and dismemberment of the
(]Zi, (riroi'5«oi', libamen), which is never offered larger animals were undertaken by the priests and
independently. Oil and wine were the only liquids Levites, especially when the whole people were to
used (cf. Gen., xxviii, 18; xxxv, 14; Num., xxviii, 7, 14) offer sacrifice for themselves on great festivals (II
the oil was used partly in the preparation of the bread, Par., xxix, 22 sqq.). The real sacrificial function
and partly burned with the other gifts on the altar; began with the fourth act, the sprinkling of blood by
the wine was poured out before the altar. Libations the priest, which, according to the Law, pertained
of milk, such as those of the Arabs and the Phoeni- to him alone (Lev., i, 5; iii, 2; iv, 5; II Par., xxix,
cians, do not occur in the Mosaic Law. 23, etc.). If a layman undertook the blood-sprink-
The fact that, in addition to the subsidiary Hng, the sacrifice was invalid (cf Mischna Sebachim,
.

sacrifices, unbloody sacrifices were also customary, II, 1).

has been unjustifiably contested by some Prot- The oblation of the blood on the altar by the priest
estants in their polemics against the Sacrifice thus formed the real essence of the bloody sacrifice.
of the jMass, of which the sacrifices of food and This idea was indeed universal, for "everywhere from
drink were the prototypes. Passing over the oldest China to Ireland the blood is the chief thing, the
sacrifices of this kind in the case of Cain and centre of the sacrifice; in the blood lies its power "
Abel (see Mass, Sacrifice op the), the Mosaic cult (Bahr, "Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus", II,
recognized the following independent sacrifices in the Heidelberg, 1839, p. 62). That the act of slajdng
sanctuary: (a) the offering of bread and wine on the or the destruction of the victim was not the chief
showbread table; (b) the incense offering on the altar element, is evident from the precept that the sacri-
of incense; (c) the light offering in the burning lamps ficers themselves, who were not priests, had to care
of the golden candle-stick. A^nd in the outer court: for the slaying. Jewish tradition also expressly
(d) the daily minchah of the high-priest, which, like designated the priestly sprinkfing of the blood on
everj- other priestly minchah, had to be entirely con- the altar as "the root and principle of the sacrifice".
sumed as a holocaust (Lev.,vi, 20 sqq. cf. Josephus, The explanation is given in Lev., xvii, 10 sq.: "If
"Antiquit.", Ill, x, 7); (e) the bread of the first any man whosoever of the house of Israel, and of
fruits on the second day of the Pasch (f ) the bread of
;
the strangers that sojourn among them, eat blood,
the first fruits on the feast of Pentecost. Of the in- I will set my face against his soul, and will cut him
dependent unbloody sacrifices at least a portion was off from among his people: Because the life of the
always burnt as a memorial (askara, memoriale) for flesh is in the blood: and I have given it to you, that
Jahweh; the rest belonged to the priests, who con.sumed you may make atonement with it upon the altar for
it as sacred food in the outer court (Lev., ii, 9 sq. v, ;
your souls, and the blood may be for an expiation
12sq.;vi, 16). of the soul." Here the blood of the victim is de-
(3) The Rites of the Bloody Sacrifice.—The ritual clared in the clearest terms to be the means of pro-
of the bloody sacrifice is of special importance for the pitiation, and the propitiation itself is associated
deeper knowledge of Jewish sacrifice. Despite other with the application of the blood on the altar. But
differences, five actions were common to all the cate- the propitiation for the guilt-laden soul is accom-
gories: the Ijringing forward of the victim, the impo- plished by the blood only in virtue of the life contained
sition of hands, the slaying, the sprinkling of the blood, in it, which belongs to the Lord of death and life.
and the burning. The first was the leading of the Hence the strict prohibition of the "eating" of blood
victim to the altar of burnt sacrifices in the outer under penalty of being cut off from among the people.
court of the tabernacle (or of the Temple) "before the But inasmuch as the blood, since it bears the life
Lord" (Ex., xxix, 42; Lev., i, 5; iii, 1; iv, 6). Then of the victim, represents or symbolizes the soul or
followed on the north side of the altar the imposition life of man, the idea of substitution finds clear ex-

of hands (or, more accurately, the resting of hands pression in the sprinkling of the blood, just as it
on the head of the victim), by which significant has been already expressed in the imposition of hands.
 SACRIFICE 314 SACRIFICE

But the blood obtained by the slaying exerts its ex- xiv, 22). The very poor, who were unable to offer
piiitorypower first on the altar, where the soul of even doves, might in the case of ordinary transgres-
the victim symbolically laden with sin comes into sions sacrifice the tenth of an ephi of flour, but with-
contact with the purifying and sanctifying power of out oil or incense (Lev., v, 11 sqq.). The manner
God. The technical term for the reconciliation of the apphcation of the blood was different according
and remission of sin is kipper "to expiate" {"tZZ, to the various degrees of sin, and consisted, not in
Picl from ~ZZ "to cover"), a verb which is con- the mere sprinkhng of the blood, but in rubbing
nected rather with the Assyrian kuppuru (wipe it on the horns of the altar for burnt -offerings or

off, destroy) than with the Arabic "to cover, the incense altar, after which the remainder of the
ccjver up". The fifth and last act, the burning, blood was poured out at the foot of the altar. Con-
was performed differently, according, as the whole cerning the details of this ceremony the handbooks
A'ictim (holocaust) or only certain portions of it of Biblical archaeology should be consulted. The
were to be consumed by fire. By the altar and the usual and best sacrificial portions of the victims
"consuming fire" (Deut., iv, 24) Jahweh symboli- (pieces of fat, kidneys, lobes of the liver) were then
cally appropriated, as through His Divine mouth, burned on the altar of burnt-offerings, and the re-
the sacrifices offered; this was strikingly manifested mainder of the victim eaten by the priests as sacred
in the sacrifices of Aaron, Gedeon, and Elias (cf. Lev., food in the outer court of the sanctuary (Lev., vi,
ix, 24; Judges, vi, 21; III Kings, xviii, 38). 18 sq.). Should any of the blood have been brought
(4) Different Categories of the Bloody Sacrifices. — into the sanctuary, the flesh had to be brought to the
(a) Among the various classes of bloody sacrifice, ash-heap and there likewise burned (Lev., iv, 1
the burnt ofTering takes the first place. It is called sqq.; vi, 24 sqq.).
"
both the ascent sacrifice " (olah) and the " holocaust (j3) The guilt-offering {sacrificium pro delicto,
{kalil) .Sept. oXoKavTufia; in Philo, 6X6Koi;(rToj'), because C"-N, asham) was specially appointed for sins and
—
;

the whole victim witli the exception of the hip muscle transgressions demanding restitution, whether the
—
and the hide is made through fire to ascend to God in material interests of the sanctuary or those of pri-
vate persons were injured — e.g. by misappropriating
smoke and vapour (see Holocaust). Although the
idea of expiation was not excluded (Lev., i, 4), it gifts to the sanctuary, defrauding one's neighbour,
retired somewhat into the background, since in the retaining the property of another, etc. (cf. Lev., v,
complete destruction of the victim by fire the abso- 15 sqq.; vi, 2 sq.; Num., v, 6 sqq.). The material
lute submission of man to f Jod was to find expression. restitution was reckoned at one-fifth higher than the
The holocaust is indeed the oldest, most frequent, loss inflicted (six fifths had thus to be paid). In ad-
and most mdespread sacrifice (cf. Gen., iv, 4; ^-iii, dition, a guilt-sacrifice had to be offered, consisting
20; xxii, 2 sqq.; Job., i, 5; xlii, S). As the "ever of a ram sacrificed at the north side of the altar.
enduring" sacrifice, it had to be olTcred twice daily, The blood was sprinkled in a circle around the altar,
in the morning and in the evening (cf. Ex., xxix, on which the fatty portions were burnt; the rest of
oS sqq.; Lev., vi, 9 sqq.; Num., x.wiii, 3 sqq., etc.). the flesh as sacrosanct was eaten by the priests in
As the sacrifice of adoration par cxeellcttcc, it included the holy place (Lev., vii, 1 sqq.).
in itself all other species of sacrifice. [Concerning (o) The third class of bloody sacrifice embraced the
the altar, see Altae (in Sciupture).] "peace offerings" {viclima pacifica, S"zbi'. shelamim),
(b) The idea of expiation received especially which were sub-divided into three classes: the sacrifice
forcible expression in the expiatory sacrifices, of of thanks or praise, the sacrifice in fulfilment of a vow,
which two classes were distinguished, the sin and the and entirely voluntary offerings. The peace sacrifices
guilt-offering. The distinction between these lies in general were distinguished by two characteristics:
in the fact that the former was concerned rather (i) the remarkable ceremony of "wave" and "heave";
with the uljsolution of the person from sin {expialio), (ii) the communal sacrificial meal held in connexion

tli<' latter rather with the making of satisfaction for with them. All animals allowed for sacrifice (even
the injury done {satisfaclio). female) might be used and, in the case of entirely
(a.) Turning first to the sin-offering (sacrificium pro "voluntary sacrifices", even such animals as were
peccato, .^N'Jm, ehatliiDi), we find that, according to the not quite without defects (Lev., xxii, 23). Until
Law, not all ethical delinquencies could be expiated the act of sprinkling the blood the rites were the
b>' it. Excluded from ex-piation were all deliberate same as in the burnt-sacrifice, except that the slay-
crimes or "sins with raised hand", which involved ing did not necessarily take place at the north side
a breech of the covenant and drew upon the trans- of the altar (Lev., iii, 1 sqq.; vii, 11 sqq). The
gressor as punishment ejection from among the people usual portions of fat had, as in the case of the sacri-
because he had "been rebellious against the Lord" fice of expiation, to be burned on the altar. In the
(Nurn., XV, 30 sq.). To such sins belonged the cutting up of the victim, however, the breast and
omission of circumcision (Gen., xvii, 14), the dese- the right shoulder (Sept. Ppaxioiv; Vulg. armus) had
cration of the Sabbath (Ex., xxxi, 14), the blasphem- to be first separately severed, and the ceremony of
ing of Jahweh (Lev., xxiv, 16), failure to celebrate "wave" (tenupha) and "heave" (teruma) performed
the Pasch (Num., ix, 2 sqq.), the "eating of Ijlood" with them. According to Tahnudic tradition the
(Lev., \-ii, 26 sq.), working or failure to fast on the "wave" was performed as follows: the priest placed
Day of Atonement (Lev., xxiii, 21). Expiation the breast of the victim on the hands of the offerer,
availed only for misdeeds committed through igno- and then, having placed his own hands under those
rance, forgetfulness, or hastiness. The rites were of this person, moved them backward and forward
determined not so much by the kind and gravity of in token of the reciprocity in giving and receiving
the transgressions as bj- the quality of the persons between God and the offerer. With the right shoul-
for whom the sacrifice of expiation was to be offered. der the same ceremony was then performed, except
Thus, for the faults of the high-priest or the whole that the "heave" or "teruma" consisted in an up-
people a calf was prescribed (Lev., iv, 3; xvi, 3); ward and downward movement. The breast and
for those of the prince of a tribe (Lev., iv, 23), as well shoulder used in these ceremonies fell to the share
as on certain festivals, a he-goat: for those of the of the priests, who might consume them in a "clean
ordinarj' Israelites, a she-goat or ewe lamb (Lev., place" (Lev., x, 14). They also received a loaf
iv, 2S; V, 6); for purification after child-birth and
from the supplementary food-offering (Lev., vii,
certain other legal uncleannesses, turtle doves or 14). The offerer assembled his friends at a common
3'oung pigeons (Lev., .\ii, 6; xv, 14, 29). The last- meal on the same day to consume in the vicinity
mentioned might also be used by the poor as the of the sanctuary the flesh remaining after the sacri-
substitute for one of the small cattle (Lev., v, 7; fice. Levitically clean guests, especially the Levites
 SACRIFICE 315 SACRIFICE
and the poor, were admitted (Deut., xvi, 11; Lev., to the rejection of external sacrifice. Nor can one
19 sqq.), and wine was freely drunk at this meal. accept the statement that Moses did not legally
\\hatever remained of a sacrifice of thanksgiving or regulate the Jewish sacrificial system. How other-
praise had to be burned on the following day; only wise could he have been regarded among the Jews
in the case of the vowed and entirely voluntary as the God-appointed founder of the religion of Jah-
sacrifices might the remainder be eaten on the second weh, which is inconceivable without Divine service
succeeding day, but all that thereafter remained had and sacrifice? That during the centuries after Moses
to be burned on the third day (Lev., vii, 15 sqq.; the sacrificial cult underwent an internal and external
xix, 6 sqq.). The idea of the peace-offering centres development, which reached its climax in the extant
in the Divine friendship and the participation at priest's code, is a natural and intelligible assumption,
the Divine table, inasmuch as the offerers, as guests indications of which appear in the Pentateuch itself.
and table-companions, participated in a certain The whole reorganization of the cult by the Prophet
manner in the sacrifice to the Lord. But, on account Ezechiel shows that Jahweh always stood above the
of this Divine friendship, when all three classes of letter of the law, and that he was nowise bound to
sacrifice were combined, the sacrifice of exijiation maintain in unalterable rigidity the olden regula-
usually preceded the burnt-offering, and the latter tions. But the changes and deviations in Ezechiel
the peace-offering. are not of such magnitude as to justify the view that
In addition to the periodical sacrifices just de- not even the foundation of the sacrificial code origi-
scribed, the Mosaic Law recognized other extraordi- nated with Moses. The further statement that a
nary sacrifices, which mu.st at least be mentioned. sacrificial meal was regularly connected with the
To these belong the sacrifice offered but once on ancient sacrifices, is an unjustifiable generalization.
the occasion of the conclusion of the Sinaitic cove- For the burnt-offering {holocausium, 'olah), with
nant (Ex., xxiv, 4 sqq.), those occurring at the con- which no meal was associated, belonged to the most
secration of the priests and Levites (Ex., xxix, 1 ancient sacrifices (cf. Gen., viii, 20), and is at least
sqq.; Lev., viii; Num., viii, 5 sqq.), and certain oc- as old as the peace-offering (shelamim), which always
casional sacrifices, such as the sacrifice of purification terminated with a meal. Again, it is antecedently
of a healed leper (Lev., xiv, 1 sqq.), the sacrifice of at least improbable that the older sacrifices always
the red cow (Ximi., xix, 1 sqq.), the sacrifice of jeal- had, as is asserted, a gay and joyous character,
ousy (Num., v, 12 sqq.), and the sacrifice of the Nazi- since the need of expiation was not less, but rather
rites (Num., vi, 9 sqq.). On account of its extraor- more seriously felt by the Israelites than by the
dinary character one might include the yearly pagan nations of antiquity. Where there was a
sacrifice of the paschal lamb (Ex., xii, 3 sqq.; Deut., consciousness of sin, there must also have been
\\i, 1 sqq.) and that of the two he-goats on the Day anxiety for expiation.
ofAtonement (Lev., xvi, 1 sqq.) among this class. LiGHTFOOT, Ministeriutn templi (Rotterdam, 1699) Bahr, ;

Symbotik des mosaischen KuUus, II (Heidelberg, 1839) Thal-

With the appearance of the Messias, the entire HOFER, Die unblutigen Opfer des mosaischen KuUus (Ratisbon,
:

Mosaic system was, according to the view

sacrificial 1848) ; RiEHM, Der Begriff der Siihne im A. T. (Gotha, 1876)
of the Rabbis, to come to an end, as in fact it did Idem, HandwoTterbuch des biblischen Altertums (Leipzig, 1884 )
Idem, AUtestamenIL Theologie (Halle, 1889) Kurtz, Sacrificial
—
after the destruction of the Temple by Titus (A. D.
;

Worship of the Old Testament, tr. (Edinburgh, 1863); Wange-

70). Concerning the sacrificial persons see Pbiest- MANN, Das Opfer naeh der hi. Schrift (1866) Scholz, Die hi. Alter-
;

HOOD. tiimer des Volkes Israel (Ratisbon, 1868); Idem, GGtzendienst u.

(j) Modern Criticism. —A detailed examination of Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebrdern (Ratisbon, 1877) H.\.ne-
BEHG, Die religiQsen AUertUmer der Bibel (Munich, 1869) Schegg, ;
;

modern criticism concerning Jewish sacrifice cannot Biblische Archdologie (Freiburg, 1887) Laouenan, Du Brahma-
;

be attempted here, since the discussion involves nisme et ses rapports avec le Judaisme et le Christianisme (Paris,
1888) Cave, Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement
the whole Pentateuch problem (see Pentateuch).
:

(Edinburgh, 1890) iSchafer, Die religiosen AUertUmer der Bibel

;

What is called the " Graf-WelUiausen hypothesis" (1891); ScHMOLLER, Das Wesen der Siihne in der alttestamenttich.
denies that the ritual legislation in the Pentateuch Opferthora in Studien u. Kritiken (1891); Nowack, Hebrdische
Archdologie (Freiburg, 1894); Volck, De nonnullis V. T. prophet,
comes from ^Nloses. It is claimed that the setting locis ad sacrificia speciantibus (Leipzig, 1893) Scott. Sacrifice,
;

down of the sacrificial legislation first began in the its Prophecy and Fulfilment (Edinburgh, 1894) Baxter, Sanctu-
;

exilic period. From the time of Moses to the Baby- ary and Sacrifice (London, 1895) Schultz, Old Testament Theol-
;

ogy, tr. (Edinburgh, 1898) ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube u. Seelen-

lonian Captivity sacrifice was offered freely and kult im alien Israel (1898) ; Matthieu, La notion de sacrifice dans
without any legal compulsion, and always in connex- Vancien Testament et son Evolution (Toulouse, 1902) Gold, Sac-
;

ion with a joyous sacrificial meal. The strict forms rificial TFors/iip (New York, 1903); 'iii^f^^. Genesis u. Keilschrift-
forschung (Freiburg, 1903) Schhader, Die Keilinschriften u. das
;

of the minutely-prescribed sacrificial rite were first A. T, (3rd ed., Berlin, 1903) Zapletal, Alttestamentliches (Frei-
;

established by the Priest's Code (=P), Divine burg, i903); Koberle, Sunde u. Gnade im religiSsen Leben des
authority being afterwards claimed for them by Volkes Israel bis auf Christus (Munich, 1905) Herrmann, Die
;

Idee der Suhne im A. T. (Leipzig, 1905); Schopfer, Gesch. des

artificially projecting them into the Mosaic era. Even A. T. (4th ed., 1906); Kent, Israel's Laws and Legal Precedents
during the time of the Great Prophets nothing was (New York, 1907) ; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (Frei-
known of a Mosaic sacrificial thora, as is proved by burg, 1907) ; Mader, Die Menschenopfer der alten Hebrder u. der
benachbarten VSlker (Freiburg, 1908) : Engelkemper, Heiligtum
their disparaging remarks concerning the worthless- u. Opferst&tten in den Gesetzen des Pentateuch (Miinster, 1908);
ness of sacrifice (cf. Is., i, 11 sqq.; Jer., vi, 19 sq.; Smith, The Biblical Doctrine of Atonement in Biblical World,
Amos, V, 21 sqq.; Osee, viii, 11 sqq., etc.). With XXXI (1908), 22 sqq.; Kittel, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, II
(Gotha, 1909) Peters, Die jildische Gemeinde von Elephantine-
;

Ezechiel, however, a change is visible, the ritual Syene u. ihr Tempel im 5. Jahrh, vor Chr. (Freiburg, 1910); All-
forms of sacrifice being highly cherished as a Divine geier, Ueher Doppelberichte in der Genesis. Eine kritische Unter-
law. But it is impossible to refer this law to Moses. suchung u. eine primipielle Prufung (Freiburg, 1911).
We may briefly reply that the disparaging state-
ments of the pre-exilic Prophets are no proof for the III. —
Christian Sacrifice. Christianity knows
assertion that in their time there was no sacrificial but one sacrifice, the sacrifice which was once offered
law regarded as Mosaic. Like the Psalms (xl, 7 by Christ in a bloody manner on the tree of the
sqq.; 1, 8 sqq.; Ixix, 31 sq.), the Prophets emphasized Cross. But in order to apply to individual men in
only the ancient and venerable truth that Jahweh sacrificialform through a constant sacrifice the merits
valued most highly the interior sacrifice of obedience, of redemption definitively won by the sacrifice of
and rejected as worthless purely external acts with- the Cross, the Redeemer Himself instituted the Holy
out pious dispositions. He demanded of Cain the Sacrifice of the Mass to be an unbloody continuation
right sentiment of sacrifice (cf. Gen^ iv, 4 sq.), and representation of the bloody sacrifice of Calvary.
and proclaimed through Samuel: "Obedience is Concerning this eucharistic sacrifice and its relation
better than sacrifices" (I Kings, xv, 22). This to the sacrifice on the Cross, see the article Mass.
requirement of ethical dispositions is not equivalent In view of the central position which the sacrifice
 SACRIFICE 316 SACRIFICE
of the Cross holds in the whole economy of salvation, ashes of a heifer being sprinkled, sanctify such as
we must briefly discuss the reality of this sacrifice. are defiled, to the cleansing of the flesh: how much
(1) The Dogma of the tiacrijice of the Cross. —The more shall the blood of Christ, who by the Holy
universal conviction of Christianity was expressed Ghost offered himself unspotted unto God, cleanse
by the Synod of Ephesus (431), when it declared our conscience from dead works" (Heb., ix, 13
that the Incarnate Logos "offered Himself to God sq.). With the multiphcity and variety, the inefB-
the Father for us for an odour of sweetness" (in Den- cacy and inadequacy of the Mosaic bloody sacrifices
zinger-Bannwart, "Enchiridion," n. 122), a dogma is contrasted the uniqueness and efficacy of the
explicitly confirmed by the Council of Trent (Sess. sacrifice of the Cross for the forgiveness of sins (cf.
XXII cap. i-ii; can. ii-iv). The dogma is indeed Heb., ix, 28: "So also was Christ once [&Tra.i] offered
nothing else than a clear echo of Holy Writ and tra- to exhaust the sins of many"; x, 10: "In the which
dition. If all the sacrifices of the Old Testament, will we are sanctified by the oblation of the body
and especially the bloody sacrifice, were so many [5id T^y irpocrcpopds tov athfiaros] of Jesus Christ once").
types of the bloody sacrifice of the Cross (cf. Heb., The bloody death on the Cross is specially charac-
\'iii-x), and if the idea of vicarious atonement was terized as a "sin offering": "But this man offering
present in the Mosaic bloody sacrifices, it follows one sacrifice for sins [/i'a" ^t^P O/na/jTifflc irpoaeviyKai
immediately that the death on the Cross, as the Bvalav], for ever sitteth on the right hand of God"
antitype, must possess the character of a vicarious (Heb., X, 12; cf. II Cor., v, 21). The "heavenly
sacrifice of atonement. A striking confirmation of sacrifice" of Christ, the existence of which is assumed
this reasoning is found in the pericope of Isaias by Thalhofer, Zill, and Schoulza, cannot be deduced
concerning God's "just servant," wherein three from the Epistle to the Hebrews. In heaven Christ
truths are clearly expressed: (a) the substitution of no longer sacrifices Himself, but simply, through
the innocent Messias for guilty mankind; (b) the His "priestly intercession", offers the sacrifice of
deliverance of the guilty from sin and punishment the Cross (Heb., vii, 25; cf. Rom., viii, 34).
through the suffering of the Messias; (c) the manner While the ApostoUc Fathers and the apologist
of this suffering and satisfaction through the bloody Justin Martyr merely repeat the BibUcal doctrine
death on the Cross (cf. Is., liii, 4 sqq.). The Mes- of the sacrificial death of Christ, Irenaeus was the
sianity of the passage, which was unjustifiably con- first of the early Fathers to consider the sacrifice
tested by the Socinians and Rationalists, is proved of the Cross from the standpoint of a "vicarious
by the express testimony of the New Testament (cf. satisfaction" (satisfactio vicaria) ; this expression,
Matt., viii, 17; Mark, xv, 2S; Luke, xxii, 37; Acts, however, did not come into frequent use in ecclesias-
viii, 28 sqq.; Peter, ii, 22 sqq.).
1 The prophecy tical writings during the first ten centuries. Irenaeus
found its fulfilment in Christ. For, although His emphasizes the fact that only a God-Man could wash
whole life was a continuous sacrifice, yet the sacri- away the guilt of Adam, that Christ actually re-
fice culminated in His bloody death on the Cross, deemed mankind by His Blood and offered "His
as He Himself says: "He came to give His life a Soul for our souls and His Flesh for our flesh" ("Adv.
redemption for many" Qlatt. xx, 28). Three har.", V, i, 1, in P. G. VII, 1121). Though Iren«us
factors are here emphasized: sacrifice, vicarious bases the redemption primarily on the Incarnation,
offering, and expiation. The phrase, "to give his through which our vitiated nature was restored to
life" (dovvai tt\v \pvxiiv), is, as numerous parallel its original holiness ("mystical interpretation" of
passages attest, a Biblical expression for sacrifice; the Greeks), he nevertheless ascribes in a special
the words, "for many" (ivrl ttoWIov), express the manner to the bitter Passion of the Saviour the same
idea of vicarious sacrifice, while the term, "redemp- effects that he ascribes to the Incarnation: viz.
tion" (XiTpov), declares the object of the expiation the making of man like unto God, the forgiveness of
(cf. Eph., V, 2; II Cor., v, 21). Rationalism (Soci- sin, and the annihilation of death (Adv. haer., II,
nus, Ritschl) seeks in vain to deny that St. Paul had XX, 3; III, xviii, 8). It was not so much "under the
this idea of vicarious expiation on the ground that influence of the Graeco-Oriental mysteries of expia-
the expression avrl iroXXwi' (in the place of many) is tion" (Harnack) as in close association with Paul
foreign to him. For, apart from the fact that he and the Mosaic sacrificial ritual, that Origen regarded
clearly expresses in other terms the idea of substitu- the death on the Cross in the light of the vicarious
tion (cf. II Cor., V, 1.5; Gal., iii, 13), his phrase "for sacrifice of expiation. But, since he maintained pref-
many" {iirip TroXXfix instead of ivrl woXKuiv), taken in erentially the Biblical view of the "ransom and
connexion with the idea of sacrifice current in his redemption", he was the originator of the one-sided
writings, bears the pregnant meaning "instead of "old patristic theory of the redemption". Inci-
many, not merely "for the advantage of many". dentally ("In Matt., xvi, 8," in P. G., XIII, 1397
This is clearly indicated by I Tim., ii, 6: "Who gave sqq.) he makes the rash statement that the ransom
himself a redemption for all [di'TiXurpop iir^p irivrav]." rendered on the Cross was paid to the Devil —
a
As in the Old Testament the expiatory power of view which Gregory of Nyssa later systematized.
the sacrifice lay in the blood of the victim, so also This statement was, however, repudiated by Adaman-
the expiation for the forgiveness of sins is ascribed tius ("De recta in Deum fide", I, xxvii, in P. G.,
to the "Blood of the New Testament" (see Mass, XI, 17.56 sqq.) as "the height of blasphemous folly"
S-4CRIFICE OP the). There is thus nothing more (toXXt) tfpoia), and was positively rejected
/3X(£(r07)/ios

precious than the Blood of Christ " you were

: by Gregory Nazianzus and John of Damascus.
of
not redeemed with corruptible things as gold and This repulsive theory never became general in the
silver . but
. ,
with the precious blood of Church, although the idea of the supposed "rights
Christ, as of a lamb unspotted and undefiled" (I of the Devil" (erroneously derived from John, xii,
Peter, i, 18 sq.). While the foregoing considerations 31; xiv, 30; II Cor., iv, 4; II Peter, ii, 19) survived
refute the assertion of modern "critics" that the among some ecclesiastical writers even to the time
expiatory sacrifice of Christ was first introduced by of Bede and Peter Lombard. Whatever Origen
Paul into the Gospel, it is still true that the bloody and Gregory of Nyssa say of our ransom from the
sacrifice of the Cross occupied the central position in Evil One, they are both clear in their statements that
the Pauline preaching. He speaks of the Redeemer Christ oilers the sacrifice of expiation to the Heavenly
as Him "whom God hath proposed to be a propitia- Father and not to the Devil; the redemption from
tion \l\a<TTripi.ov], through faith in his blood" (Rom., the slavery of the Devil is effected by Christ through
iii, 2.T) Referring to the types of the Old Testament
. His sacrifice on the Cross. As, according to Har-
the Epistle to the Hebrews especially elaborates this nack's admission, the idea of -s-icarious expiation "is
idea: "For if the blood of goats and of oxen, and the genuine among the Latins", we may easily dispense
 SACRIFICE 317 SACRIFICE
(2nd ed., Faderborn, 1887) Strater, Die Erlosungslehre des hi.
with the testimony of Latin patristic Uterature. Athanasius (Freiburg, 1894)
;

ANRrcH, Das antike Mysterien-

While the Gieek Church adhered to the old mystical
;

wesen u. sein Einfluss auf das Christentum (Gottingen, 1894);

conception in connexion with the theory of ransom, ScHENZ, Die priesterl. Tdtigkeit des Messias nach dem Propheten
the doctrine of the Redemption received a further Tsajas (Ratisbon, 1892); Sbbberg, Der Tod Christi in seiner Be-
deutung filr die Erlosung (Leipzig, 1895) Dorholt, Die Lehre
development in the "juristic theory of satisfaction" von der Genugtuung Christi (Faderborn, 1896)
;

Chahre, Le sa-
of St. Anselm of Canterbury ("Cur Deus homo"
;

crifice de I'Homme-Dieu (Paris, 1899); Grimm,

Gesch. des Leidena
in P. L., CLVIII, 359 sqq.); this was freed of some Jesu, I(Ratisbon, 1903) Funke, Die Salisfactionstheorie des hi.
;

Anselm (MUnster, 1903); Ritter, Chrislus der ErUser (Linz,,

crudities by St. Thomas Aquinas and deepened by 1903): Belsek, Gesch. des Leidens u. Sterbens, der Auferstehung
the "ethical theory of reconciliation" A compre- u. Himmelfahrt des Herrn (Freiburg, 1903) Jentsch, Hellentum
;

hensive theory, employing dialect icaily all the Bibli- u. Christentum (Leipzig, 1903) Muth, Die Heilstat Christi als
;

atellvertretende Genugtuung (Ratisbon, 1904) Riviere, Le dogme

cal and patristic factors, is still a desideratum in de la Redemption (Paris, 1905)
;

Crombrugghe, De soteriologiae
;

speculative theology. christians primis fontibus (Louvain, 1905); Kluge, Das Seelenlei-
(2) Theological Problems. —
Other difficult ques- den des WelterUsers (Mainz, 1905) Weigl, Die Heilslehre des hi.
Cijritl von Jerusalem (Mainz, 1905);
;

Weiss, Die messianischen

tions concerning the sacrifice of the Cross have Vnrbilder im A. T. (Freiburg, 1905); Fiebig, Babel u. das N. T.
been already more successfully dealt with by theolo- (Tubingen, 1905); Feldmann, Der Knecht Goltea in Isajas Kap.
gians. On account of the remarkable and unique 40-55 (Freiburg, 1907); Staab, Die Lehre van der stellmrtretenden
Genugtuung Christi (Paderborn, 1908) Pohle, Dogmatifc, II
coincidence of the priest, victim, and acceptor of (Faderborn, 1909) ;
;

Bauer, Vom Griechentum zum Christentum

the sacrifice, a first question arises as to whether (Leipzig, 1910): Harnack, Dogmengesch., I-II (Tubingen, 1901).
Christ was victim and priest according to His Divine For other literature see Mass, .Sacrifice of the, and Priest-
hood.
or according to His human nature. On the basis
of the dogma of the hypostatic union the only answer
is: although the God-Man or the Logos Himself IV. Thboky of Sacrifice. In view of the com- —
was at once both priest and victim, He was both, prehensive historical material which we have gathered
not according to His Divine nature, but through the both from pagan practice and from the religions
function of His humanity. For, since the Divine Divinely revealed, it is now possible to essay a scien-
nature was absolutely incapable of suffering, it was tific theory of sacrifice, the chief lines being drawn
no more possible for Christ to act as priest according naturally from the Jewish and Christian sacrificial
to His Divine nature, than it was for God the Father systems.
or the Holy Ghost. As regards the relation between (1) Universality of Sacrifice. —
One of the specially
the priest and the acceptor, it is usually stated in characteristic features which the history of religions
explanation that Christ acts only as sacrificing priest, places before us is the wide diffusion, even the univer-
and that God the Father alone receives the sacrifice. sality, of sacrifice among the human race. It is
This view is false. Even though God the Father is true that Andrew Lang ("The Making of a Religion",
mentioned as the only acceptor by the Council of London, 1899) maintains the improbable view that
Trent (Sess. XXII, cap. i), this is merely an appro- originally the supreme, majestic, and heavenly God
priation, which excludes neither the Son nor the was as little venerated with sacrifices as He is to-day
Holy Ghost in the matter of acceptance. The among certain tribes of Africa and Australia; that
acceptor of the sacrifice of the Cross is thus the even in the Jahwehism of the Israelites the sacrificial
offended God, or the whole Trinity, to which Christ cult was rather a degeneration than an ethico-reli-
as Logos and Son of God also belongs. One must, gious advance. In agreement with this (other in-
however, distinguish between the Divinity and the vestigators add) is the fact that in many features
Humanity of Christ and say: while Christ as God, the Mosaic sacrificial ritual was simply borrowed
together with the Father and the Holy Ghost, from the pagan ritual of the Egyptians, Babylonians,
accepted His own sacrifice in expiation of the offended and other Semitic peoples. It is remarkable also
Deity, He offered this same sacrifice as Man vicari- that many Fathers of the Church (e. g. Chrysostom)
ously to the Blessed Trinity. While this coincidence and Scholastics, and among the Jews, Maimonides
of the three functions of priest, victim, and acceptor represented the Mosaic sacrifices as merely a conces-
in the same Christ may constitute a mystery, it sion which God made to the weakness of the Jewish
yet contains no contradiction (cf. Augustine, "De character in order to restrain the Chosen People
civ. Dei", X, xx). A third problem of great impor- from the horrors of bloody sacrifice to idols. This
tance concerns the nature of the actio sacrifica in one-sided view, however, cannot be maintained
the sacrifice of the Cross. Did the sacrificial act before the bar of the history or the psychology of
consist in the slaying of Christ on the Cross? This reUgion. Nothing is psychologically so intelligible
question must be answered with a decided negative; as the derivation of sacrifice from the naturally
otherwise one would have to say that the function of religious heart of man, and the history of all peoples
high-priest at the sacrifice of the Cross was exercised, similarly proves that scarcely a single religion has
not by Christ, but by his torturers and their myrmi- ever existed or exists to-day without some sacrifice.
dons, the Roman soldiers. In the Mosaic sacrifices A religion entirely without sacrifice seems almost a
also the essence of the sacrifice lay, not in the actual psychological impossibility, and is at least unnatural.
slaying of the victim, but in the letting, or rather It is the complete want of sacrifice among some Afri-
in the sprinkhng, of the blood. Consequently, the can and Australian tribes, rather than the numerous
sacrifice of the Cross, at which Christ functions as sacrifices of Mosaism, that has resulted from degen-
sole priest, must likewise be referred to the free eration. Had God conceded the bloody sacrifices
offering of His blood for us men, inasmuch as the simply on account of the weakness of the Israelites,
Redeemer, while outwardly submitting to the forci- as above asserted. He would have promoted, rather
ble shedding of His blood by His executioners, than checked, the spread of pagan idolatry, espe-
simultaneously offered it to God in the spirit of cially if the sacrificial ritual were also taken from
sacrifice (cf. John, x, 17 sq.; Heb., ix, 22; I Peter, pagan religions. Here as elsewhere parallels in
i, 2). other religions prove no borrowing, unless such is
Tanner, Cruentum ChriMi aacrificium, incruentum Misscc sacri-
supported by strict historical evidence, and even the
ficium explicatum (Prague, 1669): Condren, Das Priestertum u. actual borrowings may in their new home have been
das Opfer Jesu Christi (Ratisbon, 1847); von Cichowski, Das inspired with an entirely new spirit. The adoption
aUtestamentl. Pascha in seinem VerMUnis zum Opfer ChrUti
(Munich, 1849); Thalhofer, Die Opfer des HebrSerbriefes (Dil- of the substance of paganism into Mosaism is dis-
lingen, 1855) Idem, Das Opfer des alien u. neuen Bundes (Ratis-
;
proved especially by the anti-pagan and unique
bon, 1870); BicKEL, Messeu. Pascha (Mainz, 1871); Pell, Das idea of holiness with which the whole Jewish cult
Dogma von der Siinde u. Erlosung im Lichte der Vernunft (Ratis-
is stamped (cf. Lev., xi, 44), and which shows the
bon, 1.SS6) :Idem, Die Lekre des hi. Athanasius von der Siinde u.
Erlosung (Passau, 1888) ; Oswald, Die Erldsung in Christo Jesu sacrificial thora as of one piece. A later editor could
 SACRIFICE 318 SACRIFICE
never have imprinted tho stamp of holiness on a eous custom being replaced, as civihzation advanced,
ritual composed of pagan fragments without the by the sacrifice of animals. But among many peo-
pure paganism peeping through the seams and join- ples (e. g. the Chanaanites, Phoenicians, and the
ings. One must therefore, both before and after ancient ^lexicans) not even the possession of a high
the Priest'sCude (save for later additions and accom- culture succeeded in abolishing the detest alile human
modations to new circumstances), regard the sacri- sacrifices. But, whatever view may be taken of
ficial Ihora as truly Mosaic, and see in them the the priority question, it is undoubted that both the
expression not only of human nature, but also of bloody and the unbloody sacrifices reach back to
the Divine will. A remarkable exception from the prehistoric times.
general rule is Islamism, which knows neither sacri- Not without
its significance for the scientific idea
fice nor priest; sacrifice is replaced by a strict ritual of sacrifice the fact that the material of the bloody
is
of prayer, with which religious ablutions and alms- and unbloody sacrifices was regularly taken from
giving are associated. Again, while genuine Bud- things used as food and drink, and indeed from the
dhism rejects sacrifice, this rule was far from obtaining best of these commodities. This very general cir-
in practice, for Lamaism in Tibet has sacrifices cumstance affords evidence that the sacrificial gift
for the dead, and the average Buddhist of the people must be taken from the belongings of the sacrificer
offers unbloody sacrifices to his buddha. The and must be associated, as a means of sustenance,
Hindu offers flowers, oil, food, and incense to his with his physical life. The independent sacrifice
idols, and slays victims to the god Shiva and his of incense alone requires another explanation; this
spouse. And not even the believing Protestant is is supplied by the fragrant odour, which symbolizes
without a sacrifice, since, in spite of his rejection either the sweetness of the ascending offering of
of the Mass, he at least recognizes Christ's death prayer or the gracious acceptance of the sacrifice
on the Cross as the great sacrifice of Christianity. by the Deity. The bloody sacrifice, on account
(2) Speciea nf Sacrifice. —
The two chief kinds of of its symboUcal connexion with the lite of man,
sacrifice, the bloody and the unbloody, were sug- was especially expressive of complete self-oblation
gested to mankind by nature itself, and were thus to the Divinity. In the cruder views of naive
known in the earliest times. To which of the two natural man, the ascending odour of the incense
historical priority is to be conceded, can scarcely offering soothed the olfactory organs of the gods.
be decided. For the greater antiquity of the un- Especially crude was this unworthy materializing
bloody sacrifice equally good grounds can be offered of sacrifice in Indian Vedism (the soma drink) and
as for that of the bloody sacrifice. The earliest his- in the Babylonian story of the Flood, where it is
torical mentions of sacrifice found in the Bible said: "The gods suck in the fragrant odour; hke
would make them coeval, for Cain as the husband- flies,the gods gathered over the sacrificer." Even
man offered the fruits of the field, while his brother the Old Testament expression, "a sweet savour for
Abel as the shepherd offered bloody victims (Gen., God" {odor suaiitatis) was originally an accommoda-
,

iv, 3 sq.). As regards pagan religions, many histo- tion to the ingenuous ideas of the uncultured nomadic
rians of religion plead for the priority of the unbloody people (cf. Gen., viii, 21; Lev., i, 17, etc.), an anthro-
sacrifice. Porphyrius and Theophrastus also ex- pomorphism which was ever more clearl},' recognized
pressed the view that the first sacrifices consisted of as such according as the Israelites progressed in
plants and flowers, which were burned in honour their ethical refinement of the idea of God. Not on
of the Deity. The soma-haoma, a drink-ofTering the greatness or material worth of the sacrificial
common to both Indian Vedism and Iranian Parsee- gifts should store be laid, since Jahweh was above
ism, must be dated back to primeval times, when necessity, but on the true sentiment of sacrifice,
the Indians and the Iranians still formed one great without which, as declared by the Prophets (cf.
people. How the Indians came to off'er their very Is., i, 11 sqq.; Osee, iv, 8; Mai., i, 10); all external
ancient horse sacrifice is unknown. It is a mere sacrifices were not only worthless, but even repre-
surmise to suppose that perhaps the general transi- hensible.
tion from a vegetable to a flesh diet, as related by (3) Rites of Sacrifice. — While sacrifice itself origi-
Noe (cf. Gen., ix, 3 sqq.), occasioned the rise of nates spontaneously in the natural prompting of
animal sacrifices. The rare occurrence of slaying religious-minded man, the particular rites, dependent
an animal was turned into a festival, which was cele- on law and custom, display a manifold variety at
brated with sacrifices. Among the earliest Hebrews different times and places. Among the different
sebach (bloody sacrifice) was a "slaying festival", peoples the ceremonial of sacrifice offers indeed a very
with which bloody sacrifice was inseparably asso- variegated picture. If we emphasize only that which
ciated. The introduction of bloody sacrifices among was general and common to all, the simplest sacrificial
the Iranians is more easily explained, since, espe- rite consists in the mere exposition of the gifts in a
cially in Zoroastrianism, it was esteemed a great merit holy place, as for example the show-bread (panis
to destroy the harmful animals belonging to the propositionis) of the Israelites and Babylonians, or
wicked god Ahriman, and eventually to sacrifice the votive offerings {analhemata) of the Greeks. Fre-
them to the good god Ormuzd. Further than sur- quently the idea of entertaining the gods or the dead
mises, however, we are unable to go. That the is evidently associated with the offering of food and
unbloody sacrifice was practised among the ancient drink, e. g. among the Indians, Egyptians, and
Greeks, classical archaeologists maintain with good Greeks. Even in the oldest history of Israel this
reason, arguing that in Homer the word ffieiv (Lat. idea of entertainment, although spiritualized, is
suffire) did not mean "to slay" or "to offer as a perceptible (Judges, vi, 17 sqq.; xiii, 1.5 sqq.). As
bloody sacrifice" (as it did in post-Homeric Greek), true sacrifices in the strict sense were regarded only
but rather to "offer a smoking sacrifice" (incense). those in which a real alteration was effected in the
It is not impossible that even the cruel and volup- sacrificial gift at the time of offering it. By this
tuous cults of .interior Asia also offered at first only immutation the gifts were not only withdrawn from
\T;ietable sacrifices, since the fundamental idea of all profane usage, but were also completely given
their religion, the death and renascence of nature, over to the service and possession of God or the gods.
is expre.'ised most evidently and impressively in the With this object in view edibles or sacrificial victims
plant world. ,411 this is ho\A-evcr purely hypothetical. were either completely or partly burned, while
The ohser^-ation that human sacrifice once extended libations were poured out as drink offerings. The
over the whole earth, !ea\-es room also for the sup- earliest form seems to have been the whole or burnt-
position that the bloody sacrifice in the form of offering (holocaust). While only special portions of
slaughtered men claims chronological priority, the hid- the victims (for the most part the best portions) were
 SACRIFICE 319 SACRIFICE
burned, the remainder of the flesh was regarded of religion can nowhere be .shown" ("Lehrbuch der
as holy sacrificial food, and was eaten either by the Rehgionsgeschichte", I, Tubingen, 1905, p. 12).
priests or by the offerers in a holy place (or even at °'''^™ °^ ^^^ ^'^^^ °f Glod cannot be ex-
'^j'r'^
home) with the idea of entering into communion.
,
plamed from Animism, entertainment cannot have
The chief element in the sacrifice, however, was not been the original idea of sacrifice, especially since,
the sacrificial meal, but rather the sprinkling of the according to the most recent investigations, the
blood, which, as the bearer of life, was clearly in- primeval rehgions seem to converge rather towards
tended in many rehgions to represent man himself. Monotheism. Just as in the consciousness of all
This idea of substitution is seen with overwhelming sacrificing peoples the gods remained sublime above
clearness in the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross. souls, spirits, and demons, sacrifice as a religious gift
Among all peoples the sacrifice, as the chief and most far transcended food and drink. But, wherever the
perfect function of religion, was surrounded with the gods are represented as companions at the banquet,
greatest pomp and solemnity; the celebration was there always appeared the right idea, that by his
usually of a fight and joyous character, especially participation in the sacrificial gifts man enters into
in the case of the sacrifices of praise, petition, and communion with the gods, and (e. g. in the case of
thanksgiving. With joyous heart man consecrated the ancient Indian soma drink) even partakes of
himself to the Deitj^ through the medium of the divine strength. The obscuring of this idea by an-
gifts he offered. External adornment, music, song, thropomorphic errors, fostered by priestly deceit, did
prayer, and dance heightened the festive joy. On indeed here and there lead to the one-sided "feeding of
the other hand the expiatory sacrifice was of a serious the gods" (cf. Dan., xiv, 2 sqq.), but this may by no
character, whether it was intended to atone for mis- means be regarded as a primitive institution. Ani-
deeds or to avert misfortune. Not every private mism (q. V.) is most successfully refuted by Andrew
person was competent to offer sacrifice; this function Lang ("The Making of a Religion", London, 1898).
pertained only to certain persons or priests, whose (b) A second naturafistic explanation, which may
office was immediately connected with the sacrifices. be called the "social theory", derives religion from
In the earliest time the head of the family or tribe social instincts and accordingly sacrifice from the
performed the functions of priest —
in ancient Egypt communal meal which was established to strengthen
the king, as even to-day the emperor in China (see and seal in religious manner the tribal community.
Priesthood). Sacrificeand altar (q.v.) are, like These communal meals are supposed to have given the
sacrifice and priest,correlative terms. Originally first impulse to sacrifice. These fundamental thoughts
the altar consisted of a single stone, which by conse- may be developed in several ways. As Totemism,
cration became the dwelling of God (cf. Gen., xii, in addition to its refigious, has also a distinctly social
7 sq. xiii, 4; xxviii, 18 sqq.). Among many peoples
; element, and in this respect is on a far higher level
the place of sacrifice was either the house (for private than Animism, some authors (especially W. Robert-
sacrifices) or the open air (for public sacrifices). son Smith, "The Refigion of the Semites", London,
In the latter case specially selected places (trees, 1894) believe that the origin of animal sacrifices can
groves, heights) in an elevated position were preferred be traced back to Totemism. When the different
for sacrifice. Among the Romans altar and hearth clans or divisions of a tribe partook at the communal
{ara el focus) were regarded as indispensable requi- meal of the sacred animal (totem), which represented
sites for sacrifice. their god and ancestors, they believed that by this
(4) Origin of Sacrifice. —
Since sacrifice is a regular meal they participated in the divine life of the animal
concomitant of every religion, sacrifice must, accord- itself. Sacrifice in the sense of offering gifts to the
ing to the law of causaUty, have originated simultane- Deity, the symbolic replacing of human life by an
ously with religion. Consequently, sacrifice is as old animal, the idea of expiation, etc., are declared to be-
as religion itself. It is evident that the nature of long to a much later period of the history of sacrifice.
the explanation given of sacrifice will depend on the Originally the gifts of cereals had rather the character
views one takes of the origin of religion in general. of a tribute due to the gods, and this idea was later
(a) Widely held to-day is the theory of evolution, transferred to the animal sacrifices. It is however
which, in accordance with the principles of Darwin, very questionable whether this totemistic theory,
endeavours to trace the origin of religion from the notwithstanding some excellent suggestions, entirely
degraded stage of the half-animal, reUgionless prime- meets the facts. Certainly the social force of religion
val man, and its gradual development to higher and its significance in the formation of communities
forms. The scheme of development is naturally should not be underestimated; but, apart from the
different according to the personal standpoint of the fact that Totemism is not, any more than Animism,
investigator. As the starting-point for the compara- an explanation of the origin of religion, the hypothesis
tive study of the lowest religious forms is usually is contradicted by the certain fact that in the earliest
taken the uncivilized savage of to-day, the true por- epoch the whole or burnt offering existed side by side
trait of the primeval man (Lubbock, Tylor, etc.). with the communal meal, the former being equally
An attempt is made to construct an ascending scale old, if not older than the latter. In the consciousness
from the crudest Fetichism to naturafistic Polythe- of the peoples the sacrificial meal constituted not so
ism, from which develops ethical Monotheism, as the much an element of the sacrifice, as the participation,
highest and purest product. Until recently the confirmation, and completion of the same. On the
Animism (q. v.) proposed by Tylor was the prevalent same ground what is called the "banquet theory" of
theory; this traced religion from the ancient worship the late Bishop Bellord must also be rejected; this
of souls, ghosts, spirits of ancestors, etc. (under the theory refers the essence of the sacrifice to the meal,
influence of fear). At this original stage sacrifice and declares a sacrifice without a meal impossible
had no other purpose than the feeding and enter- (cf. The Ecclesiastical Review, XXXIII, 1905, pp. 1
taining of these deified beings, or their appeasement sqq., 258 sqq.). This theory is not in accordance
and conciliation, if hostile dispositions were ascribed with the facts; for, as it is compelled to refer the es-
to them (demons). In recent times this explanation, sence of the Sacrifice of the Mass solely to the priest's
once honoured as dogma in the history of religions, communion, instead of to the twofold transubstan-
IS most vigorously combated by the experts them- tiation, the truth of the sacrifice of the Cross can be
selves as untenable. It has been recognized that maintained only on the forced and false supposition
Animism and the kindred Fetichism and Totemism that the Last Supper in its organic connexion with the
represent only secondary elements of many nature- Crucifixion imprinted on the latter its sacrificial char-
religions, not the essence. "In any case," says acter. (For further particulars, see Mass, Sacrifice
Chantepie de la Saussaye, "a purely animistic basis OP THE.)
 SACRIFICE 320 SACRIFICE

(c) So far as we may gather from revelation, the Grimm thus simply declares: "Sacrifice is only a
most natural and probable view seems to be that prayer offered with gifts." A\'here we are to seek
sacrifice originated in the positive command of God, the culminating point of the sacrificial act {actio
since, by the original revelation in Paradise, the whole sacrifica), in which the object of sacrifice is especially
religion of mankind appears to have been established expressed, is the most freely debated question, and
in advance on a supernatural basis. The Greek concerning it the theorists are not in agreement.
legend of the invention of sacrifice by Prometheus and While some see the culmination of the sacrifice in
the giant Chiron, together with similar legends of the real alteration (immutatio), and especially in the
Asiatic religions, might be interpreted as reminiscences destruction of the gift, others refer the essence of the
of the Divine origin of sacrifice. The positive com- sacrificial act to the external oblation of the gift,
mand to sacrifice might even after the Fall have been after it has been subjected to any change whatsoever;
preserved by tradition among the descendants of a third, but not very numerous party make the sacri-
Adam, and thus spread among the pagan nations of all ficial meal the chief element. This last view has al-
lands. The idolatrous deviations from the paradisaic ready been set aside as untenable. That the meal is
idea of sacrifice would thus appear as regrettable not essential is likewise shown by numerous sacrifices,
errors, which, however, would not be more difficult to with which no meal is associated (e. g. the primitive
explain than the general fall of the human race. But, burnt-sacrifice, and the sacrifice of the Cross). Again,
however plausible and probable this hj^jothesis may the importance of the blood, which as a means of
be, it is unprovable, and indeed unnecessary for the nourishment was avoided, spurned by, and even for-
explanation of sacrifice. Regarding sacrifice in Para- bidden to the Jews, finds no expression in the banquet-
dise the Bible gives us no information; for the explana- theory. That the destruction of the gift (especially
tion of "eating of the Tree of Life" as a sacramental the slaying) cannot constitute the essence of the
food offering is a later theologumenon which the sacrifice is clear from the fact that the sprinkling of
acuteness of theologians, following Augustine's lead, the blood {aspersio sanguinis) was regarded as the
has devised. But without recurring to a Divine or- culmination, and the killing as only the preparation
dinance, the origin of sacrifice may easily be explained for the real sacrificial act. In fact the "destruction
by purely psychological motives. In consideration theory", settled in Catholic theology since the time
of the relation of son ship between man and God, of Vasquez and Bellarmine, harmonizes neither with
which was felt more deeply in primitive times than the historical pagan conception of sacrifice nor with
subsequently, the only evidence of sincere inner the essence of the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross, nor
adoration that the creature could give was by sacri- finally with the fundamental ideas of the Mosaic cult.
ficing some of his own possessions, thus visibly ex- The destruction is at most the material, and the
pressing his absolute submission to the Divine oblation the formal element of the sacrifice. Con-
Majesty. Nor was it less in keeping with the inner sequently, the idea of sacrifice lies in the self -surrender
promptings of man to declare his gratitude to God of man to God, not with the object of (symbolical)
by gifts offered in return for benefits received, and self-destruction, but of final transformation, glorifica-
to give through the medium of sacrificial presents tion, and deification. Wherever a meal is associated
expression to his petitions for new favours. Finally, with the sacrifice, this signifies merely the confirma-
the sinner might hope to free himself of the oppressive tion certification of the communion with God, al-
and
consciousness of guilt, when in the spirit of contrition ready existing or reacquired by expiation. may We
he had to the best of his ability repaired the wrong thus define sacrifice as the external oblation to God
done to the Divinity. The more childlike and in- by an authorized minister of a sense-perceptible
genuous the conception of God formed by primitive object, either through its destruction or at least its
man, the more natural and easy was for him the in- real transformation, in acknowledgement of God's
troduction of sacrifice. A. truly good child offers little supreme dominion and for the appeasing of His
gifts to his parents, though he does not know what wrath. In so far as this definition refers to the sacri-
they will do with them. The psychological theory fice of the Mass, see Mass, Sacrifice of the.
thus seems to offer the best explanation of the origin Becanus, De triplici sacrificio naturm, legis, gratice (Lyons,
1631); OuTRAM, De sacrificiis lihri duo (Amsterdam, 1678);
of sacrifice. St5ckl, Das Ovfer rutch seinem Wesen u. seiner Gesch. (Mainz,
—
(5) Object of Sacrifice. As its "metaphysical form", 1861) VON Lasatjlx, Ueber die Gebete der Griechen u, Rdmer
;

(Wiirzburg, 1842) Idem, Die SUhnopfer der Griechen u. Rdmer

the object first gives sacrifice its full spiritual content, ;

and quickens the external rites with a living soul. u. ihr Verhaltnis zum Einen auf Golgatha (Ratisbon, 1854) De ;

Maistre, Eclaircissements sur le sacrifice (Paris, 1862) D6l- ;

The developed pagan religions agree with revealed LiNGER, Heidentum u. Judentum (2nd ed., Ratisbon, 1868);
religion in the idea that sacrifice is intended to give Wangemann, Das Ovfer Tiach der Lehre der hi. Schrift des A.u. N.
symbolical expression to man's complete surrender Testamentes (Berlin, 1866) Luken, Die Traditionen des Men-
;

schengeschtechts (Mtinster, 1869) Schultze, Der Fetischismus ;

of himself into the hands of the Supreme God in order (Leipzig, 1871); Muller, Introduction to the Science of Religion
to obtain communion with Him. In the recognition (London, 1873) Idem, Lectures on the Origin of Religion (London,
;

of the absolute supremacy of God lies the juridical, 1878) ;Idem, Natural Religion (London, 1899) Idem, Physical ;

Religion (London, 1890); Idem, Anthropological Religion (Lon-

and in the correlati\e absolute subjection to God the don, 1892); Fairbairn, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and
ethical side of sacrifice. In both moments the latreu- History (London, 1876) Fheeman-Clakke, Ten Great Religions
;

tic character of the sacrifice stands out clearly, since (2 vols., London, 1871-83) Caird, An Introduction to the Philos-
;

ophy of Religion (London, 1880) von Hartmann, Das religiose

to God alone, as the First Cause (Causa prima) and
;

Bewusstsein der Menscheit in Stufe/ii/ang seiner Entwickelung

the Last End Finis ultimus) of all things, may sacrifice
(
(Berlin, 1882) Lippert, Allgemeine Gesch. des Priestertums (2
;

vols., Berlin, 1883); Schneider, Die NalurvSlker ( 2 vols., Pader-

be offered. E\-en the idolatrous sacrifices of pagans born, 1885-86) Pfleideher, Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtl.
;

did not entirely lose sight of this fundamental idea, Grundlage (2 vols., Leipzig, 1883-89); KSpplek, Priester u. Op-
since they esteemed their idols as gods. Even sacri- fergabe (Mainz, 1886); Robertson-Smith, Lectures on the Re-
ligion of the Semites (London, 1889); Kellog, The Genesis and
fices of thanksgiving and petition never exclude this
Growth of Religion (New York, 1892) Siebeck, Lehrbuch der Re- ;

e.ssential latreutic feature, since they concern thanks- ligionsgesch. (Freiburg, 1883) Jevons, An Introduction to the His-
;

givings and petitions to the ever-adorable Divinity. tory of Religion (London and New York, 1896) Sabatieb, La ;

doctrine de expiation son evolution historique (Paris, 1896);

From our sinful condition arises the fourth object of I'

TiELE, Elements of the Science of Religion

et

sacrifice, i. e. the appeasing of the Divine anger.

(New York, 1896);
Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples 1897); (New York,
The fourfold object of sacrifice supplies an immediate Lang, The Making of a Religion (London and New York, 1898)
explanation of the four kinds of sacrifice (cf. St. De la Ghashehie, La psychologic des religions (Paris, 1899); Le-
touhneau, L'ivolution religieuse (Parig, 1897); von Orelli. All-
Thomas, I-II, Q. cii, a. 3). 'With the sentiments of gemeine Reliqionsgesch. (Bonn, 1899); Frazer, The Golden
sacrifice incorporated in tliese objects is closelj' con- Bough (London and New York, 1900) Idem, Totemism and Ex- ;

nected the high importance of prayer, which accom- ogamy (London 1910); Borcheht, Der Animismus oder Vrsprung
der Religion aus dem Seelen-. Ahnen- u. GeisterkuU (Leipzig, 1900)
panies the rite of sacrifice in all the higher religions; Zapletal, Der Totemismus u. die Religion Israels (Freiburg,
 SACRILEGE 321 SACRIS
1900); Morris-Jastrow, The Study of Religion (London, 1901): palace, monasteries, hospitals erected by episcopal
Renz' Die Gesch. des Messopferbegriffs^l (Freising, 1901): Lub- authority and having a chapel for the celebration of
bock, The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of
Man '(6th ed., London, 1902) Tylor, Primitive Culture (2 vols.,
:
the Holy Sacrifice, and also the person of the priest
6th ed., London, 1902): Bousset, Das Wesen der Religion when he is carrying the Blessed Sacrament. To all
(Leipzig 1903) Dorner, Grundriss der Religionsphilosophie
;
of these was granted the right of asylum, the out-
(Leipzig, 1903) Pohle, Dogmatik, III (Paderborn, 1910), 317-27;
:

Pell, Noch ein LGsungsversuch zur Messopferfrage unter Revision raging ofwhich was deemed a sacrilege; (.3) the com-
des dpferbegriffs (2nd ed., Passau, 1911). Cf. Gourd in Revue de mission within the sacred precincts of some sinful act
mtlaphysique el de morale (1902), 131 sqq.; Me80Hler in Stimmen
aus Maria-Laach, LXIX (1905), 156 sqq.; Zeitschr. filr Religions-
by which, according to canon law, the edifice is es-
psychologie, II (1908), 81 sqq. J. PoHLE. teemed polluted. These acts are homicide, any shed-
ding of blood reaching to the guilt of a grievous sin,
Sacrilege (Lat. sacrilegium, robbing a temple, any consummated offence against chastity (including
from sacer, sacred, and legere, to purloin) is in general marital intercourse which is not necessary), the
the violation or injurious treatment of a sacred object. burial within the church or sacred place of an un-
In a less proper sense any transgression against the baptized person or of one who has been excommuni-
virtue of religion would be a sacrilege. Theologians cated by name or as a notorious violator of the priv-
are substantially agreed in regarding as sacred that ilege of the canon; (4) the doing of certain things
and that only which by a public rite and by Divine (whether sins or not), which, either by their own
or ecclestiastical institution has been dedicated to the nature or by special provision of law, are particularly
worship of God. The point is that the public au- incompatible with the demeanour to be maintained in
thority must intervene; private initiative, no matter such a place. Such would be for instance turning the
how ardent in devotion or praiseworthy in motive, church into a stable or a market, using it as a banquet
does not suffice. Attributing a sacred character to a hall, or holding court there indiscriminately for the
thing is a juridical act, and as such is a function of the settlement of purely secular affairs. Real sacrilege is
governing power of the Church. It is customary to the irreverent treatment of sacred things as dis-
enumerate three kinds of sacrilege, personal, local, and tinguished from places and persons. This can hap-
real. St. Thomas teaches (Summa, II-II, Q., xcix) pen first of all by the administration or reception of
that a different sort of holiness attaches to persons, the sacraments (or in the case of the Holy Eucharist
places, and things. Hence the irreverence offered to by celebration) in the state of mortal sin, as also by
any one of them is specifically distinct from that advertently doing any of those things invalidly. In-
which is exhibited to the others. Suarez (De Re- deed deliberate and notable irreverence towards the
hgione, tr. iii, 1-3) does not seem to think the division Holy Eucharist is reputed the worst of all sacrileges.
very logical, but accepts it as being in accord with the Likewise conscious maltreatment of sacred pictures or
canons. Personal sacrilege means to deal so irrever- reUos or perversion of Holy Scripture or sacred vessels
ently with a sacred person that, whether by the injury to unhallowed uses, and finally, the usurpation or di-
inflicted or the defilement caused, there is a breach of verting of property (whether movable or immovable)
the honour due to such person. This sacrilege may intended for the maintenance of the clergy or serving
be committed chiefly in three ways: (a) by laying for the ornamentation of the church to other uses, con-
violent hands on a cleric or religious. This consti- stitute real sacrileges. Sometimes the guilt of sac-
tutes an infraction of what is known as the privilege rilege may be incurred by omitting what is required
of the canon (privilegium canonis), and is visited with for the proper administration of the sacraments or
the penalty of excommunication; (b) by violating the celebration of the sacrifice, as for example, if one were
ecclesiastical immunity in so far as it still exists. to say Mass without the sacred vestments.
Clerics according to the old-time discipline were en- Slater, Manual of Moral Theology (New York, 1908) RlCK- :

ABY, Moral Teaching of St. Thomas (London, 1896) Ballehini,

;

titled to exemption from the jurisdiction of lay tri- Opus theologicum morale (Prato, 1899) d'Annibale, Summula
;

bunals {privilegium fori) The meaning, therefore, is

. theologice moralis(Rome, 1908) ; Spelman, The History and Fate
that he who despite this haled them before a civil of Sacrilege (London, 1888). JoSEPH F. DblANY.
court, otherwise than as provided by the canons, wag
guilty of sacrilege and was excommunicated; (c) by Sacris Solemniis, the opening words of the hymn
any sin against the vow of chastity on the part of for Matins of Corpus Christi (q. v.) and of the
those who are consecrated to God —
such are those in Votive Office of the Most Blessed Sacrament, com-
sacred orders (in the Latin Church) and religious, posed by St. Thomas Aquinas. The rhythmic
even those with simple vows, if these are perpetual. stanza imitates the classical measures found in
The weight of opinion amongst moralists is that this Horace and in several hymns of the Roman Breviary
guilt is not contracted by the violation of a privately- (see Sanctorum Meritis); but for whatever ex-
made vow. The reason seems to be that, while there cellence the hymn lacks in respect of classical prosody
is a breach of faith with Almighty God, still such a it compensates in the interesting and intricate rhymic
vow, lacking the indorsement and acceptance of the scheme. This may be illustrated by breaking up the
Church, does not make the person formally a sacred stanza of four lines into seven. The sixth stanza,
one; it does not in the juridical sense set such an one which is sometimes employed as a separate hymn at
apart for the worship of God. It need hardly be Benediction, will serve to illustrate:
noted that the partners of sacred persons in sins of Panis angelious
this kind are to be adjudged equally guilty of sac- Fit panis hominum:
rilege even though their status be a purely lay one. Dat panis coelicus
Local sacrilege is the violation of a sacred place. Figuris terminum:
Under the designation "sacred place" is included not O res mirabilis!
only a church properly so-called, even though it be not Manducat Dominum
consecrated, but merely blessed, but also public ora- Pauper, servus, et humilis.
tories as well as cemeteries canonically established for The incisio the coincidence of the end of a word
(i. e.
the burial of the faithful. Four species of this crime with the end of a foot) is perfect throughout all the
are ordinarily distinguished: (1) the theft of some- stanzas. With what rhythm should the hymn be
thing found in and specially belonging to the church recited? Translators vary much in their conception
(2) the infringing of the immunity attaching to sacred of an appropriate English equivalent. The first
places in so far as this prerogative still prevails. It words suggest by the tonic accents English dactylics:
should be observed that in this case the term "sacred Lo! the Angelic Bread
place" receives a wider comprehension than that in- Feedeth the sons of men:
dicated above. It comprises not only churches, pub- Figures and tj^pes are fled
lic chapels, and cemeteries, but also the episcopal Never to come again.
XIII.—21
 SACRISTAN 322 SACRISTY
O what a wondrous thing! performed by the doorkeepers (ostiarii), later by the
Lowly and poor are fed, mansionarii and the treasurers. The Decretals of
Banqueting on their Lord and King. Gregory IX (lib. I, tit. xxvi, "De officio sacristae")
The felicitousAnglican translator the Rev. Dr. J. speak of the sacristan as if he had an honourable
M. Neale, used iambic metre: office attached to a certain benefice, and say that his
He ordered in this wise duty was to care for the sacred vessels, vestments,
Our Holy OfTering, lights, etc. Nowadays the sacristan is elected or
To be the Sacrifice appointed. The " Cseremoniale episcoporum" pre-
Which Priests alone should bring; scribes that in cathedral and collegiate churches the
For whom is meet and fit sacristan should be a priest, and describes his duties
That they should eat of it, in regard to the sacristy, the Blessed Eucharist, the
And in their turn to others give. baptismal font, the holy oils, the sacred relics, the
This fifth stanza is interesting for its ow sake, as it decoration of the church for the different seasons and
calls attention tothe plan of the Eucharistic sacrifice. feasts, the preparation of what is necessary for the
Dr. Neale's translation does not follow strictly the various ceremonies, the pregustation in pontifical
rhymic scheme, which is better observed in a transla- Mass, the ringing of the church bells, the preservation
tion given in "Sursum Corda" (1908, p. 6). Ship- of order in the church, and the distribution of Masses;
ley ("Annus Sanotus", London, 1874, p. 192), gives and finally it suggests that one or two canons be ap-
Wallace's translation, the first stanza of which illus- pointed each year to supervise the work of the
trates another metric form: sacristan and his assistants.
"Sing of that solemn eve The under-sacristan [custos) is also mentioned in
When, as true hearts believe, the Decretals (lib. I, tit. xxvii, "De officio custodis").
Christ gave the lamb and the paschal bread He was the assistant of the sacristan, was subject
Unto the chosen band to the archdeacon, and discharged duties very similar
Met for the high command to those of the sacristan. Now the office is hardly
God had of old on the fathers laid." ever attached to a benefice, but is usually a salaried
Caswall (Lyra Catholica, 1849) gave a condensed position. The Council of Trent desired that, ac-
translation cording to the old canons, clerics should hold such
"Let us with hearts renewed, offices; but in most churches, on account of the dif-
Our grateful homage pay; ficulty or impossibility of obtaining clerics, laymen
And welcomewith triumphant songs perform many of the duties of the sacristan and
This ever blessed day." under-sacristan.
In his "Hymns and Poems" (1873) it appears re- CcEremoniale episcoporum, I (Ratisbon, 1902), vi.
vised as: J. F. GOGGIN.
"Let old things pass away;
Let all be fresh and bright;
Altae Societies. —There are altar societies in con-
nexion with most parish churches. The duties of
And welcome we with hearts renewed members vary according to circumstances, in some
This feast of new delight."
instances including those which ordinarily fall within
The revision (which also includes the change of
the sacristan's province, such as the vestments and
"night" into "eve", and changes in the third and
altar vessels, making ready for the priest's Mass, and
fourth lines of the sixth stanza) appears in the
so on, but as a general thing they consist of the pay-
"Lyra" of 1884, in Shipley's "Annus Sanctus", ment of yearly dues into a fund for the maintenance
and in the Marquess of Bute's translation of the
and repair of the accessories used in the ceremonies
Roman Breviary; the revision is interesting as illus- of the Church and usually also of a certain amount of
trating Caswall's zeal for literal betterment of the
labor for this purpose. Altar societies differ from
translation. Wagner ("Origine et d^veloppement du tabernacle societies in that their work is for the bene-
chant liturgique", translation of Bour, Tournai,
fit of the church to which they are attached. (See
1904, p. 169) speaks of the gradual substitution of
Tabernacle Societies).
rhythm for metre in the hymns, and refers to the
The SodaUty of St. John Berchmans, known as the
"Sacris solemniis" as illustrative of "the two con-
Pious Association of Servers of Mass and Sacristans,
ceptions of verse . where the old verse and
.

was founded by Vincent Basile, S.J., missionary

the rhythmic disposition of syllables meet peaceably
ApostoKc among the southern Slavs, for lay acolytes,
together. Rhyme, also, was gradually introduced;
choir boys, sacristans, and all who have any duty to
this same hymn offers very instructive examples of it.
perform in the services of the Church. Its object
It is a device of punctuation for the ear." Birkle
is to induce all its members to perform their duties
("Vatican Chant", translation of Lemaistre, New
piously and in a manner befitting the ceremonies in
York, 1904, p. 103) says: "The first three lines have
—
three accents each a weak accent upon the second
which they participate, for the glory of God and the
edification of the faithful. The rules compiled by
and seventh syllable and the chief accent upon the
Father Basile bind the members to absolute silence
tenth. The first half of the line concludes with the
in church, devout genuflexion when passing before
sixth syllable, which must be noticeable in the chant-
the Blessed Sacrament, and the clear pronunciation
ing. In the last verse the chief accent must be placed
of the words of the hturgical prayers. 'This same cir-
upon the sixth syllable" (but in the illustration he
places an accent also upon the third syllable).
cumspection is expected to characterize their conduct
Consult PiMONT, Les hymned du breviaire romain, II (Paris, even in the sacristy, and they are required to attend
1.SS4), 177-SS, for text and extensive comment; Hymnarium a monthly meeting and to receive Holy Communion
Sartshiriens'^ (London, ISol), 119, for text, variant readings, at least once a month. The director should be either
and very simple plainsong. The text and the two official plainsong
melndif^s are given in the Vnlican Gradualc (Ad processionem the pastor or a priest appointed by him. Although
Corporis Chri^ti). Cf. also Julian, Diet, of Jhjmnology (2nd it is not a confraternity properly so-called, this sodal-
ed., London, 1907); Henry in Sur.^um Corda (190S), 6, transla-
ity was approved by Pope Pius IX, 21 Sept., 1865,
tion and Curjiment; Dreves, Xnalecta hymnica, XVI (Leipzig),
p. 38 (In 'I'dicatione urbis Grnru-it(i), 7.5 (De Angela Custode), and indulgences were accorded to its members, sub-
103 (Dc S. Disma), for fifteenth-sixteenth-century imitations of ject to the usual conditions.
the hymn, .-^ee also bibliography to Sanptouum ]\I^;ritis
BL.-iNCHE M. Kelly.
H. T. Hexry.
Sacristy (L. sacrastia, vestry), a room in the
Sacristan, an officer who ischarged with the care church or attached thereto, where the vestments,
of the sacristy, the church, and their contents. In church furnishings and the like, sacred vessels, and
ancient times many duties of the sacristan were other treasures are kept, and where the clergy meet
 SADDUCEES 323 SADLIER

and vest for the various ecclesiastical functions. It but even in this respect their influence was much
corresponds to the secretarium or diaconicum of old. diminished through the policy of Herod and later of
At present the almost universal practice is to have the Roman procurators of Judea, who, arbitrarily
the sacristy directly behind the main altar or at and mainly for political reasons, appointed and re-
either side. The sacristy should contain cases, moved the high-priests at will.
properly labelled, for the various vestments in all During this period and down to the destruction
the liturgical colors; a crucifix or other suitable of Jerusalem the Sadducees were naturally unpopular
image in a prominent position to which the clergy with the masses because of their marked tendency
bow before going to the sanctuary and on returning to side closely with the ruling power, while the patri-
(Ritus celebrandi missam, II, i); a lavatory, where otic and exclusive Pharisi^s became more and more
the officiating clergy may wash their hands (op. cit. the leaders of the i3eo])le. Among the religious dif-
I, i); a copy of the Decree of Urban VIII prohibiting ferences between the two parties may be mentioned
certain offices and masses (8. R. C, 460 ad 6; 555 the denial on the part of the Sadducees of the resur-
§ Et ne); a book containing the obligations of the rection, the immortality of the soul, and the existence
Church regarding foundations and their fulfillment of angels (Matt., x.xii, 23; Mark, xii, 18; Acts, xxiii,
(Innocent XII, Nuper, § 26, 21 Dec, 1699). It is 8). They rejected likewise the oral traditions which
customary to have a holy water font, and a bell to the Pharisees maintained and emphasized as a Di-
admonish the congregation of the advent of the clergy, vinely ordained supplement to the written law. While
at the door leading to the sanctuary. The sacristy the tenacity and exclusivcneKs and other characteris-
is not blessed or consecrated together with the church, tics of the Pharisees have been indelibly impressed
and consequently is not a sacred place in the canonical on all subsequent generations of Judaism, the in-
sense. However, except where penalties are con- fluence of the indifferent and materialistic Sadducees
cerned, it enjoys on the whole the same prerogatives vanished completely as soon as the Jews ceased to be
as the church, ^^'hcn a sacristy directly behind the a nation.
sanctuary has two entrances, the clergy enter the GiGOT, Outlines of New Testament History (New York, 1902) ^
74 sqq.
sanctuary at the gospel side, and leave by the epistle
James F. Driscoll.
side R. C, 3029 ad 12). A double sacristy is
(S.
sometimes provided, one for the clergy, one for the
Sadler, Thomas Vincent Fadstus, b. 1604; d.
altar boys. Canons too usually have their own
sacristy. In cathedrals, where there is no special
at Dieulward, Flanders, 19 Jan., 1680-1. He was
received into the Church at the age of seventeen by
chapel for this purpose, there should be a separate
sacristy {secretarium) with an altar, where the bishop
his uncle, Dom
Walter Sadler, and joined the Bene-
dictines at Dieulward, being professed in 1622. Little
may assist at Terce and prepare for pontifical Mass
is known of his missionary labours, but probably he
(Caerem. Episcoporum, I, 137; II, 74; see Sac-
ristan).
was chaplain to the Sheldons of Weston and the
St. Charles Borrommbo, InstrucHones Fabricce Eccl. 1, 28 in Tichbornes in Hampshire before going to London,
Acta Eccles. Medial, (Paris, 1645), 206 sq.; Raym. Antonii In- where he worked many years. He edited several
structio Pastaralis, 8, 1, ed. Eyst. (1877), 116 sq.
spiritual books, often collaborating with Dom
Anselm
Andkew B. Mbehan. Crowther, and signing himself T. V. His chief pub-
Sadducees. —A
politico-religious sect of the Jews
lications are "The Christian Pilgrim in his Spiritual
Conflict and Conquest" (1652); "Jesus, Maria,
during the post-Exihc and New-Testament
late
period. The older derivation of the name from Joseph" (1657); "The Daily Exercise of the Devout
tsaddiqim, i. e. the righteous; with assumed reference
Rosarists" (1657), which was afterwards developed
into a well-known prayer book, "The Daily Exercise
to the adherence of the Sadducees to the letter of the
of the Devout Christian"; "A Guide to Heaven",
Law as opposed to the pharasaic attention to the
translated from Bona's "Manuductio" (1672);
superadded "traditions of the elders", is now gen-
erally discredited mainly on philological grounds and "The Holy Desires of Death", translated from Lalle-
the term associated with the proper name "Sadoc",
is
mant (1678). Wood attributes to him "The Childe's
Sadducee being equivalent to Sadokite. They be-
Catechism" (1678).
Welldon, Chronological Notes on the English Benedictine
came the dominant priestly party during the Greek Congregation (London, 1881); Snow, Necrology of the English
and Roman period of Jewish history, and the name, Congregation 0. S.''B. (London, 1883); Wood, Athence Oxonienses,
ed. Bliss (London, 1813-20); Oliver, Collections (London,
whether bestowed seriously or in irony, originated
1857); (3lLL0w in Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.; Cooper in Diet. Nat.
doubtless in their pretensions to be the descendants Biog.
of Sadoc, the high-priest prominent in the times of Edwin Burton.
David and Solomon (III Kings, i, 8, 26, 32; ii, 35;
I Par., xxix, 22; cf. Ezech., xl, 46; xliii, 19; etc.). Sadlier, Maby Anne Madden, authoress, b. at
As a prominent political party they first appear in the Cootehill, Co. Cavan, Ireland, 30 Dec, 1820; d. at
reign of John Hyrcanus (135-105 b. c). They es- Montreal, Canada, 5 April, 1903. Her father, Fran-
poused the hellenizing tendencies of the Asmonean cis Madden, a merchant of fine tastes, encouraged her
princes in which they were strongly opposed by the literary aspirations, and her first efforts were printed
Pharisees (q. v.), or Separatists, a party evolved from in a London magazine, while she was still a girl. Af-
the earlier Assideans, and which abhorred all forms ter the death of her father she emigrated to Montreal
of Greek culture as detrimental to the religious in- (1844). Here, two years later, she became the wife of
terests of the Jewish nation. Under Aristobulus I James Sadlier, member of the firm, and manager of the
and Alexander Janneeus, the immediate successors Montreal branch of the New York publishing house
of John Hyrcanus, the power of the Sadducees was of D. & J. Sadlier & Co. During the fourteen years
supreme, and though the opposing faction of the that followed she continued to live in Montreal, and
Pharisees came into favour during the regency of did most of the hterary work that made her name
Alexandra Salome (78-69 b. c), the Sadducees re- famous. The family then moved to New York, where
gained their ascendancy under Aristobulus II (69- her husband died nine years later. The Sudliers
63 B. c.) whom they supported in his conflicts with owned a weekly paper ("The Tablet"), and in it the
Hyrcanus II, Antipater, and the Romans. When majority of her stories appeared. She contributed
Pompey captured Jerusalem (63 B. c.) he executed regularly also to its editorial columns. Her stories
many of their leaders, as did also Herod the Idumean and translations number more than sixty volumes,
on his accession to power (37 b. c). The Sadducees and day enjoyed a well-deserved popularity
in their
retained, however, their traditional priestly functions among the rapidly-growing Irish-American commu-
and also a varying preponderance in the Sanhedrin, nity, on whose character, in its constructive period,
 SADOLETO 324 SAGARD
they exerted a powerful influence. Many of them, on the Epistle to the Romans was considered to favour
admirably wrought out in simplicity of style and the them too much, and the publication of it was for-
naturalness of the characters, were written for a special bidden at Rome until it had undergone correction.
purpose. "The He would have nothing to do with persecuting the
Blakes and
Flana- heretics. In 1536 he was summoned to Rome by
gans" dealt with the Paul III to be a member of a special commission for
school que s t i o n ;
the reform of the Church. In the following December
"Bessy Conway" he received the cardinal's hat, at the same time as
with the trials of the Caraffa (afterwards Paul IV) and Pole, also members
Irish immigrant girl; of the commission. With Cardinal Contarini (q. v.)
"Aunt Honor's the president of the commission, they drew up the
Keepsake" with the famous "Consilium de emendanda Ecclesia", which
saving of the desti- they presented to the pope. Sadoleto wag sent as
tute Catholic chil- legate to Francis I to bring about a reconoiUation
dren of New York between him and Charles V (1542), but his mission
for whom the great failed. After 1543, when a coadjutor was appointed
protectory was then to govern Carpentras, he was constantly at the side
founded. Irish his- of Paul III, ever urging the pontifi' in the path of
tory also supplied peace and reform. Sadoleto's works were published
her with a constant at Verona in four volumes (1737-8), and at Rome
source of inspiration (1759).
which resulted in JOLY, Etude sur Sadolei (Caen, 1856) Tiraboschi, Storia
;

delta letteratura italiana, XVIII (Venice, 1824) Pastor, Geschichie

"The Red Hand of der Fdpste, IV-V(Freiburg, 1906-9).
;

It is only by perusing tllis

Ulster", "The Con- last-named work that the extent of Sadoleto's activity and in-
federate Chieftains", fluence in the counter-Reformation can be estimated.
"Maureen Dhu", T. B. SCANNELL.
"Life in Galway",
Mart Anne Madden Sadlier Sagalassus, a titular see in Pisidia, suflragan of
"MacCarthy More"
Antioch. Sagalassus was one of the chief towns of
"The Old House by the Boyne" and other tales.
Pisidia, near the no-th-west boundary of that prov-
She translated Orsini's "Life of the Blessed Yir-
ince, in a fertile plain surrounded by hills, situated
gin", and de Ligny's " Christ " and other works, and
on the banks of an affluent of the Cestrus, a river
compiled a "Catechism of Sacred History" After
which is represented on its coins. Alexander stormed
her husband's death Mrs. Sadlier remained several
it, after defeating its inhabitants in the neighbour-
years in New York, and then returned to Canada,
hood. Cneius Manlius ravaged the district and made
where she spent the remainder of her days.
Allibone, DicHonnnj of Authors, 3. v.; The Messenger (New it pay a heavy war indemnity. After being subject
York, May, 1903); The Ave Maria (Notre Dame, Indiana), files; to Amyntas, Tetrarch of Lycaonia and Galatia, it be-
The Catholic News (New York), files. came part of the Roman province of Pisidia. Nothing
Thomas F. Meehan. known of its history, though it is mentioned by
else is

Sadoleto, Jacopo, cardinal, humanist, and re-

most of the ancient geographers; it is to be noted that
Strabo (XII, 569) places it less accurately in Isauria,
former, b. at Modena, 1477; d. at Rome, 1547. His
father, a distinguished lawyer, intended him for his
and Ptolemy (V, iii, 6) locates it erroneously in Lycia.
Until the thirteenth century the "Notitiae epis-
own profession;
but Jacopo de-
copatuum" mention it as the first suffragan see of
Antioch in Pisidia. Le Quien (Oriens christianus,
voted himself to
I, 1041) mentions four of its bishops: Jovius, present
classical and
phil-
at the Council of Constantinople, 381; Frontianus,
osophical studies.
at Chalcedon, 451 Theodosius, at Nicaea, 787; Leo,
At Rome he en- ;

at Constantinople, 869. This formerly wealthy and

joyed the favour
fortified city is now a poor \'illage, called Aghlassoun
of Cardinal Car-
aifa, and after-
by the Turks, about twenty-three miles south of
Isbarta, in the vilayet of Koniah, containing some
wards of Leo X,
who made him his
hundred inhabitants. It has immense ruined monu-
ments, all later than the second century A. D.: a
secretary. In
1517 he was ap-
theatre, vast portico, gymnasium, ramparts, tombs,
sarcophagi, churches, etc.
pointed Bishop of
Arundell, a Vi^it to the Seven Churches, 132 seq.: Hamilton,
Carpentras near Researches in Asia Minor, I, 486 seq.; Fellows, Asia Minor, 164
A-idgnon. Unlike seq.; Smith, Diet, of Gr, and Rom. Geog., s. v., with bibliog-
many of the hu- raphy of ancient authors: Texier, Asie mineure, 715; Muller
(ed. Didot), Notes & Ptolemy, I, 483.
manists, he was a
S. Peteid^s.
man of blameless
hfe and attentive Sagard, Thieodat-Gabriel, Recollect lay brother,
to all his duties missionary, and historian, b. in France at the end of
as a priest and the sixteenth century; d. towards the close of the
Jacopo .Sadoleto, Cardinal Bishop of bishop. It was
Carpentras seventeenth. In 1623, with Nicolas Viel, the future
only at the ex- martyr, he was sent to Canada on the Huron mission.
press command of the successive popes whom he served Anne of Austria, the consort of Louis XIII, had pro-
that he would consent to absent himself even for a time vided them with a portable altar and vestments. On
from his diocese. In him were combined in an eminent his way to the Hurons, he acquired from Joseph Le
degree the qualitiesof a manof piety, a man of letters, Caron, his superior, the first rudiments of their diffi-
and a manof action, .\spoet, orator, theologian, and cult tongue, so that on reaching his post he began to
philosopher he was in the foremost rank of his time. catechize and baptize the Indians. He shared in the
His poem on the recently discovered Laocoon first incredible hardships of his companions. The pro-
brought him to the notice of the learned. His mild vision of mass wine having been exhausted, they had
and gentle character, shunning all extremes, and his recourse to the juice of the wild grape (Vilis Cona-
profoimd learning fitted him for the difficult task of derifsis). In one year's residence he won the affection
conciliating the Protestants. Indeed, his commentary of his neophytes and acquired a certain ascendency
 SAHAGUN 325 SAHAGUN
over them. When appointed, in the spring of 1624, a very real danger at the time— and on account also of
to descend to Quebec for provisions, he was allowed the author's strictures upon the methods of the Ctm-
by the Indians to depart on the express condition that qmsladores, it was not pubhshed, but was consulted
he would return. A letter of his superior, ordering in manuscript, being sent from one to another
college
him back to France, thwarted his most ardent desire. of the order, until finally carried to Spain and
de-
He presented a memoir concerning the state of re- posited in the convent of Tolosa, where it was found,
ligion to the Due de Montmorency, Viceroy of New and a copy made, by the archivist Munoz shortly
France, inveighing against the agents of the trading before 1800. It was pubhshed under the title
companies whose evil influence paralyzed the zeal of _
Historia general de las cosas de Kueva Espana",
the missionaries. He convinced his superiors of the in three volumes at Mexico in 1829, and in volumes
necessity of introducing a more powerful and influen- five and seven of Kingsborough's "Mexican An-
tial religious order to cope with the difficult situation. tiquities", London, 1831.
The Jesuits having been suggested, the choice of Father Sahagiin thus describes the inception of the
them was ratified by Cardinal Richelieu in 1625. In work: "I was commanded in all holy obedience by
1686, Sagard published a history of Canada under the my chief prelate to write in the Mexican language
title: "Histoire du Canada et voyages que les Freres that which appeared to me to be u.seful for the doc-
Mineurs R^coUets ont faits pour la conversion des trine, worship, and maintenance of Christianity among
infideles". It is a clear and simple account of all he these natives of New Spain, and for the aid of the
saw or heard mentioned in this new land. Charle- ministers and workers that taught them. Having
voix criticises his Huron vocabulary as inaccurate received this commandment, I made in the Spanish
compared with later studies of the language, but language a minute or memorandum of all the matters
gives him credit for his good judgment and zeal for that I had to treat of, which matters are what is
the conversion of souls and the progress of the colony. written in the twelve books which were
Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France (Paris, 1744) begun in the pueblo of Tepeopulco. . I got
. .

SrxTE Le Tag, Histoire chronologique de la Nouvelle-France together all the principal men, together with the lord
Beaubien, Le SauU-au-Ricollet (Montreal, 1898);
(Paris, 1SS8);
GossEUN, La mission du Canada avant Mgr de Laval (Evreux, of the place, who was called Don Diego de Mendoza,
1909). of great distinction and abihty, well-experienced in
Lionel Lindsay. things ecclesiastic, military, political, and even re-
lating to idolatry. They being come together, I set
Sahagun, Bernardino de, missionary and Aztec before them what I proposed to do, and prayed them
archaeologist, b. at Sahagun, Kingdom of Le6n, to appoint me able and experienced persons with
Spain, in or before the year 1500; d. at Mexico, 23 whom I might converse and come to an understanding
Oct., 1590. He studied at the convent of Salamanca, on such questions as I might propose. They answered
where he took the vows of the order, and in 1529 was me that they would talk the matter over and give their
sent out to Mexico, being one of the earliest mission- answer on another day; and with this they took their
aries assigned to that country, where he laboured until departure. So on another day the lord and his prin-
his death more than sixty years later. He was as- cipal men came and having conferred together, with
signed to the college of Santa Cruz in Tlaltelolco, near great solemnity, as they were accustomed at that
the City of Mexico, and took up the work of preach- time to do, they chose out ten or twelve of the prin-
ing, conversion, and the instruction of the native cipal old men, and told me that with these I might
youth in Spanish and Latin, science, music, and reU- communicate and that these would instruct me in
gion, while by close study and years of daily practice any matters I should inquire of. Of these there were
he himself acquired such mastery of the Aztee lan- as many as four instructed in Latin, to whom I, some
guage as has never since been attained by any other few years before, had myself taught grammar in the
student. Although several times filling administrative college of Santa Cruz in Tlaltelolco. With these ap-
positions, he preferred to devote his attention solely pointed principal men, including the four instructed
to the work of instruction and investigation. His in grammar, I talked many days during about two
zeal and pre-eminent abihty in respect to the Indian years, follovnng the order of the minute I had al-
language and religion attracted the attention of his ready made out. On all the subjects on which
superior, who directed him to compile in the Aztec we conferred they gave me pictures which were —
language a compendium of all things relating to the the writings anciently in use among them and —
native history and custom that might be useful in the these the grammarians interpreted to me in their
labour of Christianizing the Indians. The work thus language, writing the interpretation at the foot of
undertaken occupied some seven years, in collabora- the picture.
tion with the best native authorities, and was ex- Besides the "Historia", the "Arte" and the
panded into a history and description of the Aztec " Diccionario " (the last in Aztec, Spanish, and Latin),
people and civihzation in twelve manuscript books, he was the author of a number of lesser works, mostly
together with a grammar {Arte) and dictionary of religious and in the Aztec language, among which may
the language. be noted a volume of sermons; an explanation of the
Various delays enabled the author to continue re- Epistles and Gospels of the Mass; a history of the
visions and additions for several years. One of these coming of the first Franciscans to Mexico, in two
delays hinged upon the question of the hiring of cleri- volumes; a Christian psalmody in Aztec, for the use
cal assistance as inconsistent with the Franciscan vow of the neophytes in church (Mexico, 1583-84), and
of poverty, although Father Sahagiin, by reason of a catechism in the same language. He died at the
age and the trembling of his hand, was then unable age of ninety years, sixty-one of which had been de-
to write himseU. After five years of waiting it was voted to missionary labour and research. At his
decided in favour of the author, who was given the funeral, which was attended by all the religious and
help he needed, and the complete Aztec manuscript, students of the city, the Indians also attended, shed-
with the grammar and dictionary, was finished in ding tears. In Sahagiin we have the ideal missionary
1569. In the meantime a preliminary manuscript priest and scholar. As a young man he was noted for
draft had been carried to Spain, where it became his beauty and grace of person, and from childhood
known to Ovando, president of the Council of the was given to prayer and self-restraint. His religious
Indies, on whose request the Franciscan delegate- companions affirmed that he went into frequent
general directed Father SahagUn to make a complete ecstasies. He was most exact in the duties of his
Spanish translation, furnishing all necessary assist- order, never missing Matins, even in his old age. Al-
ance. On account of the fear of encouraging the ways and to all persons he was gentle, humble, and
educated natives to dwell upon their heathen past courteous. In over sixty years as college professor
 SAHAK 326 SAHAPTIN
he rested not for a day "teaching civihzation and good sweat-houses and menstrual lodges. The permanent
eustoms, reading, writing, grammar, music, and other sweat-house was a shallow subterranean excavation
things in the service of G(j(1 and the state" In atl- roofed with poles and earth and bedded with grass, in
dition to his unequalled mastery of the Mexican lan- which the young and unmarried men slept during the
guage, it was said of him that he excelled in all the winter season, and occasionally sweated themselves
sciences. by means of steam produced by pouring water upon
Bancroft, NnHve Races '>/ the Pari fie Slate.^: Ill, Mulhs and hot stones placed in the centre. The temjiorary
LaH(V"flffp'' (^an Francisco, 18S(1)
; Beristvixy Souza. Bibliotera
IJis pa no Americana Sftrntrional, III (Amecameca, 1S.S31; Pres- sweat-house used by both sexes was a framework of
coTT, Caaquist of M'zico, I (New Ynrk, 1S43); Vetancxjrt, Mr- willow rods, covered with blankets, with the heated
nologio Franciscano tMexico, 1871). stones placed inside. The menstrual lodge, for the
James Mooney. seclusion of women during the menstrual period and
Sahak the Great. ~.er Isaac of Armenia. for a short period before and after childbirth, was a
Sahaptin Indians, a prominent tribe formerly subterranean structure, considerably larger than the
holding a considerable territory in Western Idaho and sweat-house, and entered by means of a ladder from
adjacent portions of Oregon and Washington, in- above. The occupants thus secluded cooked their
cluding the lower Snake River, with its tributaries the meals alone and were not allowed even to touch any
Salmon, Clearwater, and Grande Rofide, from about articles used by outsiders. Furniture consisted chiefly
45° do-mi nearly to the entrance of the Palouse, and of bed platforms, baskets and bags wo\en of rushes or
from the Blue Mountains of Oregon on the west to the grass, wooden mortars for pounding roots and spoons
main divide of the Bitter-root Mountains on the east. of horn. The woman had also her digging stick for
They are of the Shahaptian hnguistic stock, to which gathering roots; the man his bow, lance, shield, and
belong also the Palouse, Umatilla, Tenino (Warm- fishing equipment. The Nez Perc6 bow of mountain-
eprings), YakimS and others farther to the west, with sheep horn backed with sinew was the finest in the
whom they maintained close friendly relations, while West. The ordinary dress was of skins, with the ad-
frequently at variance with the Salishan tribes on dition of a fez-shaped basket hat for the woman and a
their northern border — the Flatheads, Coeur d'Alene protective skin helmet for the warrior. Aside from
—
and Spokan and in chronic warfare with the Black- fish and game, chiefly salmon and deer, their prin-
cipal foods were the roots of the camas {Camassia
fe(>t. Crows, and Shoshoni on the east and south. They
call themselves Numipu, meaning simply "people" esculenta) and kouse {Lomatium kous, etc.), the first
The name Saliaptin or Saptin comes through the Sali- being roasted in pits by a peculiar process, while the
shan tribes. B>' Lewis and Clark (1805) they were other was ground in mortars and molded into cakes
called Chopunnish, possibly another form of Saptin. for future use. The gathering and preparing devolved
Their popular and official name of Nez Percys, upon the women. Marriage occurred at about the
"Pierced Noses", originally bestowed by the French age of fourteen and was accompanied by feasting and
trappers, refers to a former custom of wearing a den- giving of presents. Polygamy was general, but kin-
tahuiii shell through a hole bored in the sejitum of the ship prohibition was enforced even to the third degree.
nose. When first known (1805) they numbered, ac- Inheritance was in the male line. "The standard of
cording to the most reliable estimates, probably over moraUty, both before and after marriage seems to have
(jOOO, but ha\e greatly decreased since the ad\'ent of been conspicuously high " (Spinden). Interment was
the \\hites, and are still steadily on the decline. Con- in the ground, the personal belongings of the de-
tributing causes arc incessant wars with the more pow- ceased being deposited with the body, and the house
erful Blackfeet in carher years; a wasting fever, and torn down or removed to another spot. The new
measles epidemic (1847) from contact with immi- house was ceremonially purified and the ghost exor-
grants; smallpox and other diseases following the oc- cised, and the mourning period was terminated with
cupation of the country by miners after 1860; losses a funeral feast. Sickness and death, especially of
in the war of 1877 and subsequent remo\-als; and children, were frequently ascribed to the work of
wholesale spread of consumption due to their changed ghosts. The religion was animistic, with a marked
•condition of living under civilization. In 184S they absence of elaborate myth or ritual. The principal
were officially estimated at 3000; in 1862 they were religious event in the life of the boy or girl was the
reported at 2800; in 1893 the census showed 2035; in dream vigil, when, after solitary fasting for several
1910 they were officially reported at 1530, including days, the fevered child had vision of the spirit animal
all mixed bloods, all upon th(^ Fort Lapwai (allotted) which was to be his or her tutelary through life.
reservation in northern Idaho, e.xeepting the remnant Dreams were the great source of spiritual instruction.
of Joseph's band, numbering then only 97, upon Col- The principal ceremonial was the dance to the tutelary
\-ille reservation in north-eastern \\'ashington. Oi spirit, next to which in importance was the scalp
(heir numerous former bands, this one, formerlj' cen- dance. The clan system was unknown. Chiefs were
tring in Wallowa (or Willewah) valley, Oregon, was elective rather than hereditary, governing by assist-
perhaps the most important, numbering originally ance of the council, and there was no supreme tribal
about 500. In their primitive condition the Xez chief. They were considerably under the influence of
Perees, althoughsemi-sedentary, were without agricul- the so-called "Dreamer religion" of the upper Colum-
ture, depending on hunting, fishing, and the gathering bia tribes, but had no part in the later "ghost dance".
of wild roots and berries. Their permanent houses Previous to the visit of the American explorers, Lewis
were communal structures, sometimes circular, but and Clark (1805), the Nez Perccs had had no direct
more often oblong, about twentj- feet in width and acquaintance with white men, although aware of their
sixty to ninety feet in length, with framework of poles presence beyond the mountains and on the Pacific
co\-ere( 1 by rush mats, with floor sunk below the ground coast. They already had horses from the South. A
level, and earth banked up around the sides, and with few years later trading posts were established in tlie
an o|)en space along the centre of the roof, for the es- upper Columbia region, and from the Catholic Cana-
cape of the smoke. On the inside were ranged fires dian and Iroquois employees of the Hudson's Bay
along the ceutreat adistanceof ten ortwelvefeet apart, Company traders they first learned of Christianity
each fire ser^dng two families on opposite sides of the and as early as 1820 both they and the Flatheads had
house, the family sections being sometimes separated voluntarily adopted many of the Catholic forms. Of
by mat curtains. One: house might thus shelter more the Nez Percys it has been said: "They seemed to
than one hundred persons. Lewis and Clark mention realize the paucity of their religious traditions and
one large enough to accommodate n(.'arly fifty families. from the first eagerly seconded the efforts of the mis-
On temporary- expeditions they used the ordinary sionaries to instruct them in the Christian faith.
buffalo-skin tipi or brush shelter. They had also As a result of urgent appeals from the Flathead In-
 SAHARA 327 SAHARA
Chittenden, American Fur Trade (New York, 1902), Annual
dians (q. v.) for missionaries, a Presbyterian mission Reports of the Commissioner Indian A#atrs (Wasliington) Cox
was established (1837) among the Nez Percys at Lap- Adventures on the Columbia (New York, 1832) De Smet, Life',
;
;

wai, near the present Lewistown, Idaho, under Rev- Letters, and Chittenden and Riohardso.n (4 vols.,
Travels, ed.
erend H. H. Spaulding, who, two years later, set up a New York, 1905) Henry and Thompson, New Light on the Early
;

History of the Greater Northwest, ed. Co0es (3 vols.. New York

printing press from which he issued several small pub- 1897); Irving, Rocky Mountains (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1837)-
lications in the native language. Regular Catholic Idem, Astoria (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1836) Lewis and Clark,
;

Original Journals (1804-8), ed. Thwaites, 7 vols, and atlas

work in the same region began with the advent of (New York, 190.1-.5) McBeth, Nez Perces since Lewis and Clark
Fathers Blanchet and Demers on the Columbia (1838)
;

(New York, 1908); Moonet, The Ghost-Dance Religion, 14th

and of De Smet and the Jesuits in the Flathead coun- Rept. Bur. Am. Ethnology, II (Washington, 1896) Parker, Jour-
;

The establishment of the Oregon trail nal of Tour beyond the Rocky Mountains (Auburn, 1846) Ross,
try (1840). ;

Adventures on the Columbia (London, 1849), reprint in Thwaites,

through the country of the Nez Pero6s and allied Early Western Travels, VII (Cleveland, 1904); Idem, Fur Hunters
tribes led (1S49) to the introduction of an epidemic of the Far West (2 vols., London, 1855) ; Spaulding, Nez Percys
by which they were terribly wasted, particu- First Book (Lapwai, 1839) Idem, Primer in the Nez Percis Lan-
disease, ;

guage (Lapwai, 1840); Idem, Gospel of Matthew in Nez Percis

larly the Cayuse, who, holding responsible Dr. Whit- Language (Clearwater, Lapwai, 1845) Spinden, Mtjlhs of the Nez
;

man, in charge of the Presbyterian mission in their Perce Inds. in Jour. Am. Folk Lore, XXI (Boston, 1908) Idem,
;

tribe, attacked and destroyed the mission, murdering The Nez Perc& Indians in Memoirs Am. Anthrop. Assn., II, pt. iii
(Lancaster, 1908) Steven.s, Report in Rept. Comsner. Ind. Affairs
Whitman and his wife and eleven others. The Cath- ;

for 1854 (Washington, 1855) Idem, Narrative and final Report in

;

oUc Bishop Brouillet, who was on his way at the time Pacific R.R. Reports, XII, B. 1 (Washington, 1860) Van Gorp, ;

to confer with ^^^^itman for the purchase of the mis- Dictionary of the Numipu or Nez Perc^ Language (St. Ignatius,
Montana, 1895); Wybth, Correspondence and Journals, 1831-6;
sion property, was not molested, but was allowed to Sources of the History of Oregon, I, pts. iii-vi in Oregon Hist. Soc,
bury the dead and then found opportunity to warn (Eugene, Oregon, 1899).
Spaulding in time for him to reach safety. In conse- James Mooney.
quence of these troubles aU the Presbyterian missions
in the Columbia region were discontinued but the
work was resumed in later years and a considerable
Sahara, Vicariate Apostolic of. The Sahara is —
a vast desert of northern Africa, measuring about 932
portion of the Nez Perces are now of that denomi- miles from north to south and 2484 miles from east to
nation. In 1855 they sold by treaty a large part of west, and dotted with oases which are centres of pop-
their territory. In the general outbreak of 1855-6, ulation. Eight years after the journey of the famous
sometimes designated as the Yakima war, the Nez Duveyrier (1859-61), which had important scientific
Percfe, almost alone, remained friendly. In the results, Pius IX (6 Aug., 1868) appointed the Arch-
year 1863, in consequence of the discovery of gold, bishop of Algiers, Mgr Lavigerie, delegate Apostolic
another treaty was negotiated by which they surren- of the Sahara and the Sudan. In the same year the
dered all except the Lapwai reservation. Joseph, Jesuits established themselves at Laghouat, the ex-
whose band held the Wallowa valley in North-East- tremity occupied by French arms. In 1871 they
ern Oregon, refused to be a party to the treaty, sent to Mgr Lavigerie a long report in which they ad-
and his refusal led to the memorable Nez Percys war vocated the establishment of dispensaries and schools.
(1877). After successfully holding in check for some In 1872 Father Charmetant and two other White
months the regular troops under General Howard and Fathers (Missionary Fathers of Africa of Algiers) re-
a large force of Indian scouts, Joseph conducted a placed the Jesuits at Laghouat. In 1873 the White
masterly retreat for over a thousand miles across the Fathers established themselves at Biskra, Ouargla,
mountains, but was finally intercepted by General Touggart, and Gerryville. Later a station was
Miles when within a short distance of the Canadian founded at Melili in Mzab. Two successive attempts
frontier. Despite the promise that he should be re- were made by the White Fathers to reach the Sudan
turned to his own country, Joseph and the remnant of by crossing the Sahara, thus reaching Timbuktu, a
his band were deported to Oklahoma, where they large market for black slaves, there to join in the
wasted away so rapidly that in 1885 the few who sur- struggle against slavery. The first attempt was made
vived were transferred, not to Lapwai, but to the Col- in December, 1878, by Fathers Menoret, Paulmier, and
ville reservation in Washington. Throughout the en- Bouchand; they were slain in April, 1876, by their
tire retreat no outrage was committed by Joseph's Touarag guides, being the first martyrs of the Society
warriors. The main portion of the tribe took no part of White Fathers, and the cause of their beatification
in the war. In 1893 those of Lapwai were given in- was introduced at Rome in 1909. After this disaster
dividual allotments and the reservation was thrown the White Fathers founded two stations, not farther
open to white settlement. The CathoUc work in the north in the desert, but to the north-east, at Tripoli
tribe is in charge of the Jesuits, aided by the Sisters of and Ghadames. The massacre of the explorer Flat-
Saint Joseph, and centring at St. Joseph's mission, ters and his companions (1880-81) did not discourage
Sliokpoo, Idaho. For fifty years it was conducted by the White Fathers in their second attempt to cross the
Fr. Joseph Cataldo, S. J., who gave attention also to Sahara. In 1881 Father Richard set out from Gha-
the neighbouring cognate tribes. The Catholic In- dames, having become so Arabian in speech and bear-
dians are reported at over 500, edifying and faithful in ing that no one suspected his nationality. He in-
their rehgious duties, in spite of the general tribal tended to establish himself with Fathers Morat and
aversion to education and civilization. The material Pouplard at Ghat in the midst of the desert, but all
condition of the tribe, however, is not promising. three were assassinated.
While maintaining their old reputation for honesty The White Fathers then left Ghadames. On 25
and generosity, they are non-progressive and are March, 1890, while the Brussels conference against
rapidly withering away under consumption, which slavery was being held, Mgr Lavigerie explained in a
threatens their speedy extinction. Aside from the letter to Keller that to eradicate in Africa the great
Spaulding pubheations already noted the most valu- corporation of the Senoussi, which protected the
able contributions to the study of the Nez PercS slave-trade, the Sahara must be crossed, and he an
language are a grammar by Father Cataldo and a nounced the opening at Biskra, at the entrance to the
dictionary by Father Van Gorp. The most important Sahara, of a house which he called the House of God,
study of a cognate language is probably the "Gram- intended for the formation of the "Brothers of the
mar and Dictionary of the Yakama Language " by the Sahara", or "Pioneers of the Sahara", who would be
Oblate Father Pandosy (see Yakima). engaged in charitable works and in extending hospi-
Bancroft, Natim Races of the Pacific States: I, Wild Tribes; III, taUty to travellers, the sick, and fugitive slaves. The
Myths and Languages (San Francisco, 1886); Idem, Hist. Wash- Pioneers of the Sahara had to hve as rehgious, but
inaton, Idaho and Montana (San Francisco, 1890), Annual Re-
without monastic vows. As early as February, 1891,
porls 0/ Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions (Washington);
Cataldo, A Numipu or Nez Perci Grammar (De Smet, 1891) the station at Ouargla, suppressed in 1876, was re-
 SAIDA 328 SAINCTES

established, and in October Father Harquard sent the "Enlightenment", which in its radical form
thither six armed "pionc(>rs" who wrote to the car- disputed the fundamental dogmas of Christianity,
dinal: "W'e shall endeavour to hold high the banner and was characterized by externahsm, contempt for
of the Saored Heart and the flag of France." The Christian mysticism, worldliness of the clergy, deg-
White Sisters founded hospitals at Ghardaia and El radation of the pulpit by the treatment of secular
Tbiod Sidi Cheikh, thus gaining the confidence of topics, relaxation of ecclesiastical discipline, denial
populations which were hostile to France. The Fou- of the primacy of papal jurisdiction, efforts of the
rean-Lamy expedition of 1898, which succeeded in State to gain control of the Church, turbulent reforms
crossing the desert as far as Lake Tchad, opened within the Church, and a one-sided training of the
wider avenues to the Catholic apostolate. The Pre- mind in education. In opposition to these de-
fecture Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan became structive tendencies Sailer came to the defence of
a vicariate Apostolic on 6 March, 1891, and in 1901 faith in Christ and in the fundamental principles
received new boundaries by which the Prefecture of Christianity, striving for an inner, living, practical
Apostolic of Ghardaia was separated from it. The Christianity, for a faith that should manifest itself
twentieth degree of latitude forms the boundary be- in charity, for the maintenance of godliness (Chris-
tween them. The vicariate governs 1000 European tian mysticism), and for the training of a pious and
Catholics, 600 negro Catholics, 4000 catechumens, 40 intelligent clergy. He also insisted that the pulpit
missionaries, 15 sisters, 35 catechists; it has 12 should be reserved solely for the preaching of the Go.s-
churches or chapels, 10 schools, 7 orphanages, 3 leper- pel, and that the bishops should be in union with
houses, 2 hospitals. The population of the Sahara is the pope; he upheld the primacy of the papal juris-
estimated at 4,000,000. diction, and defended the freedom and rights of the
VuiLLOT. U exploration du Sahara, Mude historique et gio- Church against the encroachments of the State.
graphique (Paris, 1895): Bernard and Lacroix, La penetration
saharaienne (Algiers, 1909); Batjnard, Le cardinal Lavigerie
Ecclesiastical reform he ardently desired, not, how-
(Paris, 1896, 1898); Annates de la propagation de la Foi (1909), ever, through unauthorized agencies but by the
333-40; PiOLET, La France au dehors, V (Paris, 1902). appointed organs of the Church; and he demanded
Georges Goyau. that education should aim at training both mind
Saida. See Sidon. and will. Sailer laboured for the Christian ideal by
his winning personality, by his utterances as teacher,
Sailer, Johann Michael, professor of theology and parish priest, and preacher, and by his numerous
Bishop of Ratisbon, Aresing in Upper Bavaria,
b. at works that were philosophical, theological, devotional,
17 October, 1751; d. 20 May, ls,32, at Ratisbon. Sailer and biographical in character.
was the son of a poor shoemaker. Until his tenth Thus Sailer brought back large numbers of people
year he attended the primary school in his native to Christianity and the Church. Notwithstanding
place; after this he was a pupil in the gymnasium at his fruitful activity and his benevolence, Sailer had
Munich. In 1770 he entered the Society of Jesus at antagonists who opposed him partly from jealousy,
Landsberg in Upper Bavaria as a novice; upon the partly from misunderstanding and iU-will; he was
suppression of the Society in 1773 he continued his accused of heterodoxy, indifferentism, and mysticism.
theological and philosophical studies at Ingolstadt. If Sailer isjudged in connexion with his times, these
In 1775 he was ordainetl priest; 1777-SO he was a reproaches are without foundation. In his day
tutor of philosophy and theology, and from 1780 sec- Sailer was a pillar of the Church. A perfectly correct
ond professor of dogmatics at Ingolstadt. Along with judgment of Sailer has been expressed by Goyau in
many others, he lost his position in 1781 when the "L'Allemagne religieuse" (Paris, 1905): "With Sailer
Elector Charles Theodore transferred theological in- German piety, both Protestant and Catholic, learned
struction to the monasteries. In the years 1781-84 again to pray. This is the peculiar characteristic
while engaged in literary work he attracted the at- of his activity. Do not expect from him any reli-
tention of the elector and Bishop Clement A\'enceslaus. gious polemics; he abhorred them; what he really
In 1794 the latter called Sailer to Dillingen as pro- cherished was the idea of a sort of cooperation of
fessor of pastoral theology and ethics, a position which the various Christian bodies against the negations
Sailer held for ten years and which brought him a high of infidelity. Sailer made a breach in Rationalism,
reputation. His opponents, professors of Dillingen, by opposing to it a piety in which both Christian
and Rossle, the principal of the school at Pfaffen- bodies could unite" (pp. 294, 295). The best edition
hausen, succeeded in limiting Sailer's activities in of his works is "J. M. Sailers samthche Werke unter
1793 and in securing his sudden dismissal in 1794. Anleitung des Verfassers", ed. Joseph Widmer,
Sailer now went to visit his friend W'inkelhofer at 40 vols., Sulzbach, 1830-41; supplementary volume,
Munich, and pursued there by his opponents, went 1845.
to the house of his friend Beck at Ebersberg. Here he Sailer, Selbstbiographie (1819), vol. XIX of collected worka;
devoted himself to hterary work until, in 1799, he VON ScHENK, Die Bischofe Sailer u. Wittmann in Charitas (1838);
VON ScHMiD, Erinnerungen aus meinem Lehen (2 vols., Augsburg,
was called to a professorship at Ingolstadt. In 1800 1853) LijTOLF, Leben u. Bekenntnisse des Jos. L. Schiffmann, ein
;

he was transferred along with the university to Land- Beitrag zur Charakteristik Sailers u. seiner Schule in der Schweiz
(Lucerne, I860): Aichinger, J. M. Sailer (Freising, 1865);
shut. Here he taught pastoral and moral theology, JoCHAM, Dr. Alois Buchner, ein Lebensbild zur Verstdndigung ilber
pedagogics, homiletics, liturgy, and catechetics; cele- J. M. Sailers Priesterschule (Augsburg, 1870); VON MuLLEB,
brated as a teacher and a writer he was repeatedly Jean Paul u. Sailer als Erzieher der deutschen Nation (Munich,
called to other positions, was on terms of friendship 1908): Klotz, Sailer als Moralphilosoph (Paderborn, 1908);
Radlmaieh, /. !\I. Sailer als Pddagog (Beriin, 1909); Stolzle,
with distinguished Catholics and Protestants, and was J. M. Sailer u. seine Bedeutung mHochland (1910); Idem, J. M.
universally revered by his pupils, among whom was Sailers Schriften, ausgewdhlt u. eingeleitet (Kempten and Munich,
the Crown Prince Louis, later King of Bavaria. In 1910) Idem, J. M. Sailer, seine Massregelung an der Akademie
:

zu Dillingen u. ^eine Berufung nach Ingolstadt: ein Beitrag zu

181N Sailer declinerl the offer of the Prussian Govern- Gelehrtengeseh. aus dem Zeitalter der Aufkl&rung (Kempten and
ment to have him appointed Archbishop of Cologne; Munich, 1910).
in 1819 the Bavarian Government, through the in- R. Stolzle.
fluence of the Crown Prince Louis, nominated him
as Bishop of .Augsburg, but the nomination was re- Sainctes, Claude de, French controversialist, b.
jected by Rome. In 1821, however, after he had at Perohe, 1525 d. at Crevecoeur, 1591
; At the age of
.

sufficiently justified himself, he was appointed cathe- fifteen he joined the Canons Regular of Saint-Chdron,
dral canon of Ratisbon, in 1822 auxiliary bishop and and was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris, where
coadjutor with right of succession, in 1825 cathedral he received the degree of Doctor of Theology (1555).
provost, and in 1829 Bishop of Ratisbon. On account of the erudition of his early works and the
The age in which Sailer Uved was dominated by aptitude which he showed for controversy, he was
 SAINT ALBANS 329 SAINT ALBERT

called to the Conference of Poissy held in 1561 be- disgrace in 1529 Robert Catton, prior of Norwich,
tween the Catholics and the Huguenots, at which was elected abbot, but was deprived in 1538 to make
Theodore of Beza and Father Lainez, general of the room for a nominee of Henry VIII, Robert Boreman,
Jesuits, were present. He was afterwards deputed to by whom the abbey was surrendered to the king in
the Council of Trent to represent, with Simon Vigor, the following year. The list of abbots may be found
the University of Paris. Upon his return he acquired in Dugdale. Matthew Paris is probably the most
a notable reputation by his sermons and his discussions famous monk of the foundation, which is notorious
with Protestants. He published a work against their for refusing to accept Nicholas Breakspere, after-
spoliation of Catholic churches and a vigorous dec- wards Adrian IV, when he begged for admission as a
laration against the doctrines of Calvin and Theodore novice. The church of St. Albans escaped destruc-
of Beza; the latter replied and drew upon himself a tion at the dissolution of the abbey, and in 1553
new attack from Claude do Hainctes. At the same was purchased from the Crown for £400 by the mayor
time he charged the King of France by his treatise on
"L'ancien naturel des Fran^ais" never to tolerate
heretics and against these latter he defended the
dogma of the Church by an exhaustive treatise on the
Eucharist. Through the patronage of the Cardinal of
Lorraine, he was appointed to the Bishopric of Evreux
(1575). He was very zealous in his efforts to convert
Protestants. He assisted at the provincial Council of
Rouen (15S1) and published its records in French.
When the League became active he took sides with it
and worked to gain partisans; but the royal troops
took possession of Evreux and the bishop was forced
to flee. Unfortunately for him there were found
among his papers writings in which he approved the
murder of Henry III and maintained that one could
likewise kill his successor. Arrested and arraigned
before the Parlement of Caen, he was condemned to
St. A1.BAN3 Abbey Church
death as guilty of high treason. At the request of the
Cardinal of Bourbon and of several bishops, Henry IV and burgesses of the town, to be used as a parish
commuted his sentence to life imprisonment, and he church. Of the church built by Paul of Caen most
was confined in the ch&teau of Crevecoeur where he of the nave, transepts, and presbytery still exist,
died two months later. His works were published, but portions fell and were rebuilt in the style of the
some in Latin and others in French. The more im- thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The eastern
portant are: "Liturgiae sive missae SS. Patrum Ja- part of the presbytery with the Lady chapel beyond it
cobi, Basilii J. Chrysostomi" (Greek-Latin, Paris, also belong to the latter periods. In the second half
1560); "Discours sur le saccagement des ^glises cath- of the nineteenth century the late Lord Grimthorpe
oliques par les h^rStiques anciens et nouveaux cal- undertook to restore the building at his own expense.
vinistes" (Paris, 1562); "Trait6 de l'ancien naturel In spite of all remonstrance he did this in such a way
des Frangais en la religion chretienne " (Paris, 1567) that "to grimthorpe" has now become an active verb
"Declaration d'anciens ath^ismes de la doctrine de signifying the unintelligent mutilation of an ancient
Calvin et de Beze contre les premiers fondements de la building under the cloak of restoration. The church
chretiente " (Paris, 1567); "De rebus Eucharistiee is 550 feet long, and 190 wide across the transepts,

controversis libri X " (Paris, 1575). the central tower being 144 feet high. It contains
DupiN, Ilist. des auteurs ecclesiastiques du XVh si^cle, IV a famous reredos of the late fifteenth century, the re-
(Paris, 1703), 539; Hukter, Nomencl. constructed base of St. Alban's shrine, and several
Antoine Degert fine chantries and monuments. Of the conventual
buildings only the gatehouse now remains.
Saint Albans, Abbey op, in Hertfordshire, Dugdale, Monaslicon Anglicanum, II (London, 1846), 178-
England, founded about 793 by Offa, king of the 255; Newcome, History of the Abbey of St, Albans (London,
1795) ;Buckler, History of the Architecture of the Abbey Church
Mercians. Venerable Bede (Hist. Eccles., I, vii), of St. A. (London, 1847); Browne Willis, History of the Mitred
writing at the beginning of the eighth century, speaks Abbies, I (London, 1718), 13-27; Comyns-Carr, Abbey Church of
St. A. (London, 1877); Perkins, Cathedral Church of St.
of a church, existing at that date, of wonderful work-
Albans (London, 1910).
manship and worthy of the martyrdom it commem- G. Roger Hddleston.
orated, monastery seems to have been at-
Offa's
tached to this church, which he repaired, having Saint Albert, Diocese of (Sancti Alberti). —
personally obtained the papal approval for his The immense territories, known to-day as the Prov-
foundation. Willegod, a relation of the king, was inces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta,
made abbot. By the year 1000 the old church was formed 1871 only one diocese under the name of
till
evidently in a dilapidated state again and Ealdred St. Boniface. On 22 Sept., 1871, St. Boniface having
and Eadmer, the eighth and ninth abbots, collected been elevated to the rank of archdiocese, the new-
materials to build a new church from the ruins of the Diocese of St. Albert was canonically erected and
Roman city of Verulam. The actual building was Right Rev. Vital J. Grandin, O.M.I, (consecrated
only begun in 1077, when Abbot Paul of Caen, a 30 Nov., 1859, Bishop of Satala and appointed co-
relative of Archbishop Lanfranc, undertook the work adjutor of the Bishop of St. Boniface), was transferred
with such energy that the whole church was com- to the new see. The first Bishop of St. Albert died on
pleted in eleven years; a large part of this church 3 June, 1902, after a long episcopate of nearly forty-
still remains. The abbey increased in wealth and five years, and half a century of missionary life.
importance; Adrian IV exempted it from episcopal He was succeeded by Right Rev. Emile J. Legal,
jurisdiction and gave it precedence over all other O.M.I, (consecrated Bishop of Pogla, 17 June, 1897,
English abbeys. In the Wars of the Roses St. Albans and coadjutor of St. Albert, 3 June, 1902). This
suffered much, and the unsettled state of the country diocese, even after having been subdivided in 1891
involved the abbey in a long series of lawsuits by to form the Vicariate Apostohc of Saskatchewan,
which it was much impoverished. In 1521 Cardinal comprises the southern half of Province of Alberta
Wolsey became abbot in commendam, the only in- and the western part of Saskatchewan, an area of
stance of this practice known in England. On his some 150,000 square miles. It is bounded on the east
 SAINT ANDREWS 330 SAINT ANDREWS
\)y the 110th degree of longitude; on the west by the sionary labour are incessantly opened to the zeal of
]<ijcky Mountains; on the south by the United the secular and regular clergy of St. Albert.
States; and on the north by the 55th degree of Annuaire Pantif. Cath. (1911); MoRiCE, History of the Catholic
Church in Western Canada, I, II (Toronto, 1910).
latituik". At the time of its erection, the total popu-
lation of the diocese was from 4000 to 5000 half-breeds,
H. Leduc.
10,000 to 12,000 Indians belonging to half a dozen Saint Andrews and Edinburgh (S. Andrew et
tribes, and a few hundred white people, employees —
Edinbtjrgensis), Akchdiocesb of. The exact date
of tlie Hudson Bay Company. The evangelization of the foundation of the See of St. Andrews is, like
of this new diocese was then entrusted to twelve many others in the earhest history of the Scottish
Oblates of Mary Immaculate. Church, difficult, if not impossible, to fix. That
Five missions had been established, hundreds of there were bishops in the country now called Scot-
miles apart. The first cathedral was a log-house and land, and exercising jurisdiction in the district where
the bishop's palace a small frame building. Three the city of St. Andrews afterwards arose, as early
schools and two orphan asylums were in charge of as the eighth or ninth century, is practically certain.
Sisters of Charity. The whole Catholic population We may, however, take 908, the year of the famous
numbered scarcely 10,000. assembly at the Moot hill of Scone, as that in which
Though cut off from all means of communication a Bishop of St. Andrews (Cellach) first appears in
with the civilized world, receiving but a yearly mail, history, vowing, in association with the king (Con-
deprived not only of all comfort, but even of the stantine), to "protect the laws and discipline of the
necessaries of life, obliged to travel long distances, Faith, and the rights of the churches and of the
camping outside for weeks and even months consecu- Gospel". In the two most ancient and authentic
tively, in cold of 30 to 40 degrees, to spread the knowl- lists that have come down to us, those given by
edge of divine Faith and establish here and there new "\^'yntoun, Prior of Lochleven, and by Bower of Inch-
centres of missions, the first two bishops of St. colm in his " Scotichronicon ", Cellach is called the
Albert and their missionaries never despaired or lost first Bishop of St. Andrews. For two centuries the
faith in the future of their work. After several years —
bishops bore Celtic names Fothad, Maelbrigd,
of hard struggle a great change became apparent. Maelduin, and the like. The death of Fothad II
In 1874-75, the Canadian Government having es- (1093) marks the close of the first period of the his-
tablished a few posts of mounted police in the diocese, tory of the see, of which scanty records and still scantier
new settlements were founded. Reservations for the material traces remain. The English influence on
Indians were established; churches, schools, and Scottish national life, both ecclesiastical and civil,
missions built. At the same time a considerable which followed the marriage of St. Margaret, great-
number of half-breeds from Manitoba settled in the niece of Edward the Confessor, to the King of Scots in
eastern part of the diocese, where thej' soon formed 1069, had as one of its results the nomination of Turgot
new parishes or missions. In 1SS3-84 the opening (Margaret's former confessor) to the See of St. An-
of the Canadian Pacific Railway brought colonies of drews. He was succeeded by Eadmer, a Benedictine
immigrants, and soon the work of the missions was monk of Canterbury and Eadmer by Robert, a canon
;

mueh increased. In 1890 the Diocese of St. Albert was regular of St. Augustine, who founded at St. Andrews
divicU^d and the Vicariate Apostolic of Saskatchewan in 1144 the cathedral priory for canons of his own
created, which in 1911 was erected as a diocese. order. It was his successor Arnold who began, at
Since 1S!)0 the development of the missionary work the eastern end, the construction of the magnificent
has been wonderful. An appeal was made in 1891 to cathedral, the building of which occupied more than
the secular clergj' to come and help the Oblates of a century and a half. Meanwhile the bishops of
Mary Immaculate who could no longer attend alone St. Andrews, although they claimed and exercised
to so many stations, missions, and parishes, already (as their Celtic predecessors had done) the right of
erected or urgently needed. Several secular priests, presiding at assembUes of the Scottish clergy,
all
and later several religious orders came to help in the had never been formally granted the ecclesiastical
work of education and evangelization. The Catho- primacy: indeed in 1225 their position was seriously
lic population of the diocese is now 55,000, of which affected by a Bull of Honorius III, enjoining that
about 15,000 are Greek Catholics. They are attended future synods were to be presided over by one of the .

by 1 bishop; 98 regular priests; 20 secular priests; bishops, styled the Conservator, to be elected by his
and 33 seminarists. There are: churches with resi- brother prelates. This arrangement, which of course
dent priests, 56; missions, 55; stations, 98; commu- deprived the bishops of St. Andrews of their quasi-
nities of men, 9, of women, 15; boarding schools, 14; primatial jurisdiction, remained in force until the
1 industrial school for Indians; boarding schools for ^bsequent erection of the see into an archbishopric.
Indians, S; primary schools, 60; hospitals, 11; hos- It was William Lamberton,'the twenty-third bishop
pices, 2; orphan asylums, 20. The great majority of of the diocese, who had the honour of seeing the
the Cree Indians have been converted to the Catholic cathedral completed, and solemnly consecrated in
Faith, and the Blackfeet have of late manifested bet- presence of King Robert Bruce on 5 July, 1318.
ter dispositions. French, English, German, and Polish- The building was 355 feet in length, and consisted
speaking Catholics have parishes or missions of their of a nave of twelve bays with aisles, north and south
own. Thousands of Galicians of the Greek Catholic transepts, each of three bays, with eastern aisles,
Rite have started three flourishing missions attended choir of five bays with aisles, and presbytery. Sixty
by Basilian Fathers of the same rite. A community years after the consecration it was partly destroyed
of nuns, belonging also to the Greek Catholic Church, by fire, but was completely restored before 1440.
has been founded to take charge of their schools and Bishop Lamberton built the beautiful chapter-house,
charitable institutions. which still exists, though roofless. Among Lamber-
The Diocese of St. Albert, after many years of al- ton'smost eminent successors were Henry Wardlaw,
most insurmountable obstacles and difficulties, has who founded the University of St. Andrews in 1411,
become one of the most promising of Western Canada. James Kennedy, founder of St. Salvator's College,
It is crossed by the transcontinental lines of the Cana- and Patrick Graham (Kennedy's half-brother), who
dian Pacific, the Grand Trunk Pacific and Canadian successfully resisted the claim revived by Arch-
Northern Railways, and towns and villages spring up bishop Neville of York to have the supremacy of that
almost everv ten miles. Immigrants come daily see over the Scottish Church recognized in Rome.
from all parts of the civilized world. Among them a So successful was Graham's protest, that Sixtus IV
fair proportion of Catholics take possession of the finally decided the question by a Bull, 27 August,
soil, settle on their homesteads, and new fields of mis- 1472, erecting the See of St. Andrews into an arch-
 SAINT ANDREWS 331 SAINT ANDREWS
bishopric, and its cathedral into the metropohtan 87, and of missions 51, served by 89 priests, including
church for the whole of Scotland. Twelve sees 77 secular priests, eight Jesuits, and four Oblates of
were assigned to St. Andrews as its suffragans, those Mary Immaculate. The last-named order has one
of Glasgow, Dunkeld, Aberdeen, Moray, Brechin, house in the diocese, and the Society of Jesus two.
Dunblane, Ross, Caithness, Orkney, Argyll, the The religious orders of women in the diocese comprise
Isles, and Galloway. The last-named bishopric had Ursuhnes of the Incarnation (whose convent, founded
hitherto been subject to York, while those of Orkney, in Edinburgh in 1835, was the first established in
Argyll, and the Isles had continued to form part Scotland since the Reformation); Sisters of Mercy
of the Province of Trondhjem in Norway. Pope Hix- (two houses); Little Sisters of the Poor; Sisters of
tus announced the new creation in letters addressed the Immaculate Conception; Sisters of Charity of
to James III and to the Scottish bishops, and he St. Vincent of Paul (four houses); Sisters of the
also conferred on the primate the office of Apostolic Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary; Poor Clares;
nuncio. The new metropolitan see, howc\'er, pre- Helpers of the Holy Souls; Religious of Marie R6-
served its unique position for barely twenty years. paratrice; Sisters of Charity of St. Paul (two houses);
Scotland was unanimous in demanding through — Sisters of the Holy Cross; Dominicans; and Carme-
its king, its chancellor, and its bishops that the — lites. The Catholic institutions are, a children's
ancient See of Glasgow should be similarly honoured refuge, industrial school and boys' orphanage, or-
and in 1492 Innocent VIII erected it also into an phanage for girls. House of Mercy for servants, home
archbishopric and separate province, with Dunkeld, for working boys. Sacred Heart Home for penitents,
Dunblane, Galloway, and Argyll as suffragans. dispensary and home for respectable girls, convales-
In 1496 James TV procured the nomination to St. cent home, and St. Vincent's Home for destitute
Andrews first of his brother, the Duke of Ross, and, children. The number of congregational day-schools
after his death (by is fifty, and the
an abuse too com- average attendance
mon in those times) of children at them
of his own natural between 10,000 and
son, Alexander 11,000. The great
Stuart, a boy of six- majority of the Cath-
teen.

Flodden
The youthful
archbishop

fighting by
in

ther's side.
fell
1513,
his
He was
at

fa-

Wf^
w '111
m-'' B^jj^i '^'
*]W"'!r"i' j^B^^" "'
M
olics of the diocese
(certainly over 90 per
cent) are of Irish
origin and parent-
age of the remainder
;

followed successively
by Archbishops For-
^^tBBw^SI many are Italians
(chiefly from Naples)
man, James and
David (Cardinal)
Beaton, and Hamil-
ton. At the period
immediately preced-
ing the Reformation
and the spoliation of
the ancient Church,
theecclesiastical
fi
,'*';.-.'
^^"^^mt
^^^^
RuiNB OF THE CATHEDRAL, St. AndHEWS, XIV CeNTURT
Poles, and Lithua-
nians, the latter en-
gaged for the most
part as miners. The
Poles tend to become
absorbed in the na-
tive population, usu-
ally discarding their
Polish names. The
primate included two archdeaconries,
jurisdiction of the material progress in the diocese, in the way of church
nine rural deaneries, the patronage of 131 benefices, building, has been noteworthy in recent years. In 1859
and the administration of 245 parishes. Archbishop there was one church in the capital half a century later
;

Hamilton (q. v.) was hanged at Stirling (in his there were eight; and churches have recently been built
pontifical vestments) on 5 April, 1571; and though in different parts of the diocese of considerable architec-
the few remaining members of his cathedral chapter tural merit, several of them being the finest ecclesias-
duly elected Robert Hay as his successor, he was never tical edifices in their respective towns. The archi-
consecrated, and the See of St. Andrews remained episcopal residence is in Edinburgh, where is also the
vacant for three hundred and seven years. cathedral of the diocese. The grand old cathedral of
For nearly a century the scattered Catholics of the St. Andrews was wrecked by the Protestant mob
former archdiocese were under the jurisdiction of the (Knox's "rascal multitude") in 1559; and though
English prefects and vicars Apostolic; but in 1653 efforts were made by the Protestant Archbishop
a prefect of the Scottish Mission (\\'illiam Ballan- Spottiswoode and others to restore it, it became a total
tyne) was appointed by the Holy See. Forty years ruin. Nothing now remains of it but the south wall
later the first vicar Apostolic for Scotland (Bishop of the nave, a fragment of the beautiful west front,
Nicholson) was consecrated in Paris. The country the eastern gable with its flanking turrets, portions
was divided into two vicariates in 1726, a Highland of the transept and some of the pier bases. The
and a Lowland, and just a hundred years later Leo present archbishop is the Most Rev. James A.
XII added a third, the Eastern, including the whole Smith, b. in Edinburgh, 1841, ordained in Rome,
of the former Archdiocese of St. Andrews. At 1866, and consecrated Bishop of Dunkeld in 1890.
length, on 4 March, 1878, the regular hierarchy was He was translated to the See of Saint Andrews
restored by Leo XIII. and Edinburgh in 1901. The last Protestant arch-
The CathoUc Diocese of St. Andrews and Edin- bishop died in 1704; and the title remained unused
burgh, as defined in the Apostolic Letter "Ex Supremo until 1844, when it was revived by the episcopalian
Apostolatus Apice" of 4 March, 1878, comprises the synod.
counties of Edinburgh, Berwick, Fife (southern Reoistrum Prioratus S. Andrea (Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh,
part), Haddington, Linlithgow, Peebles, Roxburgh, 1841): Brady, Episcopal Succession in England, Scotland, and
Ireland (Rome, 1876); hYOJf, History of St. Andrews [HAinhuTih,
Selkirk,^ and (practically) Stirlingshire. The entire 1813); FoRDUN, Scotichronicon (ed. Goodall, Edinburgh, 1759);
population of this portion of Scotland, according to Keith, Historical Catalogue of Scottish Bishops (Edinburgh, 1824);
the latest census, amounts to nearly 870,000, and the Theiner, Annates Ecclesiastici (Rome, 1856); Mackenzie-
Walcott, The Ancient Church of Scotland (London, 1874);
number of Catholics is estimated at 63,000, or about Lang, St. Andrews (London, 1893) Bellebheim, Hist, of the
;

seven per cent of the whole. The number of churches, Catholic Church of Scotland (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1887-90).
chapels, and stations at the beginning of 1911 was D. O. Huntee-Blaie.
 SAINT ANDREWS 332 SAINT ASAPH
Saint Andrews, University or. —The germ of who had previously been given the option to become
the university is to be found in an association of canons and had refused, were removed and all their
learned ecclesiastics, formed in 1410, among whom rights passed to the canons, who from that moment
were: Laurence of Lindores, Abbot of Scone, Richard till the Reformati(m formed the Cathedral Chapter.

Cornwall, Archdeacon of Lothian, Wm. Stephen, When in 1297 Bishop Lamberton, who succeeded
afterwards Archbishop of Dunblane. They offered Bishop Fraser, was chosen by the canons without the
courses of lectures in divinity, logic, philosophy, intervention of the Culdees, as was done in the two
canon and civil law. Henry ^\'ardlaw, the Bishop of previous elections, Cumyn, Provost of the Culdees,
St. Andrews, granted a charter of privilege in 1411; opposed the election and went to Rome. He pleaded
he sought a Bull of foundation from the antipope, his case before the pope in vain, and Lamberton was
Benedict XIII, whose legate he was and whose claims consecrated bishop in 1298. The Culdees, after this,
Scotland supported. The Bull was granted in 1413; disappear from St. Andrews altogether. The priory
it was confirmed by royal charter of James I in 1532. protected by bishops, kings, and noble families pros-
The five-hundredth anniversary of the foundation pered, and like all the great monasteries it had cells
was celebrated in 1911. The university consisted of or priories as its dependencies. These were (1 ) Loch- :

three colleges: St. Salvator's, founded in 1450 by leven, formerly a house of Culdees, and given to the
Bishop James Kennedy, confirmed and further priv- canons by Bishop Robert and King David; (2) Mony-
ileged by Popes Nicholas V, Pius II, and Paul II; musk, where the Culdees became canons regular; (3)
St. Leonard's, founded by Archbishop Stuart and Isle of May, which Bishop Wishart bought from the
Prior Hepburn in 1512; and St. Mary's, founded by monks of Reading and gave to the canons of St.
Archbishop James Beaton, under sanction of Paul Andrews, 'pleno jure; (4) Pittenweem, an old priory,
III, in 1537. This occupied the site of the original which already existed in 1270; (5) Portmoak, founded
pedagogy. All the foundations were amply supported in S3S for Culdees and given to St. Andrews by Bishop
by successive endowment. The college buildings Roger. Kilrimont was made over to the canons by
escaped when the churches of St. Andrews were de- Bishop Robert, who also gave them the hospital "in
molished by the reformers, but it was not until 1574 susoeptionem hospitum et peregrinorum On account
'
' .

that the university began to recover. At the same of his position as Superior of the Cathedral Chapter,
time that Andrew Melville (a St. Andrews' student) the prior pro tempore had precedence of all the abbots
was re-erecting the university at Glasgow, a commis- in the kingdom. To the canons of St. Andrews the
sion, inspired by George Buchanan, began a series of now famous university of that name owes its existence.
reforms at St. Andrews, which intermittently con- It was founded by Prior Biset and his canons in 1408,
tinued throughout the seventeenth century. In 1747 and many of them lectured there. Some of the canons
St. Salvator's and St. Leonard's Colleges were united. became bishops of St. Andrews or of other dioceses,
The university was further enlarged and strength- and in other ways distinguished themselves for their
ened by the affiliation in 1897 of University College, piety or learning. Of Bishop Robert the chronicler
Dundee, at which the scientific departments are tells us that he was a man of rare prudence, virtuous,
chiefly conducted. A proposal bv the Marquess of and a scholar. In 1349, when the black plague made
Bute (rector 1S92-98) to affiliate Blair's College, so many victims. Abbot Bower records the death of
Aberdeen, was unsuccessful. Among the famous twenty-four canons of St. Andrews, who, as he says,
professors and students in St. Andrews of the earlier were all "sufficienter litterati et morum conspioui"
period must be named John Major, Andrew Melville, When in 1412 the new parish church was founded by
Gavin Douglas, George Buchanan, Patrick Forbes, the canons, the first incumbent was one of them, W.
Napier of Merchiston; its leaders and its alumni Romer, "vir multum laudabilis religiosus et benig-
played a great part in Si'ottish ecclesiastical politics nus" Bishop Bell, returning from Rome, became a
of the seventeenth centurj', most notably Zachary canon at St. Andrews, where he died in 1342. But
Boyd, \\'m. Carstares, principal of the University of evil days came for the priory when lay-priors or com-
Edinburgh, and Samuel Rutherford. During the last mendatories were introduced; relaxations and irreg-
century St. Andrews can show a long list of distin- ularities crept in, and the Reformation completed the
guished scientists and men of letters. The total num- work of destruction. Instigated by the fiery preaching
ber of students (1909-10) was 571, of whom 247 of John Knox, his followers burnt down the cathedral
were women; University College, Dundee, contrib- and the priory. A few years ago the late Marquess
uted 214 of the total. of Bute purchased the remaining ruins with a view
St. Andrews* University Calendar (1910-11); Anderson, to restore them to Catholic use.
The Univ(rsitii of St. Andrews, a Historical Sketch (1878); Rash- Martine, Reliquice S. Andrew, or the state of the venerable, and
DALL, JJnixersitii'S nf Europe in the Miihltc Aqi.^ (Oxford, I8O.0),
Primatial See of St. Andrew* s; Fordun-Bower, Scotichronicon
295; Cooper, Diet. Nat. Biog., 3. v. Andrew Melville; Lyon, His- (Edinburgh, 1759); Gordon, Monasticon (1875); History of
tory of St. Andrews (Edinburgh, 1843).
Holyrood (Edinburgh). A. AlLARIA.
J. S. Phillimoke.
Saint Asaph, Ancient Diocese of (Assavensis,
Saint Andrews, Priory op, was one of the great originally Elviensis), was founded by St. Kentigern
religious houses in Scotland and the metropolitan about the middle of the sixth century when he was
church in that country before the Reformation. Its exiled from his see in Scotland. He founded a monas-
origin is uncertain, although all agree that it must be tery called Llanelwy at the confluence of the Clwyd
very ancient. According to the "Registrum S. An- and Elwy in North Wales, where after his return to
dres", the first founder was Angus, King of the Scotland in 573 he was succeeded by Asaph or Asa,
(Picts 735-747), who gave to Bishop Regulus, who who was consecrated Bishop of Llanelwy. The
had brought to Scotland the relics of St. Andrew, diocese originally coincided with the principality of
meadows, fields, and other properties. The church Powys, but lost much territory first by the Mercian
was, perhaps from the beginning, administered by encroachment marked by Watt's dyke and again by
Culdecs, who also had the right of electing the bishop. the construction of Offa's dyke, soon after 798.
In 1144, however, at the request of King Alexander I, Nothing is known of the history of the diocese during
who may be called the second founder of the priory the disturbed period that followed. Domesday Book
on account of his many donations to it, Robert, Prior gives scanty particulars of a few churches but is
of Scone, was made Bishop of St. Andrews. He silent as to the cathedral. Early in the twelfth cen-
brought with him some of his brother-canons regular, tury Norman influence asserted itself and in 1143
whom he established in the priory. For some time Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, consecrated
the canons and the Culdees served the church to- one Gilbert as Bishop of St. Asaph, but the position
gether, but by order of tlie pope in 1147 the Culdees, of his successors was very difficult and one of them,
 SAINT AUGUSTINE 333 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY

Godfrey, was driven away by poverty and the hos- propriated by Henry VIII as a royal palace, but since
tility of the Welsh. A return made in the middle that time the greater part of the buildings have been
of the thirteenth century (British Museum, Cotton allowed gradually to fall to ruin. In 1844 the re-
MSS. Vitellius, c. x.) shows the existence of eight mains of the abbey were sold at public auction and
rural deaneries, seventy-nine churches, and nineteen on the site was erected a college for missionaries of
«hapels. By 1291 the deaneries had been doubled the Church of England. The revenues of the abbey
in number and there were Cistercian houses at at the time of its suppression were £1684.
Basingwerk, Aberconway, Strata Marcella, and Tanneb, Notitia Monastica (London, 1744); Duodale, Mo-
nasticon Anglicanum (London, 1817-30) Customary of St Augus-
Valle Crucis, and a Cistercian nunnery at Llanllugan.
;

tine's Abbey (ed. Thompson), XXIII, Henry Bradshaw Society's

The cathedral, which had been burnt in the wars, publications (London, 1902).
was rebuilt and completed in 1295. It was a plain G. Cyprian Alston.
massive structure of simple plan, and was again
Saint Augustine, Diocese op. See Florida.
destroyed during the Wars of the Roses, ^^'hen it
was restored by Bishop Redman the palace was not Saint Bartholomew's Day.— This massacre of
rebuilt and thus the bishops continued to be non- which Protestants were the victims occurred in Paris
resident. At the end of the fifteenth century there on 24 August, 1572 (the feast of St. Bartholomew),
was a great revival of church building, as is evidenced and in the provinces of France during the ensuing
by the churches of that date still existing in the weeks, and it has been the subject of knotty historical
diocese. The chief shrines in the diocese were St. disputes. The first point argued was whether or not
Winefred's Well, St. Garmon in Yale, St. Dervel the massacre had been premeditated by the French
Gadarn in Edeimion, St. Monacella at Pennant, and Court, Sisrnondi, Sir James Mackintosh, and Henri
the Holy Cross in Strata Marcella. All these were Bordier maintaining that it had, and Ranke, Henri
demolished at the Reformation. At that time the Martin, Henry White, Loiseleur, H. de la Ferri4re, and
diocese contained one archdeaconry, sixteen deaneries, the Abb6 Vaoandard, that it had not. The second
and one hundred and twenty-one parishes. question debated was the extent to which the court of
The names and succession of the bishops after Sts. Rome was responsible for this outrage. At present
Kentigern and Asaph are not known until 1143. For only a few over-zealous Protestant historians claim
five hundred years the only names we meet with are that the Holy See was the accomplice of the French
Tysilio (about 600), Renchidus (about 800), Cebur Court this view implies their belief in the premedita-
:

(about 928), and Melanus (about 1070). From 1143 tion] of the massacre, which is now denied by the
the succession is as follows: Gilbert (1143); GeofTrey majority of historians. For the satisfactory solution of
of Monmouth (1152); Richard (1154); Godfrey the question it is necessary to distinguish carefully
(1158); Adam (1175); John I (1183); Reyner between the attempted murder of Coligny on 22
(1186); Abraham (1225); Hugh (1235); Howel ap August and his assassination on the night of 23-24
Ednyfed (1240); Anian I (1249); John II (1267); Augustj and the general massacre of Protestants.
Anian II (1268); Llewelyn ap Ynyr (Leolinus de The idea of a summary execution of the Protestant
Bromfield), 1293; Davydd ap Bleddyn (1314); leaders, which would be the means of putting an end
John Trevor I (1352); Llewelyn ap Madoc (1357); to the civil discord that had caused three "religious
William de Spridlington (1376); Lawrence Child wars" in France in 1562-1563, 1567-1568, and 1569-
(1382); Alexander Bache (1390); John Trevor II 1570 respectively, had long existed in the mind of
(1395); Robert de Lancaster (1411); John Lowe Catherine de' Medici, widow of Henry II and mother
(1433); Reginald Pecock (1444); Thomas Knight of the three successive kings, Francis II, Charles IX,
(1450); Richard Redman (1471); Michael Diacon and Henry III; it had also been entertained by her
(1495); Da\'ydd ap lorwerth (1500); Davydd ap sons. As early as 1560 Michaelis Suriano, the Vene-
Owen (1503); Edmund Birkhead (1513); Henry tian ambassador, wrote: "Francis II (1559-1560)
Standish (1518); see held by schismatics (1535-55); wanted to fall upon the Protestant leaders, punish
Thomas Goldwell (1555), who died at Rome 13 them without mercy and thus extinguish the confla-
April, 1585, not only the last Catholic Bishop of St. gration. " When, in 1565, Catherine de' Medici with
Asaph's, but the last survivor of the ancient hier- her son Charles IX (1560-1574) and her daughters
archy. The bishop had five episcopal residences, Margaret of Valois and Ehzabeth, wife of Philip II,
four of which were alienated by the schismatioal investigated the political and religious questions of the
bishop under Edward VI. The cathedral was ded- hour at the conferences of Bayonne, the Duke of Alba,
icated to St. Asaph and the arms of the see were who was present on these occasions, wrote to Philip II
sable, two keys in saltire argent. " A way to be rid of the five, or at most six, who are at
Thomas, History of St. Asaph, diocesan, cathedral and parochial
(London, 1874); Idem, .S'^. Asaph in Diocesan Histories (Lon- the head of the faction and direct it, would be to seize
don, 1888); Walcott, Memorials of St. Asaph (London, 1865); their persons and cut off their heads or at least to con-
Willis, Survey of St. Asaph (2 vols., Wrexham, 1801) Wharton,
;
fine them where it would be impossible for them to re-
Historia de episcopis et decanis Londinencibus necnon Assavensibus
new their criminal plots." Just at that time Alava on
(London, 169S). EdwIN BurTON. his side confided to the same Spanish king this dark
forecast, "I foresee that these heretics will be com-
—
Saint Augustine, Abbey of. A Benedictine mon- pletely wiped out". In 1569 Cathohcs and Protes-
astery, originally dedicated to Sts. Peter and Paul, tants were in arms one against the other, and the Vene-
founded in 605 outside of the City of Canterbury, tian ambassador, Giovanni Carrero, remarked: "It is
on the site of the earlier Church of St. Pancras given the common opinion that, in the beginning it would
by King Ethelbert to St. Augustine in 597. It have sufficed to do away with five or six heads and no
was subsequently enlarged, and in 978 St. Dunstan, more". This same year Parliament promised a re-
then Archbishop of Canterbury, dedicated it anew to ward of 50,000 ecus to whoever would apprehend the
St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. Augustine, since which Admiral de Coligny (1517-72), leader of the Calvin-
time it has always been known by the name of the ist party, the king adding that this sum would be
latter saint whose body lay enshrined in the crypt of awarded to him who would deliver up the admiral
the abbey church. In spite of its proximity to the either alive or dead Maurevel tried to overtake the
neighbouring cathedral priory of Christ Church, the admiral for the purpose of killing him but instead
abbey precincts covered much ground and the mon- only assassinated one of his lieutenants. Thus we see
astery was of considerable importance for many cen- that the idea of a summary execution of the leaders of
turies. At the dissolution in 1538 the act of surrender Protestantism was in the air from 1560 to 1570; more-
was signed by the abbot and thirty monks, who were over, it was conformable to the doctrine of political
rewarded with pensions. The abbey itself was ap- murder as it flourished during the sixteenth century
 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S 334 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S
when the principles of social morality and Christian ministers at Paris, and that the latter conferred with
pohtics elaborated by the theology of the Middle Catherine and the Duke of Anjou, even offering them
A^es, were replaced by the lay and half-pagan doc- military assistance for the struggle against the
trine of Machiavellianism, proclaiming the right of the Protestants. This intervention caused Catherine to
strongest or the most craf1>'. plan Coligny's assassination, and at a meeting to
The peace signed at Saint-Germain, August, 1570, which she called Madame de Nemours, widow of the
between the Court and the Protestants seemed to re- great Duke of Guise, it was decided that Maurevel
estabUsh order. It was sanctioned by conferences should set a trap for the admiral. This was done
held at La Rochelle in which on the one side a war with the result that on the morning of 22 August a
was planned against Phihp II, all the Calvinist nobil- musket-shot fired by Maurevel struck Cohgny, al-
ity being supposed to enlist; and on the other, the though wounding him but slightly. The Protestants
marriage of Henry of Bourbon (the future King became excited and Charles IX grew angry, declaring
Henry IV), a Calvinist and the son of Jeanne of that the peace edict must be observed. He went to
Albret, with Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX. visit the wounded Coligny and Catherine accom-
On 12 September, 1571, the Admiral de Cohgny came panied him, but at Cohgny's request she had to with-
to Blois, where Charles IX resided, to superintend draw and, if we may credit the account given by the
and further this new policy, and it would seem that Duke of Anjou (Henry III), the admiral, lowering
just at that time the king was sincere in seeking the his voice, warned Charles IX against his mother's
support of Coligny and the Protestants against influence. But just at that moment Charles had but
Philip II. And Catherine de' Medici was shrewdly one idea, which was to find and punish Henry of
endeavouring to court favour on all sides. Upon Guise, whom he suspected of being the instigator if
hearing of Spain's victory at Lepanto (7 October, not the perpetrator of the attempt on Coligny's life.
1571), she remonstrated with Charles IX for his lack It was because the attack made on Cohgny, 22
of policy in severing relations with Philip II; and in August, had failed that Catherine conceived the idea
June, 1572, she tried to arrange a marriage between of a general massacre. "If the Admiral had died
her third son, the Duke of Alengon, and the Protestant from the shot," wrote Salviati, the nuncio, "no
Elizabeth of England, and also made active prepara- others would have been killed." Those historians
tions for the marriage of Margaret of Valois with who claim the massacre to have been premeditated
Henry of Bourbon, taking every means to have it explain that Catherine had the marriage of Margaret
solemnized in Paris. Meanwhile Coligny, with money and Henry of Bourbon solemnized in Paris in order
which Charles IX had given him unknown to Cath- to bring the Protestant leaders there for the purpose
erine, sent 4000 men to the relief of Mens, who was of murdering them. However, this interpretation ig.
at the time besieged by the Duke of Alba. They were based merely upon a very doubtful remark attributed
beaten (11 July, 1572) and the Duke of Alba, having to Cardinal Alessandrino and of which we shall speak
ascertained that Charles IX was instrumental in the later on, and it was certainly unlike Catherine, who
attempt to defeat him, thenceforth entertained the was always more inclined to placate the various parties
most hostile feeling toward the French King. Charles by dint of subtle manoeuvring them, after careful
IX, greatly irritated, made open preparations for war deliberation, to inaugurate a series of irreparable out-
against Spain, relying on Coligny for assistance. rages. As we shall see, the decision to have recourse
Suddenly, on 4 August, Catherine made her way to to a massacre arose in Catherine's mind under pressure
Charles IX, who was then hunting at Montripeau, of a sort of madness; she saw in this decision a means,
and insisted that unless he would give up the conflict of preserving her influence over the king and of pre-
with Philip II she would withdraw to Florence, taking venting the vengeance of Protestants, who were exas-
with her the Duke of Anjou. A conference was held perated by the attack made on Coligny. "The Ad-
and Coligny, with the idea of sustaining his co- miral's death was premeditated, that of the others
religionists in Flanders, demanded war with Spain, was sudden," wrote Don Diego de Zuniga to Philip II,
but the council unanimously refused it. Then with on 6 September, 1572. Herein lies the exact differ-
rash audacity Coligny declared to the king and to ence the attempt on Coligny's life was premeditated
:

Catherine that if war were not waged against Spain, whereas the massacre was the outcome of a cruel
another war might be expected. From this Catherine impulse. On the night of 22 August Catherine de'
deduced that the Protestant party, with the admiral Medici felt herself lessened in her son's consideration.
for spokesman, threatened the King of France with She learned from one Bouchavannes that the Hugue-
a religious war which would be the fourth within ten nots had decided to meet at Meaux, 5 September,
years. and avenge Coligny's attempted murder by marching
At the time of the marriage of Hem-y of Bourbon on Paris; she knew that the Catholics were preparing
and iNIargaret of Valois (l.'> August), the situation was to defend themselves, and she foresaw that between
us follows: on the one side were the Guises with their both parties the king would be alone and powerless.
tronps, and on the other Coligny and his musketeers, At supper she heard Pardaillan, a Huguenot, say that
while Charles IX, although recognizing both parties, justice would be rendered even if the king would not
leaned more towards Cohgny, and Catherine favoured render it, and Captain Piles, another Huguenot, was
the Guises with a view to revenging herself on Coligny of the opinion that "even if the Admiral lost an arm
and reoo\'cring her influence over Charles IX. Just there would be numberless others who would take
at this time PhiUp II was of the opinion that the King so many Hves that the rivers of the kingdom would
of France should strike a decisive blow against the run with blood" The threats of the Huguenots and
Protestants, and we have proof of this in a letter her son's consternation impeUed Catherine to try to
written to Cardinal Como, Secretary of State to avert this civil war by organizing an immediate
Gregory XIII, by the Archbishop of Rossano, nuncio massacre of the Protestants.
in Spain. "The King (Philip II) bids me say", wrote But Charles IX had to be won over. In the account
the nuncio, "that if his Most Christian iSIajesty of the dreadful events subsequently given by the
means to purge his kingdom of its enemies, the time Duke of Anjou, he alludes to a single conversation
is now opportune, and that tiy coming to terms with between Catherine and Charles IX on 23 August,
him (Philip II) His Majesty could destroy those who but Tavannes and Margaret of Valois mention two,
are left. Now, especially, as the Admiral is at Paris the second of which took place late at night. As to
where the people are attached to the Catholic religion the decisive inter\'iew there is conflicting testimony.
and to their king, it would l)e easy for him (Charles The Duke of Anjou claims that Charles IX, suddenly
IX to do away with him (Coligny) forever." It is
I converted to the cause by Catherine's ardent im-
probable that Philip II sent similar suggestions to his portuning, cried out: "Good God! since you deem it
 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S 335 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S

well to kill theAdmiral, I agree, but all the Huguenots being slaughtered Henry of Bourbon and the Prince
in France must likewise perish, so that not one be left of Coridg were ordered to appear before the king,
later to upbraid me." Cavalli, the Venetian Am- who tried to make them abjure, but they refused.
bassador, maintained in his report that the king held After that the massacre spread through Paris, and
out for an hour and a half, finally yielding because of Cruc6, a goldsmith, Koerver, a bookseller, and Pezou,
Catherine's threat to leave France and the fear that a butcher, battered in the doors of the Huguenot
his brother, the Duke of Anjou, might be named houses. A tradition, long credited, claims that
captain-general of the CathoUcs. Margaret of Valois Charles IX stationed himself on a balcony of the
stated in her account that it was Rets, his former Louvre and fired upon his subjects; Brantome, how-
tutor, whom Catherine sent to reason with him, who ever, supposed that the king took aim from the win-
eventually succeeded in obtaining the king's consent. dows of his sleeping apartment. But nothing is more
Is it then true, as certain documents claim, that, uncertain as the balcony on which he was said to have
toward midnight, Charles IX again hesitated? Per- stood was not there in 1572, and in none of the accounts
haps. At any rate, it was he who, on 2-1 August, a of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew sent to their
little after midnight, ordered Le Charron, Prevot des governments by the various diplomatists then in
Marchands, in charge of the Paris police, to call to Paris does this detail figure. It was first mentioned
arms the captains and bourgeois of the quarters in in a book published at Basel in 1573: "Dialogue
order that he (the king) and the city might be pro- auquel sont trait^es plusieurs choses advenues aux
tected against the Huguenot conspirators. Catherine Luth^riens et Huguenots de France" and reprinted
and the Duke of Anjou had previously secured the in 1574 under the title: "Le reveille matin des
assistance of Marcel, former Prevot des Marchands. Frangais". This libel is the work of Barnaud, a
Whilst Le Charron, without any great enthusiasm, native of Dauphin^, a Protestant greatly dishked by
marshalled the bourgeoisie who were to quell a his co-religionists, and whose calumnies caused a
possitjle uprising of Huguenots, Marcel drew up the Protestant nobleman to insult him in public. The
masses, over whom he had unlimited influence, and "Tocsin contre les auteurs du Massacre de France",
who, together with the royal troops, were to attack another narration of the Massacre of St. Bartholo-
and plunder the Huguenots. The royal troops were mew, that appeared in 1579, makes no allusion to
especially commissioned to kill the Huguenot nobles; this sinister pastime of Charles IX, and the accounts
the mob, mobilized by Marcel, was to threaten the given of it twenty years afterwards by Brantome and
bourgeois troops in case the latter should venture d'Aubigng do not agree. Moreover, the anecdote
to side with the Huguenots. Charles IX and Cath- quoted by Voltaire, according to which the Mar^chal
erine decided that the massacre should not begin in de Tess6 had known a gentleman then over a hundred
the city till the admiral had been slain, and after- years old who was supposed to have loaded Charles
wards Catherine claimed that she took upon her con- IX's musket, is extremely doubtful, and the absolute
science the blood of only six of the dead, Coligny and silence of those diplomatists who addressed to their
five others; however, having deliberately fired the respective governments detailed reports of the
passions of the multitude, over whom Marcel had massacre must ever remain a strong argument against
absolute control, she should be held responsible for this tradition.
aU the blood shed. On the following morning blood flowed in streams;
—
The Massacre. Toward midnight the troops took the houses of the rich were pillaged regardless of the
up arms in and around the Louvre, and Coligny's religious opinions of their owners. "To be a Hugue-
abode was surrounded. A little before daybreak the not," emphatically declares M^zeray, the historian,
sound of a pistol-shot so terrified Charles IX and his "was to have money, enviable position, or avaricious
mother that, in a moment of remorse, they despatched heirs." When at eleven o'clock in the morning the
a nobleman to Guise to bid him refrain from any Prevot Le Charron came to inform the king of this
attack on the admiral, but the order came too late, epidemic of crime, an edict was issued forbidding a
Coligny had already been slain. Scarcely had the continuation of the slaughter; but the massacre was
Duke of Guise heard the bell of Saint-Germain prolonged for several days more, and on 25 August
I'Auxerrois than he started with a few men toward Ramus, the celebrated philosopher, was assassinated
the CoUgny mansion. Besme, one of the duke's in spite of the formal prohibition of the king and
intimates, went up to the admiral's room. "Are you queen. The number of victims is unknown. Thirty-
Cohguy?" he asked. "I am," the admiral replied. five livres were paid to the grave-diggers of the Ceme-
"Young man, you should respect my years. How- tery of the Innocents for the interment of 1100
ever, do as you please;
you will not be shortening my corpses; but many were thrown into the Seine. Ranke
life to any great extent." Besme plunged a dagger and Henri Martin estimate the number of victims in
into the admiral's breast and flung his body out of Paris at 2000. In the provinces also massacres oc-
the window. The Bastard of Angouleme and the curred. On the evening of 24 August, a messenger
Duke of Guise, who were without, kicked the corpse brought to the Provost of Orleans a letter bearing the
and an Italian, a servant of the Duke of Nevers, cut royal seal and ordering him to treat all Huguenots
off its head. Immediately the king's guards and the hke those of Paris and to exterminate them, taking
'

nobles on the side of the Guises slew all the Protestant care to let nothing leak out and by shrewd dissimula-
nobles whom Charles IX, but a few days previously, tion to surprise them all". Only that day the king
when he wanted to protect the admiral against the had written to M. d'Eguilly, Governor of Chartres,
intrigues of the Guises, had carefully lodged in the that there was question merely of a quarrel between
admiral's neighbourhood. La Rochefoucauld, with Guise and Coligny. On 25 August an order was is-
whom that very night Charles IX had jested till sued to kill the factious; on the next day the king
eleven o'clock, was stabbed by a masked valet; solemnly announced in open session that his decision
Teligny, Coligny's son-in-law, was killed on a roof of 24 August was the only means of frustrating the
by a musket-shot, and the Seigneur de la Force and plot; on 27 August he again began to prohibit all
one of his sons had their throats cut, the other son, murder; and on the following day he solemnly de-
a child of twelve, remaining hidden beneath their clared that the punishment of the admiral and his ac-
corpses for a day. The servants of Henry of Bourbon complices was due not to their religion but to their
and the Prince of Cond6 who dwelt in the Louvre conspiracy against the Court, and he despatched^ let-
Were murdered under the vestibule by Swiss mercen- ters bidding the governors to repress the factionists;
aries. One nobleman fled to the apartment of Mar- on 30 August he ordered the people of Bourges to kill
garet, who had just married Henry of Bourbon, and any Huguenots who should congregate, but revoked
she obtained his pardon. Whilst their servants were " all verbal commands that he had issued when he had
 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S 336 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S

just cause to fear some sinister event". In this follows to the Cardinals of Bourbon and Lorraine:
scries of contradictory instructions may be detected "The King have more to fear from the hidden
will
the ever-slumbering antagonism between Catherine's traps and knavishness of the heretics than from their
fixedness of purpose and the vacillation of Charles IX, barefaced brigandage during the war. " What Pius V
but almost o\'ci-j'\vhere in the country the policy of wanted was an honest, open war waged by Charles IX
bloodshed prevailed. and the Guises against the Huguenots. On 10 May,
The general opinion throughout France was that 1567, he said to the Spanish Ambassador, Don Juan de
the king had to kill CoUgny and the turbulent in self- Luniga: "The masters of France are meditating some-
defence. President de Thou publicly praised Charles thing which I can neither advise nor approve and
IX; Attorney-General du Faur de Pibrac wrote an which conscience upbraids they want to destroy by
:

apology for the massacre; Jodelle, Baif, and Daurat, underhand means the Prince of Conde and the Ad-
poets of the "Pleiade", insulted the admiral in their miral." To re-establish political peace and religious
verse; a suit was entered in the Parleinent against Co- unity by the royal sword was the inexorable dream of
hgny and his accomplices whether living or dead, and Pius V who must not be judged according to our mod-
its immediate result was the hanging of Briquemaut ern standards of toleration; but this end, worthy as he
and Cavaignes, two Protestants who had escaped the deemed it, could not justify the proposed means of at-
massacre. This protracted severity on the part of the tainment; he would sanction no intriguing, and five
Parlement of Paris set the pace for outside places, years previous to the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's
and in many places an excess of zeal led to an in- Day, he disapproved the dishonest "means" by
crease of brutality. Lyons, Toulouse, Bordeaux, and which Catherine dreamed of getting rid of Coligny.
Rouen all had their massacres. So many Lyonese B. Cardinal Alessandrino, sent from the Holy See to
corpses drifted down the Rhdne to Aries that, for three Paris, in 1572. —Some historians have wondered
months, the Arlesians did not want to drink the river whether Cardinal Alessandrino, sent by Pius V to
water. At Bayonne and at Nantes compliance with Charles IX in February, 1572, to persuade the king to
royal orders was refused. The intervals between join a Catholic league against the Turks, was not an
these massacres prove that on the first day the Court accomplice in Catherine's murderous designs. In
did not issue formal orders in all directions; for in- February Alessandrino, who had vainly endeavoured
stance, the Toulouse massacre did not occur till 23 to prevent the marriage of Margaret of Valois with the
September and that of Bordeaux till 3 October. The Protestant Henry of Bourbon, closed his report with
number of victims in the provinces is unknown, the these words: "I am leaving France without accom-
figures varying between 2000 and 100,000. The plishing anything whatever: I might as well not have
"Martyrologe des Huguenots", published in 1.581, come. " Let us be mindful of this tone of discourage-
brings it up to 15,138, but mentions only 786 dead. ment, this acknowledgement of failure. In March he
At any rate only a short time afterwards the re- wrote: "I have other special matters to report to His
formers were preparing for a fourth civil war. Holiness but I shall communicate them orally. .
."
.

From the foregoing considerations it follows: (1) When the cardinal returned to Rome Pius V was dy-
That the royal decision of which the St. Bartholomew ing, and he expired without learning what were the
massacre was the outcome, was in nowise the result of "special matters" to which Alessandrino had alluded.
religious disturbances and, strictly, did not even have Whatever they may have been they certainly have no
religious incentives; the massacre was rather an en- bearing upon the conclusion that Pius V had been pre-
tirely political act committed in the name of the im- viously informed of the massacre. A life of this pon-
moral principles of Machiavellianism against a faction tiff, published in 1587 by Girolamo Catena, gives a

that annoyed the Court. (2) That the massacre it- conversation that took place a long time afterwards
self was not premeditated; that, up to 22 August, between Alessandrino and Clement VIII in which the
—
Catherine do' Medici had only considered and that cardinal spoke of his former ambassadorship. When
for a long time — the possibility of getting rid of Co- he was endeavouring to dissuade the king from Mar-
ligny; that the criminal attack made on Coligny was garet's marriage to Henry, the king said: " I have no
interpreted by the Protestants as a declaration of war, other means of revenging myself on my enemies and
and that, in the face of impending danger, Catherine the enemies of God. " This fragment of the interview
forced the irresolute Charles IX to consent to the has furnished those who hold that the massacre was
horrible massacre. Such, then, are the conclusions to premeditated with a reason for maintaining that the
be kept in ^ic\v when entering upon the discussion of solemnizing of the nuptials in Paris was a snare pre-
that other question, the responsibility of the Holy See. arranged with the concurrence of the papal nuncio.
The Holy See and the Massacre. A. Pius V— The most reliable critics contest the perfect authentic-
—
(loGG-Maij 1, 1573). Pius \, being constantly in- ity of this interview, chiefly because of the very tardy
formed in regard to the civil wars in France and the account of it and of its utter incompatibility with the
massacres and depredations there committed, looked discouragement manifested in Alessandrino's notes
upon the Huguenots as a party of rebels who weak- written the day after the conversation had taken
ened and divided the French Kingdom just when place. The arguments against the thesis of premedi-
Christianity required the strength of unity in order to tation as we have considered them one by one, seem
strike an effective blow against the Turks. In 15f>!) to us sufficiently plausible to permit us to exclude all
he had sent Charles IX 6000 men under the command hypothesis according to which, six months ahead of
of Sforza, Count of Santa-Fiore, to help the royal time, Alessandrino was confidentially apprised of the
troops in the third religious war; he had rejoiced over outrage.
the victory at Jarnac (12 March, 1569), and on 28 —
C. Salviati, Nuncio at Paris in 157S. At the time
March had written to Catherine de' Medici: "If of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Salviati, a rela-
Your Majesty continues openly and freely to fight tive of Catherine de' Medici, was the pope's nuncio at
{aperle ac libere) the enemies of the Catholic Church Paris. In December, 1571, Pius Vhad entrusted him
unto their utter destruction, divine help will never fail with a first extraordinary mission, and at the time
you." After the Battle of Moncontour in October, Catherine, according to what was subsequently re-
1569, he had begged the king thenceforth to tolerate lated by the Venetian Ambassador, Michaeh, "had
in his states the exercise of Catholicism only; "other- secretly bade him tell Pius V that he would soon see
wi.so," he said, "your kingdom will be the bloody the vengeance that she and the king would visit upon
scene of continual sedition". The peace concluded those of the religion (of the Huguenots) " Catherme 3
in 1570 between Charles IX and the Huguenots conversation was so vague that the following summer,
caused him gra\-e anxiety. He had endeavoured to when Salviati came back to France as nuncio, she
dissuade the king from signing it and had written as thought he must have forgotten her words. Ac-
 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S 337 SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S

cordingly she reminded him of the revenge that she a consistory and announced that "God had been
had predicted, and neither in December, 1571, nor in pleased to be merciful". Then with all the cardinals
August, 1572, was Salviati very exphcit in his corre- he repaired to the Church of St. Mark for the Te
spondence with the Court of Rome as, on 8 Sep- Deum, and prayed and ordered prayers that the Most
tember, 1572, three weeks after the massacre, Car- Christian King might rid and purge his entire king-
dinal Come, Secretary of State to Gregory XIII, dom of the Huguenot plague. He believed that the
wi'ote to Salviati: "Your letters show that you were Valois had just escaped a most terrible conspiracy
aware of the preparations for the blow against the which, had it succeeded, would have unfitted France
Huguenots long before it was dealt. You would for the struggle of Christian against Turk. On 8 Sep-
have done well to inform His Holiness in time. " In tember a procession of thanksgiving took place in
fact on 5 August, Salviati had written to Rome: "The Rome, and the pope, in a prayer after mass, thanked
Queen will rap the Admiral's knuckles if he goes too God for having "granted the Catholic people a glori-
far" {donnera a V Admiral sur les angles), and on 11 ous triumph over a perfidious race" {gloriosamde per-
August: "Finally, I hope that God will give me the fidis gentibiis populo catholico Imtitiam trihuisti).
grace soon to announce to you something that will fill A suddenly discovered plot, an exemplary chastise-
His Holiness with joy and satisfaction." This was ment administered to insure the safety of the royal
all. A subsequent letter from Salviati revealed that family, such was the light in which Gregory XIII
this covert allusion was to the scheme of vengeance viewed the St. Bartholomew massacre, and such was
that Catherine was then projecting in regard to Co- likewise the idea entertained by the Spanish Ambas-
ligny's assassination and that of a few Protestant sador who was there with him and who, on 8 Sep-
leaders: however, it seems that at the Court of Rome tember, wrote as follows: "I am certain that if the
the reference was supposed to be to a re-establish- musket-shot fired at the Admiral was a matter of
ment of cordial relations between France and Spain. several days' premeditation and was authorized by
Cardinal of Como to Salviati show
"The replies of the the King, what followed was inspired by circum-
was what absorbed the attention of
that this last idea stances." These circumstances were the threats of
Gregory XIII and that the Court of Rome gave but the Huguenots, "the insolent taunts of the whole
littleheed to Catherine's threats against the Protes- Huguenot party", alluded to by Salviati in his
tants. Notwithstanding that Salviati was Cathe- despatch of 2 September; to put it briefly, these
rine's relative and that he was maintaining a close circumstances constituted the conspiracy. However,
watch, all documents prove, as Soldan, the German the Cardinal of Lorraine, who belonged to the House
Protestant historian, says, that the events of 24 Au- of Guise and resided in Rome, wished to insinuate that
gust were accomplished independently of Roman in- the massacre had been planned long ahead by his
fluence. Indeed, so little did Salviati foresee the family, and had a solemn inscription placed over the
Massacre of St. Bartholomew itself that he wrote to entrance to the Church of St. Louis des Frangais, pro-
Rome the day after the event: "I cannot believe that claiming that the success achieved was an answer
so many would have perished if the Admiral had died "to the prayers, supplications, sighs and meditation
of the musket-shot fired at him. ... I cannot be- of twelve years"; this hypothesis, according to which
lieve a tenth of what I now see beforemy very eyes. the massacre was the result of prolonged hypocrisy,
D. The attitude of Gregory XIII on receiving the news the outcome of a protracted ruse, was shortly after-
of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. —It was on 2 Sep- wards maintained with great audacity in a book by
tember that the first rumours of what had occurred in Capilupi, Catherine's Itahan panegyrist. But the
France reached Rome. Danes, secretary to Mande- Spanish Ambassador refuted this interpretation:
lot. Governor of Lyons, bade M. de Jou, Commander "The French," wrote he, "would have it understood
at Saint-Antoine, to inform the pope that the chief that their King meditated this stroke from the time
Protestant leaders had been killed in Paris, and that that he concluded the peace with the Huguenots, and
the king had ordered the governors of the provinces to they attribute to him trickery that does not seem
seize all Huguenots. Cardinal de Lorraine, when thus permissible even against heretics and rebels." And
informed, gave the courier 200 ecus and Gregory XIII the ambassador was indignant at the Cardinal of
gave him 1000. The pope wanted bonfires lighted in Lorraine's foUy in giving the Guises credit for having
Rome, but Ferals, the French Ambassador, objected set a trap. The pope did not believe any more than
on the ground that official communication should first did the Spanish Ambassador in a snare laid by Cath-
be received from the king and the nuncio. On 5 Sep- olics, but was rather convinced that the conspiracy
tember Beauvillier reached Rome, having been sent had been hatched by Protestants.
thither by Charles IX. He gave an account of the Just as the Turks had succumbed at Lepanto, the
Massacre of St. Bartholomew and begged Gregory Protestants had succumbed in France. Gregory
XIII to grant, antedating it, the dispensation re- XIII ordered a jubilee in celebration of both events
quired for the legitimacy of the marriage of Margaret and engaged Vasari to paint side by side in one of the
of Valois and Henry of Navarre, solemnized three Vatican apartments scenes commemorative of the
weeks previously. Gregory XIII deferred discussing victory of Lepanto and of the triumph of the Most
the subject of the dispensation and a letter from the Christian King over the Huguenots. Finally, he had
Cardinal de Bourbon dated 26 August and a despatch a medal struck representing an exterminating angel
from Salviati, both received at this time, duly in- smiting the Huguenots with his sword, the inscrip-
formed him of what had taken place in France. tion reading: Hugonottorum strages. There had been
"Said Admiral," wrote the Cardinal de Bourbon, a slaughter of conspirators (strages) and the informa-
"was so wicked as to have conspired to kill said King, tion that reached the pope was identical with that
his mother, the Queen and his brothers. . . He (the spread throughout Europe by Charles IX. On 21
Admiral) and all the ringleaders of his sect were September Charles IX wrote to Ehzabeth of England
slain. . And what I most commend is the resolu-
. concerning the "imminent danger" from the plot
tion taken by His Majesty to exterminate this ver- that he had baffled; on the next day he wrote as
min." In his letter describing the massacre Salviati follows to La Mothe-F6n61on, his ambassador at
said: "I rejoice that it has pleased the Divine Maj- London: "Cohgny and his followers were all ready
esty to take under His protection the King and the to visit upon us the same fate that we dealt out to
Queen-mother." Thus all the information received them"; and to the German princes he sent similar
from France gave Gregory XIII the impression that information. Certainly all this seemed justified by
Charles IX and his family had been saved from great the decree of the French magistracy ordering the
danger. The very morning of the day that Beau- admiral to be burned in effigy and prayers and pro-
sillier had brought him Salviati's letter, the pope held cessions of thanksgiving on each recurring 24 August,
XIII.— 22
 SAINT BENEDICT 338 SAINT BENEDICT

out of gratitude to God for the timely discovery of Round the margin of the medal stands the legend
the conspiracy. It is not surprising, therefore, that, "Ejus in obitu nro prajsentia muniamur" (May we at
on 22 September, Gregory XIII should have written our death be fortified by his presence). The reverse
to Charles IX: "Sire, I thank God that He was of the medal bears a cross with the initial letters of
pleased to preserve and defend Your Majesty, Her the words: "Crux Sacra Sit Mihi Lux" (The Holy
Majesty, the Queen-mother and Your Majesty's Cross be my Ught), written downward on the perpen-
royal brothers from the horrible conspirac>'. I do dicular bar the initial letters of the words, " Non Draco
;

not think that in all history there is mention of such Sit Mihi Dux" (Let not the dragon be my guide), on
cruel malevolence." Nor again is it astonishing that the horizontal bar; and the initial letters of "Crux
the pope should have despatched Cardinal Orsini to Sancti Patris Benedicti" in the angles of the cross.
Charles IX with congratulations on his escape. From Round the margin stand the initial letters of the dis-
Rome again Cardinal de Pelleve wrote to Catherine tich: "Vade Retro Satana, Nunquam Suade Mihi
de' Medici: "Madame, the joy of all honest people in —
Vana Sunt Mala Quae Libas, Ipse Venena Bibas"
this city is complete, and never was there more glad- (Begone, Satan, do not suggest to me thy vanities
some news than that of Your Majesty being free from evil are the things thou profferest, drink thou thy own
danger." The discourse delivered 3 December by poison). At the top of the cross usually stands the
Muret, the Humanist, was a veritable hymn of thanks- word Pax (peace) or the monogram I H
S (Jesus).
giving for the discovery of the plot contrived against The medal just described is the so-called jubilee medal,
the king and almost all the royal family. which was struck first in 1880, to commemorate the
The Huguenot party having plotted regicide had to fourteenth centenary of St. Benedict's birth. The
be punished, and its punishment seemed once more
to put France in condition to combat the Turks;
such was the twofold aspect under which Rome con-
sidered the massacre. Besides, the pope's joy did not
last long. A rather involved account by Brantome
leads us to think that, becoming better informed, he
grew angry at the news of such barbarity, and it is
certain that when, in October, 1572, the Cardinal of
Lorraine wished to present Maurevel, who had fired
on Cohgny on 22 August, Gregory XIII refused to
receive him, saying: "He is an assassin." Doubtless
by this time the vague despatches sent by Salviati
during the weeks preceding the massacre had, in the Medal of Saint Benedict
light of events, become more comprehensible and
rendered it clearer that the origin of these tragic Archabbey of Monte Cassino has the exclusive right
events was the assault of 22 August; without ceasing to strike this medal. The ordinary medal of St.
to rejoice that Charles IX had eventually escaped Benedict usually differs from the preceding in the
the conspiracy then commonly asserted in France and omission of the words "Ejus in obitu etc.", and in a
abroad, Gregory XIII judged the criminal, Maurevel, few minor details. (For the indulgences connected with
according to his deserts. The condemnation by it see Beringer, "Die Ablasse", Paderborn, 1906, p.
Pius Y of the "intrigues" against Coligny and the 404-6.) The habitual wearer of the jubilee medal can
refusal of Gregory XIII to receive Maurevel "the gain all the indulgences connected with the ordinary
assassin" establish the unbending rectitude of the medal and, in addition: (1) all the indulgences that
papacy, which, eager as it was for the re-establishment could be gained by visiting the basilica, crypt, and
of religious unity, never admitted the pagan theories tower of St. Benedict at Monte Cassino (Pius IX, 31
of a certain raison d'etat according to which the end Dec, 1877); (2) a plenary indulgence on the feast of
justified the means. As to the congratulations and All Souls (from about two o'clock in the afternoon of
the manifestations of joy which the news of the 1 Nov. to sunset of 2 Nov.), as often as {toties quo-
massacre elicited from Gregory XIII, they can only ties), after confession and Holy Communion, he visits
be fairly judged by assuming that the Holy See, like any church or public oratory, praying there according
all Europe and indeed many Frenchmen, beheved in
to the intention of the pope, provided that he is hin-
the existence of a Huguenot conspiracy of whose dered from visiting a church or public oratory of the
overthrow the Court boasted and whose punishment Benedictines by sickness, monastic enclosure or a dis-
an obsequious parliament had completed. tance of at least 1000 steps. (Deer. 27 Feb., 1907, in
Earlier authnrities: Alemoires de Marguerite de Valois (coll.
PctitMt, X.KXVII); Discours du Roi Henri III (coll, Petitot, Acta S. Sedis, LX, 246.) Any priest may receive the
XLIV); Memoircs de Tapanne (coll. du Pantheon litt6raire) ; faculties to bless these medals.
Correspondance de la Mothe-Finelon, VII (Paris, 1840); ed.
It is doubtful when the Medal of St. Benedict origi-
La FERRlfcBE, Leitres de Catherine de ]\lolici.^, IV (Paris, 1891)
Negociaiione diplojrmtiques de la France avec la Toscane^ III; nated. During a trial for witchcraft at Natternberg
Theiner, Annates ccelesiastici, I (Rome, 1856) Martin,; near the Abbey of ]\Ietten in Bavaria in the year 1647,
Rchstwn-i des ambassadeurs vinetiens Giovanni Mtchieli et Sigis-
mond Cavalli (Paris, 1S72); Archii'es curieuses de t'ltisloire de the accused women testified that they had no power
France (series I, VII, 1835). over Metten, which was under the protection of the
Modern works: Soldax, La Frnnce et la St, BarthUemy, tr. cross. Upon a number of painted
investigation,
Schmidt (Paris, 1855) White, The Ma-^^acre of Saint Bartholomew,
;

preceded by a History of ttie Religious Wars in the Reign of Charles

crosses, surrounded by the which are now
letters
IX (London, l.S(JS); Bordier, La St. BarthHemy et la critique found on Benedictine medals, were found on the walls
moderne (Geneva, 1871); LoiSELErR, Trois enigmes historiques of the abbey, but their meaning had been forgotten.
(Paris, 1883): La Ferhiere, La Saint Barthelemy, la veille, le
jour, le lendemain (Paris, 1892); Vacandard, Etudes de critique
Finally, in an old manuscript, written in 1415, was
el d'histoire religieuse (3rd ed,, Paris, 1900). found a picture representing St. Benedict holding m
Georges Goyau. one hand a staff which ends in a cross, and a scroll in
the other. On the stafi' and scroll were written in full
Saint Benedict, Medal
of, a medal, originally
the words of which the mysterious letters were the
a cross, dedicated to the devotion in honour of St.
initials. Medals bearing the image of St. Benedict, a
Ben(>dict, One side of the medal bears an image of
cross, and these letters began now to be struck
in
St Benedict, holding a cross in the right hand and the
Germany, and soon spread over Europe. They were
.

Holy Rule in the left. On the one side of the image 23

first approved by Benedict XIV in his briefs of
is a cup, on the other a raven, and above the cup and
Dec, 1741, and 12 March, 1742.
the raven are inscribed the words: "Crux Sancti GriRANGEH, Essai sur I'origine. In signification et les prmleg"
Patris Brnedicti" (Cros.sof the Holy Father Benedict). de la midaille ou croix de S. Benott (Poitiers. 1862; Uth ed.,
I'aris,
 SAINT BONAVENTURE 339 SAINT BONIFACE

1890)* ConBlfeHRE, Numismatique Binedicline (Rome, 1904); while in the north this ran along 52° N. lat. as far as
Kniel Die Bedeuiung, Ab-
St. BeitediktsTnedaiUe, ihre Gcschichte, the eastern limit of Manitoba, following afterwards
lasae u. vmnderbare Wirkungen (Raveusburg, 1905).
the northern end of Lake Manitoba and the Nelson
Michael Ott.
River to Fort York. The eastern boundary was 91°
W. long. With the formation of the Diocese of
Saint Bonaventure, College of, at Quaracohi, Regina (4 March, 1910) new delimitations became
near Florence, Italy, famous as the centre of literary necessary. They are the following: in the south the
activity in the Order of Friars Minor, was founded 14
international boundary as far as 91° W. long.; thence
July, iS79, by Mgr. Bernardino del Vago, Archbishop
The north to a line continuous with the northern limits
of Sardis, then minister general of the order.
of Manitoba, as far as the line dividing this province
first director and superior of the college was Father
from Saskatchewan, which now becomes the western
Fidelis of Fauna, under whose scholarly and energetic
limit of the archdiocese.
management the new edition of the works of St.
Bonaventure was inaugurated. Upon his death in
—
Population and Organization. The Catholic
population within the present area is 87,816. Though
1881, Father Fidehs was succeeded by Ignatius Jeiler,
Besides being a man of partaking of the cosmopolitan character proper to the
of the province of Saxony.
Canadian West, the various groups in this population
profound piety, Father Jeiler possessed an intimate
are more compact. Thus the 29,595 diocesans of
knowledge of scholastic philosophy and theology,
French extraction control four counties absolutely.
especially that of St. Bonaventure, and was thus
eminently fitted to take up the work of his prede-
The nationality most numerously represented is that
cessor. Two years before his death in 1904 Father
of the Galicians, who number 32,637. The English-
speaking Catholics live mostly in towns, and are esti-
Jeiler was succeeded by Leonard Lemmens, already
well-known for his many contributions to Franciscan
mated at 9485. The same might almost be said of
the Poles, who number 9369. The Germans count
history. The series of works that have in recent years
been published at Quaracchi, and edited by the
2062 souls, and the Indians about 2000. In 1853,
"Patres editores", as they are usually called, have
when Mgr Tach6 succeeded Bishop Provencher, the
entire diocese, vast as it then was, counted but two
gained for them an enviable reputation for critical
parishes with as many unorganized annexes, and three
scholarship. Foremost among these, besides the
Indian missions with resident priests. Besides the
"Opera Omnia" of St. Bonaventure, is the "Analecta
bishop, 4 secular and 7 Oblate priests attended to the
Franciscana", edited in greatest part by Quinctianus
Miiller, O.F.M. (d. 1902), which contains a collection
spiritual needs of the Catholic population. At the
of chronicles relating to the early history of the order
time of the accession of the present archbishop the
and of which four volumes have thus far (1885-1907) number of parishes had grown to thirty-five, though
appeared. Besides these, the "Bibliotheca Fran- the area of the diocese had in the meantime been con-
ciscana scholastioa medii sevi", of which three vol-
siderably diminished. There were then 85 churches
umes have been published (1903-04), and the "Bib- or chapels, with 67 priests, of whom 31 belonged to the
liotheca Franciscana ascetica medii aevi", inaugurated
secular clergy. To-day, with a still more reduced
territory, the archdiocese counts 1 archbishop, 1 Ro-
in 1904 with a critical edition of the writings of St.
Francis, have placed the student of medieval liter- man prelate, and 162 priests, of whom 95 are members
ature under heavy obligations to the Quaracchi friars. of the regular clergy. Apart from the two digni-
taries, 138 of the priests have French for their mother-
As well as continuing the "Annales" of Wadding,
the twenty-fifth volume of which appeared in 1899, tongue; 9 are English-speaking; 6 are Poles, 5 Ger-
the Fathers of the college have edited a number of mans, 2 Dutch, 2 Galicians, and 1 Italian. The
other pubUcations of a purely devotional and literary religious orders of men in the archdiocese are the
character. In 1903 a new critical edition of the work following: Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 47 priests;
of Alexander of Hales was undertaken, which is to be Jesuits, 12; Canons Regular of the Immaculate Con-
followed by the other Franciscan scholastics. The ception, 11; Trappists, 10; Sons of Mary Immacu-
"Acta Ordlnis", a monthly in Latin, and the official late, 9; Redemptorists, 4; Clerics of St. Viator, 2;
organ ef the order, and the new "Archivium Fran- Basilians of the Ruthenian Rite, 2. Independently of
ciscano-Etistoricum", are published at Quaracchi. these two last, the Galician population is ministered to
SL Anthony's Almanac (1906) Carmichael in The Month
;
by 2 French priests who have adopted the Ruthenian
(Jan., 1904). Rite, as well as by a few Redemptorists and some
Stephen M. Donovan. Oblates, while 3 more French priests are in Austria
preparing for the same ministry.
Saint Boniface, Archdiocese of (Sancti Boni- —
Institutions. The institutions of the archdio-
FACii),the chief ecclesiastical division of the Canadian cese are: 1 college under the Jesuits, with 350 pupils;
West, so-called after the patron saint of the German 1 lower seminary (founded 1909) with 45 pupils; 1 Ob-
soldiers who were among its first settlers. late juniorate; 2 general hospitals; 1 maternity hos-
—
Successive Aheas. -It commenced its official exis- pital; 1 house of refuge for girls; 3 orphan asylums;
tence as the vicariate-apostolic of the north-west in 1 asylum for old people; and 6 Indian boarding
1844, though Bishop Provencher, its titular, had been schools. The State-supported Catholic schools hav-
there with episcopal rank since 1822. At that time ing been officially abolished in 1890 (see Manitoba),
it comprised the entire territory west of the Great the two cities of Winnipeg and Brandon, where the
Lakes and as far north as the Pole. The same cir- majority of the population is Protestant, force the
cumscription became a diocese without changing Catholics to pay double taxes, since the latter have to
name on 4 June, 1847, but received in 1852 the title maintain their own schools as well as those of the
of Diocese of St. Boniface. In May, 1862, all the Protestants. But, in virtue of an agreement between
territory tributary to the Arctic Sea was detached the present archbishop and the Government, the
therefrom and made into the Vicariate-Apostolic country schools continue to be conducted along
of Athabasca-Mackenzie. On 22 Sept., 1871, the Catholic lines. The American Brothers of the So-
See of St. Boniface was raised to the rank of an arch- ciety of Mary direct the Enghsh parochial schools of
bishopric, while, out of the north-western portion of Winnipeg and St. Boniface, while French Brothers of
Its territory, a new diocese was being carved, with the Cross of Jesus render the same services at St.-
headquarters at St. Albert, near Edmonton. The Pierre. As to the Orders of women within the arch-
north-eastern part of this area further became in diocese, they are: Grey Nuns (first arrived in 1844);
1890 the Vicariate-Apostolic of the Saskatchewan, Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary; Sis-
and this arrangement left to the Archdiocese of ters of Notre Dame des Missions; Sisters of Provi-
St. Boniface 109°
W. long, for its western boundary. dence; Sisters of St. Joseph; Sisters of Our Lady of
 SAINT-BRIEUC 340 SAINT-BRIEUC
the Cross; Sisters of the Five Wounds of Our Sa- (1553-64), later Bishop of Meaux; and Denis de La
viour; Sisters of Mercy; the Franciscan Missionaries Barde (1641-75).
of Mary, and the Oblate Sisters of the Sacred Heart —
Diocese of Treguier. St. Tudgual, nephew of
and ^lary Immaculate, founded by the present arch- St. Brieuc, was appointed by the latter at the close
bishop. of the fifth century, superior of the monastery of
—
History. The principal events in the history of Trfiguier, which he had founded. The biography of
the archdiocese are intimately connected with the St. Tudgual, composed after the middle of the ninth
li\'es of its bishops, which will be found under the century, relates that King Childebert had him con-
heads Provencher and Tachfi. In addition to these secrated Bishop of Treguier, but Mgr Duchesne
and to the data already furnished in the course of the holds that it was King Nomenoe who, in the middle
present article are to be mentioned the burning of the ninth century, raised the monastery of Tre-
(14 Dec, 1860) of the first stone cathedral, whose guier to the dignity of an episcopal see. The Dio-
"turrets twain" have been sung by the poet Whittier. cese of Saint-Brieuc and Treguier pays special honour
A new and somewhat more modest edifice was soon to the following saints: St. Jaeut, first Abbot of
after put up, which had to be razed to make room
for the monumental cathedral erected by Tache's suc-
cessor, Archbishop Ad^lard L. P. Langevin, O.M.I.
The new temple is a massive stone building of Byzan-
tine style, with a reproduction of the "turrets twain"
of the poet. With the sacristy it measures 312 feet in
length, and 280 feet along, inside, with a proportion-
ate width. Its first stone was laid on 15 Aug., 1906,
and the edifice was solemnly blessed 4 Got. 1908. In
the modest church which it replaced the First Pro-
vincial Council of St. Boniface took place in 1889,
with six bishops in attendance. The present incum-
bent of the see was b. at St. Isidore de Laprairie,
Diocese of Montreal, 24 Aug., 18.55, he became an
oblate 2.5 July, 1882, and was consecrated at St Boni- .

face 19 March, 1895.

Quite a, galaxy of brilliant public men have shed
lustre on the still young Diocese of St. Boniface.
Without mentioning several French half-breeds who
occupied high posts on the bench or in the provincial
legislature, we may name M. A. Girard, who was
successively Member of Parhament, speaker of the
Assembly and Premier of Manitoba; Joseph Royal, a
writer of note, who, after having been a member of the
Manitoba Government, was appointed Governor of The Cathedral, S.\i.nt-Brieuc
the North-West Territories; James McKay, a con-
vert, who filled the role of President of the Council in Landouart (died about 440) ; St. Mandez, member of a
the Girard Cabinet; Joseph Dubuc, who was suc- princely Irish family (sixth century); St. Briac, dis-
cessively legislator. Crown minister, and speaker of ciple of St. Tudgual, founder of the monastery around
the legislature, and ended his public career as Chief which the town of Boulbriac grew up (sixth century);
Justice of his adoptive province. St. Osmanna, an Irish princess, who took refuge
The Official Catholic Directory (New York, 1911); and espe- and died near Saint-Brieuc (seventh century); St.
cially unpublished documents furnished by the Archdiocese of St.
Maurice of Cornwall (1117-91), founder and first
Boniface: Morice, History oj the Catholic Church in Western
Canada (Toronto, 1910). Abbot of Carnoet, in the Diocese of Quimper; St.
A. G. Morice. Yves (1253-1303), born near Treguier, ecclesiastical
judge of the Diocese of Rennes, then of the Diocese
Saint-Brieuc, Diocese op (Briocum), comprises of Treguier, where he gained the name of "advocate
the Department of the C6tes du Nord. Re-established of the poor". He was patron of the lawyers' con-
by the Concordat of 1802 as suffragan of Tours, later, fraternity, erected at Paris in the church of St. Yves
in 1859, suffragan of Rennes, the Diocese of Saint- des Bretons. His tomb, destroyed during the Rev-
Brieuc was made to include: (1) the ancient diocese olution, was re-erected
in 1890 in the cathedral of
of the same name; (2) the greater portion of the Treguier, whither it draws many pilgrims. Numer-
Diocese of Tr^guier; (3) a part of the old Dioceses ous synods were held at Treguier in the fourteenth
of St. Malo, Dol, and Quimper, and (4) four parishes and fifteenth centuries, and passed important reg-
of the Diocese of Vanues. In 1852 the Bishops of ulations for the discipline of the Breton churches.
Saint-Brieuc were authorized to add to their title Among the natives of the Diocese of Saint-Brieuc
that of the ancient See of Tri^guier. are: Duclos (b. 1704; d. 1772), the historian of Louis
Diocese of Saint-Briedc. —An Irish saint, XI (b. at Dinan); Ernest Renan (b. at Treguier, 1823;
Briocus (Brieuc), who died at the beginning of the d. 1892). The Benedictine historian Dom Lobineau
si.xth century founded in honour of St. Stephen a died at the Abbey of St. Jacut, 1727. The town of
monastery which afterwards bore his name, and from La Roche Derrien, in the diocese, was the scene
which sprang the town of Saint-Brieuc. An inscrip- of the great battle between Jean de Montford and
tion later than the ninth century on his tomb, at Saint- Blessed Charles of Blois (1346), after which the latter
Serge at Angers, mentions him as the first Bishop of was taken as prisoner to England.
Saint-Brieuc. According to Mgr Duchesne certain The principal pilgrimages in the Diocese of Saint-
trustworthy documents prove that it was King Brieuc are: Notre-Dame de Bon Secours at Guingamp
Nomenoe who, about the middle of the ninth century, the sanctuary of which was enriched by the munifi-
made the monastery the seat of a bishopric. Among cence of the Dukes of Brittany; Notre Dame
the Bishops of Saint-Brieuc, the following are men- d'Esp6rance, at Saint-Brieuc, a pilgrimage dating
tioned: St. Guillaume Pinchon (1220-34), who pro- from 1848; Notre Dame de La Fontaine at Saint-
tected the rights of the episcopate against Pierre Brieuc, dating from the establishment of an oratory
Mauclerc, Duke of Brittany, and was forced to go by Saint-Brieuc, and revived in 1893 to encourage
into exile for some time at Poitiers; Jean du Tillet devotion to that saint; Notre Dame de Guyaudet,
 SAINT CATHERINE 341 SAINT-CLAUDE
near St-Nicholas du Pdlem; Notre Dame de La abbots of Condat, which was distinguished also by
Ronce, at Rostrenen, a sanctuary raised to the col- the virtues of the holy monks, St. Sabinian, St.
legiate dignity by Sixtus IV in 1483. Palladius, and St. Valentine (fifth century), St.
Before the application of the law of 1901 against Justus, St. Hymetierus, and St. Point (sixth century).
the congregations there were in the Diocese of Saint- The rule which was followed at the beginning in the
Brieuc, Eudists, Franciscans, Priests of the Immacu- monastery of Condat was drawn up between 510 and
late Conception, Marists, Marianites, Salesians, 515 and adopted by the great monastery of Agaune;
Fathers of the Holy Ghost and the Holy Heart of later the rule of St. Benedict was introduced at Con-
Mary, Hospitaller Brothers of St. John of God, and dat. Flourishing schools arose at once around Condat
various teaching orders of brothers. Several con- and from them came St. Romanus, Archbishop of
gregations of nuns were founded in the diocese, par- Reims, and St. Viventiolus, Archbishop of Lyons. In
ticularly the Filles du Saint Esprit, hospitallers, the early years of the sixth century the peasants who
teachers and nurses of the poor, founded in 1706 gathered around the monastery of Condat created the
at Plerin by Mme. Balavoine and Ren6e Burel, with tow[i which was to be known later by the name of
their mother-house at Saint-Brieuc; the Filles de Saint-Claude.
Ste Marie de la Presentation, teachers and hos- The Life of St. Claudius, Abbot of Condat, has been
pitallers, founded in 1836 by Abb6 Fleury, their the subject of much controversy. Dom Benoit says
mother-house at Broons; the Filles de La Providence, that he lived in the seventh century; that he had been
a teaching body, founded by Abb6 Jean-Marie de Bishop of Besangon before being abbot, that he was
Lamennais, with its mother-house at Saint-Brieuc; fifty-five years an abbot, and died in 694. He left
the Filles de La Divine Providence, teachers and hos- Condat in a very flourishing state to his successors,
pitallers, with their mother house at Crehen. The among whom there were a certain number of saints:
Franciscan Missionaries of Mary was founded in St. Rusticus, St. Aufredus, St. Hippolytus (d. after
1880 at St. Joseph des Ch4telets, near St-Brieuc, 776), St. Vulfredus, St. Bertrand, St. Ribert, all be-
to assist the missionaries. It has (1911) a sem- longing to the eighth century. Carloman, uncle of
inary to prepare sisters for the foreign missions; Charlemagne, went to Condat to become a religious;
houses of the institute have been established in St. Martin, a monk of Condat, was martyred by the
China, India, Japan, Canada, Belgian Congo, and Saracens probably in the time of Charlemagne. This
Madagascar. At the close of the nineteenth cen- emperor was a benefactor of the Abbey of Condat; but
tury the rehgious congregations directed in the dio- the two diplomas of Charlemagne, formerly in posses-
cese of Saint-Brieuc, 1 creche, 33 schools, 1 school for sion of the monks of Saint-Claude, and now preserved
the deaf and dumb, 2 boys' orphanages, 13 girls' in the Jura archives, dealing with the temporal interests
orphanages, 1 refuge for poor girls, 1 penitentiary of the abbey, have been found by M. Poupardin to be
for boys, 7 homes for the poor, 13 hospitals or hos- forgeries, fabricated without doubt in the eleventh
pices, 6 houses of nuns devoted to nursing the sick century. A monk of Condat, Venerable Manon, after
in their own homes, 2 houses of retreat, 1 hospice having enriched the abbey library with precious manu-
for incurables, and 2 asylums for the insane. At the scripts, was, about 874, appointed by Charles the
time of the destruction of the Concordat (1905) the Bald, head of the Palace School, where he had among
Diocese of Saint-Brieuc contained 609,349 inhabitants, his pupils, St. Radbod, Bishop of Utrecht. Two
48 parishes, 354 succursal parishes, 395 vicariates, abbots of Condat, St. Remy (d. 875) and St. Aurelian
towards the support of which the State contributed. (d. 895), filled the archiepiscopal See of Lyons. In the
Gallia Christ (jiooa, 1856), XIV, 1085-1106; 1119-36; in- eleventh century the renown of the Abbey of Condat
sirum., 261-74; Ruffelet, AnnaZes Briochines ou abrige chrono-
logique de I'histoire ecclesiastique, civile et litteraire du diockse de was increased by St. Stephen of Beze (d. 1116) and
St-Brieuc, ed. Ropartz (Saint-Brieuc, 1850); Gtjimart, Histoire by St. Simon of Crepy (b. about 1048), a descendant
des Mgues de Saint-Brieuc (Saint-Brieuc, 1852) Geslin de BonR- this saint was brought up by
;
of Charlemagne;
GOGNE AND DE Barth^lemt, Ancicns Mches de Bretagne: Diockse
de Saint-Brieuc (6 vols., Paris, 1855-64); Tkesvaux, L'Eglisede Mathilda, wife of William the Conqueror, was made
Bretagne (Paris, 1839) Chevalier, Topo-bibl, pp. 2676-77; 3154.
; Count of Valois and Vexin, fought against Philip I,
Georges Goyatj. King of France, and then became a monk of Condat.
Saint Catherine of Sinai, Knights of. See He
afterwards founded the monastery of Mouthe,
Catherine, Monastery of Saint. went to the court of William the Conqueror to bring
about his reconciliation with his son, Robert, and
Saint-Claude, Diocese of (Sancti Claudii). — died in 1080.
The Diocese of Saint-Claude comprised in the eigh- The body of St. Claudius, which had been concealed
teenth century only twenty-six parishes, subject pre- at the time of the Saracen invasions, was discovered
viously to the Abbey of Saint-Claude, and some in 1160, visited in 1172 by St. Peter of Tarentaise, and
parishes detached from the Dioceses of Besan^on and solemnly carried all through Burgundy before being
Lyons. By the Concordat of 1802, the territory of brought back to Condat. The abbey and the town,
this diocese was included in that of Besangon. Later theretofore known as St. Oyent, were thenceforward
the Concordat of 1817 re-erected the Diocese of Saint- called by the name of Saint-Claude. Among those
Claude, giving it as territory the Department of Jura, who made a pilgrimage to Saint-Claude were Philip
and making it suffragan to Lyons. The Abbey of the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1369, 1376, and 1382,
Saint-Claude, the cradle of the diocese, was one of the Philip the Good in 1422, 1442, and 1443, Charles the
most distinguished in the Christian world. Between Rash in 1461, Louis XI in 1456 and 1482, Blessed
425 and 430 the hermits Saint Romanus and Saint Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy, in 1471. In 1500 Anne
Lupicinus withdrew into the desert of Condat, where of Brittany, wife of Louis XII, went there in thanks-
Saint-Claude now stands, and there founded the giving for the birth of her daughter Claudia. The
monastery of Condat; other monks were attracted to territory of Saint-Claude formed a veritable state; it
them, the land was cleared, and three new monas- was a member of the Holy Empire, but it was not a
teries were founded: those of Lauconne, on the site fief, and was independent of the Countship of Bur-
of the present village of Saint Lupicin; La Balme, gundy. In 1291, Rudolph of Hapsburg named the
where Yole, the sister of Sts. Romanus and Lupicinus, dauphin, Humbert de Viennois, his vicar, and en-
assembled her nuns; and Romainmoutier, in the trusted him with the defense of the monastery of
present Canton of Vaud. After the death of St. Saint-Claude. In the course of time, the Abbey of
Romanus (d. about 460), St. Lupicinus (d. about 480), Saint-Claude became a kind of Chapter, to enter which
St. Mimausus, St. Oyent (d. about 510), St. Anti- it was necessary to give proof of four degrees of nobil-
diolus, St. Olympus, St. Sapiens, St. Thalasius, St. ity. The system of "commendam" proved injurious
Dagamond, St. Auderic, and St. Injuriosus were to the religious life of the abbey. Among the com-
 SAINT CLOUD 342 SAINT CLOUD
mendatory abbots of Saint-Cliuide were Pierre de la of Saint-Claude, celebrated in the fifteenth century
Bauine (1510-44) during whose administration Geneva for his pro]ihecies in 1421 and 1422 to Charles \TI and
fell away from the faitli; Don Juan of Austria, natural Henry \', King of England, relati\-e to the deliverance
son of Philip IV (l(J4o-7'.l), and Cardinal d'EstrSes of France and the birth of a dauphin; St. Francis de
(1681-1714). The Abbey of Saint-Claude and the Sales; Ste Jane de Chantal, whose important inter-
lands depending on it became French territory in view at Saint-Claude in 1604 determined the founda-
1074, on the conquest of La F'ranohe-Comt6. At that tion of the Visitation order; Venerable Frances Monet
time, such was the devotion to St. Claudius that the in religion Frangoise de Saint-Joseph (1.589-1669)'
inhabitants of La IVanche-Comte took him as their Carmelite nun at Avignon and miracle worker, born
second reu,ional patron, and associated him every- at Bonas in the diocese; Blessed Pierre Frangois X^ron,
where with St. Andrew, the first patron of the Bur- martyr, a native of the diocese (nineteenth century)!
gundians. Benedict XIII prepared and Benedict The principal pilgrimages in the Diocese of Saint-
XIV published a Bull on 22 January, 1742, decreeing Claude are: the Church of St-Picrre at Baume-les-
the secularization of the abbey and the erection of the Moines, where numerous relics are preserved; \otre-
episcopal See of Saint-Claude. The bishop, who bore Dame-de-Mont-Roland, end of the eleventh century;
the title of count, inherited all the seignorial rights of Notre-Dame-Miraculeuse, at Bletterans, 1490; Notre-
the abbot. Moreover the bish- Dame-de-la-Balme, at Epy,
op and the canons continued to sixteenth century; Notre-
hold the dependents of the old Dame-Lib^ratrice, at Salins,
abbey as subject to the mort- 1639; Notre-Dame-de-Mi^ges
main, which meant that these 1699; Xotrc-Dame-de-1'Ermi-
men were incapable of dispos- tage, at Arbois, seventeenth
ing of their property. The century ; N
o t r e-Dame-du-
lawyer, Christian, in 1770, Chgne, at Cousance, 1774. Be-
waged a very vigorous cam- fore the application of the Law
paign in favour of six com- of 1901 against the congre-
munes that protested against gations there were in the Dio-
the mortmain, and disputed the cese of Saint-Claude, Jesuits,
claims of the canons of Saint- and various teaching orders of
Claude to the property rights brothers; the Trappists still re-
of their lands. Voltaire inter- main there. Among the congre-
vened to help the communes. gations of nuns which were first
The Parliament of Besangon, founded in the diocese are:
in 177.5, confirmed the rights the Soeurs du Saint-Esprit,
of the Chapter; but the agi- teachers and hospitallers, with
tation excited by the philos- their mother-house at Poligny,
ophers apropos of those sub- and the Sisters of the Third
ject to the mortmain of Saint- Order ofSt Francis of the Im-
.

Claude, was one of the signs of maculate Conception, teachers

the approaching French Revo- and hospitallers, with their
lution. In JMarch, 1794, the mother-house at Lons-le-Sau-
body of St. Claudius was burnt nier. At the close of the nine-
by ord<T of the revolutionary teenth century the religious
authorities. congregations directed in the
Dole, where Frederick Bar- diocese 39 day nurseries, 2
barossa constructed in the asylums for invalids, 6 boys'
twelfth century an immense orphanages, 4girls' orphanages,
castle in which he sojourned Facade of the Cathedbal, Saini-Claude i home for the poor, 1 asylum
from time to time, but which has now di.=iappeared, for Magdalenes, 14 hospitals or hospices, 3 dispensaries,
and where Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 23 houses of nuns devoted to nursing the sick in their
established in 1422 a parliament and a university own homes, 1 house of retreat, 2 hospices for incur-
— transferred in 1691 to Besangon by' Louis XIV ables, and 1 asylum for the insane. At the end of the
drser\'es mention in religious history. The Jesuits Concordat period (1905) the Diocese of Saint-Claude
opened at Dole, in the sixteenth century, a celebrated contained 261,288 inhabitants, 34 parishes, 356 suc-
establishment known as the College de I'Aro, the most cursal parishes, 24 vicariates, towards the support of
important in France after the College de la FlSche. which the State contributed.
Anne de Suinctonge (1567-1621) founded there an Gallia Christiana (nova, 1728), IV, 241-254; BENOtT, Hixl. de
important branch of the Ursulines, which left its I'abbaye et de la terre de S. Claude (Montreuil-sur-Mer, l.^'JO);
Poupardin, Et-ude sur les deux dipldmes de Charlemagne pour
mark in the history of primary education in France. I'abbaye de ,S. Claude in Moyen-dge (1903); Larbey de Billt,
The ci'lebrated chemist, Pasteur (1S22-0.5), was a Hist, de V University du comte de Bourgogne {Besangon, 1814);
native of Dole. Among the saints connected with the Beaune and d'Abbaumont, Les unirersites de Franrhe-ComU
history of the diocese are: St. Anatolius, Bishop of (Dijon, 1870); Ptjfpeney, Hist, de Dole. (Besanson, LS.S2);
PiDOux, Hist, de la confrerie de Saint Yves dcs avocats, de la Sainte
Adana in Cilicia, who died a hermit near Salins in Hostie miraculeuse et de la confrerie du Saint Sacrement de Dole
the diocese (fifth century); St. Lautenus (477-547), (1902). Georges Goyau.
founder of the monastery bearing his name; St.
Bernond, who established the Benedictine abbey of Saint Cloud, Diocese of (Sancti Clodoaldi),
Gigny and rebuilt in 926 the Benedictine abbey of suffragan of the Archdiocese of St. Paul, Minn., com-
Baumc-les-Moines (ninth-tenth centiu-y) St. Colette
; prises the counties of Stearns, Sherburne, Benton,
of Corbie (1381-1447) (q. v.), foundress of the Poor Morrison, MilleLacs, Kanabec, Grant, Pope, Stevens,
Clare convent at Poligny, in which town her relics Isanti, Traverse, Douglas, Wilkin, Otter-Tail, Todd,
are preserved: her friend Blessed Louise of Savoy Wadena, in the State of Minnesota, an area of 12,251
(14ii2-].')n:^), niece of Louis XI, King of France, and square miles. The bishop resides in St. Cloud,
daughter of Blessed Amadeus IX of Savoy, wife of Stearns county. In 1680 Father Hennepin visited the
Hugue de Ch.alon, Lord of Nozeroy, then a Poor Clare Indians at Mille Lacs, and for one hundred and se-i'cnty
in the monastery of Orbe founded by St. Colette; years no other priest came to these regions. In 1S.51,
her relics nerc transferred to Nozeroy and afterwards when this part of Minnesota was thrown open to white
to Turin; Blessed John of Ghent, surnamed the hermit settlers, the history of the Diocese of St. Cloud begins.
 SAINT-COSME 343 SAINT-DENIS

In 1852 Rev. Francis Pierz (Piro), a native of Car- sionaries nor Jesuits met with success, so that by the
niola, Austria, came from his former Indian missions end of 1704 all but the Natchez mission had been aban-
at Lake Superior to Minnesota to labour among the doned, leaving Father St-Cosme alone. After several
Chippewa Indians. Finding the country well adapted years of unrequited labour, he was finally murdered,
to aorioulture, he announced the fact in some Catholic with three French companions and a slave, while de-
German papers, and thus caused a large immigration scending the Mississippi, being attacked while asleep
of German Catholics, especially to Stearns county. by a party of the savage Shetimasha. To avenge this
In 1856 Bishop Cretin of St. Paul sent three Bene- death, Bienville, Governor of Louisiana, summoned
dictines, Fathers Demetrius de Marogna, Cornelius the Natchez and other friendly tribes to take up
Wittmann, and Bruno Riss, to attend the ever-increas- arms against the Shetimasha, with the result that
ing numbers of settlers. They settled on a piece of the latter tribe was almost exterminated. A cousin
land near the present city of St. Cloud, where they of the same name was also a priest in Quebec (b.
built a small log house and chapel. In 1857 they 1660; d. 1712).
Shea, Catholic Missions (New York, IS.'j-t) Jesuit Relations,
erected a college, and opened a school with five pupils. od. Thwaites, LXV, note (Cleveland, 1890-1901)
;

La Have,
change of location, however, was desirable, hence
;

A Journal historique (New Orleans, 1831).

land was secured around St. John's Lake, and in 1866 a James Mooney.
college and monastery were permanently estabhshed.
Saint-Cyran, Abb^ de. See Duvergiek db
They have now flourishing parishes and a university
Hatjranne, Jean.
with more than three hundred students. The first
abbot, Rt. Rev. Rupert Seidenbusch, was made Vicar Saint David's, Ancient See of. See Menevia,
ApostoUc of Northern Minnesota (1875). He resided Diocese of.
in St. Cloud until 1888 when, on account of poor
He built the present pro-cathe- Saint-Denis, Abbey op, is situated in a small town,
health, he resigned.
The present Diocese of to which it has given its name, about four miles north
dral and died 3 June, 1895.
of Paris. St-Denis (Dionysius), the first Bishop of
St. Cloud was created in 1889 with Rt. Rev. Dr. Otto
Zardetti as its first bishop. Dr. Zardetti, a native of
Switzerland, was bom 24 Jan., 1846. He was ordained
priest 21 Aug., 1870, and in 1881 became professor of
dogma in the St. Francis Seminary, near Milwaukee.
In 1886 he was made vicar-general of Bishop Marty
of Yankton. As Bishop of St. Cloud, he was ex-
tremely active, and renowned as a pulpit orator. In
Feb., 1894, he was made Archbishop of Bucharest in
Rumania and died at Rome 9 May, 1902. When he
took charge of the Diocese of St. Cloud, he found about
30,000 souls in the charge of 69 priests, 52 rehgious
and 17 diocesan. When he resigned, there were about
40,000 souls in the charge of 33 secular priests and
16 religious, besides 19 religious in the monastery.
His successor was Rt. Rev. Martin Marty, O.S.B.,
also a native of Switzerland. In 1879 he was ap-
pointed Vicar Apostolic of Dakota, residing in Yank-
ton, in 1889 first Bishop of Sioux Falls, South
Dakota, and 31 Dec, 1894, was transferred to St.
Cloud. He took charge of the new see 12 March,
1895, but died 19 Sept., 1896. Rt. Rev. Mgr. Jos.
Bauer was administrator of the diocese until 28 Sept.,
1897, when the present bishop, James Trobec, ar-
rived as third bishop of the diocese. There are about
62,000 souls; 125 priests, 78 secular and 47 rehgious;
115 churches and 12 chapels; 1 university; 2 acade-
mies; 4 hospitals; 1 home for old people; 1 orphan
asylum; parochial schools wherever possible. The
rehgious communities represented in the diocese are
the Benedictines and the Holy Cross Fathers; the
Benedictine Sisters, who number about 400 and have
charge of parochial schools, a hospital, and a home for
the aged; the Sisters of St. Francis, who have charge of
FAgADE, Abbey Church of St-Denis,
an orphan asylum and three hospitals; the Sisters of XII-Century Gothic
St. Mary of the Presentation.
The Diocesan Chronicle. JaMES TrOBEC. Paris, and his companions, martyred in 270, were
buried here and the small chapel built oyer the spot
Saint-Cosine, Jean Francois Buisson (Bisson) became a famous place of pilgrimage during the fifth
DE, b. in Quebec, Canada, February, 1667; killed, and sixth centuries. In 630 King Dagobert founded
1707. Entering the S6minaire des Missions Etran- the abbey for Benedictine monks, replacing the orig-
g^res of Quebec, he was ordained in 1690 and after inal chapel by a large basilica, of which but little now
serving for a time at Minas, Nova Scotia (then remains. He and his successors enriched the new
Acadia), was assigned to the western mission. He foundation with many gifts and privileges and, pos-
laboured for a time at the Cahokia (Tamaroa) mission sessing as it did the shrine of St-Denis, it became one
in Ilhnois, until succeeded by Father Jean Bergier, of the richest and most important abbeys in France.
probably about 1698, after which he followed Fathers In 653 it was made exempt from episcopal jurisdiction.
Montigny and Davion, of the same seminary, to the A new church was commenced in 750 by Charlemagne,
lower Mississippi, and took up his residence among at the consecration of which Christ, according to
the Natchez, about the present Natchez, Mississippi, popular tradition, was supposed to have assisted m
estabhshing the first mission in the tribe, apparently person. During the ninth century irregularities crept
about the end of 1699 The tribes of this region, how-
.
in and the monks transformed themselves into canons
ever, were generally obdurate and neither secular mis- with a relaxed rule. Abbot Hilduin tried in vain to
 SAINT-DENIS 344 SAINT-DIE

reform them and was obliged to retire for a time, with who had been appointed governor of the island by the
a few of the more fervent monks, to a neighbouring King, arrived with three ships bringing 20 labourers
priory. At length, however, he succeeded in bring- a merchant, and 200 sick people, the first colonists
ing about a better state of things and was able to re- of the island. The first apostles of Reunion were P.
sume the government of his abbey. From that time Louis de Matos, a Portuguese, who on his return
forward its splendour and importance continued to journey from Brazil built the chapel of Our Lady of
increase under the wise rule of a succession of great the Angels (1667), and P. Jourdi6, a Lazarist father,
abbots, to whom the right of pontificalia was granted who remained on the island from 1667 to 167o'.
by Alexander III in 1179. Most famous perhaps In 1674 P. Bernardin, a Capuchin, arrived from India-
amongst these was Suger, the thirty-sixth of the series he drew up laws for hunting, planted cotton, taught
(1122-52). Besides being a great ecclesiastic he was the young girls to sew and spin, and was governor
also a great statesman and acted as Regent of France of the island from 1686 to 1689. In 1689 he went to
whilst King Louis VII was absent at the Crusades. France to lay the needs of the island before Louis
The present church of St-Denis was commenced by XIV. In 1703 Cardinal Maillard de Tournon,
him about 1140 and marks the beginning of the Gothic on his way to India, called at Reunion and adminis-
tendency in architecture and its transition from the tered confirmation.
Romanesque style. Fm-ther additions and altera- In 1711 Clement XI entrusted the island to Lazarist
tions under succeeding abbots resulted in producing missionaries, who began work there in 1714. In
one of the finest Gothic buildings in France (see 1848 the island took the name of Reunion, slavery was
Gothic Architecture). abohshed, and two years later the see was established.
The abbey figured prominently in the history of The first bishop was Julien Desprez (1850-57), after-
France and its abbots were for several centuries wards Archbishop of Toulouse and cardinal. In
amongst the chief seigneurs of the kingdom. The March, 1851, he set out in the corvette "Cassini".
"Oriflamme", originally the banner of the abbey, The captain in charge, Frangois de Plas, the ensign
became the standard of the kings of France and was Jaussier, and the lieutenant Alexis Clerc, afterwards
suspended above the high altar, whence it was only became Jesuits: Clerc died a victim of the Paris
removed when the king took the field in person. Its Commune. Gaulejac, a midshipman on the same
last appearance was at the battle of Agincourt in vessel, in after life became a Carthusian. The
1415. Joan of Arc hung up her arms in the church Ri5union priests are trained in Paris at the Seminary
of St-Denis in 1429. Many kings and princes and of the Fathers of the Holy Ghost and Sacred Heart of
other noble persons were buried there and three of the Mary which serves as diocesan seminary. In 1905
Roman pontiffs stayed in the abbey at different times (at the breach of the Concordat) the island contained
Stephen II in 754, Innocent II in 1131, and Eugenius one parish served by the Holy Ghost Fathers; the
III in 1146. Another great abbot, Matthieu de Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny, a nursing and teaching
Vendome, acted as administrator of the kingdom when order, had 28 establishments there, and the Daughters
St. Louis went to the Crusades in 1209. After the of Mary, also a nursing and teaching order, conducted
Council of Trent the Abbey of St-Denis became the 10 establishments; the population was 173,000;
head of a congregation of ten monasteries, and in there were 54 parishes and 74 priests.
1633 it was united, with it.s dependent houses, to the Hisioire abrSgSe de rile Bourbon, ou de la Reunion, depuis aa
dScouverte jusqu'en 1880 (Saint-Denis, 1883); Guet, Les origin£3
new Congregation of St-JNIaur, when its conventual
de Vile Bourbon (Paris, 1885); Lacointa, Histoire du Cardinal
buildings were entirely reconstructed. In 1691 Louis Desprez (Paris, 1897).
XVI suppressed the abbacy and united the monastery Georges Goyau.
with revenues to the royal house of noble ladies at
its
St-Cyr, founded by Madame de Maintenon. The abbey Saint-Die, Diocese op (Sancti Deodati), com-
was finally dissolved at the revolution, when much prises the Department of the Vosges. Suppressed by
damage was done to the church and tombs. It was the Concordat of 1802 and then included in the Dio-
subsequently restored, under Napoleon III, by Viollet- cese of Nancy, it was re-established nominally by the
le-Due. The relics of St-Denis, which had been trans- Concordat of 1817, and in fact by a papal Bull of
ferred to the parish church of the town in 1795, were 6 October, 1822, and a royal ordinance of 13 January,
brought back again to the abbey in 1819. It is now 1823, as a suffragan of Besangon. The Treaty of
a "national monument" and one of the show-places Frankfort (1871) cut eighteen communes from the
of Paris. Many of the chartularies and other manu- Department of the Vosges, and added them to the
scripts relatinR to its history are now either in the Diocese of Strasburg. The Diocese of St-Di6 origi-
Archives Nationales or the BibliothSque Nationale. nated in the celebrated abbey of that name. St.
Ste Mahthe, Gallia Christiana, VII (Paris, 1744); Doublet, Deodatus (Di6) (b. towards the close of the sixth
Hi^airf de Vahhaiji' de Sairii-Denys (Paris, 102.5); Felibien, century; d. 679) came from Le Nivernais, or, ac-
Histfnre de St-Deit>js (Paris, 1706); David, Les Grandes Abbayes
de rOrr ideal (Lille, 1907); Beale, The Churches of Paris (Lon- cording to some authorities, from Ireland; attracted
don, 1893). by the reputation of St. Columbanus he withdrew
G. Cyprian Alston. to the Vosges, sojourning at Romont, and Arentelle,
and in Alsace, where he made the acquaintance of
Saint- Denis, Diocese of, erected in 1850 as suffra^ Sts. Arbogast and Florentius. For some time he was
gan of Bordeaux, includes the Island of Reunion in the a solitary at Wibra, doubtless the present Katzenthal
Indian Ocean about 350 miles east of Madagascar. in Alsace, but, being persecuted by the inhabitants,
This island is 1000 sq. miles in area, and was dis- he went to the Vosges and founded a monastery,
covered by the Portuguese, 8 February, 1513; it was which he named Galilee, on lands (called "Junc-
originally callefl Sancta AppoUonia, and later changed ture ") given to him by Childeric II. The town of
to Mascareigne from the name of their leader Mas- St-Di4 now stands on this site. At the same time,
carenhas. In 163S a Frenchman named Gaubert Leudin Bodo, Bishop of Toul, founded to the north
hoisted the French flag there, and in 1642 Pronis, rep- of Gahlee the monastery of Bonmoutier and to the
resenting the Compagnie de Lorient, took possession south that of Etival; Saint Gondelbert, perhaps after
of it in the name of the King of France. In 1646 resigning the Archbishopric of Sens, had just founded
twelve Madagascar colonists who had revolted were the monastery of Senones to the east. These four
transported there, and in 1649 Flacourt, Pronis's monasteries formed, by their geographical position,
successor, changed the name from Mascareigne to the four extremities of a cross Later, Saint Hidul-
Island of Bourbon; from 1654 to 1658 an attempt was phus. Bishop of Treves (d 707), erected between
made by Antoine Thaureau, seven Frenchmen, and them at the intersection of the two arms of the
six negroes to colonize the west coast; in 1665 Regnault, cross, the monastery of Moyenmoutier. Villigod and
 SAINT-DIE 345 SAINT-DI^

Martin (disciples of St-Di6), Abbot Spinulus (Spin), relics are preserved at Senones; Sts. William and
John the priest, and the deacon Benignus (disciples Achery, hermits near Ste Marie aux Mines (ninth
of St. Hidulphus) are honoured as saints. In the century); St. Richarda (840-96), wife of Charies the
tenth century, the discipline of the Abbey of St-Di(5 Fat, who died as Abbess of Andlau in Alsace; Blessed
grew lax, and Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine, expelled Joan of Arc, b. at Domremy in the diocese; Venerable
the Benedictines, replacing them by the Canons Reg- M6re Alix le Clerc (b. at Remiremont, 1576; d. 1622)
ular of St. Augustine. Gregory V, in 996, agreed and St. Peter Fourier (b. at Mericourt, 1555; d.
to the change and decided that the grand prevdt, 1640), eur^ of Mattaincourt, who founded the Order
the principal dignitary of the transformed abbey, of Notre-Dame. Elizabeth de Ranfaing (b. at Remire-
should depend directly on the Holy See. mont, 1592; d. 1649) founded in the Diocese of Toul
During the sixteenth century, profiting by the long the congregation of Our Lady of Refuge; Catherine
vacancy of the See of Toul, the abbots of the several de Bar (b. at St-Di6, 1614; d. 1698), known as Mere
Mechtilde of the ISlessed Sacrament, at first an
Annunciade nun and then a Benedictine, founded at
^ ji*-«JB Paris, in 1654, the Order of the Benedictines of the
Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament;
following in her footsteps Elizabeth Brem (1609-68),
known as Mother Benedict of the Passion (1609-
68), a Benedictine nun at Rambervillers, established
in that monastery the Institute of the Perpetual
m^ '
,,
^« Adoration. The remains of Brother Joseph Formet,
known as the hermit of Ventron (1724-84), are the
object of a pilgrimage. Venerable Jean Martin
Moye (1730-93), founder in Lorraine of the Congre-
W^^^^' '
'3. 1^^ gation de la Providence for the instruction of young
girls and apostle of Su-Tchuen, was director for a
brief period of the seminary of St-Di^, and established
at Essegney, in the diocese, one of the first novitiates
Cathedral Cloister, St-Di6 of the Soeurs de la Providence (hospitallers and teach-
ers), whose mother-house at Portieux ruled over a
monasteries in the Vosges, without actually declaring large number of houses before the Law of 1901.
themselves independent of the Diocese of Toul, Grandclaude, a village teacher who was sent to the
claimed to exercise a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction as Roman College in 1857 by Bishop Caverot, contributed,
to the origin of which, however, they were not agreed when a professor in the grand seminaire of St-Di6, to
in the eighteenth century they pretended to be the revival of canon law studies in France.
nullius dioceseos. In 1718, Thiard de Bissy, Bishop It is interesting to note how at St-Di6, about the
of Toul, requested the erection of a see at St-Di6; beginning of the sixteenth century, the newly-dis-
Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, was in favour of this step, covered continent received the name of America.
but the King of France opposed it; the Holy See re- Vautrin Lud, Canon of St-Dii5 and chaplain and secre-
frained for the time from action. In 1777 a Bull of tary of Ren6 II, Duke of Lorraine, set up a print-
Pius VI erected the abbey of St-Die into an episcopal ing-establishment at St-Di6 in which two Alsatian
see, and cut off from the Diocese of Toul (see Nancy, geographers, Martin Waldseemiiller and Mathias
Diocese of) the new Diocese of St-Did, which, until Ringmann, began at once to produce an edition of a
the end of the old regime, was a suffragan of Trier. Latin translation of Ptolemy's "geography " In 1507
Louis Caverot, who died as Cardinal Archbishop of Ren6 II received

A
Lyons, was Bishop of St-Di6 from 1849 to 1876. from Lisbon the
The Abbey of Remiremont was founded about abridged account,
620 by Saint Romaric, a lord at the court of Clotaire written in French,
II, who, having been converted by Saint Am6, a of the four voy-
monk of Luxeuil, took the habit at Luxeuil; it com- ages of Vespucci.
prised a monastery of monks, among whose abbots Lud had this trans-
were Sts. Ame (570-625), Romaric (580-653), and lated Latin
into
Adelphus (d. 670), and a monastery of nuns, which by Basin de San-
numbered among its abbesses Sts. Mactefelda (d. daucourt. The ^
about 622), Claire (d. about 652), and G^b^trude printing of the
(d. about 673). At a later period the Benedictine translation was
nuns were replaced by a chapter of ninety-eight completed at St-
canonesses who had to prove 200 years of nobility, Di6 on 24 April,
and whose last abbess, under the old regime, was the 1507; it was pref-
Princess de Bourbon Conde, sister of the Duke of aced by a short
Enghien; she was prioress of the Monastery of the

1^
writing entitled
Temple at her death. "CosmographiiB
Besides the saints mentioned above and some others, ""TBn
introductio", cer-
bishops of Nancy and Toul, the following are hon- tainly the work
oured in a special manner in the Diocese of St-Die; of Waldseemiiller,
St. Sigisbert, King of Austrasia (630-56); St. and was dedicated
Germain, a hermit near Remiremont, a martyr, who to Emperor Maxi-
died Abbot of Grandval, near Basle (618-70); St. milian. In this Church op Notre-Dame, IX Centtjrt,
Hunna, a penitent at St-Die (d. about 672); St. Adjoining the Cathedral of St-Di:]S
preface Waldsee-
Dagobert II, King of Austrasia, slain by his servant miiller proposed the name of America. A second edi-
Grimoald (679) and honoured as a martyr; St. tion appeared at St-Di(5 in August, 1507, a third at
Modesta, a nun at Remiremont, afterwards foundress Strasburg in 1509, and thus the name of America was
and abbess of the monastery of Horren at Trier spread about. The work was re-edited with an Eng-
(seventh century); St. Go6ry, Bishop of Metz (d. lish version by Charles G. Herbermann (New York,
about 642), whose relics are preserved at Epinal and 1907). M. Gallois has proved that in 1507 Waldsee-
who is the patron of the butchers of the town; St. miiller inserted this name in two maps, but that
oimeon. Bishop of Metz (eighth century), whose in 1513, in other maps, Waldseemiiller, being better
 SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE 346 SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE

informed, inserted the name of Columbus as the Sainte-Claire Deville, Charles, geologist, b. at
discoverer of America. But it was too late; the St. Thomas, West Indies, 26 February, 1.S14; d. in
name of America had been already firmly established. Paris, 10 October, 1876. Going to Paris at an early
The principal pilgrimages of the diocese are: age, he entered the Ecole des Mines and studied there.
Notre-Dame de 8t-Die, at St.-Die, at the place where His first work in the scientific field included a series of
St. Die erected his first sanctuary; Notre-Dame du explorations in the Antilles, in which he gave special
Tr^sor, at Remiremont; Notre-Dame de Consola- attention to seismic and volcanic phenomena. He
tion, at Epinal; Notre-Dame de la Brosse, at Bains; returned in 1855, and three years later visited Vesu-
Notre-Dame de Bermont, near Domremy, the sanc- vius and Stromboli in pursuit of his volcanic studies.
tuar\' at which Joan of Arc prayed; and the tomb He evolved the theory that volcanic eruptions are due
of St. Peter Fourrier at Mattaincourt. There were to the entrance of sea water into the fissures of the
in the diocese before the application of the Law of earth's crust; coming in contact with hot rocks, it
produces the explosive and eruptive manifestations.
CCSMOCRPMAE This was confirmed in his mind by the fact that so
many volcanoes are near the sea-coast. In 1857 he
Capadodam/Pamphili.T-n 'Udiajn/ Cilicia/Armc became a member of the Acad^mie des Sciences of
nias mijorc Si minore.ColchiJcn/Hircaniam/Hio Paris. He was an assistant to Elie de Beaumont
bcriam.'Albanii;ct prj ccrca mttas quas fingilatim in the College de France, and succeeded him as pro-
cnumcrarclongimoraefTet.lcadiifiaabciiisnomi fessor in 1875. Previous to this (in 1872) he had been
nis rcgina,
made Inspector General of the Meteorological Service.
Nuc )^o 8c hf partes funt larius luftrat*/& alia He established a chain of meteorologic stations
through France and Algiers, and was first president
quarta pars per Amcricu Vcfputiu(vt in fequenti
of the observatory in Mountsouris, one of this chain.
bus audictur )inuenta eft/qua rioii yideo cur quis He replaced Dufr^my in the Acad^mie des Sciences.
jure Vctct ab Amcrico inucncorc fagacis ingenrj vi He also did much work in chemistry, notably in
Aittcn'-' ro Amcrigcn quafi Amend tc.Ta/fiuc Amencam the analysis of minerals and also in molecular physics.
ca diccnda:cu&Europa & Afiaamulicnbusfuafor Since 1862 he had been an officer of the Legion of
lira fmtnomina. Ems firu&T genu's mores ex bis bi Honour. His works, including papers and notes in
nis Amend nauigariorubusqua: fcquuntUquidc "Comptes Rendus" and in the "Annalesde Chimie",
are very numerous the most important are the follow-
;
intcUigidacur.
ing: "Etudes g^ologiques sur les lies de TfinSriffe et
Hunc in modu terra jam quidripartita cognc-
de Fogo" (1846), not completed; "Voyage g^ologique
fcicct funt tres prime partes cptincntcs/quana r(l aux Antilles et aux iles de T6n6riffe et de Fogo"
infulalcl] omni quaqj man circudata confpiciat.Et (1847) "Lettres ^ M. Elie de Baumont sur I'druption
;

mare vnij fit qucadmodiiet ipfatellus/multis

licet du V^suve"; "Comptes Rendus d 1' Academic des
tamcnnnibusdifbniftum / 5C innumerisreplftum Sciences" (1855); "Eruptions actuelles du volcan de
infulisvariaGbinoiaalTumitiqLijctm Cofmogra Stromboli " " Recherches sur les principaux ph^nom-
;

PnTcia dnes de met^orologie et de physique terrestre aux

phiae tabulis cofpiciunt/& Prifcianus in tralatione
nvu Antilles" (1861).
Dionifr) talibus cnumerat verGbus. PoGGENDORFF, Biograph. literar. HandwHrterbuck, III (1898),
Circuit Occani gurgcs tamen vndic^ vaftui 2; Vapereatj, Diet. univ. des contemporains, V (1st ed.);
Kneller, Das Christentum u. die Vertreter der neueren Natur-
Quii^uis vnus fitplurima nominafumit. wissenschaften (Freiburg, 1904), tr. Kettle (St. Louis, 1911).
Finibus Hefpcriis Athlanticus lUe vocatur T. O'CoNOK Sloane.
AtBorcf qua gens firjtArmi.irpa Tub armis
Oidfille pigci- a«n5 Saw r.ide Mortuus eft alijs; Sainte-Claire Deville, Henri-Etienne, chem-
ist, b. at St. Thomas, West Indies, 11 March, 1818;
Reduced F.\csimile Page of the Cosmographi.e d. at Boulogne, 1 July, 1881; brother of the preceding.
I.NTRODUCTio, Printed in 1507
The second paragraph advocates the adoption Finishing his classical studies in Paris, he built himself
of America as the
name of the New World a laboratory there and worked for eight years with-
out teachers or students. He acquired much fame
1901 against the congregations: Canons of Lateran;
by his work, and in 1844 the government entrusted
Clerks Regular of Our Sa-\'iour; Eudistes; Fran-
him with the organization of the faculty of sciences
ciscans; Fathers of the Holy Ghost and the Holy
Heart of Mary; various teaching orders of brothers.
of Besangon. He was professor and dean there
from 1845 to 1851. In 1851 he was called to Paris
Among the congregations of nuns founded in the as maitre des conferences in the Ecole Normale
diocese may be mentioned, besides the Sisters of
Superieure, replacing Balard. In 1853 he replaced
Providence, the Sceurs du Pauvre Enfant Jesus (also
Dumas in the Sorbonne and succeeded him as pro-
known as the Soeurs de la bienfaisance chr6tienne), fessor in 1859. In 1861 he was made a member of
teachers and hospitallers, founded in 1S54 at Char-
the Academy of Sciences. His work in mineral
moy rOrgueilleux; the mother-house was transferred chemistry entitles him to be considered one of the
to Remiremont. At the close of the nineteenth cen-
great chemists of the second half of the nineteenth
tury the religious congregations in the diocese di-
century. He discovered the phenomenon of disso-
rected: 7 creches; 55 day nurseries; 1 orphanage for
ciation, his first notion of this going back to 1857.
boys and girls; 19 girls' orphanages; 13 workshops;
1 house of refuge; 4 houses for the assistance of the
He discovered nitrogen pentoxide, the anhydride of
nitric acid. Woehler, the great German chemist, had
poor; 36 hospitals or hospices; 11 houses of nuns de-
discovered aluminum in 1827. Deville worked on
voti'd to the cure of the sick in their own homes; and
the metallurgy of the metal, and devised a means of
1 insane a,s>'lum. The Diocese of St-Di6 had, in preparing it by decomposing aluminium sodium chlo-
1905 (at the time of the rupture of the Concordat),
ride with metallic sodium. This was the first com-
421,104 inhabitants; .32 parishes; 354 succursal
mercial process of producing the metal, which was
parishes; and 49 -s'icariates, supported by the State.
Gallia Christ, nova, XIII (1785), 1064-7, 1377-83, 1407-19;
for some time almost a curiosity, but whose uses
M.VRTIN, Hist, des diochcs de Tout, de Nancy et de St-Die (3 are now so extensive. Napoleon III was greatly in-
vols., Nancy, 1900-3); Diuelot, Remiremont, Us saints, le terested in the new metal, the "silver of clay". De-
chapitre, la revolution (N'ancy. 18S8); L'HoTE, La vie des saints,
bienheureux, ven^ables it autres pieux per^oanages du diocise de bray was associated with him in his work; and it is in-
St-Dii (2 vols., St-Di6. 1807); Gallois, Americ Vespuce et les teresting to see how, after over fifty-six years, the
giographes de St-Die in Bull, de la Sac. de Gfonr. de I'Est (1900). metal has been introduced on a large scale into
Georges Goyau. mechanical use. In the technical field he worked
 SAINT EDMUND 347 SAINT-FLOUR
upon the use of petroleum and heavy oils as fuels, Auxerre, a professed canon of St- Victor's in 1254, held
where he was also a leader in one of the profflinent the office of cellarer, and became Abbot of Ste-
movements of the present day, the use of crude Genevi^ve's; and Marcel, successively canon at St-
petroleum as fuel for the production of steam. Victor's and Ste-Genevieve's, was in 1198 made Abbot
Many of his memoirs are published in the "Comp- of Cisoing. Like most religious houses, this abbey,
tes rendues" and "Annales". Among his works falhng into the hands of abbots in commendam, re-
we may cite: "De I'aluminium, ses propri^tfe, sa laxation and disorders were the consequence. In the
fabrication" (Paris, 1859); "M^tallurgie du platine beginning of the seventeenth century Cardinal de La
et des m^taux qui I'accompagnent" (Paris, 1863). Rochefoucauld undertook its reform. He brought
Gay. Henri Si. Clnire-DeHlle, sa vie et ses travaux (Paris, 1889); from Senhs a holy man, Charles Faure, who had al-
Vapereau, Diciionnaire universel des contemporains; Poggen- ready restored the canonical rule in the ancient Abbey
DORFF, liiographisches literarisches Handworterbuch, III (1898), 2.
T. O'CoNOR Sloane. of Silvanect. Once more the Rule of St. Augustine
was faithfully observed at Ste-Genevieve's, which be-
Saint Edmund, College of. See Old Hall. came the mother-house of the Galilean congregation.
Charles Faure died in 1644. The second spring of the
Sainte-Genevieve, Abbey of, in Paris, wasfounded abbey was perhaps even more glorious than the first.
by King Clovis who estabUshed there a college of By the middle of the seventeenth century the abbot-
called canons regular.
clerics, later How long these general of the congregation had under his jurisdic-
clericsobserved the regular life is unknown, but tion more than one hundred abbeys and priories.
in 1147 secular canons officiated in the church. Men Fronteau, chancellor of the university and
like
King Louis VII and Pope Eugene III, having wit- author of many works, Laleman, Chapponel, Reginier,
nessed some disorders, determined to restore the Chengot, Beurier, du Moulinet, founder of the na-
regular discipline and at first thought to call monks, tional hbrary, and Augustine Hay, a Scotchman who
but as the canons preferred some of their own order, wrote the "Scotia sacra" and officiated at Holyrood,
the pope consented. At the request of Sugerus and Scotland, in 1687, were sons of the French congre-
St. Bernard, Gildwin, the first Abbot of St-Viotor's, gation. When in 1790 the revolutionary assembly
where the canoni- declared all religious vows void, and opened the doors
cal rule had been to all the inmates of the monasteries, there were
recently estab- thirty-nine canons at Ste-Genevieve's. This was
ij.. lished, consented
to send Odo, the
the end of that illustrious abbey and school.
BoNNARD, Histoire de I'abbaye de St-Victor de Paris (1907);
Gautier, Adam de Si- Victor (Paris, 1858); Marion, Histoire
Prior of his ab-
de I'Eglise (Paris, 1908); Vtjillemin, Vie de S. Pierre Fourier

m
bey. There were (Paris, 1897).

fe difficulties, but A. Allaeia.

order finally pre-
vailed and some Sainte-Marthe, Scj^volb and Louis. See Gal-
lia Christiana.
of the canons
joined the reform. Saintes, Ancient See op. See La Rochellb,
Among these was Diocese of.
the young Canon
]^tL
WiUiam, already Saint-Flour, Diocese of (Floropolis), com-
known for his vir- prises the Department of Cantal, and is suffragan
tues and learning. of the Archbishopric of Bourges. Re-established by
At the request of the Concordat of 1802, by which the Department of
Absalon, Bishop Haute-Loire was brought into this diocese, this de-

^''--^-'ur II .rTi
1 .^iiij of Iloskild,in
mark, who when
Den- partment was detached from it in 1823 by the re-
establishment of the See of Le Puy'. The traditions
a student at Ste- relative to St. Florus (Flour), who is said to have
Genevieve's had been the first Bishop of Lodeve and to have died
known him, Wil- at Indiciat (later Saint-Flour) while evangehzing

^^^m liam was sent to

that country to
reform a monas-
tery of canons in
Haute-Auvergne, have been the subject of numerous
discussions. In two documents concerning the
foundation of the second monastery of St-Flour,
drawn up in 1013 and 1031, and in a letter written to
TowEH AND Court, Abbey of Ste- the Isle of Eskil. Urban IV in 1261 by Pierre de Saint-Haon, prior of
GeneviIive In spite of untold Saint-Flour, St. Flour is already considered as be-
Now the Lyc^e Henri-IV trials, obstacles, longing to the Apostolic times, and the "Speculum
and persecutions sanctorale" of Bernard Gui in 1329 relates at length
he succeeded in his enterprise and even founded the legend of this "disciple of Christ". M. Marcellin
another monastery, which he dedicated to the Holy Boudet believes it more likely that St. Flour lived in
Paraclete. He died in 1206, and was canonized by the fifth century, and that it was he who attended the
Honorius III. It was natural that close relations Council of Aries in 450 or 451.
should exist between Ste-Genevi^ve's and its founda- At the close of the tenth century there was already a
tions in Denmark. Peter, a young man who made monastery at Indiciat. A local seigneur, Astorg de Bre-
his profession at the abbey, became Bishop of Ros- zons, surnamed "the Red Bull", gave this monastery
kild; Valdemar, brother of King Knut, died at Ste- to Odilo, Abbot of Cluny, and the donation was con-
Geneyi^ve's; and Abbot Stephen of Tournai wrote firmed by Gregory V (996-99) . Amblard de Brezons,
to William and his friends to obtain lead for the roof his nephew, surnamed "le Mai Hivern6", seized the
of his abbey. monastery and destroyed all of it except the church.
Likethe Abbey of St- Victor, Ste-Genevi6ve's became Amblard and Astorg, from 1010 to 1013, gave this
a celebrated seat of learning. St- Victor's, Ste-Gene- church and its fief to St. Peter's at Rome, together with
vi^ve's, and Notre-Dame were the cradle of the Uni- the monastery of Sauxillages, governed by Odilo;
versity of Paris. Abelard at different epochs lectured but later Amblard considered this donation as void,
in this abbey-school.
By right and custom the two and constructed a fortress, a remnant of which is
sister-abbeys frequently exchanged subjects. Peter now the sacristy of the cathedral, upon the site of the
de Ferri^re, Abbot of St- Victor's, was at one time old monastery; afterwards Amblard, seized with
prior of Epinay a priory of Ste-GeneviS ve's William of
, ; remorse at Rome, between 1025 and 1031 gave back
 SAINT FRANCIS 348 SAINT FRANCIS
to Odilo all he possessed, and a large monastery was important: Notre-Dame de Claviers, at Moussages,
again founded. Urban II, after the Council of the statue of which is the most ancient in the diocese;
Clermont (1095), consecrated the church of this new Notre-Dame des Miracles, at Mauriac, sixth century
monastery. The church collapsed in 1396, and no Xotre-Dame de Frodieres, at Saint-Flour, eleventh
remains of it exist. Pope Callistus II passed some century; Notre-Dame de Laurie, at Laurie, an
time there. In August, 1317, John XXII detached eleventh-century sanctuary; Notre-Dame de Bon
Haute-Auvergne from the See of Clermont and Secours at Marmanhac; Notre-Dame de Quezac,
raised St-Flour to the rank of a bishopric, the first which is visited annually by between 20,000 and 30,-
ordinary of which was his chaplain Raymond de 000 pilgrims; Notre-Dame de Vau Claire, at
Montuljols. Among his successors were: Pierre —
Molompise these three dating back to the twelfth
d'Estaing (1361-67), afterwards Archbishop of century; Notre-Dame de Valentines at S^gur, be-
Bourges and cardinal in 1370; Louis-Siffrein-Joseph longing to the thirteenth century; Notre-Dame de
de Salamon (1820-29), former counseiller-clerc to Turlande at Paulhenc, Notre-Dame de Villedieu,
the Parliament of Paris, who during the Revolution both dating back to the fourteenth century; Notre-
had secretly acted in France as the pope's agent, a Dame de Pitii5 at Chaudesaigues Notre-Dame de ;

role concerning which he has left very important Puy Rachat, at Nieudan; Notre-Dame des Oliviers,
memoirs. at Murat, all three dating back to the fifteenth cen-
The Abbey of Aurillac was celebrated: it was tury; Notre-Dame d'Aubespeyre, at Aubespeyre;
founded by St. G6raud, Count of Aurillac, who in 898 Notre-Dame de la Font Sainte, at St. Hippolyte,
visited annually by between 10,000 and 12,000
pilgrims; Notre-Dame de Pailherols; Notre Dame
aux Neiges, at Aurillac, all four dating back to the
sixteenth century; Notre-Dame de Gudrison, at En-
chanet; Notre-Dame de Lescure, both dating back
to the eighteenth century.
The "Revue catholique des ^glises'' published in
1905 an interesting monograph of the diocese; it
shows that 50 per cent of the men go to Mass each
Sunday, 25 per cent go every second Sunday, and 70
per cent fulfil their Easter duty. An interesting
work is the "ffiuvre des bergers", which assembles
several hundred shepherds from the neighbouring
regions each year at Pailherols and La Font Sainte
for a day's religious exercises, the only one which
they can have during the five months that they pass
alone in the mountains. Before the application of
the law of 1901 on the associations, there were in the
Diocese of Saint-Flour Lazarists and various teach-
ing orders of brothers. Some congregations of nuns
have their mother-houses in the diocese, in particular:
the Soeurs de Saint Joseph, with their mother-house
at Saint-Flour; the Petites Sojurs des Malades, with
their mother-house at Mauriac the Soeurs de I'Enfant
;

JiSsus, dites de I'instruetion; and the Soeurs de la

Sainte Famille, with their mother-house at Aurillac.
At the close of the nineteenth century the religious
congregations directed in the diocese, 1 creche, 12
refuge halls, 1 school for the deaf and dumb, 1 boys'
orphanage, 6 girls' orphanages, 1 home for honest
poor girls, 1 hospice for incurables, 1 asylum for the
insane, 1 dispensary, 1 house of retreat, 1 house of
The Cathedr.\l, .Saint-Flour
nuns devoted to nursing the sick in their own homes,
13 hospitals or hospices. At the time of the de-
brought thither monks from \'abres; it soon became struction of the concordat (1905) the Diocese of Saint-
well known, according to John of Salisbury, as a Flour contained 230,511 inhabitants, 24 parishes, 288
centre of literary and scientific studies: Gerbert succursal churches, and 190 vicariates towards the
(later Sylvester II), and Guillaume d'Auvergne, support of which the State contributed.
friend and confidant of Saint Louis, studied there. Gallia Christiana, nova (1720), 419-4.37, and imir.. 127-162;
St. Odo, Abbot of Cluny, from 926 to 943, was at BotTDET, La Ugende de St. Florus d'apris les tales les vlus
anciens; additions aux nouveaux Bollandistes in Annates du Midi
first a monk at Saint-Pierre de Mauriac, and, accord- (1895); Idem, La legende de St. Florus et ses fables (Clermont,
ing to some, Abbot of Aurillac. St. Peter Chavanon, 1897); Chaumeil, Biographie des personnes remarquables de la
founder in 1062 of the monastery of P^brac, in the Haute-Auvergne, preci^dee d'un essai sur Vhi-^toire religieusede cette
demi-province (Saint-Flour, 1867); Fhoment, Esquisse hislonque
Diocese of Le Puy, was for some time superior of sarlemonastire et la ville de Si-Flour in Revue d' Auvergne (1886);
the Abbey of Chazes, near Vic. The tragic poet, Chabau, PUerinages et sanctuaires de la Sainte Vierge dans le
diocUe de St-Flour (Paris, 1889) Roucht, Le diocise de St. Flour
de Belloy (1727-95), author of the celebrated ;

in Revue catholique des Sglises (1905).

tragedy on the Siege of Calais, was born at Saint- Georges Goyau.
Flour. Louis-.\ntoine de Xoailles (1651-1720), Arch-
bishop of Paris, was born at Laroquebrou in the Saint Francis Mission (properly Saint Fran-
diocese. Abbe Jean Chappe d'Auteroche (1722-69), cois DE Sales, Quebec), a noted CathoUc Indian mis-
astronomer, who in 1769 went to California to ob- sion village under Jesuit control near Pierreville,
serve the transit of Venus and died there of a con- Vamaska district. Province of Quebec, Canada.
tagious disease, was a native of Alauriac. Abb6 de It was originally estabhshed (1683) at the falls of
the
Pradt (1759-1X37) w.as born at AUanche. The Dio- Chaudiere, on the south side of the St. Lawrence,
cese of Saint-Floar is remarkaljle among the French above Quebec, as a refuge for the Abnaki and Penna-
dioce.ses for the great number of its sanctuaries and cook Indians who were driven from New England by
pilgrimages dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. There the wars of that and the subsequent colonial period:
are sixty-five, of which the following are the more these tribes were French in sympathy and, especially
 SAINT GALL 349 SAINT GALL

the Abnaki, largely Catholic in religion through the nuns; 2 of Dominican nuns; 8 of Franciscan nuns; 1 of
efforts ofthe Jesuit missionaries. The Algonquin, the Sisters of the Good Shepherd; 2 of the School Sis-
Montagnais, and Micmac of Canada as well as the ters of the Holy Cross; 1 of Premonstratensian nuns:
Nipmuc and others of southern New England were 1 of the Itahan Missionary Sisters of St. Francis; and
also largely represented, but from the final prepon- numerous houses of Sisters of Charity of the Holy
derance of the Abnaki their language became that of Cross (Ingenbohl Sisters). The most noted church
the mission. In 1700 the mission was removed to its of the diocese is the cathedral, the church of the for-
present situation. After the destruction of Nor- mer Benedictine abbey (see above). Among other
ridgewock and the death of Father Sebastian Rasle at places of pilgrimage are: the Wildkirchlein, on the
the hands of the New England men in 1724, the ma- Santis; the little monastery of Notkersegg, near St.
jority of the Abnaki removed to Canada and set- Gall; tho parish church at Kirchberg, in the District of
tled at Saint Francis, which became thenceforth a Toggenburg; and Dreibrunnen, near Wil. Catholic
centre of Indian hostility against New England. In associations are highly developed; a Catholic con-
1759 a strong New England force under Major Rogers gress is held annually in the diocese. There are 12
surprised and destroyed the settlement, including Catholic newspapers, of which the "Ostschweiz", pub-
the mission church and records, kilhng 200 Indians. lished at St. Gall, is the most important.
It was soon rebuilt and still exists as one of the old- History.— The Abbots of St. Gall had exercised
est mission settlements of Canada. In the war of nearly all the rights of episcopal jurisdiction within
the Revolution and again in the war of 1812, a num-
tjer of the men fought on the British side. Among
the Jesuit workers at St. Francis the most distin-
guished name is that of the venerable Father Joseph
AuWry, in charge from 1709 until his death in 1755,
who before coming to the mission had served ten
years with the Micmac of Nova Scotia. Having
mastered the Abnaki language he wrote much in it,
his most important contribution being a manuscript
French-Abnaki dictionary, which is still preserved in
the archives of the mission. Owing to the former mi-
gratory habit of the Indians the population of the mis-
sion varied greatly at different periods, but is esti-
mated to-day (1911) at approximately three hundred
souls, all of mixed blood, and more French than Indian
in characteristic, although they still retain their old
language in their homes. Their chief industry is
basket-making, which furnishes a comfortable income.
(See also Penobscot Indians; Missions, Catholic
—
Indian, of the United States. New England.)
Jesuit Relations, ed. Thwaites (73 vols., Cleveland, 1896-
1901), particularly Abnaki, Lower Canada, Quebec; Annual Re-
ports of Dept. of Ind. Affairs, Ottawa (Canada) Matjrault, Hist,
;

des Abenakis (Quebec, 1866) Shea, Catholic Missions (New York,

;

1855) Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages (Bur.

:

Amer. Ethnology, Washington, 1891).

Jambs Moonby.
Saint Gall, Abbey op. See Gall, Abbey op
Saint.

Saint Gall, Diocese op (Sangallensis), a Swiss

bishopric directly subject to the Holy See. It in-
cludes the Canton of St. Gall and, as a temporary ar-
The Cathedral, St. Gall
rangement, the two half-cantons of Appenzell Outer
Rhodes and Appenzell Inner Rhodes. In 1910 its their territory. After the suppression of the ancient
statistics were 9 deaneries, each directed by a dean;
: abbey there was evident need of a reorganization of
117 parishes; 116 additional cures of souls; 128 Catho- ecclesiastical affairs, which had sunk into a deplorable
lic teachers; 233 secular priests; 46 regular priests; decay, and the plan was proposed to replace the ab-
about 169,000 Catholics; and a non-Catholic popula- bey by a Diocese of St. Gall. At that era a part of
tion of 152,000. The bishop is elected by the cathe- the present territory of the diocese belonged ecclesias-
dral chapter within three months after the see falls tically to the Diocese of Chur, and another part to the
vacant. According to the concordat of the Canton of Diocese of Constance. In 1815 the Swiss part of the
St. Gall with the Holy See, he must be a secular priest Diocese of Constance was separated from Constance
of the diocese and must be approved by the Cathohc by Pope Pius VII, and placed under the provisional
collegium of the cantonal great council. The bishop administration of Provost Goldin of Beromiinster, in
has a cathedral chapter of five resident and eight hon- the Canton of Lucern. On the death of the provost
orary canons, with a cathedral dean as its head. The in 1819 this district fell to the Diocese of Chur. The
resident canons have charge of the cathedral services arrangement, however, was only intended to be a
and the care of the cathedral parish, in which they temporary one. After long negotiations the desired
are aided by 3 coadjutors and 3 vicars. Besides the Diocese of St. Gall was established in 1823, but it was
chapter there is also a vicar-general. For the training connected by personal union with the Diocese of Chur.
of the clergy there is a seminary for priests at St. Gall However, the abbey church of St. Gall that was
which, however, is limited to the actual practical sem- raised to a cathedral received a separate cathedral
inary course of a six months' term. As a rule the chapter, a separate vicar-general, and an independent
students of theology attend for their academic train- seminary. The bishop also was obliged to live alter-
ing the theological faculties of the Universities of nately at Chur and at St. Gall. This double diocese
Innsbruck and Fribourg in Switzerland. The male satisfied neither the inhabitants of the Grisons nor
orders are represented in the diocese only by 4 Ca- those of St. Gall. The former wanted their bishop
puchin monasteries. The female orders in the dio- for themselves; the latter feared that the Bishop of
cese are: 1 house of Benedictine nuns; 2 of Cistercian Chur might regard St. Gall merely as an appendage
 SAINT GEORGE 350 SAINT GEORGE

of his old diocese and look down on it. Moreover, own diocese but also in the whole of Switzerland.
the government of the Canton of St. Gall meddled in- During his administration the extreme Radical gov-
cos.santly in ecclesiastical matters and in the Church's ernment of the Canton of St. Gall was replaced by a
right of jurisdiction, and demanded for itself the right moderate one, and the new constitution of 1890 has
of approval {placchim regiiim) in all more important brought about a more satisfactory state of affairs be-
episcopal ordinances pertaining to discipline. When tween Church and State. According to Article 24 of
therefore the bishop, Karl Rudolf Count von Buol- the constitution the ecclesiastical authorities alone
Schauenstein (1823-35), died, the governments of have charge of religious and purely ecclesiastical
both cantons refused to recognize his successor, and matters. The Catholic and Protestant districts of the
the Cathohc collegium of the great council of St. Gall canton settle their own denominational organization
appointed an episcopal administrator. Father Ziircher, subject to the approval of the great council, the
for the Catholics of the canton. Finally Gregory Catholic organization being in harmony with the laws
XVI, at the request of the Canton of St. Gall, sup- of the Catholic Church. Authorities chosen by each
pressed the double diocese and erected in 1836 a denomination have charge of denominational matters
Vicariate Apostolic of St. Gall; the vicar ApostoUo of a mixed nature as well as of the administration of
was Johann Peter Mirer of Upper Saxony, parish the money and endowments of the denominations,
priest of Sargans. subject to the supervision and sanction of the state.
Negotiations concerning the erection of a separate Augustinus Egger was succeeded in 1906 by the pres-
Diocese of St. Gall were soon begun with Rome in ent bishop, Ferdinand Riiegg, b. 20 Oct., 1847, conse-
order to bring this state of affairs to an end. It was, crated 10 June, 1906.
however, only after great difficulties that an agree- Baumgartner, Geschichte des schweizerischen Freistaats und
Kantons Sankt Gallen (3 vols., Zurich and Einaiedeln, 1868-90);
ment was made that was satisfactory both to the Zardetti, Requies Sancti Galli (Einsiedein, 1881) Baumgartner]
;

Holy See and to the Canton of St. Gall. In 1845 the Gallus Jakob Baumgartner^ Landammann von Sankt Gallen, und
die neuere Staatsentwicklung der Schweiz 1797-1869 (Freiburg im
Concordat was signed by the papal nuncio and the au- Br., 1892); Dierauer, Politische Geschichte des Kantons Sankt
thorities of the canton; on 12 April, 1847, Pius IX Gallen lSilS-1903 (St. Gall, 1904); Oesch, Dr. Karl Johann
issued the Bull of circumscription, and on 29 June Greith, Bischof von Sankt Gallen (St. Gall, 1909); Gschwend,
Mirer was consecrated in the cathedral as first Bishop Die Errichtung des Bistums Sankt Gallen (2 vols., Stans, 1909);
Mitteilungenzur vaterl&ndischen Geschichte, herausfjegeben vom His-
of St. Gall. The new bishopric had soon a hard fight tarischen Verein Sankt Gallen (St. Gall, 1862— ); Fah, Die Kathe-
to wage with the Liberal party, which had gained as- drale in St. Gallen (2 pts., St. Gall, 1896 and 1900).
cendancy in the canton from 1S55, as to the rights Joseph Lins.
and liberties of the Church. The bishop, a highly-
talented and very orthodox man, was ably and vigor- Saint George, Orders op. Knights of St. —
ously supported in this struggle by Father Greith, George appear at different historical periods and in
Gallus Baumgartner (father of the celebrated Jesuit different countries as mutually independent bodies
Alexander Baumgartner), the jurist Leonhard Griin having nothing in common but the veneration of St.
(president of the Catholic adrninistrative council), George, the patron of knighthood. St. George of
and the advocate J. J. Miiller. Yet, notwithstand- Lydda, a martyr of the persecution of Diocletian in
ing all their efforts, they could not prevent the sup- the fourth century, is one of those military saints
pres.3ion of the newly-established Catholic lyceum, whom Byzantine iconography represented as a horse-
the wasting of a part of the diocesan funds, or the man armed cap-a-pie, like the flower of the Roman
combination of the Catholic cantonal school with the armies after the military reform of Justinian in the
Protestant town gymnasium to form a school in which sixth century. The pilgrim knights of Europe, en-
both religions were placed on a parity, to put an end countering in the East these representations of St.
to ecclesiastical influence in education. These ac- George, recognized their own accoutrements and at
tions were the result of the terrorism of the Liberal once adopted him as the patron of their noble calling.
party (see on these events Greith, "Die Lage der This popularity of St. George in the West gave rise to
katholischen Kirche unter der Herrschaft des Staats- numerous associations both secular and reUgious.
kirchentums in Sankt Gallen", St. Gall, 1858). The Among secular orders of this name which still exist
diocese, however, maintained itself notwithstanding must be mentioned the English Order of the Garter,
the storms, and Catholic religious hfe developed and which has always had St. George for its patron.
flourished greatly. A large part of the credit for this Though Protestantism suppressed his cult, the chapel
prosperity was due to Karl Johann Greith, who was of St. George at Windsor has remained the official seat
elected bishop after Mirer's death in 1862. Not long of the order, where its chapters assemble and where
after his consecration Greith was also made pro- each knight is entitled to a stall over which his banner
visional administrator of the Canton of Appenzell, is hung. A second royal order under the double
which, after the dissolution of the Diocese of Con- patronage of St. Michael and St. George was founded
stance, had up to then been administered by Chur. in England in 1818 to reward services rendered in for-
This provisional administration has become in fact, eign or colonial relations. In Bavaria a secular Or-
although not legally, a permanent condition. der of St. George has existed since 1729, and owes its
After a few years of quiet new discords broke out in foundation to the prince elector, better known by the
the diocese in connexion with the Old-Catholic move- title of Charles VII which he bore as emperor for
ment in Switzerland, and Greith was accused of con- a brief period. The present Russian Order of St.
travening the concordat and the constitutional oath. George dates from 1769, having been founded in the
It did not, indeed, go as far as the deposition of the reign of Catherine II, as a military distinction.
bishop, as Liberals demanded, but the episcopal sem- There formerly existed regular orders of St. George.
inary for boys, which Greith had founded and main- The Kingdom of Aragon was placed under his pat-
tained at a great sacrifice of money and time, was ronage, and in gratitude for his assistance to its
closed in 1874 by the government, and has not so armies King Pedro II founded (1201) the Order of St.
far been reopened. Soon after this, civil marriage George of Alfama in the district of that name. Never-
was introduced by the law of the Swiss Confederation, theless this order received the approbation of the
and the religious education of the young was endan- Holy See only in 1363 and had but a brief existence.
gered by the introduction of irreligious school-book.s, With the approval of antipope Benedict XIII it was
and by forcibly putting both religions on a parity in the amalgamated with the Aragonese Order of Monte.sa,
schools. Greith was succeeded by his \'irar-general and thereafter known as the Order of Montesa and St.
Augu.sfinus Egger (1882-1906). A widely-read au- George of Alfama. Equally short-lived was the Order
thor and a skilful orator, he deserves much credit for of St. George founded in Austria by the Emperor
what he did to encourage Catholic life, not only in his Frederick III and approved by Paul ll in 1464. This
 SAINT GEORGE'S 351 SAINT HYACINTHE

needy prince was unable to assure a sufficient endow- tenes, and schools were built, but the hardships,
ment for the support of his linights, and the pope then inseparable from missionary adventures on the
gave him permission to transfer to the new order the coast, shattered his constitution, never very rugged,
property of a coramandery of St. John and a Bene- and he died 7 Nov., 1885. He was succeeded by
dictine abbey in the town of Milestadt, to which the Dr. M. F. Howley. In 1892 the prefecture was
emperor added some parishes in his patronage. elevated to the rank of vicariate and Dr. Howley
Nevertheless the knights had to rely for support on became titular Bishop of Amastrio. At the same
their personal possessions, therefore they did not time the extensive district of Fortune Bay was
make a vow of poverty, but siinply of obedience and placed under his jurisdiction. In 1893 he introduced
chastity, and, owing to this lack of resources, the or- a new foundation of Sisters of Mercy for which the
derdid not survive its founder. It was succeeded by a diocese is indebted to the generosity of a wealthy
secular Confraternity of St. George founded under the convert, Mrs. Henrietta Brownell of Bristol, Rhode
Emperor MaximiHan I with the approbation of Alex- Island. He was transferred to St. John's (25 Dec,
ander VI in 1494, which likewise disappeared, in the 1894) and on 20 Oct., 1895, his successor. Dr. McNeil,
disturbances of the sixteenth century. was consecrated at Antigonish. A period of great
Acta SS., April, III, 100-63; db la Fuente, Hist. eel. de material progress followed the completion of the
EsfaHa, IV (Madrid, 1874), 169; Bielenfeld, Geseh. und Ver-
fassung aller Ritterorden (Weimar, 1841).
transinsular railway. In 1904 the vicariate was made
Ch. Moeller. a diocese and he became its first bishop. He was
transferred to the See of Vancouver in Feb., 1910,
Saint George's, Diocese op (Sancti Georgii), and was succeeded by Rt. Rev. M. F. Power, whose
Newfoundland. Beginning at Garnish it takes in consecration took place 25 July, 1911. The diocese
the western portion of the south coast and then has 10 priests; 36 churches and chapels; 2 convents;
stretches along the Gulf of St. Lawrence, north- 51 schools attended by 1659 pupils; a population of
wards, almost as far as the Straits of Belle Isle, lying about 11,000. M. G. Sears.
between 55° 20'
Saint Hippolytus. See Sankt Polten, Diocese
and 59° 30' west
OF.
longitude and be-
tween 47° 30' and Saint Hyacinthe, Diocese op (Sancti Hya-
51° 20' north lati- ciNTHi), in the Province of Quebec, suffragan of Mont-
tude. Until 1892 real. In answer to a petition from the Fathers of the
the diocese was First Council of Quebec to the Holy See, portions of
practically con- the Dioceses of Montreal and Quebec were formed into
fined to the his- a separate bishopric by a papal Bull dated 8 June,
toric French 1852. At first the new diocese was limited to the
shore, so long the south side of the Richelieu River, and contained the
bone of contention greater portion of the Eastern Townships, a tract of
between politi- land granted in the latter part of the eighteenth
cians, and repeat- century to the American LoyaUsts, but now a part
edly the subject of the Sherbrooke Diocese. Later three parishes on
of international the north side of the Richelieu River were annexed.
conferences. In To-day the diocese embraces the counties of Bagot,
consequence of the Iberville, Missisquoi, Richelieu, Rouville, Saint
provisions of An- Hyacinthe, and a part of the counties of Brome (2
glo-French trea- parishes), Shefford (9 parishes), and Vercheres (3
MoNsiGNOR Thomas Sears
ties, any attempt parishes)
to establish permanent settlement on the coast was for St. Hyacinthe, the titular city, is a typical
a long time discountenanced; but the lucrative herring French Canadian industrial town; it stands on the
fishery encouraged adventurers to ignore the treaties, banks of the Yamaska, thirty-five miles from Mont-
and by 1850 a population of about 2000 had pitched real, and has a population of 10,000. Right Rev.
their log cabins in its land-locked bays, beyond J. C. Prince, Coadjutor Bishop of Montreal, was the
the reach of civilization and civil authority. tJntil first Bishop of St. Hyacinthe. Bishop Prince took
1850 there was no resident Catholic priest on the possession on 3 November, 1852, and from the out-
coast. Religious consolation the people had not, set encountered great difficulties. The old seminary
except when the chaplain of the French warship paid building was turned into a cathedral and residence;
a visit, at long intervals. Dr. Mullock of St. John's unfortunately, it was burned in May, 1854. The
visited the coast in 1848, and again in 1852. On bishop built a new residence as well as a, chapel-
7 Sept., 1850, the first resident priest arrived. Rev. cathedral. Bishop Prince showed untiring activity,
Alexandre Belanger (d. 7 Sept., 1868). Owing to the founding twenty new parishes, establishing several
difficulty of travelling, his missionary activities were missions, and in 1853 introducing from France the
confined to St. George s Bay. He visited the Bay of Sisters of the Presentation. He died on 5 May, 1860,
Islands in 1863 and again in 1868. Mgr Sears in his at the age of fifty-six.
report to the Society for the Propagation of the Faith By papal Decree dated 22 June of the same year.
informs us that the hardships attending the latter Right Rev. Joseph La Rocque, titular Bishop of Cydo-
visit ended the career of the heroic Frenchman. nia, and Coadjutor of Montreal, the second bishop, was
On 2 November, 1868, the real apostle and social appointed. From November, 1856, to July, 18,57, he
reformer of this unknown wilderness arrived in the had administered the diocese during the prolonged
person of the Rev. Thomas Sears of the Antigonish illness of Bishop Prince, but now, overwhelmed by
diocese. Enthusiastic and practical, he recognized the responsibility forced on him, and suffering from
the resources and the possibilities of the West, and a series of maladies, he petitioned the Holy See to
pleaded the claims of the Coast so successfully with be relieved of this burden. His request was granted
the Insular Government, that a mail steamer was de- on 17 August, 1865. As titular Bishop of Germanio-
spatched in May, 1872. In 1878 the magistracy opolis and vicar-general, he remained in his dio-
and the police were established. In 1870 the terri- cese, at the monastery of the Sisters of the Precious
tory was erected into a prefecture, and in 1871 Father Blood (a community which honoured him as its
Sears was nominated prefect Apostolic; in 1881 he founder), until his death on 18 November, 1887,
received the dignity of dome.'itic prelate. During the at the age of seventy-nine.
seventeen years of his apostolate, churches, presby- The vacancy was filled on 20 March, 1866, by the
 SAINT ISIDORE 352 SAINT ISIDORE
Right Rev. Charles La Rocque, cousin of the former Marie de Monnoir, both under the direction of
bishop, who for twenty -two years was pastor of secular priests; 6 commercial colleges; 56 academies'
St. John's. The new bishop was a highly-cultured 435 primary schools. Six hospitals and asylums
man with rare financial ability; reaUzing that the provide for charitable wants.
debts of his cathedral called for unusual measures, he Matidements des Ev&ques de St. Hyacinthe; Hiatoire du SiminalTe
closed the episcopal palace and retired with his staff de St. Hyacinthe; The Catholic Directory (1911); Le Canada
eccUsiastique (19H). C. P. ChOQUETTE.
to Beloeil, where he combined the duties of bishop
and pastor of this parish till his death on 25 July,
Saint Isidore, College op, in Rome, was originally
1S75. Bishop I>a Rocque assisted at the Vatican
founded for the use of Spanish Franciscans during the
Council. He was instrumental in founding the Sher-
pontificate of Gregory XV. In the year 1625 the
brooke Diocese. He opened the first house of the
buildings passed into the hands of Father Luke Wad-
Dominicans in Canada by giving them a parish in
ding, who, after making numerous additions and al-
his titular city, and had the satisfaction of effectively
reducing the cathedral debt and placing the diocese
terations,and with the sanction of the General of the
Friars Minor and of the Sovereign Pontiff, converted
on a satisfactory money basLs.
The fourth bishop, Mgr. Louis-Z^phirin Moreau, them into a college for the education of Irish Francis-
can students. Within a few years. Wadding had pro-
was consecrated on 16 January, 1876. He had come
from Montreal in 1852 as secretary to Bishop Prince. vided accommodation for, and had gathered within
Bishop Moreau reopened the episcopal residence, the walls of the new college, a community of over
thirty religious; and some years later the number had
and on 4 July, 1880, dedicated the stone cathedral
increased to fifty. Wadding was fortunate in Ijeing
which he had built with the money amassed by the
economy of his predecessor. His cathedral chapter able to assure the success of the new undertaking by
was installed in August, 1876, by the Most Rev. Dr. attracting to the college as professors some of the
Conroy, Bishop of Ardagh and first Papal Delegate ablest members of the order at the time, all of them
to Canada. On Bishop Moreau's invitation the Marist countrymen of his own. These included such men as
Brothers came from France and estabhshed their Hickey, Fleming, Ponce, Walsh, and some years later
novitiate in the diocese; he also founded a community Harold, MoUoy, and Bonaventure Baron. The last-
to take charge of rural schools for boys and girls, mentioned alone has to his credit no fewer than
under the name "liCS Soeurs de St. Joseph". After twenty-two volumes, in the various domains of philos-
seventeen years of administration he was given ophy, theology, history, and poetry. It is easy to un-
as coadjutor the Right Rev. Maxime Decelles (d. derstand what prestige such distinguished teachers
July, 1905) the latter was consecrated titular bishop
;
must have brought to the college. In fact, within
of Druzipara on 9 March, 1893, and entered on his thirty years of its foundation, we find no fewer than
administration of the Diocese of St. Hyacinthe im- seventy of its alumni engaged as professors in various
mediately on the death of Bishop Moreau (24 May, schools of the order. But its claim to recognition
1901). During his administration he opened the does not rest less in the stimulus which it gave to the
patronage of St. Vincent de Paul, and agitated the study of Scotistic philosophy and theology during the
question of a new and larger cathedral. The execu- seventeenth century than in the number of highly
tion of this idea, however, was left to his successor, trained and efficient teachers which it sent forth. Its
Rt. Rev. Alexis-Xistus Bernard, who was conse- professors were all convinced adherents of the Fran-
crated by Archbishop Bruchesi on 15 February, ciscan school and it is no exaggeration to say that, at
1906. Bishop Bernard is now in his sixty-third year. a time when the doctrines of Scotus were beginning to
From 1876, either as secretary, archdeacon, or vicar- lose favour even amongst Franciscans themselves,
general, he was constantly a member of the admin- they found no more ardent nor able defenders than
istration. In a series of ten volumes he has compiled the professors of St. Isidore's College. It is to Wad-
and published with additional biographical notes ding and his fellow-workers in the college that we owe
the letters of the preceding bishops of St. Hyacinthe the first complete edition of the Subtile Doctor's
to the clergy and faithful of the diocese. Notwith- works, namely, the Lyons edition of 1639. While
standing delicate health, since his elevation to the sending forth, year after year, numbers of zealous
episcopate he has proved himself an indefatigable workers into the Irish mission, the college continued
worker and an ardent apostle of temperance. He placed to possess amongst its nrof essors men of acknowledged
the patronage of St. Vincent de Paul on a stable basis, learning and merit.
and, at the cost of $200,000, completely and beauti- On the occupation of Rome by the French in 1798,
fully restored and enlarged the old cathedral. St. Isidore's suffered the fate of other British institu-
In the episcopal city of St. Hyacinthe are the tions in the city. The friars were expelled, and the
following: the College-Seminary (dating from 1811) college and adjoining garden confiscated and put up
with 400 students, all following a classical curricu- for auction. They were bought in by the Prince of
lum; the mother-house of the Sisters of Charity Piombino, who let the rooms out to lodgers, with the
(the Grey Nuns) with 400 members who have charge exception of a few which were reserved for one of the
of the Hotel-Dieu; the mother-house of the Sisters fathers who had volunteered to keep watch over the
of the Presentation, with 600 members; the mother- place until the advent of better times. These came
house of the cloistered Sisters of the Precious Blood; with the return of the pope in 1814. The college was
the central monaster^' of the Dominican Fathers; soon restored to its rightful owners, and the year 1819
the mother-house of the Sisters of St. Joseph; the con- saw Father Hughes installed as superior over a fresh
vent of the Sisters of St. Martha, a community in band of students who had come from Ireland to fill the
charge of the domestic arrangements of the seminary; places of those who had been expelled in 1798. Since
the novitiate of the Marist Brothers; the Institute then St. Isidore's has remained in undisturbed posses-
of St. Vincent de Paul; a commercial college and sion of the Irish Franciscans, for whom it still serves
an academy, both conducted by the Brothers of the as the theological and philosophical training-house of
Sacred Heart. their students. Amongst its alumni may be men-
The Diocese of St. Hyacinthe has 74 parishes, tioned Dr. Egan (d. 1814), first Bishop of Philadel-
and a population of about 120,000, of whom 108,000 phia; Drs. Lambert (d. 1817), Scallan (d. 1830), and
are Catholics. The clergy number 183 secular and Mullock (d. 1869), the two former vicars Apostolic,
IS regular priests. The religious communities num- and the latter second Bishop of St. John's, Newfound-
ber 337 men and 861 women. In the diocese are: land; Dr. Hughes, Vicar Apostohc of Gibraltar; and
2 superior teaching institutions, the Seminary of Drs. Geoghegan (d. 1864) and Shiel (d. 1872), Bishops
St. Hyacinthe and the Petit Seminaire de Sainte- of Adelaide, AustraUa. The college hbrary is justly
 SAINT JAMES 353 SAINT-JEAN
famous for its collection of rare and valuable books. authorization of the king, the obligation of observing
Owing Wadding's position as annalist of the
to continence during Advent, Lent, and on certain
Franciscan Order and agent with the Holy See for his festivals of the year, which they spent at their monas-
native country during the stormy period of the Insur- teries in retreat.
rection of 1641, the archives of St. Isidore's became The mildness of this rule furthered the rapid spread
the repository of many precious documents relating to of the order,which eclipsed the older orders of
Franciscan subjects and to the civil and ecclesiastical Calatrava and AlcAntara, and whose power was re-
history of Ireland during the seventeenth century. puted abroad even before 1200. The first Bull of con-
Such among the valuable MSS. belonging to the sister firmation, that of Alexander III, already enumerated
college of St. Anthony's, Louvain, as escaped destruc- a large number of endowments. At its height Santi-
tion or dispersion during the French Revolution ago alone had more possessions than Calatrava and
also found, for a time, a domicile in St. Isidore's. Alcantara together. In Spain these possessions in-
They included many of those old Irish MSS. saved cluded 83 commanderies, of which 3 were reserved
from destruction by Brother Michael O'Clery, during to the grand commanders, 2 cities, 178 boroughs and
his tours of Ireland in search of material for the villages, 200 parishes, 5 hospitals, 5 convents, and 1
"Annals of the Four Masters". They are sometimes college at Salamanca. The number of knights was
referred to as the "St. Isidore MSS. " After the taking then 400 and they could muster more than 1000 lances.
of Rome by the Piedmontese in 1870, these, together They had possessions in Portugal, France, Italy,
with such others as had any bearing on the civil or Hungary, and even Palestine. Abrantes, their first
ecclesiastical history of Ireland, were for greater se- commandery in Portugal, dates from the reign of
curity removed to the convent of the order at Mer- Alfonso I in 1172, and soon became a distinct order
chant's Qua,y, Dublin, where they are now preserved. which Nicholas IV in 1290 released from the jurisdic-
Harold, Life of Wadding, prefixed to his Epitome Annalium tion of UoI6s. Their military history is hnked with
Ordinis Minorum (Rome, 1662); MSS. materials in the College
that of the Spanish states. They assisted in driving
Archives; Gams, Series Episcoporum (Ratisbon, 1.S73).
J. C. Hanrahan. out the Mussulmans, doing battle with them some-
times separately, sometimes with the royal armies.
Saint James of Compostela (Santiago de la Es- They also had a regrettable share in the fatal dissen-
pada), Order of, founded in the twelfth century, sions which disturbed the Christians of Spain and
owes its name to the national patron of Spain, St. brought about more than one schism in the order.
James the Greater, under whose banner the Chris- Finally they took part in the maritime expeditions
tians of Galicia began in the ninth century to com- against the Mussulmans. Thus arose the obligation
bat and drive back the Mussulmans of Spain. Com- imposed upon aspirants to serve six months in the
postela, in Galicia, the centre of devotion to this galleys, which obhgation still existed in the eigh-
Apostle, is neither the cradle nor the principal seat of teenth century, but from which exemption was easily
the order. Two cities contend for the honour of hav- purchased. Authority was exercised by a grand master
ing given it birth, Le6n in the kingdom of that name, assisted by a Council of Thirteen, which elected the
and Ucl& in Castile. At that time (1157-1230) the grand master and had the right to depose him for
royal dynasty was divided into two rival branches, due cause; they had supreme jurisdiction in all
which rivalry tended to obscure the beginnings of the disputes between members of the order. The first
order. The Knights of Santiago had possessions in grand master, Pedro Ferndndez de Fuente Encalato,
each of the kingdoms, but Ferdinand II of Le6n and died in 1184. He had had 39 successors, among them
Alfonso VIII of Castile, in bestowing them, set the several Spanish Infantes, when, in 1499, Ferdinand
condition that the seat of the order should be in the Catholic induced the pope to assign to him the
their respective states. Hence arose long disputes administration of the order. Under Charles V,
which only ended in 1230 when Ferdinand III, the Adrian VI annexed to the crown of Spain the three
Saint, united both crowns. Thenceforth, Ucli5s, in great military orders (Alcantara, Calatrava, and
the Province of Cuenca, was regarded as the head- Santiago) with hereditary transmission even in the
quarters of the order; there the grand master habit- female line (1522). Thenceforth the three orders
ually resided, aspirants passed their year of proba- were united under one government, though their
tion, and the rich archives of the order were preserved titles and possessions remained separate. To dis-
until united in 1869 with the "Archive hist6rico charge the detail of this administration, Charles V
nacional" of Madrid. The order received its first instituted a special ministry, the Council of Orders,
rule in 1171 from Cardinal Jacinto (later Celestine composed of a president named by the king, whom he
III), then legate in Spain of Alexander III. Unlike represented, and six knights, two delegates from each
the contemporary orders of Calatrava and Alcantara, order. To this council belonged the presentation of
which followed the severe rule of the Benedictines of knights to vacant commanderies and jurisdiction in
Citeaux, Santiago adopted the milder rule of the all matters, civil or ecclesiastical, save the purely
Canons of St. Augustine. In fact at Le6n they of- spiritual cases reserved for ecclesiastical dignitaries.
fered their services to the Canons Regular of St. Thus ended the autonomy of the orders (see Cala-
Eloi in that town for the protection of pilgrims to the trava, Military Order of). Their symbol was a
shrine of St. James and the hospices on the roads red cross terminating in a sword, which recalls their
leading to Compostela. This explains the mixed title de la Espada, and a shell {la venera), which they
character of their order, which is hospitaller and doubtless owed to their connexion with the pilgrimage
military, like that of St. John of Jerusalem. They of St. James.
were recognized as religious by Alexander III, whose ISLA, Regla de la Orden y cavalleria de Santiago (Antwerp, 1598)
Bull of 5 July, 1175, was subsequently confirmed by Bulario de la Orden de Santiago (Madrid, 1791); Llamazares,
Historia de las cuatro drdenes militares (Madrid, 18132); de la
more than twenty of his successors. These pontifical Fuente, Histdria eclesidstica de Espafia (Madrid, 1S74).
acts, collected in the "Bullarium'' of the order, Ch. Moeller.
secured them all the privileges and exemptions of
ouier monastic orders. Saint- Jean-d' Acre. See Acre; Ptolemais.
The order comprised several
affiliatedclasses: canons, charged with the admin- Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, Diocese of (Mau-
istration of the sacraments; canonesses, occupied hamanensis), includes the arrondissement of Saint-
with the service of pilgrims; religious knights living Jean-de-Maurienne in the Department of Haute Savoie.
•n community, and
married knights. The right to The diocese was suppressed by the Concordat of 1802,
marry, which other military orders only obtained at and its territory joined to the Diocese of Chamb^ry
the end of the Middle Ages, was accorded them from under the French Empire, then in 1825 under Pied-
the beginning under certain conditions, such as the montese rule it was cut off from Chambery and made
XIII.—23
 SAINT-JOHN 354 SAINT-JOHN
a special diocese, which with the rest of Savoy became and as a pluralist held among other titles those of
French territory, 14 June, 1860. It is suffragan of Maurienne and Rouen; Louis de Gorrevod (1499-
Chambdry. Gregory of Tours, in his "De Gloria 1550) was made cardinal in 1530; Hippolyte d'Este
Martyrum", relates how the church of Maurienne, (1560), made cardinal in 1538, acted as legate of
belonging then to the Diocese of Turin, became a place Pius IV to the Council of Poissy, and built the famous
of pilgrimage, after the holy woman Thigris or Villa d'Este at TivoU; Charles Joseph Fillipa de
Theola, who was a native of Valloires, had brought Martiniana (1757-79), made cardinal in 1778, was
to it from the East a finger of St. John the Baptist. the first to whom Bonaparte, after the battle of
Saint Gontran, King of Burgundy, took from the Marengo, confided his intention of concluding a
Lombards in 574 the valleys of Suse and Maurienne, concordat with Rome; Alexis Billiet (1825-40), made
and in 57t) founded near the shrine a bishopric, which cardinal in 1861. Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of
was suffragan of Vienne. Its first bishop was Fel- Savoy, took solemn possession of a canonry in the
masius. In 599 Gregory the Great made futile at- cathedral of Maurienne in 1564.
Among the saints specially honoured in, or con-
nected with, the diocese are: Saint Aper (Avre), a
priest who founded a refuge for pilgrims and the poor
in the Village of St. Avre (seventh century); Blessed
Thomas, b. at Maurienne, d. in 720, famous for re-
building the Abbey of Farfa, of which the third abbot,
Lucerius, was also a native of Maurienne St. Marinas,
;

monk of Chandor, martyred by the Saracens (eighth

century); St. Landry, pastor of Lanslevillard (elev-
enth century), drowned in the Arc during one of his
apostolic journeys; St. B6n6zet, or Benoit de Pont
(1165-84), b. at Hermillon in the diocese, and founder
of the guild of Fratres Pontifices of Avignon (see
Bridge-Building Brotherhood) Blessed Cabert or
;

Gabert, disciple of St. Dominic, who preached the

Gospel for twenty years in the vicinity of Aiguebelle
(thirteenth century) The chief shrines of the diocese
.

are: Notre Dame de Charmaise, near Modane, Notre

Dame de Bonne Nouvelle, near St-Jean-de-Maurienne,
which dates from the sixteenth century, and Notre
Dame de Beaurevers at Montaimon, dating from
the seventeenth century. The Sisters of St. Joseph,
a nursing and teaching order, with mother-house at
St-Jean-de-Maurienne, are a branch of the Congrega-
tion of St. Joseph at Puy. At the end of the nine-
teenth century, they were in charge of 8 day nurseries
and 2 hospitals. In Algeria, the East Indies, and the
The Cathedral, Saint-Jeax-de-M vtjrienne Argentine they have houses controlled by the mother-
house at Maurienne. In 1905 (end of the Concordat),
tempts to make Queen Brunehaut listen to the pro- the Diocese of St-Jean-de-Maurienne had 61,466 in-
tests of the Bishop of Turin against this foundation. habitants, 10 parishes, 76 auxiliary parishes, and 28
A letter written by John VIII in 878 formally desig- curacies, remunerated by the State.
nated the Bishop of Maurienne as suffragan of Gallia Christ., nova, XVI (1865), 611-52, and instr. 289-322;
Duchesne, Pastes Spiscopaux, I, 207-10, 233-35; Anoley,
Tarentaise, but the metropolitans of Vienna con- Hi^t. du diockse de Maurienne (S. Jean de Maurienne, 1846);
tinued to claim Maurienne as a suffragan see, and Truchet, Hist, hagiologique du diocese de Maurienne (Cham-
under Callistus II (1120) they carried their point. b6ry, 1867) ; de Mareschal de Luciane, SouveraineU tem-
porelle des ivSques de Maurienne au moyen dge in Mimoires de
Local tradition claims as bishops of Maurienne: St.
Vacadhnie des sciences de la Savoie (1892); Pascalbin, Le pou-
Emilianus, martyred by the Saracens (736 or 738); voir temporel des ^v&ques de Maurienne in Revue Savoisienne (1899);
St. Odilard, slain by the Saracens (916) together with Chevaueh, Topo-bibl, 1877-78. GeoRGES GoyAU.
St. Benedict, Archbishop of Embrun. After the Sara-
cens had been driven out, the temporal sovereignty Saint-John, Ambrose, Oratorian; b. 1815; d. at
of the Bishop of Maurienne appears to have been Edgbaston, Birmingham, 24 May, 1875; son of
very extensive, but there is no proof that such sover- Henry St. John, descended from the Barons St. John
eignty had been recognized since Gontran's time. At of Bletsoe. He was educated at Westminster School,
the death of Rudolph III, Bishop Thibaut was power- and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated
ful enough to join c league against Conrad II of M. A., and where he formed his lifelong, intimate
Franconia. The emperor suppressed the See of friendship with Newman. In 1841 he became
Maurienne, and gave over its title and possessions to curate to Henry Wilberforce, first at Walmer, sub-
the Bishop of Turin (1038) but this imperial decree
; sequently at East Farleigh. He then joined Newman
was ne\'er executed. at Littlemore which he left, to be received into the
,*Lmong the bishops of Maurienne were: St. Ayroldus Church about a month before Newman's conversion
(1132-46), once a monk of the Charterhouse of Fortes; in October, 1845. After a short time spent with New-
Louis de La Palud (1441-50), who as Bishop of man at Maryvale he accompanied him to Rome
Lausanne hail taken an active part at the Council of where they were ordained priests. Having become
Basle in fa\-our of the antipope, Fchx V, who named Oratorians they began mission work in Birmingham
him Bishop of Maurienne in 1441; and afterwards (1847), removing to the suburb of Edgbaston in
1852.
cardinal he was confirmed in both appointments by
; There he devoted himself entirely to zealous missionary
Nicholas \' in 1449; John of Si^govia (1451-72), who labours, taking a leading part in the work of the Oratory
at the Council of Basle as representati\e of the King and its famous school. He was an excellent classical
of Aragon had also worked for Felix V, and was scholar and a remarkable linguist both in Onental
appointed by him cardinal in 1441; ten years later and European tongues. His death was caused by
Nicholas ^' gave him the .^cc of Maurienne; he is the overwork in translating Fessler's book on infalli-
author of "Gesta Concilii Basilecnsis"; WiUiam bility when Newman's discussion with Gladstone
d'Estouteville (147:;-S0) was made cardinal in 1439, was pending. He was a man of marked individuality
 SAINT JOHN 355 SAINT JOHN

and Newman's tribute to him in the "Apologia" Charlottetown (Prince Edward Island) was created
will never be forgotten. an episcopal see, with New Brunswick under its juris-
Except the biographical sketch prefixed to the new edition of diction. Thirteen years later New Brunswick was
the RaccoUa, which work he originally compiled, there is no formed into a separate diocese; its first bishop was
connected sketch of hislife, but references to him will be found

in Gasquet, Lord Acton and his Circle (London, 1906). The Dr. William Bollard (b. in Ballytarina, Co. Kilkenny,
information given above has been kindly supplied by the Rev. Ireland; d. 29 Aug., 1851), a man of apostohc virtue
F Bacchus, Cong. Orat. See also Gorman, Converts to Rome and a typical pioneer bishop. He made his theo-
(London, 1910).
logical studies at Quebec, and was sent as a mission-
Edwin Burton.
ary to Cape Breton, and afterwards to Miramichi.
Saint John, Christians of. See Nasor^ans. He was Vicar-General of the Diocese of Charlotte-
town, and was consecrated bishop at Quebec, 11 June,
Saint John, Diocese of (Sancti Joannis), in 1843. His successor was Right Rev. Thoijias L.
the Province of New
Brunswick, Canada. The dio- Connolly (b. at Cork, Ireland), who, after receiving
cese includes the following counties: Albert, Carle- h i s preliminary
ton, Charlotte, Kings, Queens, St. John, Sunbury, education at Cork,
Westmoreland, York, and a portion of Kent. The became a novice
City of St. John is the oldest incorporated city in in the Capuchin
British North America, its charter dating back to Order, and was
1785; it isalso the largest city in New
Brunswick. sent to Rome to iLisI
Among the earliest Catholic missionaries to visit complete his
New Brunswick, which was then part of Acadia, studies. He was
were the Jesuit Fathers, Biard and Mass6, in 1611. ordained in the
They remained until after the destruction of Port cathedral at HOCTEM- -POSJ AN'DC
Royal by Argall in 1613, and were succeeded by Lyons in 1838, and
Recollects. With the erection of Quebec into a for the next four
Mpccyii-
diocese, special interest was attached to the Acadian years was sta- MALE ar/E '

missions. Mgr. St. Vallier left the St. Lawrence, 7 tioned at the Ca- M--?- .'O/fliLOYARQJOCIES j

May, 1686, proceeded to the St. John, and reached

Medoctec, an Indian village eight miles below Wood-
puchin Church. TACERDOTE
Dublin. In 1842
stock. There the bishop established a mission, and he volunteered for
left it under the direction of Father Simon, a Recollect. the Foreign Mis-
Subsequently another mission was' formed at Auk- sions, and his ser-
paque. After the death of Fathers Simon and Moir- vices were ac-
eau, the missions on the St. John passed into the hands c e p t e d by the
of the Jesuits, among whom were Fathers Aubery, Right Rev. Wil-
Loyard, Danielou, Loverga, Audren, and Germain. liam Walsh (after- P QAHlt
The Indian church at Medoctec was probably the first wards Archbishop
erected in New Brunswick. On the original site of of Halifax) Con-
.

this church a small stone tablet was discovered in secrated Bishop of

June, 1890, bearing a Latin inscription the translation New Brunswick
of which reads: "To God, most Good and Great, in 15 Aug., 1852, Dr.
honour of St. John the Baptist, the Maliseets erected Connolly arrived Memorial Tablet of the Chapel
this church A. D. 1717, while Jean Loyard, a priest of in St. John, his
OF St. .John the Baptist
the Society of Jesus, was Procurator of the mission. Discovered at Meductic, New Brunswick,
episcopal city, 11 June, 1890
After the Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye (1632), and Sept. of the same
notably after the Treaty of Breda (1667), there ar- year. One of the first duties he undertook was the build-
rived from France colonies of Catholic immigrants, ing of a cathedral; but it was not until Christmas Day,
the progenitors of the Aeadians now scattered over 1855, that the building was ready for Divine service.
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. About 1767 Rev. In June, 1854, the cholera appeared at St. John, and
Charles-Frangois Bailly, afterwards Coadjutor Bishop did not abate until after the middle of August. It is
of Quebec, ministered to the Cathohcs along the St. estimated that 600 Catholics died of it; as a conse-
John River. The first native Acadian priest was Rev. quence, about 150 orphans were thrown on the bishop's
Joseph M. Bourg. Born in 1744, he fled during the hands. To care for them, he organized a diocesan
expulsion (1755) with his parents to the Isle of St. sisterhood known as the Sisters of Charity. In 1859
John, but was eventually deported to France; after Dr. Connolly was promoted to Halifax in succession
some years he returned to Quebec, where he was or- to Archbishop Walsh.
dained by Mgr. Briand in 1773. Appointed Vicar- Adivision was then made of the Diocese of New
General of Acadia, he had an immense area to govern, Brunswick; the southern portion (the present See of
with little assistance. In 1813 Bishop Plessis of Que- St. John) being assigned to Right Rev. John Sweeny
bec received into his diocese an Irish Dominican, (b. in 1821 at Clones, Co. Monaghan, Ireland; d. 25
Rev. Charles D. Ffrench, a convert and son of an March, 1901). John Sweeny had emigrated with
Anglican bishop, and assigned him to duty in St. his parents in 1S2S; his classical studies were made
John. He celebrated Mass in the City Court Room at St. Andrew's College, near Charlottetown, Prince
on Market Square. A
church was built soon after- Edward Island, after which he went to Quebec for
wards^ and at the suggestion of Bishop Plessis it was theology. He was ordained in Sept., 1844, and
dedicated to St. Malachy; it was opened for worship was first assigned to St. John, whence he went from
on 1 Oct., 1815. With the influx of Irish immigrants time to time throughout the country on missions.
the number of Cathohcs rapidly increased. The first His next labours were at Chatham and Barachois.
resident priest of St.
John was Rev. Joseph Morrisset; He was vicar-general successively under Bishops
he was succeeded by Rev. Patrick McMahon, and DoUard and Connolly, and administrator of the
in 1828 Rev. John
Carroll, the last priest prior to the diocese on both occasions when the see was vacant.
establishment of a diocese in the Maritime Provinces, On 15 April, 1860, he was elevated to the epis-
was sent from Quebec. copate; and in 1870 he went to Rome to attend the
Between 1820 and 1827 the Micmac Indians and Vatican Council. Under him the cathedral was
Acadian settlers at Richibucto were ministered to by completed; it was consecrated on 16 July, 1885.
Rev, Frangois-Norbert Blanchet, who afterwards be- Bishop Sweeny was noted for his wisdom, tact, and
came first Archbishop of Oregon City. In Aug., 1829, administrative abilities. The Catholic settlement of
 SAINT JOHN 356 SAINT JOSEPH
John\-illc, Carleton County, was established by him, John's comprises the eastern, southern, and western
am grew 1 into a flourishing colony under his encourage- shore's of the island. Harbour Gra(!e embraced the
ment. In the summer of IS'Ji) he apphed to Rome for north-eastern shore and Labrador. Bishop Mul-
a eoailjutiir, and Rev. Timothy Casey, pastor of St. lock was succeeded by Right Rev. Bishop Power
Dunstan's Church, Fredericton, was appointed. In previously president of Clonliffe College, Dublin, and
Jan., 1901 Bishop Sweeny retired to St. Patrick's In-
, canon of the cathedral, a man of high literary attain-
dustrial Si'hoiil, Silver Falls. ments, also a brilliant pulpit orator. His episcopacy
Bisho]) Casey, the present incumbent (b. at Flume lasted until 1894, being the longest in the annals of the
Ridffe. Charlotte County, New Brunswick, 1S62), diocese. He completed the Church of St. Patrick,
received his early education in the public schools of Riverhead, St. John's; and during his episcopacy
Si Stephen, New Brunswick, and afterwards studied
. the Christian Brothers, to whom is due the high state
at St. Joseph's College, Memramcook, and at Laval of perfection of the educational system, were intro-
University, Quebec; he was ordained priest 29 June, duced. The western portion of the island, known as
ISSG. His consecration as titular Bishop of Utina "The French Shore", was separated during his reign
antl coadjutor to Bishop Sweeny took place in the from the Diocese of St. John's and made a prefecture
cathedral at St. John, 11 Feb., 1900. Since the be- Apostolic, afterwards a vicariate Apostolic.
ginning of Bishop Casey's administration, a new
school has been erected in the city; and fifteen new
churches, in different parishes, have been dedicated.
There are two religious orders of men in the diocese:
the Iledeiiiptorists, who arrived in July, 1S.S4, and
who are in charge of St. Peter's Church in North St.
John; and the Fathers of the Holy Cross at Memram-
cook, who have conducted the University of St. Jo-
seph's CoUegi' since 1864. There are three communi-
ties of women: the Sisters of Charity, the Religious
of the Good She]:)herd, and the Little Sisters of the
Holy Family. Diocesan priests number .52; priests of
religious orders, There are 2 orphan asylums; 2
2.5.
academies, 1 home for the aged, and 1 college. The
Catholic population is about 58,000.
Raymonij, Climpsrx 0/ the Past (St. John, 1905); Jesuit Rela-
tions (Clov.'laml. 1,S96-1901I; C.vmphell, Pioneer Priests of
North Amcrirn (New York, 1(1119); MacMillan, Historu of the
t'hurcli ill Prinee I'Jihrarrl Islniut (Qucbr-c. 190.5); Clement,
I/iilori/ of Canada (Toronto, 1S')7}; Hay, A History of New
BraiiyitncI: (Toronto, 19e.'i); Lawhence, Footprints (St. John,
iss.i); MA.iUiHE, The Insh in Ami-rica iyi-\y York, \mS): The
Freeman, files; Pf-Es.Miy, .foarnnl dc la M:^-ii<in de ISll et de 181-1:
Idem, Journal de la Mi.^sion de 1S15: Le Foyer t^'anadien (Que-
bec, May-Nov., IHt'io): La Semaine Rilvjiiu-^c ('Quebec, March,
.\|iril, Ma\', 1004); C'houinahd, Histoire de In Pnroisse de Saint-
J'lsi fill de Carleton, Baie des Chaleurs (Kimoustd, TJOti).

Andrew J. O'Neill.

Saint John of Jerusalem, Knights of. See

Military Orders, The. Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, St. John's,
Newfoundland
Saint John's, Archdiocese of (Sancti Joannis
Terr.e Nov^), in Newfoundland, erected 1904, with In 1895 Right Rev. Dr. Howley (born in St.
Right Rev. M. F. Howley as archbishop. It has John's, 1843), Vicar Apostohc of St. George's, "French
two suffragan.s. Harbour Grace and St. George's. Shore", was transferred to the See of St. John's, be-
In 1796 the Island of Newfoundland was made a coming the seventh bishop. He undertook extensive
vicariate Apostolic, with Rev. James Louis O'Donel, repairs on the exterior of the cathedral, and the com-
O.S.F., as first vicar Apostolic. Dr. O'Donel re-
pletion of the interior. During his episcopate, the
turned to Ireland in 1S07, and was succeeded by academy for young ladies at Littledale has been en-
Right Rev. Patrick Lambert, O.S.F., from Wex- larged, the new college built, and many other works
ford, Ireland. Bishop Lambert ruled until 1R17, have been inaugurated. According to the census of
when he retired to Ireland. 1901, the Catholic population of the diocese was
Right Rev. Dr. Scal-
lan, a Franciscan and a Wexford man, suc-
also 45,000. There are 70 churches; 50 chapels; 35 priests;
ceeded him, and held the see until 1829. 143 schools; 21 convent schools (the schools all re-
When ceive aid from the State and full religious liberty is
Dr. O'Donel was made vicar Apostolic, there were
but six priests in the island; granted) 9953 pupils; 14 convents. The Irish Chris-
;
Dr. Scallan in-
creased the number to ten. He was the first bishop tian Brothers teach in the public schools, and conduct
who died in the country. In 1S29 Right Rev. Dr. the College of St. Bonaventure's, which is also affiliated
Fleming, O.S.F., succeeded to the episcopacy. Dur- to the London University, the boys' orphanage with
ing his administration of twenty-one years, the build- over 100 boys, and industrial school of Mount Cashel.
ing of the great cathedral was started, schools and The Sisters of Mercy have charge of the Orphanage
convents were erected, and nuns of the Presentation of Belvedere with 100 orphan girls, teach in the
and Mercy public schools, and conduct several academies. The
)rders introduced.
(
The fifth bishop was
the learned Dr. Mullock, O.S.F., who was appointed Presentation Sisters also teach in the public schools.
coadjutor to Bishop Fleming, and arrived in the coun- M. F. HOWLBT.
try in 1,S4,S. He was consecrated in Rome (1847); Saint Joseph, Diocese of (Sancti Josephi), in
and ruled the Church of Newfoundland for nineteen Missouri. The City of St. Joseph was founded by
years till lS(i9. He completed the cathedral, built Joseph Robidoux, a Catholic, who in 1830 became
the episcopal palace, the library and college, also sole proprietor of the trachng post at the mouth of
man,\- churches, chajiels, and convents. He was the what is now called Roy's Branch, just above the
originator of the idea of the Atlantic telegraph cable. Blacksnake Hills. In 1838 an itinerant Jesuit visited
In the island was divided into two dioceses:
]s.5(j
the obscure trading post at this place and said Mass
St, John's and Harbour Grace. The Diocese of St! in the rude log house of Robidoux. In 1840 Rev.
 SAINT LOUIS 357 SAINT LOUIS

Father Vogel administered to the spiritual wants of Chariton River was detached from the -Vrchdiocese
the faithful. Robidoux, alive to the importance of of St. Louis and attached to the Diocese of St. Joseph.
his trading post, began preparations to form a town. By reason of this extension the Diocese of St. Joseph
The population was about two hundred at that time. now comprises the whole northern part of the State
He had surveys and plats made by Fred W. Smith, of Missouri, extending from the Missouri to the
a Cathohc. Smith named his plat St. Joseph; it Mississippi River, and is bounded on the south by
was taken to St. Louis and recorded on 26 July, the Counties of Howard, Boone, Audrain, and Pike.
1843. The first permanent pastor was the Rev. By the increase of territory lOparishes have been added,
Thomas Scanlon, who began his labours in 1847. and 20 more priests have been affiUated with the dio-
On 17 June, 1847, a brick church was begun and in cese. The Catholic population is (1911) about 34,000.
September of the same year was dedicated by Arch- HoGvN, On the Mi^^iun in AfLs^oiiri (Kansas City, 1892);
LiNNENKAMP, Historical Souvenir of the Immaculate Conception
bishop P. R. Kenrick of St. Louis. The "Overland Parish (St. Joseph, 1907); Official Catholic Directoni (1910).
Period" was the most important one in the infancy C. LiNNENKAMP.
of St. Joseph. Early in the spring of 1S49 began the
rush to CaUfornia. As a starting point St. Joseph Saint Louis, Archdiocese op (Sancti Ludovici),
offered advantages which no other place possessed. created a diocese 2 July, 1826; raisol to the r;ink of
There was at that time a population of 1900 souls. an archdiocese 20 July, 1847. It comprises that por-
At the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore io tion of the State of Missouri bounded on the north
1866, St. Joseph was among the new episcopal sees by the northern lines of the Counties of Pike, Au-
proposed. Rev. John J. Hogan was chosen its first drain, Boone, and Howard, on the west by the western
Bishop, 3 March, 1868. The area assigned to the lines of the Counties Howard, Boone, Cole, Maries,
new diocese was that part of the State of Missouri Phelps, Texas and Howell, on the south by the State
lying between the Missouri and Chariton Rivers. of Arkansas, and on the east by the Mississippi River,
On investigation the bishop-elect found that there a territory of 26,235 square miles.
were in the Diocese of St. Joseph 600 families, about —
History. The City of St. Louis was founded in
3000 souls, attended by five secular priests. The 1764 by Pierre Liguest Laclfede, a French nobleman,
church edifices were of the poorest kind; the largest who came to Louisiana in 1755 and entered commer-
(pro-cathedral) was a low, narrow, brick building, cial life in New Orleans. In 1762 the firm of Maxent
built at three different times. Bishop Hogan was Laclede and Co. were given the exclusive privilege of
consecrated by Archbishop P. R. Kenrick, 13 Sep- treating with the Indians of the North-west, and in the
tember, 186S, and at once took charge of his new same year Monsieur Laclede with some companions
field of labour. In 1869 ground was broken for a new came up to Fort Chartres in the interest of the firm.
cathedral which, three years later, was opened for The Treaty of Paris in 1763 put an end to the priv-
Divine service. The number of priests increased ilege, and Monsieur Laclede purchased the interest of
gradually, religious consciousness and enthusiasm his partners, left Fort Chartres and landed on the west
were awakened, churches were built, parish schools bank of the Mississippi, where in 1764 he selected a
erected, and charitable institutions founded. On 10 spot, at that time a wilderness, and here laid the
September, 1880, Bishop Hogan was transferred to foundation of St. Louis. He built the first house, em-
the newly-erected Diocese of Kansas City, Mo., ploying Indian women and children in digging out the
and appointed Administrator of St. Joseph. When cellar and carrying the earth away in their blankets.
he resigned his administration of the Diocese of St. By the Treaty of Paris, France ceded to Spain all of
Joseph in 1893, the Rt. Rev. M. F. Burke, D.D., Louisiana west of the Mississippi, but there was no
was transferred from the Diocese of Cheyenne, Wyo- formal occupation by the Spanish until 1770. St.
ming, to St. Joseph. His reception by clergy and Louis therefore during the first years of its existence
laity was most enthusiastic. Under his able adminis- belonged to the Diocese of Santiago de Cuba, a juris-
tration great progress has been made in the material diction that extended throughout Louisiana. There
as well as in the spiritual upbuilding of the diocese. were but two priests in the St. Louis territory: Father
-\ heavy debt on the cathedral has been liquidated, Luke Collet, a Recollect, and the Jesuit Father Meu-
an episcopal residence built, a school of the cathedral rin; the former died in 1765 leaving but one priest in
parish erected at a cost of $60,000, new missions the Mississippi Valley, the veteran Father Sebastian
opened, and new parishes organized. Louis Meurin. The story of good old Father Meu-
The City of St. Joseph has at present 8 parishes rin is replete with tales of hardship and sacrifice made
with 12 resident pastors, 6 parish schools attended by for the French and Indians of Illinois and Missouri.
1340 pupils, 1 commercial college conducted by the In 1766, finding the task too great, he wrote the Bishop
Christian Brothers, 1 academy for the education of of Quebec: " Ste Genevieve is my residence. Thence
young ladies conducted by the Ladies of the Sacred I go every spring and visit the other villages. I re-
Heart, and 1 hospital conducted by the Sisters of turn again in the autumn and whenever I am sum-
Charity. Catholic population: 10,000. Outside of moned on sick calls. I am only sixty-one years old,
the City of St. Joseph may be mentioned the Bene- but I am exhausted, broken by twenty-five years of
dictine Abbey at Conception, estabhshed in 1874; mission work in this country, and of these nearly
the Concepti6n Classical College conducted by the twenty years of malady and disease show me the
Fathers of the Abbey; the Franciscan Fathers at gates of death. I am incapable, therefore, of long ap-
Chillicothe and Wien; two charitable hospitals, one plication or bodily fatigue. I cannot accordingly
at Chillicothe conducted by the Sisters of St. Mary, supply the spiritual necessities of the country, where
the other^ at Maryville conducted by the Sisters of even the stoutest men could not endure. It would
St. Francis; an academy for the education of young need four priests. If you can give me only one, he
ladies at Chillicothe conducted by the Sisters of St. should be appointed to Cahokia, and with the powers
Joseph; the mother-house and academy of the of vicar-general." In 1768 Fr. P. Gibault, Vicar
Benedictine Sisters of Perpetual Adoration at Clyde; General of Quebec, was sent to his aid and laboured
an orphan asylum at Conception; twenty churches with him until the formal occupation of Louisiana by
with resident priests; thirty-two mission stations; the Spaniards.
and seven parochial schools. By a decree of the Father Gibault continued his visits until the com-
Sacred Congregation of the Consistory, dated Rome, ing of the Capuchin Fathers from New Orleans in
16 June, 1911, the territory containing the Coun- 1772, and Father Meurin remained on the east side
ties of Adair, Clark, Knox, Lewis, Macon, Marion, of the Mississippi River. Prior to Father Gibault's
Monroe, Ralls, Randolph, Shelby, Schuyler, Scot- coming, there was no church building in this territory.
land, and that part of Chariton County east of the The records at Cahokia show that at St. Louis Father
 SAINT LOUIS 358 SAINT LOUIS
Meurin in 1766 baptized, under condition, in a tent tor Bardstown, Ky. He was received here with great
want of a church, Marie, lawful daughter of John welcome, was installed with the usual solemnities by
Baptiste Deschamp and of Marie Pion; and again, that Bishop Flaget, and took possession of the pro-cathe-
he conferred the same sacrament upon Antoine, son of dral, a poor wooden structure in ruinous condition.
Lisette, a Pawnee slave, on 9 May of the same year, The same year he founded at St. Louis a Latin Acad-
Father (libault, soon after his arrival, undertook the emy which later developed into the University of
erection of a small church built of upright logs. This St. Louis (q. v.). On 13 Aug., 1822, the Very Rev.
modest edifice was rapidly completed and dedicated Joseph Rosati, vicar-general for Bishop Du Bourg, was
on '24 June, 1770. With the advent of the Capuchins appointed by Pius VII titular Bishop of Tenagre,' and
in 1772, Father A'alentine of that order became the •created Vicar Apostolic of the territories of Missi.s'sippi
first resident priest of .St. Louis and remained until and Alabama. This appointment Father Rosati de-
177<i. He was succeeded by Father Bernard, also a clined, giving to the Propaganda as reasons tljc pau-
Capuchin, who remained for thirteen years and dur- city and penury of the people of Mississippi ami Ala-
ing his stay organized St. Charles and St. Ferdinand. bama; the utter impossibility of a priest being able to
From 17S0 to 17! )3 there are no records to show that sustain himself at Natchez; Bay St. Louis being too
St. Louis had a resident priest. In 1793 Pierre poor to erect even an unpretentious church building
Joseph Didier, a Benedictine monk, assumed charge and no other city in the two states being sufficiently
and remained until 1799. In 1800 the territory of well-equipped with church or resources worthy of a
Louisiana was receded to France and three years bishop. He also emphasized the importance of his
later transferred by Napoleon to the LTnited States. continuing as president of the seminary, as no priest
Thus we find that St. Louis and the Louisiana terri- was at hand equal to the task of assuming its direc-
tory during its early days was subject to the jurisdiction tion. His arguments and the protests of the Bishop
of: the \'inariate Apostolic of Canada, 1658-1674; the of Baltimore prevailed. The Brief "Quum superiori
Diocese of Quebec, 1674-17.59; the Diocese of Santi- ,^nno" dated 14 July, 1823, addressed to Bishop Du
ago in Cuba, 1759-1787; the Diocese of Havana, Bourg, revoked the appointment and suppressed the
17.S7-179:i; the Dioce.se of Louisiana and the Floridas, vicariate. Father Rosati, howc\er, was not to es-
179.3-1826. The territory east of the Mississippi cape episcopal honours. He was appointed coadjutor
was subject to: the Vicariate Apostolic of Canada, to Bishop Du Bourg by Apostolic Brief dated 22 June,
1658-1674; the Dioce.se of Quebec, 1674-17.S4; the 1S23, and by instructions
of said Brief was to reside
Pr(^fecture Apostolic of the thirteen states of the in St. Louis. The Brief
recited that after three
Union, 1784-1789; the Bishop of Baltimore, 1789- years the Diocese of Louisiana was to be divided. New
1808; the Diocese of Bardstown, 1,X()8-1S34. Orleans and St. Louis to be named episcopal sees,
In 1800 Rev. Thomas Flynn was made parish Bishop Du Bourg to have his choice of either, and
priest of St. Louis, remaining in that position until Bishop Rosati to preside over the destinies of the
1808 when he removed to Ste CJenevieve. Again other. Father Rosati received these documents on 4
from 1808 until 1811, when Father Savigne took Dec, 1823, and letters from the Propaganda told him
charge, we find the parish without the service of a that he must submit to the dignity he had thus far
priest. Father Savigne's ministry extended over a sought to escape. Bishop Du Bourg was then in
period of six years, and during these years the city Louisiana, and selected for the consecration scr\ices
grew to such an extent as to require the labours of a the Church of the Ascension in Donaldsonville, La.,
priest who could devote to it his entire time and at- a central position, where many clergy might assemble.
tention. In 1810 the population numbered 1400 Here the Very Rev. Father Rosati was consecrated
mostly French with some Spaniards and a constantly titjular Bishop of Tenagre on 25 March, 1824, by
increasing influx of Americans. Thus far St. Louis Bishop Louis-Guillaume- Valentin Du Bourg, assisted
had been but a struggling village, the surrounding by the Very Rev. Louis Sibourd, V.G., and the Rev.
country but a, wilderness that re-echoed to the war- Anthony de Sedella, O.M.Cap,, rector of the cathe-
whoop of the savage or resounded with the crack of the dral church of New Orleans.
ranger's rifle. Now things were to assume a more im- Not long after. Bishop Du Bourg found the task im-
portant as]5ect, so that five years later we hear of the posed upon him beyond his strength, and, discouraged
Diocese of St. Louis. St. Louis as a diocese had its by the difficulties which arose to thwart his projects
origin amidst the early ecclesiastical troubles and dis- and harassed by bitter opposition in his own city
putes of the Diocese of Louisiana and the Floridas. (which in some of his writings he styled "vera nova
The Diocese of St. Christopher of Havana, Louisiana, Babylonia"), he resigned his see and departed for
and the Floridas was erected in 1787, and Rt. Rev. Europe in April, Pending this the Propa-
1826.
Joseph de Trespalatios was appointed the first bishop; gandp. had, on 26 June, 1826, voted the erection
thus St Louis was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop
. of S Louis as a diocese, which action was approved
..

of Havana. On 25 April, 1793, the Diocese of of by the pope on 2 July, of the same year. On
Louisiana and both Floridas was created; New Or- the same day the resignation of Bishop Du Bourg
leans was designated as the cathedral city, and the was formally accepted, and letters were forwarded to
Re\'. Louis Penalver y Cardenas was appointed the Bishop Rosati, asking him to accept the vacant see.
first bishop. He arrived at New Orleans on 17 July, This he earnestly requested to be allowed to decline,
1795. On 24 Sept., 1815, Rt. Rev. Louis William pleading his lack of acquaintance with the clergy and
Du Bourg was consecrated Bishop of Louisiana and people of Louisiana and his familiarity with the dis-
the Floridas, and immediately after proposed the tricts of Missouri, Illinois, and Arkansas. He urged
erection of the See of St. Louis then in Upper Louisi- the appointment of Rev. Leo de Neckere, a Belgian
ana (sometimes called Louisiana Superior, sometimes Lazarist, as Bishop of New Orleans, and sought the in-
".Vita Louisiana"). Very soon after, however, he tervention of Bishop Du Bourg to have this effected.
requested the withdrawal of this proposal owing to His objection was sustained, and finally on 20 March,
the serious and complicated troubles caused by the 1827, Pope Leo XII transferred him from the See of
trustees (Marguilliers^ and three misguided priests of Tenagre to that of St. Louis, and requested him to
the cathedral church in New Orleans). continue the administration of New Orleans until
Open menaces of violence and other serious threats such time as other provision might be made.
prompted him to solicit the Propaganda to permit At this period the Diocese of Louisiana comprised,
him to take up his residence at St. Louis and to con- roughly speaking, the territory extending from the
tinue St. Louis as part of the Louisiana jurisdiction. Gulf of Mexico to the Dominion of Canada and from
Rome granted the request, and on 5 Jan., 1818, he the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. Ow-
came to St. Louis accompanied by Bishop Flaget, of ing to the existing indefinite lines of demarcation it
 SAINT LOUIS 359 SAINT LOUIS

was at times difficult and even impossible to decide "I have offered hirn a room in the seminary", writes
with certainty the exact confines of the diocese. The the bishop; "he is a saint who has spent himself
uncertainty of jurisdiction, which necessarily arose for many years in the service of Catholics about these
from this, influenced Rome to advise all bishops in the parts."
United States and Canada to constitute their neigh- Aside from this report we find, in other documents
bouring bishops their vicars-general; so in the archives extant, mention made of Apple Creek (1816); Cape
of the diocese we find documents appointing Bishop Girardeau (1S16); Potosi (1816); Mine La Motte
Rosati vicar-general to the Bishops of Quebec, Bards- (1816); Harrisonville (1818); and the Osage Indian
town, St. Boniface, New Orleans, Cincinnati and Du- Nation Missions in Kansas (1822) with Rev. Ch.
buque. The State of Illinois was part of the Diocese de La Croix as pastor. In 1818 Rev. Michael Portier
of Bardstown, Ky., established in 1808, j'ct Bishop was resident at Brazeau, Mo., and in 1822 Rev.
Flaget in exercising his episcopal functions along the Hercules Brassock at Drury, 111., but as no mention
Mississippi in the State of lUmois ministered to the of these names is found before or after this time we
wants of Catholics on the western side of the river, can only conclude that these fathers were residing
and so also Bishop Du Bourg, when residing at St. with English-speaking families with the purpose
Louis, gave his attention to the faithful in Illinois, and probably of learning Enghsh. The report of Bishop
in this Bishop Rosati also followed the example set.
However, in the year, 1832, Bishop Rosati wrote to
Rome that as the western half of Illinois had hitherto
been oared for by the ordinary of St. Louis it would

kk
prove more expedient to attach it to the See of St.
Louis not only de facto but also de jure. Pursuant to
this suggestion Rome, when erecting the See of Vin-
cennes, in the year 1834, divided the State of Illinois
and attached the western half to St. Louis and the
eastern half to Vincennes; thus it remained until the
year 1844 when the Diocese of Chicago was estab-
lished.
dL
The Diocese of St. Louis at the time of its erec-
tion, asis found in Bishop Rosati's report to the
Propaganda, dated 1 Nov., 1825, comprised the
northern portion of the so-called "Louisiana Pur-
chase" including Arkansas. In Missouri Bishop
Kimf*¥''^f
'
i^W^-M'i H^pfrfK
«^^J\ "
ij;^^'^*''*'*^
Rosati mentions the city, St. Louis, where there was
"^na^
but a single priest, and, as he says, need of at least
two more. Here the church begun by Bishop Du
Bourg was still unfinished. Financial depression
having driven away some and prevented others from
paying their subscriptions, suit was entered for pay-
:^^^mr>^ mI
The Cathedral of St. Louis

ment of the church debt and permission asked of the Rosati was dated 1825, the diocese was established
State to sell the bishop's house and other church in 1826; yet the parishes and missions remain the
jjroperties to meet the obhgation. Thus the condi- same in 1826 as in 1825 and so continue until 1831.
tions prevalent were by no means encouraging; In 1827 we count 1 bishop, 4 secular priests, 8 Lazarist
finally, in 1822, part of the church property was sold, fathers, 8 Jesuit fathers; a total of 20 priests. In
including the parochial residence, as also a building 1831 there were 11 churches with and 8 churches
in course of construction for an academy. The pur- without resident priests; 20 missions; 1 bishop; 16
chaser gave Bishop Rosati a time in which to redeem secular priests; 8 Lazarist Fathers; 11 Jesuits; a
it, and to secure necessary means he sent to Europe total of 35 priests. The Catholic population num-
Rev. Francis Neill, in the hope that generous Cath- bered 8000. It should be noted that on 20 Aug., 1818,
olics there would aid him in saving the property. Ladies of the Society of the Sacred Heart, including
In his report to Rome, Bishop Rosati (besides St. Madame Philippina Duchesne, Superior, Ootavia
Louis, which he styled the most important city of Berthold, and Eugenia Audet, with two lay sisters
the State and one of great possibilities) mentions the arrived in St. Louis and soon after located at St.
following others: Carondelet, or Vide Poche, with a Charles, Mo. In October of the same year the
hundred very poor famihes of French origin; Floris- Lazarist Fathers came from Bardstown, Ky., and
sant, cared for by Father Van Quickenbom, S.J., who settled permanently at the Barrens. On 31 May,
was in charge of five scholastics, and at the same time 1823, two Jesuits, Fathers Charles vanQuickenborn
directed a school for Indian boys; St. Charles, and Peter Timmermans, with seven scholastics and
Portage des Sioux, Dardenne (now St. Peter's); C6te three lay brothers, arrived, and soon after located in
sans Desain, a French village distant about ninety Florissant, Mo., while on the same day of the same
miles from St. Louis; La Mine di Plumb (Old Mines), year twelve Sisters of Loretto took up their perma-
with about 200 French families; St. Michael's nent residence at the Barrens in Perry County. On
(Fredericktown) Ste Genevieve with resident priest;
; 25 November, 1829, four Sisters of Charity arrived
the Barrens (French Bois Brule, Latin Sylva Cre- at St. Louis from Emmitsburg, Maryland, and began
nata), consisting then of about 200 families at- their labours in conducting a hospital, to found which
tended by one of the Fathers of St. Mary's Sem- Mr. John Mullanphy had given houses and lots
inary, with 16 students of theology in attendance. and other properties. On 30 May of the same year
Here too was located the Loretto Convent with 17 Bishop Rosati approved of the foundation of the
sisters and some postulants; though struggling with Visitation Nuns at Kaskaskia, 111.; these later, in
difficulties and lack of funds the sisters maintained a 1844, settled at St. Louis, being compelled to leave
free school and cared for 24 orphans. The last Kaskaskia because of the great flood of that year.
Louisiana town mentioned in the report was New On 5 March, 1836, Rev. James Fontbonne arrived at
Madrid, with 80 French families. In Illinois Bishop St. Louis with seven Sisters of St. Joseph from the
Rosati notes Kaskaskia with 150 families, and Prairie Diocese of Lyons, France. Four Ursuline Nuns
du Rocher, with church and resident priest, the Rev. arrived on 4 Sept., 1848. The Rev. Joseph Paquin
lather Olivier, aged seventy-five years, who was almost was the first priest to own Missouri as his native
blind and unable to render any services to the parish. state. He was born at New Madrid, 4 Dec, 1799.
 SAINT LOUIS 360 SAINT LOUIS
The first bishop to be consecrated in the Cathedral of Lazarist Fathers and as vicar-general of Bishop
St. Louis by the Rt. Rev. Bishop Rosati was the Rt. Du Bourg. Admirably did he accomplish the work
Re\'. Mirhael Portier, titular Bishop of OUensis and devolviiig on him by virtue of his new appointment.
\'icar Apostolic of Alabama and the two Floridas, Soon, without any conscious effort, he found himself
the i-onsccration taking place 5 Nov., 1826. surrounded by a body of enthusiastic and willing co-
Jiixcph Rdxali.— Born at Sora in the Kingdom of labourers, and his abiUty and scholarship were soon
Naples on 12 Jan., 1789, he resolved even in his early manifest throughout the land.
days to consecrate his life to the ser\'ice of God. In In 1821 Bishop Du Bourg intended separating
his >'0uth he entered the no\-itiate of the Fathers of Mississippi and other territory from his diocese and
the Congregation of the Mission at Rome, was there pleaded for the appointment of Father Rxjsati as
profcsseil, and ordained ^ priest. No record of his vicar Apostolic. This dignity the latter's humility
ordination is extant, due, no doubt, to the fact that prompted him to decline, but later on Rome nominated
Na])oleon at the time held sway in the Eternal City, him titular Bishop of Tenagre, and coadjutor to
and he commanded the expulsion and suppression of Bishop Du Bourg. He was enjoined under obedience
tlie Lazarist Fathers. It is evident, howe\'er, that it to accept the nomination, and he remained in this
must have been either in ISll or 1812, as documents oflfioe until the establishment of the Diocese of St.
show that on 19 Nov., 1812, the usual sacerdotal Louis, when he was placed in charge of its destinies
faculties were given him by the Cardinal Vicar of and entrusted with the administration of the See of
Rome. His first charge was as assistant to the Rev. New Orleans. His worth as bishop can be gleaned
Felix de Andreis, CM. This we find him occupying from the results of his administration. Numerous
when in the j-ear 1815 Bishop Du Bourg was con- religious orders were introduced, and during his time
secrated in Rome. A few days after his consecration and partly by his efforts, the Jesuit Fathers estab-
Bishop Du Bourg arranged with the cardinal prefect lished their novitiate at Florissant, Mo., and founded
to have a colony of Lazarist Fathers go to AJmerica the western pro^-ince of the order. In 1827 Bishop
to found a seminary and take up missionary work in Rosati transferred to them the College at St. Louis
his new diocese. Rev. Felix de Andreis was ap- which has since grown into the present University
pointed superior of this band, and he selected as his of St. Louis. The Religious of the Sacred Heart, the
associate the Rev. Joseph Rosati and the Rev. John Visitation Nuns, and the Sisters of St. Joseph grew
B. Aquaroni. They, together with four lay brothers and developed by his advice and under his guidance.
and two secular priests, the Revs. Joseph Carreti and A home for the orphans, an institute for deaf-
Andrew Ferrari, and also four ecclesiastical students, mutes and the St. Louis Mullanphy Hospital were
on 18 Oct., 1815, departed fi-om Rome for their future made possible by and untiring efforts. In
his zeal
field of labour. Bishop Du Bourg, detained at Rome the year 1831 he began the building of the
on important and serious business, could not accom- cathedral church, a beautiful, stately, and at the
pany them. He, therefore, before their departure, same time costly, structure, the cornerstone of
appointed Fatlicr de Andreis his vicar-general and which was solenmly blessed and laid by him on
Father Rosati director of the seminarians, noting 1 Aug., 1831.
in the appointment of the latter that, should Rev. The solemn consecration of the cathedral took
de Andreis die. Father Rosati was to succeed him as place on 26 Oct., 1834, Bishop Rosati himself being
vicar-gen?ral. the consecrator, assisted by Bishops Flaget of Bards-
On 7 Jan., 1816, the colonists arrived at Bordeaux, town, Purcell of Cincinnati, and Brut6 of Vincennes
took up their residence in the archiepiscopal palace in prfeence of many priests and a great concourse of
and remained there several months, applying them- people. Here too, only two days later, he conse-
seh'cs to the study of the French and English lan- crated the venerated Bishop Brut6. Even to-day the
guages. Finally, 12 June, 1816, they embarked at cathedral stands, a monument of the faith and devo-
Bordeaux for Baltimore and landed there 27 July, tion of the Catholics of old St. Louis, the wonder and
ISKi; thence they proceeded by stage to Pittsburg, the admiration of all because of its purity of archi-
and here were delayed several weeks because of low tecture and solidity of construction. In the midst of
water in the Ohio River, finally arriving at Bards- his distracting and arduous duties Bishop Rosati yet
town during October of 1817. Bishop Flaget received found time for study and literary work. As a writer
them most cordially and with every mark of affection, he was clear and convincing and many of the ablest
and placed at their disposal part of his seminary. and most learned documents of the Four Provincial
Here they remained studying English under the tutor- Councils of Baltimore are the results of his pen. He
ship of Bishop David, then coadjutorto Bishop Flaget. was a prudent, efficient administrator and an elo-
Father Rosati in a very short time had advanced quent speaker, speaking equally well in Italian,
sufficiently to be able to preach and hear confessions French, and English. His audiences included men of
in the English language, and aside from liis occupation every rank and station and so convincing were his
a.^; professor of philosophy and theology in the sem- words and so impressive his personality, that his con-
inary, devoted himself to parochial work. When in verts during the year 1839 numbered 209. His con-
June, 1N17, word was received that Bishop Du Bourg fessional was always surrounded by penitents and in
had sailed from Bordeaux and would arrive at and out of the confessional he was accessible to all
Annapohs about 14 September on his way to St. who sought his friendship or advice. He permitted
Louis, Bisliop Flaget and Fathers de Andreis and himself to call no time his own, but at all hours was
Rosati, with one lay brother, set out on horseback ready to bestow his best attention upon any person
from Bardstown, Ky., to St. Louis, a distance of over who might desire to speak with him; thus he came to
three hundred miles, there to arrange a reception for wield a mighty influence for good.
the bisliop. After the installation of Bishop Du Bourg On 25 April, 1840, he attended the Fourth Provin-
at St. Louis, Bishop Flaget and Father Rosati re- cial Council of Baltimore and after its close departed
turned to Bardstown, leaving Father de Andreis for Rome, where he was most graciously recci^-ed by
and Brother Blanca at Ste Genevieve, Mo. Father Pope Gregory XVI. Appointed by the pope Apos-
Rosati remained at Bardstown as rector of the toHc Delegate to Hayti, he was commissioned to
seminary until October, 1818, when by order of adjust the relationship between the Holy Sec and the
Bisliop Du Bourg the seminarj' was transferred to Republic of Hayti; he accepted the appointment. In
the Barrens, Perry County, Mo. Father Rosati was doing so, however, he did not fail to note the danger
its first president and also pastor of the village church. of leaving his far-extending and yet undeveloped dio-
On 1.') Oct., 1820, the -i-enerated de Andreis died and cese during so long a time without a leader; conse-
was succeeded by Father Rosati as superior of the quently he advised the appointment of a coadjutor.
 SAINT LOUIS 361 SAINT LOUIS

This Rome agreed to and asked him to name his position, or both, stand apart and form landmarks in
choice; he thereupon proposed the name of the Very history. Such was the life of Peter Richard Kenrick,
Rev. Peter Richard Kenrick, vicar-general to the Rt. the second Bishop and the first Archbishop of the
Rev. Francis Patrick Kenriclv of Philadelphia; at the Diocese of St. Louis; for an account of his life see
same time he drew attention to the fact that only a Kenrick, Francis Patrick and Peter Richard.
short time before he had petitioned Rome to appoint On 20 July, 1847, St. Louis was raised to the rank
as his coadjutor the Very Rev. John Timon, C.M., of an archdiocese and Bishop Kenrick became its first
and that Father Timon had declined the honour. archbishop. No suffragans, however, were assigned
Now, he argued, in order to prevent a recurrence of to him as at the time other archiepiscopal sees were
the same nature it might be well to oblige Father Ken- under contemplation in the territory. On 25 May,
rick under obedience to accept the office. That 1850, he issued a call for the Second Diocesan Synod
Rome acted on the suggestion is clear from a letter of and on the twenty-fifth of the following August, 43
the Rt. Rev. Francis Patrick Kenrick, dated Phila- priests of the diocese assembled in council. This
delphia, 4 June, 1841, addressed to Bishop Rosati in synod, which was the only one held during his life,
which we read: "the positive wishes of His Holiness passed regulations which obtained during his admin-
have, I believe, secured my brother's full acquies- istration. He also presided at the two Provincial
cence". Before going to Hayti Bishop Rosati re- Councils convoked by him, the first 7 Sept., 1855, the
turned to the United States, and on 30 Nov., 1841, at second, 5 Sept., 1858; a third was called for May,
the cathedral church at Philadelphia, he consecrated 1861, but was postponed because of the impending
the Rt. Rev. Peter Richard Kenrick titular Bishop of Civil War. On 3 May, 1857, Archbishop Kenrick
Drasa and coadjutor of the Diocese of St. Louis. consecrated the Rt. Rev. James Duggan his coadju-
Having arranged the affairs of his diocese, and in- tor. One year later Bishop Duggan was transferred
formed himself as well as possible regarding matters to the See of Chicago.
at Hayti, he set sail from New York, 15 Jan., 1842, In the spring of 1872 Archbishop Kenrick secured
and landed at Port au Prince on the twenty-ninth day the appointment of the Very Rev. Patrick J. Ryan as
of the same month, where he was received with every his second coadjutor. The consecration services were
mark of respect. Success crowned his efforts in so far held in St. Louis and Father Ryan, on 14 February,
as he was able to convince the president of the advisa- 1872, was consecrated titular Bishop of Trioomia and
bihty of signing a Concordat which should be sub- coadjutor to the Archbishop of St. Louis with the right
mitted to the Holv See for approval. of succession. Bishop Ryan remained coadjutor until
He left Hayti 22 February, 1842, landed at Brest, 8 June, 1884, when he was promoted to the Archi-
France, on Easter Sunday, and from there proceeded episcopal See of Philadelphia. After the departure
to Rome to report the result of his endeavours to the of Archbishop Ryan, Archbishop Kenrick resumed,
pope. The remainder of the year he spent in Eu- unaided, the administration of his diocese. In 1893,
rope. In the spring of 1843, the Concordat having because of age and infirmities incidental thereto,
been signed at Rome, he journeyed to Paris to arrange he found it impossible to continue alone the adminis-
for his return trip to Hayti. It is of interest to note tration and Rome sent him as coadjutor with the right
that on his trip to Paris he met and travelled with the of succession, the Right Rev. John J. Kain, Bishop of
papal nuncio to Brussels, the Most Rev. Vincenzo Wheeling, W. Va. Three years later, on 3 March,
Gioacchino Pecci, titular Archbishop of Damietta, 1896, Archbishop Kenrick died in the archiepiscopal
afterwards the illustrious Leo XIII, and that the residence at St. Louis. He was a man of great learn-
latter in 1881, in speaking of this meeting, said that ing, of modest, unassuming manner, never too re-
never during his days had he met with a prelate so served and never too f amihar, in fact a spiritual man,
saintly {nessuno si santo) and so imbued with filial a man of great soul, to whom littleness and meanness
love and respect for the pope. When Bishop Rosati were unknown. He seldom came forward except in
reached Paris his health, long before undermined defence of Catholic truth and of CathoUc interests
by the privations and exposures of his missionary that were attacked, and then rather in writing than
life in the Far West, gave way; he was stricken with in public meetings. His main work lay hidden from
an acute attack of lung trouble, which he had con- the public eye; this work was to organize, consolidate,
tracted during the previous month of February, and, and expand his diocese; to foster the ecclesiastical
acting on the advice of his physicians, he returned to spirit among his priests; to counsel wisely and pru-
Rome, where he died in the House of the Congrega- dently his brother bishops, his clergy and people of
tion of the Fathers of the Mission on 25 Sept., 1843. every rank and condition. For such work it was that
Coming to Missouri in the primeval days of its settle- he became so well-known and so highly esteemed, and
ment, when it had scarcely a vestige of Catholicity, he that his name ranks so high in the history of the
left the diocese in a flourishing and prosperous condi- Church in America.
tion. Preparatory to the first Diocesan Synod of St. During the life of Archbishop Kenrick the expan-
Louis, convoked by him, and opened 21 April, 1839, sion of the Church in the Diocese of St. Louis was un-
he issued a call for a diocesan census, the result of precedented. Prior to 1843 there were, but three
which shows: a Catholic population of 31,503; 3 con- churches in the City of St. Louis: the cathedral,
vents of the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, with 42 sis- SS. Mary's and Joseph's, and the Church of St. Fran-
ters; 1 orphan asylum and hospital in charge of the cis Xavier, and only 39 throughout the entire dio-
Sisters of Charity (19 sisters) 4 convents of the Sis-
; cese. At the time of his death we find 58 parish
ters of Loretto, with 30 sisters; 2 convents of the Sis- churches in the City of St. Louis and 108 outside the
ters of St. Joseph, with 11 sisters; 1 convent of Visita- city, also 26 chapels and 97 mission churches, with a
tion Nuns, with 19 sisters; 4 ecclesiastical seminaries, CathoUc population of nearly 200,000. In 1849, he
with 30 clerics; 3 colleges; 7 charitable institutions. introduced the Christian Brothers; in 1862, the Fran-
In 1842 we find 39 churches with resident priests; 6 ciscan Fathers; in 1866, the Redemptorist Fathers;
chapels; 36 churches without resident priests; 60 mis- in 1869, the Alexian Brothers; in 1884, the Passionist
sions; 2 bishops; 29 secular priests; 21 Lazarist Fathers; in 1848, the Sisters of the Good Shepherd; in
Fathers 28 Jesuits; a total of 80 priests.
; The Catho- 1849, the Ursuline Nuns; in 1856, the Sisters of Mercy;
lic population at this time is given as 100,000. Bishop in 1858, the Notre Dame Sisters; in 1863, the Dis-
Rosati died 25 Sept., 1843, and was succeeded by calced Carmelites; in 1869, the Little Sisters of the
Peter Richard Kenrick. Poor; in 1872, the Sisters of St. Mary and the Sisters
First Archbishop, Peter Richard Kenrick (1841- of St. Francis; in 1880, the Oblate Sisters of Provi-
1895). —Some lives there are that mark an epoch — dence, and in 1882, the Sisters of the Precious Blood.
hves which by virtue of their striking power or unique In 1843 he founded a monthly Catholic magazine,
 SAINT LOUIS 362 SAINT LOUIS

"The Catholic Cabinet and Chronicle of Religious an admirable exemplar of progressive conservatism
Intelligence", in 1850 a weekly publication called and conservative progressiveness. He held a high
"The Shepherd of the Valley", which was discon- place in the American hierarchy, as is evidenced from
tinued in 18.54. To systematize works of charity he the fact of his being chosen from among the bishops of
estabUshed in 1847 the St. Vincent de Paul Society, the country in 1884 as procurator of the Third Council
which organization grew and expanded and still con- of Baltimore, and that in 1895 he was selected to de-
tinues its noble work in aiding the destitute and dis- liver the sermon in the cathedral at Baltimore on the
tressed. In 1892 "The Queen's Daughters" were occasion of the conferring of the cardinal's biretta on
organized, a society of ladies who devote their ener- His Eminence Cardinal Satolh, the first Apostolic
gies to forming sewing classes among the poorer peo- Delegate to America. In 1902 his health failed, and
ple, teaching the scholars useful and beneficial arts, Rome sent him at his request as coadjutor, with right
and providing clothing and other necessaries for the of succession, the Rt. Rev. John Joseph Glen-
poor and deserving. Archbishop Kenrick further- non, D.D., titular Bishop of Pinara, and coadjutor
more organized the New Cathedral Board, the Catho- Bishop of Kansas City, Mo. Archbishop Kain died
lic Orphan Board, the Calvary Cemetery Board, and at Baltimore, 13 Oct., 1903. At the time of his death
the Diocesan Seminary Board, each of which he duly the diocesan census showed: city churches, 68;
incorporated. He secured the property and build- churches outside the city with resident pastors, 124'
ings of the Visitation Nuns in the City of St. Louis missions 58; 1 archbishop; 1 bishop; 268 diocesan
for the new Kenrick Seminary and began the fund priests; and 174 regulars; total 442. Cathohc pop-
for the erection of a new cathedral. During his epis- ulation, 220,000.
copate sixteen new sees were formed and established Third Archbishop, John Joseph Glennon (1903 ).
He was born 14 July, 1862, at Kinnegad, Parish of
—
out of the original Diocese of St. Louis: Little Rock,
1843; Santa F6 and St. Paul, 1850; Leavenworth, Clonard, Co. Meath, Ireland. He completed his studies
1851; Alton and Omaha, 1857; Green Bay, La at AU Hallows' College, Ireland, came to America in
Crosse, St. Joseph, and Denver, 1868; Kansas City, 1883, and was ordained a priest of the Diocese of Kan-
1880; Davenport, 1881; Wichita, Concordia, Chey- sas City in the cathedral of that city on 20 Dec, 1884.
enne, and Lincoln, 1887. At the time of his death in In 1893 he was appointed vicar-general of the diocese,
1896 diocesan statistics show: city parishes, 61; and on 29 June, 1896, was consecrated titular Bishop
parishes outside the City of St. Louis, 114; missions of Pinara and coadjutor to Bishop Hogan of Kansas
with churches, 94; stations, 40; chapels with attend- City, Mo. He was transferred to St. Louis as coad-
ing chaplains, 27; archbishops, 2; diocesan priests, jutor with the right of succession on 27 April, 1903,
229; regulars, 121; total priests, 350; CathoUc popu- and succeeded to the See of St. Louis on 13 October
lation, 200,000. of the same year. During the time of his adminisr
Second Archbishop, John Joseph Kain (1895-1903). tration the Archdiocese of St. Louis has advanced with
—He was born at Martinsburg, Berkeley Coimty, W. rapid strides, both in temporal and spiritual matters.
Many churches and institutions have been estab-
Va., 31 March, 1841. After attending the Martinsburg
Academy, he entered St. Charles College at EUicott lished and built, and Church legislation has been am-
City, Md., where he finished his Classical studies. He plified and perfected by the Fifth and the Sixth
made his theological studies at St. Mary's Seminary, Diocesan Synods called and presided over by him
Baltimore, and was there ordained priest on 2 July, during the months of September of the years 1905
1866. His first appointment was as pastor of Harper's and 1908; also various charity organizations have
Ferry, W. Va. and with it as a centre he ministered to
, been systematically perfected, and new ones founded
the spiritual wants of the CathoUcs of eight counties. to answer the needs of the poor, especially in con-
After nine years' pastorate, when only thirty-four years gested districts. During his time we note the organi-
of age, he was selected by Rome to succeed Bishop zation of the "Ephpheta Society" (1909), a society
Whelan as Bishop of Wheeling, W. Va. He was con- whose object is to care for the Catholic deaf-mute
secrated in the Cathedral of Wheeling 23 May, 1875. children of the poor and provide means for their edu-
In 1893 Rome created him Archbishop of Oxyrynchia cation; the establishment of Father Dunne's News-
and coadjutor to Archbishop Kenrick, and on 31 Aug., boys' Home in 1905; Father Dempsey's Hotel for
of the same year, he came to St. Louis. He was ap- Homeless Men in 1906; the introduction of the Help-
pointed to the see of the Diocese of St. Louis, 21 May, ers of the Holy Souls in 1903; the Brothers of Mary
1895. During his administration he manifested the (Western Province College and novitiate in 1908);
same strenuous and efficient efforts that had charac- and the establishment of Catholic settlement schools
terized his labours in his former diocese. During and day nurseries in 1910. To this prelate has been
Sept., 1893, he opened the new Kenrick Seminary and entrusted the task of giving to St. Louis what had
in Sept., 1896, he presided over the Third Diocesan been the dream of Kenrick and the ambition of Kain
Synod. At this Synod he introduced into the diocese a cathedral worthy of the name and prestige of the
the Third Baltimore Council legislations, and redis- Archdiocese of St. Louis. Soon after taking up Arch-
tricted and readjusted parish boundaries and regulated bishop Kain's crosier, he set to work drafting plans
diocesan matters in general. He also began the re- and collecting funds for the erection of the cathedral,
organization of the parochial school system. In Sep- the corner-stone of which was laid on Sunday ^18 Oct.,
tember, 1902, he held the Fourth Diocesan Synod in 1908, by the Most Rev. Apostolic Delegate Diomede
which diocesan legislation was further perfected. Other Falconio, D.D., titular Archbishop of Larissa. On
notable works of this energetic prelate were the pur- this occasion seventy-nine city parishes participated
chasing of the new cathedral site on Lindell Boule- in the grand parade, making the largest demonstra-
vard, the establishment of the new cathedral parish, tion ever seen in the city; it was also of extraordinary
the erecting of the new cathedral chapel and paro- character in the nationalities represented.
chial residence, and the preliminary financing of the The exterior of the cathedral is an original concep-
new cathedral project. In all his works he showed tion, Byzantine in sentiment, developed in a beauti-
himself possessed of a great courage and determina- ful gray granite which lends itself happily to majestic
tion, and accomplished for the diocese by his energy, piling, and is simple but romantic in expression.
labour and endurance that which his venerable prede- The openings are treated in receding colonnades,
cessor had during his late >-ears planned, but because architraves, and archivolts, with profuse and elabo-
of his great age necessarily failed to accomplish. rate carved and sculptured decorations, each molif
Archbishop Kain was a man of great earnestness and being from a special design, original in character. The
singleness of heart, noted for the prudence of his great central dome, forming the main central feature
counsels as well as for the intensity of his convictions; and rearing its cross 247 feet above the terrace, the
 SAINT LOUIS 363 SAINT LOUIS
main fagade with its imposing gable and deep receding Sketch of the Church in St. Louis: Walsh, Jubilee
Memoirs (St.
Louis, 1891); Encycl. of the Hist, of St. Louis (St.
central rose-window, and three great main entrances Cathohc Directory (Milwaukee).
Louis, 1899);
below, flanked on either side with imposing isolated Jqhn J. TaNNBATH.
towers giving great breadth to the fagade, present a Univbbsity of St. Louls, probably the oldest uni-
front of great dignity and charm. The sides, with versity west of the Mississippi River, was founded in
many gabled entrances, one-story chapels and great the City of St. Louis in 1818 by the Right Reverend
clerestory windows, the suppressed towers at the Louis William Du Bourg, Bishop of Louisiana. Since
angle of the dome and central transepts form a beau- 1827 the institution has been under the direction of
tiful combination, giving fine light-and-shadow ef- the Society of Jesus. On 16 November, 1818, Bishop
fects. The building is roofed with a sea-green glazed Du Bourg opened St. Louis Academy, putting it in
tile; the typana of all the arches, illuminated with charge of the Reverend Frangois Niel and others of
mosaics in subdued colours, impart warmth and in- the secular clergy attached to St. Louis Cathedral; in
terest to the whole. The building has great bronze 1820 the name of the institution was changed to St.
doors with sculptured panels depicting Biblical sub- Louis College. The college was successful, but the
jects. The interior is of a purely Byzantine type, secular clergy, owing to their numerous ecclesiastical
an original composition in colours never before at- duties, found it difficult to attend to this professorial
tempted in this t3T3e of church architecture. The work. In consequence Bishop Du Bourg, who had
general plan consists of two minor domes, a large cen- been President of Georgetown College, soon began to
tral dome, and a nave, with transepts and apse, sur- formulate plans to put St. Louis College in care of the
rounded with spacious ambulatories, through which Society of Jesus, for he realized that its existence
the circuit of the church may be made without cross- would be precarious without some such guarantee for
ing the more sacred parts of the building. There are supplying a corps of trained professors. He there-
spacious chapels with groined and vaulted ceilings to fore made application to the Provincial of the Jesuits
the right and left of the sanctuary; these are dedica- in Maryland, but his request could not be granted,
ted to the Blessed Sacra-ment and the Blessed Virgin. as the establishments of the Society at Georgetown
Other chapels of equal importance are on either side and elsewhere in the eastern states fully occupied all
of the front minor dome, while two transepts form the members at that time. However, early in 1823,
chapels dedicated to St. Louis and St. George. In Bishop Du Bourg visited Washington to consult with
the ambulatory circling these transepts are Stations James Monroe, President of the United States, and
of the Cross in bronze. The colonnades are of rare John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, on the Indian
imported coloured marbles, the caps and bases of affairs of his diocese. Mr. Calhoun suggested that he
which are finished in gold with shadowed blues and invite the Maryland Jesuits to give him their assist-
reds. The ceilings, spandrils and arch balustrade ance in this difficult pioneer work. Bishop Du Bourg
are decorated with highly illuminated glass mosaics,
thereupon once more entered into negotiations with
of varied interlacing geometric patterns and religious
the Provincial of Maryland, offering to make over to
emblems. The interior presents an ever-changing the Society of Jesus his cathedral property in St.
vista of design and colour when observed from differ- Louis, which comprised church and college, as well as
ent points of view. a farm near Florissant, Mo., for an Indian seminary,
The statistics of the diocese (1911) are as follows: if the Jesuits would establish themselves in his dio-
archbishop, 1; diocesan priests, 314; regular clergy, cese. The provincial accepted that part of the propo-
214; Jesuits, 83; Passionists, 12; Redemptorists, sition which referred to the Indian seminary, but
40; Franciscans, 32; Lazarists, 42; Servite Fathers, stated that priests could not be spared for the St.
2; Brothers of Mary, 3; total priests, 528; churches in Louis educational project. Accordingly in June,
city, 83; churches outside city with resident priests,
1823, the Jesuits from Whitemarsh, Md., took up
159; total, 242; churches without resident priests, 98; their abode in Florissant where they opened an In-
total churches, 340; stations, 66; chapels, 120; semi-
dian seminary. In 1824 they yielded to Bishop Du
nary for diocesan clergy, 1; students, 250; semina- Bourg's earnest solicitations to take over St. Louis
ries of religious orders, 7; students, 900; colleges and
College, but the transfer was not actually effected
academies for boys, 8; students, 2500; academies for until 1827.
young ladies, 22; other institutions of higher educa- The last session of St. Louis College under the man-
tion for females, 15; females educated in higher
agement of the secular clergy was that of 1826-27.
branches, 5000; parishes with parochial schools in the
The Jesuits decided to erect new college buildings on
city, 69; number of pupils in city, 20,936; parochial
property given by Bishop Du
Bourg, and in the in-
schoolsoutsideof city, 110; pupils, 9645; total schools, terval the pupils of St. Louis College were accommo-
179; total pupils, 30,581; newsboys' home, 1; hotel for dated at Florissant. Thence they were transferred
working men, 1; orphan asylums, 7; orphans, 1500; to the new establishment in St. Louis where classes
House of the Good Shepherd, 1 children in preservation
;
were opened under Jesuit masters on 2 November,
class, 250; deaf-mute asylums, 2; pupils, 190; indus-
1829. In its new environments the college flour-
trial schools, 3; pupils, 300; total number of young
ished, and in 1832 received its charter as a univer-
people under Catholic care, 40,321 ;hospitals and in- sity by act of the Missouri Legislature. President
firmaries, 16; patients during the year, about 10,000;
Verhaegen at once began to organize the post-gradu-
asylums, 4; homes for aged, 2; Catholic population, ate faculties. In 1834 the school of divinity was es-
about 375,000, tablished, which continued its courses until 1860. A
The statistics of the diocese at the time of this writ- faculty of medicine was constituted in 1836 and was
ing, June, 1911, are as above quoted, but by "Brief of
eminently successful until 1855 when, owing to the
the Consistoriale" dated Rome, 16 June, 1911, the
Know-Nothing movement, its separation from the
northern portion of the diocese has been detached and universitywas deen.ed advisable. A law school was
affiliated to the Diocese of St. Joseph, Mo. This will organized in 1843 but was closed four years later.
necessitate a readjustment of the above figures which
In 1889 the work of reconstructing these faculties
cannot just now be done with any degree of accu-
was begun. The school of philosophy and science
racy. The territory affected comprises 11 counties: was opened in 1889; the school of divinity in 1899;
Clark, Adair, Knox, Lewis, Macon, Shelby, Marion,
the school of medicine in 1903; the dental college,
Chariton, Randolph, Monroe, and Ralls. In the coun- school of advanced science, and institute of law in
ties named there are numbered 15 parishes with 16
1908; the department of meteorology and seismology
missions and 20 diocesan and 3 regular priests.
in 1909; and the school of commerce and finance in
RosATi, Relazione, Letters to the Propaganda and Private
Letters; Idem, Diocesan Archives; Shea, Hist, of the Catholic 1910. Although founded in the pioneer days of ed-
Church inthe U. S., I (Akron, 1888), passim; Thornton, Historical ucation in the West, the old professional schools of
 SAINT LOUIS 364 SAINT LOUIS
the university did excellent work. Dr. William Beau- Ponziglione and others from the university e^'angel-
mont, widely known for his observations in the case ized Indians and whites throughout the A\'est many of ;

of Alexis St. Martin, was among the first professors these early missions became the centres of fiourisliing
of the medical school. Rush Medical College of communities. In education the direct influence of
Chicago owes its existence to an early professor at the the university has been wide, no less than thirteen
school. Dr. Brainard, and the Cooper Medical Col- colleges and professional schools having been founded
lege of San Frani'iseo was founded by an alumnus, by its professors or alumni. Degrees ha\-e been (in- <

Dr. Cooper. Another student of those early days, ferred from 1S34 to 1911 as follows: Doctors, Ph D
Dr. L. C. Boisliniere, wrote a text-book on obstetrics, 27; LL.D., 33; M.D.,935; D.D.S., 107; Mus. d' 1-
which is still of considerable value. In 1S4S Dr. M. total 1103. Masters, M.A., 175; M.S., 1; total iVg'
L. Linton organized the first medical monthly in Bachelors, B.A., 402; B.S., 75; Ph.B., 5; LL.B., .-/)
America, "The St. Louis Medical and Surgical Jour- B.F.A., 2; B.C.S., 1; total 544. Grand total of de-
nal" Buckner, Barret, Garesch(5, and Sharp, of the grees conferred, 1823. During this period 722 mem-
old Law School, were men of national prominence in bers of the Society of Jesus completed the full courses
their clay. Eight American prelates have had inti- of the schools of divinity and philosophy.
mate connexions with the university: Du Bourg of —
Presext Status. St. Louis LTniversity consists
Louisiana, as founder; Rosati of St. Louis, as patron of the college, the school of divinity, the school of
and benefactor; Van de Velde of Chicago and Carrell philosophy, the school of advanced science, the de-
of Co\'ington, as presidents; Miege, Vicar Apostolic partment of seismology and meteorology, the school
of Indian Territory, as a professor; de Xeckere of Xew of medicine, the school of dentistry, the institute of
Orleans, Harty of Manila, and Chartrand, Auxiliary law, and the school of commerce and finance. In De-
of Indianapolis, as students. Other students of the cember, 1910, the General of the Society of Jesus,
university who rose to prominence in ecclesiastical Very Rev. F. X. Wernz, by official act constituted St.
affairs are the Very Rev. A. M. Anderledy, General of Louis University a collegium maximum. This is a
the Society of Jesus, and the Re\'erends Joseph Kel- title conferred in recognition of the university's rank
ler and R. J. Meyer, English assistants to the General among Jesuit educational institutions. The faculty
of the Society. Fathers Carrell, Heylen, Sraarius, members and students are distributed as follows
Damen, and Conway were noted preachers con- (June, 1911):
nected with the university. Facultv Students
From an early date, members of the faculty de- College 3S 468
voted themselves to writing. Walter H. Hill, S.J., School of Divinit V S 92
was among the to write text-books on scholastic
first School of Phik.sopliy 4 55
philosophy in English, and his works are still widely Seismology and Aleteorology 2 4
used. "The Happiness of Hea\'en", by Florentine School of Advanced Science 4 4
Boudrcaux, S.J., and "The Imitation of the Sacred School of Medicine 97 296
Heart", by Peter Arnoudt, S.J., have gone through School of Dentistry 14 125
many editions (the most recent, 1910j, and have been Institute of Law .52 1!)7
translated into most modern languages. Joseph Commerce and Finance 22 46
Keller, R. J. Meyer, F. Garesehe, and Joseph Fastre,
all of the Society, wrote on ascetical subjects, while Totals 241 12S7
the writings of Pierre Jean de Sniet did much to The University Library contains more than 70,000
bring the Indian Missions into public notice. A\'ithin volumes, among them many rare and valuable works.
recent years books and studies on philosophy, theol- There are also special librari<^s in each department
ogy, apologetics, ecclesiastical history, pedagogy, and of the university. The museum contains specimens
canon law, have been published by the Jesuit pro- illustrating the fields of geology, palaeontology and
fessors, Poland, Often, Higgins, Coppens, Gruender, ethnology; the art collection though small contains
Conway, Rother, Martin, Conroy, and Fanning. some paintings of considerable merit. The " Fleur de
Fathers Coppens and McNichols have issued text- Lis", a literary publication, and a number of philo-
books on English literature. Father Thomas sophical, literary, and scientific societies, several of
Hughes is well known as an authority on the history which publish their proceedings, furnish the student
of the Jesuits, and is the author of "Loyola and the added opportunities for mental development; the So-
Educational System of the Jesuits". Fathers Finn, dality of the Blessed Virgin Mary and other religious
Copus, and Spalding are the authors of books of fic- organizations offer additional aids to piety. Uni-
tion for the young which have an extensive circula- versity athletics are controlled by a students' associa-
tion. Professors Harris and Steele ha\'c published tion working in connexion with the Faculty Board of
t.ext-books on law. Professor Harris' work on "Wills" Athk'tics. The gymnasium is fairly equipped and a
being noteworthy among recent contributions on the splendid campus has been recently secured. The
subject. Professors Eycleshymer, Thompson, Lyon, Alumni Association with records dating from 1828
Neilson, Chaddock, Engman, and Loeb, ha^'e written is well organized and helps much to promote loyalty
on medical topics. Scientific studies have been pub- to the university. The General Catalogue, issued an-
lished by the Jesuit professors, de Laak, Monaghan, nually, and the Announcements published by the
Borgmeyer, and Coony. Among the alumni who schools from time to time during the year, furnish de-
have won distinction in the field of history may be tailed information in regard to the university.
mentioned, E. B. O'Callaghan, Lucien Carr, Paul FAXN-iNfi, nisi. .Sketch of Si. Louis U„ii'. (St. Louis, 1908);
Beckwith, and Firmin Rozier; and in general litera- Idem, Diamond ./uhilce of St. Louis Univ. (St. Louis, 1904);
ture, John Lesperance, Cond4 B. Fallen, and Irwin Hill, Hist. Sketch of .SI. Louis Unir. (St. Louis, ls7:)); Kenny
in The CothoUc Church in the U. S. (New York, 191(J); Billon,
Russell. Annals of St. Louis (St. Louis, 1X,S6); Chittende.v .inu Richabd-
Through its early missionaries who founded many SON, Life of Pierre Jean De Smet (Xcw Yorii, 190.5) :
Clabke,
Bishops of the Catholic Church in the U. S. (N'fw York, 1889);
settlements throughout the AA'est, and through its
HoGAN, Thoughts about St. Louis (St. Louis, 1854); Htde and
alumni, many of whom have risen to high rank in Co.NARD, Hist, of St. Louis (St. Louis, 1.S91); Schabf, Hist.«/
civil and professional life, the university has con- St. Louis (Philadelphia, 1,8.S3); Sheparo, Autobioijraphi/ l>f-
Louis, iscn); ed. Thornton, Catholic lustitutions in St. Unns
tributed much to the upbuilding of Church and State
(St. Loui^ 1911); ed. Thwaite, Early IlWirn Trnrels (Cleve-
in the West. Within a few years after the coming of land, lOno); Annates de V Association de la Foi (March, ISJo,
the Jesuits to St. Louis more than forty estabhsh- Nov., 1S27); Archives of the Prm-incc of Missouri (1S26); Doria-
hoe's Moiinzine (Nov., 1904); Fleur de Lis (I.S'IS), passim;
ments had been made; the w(jrk of de Sniet, who IVooil.ilocIc Leilccs (1876), passim; Missouri Republican, files
for
founded missions as far to the Xorth-west as Ore- ISIS; Colalotjues, Bulletins, Announcements of St. Louis Unl-
gon, is famous. Adrian and Christian Hoecken, nersity. PaUL L. BLAKELY.
 SAINT LUCIUS 365 SAINT OMER
Saint Lucius (Luzi), Monastery op, Chur, Swit- the university has been directed by a council composed
zerland. The Church of St. Lucius was built over the of the rector as its chairman, a vice-rector, the dean
grave of this saint, whose relics were preserved in it and a delegate from each faculty, and the secretary
until the sixteenth century. Originally the church of the University. The rector is elected by the pro-
was the cathedral. St. Valentinian enlarged it in the fessors with the approval and consent of the council,
firsthalf of the sixth century and built the crypt and each faculty chooses its own dean, regulates its
which is still in existence. In the ninth century course of studies, and issues its respective degrees.
a new cathedral was built by Bishop Tello in a As at pr(;scnt constituted. Saint Mark consists of
former Roman fortress and St. Luzi was temporarily six faculties. Jurisprudence confers the degree of
a branch of the Benedictine Abbey of Pfafer. About Doctor of Laws, with a course of five years com-
1140 it became a Premonstratensian abbey. At the prising the following subjects: philosophy of law,
time of the schism of the sixteenth century Theodore civil law, criminal law, ecclesiastical law, mercantile
Schlegel, Abbot of St. Luzi, was especially energetic law, mining and agricultural laws, law procedure,
and skilful in defending the Catholic Faith. He was Roman law, and forensic practice. Medicine
executed by the Protestants after terrible torture on grants the diploma of Bachelor of Medicine in five
23 January, 1.529. The monks were driven out and the years, and the title of "physician and surgeon" after
monastery remained empty for a hundred years, the two additional years of hospital practice, the subjects
relics of St. Lucius being taken to the cathedral. covered being descriptive anatomy, medical physics,
Community life was continued at Bendern in Liech- public, private and international hygiene, medical
tenstein. In 162-1: the monastery was restored and and analytical chemistry, natural and medical history,
continued to exist until the beginning of the nine- generalanatomy and microscopic technique, phar-
teenth century. By the decision of the Imperial Dele- macy, physiology, pathology, clinics, bacteriology,
gates at Ratisbon the possessions of the monastery therapeutics, materia medica, surgery, nosography,
in Liechtenstein and Vorarlberg were given in 1802 to ophthalmology, operative medicine, gyntecology,
the Prince of Orange. Consequently the monastery pediatrics, obstetrics, legal medicine, etc.; this same
had no further means of existence. In 1806, there- faculty issues the titles of pharmacist, dentist, and
fore, the abbot and community transferred the mon- obstetrician, with courses of studies covering three
astery and all its rights to the episcopal seminary; this years. In theology the degree of Doctor is obtained
transfer was confirmed in the same year by Pius VII. after a six years' course in the subjects of dogmatic
The seminary was transferred to the former monastery, theology, moral theology, church history, liturgy and
where it still exists; it has four courses of theology and ecclesiastical calculation, sacred oratory, the Bible,
seven professors. and pastoral theology. The faculty of sciences is
il.iYER, Si. Luzi bei Chur (Einsiedeln, 1907). divided into three separate sections: (1) mathematical
J. G. Mayer. sciences, (2) physics, and (3) natural sciences, the
Saint Malo, Ancient See op. See Ronnes, course in each of which comprises a period of three
Diocese op. years. Before admission to the faculty of medicine,
students are required to pass two years in natural
—
Saint Mark, University op. The highest insti- sciences, and likewise, those desiring to enter the
tution of learning in Peru, located at Lima, under the school of engineers (independent of the university)
official name of Universidad Mayor de San Marcos. must have studied mathematics two years. The fac-
It is reputed as being the oldest university in the New ulty of letters confers the degree of Doctor, its course
World, having been created by a royal decree of 12 covering four years with these subjects: philosophy,
V
May, 1551, wherein Charles granted 350 gold dollars history of ancient and modern philosophy, aesthetics
to the priors of the Dominican order to establish in and history of art, Spanish literature, sociology, his-
Lima an Estudio General, and conferred upon it all the tory of civilization, history of Peruvian civilization,
prerogatives enjoyed by the University of Salamanca. and pedagogy; two years in this faculty are required
This decree was confirmed by a Bull of Pope Pius V, for admission to that of jurisprudence. The faculty
dated 2.5 July, 1571. Until 30 Dec. of the same year, of administrative and political economy confers the
the school remained under the control of the Dominican degree of Doctor, and its course of three years includes
fathers, when it became independent with the right the following studies: constitutional law; public and
to choose its own rector. The first one elected was private international law, administrative law, politi-
Dr. Caspar de Meneses, a layman. In 1574, after a caleconomy and economical legislation of Peru; mari-
new site had been purchased at a cost of 600 gold time law, diplomacy, history of the treaties of Peru,
dollar.s, the name Saint Mark was chosen by lot for consular legislation, finance, financial legislation of
the institution. Thenceforward, the university ac- Peru, and statistics. The official organ of the univer-
quired a greater importance, and two years later a sity is the "Re vista Universitaria", a monthly publi-
new plan of studies, adequate to the times, was cation, which has since 1906 replaced the "Anales".
adopted, with the following classes: two of Spanish At the present time the number of professors of the
grammar; one of native languages, which were then University of Saint Mark is 80.
considered necessary for the propagation of the Gos- Garland, Peru in 1906 (Lima, 1907), 111; Report of the U. S.
Commissioner of Education (Washington, 1908), 151; Wright,
pel; three of theology; three of jurisprudence; two of
The Old and New Peru (Philadelphia, 1908).
canon law, and two of medicine. The number of Julian Moreno-Lacallb.
students who came to Lima to follow the courses of
the university increased rapidly and at one time Saint-Omer. See Arras, Diocese of.
reached 1200. As the cost of graduation was exceed- —
Saint Omer, College of. The well-known Jesuit
ingly high (about $10,000), instruction in Saint Mark, college at St. Omer —oftener spoken of under the
as in other colonial universities of the times, was con- anglicized form of St. Omers or St. Omer's was —
fined to the aristocratic and wealthy classes, among founded by Father Parsons in 1592 or 1593. All
which there prevailed an intense fondness for literary Catholic education having been prohibited in Eng-
pursuits. These fees have been gradually reduced and land, several colleges had been founded by English-
the total now amounts to 50 soles ($25) for the degree men on the Continent —at Douai, Rome, and Valla-
of Bachelor, and 100 ($50) for that of Doctor. dolid; their primary object was the education of the
The popularity of the institution continued until the clergy. Father Parsons recognized the need of a
time when Peru became independent (1825) and then college intended in the first instance for the laity,
followed a short period of inactivity, after which the and for this purpose he chose a spot as near as possible
university was reorganized by President Ramon Cas- to England. St. Omer was twenty-four miles from
tilla (28 Aug., 1861). From the year of its autonomy. Calais, in the Province of Artois, then subject to
 SAINT-OUEN 366 SAINT PAUL

the King of Spain. The first students were obtained After the restoration of the French monarchy, the
by the removal of a small establishment which had building was restored to the executors of Dr. Staple-
been set up by Father Parsons at Eu, in Normandy. ton, and by them sold to the French Government.
Other boys quickly arrived from England and within It is used to this day as a military hospital.
ten years of its foundation the college numbered Gerard, Stoiu/hiirat College (London, 1894); Keating and
GRuaQEN, Slonyhurst (London, 1901); Foley, Records S.J.
over a hundred scholars. Thirty years later this (London, 1S77-.S3); Dodd, Church Hist, of Englnml, ed. Tierney
number had been doubled. The character of the (London, 1839-4;3); Ward, History oj St. Edmund's College
college was kejit as English as possible, notwith- (London, 1893); Burton, Life of Challoner (London, 1909);
Idem, Dawn of Catholic Revival (London, 1909) Petre, English
standing that several of the early rectors were
;

Colleges on the Continent (Norwich, 1849) Bled, Les Jisuita

;

Spanish. The buildings consisted of a large house Anglais d St. Omer; Deschamps de Pas, Histoire de St - Omer
joined to several smaller ones, and in 1610 a regular (Arras, 1880). Several contemporary pamphlets concerning the
dispute between the Jesuits and Seculars when the latter ac-
chapel was added. The whole was burnt down in cepted the college: Hoskins, Expulsion of English Jesuit.^ out of
ItiSl; but it was rebuilt on a comprehensive scale. St. Omer' s; Reeve, Pluin. and Succinct Narratiie etc.; Hodgson
A second fire, in 1725, led to further improvements in Dispassionate Narrative etc.
rebuilding and the greater part of the college then Bbknard Ward.
constructed is still standing. The college continued
Saint-Ouen, Abbey of, Rouen, France, was a
its work for over a century and a half. Many devout Benedictine monastery of great antiquity dating back
Catholics received their education within its walls,
to the early Merovingian period. Its foundation has
over twenty of whom won the crown of martyrdom.
been variously credited, among others, to Clothair I
In 1()7S the Province of Artois passed into the
and to St. Clothilda, but no sufficient evidence to
hands of the French; but the Government was
settle the question is forthcoming. It was dedicated
friendly to the college, which continued to prosper
at first to St. Peter when the body of St. Ouen, Arch-
till the year 17(32, when the Parliament of Paris
bishop of Rouen (d. 678), was buried there; the name
decreed the expulsion of all Jesuits from France,
of St. Peter and St. Ouen became common and finally
and proposed to place the college under the direction
St. Ouen only. The history of the abbey, on record
of secular priests. In order to defeat this scheme,
from A. D. 1000, presents nothing of an exceptional
the Jesuits determined to remove the whole establish-
nature. The list of abbots is in "Gallia Christiana",
ment. The boys expressed their willingness to ac-
XI, 140. In 1660 the monastery was united to the
company their masters, and by one of the most Congregation of St. Maur, and when suppressed, in
dramatic adventures in the history of any school,
1794, the community numbered twenty-four.
they succeeded in escaping from France, and re-
assembling at Bruges. Here the college was carried
The chief interest of Saint-Ouen lies in its glorious
church, which surpasses the Cathedral of Rouen in size
on until the suppression of the Society throughout
and beauty, and is one of the few among the greater
the world in 1773. Even then, the college did not
French churches completely finished. The present
finally come to an end. Most of the boys escaped, building, the third or fourth on the same site, was be-
and many of them reassembled in the academy car-
gun in 1318 by Abbot Jean Roussel, who had completed
ried on by English ex-Jesuits under the protection of
the choir with its chapels in the Decorated style,
the prince-bishop at Lifege. From there they were and a large portion of the transepts, by his death,
driven by the Revolution in 1794, and the Penal
twenty-one years later. The nave and central tower,
Laws in England having by that time been modified,
more Flamboyant in design, were finished early in
they returned to their own country, where by the
the sixteenth century after the original plan. Un-
generosity of Mr. Thomas Weld, one of their former
happily the west fagade, which had been planned on
pupils, they were presented with the mansion and
a unique and most beautiful scheme, was left un-
property at Stonyhurst, which celebrated college
finished. Although nothing could have been simpler
thus claims a descent from that established at Saint
than to execute the original designs still existing, the
Omer by Father Parsons.
whole of the old work was swept away about the
In the meantime, the French Government finding
itself in possession of the building at St. Omer, but
middle of the last century and an ugly pretentious
without either masters or scholars, invited the clergy
modern design put up instead. Internally the church
is 416 feet long, 83 feet wide, and 104 feet high, the
of the English College at Douai to undertake its
central tower, crowned with an exquisite octagonal
management. After some hesitation, they consented
lantern, being 285 feet in height. Within, the effect
to do so, feeling that this was the only way to save it
is remarkably light and graceful, "the windows seem
from the French, and hoping some day to restore
to have absorbed all the sohd wall", and the roof rests
it to its rightful owners. They accordingly trans-
ferred their preparatory school there and this became simply on the pillars and buttresses, the intervening
the nucleus of what was practically a new college. spaces being huge masses of glass. Fortunately most
Their action was much traversed by the Jesuits, and of the old glass has been preserved, and its silvery
a long altercation ensued. The facts were laid before white and jewels of colour give the final touch to one
the Holy Sec, and though no final decision was given, of the finest interiors in the world.
PoMMERAYB, Histoire de Vnbhaije royale de S.-Ouen de Rouen
the Roman authorities refused to censure the action (Rouen, 1662); Gallia Christiana, XI (Paris, 1759), 135-65; Anti-
of the Douai clergy. In its new form, the college gua statiUa archimonasterii Rotoinagcnsis S. Audoeni in MARTfcNE,
became fairly prosperous, the scholars numbering Thes. nov. anecdot. (Paris, 17171, IV, 1205; Chronique des abhis de
S. Ouen de Rouen, ed. Michel (Rouen, 1840) Gilbert, Descrip-
;

o\-er one hundred. The learned Alban Butler was tion historique de I'^glise de St-Ouen de Rouen (Rouen, 1822);
])rcsident from 17ii() to 1773, and died in the college. Cook, The story of Rouen (London, 1899).
A( the outbreak of the Revolution, however, it came G. Roi;En Hudle.ston.
to an end. The students and professors were im- Saint Patrick, Brothbes of. See Partician
prisoned at Anas, in August, 1793, whence they were
Brothers.
afterwards removed to Doullens, in Picardy, and
joined to the Douai community. After the fall of Saint Patrick, Purgatory of. See Pdrgatory,
Robespierre, they were removed to Douai, and in Saint Patrick's.
February, 179.5, they were set at liberty. They re-
turned to England, and the president, E)r. Stajileton, Saint Patrick, The National College of. See

became the head of the new College of St.. Edmund at Maynooth College.
Old Hall. He was followed by two of the professors Saint Paul, Archdiocese of (Sancti^ Pxri-i),
and a few of the scholars; but the college there was comprises the counties of Ramsey, Hennepin, Chis-
baseil chiefly on the traditions of Douai, and the ago, Anoka, Dakota, Scott, Wright, Rice, Lesueur,
secular College of St. Omer practically came to an end. Carver, Nicollet, Sil^ley, McLeod, Meeker, Redwood,
 SAINT PAUL 367 SAINT PAUL

Renville, Kandiyohi, Lyon, Lincoln, Yellow Medi- of Perrot, Le Sueur, established in 1695 a trading
cine Chippewa, Swift, Goodhue,
Lac-Qui-Parle, post on Prairie Island, and in 1700 another, Fort
Big Stone, and Brown, which stretch across the
' L'Huillier, on the Blue Earth River, about three
State of Minnesota from east to west, in about the miles from its junction with the Minnesota. In
centre of its southern half. During the Seventh 1727 a post. Fort Beauharnois, was estabhshed on
Provincial Council of Baltimore (5-13 May, 1849) the western shore of Lake Pepin, near the present
the fathers petitioned the Holy See to erect a bishop- town of Frontenac, Minnesota; the missionaries
ric what was then the village of St. Paul. No
in stationed there were the Jesuit Fathers Michel
action was taken on the matter in Rome for over a Guignas and Nicolas de Gonnor. Another, Fort
year, owing to revolutionary disturbances and the St. Charles, was erected in 1732 on the southern
absence of Pope Pius IX (1846-78) in Gaeta conse- shore of Northwest Angle Inlet, Lake of the Woods,
quent thereon. The See of St. Paul was actually es- by the explorer de Laverendrye. The missionaries
tablished on 19 July, 1850. Its jurisdiction extended of the post were the Jesuit Fathers Messaiger and
over an area of some 166,000 square miles, i.e. over Aulneau, the latter of whom met a cruel death at
what was then the Territory of Minnesota (estab- the hands of savage Sioux. Religious ministrations
lished 3 March, 1849). The constituent parts were: were, of course, the chief object of the missionaries.
a larger western part, to the west of the Mississippi, Even the lay voyageurs did what they could towards
formerly part of the Diocese of Dubuque, and a smaller the reUgious betterment of the natives. Groseil-
eastern part, between the Mississippi and St. Croix liers and Radisson instructed the older people in the
rivers, formerly part of the Diocese of Milwaukee. elements of Christianity, and baptized a number of
The size remained the same even after the admission •

children whom they believed in danger of death.

of the State of Minnesota into the Union (11 May, No permanent settlements were made within the
1858), and up to the erection of the Vicariate Apostolic area of the Diocese of St. Paul until some time after
of Northern Minnesota (12 Feb., 1875), of the Vicariate the organization of the Government of the United
ApostoUc of Dakota (12 Aug., 1879), and of the Diocese States. In Sept., 1818, a mission was opened at
of Winona (3 Oct., 1S89),when it was reduced to its Pembina, North Dakota, for the Catholic settlers,
present area. At the time of its erection the Diocese who had gone there from Lord Selkirk's colony near
of St. Paul was assigned to the province of St. Louis, St. Boniface, Manitoba. The first priest. Father
afterwards (12 Feb., 1875) to that of Milwaukee. Dumoulin, and his immediate successors were sent
On 4 May, 1888, it became itself an archdiocese, and from St. Boniface, the nearest episcopal see. Within
as such comprises at present the suffragan Sees of the years following upon 1826 many settlers of the
Duluth, Crookston, St. Cloud, and Winona, in Min- Red River valley were compelled to depart, owing
nesota; Fargo and Bismarck, in North Dakota; to floods, grasshoppers, and other afflictions; and
Sioux Falls and Lead, in South Dakota. a number of them, generally Canadian and Swiss
The diocese was named after the town of St. Paul, French, came to the vicinity of what is now St. Paul.
which had its origin late in the thirties of last century, Bishop Loras of Dubuque, accompanied by Father
along the left or eastern bank of the Mississippi, Pelamourgues, visited the few Catholics in 1839;
near the military post of Fort Snelling. Father in 1840 he sent them a resident priest in Father
Lucien Galtier had built a log chapel there, and had Lucien Galtier, who in 1844 was replaced by Father
opened it for services on 1 Nov., 1841. The rude Augustine Ravoux, for more than sixty years a priest
oratory was placed under the invocation of St. Paul, in the Diocese of St. Paul. The first Bishop of St.
the Apostle of the Gentiles, and the name was then Paul was Rt. Rev. Joseph Cretin (1851-57), Vicar-
attached to the settlement itself. General of the Diocese of Dubuque, appointed 23
The earliest CathoUc record of what became after- July, 1850. His consecration took place at Belley,
wards the Diocese of St. Paul is in the Rune Stone, France, 26 Jan., 1851; on 2 July of the same year,
discovered in 1898 near Kensington, Minnesota. A he took possession of his episcopal see; his death oc-
strange inscription on it tells us of a visit made curred on 22 Feb., 1857. The small log chapel built
in 1362 by thirty Norsemen to the above locality, by Father Galtier was soon replaced by a large struc-
where ten of them were slain by the natives, and ture of brick and stone, which contained accommoda-
the remainder addressed a salutation to the Blessed tions for church, school, and residential purposes.
Virgin Mary and called upon her for protection. Another stone building was begun in 1855, but not
Although not all the Scandinavian scholars are finished until after the bishop's death; it is still used
agreed on the authenticity of this text, still the as the cathedral of St. Paul. The Catholic popula-
internal evidence seems to be all in its favour; and tion, which consisted of several hundred, or perhaps
nothing has been found so far to contradict its con- a thousand, grew considerably in numbers, and
tents. Minnesota is a classic land in the history of counted about 50,000 at the end of the bishop's
early Catholic voyageurs and missionaries. The career. The increase was largely due to the bishop's
first, as far as records go, were Groseilliers and Radis- own efforts, who invited Catholic settlers to the fertile
son, who spent some time on Prairie Island (1654r- plains of Minnesota. In addition to the French
56) and in the neighbourhood of Knife lake, Kana- Canadians large contingents of Irish and German
bec County (1659-60). In 1679-80 Du Lhut visited Catholics arrived, who located in St. Paul, in places
the countries around Lake Mille Lacs, the western along the Mississippi, St. Croix, and Minnesota
extremity of Lake Superior, and the Mississippi. It Rivers. Wherever it was possible parishes or mis-
was during these journeys that he met the Recollect sions were organized, and provided with resident
Father Louis Hennepin and his two companions priests, or at least visited occasionally by priests from
Michel Accault and Antoine Auguelle, and rescued other stations. At his arrival in St. Paul Bishop
them from their captivity among the Sioux Indians. Cretin found only a couple of priests with small
During an excursion down the Mississippi Hennepin congregations at St. Paul, Mendota, and Pembina;
beheld and named the Falls of St. Anthony in what at his death there were 29 churches and 35 stations
is now Minneapolis. Nicolas Perrot, in 16S3, es- with about 20 priests attending to the spiritual
tablished a small trading post, Fort Perrot, near the needs of the Catholic people. Great efforts were
site of the present town of Wabasha, Minnesota; made for the education of the young and for the
and in 1689 he proclaimed the sovereignty of the preparation of worthy candidates for the priesthood.
French king over the regions of the upper Mississippi. In Pembina there were the Sisters of the Propagation
In his company was the Jesuit Father Joseph-Jean of the Faith. The Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet
Marest, who spent considerable time among the Sioux came to St. Paul 3 Nov., 1851, and soon opened schools
about the years 1689 and 1702. A contemporary for both elementary and higher education at St.
 SAINT PAUL 368 SAINT PAUL

Paul and St. Anthony Falls. In 1S.55 the Brothers and homes were established for the aged poor. The
of the Holy Familj' took charge of a school at St. education of the children was promoted in all
Paul for t)()>'s in both the grammar and higher grades. possible ways. Catholic schools were founded and
The Benedictine Fathers from St. Vincent, Penn- provided with Catholic teachers; the Brothers of
sylvania, sent some of their men to Minnesota in the Christian Schools were called to St. Paul; and
l.s.")6, and soon a college was opened near St. Cloud new academies for girls were opened. The growing
in Stearns County. A seminary was conducted in needs in the field of charity and education necessi-
the bishop's own house, where the necessary train- tated the coming of more religious women. In the
ing was imparted to young Levites of the sanctuary. course of time the Congregations of St. Benedict, St.
Works of charity or of general benefit to society were Dominic, St. Francis, Notre Dame, the Msitation'the
not neglected. A hospital was founded at St. Paul Grey Nuns, the Good Shepherd, the Sisters of Christian
by the Sisters of St. Joseph; the St. Vincent de Paul Charity, the Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ, and the
Si)cicty and other similar associations were organized Little Sisters of the Poor furnished their quota. Like
and a Catholic temperance society was established his predecessor. Bishop Grace never lost sight of the
in ls.')2. Among the more noteworthy Catholic education of candidates for the priesthood. In 1860
pioneers were Jean-Baptiste Faribeault, Antoine he opened a preparatory school for young boys who
P(5pin, Vital and Gervais Gu6rin, Joseph Turpin, felt a vocation for the priesthood. Among its pupils
Abraham Perret, Benjamin and Pierre Gervais, was Rt. Rev. John Shanley, late Bishop of Fargo.
Joseph and his son Isaac Labissonniere, Pierre and Unfortunately, after some years of existence it had to
Severe Bot tineau, August L. Larpenteur, Louis Robert, be given up for lack of accommodations.
Charles Bazille, and William F. Forbes. Of the To Bishop Grace succeeded his coadjutor, the
early priests, apart from Fathers Galtier and Ravoux, Rt. Rev. John Ireland, D.D. (1884—). He was
the following may be mentioned: Thomas Murray, born at Burnchurch, Co. Kilkenny, Ireland, 11 Sept.,
Daniel J. Fisher, John McMahon, Francis de Vivaldi, 1838, and came to St. Paul with his parents in 1852.
Dennis Ledon, Marcellin Peyragrosse, George Keller, Bishop Cretin sent him to Meximieux and Hyeres,
Claude Robert, Louis Caillet, Felix Tissot, Anatole France, where he completed his college and seminary
(Jster, Francis Pierz, Michael Wurzfeld, Demetrius course; he was ordained to the priesthood at St.
Marogna, O.S.B., and Cornelius Wittmann, O.S.B. Paul, 21 Dec, 1861. During the Civil War he served
After the death of Bishop Cretin the See of St. as chaplain to the Fifth Minnesota Regiment, and
Paul remained vacant for over two years. Father was afterwards stationed at the cathedral. In 1875
Augustine Ravoux was appointed administrator; he was appointed titular Bishop of Maronea and
under his regime the present stone cathedral was coadjutor to Bishop Grace of St. Paul, in whose
completed and opened for service in LS5i^. The cathedral he received the episcopal consecration,
second Bishop of St. Paul was Rt. Rev. Thomas 21 Dec, 1875. Upon the resignation of his prede-
Langdon Grace, O.P. (18.59-S4). He was born, 16 cessor he became Bishop of St. Paul; and on 15 May,
Nov., 1814, at Charleston, South Carolina, entered 1888, he was raised to the metropoUtan dignity aa
the seminary at Cincinnati in 1S29, and the priory of Archbishop of St. Paul. The ecclesiastical province
St. Rose, Kentucky, in 1830, where on 12 June, was organized with the suffragan Sees of Duluth,
1831, he made his religious profession as a member St. Cloud, Winona, Jamestown (Fargo), and Sioux
of the Order of St. Dominic. In 1837 he went to Falls, to which were added afterwards those of Lead
Rome for further studies, and was ordained there (1902), Crookston, and Bismarck (1910). The crea-
to the priesthood by Cardinal Patrizi, 21 Dec, 1S39. tion of the Diocese of Winona diminished the terri-
After his return to iVraerica in 1844 he was employed tory of the archdiocese by the southern section of
in the ecclesiastical ministry first in Kentucky, and Minnesota. In 1910 an auxiliary bishop was ap-
afterwards for thirteen years at Memphis, Tennessee. pointed in the person of Rt. Rev. John J. Lawler,
In IX'iU he was called to the Bishopric of St. Paul by titular Bishop of Greater Hermopolis. The Catholic
Pius IX; his consecration took place at St. Louis, population kept steadily on the increase, so that at
24 July, 1S59; and on 29 July following he took pos- present it numbers about 260,000. Much of this
session of his sec, o\-er which he presided until the growth is due to the archbishop's own efforts. From
day of his resignation, 31 July, 1884. He was then the day of his consecration as bishop he organized
made titular Bishop of Menith, and afterwards, 24 a systematic movement for the colonization of dif-
Sept., 1889, titular Archbishop of Siunia; his death ferent parts of Alinnesota. Various settlements
occurred on 22 Feb., 1897. such as De Grafi', Clontarf (Swift Co.), Adrian
Se\-eral modifications were introduced in the (Nobles Co.), Avoka, Fulda (Murray Co.), Grace-
territorial arrangement and the direction of the ville (Big Stone Co.), Minneota, and Ghent (Lyon
diocese during his incumbency. By the creation Co.), owe their origin and prosperity to his labours.
of the Vicariates of Northern Minnesota and Dakota With the increase of the people grew also the number
the northern part of Minnesota and the territory of priests, which at present exceeds 300. Of the
west of Alinnesota were erected into new ecclesiasti- rehgious orders, one, that of the Marist Fathers, was
cal jurisdictions In 1875 Bishop Grace received a added to the existing ones. The charitable institu-
coadjutor in the person of Rev. John Ireland, then tions were maintained and increased. The work of
rector of the cathedral. The number of the Catholic temperance found alwaj^s a most zealous advocate
people in the diocese continued to grow, largely in the archbishop. Catholic education received from
through the bishop's activity in inviting settlers; him a Hberal and wise patronage. Catholic grammar
at the time of his resignation in 1884 it amounted to and high schools were multiplied and rendered more
about 130,000. In addition to the races aheady efficient. A newdeparture in the higher education
represented there came also many Catholics from of women was made by the Sistws of St. Joseph m
Bohemia and Poland. The number of priests the opening of St. Catharine's College in 1905. To
grew with the increase of the people, and they were the religious communities engaged in teaching waa '

so chosen as to correspond to the needs of the flock; added another, that of the Felician Sisters.
in 1NN4 they were 153 in all. Side by side with the The training of the candidates for the priesthood
diocesan clergy there laboured fathers of the Bene- is imparted in two institutions. On 8 Sept., 1885,
dictine Order, Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans, the Seminary of St. Thomas opened its gates to
and Oblates, Charitable institutions were kept up students of both the college and seminary curriculum,
and multiplied wherever necessary. Hospitals were with an attendance of 27 in theology and philosophy,
opened at Minneapolis and New Ulm, orphan asy- and of 39 in the classics. St. Thomas continued to
lums were erected at St. Paul and Minneapolis, house the two departments until in 1894, when it
 SAINT PAUL 369 SAINT PETER

was continued as a college; and its growth has been the four aisles and naves. In 1823 a fire, started
so marvellous, that during the past year it enrolled through the negligence of a workman who was repair-
nearly 700 students. The seminary was transferred, ing the lead of the roof, resulted in the destruction of
in Sept., 1894, to new quarters, the St. Paul Seminary, the basilica. Alone of all the churches of Rome, it
built and endowed by the munificence of St. Paul's had preserved its primitive character for one thou-
great citizen, James J. Hill. In the year of its open- sand four hundred and thirty-five years. The whole
ing it numbered about 60 students, andlast year it world contributed to its restoration. The Khedive of
had on 165 seminarians, representing 19 dio-
its list Egypt sent pillars of alabaster, the Emperor of
ceses in the United States. In 1905 the St. Paul Russia the precious malachite and lapis lazuli of the
Catholic Historical Society was organized with head- tabernacle. The work on the principal fagade, look-
quarters in the seminary. The following events ing toward the Tiber, was completed by the Italian
illustrate the growth of the Diocese and the Province Government, which declared the church a national
of St. Paul within recent years. On 2 June, 1907, monument. The interior of the walls of the nave
the comer-stone was laid for the new cathedral of are adorned with scenes from the life of St. Paul in
St. Paul; and a j'ear afterwards, 31 May, 1908, a two series of mosaics (Gagliardi, Podesti, Balbi, etc.).
similar ceremony was performed with reference to The graceful cloister of the monastery was erected be-
the new pro-cathedral of Minneapohs. The chapel tween 1220 and 1241. The sacristy contains a fine
of the Seminai-y of St. Paul witnessed, 19 May 1910, statue of Boniface IX. In the time of Gregory the
a scene extremely Great there were
rare, if not unique, two monasteries near
in the annals of ec- the basilica: St. Aris-
clesiastical history. tus's for men and
Six bishops received St. Stefano's for wo-
on that day their men. Services were
consecration, all six carried out by a
destined for service special body of clerics
in the one Province instituted by Pope
of St. Paul. The Simplicius. In the
present condition of course of time the
the diocese may best monasteries and the
be gauged from the clergy of the basil-
following statistics: ica declined; St.
archbishop, 1; bish- Gregory II restored
op, 1; diocesan the former and en-
priests, 275; priests trusted the monks
of religious orders, with the care of the
40; churches with basilica. The popes
resident priests, continued their gen-
188; missions with erosity toward the
churches, 62 chapels, ; monastery; the basil-
17; theological semi- ica was again injured
nary, 1; college, 1; Fa^ade, Church of St. Paul-withotjt-the-Walls, Rome during the Saracen
commercial schools, invasions in the ninth
Christian Brothers, 2; number of pupils in parochial century. In consequence of this John VIII fortified
schools, 21,492; boarding-schools and academies for the basilica, the monastery, and the dwellings of the
girls, 7; orphan asylums, 3; hospitals, 3; homes for peasantry, forming the town of Joannispolis, which was
the aged poor, 2; house of the Good Shepherd,!. still remembered in the thirteenth century. In 937,
The Metropolitan, or American Catholic Almanac; The Official when St. Odo of Cluny came to Rome, Alberico II,
Catholic Directory (Baltimore, New York, Milwaukee) Shea, The
patrician of Rome, entrusted the monastery and basilica
;

Hierarchy of the Catholic Church in the United States (New York,

1886) Reuss, Biographical Cyclopedia of the Catholic Hierarchy of
; to his congregation and Odo placed Balduino of Monte
the United States (Milwaukee, 1898) Hoffmann, St. John's Univer-
;
Cassino in charge. Gregory VII was abbot of the
sity (CoUegeville, 1907) Acta et Dicta (St. Paul, 1907-11) Upham,
;

Minnesota, in Three Centuries, I (St. Paul, 1908); Folwell,

;
monastery and in his time Pantaleone of Amalfi pre-
Minnesota, the North Star State (Boston and New York, 1908) sented the bronze gates of the basilica, which were exe-
WiLUAMs, A
History of the City of SI. Paul (St. Paul, 1876). cuted by Constantinopolitan artists. Martin V en-
Francis J, Schaepeh. trusted it to the monks of the Congregation of Monte
Cassino. It was then made an abbey nullius. The
Saint Paul-without-the-Walls (San Paolo fuori jurisdiction of the abbot extended over the districts of
lemura), an abbey nullius. As early as 200 the burial Civitella San Paolo, Leprignano, and Nazzano, all of
place of the great Apostle in the Via Ostia was marked which formed parishes; the parish of San Paolo in
by a cella memorim, near which the Catacomb of Com- Rome, however, is under the jurisdiction of the cardi-
modilla was established. Constantino, according to nal vicar.
the "Liber Pontificalis", transformed it into a basilica; Armeluni, Le chiese di Roma (Rome, 1891); Nicolai, Delia
basilica di S. Paolo (Rome, 1815).
in 386 Theodosius began the erection of a much
U. Benigni.
larger and more beautiful basilica, but the work in-
cluding the mosaics was not completed till the pontifi- —
Saint Peter, Basilica op. Topography. The —
•cate of St. Leo the Great. The Christian poet, Pru- present Church of St. Peter stands upon the site where
dentius, describes the splendours of the monument in at the beginning of the century the gardens of
first
a few, but expressive lines. As it was dedicated also Agrippina lay. Her
son, Caius Caligula, built a cir-
to Saints Taurinus and Herculanus, martyrs of Ostia cus there, in the spina of which he erected the cele-
in the fifth century, it was called the basilica trium brated obelisk without hieroglyphics which was
Dominorum. Of the ancient basilica there remain brought from Hehopohs and now stands in the Pi-
only the interior portion of the apse with the tri- azza di S. Pietro. The Emperor Nero was especially
umphal arch and the mosaics of the latter; the mo- fond of this circus and arranged many spectacles in
saics of the apse and the tabernacle of the confession it, among which the martyrdoms of the Christians
of Amolfo del Cambio belong to the thirteenth cen- (Tacitus, "Annal.", XV, 44) obtained a dreadful no-
tury. In the old basilica each pope had his portrait toriety. The exact spot in the circus of the crucifix-
in a frieze extending above the columns separating ion of St. Peter was preserved by tradition through-
XIII.—24
 SAINT PETER 370 SAINT PETER
out the centuries, and in the present Church of St. part of the basiUca. Its rebuilding during the Early
Foter is marked by an altar. Directly past the circus Renaissance is to be regretted, for the plan of the
of Nero ran the Via Cornelia which, like all Roman new church became the plaything of artistic humours.
highways, was bordered with sepulchral monuments. It is due to Michelangelo, who saved all that was pos-
In Christian times a small city of churches and hos- sible of Bramante's original plan, that something
pices gradually arose here, but without this part of was created.
aesthetically satisfactory
Rome being included in the city hmits. When in the History of the Building. Owing— to the neglect
N-ear -Sl7 the Saracens pillaged the Basilica of St. of the churches at Rome during the papal residence
Peter and all the sanctuaries and estabhshments at Avignon, by the fifteenth century the decay of
there, Leo IV decided to surround the extensive sub- Saint Peter's had progressed to an alarming extent.
urb with a wall, interrupted at intervals by exceed- Nicholas V, an enthusiastic Humanist, therefore con-
ingly strong and well-fortified towers. Two of these ceived the plan of levelhng the old church and erect-
towers, as well as a fragment of the wall, are still pre- ing a new structure in its place. Bernardo Rosscl-
served in the \'atican gardens and afford an interest- lini of Florence was intrusted with the undertaking
ing picture of the manner of fortification. Owing to and in accordance with his plans the new basilica was
this circumvallation by Pope Leo the Vatican portion to completely surround the choir and transept of the
of the city received the name Cintas Leonina, which old, and to have the ground plan of a Latin cross with
it has preserved to the present day (Leonine City). an elongated nave. But with the exception of the
The Vatican Hill rises in close proximity to the river tribune begun in 1450 and the foundations of the
Tiber. Between it, the river, and the mausoleum of wall surrounding the
Hadrian (Castle of Sant' Angelo) lies a small plain transept nothing
which was not filled with houses until the early Mid- further was built, as
dle Ages. The Vatican territory did not assume a the pope died

Bramante MlCHEL.\NGELO Actual

Ground-Plans of St. Peter's

thoroughly urban character until the end of the fif- 1455. Julius II, adopting the idea of reconstructing
teenth century. the basilica, instituted a competition in which Bra-
—
Basilica op Constantinb. The simple sanctuary mante, as is related, gained the prize. His unlimited
of the Prince of the Apostles gave place under Con- enthusiasm for the mighty conception of the im-
stantine the Great to a magnificent basilica, begun in petuous pope is attested by his numerous plans
the year 323 but not completed until after his death. and drawings, which are still preserved in the Uffizi
The southern side of the ancient basilica was erected Gallery, Florence. Bramante wished to pile the
upon the northern side of the circus, which in the Pantheon upon the Constantinian basihca, so that a
Middle Af^e.s bore the name Palalium Neronis. It mighty dome would rise upon a building in the form of
was built in the form of a cross and divided into five a Greek cross. In the spring of the year 1506 Julius,
naves by four rows of twenty-two columns each. in the presence of thirty-five cardinals, laid the founda-
Vast treasures were collected in the course of cen- tions of this imposing structure, which posterity has
turies in this principal sanctuary of Western Christen- spoiled and changed for the worse in an inexcusable
dom: precious mosaic decoration internally and ex- manner. Bramante died in 1514. GiuUano da San-
ternally, offerings of great value surrounding the gallo and Fra Giacondo da Verona, who together with
tomb of the Prince of the Apostles, magnificent vest- Raphael continued his work, died in 1516 and 1515
ments in the wardrobes of the sacristy, richly deco- respectively. Raphael, yielding to all manner of in-
rated entablature, and bright but harmoniously col- fluences, undertook changes but did not promote the
oured pavements, paintings, and whatever else the building to any considerable extent. After his death
love and veneration of high and low could conceive in in 1520 ii sharp conflict arose whether the church
the way of adornment. Connecting the basilica with should remain in the form of a Greek cross, or the nave
the Porta di S. Pietro at the Castle of Sant' Angelo be extended so as to form a Latin cross.
was a covered colonnade, through which innumerable Antonio da Sangallo, who was appointed architect
pilgrims passed. Provision was made in the Vatican in 1518, and Baldassari Peruzzi, appointed in 1520,
territory for their shelter, and the necessity soon arose were without fixed plans and attempted all manner of
of building a palace near the basihca in which the experiments, of which Michelangelo, when he re-
pope could live and receive visitors when sojourning ceived control in 154S, made an end so far as this
at St. Peter's. Churches and monasteries, cemeteries was still possible. Bramante's plan seemed to him
and hospices arose in great numbers around the tomb 80 excellent that he built in accordance with it. By
of the "fisher of men". strengthening the central piers he made it possible for
Twel-\-e centuries elapsed between the building of them to bear a dome. He did not live to see the com-
St Peter's and the first demolition of an important
.
pletioti of his artistic conception, since only the drum
 SAINT PETER 371 SAINT PETER

was completed when he died. But in the years which ment is a door which leads directly into the Apostohc

followed the present dome, a sublime masterpiece of Palace; in the choir chapel and in the vestibule of
unsurpassed beauty, was constructed in accordance the left transept are doors leading to the sacristy, be-
with his designs. The faithfulness with which, after sides which there are four others generally used for
the great master's death (1546), Giacomo della Porta building and administrative purposes. Besides the
continued the building of the dome in accordance with two low galleries for the singers in the choir chapel,
Michelangelo's intentions should be especially em- there are four others of restricted size in the piers of
phasized. The building might have been completed the dome. In addition to the principal altar in the
at the beginning of the following century if in 1606 tribune and the four altars in the crypts, the basilica
Paul V had not decided to carry out the form of the contains twenty-nine altars, under most of which bodies
Latin cross. During the twenty years which fol- of saints, including several of the Apostles, repose.
lowed Carlo Maderna constructed the present by no —
Annex Buildings. The colonnades which enclose
means unobjectionable facade and Bernini wasted the most beautiful public place in the world, the Pi-
time and money in adorning the front with bell-towers, azza di S. Pietro, form an organic part of the basilica.
which for artistic reasons had to be removed, in so far Constructed in 1667 by Bernini, they surround the
as he had completed them. At length on 18 Novem- piazza in elliptical form, the major axis 1115-4 feet,
ber, 1626, Urban VIII solemnly dedicated the church, the minor axis 787-3 feet. For the construction of
of which the actual construction, excepting certain the colonnades and the equipment of the Piazza di S.
unimportant details, may be considered as completed. Pietro about a million dollars were expended. The
Three clearly defined stages in the construction of St. co\'ered colonnades which consist of four rows of
Peter's must therefore be distinguished: (1) Bra- columns in the Doric style form three passages, the
mante's Greek cross with the dome; (2) Michelangelo, central one of which is the width of an ordinary wagon
a Greek cross with dome, and in addition a ves- road. The 248 columns and 88 pilasters are entirely
tibule with a portico of columns; (3) Paul V, a Latin of travertine. Adjoining the elliptical place is a
cross with Baroque facade. The longer they built square one which diminishes in extent towards the
the more they spoiled the original magnificent plans, church. Its sides consist of extensive corridors, of
so that the effect of the exterior as a whole is imsatis- which the one on the right belongs to the Apostolic
factory. The principle mistake lies naturally in the Palace of the Vatican. The colonnades and corri-
fact that the unsuitable extension of the nave conceals dors are surmounted by 162 figures of saints after de-
the dome from one observing the basilica from a near signs by Bernini. In the middle of the elhpse towers
point of view. Only at a considerable distance is the celebrated obelisk of Heliopolis. Its removal to
Michelangelo's genial creation in its pure and beauti- the present site took place in 1586. On both sides of
ful design revealed to the astonished observer. All the obelisk are two beautiful fountains 45-9 feet in
the external walls are constructed of splendid traver- height. The obefisk is 836 feet high, and weighs 360-2
tine, now become gold in colour, which even in bright tons. Its apex is adorned with a bronze cross contain-
sunlight gives a quiet, harmonious effect. ing a fragment of the True Cross. The irregular quad-
— —
Architecture. Statistics. The construction of rangle between the ellipse and the basihca is for the
St. Peter's, in so far as the church itself is concerned, most part occupied by the monumental stairway and
was concluded within a period of 176years (1450-1626). its approach, which lead pilgrims to the higher level
The cost of construction including all the additions of of the church. The area of this approach alone is
the seventeenth century amounted to about $48,000,- greater than that of most churches of Christendom.
000. The yearly cost of maintenance of the gigantic The sacristy of St. Peter's, the house of the canons
building, including the annexes (sacristy and colon- and beneficiaries, as well as the papal hospice of Santa
nades), amounts to $39,500, a sum that is only ex- Marta are connected with the basilica by two covered
ceeded when actual renewals of the artistic features passages. The sacristy, which contains very remark-
(such as gilding, repairing the pavement, and ex- able art treasures, was built in 1775 under Pius VI
tensive marble work on the pilasters) become neces- by Carlo Marchione. The Palazzina, which stands
sary. The basihca is endowed with extensive proper- on the Piazza di Santa Marta behind the basihca, be-
ties atRome, wide landed possessions in Middle Italy, longs directly to St. Peter's. It is for the time being
and other capital from the income of which the entire the official residence of the archpriest of St. Peter's,
support of the Divine Service, the clergy, and the who is always a cardinal.
large number of employees, as well as the costs of the —
Description of the Basilica. As may be seen in the
building requirements are derived. In accordance accompanying plan, the four principal divisions of the
with the most reliable contemporary calculations, basilica extend from the dome and are connected with
those of Carlo Fontana, the proportions of the build- each other by passages behind the dome piers. To
ing are as follows: height of the nave, 151-5 feet; the right and the left of the nave lie the smaller and
width of the same at the entrance, 90-2 feet; at the lower aisles, the right of which is bordered by four
tribune, 78-7 feet; length of the transepts in interior, lateral chapels, the left by three chapels and the pas-
451 feet; entire length of the basilica including the sage to the roof. The general decoration consists of
vestibule, 693-8 feet. From the pavement of the coloured marble incrustations, stucco figures, rich
church (measured from the Confession) to the oculus gilding, mosaic decoration, and marble figures on the
of the lantern resting upon the dome the height is pilasters, ceiling, and walls. The panelling of the pave-
404 8 feet, to the summit of the cross surmounting the ment in geometric figures is of coloured marble after
lantern, 434-7 feet. The measurements of the in- the designs of Giacomo della Porta and Bernini. The
terior diameter of thedome vary somewhat, being extremely long sweep of the nave is closed by the
generally computed at 137-7 feet, thus exceeding the precious bronze baldachino 95 feet high, which Urban
dome of the Pantheon by a span of 4-9 feet. The VI caused to be erected by Bernini in 1633. Beneath
surface area of St. Peter's is 163,182-2 sq. feet. it is the Confession of St. Peter, where the body of
—
Comparative measurements. Length of St. Paul's, the Prince of Apostles reposes. No chairs or pews
London, 520-3 feet; Cathedral of Florence, 490-4; Ca. obstruct the view; the eye roves freely over the glitter-
thedral of Milan, 444.2; Basilica of St. Paul, Rome, ing surface of the marble pavement, where there is
'119-2; St. Sophia, Constantinople, 354. Surface room for thousands of people.
area: Milan, 90,482 sq. ft.; St. Paul's, London, The centre of the entire structure is the tomb of
84,766.5; St. Sophia, 74,163; Cologne, 66,370-8; Ant- St. Peter (see Confession; Saint Peter, Tomb
werp, 53,454. The vestibule of the basiUca is 232-9 of). Very interesting also are the high altar in the
teet wide, 44-2
deep, and 91-8 high. On the facade tribune, enclosing the chair of the Prince of Apostles,
are five portals;
in the chapel of the Blessed Sacra- and the mighty slab of porphyry upon which the
 SAINT PETER 372 SAINT PETER
German emperors were formerly crowned. The the Gregorian chapel, because it was decorated under
magnificent holy water basins to the right and to Gregory XIII after the designs of Michelangelo.
the left, well known from numerous illustrations, are Next to the monument of Gregory X\T is the altar
supported by gigantic putti. The barrel vaulting of the Madonna dell Soccorso, whose picture is from
reposes in a beautiful curve upon the pillars and the the ancient church of St. Peter. Under the altar-
arches connecting them. Proceeding forwards we piece reposes the body of St. Gregory of Nazianzus
also perceive the marble reUefs of many popes on the and adjoining it is the colossal tomb of Benedict XIV.
piers while many of the pier niches contain heroic In the opposite passage of the dome pier are
statues of the founders of the orders, a decoration Canova's masterpiece, the monument of Clement
which extends also over the transepts and the nave of XIII, and the altar-piece after Guido Reni, repre-
the tribune. At the fourth pier to the right is a very senting the Archangel Michael. In the same divi-
important sitting statue of St. Peter, which has been sion on the left side of the church, the monument
erroneously ascribed to the thirteenth century, but in of Alexander VIII gleams in the distance, and under
truth dates from the fourth or fifth. This is no adap- the altar of the Madonna della Colonna, in an early
tation of another statue, but was intended to be a Christian sarcophagus the mortal remains of Sts.
statue of the Prince of the Apostles. In the left Leo II, Leo III, and Leo IV repose. The altar of
transept the confessionals of the penitentiaries of St. St. Leo I is surmounted by the colossal marble re-
Peter's reveal in the most beautiful manner the unity lief by Algardi, the "Retreat of Attila from Rome",
of the Faith, by offering the opportunity for confes- the proportions of which seem too large, even for the
sion in the most important civilized tongues of the Basilica of Saint Peter. Farther on is the monu-
world. Facing the Confes- ment of Alexander VII, and
sion there stand obliquely be- opposite this is the only oil-
fore the dome piers the colos- —
painted altar-piece one by
sal marble statues of Sts. Vareni—of St. Peter's. All
Longinus, Helena, Veronica, the remaining altar-pieces
and Andrew. From the gal- within the church are of mo-
lery above the statue of St. saic. Passing through the left
Helena the so-called great transept we approach the pas-
relics are disj)layed several sage around the fourth dome
times during the year. The pier, where on the right, under
most important of these is a the monument of Pius VIII,
large fragment of the True is the entrance to the sacristy,
Cross. Above the four gal- and directly in front, under the
leries of the dome the four monument of Pius VII by
Evangelists are depicted in Thorwaldsen, is the stairway
magnificent mosaics after the to the gallerj' of the singers in
designs of Cavaliere d'Arpino. the rhoir chapel. Here the
In the frieze above stands the left transept begins, the first
proud Latin inscription, the lateral chapel of which is used
letters of which are six foot for the prayers of the canons,
high: "Thou art Peter, and while the last serves as a bap-
upon this rook I will build tistery. Adjoining the choir
My Church, and I will give chapel, beyond the entrance,
thee the keys of Heaven". at a height of fifteen feet
In the tribune of the left above the pavement, is an en-
transept are three altars of closed niche in which each de-
which the middle one is par- ceased pope is interred until
ticularly noteworthy, because, his body can be taken to the
in the first place, the tomb of sepulchre definitively assigned
the immortal composer Pier- for it. At the present time
luigi da Palestrina lies before
The Dome of St. Peter's,
the body of Leo XIII still re-
FROM THE Vatican Observatohy
it secondly, because the bodies
; poses here, although his sepul-
of the two Apostles Simeon and Judas Thaddeus re- chre in the Lateran has long been finished. The un-
pose in a stone sarcophagus beneath the altar; and certainty of conditions at Rome has rendered it inad-
thirdly, because, as the altar-piece of Guido Reni re- visable as yet to undertake the removal of the body.
cords, the altar marks the spot in the circus of Nero On the tomb of Leo XI our attention is attracted by
where the cross stood upon which St. Peter breathed an excellent marble relief representing King Henry
his last. The right transept has attained a special im- IV of France abjuring Protestantism. Of similar im-
portance in most recent erclesiastical history because portance is another rehef here upon the monument of
in 1S70 the Vatican Council held its sessions here until Innocent XI, relating to the raising of the Turkish
dispersed by the march of the crowned revolution upon siege of Vienna by John Sobieski, King of Poland.
Rome. Returning to the entrance we find in the first Among the most beautiful funeral monuments of the
lateral chapel of the right aisle the place made famous by entire basihca is that of Innocent VIII by Antonio and
Michelangelo's " PietS, " (1498) Beside it in the chapel Pietro Pollajuolo. Adjoining these are the two im-
.

of St. Nicholas is the treasury of the relics of St. Peter, portant tombs of Urban VIII by Bernini and Paul 111
then follows the chapel of St. Sebastian, and finally by GugUelmo della Porta.
the roomy chapel of the Sacrament. ,\mong the art Sagre Grotte Valicane is the name apphed to the ex-
treasures here is the tomb of Sixtus IV, a thoroughly tended chambers under the pavement of St. Peter s.
simple and impressive bronze monument by Antonio They are distinguished as the old and new crypte.
Pollajuolo. From the multitude of sepulchral monu- The former lie principally under the nave, and are 59
ments which adorn the right transept, those of Leo XII, feet wide and 147-6 feet long. They represent the
of Countess Matilda of Tuscany, the powerful friend pavement of the old Basilica of St. Peter. Numerous
of Gregory VII, and of Gregory XIII, the reformer graves of popes and emperors, which were in the
of the calendar, deserve special mention. Against the Basilica of Constantine, are here, so that the low and
dome pier, dircitly in front of us, stands an altar with extended place, 11-4 feet in height, is of the greatest
the "Communion of St. Jerome" after Domenichino. historic interest. Among many others are the graves
The passage around the dome to the right is called of the popes: Nicholas I, Gregory V, a German,
 SAINT PETER 373 SAINT PETER
Adrian IV, an Englishman, Boniface VTII, Nicholas Altar on Maundy Thursday. At the close of the
V, Paul II, Alexander VI, and the Emperor Otto II. Matins on this day the so-called papal altar under the
The heart of Pius IX also reposes here in the simple great bronze baldachino is sprinkled with oil and
urn. The new crypts extend about the tomb of the wine. In an extended procession the archpriest, his
Apostle and lie under the dome. Adjoining the horse- vicar, the canons, the beneficiaries, the chaplains, and
shoe-shaped passage are a number of chapels in which the entire clergy approach in order, and symbolically
very remarkable antiquities and works of art from the V7ash the altar with a sprinkler. A
solemn benedic-
old basilica are preserved. In the middle of the pas- tion with the great relics from the gallery of St.
sage just mentioned is the most magnificent of all the Helena terminates this very impressive ceremony.
early Christian sarcophagi, that of Junius Bassus, to The great papal functions which Leo XIII was the
which Waal has dedicated a detailed and richly illus- first to resume after the sad year of 1870 have since
trated monograph, sympathetic in treatment. Two then taken place in St. Peter's with a few exceptions,
altars are placed here in the closest possible proximity when the Sistinc Chapel or the Sala Ducale were used.
to the sarcophagus in which the body of St. Peter re- Jubilees, canonizations, coronations, and other events
poses. Admission to the crypts and to Holy Mass in which the pope solemnly presides assemble 40,000
at the altar of the Confession which was formerly very to 50,000 people in the gigantic halls of St. Peter's.
difficult, especially to women, is now easy to obtain. They wait patiently for hours until at the appointed
—
The Ascent of the Dome. It was the former custom time the Vicar of Christ, loftily enthroned upon the
to ascend an easy stairwaj' to the roof of the church, sedia gestatoria, blesses the worshipping throng, while
but now a spacious elevator carries visitors to the in measured steps he is borne to the papal altar. A
heights. From the roof, which is enlivened with perfect silence prevails, when after long preparations
many small cupolas and a few guards' houses, there is the pope in full pontifical attire begins the actual
a fine panorama and service. Suddenly
a view of the Eternal the magnificent
City. The great tones of the Kyrie are
dome has a circum- intoned by the choir
ference of about one of the Sistine Chapel,
hundred paces, and if who alone have the
one wishes to mount privilege of singing
higher, a stairway in the presence of
between the inner the pope, and always
and outer easing of without the accom-
the dome, 308-3 feet paniment of an
in height, leads into organ. Then the
the lantern. Enter- pope turns for the
ing the external gal- first time to the
lery of the lantern, and chants
faithful
the beholder is as- "Paxvobis" (Peace
tonished by the view be with you). At
that greets the eye. the Elevation silver
It looks down into trumpets resound
the gardens of the from Michelangelo's
Vatican Palace, in dome.
which the people Chimes of St.
walking about seem Peter's. —As in
like dwarfs. The many cathedral
panorama of the city Interior of St. Peter's, looking towards the Hiqh Altar churches, the bells
unfolds itself in plas- of St. Peter's possess
tic forms. To the left tower the Sabine mountains; an ample endowment of their own. This serves for
and beyond the extensive, sun -bathed Campagna their maintenance and to defray the cost of the com-
are the beautiful Alban hills with their highest peak, plicated programme of the chimes. The usual daily
Monte Cavo. On the slope of this chain lie the at- service is simple but far more comphcated are the
tractive suburban towns Frascati, Marino, Albano chimes for Sundays, fast days, feast days, ember
etc., and on the right gleams a silver streak — the sea. days, feasts with octaves, the anniversary of the
Encircling the gallery towards the west, the Vatican death, election, and coronation of the present and
gardens lie beneath us, rich and varied in plan, al- the preceding pope, and finally, as a climax, the
though not artistically laid out. The entire pano- feast of St. Peter with its chimes seven days be-
rama is one of greatest interest. fore and during its octave. Different chimes are
—
Divine Service in St. Peter's. Although the
Lateran Basilica bears the honorary title of the
prescribed at the death of a canon than at that of
the pope.
cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, mother and head
of all the churches of the earth, this basilica, as Waal
The Maintenance of the Basilica. A building —
of such colossal extent requires a corps of architects,
correctly observes, has for a thousand years been who conduct the ordinary, as well as the unusual,
an isolated church which played a very modest part in works on the basilica. They are directed by a head
the devotions of the Roman pilgrims. It is very architect, who in conjunction with the economist of
different with St. Peter's. The great wealth of the St. Peter's, a canon, discusses and arranges every-
basihca has always made it possible to maintain most thing as far as no special question requires the vote
magnificent ritual; and its proximity to the inner city, of the chapter. A staff of selected artisans of all
itsgreat size, and its art treasures have always attracted kinds, who are in permanent service and are called
everyone. Besides numerous canons, beneficiaries, and samfnetrini, is directed by a head master, and there
chaplains, the church has at its disposal the Vatican are few great institutions in the world which have
oeminary, the students of which always assist in the such a chosen body of clever, reliable, and fearless
church in the celebration of Divine Service. The workmen. Only in the rarest cases is the manage-
performances of their vocal choirs, the Capella Giu- ment of St. Peter's compelled to seek assistance of
ha, are of a very high artistic order. One liturgical artisans or workmen who do not belong to the sam-
celebration takes place only in St. Peter's and in no pietrini. The maintenance of the mighty building is
other church in the whole world: the Washing of the exemplary throughout.
 SAINT PETER 374 SAINT PETERSBURG
Besides the literature cited on the articles Rome and Saint den in the Catacombs of S. Sebastiano, though, prob-
Pkter, Tomb of, see Chevalier, Topo BibL, s. v. Rome, San ably the fact of their removal was known to very few
Pietro, V(Liicau. The often mentioned works of Gribah, \\'ii^
PERT, Pastor, Gregorovius, Reumont, Papencordt, and Stein- and the great body of Roman Christians believed
MANN give information upon historical questions. A source of them still to rest in their original tombs. At a later
the highest authority is the Liber Ponlificalis, ed. Duchesne date, when the persecution was less acute, they were
(l.SNli-92), ccl. MoMMSEN (1898); see also Cerrotti, ed. Celani,
Bibli"!jrnfia ill Rvjna medievale e moilenui, I (Milan, 1893) Calvi,
;
brought back again to the \'atioan and the Via Osti-
Bibliafirafm generale di Roma nd medio evo (4'^6-14&9) (Rome, ana respectii'ely.
190G), also Supplement, I (19U8); Lanciani, Topografla di Roma When the Church was once more at peace under
antiea 1.SV.U), as well as his extensive Alias: Richter, Topographie
(

der Sfndt Rom (2nd ed., 1901) in Hand, der /class. AUerthui^'^,
Constantine, Christians were able at last to provide
IV (Xordlingen, 1889). For the architectural history mention themselves with edifices suitable for the celebration
should be made of: (jeymulleh, Die ursprunglicken Entumrfe of Divine Service, and the places so long hallowed as
filr St. Peter in Rome (Vienna, lS7.j): Costaguti, Arckitettura
delta basilica di S. Pietro in Vaticano (Rome, 1684) Memorie
;
the resting places of the relics of the Apostles were
i.^toriehe delta gran cupola del tempio Vaticano (Padua, 174S); naturally among the first to be selected as the sites of
V'isconti, Metrologia Vaticana ossia ragguaglio delle dimensioni great basihcas. The emperor himself not only sup-
delta BnxiUca di S. Pietro (Rome, 1828); Gilii, Arckitettura
delta basilica di S. Pietro in Vaticano . . con una succinta
. ,
pUed the funds for these buildings, in his desire to hon-
dirfiiarazione (Rome, 1812); Dumont, Details des plus inleres- our the memories of the two Apostles, but actually
sanies parties d^arcftitecture de la ha>^iliqne de Saini-Pierre de assisted in the work of building with his own hands.
ffoffie (Paris, 1763); Chandlery, Pilgrim Walks in Rome {Lon-
don, 1905). Reliable handbooks are those of Murray, Bae- At St. Paul's, where the tomb had remained in its
DECKER, and Gsell-Fels. It is unnecessary to enumerate the original condition of a simple vault, no difficulty pre-
abundant illustrative material wliich is easily accessible. sented itself, and the high altar was erected over the
Paul Maria Baumgarten. vault. The inscription, dating from this period,
"Paulo Apostolo Martyri", may still be seen in its
—
Saint Peter, Tomb of. The history of the relics place under the altar. At St. Peter's, however, tlie
of the Apostles Peter and Paul ia one which is involved matter was complicated by the fact that Pope St.
in considerable difficulty and confusion. The pri- Anacletus, in the first century, had built an upper
mary authorities to be consulted are in opposition to chamber or memoria above the vault. This upper
one another, or at least appear to be so. There is no chamber had become endeared to the Romans during
—
doubt where the bodies now are in the tombs of the the ages of persecution, and they were unwilling that
Vatican and the Ostian Way respectively but there — it should be destroyed. In order to preserve it a sin-
is another tomb at the Catacombs of S. Sebastiano gular and unique feature was given to the basihca in
which also claims the honour of having at one time re- the raised platform of the apse and the Chapel of the
ceived them, and the question is as to the period at Confession underneath. The extreme reverence in
which this episode occurred, and whether there was which the place has always been held has resulted in
only one or a double translation of the relics. What- these arrangements remaining almost unchanged even
cvev conclusion we come to, we shall have to discard, to the present time, in spite of the rebuilding of the
or at least to explain away, some of the evidence which church. Only, the actual vault itself in which the
oxi.sts. The account which we give here is the sim- body hes is no longer accessible and has not been so
plest theory consistent with the evidence, and is since the ninth century. There are those, however,
based upon one consistent principle throughout; who think that it would not be impossible to find the
namely, to assume only one translation of the relics entrance and to reopen it once more. A unanimous
the one which took place at a known historical date, request that this should be done was made to Leo XIII
and for historictd reasons which we can understand by the International Archaeological Congress in 1900,
and to refer to this all the allusions to a translation but, so far, without result.
which occur in early authorities, even though some of The fullest account of the Apostolic tombs will be found in
Barnes, St. Peter in Rome, and his tomb in the Vatican Hill
them seem to have been misplaced in date. There (London, 1898), which remains the one monograph on the subject.
would have been no difficulty in obtaining the bodies The general literature is very large. See especially the Liber
of the Apostles after their martyrdom, and the be- Pontificalis ed. Duche.sne; Torrigio, Le Sacre Grotte Vaticane
.

(Rome, 1635): Borgia, Confessio Vaticana (Rome, 1766); and

reaved Christians seem to have followed their usual among recent books .\rmellixi, Le Chiese di Roma (Rome, 1890),
custom in burying both as near as possible to the and Marucchi, Basiliques et Eglises de Rome (Paris, 1902).
scene of their sufferings. Each was laid in ground Arthur S. Barnes.
that belonged to Christian proprietors, by the side of
well-known roads leading out of the citj'; St. Paul on Saint Petersburg, the imperial residence and sec-
the Via Ostiana and St. Peter on the Via Cornelia. In ond capital of Russia, lies at the mouth of the Neva
each case the actual tomb seems to have been an un- on the Gulf of Finland. In 1899, including the sub-
derground vault, approached from the road by a de- urbs, it had 1,439,600 inhabitants; of these 81-8 per
scending staircase, and the body reposed in a sar- cent belonged to the Orthodox Greek Church, 4-8 per
cophagus of stone in the centre of this vault. cent were Catholics, 7-03 per cent were Protestants,
We have definite evidence of the existence of these and 1-4 per cent were Jews. As regards nationality
tombs {trophwa) in these places as early as the be- 87-5 per cent were Russians, 3-3 per cent were Ger-
ginning of the second century, in the words of the man, 3-1 per cent were Poles, 103 per cent were Finns,
priest Caius (Euseb., "Hi.st. Eccl.", II, 28). These and 1-03 per cent were Esthonians. In 1910 the pop-
tombs were the objects of pilgrimage during the ages of ulation was estimated at over 1,900,000 persons. The
persecution, and it will be found recorded in the Acts district of Ingermannland, that is, the territory be-
of spveriil of the martyrs that they were seized while tween Lake Peipus, the Narova River, and Lake La-
praying at the tombs of the Apostles. For two cen- doga, in which St. Petersburg is situated, belonged in
turies the relics were safe enough in these tombs, pub- the Middle Ages to the Grand Duchy of Novgorod,
lie though they were, for the respect entertained by the
and later to Moscow. In 1617 the district was given
RomtiiLs for any place where the dead were buried pre- by the Treaty of Stolbovo to Sweden; in 1702 it was
served them from any danger of sacrilege. In the rewon by Peter the Great. A\'hen Peter in 1703
year 2.58, however, this protection was withdrawn. formed the daring plan to transfer the centre of his
Christians from henceforth were specially excepted empire from the inaccessible Moscow to the Baltic and
from the privilege which they had previously enjoyed to open the hitherto isolated Russia to the influence
on account of the use they had made of it to enable and cultivation of Western Europe by means of a large
them to carry on rehgious worship. Hence it became fortified commercial port, he chose for his new creation
necessary to remove the sacred relics of the two great the southern end of the present island of Peters-
Apostles in order to preser-s-e them from possible out- burgsky. At this point the Neva separates into two
rage. They were remo\-ed secretly by night and hid- branches, the big and the httle Neva; here on 16 (-')
ff

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 SAINT PETERSBURG 375 SAINT PETERSBURG

May, 1703, he began the citadel of Peter and Paul, the compelling all the Capuchins but one to leave the
fortifications of which were built first of wood and in city. This one remained behind in the employ of the
1706 of stone. The Troitzki church was the first French embassy and was permitted to hold services
wooden church of the imperial city; around it were for his countrymen in a chapel designated for the pur-
erected houses in Dutch architectural style for Peter pose. In 1737 the wooden church burnt down. It
and his friends. As early as 1704 the first habita- was decided to rebuild it in stone and a temporary
tions were built on the northern bank of the Neva. chapel was arranged. Although the Empress Anna
Some 40,000 men drawn from all parts of the empire Ivanova gave a piece of ground, the corner-stone of
worked for sevei al years in the erection of the new the new Church of St. Catharine was not laid until
city; a large number of them succumbed to the ex- 1763 on account of the national feuds within the
treme severity of their labours and the deadly mists CathoUc community of Germans, French, Itahans,
of the marshy ground. In 1708 St. Petersburg was and Poles. The construction of the church advanced
unsuccessfully besieged by the Swedes. The Rus- slowly because of lack of funds. It was Ijuilt in the
sian victory over Charles XII at Pultowa put an end Renaissance style by the Itahan architect, Vollini de la
to any danger that might have arisen from Sweden. Mothe, and was formally consecrated by the papal
In 1712 the city was formally made the residence of nuncio Archetti in 1783. In 1769 Catharine II con-
the Court. firmed the gifts of her predecessors and released the
It was Peter's desire that his new capital should not church, school, and dweUing of the Catholic priests
be surpassed in briUiance by the capitals of Western from all taxes and imposts. In the same year she is-
Europe. He intended to follow in its construction sued the "Ordinatio ecclesise petropohtanse", which
the plans of the architect and sculptor Andreas settled the legal status of the parish and was a model
Sohluter, who was called to St. Petersburg in 1713 but for the other CathoUc parishes of Russia. This or-
died in the following year. In order to make the new dinance raised the permitted number of CathoUc
capital the equal of Moscow in religious matters, priests from four to six. These were generally Fran-
Peter and his successors built a large number of ciscans, who had charge of the welfare of souls at
churches and monasteries, often equipped with the Kronstadt, Jamburg, Riga, and Reval.
most lavish splendour. Peter sought, above all, to es- The number of Catholics was considerably in-
tablish veneration for the national saint, Alexander creased by the French emigrants whom the French
Newski, Grand duke of Novgorod, who died in 1261. Revolution caused to flee to St. Petersburg. Fur-
He therefore built a church near Neva, on the spot ther, the fact that the first archbishop of the newly
where Alexander in 1241 gained the traditionally cele- founded Archdiocese of Mohileff soon transferred
brated victory over the united forces of the Swedes, his residence to the capital of the empire also con-
Danes, and Finns; this victory cannot be proved his- tributed to the strengthening of the Catholic Church
torically. The bones of the saint were placed in the in St. Petersburg. In October, 1800, the Church of
church with much pomp in 1724. The tsar himself St. Catharine was confided to the Jesuits at the re-
drew up a plan for a monastery and gave to its con- quest of the Emperor Paul. The Jesuits opened a
struction 10,000 roubles from his private fortune, be- school that was soon very prosperous, but their suc-
sides state revenues. At Peter's death the city had cess and the many following conversions aroused the
75,000 inhabitants. However, a pause now occurred jealousy of the Orthodox. The Jesuits were expelled
in its development as Catharine I and Peter II pre- from St. Petersburg on 22 December, 1815, and from
ferred the old capital Moscow. Anna Ivanova (1730- the whole of Russia in 1820. The parochial care of
40) was the first ruler to hve again at St, Petersburg. the CathoUcs of St. Petersburg was given to secular
During her reign and that of her successor, Ehzabeth priests, and in 1816 to the Dominicans who have been
Petrovna, the city grew greatly and was adorned with in the city continuously until the present time. A
striking buildings. Most of the older public build- CathoUc Rumanian church was built during the
ings, however, belong to the reigns of Catharine II reign of Alexander I. During the forties the number of
and Paul I, who were great builders. By the favour Dominicans increased to twenty; but the closing of the
of the tsars who competed with one another in adorn- Polish monasteries, from which they drew new mem-
ing the imperial city with splendid structures and en- bers, reduced their number, and it became necessary
riching it with schools and collections, as well as by its to call fathers from Austria and France. Since 1888
advantageous position for commerce and intercourse secular priests have also been admitted to the cure of
with Western Europe, St. Petersburg has gradually souls; stiU the present number of ecclesiastics is
surpassed its rival Moscow. It has developed into hardly sufficient to meet the needs of the entire Cath-
the largest city of the empire, but has assumed more oUc community, the pastoral care, schools, and char-
the character of a city of Western Europe than that of itable demands. In addition, there still remains the
a national Russian one. old limitation of administration by the governmental
The history of the CathoUc Church at St. Peters- church consistory, the CathoUc collegium, and the
burg goes back to the era of the founding of the city. department of the state ministry for foreign religious,
As early as 1703 there were a few Catholics in the which exerts a zealous care that an active CathoUc
city. In 1704 one of the Jesuits, who since 1684 had life, religious freedom, and efforts for the conversion
been able to maintain themselves at Moscow, came to of those of other faiths should be and remain impos-
St. Petersburg in order to make the observance of sible.
their religious duties easier to the officers and soldiers Ecclesiastically, as regards Catholicism, St. Peters-
stationed on the Neva; he had also the spiritual care burg is the see of the Metropolitan of Mohileff, of the
of over 300 Catholic Lithuanians who had been taken general consistory, of the Roman Catholic ecclesiasti-
prisoners. From 1710 the Cathohcs had a little cal collegium (the highest coUegiate church board of
wooden chapel, called the Chapel of St. Catharine, not administration, which, however, has to obtain the
far from the spot where the monument to Peter the consent of the minister of the interior in all more im-
Great now stands. The parish register of the chapel portant matters), of a Roman CathoUc preparatory
goes back to this year. Later, Franciscans and Ca- academy for priests, and of an archiepiscopal semi-
puchins took the place of the Jesuits. Although nary. The Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary
Peter the Great was kindly disposed to the Catholic was built in the Byzantine stylo in 1873 and was en-
community, the Holy Synod, an administrative eccle- larged 1896-1902. The parish Church of St. Catha-
siastical board that he had created, was constantly rine was erected in 1763, that of St. Stanislaus in 1825,
suspicious of them. National disputes having arisen that of Our Lady in 1867, that of St. Casimir in 1908,
between the Franciscans and Capuchins, the Holy and the German parish Church of St. Boniface in
Synod was able to obtain an imperial decree in 1725, 1910. In addition there are 4 public and 10 private
 SAINT-PIERRE 376 SAINT-SIMON
Catholic chapels in the city. The cure of souls is un- The present titular is Mgr Christophe-Louis Le-
der the care of 6 parish priests and administrators, gasse, b. at Bassussary, France, 1859, appointed in
and 15 vicars and chaplains; there are also 2 military 1898, prelate of His Holiness in 1899. His chief work
chaplains for Cathohc soldiers. The orders settled in was the erection of the cathedral of St-Pierre, his resi-
the city are the Dominicans, Assumptionists, Ob- dential town. The population, almost exclusi\ely
lates, Franciscans, and the Sisters of St. Joseph. Be- Catholic, varies from 4000 in winter to 8000 in sum-
sides the clerical educational institutions there is a mer, owing to the presence of the fishing crews. They
Cathohc gymnasium for boys and one for girls, and a, are all Bretons, Normans, and Basques. Besides the
higher school for boys. Cathohc religious instruction six resident missionary priests, the fishermen, on the
is gi^-en in 30 pubhc intermediate schools for boys, 11 great banks, are visited every month by a chaplain
military schools, and 2S schools for girls. According on board a hospital ship which also distributes their
to the year-book of the Archdiocese of Alohileff the mail. There are 7 churches or chapels, 4 stations,
number of Catholics is 87,.500. 6 schools, those for boys managed until 1903 by 16
St. Petersburg, published by the city government in Russian Brothers of Ploermel (Christian Instruction); 37 Sis-
(St. Petersburg, 190:^); Suwori:^, Ca'!Z Petersburg (St. Peters-
ters of St. Joseph of Cluny (teaching and nursing)
burg, 1906), in Russian; Baumgartner, Durch Skandinavieti
nach Sankt Pefrr.^burg (3rd ed., Freiburg, 1901); Badeker, were subsidized by the Government until 1903. A
.SV. Petersburg (Leipzig, 1904); Zabel, St. Petersburg (Leipzig, classical college opened by the Holy Ghost Fathers in
1905), in the compilation BerUhmte KunUstatlen; Aminoff, St.
Prtersburg (Stockholm, 1910) de Haenen and Dobson', St.
1873 was closed in 1892.
;

Petersburg Painted and Described (London, 1910). Cnnrorning Roy, V'le cpnve de 1763 in Le Journal de Quebec (ISSS); Gos-
.SEl.ix, Mgr dc St-'i'iilltf r (Evrenx, 1898); Archnvs of Propaganda,
the Catholic Church in St. Petersburg see Theiner, Die neuestpn
Zust&nde der kathuUschen Kirche beider Ritus in Polen u. Russland of Ihr archbishopric (Quebec), of the Seminary of the Holy Ghost, of
(Augsburg, 1841): Tolstoi, Le cathoHcisme rOTnain en Russie ha Mnnne (Paris).
(Paris. lSfi3): Lu^ne secretes Jesuitarum (St. Petersburg, 1904); Lionel Lindsay.
EnciiH'jpedia Kuscidrm, XIX, s. v.; Godlewski, Monumenta
ecclesiastica petropolitana. III (St. Petersburg, 1906-09) Elenchus
;
Saints, Intercession and Veneration of. See
omnium ecclesiarum, etc., archidifrccsis Mohylovirnsis (St. Peters- Intercession.
burp, 1910); various articles in periodicals, especially in Echos
d^Orient, Bessarione, and Revue caihcliqw des c<;li^^-s. Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvroy, Due de, b. 16
Joseph Lins. January, 1675; d. in Paris, 2 March, 1755. Having
quitted the mihtary service in 1702, he hved there-
Saint-Pierre. See Martinique, Diocese op.
after at the Court, becoming the friend of the Dues
Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, Prefectitre .\po.s- de Che\-reuse and de Beauvilliers, who, with F(5nelon,
TOLIC OF (In.sdl.vrum S. Petri et Mtqueloxexsls), were interested in
comprises the only French possession in North .\mer- the education of
ica, a group of islands situated 48° 46' N. lat., and the Duke of Bur-
5S° 30 W. long. (Paris standard), having an area of gundy, grandson of
177 s(|uare miles. Geolnnically and geographically Louis XIV. At the
connectod with Newfoundland, it was once likewise so death of Louis XIV,
historically. Known to the earliest Breton and he was named a
Basque fishermen, this group already bore its present member of t he coun-
name when Jacques Cartier identified it in 1535. cil of regency of the

The first settlement dates from 1604. In 1689 Bishop young king, Louis
St-\'allier visited it from Placentia, blessed a chapel, XV, and in 1721 was
and left a priest in charge. The Recollects sent to Pla- sent as ambassador
cintia (1691) attended this mission. The islands were to Madrid. 'When
successively ceded to England (Treaty of Utrecht, the Duke of Bour-
1712), restored to France (Treaty of Paris, 1763), bon became minis-
thrice captured by the English (177,S, 1703, and ter, December,
ISO.S), and thrice retroceded to France (Treaties of 1723, Saint-Simon
Versailles, 1783, of Amiens, 1802, and of Ghent, went into retire-
1814). i\lany Acadians fled thither after the dis- ment. It was prin-
persion of Grand Pr^ (1755) and the fall of Louis- cipally between
bourg (1757). The first missionaries who came after 1740 and 1746 that
he wrote his cele- Louis DE RotrvROY, Due DE
the Treaty of Paris were the Jesuits Bonn6camp and Saint-Simon
Ardilliers, with dubious jurisdiction from the Bishop brated "Memoirs".
of La Rochelle (1765). The islands now separated As a history of the reign of Louis XIV they are an ex-
from the jurisdiction of Quebec were erected by Propa- tremely precious document. The edition with com-
ganda into a prefecture .\postohc, and forrned the mentary by Boislisle, and of which twenty-two vol-
firstmission confided by Rome to the Seminaiw of the umes have already appeared (1911), is an incomparable
Holy (ahost. MM. Girard, prefect, and de Manach, monument of learning. Saint-Simon aired his hatreds,
who sailed the same year, were driven by a storm to which were bitter and numerous he was an adversary
;

Martinique. They were replaced (1766) by MM. of equahty, which he described as "leprosy"; he
Becquet and Paradis, likewise of the Holy Ghost Sem- dreamt of a kind of chamber of dukes and peers which
inary, or Spiritains, as well as several of the following. would control and paralyze royal despotism, and allow
In 177.5 the prefect, M. Paradis, with his companion the Sttites-General to assemble every five years to
and 300 families were expelled by the English. M. present the humble remonstrances of the people.
de Longueville succeeded him in 17,S,S. In 1792 M. Whatever the historical value of the "Memoirs"
and his companion, M. Le Jam-
.\llain, -s-ice-prefect, may be, they are, by their sparkhng wit, one of the
tel,were forced by the French Revolution to leave for most original monuments of French literature; and
the Magdalen Islamls, with a number of Acadians the "Parallele des trois premiers rois Bourbons",
who, remaining faithful to the King of France, refused written by Saint-Simon in 1746, the year in whi(;h he
to take the oatli of the Constitution. The former in- finished the record of the reign of Louis Xl\', is an
liabitants returning in 1x16, M. GUivier, who accom- admirable piece of history. On all religious questions
jianiedthem, applied f(]r jursidiction to the Bishop of he should be read with great precaution. Very hostile
Quebec. He was appcjintcd vice-prefect in 1820. His to the Jesuits, and favourable to the Jansenists, he
successors, with the same title, were MM. Chariot contributed greatly to the creation of legends con-
(1S41), Le Helloco (1S54), Le Tournoux (1,S64), Ti- cerning personages such as Mme de Maintenon and
beri (1S!I3); the two last named belonged to the Michel Le Tellier. These legends had a long exis-
newly-restored Congregation of the Holy Ghost. tence. The reproach, historically false, of having in-
 SAINT-SIMON 377 SAINT-SIMON

stigated the violent measures of persecutions against and the institute. In 1814, assisted by the future
the Jansenists, which he hurled against Le Tellier, historian, Augustin Thierry, Saint-Simon published
was all the more strange coming from his pen, since a treatise entitled, "De la r(5organisation de la
Saint-Simon himself, on the day following the death of societe europeene," in which he dreamed of a po-
Louis XIV, was one of the most rabid in demanding of hticially homogeneous Europe, all of whose nations
the regent severe measures against Le Tellier and other should possess the same institutions, relying on Eng-
Jesuits. Father Bhard has shown how much care is land to take the initiative in this federation. Later
necessary in judging Saint-Simon's assertions regard- he turned his attention to political economy. The
ing the religious questions of his day. The historian "Industrie", which he founded, brought out in
Emile Bourgeois, who cannotbe charged with prejudice relief the conflict waged throughout Europe between
in favour of rehgion, wrote in l:is turn, in 1905: "His- the military and
tory has given up the habit, too hastily acquired, of feudal class on the
pinning her faith to the word of Saint-Simon." And one hand and the
Bourgeois proved how inaccurate were the statements working class on
of Saint-Simon by showing what use the latter made in the other. The
his "Memoirs" of documents of the diplomatist Torcy. same idea was
Saint-Simon, Mi-moirfs, ed. Boislisle (22 vols., Pariti, emphasized in the
1876-1911); Saint-.Simon, £cr2(s ifii'ilils, cd. Faug^re (6 vols.,
Paris, 1880-3) Saint-Simon, Lettres et dcp&ches .^ur I'ambas-
:
"Censeur euro-
sadei'Espaiine, 1721-1722, ed. Drumont (Paris, 1880); Baschet, peen", edited by
Le due de Saint-Simon, son cabinet et se& manuscrits (Pari.s, 1874) Charles Comte
CH^RrEL, Saint-Simon consider^ comme hi^toHen de Loais XIV and Dunoyer, but
(Paris, ISCi."))
; Boissier, Saint-Simon (Paris, 1S92) ; Bliard,
Les memoires de Saint-Simon et le Pkre Le Tellier (Paris, 1891); while the "Cen-
Bourgeois. La collaboration de Saint-Simon et de Torcn, etude seur europiSen"
critique sut les Memoires de Saint-Simon in Revue hi^torique,
LXXXVII (1905); Pilastre, Lexique de la langue de Saint- distrusted schol-
Simon (Paris, 1905). ars and learned
Georges Goyau. men, Saint-Si-
mon's originality
Saint- Simon and Saint- Simonism. — Claude- consisted in try-
Henri DE RoTJVEOY, Comte de Saint-Simon, was ing to combine
born in Paris, 17 Oct., 1760; d. there, 19 May, 1825. manufacturing in-
He belonged to the familj' of the author of the dustry and what
"Memoirs". At an early age he showed a certain he called "liter- Claude-Henri de Rouvrot, Comte
disdain for tradition; at thirteen he refused to make ary industry", de Saint-Simon
his first Communion and was punished by imprison- and create a moral ^"^ ^ Contemporary Portrait
ment at Saint Lazare, whence he escaped. During code which all men should study. This authoritative
the War of Independence he followed his relative, the idea displeased Augustin Thierry and he abandoned
Marquis de Saint-Simon, to America, took part in the Saint-Simon, who in 1817 (the date set by Monsieur Per-
battle of Yorktown, was later made prisoner, and re- eire) took as his secretary, Auguste Comte, then 18
covered his Uberty only after the Treaty of Versailles. years old, the future founder of Positivism. Influ-
Before leaving America, being as yet only twenty- three enced by the writings of Joseph de Maistre, whose " Le
years old, he presented to the Viceroy of Mexico the Pape" appeared in 1819, and by those of Bonald,
plan of a canal between the two oceans. In 1788 he Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte, reacting against
drew up important schemes for the economic improve- the individuahst ideas of the French Revolution,
ment of Spain. During the Revolution he grew rich by recognized the necessity in modern society of a power
speculation, was imprisoned for eleven months, and similar to the medieval theocracy. The "positive
under the Directory, though leading a prodigal and scientific capacity" was to replace the ancient
voluptuous life, continued to dream of a scientific and ecclesiastical power; there should be "no more gov-
social reform of humanity, gathering about him such ernors to command" but "administrators to exercise
scholars as Monge and Lagrange, and capitalists with a directing function"; in a society become an indus-
whose assistance he proposed to form a gigantic bank trial association; the governmental, or military regime
for the launching of his philanthropic undertakings. under which the people was "subject" should give
He married Mile, de Champgrand in August, 1801, and way to the administrative or industrial r(^gime in
divorced her less than a year later in the hope of which the people is to be associated. Saint-Simon
marrying Mme. de Stael, who had just become a drew political conclusions; he found that the working
widow, but she refused. In 1805, completely ruined people occupied too small a, place in the electoral
by his disordered life, he became a copyist at the Mont body and desired that power should be vested in
de Pi^te, relying for his living on his activity as a committees composed of the directing elements of
writer; faiUng in this, he led a life of borrowings and the industrial world. Thus he was in no wise a dem-
make-shifts, and in 1823 attempted to kill himself. ocrat; he would have only the heads of the industrial
Fortunately for him he made the acquaintance of the hierarchy elected by the people, but would have them
Jew Olinde Rodrigues who became enamoured of his recruited by co-option by choosing from the lower
social ideas and assured him his daily bread till the ranks of society those who deserve an elevation of
end of his life. When dying, Saint-Simon said to their condition. Liberal economists long considered
Rodrigues: "Remember that to do anything great that between their liberalism and Saint-Simon's in-
you must be impassioned". Ardent passion is what dustrialism, which accorded so many prerogatives
characterized Saint-Simon and explains the pecuUar- to an industrial hierarchy, there was little difference;
ities of his life and of his system. This precursor of but Saint-Simonism as it was developed by his disci-
socialism was not afraid to be a fanatic and even to ples was destined to be a socialist school.
pass for a fool, while he retained his feudal pride and In Saint-Simon there was always a double ten-
boasted of having Charlemagne among his ancestors. dency: his positivist and scientific studies impelled
The "Lettres d'un habitant de Genfeve h ses him to found a purely practical and demonstrable
contemporains" (180.3), the "Introduction aux tra- moral code, while his sentimental and mystical ten-
vaux scientifiques du XIX'' siecle" (1808), and the dencies led him to desire a religion. He belie^'ed
"Mfimoire sur la science de I'homme" (1813) show that Christianity had greatly forwarded morahty, but
his trust in science and savants for the regener- he declared that its reign was at an end. His reli-
ation of the world. The second of these works is gious tendency grew by degrees; he declared that the
a hymn to Bonaparte who created the university crisis was reached which had been predicted by the
 SAINT-SULPICE 378 SAINT-SULPICE

Old Testament, prepared for by the Biblical societies, Simon et Augusle Comte (Paris, 1905) Weisengrun, Die social-
;

wissenschaftlichen Ideen Saint Simon's; em Beilrag zur Geschichte

and expected by the Jews for eighteen centuries, des Socialismus (Basle, 18951 Charlett, Hist, du saint-simonismc
;

which was to end in the establishment of a truly 1825-1864 (Paris, 1S96) ; Hal^vy, La doctrine economique de
uni\-ersal religion, in the adoption by all nations of a Saint-Simon et des Saint-Simoniens in Revue du mois (1908)
pacific serial organization and the speedy better-
Booth, SairU Simon and Saint Simonism (London, 1871).
ment of the condition of the poor. Such was the Georges Gotatj.
dream de\eloped in his book, "Le nouveau christian-
isme", which death prevented him from finishing. Saint-Sulpice, Society of, founded at Paris by
The Saint-Simonian School under the influence of M. Olier (1642) for the purpose of providing directors
the book in which Sismondi made known the great for the seminaries established by him (see Oltbr). At
labour England, considered it necessary to
crisis of the founder's death (1657) his society, approved by
perfect their master's doctrine. In making the most rehgious and civil authority, was firmly estabhshed.
intense industrial pi-oduction the unique aim of The Paris seminary and three in the provinces (Vi-
society, Saint-Simon had not foreseen that the prob- viers, Le Puy, Clermont) were opened to young ec-
lem was much more complex. Must production be clesiastics to give them besides the elements of the
carried on even when there are no consumers? The clerical sciences lessons and examples in sacerdotal
liberals replied in the affirmative, for there are always perfection. The work in Montreal was inaugurated
consumers; but Fourier said no, the necessary con- and four priests appointed to carry it on, while a novi-
dition of an increased production is a better distri- tiate called the Solitude had been opened to recruit
bution of labour and of wealth among the workers. directors for the seminaries. Alexandre Le Ragois do
The former Carbonaro, Bazard (1791-1832), Enfantin Bretonvilliers, the successor of Olier (1657-76) drew
(1796-18()4), and Olinde Rodrigues, in the review up the Constitution of the Society and secured its ap-
"Le Producteur", which they founded, attacked the proval by Cardinal Chigi, legate a latere and nephew
regime of competition and went so far as to aim at of Alexander VII. The object of the society was to
the theories of Adam Smith; then in 1829 Bazard's labour, in direct dependence on the bishops, for the
conferences published under the title, "Exposition education and perfection of ecclesiastics. They were
de la doctrine de Saint-Simon", marks the Credo of to be taught philosophy and theology, chant and lit-
the School. The Saint-Siraonians thought that two urgy, but especially mental payer and the Christian
survivals of the feudal system enslaved the working- virtues. Several chapters dealt with the organization
—
man lending at interest and inheritance; these two and government of the society. The number of sub-
survivals should disappear. jects should be restricted, fervour being worth more
By degrees the Suint-Simonian School became a than number. The spiritual and temporal govern-
sort of Church. Enfantin assumed the role of pope; ment is vested in a superior general assisted by twelve
Bazard and later Rodrigues separated from him when, assistants, like him elected for life. Together they
preaching the rehabilitation of the flesh, he wished constitute the general assembly empowered to elect
to associate with him the "priest-woman", the by majority of votes the superior-general, his assist-
"mother", in the government of Saint Simonism. ants, and among the latter four consultors, who shall
The ceremonies he performed at Menilmontant, his be his constant advisers, sign the public acts, and rep-
trialand imprisonment in 1832, the journey to Con- resent the whole society. The other members are ad-
stantinople undertaken by his disciple Barrault in mitted by the superior and his council. They take no
search of the " woman -mother " excited ridicule. vows, but renounce all prospect of ecclesiastical digni-
Nevertheless Enfantin, whose last work only ap- ties. Changes and appointments are made by the
peared in 1861, exercised great influence over many superior-general. Every Sulpician should be ani-
of the best minds. Saint-Simonism left its mark on mated by great zeal for the glory of God and the sanc-
such men as the philosopher Jean Reynaud, Buchez, tification of the clergy, should profess detachment and
who in 1S48 played an important political part, the abnegation, practise poverty, be submissive especially
religious critic Gustave d'Eichthal, the economists to bishops.
Barrault and Michel Chevalier, the publicists Edou- De Bretonvilliers transferred the Solitude of Vau-
ard Charton and Maxime du Camp, General Lamori- girard to the Ch&teau d'Avron, which was a family
ciere and Baron Blanc, future minister of Italy. The possession, where it remained until M. Tronson, his
industrial movement of the nineteenth century was successor, established it at Issy, where it is at present.
to a large extent promoted by engineers imbued with He enacted that the community of priests of the parish
Saint-Sinionian doctrines; the railways of France, the of Saint-Sulpice should continue subject to a superior.
financial establishment of the Second Empire were This community numbered from sixty to eighty mem-
due to Saint-Simonian influences. bers until the French Revolution. There F6nelon ex-
The Saint-Siiuonians foresaw that industry would ercised the sacred ministry for three years and he
be more and more concentrated in great syndicates spoke from experience when he declared that there
and that the State as the organ of social centraliza- was nothing he venerated more than Saint-Sulpice.
tion would intervene more and more. What they M. Tronson assumed the direction of the society in
did not foresee was that industrial production would 1676 and retained it until 1700. He was remarkable
become democratic. They had, beforehand, intui- for the breadth of his knowledge, his practical mind,
tion of what we call trusts and deals, but they did and his deep piety. He was jealously vigilant to ward
not foresee labour unions, and they were thus less off the Jansenistic scourge from his society and the
clear-sighted than Ketteler, Manning, and Leo XIII. ten seminaries under his care. At a time when the
Lamartine describes Saint-Siraonism as "a daring error since called Gallicanism spread everywhere he
plagiarism which emerges from the Gospel and will was a Roman, as the present expression is, in as far as
return thither'', and Isaac Pereire, the last of the was compatible with the submission to the bishops
Saint-Simonians, in a work entitled, "La question which his society professed.
rehgieuse" (1S78), urged the recently-elected Pope During the eighteenth century the society carried
Leo XIII to undertake the direction of universal on its work amid the difficulties which Jansenism
social reform. This, the last echo of Saint-Simonism incessantly
and philosophism, by corrupting minds,
was, as it were, an appeal to the " Rerum Novarum". aroused. Frangois Leschassier (1700-25) had to de-
Expo.^. de ta doctrine saint-nmonienne (Paris. 1.^29); CEuvres de
Saint-Simon et d'Enfantin, XLVII (Paris, lS6.i-78) Weill, Un
;
fend the seminary of Paris against Archbishop de
precurseur du socialiame: Saint-Simon el son (euvre (Paria. 1S04); Xoailles, an avowed and militant Jansenist. Under
his successors, Maurice Le Peletier (1725-31) and
Idem, Vtcole saint-dmonienne. son histoire, son influence jusqu^d
nos j'liir.s (Paris, ISnH); PEREriiE, Des premiers rapports entre
S,iii:t-Sim'>'i et Auguste Comte in Revue Hislorique, XCI (1906); Jean Couturier (1731-70), although new seminaries
Gkorgb Dumas, Psychologie de deux messies posilinstes, Saint- were opened in the dioceses of France, the spirit oi
 SAINT-SULPICE 379 SAINT-SULPICE

the age crept into that of Paris, in consequence of the them J6r6me Le Royer de la Dauversiere, he founded
wealvening of morals at the Court, contact with the the Society of Notre-Dame de Montreal. The under-
world, and the great number of sons of the nobility taking was inspired by the desire to found a city in
who had become seminarians. At this period Saint- honour of the Blessed Virgin (Villemarie in the Island
Sulpice was charged with the spiritual direction of of Montreal) which should serve as headquarters for
schools of philosophy and e^'en of petits seminaires the Indian missions and as a stronghold against the
both at Paris and Angers, always with the object of Iroquois. The manner in which Maisonneuve ac-
preparing the pupils for the priesthood. When the complished this foundation is well known. In 1657
Revolution broke out the seminary of Paris alone had the dying Olier sent four of his disciples to the mission
trained more than five thousand priests, and more of Villemarie, where the colonists were asking for
than half the bishops who faced that dreadful tem- them. They were led by M. De Queylus and thence-
pest (about fifty) had been in Sulpician seminaries. forth the Sulpicians shared the vicissitudes of the
Claude Bourachot (1770-77) and Pierre Le Gallic Montreal colony. Two of them, Vignal and Lemattre,
(1777-82), who governed with the mournful presenti- were slain by the Iroquois (1660). In 1663 the asso-
ment of the Revolution, were succeeded by Andr6 Em- ciates of Notre-Dame, reduced to eight by death and
ery, the man providentially chosen to guide the society weary of a colony which yielded only expenses, ceded
during those dark days. He beheld the seminaries and duties to the Society of Saint-Sulpice,
their rights
closed, his brethren scattered, hunted, and compelled to which was thenceforth owner and lord of the Island of
seek safety in exile, but he had the great consolation, at Montreal. It paid 130,000 livres in debts and pledged
a time of frequent defections, of seeing them all faithful itselfnever to alienate the property of the island. M
to their promises. Xot one of them took the oath to de Bretonvilliers gave no less than 400,000 livres of his
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and eighteen of personal fortune for the maintenance of the colony
them died for their faith. The life of this illustrious and M. Faillon has calculated that from 1657 to 1710
priest belongs tothe whole Church, whose rights he the seminary of Paris transmitted to that of Montreal
defended with unshakable firmness against Napoleon not less than 900,000 livres or one million dollars.
I (see Emery). After the Concordat he reopened the Personal devotion was added to these expenses.
seminary of Paris. He should be regarded as the Eleven Sulpicians were labouring at Montreal in
Society of M. Olier.
restorer of the 1668, teaching boys, exercising the sacred ministry,
During the nineteenth century the Society of Saint- or doing missionary work among the savages. MM.
Sulpice has quietly continued its work of clerical Trouv^ and de F^nelon founded the mission of Kente
training while sharing all the vicissitudes of the on Lake Ontario. DoUier de Casson and Brehan de
Church in France. The following superiors general GallinSe explored the region of the Great Lakes
have governed it: M. Duclaux (1811-26); Garnier (1669), of which they made a map. In 1676 was
(1826-45), a noted Hebrew scholar; de Courson opened the mission of the Mountain on the site of the
(1845-50); Carriere (1850-64), an eminent theolo- present seminary, where M. Belmont built a fort
gian; Caval (1864-75); J. H. Icard (1879-93); and (1685). The brandy traffic necessitated the removal
Captier (1893-1900), the founder and first superior of of this fixed mission and in 1720 it was transferred to
the procure of Saint-Sulpice at Rome. Living within Lac-des-Deux-Montagnes, where it is at present. At
the walls of its seminaries, which, constantly increas- the end of the seventeenth century the Sulpicians had
ing, numbered twenty-six in 1900, the Society of created and organized in the vicinity of Montreal six
Saint-Sulpice has, so to speak, no history. Its mem- parishes which they zealously administered, besides sup-
bers, absorbed in their professional duties, share the plying them with churches, presbyteries, and schools.
life of the seminarians, being solicitous to train them During the eighteenth century the history of the
not only in the ecclesiastical sciences, but also in society in Canada continued closely linked with that
priestly virtues, and this more by their own daily ex- of Montreal, in all of whose works it assisted by its re-
amples than by the lessons which they teach. A
good sources and devotion. The number of priests in-
Sulpician constitutes himself everywhere and always creased to meet the needs of the time, and at the con-
the companion and the model of the future priests, in quest (1760) they numbered thirty. They were
their pious exercises, recreations, meals, and walks, headed by worthy men: Vachon de Belmont (1700-
briefly in all the details of their life. 31), who succeeded Dollier de Casson; Louis Normant
That such a life is eminently fruitful is proved by du Faradon (1731-59), who assisted Ven. Mere d'You-
the numerous prelates, distinguished priests, founders ville in the foundation of the Grey Nuns; Etienne
of religious orders, missionaries and religious from Montgolfier, who had the difficult task of governing
Sulpician seminaries, but it will be readily under- his community during the period of conquest. To
stood that it furnishes few facts of history. For the the Sulpicians who remained after the Treaty of
Church of France Saint-Sulpice has been a great Paris (1763) the seminary of Saint-Sulpice ceded its
school of ecclesiastical dignity, love of study, regu- possessions in Canada on condition that they would
larity, and virtue. Pius Xpaid the society this carry on the work of M. Olier. Being unable to re-
tribute: "Congregatio Sulpicianorum fuit salus Gal- cruit their numbers the Sulpicians of Montreal would
hffi" (Audience of 10 Jan., 1905, to the pastors of have become extinct had not the Enghsh Govern-
Paris). The recent persecutions brought about in ment humanely opened Canada to the priests perse-
France by the separation of Church and State did not cuted by the French Revolution. Twelve Sulpicians
fail to attack it. A circular of Minister Combes reached Montreal in 1794. After lengthy disputes
(1904) declared Saint-Sulpice unfitted to teach the possessions of the society coveted by the English
in seminaries. At the same time the old seminary agents were recognized by the British Crown (1840)
of Paris was taken away from it. Nevertheless the and the Sulpicians were free to continue undisturbed
society was not dissolved. It subsists in its essen- their work for the Church and society. Besides the
tial organs, and its members, in most instances in the College de Montreal, founded in 1767, and which per-
seminaries of their native dioceses, continue work formed important services after the conquest, they
of devotion to the clergy and the Church. founded a higher seminary (1840) for the education of
-^t different dates the society extended branches to the clergy. In this house several thousand priests
American soil, to Canada in 1657, to the United have been trained for the priesthood. They have
States in 1791. (See Sulpicians in the United since founded (1894) for the benefit of the clergy a
States.) seminary of philosophy at Montreal, opened the Ca-
M. Olier had desired to go to Canada to work for nadian College at Rome for higher ecclesiastical study,
the conversion of the savages; this he was unable to and quite recently (1911) have organized the School
do, but in union with several pious persons, among of St. John the Evangehst for the recruiting of clergy
 SAINTS 380 SAINTS
in the Archdiocese of Montreal. Since 1866 the so- is a masterpiece of spiritual psychology and whose
fiety has gradually abandoned the administration of "Forma cleri", treatise on obedience, and other
its parishes in Montreal, at present retaining only works are useful to the clergy; Fyot de Vaugimois
those of Notre-Dame and Saint-Jacques in the city (1689-1758), who wrote "Conversations with Jesus
and that of Oka in the diocese. That it does not, Christ before and after Mass" (1721), very popular
nevertheless, stand aloof from any of the great under- at that time, and a host of other works for the sancti-
takings in the city which it founded is manifested by fication of priests; Boyer (1768-1842), the author of
the Laval University and the public library. ecclesiastical retreats; Vernet (1760-1843), who
Separated from Saint-Sulpice as regards material wrote many works to enUven the piety of religious and
possessions, the Montreal community maintains its priests, such as the "Nepotien"; Hamon (1795-
spiritual alliance with Paris. The superior-general or 1870), the biographer of Cardinal Cheverus and St.
his representative makes periodically the canonical Francis de Sales; Calais (1802-54), "Le bon semina-
visitation of the Canadian houses. They are governed riste" (1839); Renaudet (1794-1880), wrote various
by a superior elected every five years, who is assisted works on asceticism, also meditations; Gamon (1813-
by a council of twelve, four of whom, called assistants, 86), author of the lives of holy priests; Bacuez (1820-
are his habitual advisers. 92), "Manuel du sdminariste en vacances"
As will be readily perceived the principal Sulpician Among the scholars and learned men in various
work in both France and America is that of seminaries. branches were: Laurent-Josse Le Clerc (1677-1736),
The Sulpician is either the model of the pastor in the historian, theologian, controversialist, and author of
ministry or the trainer of the priest within the semi- the "Bibliotheque de Richelet" (1727), of a "Lettre
naries. His manner of life has been described above; critique sur le Dictionnaire de Bayle" (17.U), and of
his instruction and method will here be treated briefly. various and learned writings; Grandet (1646-1724),
The sole directing principle of the studies at Saint- who wrote "Les saints pretres frangais du XVIIe sie-
Sulpice is the most filial docility of judgment and will cle", and numerous historical or devotional works;
towards the pope, not only when he defines, but when Emery (q. v.); Gosselin (1787-1858), who published
he expresses a preference or gives directions and coun- the and works of Fenelon, and wrote numerous
life
sels. Mindful of their responsibility for priestly souls historical works; Le Hir (1811-68), one of the most
the Sulpioians teach their pupils, not the novelty learned Hebrew scholars of the nineteenth century;
which may send them astray, nor their personal opin- Pinault (1793-1S70), who composed remarkable physi-
ions which have no guarantee of certitude, but the cal and mathematical treatises; Faillon (1800-70),
truth stamped with the seal of the Church and issuing author of the li\'es of de Lantages and Oher, of
thenno warranted and authentic. In Holy Scripture "Monuments inC'dits sur I'apostolat de Marie-Made-
they treat the books they explain as Divine books, leine en Provence", and of numerous historical works
avoiding the exaggerations of critical research and on Canada and Montreal; Moyen (1828-99), who
abiding by the interpretation of the text. In dog- compiled a "Flora of Canada" and various scientific
matic theology they set forth the truth, at the same works; Grandvaux (1819-85), who published Le
time warning their pupils against Rationalistic and Hir's works after his death, and was very learned in
Modernistic theories and minimizing insinuations. In all branches of ecclesiastical knowledge; Richou
apologetics they follow the historical method; in (1823-87), noted for his works on church history and
philosophy they recognize no master save St. Scripture; Brugere (1823-SS), a theologian and his-
Thomas. torian of wide knowledge; Icard (1805-93), known
Although the kind of instruction given at Saint- for his writings on catechisms, canon law, and various
Sulpice tends to produce men whose knowledge is spiritual subjects. To these names must be added
more solid than brilliant, more deep than extensive, those of Caron (1779-1850), a liturgist, who pub-
there has been no lack of remarkable professors in any lished the "Manuel de C(5r6monies selon le rit de
branch of ecclesiastical learning. Out of the seven Paris" (1846); Parisis (1724-81); and Manier (1807-
hundred and thirty members which the society had 71), who issued philosophical courses.
numbered down to 1790 no less than one hundred and Gosselin, Viede M. Emery (Paris, 1861), Introduction, 1-102;
ICAEn, Traditions ilc la compa^nie des prStres de Saint-Sulpice
fifteen had secured their doctor's degree at the Sor-
(Paris, 1886) ; Behtrand,
Bibliotheque sulpicienne ou Ilistoire
bonne. Doctrine is surely more valuable than learn- litt^aire de la comp. de Saint-Sulpice (Paris,
1900) Bulletin
;

ing, and no book written by a Sulpician has ever been trimestriel des anciens Htves de Saint-Sulpice (1896-1011);
placed on the Index. Among the theologians were: Memorial volume of the centenary of St. Mary's Semiruiry of St-
Sulpice (Baltimore, 1891) Golden Jubilee of St. Charles' College
;

Delafosse (1701-4.5) and de Montaigne (1687-1767), (Baltimore, 1898); .Shea, History of the Catholic Church in the
who wrote remarkable dogmatic treatises published in United States (New York, 1886-92).
the theoloKv of Honors Tournely; Legrand (1711-87), A. FOURNET.
as famous for his dogmatic writings as for his refutation Saints Vincent and Anastasius (Thium Fon-
of the philosophical errors of his time; Rey and Rony, TiuM AD Aquas Salvias, The Fontane, or Three
authors of valuable treatises pubhshed at Lyons; Peala Fountains), Abbey op, near Rome. Connected
(17S7-1S.1.3), the continuator of the ecclesiastical con- with, and belonging to the monastery are three
ferenees of Le Puy; Vieuss? (1784-1S;.57), author of the separate sanctuaries. The first, the Church of St.
" Compendiosae institutionestheologicae" of Toulouse; Paul of Three Fountains, was raised over the spot
CarriSre (179.'i-1864), author of authoritati\'e trea- where St. Paul was beheaded by order of Nero.
tises on marriage, contracts, justice, etc.; Vincent Legend says that the head, severed from the body,
(lS1.3-(5'.n, author of the so-called "Clermont Theol- rebounded, striking the earth in three different places,
ogy" De Lantages (1616-94) and De la Ch^tardye from which fountains sprang forth, flowing to the
(16:34-1714) wrote justly-esteemed catechisms and present day, and located within the sanctuary itself.
conversations or ecclesiastical instructions. Among The second, originally dedicated to the Blessed
the Sulpicians whose works were addressed to the Virgin, under the title "Our Lady of Martyrs",
general faithful were Blanlo (1617-.57), author of "En- is built over the relics of St. Zeno and his 10,203
fance chrdtienne"; GuLsain (1627-82), author of the legionaries, who were mart3Ted here at the order of
" Sages entrotiens" of a snul desirous of salvation; La- Diocletian, in 299. In this church is the altar
sau.'^sp (1740-1826). author of manv works of piety;
"Scala Coeli", from which the church receives its
Hamon (179.i-l.S74), whose "Meditations "are much present name. Within is the church and monastery
used; Riche (1X24-92), author of works intended to dedicated to Sts. Vincent and Anastasius, built by
assist piety. Among those who had chiefly in view the Pope Honorius I in 626, and given to the Bene-
perfection of the clergy were, after Olier himself, M. dictines, who were to care for the two older sanc-
Tronson (1622-1700), whose "Examens particuliers tuaries, as well as their own church. The abbey was
 SAINT SYLVESTER 381 SAINT THOMAS

richly endowed, particularly by Charlemagne, who dean of the Sacred College; and the Administrator
bestowed on it Orbitello and eleven other towns, IS the Most Reverend Dom Augustine Marre,
Abbot-
with a consideralDle territory, over which its abbot General of the Reformed Cistercians.
exercises ordinary jurisdiction {abbatia nullius). Ughelli Italia Sacra (Venice, 1717-21) Bacceti, Seviimianm
;

Towards the middle of the seventh century the Histonai libri septem (Rome, 1724); Bleseb, Guide du voyageur
mlhohque d Rome (Louvain, 1881) MoNBET, VAbbaie dea Trots
persecutions inflicted on the Eastern monks by the ;

Fontaines situie aux Eaux Sahiennes (Lyon, 1869) Manhique

Monothelites obliged many of them to seelc shelter
;

Annales Cist. (Lyon, 1642); Le Nain, Essai sur Vhistoire de

in Rome, and to them this abbey was committed as a I Ordre de Ctleaux (Paris,
1696) Janauschek, Originum Cister-
;

nmsiurn, I (Vienna, 1878) Obreoht, The Trappista of the Three

refuge. These continued in possession until the tenth ;

Fountains in Messenger of the Sacred Heart (New York, 1894)

century, when it was given to the Cluniacs. In Lisi,Trappa delle Tre Fontane (Rome, 1883) Gaume, Les Trois
;

1140 Pope Innocent II withdrew the abbey from Rome (Pans, 1842); Archives of the Abbey of Tre Fontane.
them, and entrusted it to St. Bernard, who sent Edmond M. Obrecht.
there a colony from Clairvaux, with Peter Bernard
of PaganeUi as their abbot, who five years later be- Saint Sylvester, Order of, neither monastic
is
came Pope Eugene III. nor military but a purely honorary title created by
At the time Innocent granted the monastery to Gregory XVI, ,31 Oct., 1841. The idea of placing
the Cistercians, he had the church repaired and the this title, borrowed from the Middle Ages, under the
monastic quarters rebuilt according to the usages of patronage of a pope of the fourth century is explained
the order. Of the fourteen regular abbots who by the existence of a fabulous order of Constantine
governed the abbey, several, besides Blessed Eugene the Great claiming the approval of his contemporary,
III, became cardinals, legates, or bishops. Pope Sylvester I, which enjoyed a usurped authority at
Honorius III, in 1221, again restored the Church of Rome from the seventeenth century. To end this
Sts. Vincent and Anastasius and personally con- abuse, Gregory XVI created an authentic title of
secrated it, seven cardinals at the same time con- Knightsof St. Sylvester, to be conferred in recognition
secrating the seven altars therein. Cardinal Branda of some service rendered to the Church, the order being
(1419) was the first commendatory abbot, and after limited to 150 commanders and 300 Roman knights,
him this office was often filled by a cardinal. Popes besides foreigners of whom the number is unlimited.
Clement VII and VIII as cardinals held this position. The members have no privileges beyond that of
Leo X, in 1.519, authorized the religious to elect their wearing a decoration which consists of a gold enam-
own regular superior, a claustral prior independent of elled Maltese cross with the image of St. Sylvester
the commendatory abbot, who from this time for- on one side and on the other the inscription "1841 :

ward was always to be a cardinal. From 1625, Gregorius XVI restituit."

when the abbey was affiliated to the Cistercian Con- Ch. Moeller.
gregation of St. Bernard in Tuscany, until its sup-
pression at the Napoleonic invasion (1812) the local Saint Thomas, Diocese op (Sancti Thom^ in
superior was a regular abbot, but without prejudice Insula), comprising the Islands of Sao Thom6 and
to the commendatory abbot. The best known of Principe, in the Gulf of Guinea, was erected on 23
this series of regular abbots was the second, Dom November, 1584, as suffragan of Lisbon; in 1676 it
Ferdinand Ughelli, who was one of the foremost was made subject to the Metropolitan of San Salvador,
literary men of his age, the author of "Italia Sacra" Brazil, and in 1844 to Lisbon once more. The last
and numerous other works. bishop, Bartolomeo de Martyribus, a Carmelite of
From 1812 the sanctuaries were deserted, until Leo Sandomir, was preconized on 8 March, 1816, and died
XII (1826) removed them from the nominal care of in 1847. The see then remained vacant. Since
the Cistercians, and transferred them to the Friars 1865 it has been ruled as a vicariate. Sao Thom6,
Minor of the Strict Observance. The purpose of the lying one hundred and fifty miles off the African main-
pontiff, however, was not accomplished; the surround-
land at 0° 28' N. lat. and 6° 42" E. long., has an area
ings were so unhealthful that no community could
of three hundred and fifty-eight square miles and a
live there. In 1867 Pius IX appointed his cousin, population of 37,776 inhabitants (in 1900). It is
Cardinal Milesi-Ferretti, Commendatory Abbot of very fertile, and is noted for its cocoa. The capital,
Sts. Vincent and Anastasius, who endeavoured to
Sao Thom^, situated on the Bay of Santa Anna,
restore, not only the material desolation that reigned
contains 6000 inhabitants. The island, when dis-
in the neglected sanctuaries, but also to provide that
covered on 21 December, 1470, by Joao de Santarem,
they be suitably served by ministers of God. To was uninhabited; in 1485 Joao de Paiva and in 1493
further this end he obtained that their care be again Pereira attempted to colonize it. Most of the pres-
committed to the Cistercians. A community was ent inhabitants are of African slave origin. About
sent there in 1868 from La Grande Trappe to institute
1544 a ship carrying a cargo of Angolares was wrecked
the regular life and to try to render more healthful
at Sete Pedras and 3000 of their descendants still
the lands, which from long neglect had been called
live in the south-west. The Capuchins arrived in
the tomba (graveyard) of the Roman Campagna.
1659 and established a definite mission in 1688.
Assisted by Pius IX, so long as he held the tem- Principe, lying ninety miles north-east of Sao Thom6
poral sovereignty, and by other friends, especially
and discovered in 1471, had an area of 42 square
Mgr de M^rode, they were able to supply their miles and a population of 4327. Its chief town is
ordinary needs. The usurpation of 1870 deprived Sao Antonio. The diocese contains 8 parishes and
Pius IX of the power to aid them, and later, when the
22,000 Catholics. Owing to the development of the
Italian Government confiscated religious properties,
cocoa trade in recent years the population, recruited
they suffered with the others. They remained at chiefly from Africa, is estimated to have increased
Three Fountains, at first renting and later (1886)
by over 20,000 since the last official census (1910).
definitively purchasing it from the Government, with Nbgreiros, Ila de San Thom^ (Paris, 1901).
an additional tract of 1234 acres. They inaugurated A. A. MacEelean.
modern methods for the elimination of the malarial
conditions that had been such an obstacle to health Saint Thomas (Santo TomXs), University of,
in the past, especially
by planting a large number of Manila, founded in 1619 by the Dominican Miguel
eucalyptus and other trees, an experiment insisted de Benavides, Archbishop of Manila. In 1645
Upon by the Government in the contract of sale. The Innocent X granted it the title of pontifical univer-
trial proved a
success, so that the vicinity is now sity, and in the same year it received the title of
nearly as healthful as Rome itself. The present com- royal university from Philip IV of Spain. Attached
mendatory abbot is Cardinal OregUa di S. Stephano, to the university is the College of San Juan de Letran.
 SAINT THOMAS 382 SAINT THOMAS
After 1 five years' course in this college, including Saint Thomas of Guiana (Guayana), Diocese
Latin, Grei'k, English, mathematics, natural history, OF (de Guavana), suffragan of Caracas, erected b>-
botany, mineralogy, physics, chemistry, and phi- Pius VI on 19 Dec, 1701, comprises the former state of
losophy, the successful student receives the Degree of Bermiidez, districts of Nueva Esparta and (.iuayana
Bachelor of Arts. The university has the right of con- and territories of Amazonas, Caura, Col6n, Orinoco
ferring the doctorate in theology, philosophy, in civil and and Yuruary, in the south and east of \'enezuela. The
canon law, medicine, pharmacy, literature, and science. first bishop was Mgr. Francisco de Ybarra, born at
The departments of the university are all within Guacata, Venezuela; his successors were: (1) Jose An-
the "walled city". The university attained its great- tonio Mohedano (1800), born in the Diocese of 'To-
est prosperity in 1897, just at the commencement of ledo; (2) Mgr. Jos6 de Silva y Clave (15 March, 1X1,5).
the Spanish-American war. In that year the number After the troubles caused by the wars of independence
of students enrolled in the various courses was as Leo XII named (3J Mgr. Mariano Talavero, of Santa
F6, vicar Apostohc and titular Bishop of Tricala.
Gregory XII restored the episcopate, appointing (4)
Mgr. Antonio Fortique (12 July, 1841) (5) Jos(5 Eman-
;

uel Arroyo (1856) and (6) Mgr. Antonio Maria Durdn

;

(25 Sept., 1891), the present bishop. The diocese con-

tains over 400,000 Catholics, and a few alien Jews and
Protestants; 60 parishes (20 fihal); 36 priests; 50
churches and chapels. The Carib Indians occupying
Eastern Venezuela were civilized and Christianized
by the early Spanish Franciscan missionaries. The
episcopal city, Ciudad Bolivar (population 12,000)
was established in 1764 by two Jesuits under the gov-
ernorship of Joaquin de Mendoza, on the right bank
of the Orinoco, and called San Tomiis de la Nueva
Guayana; but owing to a narrowing of the river was
commonly known as Angostura. It played an im-
portant part in the national history, and Sim6n Boli-
var was elected president there by the Congress of
February, 1819; in his honour the city has been re-
named Ciudad Bolivar.
MozANS, Up and Down
the Orinoco the Magdalena (New York,
1910).
A. A. MacErlean.

Saint Thomas of Mylapur (Saxcti Thom.e de

Meuapor), Diocese of, suffragan to the primatial
See of Goa in the East Indies; itderives its name
from the site of its cathedral, in which the Apostle
University of St. Thomas, Manila
St. Thomas was interred on his martyrdom, and the
Church of San Domingo on the Right
Tamil word Mailapur (i. e. the town of peacocks),
follows: divinity, 15; canon law, 5; civil law, 572; which the Greeks rendered as Maliarpha, the Portu-
medicine, 361; pharmacy, 90; philosophy and liter- guese Meliapor, and the English Mylapore.
ature, 51; sciences, 14; that year, however, owing to —
Early History. The local Indian tradition, largely
the revolution, the numbers very notably decreased corroborated by collateral evidence, is that the Apos-
until within the last two years, when there was a tle St. Thomas, after preaching on the west coast of
marked increase in attendance, the schools of medi- India, passed on to the east coast and fixed his see at
cine and pharmacy being particularly well attended. Mylapur, which was then a flourishing city. The
In connexion with the university there is an excellent number of converts he made having aroused the hos-
museum of natural history. The exhibits of this tility of the heathen priests, he fled from their anger to
museum have been awarded special premiums at the summit of what is now known as St. Thomas's
the expositions of Paris, Madrid, the Philippine Mount (situated in a direct line four miles to the
Islands, Hanoi in Cochinchina, and St. Louis. The south-west of Mylapur). Thither he was followed
museum contains excellent material for the study of by his persecutors, who transfixed him with a lance as
anatomy, anthropology, diplogenesy, Philippine eth- he prayed kneeling on a stone, A. D. 68. From the
nology, zoology, botany, mineralogy, and numis- facts that the Roman Breviary declares St. Thomas to
matics. The zoological specimens and their varieties have " crowned the glory of his Apostleship with mar-
number over 10,000. These have been carefully tyrdom at Calamina" and that no traces of any Cala-
catalogued in a notable work, "Catdlogo sistemdtico —
mina exist, \-arious theories some of them probably
de toda la fauna de Filipinas", arranged by the
Reverend Casto de Elera, O.P., who for many years
—
absurd have been put forward to identify Calamina
with Mylapur, or with St. Thomas's Mount. 'The
held the chair of natural history in the university. writer of this article once suggested that Calamina
The classes of medicine are held in St. Joseph's might be a modification of Cholamandalam (i. e. the
College and in the San Juan de Dios hospital, both kingdom of the Cholas, as the surrounding country
founded in the seventeenth century. The medical de- was in the beginning of the Christian era). On ma-
partment has well-equipped laboratories. The courses 1urer reflection he has found it far more reasonable to
of pharmacy are given in St. Joseph's College. The believe that Calamina was an ancient town at the foot
library contains more than 2.5,000 volumes. The of the hill at St. Thomas's Mount, that has wholly dis-
university is under the direction of a corporation appeared, as many more recent historic Indian cities
formed by Dominicans; the rector is always a mem- have disappeared, built as they were of mud, except
ber of that order, though secular professors are ap- for their temples and palaces which were of ex-
pointed for the chairs of civil law, medicine, and quisitely wrought stone. This much is certain: till
jiharmacy. The faculty numbers 60 professors and Europeans settled in the plaice there was no Indian
220 assistant teachers and masters in the various name even for the hill. This is shown by the present
departments of the university. Indian name, Faranghi Malai (i. e. the hill of the
John J. Thompkins. Franks), used to denote both the hill and the town
 SAINT THOMAS 383 SAINT THOMAS

around its which the English name

base, a service minicans followed in their wake, and in 1520 Fre. Am-
,St. Thomas's Mount —equally renders.
His body was brosio, O.P., was consecrated bishop for the Domini-
brought to Mylapur and buried in the house in which can missions at Cranganore and Mylapur.
he had lived, and which was used as a place of wor- The following year King John III of Portugal or-
ship. A notable portion of the relics of the Apostle dered a search to be instituted for the tomb of the
was obtained for the church of Edessa, at an early Apostle St. Thomas. As long as the tomb, with the
period, by Christian traders from Persia. The Edes- counterpart of the Ortona relics, was looked for, noth-
sene reUcs were in course of time conveyed to Chios, ing was found; however when the search was given up,
and finally to Ortona in Italy, where they are yet both were accidentally discovered. The royal com-
venerated. mission found traces of the old Nestorian chapel, but
India's maritime trade languished and died out nothing of the tomb. But while directing operations
about the fourth century. Though the country was to build an oratory commemorative of the spot, and
thus cut off from all communication with the external digging deeply in the sandy soil to lay its foundations,
world, the succession of bishops was kept up till the it found a masonry tomb, containing what might have
revival of Brahminism at Mylapur in the seventh been expected to be found in the Apostle's tomb: some
century, when there was a ruthless massacre of Jains bones of snowy whiteness, the head of a lance, a pil-
and Christians. The Bishop of Mylapur and his grim's staff, and an earthen vase. This was in 1.522.
priests were put to death, and the remnant of his The fact brought ruined Betumah into popularity
flock fled across the country to the mountains of the with the Portuguese, who settled here in large num-
west. As the sees on the west coast were vacant at bers andcalled the new European town San Thom6
the time, the Apostolic succession was interrupted, (after St.Thomas) and San Thom6 de Meliapor, when
and on the death of the priests then living, the Chris- they wanted to distinguish it from Sao Thom^, the
tians kept the light of their faith burning by lay African island, though the town was somewhat distant
baptism, the recitation of their prayers, by wearing a from Mylapur.
cross, and by surreptitious visits to the tomb of the The Portuguese Augustinians were the next mis-
Apostle in the ruined church at Mylapur; in this they sionaries to follow; they took charge of the oratory
were helped by the fact that shortly after the massa- built over the grave of the Apostle, and built their
cre, Mylapur had been overwhelmed by the sea, which priory and church adjoining it. In the meantime the
returned to its bed after wrecking the city and causing Dominican missions in the surrounding country
the Brahmins to flee and build a new Mylapur a mile gained so much in importance, that in 1540 Fre. Ber-
further inland. This new Mylapur is to this very day nardo da Cruz, O.P., was consecrated and sent out to
almost purely Brahmin. The site of old Mylapur is tend them. There is nothing to show when the
now a sand dune, and would have been wholly forgot- Fathers of the Socifety of Jesus settled at Saint
ten but for the interest it possessed for the early In- Thomas, but by 1648 they had a college in the place
dian Christians and their successors. and a church and residence at Mylapur, while St.
Nestorian Period. —
India's maritime trade began to Francis Xavier spent three months in 1545 at Saint
revive in the ninth century. The Nestorian mer- Thomas praying at the grave of the Apostle for light
chants from Persia, finding that there were Christians in regard to his projected mission to Japan. All of
in India, brought out their own priests and subse- these missionaries, and those who came after them,
quently bishops to minister to them, whom the Indian had no definite spheres of work, but worked side by
Christians for want of instruction did not know to be side and in dependence on the local ordinaries, when
in heresy. Presently, a new Nestorian town began to these were in due course appointed. By the end of
rise on the sand dune that covered old Mylapur, the the sixteenth century they had extended their opera-
most prominent feature of which was a chapel over the tions to Bengal and Burma. In 1552 the Diocese of
site of the Apostle's tomb. Hence the Persian and Cochin was erected, and made to include, among
Arabian traders called the town Betumah (i. e. other places, Ceylon and the countries bordering the
house, church, or town of Thomas. But the Indian Bay of Bengal. Saint Thomas was thus constituted a
Christians called it Tirumailapur (i. e. Holy Myla- parish of the Diocese of Cochin; and the Augustinian
pur). It is this chapel that the ambassadors of Alfred church adjoining the chapel over the grave of the
the Great of England are supposed to have visited Apostle was designated the parish church of Saint
(a. d. 883), and which John of Monte Corvino (1200), Thomas.
Marco Polo (1220), Blessed Oderic di Perdone (1318), —
Creation of the Diocese. At the instance of King
and Conti (1400) did for a certainty visit. Later Be- Philip II of Portugal, Paul V, on 9 January, 1606, sepa-
tumah dechned, and about 1500 was only a heap of rated the Kingdom of Tanjore and the territories to
ruins. the north of the Cauvery River and bordering the Bay
First Portuguese Missionaries. —
Shortly after the of Bengal, from the Diocese of Cochin and constituted
discovery of the Cape route to India, caravels of Por- them a distinct diocese with Saint Thomas of Myla-
tuguese Franciscans and Dominicans set out to evan- pur as the episcopal city and the parish church of Saint
gelize the no longer sealed lands of the East, and tra- Thomas as the cathedral. At the same time the pope
versed their surf-beaten coasts in search of suitable appointed Dom Sebastiao de San Pedro, O.S.A., who
centres for their operations. There is a legend which had been presented by the King of Portugal, to be the
tells how, when a caravel with some Franciscan mis- first bishop of Saint 'Thomas of Mylapur, and granted
sionaries engaged in such a search was cruising up the PhiUp and his heirs and successors in perpetuity the
Coromandel Coast, one day towards nightfall their at- right of patronage and presentation to the see, and
tention was attracted by a light on shore and they the benefices that might be created therein, by the
decided to land there. They did, without knowing mere facts of their creation and dotation. This right
then or for some time after, that they had landed and obligation the Crown of Portugal has exercised
at the ruins of Betumah. But when they attempted and discharged to the present, by making the bishops
to approach the light, it preceded them inland, across a, princely allowance, paying a certain number of
the ruins of the Nestorian town, over an empty priests' salaries, with periodical increases, leave with
stretch of ground, past (new) Mylapur and into a for- free passages and pensions, on the Unes of the Portu-
est, where the light
vanished. Here the Franciscans guese Civil Service Code, and contributing to the sup-
established a mission and built a church (still extant) port of a still larger number of priests on a graduated
m honour of Our Lady of Light in 1516, whence the scale. Bishop Sebastiao de San Pedro arrived at
locality,no longer a forest, but a wealthy residential Saint Thomas in 1611, but in 1614 was promoted to
quarter, is still known as The Luz— after Nossa Sen- the See of Cochin. In 1615 he was succeeded by
nora da Luz (that is. Our Lady of Light). The Do- Luiz de Brito e Menezes, likewise an Augustinian,
 SAINT THOMAS 384 SAINT THOMAS
who was transferred in 1628 to the See of Cochin. Dom Gaspar Alfonso Alvares, S. J., was the fourth
His successor was Luiz Paulo Paulo de Estrella, Bishop of Saint Thomas. His presentation was con-
O.S.F., appointed in 1534, who died at Saint Thomas firmed by the Holy See in 1691, and he was conse-
on 9 January, 1637. During the next fifty-six years crated at Goa in 1693. In the meantime the Capu-
the see continued vacant; for, though no less than chins of the French Prefecture Apostolic of Fort
nine personages were selected by the Crown for the St. George spread apace and took charge of the
honour, thc>' either declined it, or were promoted, or French settlement of Pondicherry. Not to offend the
died before their election was confirmed by the Holy French, Dom Gaspar allowed them to minister to the
See. So in the interval the diocese was governed by Europeans and their descendants, but in order to as-
administrators selected chiefly from the various re- sert his right, placed the Indian Christians in Pondi-
hgious orders and appointed by the archbishops or cherry under the care of members of his own Society
vicars capitular sede vacante of Goa. But it was only from France. This led to a number of complaints be-
natural that the members of the religious orders as ing addressed to Rome about the interference of the
also secular priests of other nations should have de- Bishop of Saint Thomas of Mylapur with the work ol
sired to share in the work of preaching the Gospel to the missionaries Apostohc, with the result, however
the heathen hence in 1622 Gregory
; XV created the that Clement XI, by his letters "Gaudium in Do-
Sacred Congregation de propaganda fide to distribute mino" of 1704, issued an injunction restraining the
infidel regions among the religious orders and mission- missionaries from invading the rights of the diocesan,
ary societies of other nationalities as assistants to the But the Congregation de propaganda fide seems to
local ordinaries, where there were any, and to super- have followed an altogether different course. In
vise their operations. But occasionally the Congre- 1706 it issued a Decree in support of its own mission-
—
gation was misled a thing that was easy enough aries, which reversed what the bishop had ordained,
when geographical knowledge was neither as correct Under these circumstances the bishop again appealed
—
nor as extensive as at the present time and this oc- to the pope, who, by the Brief "Non sine gravi" of
casioned trouble. 1711, annulled the Decree of the Congregation and
The foundations of the British Indian Empire of the reaffirmed the right of the diocesan to make what ar-
present day were laid, so to say, by Sir Francis Day rangements he chose at Pondicherry, which was situ-
in the sandy delta of a tiny river, some throe and a ated within the limits of his diocese. Presently Car-
half miles north of Saint Thomas, with the beginnings dinal de Tournon, who was on his way to China as
of Fort St. George. The British invited the Portu- legate of the Holy See, having touched at Pondi-
guese of pure and mixed descent to settle in the new cherry, hearing of the doings of the Capuchins, placed
township; and as the Portuguese were Catholics,th('y the French Prefecture Apostolic of Madras, the name
were ministered to by the clergy from Saint Thomas. by which Fort St. George and its surroundings were
In 1642, the Congregation of Propaganda sent out coming to be better known, under interdict. The
two French Capuchins to establish a mission in Burma. Capuchins must have submitted forthwith and the
But, when the>', landing at Surat and travelling over- interdict thereupon been removed, as there appears no
land, reached Fort St. George, the British persuaded record of its removal.
them not to go further, since they judged it prudent In the meantime Dom Gaspar had died (1708).
to ha\'e clergymen differing in nationality from, and Owing to his advancing years, he had been given a
independent of, the Portuguese ordinary at Saint coadjutor with the right of succession, Dom Francisco
Thomas to minister to the Catholics in their settle- Laynes, S. J., of the Madura mission, in the Diocese of
ment. Accordingly, R. P. Ephraim, one of the two, Cochin. Dom Laynes was consecrated at Lisbon on
wrote to the Sacred Congregation de propaganda fide 19 March, 1708, as Bishop of Sozopolis in partibm.
representing that there was a prospect of reaping a He came out to India the same year, but did not take
larger har\-est at Fort St. George and the fast rising possession of his see till 1710. Though Bishop Laynes
native town of Madras that was beside it, than in was Portuguese, the Portuguese Augustinians of Ban-
Burma; and in the name of Urban VIII a prefecture del defied his authority as their diocesan. He there-
Apostolic was est ablished within three and a half miles fore placed Bandel under interdict on 14 July, 1714;
of the cathedral of Saint Thomas. It is perhaps need- on the submission of the Augustinians the interdict
less to say that ever after there were continual bick- was removed (8 October, 1714). Bishop Laynes died
erings between the local ordinaries and the French at Chandernagore (Bengal) in 1715, and was suc-
Capuchins, the former insisting on the Capuchins ac- ceeded by Manoel Sanches Golao, who was appointed
knowledging their jurisdiction, a claim which the lat- in 1717 and reached India in 1719. It was Dom
ter, relying on their papal Brief, refused to recognize. Manoel who welcomed the Italian Barnabites as in-
Both the Portuguese and the British had obtained valuable co-operators in the work of preaching the
their charters for their respective forts of Saint Gospel in Burma, though he had regularly served mis-
Thomas and St. George from the local Hindu chiefs. sion stations there. These friendly relations with the
But the Mohammedans were now extending their Italian Barnabites were always maintained, as they
power southwards; and before laying siege to Fort St. recognized the authority of the diocesans. Bishop
George they, with the help of the Dutch who bom- Golao was succeeded by Jos6 Penheiro, S.J., who was
barded the place from the sea, took Saint Thomas consecrated in 1726. He sanctioned the arrangement
and began the work of demolishing its walls in Janu- whereby French Jesuits were to have spiritual charge
ary, 1697. The Mohammedan governors then settled of Chandernagore, in Bengal. During his time the
on the waste land, separating Saint Thomas from Barnabite mission in Burma was created a vicariate
Mylapur, which was soon covered with the residences Apostolic. Bishop Pinheiro died on 15 March, 1744,
of Mohammedan settlers. In the unchanging East and was succeeded by Antonio da Inoarnacao, O.S.A.,
these three townships still exist: as a European who was consecrated at Goa in 1747.
quarter, as a Mohammedan quarter and as a Brah- It was about this time (1746) that the French
—
min quarter while the casual observer fails to see marched on Madras and, making Saint Thomas their
where Saint Thomas ends and Mylapur begins and head-quarters, attacked and took Fort St. George,
uses the names as convertible terms. However, hav- which they held and improved till August, 1749, when
ing reduced Saint Thomas and deprived it of its bat- they restored it to Admiral Boscawen under the
tlements, the Mohammedans did not further trouble Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Saint Thomas had been
the resident Portuguese, who regarded the place as nominally a Portuguese possession from 1697, with-
still a Portuguese possession and managed its affairs out the semblance of a military force to resist its occu-
with an elected council of which the ordinary of the pation by a foreign power, as the French did when
place, for the time being, was the president. operating against Madras. To obviate a recurrence
 SAINT THOMAS 385 SAINT THOMAS

of such an eventuality Admiral Boscawen annexed time, as the members of the other religious orders
the place and built u, redoubt to the south-east of it, died out, these same Indian missioners from Goa as-
thus rendering it a part of Madras, as it still is. The sumed charge of their churches under the order of their
British nowregretted having harboured the French diocesans, though more often than not there was a
Capuchins, as they suspected that the capture of Fort dispute between them and the missionaries Apostolic.
St. George by the French was largely due to the infor- The latter did not hesitate to misrepresent the Goan
mation supplied by them. Consequently R. P. Rene, missionaries to be ignorant and immoral as a whole,
on whom the suspicion rested most heavily, was de- though the diocesan seminary at Goa was conducted
ported to Europe, and the others were expelled from by the Jesuits until their suppression, and thereafter
the fort and settled in what is now Georg-etown by members of the other religious orders till 1835. On
(Madras), where the cathedi-al of Madras now stands, the other hand, between 1652 and 1843, no less than
four miles from the cathedral of Saint Thomas. seven of their fellow-countrymen were deemed worthy
On the death of Bishop da Incarnacao on 22 No- of episcopal consecration by the Crown of Portugal,
vember, 1752, Fre. Theodoro de Santa Maria, O.S.A., the Holy See, and the Sacred Congregation de Pro-
was presented for the see and confirmed by the Holy paganda Fide, not to speak of the Venerable Joseph
See. He belonged to the priory at Saint Thomas, Vaz, who was of their race. Howbeit, since then and
but hesitated to receive episcopal consecration. Two up to the present time the majority of the priests
ItaUan Barnabites destined for the vicariate Apostolic working in the diocese have been Indian secular mis-
in Burma came with letters of commendation to the sionaries from Goa.
bishop-elect, who welcomed and speeded them to their Bishop San Caetano died in 1780, and was suc-
destination. At last Fre. Thedoro, the bishop-elect, ceeded by Fre. Manoel de Jesus Marie Josi5, O.S.A., a
renounced the see into the hands of Fre. Bernardo de native of Goa and the prior of the Augustinian con-
San Caetano, O.S.A., who was then consecrated vent there. He was consecrated in 1788, and died at
bishop. Bishop Bernardo in turn consecrated one of Saint Thomas in 1800. He was succeeded by Fre.
the two Barnabites just mentioned, Dom Percotto, Joaquim de Menezes e Athalde, O.S.A., who was con-
Bishop and Vicar Apostolic of Burma, in 1768. But secrated and took charge of his see by procuration in
Bishop Percotto did not reach the field of his labours, 1805, but before he could come out he was trans-
aa on his voyage back to Burma the vessel foundered. ferred to the Diocese of Funchal. As a result, Fre.
The Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur was min- Jose de Graga, who on the death of Bishop Jesus
istered to at this period as follows: — By the Portu- Maria Jos^ had been appointed administrator, con-
guese Franciscans, Portuguese Dominicans, Portu- tinued as such till his death on 14 July, 1817, when
guese Augustinians, and Portuguese Jesuits. Besides Fre. Clemente de Espiritu Santo, O.S.F., was ap-
these, there were French Jesuits and Italian Bar- pointed administrator. During the latter's tenure of
nabites working in the diocese in harmony with the his office, Madras was visited by Dom Pedro d'Alcan-
ordinary, and French Capuchins defying their au- tara, O.C., Bishop of Antipheles in partibiis and Vicar
thority, at least occasionally. One drawback of this Apostohc of the Grand Mogul [sic] and visitor Apos-
total manning of the diocese with the reUgious orders tolic of the French Capuchin missions, who "according
was the absolute neglect to form an indigenous clergy to the mind of the Sacred Congregation de Propa-
to meet the emergency that presently arose. For it ganda Fide declared the Capuchins of Madras to be in-
was at about this time that the Marquess of Pombal dependent of the Bishop of Saint Thomas of Mylapur
suppressed the houses of the Society of Jesus in Por- not alone in temporal but also in spiritual matters"
tugal and thus cut off the supply of Portuguese Jes- But the administrator declined to accept his decision,
uits to the diocese. The emergency became still as being a reaffirmation of the Decree of the same
more acute, when, in 177.3, Clement XIV suppressed Sacred Congregation, which had been annulled. Fre.
the Society of Jesus. Withal, the situation was not Clemente resigned the administration of the diocese to
quite so hopeless as to call for drastic measures in re- Fre. Manoel de Ave Maria, O.S.A., in 1820.
gard to the diocese from without. For it was not till The British power was now paramount on the Coro-
1834 that the houses of the other religious orders in mandel Coast, and English was universally spoken by
the Portuguese dominions were suppressed. And as the Indo-European population that formed the main-
the Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur was situ- stay of the Catholic congregation of Madras, as it al-
ated wholly outside of Portuguese territory, there was ways was and still is all over India. Withal, the
nothing to prevent the Portuguese religious orders French Capuchins would not conform to the times,
from thriving there. Nevertheless, as at home voca- but continued to preach in Portuguese (which had de-
tions became fewer, the houses in India gradually died generated in Madras to a patois) and Tamil, the lan-
out, the last to be represented in the diocese being the guage of the Indian Christians. As a result, many
Portuguese Augustinians in Bengal, the last member Indo-European familes gave up the practice of their
of the order dying in 1869. religion and in time became Protestants. Finding
On the extinction of a religious house in any place, their representations to the Capuchin prefect Apos-
the property and rights of the religious revert to the tohc unheeded, a band of young men represented the
Church, as represented by the local diocesans. But matter to the Holy See. In response to this appeal
all Cathohc Europe was so incensed against Portugal the Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide raised the
for the initiative taken by the Marquess of Pombal French Capuchin prefecture into a vicariate Apostolic
against the Society of Jesus, that without waiting to and sent out Dr. O'Connor, O.S.A., with Irish priests,
weigh the justice of their action in turn, reprisals be- in 1828 to take over the work of the Frenchmen.
came the order of the day in the Diocese of Saint Portuguese Civil War of 1826, and its Consequences.
Thomas of Mylapur, the Congregation de -propa- — On the outbreak of the Peninsular wars. King
ganda fide supporting the missionaries of other na- Joao VI of Portugal, with his elder son Dom Pedro,
tionalities against the Portuguese. On the suppres- sought refuge in IBrazil. Presently a movement was
sion of the Society of Jesus by the Holy See, the set on foot to have his younger son, Dom Miguel, pro-
Fathers of the Missions ^trangeres of Paris were sent claimed king, a movement which had the support of
out to take charge of the Society's missions in the Dio- the religious orders, but not of the bishops or of the
ceses of Saint Thomas of Mylapur and of Cochin, of secular clergy. However, Joao returned to Portugal
which Mgr Champenois, Bishop of Dolichum in parti- and quelled the insurrection. In the meantime Brazil
bus, was appointed vicar Apostolic. Bishop San Cae- proclaimed its independence with Dom Pedro as its
tano resented this, as he was filling up the places of the emperor, an arrangement in which Joao acquiesced.
Jesuits with Indian secular missionaries from Goa; On the death of Joao VI the loyalists in Portugal pro-
but his protests were of little avail. In course of claimed Dom Pedro of Brazil King of Portugal; but,
XIII.— 25
 SAINT THOMAS 386 SAINT THOMAS
as Dom Pedro preferred staying in Brazil, he ceded his ganda Fide erected their missions into a vicariate Apos-
right to Dona Maria da Gloria, his younger daughter, tolic. In 18.50 the Salesians of Annecy were sent out
appointing his brother, Dom j\liguel, as regent till she to take charge of the country between the Rivers
should grow up, when the regent was to marry her and Godavery and Mahanuddy, which was at the same
tlius heal the rupture between the loyaUsts and the ad- time created a vicariate Apostolic. In the same year
herents of Dom Miguel. The adherents of Dom the country between the Chittagong and Kabiidak
Miguel, however, proclaimed him king. Dom Pedro River was created a vicariate Apostolic, and com-
came over to Portugal in 1826 to assert his daughter's miiited to the care of the Fathers of the Holy Cross;
rights, and finally defeated his brother in 18.34. Dom while at about the same time the Fathers of Missions
Miguel was perpetually banished and those who sided 6trangeres of Paris Replaced the Italian Barnabites in
witTi him were punished, amongst those to suffer be- Burma. Thus the Diocese of Mylapur was divided
ing the religious orders, whose houses were suppressed up between six vicariates: Madura, Pondicherry,
and properties confiscated. Madras, Vizagapatam, Western Bengal, and Eastern
In consequence of this last measure mainly, diplo- Bengal and Burma.
matic relations between the Holy See and Portugal In 1857 a concordat was entered into between the
were broken off. The Sacred Congregation de Propa- Holy See and Portugal, pending the execution of
ganda Fide deemed the moment opportune to extend which both the vicars Apostolic and the authorities
the jurisdiction of the Vicar Apostolic of Madras to of the diocese were to enjoy pacific possession of the
Saint Thomas of Mylapur and its missions southwards places they actually held. But the Crown of Portu-
to the River Palar (those south of the Palar being as- gal undertook manifestly too great a burden, to wit, to
signed to the Vicar Apostolic of Pondicherry), to de- provide for the spiritual needs of the whole of India,
clare Burma to be an independent vicariate, and to and consequently the concordat remained a dead let-
create in the northern part of the diocese (Bengal ter. In 1854 the Royal Missionary College of Bom-
and the adjoining countries) an independent vicariate jardim at Sernache, Portugal, was founded for the
ApostoUc under Dr. St. Leger, with a staff of British training of secular priests for the Portuguese missions
priests. From a certain point of view this action was beyond the seas. Meanwhile the missions of the dio-
unfortunate, as under the circumstances it caused the cese had been greatly weakened by secessions to the
loyaUst Portuguese to regard these measures as re- vicars Apostolic. The missions were situated in Brit-
taliatory and not as prompted by a desire for the ish territory and as beyond the clergy there were
spiritual welfare of the regions concerned. And, in- scarcely any Portuguese subjects to be found through-
deed, there was nothing up to this to show that Portu- out the diocese there was no particular inducement for
gal had shirked her responsibilities in regard to the the people to chng to the see.
dioce.sp, or that the successive ordinaries of the diocese In Madras itself, the Irish vicars Apostolic and mis-
had been found wanting, beyond the mere accusation sionaries had been educated at Maynooth College, and
of those missionaries Apostolic who were sent into almost all of them were doctors of divinity. They
their territories and, failing to recognize their author- were socially and intellectually on an equaUty with
ity, had received scant courtesy. Ilowbeit, when the best British talent. Protestants as well as Catho-
called upon by the Vicar Apostolic of Madras to sur- Ucs crowded to hear their sermons in churches and
render his churches and submit to him, the adminis- their lectures on scientific matters. When Dr. O'Con-
trator replied that he would gladly do so when in- nor first came out, he brought letters of introduction to
structed by the authority that placed him there. The the governor and was a guest at Government House.
vicar ApostoUc then called upon tlie priests and the On the first occasion when he drove to St. Mary's
subjects of the Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur of the Angels, the quasi-cathedral of his vicariate,
to submit to him, but they all replied in much the wearing a cocked hat and buckled shoes, long coat and
same terms. The same thing happened in the parts knee-breeches, the old ladies protested that he could
of the diocese between the Rivers Palar and Cauvery, be no Catholic bishop but the emissary of the Govern-
and in Bengal; whereupon the vicar Apostolic de- ment to make them all Protestants. These things
clared the administrator, priests, and people of the lent prestige to the Catholic name. One of the first
Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur schismatics, and things the Irish missionaries did was to open a semi-
from the fact that a large number of the priests in the nary (to which a college was attached) and ordain Indo-
diocese were from Goa, defined their action as the European priests, who proved of invaluable help to
"Goan schism". However, the Holy Sop seems not them. They also brought out the Irish Presentation
to have taken much notice of the "schism", and diplo- nuns, whose schools are yet the best in all Southern
matic relations wore resumed with Portugal in 1841. India. As a result, almost all the Catholic Indo-Eu-
Then followed a series of acts unworthy of the Church, ropeans and Indians with pretensions to respecta-
when both sides strove to capture or recapture bility flocked to the vicars Apostolic, till in the end it
churches that they claimed; when church was built was deemed opprobrious to term one as belonging to
against church, altar raised against altar, and violence the Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur. Hence in
and police-courts were a common resort. the course of the negotiations preparatory to the fresh
On 14 March, 1S;.36, Dom Antonio Tristao ^'az Tei- concordat of 1886, the cardinal secretary of State was
xeira was presented by the Crown of Portugal to the in a position to show that out of 1,167,975 Catholics in
Holy See as Bishop of Saint Thomas of Mj-lapur, and British India, the Portuguese missions of the Diocese
left Lisbon for India a month later. As the Holy See of Saint Thomas of Mylapur could actually claim only
had in the meantime refusad to confirm the presenta- some 30,000 subjects, with a proportionate number nf
tion, the Mcar Capitular of Goa appointed him ad- churches, one seminary from which a priest was occa-
ministrator of the diocese in place of Pre. ,\ve Maria, sionally ordained, one high school at Saint Thomas,
who had died on .5 August of the same year. Dom two middle schools at Tuticorin and Manapad, anda
Antonio assumed charge on 15 October following, and number of elementary schools; while any single vi-
died on 3 September, 18.")2. He was succeeded by cariate Apostohc had a better equipment. But of
Padre Miguel Francisco Lobo, an Indian from Goa (as these 30,000 souls which were all that were left to the
wore all the administrators of the diocese up to 1886), Portuguese of the once flourishing diocese, it has
who was appointed on 3 October, 18.52. truly, though scarcely laudably, been said that "they
On the restoration of the Sociotv of Jesus by Pius loved the Portuguese more than their own immortal
VII the French Jesuits returned to the parts "of the souls"
Diocese of Cochin, which their Portuguese brethren
had e\-angelized, though opposed by the authorities of
Present Condition. —
Such was the state of affairs
when 1886 a fresh concordat was entered into be-
in
that diocese; and in 1846, the Congregation de Propa- tween the Holy See and Portugal, which showed itself
 SAINT-VALLIER 387 SAINT-VALLIER

disposed to accommodate itself to the changed condi- Dom Theotonio Manuel Ribeiro Vieira de Castro,
tions of the times. The concordat was preceded by who was presented on 12 June, 1899, and confirmed
negotiations with England, to make sure that the Ijy Leo XIII ten days later. He was consecrated at
British Government would not object to the continu- (Jporto on 15 August, 1899, and reached Saint Thomas
ance of the Portuguese royal patronage in its Eastern on 23 December. The tercentenary of the creation
possessions. Accordingly, the Primacy of the East of of the diocese occurred in January, 1906, in which
the archbishops of Goa was reaffirmed, while in addi- almost all of the archbishops and bishops of the
tion they were accorded the honorary title of Patri- vast tract that constituted the original Diocese of
archs of the East Indies and the substantial privilege Saint Thomas of Mylapur took part in person in addi-
of presiding at the plenary councils of the East Indies, tion to the delegate ApostoUc and other prelates, num-
which were ordinarily to assemble at Goa, while the bering fifteen bishops in all. It is instructive to note,
special relations existing between the Archdiocese of that with the single exception of the Archdiocese of
Goa and its suffragan dioceses wore to be continued. Madras, all of the dioceses into which the original Dio-
But the limits of the original Portuguese dioceses were cese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur is divided are served
contracted, the Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur by non-British clergy, save for the Indian and few
being assigned two distinct pieces of territory on the Indo-European priests, where there are any. But
Coromandel Coast, separated from each other by a even in the Archdiocese of Madras, though it is served
distance of some 150 miles. The first is a triangle of by the British Missionary Society of St. Joseph, the
an area of some 800 square miles, in the northern angle majority of the priests and the coadjutor bishop are
of which Saint Thomas is situated; the other is from the Continent. Dacca is served by the Fathers
roughly the ancient Kingdom of Tanjore. In addi- of the Holy Cross from Notre Dame, Indiana, United
tion, both by the concordat and certain appendixes States of America.
thereto, the diocese was given five churches in the According to the latest available statistics, there are
—
Archdiocese of Madras the old vicariates Apostolic in the diocese some 72,000 Catholics, 20 European
having been converted into dioceses as a sequel to the and 51 Indian priests, 1 seminary. For boys there
concordat by the Constitution "Humanse salutis" of are: 2 high schools at Saint Thomas, one being for
1886, of Leo XIII —three churches in the Archdiocese Indo-Europeans, the other for Indian Christians;
of Calcutta (Western Bengal), five churches in the 3 orphanages, one for Indo-Europeans at Saint
Diocese of Dacca (Eastern Bengal), and twenty-four Thomas, another for Indian Christians at Tanjore,
churches in the Diocese of Trichinopoly (which origin- managed by the Salesians, and the third at Calcutta
ally belonged to the Diocese of Cochin), with their for Indian Christians. For girls: 2 convents of
congregations. the Franciscan Missionary Nuns of Mary, at Saint
The first bishop appointed to Saint Thomas of My- Thomas and at St. Thomas's Mount, which maintain
lapur on the conclusion of the new concordat was the schools and orphanages attached to them both for
princely Dom Henrique Jos6 Reed da Silva, who was Indo-Europeans and Indians, the latter of whom are
at the time coadjutor to the Archbishop of Goa, and mainly looked after by Indian Sisters of the Third Or-
who took possession of his see in 1886. He was the der of St. Francis; 6 convents of Indian nuns of the
first to sign himself for the sake of brevity. Bishop diocesan Institute of Our Lady of Help, in populous
of Mylapur, a, practice which his successors have centres, with schools and boarding establishments for
adopted. Hence the diocese is at the present time better Indian caste girls; there are also 8 middle-schools and
known in India as the Diocese of Mylapur. His was 57 primary schools. The conversions for the year end-
the arduous task of gathering the broken shreds of the ing 30 September, 1907 totalled about 200, of which
old historic diocese, putting them together, and ren- 135 were from heathenism, 63 from Protestantism, and 8
dering it once again the thing of beauty it was. His from Mohammedanism. The catechumens under in-
first care was to reform the diocesan seminary, and in struction at the same time numbered 141. Thus is
order to have an efficient body of European priests Portugal in the beginning of the twentieth century
with their heart in their work, he brought out a num- continuing the work inaugurated on the Coromandel
ber of young boys from Portugal and gave them a Coast in the beginning of the sixteenth, in the days
collegiate course in Enghsh, in the college to which he when the Vasco de Gamas, Cabrals, and de Albuquer-
had raised the existing high-school, previous to their ques were not the mere shadowy heroes of the past,
entering upon their ecclesiastical course of studies. but walked the earth in hving flesh and did their deeds
His successors are reaping the benefit of his pohcy. of daring.
He opened a convent of European nuns at Saint James Doyle.
Thomas, and another of Indian nuns in Mylapur,
which have since thrown out branches into various Saint- Vallier, Jean-Baptiste de, second Bishop
parts of the diocese. He invited English-speaking of Quebec, b. at Grenoble, France, 14 Nov., 1653; d.
priests to join his diocese (a call to which the present at Quebec, Canada, 26 Dec, 1727; son of Jean de La
writer responded) and established the "Catholic Reg- Croix de Chevrieres, and Marie de Sayne. He was
ister", a weekly newspaper. His courtly manners educated at the local seminary and took the degree of
and noble bearing made him a favourite in society. Doctor of Theology at the Sorbonne at the age of
Soon the people felt it an honour to be able to point to nineteen. While acting as almoner to Louis XIV his
him as their bishop. He pulled down the old cathe- regularity and piety not only preserved him from the
dral, the chapel over the grave of St. Thomas, and the dangers of the Court, but maintained and redeemed
old Augustinian priory, that had nothing antique to others, who were edified by his charity and zeal to-
commend them, and built the present magnificent ward the poor and infirm, fie accompanied the king in
cathedral in the centre of which, between the nave and a campaign to Flanders and devotedly attended the
chancel, hes the grave of St. Thomas. Despite the wounded and dying. Through humility he succes-
good he was accomphshing, he incurred the ill-will of sively refused the Sees of Tours and Marseilles, prefer-
certain parties connected with the churches situated ring a field of missionary labour and hardship. He
ui other dioceses, and was chosen to replace Bishop Laval on his resignation
when he found the accusations
brought against him accepted without demur in (1684), and pending the reception of his Bulls, he left
Mrope, he resigned and retired to Portugal, as titular for Canada as vicar-general (1685) .At first his bear-
Bishop of Trajanopolis. ing towards the seminary and the other institutions
He was succeeded by Dom Antonio Jose de Souza showed a disposition to continue his predecessor's
carroso, who, within a few months of his arrival at policy. His zeal moved him to visit every parish be-
bamt Thomas, was promoted to the See of Oporto. tween Quebec and Montreal, and even distant Acadia.
•Dishop Barroso was Under the title "Etat present de I'EgUse et de la
succeeded by the present bishop,
 SAINT-VICTOR 388 SAINT-VICTOR
€olonie de la Nouvelli --France" (Paris, 10S7), he pub- Abbey and School of St-Viotor. With some of his
lished a glowing account of the piety and devotedness followers, '\\'iUiam had become a canon regular, but,
at
of the clergy, and of the morality of the people. The the request of St. Bernard he was made Bishop of
contrast between Laval's paternal rule, and St-^'al- Chalons in 1113, and was succeeded at St-\'ictor's l)v
lier's often untimely zeal and anxiety to reform Gildwin, a man, as the "Necrologium" records, of
caused apprehension. His consecration (ItjSS) pro- piety and learning, and zealous in promoting 'the
muted the king's liberality in behalf of the incipient canonical order. The abbey, by the generosity of
Church and the propagation of the Faith. The popes, kings, queens, and noblemen, was soon richly
young pastor's activity spent itself in creating par- endowed. Numerous religious houses of canons reg-
ishes, building churches, and founding homes for the ular were reformed by its canons. Ste- Genevieve
poor, beginning with "La Providence" (1689), which (Paris), Wigmore in Wales, St. Augustine's (Bristol
was to develop into the general hospital (1692). In 1148), St. Catherine's (Waterford), St. Thomas's
1689 he visited Newfoundland and founded at Placentia (Dublin), St. Peter's (Aram, Naples) were of the num-
a Franciscan convent. When Phipps (1690) besieged ber. No less than forty abbeys of the Order of St.
Quebec, the bishop hastened back from ^lontreal to Victor are mentioned in his last will by King Louis
comfort his flock, and published for the occasion a VIII, who left all his jewels for the erection of the
vmndement full of faith and patriotism. In 1692, to abbey church and 4000 pounds to be equally divided
Laval's displeasure, he altered the system of joint ad- among them. At the general chapter which was con-
ministration of the diocese by bishop and seminary. vened every year, there were present some 100 abbots
In 1694 St-\'alher went to France for the third and priors. Before the abbey was 160 years old, sev-
time to exonerate himself from the charges brought eral cardinals and at least eight abbots, all sons of St-
against him. In spite of the king's desire to retain Victor's, were at the head of as many abbeys, among
him, he returned to Quebec (1697), and finished con- them John, Abbot of, Ste-Genevifeve (Paris), and An-
structing his spacious palace, destined to give hos- drew, an Englishman, Abbot of ^^'igmore.
pitality to all the clergy. That same year, he founded The traditions of William of Champeaux were
at Tliree Rivera a monastery of Ursulines, who com- handed on, and St-Victor's became a centre of piety
bined hospital work with teaching. He likewise ap- and learning. The school, with those of Ste-Gene-
proved the charitable foundation of the Charron vidve and Notre-Dame, was the cradle of the Uni-
Brothers, which lasted till 174,5. In 1689, he had versity of Paris. To that celebrated school flocked
summoned to Quebec the Sisters of Marguerite Bour- crowds of students from all countries. Among them
geoys, who st ill teach there. He encouraged the exten- were men hke Hugh of Blankenburg, better known as
sion of the Fail h by confiding to the Jesuits the Illinois, Hugh of St-Victor, called the St. Augustine of his
Miami, Sioux, and Ottawa missions; He Roy ale to the time; Richard, a Scotchman, the mystic doctor;
Recollects, and the Tamarois mission, on the left bank Adam, the greatest poet of the Middle Ages; Peter
of the Mississippi, to the Quebec seminary (1698), Coraestor, the historian; Peter Lombard, the magisler
one of whose missionaries represented Mgr Saint- sentenliuruin: Thomas, Abbot of St. Andrew's (Ver-
Vallier as vicar-general for the Louisiana region, then ceil), to whom St. Francis sent St. Anthony of Padua
comprised, as well as all the vast territurj- included in for his theological studies; another Thomas, prior at
the future "Louisiana Purchase", within the jurisdic- the abbey who, nearly fifty years before his name-
tion of the Bishop of Quebec. He visited Rome sake of Canterbury, gave his life for justice sake. To
(1701), and on his return voj-age was captured by the St-Victor's came, only four months before his mar-
English. During his five years of captivity he ex- tyrdom, the same St. Thomas k Becket and addressed
erted his zeal in behalf of the Catholics of his neigh- his brother canons on the words: "In pace f actus est
bourhood. jVlthough released in 1709, his departure locus ejus" The " Scotichronicon " records that in
from France, where he again refused to relinquish 1221 a canon of St-^'ictor's, in his capacity of papal
Quel:)ec. for a richer see, was delayed till 171.3. His legate, visited Ireland and Scotland, where at Perth
vencralile predecessor had died in 1708. St-Vallier he convoked all the ecclesiastical dignitaries to a gen-
was firm in doctrine and in perfect union with Rome. eral convention which lasted four days.
The results of his zeal for ecclesiastical discipline still The time came when abbots in commendam were
abide. He published a "Rituel du diocese de Que- introduced and signs of decay were manifested. To-
bec" (Paris, 1703); "Catechisme de Quebec" (Paris, wards the end of the fifteenth century some efforts were
1702), presided at four synods (1690, 1694, IGOS, made to reform the abbey with canons brought from
1700), and issued a great number of mfimlcments, let- the newly-estabhshed Windesheim .congregation. A
ters, and other episcopal documents, over one hun- few years later Cardinal de Larochefoucauld again
dred of which have been published in the collection of attempted to reform it, but in vain. The canons,
"Les mandements des eveques de Quebec". He moreover, were implicated in the Jansenist movement,
died after forty years' episcopate, nearly half of which only one, the Venerable Jourdan, remaining faithful to
he was forced to spend far from his diocese. Though the old spirit and traditions. At that time there lived
his o\'orbearing zeal and cxcessi\-e desire to perform at St-Victor Santeul, the great classical poet, whose
all the good that he had in \'iew occasionally elicited Latin proses were adopted by the Galilean Liturgy,
measures that were displeasing and even offensive, The end of the abbey came with the French Revolu-
these were fully outbalanced by his generosity tow- tion. In 1800 the church and the other buildings
ards the poor, and his genuine disinterestedness. were sold, the famous library was dispersed, and a
Mnit.lrmmta des inSques de Quebec (Quebec, 1887); Tfi-rr Les few years later everything had disappeared. There
ivlques ./[•Quebec (Quebec, ISSft); M./r de St-Vallter ,t VHo'pitnl- are stiU a few convents of canonesses, at Bruges, Ypres,
Geiii'rat de Quebec {Quehac, 1.SS21; GossELlN, Mr/r de SI-VallieTel
son temps (Evreux, LSIIS); Howley, Ecelesmstical Hislory of and Neuilly, who keep the rule and spirit which they
Newfoundland (Boston, 1888). originally received from the Abbey of St-Victor's.
Lionel Lindsay. BoNNARD, Hist, de Vahbaye royale de St-Victor de Paris (1907):
Gautiek, Adam de St-Victor (Parig, 1S,58); BoNNEAC, Notice des
chanoines de Veglise (Paria, 1908).
—
Saint- Victor, Abbey op. In the year 1108, the A. Allaria.
famous William of Champeaux, archdeacon of Xotre-
Dame in Paris, who had been lecturing to crowds of Saint-Victor, Achard de, canon regular. Abbot of
students, relinquishing his chair, retired to a small her- St-Victor, Paris, and Bishop of Avranches, b. about
mitage dedicated to St. Victor, the mart\'r soldier, near 1 100 d. 1 172.
; By some authorities he is said to have
the city. Here he was followed by many of his disci- been of English extraction, by others to be of the noble
ples, Abelard among them, and induced again to take Norman family of de Pertins, of Domfront. He com-
up his lectures. Hence the origin of the Royal pleted his studies at the school of St-Victor's and en-
 SAINT VINCENT 389 SAINT VINCENT

tered the cloister there. On

the death (1155) of the fruit. To this taunt Ozanam and his companions re-
'

first atabot, Gilduin, he was elected to fill the vacant torted by forming themselves into a Conference of
post, at a time when the royal abbey was almost at the Charity, later adopting the name of the Society of St.
zenith of its glory and power. Two years later the Vincent de Paul.
Cathedral Chapter of Sfez, composed of canons regu- In organizing the Society, Ozanam, following the
lar, elected Achard for their bishop, and the
choice inspiration of its chosen patron St. Vincent de Paul,,
was duly confirmed by Adrian IV. But Henry II in- modelled the rule upon the same principles that were
tervened and intruded his chaplain Frogier, or Roger. in vogue in the seventeenth century. The rules
However, subsequent relations between Achard and the adopted were very simple; it was forbidden to discuss
Plantagenet were quite cordial, and the abbot used politics or personal concerns at the meetings, and it
his influence at the Enghsh Court to compel the royal was settled that the work should be the service of
treasurer, Richard of Ely, to disemburse for the bene- God in the persons of the poor, whom the members
fit of the poor some moneys which he was unjustly de- were to visit at their own dweUings and assist by
taining; his letter to Henry II on the matter is still every means in their power. The service of the mem-
extant. When, in 1162, Achard was raised to the va- bers was to embrace, without distinction of creed or
cant See of Avranches, Henry made no objection to race, the poor, the sick, the infirm, and the unem-
his consecration, and that same year Bishop Achard ployed. It is a noteworthy fact that, at the first Vin-
stood godfather to his daughter Elinor born at Dom- centian meeting, there was enunciated by P^re Bailly
front. But the French king, Louis VII, was by no a principle of vital importance, now universally ac-
means pleased to see such a shining light of the Paris- cepted wherever organized charity is known, namely
ian Church pass over into Norman territory, as is evi- that the service of the poor ought to consist not merely
dent from a letter he then addressed to the Prior of of the doling out of alms, but must be made a medium
St-Victor's. In 1163 Achard was in England assist- of moral assistance and that each member should help
ing at the solemn translation of Edward the Confessor in his special line. Simplicity characterizes the so-
in Westminster Abbey. ciety. The membership is divided into three classes,
The chief monument of his ten years' episcopate was active, subscribing, and honorary. The active mem-
the Premonstratensian Abbey of the Holy Trinity, bership is composed of Christian men who desire to
Lucerne, the foundation stone of which he laid (1164) unite in a communion of prayers and a participation
and where at his own request he was buried, with this in the same works of charity. Subscribing and hon-
simple inscription "Hie jacet Achardus episcopus cu-
: orary members are those who "cannot devote them-
ius caritate ditata est paupertas nostra. " His breth- selves to the works in which the society is engaged
ren of St-Victor's celebrated his memory in the fol- but who assist the active members by their influence,
lowing Unes: "Hujus oliva domus, Anglorum gloria their offerings and prayers". In the make-up of its
cleri — —
Jam dignus celesti luce foveri Fehx Achar- membership the society is most democratic. Men of
—
dus florens etate seniH Presul Abrincensis ex hoc sig- all walks of life are engaged in its service; the lawyer,
natur oviU" Not the least gem in Achard's crown the doctor, the professional and business man freely
is the memory of his unwavering friendship for St. mingle with the untutored labouring man in relieving
Thomas k Becket through all the years of his persecu- the wants of the poor. The conference is the unit
tion. In the chronicles of St-Victor's Achard is of the society and is an integral part of the parish
termed "Blessed" One treatise (Latin original and organization. While the clergy are not included in
eighteenth-century French translation) of Achard's is the normal membership, they are always welcomed in
extant in the Bibhotheque Nationale, Paris. It is a the work. The conference exists only with the ap-
long commentary or sermon on the Temptation of proval of the pastor who as spiritual director enters
Christ in the wilderness, and in it Achard discusses actively into the work. Women are excluded from
seven degrees of self-renunciation, which he calls the membership, but through auxiliary associations or as
seven deserts of the soul. Haurdau in his "Histoire benefactresses they may co-operate in the work and
litt^raire du Maine", I, quotes several passages and share the numerous indulgences. The business of
terms the tract vrai morceau de style. each conference is administered by a president, a
BuTLEK, lAves of the Saints, 2 May; Stanton, Mejiology (Lon- vice-president, a secretary, and a treasurer, who con-
don and New York, 1892) Bonnahd, Histoire de I'Abbaye Royale
;

de St. Victor de Paris (Paris, 1907); Pennotto, Hist. Cleric. stitute the board of the conference. The president
Canon. (Rome, 1642). is elected by the conference, while the other officers
Vincent Scully. are appointed by the president with the advice of
the board. The parish conferences hold weekly
Saint Vincent de Paul, Society op, an interna- meetings.
tional association of Catholic laymen engaging system- In cities, where there exist several conferences of the
atically in personal service of the poor, was founded in society, the control of affairs is vested in a particular
May, 1833, when eight young men, students at the council in which the respective conferences have rep-
8orbonne, assembled in the office of the "Tribune resentation. In a number of larger cities a central
Catholigue" to formulate plans for the organization office is established by the particular council. Special
of a society whose object should be to minister to the committees are likewise usually created to deal with
wants of the Parisian poor. The master-mind con- the larger aspects of charity, rehef, and correction,
ceiving the project, which was destined to make an in- which naturally fall beyond the scope of a parish con-
delible impress upon the history of modern charity ference. Over the particular councils and such con-
work, was Frederick Ozanam, a brilliant young ferences as are so scattered as to render impracticable
Frenchman, lawyer, author, and professor in the Sor- the formation of particular councils, there is placed a
bonne. With Ozanam's name must be linked that of central or superior council having jurisdiction over a
Pere Bailly, editor of the "Tribune Catholique", the territory embracing within its circumscription the
first president of the society, and whose wise and councils of several dioceses or, as in some instances, of
fatherly counsels did much to direct properly the ac- an entire country. On each of the four festivals of
tivities of his more youthful associates. The so- the society meetings are held by all the conferences
ciety's estabhshment was due partly to the desire of embraced in each of the various jurisdictions. Supe-
the founders to furnish a practical refutation of the re- rior councils hold regular monthly meetings and meet
proaches directed against Christianity by the fol- oftener as occasion may require. Finally, the scheme
lowers of Saint-Simon, Fourier, and other popular of organization provides for the establishment of a
teachers of the day. "Show us your works!" taunted council general, which exercises jurisdiction over the
the St-Simonians. "We admit the past grandeur of entire society, and is established in Paris, France.
Christianity, but the tree is now dead and bears no In outlining the activities of the society, the found-
 SAINT VINCENT 390 SAINT VINCENT

ere had an eye to the future needs of human kind, and members voluntarily and without remuneration, a
dictated that "no work of charitj- should be regarded readiness to employ paid workers in the specialized
as foreign to the Society, although its special object is activities is developing under the exacting and com-
to \-isit poor families" It is plainly evident from this plicated conditions of modern relief. The funds of the
that the society is given the widest latitude in the se- society are procured in a number of ways. At all con-
lection of the works in which the members may en- ference and particular council meetings secret collec-
gage, and in examining the reports of the various tions are taken up, the proceeds going into the treas-
su])erior councils one marvels at the wonderful array ury. Abox is located generally in a conspicuous place
of charitaljle activities which are therein portrayed. in the parish church to receive contributions from the
There are committees in charge of fresh-air work charitably-disposed. The amounts thus received are
for poor children, convalescent homes, support of applied to the work of the conference. Committees
day nurseries, the custody of paroled prisoners, engaged in special works solicit subscriptions. Con-
care of honicless boys, clubs for boj's, the visita- siderable amounts are received in donations and from
tion of pris(jners and the sick in hospitals, the main- bequests. In addition, there are large numbers of
tenance of chaplains for the purpose of serving generous subscribing members.
Catholic inmates in public institutions, employ- Two years after the foundation of the society the
nii'nt bureaus, the care of immigrants, the main- membership had increased so rapidly that it was no
tenance of sailors' missions, the finding of homes longer possible to continue working alone as one bodv
for orphans, and systematic inspection of their care and in one place; consequently, the founders realized
until maturity. The society also co-operates uni- that the time had come when, to regulate matters
formly with Catholic institutional charities and properly, it was imperative to divide the society into
with other organizations of laymen and lay women sections or groups arranged geographically. A meet-
engaged in rehef work. The spiritual note predom- ing was held, geographical divisions made, and the
inates throughout the work of the society. The rules under which the society has since lived were
siT\-ice of the poor is undertaken as a spiritual then adopted. They were of the simplest character,
duty belonging to the integrity of Christian life. merely embodying in the form of regulations the usages
Throughout all the traditions of the society there is which had been followed and cherished from the in-
an endeavour to hinder every process by which char- ception of the society. There are over 100,000 active
ity might be made identical with philanthropy or by members and an equal number of honorary members.
which the supernatural character of the service of the The society is represented in every European coun-
poor might be lost. The conference takes its name try, and thriving branches are to be found in China,
from the parish in which it is formed. The meetings India, Turkey in Asia, Ceylon, Egypt, Natal, Trans-
arc opened and closed with prayer and a short selec- vaal, Phihppine Islands, Canada, United States, Mex-
tion from some spiritual treatise is read. The society ico,Central America, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Argen-
has its own feast-days, on which occasions the mem- tine Republic, Peru, Ecuador, Uruguay, Paraguay,
bers rccci\e Holy Communion as a body. By Briefs and British Guiana. Twelve years after the inaugu-
of Popes Gregory XVI, Pius IX, and Leo XIII numer- ration of the work, the society was introduced on the
ous indulgences are granted to the society, its bene- American continent. To St. Louis, Missouri, must
factors, to the poor assisted by it, and to the fathers, be given the honour of having established, in 1845, the
mothers, and wives of the members. An endeavoiu- is firstconference of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul
made uniformly to cultivate the spirit of St Vincent
. in the United States. In 1846 a conference was or-
de Paul and to follow the discriminating principle of ganized in New York City. In 1856 the work of the
relief given in the spirit of faith taught by him. The society had grown to such proportions in New York
note of personal service stands out prominently in the that it became necessary to establish a particular
work of the society. The duty of serving the poor, covmcil, through which correspondence was opened
and the need of doing it wisely, is looked upon as one with the authorities of every Catholic diocese in the
which the individual himself should fulfil; in fact, United States. As a result other sections of the coun-
one of the conditions of active membership is that try gradually entered into the work, and year by year
the conference member shall go personally to visit the society gained headway, making its influence felt
the poor in their own homes. He combines, when he and accompHshing wonders in the work of uplifting
is true to the spirit and teaching of the society', the the poor. The following statistics of the work of the
function of friendly visitor w'itli that of investigator society in the United States for the year 1910 will
and the work of upbuilding the dependent as well as serve to give some slight conception of the progress
that of relieving him. made: superior councils, 4; central councils, 4; par-
The rules of the society require that minutes of all ticular councils, 34; conferences, 730; members,
meetings be kept carefully and that the reasons for all 12,062; families reheved, 24,742; visits made, 233,-
relief accorded be stated; the conference members in 044; situations procured, 2949; amount received
charge of a family are required to study the condition (exclusive of balances), $384,549; amovmt expended,
of the family and to give the reasons for the decision $387,849.
leading them to ask relief. Their reasons and their An important step in the reorganization of the ad-
judgment may be questioned by the other members ministration of the society in the United States was
present. These minutes of the meetings, when taken taken at the national conference held in Boston in
in conjunction with the personal knowledge of the 1911, when it was unanimously voted to create a coun-
poor families aided, serve every purpose of record- cil in each archdiocese of the United States, to be
keeping. Every care is taken to respect the privacy known as the metropolitan central council; dio-
of the poor. The records of rehef work are not open cesan councils in each diocese, to be styled diocesan
to in.«pection except b>- those who have a well-founded central councils; and one general council for the ad-
right to the knowledge, and this spirit is so character- ministration of all, to be known as the superior council
istic of the society that it places at the disposal of the of the United States. This plan of reorganization is
spiritual director certain funds which may be used in now being perfected by a committee appointed at the
relieving exceptional cases, from which no reoort of Boston National Conference. Since it has rccci\ed
whatsoever kind is made to the society itself. An- the unquahfied endorsement of the hierarchy of the
other cliaracteristic is that of deep-seated reluctance United States and has been approved by the council
on the part of the societj' to make known the extent general of the society in Paris, the near future prob-
of the work or the generosity- of its members in giving ably will see the new plan of administration put into
either money or i>crsonal service to the cause of char- effective operation. \\'hile the Society of St. Vincent
ity. While all tlie work of the society is done bv its de Paul quite naturally calls forth a rather extensive
o

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 SALA 391 SALAMANCA
literature concerning its spirit, aims, purposes, and River Tormes, with twenty-seven arches, measuring
works, it produces of itself relatively little literature, 500 paces in length, and probably erected in the time
owing to its poKoy of refraining from publishing any of Trajan. The See of Salamanca is of unknown
extended account of its varied activities. Reports are origin, probably dating back to the generation im-
issued by the local conferences and councils, and the mediately succeeding the Apostles, in which genera-
council general in Paris publishes "The Bulletin", tion St. Secundus is said to have founded the Diocese
which is regarded as the official organ of the society. of Avila. Signatures of bishops of Salamanca are
The official organ of English-speaking countries is found in the Councils of Toledo in the third council is
;

"The Bulletin", published monthly by the superior that of Eleutherius; at the coronation of King Gonde-
council of Ireland. "The Quarterly", published by mar, that of Teveristus; in the fourth and sixth, of
the superior council of New York, is the official organ Hiccila; in the seventh, eighth, and tenth, of Egere-
of the society in the United States. Superior councils tus; in the Provincial Council of Mcrida (metropolis
of the society in some other countries likewise issue of Salamanca) the signature of Justus; in the twelfth
similar periodicals. of Toledo that of Providentius; in the thirteenth,
Rules of the Societi/ of SL Vincent de Paul; Manual of the fifteenth, and sixteenth, of Holemund, probably con-
Society of St. Vincent de Paul; The Biillrtui (French); TIte temporaneous with the Moslem invasion. Alfonso
Bulletin (Irish); The Quarterly (U. S.l; O'Mt.vKA, Life of Fred-
I the Catholic pushed his conquests as far as Sala-
erick Ozanam (London, 1.S71)); Society Reports.
TH0M.4.S M. MULRY. manca, and Ordofio I captured the city, but its
bishops continued to reside in Asturias, where the
Church of San Julian, outside the walls of Oviedo,
Sala, George Augustus Henry, journalist, b. in
was assigned to them. Bishop Quindulfus (802)
London, 24 Nov., 1828; d. at Brighton, 8 Dec, 1895, signed a royal deed of gift. Ramiro II, who defeated
having been received into the Church before death.
the Mohammedans at Simancas, began to repeople
His grandfather, a native of Rome, came to England Salamanca. In 1102 the king's son-in-law, Raymond,
in 1776; the family were connected with the stage.
Count of Burgundy, and his wife Urraca, gave the
Being an unusu-
churches of the city to Don Jeronimo, the count's
ally precocious
master, and built the Cathedral of S. Maria. The
child, young Sala celebrated bishop, comrade of the Cid Campeador,
began at fifteen
died in 1120 and was interred in the newly -built
to earn his living
basilica, to which he left the famous "Christ of the
by draughtsman- Battles" (Cristo de las Batallas).
ship. His versa-
Later bishops were Gerardo Munio, a partisan of
: ;

tile talent then

Alfonso of Aragon; Berengario, consecrated in 1135
passed to scene-
and transferred to Compostela in 1151; Navarro;
painting, illustra-
Ordono Gonzalo; Pedro Sudrez, praised by Alexander
ting books, etch-
III for learning and prudence; and Vitalis, who
ing and engrav-
maintained the validity of Alfonso IX's marriage
ing, finally finding
with his cousin Teresa of Portugal against the cen-
its real vocation
sures of Celestine III and the sentence of the bishops
in journalism. At-
presided over by Cardinal Guillermo in 1197. From
tracting the notice
his period date the university and the most ancient
of Dickens, he be-
and famous convents of Dominicans, Franciscans,
came a regular and Clarisses. In October, 1310, the see being vacant,
contributor to fifteen prelates of the ancient Province of Lusitania,
'' Household presided over by the Archbishop of Santiago, assem-
Words" and "All bled in the cathedral of Salamanca to try the case of
the Year Round ", the Templars, and found them innocent in Spain of
and was sent as
all the atrocities with which they were charged.
special correspon-
Bishop Juan Lucero accompanied King Alfonso XI
dent to Russia. to the conquest of Algeciras. Later on he became
His literary output was large and various, though his subservient to the caprices of Pedro I the Cruel and
style was criticized as florid. From 1857 he worked annulled (1354) his marriage with Blanche of Bourbon
for the "Daily Telegraph", acting as special corre-
in order to unite him with Juana de Castro. Lu-
spondent all over the world. Much
of this journalistic
cero's successor, Alonso Barrasa, on the contrary,
work was republished in book form. He was a man supported Henry of Trastamare against Pedro. In
of social and convivial habits who prided himself
May, 1382, a council was held at Salamanca to take
on his extensive knowledge of cookery. Though action in the matter of the schism of Avignon, and
earning a large income, his expensive tastes caused Castile decided in favour of the antipope. In
him frequent embarrassment, and the failure of his another council (1410) Salamanca again recognized
magazine, "Sala's Journal", straitened his circum- Peter de Luna (Benedict XIII) as pope. At this
stances in the last years. His love for London, which time St, Vincent Ferrer laboured to convert the Jews
he knew intimately, characterizes many of his books. of Salamanca; from 1460 to 1478 St. John of Sahagtln
Sala, Life and .Adventures of George Augustus Sala (London, enlightened the diocese by his preaching.
1895); Yates, Edmund Yates: his Recollections and Experiences
(London, 1882) Vizetelly, Glances back through Seventy Years
;
Salamanca has two cathedrals; the old, celebrated
(London, 1893) Lee in Did. Nat. Biog.
; for its massive strength, was founded in 1100 by
Edwin Burton. the aforesaid Count Raymond near the River Gate
(Puerta del Rio). At the end of the thirteenth cen-
Salamanca, Diocese of (Salmanticensis, Sal- tury it was not yet finished, and its main entrance,
MANTiNA, Salmantic^), in Spain, comprises the called Del Perd6n (of the Pardon), was covered o\-('r
civil Provinces of Salamanca, Caceres, Avila, and in 1680 with new Doric and Composite pilasters.
L^on, and is bounded on the north by Zamora, on In 1847 it was freed of its inartistic choir. Its build-
the east by Avila and Valladohd, on the south by ing occupied so long a time that Gothic ogi\al
Caceres, and on the west by Portugal. The episcopal arches are supported by its Byzantine foundations.
city has a population of 23,000. Its territory formed Of its three naves the principal one terminates in
the southern portion of the ancient Vetonia, and the the main chapel on the reredos of which is to be seen
existence of the city of Salamanca in the Roman the "Last Judgment" painted by Nicolds Florentino
period is evidenced by a pretentious bridge over the in 1446 for Bishop Sancho of Castile. In early days
 SALAMANCA 392 SALAMANCA
none but royal personages were permitted to be dured. On 6 April, 1243, in letters patent, the saintly
buried in this main chapel; here he Alafalda, daughter king took under his protection the professors, stu-
of Alfonso Vm, Fernando Alfonso, natural son of dents, and their property, granting them an ecclesias-
Alfonso IX of L6on, Bishop Sancho of Castile, grand- tical tribunal for the settlement of their disputes.
eon of Pedro, and his successor, Juan de Vivero. Alfonso X
the Wise continued the work of his father.
The cloister of the old cathedral was Romanesque, In his time began that period of unrivalled prosperity
but in 1780 Jer6nimo Quinones rebuilt it in Renais- for the university, which for so many centuries made
sance style. Most remarkable of its four chapels it "the glory of Spain" (Denifle). In Toledo on
is that of St. Bartholomew, founded by Diego de 8 May, 1254, the king granted the university the priv-
Anaya, Bishop of Salamanca until 1480, and then ileges that are its Magna Carta, appointing curators,
Archbishop of Seville, and founder of the famous placing it under the authority of the bishop, exempt-
Colegio de San Bartolom6. There are also the chapels
of Talavera, which was consecrated to the Mozara-
bic Rite in 1510 and in which Rodrigo Arias Maldo-
nado de Talavera is buried, and that of St. Barbara,
founded in 1384 by Bishop Juan Lucero.
The new cathedral was founded by the Catholic
monarchs, who in 1491 sought to build one at Seville,
but the idea was not carried into effect until 1508,
when Fernando was at Salamanca. This new edifice
was erected side by side with the old, leaving the
latter intact. Its architects, Ant6n Egas and Alfonso
Rodriguez, had built churches at Toledo and Seville;
Juan Gil de Hontanon was master of the works.
The building was begun in 1513, in the episcopate
of Francisco de Bobadilla. Divine worship was held
in it in 1560, and it was completed on 10 August,
1733. The tower, set on fire by lightning in 1705,
was rebuilt by the celebrated Jos6 Churriguera, who
made it a monument of the style (Churrigueresque)
to which he gave his name. In the chapel at the
centre of the rood screen are remains of Bishop
Jer6nimo, transferred from the old basilica in 1744,
and the venerated "Christ of the Battles" In two
large silver vessels within the high altar, the relics
of St. John of Sahagun and St. Thomas of Villanova
are preserved. Besides the cathedrals, a sumptuous
church worthy of especial mention is that of the Do-
minican convent of San Esteban, occupied by the Do-
minicans since 1256, where, it is said, Christopher
Columbus was entertained in 1484 and where he
found in Fray Diego de Deza one of his most ardent
protectors. The church was rebuilt in the sixteenth
century, the first stone was laid on 30 June, 1524,
and the work was completed in 1610. The founder
of this convent was the Salamancan Fray Juan de
Toledo, of the House of Alva, Bishop of Cordoba,
and cardinal; here, too, is buried the famous Duke of
Principal Facade of the University, Salamanca
Alva with his wife Maria Enriquez de Toledo.
Another beautiful church is that of the Jesuits,
ing it from the regular and assigning
authorities,
foimded by King Phihp III and his consort Mar-
garet of Austria in 1614. The college was converted
salaries for the professors. The
professorship of law
received 500 maravedis a year, canon law 300, gram-
into an ecclesiastical seminary by Bishop Beltrdn in
mar, logic, and medicine 200. Some have endeav-
1779, was made a pontifical university, and is now
oured to trace an analogy between these privileges
under the care of Jesuits. In former times there
and those granted by Ferdinand I and II to the Uni-
were numerous hospitals at Salamanca, but in 1851
versities ofBologna and Naples.
it was agreed to combine them all into one, under the
But the fundamental difference that characterized
care of the Brothers of St. John of God, and dedicated
the Spanish university must not be overlooked, that,
to the Trinity. The library of the university and although a royal foundation, it was placed under the
province, containing more than 100,000 volumes, is
direction and control of the bishop, the dean, and the
a remarkable one.
Florez, Esp. Sagrada, XIV (2nd ed., Madrid, 1786) Ci'ad- chancellor, who conferred the academic titles in the
;

HADO, Esp., sus monumentos (Barcelona, 1884); Lafuente, Hist, cathedral. The titles were given until 1830 in the
de Esp. (Madrid, 1861). name of the pope and king. Doctrinal and ecclesias-
Ram6n Ruiz Am ado. tical professorships did not, however, contrary to
Stein's view, predominate in the university (Denifle).
Universitt of Salamanca. —
This university had Departments of medicine and jurisprudence were also
its beginning in the Cathedral School under the direc- established, and preference was given to the law, es-
tion, from the twelfth century, of a magister scholarum pecially canon law. By petition of the king, 6 April,
(chancellor). From this episcopal origin, probably 1255, Alexander IV confirmed the courses at Sala-
in 1230, sprang the royal foundation of Alfonso IX manca, "because in the multitude of the wise is the
of Leon, who "with salutary discretion summoned the security of kingdoms, and their governments arc main-
most experienced masters of sacred letters and estab- tained not less by the advice of the prudent, than by
lished schools" (Lucas de Tuy); which, however, does the energy and bravery of the strong". Later he de-
not signify, as Rashdall infers, that they taught the- creed that any accepted teacher in any branch whatso-
ology. Alfonso IX granted them the privileges al- ever at Salamanca could teach his subject in any other
luded to later by St. Ferdinand, who was in reality the university, with the exception of Paris and Bologna, a
fotinder, the foundation of his father not having en- limitation which John XXII instituted in 1333. The
 SALAMIS 393 SALAMIS

principles Alfonso the Wise had put into practice in the Island of Salamis, opposite Attica; others believe
Salamanca, he drew from the "Leyes de Partida ,
it to be of Phcenician origin and derive its name from

commenced in 1256 and terminated in 1263. Rash- the Semitic selom, peace. Its fine harbour, its loca-
dall calls this "a sort of educational
—
code the first of tion, and fortifications made it the chief city of the

its kind in modern

Europe". In the time of Sancho island. In the sixth century b. c. it had kings, allies
the salaries of of the princes of Cyrene; one of them, Gorgus,
the Brave the studies dechned because
the professors were not paid. Finally, Ferdinand IV, refused to join in the Ionian revolt, and was expelled
authorized by Boniface VIII, assigned for this pur- by his brother, who took command of the troops of
pose the tertia ecclesiarum, ai.d from this date, 7 Aug- Salamis and the other cities; the battle was fought
ust, 1300, the university entered
upon a new era of before Salamis, which fell again into the power of
prosperity. Gorgus. It was besieged by Anexicrates, the successor
Classes were once more discontinued from 1306 to of Cimon. After the Peace of Antacidas, the Persians
1313, when Clement V commanded the terlia to be had to fight for ten years against the valiant king
used in restoring the churches. In 1313 a third of Evagoras, whose panegyric was composed by Isoc-
the tertia was once more devoted to paying the pro- rates. It was at Salamis in 306 b. c. that the greatest
fessors of law, civil and canon, medicine, logic, gram- naval battle of antiquity was fought, Demetrius I,
mar, and music. In 1355 the minorite friar, Didaco Poliorcetes, defeating the Grajco-Egyptian fleet of
Lupi, taught theology in Salamanca; but this branch, Ptolemy I. In 295 B. c. Salamis passed under the
which in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was sway of the kings of Egypt, and in 58 b. c. under that
to draw the eyes of the entire world to Salamanca, did of Rome, at which time it possessed all the eastern
portion of the island. When St. Paul landed at Salamis
with Barnabas and John, surnamed Mark, returning
from Seleucia, there were several synagogues, and it
was there he began the conversion of the island (Acts,
xiii, 5). Salamis was destroyed by earthquakes, and
was rebuilt by Constantius II (337-61), who called it
Constantia. It was destroyed by the Arabs in 647
or 648. Its unimportant ruins are near the village of
Hagios Sergios, a little north of Famagusta. After
its destruction the inhabitants and clergy betook them-
selves to Famagusta, which became and for a long
time remained the residence of the archbishops. At
present they reside at Nicosia. In the article on
Cyprus (q. V.) are mentioned the principal bishops of
Salamis or Constantia; the list of these prelates is
given in Le Quien, "Oriens christianus", II, 1043 seq.,
and more fully in Haokett, "A History of the Ortho-
dox Church of Cyprus" (London, 1901), 651.
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog.; Engel, Kypros, eine
COTJBTTARD OF THE IhISH COLLEGE, SaLAMANCA Monographic, I (Berlin, 1841), 89; Di Cesnola, Cypern (Lon-
don, 1877) Idem, Salaminia (2Dd ed., London, 1884)
;
von ;

LOhee, Cypern (Stuttgart, 1878) ; Fillion in Vigouhoux, Diet,

not flourish there until Benedict XIII introduced it in
de la Bible, s. v. Salamine
1416, and Martin V re-estabUshed it in 1422. This S. PBTRIDtlS.
pope gave the university its definitive constitution,
and numbered it among the four greatest in the world. Salamis, Epiphanius of, b. at Besanduk, near
In 1401 the bishop, Diego de Anaya Maldonado, Eleutheropolis, in Judea, after 310; d. in 403. While
founded the first college for poor students, which was very young he followed the monastic life in Egsrpt.
called the College of San Bartolom6 and later the Old
On his return to Judea he founded a monastery at
College. This and the colleges of Cuenca, Oviedo, Besanduk and was ordained to the priesthood. In
and Fonseca were called colegios mayores, larger col- 367 his reputation for asceticism and learning brought
leges. Afterwards a great number of colegios menores, about his nomination as Bishop of Constantia
smaller colleges, secular, regular, and of the four mili- (Salamis), the metropolis of the Island of Cyprus.
tary orders were founded. The Liberals suppressed For nearly forty years he fulfilled the duties of the
the colegios mayores under the pretext of their deca- episcopate, but his activity extended far beyond his
dence but without substituting anything better, or island. His zeal for the monastic life, ecclesiastical
even equally good, to help the poor students. Fol- learning, and orthodoxy gave him extraordinary
lowing this the colegios menores were also closed. The authority; hence the numerous occasions on which
laws of 1845 swept aside the last remaining vestige of
his advice was sought, and his intervention in im-
these ancient estabhshments for university training, portant ecclesiastical affairs. He went to Antioch,
secularizing them and placing them under the control probably in 376, to investigate ApoUinarianism and
of the Liberal Government. The number of students to intervene in the schism which divided that Church.
at Salamanca in 1584 reached 6778; in 1822 it
He decided in favour of Bishop Paulinus, who was
amounted to only 412, and later it dropped even supported by Rome, against Meletius, who was sup-
lower. In the catalogue of its professors figure the ported iDy the episcopate of the East. In 382 he
names of some celebrated women, such as Dona Bea- assisted at the Council of Rome to uphold the cause
triz Galindo and Dona Alvara de Alava.
of Paulinus of Antioch. About 394, carried away by
Chac6n, Historia de la Universiclad de Salamanca (1S89) in
El Sememrio Eritdito, XVIII (Madrid, 1789) ; de la Fuente, an apparently excessive zeal, he went to Jerusalem
Hist, de las Univ. (Madrid, 1899)
: Denifle, Die Entstehung der to oppose the supposed Origenism of the bishop, John.
Univ. (Berlin, 1885); Rashdall, The Universities of Europe, II
In 402 he was at Constantinople to combat the same
(Oxford, 1895).
pretended heresy of St. John Chrysostom. He died
Ram6n Ruiz Amado.
on his return journey to Cyprus.
Salamis, a titular see in Cyprus. Salamis was a It was at the instance of his correspondents that
maritime town on the eastern coast of Cyprus, situ- Epiphanius compiled his works. The earliest (374)
is the "Ancoratus", or "The Well-Anchored",
i. e.
ated at the end of a fertile plain between two moun-
tains, near the River Pediffius. It was already an the Christian firmly fixed against the agitations of
important centre in the sixth century b.c. Its founda- error. The Trinity and the dogma of the Resurrec-
tion is attributed to Teucer, son of Telamon, King of tion are particularly treated by the author, who argues
 SALAMIS 394 SALAMIS
especially against the Aiians and the Origenists. (Haer., xiii-xx), the Ebionites (Haer., xxx), and their
There are two symbols at the end of the work: the Gospel; with regard to the Gnostics Valentius (Haer.,
first, which is the shorter, is very important in the xxxi) and Ptolemaeus (Haer., xxxiii), whose letter to
history of symbols, or professions of faith, being the Flora he quotes; and with regard to the Scriptural
baptismal creed of the Church of Constantia. The criticism of IMarcion. The work ends with a long
second is the personal work of Epiphanius, and is exposition of the Catholic faith. A summarj- of
intended to fortify the faithful against current the "Penarion" is perhaps the work of Epiphanius.
heresies. In the "Ancoratus" Epiphanius confines A work entitled "Of Measures and Weights" (De
himself to a list of heresies. Some readers desired mensuribus et ponderibus) has a more general in-
to have a detailed work on this question, and Epi- terest than might be imagined from the title. For
phanius composoil (374-7) the "Paiiarion" or "Me- the time it is a real "Introduction" to Holy Scripture
dicine chest", i. c. a stock of remedies to offset the containing the history of Biblical texts and Sacred
poisons of heresy. This work is divided into three archaeology. The treatise "On the Tweh-e Precious
iDOoks comprising in all seven volumes and treating Stones" is an explanation of the ornaments of the
eighty heresies. The first twenty heresies are prior high-priest's breastplate (Ex., xxviii, 17). Mention
to Jesus Christ; the other sixty deal with Christian must finally be made of two letters of Epiphanius
doctrine. In reality the number eighty may be re- preserved in a Latin translation.
duced to seventy-seven, for among the twenty In theological matters Epiphanius teaches the doc-
heresies prior to Christ only seventeen count. Three trine of the Catholic theologians of his time. In the
are generic names, namely Hellenism, Samaritanism, vocabulary of Trinitarian theology he conforms to the
and Judaism. In the editions of the " Pariarion" each language of the Greek Church. He speaks of three
heresy is numbered in order; hence it is customary to hypostases in the Trinity, whereas the Latins and
quote the "Panarion" as follows: Epiphanius, HiEr. the Paulioians of Antioch speak of one hypostasis in
N (the number of the heresy). Necessarily much of three persons. At bottom it was a mere matter of
the information in this great compilation varies in words, but for some time it oix'asioned theological
value. The "Panarion" reflects the character of dissensions. Epiphanius clearly teaches that the
Epiphanius and his method of working. Sometimes Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son.
his ardour prevents him from inquiring carefully into The doctrine that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the
the doctrines he opposes. Thus, on his own a\owul Father only prevailed later in the Greek Church.
(Hajr., Ixxi) he speaks of Apollinarianism on hearsay. This teaching cannot be traced to Epiphanius
At Constantinople he had to acknowledge to the (Ancora"tus, 8). AA'ith regard to the constitution of
Origenist monks whom he opposed that he was not the Church, he is one of the most explicit of the Greek
acquainted with either their school or their books, theologians concerning the primacy of St. Peter
and that he only spoke from hearsay (Sozomen, ("Ancoratus", 9; "Haer.", lix, 7). Two passages
"Hist, eccl.", VIII, xlj. There is, however, in the on the Eucharist are famous because they are among
"Panarion" much information not found elsewhere. those which most clearly affirm the "Discipline of the
Chapters devoted only to the doctrinal refutation of Secret" The "Secret" was purely pedagogical and
heresies are rare. As an apologist Epiphanius ap- often neglected, consisting in grading the doctrinal
peared generally weak to Photius. initiation of catechumens and in not speaking before
The "Panarion" furnishes very valuable informa- them of the Christian mysteries save in deliberately
tion concerning the religious history of the fourth vague expressions. Hence the necessity of explaining
century, either because the author confines himself the words of Epiphanius on the Eucharist ("Anco-
to transcribing documents preserved by him alone or ratus", .57; "Haer.", xlii, 61). In these two passages,
because he writes down his jiersonal observations. instead of quoting the words of the institution of the
With regard to Hieracas (Hier., Ixvii), he makes Eucharist, the author gives these: "Hoc meum est,
known a very curious Egyptian sect by whom ascet- hoc." Epiphanius is one of the chief authorities of
icism and intellectual work were equally esteemed. the fourth century for the devotion to the Blessed
In connexion with the Meletians of Eg3rpt (Haer., Virgin. He expresses himself on the subject in con-
Ixviii), he has preserved important fragments of con- nexion with two heresies, of which one diminished,
temporary Egyptian history of this movement. With while the other exaggerated, this devotion ("Haer."
regard to Arianism (Haer., Ixix), if he gives an apoo- Ixxviii, Ixxix). A circumstance of his life is well known
ryjihal letter of Constantine, he transcribes two letters in the history of images, namely the destruction of
of Arius. He is the only one to give us any informa- an image in the church of Bethel ("Letter to John of
tion concerning the Gothic sect of the Audians (Haer., Jerusalem" in P. G., XLIII, 390).
Ixx). He has made use of the lost report of the dis- His character is most clearly shown by the Origen-
cussion between Photius (Haer., Ixxi) and Basil of ist controversies, which demonstrated his disinter-
AncT,Ta. He has transcribed a very important letter ested zeal but also his quickness to suspect heresy,
from Bishop INIarcellus of Ancyra (Hsr., Ixxii) to a good faith which was easily taken advantage of by
Pope Julius and fragments of the treatise of Acacius the intriguing, and an ardour of conviction which
of Ca.-sarca against JMarcellus. With regard to the caused him to forget the rules of canon law and to
Somiarians (Har., Ixxiii), he gives in the Acts of the commit real abuses of power. He saw in Origen the
Council of Ajicyra (.3.5S) a letter from Basil of Anojrra chief cause of the heresies of his time, and especially
and one from George of Laodicea, and the steno- of Arianism. He was particularly opposed to his
graphic text of the singular sermon of Meletius at the allegorical method, his doctrines concerning the Son,
time of his installation at .\ntioch. In the chapter in which he saw the subordination of the Son to the
dealing with the .Vnomeans (Ha;r., Ixxvi) he has Father, his doctrines concerning the pre-existence of
preserved a monograph of Jiltius. souls and the resurrei^tion ("Ancoratus", 54, 62;
For tlic first three centuries Epiphanius was com- "Haer.", Ixiv). He did not confine himself to this
pelled to use the onh" literary sources. Some of these condemnation of Origen. He reproached the monks
ha.yr been preserved, such as the great anti-heretical and bishops of his time with accepting the Origenist
work of St. IrenaBUS of Antioch, "Contra Haerescs" errors. Thence resulted at the end of his life the con-
Other ancient sources utilized by him have been lost, flict with John of Jerusalem and with St. John
which gi\-es exceptional value to his work. Thus he Chrysostom. Apart from the injustice of the con-
made use of the "S\Titagma" of Hippolytus. The troversy, he encroached on the jurisdiction of these
precise determination of all his sources is matter of bishops. He was made use of by Theophilus of
controversy. His information is os]X'fialI\- valuable Alexandria, the irreconcilable enemy of Chrysostom.
with regard to the Samaritans (Haer., x-xiiij, the Jews The chief sources relative to this controversy are:
 SALAMON 395 SALE
St. Jerome, "Contra Joanncm Hierosolymitanum nected with the Mexican mission. PoUtieal enemies
in P. L., XXIII, 355; Idem, "Ad Theophilum" in tried to thwart his work and succeeded in having
P. L., XXII, 736; Epiphanius, "Ad Joannem Hie- him thrown into prison when he sought audience of
rosolymitanum" in P. G., XLIII, 379; Socrates, the king. It was then that his presence in Madrid
"Hist, eccl.", VI, x-xiy; Sozomen, "Hist, eccl.", was brought to the attention of Philip, who proposed
VIII, xiv-xv. The chief editions of Epiphanius's his name to the pope as Bishop of the Philippines.
works are those of Petavius (Paris, 1622); Greek Salazar was loath to accept the dignity; but his
text, Latin tr., and notes, reproduced with addi- missionary spirit prevailed. As he wrote later:
tions in P. G., XLI-XLIII; and of Dindorf (Leip- "One of the re;isons which made me accept this
zig, 1859-62), 5 vols., giving only the Greek text, bishopric was the fact that these Islands are near
improved in some parts. China. . For a long time I have had the con-
Bardenhewer, Patrology, tr. Shahan (St. Louia, 1903) version of that kingdom at heart, and with that
Zarucke, Literarisrher Zentralhlatt, LXI,. no. 16.
Louis Saltet. thought I came to these Islands". He set out for
his see via Aoapulco, taking with him twenty Domin-
Salamon, Louis-Siffren-Joseph, Bishop of Saint- icans, twelve of whom died before reaching Mexico;
Flour; b. at Carpentras, 22 Oct., 1759; d. at Saint- of the remainder only one was able to continue the
Flour, 11 June, 1S29. After studying law and theol- journey to the Philippines. Salazar arrived in Manila
ogy at Avignon, at that time belonging to the Papal in 1581. He espoused the cause of the Fihpino with
States, he was made auditor of the Rota by the a fearlessness that won for him the titles of the "in-
favour of Pius VI. This office he resigned for a trepid Salazar", "the Las Casas of the Philippines"
post in the ParUament of Paris, where he took part He held a synod of the clergy, which was later con-
in the famous case of the "Diamond Necklace" firmed by the pope, erected a cathedral, regulated the
(17S4), which Cardinal de Rohan had purchased for internal affairs of the diocese, opened a college, and
Marie Antoinette (q. v.). He continued to be a established a hospital. In his charity to the poor he
member until the Parliament was abolished (1790). even pledged his pectoral cross to relieve their neces-
Meanwhile he had kept up a correspondence with the sities. Old age did not lessen his zeal. He was almost
cardinal secretary of State, informing him of all that eighty when he set out for Spain to plead in person
passed in Paris and could be of interest to Pius VI. the cause of the natives with the king. His mission
When the nuncio, jMgr Dugnani, left Paris towards was successful; various abuses were corrected, three
the end of 1790, the pope appointed Salamon to be new dioceses were created, and Manila was elevated
his internuncio at the Court of Louis XVI. His to a metropolitan see with Salazar as its first arch-
devotion to the Church marked him out for persecu- bishop. He died before receiving the Bull of his
tion, and accordingly he was thrown into prison at appointment and was buried in the Church of Santo
the time of the September massacres, 1792. Twice he Tomds, Madrid. His tomb bears this inscription:
narrowly escaped death. On his release he wandered "Hie jacet D. Fr. Dominicus de Salazar Ordinis
about in disguise, acting as vicar Apostolic. In 1801 Prsedicatorum, Phihppinarum Episcopus, doctrina
Mgr Caprara arrived in France as papal legate, and clarus verus religiosse vitse sectator, suarum ovium
appointed him administrator general of the dioceses piissimus Pastor, pauperum Pater, et ipse vere
of Norrnandy. The new pontiff, Pius VII, did not pauper. Obiit 4 die Decembris anno 1594."
select him for one of the sees under the Concordat, Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands (Cleveland,
1903); Ferrando, Historia de los PP. Dominicos en las Islas
but made him Bishop of Orthozia in parlihus. It Filipinos (Madrid, 1870);Moreno, Historia de la Santa Iglesia
was not until after the Restoration that he received a Metropolitana de Filipinas (Manila, 1877).
French see at the suggestion of Louis XVIII (1820). Philip M. Finbgan.
His episcopate lasted only nine years, but these
were full of work for the restoration of re- Sale,Diocese of (Salibnsis), in Victoria, Austra-
ligion. The training of the clergy especially en- lia,comprises all the territory known as Gippsland.
gaged his attention, as he lamented the contrast In 1840 Count Strzelecki, an expatriated Polish
between the cultured priests of the old regime and scientist, accompanied by a young Irishman named
those who were brought up during the confusion of James Riley and some attendants, first penetrated
the Revolution. His "Mimoires" were discovered this region, which they found to be singularly fertile
at Rome and published by Abbe Bridier ("Mimoires and teeming with resources, though hitherto regarded
in^dits de I'internonce k Paris pendant la Revolution Its scenery is remarkably
'

'
as a trackless waste.
Paris, 1890). They have been translated by Frances beautiful, and it is often called the "Garden of Aus-
Jackson ("A Papal Envoy during the Terror", Lon- traUa". Still it was colonized but slowly, as the native
don, 1911). His statements are sometimes at variance inhabitants were regarded as fierce and warlike, while
with established facts. many natural obstacles to settlement were offered
Delaporte, U
Inlenwnce a Paris, pendant la revolution in by the dense forests, lofty mountain ranges, and swift
Etudo!,LII [LIIIJ (Pari,?, 1891), .318-22; Soannell, The inter-
nunno during the revolution in Dublin Review, CIX
at Paris torrents. At the present time, however, it is one of
(London, 1891), 107-23.
T. B. ScANNELL. the regions of Australia best known to tourists. It is
rich in pasture and timber lands, while its vast mineral
Salazar, Domingo de, b. in La Rioja, in the village wealth is still only partly developed.
of La Bastida on the banks of the Ebro, 1512; d. in The capital is Sale, now the seat of the episcopal
Madrid, 4 December, 1594. He entered the Domin- see erected in 1887 at the request of the plenary
ican monastery of San Esteban, Salamanca. Sent to synod. Its first bishop was the present titular Rt.
Mexico, where he received the degree of Master in Rev. James Francis Corbett. He was born at Lim-
Theology, he was appointed to the professor's chair. erick in 1840; his theological studies were made in
His ambition to evangelize the heathen was granted France, and on his return he worked for some years
and he devoted himself to the conversion of the as a priest in his native diocese. He went to Austra-
natives in the Province of Guajaca. He was char- lia at the invitation of Archbishop Goold of Mel-
acterized here by the same zeal for defending the bourne, to whom he acted as diocesan secretary while
nghts of the Indians that he manifested later in an fulfilUng the duties of pastor of St. Kilda's. He was
heroic degree in the Philippines. Salazar was next assistant secretary of the synod of 1S85, and on his
transferred to Florida, where he passed many years appointment to the new see was consecrated by
T ^""^ privation. From Florida he was recalled Archbishop Carr of Melbourne 25 August, 1887, in
to m'Mexico to be prior of his convent and \dce-pro- the Church of St. Kilda which he himself had built.
vincial of his order.
After forty years of missionary On his arrival in his diocese there were within its
lite, he
was sent to Madrid on important business con- limits three parochial districts and four priests,
 SALEM 396 SALERNO
three of whom afterwards returned to their former name, backed by a high rock crowned with an ancient
Diocese of Melbourne. There are now (1911) 9 castle. The surrounding country is well cultiA'ated,
parishes, LS priests, 47 churches or chapels, and 10 and a natural harbour promotes the commerce of
schools with .S30 pupils. The Catholic population agricultural products; breeding of horses is carried
is 13, .521, and there are 61 sisters of Notre Dame de on to a considerable extent. 'There are two mineral
Sion. springs. The entrance to the cathedral, built by
MoRAN, Hisl. of Cath. Church in Australia (Sydney, a. d.); Robert Guiscard, is through a great court surrounded
Battandier, Annuaire Pont. (1911). by porticos, with columns of granite and porphyry
Blanche M. Kelly. where several ancient sarcophagi are preserved. The
middle doors are of bronze, beautifully decorated.
Salem (S.\lmansweiler), also called Salomonis In 1722 the interior was transformed by Peorio.
Villa on account of the resemblance of its primitive
buildings to Solomon's Temple, an abbey situated
The beautiful columns were shut up between pilasters
of walling, and the pointed arches were ruined. Of
near the Castle of HeiUgenberg, about ten miles from
The abbey was the ancient basihca there remains a high marble
Constance, Baden (Germany).
candelabrum adorned with mosaics; between the
founded by Gunthram of Adelsreute (d. 1138) in 1136
choir and the side of the high altar is the chapel
during the reign of Pope Innocent II and Emperor
of Giovanni da Procida, also adorned with mosaics
Lothair II. Gunthram also gave the Abbot of Lucelle
and containing the tomb of Gregory VII. In the
the necessary lands for the first Cistercian monastery
chapel to the right there is a beautiful PietS,, the
in Alsace, the latter being a foundation of Bellevaux,
first daughter of Morimond. Blessed Frowin, for- finest of Andrea Salerno.
work Among other treas-
ures of the sacristy is an ivory altar frontal with
merly the travelling companion and interpreter of St.
scenes from the Old and from the New Testament.
Bernard, became its first abbot. He had been pro-
There is a tradition that the body of St. Matthew, the
fessed at Bellevaux, and was of the colony sent to
Apostle, is preserved in the crypt under the high
found Lucelle; hence have arisen misunderstandings,
altar; the columns of the vault are beautifully in-
some maintaining, erroneously, that Salem was founded
from Bellevaux.
crusted with multi-coloured marbles. Among other
churches are the Annunziata San Giorgio, which may
Under the wise and prudent administration of
: ;

rightly be called " picture gallery (Life of St. Bene-

Blessed Frowin and his successors, the abbey soon
dict); and S. Domenico, where an arm of St. Thomas
became very prosperous. Extensi\e and magnificent
Aquinas is preser\'ed. Charitable institutions were,
buildings, erected in three squares, and a splendid
and still are, numerous.
church were constructed between 1182 and 1311.
Salerno was the city of the Salentini. After war
Salem was noted as the richest ;ind most beautiful
with Hannibal (194 B. c), a Roman colony was es-
monastery in Germany, being particularly renowned
tablished there. In the Social War it was taken by
for its hospitality. Amongst its greatest benefactors
the Samnites. In the eighth century the city was
and patrons were Conrad of Swabia and Frederick
in the power of the Lombard dukes of Benevento;
Barbarossa. The former placed the abbey under the
special protection of himself and his successors hence — Arichis fortified it and took refuge there, when
Charles the Great invaded his duchy. In 840 Sicon-
the title of " Royal Abbey " which was renewed several
ulfus, brother of the Duke Sicardus who was killed
times under Barbarossa and his successors; Innocent
by the partisans of Radelgisus, was proclaimed prince
II also took the abbey under his particular patronage.
at Salerno, which from that time constituted an in-
Its growth was continuous, and e\'en after having made
—
three important foundations Raitenhaslach (1143),
dependent principahty. With the assistance of the
Saracens and with the spoils of the churches Siconul-
Maristella or Wettingen (1227), and Konigsbrunn
fus defended his independence, which was confirmed
(r2SS) — it numbered 285 monks at the beginning of
in 851 by the Emperor Louis II, to whom the prince
the fourteenth century. Its abbot, from 1454 on, was
privileged to conf(>r subdeaoonship on his monks.
had sworn allegiance. The chief cities of the prin-
cipality were 'Taranto, Cassano, Cosenza, Pastum,
The abbey gradually declined, though it numbered
forty-nine priests and thirteen other choir religious
Conza, Salerno, Sarno, Cimitile (Nola), Capua, Teano,
in 1698, when Abbot D. Stephen (d. 172.5) became and Sora. The son of Siconulfus, Sieo, was dethroned
^'icar-General of Cistercian Congregation of
the
by his tutor, Petrus, who was succeeded by his son
Upper Germany. Caspar Oexle, who, as librarian, Ademar; the latter, however, was deposed by a con-
spiracy, tortured, and bhnded, while Guaiferius was
had increased the library to 30,000 volumes and a
great number of MSS., was elected abbot in March,
put inhis place (861). In 874 the port of Salerno was
so well defended that the Saracens had to abandon
1S02; in September of the same year the abbey was
the blockade of the city. Guaimarus, son of Guai-
suppressed and given to the Princes of Baden, while
ferius, struggled (880) against the Saracens and
the library was added to that of Petershausen, and
The the Byzantines, but on account of his cruelty he was
finally sold to the University of Heidelberg.
deposed, blinded, and thrown into prison. His son,
church became a parish church; the grand tower
with its fifteen bells, the largest weighing 10,000 lbs.,
Guaimarus II, ruled wisely.
Gisulfus became famous through the splendour of
was destroyed (1805), and the other buildings were
used as the grand duke's castle. Eberhard, its fifth
his court. He was despoiled by the exiled Prince
of Beneventum, Landolfo, but Pandolfo Capo-di-
abbot, is honoured as a Blessed of the order. He was
Ferro, Prince of Beneventum, restored Gisulfus (974),
made Archbishop of Salzburg, and entrusted with
various important missions by the Holy See. Blessed
who, through gratitude, associated with himself in
Henry, a lay brother, is also mentioned in the Cis- the principality Pandolfo, son of his hberator, by
tercian menology.
whom he was succeeded in 978. The latter also was
Von Weech, Codex diplomaticus salemitanun (3 vols., Carls- deposed by Mansus III, Duke of Amalfi (981), who
ruhe, 1883-(t.>); Petri. Sum-ia ecdes, (Augsburg, 1698); Buce- was confirmed in the principality by Otho II. The
LTMs, Aquila imperii benedidina (Venice, 1651); Gallia ckrist., people of Salerno, however, rebelled against him,
V: Lira chronn-!<ij}o-iir<i j)hica Cong. Ci^t. S. Bernardi per Supe-
riorem Germaniam (1720); Hatjntinger, Silddeutsche KWMer and gave the throne to Giovanni Lamperto, a de-
vor 100 Jahrtrt (Coloi^ne, 1880); S.iRTORlus, Cihtercium bi-^- scendant of the dukes of Spoleto. Under his son and
terlium (Prague, 1700k Brunnbr, Ein Ci.^terzienserbuch (WQrz- successor, Guaimaro III (994-1018), the people
burg, 1881); Bottcher, Germnnia sacra (Leipzig, 1S741; Ja-
NAU8CHEK, Orig. Ci^ierc, I (Vienna, 1877). of Salerno were helped by about forty Norman
Edmond M. Obrecht. warriors to repel the Saracens. Guaimaro IV
dreamed of uniting the whole of lower Italy mto a
Diocese Campania, Southern single principahty; he took Amalfi and Sorrento
and
Salerno, of, in
Italy. The city is situated on the gulf of the same warred with Argiro, master of Bari, but was assae-
 SALERNO 397 SALERNO
sinated by the Amalfians in 1031. It was only with in 1811, together with the University of Salerno.
the assistance of the Normans that his son Gisulfus Among the famous physicians that it produced were:
III was able to recover his throne. The cruelty of Garisponto, author of the "Passionarium Salerni";
Gisulfus against the Amalfians gave to Robert Guis- Cofone (Ars medendi); and Matthaeus Platearius,
card, brother-in-law of Gisulfus, a pretext to wage author of a commentary on the " Antidotarium " of
war and to take possession of Salerno, which was Nicol6 Pietro Musandino (thirteenth century).
bravely defended (1075). Gisulfus ended his days The "Herbarium" of the school of Salerno was dis-
in the pontifical states. Thus the last Lombard seminated throughout Europe in the twelfth century.
principality of Italy came to an end. At the death In the same century the rules of hygiene of this
of Guiscard his states were divided; Salerno was school were collected and edited in leonine verse;
inherited by Roger, who was succeeded (1111) by his these rules, which even now are not antiquated, were
son William; at the latter's death Salerno gave itself the school's greatest title to praise. The "Anony-
to Roger II of Sicily (1127), from whom it was taken mus Salernitanus " who continued the history of the
Ijy the Emperor Lothair (1137), although the latter princes of Benevento from Erchempertus to 980,
was unable to hold it. In 1196 Salerno was again Andrea Sabatini a pupil of Raphael, and Andrea da
besieged, by land and sea, for having held Constance, Salerno were natives of this city.
wife of Henry IV, a prisoner. For this offence dread- In view of its position, it was natural that Salerno
fulrevenge was taken and Salerno never recovered should receive the light of the Gospel at an early
from the damage done to it in the pillage. The heirs date; in fact, various saints, as Antes, Caius, and For-

The City of Salebno, fbom the Harbour

of the first princes of the House of Anjou bore the tunatus (28 August), suffered martyrdom there. The
title of Prince of Salerno; John II invested
with it age of Bonifacius and four other saints who preceded
GiTolamo Colonna, nephew of Martin V. Charles Gaudentius on the episcopal throne is uncertain;
y suppressed the principality, but the province con- Gaudentius, however, was bishop in 499, which would
tinued to be called Principality of Salerno. show that the see was created towards the end of the
The medical school of Salerno was famous in fourth century. Other bishops were: Asterius, who
medieval history; it was founded neither by Charles went to Constantinople with Pope Agapitus in 534;
the Great nor by the Arabs, the city never having St. Gaudiosus (eighth century); Petrus (834), formerly
been under the dominion of either. Its origin is to Bishop of Canusio, who took refuge at Salerno
be found in the Benedictine monastery of Salerno, when the Saracens destroyed his capital, and built
established in 794, in which the botanical and the the Church of San Giovanni Battista; Bernardus
medical works of the ancients were studied. Its (850), a man of great virtue, who restored several
fame grew, when about the year 1070 the celebrated buildings. In 984 Salerno became an archiepisco-
tostantino Africano took refuge there. He had pal see, the first archbishop being Amato. Other
studied in the schools of the Arabs at Babylon, at archbishops were: San Alfano (1058-85), who re-
Bagdad, and in Eygpt, and was presented by the ceived the exiled Gregory VII; Romualdo Guarna
brother of the caliph of Babylon to Guiscard, who (1153), who took an important part in the ecclesias-
took him as secretary. Hegave a new impulse to tical and political affairs of the Kingdom of Naples;
ptiilosophicaland to medical studies by making Nicold Agello (1181), taken prisoner by Henry IV
known in the West the works of the Arabs. Roger I to Germany, where he remained for many years
^a^e laws to the schools of Salerno, which was the notwithstanding the prayers of the popes, espe-
nrst Western school
to introduce academic degrees, cially of Innocent III; Guglielmo de' Godoni (1298),
^ew regulations were established for it by Frederick chancellor of the Duke of Calabria, whose successors,
•ii!''
ordered that no one should practise medicine to Orso Minutolo (1330), resided at Avignon; Barnaba
whout being "licensed" by that school, the fame of Orsini (1441), who restored the cathedral; Giovanni
TOich waned after the fifteenth century through the
Vera (1500), later a cardinal, who was sent on several
competition of Naples. The school was suppressed pontifical legations to France and to England; Giro-
 SALESIAN 398 SALESIAN

lamo Seripandi (15541, a famous theologian and thirteenth century, taught the trepanning of the
former general of the Augustinians, whose doctrines sternum, the sewing-up of intestines, ete. \\'omen
on jvisiiticatiiin, too much akin to those of Luther,
were rejected at the Council of Trent, and who after-
phj'sicians, also, studied and taught at Salerno the
famous Trotula, who wrote a treatise on ili.seases of
—
wards became a cardmal, and died at Trent; Gasjjare women, Abella and Rebecca, both of whom did much
Cervante (1504), who founded the seminary; Marc for embryology; and the female surgeon Mcrcuriade.
Antonio CVilonna (1568), who established another De Renzi, Storia documentata delln Scuola medica di Salerno
(Naples, 1857) cd. Meaux St-Mare, Idem, Collertio Salerni-
college for clerics; his nephew, Marc Antonio Col-
;

tana (vol. V containing thn Flos medicine) (Paris, 1861); Rash-

onna (1574), the author of valuable works; Mario DALL, Universities of Europe in the Middle Aqes, I (Oxford, 1S95),
Bolognini (1591), who distinguished himself in France 75 sqq.
in the controversies with the Huguenots; Giovanni de U. Benigni.
Torres (1658), who reformed the lives of the clergy; Salesian Society, The, founded by Venerable
Ciregorio Caraffa (1664), a Theatine and a reformer; Don Bosco, takes its distinctive name from its
Antonio Salomone, who, after the annexation of the patron. Saint Francis de Sales. The object for which
kingdom of Naples, was imprisoned without reason it was founded may be best seen from the opening
(ISSd), and at the beginning of the war with Austria words of its constitution: "the Christian perfection
was sent into exile. Since 1818 Salerno has for suf- of its associates obtained by the exercise of spiritual
fragans the Sees of Capacoio e Vallo, Policastro, and corporal works of charity towards the young,
Marsico Nuovo, and Nusco. The See of Acerno, especially the poor, and the education of boys to
which appears as a diocese since 1136, is united with the priesthood." The cradle of the institute may
it in perpetual administration; among its bishops truthfully be said to have been the fields of 'S'aldocco,
mention should be made of the Franciscan Antonio at that time a suburb but now an integral part of
Bonito (149:j). The archdiocese has: 155 parishes; the city of Turin. In the first half of the nineteenth
60,000 inhabitants; 600 secular priests; 2 institutes century Italy had not recovered from the disastrous
for boys and 4 for girls 11 religious houses for men and
; consequences of the false and atheistical philosophical
14 for women; and 1 Catholic daily paper. teachings brought into the country at tlie time of
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, XX (Venice, 1857); Schipa, the French Revolution. For this reason education,
Storia del principato longobardo di Salerno (Naples, 1887) DE
morality, and religion were then at their lowest ebb.
;

Renzi, La Scuola Salernitana (Naples, 1857) ; Darembbrg,

VEcole de Salerne (Paris, 1880), text and translation of the rules To save the rising generation the Salesian Society
of liygiene. was founded. In 1844 Don Bosco began to gather
U. Bbnigni. together poor and neglected boys. He found places
for them to play in, taught them Catechism and heard
—
University of Salerno. The physicians of Sa- their confessions in the open air, afterwards taking
lerno have been known since the ninth century. In them to one of the churches in the eitj', where he used
984, Adalbero, Bishop of Verdun, repaired to Salerno to say Mass for them and give them Holy Communion.
in quest of medical assistance. Fuller accounts of the These gatherings, called "Festive Oratories", became
medical school of Salerno, however, do not appear one of the most important and useful works of the
until the eleventh century. About 1 1 50, the famous institute in attracting boys. In 1845 the first night-
"Flos medicinEB scholae Salerni" was written, a collec- school was opened at Valdocco, and became a perma-
tion of hygienic and medicinal precepts in 3500 verses nent institution in the course of a year. It proved
addressed to Robert of England. Opinions differ as such a success that a second one was opened (1847) at
to the origin of the school: some hold that it was Porto Nuovo, and a third at Vanchiglia (1849). In
founded by the Benedictines of Monte Cassino, in the beginning Don Bosco, for lack of personnel, was
particular by the famous abbot, Constantine the Afri- forced to make use of the older and more advanced
can; others give it a secular origin. At any rate the pupils, setting them as teachers and monitors over the
school enjoyed autonomy; only under the Swabian others, but necessity soon forced him to form a regular
kings did the State in any way interfere with it. It is and permanent trained staff. Many of his boys, too,
uncertain wln'ther the suppression of all the schools of began to develop vocations for the priesthood, and
higher learning, ordered by Frederick II in 1224 for became clerics, whilst still continuing to assist in the
the advantage of the Studium of Naples, affected Sa- work of education. Much opposition was made to
lerno. But the same monarch, in 1231, commanded the growing institute, but Mgr. Franzoni, then Arch-
that no one should teach medicine anywhere but at bishop of Turin, took it under his protection, and even
Salerno, or practise medicine without having been ap- the king, Charles Albert, who had heard of Don
proved by the professors of Salerno in the presence of Bosco's work, became its patron, and it steadily
State officials. In 1240, again, he himself prescribed grew. It was, however, found impossible, in many
the studies. In 1252 King Conrad transferred to Sa- cases, to make a permanent impression on the char-
lerno the other faculties of Naples, which, however, acter of the boys during the short time that they were
were restored to the latter university by Manfred in under the influence of the teachers at the festive ora-
1258. A faculty of medicine was then established at tories and the night-schools. A very large number of
Naples which competed to a considerable degree with the boys had not only to earn their living, but had to
that of Salerno, which, however, was tolerably flour- learn a trade beforehand to enable them to do so.
ishing under the Angevins and, later, under the Span-
ish and Bourbon dynasties. In 1811, however, it was
—
Thus a new class of boys arose the boy-artisans—
which constituted the second division of good works in
suppressed. Of its celebrated physicians, Protocel- the rising institute.
lus, author of the "Compendium Medicinae" (1035), In 1852 the Church of Saint Francis de Sales was
Garinopontus, who compiled the " Passionarius Ga- completed and consecrated, and surrounding it large
and Bishop Alphanus, author of a treat-
leni " in 1040, schools for the students and workshops for boy-arti-
iseon the four humours, are worthy of mention. The sans began to rise. During all this time the work was
Cassinese monk Constantine does not belong to the developing, and a band of devoted and efficient teach-
Sehool of Salerno, though he did much to give a new ers slowly emerged from the chaos of evolution.
direction to its medical studies by his translations About this time Don Bosco was urged to consolidate
from the Arabic. John Afflacius, besides writing and perpetuate his work by forming a religious con-
treatises on medicine, brought the surgical art to per- gregation, and in 1857 he drew up its fir.'^t set of rules.
fection. Nicolaus Prsepositus was the author of an In the following year he went to Rome to seek the ad-
"Antidotorium", or collection of pharmaceutical rem- vice and support of his benefactor, Pius IX, and in
edies. Matthseus Plat;earius wrote a "Practica bre- 1859 he summoned the first chapter of the congrega-
'

via Ruggiero da Parma, the boldest surgeon of the

'
tion, and began the Society of Saint Francis de Sales.
 SALFORD 399 SALFORD
In 1863 and 1864 colleges were opened at Mirabello, general of the congregation died, and was succeeded
Monferrato, and Lanzo. This was a new step, as by Don Albera. The main work of the institute is the
hitherto the scope of the congregation had been al- education and training of boys divided into two classes,
most entirely restricted to the poor. In 1874 the Rule students and arti.sans. The second branch is the mis-
and Constitutions of the Society were definitively ap- sionary one, and it finds its scope principally in South
proved by Pius IX, and the Salesian Society took America and Asia. The third branch is engaged in
its place among the orders of the Church. The the education of adults for the priesthood and the
development of the order was very rapid; the first fourth is occupied in the diffusion of good Catholic
Salesian house outside of Italy was opened at Nice in literature. The order obtains its support largely from
1875. In the same year, the first band of Salesian the generosity of the Salesian co-operators, who, as a
missionaries was sent to South America, and houses third order, contribute largely for this purpose, and
were founded in Argentina and Buenos Ayres. In to whom the "Salesian Bulletin" is sent monthly, to
1876 the Salesian co-operators were organized for the keep them informed of the progress of the work in dis-
purpose of assisting in the good works of the congre- tant lands, and to urge them to greater generosity.
gation. They were enriched with many indulgences Heimduchbe, Di'' Orden u. Kongregationen, III (Paderborn,
1908) 491 sqq.; Lives of Don Bosco by Lemotne, Fbancesia,
by Pius IX. The Figli di Maria Ausiliatrice, or the d'Espinet; Bonetti, I Cinque Lustri; The Salesian Bulletin.
Sons of Mary, Help of Christians, were founded to Ernest Marsh.
assist tardy vocations to the priesthood. In 1877 the
"Salesian Bulletin", the official organ of the congrega-
Salford, Diocese of (Salpordiensis), comprises
tion, made its first appearance, its object being to in-
the Hundreds of Salford and Blackburn, in Lanca-
form the Catholic world of the good works undertaken
shire, England, and was erected 29 Sept., 1850. It
by the institute and to beg help to support them. The covers the east and south-eastern portions of Lan-
"Bulletin" is now printed in eight different languages.
cashire and embraces the manufacturing towns of
In 1877 houses were opened in Spezia, Almagro, and
Manchester, Salford, Blackburn, Oldham, Bury,
Montevideo. In 1879 missionaries were sent to Pata-
Burnley, Rochdale, etc. Its area is practically co-
gonia, and houses were opened at Na\'arre, Marseilles,
extensive with that of the ancient Catholic deanery
and Saint-Cyr (France). In 1880 the first house in
of Manchester, which was under the jurisdiction of
Spain was opened at Utrera, and in South America
the mission at Viedma, capital of the Rio Negro, was
established. In 1883 the first house in Brazil was
opened at Nichteroy, and missions were established at
Terra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands. In 1887
the first house was opened in Austria at Trent, and in
the same year the Salesians established themselves at
Battersea in London, England, and a large band of
missionaries was sent to Ecuador. On 31 January,
1886, to the great grief of the congregation, Don Bosco
died at the age of seventy-two. His successor, Don
Rua, continued and developed the work of the congre-
gation, and many more houses were opened in France,
Spain, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, and South America.
In 1889 houses were established in the Holy Land and
in Africa. Between 1894 and 1911 houses have been
founded in Mexico, Tunis, Venezuela, Patagonia, Lis-
bon, Bolivia, Colombia, Paraguay, Montpelier, Cape
The Protestant Cathedral, Manchester
Town, England, ChiU, San Salvador, Peru, India, and
A XV-centuiy Catholic Church with additions made in the
China. The first mission opened in the United States XIX Century
was at San Francisco in 1898. There are now two in
that city, and another at Oakland on the other side of the rector or dean, but its title was taken from Salford
the bay. In New York there were two missions instead of Manchester to avoid offending Protestant
opened respectively in 1898 and 1902. A college was susceptibilities, as an Anglican See of Manchester
opened at Troy in 1903, but transferred (1908) to had been erected in 1847. The Apostohc Letter
Hawthorne, Westchester County, in the State of New of Pius IX, which divided the Lancashire District
York. into the two Sees of Liverpool and Salford, allotted
Although the real object of the Salesian Society to Salford the Hundred of Leyland in addition to
is the Christian education of the young, especially those of Blackburn and Salford, but a papal Brief
of the poorer and middle classes, it does not refuse dated 27 June, 1851, transferred to Liverpool the
any work of charity for which it has suitable members. Hundred of Leyland which included the important
In carrying out its principal work, instead of the old Cathohc town of Preston.
punitive or repressive system, it adopts the preventive The Hundred of Blackburn, covering the north-
one, thus promoting confidence and love among the western portion of the diocese, extends twenty-four
children, instead of fear and hatred. The success of miles east to west, and fourteen miles north to south.
thismethod is seen from the number of vocations In the chequered history of the Church following
drawn from its ranks. The young aspirants are im- on the religious changes of the sixteenth century
bued with the Salesian spirit even before joining the it had, with Salford, a long roll of recusants and mar-
congregation. One year is spent in the novitiate, af- tyrs for the Faith. The ruins of Whalley Abbey,
ter which triennial vows are taken before the tyro is a thirteenth-century Cistercian foundation, still
admitted to his final profession. The growth of the bear their silent witness. Its abbot, John Paslew,
congregation may be seen from the fact that it con- was hanged outside its walls in 1537 for taking part
tams about 320 houses, distributed into 34 provincial- in the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536; and the property
ates, of which 18 are in Europe, and the remaining 16 was seized for the use of Henry VIII. The first
in America. The houses in Asia and Africa belong to post-Reformation chapel in Blackburn was opened
liiuropean provinces. There has been no diminution in 1773, and in Manchester in 1774. In 1843 the
except in France, where most of the houses were sup- Rev. James Sharpies, rector of St. Alban's, Blackburn,
P'i^ssed during the regime of persecution under Combes. was consecrated Bishop of Samaria and appointed
Ihe houses in Portugal were left untouched during the coadjutor to Bishop Brown, the first vicar Apostolic
late change of government. In 1910 the second father for the Lancashire District. He built at Salford St.
 SALIMBENE 400 SALIMBENE
John's Church, which was opened in 1S48 and which vest", a monthly publication, is its official organ.
subscqufntly became the cathedral for the diocese. Orphanages for girls, institutions for the aged and
Dr. Sharjiles died 16 Aug., 1850, and the first Bishop poor under the Little Sisters of the Poor, night shel-
of SaUord in the restored hierarchy was Rt. Rev. ters for homeless girls under the Sisters of St. Vin-
William Turner (1790-1872). He was succeeded in cent de Paul, the Sisters of St. Joseph in connexion
1872 by the Rt. Rev. Herbert Vaughan (1832-1903), with the Rescue Society, sisters who nurse the poor
whose episcopate was remarkable for its energy, or- in their own homes, the Sisters of the Good Shep-
ganizing ability and initiation of works to meet the herd who seek to reclaim the fallen, Nazareth
rapid growth and development of the diocese. On his House, industrial schools for boys under the Brothers
transference to Westminster in 1892, the Rt. Rev. of the Christian Schools, and Brothers of Mercy, and
John Bilsborrow (1836-190.3) was consecrated third for girls under the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul; all
bishop. The Rt. Rev. Louis Charles CasarteUi, D.D., these manifest an untiring activity in ameUorating the
M.A., Litt.Or.D., the fourth bishop, was born in 1852, lot of the poor, the forlorn and the sick.
and ordained priest in 1876. He was closely asso- The Catholic Federation and other Organizations. —
ciated with Cardinal Vaughan in the foundation of Drastic educational legislation proposed by the
St. Bede's College, Manchester, in 1876, and was government in 1906 and the imperative need for the
rector of it when he was nominated bishop in 1903. organization of Catholic forces led to the formation
Bishop CasarteUi is widely known as a writer on of the Catholic Federation by Bishop CasarteUi in
Oriental subjects, was a professor at Louvain, and has 1906. Its primary object is the defence of purely
always been very active in the theologico-literary field. CathoUc interests, in which equality of treatment for
The Rt. Rev. John S. Vaughan, D.D., Bishop of Catholic schools largely predominates. The official
Sebastopolis, was elected auxihary bishop in 1909. organ is the "Catholic Federationist", which was
Population. —
The Catholic population is estimated first issued in Jan., 1910, and is used by the tjishop
at about 300,000, and this is largely a growth of the as a vehicle to convey his "message" on current
latter half of the nineteenth century. Although questions.
Catholic memories and traditions lingered in Lan- Other societies are: a local branch of the Catholic
cashire long after the Reformation, in 1690 only two Truth Society, the parent society of which was re-
Catholics were enrolled on the Manchester Poll organized by Cardinal Vaughan when Bishop of
Book. Ten years later, thirteen Catholic families, Salford in 1884; the School of Social Science; the
according to the returns of the Bishop of Chester, Society of St. Vincent de Paul; the Ladies of Charity;
existed in the parish of Manchester with its area of the Catholic Needlework Guild; the CathoKo Boys'
sixty square miles. In 1775 the number of Catholic Brigade; the CathoUc Philharmonic Society; and the
baptisms in Manchester was thirty-two, whilst the CathoUc Women's League, with its notable offshoot
congregation of 8t. Chad's Catholic Chapel, which "The Mothers' and Babes' Welcome".
had been opened in 1774, was estimated at 500. A Almanac for the Diocese of Salford (Salford, annually since
1877); Snead-Cox, Life of Cardinal Vaughan. vol. I (London,
survey made for the statistical society of the various 1910); O'Dea, The Story of the Old Faith in Manchester (Man-
Sunday schools in Manchester and 8alford in 1836 chester, 1910); Gerard, Stonyhurst College. Centenary Record
returned the number of Catholic schools as ten, with (Belfast, 1894) (jtRUGGEN and Keatinge, History of Stonyhur.^l
;

College (London, 1901) Smith, Chronicles of Blackburnshire

an attendance of 4295 scholars. Similar small ;

(Nelson, 1910) ; Cdblet, The Catholic Hist, of Oldham (Oldham,

beginnings were witnessed in the Blackburn Hundred. 1911).
In 1793 there is record of twenty-six Catholic bap- W. O'Dea.
tisms for Blackburn. The number of Catholics in
the town in 1804 was estimated at 745, and in 1819 Salimbene degli Adami (Ognibenb), chronicler,
the number had increased to 1200 for the town and b. at Parma, 9 Oct., 1221; d. probably at Monte-
district. falcone about 1288. He was a member of a distin-
—
Missions am! Priests. At the present time there guished family and about 1238 entered the Franciscan
are in the diocese 138 pubKc churches and chapels, Order. For a time he led a very troubled and wan-
4S convents and private chapels, and 10 chapels of dering life, as his father sought to withdraw him from
institutions in which Mass is said. The secular the order by violence. At a later date he was for a
clergy number 235, and in addition there are 86 regu- long while in the monasteries at Florence, Parma,
lars belonging to the Benedictines, Friars Minor, Ravenna, Reggio, and Montefalcone. He came
Dominicans, Premonstratensians, Jesuits, Missionary into close connexion with many scholars of his age,
Fathers of St. Joseph, and the Congregation of the and was also acquainted with Pope Innocent IV
Divine Pastor. and the Emperor Frederick II. Besides various
—
Education. A chain of efficient Catholic elemen- treatises that have been lost he wrote, towards the
tary schools links up the compulsory secular instruc- end of his life, a chronicle covering the years 1167-
tion with the CathoUc rehgious teaching given in 1287. This chronicle was first edited in the "Monu-
them. 55,000 children are on the rolls of the 140 menta historica ad provincias Parmensem et Placen-
Catholic schools, with their 263 departments and a tinensem pertinentia", III (Parma, 1857), but the
teachmg 1591 Cathofic teachers.
staff of A
training part issued only covered the years 1212-87. The
college residential female teachers, conducted
for first part of the chronicle, covering the years 1167-
by the Order of the Faithful Companions of Jesus, 1212, was edited by L. C14dat in his work "De fratre
adds to the completeness of the organization for ele- SaUmbene et de eius cbronioae auctoritate" (Paris,
mentary education. For secondary or higher educa- 1878). A fine and complete edition was edited by
tion there are 18 schools and colleges. Stonyhurst, Holder-Egger in "Mon. Germ. Hist.: Scriptores",
the great Jesuit college, is the successor of the College XXXII (Hanover, 1906). Besides a poor Itahan
of St. Omer, which was founded by Father Robert translation by CantareUi there is an incomplete one
Parsons, S.J., in 1592 and transferred to Lancashire in English by Coulton with the title "From Francis
on 29 Aug., 1794. to Dante" (London, 1906). The chronicle is one
Worlc.'i of Charity.—One of the great works of Car- of the most useful sources of the thirteenth century
dinal \'aughan during his Salford episcopate was the for the political history of that time and is also an
founding of the Catholic Protection and Rescue animated picture of the era; it is of especial impor-
Society in July, 1886. The object was to protect tance for the history of the internal disputes in the
and save the destitute CathoUc child whose Faith Franciscan Order. The writer it is true is a very
was in danger. 6569 boys and girls have passed impulsive and easily influenced man, is swayed by
through its homes during the years 1886-1911, and the prophecies of Joachim of Fiore, is inclined to be
its annual expenditure exceeds £4000. The "Har- a partisan, espeeiaUy against the secular clergy, yet
O
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 SALISBURY 401 SALMANTICENSES

at the same time he shows sound historical sense, is his death in 1557. Peto was again nominated, but
an inteUigent critic, and regards it as the chief object did not take possession, and Francis Mallet was
of his historical writing to present the exact truth. named, but ejected by Elizabeth before consecration.
Michael, Salimbene und seine Chronik (Innsbruck, 1889); The cathedral was dedicated to Our Lady.
PoTTHAST, Bibliotheca historica medii mvi (Berlin, 1896), 994. BsiTTON, Hist, and Antiquities of Halisbury (London, 1814)
Patricius Schlager. DODSWORTH, Historical Account of the See and Cathedral Church
ofSarum (London, 1814); Cass, Lines of the Bishops of Sher-
Salisbury, Ancient Diocese of (Sartim, Saris- borne and Salisbury (Salisbury, 1824) Phillipps, Institutiones
—The diocese was originally founded by
;

clericorum in comitatu Wiltoniw (n. p., 1825); Rock, Church of

BURiENSis).
Our Fathers (London, 1849-53); Scott, Salisbury Cathedral:
St. Birinus, who in 634 estabhshed his see at Dor- position of high altar (London, 1876) : Jones, Fasti Ecclesice
chester in Oxfordshire, whence he evangeUzed the Sarisburiensis (Salisbury, 1879-81); Idem, Salisbury in Dio-
cesan Histories (London, 1880)
Kingdom of Wessex. From this beginning sprang ; Idem, Charters and documents
illustrating the history of the Cathedral, etc., of Salisbury in R. S.
the later Dioceses of Winchester, Sherborne, Rams- (London, 1891); White, Salisbury: the Cathedral and See
bury, and Salisbury. In the time of Bishop St. (London, 1896) ;Wordsworth, Ceremonies and processions of
Cathedral Church of Salisbury (London, 1901).
Headda (676-705) the see was moved to Winchester,
and on Headda's death (705) a formal division took Edwin Burton.
place, when the greater part of Wiltshire with por-
tions of Dorset and Somerset were formed into the Saliva Indians, the principal of a small group of
Diocese of Sherborne of which St. Aldhelm became the tribes constituting a distinct linguistic stock (the
firstbishop. Ten bishops in turn succeeded St. Ald- Salivan), centring in the eighteenth century, about
helm before the next subdivision of the see in 909, when and below the junction of the Meta and Orinoco, in
Wiltshire and Berkshire became the separate see of Venezuela, but believed to have come from farther
Ramsbury, restricting the Diocese of Sherborne to up the Orinoco, about the confluence of the Guaviare
Dorsetshire only. The arrangement continued until in Colombian territory. They were of kindly and
the two dioceses were again united in 1058 under Her- sociable disposition, and especially given to music,
man, who had been made Bishop of Ramsbury in 1045. but followed the common barbarous practice of
He hved to transfer his episcopal chair to Old Sarum killing the aged and feeble. They disinterred the
in 1075. His successor, St. Osmund, built a cathedral bones of the dead after a year, burned them, and
there and drew up for it the ordinal of offices, which mixed the ashes with their drinking water. In their
became the basis of the Sarum Rite (q. v.) It was the ceremonies they blew upon the batuto, or great clay
seventh Bishop of Sarum, Richard Poore, who deter- trumpet common to the tribes of the region. A
mined to remove the cathedral from the precincts of grammar of their language was composed by the
the royal castle of Old Sarum to a more convenient spot. Jesuit Father Anisson. In 1669 the Jesuit Fathers
On 28 April, 1220, he laid the foundation stones of Monteverde and Castan estabhshed the first mission
the present cathedral, beginning with the Lady chapel in the tribe, under the name of Nuestra Senora de
which was consecrated on 28 Sept., 1225. Among los Salibas, but both dying within a year the Indians
those present was St. Edmund, afterwards Arch- again dispersed to the forest. In 1671 other Jesuit
bishop of Canterbury, and at this time treasurer of missions were established in the same general region,
Salisbury. The cathedral was completed in 1266, at Cariohana, Sinamco and San Lorenzo, together
having taken nearly half a century to accomplish. with a small garrison of twelve soldiers at the first-
It stands alone among English cathedrals in having named station, but were all destroyed by two succes-
been built all of a piece, and thus possesses an archi- sive invasions of the savage Carib from below in 1684
tectural unity which is exceptional; it is also remark- and 1693. In these two attacks four priests lost
able as being the first important building in the early their lives, together with the captain of the garrison,
Enghsh style. The cloisters and chapter house were his two sons, and others. Forty years later the mis-
shortly added; the spire regarded as the most beauti- sions were restored, the principal one, of the Saliva,
ful in Europe is one of the loftiest in the world, and being estabhshed in 1734 at Carichana on the Orinoco,
was a later addition, the exact date of which is un- just below the junction of the Meta. Its founder was
known; probably built by 1300. The diocese was Father Manuel Roman, superior of the Jesuit missions
divided into four archdeaconries: Sahsbury, Berkshire, of the Orinoco, and discoverer of the Casiquiare con-
^\'iltshire, and Dorsetshire. In the "Valor Eoclesias- nexion with the Amazon. The tribe numbered at that
ticus" of 1535, over 800 parish churches are recorded. time about 4000 souls, only a small part resided at the
From the translation of the see to Salisbury the mission. was visited and described by Humboldt
It
bishops were: Old Sarum: Herman, consecrated in 1800. Another Saliva mission, San Miguel de
1058, removed the cathedral to Sarum, 1075; St. Macuoo, on the Meta, had at one time 900 souls.
Osmund, 1078; vacancy, 1099; Roger, 1103; Jo- On the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767-68 the Orinoco
celm, 1142; vacancy, 1184; Hubert Walter, 1189; missions were placed in charge of Franciscan fathers,
Herbert Poore, 1194; New Sarum: Richard Poore, but fell into decline. The revolutionary war and the
1217; Robert Bingham, 1229; Wilham of York, withdrawal of help from the Spanish Government com-
1247; Giles de Bridport, 1257; Walter de la Wyle, pleted their ruin. The mission property was seized, the
1263; Robert de Wykehampton, 1274; Walter Indians scattered, and the tribe is now virtually extinct.
Scammel, 1284; Henry de Braundeston, 1287; Brinton, ATnerican Race (New York, 1891) GiLn, Saggio di
;

Hilliam de la Corner, 1289; Nicholas Longesp^e, Storia Americana, IV (Rome, 1784); Gumilla, .Ei Orinoco Ilus-
Irado y Defendido (Madrid, 1745, 1882) Hervas, Catdlogo de las
;

1292; Simon of Ghent, 1297; Roger de Mortival, Lenguas, I (Madrid, 1800) Humboldt, Trawls in the Equatorial
;

1315; Robert Wyville, 1330; Ralph Erghum, 1375; Regions of America, ed. BOHN (3 vols., London, 1881); Rivero
John Waltham, 1388; Historia de las Misiones de Casanare, etc. (1735, 1883) Tavera-
;

Richard Mitford, 1395; AcosTA, Anales de Guayana, I (Ciudad-Bolivar, 1905).

Nicholas Bubwith, 1407; Robert Hallam, 1408; James Mooney.
John Chandler, 1417; Robert Neville, 1427; Wilham
Ayscough, 1438; Richard Beauchamp, 1450; Lionel Salmanticenses and Complutenses. These —
VVoodville, 1482; Thomas Langton, 1485; John names designate the authors of the courses of Scholas-
Dlythe, 1494; Henry Deane, 1499; Edmund Audley, tic philosophy and theology, and of moral theology
1502; Lorenzo Campegio, 1524. In 1534 Cardinal published by the lecturers of the philosophical col-
^anipegio was deprived of the temporalities and lege of the Discalced Carmelites at Alcald, de Henares,
Nicholas Shaxton was schismatically intruded into and of the theological college at Salamanca. Al-
the see. On Campegio's death, Peter Peto (after- though primarily intended for the instruction of the
wards cardinal) was nominated but never consecrated. younger members of the order, these colleges, being
Under Mary, the schismatioal bishop, John Capon incorporated in the Universities of AlcaM (Com-plu-
(or Salcot)
was reconciled and held the see till tum) and Salamanca, opened their lecture rooms also
XIII.— 26
 SALMAS 402 SALMERON
to outsiders. During the Middle Ages the Carme- baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist, and extreme
lites,with some notable exceptions, had gone hand unction. The fourth edition (Madrid, 1709) under-
in hand with the Dominicans in the matter of Scholas- went considerable revision on account of the new
tic teaching as against the Franciscan and Augus- Decrees of Innocent XI and Alexander VH. It was
tinian schools; it was therefore natural that in the augmented by a disquisition on the "Bull Crucial a"
sixteenth century they should maintain their old of Jose de Jesus-Maria, published by Antonio del
allegiance as against the Jesuits. Consequently SS. Sagramento. Andres de la Madre de Dios (d.
they made strict adherence to Thomism then- funda- 1674) wrote "De sacramento ordinis et matrimonii"
mental principle, and carried it out with greater con- (Salamanca, 1668), "De censuris", "De justitia",
sistency than probably any other commentators of and "De statu rehgioso", with all cognate matters.
the neo-Soholastic period. Although the names of Sebastian de San Joaquin (d. 1714), the author of two
the several contributors to the three courses are volumes on the Commandments, did not live to see
on record, their works must not be taken as the views his work through the press. Hence it was completed
or utterances of individual scholars, but as the ex- and published by Alonso de los Angeles, who had
pression of the official teaching of the order, for no also put the last hand to the course of dogmatic
question was finally disposed of without being sub- theology. St. Alphonsus Liguori esteemed the moral
mitted to the discussion of the whole college, and in theology of the Salmanticenses; he nearly always
case of difference of opinions the matter was decided quotes them approvingly and follows their lead,
by vote. By this means such uniformity and con- though on rare occasions he finds them somewhat
sistency were obtained that it could be claimed that too easy going. Lehmkuhl complains that they are
there was not a single contradiction in any of these not always accurate in their quotations.
immense works, although nearly a century elapsed Henricus a SS. Sacramento, CoUectio scrip, ord. carmel.
excclc. (Savona, 1884), passim; Huhter, Nomenctator.
between the publication of the first and the appear-
B. Zimmerman.
ance of the final instalment. At the beginning the
lecturers contented themselves with writing their
Salmas, a Chaldean see, included in the ancient
quaterniones, many of which are still extant. But
Archdiocese of Adhorbigan, or Adherbaidjan; we
at the beginning of the seventeenth century the
know several Nestorian bishops of the latter, from
publication of a complete course was decided upon.
the fifth to the seventh centuries (Chabot, "Syno-
The "Logic", written by Diego de Jesiis (b. at dicon orientale", 665), and in the Middle Ages (Le
Granada, 1570; d. at Toledo, 1621) appeared at Quien, "Oriens christianus", II, 1283), also some
Madrid, 1608, and was re-written by Miguel de la Jacobite bishops (Le Quien, op. cit., II, 1565). At
SS. Trinidad (b. at Granada, 1588; d. at Aleald,
a date which is not quite certain, but which goes
1661), in which form it was frequently printed in
back at least to the end of the eighteenth century
Spain, France, and Germany. Nearly all the re-
(Guriel, "Elementa linguae chaldaicse", Rome,
maining philosophical treatises were the work of
1860, p. 206), the Chaldean Catholic Archdiocese of
Antonio de la Madre de Dios (b. at L^on, 1588;
Adherbaidjan formed one with that of Salmas, and
d. 1640). The whole work was then re-cast by Juan since then it has continued to exist. The diocese
de la Anunciaci6n (b. at Oviedo, 1633; general from
contains 8000 faithful, 10 priests, 13 parishes or
1694 to 1700; d. 1701), who also added a supplement.
stations, and 12 churches or chapels. The seminary
It appeared at Lyons in 1670 in five quarto volumes,
is at Ourmiah; the Sisters of Charity direct the
under the title, " CoUegii Complutensis Fr. Discalc.
primary schools. The town and Province of Salmas
B. M. V. de Monte Carmeli Artium cursus ad
in the Persian Adherbaidjan are rich in marble,
breviorem formam coUeotus et novo ordine atque
orchards, and vineyards.
faciliori stylo dispositus". It superseded all previous Revue del' Orient Chrllien, 1,450; Miss.calhol. (Rome, 1907), 814.
editions and various supplements, such as the S. VAILri.
" Aletaphysica in tres lib. distincta" (Paris, 1640) by
the French Carmelite, Blasius k Conceptione. Antonio Salmeron, Alphonsus, Jesuit Biblical scholar,
de la Madre de Dios laid the foundation of the b. at Toledo, 8 Sept., 1515;
d. at Naples, 13 Feb.
dogmatic part of the Salmanticenses by publishing, 1585. He studied literature and philosophy at
in 1630, two volumes containing the treatises "De Alcald, and thereafter went to Paris for philosophy
Deo uno", "De Trinitate", and "De angelis". He and theology. Here, through James Lainez, he met
was succeeded by Domingo de Sta Teresa (b. at St. Ignatius of Loyola; together with Lainez, Faber,
Alberca, 1600; d. at Madrid, 1654), who wrote in and St. Francis Xavier he enlisted as one of the first
1647 "De ultimo fine", "De beatitudine, etc.", and companions of Loyola (1536). The small company
"De peocatis". Juan de la Anunciaci6n, already left Paris, 15 Nov., 1536, and reached Venice, 8 Jan.,
mentioned, contributed "De gratia", "De justifica- 1537, and during Lent of that year went to Rome.
tione et merito", "De virtutibus theologicis", "De He delivered a discourse before the Holy Father
Incarnatione", "De sacramentis in communi", and was, in return, granted leave to receive Holy
and "De Eucharistia". He left the first volume of orders so soon as he should have reached the canoni-
"De pcenitentia" in manuscript. It was revised cal age. About 8 Sept., all the first companions
and continued by Antonio de S. Juan-Bautista, who, met at Vicenza, and all, save St. Ignatius, said their
dying at Salamanca in 1699, was unable to carry it first Mass. The plan of a pilgrimage to the Holy
through the press. The work was therefore com- Land was abandoned. Salmeron devoted his minis-
pleted by Alonso de los xlngeles (d. 1724) and Fran- try in Sienna to the poor and to children. On 22
cisco de Sta Ana (d. at Salamanca, 1707). This April, 1541, he pronounced his solemn vows in St.
last volume, the twelfth, appeared in 1704. The Paul's-Outside-the-Walls, as a professed member
Salmanticenses have ever been held in the highest of the newly-established Society of Jesus. The
esteem, particularly at Rome where they are consid- autumn of that year, Paul III sent Salmeron and
ered <• standard work on Thomistic scholasticism. A Broet as Apostolic nuncios to Ireland. They landed,
new edition, in twenty volumes appeared in Paris by way of Scotland, 23 Feb ., 1 542 Thirty-four days
.

as late as 1870-83. An abridgment (two large vol- later they set sail for Dieppe and went on to Pans.
umes, in folio) for the use of students was published For two years Salmeron preached in Rome; his ex-
b^' Pablo de la Concei)ci6n (general from 1724 to position of the Epistle to the Ephesians thrice a
1730; d. at Granada, 1734). week in the church of the Society effected much
The moral theoloKy of the Salmanticenses was be- good (1545). After preaching the Lent at Bologna,
gun in 1665 by Francisco de Jesiis-Maria (d, 1677), he went with Lainez to the Council of Trent (18
with treatises on the sacraments in general, and on :\Iay, 1546) as theologian to Paul III. The Dogma
 SALOME 403 SALT

of Justification was under discussion. The two entitled, "Alfonsi Salmeronis Toletani, e Sooietate
Jesuits at once won
the hearts and respect of all; Jesu Theologi, Commentarii in lEvangelicam His-
their discourses had to be printed and distributed to toriam et in Acta Apostolorum, in duodecim tomos
the bishops. Both set out for Bologna (14 March, distributi" (Madrid, 1598-1601). The first Cologne
1547) with the Council. After serious sickness at edition, together with the second (1612-15), are
Padua, Salmeron once again took up his council found complete. These voluminous commentaries
work. The next two years were in great part spent are the popular and university expositions which
in preaching at Bologna, Venice, Padua,
and Verona. Salmeron had delivered during his preaching and
On 4 Oct., 1549, Salmeron and his companions, teaching days. In old age, he gathered his notes
Le Jay and Canisius, took their doctorate in the together, revised them, and left his volumes ready
University of Bologna, so that they might, at the for posthumous publication by Bartholomew Perez
urgent invitation of de Nueros. Grisar (Jacobi Lainez Disputationes
William IV of Bavaria, Tridentinae, I, .53) thinks that the commentary on
^^P$*^^^
*^ -^g,,l
accept chairs in In-
golstadt. Salmeron
Acts is the work of Perez; Braunsberger (Canisii
epist.. Ill, 448) and the editors of "Monumenta
^--
^^:j\ undertook to inter-
pret the Epistle to the
Romans. He held the
Historica iS. J." (Epistolae Sahneron, I, xxx) disagree
with Grisar. The critical acumen of Salmeron, his
judicious study of the Fathers and his knowledge of
i^H attention of all by his
learning and grace of
Holy Writ make his Scriptural exegesis still worth
the attention of students. He was noted for his
JX'flM exposition. Upon the devotion to the Church, fortitude, prudence, and
^^^^g^KAa E^ya^^B
'•^^^-M-Xs.^ ^^MbK death of Duke Wil- magnanimity. The Acts of the Council of Trent
and at the insti- show that he wielded tremendous influence there by
^^al
—
= =
BSH^^BL
^^^^Bb
^^T i3r ""V'
liam,
gation of the Bishop his vola on justification, Holy Eucharist, penance,
of Verona, much to the purgatory, indulgences, the Sacrifice of the Mass,
^^— ^"^3^^H ^H^f .^k
chagrin of the faculty matrimony, and the origin of episcopal jurisdiction
fe^^M ^^T' •
S i

of the Academy of In- — all most important questions because of the gradual
B^lii'i golstadt, Salmeron was infiltration of some heretical ideas into a small
returned to Verona minority of the hierarchy of that time.
IJiifc (24 Sept., 1550). That Monumenta hist. Societatis Jesu, epistolce P. Alfonsi Salmeron
(Madrid, 1906); Ribadeneira, La vida y muerte del P. Alonso
year he explained the Salmeron (Madrid, 1605) ; Astrain, Hist, de la Compafiia de
AlFONSTJS Saimeron Gospel of St. Matthew. Jesiis (Madrid, 1902-05), I, 11; Idem, Los Espafioles en el
Next year (1551) he Conoilio de Trento in Bazdn y Fe, III and IV; Tacchi Venturi,
"ffiui SpcS/u- Storia delta Compagnia di Gesii in Italia (Rome, 1910); Sommer-
j
was summoned
to VOGEL, Biblioth^que de la Compagnie de J&sus (Paris, 1896-1900),
Rome
to help St. Ig- VII, 478 and IX, 835; Polanco, Chroniron breve seu synopsis
natius in working up the Constitutions of the Soci- rerum gestarum Societatis Jesu ah initio usque ad annum 1549 in
Monum. hist. S. J. (Madrid, 1900).
ety. He was soon (Feb.,
Other work was in store. Walter Drum.
1551) sent down
to Naples to inaugurate the Soci-
ety's first college there, but after a few months was
summoned by Ignatius to go back to the Council
—
Salome. (1) The daughter of Herod Phihp and
Herodias (Matt., xiv, 6-8; Mark, vi, 22; cf. Josephus,
of Trent as theologian to Julius III. It was during "Antiq. Jud.", XVIII, v, 4), at whose request John
the discussions preliminary to these sessions that the Baptist was beheaded.
Lainez and Salmeron, as papal theologians, gave their
(2) One of the holy women present at the Cruci-
rata first. When
the Council once again suspended fixion, and who visited the tomb on the morning of
its Salmeron returned to Naples (Oct.,
sessions, the Resurrection (Mark, xv, 40; xvi, 1). In Mark
1552). Paul IV sent him to the Augsburg Diet XV, 40, we read: "And there were also women looking
(May, 1555) with the nuncio, Lippomanus, and thence on afar off: among whom was Mary Magdalen, and
into Poland; and later (April, 1556) to Belgium. Mary the Mother of James the less and of Joseph, and
Another journey to Belgium was undertaken in the Salome." The parallel passage of Matthew reads
capacity of adviser to Cardinal Caraffa (2 Dec, thus: "Among whom was Mary Magdalen, and Mary
1557). Lainez appointed Salmeron first Provincial the mother of James and Joseph, and the mother of
of Naples (1558), and vicar-general (1561) during the sons of Zebedee" (Matt., xxvii, 56). Comparison
the former's apostolic legation to France. The of the two gives a well-grounded probability that the
Council of Trent was again resumed (May, 1562) Salome of the former is identical with the mother of
and a third pontiff, Pius IV, chose Salmeron and
the sons of Zebedee in the latter, who is mentioned
Lainez for papal theologians. The role was very also in Matt., xx, 20 sq., in connexion with the peti-
delicate; the Divine origin of the rights and duties Beyond these references
tion in favour of her sons.
in the Gospel narrative and what may be inferred
of bishops was to be discussed. During the years
1564-82, Salmeron was engaged chiefly in preaching
from them nothing is known of Salome, though sorne
and writing; he preached every day during eighteen
writers conjecture more or less plausibly that she is
Leaten seasons; his preaching was fervent, learned,
the sister of the Blessed Virgin mentioned in John, xix,
and fruitful His writings during this long period were
.
25.
voluminous; Bellarmine spent five months in Naples James F. Driscoll.
reviewing them. Each day he pointed out to Sal-
meron the portions that were not up to the mark, and Saloniki. See Thessalonica.
the next day the latter brought back those parts Salt, always used for the seasoning of food and
corrected. for the preservation of things from corruption, had
The chief writings of Salmeron are his sixteen from very early days a sacred and religious character.
volumes of Scriptural commentaries eleven on the — The Prophet Eliseus employed it to make palatable
gospels, one on the Acts, and four on the Pauline the waters of a well (IV Kings, ii, 19 sqq.). The ,

•I'Pistles. Southwell says that these sixteen volumes Orientals used it to cleanse and harden the skm of
were printed by Sanchez, Madrid, from 1597 till a new-born child (Ezech., xvi, 4); by strewing salt
1d02; m
Brescia, 1601; in Cologne, from 1602-04. on a piece of land they dedicated it to the gods; m
^OMservogel (Bibliothfeque de la C. de J., VII, the Jewish Law it was prescribed for the sacrifices and
479) has traced only twelve tomes of the Madrid the loaves of proposition (Lev., ii, 13). In Matt.,
edition—the eleven of the Gospels and one of the V, 13, salt symbolizes wisdom, though perhaps
i^auline originally it had an exorcistic signification. Its use
commentaries. The Gospel volumes are
 SALTA 404 SALT LAKE
in the Church belongs exclusively to the Roman belonged to it until 1891, when Leo XIII erected
Rite. The Ritual knows two kinds of salt for litur- the See of Saltillo with jurisdiction over the entire
gical purposes, the baptismal salt and the blessed State of Coahuila.
salt. The former, cleansed and sanctified by special This see has a seminary, with 20 students; 26 paro-
exorcisms and i)rayers, is given to the catechumen chial schools; 10 Cathohc colleges, among these
before entering church for baptism. According to that of St. John Xepomucene; they have altogether
the fifth canon of the Third Council of Carthage it 3000 pupils, both bo^'s and girls. The Protestants
would seem that salt was administered to the cate- have 10 colleges with 781 pupils, and 33 churches.
chumens several times a year. This use of salt is In the capital, Saltillo, the present cathedral, which
attested by St. Augustine (Conf., I. 1, c. xi) and by was the former parish church, is worth}' of mention.
John the Deacon. St. Isidore of Seville speaks of it The city of Parras de la Fuente, with a population
(De off., II, xxi), but in the Spanish Church it was of 7000, is also notable. It owes its name to the
not universal. The other salt is exorcized and blessed wild grape vines found there by the Conguistadores.
in the preparation of holy water for the Asperges D. Antonio Martin of Sapata, and Fray Agustin de
before high Mass on Sunday and for the use of the Espinosa, who founded the city there, 18 Feb., 1.592.
faithful in their homes. The present formula of During the Spanish domination it was the residence
blessing is taken from the Gregorian Sacramentary of the Jesuit Fathers, who gave many missions and
(P. L., LXXVIII, 231). Both baptismal salt and cared for the towns of the famous Laguna. The
blessed salt may be used again without a new bene- modern city of Torre6n is the most populous of the
diction. The appendix of the Roman Ritual has state; nevertheless it counts but few religious ele-
a blessing of salt for the use of animals and another in ments.
honour of St. Hubert. The Roman Pontifical orders NoRiEG.A., Geografia de la Republica Mexicana (Mexico, 1898).
salt to be blessed and mixed in the water (mixed in Camillus Crivelli.
turn with ashes and wine) for the consecration of a
church. This is also from the Gregorian Sacramen- Salt Lake, Diocese of (Lacus Salsis), includes
tary. Again salt (not specially blessed) may be used the State of Utah, and slightly more than half of the
for purifying the fingers after sacred unctions. State of Xe\'ada. The State of I'tah (with the excep-
Dl-tHLsxE, C'/iri.s/i..» Worsfiii, (London, 1904), .317, 331, 410. tion of a rectangular piece in the extreme north-
Fka.n'Cis AIershman. east corner, included within the boundary lines of
\\'\'oming), forms a parallelogram, which has a length
Salta, Diocese of (Saltexkis), comprises the civil of 350 miles north and south, and an extreme width of
Provinces of Salta and Juju>' in the northern part of nearly 300 miles. Embraced within the boundaries
the Republic of Argentina. It was created on 17 Feb- of the state is a total area of 84,970 square miles, of
ruarv, 1807, the territory being taken from the ancient which 2,780 square miles is water surface, leaving a
Didcesc of C6rdoba del Tucumdn. Until l.sOS it com- land area of 82,190 square miles. Nevada has a total
prised also the civil Provinces of Tucumdn, Santiago area of 110,701) square miles and of this area 71,578
del Estero, and Catamarca, which have recently been square miles belongs to the Diocese of Salt Lake, viz.,
detached to form new dioceses. The first Bishop of the Counties of Elko, Lander, Eureka, White Pine,
Salta was Xicoliis Videla del Pino, who was succeeded Lincoln, and X'ye, a group of counties in the eastern
by Fray Buenaventura Rizo Patron, Monsignor Pablo part of the state. This westerly boundary of the dio-
Padilla y Bdrcena, and the present bishop, Mgr. JMatias cese, beginning at the extreme north-west corner of
Linares y Sanzetenea. The diocese possesses a hand- Elko County on the state Une between Nevada and
some cathedral and seminary, and conducts a private Oregon and two miles west of 117° W. long., follows
printing plant which issues a Catholic daily paper, south along a line parallel to this meridian for a dis-
"Tribuua popular". Religious orders of men are tance of one hundred miles to the Battle Mountains,
represented by the Redemptorists, who de\'ote them- when it turns abruptly to the west, along the north-
selves to giving missions, the Fathers of the Divine erly slope of these mountains for a short distance, and
A\'ord, the Canons Regular of the Lateran, the Sale- then follows a south-westerly line to a point a little
sians, who are in charge of the schools, and one con- south of 40° X. lat. From here it continues south
sent of Franciscans subject to the Congregation of along an irregular line, skirting the western slope of
Propaganda. The Sisters of the Good Shepherd, of the Shoshone Range, and thence, by an abrupt turn
the Garden of Olives, of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, and to the left, along a line parallel to the boundary be-
Franciscan Tertiaries devote their time to teaching, tween Nevada and California, it goes back to 117' \V.
hospital work, and visiting the sick in their own long., which it again closely follows across the Ralston
homes. and Amargosa deserts to the southern boundary of the
Julian Toscaxo. state. This part of the diocese lies within the Great
Basin, except an area of about 12,000 square miles
Saltillo, Dkicese of (Saltillensis), in the Re- located in the extreme southerly end, the drainage
public of Mexico, suffragan of Linares, or Monte- from which flows into the Colorado River.
rey. Its area is the same as that of the State of Bounded on the north by the States of Wyoming,
Coahuila (03,728 sq. miles!, and its population Idaho, and Oregon, on the west by the western part
(1910), 3.37,6.52. The city of Saltillo (.51!tO feet of Xe\'ada, on the south by California and Arizona,
above the sea-level) is the jirincipal residence of the and on the east bv Colorado, the Diocese of Suit
bishoji and of the Governor of the State of Coahuila, Lake extends from'l09° to 117' W. long., and from
and. according to abo\-e census, has a population of 35° to 42° X. lat. This is an immense territory,
3.5,0(i:'.. This city was founded in 1.')7.t by Francisco sparsely settled, made up of mountains, deserts,
LTrdiiiola, and inhabited by the Huachichiles and sheep ranges, arable valleys, and alluvial lands.
Borrados Indians of the country, and by Tlaxcaltecas The Catholic population is found largely in mining
brought by the Spanisli. The Franciscan Father camps, along railroad sections, in Salt Lake City,
Antlres de Leon was one of the first missionaries Ogden, and Park City. The region embraced by the
in this territory in the sixteenth century. In 1827 diocese is overwhelmingly Mormon. In 1886 all the
the name of Sultillo was changed to Ciudad Leona territory now included within the boundaries of the
\'icario, in honour of the celebrated Mexican heroine dioce.se constituted a vicariate Apostolic, and the
of that name, but the original name always prevailed. Rev. Lawrence Scanlan, the missionary then in charge,
The Franciscan Fathers of the Province of Jalisco was raised to the episcopate and the vicariate com-
had eight missions in Coahuila, which, in 1777, mitted to his care. In 1891 the vicariate Apostouc
formed part of the See of Linares, or Monterey, ancl was erected into a diocese, and the Right Rev.
 SALTO 405 SALUZZO

Lawrence Scanlon, D.D., fixed his see permanently Keane, Central and South America, I (London, 1909) Mul- ;

HALL, Handbook of the River Plate Republics (London, 1893) DfAZ,

at Salt Lake City.
The history of Catholicism in Hist, lie las RepHb. de la Plata (Montevideo, 1878); Publications of
;

Utah and Nevada practically began when, early in the Direccidn de estadislica general (Montevideo, current) Brys-
;

1873 Father Scanlan settled in Salt Lake City as

SEL, La republique orientate de V Uruguay (1S39) Handbook of
;

Uruguay: International Bureau of the American Republics (Wash-

pastor of a little parish in the city, and missionary ington, 1892 and 1909) Bauza, Hisloria de la dominacidn espaHola
;

priest over all Utah and more than half of Nevada. en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1880).
Before his appointment the pioneer priests. Fathers
Raverdy, E. Kelly, James Foley, and Patrick A\'alsh, Salutati, Coluccio di Pierio di, Italian Humanist,
visited or resided for a brief period in Salt Lake City. b. in Tuscany, 1331; d. 4 May, 1406. He studied
When Father Scanlan took charge, there was only at Bologna and went to Rome to begin his career as.
one small church in the great territory. To-day the pontifical secretary to Urban IV. He had a passion
statistics of the Church in this region are estimated : for ancient letters and from 1368 was in correspon-
Catholic population, Utah and six Nevada counties, dence with Petrarch. In 1375 he was summoned to
20,000; parishes, 9; missions and stations, 33 paro- ;
Florence to be chancellor or Latin secretary for the
chial and missionary priests, 21; Marist Fathers, 10; repubhc, which office he held until his death. Hc'
Sisters of the Holy Cross, 108; Sisters of Mercy, 12. immediately became a frequent attendant of the
All diocesan and parochial property is vested in the learned meetings which were held at the Convent of
bishop, who holds it in trust for the people. The San Spirito and gathered about Luigi de' Marsiglii,
Cathedral of St. Mary Magdalen, Salt Lake City, theologian and Humanist (d. 1394), and at the Villa
dedicated in August, 1909 by Cardinal Gibbons, is Paradiso of the Alberti. Salutati's life was filled
one of the greatest ecclosia.stical structures west of the chiefly by political and administrative matters; thus
Missouri River. The bishop, as pastor of his large he was led to write several works against the Duke of
parish, is assisted by five curates, who visit the Milan. Among his works arc short treatises, "De
Catholic institutions of the city, preside at the cate- fato et fortuna", "De rehgione et fuga sseculi"; the
"
chism classes and direct the sodalities of the Holy only one printed is " De nobilitate legum et medicin;e
Angels, the Sacred Heart, the Children of Mary, (Venice, 1542); but the most interesting portion of
and the Altar Society. his works is his correspondence, a learned edition of
Inslitutions. —
All Hallows College, Salt Lake City; which was published by Novati; " Epistolario " (Rome,
founded by Bishop Scanlan in 1886; conducted by the
Marist Fathers (Very Rev. Dr. Guinan, president),
1891 ).— Salutati's manuscripts are rather rare in
libraries because taste changed suddenly with regard
has an annual attendance of 200 pupils, taught by to Latin style, ^neas Sylvius (Pius II) said that he
1.5 professors; St. Mary's Academy, Salt Lake City; may have had merit in his time, but that mod"rn
conducted by 33 sisters of the Society of the Holy writers had obscured him. As early as 1401 Leonardo
Cross (Sister Alexis, superior"), annual attendance, Bruni of Arezzo exactly depicted the Florentine circle
250 Convent of the Sacred Heart, Ogden, sisters,
; in his dialogue and represented Salutati as an old man
23; pupils, 230; Kearns St. Ann's Orphanage, of another generation.
Salt Lake City, orphans 160, cared for by 10 sisters Salutati's activity was exercised under two espe-
of the Holy Cross Judge Mercy Hospital, Salt
; cially fruitful forms: he received and guided young
Lake City, conducted by Sisters of Mercy, Holy men very well; Poggio was treated by him as his son;
Cross Hospital, Salt Lake City, under the care of he protected Bruni, and welcomed with enthusiasm
Sisters of the Holy Cross the Sisters of the Holy
; Manuel Chrysoloras, whose arrival at Florence in 1 396
Cross have charge of the parish schools at Salt Lake was the great event of the Renaissance at the end of
City, Ogden, Park City, and Eureka. In nearly the fourteenth century. He used his influence to se-
all the parishes and in all the houses of education, the cure Chrysoloras a pension of 100 florins a year, and,
League of the Sacred Heart, and Sodalities of the old as he was, he took up a course in Greek. On the
Children of Mary and of the Holy Angels are flour- other hand he devoted himself to seeking for Latin
ishing. MSS; in 1375 he secured from Verona a copy of Catul-
Salpointe, Soldiers of the Cross; Howlett, Life of Rt. Rev. lus which is still one of the standard texts of the poet
Joseph P. Machebeuf; de Smet, Letter published in Precis His-
toriques (Brussels, 19 Jan., 18.58) ; Chittexden, Father De Smet's (now in Paris, Bib. Nat., Latin 14137). He was also
Life and Travels among the North American Indians; Hahris, The in possession of Petrarch's Propertius, and the best and
Catholic Church in Utah.
1ff_ R. HaeRIS. most ancient MS. of Tibullus (Ambrosianus) was alsa
probably in his library Petrarch was only acquainted
.

Salto, Diocese op (Saltensis), in Uruguay, suf- with a collection of Cicero's letters, comprising the
fragan to Montevideo. This diocese with that of letters to Atticus and Quintus and the correspondence
Melo was erected by Pope Leo XIII by his Brief of between Brutus and Cicero. While endeavouring to
19 April, 1897, on the petition of the Bishop of Monte- recover Petrarch's copy Salutati stumbled upon an-
video and with the consent of the Uruguayan Gov- other collection in 1389, that known as the "Familiar
ernment. Montevideo was raised to the archiepisco- Letters"; in 1392 he was able to have Petrarch's MS.
pal rank and two titular bishops were named to assist copied at Milan, and this copy is now the chief author-
the new archbishop. However, owing to unfavour- ity for the text. He was the first to possess Cato's
able political conditions, no appointments to the new treatise on agriculture, the elegies of Maximianus, the
sees have yet been made (December, 1911). Tlie "Aratea" of Germanicus, and the commentary of
Diocese of Salto comprises the north-western portion the grammarian, Pompeius, on Donatus. Provided'
of the Republic of Uruguay (see the Ecclesiastical with these means of study he was able to take up^
Map South America in Catholic Encyclope-
of questions of literary history. Lie proved that the
dia, III), including the departments of Rio Negro, treatise "De differentiis " was not Cicero's. He
Paysandu, Salto, Artigas, and Tacuaremb6, with an dealt with the problem of the Octavia, but here he
of 2.5,700 square miles and a population of about shot wide of the mark. To him we owe the distinc-
?n?,^
197,000 inhabitants. The town of Salto (population tion, now long admitted to be incorrect, between Sen-
12,000) is situated on the Rio de la Plata opposite eca the tragedian and Seneca the philosopher.
Concordia in Argentina. It has a large export trade, Sabbadini, Le scoper/e <fci codicilatini e grecinesecoliXIV^ XV"
and is in communication with both Montevideo and (Florence, 1905), 34; Voigt. Die Wiederbelebung des classischen
AUertums, I (BerUn, 1893), 190; Sandys, A History of Classical
Buenos Aires, by boat and rail. Paysandii (popula- Scholarship, 11 (Cambridge, 1908), 17. Paul LejAY.
tion 16,000) is also a busy commercial centre, the
neighbouring region being extensively devoted to Saluzzo, Diocese of (Saluci^, Salutibnsis),
stock-raising. It contains a hospital and two in the Province of Cuneo, Piedmont, Upper Italy.
churches. The city of Saluzzo is built on a hill overlooking a
 SALVADO 406 SALVATIERRA
vast, well-cultivated plain. Iron, lead, silver, marble, Receiving the habit of the Jesuit Order in Genoa
slate, etc. are found in the surrounding mountains. he sailed for Mexico in 1675, and on arriving in that
The cathedral (1480-1511), half-Gothic, contains a country continued his theological studies for a time,
magnificent high altar, and is rich in sculptures. The after which he was assigned to u. professorship in
church of St. Bernard, formerly belonging to the the college of Puebla. Dechning a position in the
Conveptuals, has interesting tombs of the counts cathedral, he received permission to devote himself
della Torre; the Church of St. Dominic contains to the conversion of the Indians and, in June, 16S0
sc\-(;ral artistic tombs, especially that of the Marquess set out for the still unconquered and defiant Taru-
Lodovico II and his spouse (1504), and the chapel mari (q. v.) in the wild mountain defiles of south-
of the Holy Sepulclire. St. Augustine's and St. western Chihuahua. Among these, and their neigh-
Bernardino's are also worthy of note. The present bours, the Tubar, Guazaar, and others, he laboured
town hall is the former Jesuit College, while the older for ten years, establishing or having charge of several
one (14G2), with a bold tower, is utilized by the Court missions, baptizing whole bands, winning the affec-
of .Vssizes. It was the birthplace of Silvio Pellico, tion of the wild tribes, and, alone, holding them quiet,
typographer Bodoni, Abate Denina, and Malcarne the when all around were in murderous revolt. In 1690
anatomist. Saluzzo was a town of the Vagienni, or he was appointed visitador or inspector of the Jesuit
mountain Liguri, and later of the Salluvii. This missions of the north-western district. Soon after-
district was brought under Roman control by the wards, through conversations with the missionary
Consul 'SI. Fulvius. In the Carlovingian era it be- explorer. Father Eusebio Kino, he conceived an
came the residence of a count; later, having passed intense desire for the evangelization of Lower Cali-
to the marquesses of Susa, Manfredo, son of Marquess fornia, for which undertaking official authority was
Bonifacio del Vasto, on the division of that prin- finally granted in 1697, all expense to be at the cost
cipality became Marquess of Saluzzo; this family of the missionaries. In the organization and later
held the marquisate from 1142 till 1548. The mar- conduct of the work his chief collaborator was Father
quisate embraced the territory lying between the Juan Ugarte. The contributions for this purpose,
Alps, the Po, and the Stura, and was extended on by generous donors, formed the basis of the his-
several occasions. In the Middle Ages it had a toric fondo piadoso, or Pious Fund, of California
chequered existence, often being in conflict with pow- (q. v.), for so many years a subject of contro-
erful neighbours, chiefly the Counts of Su\oy. versy with the republican government of Mexico.
Tommaso III, a vassal of France, wrote the ro- 'With one small boat's crew and six soldiers Salva-
mance "Lc chevalier errant" Ludovico (1416-75) tierra landed 15 October, 1697, at Concepcion Bay,
was a wise and virtuous prince. Ludovico II con- on the east coast of the peninsula, and a few days later
structed a tunnel, no longer in use, through the founded the first of the California missions, which
Monviso, a remarkable work for the time, ^^'ith he dedicated to Our Lady of Loreto, his special pa-
the help of the French he resisted a vigorous siege troness through life. For a time he acted as priest,
by the Duke of Savoy in 1486, but in 1487 yielded captain, sentry, and cook, besides studying the lan-
and retired to France where he wrote "L'art de la guage from a vocabulary prepared by an earlier Jesuit
chevalerie sous Vegece" (1488), a treatise on good visitor. Father Juan Copart, and from the natives
government, and other works on military affairs. who could be induced by presents to come near. In
He was a patron of clerics and authors. In 1490 the course of the next few years he founded six
he regained power. .Vfter long struggles for inde- missions, successfully overcoming all difficulties. He
pendence, this small state was occupied (1548) by the also made some important explorations. In 1704,
French, as a fief of the Crown. In 1588 Carlo Em- being summoned to Mexico, he was appointed provin-
manuele I of Savoy took possession of it. Thence- cial, but when accepting the office requested that he
forward the city shared the destinies of Piedmont with might soon again be permitted to take up his mis-
which it formed "one of the keys of the house" sion work. This was granted; in 1707 a successor
of Italy. Saluzzo was formerly part of the Diocese was appointed, and Father Salvatierra returned to
of Turin. Julius II in 1511 made it a diocese im- his mission charge, where he remained until sum-
mediately dependent on the Holy See. The first moned in 1717 to Mexico to confer with the new
bishop was Gianantonio della Rovere, who after viceroy. Despite a painful infirmity he set out,
eight months resigned in favour of his brother but the fatigue so aggravated his disorder that he
Sisto, later a cardinal. Other bishops were: Filippo was obliged to stop at Guadalajara, to which place
Archinti (1546), a celebrated jurisconsult; the Ben- he insisted on being carried in a litter rather than
edictine Antonio Picoth (1583) a learned and pious turn back. Says the Protestant historian Bancroft:
man, founder of the seminary; he was succeeded by "It was thus that the apostle of Cahfornia made his
St. Giovenale Ancina (1597-1604) of the Oratory last earthly journey. For two long months he tossed
of St. Philip, the apostle of Corsica; Francesco upon his deathbed, suffering extreme agony. Then,
Agostino della Chiesa (1G42); Carlo Gius. Morozzo feehng that his end was near, he summoned the faith-
(1698), who had built the high altar of the cathedral. ful Bravo to his side, confided to him the particulars
The diocese, since 1805, has been suffragan of Turin; of mission affairs, and empowered him to represent
it contains 91 parishes with 170,000 inhabitants; Cahfornia at the capital. On the 17th July, 1717,
300 secular and 30 regular priests; 31 reUgious houses; he died, as he had lived, full of hope and courage.
4 institutes for boys and 3 for girls; and has a Catho- The whole city assembled at his funeral, and the
lic newspaper. remains were deposited amidst ceremonies rarely
C'APPELLETTi, Lc CMese d'ltalia, XIV; Cahutti, II Mar-
chesato di Sahiz:o: Gabotto, I, marchesi di Saluzzo (Saluzzo,
seen at the burial of a Jesuit missionary, in the chapel
I90l>-
U. Benigni. which in former years he had erected to the Lady of
Loreto. Salvatierra's memory needs no panegyric.
Salvado, Rudesindus. See New Norcia. His deeds speak for themselves; and in the light of
Salvatierra, Juan M.^ria, b. at Milan, 15 Novem- these, the bitterest enemies of his religion or of his
ber, 1648; d. at Guadalajara, 17 July, 1717. His order cannot deny the beauty of his character and
family was of Spanish origin, the namebeing written the disinterestedness of his devotion to California.
originally Salva-Tierra. While pursuing his studies His most important writings are: "Cartas sobre la
at the Jesuit college of Parma, he accidentally came Conquista espiritual de Calif omia " (Mexico, 1698);
across a book upon the Indian missions. It so "Nuevas Cartas sobre lo mismo" (Mexico, 1699);
iinpressed him that he at once determined to give and his "Relaciones" (1697-1709) in "Documentos
his life to the same work, although his parents had para la Historia de Mexico" (4th series, Mexico,
destined him for marriage with a lady of high rank. 1853-7).
 SALVATION 407 SALVATION
Aleghe, Hist, de la Compa-fiia de Jesiis (3 vols., Mexico, 1841); in the treatises on the sources of revelation, on grace,
Bancroft, Hist. North Mexican States and Teras, I (San Fran- on the Church, on the sacraments, and on the last
cisco, 1886) Beristain t Souza, Biblioteca Hispano Americana
:

Sdentrional, III (Amecameca, 1883); Glebson, Hist. Catholic things.

Church in Culi.fomia (2 vols., San Franciaco, 1872) Venegas,
Noticia de la California, y de su conquista temporal y espiritual
;
C. Christ as Priest. —The ordinary priest is made
Madrid, 1757) imperfect translations in English (Lon- God's own by an accidental unction, Christ is consti-
(3 vols.. ;

don, 1759), Frencii (Paris, 1767), German, and Dutch.

tuted God's own Son by the substantial unction with
James Mooney. the Divine nature; the ordinary priest is made holy,
though not impeccable, by his consecration, while
Salvation, in Greek in Hebrew yeshu-
cwr-qpla, Christ is separated from all sin and sinners by the
ah, has in Scriptural language the general meaning of hypostatic union; the ordinary priest draws nigh unto
liberation from straitened circumstances or from God in a very imperfect manner, but Christ is seated
other evils and of a translation into a state of freedom at the right hand of the power of God. The Levitical
and security (I Kings, xi, 13; xiv, 45; II Kings, xxiii, priesthood was temporal, earthly, and carnal in its
10; IV Kings, xiii, 17). At times it expresses God's origin, in its relations to God, in its working, in its
help against Israel's enemies, at other times, the Di- power; Christ's priesthood is eternal, heavenly, and
vine blessing bestowed on the produce of the soil spiritual. The victims offered by the ancient priests
(Is., xlv, 8). As sin is the greatest evil, being the were either hfeless things or, at best, irrational ani-
root and source of all evil. Sacred Scripture uses the mals distinct from the person of the offerer; Christ
word "salvation" mainly in the sense of liberation of offers a victim included in the person of the offerer.
the human race or of individual man from sin and its His living human flesh, animated by His rational
consequences. We shall first consider the salvation soul, a real and worthy substitute for mankind, on
of the human race, and then salvation as it is verified whose behalf Christ offers the sacrifice. The Aaronic
in the individual man. priest inflicted an irreparable death on the victim
Salvatiox of the Human Race. We need not
I. — which his sacrificial intention changed into a religious
dwell upon the possibility of the salvation of man- rite or symbol; in Christ's sacrifice the immutation of
kind, or upon its appropriateness. Nor need we re- the victim is brought about by an internal act of Hia
mind the reader that after God had freely determined will (John, X, 17), and the victim's death is the source
to save the human race. He might have done so by of a new life to himself and to mankind. Besides,
pardoning man's sins without having recourse to the Christ's sacrifice, being that of a Divine person, car-
Incarnation of the Second Person of the Most Holy ries its own acceptance with it; it is as much of a gift
Trinity. the Incarnation of the Word was the
Still, of God to man, as a sacrifice of man to God.
most fitting for the salvation of man, and was
means Hence follows the perfection of the salvation
even necessary, in case God claimed full satisfaction wrought by Christ for mankind. On His part Christ
for the injury done to him by sin (see Incarnation). offered to God a satisfaction for man's sin not only suf-
Thoughtheofficeof Saviour is really one,
virtually it is ficient but superabundant (Rom., v, 15-20); on God's
multiple: there must be an atonement
for sin and part supposing, what is contained in the very idea of
damnation, an estabhshment of the truth so as to man's redemption through Christ, that God agreed to
overcome human ignorance and error, a perennial accept the work of the Redeemer for the sins of man,
source of spiritual strength aiding man in his struggle He was bound by His promise and His justice to grant
against weakness and concupiscence. There can be the remission of sin to the extent and in the manner
no doubt that Jesus Christ really fulfilled these three intended by Christ. In this way our salvation has
functions, that He therefore really saved mankind won back for us the essential prerogative of the state
from sin and its consequences. As teacher He es- of original justice, i. t;., sanctifying grace, while it will
tablished the reign of truth; as king He suppUed restore the minor prerogatives at the Resurrection.
strength to His subjects; as priest He stood between At the same time, it does not at once blot out indi-
heaven and earth, reconcihng sinful man with his vidual sin, but only procures the means thereto, and
angry God. these means are not restricted only to the predestined
A. Christ as Teacher. —
Prophets had foretold Christ or to the faithful, but extend to all men (I John, ii, 2;
as a teacher of Divine truth: "Behold, I have given I Tim., ii, 1-4). Moreover salvation makes us co-
him for a witness to the people, for a leader and a heirs of Christ (Rom., viii, 14-17), a royal priesthood
master to the Gentiles" (Is., Iv, 4). Christ himseU (I Pet., ii, 9; cf. Ex., xix, 6), sons of God, temples of
claims the title of teacher repeatedly during the the Holy Ghost (I Cor., iii, 16), and other Christs
course of His pubhc hfe: "You call me Master, and Christianus alter Christus; it perfects the angelical
Lord; and you say well, for so I am"
(John, xiii, 13; orders, raises the dignity of the material world, and
cf. Matt., xxiii, 10 John, iii,
; 31 ) The Gospels inform
. restores all things in Christ (Eph., i, 9-10). By our
us that nearly the whole of Christ's pubhc life was de- salvation all things are ours, we are Christ's, and
voted to teaching (see Jesus Christ). There can be Christ is God's (I Cor., iii, 22-23).
no doubt as to the supereminence of Christ's teaching;
even as man, He is an eyewitness to all He reveals;
II. Individual Salvation. — The Council of Trent
describes the process of salvation from sin in the case
His truthfulness is God's own veracity; His authority of an adult with great minuteness (Sess. VI, v-vi) It
.

IS Divine; His words

are the utterances of a Divine begins with the grace of God which touches a sinner's
person; He has the personal power to prove His heart, and calls him to repentance. This grace can-
teaching by miracles; He can internally illumine and not be merited; it proceeds solely from the love and
move the mmds of His hearers; He is the eternal and mercy of God. Man may receive or reject this in-
inhnite wisdom of God Incarnate Who cannot deceive spiration of God, he may turn to God or remain in sin.
and cannot be deceived. Grace does not constrain man's free will. Thus as-
—
B Christ as King. The royal character of Christ
was foretold by the Prophets, announced by the an-
sisted the sinner is disposed for salvation from sin;
he believes in the revelation and promises of God, he
Rels, claimed by Christ
Himself (Ps. ii, 6; Is., ix, 6-7; fears God's justice, hopes in his mercy, trusts that
i'Zech., xxxiv,
23; Jer., xxiii, 3-5; Luke, i, 32-33; God will be merciful to him for Christ's sake, begins
John, xviii, 37). His royal functions are the founda- to love God as the source of all justice, hates and de-
tion, the expansion
and the final consummation of the tests his sins. This disposition is followed by justifi-
Kingdom of God among men. The first and last of cation itself, which consists not in the mere remission
these acts are personal and visible acts of the king, of sins, but in the sanctification and renewal of the
put the intermediate function is carried out either inner man by the voluntary reception of God's grace
invisibly, or by
Christ's visible agents. The practi- and gifts, whence a man becomes just instead of un-
just, a friend instead of a foe and so an heir according
cal working of
the kingly office of Christ is described
 SALVATORIANS 408 SALVE
to hope of eternal life. This change happens either Latus", "Ad Pectus", "Ad Cor", "Ad Faciem"
by reason of a perfect act of charity elicited by a well (To the Feet, Knees, Hands, Side, Breast, Heart,
disposed sinner or by virtue of the S;u;rament either Face). Each canto contains five stanzas of ten
of Baptism or of Penance according to the condition lines each, except the canto 'Ad Cor", which has
of the respective subject laden with sin. The Council seven. The MSS. give many variant texts and many
further indicates the causes of this change. By the additional titles (as "To the Mouth", "Shoulders",
merit of the Most Holy Passion through the Holy "Ears", "the Scourging", "the Crowning"). Mone
Spirit, the charity of God is shed abroad in the hearts accepts only four cantos (To the Feet, Knees, Hand,
of those who are justified. Side) as original. Daniel accepts but two original
Against the heretical tenets of various times and cantos (those addressing the Feet and the Knees),
sects we must hold that the initial grace is truly but not their titles, which he believes of later coinage.
gratuitous and supernatural; that the human will re- He thinks the oldest text is found in a Lichtenthal
mains free under the influence of this grace; that man MS. (fifteenth century) containing only the cantos
really co-operates in his personal salvation from sin; beginning "Salve mundi salutare" and "Salve,
that by justification man is really made just, and not salve rex sanctorum", under the "probably true"
merely declared or reputed so; that justification and title of " Planotus super passionem Domini " "Who-
sanctification are only two aspects of the same thing, ever, " he says, "reads the first hymn carefully, must
and not intologically and chronologically distinct see that it concerns the whole form of Christ suffering,
realities; that justification excludes all mortal sin and that the feet are mentioned for the sole reason
from the soul, so that the just man is no way liable to that the poet places himself at the foot of the cross,
the sentence of death at God's judgment-seat. Other prostrate and embracing the feet of the Sa\-iour.
points invoh-ed in the foregoing process of personal The second poem, also, deals with the Passion gen-
salvation from sin are matters of discussion among erally, and only once, and passingly, alludes to the
Catholic theologians; such are, for instance, the pre- knees." He attributes both the titles and the elab-
cise nature of initial grace, the manner in which grace orations to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
and free will work together, the precise nature of the when the devotion to the Five Wounds was growing.
fear and the love disposing the sinner for justification, "Then the verses of Bernard ofTered convenient
the manner in which sacraments cause sanctifying warps or threads in which might be interwoven the
grace. But these questions are treated in other arti- woof of devotion to the wounds singly. The first
'

'

cles dealing ex professo with the respect i\e subjects. lines of the cantos are: 1. Salve mundi salutare
The same is true of final perse\'erance without which (,Vd Pedes); 2. Salve .Jesu, Rex sanctorum (Ad
personal salvation from sin is not permanently se- Genua); 3. Salve Jesu, pastor bone (Ad Manus);
cured. 4. Salve Jesu, summe bonus (Ad Latus); 5. Salve,
What has been said applies to the salvation of salus mea, Deus (Ad Pectus) 6. Summi regis cor
;

adults; children and those permanently deprived of aveto (Ad Cor); 7. Salve caput cruentatum (Ad
their use of reason are saved by the Sacrament of Faciem).
Baptism. In St. Bernard's "Opuscula" (Venice, 149.5), the
A number of questions briefly touched upon in this article are seventh canto is addressed "To the Whole Body", and
more fully treated under the respective headings throughout the
volumes of the Calhuli'r El'r'/rhj/>f>lt<i. Wilhelm and Scannell, commences: "Salve Jesu reverende" Julian gives
Manual of Catholic Theologu. II (London, 1S98), 4.J-56, lSl-20.), the first lines of some translations (by non-Catholics)
2ir,-r,6: Hunter, Outlines of Dogmntic Theology (New York, of all the cantos except three and five, and remarks
1896), II, 539 sqq.; HI, 112-12. A\\ the modern theological
works on Redemption and Justification. Among the older works that "some of the parts have suffered from neglect",
may bo mentioned: Lombard, II, disf. 26-29, with Commen- and that "this should be remedied by an able trans-
tnrii'^ of .St. Thomas, Saint Bona venture, and Estius; III, dist.
lator" In the second edition of the "Diet, of
1-22, with Commfii/arief< of Saint Bonaventure, Saint Thom\w,
.Sc<->Trs, DcNis THE Carthusian, and Estius; .Saint Thom\s,
Hymnology", he refers to the translation of Mrs.
Summa, I-II, QQ. cix-cxiv, with Commerdaries of Sylvius, E. M. Shapcote (a convert to Catholicism) and gives
GoxET, GoTTi, BiLLUART, SuAREZ, Vasquez; Idem, Summa, the date as 1873. This was published first in the
III, QQ. i-li, with Commentaries of Medina, Sylvius, Goxet,
Salmanticenses, Valentia, Tanner, Vasquez, Lugo, Ragusa, "Rosary Magazine" (1877 and 1878) and republished
SuAREZ. by Burns and Gates, London, 1879; its title is: "A
A. J. Ma.^S. Rhythmical Prayer to the Sacred Members of Jesus
Hanging upon the Cross". The stanzaio form is
Salvatorians. See Divine Saviour, Society of
that used by Mrs. Shapcote in one of her latest works
THE.
("Mary, the Perfect Woman", Manresa Press, 1903),
Salve Mundi Salutare, a poem in honour of the and may be illustrated by the first stanza of canto
variousmembers of Christ on the Cross. X fifteenth- 5 (To the Breast)
century MS. ascribes it to St. Bonaventure, and O God of my Salvation, hail to Thee;
Daniel thinks that this "inspired singer of the Cross" O Jesus, Sweetest Love, all hail to Thee;
could well have composed it. The commonest O Venerable Breast, I worship Thee;
ascription is to St. Bernard; and Trench thinks O Dwelling-place of Love, I fly to Thee,
that this and other poems "were judged away from With trembling touch adore and worship Thee.
him on \-ery slight and insufficient grounds by Mabil- A different arrangement of the poem, found in
lon", who places the hymn among the spurious Horst's "Paradisus animse christianae" (1644), hag
(nlicna ft suppositilia) works of the saint (P. L., been translated by Canon Oakeley (18.50), and (prob-
CLXXXn', 1.319-24). Although the saint died ably) by W. J. Copeland. The first lines of both are
in 1153, and no MS. of the hymn antedates the given by Julian. The paucity of Catholic transla-
fourteenth century, Daniel favours the ascription tions is doubtless due to the fact that the hymn ap-
of two of the cantos to the saint. Monc judged the pears never to have been in liturgical use. However,
hymn of Frenc^h origin, and declared that all hope of the Roman Breviary hvmn "Jesu dulcis amor meus"
restoring the text correctly lay in the future discovery (Lauds of the feast of the Most Holy Winding Sheet
of French MSS. This task was attempted by M. of Our Lord, assigned to Friday after the second
Haureau ("Poemes latins attribues a Saint Bernard", Sunday in Lent) is made up of lines taken, with some
1800, pp. 70-73), who, finding it in only three MSS. alterations, from widely separated cantos. This
(two in Paris, one at Grenoble), all of the fifteenth short poem contains five stanzas of the type: "Jesu,
century, thinks it incredible that the hymn should amor meus" (1. 36); "Ac si prcesens sis,
dulcis
ha\-e been composed by St. Bernard. accedo"(1.6); " Te complector cum affectu" (1.13);
It is divided into seven cantos, headed respectively: "Tuorum memor vulnerum" (1. 15). The following
"Ad Pedes", "Ad Genua", "Ad Manus", "Ad stanzas comprise lines 8, 97, (?), 65; 321 (Salve caput
 SALVE 409 SALVE

cruentatum), 326, 328, 330; 156 (Salve latus Salva- its use in Cluny is known before the time of Peter
toris), 166,169, 170; 106, 116, (?), 40. This curiously the Venerable, who decreed (about 1135) that the
constructed hymn (the lines are here numbered as anthem should be sung processionally on certain
they are found in P. L., loc. cit.) has neither rhyme feasts. Perhaps stimulated by the example of Cluny,
nor classical quantity, while the fourth line of each or because of .St. Bernard's devotion to. the Mother
stanza is in iambic rhythm and the other three lines of God (the saint was diligent in spreading a love for
are in trochaic rhythm. Three translations are indi- the anthem, and many pilgrim-shrines claim him as
cated below. founder of the devotion to it in theu- locality), it
JDUAN, Dictionary of Hymnology (London, 1907), pp. 989 and was introduced into Citeaux in the middle of the
1697, give first liaes o( tra. from the Latin and German;
Danikl,
twelfth century, and down to the seventeenth cen-
Thesaurus hymnologicus, I, 232, and note, p. 233, declares his
view tliat all the cantos "breathe forth the heats and fires of tury was used as a solemn anthem for the Magnificat
divine love, ao that nothing could be imagined softer or sweeter", on the feasts of the Purification, Annunciation, and
II, 359, gives a canto which is, as
Mone says, an incoherent mix-
Nativity B. V. M., and for the Benedictus at Lauds
ture, IV, 224-8, gives the complete poem, with excellent notes
pp. 228-31; MoNE, Lateinische Hymiieti, I,
162-74, givea much of the Assumption. In 1218 the general chapter
critical apparatus: Trench, Sacred Latin Poetry (London, 1874), prescribed its daily processional chanting before the
gives cantos Ad Pedes and Ad Faciem, and (p. 138) says of the high altar after the Capitulum; in 1220 it enjoined
hymns attributed to St. Bernard: "If he did not write, it is
not easy to guess who could have written them; and indeed they its daily recitation on each of the monks; in 1228
bear profoundly the stamp of his mind, being only inferior in it ordered its singing "mediocri voce", together with
beauty to his prose." KdNiasFELD, Lateinische Hymnen und
Gesdnge (Bonn, 1865), 190-201, gives twelve stanzas with Ger-
seven psalms, etc., on every Friday "pro Domino
man tr.; March, Latin Hymns (New York, 1875), 144-119, Papa" (Gregory IX had taken refuge in Perugia
gives fifteen stanzas (with notes, p. 277) The hymn Jesu dulcis
.
from Emperor Frederick II), "pro pace Romana?
amor mem, tr. Caswall, in Lyra Catholica (1849)
1884): tr. Wallace, 1874; tr. Bagshawe
lateat ed.
;

in Breviary Hymns Ecclesise", etc. etc. —

the long list of "intentions"
and Missal Sequences (London, 1900), 75. indicating how salutary was deemed this invocation
H. T. Heney. of Our Lady. The use of the anthem at Com-
pline was begun, says Godet ("L'Origine liturgique
Salve Reglna, the opening words (used as a title) du 'Salve Regina' " in "Revue du clerg6 frangais",
of the most celebrated of the four Breviary anthems 15 August, 1910), by the Dominicans about 1221,
of the Blessed Virgin Mary. It is said from the First and was rapidly propagated by them. Before the
Vespers of Trinity Sunday until None of the Saturday middle of that century, it was incorporated with
before Advent. An exception is noted in Migne's the other anthems of the Blessed Virgin in the
"Diet, de liturgie" (s. v.), namely that the rite of "modernized" Franciscan Breviary, whence it en-
Chalons-sur-Marne assigns it from the Purification tered into the Roman Breviary. In Couteulx's
B. M. V. until Holy Thursday. Another variation, "Annales ordinis Cartusiensis " (Montreuil, 1901) it
peculiar to the cathedral of Speyer (where it is chanted is said (under the year 1239) that the anthem had
solemnly everyday "in honour of St. Bernard"), may been in use in that order (and probably from its
have been based on either of two legends connecting foundation) before Gregory IX prescribed its uni-
the anthem with the saint of Clairvaux. One legend versal use. The Carthusians sing it daily at Vespers
relates that, while the saint was acting as legate (except from the First Sunday of Advent to the Oc-
Apostolic in Germany, he entered (Christmas Eve, tave of the Epiphany, and from Passion Sunday to
1146) the cathedral to the processional chanting of Low Sunday) as well as after every hour of the Little
the anthem, and, as the words "O clemens, pia, O Office B. V. M. The Cistercians sang it after Com-
dulcisVirgo Alaria" were being sung, genuflected pline from 1251 until the close of the fourteenth cen-
thrice. According to the more common narrative, tury, and have sung it from 1483 until the present
however, the saint added the triple invocation for the
first time, moved thereto by a sudden inspiration.
—
day a daily devotion, except on Holy Thursday and
(3ood Friday. The Carmelites say it after every hour
"Plates of brass were laid down in the pavement of of the Office. Pope Leo XIII prescribed its recitation
the church, to mark the footsteps of the man of God (6 January, 1884) after every low Mass, together with
to posterity, and the places where he so touchingly —
other prayers a law still in force.
implored the clemency, the mercy, and the sweet- While the anthem is in sonorous prose, the chant
ness of the Blessed Virgin Alary" (Ratisbonne, melody divides it into members which, although of
"Life and Times of St. Bernard", American ed., unequal syllabic length, were doubtless intended to
1855, p. 381, where fuller details are given). It may close with the faint rhymio effect noticeable when they
be said in passing that the legend is rendered very are set down in divided form:
doubtful for several reasons: (a) the' narrative ap- (1) Salve, Regina (Mater) misericordise,
parently originated in the sixteenth century, and re- (2) Vita, duloedo, et spes nostra, salve.
lates a fact of the twelfth; (b) the silence of con- (3) Ad te clamamus, exsules filii Hevae;
temporaries and of the saint's companions is of (4) Ad te suspiramus gementes et flentes in hac
some significance; (c) the musical argument, as il- lacrymarum valle.
lustrated by Jean de Valois ("Le 'Salve Regina' dans (5) Eia ergo advocata nostra, illos tuos misericordes
I'Ordre de Citeaux" in "La Tribune de Saint-Ger- oculos ad nos converte.
va^". May, 1907, p. 109), suggests a single author (6) Et Jeaum, benedictum fructum ventris tui,
of both the anthem and its concluding words.
nobis post hoc exsilium ostende.
The authorship is now generally ascribed to Her- clemens, O pia,
mann Contractus (q. v.). Durahdus, in his "Ra- O dulcis (Virgo) Maria.
tionale", ascribed it to Petrus of Monsoro (d. about
Similarly, Notker Balbulus ended with the (Latin)
1000), Bishop of Compostella. It has also been at- sound of "E"
all the verses of his sequence, "Laus
tributed to Adh^mar, Bishop of Podium (Puy-en- tibi, Christe" (Holy Innocents'. Dreves notes that
Velay), whence it has been styled "Antiphona de
the word "Mater" in the first verse is found in no
Podio" (Anthem of Le Puy). Adh^mar was the source, but is a late insertion of the sixteenth centurv
nrst to ask permission to go on the crusade, and
the (" Analeota hymnica", L, Leipzig, 1907, p. 319). Sim-
nrst to receive the cross from Pope Urban II. "Be- ilarly, the word "Virgo" in the last verse seems to date
tore his departure, towards
the end of October, 1096, back only to the thirteenth century. Mone (Latein-
he composed the war-song of the crusade, in which
ische Hymnen des Mittelalters, 11,203-14) gives nine
iu
^^'^ ^he intercession of the Queen of Heaven, medieval hymns based on the anthem. Daniel (The-
the Salve Regina" (Migne, "Diet,
des Croisades", saurus hymnologicus, II, 323) gives a tenth. The
^- ^
Adh^mar). He is said to have asked the monks "Analecta hymnica" gives various transfusions and
ot Uuny to admit it into their office, but no trace of tropes (e. g. XXXII, 176, 191-92; XLVI, 139-43).
 SALVETE 410 SALVI
The composers adopt curious forms for the introduc- in rhythmical prose by Duffield in Latin Hymn-Writers and their
Hymns (Xew York, 1889), 162; prose translation in the {Balti-
tion of the text, for example (fourteenth century): Tnore) Manual of Prayers, 79. For some English poems on the
Salve splendor praecipue theme see Shipley, Carmina Mariana (2nd series, 68: Bridgett's
"Our Life, Our Sweetness, and Our Hope"; p. 236: Mangan's tr.
superna; olaritatis, of Karl Simrock's "O Maria Regina Misericordise"; p. 337;
Regina vincens strenue "Post Hoc Exsilium"). Liguori, The Glories of Mary, devotes
ten chapters to an ascetical commentary. Dreves, Lateinische
scelus impietatis, Hymnendicliter des Mittelalters, II (Analecta hymnica medii avi. h
Misericordise tuae Leipzig, 1907), 318, contains MSS. sources; for biographical no-
tice of Hermann Contractus, cf. ibid., 308-9. Consult also Beis-
munus impende gratis, etc. sel, Gesch. der Verehrung Marias in Deutschland wdhrend des Mit-
telalters (Freiburg, 1909), 122 aqq., 202-6, 214, 253, 272, 290, 353,
The poem has fourteen such stanzas. Another
546; Idem, Gesch. der Verehrung M.'s in D. im 16 u. 17. Jahrh.
poem, of the fifteenth century, has forty-three four- (1910), concluding chapter; Mercati, Leggende medievali sulla
line stanzas. Another, of the fifteenth century, is "Salve Regina" in Rassegna Gregoriana (Jan.-Feb., 1907), 43-5,
more condensed: many references; Daniel, Thesaurus hymrtologicus, II, 321-6;
Mone, Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters, II, 203-16; Godet]
Salve nobilis regina Uorigine liturgique du "Salve Regina" in Revue du clergS franQais
fons misericordise, etc. (15 Aug., 1910); DeValois, Le "Salve Regina" dans I'Ordre
de Citeaux in La Tribune de Sainf-Gervais (May, 1907), history of
A feature of these is their apparent preference for the the anthem and a close study, with musical illustrations, of the
briefer formula, "O clemens, O pia, O dulois Maria." plainsong; D. J., En marge d'une Antienne: Le " Salve Regina" in
The anthem figured largely in the evening devotions Tribune de Saint-Gervais (Feb. —
, 1911).

H. T. Henry.
of the confraternities and guilds which were formed in
great numbers about the beginning of the thirteenth Salvete Christi Vulnera, the Roman Breviary
century. "In France, this service was commonly hymn at Lauds of the feast of the Most Precious
known as a Salut, in the Low Countries as the Lof, in Blood, is found in the Appendix to Pars Verna of the
England and Germany simply as the Salve. Now it Roman Breviary (Venice, 1798). The office, added
seems certain that our present Benediction service has since 1735, was in some dioceses a commemora-
resulted from the general adoption of this evening tive Lenten feast, and is still thus found assigned to
singing of canticles before the statue of Our Lady, Friday after the fourth Sunday of Lent with rite
enhanced as it often came to be in the course of the of major double. Pius IX (Aug. 10, 1849) added
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the exposition it to the regular feasts of the Breviary and assigned
of the Blessed Saerament, which was employed at first it to the first Sunday of July (double of the second
only as an adjunct to lend it additional solemnity." class). In the fact that the feast was thus estab-
This highly interesting view of Father Thurston (see lished generally after the pope's return from Casta,
Bexedictidn of the Blessed S.\crament for some Faber sees "an historical monument of a \'icissitude
elaboration) is developed in his articles on the "Bene- of the Holy See, a, perpetual Te Deum for a deliv-
diction of the Blessed Sacrament" ("Month'', June, erance of the Vicar of Christ" (The Precious Blood,
July, Aug., Sept., 1901) and "Our English Benedic- p. 334, Amer. ed.). The hymn comprises eight
tion Service" (ibid., Oct., 190.5). Luther complained Ambrosian stanzas in classical iambic dimeter verse
that the anthem was sung everywhere throughout the together with a proper doxology:
world, that the great bells of the churches were rung
Summa ad Parentis dexteram
in its honour, etc. He objected especially to the words Sedenti habenda est gratia
"Queen of mercy, our Ufe, our sweetness, our hope"; Qui nos redemit sanguine,
but Daniel (II, 322) points out that the language of Sanctoque firmat Spiritu. Amen.
devotion is not that of dogma, and notes that some
Protestants, unwilling that it should disappear from
A cento, comprising stanzas i, ii, iv, viii, forms the
Lutheran churches, reconstructed it "evangelically".
hymn at Lauds in the office of the Pillar of the
Scourging {Columna Flagellationis D. N. J. C), a
He perhaps refers to a version in use at Erfurt in 1525 feast celebrated in some places on the Tuesday after
"Salve Rex seternae misericordise". The Jansenists
found a like difficulty, and sought to change the ex-
Quinquagesima Sunday; but the hymn in this case
has its proper doxology
pression into "the sweetness and hope of our life"
Caeso flagellis gloria,
(Beissel, I, 126). While the anthem thus figured
Jesu, tibi sit jugiter,
largely in liturgical and in general popular Catholic
devotion, it was especially dear to sailors. Clarke
Cum
patre et almo Spiritu
("Old andNewLightson Columbus", New York, 1893, Nunc et per saculum. Amen.
pp. 191, 237) gives instances of the singing of Salve
To the translations of Caswall, Oxenham, and
Regina by the sailors of Columbus and the Indians. Wallace, fisted in Juhan's "Dictionary of Hymnol-
The exquisite plainsong has been attributed to ogy", should be added those of Archbishop Bag-
Hermann Contractus. The Vatican Antiphonary shawe (Breviary Hymns and Missal Sequences, p.
101: "All hail! ye Holy Wounds of Christ'O,
(pp. 127-8") gi\'es the revised official or "typical" form
of the melodv (first tone). The now unofficial Donahoe (Early Christian Hymns, p. 252: "All
"Ratisbon" edition gave the melody in an ornate and hail, ye wounds of Jesus"), "S.", in Shipley's "Annus
in a simple form, together with a setting which it de- Sanctus", Part II (p. 59: "All hail, ye wounds of
scribed as being in the eleventh tone, and which is also Christ").
very beautiful. An insistent echo of this last setting is The Vesper hymn of the feast, "Festms resonent
found in the plainsong of Santeul's "Stupete gentes" compita vocibus", comprising seven Asclepiadic
(see "Recueil coraplet des hymnes etc.", Dijon, 1845, stanzas, and the Matins hymn, "Ira justa conditons
p. 174). There are many settings by polyphonic and imbre aquarum vindice", comprising six stanzas,
modern composers. Pergolesi's (for one voice, with
have been translated by Caswall (Lyra Cathohca,
two violins, viola, and organ) was written shortly pp. 83, 85), Bagshawe (loc. cit., Nos. 9.5-6), Donahoe
before his death: it is placed among his "happiest (loc. cit., pp. 249-52). The Vesper hymn was also
inspirations", is deemed his "greatest triumph in the translated by Potter (Annus Sanctus, Part I, P-
(Arundel
direction of Church music" and "unsurpas,sed in 85), and the Matins hvmn by O'Connor
purity of style, and pathetic, touching expression". Hymns, etc., 1902, No. 80), and by Henry (Sursum
Mearn's in Julian', Dirl. of Hymnohny (2nrl ed London Corda, 1907, p. 5).
1907), 991, 1588, 1697. To
the eleven translations there noted H. T. Henry.
should be added those by Bac.shawe, Bren'nn/ Hiimns and Missal
Sequences (London, 1900), 220; Donahoe, Early Christian Salvete Floras Martynim. See Qtjicumqub
Hymns (New York, 1908), 1.5.3: an excellent Hteral rhymed ver- Christum Qtjabritis.
sion by the enmpiler of Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Lon-
don, s. d.), 244: "Hail! holy Queen, Mother of Mercy, hail'". Salvi, Giovanni Battista. See Sassoferrato.
 SALVIANUS 411 SALZBURG
Salvianus, a Latin writer of Gaul, who lived in the peoples, and the last representative of Roman civili-
fifth century. Born of Christian parents, he mar- zation in Noricum was St. Severus (d. 482). He vis-
ried a pagan woman named
Palladia, who was con- ited Cucullae (Kuchel near Hallein) and Juvavum
verted together with her parents; husband and wife (Salzburg), where he found a church already es-
resolved to live thenceforth in continence. About tablished and witnessed the martyrdom of the priest-
430 Salvianus became one of the ascetics directed by abbot Maximus. His apostolate was "the last ray
Honoratus of Lerinum. Gennadius speaks of him as before utter darkness"; the whole territory was soon
a priest of the Church of Marseilles. He lived and devastated by barbarian tribes, and it was only
wrote in the South of Gaul. He was probably a na- about 700 that Christian civilization again made
tive of the Roman Germania —
of Trier, according to a its appearance. St. Rupert, Bishop of Worms,
conjecture of Hahn (De gub., VI, xiii, 72). He trav- baptized Duke Theodo of Bavaria, erected at Walder-
elled in Gaul and in Africa. In his extant writings he see a church in honour of St. Peter, and made Juvavum,
does not vet know of the invasion of Attila and the where he found the Roman buildings over-grown
battle of Chalons (451). with brambles, his episcopal seat. The cathedral
Of the numerous works mentioned by Gennadius monastery was also named after St. Peter, and
(De viris, Ixvii) there remain only nine letters and Rupert's niece, Avendrid, founded the convent of
two treatises: "Ad ecclesiam adversum avaritiam" Nonnberg. St. Boniface completed the work of
and "De gubernatione Dei" or "De praesenti judi- St. Rupert, placed the Diocese of Salzburg under
cio" The fourth is one of his most interesting let- the Primatial See of Mainz, and substituted the Bene-
ters; in it he explains to his recently-converted par- dictines for the Irish monks in St. Peter's. He had
ents-in-law the decision reached by him and his wife a dispute with their abbot-bishop Virgil concerning
to observe continence. In the ninth he justifies to the existence of the antipodes. Virgil dispatched the
Solonius his use of a pseudonym in his first writing. regionary bishop Modestus to Carinthia, of which
He issued the treatise "De ecclesia" under the name the latter became the apostle. Under Virgil the
of Timotheus; this work exhorts all Christians to valuable "Liber confraternitatum", or confraternity
make the Church their heir. The "De gubernatione book of St. Peter's, was begun.
Dei", in eight books was written after 439 (VII, x, 40). Arno, the successor of \'irgil, enjoyed the respect
He endea\oured to prove a Di\ine explanation of the of Charlemagne, who, after overthrowing the Avars,
barbarian in-\-asions. With the orthodox but depraved assigned to him as his missionary territory all the
Romans he contrasts the barbarians, infidels or Ari- land between the Danube, the Raab, and the Drave.
ans, but virtuous. This thesis places Salvianus in the While Arno was at Rome attending to some business
ranks of the Latin moralists, who from the " Ger- for Charlemagne, Leo III appointed him archbishop
mania" of Tacitus down, show to their corrupt com- over the bishops of Bavaria. When the dispute con-
patriots an ideal of justice and virtue among the Ger- cerning the delimitation of their ecclesiastical prov-
mans. The work, dedicated to Bishop Salonius, a inces broke out between Aquileia and Salzburg,
disciple of Lerinum, is unfinished and seems to have Charlemagne declared the Drave the boundary.
appeared in fragments; Gennadius knew only five The dignity of the archbishops as territorial sov-
books. ereigns must be also traced to Charlemagne. Arno
Salvianus is a careful writer, much resembling Lac- took advantage of the intellectual life at the court
tantius, but his style is strongly influenced by the of the great emperor to have manuscripts copied in
rhetoricians, and its prolixity renders it wearisome. 150 volumes, thus forming the oldest hbrary in
The same influence doubtless explains the exaggera- Austria. The efforts of Duke Wratislaus of Moravia
tion of his ideas on the necessity of giving all his to withdraw his territory from the ecclesiastical in-
goods to the Church and the antithesis of Roman cor- fluence of the Germans prepared great trouble for
ruption and German virtue. The "De gubernatione Archbishop Adalwin. Adrian II appointed Metho-
Dei" contains interesting pictures of manners, but all dius Archbishop of Pannonia and Moravia; it was
must not be taken literally. Salvianus speaks as an only when Wratislaus had fallen into the hands of
advocate and in doing so forces the tone, palliating Louis the German that Adalwin could protest ef-
what goes against his case and bringing out in the fectually against the invasion of his rights. Metho-
strongest relief all that favours it. To judge the so- dius appeared at the Synod of Salzburg, was struck
ciety of the time by his pictures is to risk making in the face, and was kept in close confinement for
mistakes. Apart from his style, Salvianus is not two and a half years. To the endeavour of the
highly cultured. He has some slight knowledge of archbishop to demonstrate to the pope the jus-
law; he is ignorant enough to attribute Plato's "Re- tice of his claims we are indebted for the im-
public" to Socrates (De gub., VII, xxiii, 101). There portant work, "De conversione Bulgarorum et
are two critical editions of his works: Halm in "Mo- Carantanorum hbellus" However, Adalwin was
numenta Germanise" (BerUn, 1877) and Pauly in compelled to release Archbishop Methodius at the
"Corpus script, ecclesiastioorum latinorum" (Vi- command of the pope. Darkness once more settled
enna, 1883). on the land, when the Magyars ravaged the great
BiEDENHEWEB, Pairologie (Freiburg, 1894), i, § 93; Teuffel, Moravian Empire; not a church remained standing
Geschichte der romischen LiteraluT (Leipzig, 1890), 465; Ebebt,
GesAichte der Lileratur des Mittelalters, I (Leipzig, 1889), 459. in Pannonia, as the bishops informed the pope, and
For a fuller and more complete bibliography of Salvianus see Archbishop Thiadmar fell in battle. Michaelbeuern
Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen &ge, Bio-
bibhographie,
was set aflame. With the crushing defeat of the
a. v. Salmen. PauL LbjaY. Magyars at Lechfeld (955) begins a henceforth un-
Salzburg, Archdiocese op (Salisbhrgensis), arrested Christian civilization in Salzburg. When,
conterminous with the Austrian crown-land of the shortly after this, Liudolf of Swabia and Conrad of
same name. The Romans appeared in the lands Lothringen rose against Otto the Great and_ induced
south of the Danube under Emperor Augustus, Archbishop Herold to become their associate, the
laid out roads, founded towns, and turned the terri-
latter was seized, blinded, deposed, and finally
tory into a province. Salzburg belonged to Nori- banished.
eum. Christianity was introduced by individual The tenth century is for Italy the smculum obscu-
colonists, and soldiers; St. Maximihan,
artisans, rum, the era of the feuds of the opposing factions of
Bishop of Laureacum (Lorch), is mentioned as the the nobiUty. In Germany, on the contrary, the epis-
nrst martyr of Noricum during the era of the perse- copate flourished, and in this prosperity Salzburg
JjJ^'ons.Although Constantino brought peace to also participated. The emperor's brother. Bishop
the Church, the
Romanized territory was subsequently Bruno of Cologne, the "bishop-maker", consecrated
exposed on all sides to the attacks of barbarian Friedrich for Salzburg, who in turn consecrated St.
 SALZBURG 412 SALZBURG
Wolfgang Bishop of Ratisbon. Friedrich declared robbed of their rich vestments, the church plate, and
the monastery of .St. Peter independent. In 996 even the buckles of their shoes. When the arch-
Archbishop Hartwik received the right to coin money; bishop complained of this treatment, a German knight
in the presence of Snint Henry II and his spouse threatened to cleave his head in twain. His dig-
Kunigunde, the archbishop consecrated the church nified bearing rendering it impossible to maintain
on the Xonnberg. \A'hon St. Hemma, Countess of his position in Salzburg, he hved an exile until
Friesach, founded the convent of Gurk in 1042, the the investiture strife was definitively settled by the
first abbess, Ita, was chosen from Nonnberg. In CaUstine Concordat of 1122. Conrad henceforth
Salzburg the noble tendencies and great principles devoted all his energy to his diocese; he replaced
of the age of Gregory VII and his immediate succes- the secular clergy at the cathedral by Augustinian
sors, aiming at the sanctification of the Church, the Canons, whose rule he himself adopted in 1122, and
success of the Crusades, the fostering of religious established a convent of canonesses. At Seckau also
life among the people, and the development of monas- he established the canons, and appointed the cele-
tic life, were always encouraged. The first arch- brated Gerhoh provost of Reichersberg. He mean-
bishop of this period was Gebhard. Three students while granted establishments to the Benedictines
had set out for Paris to study philosophy and the- (Georgenberg, Fiecht), Cistercians (Victring in Carin-
thia), Praemonstratensians (Wilten near Innsbruck).
The Church of St. Peter was also rebuilt in Roman-
esque style; while previously the monks of St. Peter's
had elected the archbishop, they abdicated this right
in favour of the canons by the agreement of 1139
between the abbot and archbishop.
In the first contest between the papacy and empire
during the Hohenstaufen period, the archbishops of
Salzburg had taken the side of the Guelphs. When,
in 11.59, Frederick I declared in favour of Victor IV,
the creature of two Ghibelline cardinals, against
Alexander Archbishop Eberhard I, Count of
III,
Hi]ipoldstein, steadily supported Alexander. Bar-
barossa left him in peaceful possession of his see until
his death. H()we\er, his successor, Conrad II, .son
of Leopold III the Pious, aroused Frederick's anger,
and died a fugitive at Admont in 1168. Barbamssa
now stood at the acme of his fortune. He opposed
to Archbishop Adalbert, son of King ^^'ladislaus II
of Bohemia, as anti-bishop Provost Henry of Berch-
tesgaden; however, at the Diet of Venice (1177)
Cathedr^l axd Archiepiscopal Palace, .Salzburg — "the last great diet of the INIiildle Ages", at which
ology; during a night spent in a forest-glade near pope and emperor exchanged embraces — it was
a spring, they confided to one another their ideals agreed that both bishops should abdicate, and that
for the future — each wished to' become a bi.shop, Conrad III of Wittelsbach should receive the archi-
and each vowe( in this contingency the foundation of
1 episcopal see, and appoint the imperial archbishop
a monastery. Their hopes were gratified: Adalbert to the See of Mainz. Through Conrad the arch-
became Bishop of Wurzburg and founded Lambach bishops of Salzburg received the rank of legate Apos-
in Upper Austria; St. Altmann of Passau founded tolic throughout the whole ecclesiastical province
Gottweig for twelve canons, who were replaced of Xoricum, and therewith the dignit.y of cardinal.
twelve years later by Benedictines from St, Blasien On Conrad's death Adalbert again succeeded to the
in the Black Forest; Gebhard founded Admont (1074) archdiocese. On account of his excessive strictness
and the Dioecsi' of Gurk (1072). These bishops he was confined in the castle of Werfen for four-
were the mainstays of the "cause of St. Peter" teen days by his own officials. When Frederick II
in Germany. They held aloof from the Synod of adopted the policy of his father in a still more exagger-
Worms to which Henry IX summoned the bishops ated form, and was consequently excommunicated by
and abbots to declare their opposition to the pope. Gregory IX, Archbishop Eberhard II of Regenshcrg
Henry therefore named an anti-bishop for Salzburg, (Switzerland) and his friend Duke Leopold VI
Bertold of Mooshurg, and Gebhard had to endure brought about the Peace of San Germano (1230).
an exile of nine years; shortly before his death he The Christian leaders met at Anagni, whither the
was able to return, and was buried at Admont (1088). archbishop also came, but the duke died on the way
His siiccessor Theimo consecrated the church and to the meeting. The archbishop consecrated the
monastery of St. Paul in Carinthia. Defeated by monastery of Lilienfeld, founded by the duke, and
the royal bishop, Bertold, he was kept in strict con- interred him there. Meanwhile the zealous arch-
finement for five years at Freisach; scarcelv had he bishop had created within his territory three new
recovered his liberty when ho joined in the crusade of dioceses to give increased efficiency to the care of
Guelph of Bavaria, was again thrown into prison, souls: Chiemsee (1216), Seckau (1218), St. Andrew's
and suffered a horrible martyrdom (1102). On the in the Lavantal (^122.5). For these dioceses also the
abdication of Henry I^^ Count Conrad I of .\bens- archbishop was not only to nominate, but also to
berg was elected archbishop; Conrad accompanied confirm and consecrate. On account of his friendly
Henry \' to Rome, when he went thither to receive relations with the emperor it is evident that he
imperial coronation. Paschal II and Henry came exercised the prerogatives of sovereignty, and is
to an agreement according to which the Church to be honoured as "the founder of the land of Salz-
should renounce all claim to the imperial fiefs, and burg". For refusing to publish the Decree of the
the einperor all claim to investiture. ^^Tien this First General Council of Lyons, which excommuni-
condition, on which the coronation was to take place cated Frederick and reheved him of his empire,
12 February, 1111, became known, the German Eberhard also incurred excommunication. '\\'hen he
bishops and even the secular nobility protested died suddenly the following year, still under the ban,
against it, fearing lest bv an onslaught on all the his body was buried in an annex of the parish-church
imperial fiefs the king should make his power abso- of Radstadt, but forty years later it was transferred
lute. The pope was held in confinement, the priests to consecrated ground in Salzburg cathedral.
 SALZBURG 413 SALZBURG
During the Austrian, and the almost simultaneous When Gregory XII was pope at Rome and Benedict
Gennan, interregna Salzburg shared in the general XIII Avignon, the cardinals of both parties,
at
confusion, and had its anti-bishop. Archbishop wishing to end the Schism, summoned the Council
Philip, Count of Ortenburg, was more warrior than of Pisa (1409). This assembly deposed both popes
cleric and steadfastly refused to accept priestly ordi- and elected Alexander V supreme pontiff, but, as
nation. In foreign politics he favoured William the earlier popes refused to abdicate, there were
of Holland, the candidate
for the throne set up by now three popes. Archbishop Eberhard III sup-
the papal party; in Austria he espoused the cause of ported the Pisan pope, John XXIII. In his affec-
Premysl Ottaar favoured by the pope. The decree of tionate care for the Church, King Sigismund asso-
Alexander IV that each bishop-elect must be conse- ciated himself with John in convening the General
crated within half a year affected Philip immediately; Council of Constance. Hus was already condemned
as he paid no attention. Bishop Ulrich of Sockau when Eberhard arrived with a large retinue; how-
was appointed in his place, and finally he himself ever, the archbishop participated in the condemnation
was excommunicated and Salzburg placed under an of Jerome of Prague. In 1428 Eberhard convened a
interdict. The people thereupon drove Philip out great provincial synod of his bishops, the superiors
and invited Ulrich to enter into possession; as, how- of religious orders, and deputies of the University
ever, the latter was unable to repay the money which of Vienna; at this assembly earher ecclesiastical
he had been compelled to borrow in Rome, he also regulations were renewed, and new measures
was expelled. He was finally able to return to adopted for the revival of ecclesiastical life. In the
Salzburg, but merely celebrated the feast of Corpus next year a provincial synod was again held. As
Christi in 1265 (which Urban IV had extended to the heresy of Wyclif and Hus threatened to infect
the whole Church the year before) and then resigned. the province, it was decreed that no one should per-
Rudolph of Habsburg brought to a close the inter- mit a heretic to preach or harbour him: on the con-
regnum. Throughout the whole series of year.s and trary, he should be denounced to the people. Dukes,
on all important occasions including the investiture counts etc. were to imprison all persons suspected of
of his sons, Albert and Rudolph, with Austria, Styria, heresy; Jews should wear a cornered hat and their
Krain, and the Wendish March (27 December, 1280), wives should carry attached to their clothing a small
.\rchbishop Frederick II of Walchen (Pinzgau) was bell.
a faithful supporter of Rudolph, and must thus be The Renaissance epoch was for Salzburg an era of
numbered among the founders of Habsburg rule in cultural decay, caused by the incompetence of the
Austria. Human inclinations and alliances are sub- territorial princes and the bad conditions of Austria
ject to rapid change. Rudolph's son, Duke Albert under Emperor Frederick IV. The first Renaissance
I of Austria, engaged in an almost uninterrupted pope, Nicholas V, sent out legates to announce the
feud for ten years with Archbishops Rudolph of jubilee indulgence, to promote a crusade against the
Hoheneck and Conrad IV of Praitenfrut. Repeatedly Turks, and to inaugurate the reform of the clergj'.
the armies stood so close to each other that "each Nicholas of Cusa on the Mosel (Cusanus), appointed
could see the white in his opponents' eyes"; several legate for Germany, held a provincial synod at Salz-
towns were demolished (Friesach). The mischief- burg (1451) in which monasteries were directed to
maker was Abbot Henry of Admont, who enjoyed return to the observance of the rule within the in-
.Albert's confidence; no sooner had this warlike cleric terval of a year. Three visitors (Abbot Martin
met death from an arrow-wound received in the von den Schotten, Abbot Laurence of Mariazell,
chase, than duke and archbishop found themselves and Prior Stephen of Melk) visited the Benedictine
on terms of peace and friendship (1297). During monasteries of Austria and Bavaria, and in about
the succeeding period German history is dominated fifty established uniform obedience to the rule.
by the conflicts of the houses of Wittelsbach and Under Archbishop Bernhard the political and eco-
Habsburg. The people of Salzburg remained true nomic depression of the archdiocese was the deepest.
to the Hab.sburgs. During the struggle for the throne Seeing the Turks ravaging the archiepiscopal lands
between Louis the Bavarian and Frederick III, in Carinthia, and the estates of his territory making
Archbishop Frederick III of Leibnitz was declared ever increasing demands and imposing taxes of
an outlaw. During the seventy years' residence various kinds, Bernhard summoned a diet in 1473
of the popes in Avignon subsequent to 1.309, the the first held in the little archiepiscopal state.
archbishops had to proceed thither to receive the He resigned his office but recalled his resignation
pallium. When, in 1347, the frightful plague known repeatedly, until finally, five years before his death,
as the Black Death swept through Salzburg, the he really abdicated. At the close of this period
Jews there were accused of poisoning the wells and Leonhard of Keutschach (d. 1519) revived religious
subjected to cruel persecution. life with astounding energy he had the burgomasters
:

In imitation of the confederated towns in Germany, and town councillors, who were imposing unjust
five towns in the territory of Salzburg formed the burdens, arrested simultaneously and confined in
Igelbund (1403). They presented to the new arch- the castle; all Jews were banished from the land.
bishop, Eberhard III of Neuhaus, an election capitu- His closing years were embittered by his suffragan
lation demanding, in an instrument which was sur- MatthEeus Lang, who, although not a priest, was
rounded with their seals as a boar (Igel) with bristles, Bishop of Gurk and cardinal, and aimed at the
the redress of their grievances (taxes). Already archiepiscopal see. Lang promised the cathedral
the Jews had been widely accused of stabbing con- chapter (monks) to effect its transformation into a
secrated Hosts, which, it was said, were subsequently chapter of secular priests, if the canons would recog-
discovered emitting blood (Lower Austria and Carin- nize him as coadjutor with right of succession. The
thia). As similar desecrations were declared to Bulls of Leo X, decreeing these changes, soon
have taken place in Salzburg, the Jews were ban- arrived. In ecclesiastical art, late Gothic ruled
ished in 1404 and a synodal ordinance declared a at Salzburg, as is gloriously demonstrated in the
little later that they should be distinguishable by a church on the Nonnberg and its crypts, the
pointed hat. During the Western Schism the atti- Margarethenkapelle in the cemetery of St. Peter,
tude of the archbishops towards the popes varied. and the Franciscan church with its magnificent vault
Archbishop Pilgrim II of Puchheim at first supported of netted work.
the Roman pope. Urban VI, but subsequently The primatial see, for which Matthaeus Lang had
espoused the cause of the Avignon pontiff, Clement so passionately striven, was for him a martyr's chair.
VII. His successor, Gregory of Osterwitz, also Not yet a priest, the new ruler entered his episco-
obtained the pallium from Boniface IX at Rome. pal city. Although unnoticed in official circles, the
 SALZBURG 414 SALZBURG
innovations emanating from Wittenberg were in- sorted to military demonstrations, which constituted
sinuating themselves into the archdiocese. Mining a breach of national peace. The soldiers of the
was being rapidly developed, and miners arrived from duke took him prisoner, and brought him to the castle
8:ix(«iy bringing with them the new doctrines and of Hohen-Salzburg. Here he was subjected to un-
sectarian books. Lang strove to retain his subjects worthy treatment, and, although a promise to abdi-
in the Faith: Luther proclaimed him a "monster", cate if liberated was extorted from him, he was re-
the pe<jplf of Salzburg besieged him in his fortress tained a prisoner until his death fi\-e years later
Hohen-Salzburg (the Latin A\'ar), and two successive (1612). His successor, Marcus Sitticus of Hohenems,
risings of the peasants were the occasion of manifold who had so ill-used him, was a relati\e; it may be
horrors and of unspeakable suffering for the ruler that Sitticus feared that the great recklessness of
and his land. Lang was present at the Second Diet of Wolf Dietrich would imperil the peace of the arch-
Speyer (1.529; and in the following year held lengthy
; diocese. In 1614 Sitticus began the rebuilding of
negotiations with Melanchthon at Augsburg. The the cathedral, in which the architect, Santino Solair,
fact that Lang invited lay persons to the provincial "has bequeathed one of the most magnificent crea-
synod of 1537, at which it was resolved to send dele- tions of the barocco style of architecture outside
gates to a general council, created an unpleasant Italy" (Ilg). It was also this archbishop who
commotion in Rome, since it was feared that this finished the residence and castle of Mirabell, and
step presaged the formation of a national Church. restored Hellbrunn with its fountains. A^'hile Austria
In accordance with Ferdinand's demand for the use and Germany were ravaged in the Thirty Years' War
of the chahce by the laity in 1564, Pius IV granted and civihzation declined, Archbishop Paris, Count
this privilege for Germany and the Archdioceses of of Lodron, accomplished such fruitful works of peace
Gran and Prague; however, as the emperor's hopes that he is remembered as "the father of his country"
were soon seen to be unfounded, the giving of Com- The Alma Benedictina (1623), for almost two hun-
munion under both species ceased at Salzburg in dred years the pride and joy of Salzburg, was his
1571. The beneficent effects of the Council of Trent work Ferdinand II granted it the power of conferring
;

extended also to Salzburg, where, for the execution academic degrees in all four faculties. In 1628 .Arch-
of itsdecrees, Archbishop Jacob of Kuen-Belasy bishop Lodron consecrated the cathedral. Arch-
summoned in 1569 a provincial council, according to bishop Max Gandolf, Count of Kuenberg, built in
Hauthaler the most important of all the synods of 1674 the celebrated pilgrimage church of Maria
Salzburg, since through it "was secured for ever a Plain; his successor, John Ernest, Count of Thun,
solid foundation for church reform in this province built the college church, Fischer of Erlach being
in accordance with the spirit of the decrees of Trent". the architect. The wonderful chimes also date from
Four years later he again convened a provincial this period.
council, especially notable as almost three centuries Under Leopold Anton, Freiherr von Firmian, Prot-
were to elapse before another provincial council was estant tendencies revealed themselves more vigor-
held in Germany. ously than before, supported and promoted by the
The succeeding archbishops by wise moderation Protestant members of the imperial estates. In
perserved their territory from the sufferings of the imitation of the Corpus evangelicorum, the Lutherans
wars of religion, conducted elsewhere with bloodshed of the Salzburg territory formed a league, binding
and cruelty. Lang's successor. Archbishop Ernst, themselves by oath and an outward rite of mutual
administered the archdiocese for fourteen years as sprinkling of salt. The infection grew dangerous.
"elected bishop", although the pope had confirmed The archbishop did all he could; he invited the Jesuits
his election only on the condition that he should as missionaries, and engaged the help of the emperor.
receive episcopal consecration within ten years, and Later he enforced the Decree of the religious Peace of
although his brother, Duke William of Bavaria, was Augsburg: recantation or emigration. In ten years
a strict Catholic. During this period flourished about 30,000 persons left the territory and settled
Theophrastus Paracelsus (Phihp of Hohenheim), in East Prussia, or in Wurtemberg or Hanoverian
the celebrated physician and alchemist, also Berthold, territory; a few emigrated to Georgia in North
Bishop of Chiemsee, a strict censor of his age (see America. A child of the era of "Enlightenment",
Berthold of Chibmseb). Archbishop Jerome Count Colloredo laboured in its
After the religious Peace of Augsburg Archbishop spirit and with the same persistent rashness as Joseph
Wolf Dietrich (Wolfgang Theodorich) of Raitenau II. However, his precipitate innovations in both
and his successors acted on the policy adopted there the school system and ecclesiastical matters alienated
(cujus regio, ejus religio), and followed the precedent from him the minds of the people, as had happened
set by Protestant princes, when they gave their in the case of his imperial prototype. The fact that
subjects the option of professing the religion of their the four ecclesiastics of the highest rank in Germany
fathers or emigrating. The task of influencing the declared as the first point in the Punctuation of Ems
people bj' sermon and exhortation was confided that the rights of the pope should be reduced to
mainly to the Franciscans and Capuchins. The those which he enjoyed during the first three cen-
former were given the convent in St. Peter's, where turies, betrays a rare historical sense, since they
pre\iously the daughters of the nobility and the sawed off the branch on which they sat. While
townsfolk had been educated. Archbishop Wolf Jerome in this case followed too blindly the lead of
Dietrich also encountered opposition at Salzburg Joseph II, he displayed his courage when the eniperor
when he began to tear down the ancient Romanesque wished to erect new ecclesiastical pro^inces in \'ienna
cathedral; years were consumed in the destruction and Graz. The Graz province was to be governed
of the venerable stone edifice. lie commissioned by an archbishop, Gorz was to be a simple diocese,
Vincenzo Scamozzi to draw up the plan of a new —
and all the dioceses of Inner Austria including
cathedral, which was to surpass in magnificence —
the projected Diocese of Leoben were to be placed
e\'erT,-thing in Germany. The cathedral was cross- under Graz. Colloredo refused his consent, where-
shaped, had three naves, a central cupola, cross-arms upon the emperor retaliated by seizing the ecclesias-
ending in a semicircle, and two huge towers on the tical possessions of Salzburg in Inner Austria, with-
fa<;ade. However, when the plan was completed out, however, changing the archbishop's attitude.
and building was to be begun, the indefatigable Finallv, after two years' negotiations, a settlement
archbishop found himself badly invoh-ed. The was arrived at on 19 April, 1786; Salzburg abdicated
closing five i,-ears of his life were sad. To protect its episcopal rights in Styria and Carinthia in favour
the salt-makers of Salzburg from the unjust customs of the Bishops of Sekkau, Leoben, Gurk, and Lavant,
regulations of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, he re- but retained its metropolitan rights over them,
 SALZMANN 415 SAMAR
enjoyed the right of nomination for Sekkau and La- 483 secular priests, 216 male religious in 11 convents,
vant at every vacancy, and for Gurk at every third and 998 nuns in 102 convents.
vacancy. —
For Leoben of which, however, Engel
W Gbeinz, DassozialeWirken der kathol. Kirche in der Erzd.
Sah-
—
was the first and the last bishop the founder was
(Vienna, 1898) RiEDER, Kurze Gesch. des Landes
;
Salzburg
WiDMANN, Gesch. Salzburg's (2 vols., Gotha,
m''*' P°S'
to have the right of nomination, and the metropohtan
ftn-7
1907-9), extending to 1519.
C. WoLFSGEUBEE.
the right of confirmation.
The writers of church music throw a
classical Salzmann, Joseph, founder of St. Francis Provin-
radiance about Salzburg at this period. The house cml Seminary (St. Francis, Wisconsin) known as the
in which Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born 'Salesianum", one of the best known pioneer priests
(1756) now contains the Mozart museum, with com- of the North-west, b. at Munzbach, Diocese of Linz,
positions of the master, and his skull (a legacy of Hyrtl) Upper Austria, 17 Aug., 1819; d. atSt. Francis, Wis-
Mozart died in 1791 at Vienna, whither he had come consin, 17 Jan., 1S74, He was ordained in 1S42, and
at the age of twenty years. Michael Haydn occu- laboured very successfully in his home diocese until
pied throughout his life the position of orchestral 1847, when the visit of the first Bishop of Milwaukee,
conductor of the Archbishop of Salzburg (d. 1806). John Martin Henni, and his urgent appeal ripened his
Archbishop Jerome was a special patron of Haydn, long-felt desire to devote his Hfe to the foreign mis-
and was deUghted by the master's new compositions sions. Having come to Milwaukee in October, 1847,
for almost every ecclesiastical function. Among he was appointed to a small country mission, but soon
Haydn's works are thirty masses, over one hundred his extraordinary success induced the bishop to make
graduals, and the glorious "Hier Uegt vor deiner him pastor of St. Mary's congregation at Milwaukee.
Majestat" (Here lies before Thy Majesty). These There the German free-thinkers resorted to every kind
and the incomparably beautiful responsories of Holy of insult and calumny to thwart the success of this in-
Week express a deep rehgious sentiment. Salzburg trepid champion of the Church, and he encountered a
suffered much through the French wars, which led long and bitter combat with them. FeeUng the la-
to the destruction of the ecclesiastical principaUty. mentable scarcity of priests Salzmann conceived the
The signers of the Peace of Westphaha agreed on idea of founding a seminary. To collect the neces-
one point, that ecclesiastical territory should furnish sary funds he went from state to state, and after
the means of mutual compensation, the so-caUed many difficulties, on 29 January, 1856, the institution
"secularization" Similarly the men of the French was opened with twenty-five students. Rev. Michael
Revolution soon confiscated all church property, Heiss, afterwards Archbishop of Milwaukee, was its
and the Germans, their apt pupils, completed the first rector. The seminary is now one of the most
secularization in Germany by the decree of the Im- prominent in the country. Several hundreds of priests
perial Delegate at Ratisbon. The Catholic Church and twenty-three bishops call it their Alma Mater.
lost three and a half milhon adherents and a yearly Salzmann is also the founder of the first Catholic
income of twenty million gulden (about $8,000,000). normal school in the United States and of the Pio
The archbishops of Salzburg were deprived in the Nono College. After years of hard struggles the Catho-
same year of their temporal sovereignty; Jerome, the lic Normal School of the Holy Family now stands on a
last ecclesiastical sovereign of Salzburg, died at solid basis and yearly sends out efficient teachers to
Vienna. parochial schools. The American branch of the St.
During the first two decades of the nineteenth Cecilia Society for the promotion of genuine church
century Salzburg had a chequered fate: from 1803 music owes its existence and growth to him. Salz-
to 1805 it was an electorate under Grand-Duke Fer- mann was of a noble character full of holy enthusiasm
dinand of Tuscany; from 1805 to 1809 it passed into for the cause of God and his Church, fearless in the de-
the possession of Austria, from 1809 to the Peace of fence of truth, an eloquent preacher, a warm friend
Vienna it was Bavarian. Short as was the Bavarian and father of his students, and a wise counsellor to
dommion, Montegelas found time to overturn all priests and bishops.
the old institutions. In 1810 the university was dis- Rainier, Dr, Joseph Salzmann, Leben u. Wirken (St. Louis,
solved, although the theological faculty remained; 1876; 2nd ed., Milwaukee, 1903); tr. BEnn, A Noble Priest (Mil-
waukee, 1903).
the monasteries were forbidden to receive novices,
and they owed their continued existence to Crown-
Joseph Rainiee.
Prince Ludwig. The Peace of Vienna restored this Samar and Leyte, the names of two civil provinces
beautiful land to the mild rule of the Habsburgs. in the Visayan group of the Philippines, which in-
Francis I gave it an eminent archbishop in Augustin clude the islands of Bahcuatro, Batac, Biliran, Capul,
Gruber. Gruber was born at Vienna and developed, Daram, Homonhon, Leyte (2722 sq. miles), Manicani,
as catechist at St. Anna's and as teacher of cate- Panaon, Simar (5031 sq. miles), and several smaller
chetics for the alumni, into the classical writer on islands, and which make up the Diocese op Cal-
catechetical instruction. His "Theorie der Kate- BAYOG (Calbayogana), suffragan of Manila. The
chetik" and "Praktisches Handbuch der Katechetik diocesan seat is at Calbayog, a city of 22,000 inhabi-
fur Katholiken" (2 vols.) have appeared in numerous tants on the western side of Sd,mar; the cathedral is
editions. As auhc councillor for ecclesiastical affairs, dedicated to Sts. Peter and Paul. The first Jesuit
Gruber drafted the statute of organization for the missionaries reached Leyte and Samar in 1595, the
Archdiocese of Salzburg, on his succession to which islands subsequently forming part of the Diocese of
he laboured in the true spirit of St. Augustine. Cebu until erected into a separate diocese, 10 April,
Always mild and affectionate, he won back even the 1910. The first bishop is the Rt. Rev. Pablo Singzon
obstinate Manharter Sect to the Church; he lectured de la Anunciacion, D.D., formerly Vicar-General of
personally to the ecclesiastical students, especially Cebu, consecrated in St. Francis's Church, Manila,
on St. Augustme and the " Regula pastoralis" of Greg- 24 June, 1910. The Lazarist Fathers have charge of
ory the Great. On his tours of visitation, he would the diocesan seminary and college of St. Vincent de
question the parish-priest concerning the theme suit- Paul at Calbayog. Besides training youths for the
able to the local conditions, and would immediately priesthood they give courses of primary instruction in
preach thereon. One cannot read without emotion seven grades, three commercial courses, a four years'
nis correspondence and hear of his personal rela- high school course, and classical courses for the B.A.
tions with Prince Friedrioh Schwarzenberg, who degree (Greek, Latin, English, Spanish, natural sci-
became in more than one respect his successor. ence, higher mathematics, and philosophy). There
John Cardinal Katschthaler is the eighty-third are 180 students. The Sisters of Charity have charge
bishop, and the seventy-fourth
Archbishop of Salz- of the girls' academy, the College of the Miraculous
burg. The archdiocese contains 270,000 Catholics, Medal, at Calbayog, in which there are primary, sec-
 SAMARIA 416 SAMARIA
ondary, and higher courses, together with lessons in repaired by the American mission of Harvard Uni-
drawing, painting, music, sewing, and embroidery. versity, also the palace of Amri, discovered by this
Statistics; —
Priests, secular, 45; regular, 22; Laza- same mission. Instead of the Israelites transported
rist Fathers, 5; parishes on Siimar, 33, missions, 138; into Assyria, colonies were sent over, formed of various
parishes on Leyte, 39, missions, 71; total parishes (in- nations, Chaldeans, Cutheans, Syrians, Arabs, and
cluding 25 small islands), 79; estimated population, others (IV Kings, x\ii, 24); these mingled with the
SU(),000, practically the whole of whom are devout nati\e population, forming an amalgamation of reli-
and loyal Cathohcs. gion and superstition; thus the Israelites with their
Redondo, Historia tie la Didcesis de CebU in Gitia oficial de own national worship ga\e birth to the people and
Filipinas (1907). the religion of the Samaritans. The latter became
C. F. Wemyss Brown. furious enemies of the Jews, but Sichem or NeapoUs,
and not Samaria, became their principal religious and
Samaria, a titular see, suffragan of Csesarea in political centre. From 721-335 b. c, Samaria was a
Palestina Prima. In the sixth year of his reign (about Babylonian and Persian city; finally it fell into the
900 B. c.) Amri, King of Israel, laid the foundations power of Alexander who to avenge the murder of
of the city to which he ga\-p the name of Samaria, his governor, partly exterminated the inhabitants,
"after the name of Semer the owner of the hill" replacing them by a Grajco-Syrian colony (Quintua
(III Kings, xvi, 24). This detached hill was 1454 feet Curtius, I\', 321). Having thus become Gra?co-
above sea-level, and more than 328 feet above the Samaritan, the city continued its hostilities against
surrounding hills. His son, Achab, married to Jeza- the Jews, and following an attack upon Marissa, it was
bel, a Sidonian princess, introduced the worship of taken after a memorable siege and utterly destroyed
Baal (III Kings, xvi, 32). Shortly after, the Prophet by John Hyrcanus about 110 B. c. It was rebuilt by
Elias announced the famine which for three years and the proconsul of Syria, Gabinus, between 57 and 55
more devastated the city and surrounding country B. c. (Josephus, "Bell. Jud.", I, vii, 7; I, viii, 4-
(III Kings, xvii, xviii). Samaria suffered her first "Ant.", XIII, X, 2, 3; XIV, v, 3). The city was then
siege from Benadad, King of Damascus (III Kings, returned to the Samaritans. Herod the Great even-
XX, 1-21); after the disaster which this same king tually received it from Octavius (31 b. c.) after the
suffered at Aphec, he concluded a treaty with Achab death of Cleopatra, the pre^•ious ruler. He enlarged
(III Kings, XX, 34-43). The body of Achab was and embellished it, in the centre built a magnificent
carried there from Ramoth Galaad, and the dogs temple to Augustus (of which the monumental stair-
licked his blood in the gutters, according to the pre- case may still be seen), and called it Sebaste (about
diction of the Prophet (III Kings, xxii, 1-39). Ehas 25 B. c.) in honour of the sovereign (Josephus, "Bell.
prophesied that King Ochozias, who fell from the Jud.", I, XX, 3; I, xxi, 2; "Ant.", XV, vii, 3; XV,
window of his palace, would die of this fall,which viii, 5). Herod made it one of his favourite residences,
jirophecy was very shortly fulfilled (IV Kings, i). although it was maritime Caesarea which obtained his
His brother and successor, .Joram, threw down the political preponderance. After Herod came his son
statue of Baal, erected by Achab (IV Kings, iii, 2). Archelaus, who ruled the city ("Ant.", XVII. xi, 4;
The history of Samaria is connected with various epi- "Bell. Jud.", II, vi, 3); at the death of the latter the
sodes in the life of the Prophet Eliseus, notably on province was annexed to Syria as a gift to Herod
account of the siege of the city by Benadad (TV Kings, Agrippa I, A. D. 41 ("Ant.", XIX, v, 1; XIX, ix, 1-2).
ii, 25; vi, 8 sq.). Jehu, founder of a new dynasty, Always hostile to the Jews, the inhabitants of Samaria
exterminated the last descendants of Achab, and saw their city burned by the latter, A. d. 65 ("Bell.
destroyed the temple of Baal in Samaria; then he Jud.", II, xviii, 1); according to Ulpianus, "Digest",
was interred in the city as his predecessors had been L, tit. 15, and the coinage of the city, Septimius
(IV Kings, x). Nevertheless the worship of Astarte Severus established there a colony about A. D. 200
still continued in the city (IV Kings, xiii, 6). Joas, (Eckhel, "Doctrina numm.". Ill, 44). Very Ukely
who had transported the treasures of the temple of a Roman garrison was then placed there.
Jerusalem, pillaged by him, to Samaria, was buried It is possible that there may have been some ques-
in the tomb of the kings of Israel (IV Kings, xiv, 14-16; tion of Samaria in Acts, viii, 5, on the subject of the
II Parr., xxv, 24) as also was his son Jeroboam II sermon of the deacon Philip in this case Christianity
;

{IX Kings, xiv, 16, 24, 29). Then followed a series of is traced to its ^ery origins. According to Le Quien
regicides and changing of ruling families. Zachary, (Oriens christ.. Ill, 649-54), Marinus, Bishop of Se-
after reigning six months, was assassinated (IV Kings, baste, represented the diocese at the Council of Nicaea
XV, 10) by Sellum, who reigned one month, and was (325); Eusebius at Seleuoia (359); Priscianus at
in turn killed by Manahem, who ruled ten years (IV Constantinople (381); Eleutherius at Lydda (Lydia),
Kings, XV, 14-17). His son, Phaceia, after a reign of (415) ; Constantine at the Robber Synod of Ephesus
two years, was put to death by the chief of his army, (449); Marcianus, at the end of the fifth century;
Phaece (IV Kings, xv, 25), who met a like fate at the Pelagius (536). During the French occupation
end of twenty years (I\' Kings, xv, 30). Osee, son of Samaria was a Latin bishopric, and several titulary
Ela, seems to have been crowned or placed upon the bishops are mentioned (Eubel, " Hierarchia Catholica
throne b>- III, King of Assj'ria.
Teglathphalasar medii a;vi", I, 445; II, .309). The Greeks also made
Finally Salmanasai- IV and
his general, Sargon, took it a titular see. It must be remembered that Sebaste
po.ssession of Samaria (721 b. cJ after a siege lasting and not Samaria was always the correct name of this
not less than three year.s (I\' Kings, xvii, 4-6; xviii, diocese. From the fourth century we meet with the
9 sq.). The inhabitants who siir\-ived the siege were cultus of St. Paul and St. Jerome at Samaria; it
transported into .\ssyria to the number of 27,290, possessed also the tombs of Eliseus and Abdias, and
according to an inscription. Thus were reahzed the that of St. John the Baptist, whose magnificent
threats of the Prophets against haughty Samaria church, rebuilt by the Crusaders, is to-day a mosque
(Is., ix, 9-11; xxviii, 1-,S; Ezech., xxiii, 4-9; Osee, (see text in Thomson, "Sacred Places", I, 102). From
vii, viii, X, xiv; Amos, iii, 9-15; iv, 1 sq.; vi, 1; vii, 985, El-Muqadassi does not mention Samaria, now
2-17; viii, 14; Mich., i, .5-7; ii; iii; vi; Ps. viii, nothing more than a humble district of Nablusi; in
4 etc.). 1283, we find nothing but one inhabited house with
The historical period, and not the least glorious,
first the exception of a little Greek monastery (Burchard,
since was for nearly two hundred years the capital
it "Descriptio Terra; Sanctae", Leipzig, 1873, 53). To-
(if the kingdom of Israel, was thus ended. There re- day the village of Sebastyeh, amid orchards and
mained only the temple of Baal, which had preceded kitchen gardens, comprises three hundred inhabitants,
the temple of Augustus, erected by King Herod, all Mussulmans.
 SAMARIA 417 SAMARIA
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog,, s. v.; Robinson, the two most important are those at Nablus, the one
Biblical 'Researclies in Palestine, III
(Boston, ISll), 138-49;
Palestine, Memoirs, II (London, I8S2),
in the minaret wall of the mosque of El-Hadra, the
Tlie purvey of Western
160-1, 211-4; Lyon and Reisner, The Harvard Expedition to other belonging to a private individual. [Cf. Rosen
Samaria in The Harvard Theological Review, II (January, 1909), in "Zeitschrift der deutsohen morgenlandischen
III (April, 1910) ; Gu^rin, Description de la Palestine, Samarie
Gesellsohaft" (hereafter to bo cited as ZDMG),
TT fParis 'l874-5), 188-209; Heidet in Via.,
Diet, de la Bible,
9 V. Samarie: Revue biblique (1909),
435-45 (1911), 125-31. XIV (1866), 622. The first inscription is also dis-
S. VAILIlfi. cussed by Blau in ZDMG,
XIII (1859), 275, the second
is treated in Lidzbarski, "Handbuoh der nordsem.

Samaritan Language and Literature.; —A. Epigraphik" (Weimar, 1898), 440.] Both inscrip-
Language. —The original language of the Samaritans tions belong apparently to the period before the de-
was the vernacular of Palestine, that is Hebrew. struction of the Samaritan Synagogue by Justinian
This language was superseded later by Aramaic. I (529 B. c). The inscription on the building of the
One result of the domination of Islam there was the present synagogue (published by Rosen in ZDMG,
BubStitution of Arabic. Hebrew, as the idiom of XIV, 624) belongs to the year 1711. In regard
the Pentateuch, both was and is for the Samaritans to some other inscriptions, cf. B. Wright in "Pro-
the sacred language; and even to-day some of them ceedings of the Society of Biblical Archseology",
have a knowledge, although indeed a somewhat im- VI (1883), November, 25; Clermont-Ganneau in
perfect one, of it. The pronunciation differs con- "Revue biblique" (1906), 84; Lagrange in "Revue
siderably from that settled by the Masoretic text. illustriSe de la Terre Sainte" (1890), 339 (1891), 83;

As the Samaritans use neither vowels nor diacritical also in "Revue biblique" (1893), 114; Sobernheim,
signs, the pronunciation has only been preserved "Samar. Inschriften aus Damaskus" in "Mit-
by tradition; yet, notwithstanding isolated varia- teilungen und Nachrichten des Deutschen Palastina-
tions, it seems to have remained, on the whole, very Vereins", VIII (1902), 70; Idem, "Sieben samarit.
much the same. Information on this point is given Inschriften aus Damaskus" (Vienna, 1903).
by H. Petermann in his "Versuch einer hebraischen B. Literature. —
Samaritan literature consists of
Formenlehre nach der Aussprache der heutigen writings in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, and for the
Samaritaner" (Leipzig, 1868). The colloquial lan- Hellenistic period, Greek. The number of writings
guage of the Samaritans from the last centuries be- at present in the possession of the Samaritan com-
fore Christ up to the first centuries of the Arab munity at Nablus is small. Barton has given in
domination was a dialect of western Aramaic largely "Biblioth. Sacra", LX
(1903), 612 sqq., a list of
peculiar to Palestine. What was formerly called these books and manuscripts drawn up by Jaqtlb, the
the Samaritan language rested almost exclusively priest at Nablus. From the seventeenth century
upon the polyglot edition of the Samaritan Targum on, manuscripts have been acquired by various
(see below), and most of the lexical and grammatical European libraries. The number of these was con-
peculiarities which were ascribed to this idiom have siderably increased through the sale of manuscripts
been deduced solely from the incredibly corrupt made in 1870 to the Imperial Library of St. Peters-
manuscripts of the Targum. They rest on corrup- burg by the Karaite Abraham Firkovitch; these
tions, arbitrary spellings, mutilated Arabic idioms, writings had been collected by him in the genisoth
and other errors of copyists who were unacquainted of the Samaritans at Cairo and Nablus.
with the true idiom of the language. Consequently, Margoliouth, Descriptive List of the Hebrew and Samaritan
the existing Samaritan grammars and lexicons are
MSS. of the Brit. Museum (London, 1893) ; Catalogue of the
Hebrew and Samar. MSS. in the Brit. Museum (only I vol.
in the highest degree misleading to those who are puSl., London, 1899); Neubaueb, Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS.
not speciaUsts. Among these works are, for example, in the Bodleian Library (Oxford, 1886); Harkavy, The Collec-
tion of Samaritan MSS. at St. Petersburg (London, 1874) Cata-
Uhlemann, " Institutiones linguae Samaritanse " (Leip-
;

logues des MSS. hSbreux et samaritains de la Bibliothkque Impiriale

zig, 1837);NichoUs, "A Grammar of the Samaritan (Paris, 1866) Supplement by Steinschneideh in Zeitschrift fiir
;

Language" (London, 1858); Petermann, "Brevis hebr. Bibliographic, VI (1902, reprinted at Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1903) Geiqer, Neue Mitteilungen iiber die Samaritaner in
linguae Sam. grammatica" (Berlin, 1873); Castelli,
;

Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, XVI-

" Lexicon heptaglotton" (London, 1669). [Cf. Kohn, XXII, a review of publications from the Samaritan literature up
"Zur Sprache, Literatur und Dogmatik der Samari- to 1868. Cf. also NuTT, A
Sketch of Samaritan History, Dogma
and 1874); Cowley, Sam. Literature and
Literature (London,
taner" (Leipzig, 1876).] Apart from a decided Religion in Jew. Quart. Rev. (1896), 562 sqq.; Montgomery,
intermixture of Hebrew idioms, as well as of words The Samaritans (Philadelphia, 1907), 270 sqq.
borrowed from the Greek and Latin, the real Samari-
tan language differed but little from the Ar.amaic In the remainder of this article a condensed sketch
spoken in the other parts of Palestine, especially from will be given of the most important writings con-
that of Northern Palestine, as, for example, it is tained in the Samaritan literature.
found in the Palestinian Talmud. Owing to the (1) The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Trans-
secluded position of this people, its literature in the lations of It. —
The most important of the works
course of time must have become more and more belonging to Samaritan literature is the Samaritan
isolated. No linguistic value can be attached to the Pentateuch, that is the Pentateuch written in the
writings in what is called the Samaritan language, Samaritan character in Hebrew, which is not to be
produced after the extinction of Aramaic. The confounded with the Samaritan translation of the
authors, accustomed to speak Arabic, strove to write Pentateuch or with the Samaritan Targum (see be-
in a language of which they had no mastery. low). In the early Christian centuries this Pen-
Leaving out later flourishes added to individual tateuch was frequently mentioned in the writings
letters, Samaritan written characters represent a more of the Fathers and in marginal notes to old manu-
ancient type than the square characters and resem- scripts, but in the course of time it was forgotten.
ble those found on Hebrew coins and the inscrip- In 1616 Pietro della Valle obtained a copy by pur-
tions of seals, but with a greater inclination to the chase at Damascus; this copy came into the posses-
cursive. The script appears to belong to a later sion of the library of the Oratory at Paris and was
development of the writing used in the old Hebrew printed in 1645 in the Paris Polyglot. At the present
codices, and, taken altogether,
a type of writing time the manuscript, which is imperfect and dates
common in a part of Palestine in the fourth century from 1514, is in the Vatican Library. From the time
before Christ may be preserved in it. It would be of this publication the number of codices, some much
Well to replace
the unsatisfactory Samaritan type older, has been greatly increased, and Kennicott was
used in printing with more suitable characters in able to compare in whole or part sixteen manuscripts
closer agreement
with the old manuscripts. Among ["Vet. Test. Hebr." (Oxford, 1776)]. The views of
the inscriptions
written in Samaritan characters scholars vary as to the antiquity of this Samaritan
YTTT _ 0-7
 SAMARIA 418 SAMARIA
recension. Some maintain the opinion that the indolect auctoritate (Halle, 181.5) Fell, Einleitung in das Alte
;

Samaritans became acquainted with the Pentateuch Testament (Paderborn, 1906), 111 sqq.; Gall in Zeitschrift fiir
die alttestamentl.Wissenschaft (1906), 293.
through the Jews who were left in the country, or
through the priest mentioned in IV Kings, xvii, 28. (2) The Samaritan Targum. —
In addition to the
Others, however, hold the view that the Samaritans Hebrew Pentateuch, the Samaritans had also a trans-
did not come into possession of the Pentateuch until lation of this in the Samaritan-Aramaic idiom, the
they were definitely formed into an independent Samaritan Targum. According to their own account
this was written by Nathanael, a priest, who died
community. This much, however, is certain: that
it must have been already adopted by the time of the
B. c. 20. In reality, it probably belongs to the begin-
ning of the third century after Christ; in any case it
founding of the temple on Garizim, consequently in
cannot be put earlier than the second century of our
the time of Nehemias. It is, therefore, a recension
era. In all the manuscripts the text is hopelessly
which was in existence before the Septuagint, which
garbled, and what has been published up to the pres-
fact makes evident its importance for the verification
Hebrew Bible.
ent time as the Samaritan Targum proves in reality
of the text of the
to be a text frequently corrected, altered, and cor-
Acomparison of the Samaritan Pentateuch with
rupted, both in language and contents, at various
the Masoretic text shows that the former varies from
times, in various localities, and by various hands, a
the latter in very many places and, on the other hand,
text that is constantly farther removed from its
very often agrees with the Septuagint. For the
original which in the end is almost lost sight of. An
variant readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch see
approximate idea of what the original may have been
Kennicott, loc. cit., and for the most complete list
is presented in the St. Petersburg fragments published
see Petermann, loc. cit., 219-26. A systematic
grouping of these variants is given by Gesenius, "De
by Kohn, "Zur Spraehe, Literatur und Dogmatik der
Samaritaner" (Leipzig, 1876), p. 214. According to
Pentateuchi Samaritani origine indole et auctoritate"
Kahle, " Textkritische und lexikalische Bemerkungen
(Halle, 1815), p. 46. Very many of these variations
refer to orthographic and grammatic details which
zum Samaritan. Pent.-Targum" (Leipzig, 1898),
there had never been a universally acknowledged
are of no importance for the sense of the text others ;

original Targum, but only partial translations made

rest on evident blunders, while still others are plainly
deliberate changes, as the removal of anthropomor-
by various priests for practical purposes. On this
point cf. E, Littmann in "Theol. Literatur-Zeitung
phisms and expressions which seemed objectionable,
(1899), Xo. VI. So
far as it is possible to judge, the
the bringing into conformity of parallel passages,
original Targum was a
fairly literal translation from
insertion of additions, large and small, different
the Samaritan Pentateuch, but a translation made
members in the genealogies, corruptions in favour of
without any real comprehension of the sense and with
the religious opinions of the Samaritans, among
a defective knowledge of the Hebrew language.
them, in Dent., xxvii, 4, the substitution of Garizim It was first, and most incorrectly, printed in vol. VI of the
for EbaV, and other like changes. Although, in com- Paris Polyglot (1645). somewhat more correctly in vol. VI of the
parison with the Masoretic text, the Samaritan London Polyglot (1657); later it was ed. by Brull in square
characters (Frankfort-on-Main, 1873-76). The edition by
Pentateuch shows many errors, yet it also contains Peterma-n'n, Pentateuchus Samaritanus : I. Genesis; II. Exodus
readings which can be neither oversights nor delib- (Berlin, 1.S72-73), is also unfortunately not critically satisfactory;
erate changes, and of these a considerable number its continuation by VoLLERS, LciiVirus (1SS3); Numbers (Is.s,'));
Deuieronomn (1897), rests on better authorities. In addition
coincide with the Septuagint in opposition to the fragments iound at Oxford, London, and 8t. Petersburg have
Masoretic text. Some scholars have sought to draw been publi>ln-l. Kohn, Samaritani^clie Studien (Breslau, 1868);
from this the conclusion that a copy of the Old Testa- Idem in ZDMG. L.WII (1893), 620 sqq.
ment used by Samaritans settled in Egypt served as a Greek readings designated as t6 'Sia/xapeiT^Kdv are
model for the Septuagint. According to Kohn, "De frequently quoted in old hexaplaric scholia and by
Pentat. Samar." (Breslau, 1S6.")|, the translators of some Fathers. These readings nearly all agree with
the Septuagint used a Graeco-Samaritan version, the Samaritan Targum. This Sa/xapeiTi/tii' was prob-
while the same scholar later claims to trace back the ably nothing more than a Greek translation of the
agreements to subsequent interpolations from the Samaritan Targum made in Egypt for the use of
Samareiticon [Kohn, "Samareiticon und Septua- the Samaritan communities there [Kohn in ZDilG,
ginta" in "Magazin fiir Gesch. und Wissenschaft des XLVII (1893), 6.50 sqq.; Idem, "Samareiticon und
Judentums" (1894), 1 sqq., 49 sqq.]. The simplest Septuaginta" (see above)].
way of explaining the uniformity is the hypothesis (3) Translation of the Pentateuch into Arabic—
that both the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septua- The translation of the Pentateuch into Arabic that
gint go back to a form of text common to the Pales- passes under the name of Abu Said appeared in the
tinian Jews which varies somewhat from the Masoretic elp\'enth or twelfth century, probably to drive out
text which was settled later. However, taking the translation by Saadja (d. 924). Abu Said, who
everything together, the decision must be reached hved in the thirteenth century, was the reviser of
that the Masoretic tradition has more faithfully pre- the Arabic Pentateuch; formerly he was incorrectly
ser\-ed the original form of the text. regarded as its translator. Bloch and Kahle have
The most celebrated of the manuscripts of the lately demonstrated that this translation has ab-
Samaritan Pentateuch is that in the synagogue at solutely no uniform character, that two, if not more,
Nablus. It is a roll made of the skins of rams, and recensions are to be accepted. The translation is, in
written, according to the belief of the Samaritans, general, an exact one, although now and then an
in the thirteenth year after the conquest of Canaan made to bring the Biblical text into
effort is evidently
at the entrance to the Tabernacle on Mount Garizim conformity with the religious opinions of the Samar-
by Abisha, a great-grandson of Aaron. Abisha itans. The work used in preparing it is of course the
elaims for himself the authorship of the manuscript Samaritan Pentateuch, but it can be proved that
m a speech in the first person which is inserted be- Saadja's translation was also used.
tween the columns of Deut., v, 6 sqq., in the form of Abu Sa'id. Genesis, Exodus, Levitirus, cd. KuEXEX (Leydcn,

what is rall(M:l a tarikh. This is of course a fable. 18.51-54); Bloch, Die samnril.-arnb. Pentateuch-lrhersrl:im
(Deul.. i-xi) (Berlin, 1901), with introduction and °o*''';, .k;'
The age of the roll cannot be exactly settled, as up as regards this, Kahl in Zeil.^rhrift fur hehr. Bibliographie(lM-h
to now it has not been possible to examine it no. 1; Idem, Dii arab. Bibeluhersetzungen (Leipzig, 1904), ^^
tne
thoroughly. {Eiod., iv, 20-26) ; the celebrated Barberini Triglolt in
Barberim Library at Rome dates from 1227 and contains in
The Samaritan Pentateuch was printed in vol. VI of the three columns the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Samaritan largum,
Paris Polyglot (104.5), and in vol. I of the London Polyglot (16.57); and the Arabic translation in Samaritan characters.
Blaynay edited a copy in square characters (Oxford, 1790).
In modern times many npwl\ - discovered fragments have Thus the succession in order of time of the trans-
been published. Gesenius, Dt- Pentateuchi Samaritani origine lations of the Samaritan Pentateuch coincides witn
 SAMARIA 419 SAMARIA

the historical facts: Samaritan Targum or translation to a fairly late period, as thenumerous Arabic idioms
into the Aramaic vernacular; Greek translation show. In some of them, each Hebrew or Aramaic
{l,a^ul.pelrlK6p) for the diaspora; Arabic translation strophe is followed by an Arabic translation. The
earliest and most celebrated hturgical poet is Marqa;
from the time of the sovereignty of the Arabs.
(4) Exegetical
—
and Theological Literature. To this next to him comes his contemporary Amram. Later
belongs above all the haggadic commentary on the poets are, for example, Abu'l Hasan (eleventh century)
Pentateuch written by Marqa in pure Aramaic a,nd and his son Ab-Galuga; the high-priest Pinehas ben
generally ascribed to the fourth century. It contains Joseph (fourteenth century), his son Abisha, the lat-
chiefly edifying meditations on selected
portions of ter's contemporary Abdallah ben Salamah; further,
the Pentateuch in six books. The copy of it which Abraham al-Qabasi (sixteenth century) and others.
Petermann had made from a manuscript at Nablus The British Museum has a complete manuscript of
in 1868 is at Berlin. Portions of this have been pub- the Samaritan Liturgy in twelve quarto volumes.
IV, and extracts Cowley, The Samaritan Liturgy, edited with Introduction etc.
lished: Heidenheim, Books I, II, vols., Oxford, 1910). Of earlier
(2 publications of various
from the other books in "Biblioth. Samar.", Ill, Pts. hymna should be mentioned: Gerenius, Carmina Samaritana
6 and 6 (Weimar, 1896); Baneth, "Des Samar. (Leipzig, 1824); Geiger in ZDMG, XVIII (1864), 814 ,sqq.: The

Marqah an die 22 Buchstaben ankntipfende Abhand- Prayer of Ab-Galuga: XXI (1867), 273 sqq.: The Litany of Marqa:
Kohn, Zur Sprache, Literatur und Dogmatik d. Samar. (an old
lung'^ (Berlin, 1888); Munk, "Des Sam. M. Erzah- Peaach-Hagada) What Heidenheim offers in his Quarterly
.

lung ilber den Tod Moses" (Berlin, 1890) Emmerich,

; and in the Biblioth. Samar. must be characterized aa decidedly
In general, cf. Cowley, The Sam. Liturgy and
"Das SiegesUed, eine Schrifterklarung des Sam. M." imperfect.
Reading of the Law in Jewish Quarterly Review, VII (1894), 121
(Berlin,1897); Hildesheimer, "Marqahs Buch der aqq. :Rappoport, La liturgie samaritaine (Angera, 1900).
Wunder" (Berlin, 1898). The most prosperous period
of Samaritan theological learning was that of the (6) Forms of Secular Litera-
Chronicles and other
Judso-Arabio hterature, the pioneer in which was ture. —A distinct branch
of the literature is formed by
Saadja, while the path he opened was zealously fol- the Samaritan chronicles. Among these are: (a) the
lowed by Rabbinists and Karaites. A number of Book of Joshua, in Arabic, the main part of which
Samaritan-Arabic commentaries on the Pentateuch probably belongs to the thirteenth century, even
belong to the three centuries succeeding that in which though here and there it may be based on earlier
Saadja Uved. Among these belongs, for example, a records. In thirty-eight chapters it treats, somewhat
commentary on Genesis dated 1053, of which Neu- in the manner of a Midrash, the history from the
bauer publishes a fragment (Gen., i-xxviii, 10) in the death of Moses to the death of Josue, with many
"Journ. Asiat." (1873), 341. Ibrahim of the tribe apocryphal additions. An appendix to the ninth
of JaqHb, who probably did not live before the six- chapter carries on the recital to iVlexander Severus.
teenth century, wrote a commentary on the Penta- The sole manuscript in Samaritan characters came
teuch, planned on a large scale. A
manuscript copy from Cairo and is to be found now at Leyden. It
of the first four books made at Nablus through the was pubUshed in Arabic with a Latin translation by
efiorts of Petermann is at Berlin. Publications from Juynboll, " Chronicon Samaritanum " (Leyden, 1848).
it are: Klumel, "Mischpatim, Ein samarit.-arab. A Hebrew translation was issued by Kirchheim,
Commentar zu Ex. xxi-xxii, 15, von Ibrahim ibn ~i::Vi» '-i::2 (Frankfort on the Main, 1855); an English
Jakub" (Berlin, 1902); Hanover, "Das Festgesetz one by O. T. Crane, "The Samaritan Chronicle or
der Samaritaner nach Ibrahim ibn Jakub" (Berlin, the Book of Joshua" (New York, 1890). Gaster
1904). Various extracts are given by Geiger in believed he had discovered the Hebraico-Samaritan
ZDMG, XVII (1863), 723; XX (1866), 147; XXII "Book of Josue", and published it in square char-
(1868), 532. Other commentaries are to be found in acters, with a German translation, in the ZDMG,
manuscript in libraries; the titles of a number of them LXII (1908), 209 sqq., 494 sqq. He^was, however,
are known. Works on smaller portions of the Penta- the victim of a mystification. Cf. Kahle, loc. cit.,
teuch were also not unusual. 250 sq.; Dalmann in "Theol. Literaturzeitung
Among the codifications of the Law the most im- (1908), 533, 665; Fraenkel, loc. cit., 481 sqq.; Yahuda
portant is the "Kit4b al-K4fi" written about 1050 by in " Sitzungsber. d. Akad. d. Wissensch. in Berlin",
Yfisuf ibn SaUmah; the work is a kind of Samaritan XXIX (1908), 887 sqq. (b) The Arabic Chronicle
Schulchan much, made up of the explanations of the of Abu'l Fath. —
According to the statement of the
most distinguished Samaritan teachers of the law. author this chronicle was written at Nablus in the year
Of this work Kohn has edited the tenth chapter, " Die 756 of the Hegira or a. d. 1355, at the request of the
Zaraath-Gesetze der Bibel nach dem Kitab al-Kafi high-priest Pinehas. It relates the course of events
des Jusuf ibn Salamah" (Frankfort on the Main, from the time of Adam to that of Mohammed, using
1899). Munajja ibn Zadaka, an important and pro- older chronicles as a basis. Some manuscripts give
lific writer, taught in
the eleventh or twelfth century. a continuation up to Harun-al-Rashid. The work
Various writings of his are quoted; the most widely contains numerous anachronisms and fables; it is in-
known was his "KitAb al Khilaf ", a more exact title tended to magnify the Samaritans in an unfair man-
of which would be, " Investigations
and Controversial ner, and passes over whole periods of time. It was
(Juestions between the two Sects of Jews and Samar- edited by Vilmar, "Abulfathi annales Samaritani"
itans" The work is divided into two parts; a (Gotha, 1856). The Latin translation that was an-
fflanascript copy of the second part, obtained by nounced has not yet appeared, (c) El Tolide, known
mermann in 1868 at Nablus, is to be found at Berlin, as "the Neubauer Chronicle". —
A copy of this
rurther information concerning this second part is chronicle, made in 1859 by the high-priest Jaqub ben
given by L. Wreschner,
"Samaritanische Traditionen" Aaron, was published by A. Neubauer in the "Journal
^^^^)- ^''^ small fragments of this work are Asiatique" (1869), 385 sqq. The chronicle is written
t D
at Breslau
and have been published by Drabkin, in Hebrew and is accompanied by a hteral Arabic
rragmenta commentarii ad Pentateuchum Samar- translation. The main part, written in 1149, is the
itano-Arabici sex" (Breslau, 1875). In addition to work of the high-priest Eleazar ben Amram, the con-
these many
theological works are cited or are to be tinuation, written in 1340, is that of Jaqub ben
'ound m manuscript Ismael. Other writers have brought the chronicle
in libraries. Cf. Nutt, loc. cit.,
I'll sqq.;
Steinschneider, "Die arabische Literatur down to 1856. It contains hardly more than bare
" (Frankfort-on-Main, 1902), 319 sqq. chronologies from Adam on, together with brief
Lw-
,
w ^''l
Liturgy and Religious Poetry.
tbe manuscripts
—
A large number historical notices, and is in reality little more than a
catalogue of the high-priests and of the most im-
are liturgical texts. They con-
lain prayers
and hymns for various feasts and ocoa- portant Samaritan families, (d) A chronicle edited
Bions m
Aramaic and Hebrew. The majority belong by E. N. Adler and M. Seligsohn, "Une nouvelle
 SAMARITAN 420 SAMBUGA
chronique samaritaine'' in the "Revue des etudes of fragments of and references to it relate to the
juives", vols. XLIV, XLV, XL\'I; also printed mythological period; a few to the history of Cyrus.
separately (Paris, 190:5). It comes down to the year The mixture of Oriental and Greek mythological
1N99. \\'ith exception of a few Samaritan words and stories is in entire agreement with the manner of the
two liturgical portions in the Samaritan dialect, the hellenizing Jews of his era. For the fragments see
language is a corrupt Hebrew full of Arabic expres- C. Miiller, "Fragm. hist. Grsec", III, 517-519.
sions. Besides the chronicles which have become Among the citations made by Alexander Polyhis-
known up to now, there must have been, at least in tor one from an unknown person is preserved in
former times, many other works of historical and Eusebius, "Praep. Evang.", IX, xviii. This agrees in
legendary character. Cf. for example, "BuchJosua", matter with a longer quotation (ibid., IX, xvii)
c. Ixvii at close, and Abu'l Fath, in his introduction. erroneously ascribed to the Jew Eupolemos. Both
As regards other branches of secular learning, citations are plainly to be traced to one original which
fragments or titles are known of works on astronomy, must have been the work of a Samaritan of whom no
medicine etc. A few writings on grammar have been further particulars are known; for example Garizim
preserved, especially on that of the Hebrew language; is explained as 6pot ii^laTov. The fragments are to
among these authors are Ibrahim ben Faray of the be found in C. Miiller, loc. cit.. Ill, 214. The
twelfth century, Eleazar ben Pinehas about 1400, Samaritan Theodotus, who lived about 200 b. c,
Abu Said, apparently the same as the one who wrote wrote an epic on Sichem of which forty-seven hexam-
the translation of the Pentateuch. These works are eters are preserved in Eusebius, "Praep. Evang.",
to be found in manuscript at Leyden. Xoeldeke in- IX, xxii; see C. Miiller, loc. cit., 217. He also seems
vestigated them carefully and published the results to have embellished sacred history with scraps of
in the "Gottinger Gelehrte Nachrichten", nos. 17 Greek mythology. Freudenthal also thinks that
and 20 (1S62). These writings give sufficient in- Cleodemus, or Malchus (200 b. c), was a Samaritan,
formation as to the position of the Samaritan in on account of the syncretic fusion of Greek mythology
regard to grammar and show that they did not ad- with narratives of Biblical origin. However, this is
vance beyond an uncertain groping. Of particular not a necessary conclusion.
interest is the little treatise of Abu Said on reading Freudenthal, Hellenislisclie Studien, Pt. I (Breslau, 1875);
•SchCheh, Gcsch. des jild. Volkes im Zeitaltcr Jesu Christi, III
Hebrew, which Noeldeke gives in the original and (3d ed., Leipzig, 1898), 357 sq., 372 sq.
in a translation (loc. cit., 387 sqq.). There are also Fr. SCHtJHLEIN.
manuscripts of lexical character, which are, however,
of little value. A manuscript written by a priest Samaritan Pentateuch. See Samaria; Samari-
named Pinehas in the Bibliotheque Xationale at tan Language and Literature.
Paris contains the verb and noun forms in parallel Sambor. See Przemysl, Sambor, and Sanok,
columns of Hebrew, Samaritan, and Arabic; a copy Diocese of.
of this manuscript is at Christ's College, Cambridge.
Cf. Nutt, loc. cit., 150, and Harkavy, loc. cit., in Sambuga, Joseph Axton, theologian, b. at Wall-
appendix, p. 161. dorf near Heidelberg, 9 June, 1752; d. at Nymphen-
(5) Epistles. —
The correspondence between Sa- burg near Munich 5 June, according to Sailer, but
maritans and European scholars which began at 5 January according to other statements, 1815. His
the end of the sixteenth century and was continued, parents were Italians who had come from the neigh-
with occasional interruptions, up to a recent date, bourhood of Como. He went to school at Mannheim
offers an essential contribution to the knowledge of and to the monastic school of the Augustinians at
Samaritan conditions. These letters of the Samari- Wiesloch and then entered the University of Heidel-
tans are either in Arabic or in a, more or less correct berg. In 1770 family affairs took him to Italy where
Hebrew written in Samaritan characters the latter are
; he finished his theological studies and was ordained
generally accompanied by an Arabic tr:mslation. The priest at Como, 2 April, 1774. After he had laboured
hist European scholar to enter into correspondence at Como for a while as chaplain at the hospital he re-
with the Samaritans was Joseph Scaliger. In 1589 he turned to Germany and in 1775 was made chaplain at
addressed letters to the Samaritan communities at Helmsheim, in 1778 chaplain and in 1783 court
Nablus and Cairo; but no answer was sent until preacher at Mannheim, in 1785 parish priest at
after his death (1609). This was followed by the Herrnsheim. In 1797 he was again called to the
correspondence (1672-88) carried on with Thomas Court at Mannheim as teacher of religion to Prince
Marshall, Rector of Lincoln College at Oxford, through Louis (later King Louis I of Bavaria), the oldest
Huntington, the Anglican preacher at Aleppo, and son of Duke Maximihan Joseph. When Maximilian
the correspondence (1684-1691) with the German Hiob Joseph went to live at Munich as Elector of Bavaria
Ludolf. After a long suspension the correspondence (from 1806 King Maximilian I), Sambuga followed the
was resumed (1808-26) by Silvestre de Sacy. As Court to that city and was later the teacher of religion
regards a further scattered correspondence see the to the younger children of the Elector also. He was a
bibliography below. pious, deeply-reUgious priest, and belonged to the
The best collertion of the Samaritan correspondence since the school of Sailer whose friend he was. Among his
time of Huntington is de Sacy, Corre^^pondnnce des S'lmaritains
de Naplouse in Notices et Extraits des il/.S.S. de la BibUothtitw du writings should be mentioned; "Schutzrede fiir den
Roi, XII {Paris, 1831), 1 sqq., contains the originals with French ehelosen Stand der Geistlichen'' (Frank en thai, 1782;
translations; cf. also Heidbnheim in Viertaljahrs^chrift fiXr 2nded., Munich, 1827); " Ueber den Philosophismus,
englUch-theolog. Forchung und Kritik, I (Gotha, 1861). 78 sqq.;
also ZDMG, 17 (186.3), 375 sqq.; H.wiakeb in Archu-f voor welcher unser Zeitalter bedroht" (Munich, 1805);
Kerkeljke Geschierlenis, V (Amsterdam, 1834), 4 sqq.; a letter " Ueber die Xothwendigkeit der Besserung, als Riick-
addressed in 1842 to the French Government is published in
sprache mit seinem Zeitalter" (2 vols., Munich,
Z/f.9 Annales de philosophie chrHienne (1853). Of later date are
a Ietti;r to Kautzsch, see Zeitsrhrifl des Deutschen Paluslina- 1807); "Untersuchung uber das Wesen der Kirche
Vereins (1885), 149 sqq,; a letter addressed to King Oscar of (Linzand Munich, 1809); "Der Priester am Altare ;
Sweden published by Almkvist (Upsala, 1897) one to Rosen-
;
(Munich, 1815; .3d ed., 1819). There were published
berg, ^ec his Lehrbuch der Samaritan. Sprache (Vienna, 1901)
one to BiRTON, see Bibl. sacra., LX (1903), 610. after his death: "Sammlung verschiedener Gedan-
ken liber verschiedene Gegenstande", ed. by Franz
(Ill Literature of the Hellenistic Era in
S(.'cular Stapf (Munich, 1S18); "Auserlesene Briefe", ed. bv
Greek. —
In closing, something should be said of the Karl Klein (Munich, 1818) " Zweite Sammlung ed.
; ,

secular literature written during the hellenistic era by Franz Stapf (1819); "Predigtenauf Sonn- und 1 cot-
in Greek. The chronicler Thallus (about 40 B. c.) tage", ed. by K. Klein (Mannheim, 1S22); "Reden
was probably a Samaritan. His work appears to und Aufsatze", collected and ed. by J. B. Schmitter-
have been a chronicle of the world. The majority Hug (Lindau, 1834).
 SAMOA 421 SAMOS
Sailer, Joseph Anion Sambuga, wie er war (Munich, 1816): and ceded to Poland in 1411 by the first Treaty of
the same account in Saileb, Biographische Schriften, I, in Ihorn after the defeat of Tannenberg. During the
Sailer's collected works, vol. XXXVIII (2ncl ed. Sulzbacii, lS-11),
supremacy of the Teutonic Knights a part of the
Friedrich Lauchbrt. inhabitants had been baptized, but Christianity had
not become firmly established. King Jagello of
Samoa Navigators' Islands), a group of
(or Poland (1386-1434) travelled through the country,
islands situated in latitude 13° 30' and 14° 30' south gave instruction in the Christian religion himself,
and longitude 168° and 173° west, and composed and called upon the people to be baptized. He
principally of fertile mountainous islands, such as founded the Diocese of Samogitia with its see at
Savai'i, Upolu, Tutuila, Manu'a, of volcanic and coral Miedniki, his act being confirmed bv the Council of
formations. The natives are tall, muscular, hardy, Constance in 1416, and the cathedral, which was
and seafarers, but ferociously cruel (formerly
fearle-ss dedicated to Saints Alexander, Evantius, and Theo-
cannibalistic) in war; hospitable, but indolent in dul, was erected in 1417. The first bishop was a
peace; of dignified and courteous bearing, and skilled German named Matthias; he was succeeded in 1421
in debate. The aboriginal government was an aris- by Nicholas, a Pole. Until the sixteenth century a
tocratic federation of chiefs, chosen from certain fami- large part of the people were strongly inclined to
controlling the royal succession.
lies,
heathenism. Among the later bishops should be
first mission work in these islands was done by
The mentioned Melchior I (1574-1609), whore-established
John Williams, of the London (Protestant) Mission- Cathohcism after the Reformation. His predecessor
ary Society, 1830. In 1836 Gregory divided XVI George III founded a seminary foi priests. There
Oceanica (which includes Samoa) between the Society was an uninterrupted succession of bishops until 1778.
of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary and the Ma- The see then remained vacant, and in 1798 the dio-
rLsts. The First Catholic missionaries, Marists, landed cese was suppressed, after it had fallen to Russia in the
in Samoa in 1845. In 1851 the Vicar Apostolic of third Partition of Poland in 1795. Up to that time
Central Oceanica appointed by Pius IX was also Ad- it had been a suffragan of Gnesen. In 1849 it was
ministrator of Samoa. This double title was borne re-established as a suffragan of Mohilev. The first
by the succeeding bishops, EUoy and Lamaze, until bishop of this second period was Matthias Wolonzewski.
1896, when jMgr Broyer was appointed Vicar Apos- The see is Kovno on the Njemen. By the convention
tolic of Samoa and Tokelau, with residence at Apia.
made in 1847 between Pius IX and Russia the diocese
The total population is estimated at 37,000, of whom includes the governments of Courland and Kovno,
T.iOO are Cathohcs, with 1 bishop and 21 priests, sev-
which have together an area of about 26,219 square
eral of them natives. There are 17 churches with miles. The Catholic population of the two govern-
resident pastors, 100 chapel stations under married
ments is 1,258,092; there aie 426 parishes and de-
catechists, schools under Sisters of the Third Order of
pendent stations, and 600 priests.
Mary. Divorce and immorality are the principal ob- RzEPNiCKi, Vitce prcesulum Poloni<E, 111 (Posen, 1763), 26-42;
stacles to Cathohc progress. The London Missionary Gams, Series episcoporum (Ratisbon, 1873), 357; Die katholische
Society has 12 missionaries and 8658 church mem-
Kirche unserer Zeit, ed. by the Leo Association, III (Berlin,
1902), 159-60; Directorium pro dioecesi Telsensi (Kowno, 1910).
bers. There are also Mormon and Wesleyan missions. Klemens Lopfleb.
The European name of these islands was given
them by Bougainville in 1768. In 1872 Commander
Samos, titular see, suffragan of Rhodes in the
Meade, U.S.N. negotiated the concession of a coaling
,
Cyclades. The island, called in Turkish Soussan-
station in Tutuila; this was ratified by a treaty in
Adassi, is 181 sq. miles in area and numbers 55,000
1878. Treaties with Germany and Great Britain fol-
inhabitants, nearly all of whom
are Greek schismatics.
lowed in 1879. Native dynastic disorders and con- There are nevertheless some Catholics dependent on
sular aggressions necessitated the Berlin Conference of
the Latin Bishop of Chios and two convents of
1889, between the interested powers, resulting in a
Fathers of the African Missions of Lyons and of
tripartite government of the islands by the United
Sisters of St. Joseph. Since 1832 the island has
States, Germany, and Great Britain. Popular disap- constituted an autonomous principahty, governed by
proval in the United States of "foreign alliances" led
an Ottoman Greek appointed by the Porte and rec-
to the dissolution of this agreement and a partition, in
ognized by England, France, and Russia. Samos
1899, Tutuila and the islands east of 171° W. longi-
was first inhabited by the Leleges, Carians, and
tude passing under American control, the rest to Ger-
lonians, the latter being very active and given to
many, under an imperial governor. Tutuila still re- navigation. Its greatest prosperity was attained
mains (1911) under native chiefs and laws (when not
under the tyrant Poly crates (536-522 b.c.) at whose
conflicting with American law), with supervision by
court the poet Anacreon hved. The philosopher
the commandant of the United States Naval Station.
^.^pNFAT, Les Samoas, etude historique et religieuse (Lyons,
Pythagoras (b. at Samos) seems to have lived at the
1»90): ViOLETTE, Dictionnaire Samoa-fransais-anglais, et Gram- same time; ^sop also stayed there for a long time.
mam (Paris, 1879) Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia (Lon-
; At the assassination of Polycrates Samos passed under
oon, 1861); Kramer, Die
Samoa-Inseln. (Stuttgart, 1902) Persian domination, and, about 439 B. c, partici-
URIPPIN, List of Books in Library
of Congress on Philippine
,;»"<". SoBioa and Gvam, with Maps by Phillips (Washington, pated in the Greek confederation especially with
London Missionary Society: Report for 1907; Hervier, Athens. This city, under Pericles, took it by force.
Y^^)\
^ Missions Maristes en Ocianie (1902) Annals of the Propaga-
;
Henceforth it had various fortunes, until the Romans,
m °'l
(Mumch,
^""' (190S); Bdchbehqer, Kirchliches Handlexikon
1910); BATTANniER, Annuaire Pontifical Catholique; after pillaging it, annexed it in a. d. 70. It was in-
Musionsbote (Steyler, 1905-06); Compilation
of Messages and cluded in the Province of the Isles. Under the
«Pffl-s 0/ Presidents
of the U. S.from 1787-1897, VII, VIII, IX,
(vvasliington),8. w. GrarU,
X Byzantines Samos was at the head of a maritime
Hayes, Cleveland. Harrison, McKinley:
foreign Relations
of the U. S., Correspondence, etc., relating to
theme or district. It was captured and occupied in
aoiMa; 51st and 53rd turn by Arabian and Turkish adventurers, the Vene-
Congress: Foster, A Century of American
•JifUmacy (New York and
Boston, 1900); Idem, American tians, Pisans, Genoese, and Greeks, and the Turks
'ff'tmacy in the Orient (New York and Boston, 1903); Tutuila:
f™?"i'^ furnished by Navy Department to 57th Congress. U. S. in 1453. These various masters so depopulated it
««na(e(l902).
^ y. SaNDS. that in 1550 Sultan Soliman had transported thither
Greek families, whence sprang the present population.
.
Samogitia, Diocese op (Samogitiensis), a Rus- From 1821 to 1824 Samos had a large share in the
«an diocese, also called Telshi (Telshe), including war of independence and won several victories over
we part of Lithuania lying on the Baltic; this Lithu- the 'Turks. Among its bishops Le Quien (Oriens
l^^n district, also named Schmudien (Pohsh, Christ., I, 929-32) mentions: Isidore I, at the begin-
mndi) or Schamaiten (Lithuanian, Zemaitis), was ning of the seventh century; Isidore II, in 692; Herac-
conquered about 1380 by the Teutonic Knights, lius, in 787. Stamatriades (Samiaca, IV, 169-255)
 SAMOSATA 422 SAMSON
gives a fuller list including two aged bishops, Anas- dating probably from the first century, and finally
tasius and George. St. Sabinianus, b. at Samos and the artificial hOl on which the fortress was erected.
martyred under Aurelian, is venerated on 29 January, Smith, Did. of Greek and Roman Geog., a. v.; Humann and
PuCHSTEix, Riisen in Kleintsim u. Xord Syrien (1890), 191;
at Troyes in Champagne; there is also a St. Leo, Maeqtjardt, Manuel des antiquites romaines, II (Paris, 1802)
d. at S;imos, venerated on 2'.) April, but he seems very 340-3; Chapot in Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, XX\'l!
legendary. At first a suffragan of Rhodes, Samos 203-5; La frontiire de VEuphrate (Pa.ris, 1907), 2G9-71.
Ide:,!,

was an autocephalous archdiocese in 1730; in IS.5.5 S. Vailh^.

it was a metropohtan see as at present, dependent
on the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople. In I
Sampson, Richard, Bishop of Chichester and sub-
sequently of Co^'entry and Lichfield; d. at Eccleshall,
Mach., XV, 23, the Roman senate makes knowm to
Samos (Siimus) the decree favourable to the Jews. Staffordshire, 25 Sept., 15.54. He was educated at
Trinity Hall, C;imbridge, Paris, and Sens. Ha\-ing
St. Paul stayed there for a short time (Acts, xx, 1.5).
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog., 8. v.; Rosen, Reison become Doctor of Canon Law, he was appointed by
auf den griech. Insdn (Stuttgart, 1.S43), 139-150; Lacroix, lies AA'olsey chancellor and vicar-general in his Diocese
de la (Jrice (Paris, l.S.5.3), 214-.58; GxitTiiN, Description de Vile de of Tournay, where he lived till 1517. Meanwhile
Patmos et del'lle de .SVimo.s (Paris, 18.56), 123-324; Guixet, La
Turque dWsie, I, 49S-.">23; .ST.\MATlADi;s, Samiaca (5 vols., in he gained English preferment, becoming Dean of
Greek, Samoa, 188fj) Buhchner, Das ionische Samos (Amberg,
; St. Stephen's, Westminster, and of the Chapel
1892; Munich, 1896). Royal (1516), Archdeacon of Cornwall (1517), and
S. Vailhe. prebendary of Xewbold (1519). From 1.522 to 1.525
he was ambassador to Charles V. He was now
Samosata, a titular see in Augusta Euphratensis,
Dean of Windsor (1523), Vicar of Stepney (1526),
suffragan of Hierapolis, capital of Commagenum,
and held prebends at St. Paul's and at Lichfield;
whose kings were relatives of the Seleucides. The
he was also Archdeacon of Suffolk (1529). Being a
first was Mithridates I Callinieus (d. 96 B. c); his son
and successor, Antiochus I, died before 31 B. c, when
man of no principle, and solely bent on a distinguished
ecclesiastical career, he became one of Henry VIII's
the country was governed by ilithridates, an ally of
chief agents in the divorce proceedings, being re-
.Anthony at Actium; then followed his other son,
warded therefor by the deanery of Lichfield in 1533,
Antiochus II, whom Octavius summoned to Rome
the rectory of Hackney (1534), and treasurership of
and condemned in 29 b. c. In 20 B. c. Mithridates III
Salisbury (1535). On 11 June, 1536, he was elected
became king, then Antiochus III, who died in 17 B. c,
schismatioal Bishop of Chichester, and as such
in which year Tiberius united Commagenum to the
furthered Henry's poUtical and ecclesiastical policy,
province of Syria. In 38 Caligula gave the province
though not sufficiently thoroughly to satisfy Cranmer.
to King Antiochus IV Epiphanes Magnus, afterwards
deposed, later restored by Claudius in 41, and deposed
On 19 Feb., 1543, he was translated to Coventry
and Lichfield on the royal authority alone, without
again in 72 by Csesennius Pa-tus, Governor of Syria.
papal confirmation. He held his bishopric through
The sons of Antiochus withdrew to Rome and Com-
the reign of Edward VI, though Dodd says he was
magenum passed under Roman administration. A deprived for recanting his disloyalty to the pope.
civil metropolis from the days of Emperor Hadrian,
Samosata was the home of the sixteenth Legio Flavia
Godwin the Anglican writer and the Catholic Pitts
both agree that he did so retract, but are silent as to
Fir ma and the terminus of se^-eral military roads.
The native city of Lucian, the philosopher and satirist,
his deprivation. He wrote in defence of the royal
prerogative "Oratio" (1533) and an explanation of
and of Paul, Bishop of Antioch in the third century,
the Psalms (1539-4S) and of Romans (1546).
it had seven martyrs: Hipparclius, Philotheus etc.,
Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII (London, 1884) Letters and
;

who suffered under Maximinus Thrax, and whose Papers of Henry VIII (London, 1831-52); Friedmann, Anne
"Passion" was edited by As-^^emani ("Acta S.'-i. Boleyn (London, 1884) Cooper, Aihenx Cantabrigienses
;

(Cambridge, l.S.58-61); Pitts, De illustribus Angliw Scrip-

martyrum orient, et Occident.", II, 124-47; see also toribus (Paris, 1619): Dodd, Church History, I (Brussels vere
Schultess in "Zeitschr. der deutschen morgenland- Wolverhampton, 1739-42) Archbold in Diet. Nat. Biog.
;

t
ischen Gesellschaf " LI (1S97), 379.
, St. Daniel the Edwin Burton.
Stylite was born in a village near Samosata; St.
Rabulas, venerated on 19 February, who lived in the Samson, Saint, bishop and confessor, b. in South
sixth century at Constantinople, was also a native of ^^'ales; 2S July, 565 (?). The date of his birth
d.
Samosata. A "Xotitia cpiscopatuum " of Antioch in is unknown. His parents, whose names are given
the sixth century mentions Samosata as an auto- as Amon of Dyfed and Anna of Gwynedd, were of
cephalous metropolis ("Echos d'Orient", X, 144); noble, but not "royal, birth. While still an infant he
at the Photian Council of S79, the Sec of Samosata was (Icdicated to God and entrusted to the care of
had already been united to that of Amida or Diar- St. Illtyd, by whom he was brought up in the monas-
bekii- (Mansi, "Conciliorum collettio", XVII-XVIII, tery of Llantwit Major. He showed exceptional
44.')j. .\.s in .")Sl) the titular of Amida bears only this talents in his studies, and was eventually ordained
title (Le (iuien, "Oriens christianus", II, 994), it deacon and priest by St. Dubrio. After this he re-
must be concluded that the union took place between tired to another monastery, possibly that on Caldy
the sc\cnth and the ninth centuries. Among the Island, to practise greater austerities, and some years
earlier bishops may be mentioned Peperius at Xieaia later became abbot. About this time some Irish
its
(32.5); St. Eusebius, a great opponent of the Arians, monks who were returning from Rome happened to
killed by an .Vrian woman, honoured on 22 June; visit Samson's monastery. So struck was the abbot
Andrew, a vigorous opponent of St. Cyril of Alexan- by their learning and sanctity that he accompanied
dria and of the Council of Ephesus (Le Quien, " Oriens them to Ireland, and there remained some time. Dur-
christianus", II, 933-6). Chabot gives a list of ing his visit he received the submission of an Irish
twentj'-eight Jacobite bishops ("Revue de I'Orient monastery, and, on his return to Wales, sent one of
Chretien", \T, 203). In February, 1098, the emir his uncles to act as its superior. His fame as a worker
Baldoukh, attacked by Baudouin of Antioch, cut of miracles now attracted so much attention that he
his army to pieces there. In 1114 it was one of the resolved to found a new monastery or cell "far from
chief quarters of the Mussulmans hostile to the Count the liaunts of men", and accordingly retired with a
of Edessa, to whom it .succumbed, but was recaptured few companions to a lonely spot on the banks of the
by the Mussulmans about 1149. At present the ruins Severn. He was soon discovered, however, and forced
of Samosata may be seen at Sanisat on the right bank by his fellow-countrymen to become abbot of the
of the Euphrates, in the caza of Husni Mansour and monastery formerly ruled by St. Germanus; here
the vilayet of Mamouret-el-,\ziz; there are remains St. Dubric consecrated hiin bishop but without ap-
of a wall towards the south, traces of the ancient wall pointment to any particular see. Now, being warned
 SAMSON 423 SAMSON
by an angel, he determined to leave England and, turns them loose to set fire to the corn harvests of the
after some delay, set sail for Brittany. He landed Philistines which are thus destroyed together with
near Dol, and there built a monastery which became their vineyards and olive-yards. The PhiUstines re-
the centre of his episcopal work in the district. Busi- taliate by burning the faithless wife and her father,
ness taking him to Paris, he visited King Childebert whereupon Samson makes a "great slaughter of
there, and was nominated by him Bishop of Dol; them" and then retires to dwell in a cavern of Etam
Dol, however, did not become a regular episcopal .sec in the tribe of Juda. Three thousand Philistines fol-
tillabout the middle of the ninth century. Samson low him and take up their quarters at Leehi. The
attained the age of eighty-five years, and was buried men of Juda, alarmed, blame Samson for this invasion
at Dol. Several early lives of Samson oxi.sl. The and deliver him up bound to the enemy. But when
oldest, printed by Mabillon in his ".Vcta Sanc'torum" he is brought to them the spirit of the Lord comes
from a MS. at Ctteaux, and again by the Bollandists, upon him; he bursts his bonds and slays a thousand
claims to be compiled from information derived Philistiries with the jawbone of an ass. '

Being thirsty
from Samson's contemporaries, which would re- after this exploit, he is revived by a spring of water
fer it to about 600. Dom Plaine in the "Analecta which the Lord causes to flow from the jawbone.
Bollandiana" has edited another and fuller life (from Later while Samson is visiting a harlot in Gaza the
MS. Andeg., 719), which he regards as earlier than Philistines gather about the city gate in order to seize
Mabillon's. Later lives are numerous. him in the morning, but he, rising at midnight, takes
Mabillox, Ada SS. 0. S. B., I (Veaice, 1733), 156-74; the gate, posts and all, and carries it to the top of a
Ada VI July, 568-93; Analecta Bolland., VI (Paris, 1SS7),
SS.,
hill in the direction of Hebron. Subsequently he falls
77-loO: Liber Landavensis, ed. Rees (Llundovery, 1850), 287-
305; Capgh.4VE, Nom Legenda Anglim (London, 1516), 266-68; in love with a woman named Dalila of the valley of
Haddan .\nd Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents, Sorec, who is bribed by the Philistines to betray him
I (Oxford, 1869), 158-9, 149; II, pt. i (LS7:!), 75-6, 92; Rees,
Welsh Saints (London, 1836), 228, 253; Chardon, La vie de
into their hands. After deceiving her three times as
St, Samson, hs^que de Dol (Paris, 1647). to the source of his strength, he finally yields to her
G. Roger Hudleston. entreaties and confesses that his power is due to the
fact that his head has never been shaved. The para-
Samson (';"t'":r derived from r":r, "sun"), the last mour treacherously causes his locks to be shorn and
and most famous of the Judges of Israel. The narra- he falls helpless into the hands of the Philistines who
tive of the life of Samson and his exploits is contained put out his eyes and cast him into prison. Later,
in chapters xiii-xvi of the Book of Judges. After the after his hair has grown again he is brought forth on
deliverance effected by Jephte, the Israelites again the occasion of the feast of the god Dagon to be ex-
fell into their evil ways and were delivered over to the hibited for the amusement of the populace. The
Philistines for forty years. An angel of the Lord in spectators, among whom are the princes of the Phi-
the form of a man appears to the barren wife of Manue listines, number more than three thousand, and they
of the tribe of Dan and promises her that she shall are congregated in, and upon, a great edifice which is
bear a son who shall deliver Israel from the oppression mainly supported by two pillars. These are seized by
of the Philistines. He prescribes abstinence on the the hero whose strength has returned; he pulls them
part of both mother and son from all things intoxicat- down, causing the house to collapse, and perishes him-
ing or unclean, and that no razor shall touch the self in the ruins together with all the Philistines.
child's head, "for he shall be a Nazarite [q. v.) of Because of certain resemblances some scholars have
God"- The angel bearing a similar message again claimed that the biblical account of the career and ex-
appears to Manue as well as to his wife, and it is ploits of Samson is but a Hebrew version of the pa-
only aftCT his disappearance in the flame of a burnt gan myth of Hercules. This view, however, is noth-
offering that they recognize with great fear his celes- ing more than a superficial conjecture lacking serious
tial nature. The child is born according to the pre- proof. Still less acceptable is the opinion which sees
diction and receives the name Samson, and the nar- in the bibhcal narrative merely the development of a
rative informs us that the "spirit of the Lord" was solar myth, and which rests on little more than the
with him from his youth. Strangely enough this admitted but inconclusive derivation of the name
spirit impels him in spite of his parents' opposition to Samson from shemesh, "sun". Both views are re-
choose a wife from among the ungodly Philistines jected by such eminent and independent scholars aa
(Judges, xiv, 1-4). On a visit to Thanmatha, the Moore and Budde. The story of Samson, like other
town of his intended bride, Samson gives the first evi- portions of the Book of Judges, is doubtless derived
dence of his superhuman strength by slaying a lion from the sources of ancient national legend. It has
without other weapon than his bare hands. Return- an ethical as well as a religious import, and histori-
ing later he finds that a swarm of bees have taken up cally it throws not a little light on the customs and
their abode in the carcass of the lion. He eats of the manners of the crude age to which it belongs.
honey and the incident becomes the occasion of the Lagrange, Le Livre des Juges (Paris, 1903) Moore, The Book
;

famous riddle proposed by him to the thirty Philistine of Judges in The International Critical Commentary (1895);
ViQODROUX, Diet, de la Bible, a. v. JaMES F. DeiSCOLL.
guests at the wedding festivities: "Out of the eater
came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth Samson, Abbot of St. Edmunds, b. at Tottington,
sweetness. " In then- inability to find the answer the near Thetford, in 113.5; d. 1211. After taking his
guests, toward the end of seven days' feast, induce M.A. in Paris, Samson returned to Norfolk and
Samson's wife to coax him to reveal it to her, and no taught in the school at Bury. In 1160 the monks of
sooner has she succeeded than she declares it to her St. Edmunds sent him to Rome on their behalf to
countrymen. Samson, however, in order to provide appeal against an agreement of the abbot and King
the thirty garments pledged in the wager, goes down Henry II, and for this on his return Abbot Hugh
to Ascalon in "the spirit
of the Lord" and slays thirty promptly clapped him into gaol. In 1166 Samson
Philistines whose garments he gives to the guests who was a fully-professed monk, and on his election as
had declared the answer to the riddle. In anger he abbot on Hugh's death in 11S2 he had filled
returns to his father's house, and his bride chooses one —
a number of ofiices those of sub-sacrist, guest-
ot his wedding
companions for her husband. master, pittancer, third prior, master of novices,
He returns later to claim her and is informed by and master of the workmen. For the rest of his
ner father that
she has been given to one of his life as Abbot of St. Edmunds, Samson worked
iriends, but that
he may have instead her younger with prodigious activity for the abbey, for the
and fairer sister. Samson declines the offer and town, and for the State. He regained the right
catching three hundred
foxes he couples them tail to of joint election of two baUiffs for the abbey and
tail, and
having fastened torches between their tails town, made a thorough investigation of the proper-
 SAMUCO 424 SAN ANTONIO
ties of the abbey, looked into the finances, cleared off Brixton, .imeriean Race (Xew York, ISOl); Dobrizhoffer,
Account of the Abipones (London, ls22li Hervas, Catdloipi de
arrears of debt, lebuilt the choir, constructed an aque- Homme
las Lenguas, I (IMadrid, 18(J0): d'Orbig.ny, L' Americain
duct, and added the great bell tower at the \ve«t end (Paris, 1S39); Southey, Hi.il. of Brazil, III (London, 1S23).
of the abbey, and two flanking towers. He did his J.mES MOOXEY.
best for the liberties of the town; helped the towns-
SamueL See Judges; Kings, First and Secoxd
folk to olatain a chaiter and gave every encourage-
Books of.
ment to new settlers, Ths monks resisted Samson's
concessions of market rights to the townsmen, but San Antonio, Diocese op (Sancti Axtonii),
were no match for their abbot. A hospital at Bab- comprises that portion of the State of Texas be-
all
well, and a free school for poor scholars, were also the tween the Colorado and Rio Cirande Rivers, excejit
gifts of Abbot Samson to the townspeople. Pope the land south of the Arroyo de los Hermanos, on
Lucius in made Samson a judge delegate in ecclesias- the Rio Grande, and the Counties of Live Oak, Bee,
tical causes; he ser\'ed on the commission for settling Gohad, and Refugio. It embraces an area of about
the quarrel between Archbishop Hubert and the 90,909 square miles. The first rehgious ministrations
monks Canterbury; and on the Royal Council in
of in this territory of which we have definite historical
London, where he sat as a baron, frustrated the information were those of the French secular and
efforts of William of Longchamp to curtail the rights regular priests who accompanied the expedition of La
of the Benedictine Order. Samson died in 1211, Salle. They entered Matagorda Bay in January,
having ruled his abbey successfully for thirty years. 1685. La Salle built a fort called Fort St. Louis
Carlyle in "Past and Present" has made Abbot Sam- on the spot subsequently occupied by the Bahia Mis-
son familiar to all the world; but Carlyle's fascinat- sion; a chapel was constructed in the fort, and for
ing picture must not be mistaken for history. two years five jiriests laboured here: Fathers Zeno-
Mrmorials of St. Edmunds Abbey, ed. Arnold, in RnJI^ .SenV's; bius Membr6, Maxime Le Clercq, and Anastasius
NoROATE in Diet. Nat. Biog., s. v.; there are man\ editions and
translations of JocELiN DE Brakelond's De rebus (/f.^lis Snmso'ii.^
Douay, Franciscans, and Fathers Chefdeville and
Abbatis. JOSEPH Cl.'^YTON. Cavelier, Sulpicians. They finally abandoned Texas
and returned to Canada. Shortly after their de-
Samuco Indians (Zamuco), the collective name parture, Franciscans from the apostolic school of
of a group of tribes in south-western Bolivia, speaking Quer^taro and Zacatecas founded missions on the Rio
dialects of a common language which constitutes a Grande. The pioneer S])anish priest was the Francis-
distinct linguistic stock (Samucan) and includes, can Father Damian Mazanet, who accompanied the
besides the Samuco proper, the Guaranoca, Morotoco, expedition of Alonzo de Le6n in 1689. He found the
Poturero, and several others. Their original countr>' field so promising that he invoked the help of the civil

was along the northern border of the Chaco, from and ecclesiastical authorities to establish a permanent
about 18° to 21° south latitude and from about 58° mission be\ond the Rio Grande. In 1690 Father
to 62° west longitude, bordering south upon the Toba Mazanet crossed the Rio Grande, accompanied by
and other wandering tribes of the Cliaco, and west Fathers Michael Fontcubierto, Francis Casanas,
and north-west upon the celebrated mission tribes Anthony Borday, and Anthony Pereira. The friendly
of the Chiquito and Chiriguano. Indians (Asinais) received them with joy, and the
In their original condition the Samuco were semi- Mission of San Francisco de las Tejas was established.
sedentary, and combined agriculture and hunting, In 1691, and again in 1700, additional missionaries
the men returning to the woods at the close of the arrived from Mexico; four more missions were es-
planting season to hunt, drying the meat for future tablished, and the«c were maintained till 1718, when
use. They planted corn, manioc, and a species of the chief mission was transferred to San Antonio.
plum. The women wove mats and hammocks (the In 1703 the Mission of San Francisco Solano was
latter from thread spun from native cotton) and established on the banks of the Rio Grande, It
made pottery. The men were noted for their warlike was transferred in 1712 to San Ildefonso; thence, in
and adventurous spirit. They went entirely naked, 1713, it was moved to San Jos6 on the Rio Grande,
while the women wore only a small covering about the and, finally, in 1718 to the San Antonio River, where
middle of the body. Lips, ears, and nostrils were it was established under the title of San Antonio

bored for the insertion of wooden plugs. The men de Valero. This last move was made by order of
carried bows, lances, and wooden clubs, and the the Marquess de ^'alero, Viceroy of New Spain.
warrior's weapons were buried with him. Mothers The mission was then under the direction of Fray
strangled all their children after the second, and in Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares. In the
one tiibe, the Morotoco, the women seem to have year 1716 nine friars from Queretaro and Zacatecas,
ruled while the men did the household work. They with Father Antonio Margil de Jesus as superior, es-
were passionately given to dancing and visiting, and tablished six Missions in the most northerly part of
to the drinking of chicha, an intoxicating liquor made the Province of Texas, and a few years afterwards
from fermented corn. The majority of them were another was built near the Presidio of NuestraSenora
Christianized through the efforts of the Jesuits in del Pilar de los Adayes, seven leagues from the fort
the middle of the eighteenth century, and were es- of Natchitoches, in Louisiana. The mission of La
tablished in the Chiquito missions of Bohvia, partic- Purisima Concepci6n was founded in 1716, among
ularly in the missions of San Juan, Santiago, and the Sanipaos, Toce.nes, and other tribes. A massive
Santo Corazon, where many
of them, through the stone church was erected in 1731, and is still in a fair
efforts of the missionaries,
adopted the prevailing state of preservation and is used for Divine worship.
Chiquito language. Their conversion was largely It is situated one mile south of the present city of
the work of Father Narciso Patzi. A large part of San Antonio. In 1729 the King of Spain ordered
them retained their savage independence in the for- four hundred families to be transferrer! from the
ests. Those of the three mission towns numbered Canary Islands to Texas. Fourteen families arrived
together 58.54 souls shortly before the e.xpulsion of the next year, and the city of San Fernando was
the Jesuits in 1707. In 1839, according to d'Or- founded near the fort and mission of San Antonio
bigny, they numbered about 1250 souls, besides about de Valero. A chapel was at once raised, to serve
10,000 more still wild in the remote eastern forests. till a proper parish church could be built. The two
The same traveller describes them as robust and well settlements in course of time became consolidated
built, frank, honest, .sociable, and notably fond of and the modern city of San Antonio is the result.
adventure, pleasure, and gaiety, and with a sweet In 1744 the cornerstone of the Church of San Fer-
and euphonious language nando was laid, and on 6 November, 1749, the build-
Ballivian, Documentos para la hist, de Bolivia (La Paz, 1906); ing was dedicated to Divine worship. A portion of
 SAN ANTONIO 425 SAN ANTONIO

this edifice still

stands and serves as the sanctuary Maria in 1854; another Polish colony was established
San Fernando.
present Cathedral of at St Hed wig, near San Antonio Bohemians planted
of the . .

The Province of Texas was subject to the juris- flourishing settlements at Fayetteville, Praha, Moul-
diction of Guadalajara till December, 1777,
when it ton, Shiner, and other points. In all these places
became part of the newly-erected Diocese of Nuevo there are now fine churches and schools, and an influ-
Le6n, or Linares. The Indian missions continued ential and constantly increasing Cathohc population.
under the care of the Franciscans, many of whom In 1S47 the Diocese of Galveston was estabhshed,
won the crown of martyrdom. In 1777 Fray Pedro its territory embracing the whole State of Texas. On
Ramirez, missionary at San Jos6, was president of 3 September, 1X74, this immense territory wasdivided,
all the Texas missions, and by
an Indult of Clement ecclesiastically, and the Diocese of San Antonio was
XIV was empowered to administer confirmation in created by the Holy See. Anthony Dominic PeUicer,
all parts of Texas. On 10 April, 1794, Don Pedro the first bishop, was a native of St. Augustine, Florida;
de Nava, commandant-general of the north-eastern b. 7 Dec, 1824, consecrated at Mobile, Alabama, 8
interior provinces, of which Texas formed a part, Dec, 1874; d. 14 April, 1880. John Claudius Neraz,
published a decree by which all the missions within second bishop, was b. 12 Jan., 1828, at Anse, Depart-
his jurisdiction were secularized. Nevertheless the ment of the Rhone, France; he laboured for thirty
years on the missions in eastern and southern Texas,
was consecrated in the Cathedral of San Fernando,
San Antonio, 8 May, 1881, and d. 15 Nov., 1894.
John Anthony Forest, third bishop, was b. 25 Decem-
ber, 1838, at St. Martin, Canton St. Germain, France.
Like his predecessor, he spent the whole of his priestly
life in arduous missionary work in southern Texas,
often helping to build churches with his own hands.
He was consecrated 28 October, 1895, and d. 11
March, 1911, deeply loved and regretted by all classes.
John Wilham Shaw, the present bishop, was b. at
Mobile, Alabama, in 1863, made his principal studies
in Ireland and at Rome, and was ordained priest on
26 May, 1888. On 14 April, 1910, in the cathedral
at Mobile, Alabama, he was consecrated titular Bishop
of Castabala and coadjutor with the right of succession
to the Bishop of San Antonio. On 18 May, 1910, he
was appointed administrator of the diocese, owing to
the ill-health of Bishop Forest, at whose death he
succeeded to the see.
The Alamo, Chapel op the Mission of San Antonio de
San Antonio is the largest city in Texas; it was the
Valero, Texas capital of the Spanish province and from the days of
the Franciscan missions has been a centre of Catholic
Franciscans in many instances remained as pastors, activity in religious, educational, and charitable work.
though they received their jurisdiction from the bishop, With a population of 100,000, it has thirteen Cath-
like other parish priests. Their missions subsisted olic parishes. Four of these, including the Cathe-
in a flourishing state till about 1813, when they were dral of San Fernando, are for the Mexican, or
suppressed by the Spanish Government, and the In- Spanish-speaking population two are for the EngUsh-
;

dians dispersed. In 18.39 Gregory XVI estabhshed speaking; two Enghsh and German, one German, one
a prefecture Apostolic in Texas and appointed the PoUsh, one Flemish, and two for the coloured popula-
Very Rev. J. Timon prefect ApostoKc. In 1840 the tion. There are also several hundred Italian families,
Rev. John M. Odin visited Texas as vice-prefect scattered among the various parishes. The city is
ApostoUc. Through his efforts, warmly supported the headquarters of several religious congregations
by the minister of France, de Saligny, the congress whose works extend to neighbouring dioceses and
confirmed to "the Chief Pastor of the Roman Catholic states, and to the Republic of Mexico. The Oblates
Church in the Republic of Texas" the churches of of Mary Immaculate, who since their introduction
San Fernando, the Alamo (San Antonio de Valero), by Bishop Odin in 1849 have laboured with glorious
La Purlsima Concepci6n, San Jos6, San Juan Capis- results among the poor Mexicans of Texas, have their
trano, San Francisco de la Espada, Goliad, Victoria, provincial house here, and conduct a theological semi-
and Rufugio, with their grounds, the latter not to nary and an apostolic college for the training of youth
exceed fifteen acres each. for the priesthood. The South-western Province of
A Bull erecting the Republic of Texas into a vica- the Oblates was established in October, 1904, with the
riate ApostoUc was pubUshed by Gregory XVI on 10 Very Rev. H. A. Constantineau, O.M.I., D.D., as
July, 1841, and the Right Rev. John M. Odin was ap- first provincial. The province includes all the states
pmnted Bishop of Claudiopolis and assigned to the of the south and west, and the Republic of Mexico.
vicariate. Religion, which had languished since the The Congregation of the Sisters of Divine Provi-
secularization of the missions and the departure of dence, devoted exclusively to Christian education,
the Franciscan monks, now began to revive. New have their mother-house in San Antonio, from which
churches were built, and some of the old mission build- they direct twenty-nine academies and schools in this
ings restored; religious orders of men and women were diocese and forty-three in neighbouring dioceses in
introduced from Europe; schools, hospitals, and chari- Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. The Congrega-
table institutions were established. Colonists from tion of the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word
Europe and various parts of the United States began also have their mother-house in the city. They con-
to pour in and settle upon the
wide and fertile plains duct in the diocese twenty schools and academies,
of eastern and southern
Texas. A large proportion three hospitals, two orphan asylums, and a home for
of the European immigrants
were Catholics. Ger- the aged. They have also a number of hospitals and
mans founded prosperous settlements at New Braun- schools in neighbouring dioceses and in Mexico.
telB in 1844, at
Castroville in 1845, and later at D'Ha- Other religious orders represented are Missionary
;

nis, Fredericksburg,
High Hill, and other places. A Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Vich, Spam),
n p'a' °^ ^°^*'^' ^^^ ^y *^^ ^^^- Leopold Moczygemba, who have charge of the cathedral and the other Span-
^F.M., founded the thriving settlement of Panna ish-speaking congregations at San Antonio and a
 SAN CARLOS 426 sAnchez
number of rural Mexican missions; the Society of missionaries have evangelized the Indians of Pata-
Mary (Dayton, OhioJ, who conduct two colleges and gonia and Tierra del Fuego the latter are composed of
;

a parish school at San Antonio and a college at Vic- three races, Onas, Yaaganes, and Alacalufes, and are
toria; the Josfjjhite Fathers, in charge of two parishes greatly reduced in numbers.
for coloured Catholics in the city; the Ursuline Nuns, The diocese was separated from the Diocese of
two larRC academies; the Sisters of the Holy Ghost, Concepci6n by Gregory XVI, erected 1 July, 1840,
devoted to the Mexican and coloured races; the Sis- by the Bull "Ubi primum", and made a suffragan of
ters of Our Lady of Charity of Refuge; the Sisters of the Archdiocese of Santiago. Five bishops have gov-
St. Theresa of Jesus —all at San Antonio. The Sis- erned the diocese: D. Justo Donoso (1845-53); Fray
ters of the Incarnate \A'ord and Blessed Sacrament Francisco de Paula Solar (1857-S2) Fraj' Juan .\giis-
;

ha\e a fine academy at Victoria, and conduct schools tin Lucero (1887-97); D. Ram6n Angel Jara (LS!)S-
at Halletsville and Shiner; the Sisters of Mercy, an 1910) Fray Pedro Armengol "\'alenzuela. Three dio-
;

academy and parochial school at Stanton. The Con- cesan synods, 1851, 1894, and 1907, have been held
gregation of Holy Cross (Xotre Dame, Indiana) con- in the diocese. The clergy annually hold confer-
duct a large college at Austin. ences from April to October to discuss moral and
Statistics (1911): priests, 130 (secular, 69; rehgious, ethical questions, and make an annual spiritual retreat
61 J brothers, 6.5; sisters, 607; parochial schools, 2S;
; of eight days. In almost all the parishes a nine day's
pupils, boys 1,290, girls 1,626; colleges and academies mission is given to the faithful each year to prepare
(many of which serve also as parish schools), 37; stu- them for the paschal communion. The people are
dents, boys 2,173, girls 2,225; theological seminary, 1; law-abiding and industrious, and they observe the
students, 12; Apostolic college, 1; students, 49; orphan principles and practices of their religion. Each parish
asylums, 2; inmates, boys, 108, girls, 105; house of has pious associations and confraternities, such as
refuge, adult inmates, OS; child inmates, 17; to- that of the Blessed Sacrament, and also various asso-
tal number of youths receiving CathoUc training, ciations for the improvement of morals and for
7,(j20; hospitals, 3; number of patients yearly, 2,386; mutual support.
home for aged, 1; inmates, 74; churches with resi- CatdloQo de los Eclesidsticos, etc., de Chile (Santiago, 1911);
Anuario Estnciistico de Chile (Santiago, 1910); Censo de la Re~
dent priests, 63; missions with churches, 71; total piiblica de Chile de 1907 (Santiago, 1908).
number of churches, 134; stations, 7.S; chapels, 14; Carlos S. Cotapos.
Catholic population, about 96,500.
Hutorn of the Catholic Church in the Diocese of San Antonio Sanchez, Alonzo, b.Mondejar, Guadalajara,
in
(San Antonio, 1S07); Diocesan Archives (unpublished) Southern.
Spain, in 1.547; d. at AlcaM, 27 May, 1593. He en-
;

Messenger (San Antonio), files, November, 1894; Oct.. 1805;

March, April, 1910; March, 1911. WiLLIAM CaMPBELL. tered the Society of Jesus at Alcald on 27 May, 1565.
He was rector of the college of Navalcarnero, taught
San Carlos de Ancud, Diocese of (Sancti Ca- grammar for five years, and in 1579 went to the
ROLi Ancudi^), the most southern of the Chihan dio- mission of Mexico, where he was rector of the sem-
ceses. It extends from the River Caiitln on the north inary. Early in 1581 he set out for the Philippines
to Cape Horn on the south comprises the civil Prov-
; with Bishop Salazar. Sanchez and his companion,
inces of Valdivia, Llanquihue, and Chilo6, part of the Antonio Sedeno, and a lay brother were the first
Province of Cautln and the Territory of Magallanes; Jesuits in these islands. The bishop made Sanchez his
has an area of more than 77,220 square miles, and a counsellor, appointed him to write the acts of the
population of 371,!^5G inhabitants, 3.56,267 of whom Synod of Manila, and, when Sdnchez was sent on an
are CathoUcs. San Carlos de Ancud (3,500 inhab- embassy to China, interrupted the synod until
itants) is the episcopal city, and the other important Sdnchez had returned. Twice Sdnchez was despatched
cities ofthe diocese are: Val(Uvia (15,000 inhabitants); on official business to China, where he met celebrated
Puerto iMontt (5,500 inhabitants); Osorno (7,600 Jesuit missionaries of that country and from Japan.
inhabitants); and Punta .\renas (12,300 inhabitants). He was thus able to publish later an interesting and
The diocese is divided into 48 parishes. The cathe- curious account of the state of Christianity in China
dral chapter is composed of the dean, archdeacon, at the end of the sixteenth century. By the unani-
doctoral (councillor), and one canon. The seminary mous vote of all the Spanish officials, civil and reli-
is directed by the Jesuits and has 106 students. There gious, of the merchants and other leading citizens,
are 69 seevdar priests and 86 regular. The male re- Sd,nchez was chosen to go to Madrid as representative
ligious orders have 30 houses and are represented by of the colony in 1586. Silnchez's mission to Philip II
141 members, the orders being the Jesuits, Francis- was very successful, his arguments moving the king
cans, Capuchins, Disraleed Carmehtes, Salesians, to retain the islands, which many of his advisors had
and Brothers of the Christian Scliools. The female been urging him to abandon. From Madrid he went
religious orders ha\-e 18 houses and 95 members. to Rome, and was there welcomed by Pope Sixtus V,
In Puerto jNIontt there is a college directed by the from whom he received many privileges for the Church
Jesuits, and an industrial school in charge of the in the Philippines. In a Brief of 28 June, 1591,
Christian Brothers; in Valdivia there is a commercial Gregory XIV praises the apostolic labours and writ-
school under the care of the Salesians. There are ings of Sdnchez, calling him a true defender of the
5 colleges for girls under the care of the Sisters of authority and rights of the Holy See. Innocent IX
the Immaculate Conception of Paderborn, and the addressed to him the Bull "Inter felices", in which he
Salesian Sisters conduct another; there are also 12 lauds his work. Clement VIII at his request granted
primary schools, five of which are for the Indians; all various favours to the bishop and clergy in the islands.
these schools are in charge of religious teachi.Ts. Sanchez gave an account of the Jesuit missions in the
There are 2 orphan asylums, and 6 hospitals in charge Philippines to Aquaviva, the General of the Society.
of nuns. More than 3,300 children are taught in these It had been proposed to withdraw the fathers from
schools. The churches and chapels number 255. the Archipelago, but Aquaviva, following the plan
The Prefecture Apostolic of Araucania is situated proposed by Stochez, determined that the Society
within the confines of the diocese, and has 19 missions should remain, and made the Manila residence a
in charge of German Capuchins from the Province of college with Sedeno as its first rector. Sdnchez now-
Bavaria; in these missions there are 18 churches and asked to be allowed to return to the Philippines, but
13 chapels. The native population of this prefecture was sent instead as visitor to some of the Spanish
is about 60,000. The Territory of Magallanes belongs provinces of the Society of Jesus, where serious do-
to the Prefecture ApostoUc of Southern Patagonia, mestic and external troubles menaced the well-being
under the care of the Salesians. Tlie Prefect Apos- of the enthe Society. The singular tact of Sanchez
tohc, i\Igr. Jose Fagnano, Uves in Punta Arenas. The gained the day; he expelled some influential but
 sAnchez 427 SANCHEZ
•turbulent members from the Society, and won over voy. He
also executed considerable work at the Es-
the king, the Inquisition, and prominent personages, so corial and painted the triumphal arch erected at
that they became better disposed towards the Society Madrid for the entry of Anne of Austria, wife of
than before.
c\'er Sinchez was elected one of the Phihp II. Perhaps his most notable portrait, how-
representatives of the Province of Toledo to the Fifth ever, was that of St. Ignatius Loyola, executed from
General Congregation of the Society, but he remarked casts taken twenty-nine years before, and from in-
that he had a more important journey to make than structions and sketches made by one of the fathers.
the one to Rome. He died twelve days later on the His greatest portrait was that of his friend, Father
feast of the A?crnsion.Distinguished for unusual Siguenza, which was engraved by Selma. He was
mental gifts,Sdnchez was no less remarkable for his buried at Valladolid, where he had founded a home
sanctity of life; his penances were those of an anchor- for foundling children. His epitaph was written by
ite, his prayer as prolonged as that of any contem- L6pe2 de Vega. Sanchez's colouring resembles that
plative. His writings include chiefly short treatises, of Titian, and his portraits are powerful and lifelike.
memorials, and the like. A catalogue and summary There is one in the National Portrait Gallery in Lon-
of forty-one of these, drawn up by the author, is don, another at Vienna, three at Brussels, and several
given by Colin. at Madrid. One of the churches of that city also
Coiix. Labor Evatujiiica, new ed. by P.a.stells (Barcelona, possesses a screen decorated by him and intended to be
1900); SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. de la C. de J,: Bibliogr., Ill (lirusspls,
1896); ASTRAIN, Hi^t. de la Compa^a de Je.'ius en la A.^i.^/nunn used during Holy Week. His pictures have always
de Espafla, III (Madrid, 1909); de Guilhkrmv, Mhialnje de la been highly esteemed in Spain, where they have sold
Compagnie ^Ir Jesus, assistance d'Espagne (Paris, lit02). for very large sums of money on the few occasions
P. i\I. FlNEO.\N. when they came into the market. Coello painted
Philip II in almost every kind of costume, on foot and
Sanchez, Alonzo Coello, b. at Benyfayro, Va-
on horseback, and in many attitudes, but he is not
lencia, Spain, in 1513 or 1515; d. at Madrid, 1590.
generally considered to have been as successful with his
His name Coello is certainly Portuguese, and was
royal patron as he was with some of the ecclesiastics,
whose portraits he drew in noble proportions.
Paoheoo, Arte de la pintura (Seville, 1649) Palomino de
;

Castro y Velasco, El museo pictdrico y escala dptica (Madrid,

1715) Machado, CollecQao de memarias dos pintores (Lisbon,
;

1823); Stihung-Maxwell, Annals of the Artists of Spain (Lon-

don, 1891); Hartley, Spanish Painting (London, 1904).
George Charles Williamson.
Sanchez, Jose Bernardo, b. at Robledillo, Old
Castile, Spain, 7 September, 1778; d. at San Gabriel,
California, 15 January, 1833. He became a Fran-
ciscan on 9 October, 1794, and joined the missionary
college of San Fernando, Mexico, in 1803, going to
California the following year. He was stationed at
Mission San Diego (1804-20); Mission Purisima
(1820-1); and at San Gabriel. In 1806, as chaplam,
Fr. Sd,nchez accompanied a military expedition
against the savages. In 1821 with Fr. Prefect
Mariano Payeras he went with an exploring expedi-
tion into the interior to search for new mission sites.
From 1827 to 1831 he reluctantly held the position
of presidente of the missions and of vicar forane to
the bishop. He was a very pious and energetic mis-
sionary, but dreaded the office of superior. His in-
cessant appeals for relief were at last granted, but
he survived only two years. During his term he
vigorously opposed Governor Echeandia's seculariza-
tion scheme. In a long series of critical notes he
showed that the plan would result in the destruction
of the missions and the ruin of the neophytes. "As
far as it concerns me personally", he wrote, "would
Portrait of Padhe Siguenza that it might be to-morrow, so that I might retire
S&nchez Coello, The Esoorial between the four walls of a cell to weep over the time
I wasted in behalf of these unfortunates." There
probably that of his mother. From his intimate con- is no doubt that the sight of the inevitable ruin has-
nexion with Portugal, Philip II constantly referred to
tened his death. His remains were buried at the
him as his "Portuguese Titian". We have no defi-
foot of the altar of San Gabriel Mission.
nite information that Sanchez was ever in Italy, but
Santa Barbara Archives; Records of Mission San Diego, San
he certainly carefully copied the paintings of Titian Carlos, and San Gabriel; Engelhardt, The Franciscans in
under the influence of Sir Antonio Mor, who was his California (Harbor Springs, Mich., 1897); Bancroft, California
(San Francisco, 1886). ZbphYKIN EngELHARDT.
great master. In 1552 he accompanied him to Lisbon
when Mor was sent by Charles V
to paint the por- Sanchez, Thomas, b. atCordova, 1550; d. in the
traits of the royal family,
and Sd,nchez then entered college of Granada, 19 May, 1610. In 1567 he en-
into the service of Don
Juan of Portugal, who had tered the Society of Jesus. He was at first refused
°5""™ Joanna, the daughter of Charles and the sister admittance on account of an impediment in his
ot Fhihp II.
On the death of the Infante Don Juan, speech; however, after imploring delivery from this
ms widow recommended her painter to her brother impediment before a highly venerated picture of Our
«ilip, and as Mor had just
left the Court and retired Lady at Cordova, his application was granted. He
to Jirussels,
Philip II appointed Coello -[dntor de cd- held for a time the office of master of novices at
mara He was one of the earliest of the Spanish Granada. The remainder of his life was devoted to
court portrait-painters,
and as his work was in great the composition of his works. His death was due to
oeinand he became a rich man.
He painted Gregory inflammation of the lungs. His contemporaries bear
l^lU and Sixtus V, many of the grandees of Spain, testimony to the energy and perseverance with which
>^ardmal Farnese, and the Dukes he laboured towards self-perfection from his novitiate
of Florence and Sa-
 SANCHEZ 428 SANCTITY
until his death. His penitential zeal rivalled that of Sanchez de ArSvalo, Rodriguez. See AsiivALo
the early anchorites, and, according to his spiritual
San Cristobal de Laguna. See Texeriffe,
director, he carried his baptismal innocence to the
Diocese of.
grave. Luis de la Puente, then rector of the college
of (iranada and later declared "venerable", attests San Cristobal de la Habana. Sec Havana,
the holiness of Sanchez in his letter to Francis Suarez, Diocese op.
a transhition of which may be found in the Biblio- Sanctifying Grace. See Grace.
theciue de Bourgogne at lirussels.
Sanction (Lat. sancirr, same root as sancius)
Sanchez belongs to those who are much abused on
signifies primarily the authoritative act whereby the
account of their works. The chief work of Sanchez,
legislator sanctions a law, i. e. gives it ^-alue and
and the only one which he himself edited, is the "Dis-
binding force for its subjects. Hence, objectively,
putationes de sancti matrimonii sacramento" The
the law itself is called sanction inasmuch as it ia
first edition is said to have appeared at Genoa in 1602;
imposed on the consciences and obedience of subjects;
but this can have been only the first folio volume, for
thus ecclesiastical laws are often called sancliones
which permission to print was secured in 1599, as the
canonicw. In more modern language e^'ery measure
two succeeding volumes contain both in their preface
is called a sanction which is intended to further the
and the author's dedication the date 1603. The first
observation of the law by subjects, whether the re-
complete edition was, accordii:g to Sommervogel,
ward to whomsoever fulfills it, or the penalty or
that of Madrid, 1605; later followed a series of editions
chastisement inflicted or at least threatened for non-
printed at different places both before and after the
fulfilment, whether it relates to prescriptive laws
author's death. The last edition seems to have been
which require something to be done, or to prohibitive
issued at Venice in 1754. The work had an extraor-
laws which require that something be omitted. These
dinary fate, inasmuch as some editions of the third
sanctions in turn vaay result from the very nature of
volume have been placed on the Index of Prohibited
the law, which are internal sanctions like those of the
Books, the grounds being not the doctrine of the
natural law, or they may be added by a positive act
author, but the perversion of the work and the sup-
of the legislator, and these are external sanctions.
pression of what the author taught. Even in the
earlier editions of the Index as revised by Leo XIII,
Hence sanction is called moral, psychological, legal,
or penal, according to the origin or the nature of it.
tiU his Constitution "Ofhciorum ac munerum",
(See Ethics; Law; Punishment.) A. Boudinhon.
we may still read: "Sanchez, Thom. Di.sputationum
de Sacramento Matrimonii tom. III. ed. A'enetiac,
sive aliarum, a quibus 1. S disp. 7 detractus est integer
Sanctity, Mark of the Church. The term —
"sanctity" is employed in somewhat different senses
num. 4. Deer. 4 Febr. 1627". Tliis number is omitted in relation to God, to individual men, and to a cor-
from the edition of Venice, 1614; it treats of th<' power porate body. As applied to God
denotes that ab-
it
of the pope to grant a valid legitimation of tlie off- solute moral perfection which is His by nature. In
spring of marriages invalid only through canon law regard to men it signifies a close union with God,
through the so-called .sYjrti(/('o in radice. The author's together with the moral perfection resulting from this
mode of expression shows a not always pleasing ver- union. Hence hoUness is said to belong to God
bosity. As it deals with every possible point in the by essence, and to creatures only by participation.
subject, it has often, quite unjustifiably, drawn upon AVhatevcr sanctity they possess comes to them as
Sanchez the charge of immorality. a Divine gift. As used of a society, the term means
Soon after the death of Sanchez a second work (1) that this society aims at producing holiness in its
appeared, "Opus morale in pra;cepta Decalogi"; members, and is possessed of means capable of secur-
the first folio volume was prepared by the author him- ing that result, and (2) that the lives of its members
self, but the second "V'olume, as well as the whole of correspond, at least in some measure, with the pur-
his third work, "Consilia moralia", had to be com- pose of the society, and display a real, not a merely
piled from manuscript notes. These works also went nominal holiness.
through a series of different editions, and hliewise The Church has ever claimed that she, as a society,
drew upon themselves the accusation of laxity, espe- is holy in a transcendent degree. She teaches that
cially with reference to the question of what is called this is one of the four "notes", viz., unity, cathoUcity,
"mental reservation" (n.s/ric/jo mcntalis). It is true apostolicity, and sanctity, by which the society
that we find in Sanchez (Op. mor. in pnx'C. decalogi, founded by Christ can be readily distinguished from
III, vi, n. 15) the twenty-sixth thesis condemned by
all human institutions. It is in virtue of her relation
Innocent XI "If anyone, by himself, or before others,
:
to the Person and work of Christ that this attribute
whether under examination or of his own accord, belongs to the Church. She is (1) the fruit of the
whether for .amusement or for any other purpose,
should swear that he has not done something which
—
Passion the kingdom of the redeemed. Those
who remain outside her are the "world" which knows
he has really done, having in mind something else not God (I John, iii, 1). The object of the Passioa
which he has not done, or some way of doing it other was the redemption and sanctification of the Church:
than the way he employed, or anything else that is " Christ also loved the church, and delivered Himself up
true: he does not he nor perjure himself ." The thesis
for it: that he might sanctify it, cleansing it by the
rests on a peculiar definition of a "lie", which indeed
laver of water in the word of life" (Eph., v, 25, 26).
is none too easy to define, and has engaged the in-
Again (2) the Church is the body of Christ. He is
genuity of scholars from the time of St. Augustine to the head of the mystical body: and supernatural
to-day. Sanchez difl not regard every mental reserva-
tion as always permissible, but was simply discussing
life — —
the life of Christ Himself is communicated
through the sacraments to all His members. Just
the sinfulness of the lie (or oath) in itself; that some as the Holy Ghost dwelt in the human body of Christ,
—
other sin e^'en grievous, according to the circum-
so He now dwells in the Church: and His presence
—
stances may have been involved in the action, he
is so intimate and so efficacious that the Apostle can
does not deny. even speak of Him as the soul of the mystical body:
According to Wernz (.Jus decretalium, IV, n. 20), "One body and one Spirit" (Eph., iv, 4). Thus it
Sanchez's work "De matrimonio" is even to-day follows as a necessary consequence from the nature
reckoned by the Roman Curia among the classical of the Church and her relation to Christ, that as a
works on marriage. society she must possess means capable of producing
XiEREMBERG, Varones ilu^lrr.^, \ll (new ed., Bilbar., 1891);
GuiLHERMV, Meiwhnie de la C. de J. fParis, 1902): Sommer- holiness: that her members must be characterized by
VOGEi.. Bibl. de la C. de J. (Brussels, l.S!H;'i; Hurter, Xorrien- holiness and that this endowment of sanctity will afford
:

clator. III (3rd ed., Innsbruck, 1907). AuG. LehmktJHL a ready means of distinguishing her from the world.
 SANCTORUM 429 SANCTORUM
It is further manifest that the Church's hohness which any of the sects has ventured to require. Her
must be of an entirely supernatural character vindication of the indissolubility of marriage in the
something altogether beyond the power of unassisted face of a licentious world affords the most conspicuous
human nature. And such is in fact the type of sanctity instance of this. She alone maintains in its integ-
which Christ and His Apostles require on the part rity her Master's teaching on marriage. Every
of members of the Church. (1) The virtues which in other religious body without exception has given
the Christian ideal are the most fundamental of all, place to the demands of human passion. In regard
lie altogether outside the scope of the highest pagan to the means of holiness, she, through her seven
«thics. Christian charity, humility, and chastity sacraments, applies to her members the fruits of the
are instances in point. The charity which Christ Atonement. She pardons the guilt of sin, and
sets forth in the Sermon on the Mount and in the nourishes the faithful on the Body and Blood of
parable of the —
Good Samaritan a charity which Christ. Nor is the justice of her claims less mani-
knows no limits and which embraces enemies as well fest when we consider the result of her work. In
as friends —
exceeds all that moralists had deemed the Catholic Church is found a marvellous succession
possible for men. And this charity Christ requires of saints whose lives are as beacon-lights in the his-
not of a chosen few, but of all His followers. Humil- tory of mankind. In sanctity the supremacy of
ity, which in the Christian scheme is the necessary Bernard, of Dominic, of Francis, of Ignatius, of
groundwork of all sanctity (Matt., xviii, 3), was pre- Theresa, is as unquestioned as is that of Alexander
viously to His teaching an unknown virtue. The and of Ca!sar in the art of war. Outside the Catholic
sense of personal unworthiness in which it consists, is Church the world has nothing to show which can in
repugnant to all the impulses of unregenerate nature. any degree compare with them. Within the Church
Moreover, the humility which Christ demands, the succession never fails.
supposes as its foundation a clear knowledge of the Nor do the saints stand alone. In proportion to
guilt of sin, and of the mercy of God. Without the practical influence of Catholic teaching, the
these it cannot exist. And these doctrines are supernatural virtues of which we have spoken above,
sought in vain in other religions than the Christian. are found also among the rest of the faithful. These
In regard to chastity Christ not merely warned His virtues mark a special type of character which the
followers that to violate this virtue even by a thought, Church seeks to realize in her children, and which
was a grievous sin. He went yet further. He ex- finds little favour among other claimants to the
horted those of His followers to whom the grace Christian name. Outside the Catholic Church the
should be given, to live the life of virginity that there- life of virginity is contemned; love of suffering
by they might draw nearer to God (Matt., xix, 12). is viewed as a medieval superstition; and humility
(2j Another characteristic of holiness according is regarded as a passive virtue ill-suited to an active
to the Christian ideal is love of suffering; not as and pushing age. Of course it is not meant that we
though pleasure were evil in itself, but because suf- do not find many individual instances of holiness
fering is the great means by which our love of God outside the Church. God's grace is universal in
is intensified and purified. All those who have at- its range. But it seems beyond question that the
tained a high degree of holiness have learnt to re- supernatural sanctity whose main features we have
joice in suffering, because by it their love to God indicated, is recognized by all as belonging specifically
was freed from every element of self-seeking, and to the Church, while in her alone does it reach that
their lives conformed to that of their Master. Those sublime degree which we see in the saints. In the
who have not grasped this principle may call them- Church too we see fulfiUed Christ's promise that the
selves by the name of Christian, but they have gift of miracles shall not be wanting to His followers.
not understood the meaning of the Cross. (3) It Miracles, it is true, are not sanctity. But they are
has ever been held that holiness when it reaches a the aura in which the highest sanctity moves. And
sublime degree is accompanied by miraculous powers. from the time of the Apostles to the nineteenth cen-
And Christ promised that this sign should not be lack- tury the lives of the saints show us that the laws of
ing to His Church. The miracles, which His followers nature have been suspended at their prayers. In _

should work, would. He declared, be no whit less stu- numberless cases the evidence for these events is so
pendous than those wrought by Himself during His ample that nothing but the exigencies of controversy
mortal life (Mark, xvi, 17, 18; John, xiv, 12). can explain the refusal of anti-Catholic writers to
Such in brief outline is the sanctity with which admit their occurrence.
Christ endowed His Church, and which is to be the The proof appears to be complete. There can be
distinguishing mark of her children. It is, however, as little doubt which Church displays the note of
to be noted that He said nothing to suggest that all sanctity, as there is in regard to the notes of unity,
His followers would make use of the opportunities catholicity and
apostolicity. The Church in com-
thus afforded them. On the contrary. He expressly munion with the See of Rome and it alone pos-
taught that His flock would contain many unworthy sesses that holiness which the words of Christ and
members (Matt., xiii, 30, 48). And we may be sure His Apostles demand.
that as within the Church the lights are brightest, MuBRAY, De ecclesia Chrisli, II (Dublin, 1862); Bellakmine,
De cone, et ecdesia,IV, xi-xv; Tanquerey, Synopsis theol.
so there too the shadows will be darkest corruptio Benson in Ecdesia edited by
dogmalicxB, I (Paris, 1900);
oplimi pessima. An unworthy Catholic will fall Matthew (London, 11306). For modern anti-Catiiolic polemics
lower than an unworthy pagan. To show that the on this subject, see Martineatj, Seat of Authority in Religion
(London, 1890); Palmer, Treatise of the Church (London, 1842),
Church possesses the note of holiness it suffices to I, vi, X, xi. G. H. Joyce.
establish that her teaching is holy: that she is en-
dowed with the means of producing supernatural holi- Sanctorum Meritis, the hymn at First and Second
ne.ss in her children: that, notwithstanding the Vespers in the Common of the Martyrs in the Roman
unfaithfulness of many members, a vast number do Breviary. Its authorship is often attributed to
in fact cultivate a sanctity beyond anything that can Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), Archbishop of Mamz—
e. g. by Blume (cf. Hymnody, V, 2), who thinks
be found elsewhere: and that in certain cases this his
sanctity attains so high a degree that God honours hymns show originality and "no small poetic power".
it with miraculous
powers. Dreves also (Analecta hymnica, XL, 204) favours the
It is not difficult to show that the Catholic and ascription. The stanza, in classical prosody, coin-
Roman Church, and she alone, fulfils these condi- prises three Asclepiadic lines and one Glyconic. In
tions. In regard to her doctrines, it is manifest that Horace such a stanza indicates a grave and thought-
the moral law which she proposes as of Divine obli- ful frame of mind; but the breviary hymns using
gation, is more lofty and more exacting than that the stanza are usually suggestive of triumphant joy—
 SANCTUARY 430 SANCTUARY
e. g. the "Festivis resonent compita vocibus" (Most onary. Pothier ("Melodies Gr^goriennes" Tour-
Precious Blood), the "Te Joseph celebrent agmina nai, 1880) illustrates the Asclepiadic metre by the
coeUtum", and the "Sacrissolemniis" (q.v.) in rhyth- "Sanctorum meritis", places the accents on the
mic imitation. Dom Johner ("A New School of third, seventh, and tenth syllables of the Asclepiads
(iregorian Chant", Xow York, 1906, p. 89) places and on the third and sixth of the Glyconic, and re-
hymns in this measure among those "in which the marks that "in singing the Asclepiad and the Gly-
verbal accent preponderates and the metrical accent conic, the first three syllables should be gone over
only makes itself noticeable in certain places (par- slowly, and the accents should be well marked, es-
ticularly in the fourth line and when a line closes pecially the last" (p. 199). Egerton ("A Handbook
with a word accentuated on the penultimate) " He of Church Music", New York, 1909, p. 180) places
illustrates the rhythmical stress by italics. Applying the principal accent on the tenth syllable, and second-
his scheme to the Asclepiadic lines we should have: ary accents on the third and seventh, with a "mora
Sa-ncto-rum me-ri-tis in-cly-ta gau-di-a. His illustra- vocis" after the sixth. Delaporte ("Les Hymnes du
tion of the fourth line (Glyconic) is: Vi-cto-rum br^viaire romain" in the "Rassegna Gregoriana",
ge-nus o-pti-mum. The "Grammar of Plainsong" Nov .-Dee., 1907, col. 501) remarks that, when the
by the Benedictines of Stanbrook (London, 1905, edition of 1602 of the Roman Breviary was in prep-
p. 61) remarks that the long verses have the accents aration. Cardinal Gesualdo in 1588 wrote to various
on the third, seventh, and tenth syllables; and the nuncios to get suggestions for emendations. The
short verse, on the third and sixth syllables and illus-
; nuncio at Paris consulted "alcuni principali della
trates this scheme by the last two lines of the stanza Sorbona", with some curious results, one of which
(the acute accent marking the rhythmical stress) was the criticism demanding a change in the doxology
Gliscens fert animus pr6mere cdntibus of the "Sacris solemniis" (q. v.) from "Te trina
Victorum genus Optimum. Deltas" to "Te summa Deltas", for the reason that
In the following illustration (Holly, "Elementary "it is impious to call the Deity, or the essence of
Grammar of Gregorian Chant", New York, 1904, God, threefold" .\s noted above, the Church still
p. 44) the acute accent indicates the tonic accent sings "Te Deltas'' in the "Sacris solemniis" of the
of the word; the grave accent, the place where the "Angel of the Schools", although it has changed the
rhythmical or metrical accent falls; the circumflex, phrase in the doxology of the "Sanctorum meritis"
the concurrence on a syllable of both metrical and H. T. Henry.
tonic accents:
Sanctorum meritis tncl^^a gaudiS, Sanctuary, a consecrated place giving protection
Pangamus gest^que forti^;
socii, to those fleeing frorh justice or persecution; or, the
Gliscens fert animus promcrc cantibus privOege of taking refuge in such consecrated place.
\'ict6rum genus optimiim. The right of
Obviously, the metre is refractory for singing or sanctuary was
public recitation. Dreves (loc. cit., pp. lSO-1) based on the
notes that several references are made to the hymn inviolability
by Hincmar of Reims, one of the most interesting attaching t o
being his objection to the theology of the last stanza things sacred,
("Te trina Deltas", subsequently changed into the and not, as
present form: "Te summa O Deltas"). Hincmar some have
admits that he knew not the author of the hymn on the ex-
held,
which "some people end with the chant or rather ample set by
blasphemy [a quibusdam cantatur vel potius blas- the Hebrew
phematur] 'Te trina deltas'." The phrase objected cities of refuge.
to was nevertheless sung in the doxology of the It was recog-
hymn down to the revision of I'rban VIII, and the nized under the
Church still sings it in the doxology of the "Sacris Code of Theo-
solemniis" (q. v.) of the Angelic Doctor. The dosius (399)
Paris Breviary kept the metre but entirely recast and later by
the hymn, writing the first stanza thus: that of Justia-
Christi martyribus debita nos decet, ian. Papal
Virtutis memores, promere cantica; sanction was
Quos nee blanditiis, nee potuit minis first given to it
Fallax vincere sseculum. by Leo I, about The Sanctuary of St. Menas, Egypt
To the
list of translators given by JuUan ("Diet, 460, though Ivory Carving, Museum, Milan
of Hymnol.", 2nd ed., London, 1907, pp. 993, 1698) the first Council of Orange had dealt with the
should be added Bagshawe ("Bre\'iary Hymns and matter in 441. The earliest mention of sanctuary
Missal Sequences", London, 1900, p. 164: "Let us in England was in a code of laws promulgated by
sing, dear companions, the joys of the saints").
King Ethelbert in 600. The right of as\lum was
The (Baltimore) "Manual of Prayers" gives the originally confined to the church itself, but in course
translation of the Anglican hymnologist, Dr. Neale. of time its limits were extended to the precincts, and
There are twelve translations in English. The text
sometimes even to a larger area. Thus, at Beverley
IS found in many MSS. of the
tenth century (cf and Hexham, the boundaries of sanctuary extended
Dreves, ".\nalecta hynmica", L, 2n4-.5):
Hincmar throughout a radius of a mile from the church, the
"De una et non trina Deitate" in P. L CXXV
47s' limits being marked by "sanctuary crosses", some
49S 500). For Latin text (omitting second' and
of which still remain In Norman times there were two
.

third stanzas) and English translation, plainsong

and kinds of sanctuary in England, one belonging to every
modem musical setting, see "Hvmns Ancient'
and church by prescription and the other by special
Modern, Historical Edition" (London, 1909
2,sf)^il0), which notes pp royal charter. The latter was considered to afford
that Dreves assigns the hymn
to Rabanus .Maurus in his " Hymnologische
a much safer .'isvlum and wis enjoved by at lenst
Studien twenty-two churches, inchiding Battle, Beverley,
zu \enantius Fortunatus und Rabanus
Maurus" Colchester. Durham, Hexham, Norwich, Ripon,
(Mumch, lOOS, p L3.-.), "in spite of the fact that
Raban wrote to Hincmar disapproving of the '\\'ells, \A'inehester, Westminster, and York. X
fugitive convicted of felony and taking the benefit
phrase 'Te trina Deltas'." The apprr>\ed
plain- of sanctuary was afforded protection for from thirty
song will appear in the forthcoming Vatican Antiph-
to forty days, after which, subject to certain severe
 SANCTUARY 431 SANCTUARY
conditions, he had to ''abjure the realm", that is der Abbot Bangulf about the year 800; according to
leave the kingdom within a specified time and take others it occurred before the time of Charlemagne in
an oath not to return without the king's leave. the French monasteries of Jumieges and Rebais. In
Violation of the protection of sanctuary was punish- recent times Strzygowski has maintained that both
able by excommunication. In some cases there was a views are incorrect, and that the extended sanctuary,
stone seat within the church, called the "frith- or in other words the cruciform church, was aheady
stool", on which it is said the seeker of sanctuary had common in the early Christian period in Asia Minor,
to sit in order to establish his claim to protection. and was thence transplanted to the West by Basihan
In others, and more commonly, there w;\s a large ring monks as early as the fourth or fifth century.
or knocker on the church door, the holding of which A second very important alteration, which occurred
gave the right of asylum. Examples of th(>se may during the Carlovingian Renaissance, consisted in the
be seen at Durham cathedral, St. Gregory's, Norwich, introduction or rather transplantation from the East
and elsewhere. The ecclesiastical right of sanctuary to the West of the "double sanctuary". By this is
ceased in England at the Reformation, but was after meant the construction of a second sanctuary or west
that date allowed to certain non-ecclesiastical pre- choir opposite the east; this arrangement was found
cincts, which afforded shelter chiefly to debtors. even in ancient times in isolated instances, but its in-
The houses of ambassadors were also sometimes quasi- troduction in the case of larger churches gradually
sanctuaries. Whitefriars, London (also called became universal in the West. Concerning the rea-
Alsatia),was the last place of sanctuary used in Eng- sons for this innovation various theories have been put
land, but it was abolished by Act of Parliament in forward. It must, however, be recognized that the
1697. In other European countries the right of reasons were not everywhere the same. They were
sanctuary ceased towards the end of the eighteenth three in particular: the duplication of the titular
century. saints, the construction of a place for the remains of a
Pegge in ArchcBologia, VIII (London, 1787) ; M.\zzinghi, saint, and the need of a nuns' or winter choir. In ad-
Sanctuaries (Stafford, 1887); Blumerixco, Das A^t/lrecht
dition, Strzygowski has also maintained the influence
(Dorpat, 1853). G. CyPRIAN ALSTON.
exercised by the change of "orientation", that is the
Sanctuary, the space in the church for the high erection of the altar, which in the East originally stood
altar and the clergy. It is variously designated apsis in the west of the church, at the eastern end. The
or concha (from the shell-like, hemispherical dome), second reason seems to have given incentive most
and since the Middle Ages especially it has been frequently to the construction of the second choir.
called "choir", from the choir of singers who are here Thus in 819 Abbot Ansger built a west choir with a
stationed. Other names are presbyterium, concessus crypt to receive the remains of St. Boniface; in Mit-
chori, tribuna or tribunal, S7101', iSswto;', sanctum, telzell (Richenau) this choir was constructed for the
sanctuarium. From the architectural standpoint the relics of St. Mark, in Eichstatt (1060) for the remains
sanctuary has undergone manifold alterations. In of St. Willibald. Especially suitable for nuns' con-
Christian antiquity it was confined to the apse, into vents was the west choir with a gallery, since from it
the wall of which the stone benches for the clergy were the nuns could follow Divine Service unobserved;
let after the fashion of an amphitheatre, while in the for this reason the church built at Essen (Prussia) in
middle rose up the bishop's chair (cathedra). It would 874 received a west choir in 947.
however be WTong to beheve that this ancient Chris- The increase of the clergy, in conjunction with
tian sanctuary had always a semicircular formation, the striving (in the Romanesque period) after
since recent investigations (especially in the East) as large crypts as possible, led to the repeated in-
have revealed very various shapes. Over a dozen crease of the sanctuary, which, however, exercised a
different shapes have already been discovered. In very prejudicial influence on the architectural ar-
Syria the semicircular development advances very rangement of space. The sanctuary was extended
little or not at all from the outer wall, while beside it especially westwards —thus into the longitudinal
are situated two rooms which serve respectively for aisle, but at times also into the cross aisle. Examples
the offering (prothesis) and for the clergy {diaconi- of this excessively great extension are supplied by the
cum). The sanctuary was often formed by three in- cathedrals of Paderborn and Speyer. The walls of
terconnected apses (Dreiconchensystem) the quite
; this sanctuary, which had thus become a formal en-
straight termination also occurs. An important dif- closure, were often decorated with Biblical reliefs;
ference between the Roman and Oriental churches here, in fact, are preserved some very important Ro-
consisted in the fact that in the case of the latter the manesque reliefs, as on the Georgentor at Bamberg
wall of the sanctuary was interrupted by a window and in the Church of St. Michael at Hildesheim. But
through which the sunhght freely entered, while the even in the Romanesque period began the war against
windowless Roman apse was shrouded in a mysteri- this elevated sanctuary, waged mainly by the monks
ous darkness. of Hirsan (Germany), then highly influential, and the
As the semicircular niche could no longer in all cases Cistercians. The former as opponents of the crypts,
hold the numbers of the higher and lower clergy, a restored the sanctuary to the same level as the nave or
portion of the middle nave was often enclosed with made it only a few steps higher; they also ended the
rails and added to the sanctuary, as may be seen to- sanctuary in a straight hne, and gave it only a small
day in the San Clemente at Rome. Outside Rome round apse. More important was the change made
this necessity of enlarging the sanctuary was met in by the Cistercians, who, to enable so many priests to
another way, by introducing between the longitu- read Mass simultaneously, resolved the eastern por-
dinal (or cross) aisle and the apse a compartment or tion into a number of chapels standing in a straight hne
square, the basihca thus receiving (instead of the Ro- at either side of the sanctuary. This alteration be-
man T-shape) the form of a cross. This innovation gan in the mother-house of Cisteaux, and extended with
was of far-reaching importance, since the sanctuary the monks everywhere even to the East.
could not develop freely. This development pro- These alterations paved the way for the third great
ceeded from the beginning to the close of the Middle transformation of the sanctuary: this was accom-
Aees in wh.at mav be declared as an almost wanton plished by Gothic architecture, which, in consequence
fashion. The time at which this innovation was in- of the improved vaulting, found it easier to conduct
troduced has been for a long time the subject of ^ the side aisles around the choir, as the Romanesque
violent hterary feud, since it is most intimately con- architects had already done in individual cases. The
nected with the development of the cruciform ar- sanctuary indeed was not thereby essentially altered,
rangement of churches. Some investigators hold that but it was now accessible on all sides, and the faith-
this form is first
found in the Monastery of Fulda un- ful could attain to the immediate vicinity of the high
 SANCTUS 432 SANCTUS
altar. When it was not separated by a wall, an en- what the people cry is the text just quoted. Clement
tirely free view of the sanctuary was offered. For the does not say at what moment of the service the people
most part, however, the termination of the sanctuary cry these words; but again we may safely suppose that
with walls was retained, while in front was still it was at the end of what we call the Preface, the place
erected the screen, which enjoyed in the Gothic period at which the Sanctus appears in every Uturgy, from
its special vogue. This arrangement of the sanctu- that of "Apost. Const.", VIII, on. The next oldest
ary is usually found in the great cathedrals after the witness is Origen (d. 2.54). He quotes the text of
French models, and may thus be designated the Isaiasand continues: "The coming of my Jesus is
"cathedral type", although it also occurs in the larger announced, wherefore the whole earth is full of his
parish and monastery churches. Frequently the glory" (In Isa., hom., I, n. 2). There is nothing to
sanctuary has an exceptional length; this is especially correspond to this in the Prophet. It seems plainly
the case in England, and influenced the architectonic an allusion to Uturgical use and so agrees very well
arrangement of space if the sanctuary was enclosed with the place of the Sanctus. The Anaphora of
with walls. Its effect was most unfavourable in the Sarapion of Thmuis (Egypt, fourteenth century)
canon's choir (called the Trascoro) in the cathedrals gives the Sanctus almost exactly in the form of the
of Spain, which was transferred to the middle nave as Alexandrine Liturgy (Funk, "Didascalia",Paderborn,
a separate construction and was cut off by high walls 1905, II, 174), but says nothing about its being sung
with grated entrances. This enclosure was most by the people. From the fourteenth century we have
magnificently decorated with architectural and other abundance of testimony for the Sanctus in every
ornamentations, but it entirely destroyed the view of Uturgical centre. In Egypt St. Athanasius (d. 373)
the glorious architecture. Side by side with this mentions it (Expos in Ps. cii, P. G., XXVII, 434);
"cathedral type" was retained the old simple type, at Jerusalem St. Cyril (d. 373) (Catech. myst., V, 6),
in which the sanctuary was not accessible on all sides and at Antioch St. John Chrysostom (d. 407) alludes
this was found especially in parish churches and in the to it (in Ps. cxxxiv, n. 6, P. G., LV, 393). Ter-
churches of the mendicant orders. When the church tullian (d. about 220) ("de Oratione", 3) and Victor
had three naves, the choirs of the side naves lay beside of Vite (d. 486) ("Hist, persec. Vandal", III, P. L.,
the chief choir This kind of a sanctuary remained LVIII) quote it in Africa; Germanus of Paris (d. 576)
the most popular, especially in Germany and Italy. in Gaul (in Duchesne, "Origines du Culte", 2d ed.,
The Renaissance to a great extent restored to the Paris, 1898, p. 204), Isidore of Seville (d. 636) in
sanctuary its original form. In the effort to increase Spain (ibid.). The Sanctus is sung by the people in
the middle nave as much as possible, Renaissance "ApostoUc Constitutions", VIII, XII, 27 (Brightman,
architecture in many cases neglected the side naves "Eastern Liturgies", 18-19) and so in almost all rites.
or limited them to the narrowest aisles. The free ap- The scanty state of our knowledge about the early
proach to the sanctuary from all sides thus lost its Roman Mass accounts for the fact that we have no
justification. The sanctuary necessarily received a allusion to the Sanctus till it appears in the first
great breadth, but lost its earUer depth. In its pref- Sacramentaries. The Leonine and Gelasian books
erence for bright and airy spaces, the Renaissance also give only the celebrant's part; but their prefaces lead
abandoned the method of separating the sanctuary up to it plainly. The Gregorian Sacramentary gives
from the rest of the cliurch by means of a screen at a ; the text exactly as we still have it (P. L., LXXVIII,
subsequent period, the latter was replaced by the low 26). But the passage quoted from St. Clement and
Communion bench. Thus a person entering the then the use of Africa (always similar to Rome) leave
church through the main door commanded a free no doubt that at Rome too the Sanctus is part of the
view of the sanctuary, which, especially in Italy, was oldest liturgical tradition. In view of Clement's al-
gloriously decorated with marble incrustations. As lusion it is difficult to understand Abbot Cabrol's
the sunlight, entering unchecked through the cupola theory that the Sanctus is a later addition to the Mass
covering the intersection, brightly illuminated the edi- ("Les Origines liturgiques", Paris, 1906, p. 329)
fice, the effect was entirely different from that The connexion in which it occurs in the liturgy is
awakened by the Romanesque and Gothic sanctu- this: in all rites the Eucharistic prayer (Canon,
aries. In the medieval church the sanctuary was shut Anaphora) begins with a formal thanksgiving to God
off from the congregation and was as inaccessible for his benefits, generally enumerated at length (see
as the Holy of Holies in the Temple of the Old Preface). This first part of the prayer (our Preface)
Testament; the sanctuary of the Renaissance church takes the form of an outhne of creation, of the many
stands out before us in a brilliance of light hke Mount graces given to Patriarchs and Prophets in the Old
Tabor, but without blinding our gaze, ^^'o beheve Law and so to the crowning benefit of our redemption
that we are nearer the Deity, our hearts are filled with by Christ, to His hfe and Passion, to the institution
joyous sentiments, so that we might cry out with the of the Holy Eucharist and the words of institution, all
Apostle Peter " It is good for us to be here". In the in the scheme of a thanksgiving for these things (cf.
medieval church, on the other hand, we are pene- ib.). Before the prayer comes to the mention of our
trated with a mysterious awe and like Moses feel Lord it always refers to the angels. In "Apost.
urged to take off our shoes, for this is a holy place. Const.", VIII, XII (Brightman, op. cit., 15-18), they
Strztqowski, Kleiiiasien. Bin Neuland der Knnslgeschichte
(Leipzig.
occur twice, at the beginning as being the first
l',t(J3): H.^sak, Die romarnsche u. gutisrhe Baukunst der
Kirchenbau creatures and again at the end of the Old Testament
(.'((uttgart, 1902).
BeDA KlEINSCHMIDT.
Sanctus. — I. History. — The Sanctus is the last
—
history possibly in connexion with the place of
Isaias who mentions them. In St. James's liturgy
part of the Preface in the Mass, sung in practically this part of the Anaphora is much shorter and the
every rite h\ the people (or choir). It is one of the angels are named once only (ibid., p. 50) so also in St.
;

elements of the liturgy of which we have the earhest Mark they come only once (pp. 131-32). They are
evidence. St. Clement of Rome (d. about 104) men- always named at length and with much solemnity as
tions it. He quotes the text in Isaias, vi, 3, and goes those who join with us in praising God. So the de-
on to say that it is also sung in church; this at least scription in Isaias, VI, 1-4, must have attracted at-
seems the plain meaning of the passage: "for the tention very early as expressing this angelic praise of
Scripture sa>'s Holy, holy, holy Lord of
.
God and as summing up (in v. 3) just the note of the
hosts; full is ever>- creature of his glorv. And we, led firstpart of the Anaphora. The Sanctus simply con-
by conscience, gathered together in one place in con- tinues the Preface. It is a quotation of what the
cord, crj' to him continuously as from one mouth, angels say. '\\'e thank God with the angels, who
say
that we may become sharers in his great and glorious unceasingly: "Holy, holy, holy", etc. Logically the
promises" (I Cor., xxxiv, 6-7). It seems clear that celebrant could very \\ell himself say or sing the
 SANCTUS 433 SANCTUS
Sanctus. But, apparently from the beginning of its the Benedictus verses to the Sanctus, that originally
Christian use (so already Clem. Rom.), one of the these were an acclamation to the celebrating bishop
dramatic touches that continually adorn the liturgy and that they were only later directed towards the
was added here. We too desire to say with the angels Holy Eucharist. In "Apost. Const.", VIII, XIII, 13
"Holy, holy, holy"; so when the celebrant comes to (Brightman, 24), these verses are sung at the Elevation
the quotation, the people (or choir) interrupt and just before Communion, then they were pushed back
themselves sing these words, continuing his sentence. to become an appendix to the Sanctus, where they
The interruption is important since it is the chief cause coincide more or less with the moment of consecra-
of the separation of the original first part of the tion. Mr. Atchley further thinks that the Benedictus
eucharistic prayer (the Preface) at Rome from the in the Roman Rite is a GalUcan addition of the
rest and the reason why this first part is still sung eleventh century ("Ordo Romanus Primus", London,
aloud although the continuation is said in a low voice. 1905, pp. 90-5). That the verses of Matthew, xxi,
The only rite that has no Sanctus is that of the 9, were first used as a salutation to the bishop is quite
Ethiopic Church Order (Brightman, op. oit., 190). probable (cf. Peregrinatio Silvias, ed. Gamurrini,
II. The Sanctus in the Eastern Rites. —
In the 59-60). It is less hkely that they are a late GalUcan
liturgies of St. James and St. Mark and the Byzantine addition at Rome. Their occurrence in the liturgy
Kite (Brightman, loc. cit.) the introductory sentence of Jerusalem-Antioch may well be one more example
calls it the "hymn of victory" {t6v ^ttlvIkiov Cfivov). of the relation between that centre and Rome from
This has become its usual name in Greek. It should the earliest ages (see Canon of the Mass).
never be called the Trisagion, which is a different We do not know at what moment the chant of the
liturgical formula ("Holy God, Holy Strong One, Sanctus was taken from the subdeacons and given to
Holy Immortal One have mercy on us") occurring in the schola cantorum. This is merely part of a general
another part of the service. In "Apost. Const.", tendency to entrust music that was getting more
VIII, XII, 27, the form of the Epinikion is: "Holy, ornate and difUcult to trained singers. So the Grad-
holy, holy the Lord of Hosts (o-a/Sacifl). Full (are) the ual was once sung by a deacon. The "Ordo Rom. V"
heaven and the earth of his glory. Blessed for ever. implies that the subdeacons no longer sing the Sanctus
Amen." St. James has: "Holy, holy, holy. Lord (P. L., LXXVIII, 988). In "Ordo XI", 20 (ib.
(voc.) of hosts. Full (are) the heaven and the earth 1033), it is sung by the "BasiUcarii". St. Gregory of
of thy Glory. Hosanna (he) in the highest. Blessed Tours (d. 593) says it is sung by the people (de mirac.
(is) he that comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna, S. Martini, II, 14; P. L., LXXI). The notice of
(he) in the highest." In this the cry of the people on the "Liber PontificaUs" that Pope Sixtus I (119-128)
Palm Sunday (Matt., xxi, 9, modified) is added (cf. ordered the people to sing the Sanctus cannot be cor-
the Jacobite form, Brightman, p. 86). Alexandria rect. It seems that it was not sung always at every
has only the text of Isaias (ib. 132; and Coptic, in Mass. The Second Council of Vaison finds it neces-
Greek, 176; Abyssinian, p. 231). In the Greek sary to command that it should not be omitted in
Alexandrine form (St. Mark) the text occurs twice. Lent nor at requiems (Can. 3; Hefele-Leclercq,
First the celebrant quotes it himself as said by the "Histoire des Conciles", II, 1114). There were also
cherubim and seraphim; then he continues aloud: laws in the Middle Ages forbidding the celebrant to
"for all things always call thee holy (a7id{ei) and continue the Canon before the choir had finished
"with all who call thee holy receive. Master and Lord, singing it (Mart^ne, "De antiq. eccl. ritibus", I,
our hallowing {a.yta(rixbv) who with them sing, saying 4, §7). The ringing of a bell at the Sanctus is a de-
..." and the people repeat the Epinikion velopment from the Elevation bell; this began in the
(Brightman, p. 132). The Nestorians have a con- Middle Ages. Ivo of Chartres (d. 1116) mentions it
siderably extended form of Is., vi, 3, and Matt., xxi, 9, (Ep. 142) and Durandus (Rationale, IV, 41, §53). It
in the third person (ib. 284). The Byzantine Rite was rung to call people to church that they might see
has the form of St. James (ib. 323-324), so also the the Elevation. The Sanctus bell is an earlier warning
Armenians (p. 436). In all Eastern rites only the that the Canon is about to begin. The rubrics of the
sentence that immediately introduces the Epinikion Missal still say nothing about the bell at the Sanctus.
is said aloud, as an Ekphonesis. It was (and in places still is) usual to ring the great
III. The Sanctus in the West. —
In Latin it is church bell, at least at high Mass. The hand-beU
the "Tersanctus" or simply the "Sanctus". "Hymnus was only a warning to the ringers in the tower
angelicus" is ambiguous and should be avoided, since (Gavanti-Merati, "Thesaurus S. Rituum", II, 7,
this the usual name for the Gloria in Excelsis.
is Venice, 1762, p. 156).
Germanus of Paris bears witness to it in the GalUcan The text of the Roman Sanctus is first Isa., vi, 3,
Rite (Ep. I; P. L., LXXII, 89 seq.; see above). Its with 'pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua" instead of
form was as at Rome. The Mozarabic Sanctus is "plena est omnis terra gloria eius". In this way (as
almost the Roman one; but it has for the first Ho- at Antioch and Alexandria) it is made into a prayer by
sanna: "Osanna filio David" (more literally Matt., the use of the second person. In all liturgies the
5™, 9) and the additional exclamations "Agyos, Hebrew word for "hosts" (.ni}<:i' (rapaiie) is kept,
apos, agyos Kyrie o theos" (P. L., LXXXV, 548, as in the Septuagint (Vulgate, "exercituum")._ The
<!fr. 116).
!Milan has exactly our form. It may be "Lord of hosts" is a very old Semitic title, in the
noted that the Galilean and Mozarabic liturgies, fol- polytheistic reUgions apparently for the moon-god,
lowing the tradition of Antioch and Jerusalem the hosts being the stars (as in Gen., II, 1 Ps. xxxii,
;

(Brightman, op. cit., pp. 19, 51), continue the Ana- 6). To the Jews these hosts were the angels (cf. Lc,
phora by taking up the idea of the Sanctus: "Vera II, 13). Then follows the acclamation of Palm Sun-
sanctus, vere benedictus Dominus noster lesus day in Matthew, xxi, 9. It is based on Ps. c.xvii,
Chnstus" (P. L., LXXXV, 548) and so coming 25-26; but the source of the liturgical text is, of course,
almost at once to the words of Institution. This the text in the Gospel. Hosanna is in the Greek text
prayer, which varies in each
Mass, is called "Post and Vulgate, left as a practically untranslatable ex-
oanctus", or "Vere Sanctus" Milan has one rem- clamation of triumph. It means Uterally "Oh help"
nant of this on Holy
Saturday (Duchesne, ib. 205). (SD -'J~X:'-), but in Matthew, xxi, 9, it is already^a
At Kome the Sanctus is described in "Ordo Rom.", triumphant interjection {like Alleluia) In "Didache",
.

"hymnus angelicus, id est Sanctus" (P. L., X, 6, it occurs as a Uturgical formula ("Hosanna to the
I'y^
j-^^VIII, 945). It is sung by the regionary sub- God of David"). In the medieval local rites the
deacons (ib.). So also "Ordo Rom.", II, which notes Sanctus was often "farced" (interpolated with tropes),
"°sanna sung twice C. Atchley like the Kyrie and other texts, to fill up the long
JrV
imnks that
is (ib. 974).
this marks the beginning of the addition of musical neums. Specimens of such farcings, including
XTTT .98
 SANCY 434 SANDALS
one attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas, may be seen the most exact sense of the word a vestment worn
in Bona, "Rerum liturgicarum", II, 10, §4 (ed. Paris, during the Mass. The liturgical colour for the day
1672), p. 41S. The skeleton of a Mass at the blessing decides the colour of the sandals and caligoe; there are,
of palms retains not only a Preface but also a Sanctus, however, no black stockings or sandals, as the bishop
sung to the original "simple" tone. The many other does not make use of the pontifical foot-wear either
prayers (blessing of the font, ordinations, etc.) that at masses for the dead or on Good Friday. Sandala
are modelled on the Preface diverge from its scheme and stockings are only customary in the Latin Rites,
as they proceed and do not end with a Sanctus. and are unknown in the Oriental Rites.
—
IV. Present Rite. At high Mass as soon as the —
History. Sandals and stockings belong to the
celebrant has sung the last word of the Preface liturgical vestments supported by the earhest evi-
{dicenles) the choir begins the Sanotu.s, continuing his dence. They are depicted upon the monuments of
phrase. They should sing it straight through, includ- the fifth cen-
ing the Benedictus. The custom of waiting till after tury, for in-
the Elevation and then adding the Benedictus, once stance upon
common, is now abolished by the rubric (" De ritibus mosaics of
servandis in cantu missae", VII) of the Vatican Grad- San Satiro
ual. was a dramatic effect that never had any
It near San Am-
warrant. Sanctus and Benedictus are one text. brogio at Mi-
Meanwhile the deacon and subdeacon go up to the lan, and on
right and left of the celebrant and say the Sanctus in those of the
a low \oice with him. Every one in the choir and sixth century,
church kneels (Ca?rim. Episcop., II, VIII, 69). The e. g. the mo-
hand-bell is usually rung at the Sanctus; but at Rome saics in San „ „ „
"\"til<3 q+Rq sandal of Bishop Bernhard of Hildesheim
there is no bell at all at high Mass. While the choir \ iiaie ai i^a- j^jj q^^^ ^he Cathedral, Hildesheim
sings the celebrant goes on with the Canon. They venna. Orig-
must finish or he must wait before the Consecration. inally the sandals were called campagi, the stock-
At low Mass the celebrant after the Preface, bowing ings udones. The shoes were given the name san-
and laying the folded hands on the altar, continues dalia probably during the eighth to the ninth cen-
the Sanctus in a lower voice {vox media) The bell is
. tury, and this name was first applied to them in
rung three times. Although the rubrics of the Missal the north; the designation caligce for udones came'
do not mention this it is done everywhere by approved into use in the tenth century, also in the north.
custom. It may be noticed that of the many chants As regards the original form and material of the
of the Sanctus in the Gradual the simple one only (for campagi, they were slippers that covered only the tip
ferias of Advent and Lent, requiems and the blessing of the foot and the heel, and must have been fastened
of palms) continues the melody of the Preface and so to the foot by straps. This slipper was made of
presumably represents the same musical tradition as black leather. The stockings were, very likely, made
our Preface tone. As in the case of the Preface its of linen, and were white in colour. In the earliest-
mode is doubtful. period the campagi and udones were by no means ex-
DuRANDUS, Rationale divinorum officiorum, IV, 34; Bona, clusively an episcopal ornament, as they were worn
Rerum liturgiarum libri duo, II, X, 4; Benedict XIV, De SS. by deacons. Indeed this foot-covering was not re-
SacTiJicio misnw, II, XI, 18-19; Gavanti-Merati, Thesaurus S.
Rituum, II, VII, 80-86; Gihr, Das h. Messop/er (Freiburg, served exclusively for the clergy, as not only the
1897), 524-530. monuments show that the campagi and udones
Adrian Fortescub. were worn by the laity, but Lydus also testifies to
Sancy, Achillb Haklay de. See Hahlay, this usage (De mag., I, xvii). Campagi and udones
Family op. were originally worn in the post-Constantine era as a.
mark of distinction by certain persons of rank, and
—
Sandals, Episcopal. Form and Present Use. — were probably copied from the foot-wear of the an-
Unlike the ancient sandals, which consisted merely of cient senators. Their use gradually became custom-
soles fastened to the foot by straps, the episcopal ary among the higher clergy, especially when these
sandals are in the form of low shoes, and resemble appeared in their full official capacity for the celebra-
slippers. The sole is of leather; the upper part, gen- tion of the Liturgy. During the eighth and ninth cen-
erally orna- turies also the Roman subdeacons and acolytes wore a
mented with distinctive foot-wear, the subtalares, which, however,
embroidery, were simpler than the campagi, and had no straps.
is made at The sandals and stockings became a specifically epis-
thepresent copal vestment about the tenth century. Apparently
day of silk or as early as the twelfth century, or at least in the
velvet. No second half of the thirteenth century, they were no-
cross is re- longer worn even by the cardinal deacons of Rome.
quired upon The privilege of wearing the sandals and caligce was
the sandals first granted to an abbot (Fulrad of St. Denis) in 7.57
Bishop's Sandal, Early XVIII Century at Rome this by Stephen III. This is, however, an isolated case,
Royal Kunstgewerbemuseum, Berlin is an exclu- as it was only after the last quarter of the tenth cen-
sively papal tury, and especially after the twelfth century that it
privilege. With the sandals are worn the liturgical became customary to grant abbots this |)rivilege
stockings, caligos. The stockings, which are of —
Developiient of Shape. The cnligrr seem to
silk, arc either knitted or arc made by sewing have experienced no particular development. In the
together pieces of silk fabric that ha^-e been cut later Middle Ages they were, as a rule, made of silk.
a suitable shape; they are worn over the ordinary The earliest enforcement in respect to co.b'o(r of the
stockings. The privilege of wearing the sandals and regulations for liturgical colours seems to have been at
calii/ie belongs only to bishops. They may be worn Rome, but even here probably not until the fourteenth
by abbots and other prelates only by special privilege century. The sandals retained substantially their
from the pope and only so far as this privilege grants. original form until the tenth century. Then straps
Thepontificalfoot-wearisu.sedonly at pontifical solemn were replaced by three or five tongues reaching to the
Mass and at functions performed during the same, as ankle, extensions of the upper leather upon the point
ordination, but not on other occasions, as, for example. of the foot, and these were fastened at the ankle by
Confirmation, solemn Vespers etc. It is therefore in means of a string. In the twelfth century these'
 SANDEMANIANS 435 SANDER
tongues were gradually shortened; in the thirteenth The Sandemanians as a religious body are very ob-
century the sandal was a regular shoe with a slit above scure and it is difficult to obtain reliable information
the foot or on the side to niake the putting on easier with regard to them, but the total membership in
In the sixteenth century there was a return to the Great Britain is believed not to exceed two thousand.
earlier form of the sandal; instead of a high shoe it
Blunt, Diet, of Sects, Heresies, and Schools of Thought (London,
1874); Diet. Nat. Biog., s. vv. Glas and Sandeman; Jones,
now became once more a low foot-covering, like a Life and Letters of Faraday (London, 1870)
slipper, a form which it has retained until the present Edwin Bueton.
time. The material of which the pontifical sandals
are made was, until the thirteenth century, exclusively Sandeo, Felino Maria, often quoted under the
leather, at times covered with silk. Since the later name of Felinus, Itahan canonist of the fifteenth
Middle Ages, the upper part of the sandals has been century, b. at Felina, Diocese of Reggio, in 1444;
made, not of leather, but of silk, veh-et, etc. It is d. at Lucca, October, 1503, according to most writers,
not until about 1400, with the exception of entirely according to others at Rome, 6 Sept. of the same
isolated earlier examples, that a cross is to be found year. He taught canon law from 1466 to 1474 at
upon the sandals. The fork-shaped decoration, fre- Ferrara, which was his family's native place, and at
quently found on pontifical shoes, especially on those Pisa until 1484, when he became auditor of the Sacred
of the thirteenth century, was not a cross, but merely Palace and lived at Rome. On 4 May, 1495, he
an ornament. became Bishop of Penna and Atri and on 25 Sept.
Braun, Die pontif. Gewdiider des Abendlandes (Freiburg, 1898) of the same year Coadjutor Bishop of Lucca with
Idem, Die lilarg. Gitrandung im Occident u. Orient (Freiburg,
1907); Bock, Gesch. der Kturg. Gewdnder, II (Bonn, 1866); DB
right of succession. He became I5ishop of Lucca
LlNAS, Anciens i-etements sacerdo^aux (Paris, 1860-63); RoHAULT in 1499. FeUno was a good compiler but lacked origi-
DE Fleury, La messe, VIII (Paris, 1889). nality. His chief work is "Lectura", or "Commen-
Joseph Braun. taria in varios titulos libri I, II, IV, et V
Decretalium"
(see Hain, "Repert. bibhogr.", II, ii, 269-78, N.
Sandemanians, an English form of the Scottish 14280-14325, published rather often, notably at
sect of Glassites, followers of John Glas (b. 1695; Milan, 1504' Basle, 1567; Lyons, 1587). He also
d. 1773) who was deposed from the Presbyterian pubhshed a Sermo de indulgentia", "Repetitiones"
ministry in 172S, for teaching that the Church should "Consiha", and "Epitome de regno Siciliae" (s. 1.,
not be subject to any league or covenant, but should 1495). Some unedited works are mentioned in
be governed only by Apostolic doctrine. Glas's Fabricius, "Bib. latina mediae et infimae setatis"
son-in-law, Robert Sandeman (b. 1718; d. 1771), with additions by Mansi, II (Florence, 1858), 558.
having been for many years an elder in the Glassite ScHULTE, Gesch. der Quellen und Lileralur des canonischen
Rechts, II (Stuttgart, 1877), 350-2; Eubel, Hierarchia cath. medii
sect, removed to London in 1760, where he gathered
a congregation at Glovers' Hall, Barbican. Though
aivi,II (Munater, 1901), 199, 236. A. Van Hove.
for the most part he followed the teaching of Glas,
Sander, Anton, historian, b. at Antwerp, 1586:
he went beyond that doctrine in maintaining that
faith is only a simple assent to Divine testimony
d. at Afflighem, Belgium, 10 Jan., 1664. Having
which differs in no way from belief in ordinary human
become master of philosophy at Douai in 1609, he
studied theology for some years under Malderus at
evidence. In 1764 Sandeman went to America to
Louvain, and Estius at Douai, and was ordained
propagate his views, and founded some congregations
priest at Ghent. For some years he was engaged in
there, for which reason the Glassites in America, like
parochial duties, and combated the Anabaptist
those in England, are known as Sandemanians.
In England the sect has never been numerous, pos-
movement in Flanders with great zeal and success. In
1625 he became secretary and almoner of Cardinal
sessing less than a dozen meeting-places in the whole
Alphonsus de la Cueva, later becoming canon, and
country, including two in London. It is chiefly
in 1654 penitentiary at Ypres. After three years,
known owing to the great chemist Sir Michael
however, he resigned this office to devote himself en-
Faraday (b. 1791; d. 1867) having officiated as a
tirely to scientific, and especially to historical studies.
Sandemanian elder in London in the middle of the
nineteenth century. Membership is granted on con-
He soon found himself compelled to claim the hos-
pitality of the Benedictine Abbey of Afflighem, since
fession of sin and public profession of faith in the
he had reduced himself to absolute poverty by the
Death and Resurrection of Christ. The new mem-
publication of numerous works. He combined high
ber receives a blessing and the kiss of peace from all
intellectual gifts with great zeal, and left behind forty-
present. Each congregation is presided over by
several elders, all unpaid, who are elected for their
two printed, and almost as many unprinted, works.
earnestness of conviction and sincerity, and who hold
The most important are the following: "De scrip-
toribus Flandriai hbri III" (Antwerp, 1624); "De
office for life. On the death of an elder the sur- Gandavensibus eruditionis fama claris" (Antwerp,
vivors propose for election the name of a suitable
1624); "De Brugensibus eruditionis fama claris libri
member of the congregation, who is then elected by
II" (Antwerp, 1624); "Hagiologium Flandriae sive
the whole body. The Sandemanians practise a de Sanctis eius provincise liber unus" (Antwerp, 1625;
weekly celebration of the Lord's supper, and the
agape or love-feast, which takes the form of dining
2nd ed., Lille, 1639). A general edition of these four
works appeared under the title: "Flandria illustrata"
together between the morning and afternoon services.
(2 vols., Cologne, 1641-44; The Hague, 1726). Of
The elders alone preach, but the ordinary members
his other works may be mentioned: "Elogia cardina-
take tui'ns in offering prayers. The ceremonial lium sanctitate, doctrina et armis illustrium" (Lou-
washing of feet is also performed on certain occasions.
vain, 1625); "Gandavium sive rerum Gandavensium
They abstain from things strangled and from blood.
As they consider that casting lots is a sacred process,
libri VI" (IBrussels, 1627); " Bibliotheca belgica manu-
scripta" (2 parts, Lille, 1641-3); " Chorographia sacra
they regard all games of chance as unlawful. They Brabantiae sive celebrium in ea provinoia eoclesiarum
practise community of goods to a modified extent,
et coenobiorum descriptio, imaginibus seneis illus-
considering all their property as liable to calls on
trata" (Brussels, 1659; The Hague, 1726); this is his
behalf of the Church and the poor. It is also con- chief work.
sidered wrong to accumulate wealth. If any mem- FoppENS, Bibl. HnsTEE,
Belgica, I (Brussels, 1739), 87 sqq.,
ber dilTers obstinately from the rest he is expelled Nomendator. PaTKICITJS SchLAGEE.
and by this system perfect unanimity is secured.
They refuse to join in prayer with members of other Sander (Sandees), Nicholas, b. at Charlwood,
denominations and to eat and drink with an ex- Surrey, in 1530; d. in Ireland, 1581. Educated at
communicated person is held to be a grievous sin. Winchester and New College, Oxford, he graduated
 SANDHURST 436 SANDOMIR
in 1551, and took a share in Pole's reform of the Sandhurst, Diocese of (Sandhurstensis), in
university. He had to flee under Elizabeth and was Victoria,Australia, suffragan of Melbourne. The
ordained at Rome, afterwards receiving the degree cathedral city, officially known as Bendigo, is situated
of Doctor of Divinity. He also wrote there in 1560 about one hundred miles directly north of Melbourne,
a remarkable "Report on the State of England" for in a shallow basin surrounded by an amphitheatre of
Cardinal Moroni (Catholic Record Soc, I). He gently-rismg hills rich in gold, discovered in the dis-
attended the Council of Trent as a theologian of trict in 1852. This fact attracted to Bendigo immi-
Cardinal Hosius and afterwards accompanied him grants from all parts of the world, among them many
and Cardinal Commendone in legations to Poland, Irish and others professing the Catholic Faith. The
Prussia, and Lithuania. In 1565 he returned to first missionary was the Rev. Dr. Backhaus. On 21
Louvain, then much frequented by Catholic exiles, Sept., 1874, Most Reverend Martin Crane, O.S.A.,
amongst whom was his mother, his sister Elizabeth was consecrated first bishop of this diocese and ar-
l)eing a nun of Syon at Rouen. Nicholas became rived at the scene of his future labours early in 1875
professor of theology there, and soon joined in the accompanied by the Rev. M. Maher and the Rev.
great controversy over Jewel's "Apologie", in which Stephen Reville, O.S.A. The latter was in 1885 ap-
the English exiles first appeared to the world as a, pointed coadjutor bishop to Dr. Crane and succeeded
learned and united Catholic body. Sander's con- him as bishop on 21 Oct., 1901. During the twenty-
tributions were, "The Supper of the Lord", "A five years of Dr. Crane's active administration, and
Treatise of Images", "The Rock of the Church" since his demise, the interests of the Church have
(Louvain, 1565, 1566, 1567), followed by his great advanced rapidly both in a spiritual and material
work, "De visibili monarchia ecclesiae" (Louvain, sense. "\Mien in 1875 Bishop Crane assumed charge
1571). These works, joined with the proofs he had of the diocese it contained but four parishes with one
already given of diplomatic ability, and the high priest in each. There was no con^'ent or Catholic
esteem of the nobles and gentry who had fled from school. At present the principal churches are situated
England after the Northern Rising (1569), caused at Wangaratta, Beechworth, Benalla, Chichern, Shep-
iSander to be regarded as practically the chief English parton, Ecbuca, and Rochester. The two last named
Catholic leader. Almost the earliest attempt to parishes together with that of Kyabram are in charge
restore ecclesiastical discipline in England after the of the Irish Augustinian Fathers who, at the invita-
fall of the ancient hierarchy was the Rescript of tion of Bishop Crane, came to the diocese towards the
Pius V (14 August, 1567), granting to Sander, close of 1886. Besides the Augustinian Fathers, there
Thomas Harding, and Thomas Peacock (the former are Alarist Brothers, Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of St.
treasurer of Salisbury and president of Queen's Brigid, Sisters of St. Joseph, Presentation Sisters,
College, Cambridge; see "Diet. Nat. Biog.", xxiv, Faithful Companions of Jesus, and Good Shepherd
339; xliv, 143) "bishoply power in the court of con- Sisters. In many outlying districts, unable to main-
science", to receive back those who had lapsed into tain a community of nuns, there are flourishing pri-
heresy (Vatican Arch., Var. Pol., Ixvi, 258; Arm., mary schools in charge of lay teachers. In the im-
64, xxviii, 00). When Sander was summoned to mediate vicinity of Bendigo, there is now in course of
Rome in 1572, his friends believed that he would be construction an orphanage and Magdalen Asylum,
made a cardinal, but Pius V died before he arrived. which up to date has cost £45,000, the funds for which
Gregory XIII kept him as consultor on English mat- are derived from the estate of Dr. Backhaus.
ters, and many letters of this period are still pre- The statistics for 1911 are: districts, 22; churches,
served in the Vatican. In 1573 he went to Spain 105; secular priests, 36, regular, 6; religious brothers,
to urge Philip II to subsidize the exiles, and when in 7; nuns, 200; college, 1; boarding-schools (girls), 6;
1578 James Fitzgerald had persuaded Sega, papal primary schools, 31; superior day-schools, 13; chil-
nuncio at Madrid, with the warm approbation of dren in Catholic schools, over 4000; total Catholic
Gregory, and the cold connivance of Philip, to fit population (1901), 45,368.
out a ship to carry arms to Ireland, Sanders went Australasian Cath. Directory (1911); Annuaire Pontif. Cath,
(1911); Mohan, Hist, of the Catholic Church in Australasia;
with him as papal agent, but without any title or HoGAN, The Irish in Australia (1888)
; Therky, New South
office. They landed in Dingley Bay (17 July, 1579) Wales and Victoria, (1863).
and the Second Desmond war ensued with its terri- Stephen Reville.
ble consequences. Sander bore up with unshaken
courage, as his letters and proclamations show, in
San Domingo. See Dominican Republic, The.
He belonged to Sandomir (Polish, Sandomibkz), Diocese of
spite of all disasters, till his death.
the first group of English exiles, who, never having (Sandomiriensis). —
"The city is very ancient, with
lived in England during the persecution, never stillexisting traces of prehistoric construction. Its
realized how complete Elizabeth's victory was. population is 6891, of which 2364 are Catholics, 46 of
He believed, and acted consistently in the belief, the Orthodox Church, and 3433 Jews.
that strong measures, like war and excommunication, When King Mieczyslaw I (962-92), introduced
were the true remedies for the great evils of the time; Christianity into Poland he built two churches at
a mistaken policy, which though supported by the Sandomir dedicated to St. Nicholas and St. John. In
popes of that day, was subsequently changed. The the Middle Ages the city became an important centre
most widely known of Samlcr's books is his short of political and religious life. Here lived several il-
"De schismate Anglicano". It was published after lustrious and holy personages, namely, the Blessed
his death, first by E. Rishton at Cologne in 1585, Salome (1210-68), daughter of Leszek the Fair and
then with many additions by Father Persons at wife of Koloman I, King of Hungary; Blessed Ade-
Rome in 1586. Translated into various languages laide, daughter of Casimir the Just (1179-94), King
and frequently reprinted, it was fiercely controverted of Poland,who founded the parochial church of St,
especially by Bishop Burnet, but defended by Joa- John where she was buried (1211); Blessed \'incent
chim Le Grand. It is now acknowledged to be Kladubek, who died in 1223 after a fruitful apostohc
an excellent, popular account of the period from a ministry and was canonized by Clement XIIl;
Catholic point of view. Blessed Czeslaw, a Dominican (d. 1242 or 1247), the
Pollen in English Historical Review (Jan., 1891); Idem in brother of St. Hvacinth; his cult was approved
The Monlh (Jan., 1903); Gillow, Bib. Did. Eng. Cath., V, 476; throughout Poland by Clement XII in 1735; St.Hya-
Bellebheim, Gesch. der Kat. Ki^che in Irland, II (Alainz. 1890), cinth, the celebrated and apostohc Dominican who
16S; Lewis, Sander's History of the English Schism (London,
1877). He is also frequently mentioned in the English, Irish, was one of the glories of Catholic Poland; St. Cun^'
and Spanish .'>tate Papers, and there are many of iiis papers in the gunde (1224-92), wife of Boleslaw the Chaste, King
Vatican Archives. j. H. PoLLEN. of Poland. In 1260 Tatar hordes completely de-
 SANDS 437 SANDS
stroyed the city and put all the inhabitants to the cathedral, which dates from 1120 and to which a cathe-
sword. Forty-nine Dominicans with Sadok, prior of dral chapter has been attached since 1818; the Church
the convent of St. James, were martyred. In 1476 of St. James, founded in 1200 by Blessed Adelaide;
Jan DIugosz, the celebrated annalist and Polish his- here dwelt Hyacinth and Martin of Sandomir, whom
torian, a canon of Cracow and Sandomir, built here Gregory IX sent as his ambassador to St. Louis, to
for the cathedral clergy a house which is still existing induce him to undertake a crusade; and Raymond
and is called by his name. Bembnowski, author of the Acts of the Martyrs of
The Congress of Sandomir (1570) was assembled Sandomir; the Church of the Conversion of St. Paul,
for the purpose of union between Protestant sects and which was in existence in the beginning of the thir-
the foundation of a national Protestant Church. The teenth century; the Church of the Holy Ghost,
results were negative, but certain measures were pro- founded by the Religious of the Holy Ghost of Santa
posed and approved for the regulation of the relations Maria in Sassia in 1222; the Church of St. Michael,
between the Protestant sects. founded in 1686 and attached to a Benedictine mon-
Up to the second half of the eighteenth century the astery; and the Church of St. Joseph, founded in 1685
city of Sandomir and its territory were under the im- by the Protestants. There are 212 parishes in the
mediate jurisdiction of the Diocese of Cracow. In diocese, 1 cathedral church, 1 collegiate church, 10 de-
1787 through the initiative of Michael Poniatowski, tached churches, and 50 chapels. The secular clergy
number 295. The religious houses were all dispersed
after the Polish insurrection of 1863. The regulars are
represented by one Franciscan lay brother in the parish
of Wysmierzyce. The Sisters of Charity, numbering
forty-two, have seven hospitals at Sandomir, Radom,
Strzyzowice, Opat6w, Stasz6w, Opoczno. Near
Bodzentyn is a cloistered Franciscan monastery with
thirteen sisters. The canons of the cathedral number
twelve, those of the college, six. There are 870,674
Catholics. Amongst the Catholic societies of San-
domir may be mentioned the Society of Charities,
founded in 1905, with 155 members; the archconfra-
ternity of St. Stanislaus Kostka, founded in 1906, with
30 young men; the Christian Working Men's So-
ciety, founded in 1907, with 98 members, and the
The Cathedral at Sandomir Catholic Society, founded in 1908 with 188 mem-
bers.
administrator of the Diocese of Cracow, the Holy See Balinbki, Starozytna polska pod wzglende-m historyczny-m,
created Sandomir a diocese. The first bishop was jeograficznym i statystycznym opisana (Description of Ancient
Mgr. Adalbert Radozewski (d. 1796). In 1818, after Poland, historical, geographical, and statistical), II (Warsaw,
1844), 268-280; Chandztnski, Wspomnienia sandomierskie i
the Concordat with Russia, Pius VII promulgated the
opis miasta Sandomierza (Recollections of Sandomir and a de-
Bull "Ex imposita nobis", which suppressed the scription of the city) (Warsaw, 1850) ; Bulinski, Monografia
greater part of the Diocese of Kielce and transferred miasta Sandomierza (Warsaw, 1879) Rokoszny and (^ajkowski
;

in Bncyklopedja koscidna, XXIV (Warsaw, 1900), 338-352;

its episcopal seat to Sandomir. In the next year Ro^oezNY, Swiente Pamiantki Sandomierza (Sacred Monuments
Mgr. Stephen Holowczyc, dean of the cathedral of Sandomir) (Warsaw, 1902) ; Idem, Przewodnik po Sandomierzu
of Kielce, was consecrated bishop. The new dio- (Guide to Sandomir) (Sandomir, 1908); Catalogus ecclesiarum et
cleri scecularis ac regularis dicecesis Sandomiriensis pro anna
cese comprised the ancient Principality of Sandomir,
Domini 1911 (Sandomir, 1910)
which is now the Province of Radom, and part of the A. Palmieri.
Province of Kielce. Bishop Holowczyc had scarcely
taken possession of his diocese before he was made Sands, Benjamin F., rear-admiral United States
Archbishop of Warsaw, and a Franciscan, Adam Pros- Navy, b. at Baltimore, Md., 11 Feb., 1812; d. at
per Burzynski, succeeded him in 1820. After the Washington, D. C, 30 June, 1883. His parents were
death of Bishop Burzynski (9 Sept., 1830) the non-Catholics and he became a convert in 1850, hav-
cathedral chapter administered the diocese until ing married a Catholic, Henrietta M. French, sister
1840, when the rector of the seminary, Clement of Major-General WiUiam H. French, U.S.A. He
Bankiewicz, was made bishop at the age of eighty, was appointed a midshipman in the navy from his
and died 2 January, 1842. His successor was Bishop native state, 1 April, 1828, and passed through the
Joseph Joachim Goldtman, who had been Bishop of successive grades of promotion until he received the
Wladislaw since 1838; he was transferred to the See rank of rear-admiral, 27 April, 1871, and was placed
of Sandomir in 1844, and died on 22 March, 1853. on the retired list on reaching the age of 62 years,
Bishop Joseph Michael Yuszynski, who had occupied 11 February, 1874. During the Civil War he held
various ecclesiastical offices in the diocese, succeeded several important commands with conspicuous suc-
him, and was consecrated 10 July, 1859. Under him cess, and fn 1867 was made superintendent of the
the number of deaneries of the diocese was decreased Naval Observatory at Washington. During his in-
from seventeen to seven. On his death Bishop An- cumbency of this office, which lasted until 1874, he
thony Francis Sotkiewioz, administrator of the advanced the observatory to a place equal to the most
Archdiocese of Warsaw and professor of canon law celebrated in Europe. For many years he was a
m the ecclesiastical seminary of that city, was conse- member of the Catholic Indian Bureau in Washing-
crated 20 May, 1882; d. 4 May, 1901. At the time of ton. Notes he left were compiled by his son, F. B.
his elevation the number of secular clergy was 278, Sands, into the book "From Reefer to Rear Ad-
and the Catholic population 730,940. He was suc- miral" His son George H. graduated at West Point
ceeded on 4 September, 1902, by Stephen Alexander and served in the U. S. Army. Three others, Wil-
Zwierowicz, Bishop of Vilna, who was transferred liam F., F. B., and James H., also served in the navy; a
from the latter see to Sandomir, where he died on daughter, Rosa, became a Visitation nun.
3 January, 1908. The present incumbent of the see is
Bishop Marianus Joseph Ryn, canon of the cathedral, James Hoban Sands, rear-admiral U. S. N., son of
who was consecrated 7 April, 1910. The diocese at foregoing; b. at Washington, D. C, 12 July, 1845;
present coinprises seven deaneries: Sandomir, Opat6w, d. there 26 October, 1911. Following the footsteps
Ipza, Kozienice, Radom, Opoczno, and Konskie. of his father he achieved a high reputation in the naval
There are six churches in the city of Sandomir; the service for daring and seamanship. Appointed to the
 SANDWICH ISLANDS 438 SANDWICH ISLANDS
Naval Academy from Maryland in 1859, from which hours after anchoring, the captain dispatched one of
he graduated four years later, he served with the his officers to present to the king the following sum-
North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil mary request: (1) that the CathoUc rehgion be de-
War. While only an ensign he was twice recom- clared free; (2) that all Cathohcs imprisoned on
mended by boards of admirals to be advanced in account of their rehgion be set at Uberty; (3) that the
grade for gallantry. After the war he had commands Government give a suitable site at Honolulu for a
in the West India Squadron, and later had charge of Catholic Church; (4) that the king place in the hands
the Brooklyn, Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington of the captain of the "Art6mise" the sum of $20,000,
Navy Yards. He was made rear-admiral, 11 April, as a guarantee of his good-will and peaceful mind,'
1902, and commanded at the Naval Academy, 1906-07, said sum to be restored when the French Government
introducing a much needed reform in spite of opposi- should feel satisfied that the above conditions had
tion in many quarters. This was his last active duty been fulfilled. Hostilities were to commence if the
as he retired in 1907 after a sea service of eighteen king failed to comply within forty-eight hours with
years and four months and a shore duty of twenty- the terms of this manifesto. All the conditions were
two years. His example as a Catholic was a strong readily accepted, and peace was concluded. From
influence in the navy in developing a spirit of toler- this time the Catholic priests have enjoyed a tolerable
ance towards Catholics in the service, and in making amount of liberty; but the Protestant missionaries
religious practices of whatever creed more respected and their friends have been identified with the Govern-
His wife was Mary Elizabeth Meade, of the famous ment and have had the important positions, using
Philadelphia family of that name, who became a con- their influence as well as the government emoluments
vert. His son William Franklin was United States for the advancement of their cause.
Minister to Guatemala, and two of his daughters, In the year 1840 there arrived at Honolulu the Rt.
Clara and Hilda, became Religious of the Sacred Heart. Rev. Bishop Rouchouze, first vicar Apostolic of
Am. Cath. Who's Who (St. Louis, 1911); Fuhet in U. S. Cath. Oriental Oceania, appointed to this office in 1833, and
Hiit. Soc. Hisl. Records and Studies (New Yorlc, 1911-12); Free- having jurisdiction not only in Hawaii, but also in
man's Journal (New Yorlc) lilea; U. S. Naval Register,
Tahiti, the Marquesas, and other islands. He was
Thomas F. Meehan. accompanied by three other priests, one of whom,
Rev. Louis Maigret, had been refused a landing at
Sandwich Islands, Vicariate Apostolic of the, Honolulu in 1837. On 9 July, 1840, ground was
comprises all the islands of the Hawaiian group. They broken for the foundation of the present Cathedral of
Ue just within the northern tropic, between 18° 54' Our Lady of Peace. On the same day 280 catechumens
and 22° 15' north latitude, and between 154° 50' and received baptism and confirmation. In January,
160° 30' of longitude west of Greenwich. These 1841, Bishop Rouchouze returned to France, in search
islands form the present Territory of Hawaii, and be- of labourers and resources for his mission. He was
long to the United States. Honolulu, the capital, is successful in obtaining a number of priests and sisters
on the Island of Oahu. Eight of the islands are inhab- of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts. They left
ited, viz., Kauai, Niihau, Oahu, I\Iolokai,Lanai, Maui, France in 1841 with a cargo of supplies on the schooner
Kahoolawe, and Hawaii. Their population (1910) " Mary- Joseph ", owned by the mission; but, un-
was 191,909. fortunately, the vessel was lost with all on board, not
The first Catholic priests arrived at Honolulu on 9 one surviving to tell the tale. This was a severe blow
July, 1827. They were the Rev. Alexis Bachelot, for the young mission, and retarded its progress for
prefect Apostolic, the Rev. Abraham Armand, and many years. On 15 August, 1843, the newly-finished
the Rev. Patrick Short. The first two were natives cathedral of Honolulu was solemnly dedicated, and
of France, and the third of Ireland. All three were 800 Catholics received Holy Communion.
members of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of About this time Oriental Oceania was divided into
Jesus and Mary, called also the Society of Picpus, three vicariates Apostolic: Tahiti, Marquesas, and
from the name of the street in Paris in which its Sandwich Islands. On 11 July, 1847, Pius IX ap-
mother-house is situated. They had been sent by pointed the then prefect of the mission, the Very Rev.
Pope Leo XII. Protestant missionaries had arrived Louis Maigret, vicar Apostolic, to succeed Bishop
from New England as early as 1820, and had gained Rouchouze and take charge of the Sandwich Islands
the king and chiefs over to their cause. As soon as Mission as a separate vicariate. From this time on the
the priests began to make converts a fierce persecu- mission made slow but steady progress, in spite of the
tion was raised against the natives who became Cath- odds it had to contend with. The Protestant minis-
olics. They were ill-treated, imprisoned, tortured, ters found the ancient belief of the aborigines in their
and forced to go to the Protestant churches, and the idols already shaken and partly discarded (owing,
priests were banished. Fathers Bachelot and Short probably, to the fact that foreigners broke the dreaded
were taken to a, solitary spot in Lower California, far taboos without incurring the wrath of the gods). They
removed from any human habitation. In 1836 the taught the Hawaiians to wear clothes, and to read and
Rev. Robert Walsh, an Irish priest of the same Con- write the Hawaiian language. After having translated
gregation, arrived at Honolulu, and through the in- the Bible and given it to the natives, they considered
tervention of the British consul, was enabled to re- the latter civilized and Christianized, and proceeded
main on the islands in spite of the ill-will of the forthwith to develop the resources of the country.
Protestant party, which wanted to send him back on But this Christianity was superficial. The life-phi-
the vessel in which he had come. In 1837 Fathers losophy of the weak and inconstant natives was to shun
Bachelot and Short returned from California, but work and enjoy all the pleasures within reach. If the
religious persecution still continued. In the same year foreigners had offered them but one form of Christian-
there arrived from France the Rev. Louis Maigret, ity and had illustrated it by their good example; if,
who afterwards became bishop, and first Vicar Apos- above all, the efforts at educating these grown-up
tolic of the Sandwich Islands. He was not permitted children had been directed more towards correcting
to land, but was obliged to leave the country, together the evil tendencies of their hearts than cramming
with Father Bachelot. who was in very feeble health. their minds with knowledge, the aborigines would cer-
The latter, worn out by labour and trials, died at sea tainly have received the blessings of Christianity,
shortly after (5 Dec, 1837). In the year 1839 the lived by it, and multiplied. But it was quite other-
French Government put an end to this persecution. wise. The mild climate; the inheritance from their
On 9 Julj' the twelfth anniversary of the arrival of fathers of an unrestrained, easygoing, indolent char-
the first Catholic priests, the French frigate "Art6- acter; the bad example of all classes of foreigners, who
mise", Captain Laplace, arrived at Honolulu. few A brought and spread the germs of disease; the contra^
 SANDYS 439 SAN FRANCISCO
dictory teachings of the many Christian denomina- 337; Knox, Doaay Diaries (London, 1878); Challoner, Afis-
aionary Pnests, I (Edinburgh, 1877), no. 38.
tions which tried to establish their respective creeds
on the ruins of that of their rivals; the wrong prin- John B. Wainbweight.
ciples of an education which instructs the mind but
neglects the heart; the absence of the spiritual aids Sanetch Indians, a sub-tribe of the Songish In-
and remedies of which the Church is the dispenser, dians (q. v.). They speak a dialect of the Cowichan
to regulate irregular desires of the heart; all these
language of Salishan linguistic stock, and occupy sev-
eral small reserves about Saanich Peninsula at the
causes combined to produce one dire result, namely,
the gradual extinction of the Hawaiian race.
south-west point of Vancouver Island, B. C. They
In matters relating to education the Catholic mis- were estimated at 600 in 1858, but are reduced now
sion of Hawaii has not been inactive. From the very to about 250. In primitive customs and behefs they
start it established, wherever feasible, independent resemble the Songish. The work of Christianiza-
schools in charge, or under the supervision, of the tion was begun among them in 1843 by Father John
priest. In 1859 the Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of B. Bolduo and completed by the Oblate Fathers.
Jesus and Mary arrived at Honolulu to take charge The whole tribe is now entirely civiUzed and Catholic,
of a boarding and day-school for girls, which has engaged in farming, fishing, and various other paid
developed into an institution with 36 sisters, 66 employments, and are described by their agent as
boarders, 125 day-scholars who pay, and 420 in the "industrious and law-abiding, fairly temperate, and
free department. In 1883-84 the Brothers of Mary, moral".
MORICE, Hist. Catholic Church in Western Canada (Toronto,
from Dayton, Ohio, took charge of three schools for 1910); Dept. of Ind. Affairs (Canada), annual reports (Ottawa);
boys: St. Louis's College at Honolulu, St. Mary's Wilson, Tribes of Forty-ninth Parallel in Trans. Ethnol. Soc.
School at Hilo, and St. Anthony's School at Wailuku. London, new aeries, IV (London, 1866).
The day-schools for girls at Wailuku and Hilo are in James Moonet.
charge of the Franciscan Sisters from Sj'racuse, New
York. The latest addition to the educational work San Francisco, Archdiocese op (Sancti Fran-
is the new boarding and day-school for girls at cisci), estabhshed 29 July, 1853 to include the
Kaimuki, and the Catholic orphanage at Kahhi. Counties of San Francisco, San Mateo, San Joaquin,
Besides the work of education the Catholic mis- Stanislaus, Sonoma, Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin,
sion has had also a great share in the work for the Lake, Mendocino, Napa, Solano, and those portions
lepers. In order to stop the spread of this loath- of Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, and Merced lying north
some disease, the Hawaiian Government established of 37° 5' N. lat. in the State of Cahfornia, U. S. A.; an
a settlement for the lepers on the Island of Molokai area of 16,856 square miles. Its suffragans are: the
(see MoLOKAi; Damibn). Diocese of Monterey and Los Angeles, and the Dio-
Bishop Maigret was succeeded in 1882 by the Rt. cese of Sacramento, in California; and the Diocese of
Rev. Hermann Koeckemann, under whose administra^ Salt Lake, which comprises the State of Utah and six
tion the mission received a considerable increase by counties of the State of Nevada; the province includ-
the immigration of Portuguese imported from the ing the States of Cahfornia and Nevada and all the
Azores as labourers for the plantations. They are now territory east to the Rio Colorado.
spread all over the islands, and there is hardly a —
AU California Lower, or Old California, and Upper,
church where the priests are not obliged to use the
Portuguese language besides the English and Hawai-
—
or the present state was originally under Spanish
and Mexican jurisdiction, and later formed the Dio-
ian. There are to be found also a number of Porto cese of Both Californias, of which the Right Reverend
Ricans, some Poles, a few Italians, some Spaniards, a Francisco Garcia Diego y Moreno was the first bishop.
number of Filipinos, and a small number of Catho- The Franciscans who landed with Cortes at Santa
hcs of other nationalities. Bishop Koekemann died Cruz Bay on 3 May, 1535 began the first mission
22 Feb., 1892, and was succeeded in that year by the work, under the leadership of Father Martin de la
Rt. Rev. Gulstan Ropert, who died 5 Jan., 1903. Coruna. Their labours in this field, and those of the
The present incumbent, Rt. Rev. Libert Hubert Jesuits who followed them half a century later, are de-
Boeynaems, was consecrated 25 July, 1903. There tailed in a special article devoted to that topic (see
aie (1911) 35 priests of religious orders in the vica^ California Missions) .Portola discovered the pres-
riate, 30 churches, and 55 chapels. The Catholic ent San Francisco Bay 1 Nov., 1769, and as one of the
population is 35,000. There are 4 academies, a college, chain of missions projected by Father Junipero Serra,
and 9 parochial schools established by the mission, the mission of San Francisco de Asis, called also the
and the total number of pupils is 2200. Mission Dolores, was founded 9 Oct., 1776 by his two
PlOLET, Le9 Missions Catholiques Fran^aises au X/X" sibcle Franciscan brethren Fathers Francisco Palou and
(Paria, 1802),IV, 1-33; Michels, Die VUlker des Siidsees, u. die Benito Cambon, both natives of Spain. Under the
Gesch. von den protestaniischen v. katholischen Missionen; etc.
(Munster, 1847) ; Mulhane, The Church in the Sandwich Islands fostering care of the Franciscans the mission pros-
in Catholic World, LXIII (New York, 1896), 641; Marshall, pered without interruption for more than half a cen-
Christian Missions (London, 1862); Annals of the Propagation of
the Faith, Catholic Missions, passim;
tury. Then came the secularization and plunder of
Clinch, Hawaii and its
Missionaries in Amer. Cath. Qimrterly Review, XIX (Philadelphia, the Cahfornia missions by the Mexican Government
1894), 139; Hist, of the Catholic Religion in the Sandwich Ishinds, in 1834, and San Francisco suffered ruin with the
m9-40 (Honolulu, 1840, reprinted San Francisco, 1907); others. The village of Yerba Buena was established
Blackman, The Making of Hawaii (London, 1906); Alexander,
A Brief Hist, of the Hawaiian People (New York, 1891-99). on its site, and colonization invited by the civil au-
James C. Bbissbl. thorities. Some outside trading was done, and a few
ships entered the harbour. In the midsummer of
Sandys, John, Venerable, English martsr, b. in 1846, a man-of-war took possession of the place in the
the Diocese of Chester; executed at Gloucester, 11 name of the United States, and on 30 Jan. of the fol-
August, 1586. He arrived at Reims 4 June, 1583, was lowing year the name of the town Y'erba Buena was
ordained priest in the Holy Cross Chapel of Reims changed to San Francisco. Gold was discovered in
Cathedral by the Cardinal Archbishop, Louis de the spring of 1848, and with this came the thousands
Guise, and was sent on the mission 2 October, 1584. of fortune-hunters of all nations and the beginning of
He was cut down while fully conscious and had a of the city as a great centre of commerce (see Cali-
terrible struggle with the executioner, who had black- fornia).
ened his face to avoid recognition and used a rusty Previous to this the Holy See had estabhshed the
and ragged knife; but his last words were a prayer Diocese of Both Californias, suffragan to the Arch-
for his persecutors. bishop of Mexico, and appointed as its bishop, on 27
Pollen, Acts of the English Martyrs (London, 1891), 333, 336, April, 1840, Father Francis Garcia Diego y Moreno,
 SAN FRANCISCO 440 SAN FRANCISCO
who was consecrated at Zacatccas, 4 Oct., 1840. He In the autumn of 1849 Father John Brouillet, then
was born at Lagos, State of Jalisco, Mexico, 17 Sept., Vicar-General of Nesqually, Oregon, landed at San
178.5, and joined the Franciscans at the age of seven- Francisco on a visit, and as he was the only priest in
teen. Ordained priest 13 Nov., 1808 he was succes- the vicinity who could speak English, the spiritual
sively master of novices and vicar of the monastery of destitution of the thousands about the town trying
Our Lady of Guadalupe, and laboured zealously giv- to reach the newly-discovered gold fields touched him,
ing missions in the towns and cities of Mexico. In and he remained there to minister to them. A few
1830 he was appointed Prefect of the Missions for the months later Father Antoine Langlois, a Canadian
Conversion of the Indians in California, and set out secular priest who had been labouring for six years in
for this new field with ten missionaries from the col- the north-west and was then on his way to Canada to
lege of Our Lady of Guadalupe, reaching Santa Clara, enter the Society of Jesus, joined him^ and by direc-
where he took up his residence. The missions of Up- tion of his superiors also remained at San Francisco.
per CaUfornia were then in a very demoralized He has left an "Ecclesiastical and Religious Journal
state, owing to secular and poHtical interference and for San Francisco" in MS., which is preserved at
persecution. Their utter ruin was averted by the Santa Clara College, and in this he relates: "The first
zeal of these priests until after the passage of the de- Mass said in the Mission established in the city of St.
cree of secularization by the Mexican Congress in Francis Xavier [sic] was on June 17th, 1849, the third
August, 1834. The destruction that followed this Sunday after Pentecost; Father Brouillet . .was
was so widespread that in the summer of 1836 he went specially charged to yield to the wishes of the people
back to Mexico, and by a persistent appeal to its con- and labour towards the building of a Church and hold
gress secured the repeal of the decree of secularization divine service therein. A beginning was made by the
and an order for the restoration of the missions to the purchase of a piece of ground 25 by 50 varas, after he
Church. Business in connexion with his order de- had calle d the more zealo us Catholics together and
tained him in Mexico for several years, and then opened a subscription of $5000 to pay for the lot and
as he was about to return to CaUfornia he received the building to be erected on it. . . Religion now
.

notice of his appointment as bishop of the newly-created began to be practised in spite of the natural obstacles
"
diocese which contained eighteen of the twenty-one his- then in its way by the thirst of gold
toric California missions. Most of them were in ruins Father Brouillet then returned to Oregon, and to
when he arrived at San Diego on 11 December, 1841, succeed him in the mission Fathers Michael Acoolti
to commence the disheartening task of saving what he and John NobiU, S.J. reached San Francisco from
could of the wreck left by the plunderers of the era of Oregon 8 Dec, 1849 to establish in the diocese, in re-
secularization. By heroic effort he opened a semin- sponse to the invitation of the administrator, a house
ary at Santa Ynez 4 May, 1844, and by word, deed, and college of their order either at Los Angeles or San
and example did everything possible to re-establish Jos6, the latter being at that time the chief city of
the missions, but his health failed, and returning to Northern Cahfornia. These two priests played
Santa Barbara in January, 1842 he died there 13 a very prominent part in the subsequent development
April, 1846. of the Church and Cathohc education in the diocese.
Very Rev. Jose Maria Gonzalez Rubio, O.F.M., the Father Accolti tried to obtain assistance from his
vicar-general, was appointed administrator before the brethren of the Missouri and other provinces of his
bishop died, and the choice was ratified by the Arch- order, and finally in May, 1854 succeeded in having
bishop of Mexico. The condition of the diocese may the Cahfornia mission adopted by the Province of
be seen from the statement of the administrator made Turin, Italy. In May, 1852 Father James Ryder,
in a circular letter dated 30 May, 1848, and addressed S.J., of the Maryland Province visited San Francisco
to the people. "Day by day" he said, "we see that and remained four months on business connected with
our circumstances grow in difficulty; that helps and the society. In March, 1850 two fathers of the Con-
resources have shrunk to almost nothing; that the gregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary
hope of supplying the needed clergy is now almost ex- arrived from the Sandwich Islands, and shortly after
tinguished and worst of aU that through lack of means
; four others of the same Congregation from Valpa-
and priests Divine worship throughout the whole dio- raiso. They were immediately invited to establish
cese stands upon the brink of total ruin". The date themselves in the old missions in Southern Cahfornia
of this letter is the same as that on which the Treaty and only one of them remained at San Francisco.
of Queretaro was signed, ceding Cahfomia to the This was Father Flavian Fontaine, who started a
United States. school there, as he spoke English fluently. This
—
Anierican Rule. A^Tien Upper Cahfornia thus be- school failed after some time, and occasioned much
came part of the United States, the Mexican Govern- trouble owing to the debts he left on the property,
ment refused to permit an American bishop to exer- which were assumed by Father Nobili, who under-
cise jurisdiction in Lower California. To meet this took to continue the school as an adjunct to Santa
difficulty Pope Pius IX detached the Mexican terri- Clara College which he had founded near San Josi5.
tory from the Diocese of San Diego or Monterey, The Dominicans, represented by Father Anderson,
which had been erected by Pope Gregory XVI 27 were also established. He received faculties from the
April, 1840, and by decree of the Sacred Congrega- administrator 17 Sept., 1850 and was appointed pastor
tion of Propaganda, 1 July, 1854. divided Upper Cah- at Sacramento, where he fell a victim to cholera early
fornia into the two dioceses of San Francisco and the following year. The "Catholic Directory" for
Monterey. By Brief of 29 July, San Francisco was 1850 has this report from California: "The number of
made an archbishopric, with Monterey its sufTragan clergymen in Northern Cahfomia is about sixteen,
see. As Bishop of San Diego or Monterey, the Rev- two of whom, the Rev. John B. Brouillet and Rev.
erend Joseph Sadoc Alemany, O.P. (q. v.) had been Antoine Langlois, are in the town of San Francisco,
consecrated in Rome by Cardinal Fransoni 30 June, where a chapel was dedicated to Divine worship last
18,50. He was appointed Archbishop of San Fran- June. The reverend clergy there have also made ar-
cisco, and took possession 29 July, 1853. Before all rangements for the opening of a school for the in-
this occurred. Father Gonzalez as administrator be- struction of children. The Cathohc population is
gan to take measures to provide for the needs of the variously estimated at from fifteen to twenty thou-
people, and in a circular appeal for aid, dated Santa sand".
Barbara, 13 June, 1849, he tells his flock that he has Racial differences had made some trouble which the
asked for priests from the Congregation of the Sacred administrator hoped the advent of the Enghsh-speak-
Hearts of Jesus and Mary and from the Jesuits of ing Jesuits would help to settle. In a letter to Father
Oregon. Accolti from Santa Barbara on 5 March, 1850, he says:
 SAN FRANCISCO 441 SAN FRANCISCO
"Strangers have not been wanting, who, despising the Presentation Nuns and Sisters of Mercy, who arrived
priests ofthe country, have desired to build a church at San Francisco 15 Nov., 1854. The Sisters of Mercy
apart, and have it attended by priests of their own came from Kinsale, Co. Cork, and were led by the
tongue. Such pretensions, though based on some famous Mother Mary Baptist (Kate Russell) sister of
specious reasons, have to some of the parish priests Lord Russell of Killowen. After a hfe full of great
savoured of schism " utility, she died in Aug., 1898 at St. Mary's Hospital,
Such were the conditions in the new diocese to San Francisco, which she founded and directed for
which Bishop Alemany was appointed. He was born more than forty years. Father Gallagher, who had
at Vich, Spain, 13 Jul}'. 1814, entered the Dominican edited a Catholic paper at Pittsburg, took up that
Order in 1829, and in the following year, driven from work also in San Francisco, where he du'ected its first
Spain by government persecution, he went with a fel- Catholic weekly, the "Catholic Standard". He was
low novice Francis Sadoc Villarasa to Rome, where for many years rector of St. Mary's Cathedral.
they continued their studies and were ordained priests Among other pioneer priests should be mentioned
on 27 March, 1837, at Viterbo. They applied to be Fathers John Ingoldsby, John Quinn, John McGin-
sent to the Phihppine mission, but were assigned in- nis, Patrick Mackin, WiUiam Kenny, Richard Car-
stead to the United States, where Father Alemany roll, who was head of the Diocesan Seminary of St.
became Provincial of St. Joseph's Province of the Thomas Aquinas, James Croke, for a long period
order. Ten years were spent in missionary work in vicar-general, Peter Grey, and John Prendergast, also
Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, during which time vicar-general.
they learned to speak and -nTite English fluently. Progress was manifest in the rural sections,
After Bishop Alemany's consecration he remained in churches also springing up at Sacramento, Weaver-
Rome for a short time, and then, on his way back to ville, Marysville, Grass Valley, Stockton, Placerville,
his diocese, he stopped at Lyons and Paris, where he San Mateo, Dalton, and Nevada. A Chinese priest.
collected some gifts of much-needed church furnish- Father Kian, was even present (1854) for the benefit
ings, and in Ireland, where he arranged for volunteer of his fellow-countrymen. The titles to the old mis-
teachers for his schools, and priests for his people. He sion property were also secured by legal action. In
finally reached San Francisco on the night of 6 Dec, 1858 the archbishop visited Rome and on 15 July,
1850, accompanied by Father Villarasa, O.P., and 1862 convened the first diocesan synod, which was
Sister Mary Goemare, a reUgious of the Dominican attended by forty-four priests. At this the decrees of
sisterhood. Father Villarasa was for forty years sub- the Baltimore Council were promulgated, and rules
sequently commissary general of the Dominicans in prescribed for the administration of the diocese. The
California, and died there in 1888. They found at year before the increase of the churches in the north-
San Francisco only two churches St. Francis's, a frame
: ern section of the diocese prompted the Holy See to
building attended by those who did not speak Span- establish there the Vicariate Apostolic of Marysville
ish, and the old Mission Dolores for those who did. and the Rev. Eugene O'Connell was appointed to take
At Monterey the bishop estabhshed the first convent charge. He was consecrated titular Bishop of Fla-
of nuns in California and St. Catherine's Academy, viopolis, and Vicar Apostolic of Marysville, 3 Feb.,
where he and Father Villarasa taught until the arrival 1861, in AH Hallows College, Dublin, Ireland. He
of Mother Louisa O'Neill and a band of nuns. The reached Marysville 8 June, and was inducted on the
first EngUsh-speaking student to enter the priory following day at St. Joseph's Pro-cathedral by Arch-
there in 1852 was Thomas O'NeiU, b. in 1832 at Dun- bishop Alemany. He had only four priests in his
gannon, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. After his ordination vicariate, which included the territory from 39° to 40°
he spent more than fifty years in missionary work in N. lat. and from the Pacific Coast to the eastern
the houses of the Dominicans in CaHfomia. boundary of Nevada. In 1868 the vicariate was
Bishop Alemany devoted much time to meeting the erected into the Diocese of Grass Valley, and Bishop
many difficulties which the differences of ideas and O'Connell was tranferred to this title 3 Feb. of that
forms held by the Catholics of Enghsh-speaking year. On 28 May, 1886 the Diocese of Sacramento
countries from those reared under the Spanish system (q. V.) was created out of this Grass Valley district,
occasioned. In this he was aided by several pioneer with the addition of ten counties in California and one
priests, notably the Rev. John Shanahan, who, or- in Nevada, and Bishop O'Connell ruled it until 17
dained at Mt. St. Alary's, Emmitsburg, Maryland, in March, 1884, when he resigned and was made titular
1823, after working many years in New York had gone Bishop of Joppa. He died at Los Angeles 4 Dec,
out to Cahfornia with the gold-seekers; Rev. Eugene 1891.
O'Connell, and Rev. John McGinnis. Father O'Con- The succeeding decades gave no respite to the ac-
nellwasbom 18 June, 1815 m Co. Meath, Ireland, and tivity and zeal of Archbishop Alemany in furthering
ordained priest in 1842. When Bishop Alemany the progress of the Church, and the weight of years
visited Ireland on his way home from Rome, he per- and the stress of his long but wiUing toil began to tell
suaded Father O'Connell, who was then a professor in on him. He asked for a coadjutor, and the Rev.
All Hallows College, to come out to San Francisco and Patrick William Riordan, pastor of St. James's
direct the diocesan seminary which he opened at once Church, Chicago, was selected by the pope for the
at Santa Inez, The bishop attended the first Plenary office. He was consecrated titular Bishop of Cabesa
Council at Baltimore in May, 1852, and he was thus and coadjutor of San Francisco with right of succes-
able to report substantial progress in his charge, with sion, 16 Sept., 1883. Archbishop Alemany resigned
foundations of the Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, the title of San Francisco 28 Dec, 1884 and retired to
Fathers of the Sacred Hearts, Sisters of Notre Dame, his native Spain, where he d. 14 April, 1888 at Valencia.
Sisters of St. Dominic, 31 churches, 38 priests and an When he resigned the diocese had 131 churches, 182
estimated Cathohc population of 40,000. A band of priests, 6 colleges, 18 academies, 5 asylums, 4 hos-
Sisters of Charity from Emmitsburg, Maryland ar- pitals, and a Cathohc population of about 220,000.
rived in August, 1852, and began their work in the Archbishop Patrick William Riordan, who imme-
schools. On 7 July, 1853 the bishop laid the comer- diately succeeded him, was born 27 Aug., 1841, at
stone of St. Mary's Church, San Francisco, and hav- Chatham, New Brunswick. His early studies were
ing been notified of his elevation to the newly-created made at Notre Dame University, Indiana, whence he
Archbishopric of San Francisco formally assumed the went to Rome as one of the twelve students who
title 29 July, 1853. In order to obtain more priests formed the first class that opened the North American
and religious he sent Father Hugh P. Gallagher, who College, 7 Dec, 1859. From there he went to the
had gone to San Francisco from Pittsburg, Penn., to University of Louvain, and received the degree of
Ireland, where he succeeded in securing two bands of S.T.D. He was ordained priest at MechUn, Bel-
 SAN FRANCISCO 442 SAN FRANCISCO
gium, 10 June, 1865 and returning to the United States of the United States, who sent more than $300,000 at
was appointed professor of theology at the Seminary once to the stricken diocese; this great exertion, how-
of St. Mary of the Lake, Chicago. Later he served as ever, had a debihtating effect on Archbishop Mont-
pastor at Johet, lUinois, and in Chicago. At the out- gomery, who d. 10 Jan., 1907 (see Monterey and
set of his administration he made the cause of Cath- Los Angeles, Diocese of).
hc education his special endeavour. There had been On 24 Dec, 1908 Bishop Denis J. O'Connell was
two earlier attempts to carry on a diocesan seminary. appointed auxiliary Bishop of San Francisco. Bishop
One had failed for lack of teachers, the other for want O'ConneU was born at Donoughmore, Co. Cork, Ire-
of pupils. In 1SS4 Archbishop Riordan made an ap- land, 28 Jan., 1849, and made his studies at the Amer-
peal for a new seminary, and Mrs. Kate Johnson gave can College, Rome. After his ordination he carried
him 80 acres of fine land at Menlo Park. Here St. the decrees of the last Plenary Council of Baltimore
Patrick's Seminary, a large and elaborate building to Rome, and returned as secretary to Bishop Conroy,
was erected and he gave its management to the Sul- ablegate to Canada. He was made a domestic prel-
picians. In Aug., 1887 he encouraged the Rehgious ate 20 March, 1887, and rector of the American Col-
of the Sacred Heart, who had come into the diocese in lege, Rome, after the death of Mgr. Hostlot in 1884,
1SS2, to begin their academy in the city and develop and held that office until July, 1895, when he resigned,
it into the flourishing institute that was transferred to and acted as the vicar of Cardinal Gibbons for his
Menlo Park in August, 1898. The Brothers of the titular chm-ch, S. Maria in Trastevere, Rome. He
Christian Schools in 1889 moved their St. Mary's Col- was appointed rector of the Catholic University,
lege from Bernal Heights to Oakland. The college Washington, in 1903; on 3 May, 1908 was consecrated
was started by the Reverend James Croke, V.G., in titular Bishop of Sebaste; and on 24 Dec, 1908 was ap-
1863, and for five years was managed by secular pointed auxiUary Bishop of San Francisco. On 19
priests and laymen. In 1868 seven Brothers from Jan., 1912 he was transferred from San Francisco to
New York under Brother Justin took over the care of Richmond, Virginia, as successor to Bishop van de
the college, which was chartered by the State in 1872. Vyver.
The Brothers also started their Sacred Heart College Statistics. The following religious are now estab-
in 1S7S. Ushed inthe archdiocese (1911): Men Capuchin —
Archbishop Riordan brought in the Salesian Fathers Fathers (Province of England), Mendocino; Ukiah.
to take care of the Italians in 1888, Father O. Dominican Fathers (Western Province), St. Dom-
Franchi, a Genoese, being the first to arrive. In 1893 inic's, San Francisco; Antioch; Benioia; Martinez;
they were also given charge of the Portuguese colony Vallejo; Valona. Fathers of the Sacred Hearts (Bel-
in Oakland. The Paulist Congregation of New York gium), Olema. Franciscan Fathers (St. Louis Prov-
were also invited into the diocese and given charge of ince), St. Anthony's, St. Boniface's and Franciscan
old St. Mary's Church. The archbishop took up the Monastery, San Francisco; St. Ehzabeth's, Fruitvale;
claim on Mexico for the arrears of the Pious Fund of St. Tiu-ibius, Kelseyville, Lake Co. Jesuit Fathers
the Californias (q. v.) due the diocese, and prosecuted (California Province), St. Ignatius'sChurch and Col-
it to a successful issue before the International Ar- lege, San Francisco; -Los Gatos; San Jos6; Santa
bitration Tribunal at the Hague, where it was the first Clara. Marist Fathers (American Province), Notre
case tried. He was a delegate to the Hague in 1902. Dame, San Francisco. Pauhst Fathers (New York),
The English Capuchins were given charge of the scat- St. Mary's, San Francisco. Salesian Fathers from
tered missions along the coast of Mendocino in Au- 'Turin, Italy, for the Itahans, Sts. Peter and Paul, Cor-
gust, 1903. In 1905 the archbishop presided over the pus Christi Church, San Francisco; St. Joseph's
golden jubilee of St. Ignatius's College and Church, Church the Portuguese), Oakland. Sulpician
(for
which had been founded at San Francisco in 1855 by Fathers, St. Patrick's Seminary, Menlo Park. Chris-
Father Anthony Marasohi, S J. tian Brothers (Province of San Francisco), Sacred
As his health failed Archbishop Riordan requested Heart College, St. Peter's School, San Francisco;
the appointment of a coadjutor, and the Right Rev. Martinez; St. Mary's College, St. Patrick's School,
George Montgomery, Bishop of Monterey and Los Oakland; St. Anthony's School, East Oakland; St.
Angeles, was elevated to the titular Archbishopric of Joseph's Academy, Berkeley; St. Vincent's Orphan
Osino and made his coadjutor in January, 1903. He was Asylum, St. Vincent. Brothers of Mary (Eastern
born in Davies County, Kentucky, 30 Dec, 1847, and Province), St. James's and St. Joseph's Schools, San
was ordained priest at Baltimore 20 Dec, 1879. Francisco; Stockton; St. Joseph's School, San Josd;
He was chaacellor of the Archdiocese of San Francisco Agricultural School, Rutherford.
when he was chosen for the See ot Monterey, in which —
Women: Sisters of Charity (St. Louis, Missouri),
diocese his administration was most successful, espe- Orphan Asylum, Infant Asylum, Technical and St.
cially in defending the rights of the Catholic Indians. Vincent's Schools, Mary's Help Hospital, San Fran-
He had just settled down as Archbishop Riordan's cisco; O'Connor Sanitarium, San Jos6. Sisters of
assistant, and that prelate had started on a tour for Charity of the Blessed Vkgin Mary (Dubuque, Iowa),
recuperation, when San Francisco was visited by the St. Bridget's School, San Francisco; Petaluma. Sis-
terrible calamity of the earthquake of 20 April, 1906, ters of St. Dominic (Mission San Jos6, California),
and its subsequent fire. Twelve churches were burned Immaculate Conception Academy; St. Anthony's and
and their parishes absolutely wiped out of existence. St. Boniface's School, San Francisco; Fruitvale; Mis-
In the burned along with the churches all the
district, sion San Jos6; Ukiah. Sisters of St. Dominic (San
institutions, schools, asylums, hospitals, the great Jes- Rafael, Cahfornia), Academy, San Rafael; St. Rose's
uit church and College of St. Ignatius, and the Sacred Academy, St. Dominic's and Sacred Heart Schools,
—
Heart College of the Christian Brothers were de-
stroyed. Four churches in the city were wrecked by
San Francisco; San Leandro; Stockton; Vallejo;
Academy and School, Benicia, Franciscan Sisters
the earthquake, and others, including the cathedral of the Sacred Heart (Johet, Illinois), St. Joseph's Hos-
and St. Patrick's Seminary at Menlo Park, more pital, San Francisco. Sisters of the Holy Cross
or less damaged. Happily no hves of priests, re- (Notre Dame, Indiana), St. Charles's School, San
ligious, or were sacrificed.
of children in their care Francisco. Sisters of the Holy Family (San Fran-
Archbishop Montgomery took a prominent and cisco), San Jos6; Oakland. Sisteirs of the Holy Names
very active part in the rescue work that began at of Jesus and Mary (Hochelaga, Montreal, Province of
once, and Archbishop Riordan returned to the city Quebec), St. Joseph's, San Francisco; Convent of the
and commenced the gigantic task of restoration Holy Names, Immaculate Conception School, ot.
which was rapidly accomplished in two or three years, Francis de Sales School, Sacred Heart School, Oak-
aidi'd by the generosity of the Cathohc congregations land. Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet (Los An-
 SAN GALLO 443 SAN GALLO
geles, California), St. Patrick's School and St. Jo- meB-,Alta Cahfornia (San Francisco), early files;
Evening Bulle-
tin (ban Franciaoo), files, especially
seph's Home, Oakland; Star of the Sea, San Francisco. A. S. Taylor Papers: Evening
Exaniiner (San Francisco), files, especially Phil. Roach
Sisters of Mercy (San Francisco, California), mother- Papers;
Herald (b&n Francisco), early files; Dominicana
(San Francisco),
house and St. Mary's Hospital, St. Catherine's Home, hies; Overlarid Morithly (San Francisco),
files; Grizzly Bear (San
St. Peter's School, San Francisco; school and acad- Francisco newspapers (period following
fire of'l906)
emy. East Oakland; Home for the Aged, Fruitvale.
Sisters of Mercy, Rio Vista; SausaUto. Sisters of
Thomas F. Meehan.
Notre Dame (San Jose, Cahfornia), mother-house, San Gallo, a
celebrated family of architects,
college, high school, institute, and 3 schools, San sculptors, painters, and engravers, which flourished
}os6; College and Mission Dolores School, San Fran- ^ during the Renaissance period, from the
cisco; Alameda; Redwood; Santa Clara; Saratoga.
'"Ai
middle of the fifteenth to the end of the sixteenth
Presentation Nuns (San Francisco, California), century. The founder of the family was Francesco
mother-house, cathedral school, and 2 academies, San Giamberti (1405-80), a Florentine wood-carver;
Francisco; Berkeley; Sonoma. Sisters of Charity of he had two sons, Giuliano and Antonio.
Providence (Montreal), hospital, Oakland. Little (1) Giuliano da San Gallo, architect and sculp-
Sisters of the Poor (Chicago, Ilhnois), San Francisco; tor (1445-1516). After receiving his first training
Oakland. Little Sisters of the Holy Family (Sher- with Franoione in his native town, he proceeded to
brooke, Canada), St. Patrick's Seminary, Menlo Park. Rome, where he conceived his high ideas of archi-
Helpers of the Holy Souls (Paris, France), San Fran- tecture and, through the study of Vitruvius, his en-
cisco. Carmelite Sisters, San Francisco. Religious thusiasm for the
of the Sacred Heart (Chicago Province), San Fran- antique. He was
cisco; Menlo Park. Ursuline Sisters (Santa Rosa, engaged at the
California), Santa Rosa; St. Helena. building of the
Archbishop, secular priests, 206; priests of re-
1; celebrated Palace
ligious orders, 146; total, 352;churches with resident of San Marco,
priest, 113; missions with churches, 63; totaJ churches, which Cardinal
176; stations, 31; chapels, 57; seminary, 1; ecclesi- Barbo (Paul II)
astical students, 96; seminaries of religious orders, 3 was erecting. On
colleges and academies for boys, 7; students, 340 the outbreak of
academies for young ladies, 21; normal school, 1, the war between
females educated in higher branches, 5,000; parishes his native town
with parochial schools, 42; pupils, 17,000; orphan and Naples, he
asylums, 4; orphans, 1,800; infant asylums, 1; in- returned to Flor-
mates, 480; industrial and reform schools, 2; inmates, ence, and d i s-
173; protectory for boys, 1; inmates, 90; total of played such bril-
young people under CathoHc care, about 23,000; liant talent as a
deaf-mute asylum, 1; hospitals, 6; homes for aged military engineer,
poor, 4; other charitable institutions, 2; baptisms, that Cardinal
7,957; deaths, 3,710- Cathohc population, about Giuliano della
250,000. Rovere entrusted
Feanoesoo da San Gallo
Bibliography, supplied by the Rev. Joseph M. Gleason: him with the
—
MiNtrscBiPTS: In the Cathedral Archives, San Francisco:
Diars/ of Bishop Diego y Moreno, continued by Archbishop Ale-
fortification of the harbour of Ostia (1483)
In the fol-.

lowing years he worked partly in the service and partly

many: A. S. Taylor MSS.; Records of the Missions of San Fran-
asco de Asis, San Jose, Santa Clara, San Francisco Solano, and under the protection of the Medici family, enjoy-
San Rafael; Chancery Records. ing the special favour of Lorenzo the Magnificent.
In the University of Cahfornia: Spanish and Mexican Ar- Recommended by the latter he buUt the Church of
chives of California (copies of the originals burnt
in the San Madonna delle Carceri at Prato in 1485, and in 1489
™ncisco fire of 1906); Bancroft Collection of MSS.: Pimeer
MSS.: Seville and Mexican Transcripts. the Villa Poggio at Cajano, where Lorenzo loved to
Synodus Diocesana Sanct. Francisci HaUta 1882 (San Fran- associate with the litterateurs. After he had built the
cisco, 1872); Concilii Prov. S.F.; II, Acta et Decreta
(San Fran- hermitage of S. Agostino before the Gate San Gallo, he
cisco, 1883) Gleason, Catholic Church in California
; (San Fran-
?0Q?; W^'^'
Ban'Croft, History of California (San Francisco, was given by Lorenzo the surname of San Gallo, which
188o) Gbet, Pioneer Times in California (San Francisco,
;
1881) he transmitted to his descendants. He also built the
l^UNCH, California and Its Missions (San Francisco, 1904) Hit-
TSL, History of San Francisco (San Francisco,
;
sacristy of Santo Spirito (1488-92), the court of the
1878); Royce,
California (Boston, 1886); Dwinelle, Colonial History
of San
monastery of Sta Maria Maddalena de' Pazzi, and
trancisco (3rd ed., San Francisco, 1866); Willev, Transition the Palazzo Gondi (1494). On Lorenzo's death,
^enoi of California (San Francisco, 1901); Shuck, California
Amp Book (San Franci.sco, 1868) Moses, Establishment of Mu- Giuliano returned to Rome, where he restored the
;

niapal Government in San Francisco (Baltimore, ceiling of the Church of S. Maria Maggiore, and pre-
1889) Black- ;

mar, Spanish Institutions of the South-west (Baltimore, 1891) pared a model for the palace and cloister court of
KiCHMAN, California under Spain and Mexico (Boston, 1911);
™-*™TAT, Mountains and Molehills (London, 1855); Kelly, S. Pietro in Vincoli for Cardinal della Rovere. He
the Diggings of California (London,
1852) de Smet, Western
;
accompanied della Rovere to France in 1494, and on
Missions and Missionaries (New York,
1863); Riokdan, The his return took active part in the war against the
inral Half-Century (Sau
JTanciscans m
Francisco, 1905); Engelhabdt, The
California (Harbor Springs, 1897) Rossi, Six Ans
Pisans. He was taken prisoner, but was released
m ;

Amerique (Californie et Oregon) (Paris, 1863); Fhiqnet, La six months later after paying a high ransom. In
taliforme (2nd ed., Paris, 1867) Febry, La Nouvelle Californie 1503 he was appointed architect to St. Peter's, and
—
;

I''^''^. i«s Fran^ais en Californie (San Francisco

looI"^'' }f
' '

1S84); Maguibe, The Irish in America

thenceforth except for a short interruption which
(New York, 1868), xiii again called him to the scene of the war against
awASEY, Early Days and Men of California (San Francisco, 1894)
yniOLEY, TAe Irish Race in California (San Francisco, 1878)
roBKE, Wendte Controversy (San Francisco,
—
the Pisans resided constantly at Rome in the service
1896) Shea, Cath-
; of Julius II until 1511, when he returned in ill-health
"'"J-hurch in the United States (New York, 1892); Gleason,
i™»'e« "/ "le Archdiocese of San Francisco (San Francisco,
to Florence. Here he designed no fewer than seven
inSf
ia03); For. Rel. plans for the Church of San Lorenzo, begun by
of U. S., Append. II, Pious Fund of the Cali-
jornws (documents) (Washington,
1903); O'Meaba, Broderick Brunelleschi but left uncompleted.
andGmn (San Francisco, 1881) the Local and County Histories
; Fabbiczy, Handzeichnungen (Stuttgart, 1902) ;Huelsen, II
or tlALLEY, Hall, Fbazeb, Bowen, Meneeee, etc.; Silver and Giuliano da San Gallo. Cod. Vat. Barb. (Leipzig, 1910), 4424.
libra di
Y° ?j? Jubilee Memorials of different religious orders of the
ArcMiocese; Society of California Pioneers, Annual Reports (San Antonio da San Gallo the Elder, brother
r rancisco) California (2)
; Historical Society, papers (San Francisco)
Academy of Pacific Coast History, papers (San Francisco) Met- of the above, b. 1455; d. 27 Dec, 1534. He shared
the fortune of his brother, whom, on their father's
;

fopodtare Directory and

Catholic Directory (1850-1911); Monitor
VSan Francisco), files; Freeman's Journal (New York,
1850-60), death, he accompanied to Rome and represented in
 SANGUINISTS 444 SANHEDRIN
many important undertakings. Pope Alexander en- and in this capacity was engaged on the fortifications
trusted him with the fortification of the Castle of at CivitEb Vecohia, Ancona, Florence, Parma, Pia-
S:in Angelo, and the fort Civita Castellana. The cenza, Ascoli, Nepi, Perugia, and on the Lago di
death of his brother afforded him his first oppor- Marmora. We
must also mention the celebrated
tunity to demonstrate his great talent as an architect Pozzo di S. Patrizio (St. Patrick's Well) at Orvieto,
and military engineer. He executed the portico of executed (1527-40) at the commission of Clement VIl'
the Servi in Florence, the aisles of the Annunziata at this is cut one hundred and ninety-eight feet into a
Arezzo, and at Montepulciano, under the influence of tufa rock, 248 steps leading to the water-level. An-
Bramante, the magnificent Church of the Madonna tonio was buried in St. Peter's.
di San Biagio, which must be regarded as one of the Of the other members of this illustrious family of
most glorious artists may
be mentioned: Giovanni Battista An-
edifices in Italy. tonio DA San Gallo (1496-1552), a brother of An-
For profane tonio the younger, whom he assisted in his work;
buildings also his Francesco da San Gallo (1496-1576), son of Giuli-
services were ano, sculptor and military engineer; Bastiano da
frequently req- San Gallo (1481-1531), known as Aristoteles, a
uisitioned thus nephew of Giuliano, painter; Giovanni Francesco

^i
^ ;

at Montepul- DA San Gallo (1482-1530), architect and engineer.

^^M. "i ^^. ciano and Mon- Lauri|3Re and IVItiNTZ, Giuliano da San Gallo et les monuments

i
h' tesansovino he
erected many
antiques du Midi de la France (Paris, 1885) von Geymuller,
la famille des San Gallo (Paria, 1885)
;

Documents inSdits sur les munuscrits et les aeuvres d'architecture de

Clau93E, Les San Gallo
:

palaces of almost (3 vols., Paris, 1900-02).

I^^v Hp classical perfec-
tion. Appointed
Beda Kleinschmidt.
Sanguinists. See Preciotjs Blood, Congrega-
chief engineer
tion OF THE Most.
^^^^hhh r over all works of

HHHHh^
^^^^^^^z ._,J,^ •^^f
1

1 -

^"r-r--^Ja
It
Jssd ^KbN
-vr-noa
E
ini
J by
fortification
theFlorentine
Government, he
took a promi-
Sanhedrin, the supreme council and court
justice among the Jews. The name Sanhedrin is
derived originally from the Greek word Twidptov,
which, variously modified, passed at an unknown
of

nent part with period into the Aramaic vocabularj'. Among the
Michelangelo in Greek-speaking Jews, yepov^ia, " the assembly of the
-„.
the defence of Ancients" was apparently the common name of the
ri. Maria delle C.vRCEnr, Prato
Sanhedrin, at least in the beginning; in post-Biblical
GiULiANO DA San Gallo the city. In spite
of his great suc- Hebrew the appellation Beth-Din, "house of judg-
cess he renounced art towards the close of his life, and ment", seems to have been quite popular.
settled in the country. His numerous sketches and History. —An institution as renowned as the San-
drawings, which reveal a great correctness, are pre- hedrin was naturally given by Jewish tradition a
served in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence. most venerable and hallowed antiquity. Some
Antonio da S.4.N Gallo the Younger, o. 1485; d. Doctors, indeed, did not hesitate to recognize the
at Terni, 1546. He was a son of the sister of the two Sanhedrin in the Council of the seventy Elders
preceding, and his real name was Coroliano (cor- founded by Moses (Num., xi, 16) others pretended to
;

rupted into Cordiani). With the art of his uncles, he discover the first traces of the Sanhedrin in the tri-
adopted also their name, and it was he who conferred bunal created by Josaphat (II Par., xix, 8): but
on this name its greatest splendour. At Rome he at- neither of these institutions bears, in its composition
tached himself closely to Bramante, working at first or in its attributions, any resemblance to the Sanhe-
in his studio and later succeeding him in the building drin as we know it. Nor should the origin of the
of St. Peter's. He enjoyed successively the favour of Sanhedrin be sought in the Great Synagogue, of
Leo X, Clement VII, and Paul III, in whose service he which tradition attributed the foundation to Esdras,
was engaged for forty-one years. His extraordinary and which it considered as the connecting link be-
activity was displayed in three directions, as a builder tween the last of the Prophets and the first Scribes:
of churches, a builder of palaces, and a military en- for aside from the obscurity hovering over the
gineer. In Rome he made a plan for the Church of functions of this once much-famed body, its very
San Giovanni dci Fiorentini, but was not entrusted existence is, among modem scholars, the subject of
with its execution; completed the Church of the ]\Ia- the most serious doubts. Yet it may be that from
donna di Loreto, begun by Giuliano da San Gallo; the council of the nobles and chiefs and ancients, on
built the Church of Santo Spirito at Borgo, an edifice which the ruling of the restored community devolved
of noble dignity and simplicity. On Raphael's death, at the time of Nehemias and Esdras (Neh., ii, 16;
he was appointed architect to St. Peter's, and pro- iv, 8, 13; V, 7; vii, 5; I Esd., v, 5, 9; vi, 7, 14; x, 8),
posed to introduce important changes into the original gradually developed and organized, sprang up the
plans. He had a large wooden model (still extant) Sanhedrin. At any rate, the first undisputed men-
prepared by his pupil Labacco, showing a glorious tion we possess touching the yepovo-ia of Jerusalem is
vestibule and in the interior and exterior exuberant connected with the reign of Antiochus the Great
architectonic decorativeness. His plan was later re- (223-187 B.C.; Joseph., "Antiq.", XII, iii, 3). From
jected by Michelangelo. For the Cappella Paolina he that time on, we are able to follow the history of the
alsd prepared a plan. Among the palaces which he Sanhedrin until its disappearance in the overthrow
erected the most celebrated is the Palazzo Famese, of the Jewish nation.
with the execution of which Cardinal Alexander Far- As under the Greek rulers the Jews were allowed
nese (later Paul III) entrusted him without suspect- a large measure of self-government, man}' points of
ing that thereby he was about to make him one of the civil and religious administration fell to the lot of
greatest builders of palaces in the whole world; An- the high priests and the ycpova-ia to settle. But
tonio dill not live to see the completion of this gigantic when, after the Machabean wars, both the royal and
work. He also built the Palazzo Sacchetti, the fa- priestly powers were invested in the person of the
mous ^'illa Madama (according to Raphael's plans), Hasmonean kings, the authority of the Sanhedrin
and in Borgo the uncompleted Porta Santo Spirito. was naturally thrown in the background by that of
These works did not exhaust his tireless activity. the autocratic rulers. Still the Sanhedrin, where a
Like his uncles, he was also an able military engineer, majority of Pharisees held sway, continued to be
 SANHEDRIN 445 SANHEDRIN
"the house of justice of the Hasmoneans" ("Talm. ", "members of the council" They were styled
A6oda zora, 36b; Sank., 82o-). A. coup d'etat oi John "ancients" no doubt in memory of the seventy
Hyrcanus towards the end of his reign brought about "ancients" forming the assembly set up by Moses
a "Sadducean Sanhedrin" ("Antiq.", XVI, xi, 1; (Num., xi), but also because the popular mind attached
Sank., 52l>; Mcgillat Taanith, 10), which lasted until to the word a connotation of maturity of age and
Jannseus; but owing to the conflicts between the new respectability (See in "Talm.", Bab., Sanh. 17b gga,
assembly and Alexander, it was soon restored, to be also in Sifre, 92, the moral and intellectual qualifica-
again overthrown by the Pharisaic reaction under tions required for membership). Since the Beth-Din
Alexandra. The intervention of Rome, occasioned had to deal frequently with legal matters, it was
by the strife between the sons of Alexandra, was natural that many of its members should be chosen
momentarily fatal to the Sanhedrin in so far as the from among men specially given to the study of the
Roman proconsul Gabinius, by instituting similar Law; this is why we so often hear of the scribes in
assemblies at Gadara, Jericho, Amathonte, and Sap- the Sanhedrin. Most of these scribes, during the
phora, limited the jurisdiction of the yepomla of Jeru- last forty years of the institution's existence, were
salem to the city and the neighbouring district Pharisees, whereas the members belonging to the
(57 B.C.)- In 47, however, the appointment of sacerdotal caste represented in the assembly the Sad-
Hyrcanus II as Ethnarch of the Jews resulted in the ducean ideas (Acts, iv, 1; v, 17, 34; xxiii, 6; "Antiq."
restoring of the Sanhedrin's authority all over the XX, ix, 1; "Bell. Jud.", II, xvii, 3; "Vita", 38, 39),
land. One of the first acts of the now all-powerful but history shows that at other periods the Pharisean
assembly was to pass judgment ujjon Herod, the influence had been far from preponderating. Ac-
son of Antipater, accused of cruelty in his govern- cording to what rules the members were appointed and
ment ('Antiq.", XI, ix, 4). The revengeful prince was the vacancies filled up, we are unable to state; it
not likely to forget this insult. No sooner, indeed, seems that various customs prevailed on this point
had he established his power at Jerusalem (37 B.C.), at different periods; however, from what has been
than forty-five of his former judges, more or less said above, it is clear that politics interfered more
connected with the party of Antigonus, were put than once in the transaction. At any rate we are
to death ('Antiq.", XV, i, 2). The Sanhedrin itself, told (Sank., iv, 4) that a semikah, or imposition of
however, Herod allowed to continue; but this new hands, took place at the formal installation of the
Sanhedrin, filled with his creatures, was henceforth new appointees; and there is every reason to believe
utihzed as a mere tool at his beck (as for instance in that the appointment was for life.
the case of the aged Hyrcanus). After the death Who was president of the Sanhedrin? The Bible
of Herod, the territorial jurisdiction of the assembly and Josephus on the one hand, and the Talmud on
was curtailed again and reduced to Judea, Samaria, the other, contain statements which may shed some
and Idumea, the "ethnarchy" allotted to Archelaus. light on the subject; unfortunately these statements
But this condition of affairs was not to last; for after appear to be at variance with each other and need
the deposition of the Ethnarch and the annexation careful handling. In I Mach., xiv, 44, we read that
of Judea to the Roman province of Syria (a.d. 6), no meeting {crva-Tpo<p-fid) might be called in the land
the Sanhedrin, under the contol of the procurators, outside of the high priest's bidding: but it would be
became the supreme authority of the Jewish people; clearly illogical to infer from this that the high priest
only capital sentences pronounced by the assembly was appointed by Demetrius ex officio president of
perhaps needed confirmation from the Roman officer the Sanhedrin. To conclude the same from the
before they could be carried into execution. Such passage of Josephus narrating Herod's arraignment
was the state of things during the public hfe of the before the Sanhedrin (Antiq., XIV, ix, 3-5) would
Saviour and the following thirty years (Matt., xxvi, hkewise perhaps go beyond what is warranted by
57; Mark, xiv, 55; xv, 1; Luke, xxii, 66; John, xi, 47; the text of the Jewish historian: for it may be doubted
Acts, iv, 15 V, 21 vi, 12 xxii, 30 xxiii, 1 sq. xxiv, 20
; ; ; ; ; whether in this occurrence Hyrcanus acted as the
"Antiq.", XX, ix,l;x; "Bell. Jud.",II, xv,6; "Vita", head of the Hasmonean family or in his capacity
12, 13, 38, 49, 70). Finally when the misgovemment of high priest. At any rate there can be no hesita-
of Albinus and Gessius Florus goaded the nation tion about the last forty years of the Sanhedrin's
into rebelhon, it was the Sanhedrin that first organ- existence: at the trial of Jesus, Caiphas, the high priest
ized the struggle against Rome; but soon the Zealots, (John, xi, 49), was the head of the Beth-Din (Matt.,
seizing the power in Jerusalem, put the famous assem- xxvi, 57); so also was Ananias at the trial of St.
bly out of the way. Despite a nominal resurrection Paul (Acts, xxiii, 2), and we read in "Antiq.", XX, ix,
first at Jamnia, immediately after the destruction 1, about the high priest Ananus II summoning the
of the Holy City, and later on at Tiberias, the great Sanhedrin in a.d. 62. What then of the Rabbinical
Beth-Din of Jerusalem did not really survive the tradition speaking persistently of Hillel, and Simon
ruin of the nation, and later Jewish authors are his son, and Gamaliel I his grandson, and the latter's
right when, speaking of the sad events connected son Simon, as holding the office of Nasi from 30
with the fall of Jerusalem, they deplore the cessation B.C. to A.D. 70 (Talm., Bab. Shabbath, 15^)? Of
of the Sanhedrin (Sota, ix, end; Echa Rabbathi on one of these men, Gamaliel, we find mention in
Lam., V, 15). Acts, V, 34; but even though he is said to have
—
Composition. According to the testimony of the
Mishna {Sank., i, 6; Shebuoth, ii, 2), confirmed
played a leading part in the circumstances referred
to th^re, he is not spoken of as president of the as-
by a remark of Josephus ("Bell. Jud.", II, xx, 5), the sembly. The truth may be that during the first
Sanhedrin consisted of seventy-one members, presi- century b.c, not to speak of earlier times, the high
dent included. Jewish tradition appealed to Num., priest was not ex officio the head of the Sanhedrin,
XI, 16, to justify this number; but whether the text and it appears that Hillel actually obtained that
of Num. had actually any influence on the determina- dignity. But after the death of Herod and the de-
tion of the composition of the Beth-Din, may be left position of Archelaus, which occurred about the time
undecided. The New-Testament writers seem to of Hillel's demise, there was inaugurated a new order
divide the members into three classes the chief priests,
: of things, and that is possibly what Josephus means
the scribes, and the ancients; but it might be wrong when, speaking of these events, he remarks that
to regard these three classes as forming a regular "the presidency over the people was then entrusted
hierarchy, for in the New Testament itself the word to the high priests" (Antiq., XX, x, end). It was
_
ancients ", or the phrase "the ancients of the people'

'
natural that, in an assembly containing many scribes
w quite frequently equivalent to "members of the and called upon to decide many points of legislation,
oanhedrin", just as is in Josephus the word ^ovXevral there should be, next to the Sadducean presidents, men
 SAN JOSt 446 SAN JOS^
perfectly conversant with all the intricacies of the place in property called khanyioth, "trade-halls",
Law. Gauged by the standard of later times, the belonging to the family of Hanan (cf. John, xvii, 13).
consideration which must have attached to this posi- The members of the Sanhedrin sat in a semicircle
tion of trust led to the misconception of the actual that' they might see one another while deliberating
role of Hillel's descendants in the Sanhedrin, and thus (Mishna, Sank., iv, 2; Tos., Sank., vii, 1). Two clerks
very likely arose the tradition recorded in the Talmud. stood before them, the one to the right and the other
Jurisdiction and Procedure. —We have seen above to the left, to take down the votes (Mishna, Sank.,
how the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin varied in ex- iv, 2). The members stood up to speak, and on
tension at different periods. At the time of the pubhc matters of civil or ceremonial law the voting began
Ufe of the Saviour, only the eleven toparchies of Judea with the principal member of the assembly, whereas
were de jure subject to the Great Sanhedrin of Jeru- the younger members were the first to give their
salem; however, de facto the Jews all the world over opinion in criminal affairs. For judgments of the
acknowledged its authority (as an instance of this, see latter description a quorum of at least twenty-three
Acts, ix, 2; xxii, 5; xxvi, 12). As the supreme court members was required: a majority of one vote sufficed
of justice of the nation, the Sanhedrin was appealed for the acquittal; for a condemnation a majority of
to when the lower courts were unable to come to a two votes was necessary, except when all the members
decision (Sank., vii, 1; xi, 2); moreover, it had the of the court (seventy-one) were present (INIishna,
exclusive right of judgment in matters of special Sank., iv; Tos., Sank., vii).
importance, as for instance the case of a false prophet, Since in spite of the identity of names there is
accusations against the high priest, the sending out little in common between the old Great Sanhedrin
of an army in certain circumstances, the enlarging of Jerusalem and the schools of Jamnia and Tiberias,
of the city of Jerusalem, or of the Temple courts, it is quite useless to dwell on the latter, as well as
etc. (Sank., i, 5; ii, 4; iii, 4); the few instances men- on the Kalla assemblies of Babylon. But it will
tioned in the New Testament exemplify the cases not be amiss to mention the fact that before the fall
to which the competency of the Sanhedrin extended; of Jerusalem there were, besides the Great Sanhedrin
in short, all rehgious matters and all civil matters we have dealt with above, local courts of justice some-
not claimed by Roman authority were within its times designated by the same name, in all the Jewish
attributions; and the decisions issued by its judges cities.
were to be held inviolable (Sank., xi, 2^). Whether Besides the tracts Sanhedrin in both Talmuds, and the works
of Josephus, which are the principal sources of information on
or not the Sanhedrin had been deprived, at the time the subject, we may cite the following works: MAiMONinES, De
of Jesus Christ, of the right to carry death-sentences synedriis et pcenis, Heb. and Lat. (Amsterdam, 1695) Reip-
;

into execution, is a much-disputed question. On the MANN, Sanhedrin, Heb. (Berdichef, 1888) Seluen, De synedriis
;

et prcEfeciuris juridicis vetcrum EbrtBorum (London, 1650);

one hand, that such a curtailing of the Sanhedrin's Ugolini, Thesaurus antiquitatum, XXV (Paris, 1672); Blum,
power did actually take place seems imphed in the Le sanhedrin . .son origine et son histoire (Strasburg, 1889)
cry of the Jews: "It is not lawful for us to put any Rabbinowicz, Legislation criminelle du Talmud (Paris, 1876)
Idem, Legislation civile du Talmud (Paris, 1877-80); Staffer,
man to death" (John, xviii, 31), in the statement of La Palestine au temps de Jesus-Christ (3rd ed., Paris, 1885), iv;
Josephus (Ant., XX, ix, 1) and in those of the Tal- BiJCHLBR, Das Synedrion in Jerusalem (Vienna, 1902); Jelski,
mud of Jer. {Sank., 18a, 24b). Still we see in Acts, Die innere Einrichtung des grossen Synedrion zil Jerusalem und
ihre Fortsetzung im spdteren paldstinensischen Lehrhause bis zur
vii, St. Stephen put to death by the Sanhedrin; we
Zeit des R. Jehuda ha-Nasi (Breslau, ISO 1) Lanqen, Das
;

read likewise in Talm. Jer. (Sank,, 24, 25) of an adul- jiidische Synedrium und die romische Procurator in Judda in
teress burnt at the stake and a heretic stoned; and Tubing, theol. Quarlalschr. (1862), 411-63; Levy, Die Prdsi-
dentur im Synedrium in FrankeVs Monatsschr. (1885); SchOrer,
these three facts occurred precisely during the last im Jesu Christi, II (3rd
Geschichte des jiid. Volkes Zeitalter ed.,
forty years of the Temple's existence, when the power Leipzig, 1898), 188 aq.
of life and death is supposed to have been no longer Charles L. Souvay.
in the Sanhedrin. Assuming the two facts recorded
in Talm. Jer. to be historical, we might explain them San Jose de Costa Rica, Diocese of (Sancti
away, just as the stoning of St. Stephen, and reconcile —
JosEPHi DE Costarica). The Republic of Costa
them with the curtaihrig of the Sanhedrin's rights Rica, Central America, constitutes this diocese as a
by attributing them to outbursts of popular passion. suffragan see of the Archdiocese of Guatemala. It
Some scholars, however, deny that the Romans ever was estabhshed in 1850, and its Catholic population
deprived the Sanhedrin of any part of its power: the in 1910 amounted to 368,000, which is practically the
Sanhedrin, they say, owing to the frequency of cases total number of inhabitants in the country. There
half-rehgious and half-political in nature, in order are in the republic: 103 priests, of whom 101 are secu-
not to alienate the feelings of the people and at the lar and 12 regular; 68 parish churches; 98 chapels; 1
same time not to incur the displeasure of the Roman seminary; 1 diocesan college; 1 academy for girls; 2
authorities, practically surrendered into the hands of orphan asylums; and 4 hospitals, all supported by the
the latter the right to app^o^'e capital sentences; the Church. At San Jos(5, the capital of the republic and
cry of the Jews: "it is not lawful for us to put any see of the diocese, are located the seminary with 10
man to death", was therefore rather a flattery to the students; the diocesan college with 150 pupils; the
procurator than the expression of truth. Academy of the Sisters of Our Lady of Sion with 35
It should be noticed, however, that of these views sisters and 100 girls; 1 school for poor girls, connected
the former is more fa\ourably received by schol- with the same academy, with 80 pupils; 1 orphan asy-
ars. At all events, criminal causes were tried lum, directed by the Sisters of Charity and caring for
before a commission of twenty-three members (in 230 orphans. There is in the city of Cartago another
urgent cases any twenty-three members might do) orphan asvlum, under the Salesian Fathers, with 233
assembled under the presidency of the Ab Beth-Din; orphans. In 1847 President Josi^ M. Castro entered
two other boards, also of twenty-three members each, into negotiations with the Holy See and secured the
studied the questions to be submitted to plenary establishment of a bishopric at Costa Rica, and on
meetings. These throe sections had their separate 10 April, 1851 the Rt. Rev. Anselmo Llorente y La
places of meeting in the Temple buildings; the crimi- Fuente was appointed the first bishop, and conse-
nal section met originally in the famous "Hall of the crated in Guatemala, 7 Sept., of the same year. The
Hewn Stone" (Mishna, Peak, ii, (i; Eduyoth, vii, 4) present incumbent is Rt. Rev. Juan Caspar Stork,
which was on the south side of the court (Middoth, consecrated 24 Aug., 1904. The cathedral of San
V, 4) and served also for the sittings of the "Great Jose is the largest and handsomest religious edifice in
Sanhedrin", or plenary meetings; about a. d. 30, the capital, and is noted for the dignity and elegance
that same section was transferred to another building of its architecture. (See Costa Rica, Republic of.)
closer to the outer wall; they had also another meeting Julian Morbno-Lacallb.
 SAN JUAN 447 SANKT POLTEN
San Juan, Diocese op (Sancti Joannis de Cuto), to the bishop or archdeacon; everyone may confess
in the Argentine Republic at the foot of the Cordillera less serious sins and negligences to whom he will.
of the Andes between 28° and
41° S. lat. It is a suf- Annates are mentioned even at this early date; "the
fragan of the Archdiocese of Buenos Aires and com- first year of the episcopal collation of vacant churches
prises the civil Provinces of San Juan, Mendoza, and is used for the church at Passau". Another synod
San Luis, and the national district of Neuqu^n, has was held at Sankt Polten ten years later.
an area of 151,096 sq. miles and a population of
540,000. These provinces were a part of the Arch-
diocese of Santiago de Chile until 1776, when they
passed under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of
C6rdoba. In 1826 they were constituted into a
vicariate ApostoUc, and on 19 Sept., 1834, Gregory
XVI erected the Diocese of San Juan de Cuyo. The
first bishop was Fray Justo de Santa Maria de Oro,
a prominent figure in the history of Argentina. He
was the representative from San Juan to the Congress
of Tucumdn, which, on 9 July, 1816, proclaimed the
independence of Argentina, and in this assemblage
distinguished himself by resolutely opposing the
monarchical form of government for the infant na-
tion. He died in 1838, and a handsome bronze
statue has been erected to him in the principal square
of the city of San Juan. He was succeeded by: Jos6
Manuel Eufracio de Quiroga Sarmiento, who died on
25 Jan., 1852; Fray Nicolds Aldazor, died in 1866;
Fray Jos6 Wenceslav Achaval, who founded the semi-
nary and established the cathedral chapter, and died
on 25 Feb., 1898; and the present incumbent, Fray
Marcolino del Carmelo Benavente, to whom is due the
erection of the statue of Christ the Redeemer at the
crest of the Andes, on the boundary line between
Chile and Argentina, as a symbol of peace and good
will between the two nations. Mgr. Benavente was
bom at Buenos Aires on 17 Aug., 1845; entered the
Dominicans, and was appointed bishop on 7 Jan.,
1899. There are four Catholic primary schools for
boys, seventeen schools for girls, and one Catholic
agricultural college in the diocese. A Catholic daily
paper, "El Porvenir", is published at San Juan, and
ranks highest among the daily papers of the entire
province. There are one or more confraternities at-
tached to all parish churches to encourage piety and
devotion. Among the notable edifices of the diocese The Old Carmelite Church, Sankt Polten
may be mentioned: the episcopal palace and the Soon after this (1306) the city came very near de-
Church of San Domingo in San Juan; those of San struction. As in other places stories were current of
Francisco, Sagrado Coraz6n, and Godoy Cruz in sacrilegious acts of Jews, especially of pierced and
Mendoza; and the Matriz of San Luis. At the pres- bleeding Hosts. These tales led to the founding of
ent time a project has been laid before the National churches of the Sacred Blood and at Sankt Polten, as
;

Congress to divide this diocese into three, viz., San elsewhere, the Jews were robbed and murdered. Only
Juan, San Luis, and Mendoza. the intercession of Bishop Wernhart prevailed upon
IsiDKO Fernandez. King Albert I not to destroy the city. When the Ref-
ormation began, the monastery of Augustinian Can-
Sankt Folten, Diocese op, in Lower Austria, de- ons was not strong enough to withstand it; in 1565
name and origin from Fanwn Sancti Hippo-
rives its there were only three canons. Aid, however, was
lyti,a monastery founded there in the ninth cen- given by Klesl (q. v.) and the Jesuits, through whose
tury and dedicated to St. Hippolytus. The origin of efforts manycitizens were converted. Part of one of
this monastery is obscure. Some think that monks Klesl's sermons is preserved in the city archives:
from Lake Tegernsee in Bavaria founded a Benedic- "Behold, for a thousand years the pictures of your
tine abbey on the Traisen in 791, when Charlemagne forefathers holding rosaries in their hands have stood
united a part of the territory of the Avars with his em- in this church" In 1706 the first settlement of the
pire, and Passau took this district as a mission field. Institute of Mary (q. v.) was made at Sankt Polten,
In the ninth century Sankt Polten was the eastern whence they had been called from Munich by the
limit of Christian civilization, the only monastery east vife-president of the Government of Lower Austria,
of the Enns. It is said that the monastery was trans- Jakob Freiherr von Kriechbaum. At the same time
ferred to secular canons in 985, and in 1080 the great Carmelite nuns settled there. They were later sup-
reformer Altmann of Passau replaced these by Re- pressed by the Emperor Joseph II, and the same
formed Augustinian Canons. The first provost was fate befell the monastery of Augustinian canons. ' The
Mgelbert. The bishops of Passau attached much fifty-ninth and last provost was Ildefons Schmidt-
importance to the spiritual and material improvement bauer. The emperor took the monastery for the epis-
of this important support of their power in the east, copal residence and the monastery church for the ca-
tlefele in his"Konziliengeschichte" (VI, pt. II, 230-2) thedral. As the Diocese of Wiener-Xeustaflt reached
gives the decisions of the synod almost to the capital, Vienna, Joseph II united
that Bishop Gottfried
its territory with the Archdiocese of Vienna, and
ot Passau
held at Sankt Polten in 1284. These were
01 importance: if a priest celebrates solemnly the wed- transferred its bishop to Sankt Polten. A new
™g of his son or his daughter, he is to be suspended; diocese was estabUshed at Linz and both bishops were
the secular clergy, made suffragans of the Archbishop of Vienna.
pastors, vicars, and chaplains must
confess their more serious sins to the dean, the latter Since 1785 Sankt Polten has had thirteen bishops,
 SAN LE(5N 448 SAN MARCO
each episcopate averaging less than ten years. A pop- San Luis Potosi, Diocese of (Sancti Ludovici
ular tradition relating that the last provost had pre- PoTOSiENSis), in Mexico, erected by Pius IX in 1S,54.
dicted that no bishop would reign over ten years was, It includes the State of San Luis Potosi, and a small
however, disproved by the tenth bishop, Feigerle, who portion of the State of Zacatecas. Its cathedral is
reigned eleven years. Some of the bishops have richly decorated. The Church of Mount Carmel is a
been very distinguished: Sigismund, Count Hohen- fine specimen of the Baroque style of architecture.
wart, who was tutor of the Emperor Francis and Before the revolution there adjoined it a splendid
the Archduke Charles and became Prince Arch- Carmelite convent, a spacious orchard, and lands
Ijishop of Vienna; the court preachers Jakob Frint, that extended to the sea, a distance of 400 miles. At
Michael \Yagner, and Ignaz Feigerle; above all Jo- present, part of the convent has been rebuilt and
seph Fessler, the learned professor, skilful diploma- given to the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, who preside
tist, and secretary of the Vatican Council (d. 1872) In . over a well-attended school. The sanctuary of Our
1836 Johann Leonhard resigned the bishopric. At Lady of Guadalupe is also a magnificent church. The
present the diocese has two seminaries for boys, which
train candidates for the priesthood. Fessler united
one of these seminaries with the seminary at the Bene-
dictine Abbey of Seitenstetten the other was estab-
;

lished at Melk by the present Bishop Johann Rossler.

In 1908 Rossler held the first diocesan synod of the in-
dependent Bishopric of Sankt Polten; -the important
constitutions and acts of this synod have been
printed. The Diocese of Sankt Polten contains 620,-
000 CathoUcs; 479 secular priests; 505 members of
male orders in 16 houses; and 874 members of female
orders in 94 branch houses.
Felqel and Lampel, Vrkundenhuch des Chorherrenstiftes
Sankt Pilten (2 vols., Vienna, 1891-1901); Kebschbaumeh,
Gesch. des Bislums St. PBlten (2 vols., Vienna, 1875-76); Idem,
Juhildumskatalog alter Diozesangeistlichen seit einem Jakrh. (1885);
Erdinger, Diozesan-Nekrologium. Geschichtliche Beilagen zu den
Kurrenden der DiUzese (Vienna, 1885); Idem, Bibliographic des
Klerus der DiOzese St. Polten (Vienna, 18S9); Fohhinqeh, Das
soziale Wirhen der katholischen Kirche in St. Polten (Vienna, 1900).
C. WOLFSGRUBEK.
San Leon del Amazonas, Prefecture Apostolic
OF, in Peru. Though the section of Peru lying on the
eastern side of the Andes was comprised in the Dio-
ceses of Ayacuoho, Chachapoyas, Cuzco, and Hu-
anuco, yet there were many pagan Indian tribes, for-
merly evangelized by the Jesuits, living outside of the
sphere of civiUzation, roaming through the forests,
subject to no laws. Moved by their pitiable condi-
tion the Peruvian bishops, with the approval of the
Government, requested the Sacred Congregation of
Propaganda, towards the close of the nineteenth cen-
tury, to interest itself in their evangelization. As a
result by a Decree of Propaganda, on 5 February,
1900, the uncivilized eastern portion of the state, Church of Mount Carmel, San Lui9, PoTosf
known popularly as "la Montana", was divided into first bishop wasDon Pedro Barajas, who spent most
three prefectures Apostolic depending directly on of his episcopal life in exile. The second and third
Propaganda, that of San Le6n del Amazonas being bishops had very brief episcopates. The present
the most northerly. It comprises the regions drained (and fourth) bishop, Don Ignacio Montes de Oca y
by the Rio Maran6n and the Amazon with their tribu- Obreg6n, rules in more peaceful times, and has been
taries, except the Ryo Ucayaly, and extends to the able to build a large seminary, where not only Mexican
frontiers of Ecuador, Colombia, and Brazil. To pre- subjects, but also some students from the United
vent controversies as to jurisdiction, which might States and Canada, receive a sohd education, iniparted
arise with the existing sees, the mission territory, by by a choice staff of professors belonging to different
the wording of the Decree of erection, is to be coex- orders and to the secular clergy. A school of a,rts
tensi\'e with the uncivilized portions of the older dio- and crafts has been founded under the Augustinian
ceses. As the Indians are nomadic the missionaries Fathers, also an orphan asylum and a Catholic hos-
have first, by teaching them the rudiments of agri- pital. The cathedral has its chapter, canonioally
culture, to overcome their wandering habits, and then established; and there are 56 parishes with their
strive to inculcate the fundamental truths of Chris- churches and schools, and about three times as many
tianity; but frequently when success seems to be chapels. The population of the diocese is (1910)
crowning their efforts the savages yield to their rov- 624,748, all Catholic, except perhaps some fifty
ing instincts, and take again to their forest life. The foreigners. The capital, San Luis Potosi, has 82,946
mission, which is supported partly by the Govern- inhabitants.
ment but chiefly by the Society of the Propagation Diocesan Archives; Pena, Historia de San Luis.
of the Faith in Eastern Peru, is entrusted to the Au- J. MoNTEs DB Oca y ObregOn.
gustinians and contains four priests, who depend di-
rectly on their father general. The superior, R. P. San Marco and Bisignano, Diocese of (Sa>xti
Paulln Diaz, resides at Iquitos; there are stations also Marci et Bisinianensis), in the Province of Co-
at Peba and Puento Melander. Another was estab- senza in Calabria, Italy. San Marco Argentano (so
lished at Iluabica in 190.3, but six months later it was called because it is near the ancient Argenta) was
destroyed by the Indians and the missionary mar- founded in the eleventh century by the Norman
tyred. (See Peba Indians.)
Drogo, who erected a high tower there. Bisignano
is the ancient Besidias, or Besidianum, which
in the
Missiones CatholictE (Rome, 1907); Chanthb y Hehreea, Hist,
de las misiones de la Compaflia de Jesiis en tl Marai\6n espaHol, eleventh century became the residence of a Norman
1637-1767 (Madrid, 1901). A. A. MacErLEAN. count and later a fief of the Orsini. In 1467 Skan-
 SAN MARINO
THE CASTLE, VIEW FROM THE NORTH THE PALACE OF THE GOVERNMENT
CHDRCH OF ST. MABINUS GATE OF ST. FRANCIS
 SAN MARINO 449 SANNAZARO
derberg's daughter, wife of the Prince of Bisignano, of the Pontifical States.Twice in the nineteenth cen-
invited thither many Albanian families who estab- tury (1825 and 1853) similar attempts were made.
lished various colonies, spoke their own language,
and The celebrated archseologist Bartolomeo Borghesi
used the Greek Rite. The first mention of a bishop was a native of San Marino.
is in 1179-
Bisignano certainly had bishops in the U. Benigni.
tenth century, when mention is made of tJlutto in
life of St. Uilo di Rossano; Bishop Federico
the SanMartino alCimino, a prelature nulKus in the
(1331) was killed in 1339. The two sees were united territory of the Diocese of Viterbo, Province of Rome.
in 1818. The united dioceses are immediately sub- The district is about 1840 feet above sea-level, on the
ject to the Holy See, and contain 64 parishes, 256 western_ slope of Monte Foghano in the Cimini
priests, 110,000 inhabitants, some convents of re- mountains, amidst an extensive forest of chestnut
ligious, and a house of nuns. It is much frequented as a health resort.
Cappelletti, Le chiese d' Italia, XXI (Venice, 1857).
trees. The
U. Benigni. principal dignitary of the collegiate chapter has the
title of abbot, and his jurisdiction extends only over
San Marino, an independent republic lying be- the commune of San Martino, which consists of only
tween the Itahan Provinces of Forli, Pesaro, and Ur- one parish . In early times it was a Benedictine abbey,
hino, having an area of 38 sq. miles and a population first mentioned under Benedict VIII (eleventh cen-
of 10,000. Its chief resources are agriculture and the tury). In 1150 it was entrusted by Eugenius III to
growing of vines. The government is carried on by the Cistercians of St-Sulpice near Belley; in 1207 it
two consuls or captains-regent, elected for six months came into the possession of the monks of Pontigny,
from the members of the General Council, composed who (under Abbot John, 1213-32) raised it to a state
of sixty members elected for Ufe from the nobles, the of great prosperity. After 1379 the abbots were al-
burgesses, and the rural landowners, in equal num- ways commendatory; in 1564 it was included in the
bers. The council has mensa of St. Peter's
legislative powers chapter. In 1645
from members
its the castle and the
is selected the abbey buildings were
Council of Twelve, acquired by Olimpia
which is the supreme Pamphih, sister of
court. The Kingdom Innocent X, who
of Italy, by the Acts established a still-

of 22 March, 1862, existing collegiate

recognized the in- chapter. The Gothic
dependence of the church possesses
republic, and has architectural inter-
retained friendly est.
relations with it, the Egidi in Riv. storica
benedettina (1906-7).
Sanmarinese cur- Concerning churcli
tlie
rency being accepted see Fhothingham in
in the kingdom. The
American Journal of
Archeology (1890), 299
territory extends sqq.
over seven hiUs, on U. Benigni.
the highest of which,
II Titano, the city San Miniato, a
of San Marino is city and diocese in
built. There are the Province of Flor-
nine communes, in- ence, Central Italy.
The Cathedbal, San Miniato, XII-XVII Centurt
cluding the capital, It is first mentioned
and as many more parishes, some of which belong to in the eighth century as a "vicus Wallari", where there
the Diocese of Montefeltro, and the others to Rimini. was an oratory of S. Miniato, the celebrated martyr
The Palace of the Supreme Council, containing paint- St. Mennas. From the eleventh century the in-
ings by Guido Reni, is worthy of notice. habitants of this town were frequently at war with
According to the legend, St. Marinus, a stone- those of S. Genesio, a neighbouring city, where many
cutter, came to the mountain about a. d. 350 to ply councils and assemblies of the nobles and cities of
his trade and spread the truths of Christianity. Tuscany were held (1074, Council of S. Peter Igneus;
Monte Titano belonged to Felicissima, a Riminese 1197, Treaty of S. Genesio between Celestine III and
lady, who at her death bequeathed it to the moun- the Tuscan cities). The inhabitants of San Miniato
taineers, recommending them to remain always united. were of the imperial party and the town was frequently
San Marino, however, in the Lombard age, belonged occupied by German soldiers; the emperors granted
to the Duchy of Spoleto; in the tenth century the them many privileges. In 1248 S. Genesio was com-
abbots of the monastery were under the civil govern- pletely destroyed. In 1397 the town was taken by
ment, but they soon freed themselves and formed a Florence. From 1248 the chapter was transferred
free commune. The Holy See recognized the inde- from S. Genesio to S. Miniato, and in 1526 the head
pendence of San Marino in 1291. In quick succes- of the chapter obtained the episcopal dignity. In
sion the lords of Montefeltro, the Malatesta of Ri- 1408 the Republic of Florence wished to have it
mini, and the lords of Urbino attempted to conquer made an episcopal see, being then a suffragan of
the little town, but without success. When the in- Lucca. Finally in 1622 it became a diocese. Its
habitants aided Pius II against Sigismondo Malatesta, first bishop was Francesco Nori (1624). The diocese
the pope granted the republic is a suffragan of Florence and contains 100
parishes
some castles. In 1503,
but only for a few months,formed part of the posses-
it with 240 secular and 42 regular priests; 108,000 soulsj
sions of Caesar Borgia. In the same century some 5 convents of men, 13 convents of nuns, with /
feudatory lords attempted its liberty; the last effort educational establishments for girls.
being made by Cardinal Giulio Alberoni, legate of RONDONI, Uemorie storiche de S. Miniato a.1 Tedesco (Venice,
1877): Cappelletti, Le chiese d' Italia, XVII (Venice, 1844),
Ravenna, who in 1739, aiding certain rebels, con- 305-47. U. Benigni.
trary to the orders of Clement XII, invaded the re-
public, imposed a new constitution, and endeavoured Sannazaro, Jacopo (Latin, Actius Sincerus San-
to force the NAZARius), Italian and Latin poet, b. at Naples, 28
Sanmarinese to submit to the Government
XIII.—29
 SANOK 450 SAN SALVADOR
July, 1458; d. at Rome, in Aug., 1530. He belonged Christian poem is a mixture of the antique and the
to a family of Spanish origin, in the service of Charles modern, of mythology and Biblical reminiscences
III of Durazzo, holding the fief of Rocca di Mon- Digressions often far from happy are inserted as orna-
dragone from the end of the fourteenth century. ments, for instance in connexion with the ass of the
He received the name by which he was known be- manger Sannazaro reviews all the legends in which
cause he was born on the feast of St. Nazarius. Hav- the ass has played a part. He also abuses allegorical
ing lost his father at an early age, he lived in Nocera personifications. The poem, praised by Leo X before
dei Pagani with his mother returning later to Naples,
; it was known, is dedicated to Clement VII,
who
he studied with Pontanus and was a member of the covered it with praise. Sannazaro's Latin works
academy which assembled about this scholar. In were pubhshed by Volpi (Padua, 1719) and Janus
this group he received the name of Sincerus by which Bronkhusius (1728).
he is often mentioned in the letters of the times. He Belon, De Sannazarii vita et o-peribus (Paris, 1895); Saxdys,
was closely allied with the princes of Aragon at A History of Classical Scholarship, II (Cambridge, 1908),90: Sabba-
DiNi,La scoperte del codici latini e greci (Florence, 1905), 140*
Naples and followed Federico into the exile to which Campaux, De ecloga piscatoria qualem a veteribus adumbratam
he was driven by Louis XII, King of France (1521). absolvere sibi proposuerii Sannazarius (Paris, 1859) Nunziante,
;

Relying on the generosity of the French king, Federico Un divorzio ai tempi di Leone X (Rome, 1887) Torraca, Jacopo
;

Sannazaro (Naples, 1879).

established himself at Tours, and Sannazaro remained
Paul Lejay.
with him until his
death (9 Sept., Sanok. See Pkzemtsl, Sambor, and Sanok, Dio-
1504). During cese OP.
this time Sanna-
zaro discovered a
San Salvador, the name given by Columbus to his
firstdiscovery in the New World. It is one of the Ba-
MS. containing
the hitherto un-
hama group of islands, and lies to the east of the
southern extremity of Florida in 24° north lat. and
known works of 75'^ west long. It is also known under its Indian
Latin poets, the
name of Guanahani. There has been endless discus-
fragment of the
sion as to exactly which one of the Bahamas was first
"Halieutica" as-
discovered by Columbus, and it is probable that men
cribed to Ovid by
will never quite agree. All that can be said posi-
Pliny the Elder,
tively is that the first land discovered by him was one
the "Cynegetica"
of the Bahamas. Different writers have at different
of Grattius Falis-
times claimed the distinction for Cat Island, Samana,
cus, Nemesianus,
Mariguana, Grand Turk, and Wathng's Island. The
and Rutilius Na-
name San Salvador was given to Cat Island during
matianus. MS. 227 the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but it does
of Vienna is actu-
not fit the description given by Columbus in as much
ally the portion of
as it is not low and level and has no interior lagoon.
this ^LS. which
contained the
A noteworthy attempt to prove that Samana was the
landfall was made by Captain Gustavus V. Fox, of
"Halieutica" and
the United States Navj', in the "Report of the United
Grattius. MS. States Coast Survey" for 1880. Navarrete first ad-
3261 of Vienna is
vocated Grand Turk Island in 1826, and Varnhagen
only a sixteenth-century copy of Nemesianus and in 1864 wrote a paper advocating Mariguana. The
Rutilius. On returning to his own country Sannazaro weight of modern testimony, however, seems to fa-
left it no more. In his old age he had the sorrow of
vour Watling's Island. Lieutenant J. B. Murdoch,
seeing his villa of Tore di Mergoglino destroyed by an American naval officer, made a careful study of the
the imperial forces. He had just rebuilt it when he subject, and found that in Columbus's description
died.
there were more points of resemblance in Watling's
In his youth Sannazaro wrote a, work in mingled Island than in any other of the group. Among others
verso and prose entitled "Arcadia", in which he de-
whose opinion carries weight, and who are advocates
scribed the pastoral life according to the traditions of
of Watling's Island, are Major, the map-custodian of
the ancients. This work had great success; it was
the British Museum, and the eminent geographer,
translated and imitated, and in the sixteenth century
Clements R. Markham.
had about sixty editions; the first was at Venice, 12 See bibliography of Columbus.
May, 1502. The " Arcadia " gave rise to the pastoral Ventura Fuentes.
stj'le of writing much cultivated in Italy and else-
where. A scholarly edition was issued byScherillo San Salvador, Diocese of (Sancti Salva-
(Turin, 1888). Sannazaro's other Italian poems were TORis IN America Centeali). The Republic of—
sonnets and canzoni. All were collected by Galli- Salvador, often incorrectly called San Salvador from,
poli (Padua, 1723). A
correspondent of Paulus Ma- the name of its capital, is the smallest and most thickly
nutius mentions another work called " Gliomero", populated state of Central America. It is bounded
now lost. A work entitled "Farsa" affords an idea on the W. by Guatemala, on the N. and E. by Hon-
of it.It consisted of detached scenes of a popular duras, on the S. by the Pacific Ocean. It lies between
character, written in the Neapolitan dialect, and in- 92° 26' 55" and 89° 57' W. long., and 14° 27' 20"
tended to amuse the king's Court. and 13° 2' 22" N. lat., being 50 miles long and 186
Sannazaro's poetical reputation was formerly miles broad. It is 7225 square miles in area and is
founded on his Latin works: the "Ecologiae piscato- divided politically into 14 departments. The popula-
riac", bucohc verses concerning fishers, elegies and tion in 1906 was 1,116,253, of whom 772,200 were
epigrams containing interesting details concerning Ladinos (mixed Spanish and Indian blood), and 224,-
the Ufe of the poet and contemporaries, his mistresses, 648 Indians, the latter being principally Pipils, but
Carmosina, Bonifacia, and Cassandra, and which partly Chontalli. The chief towns are San Salvador
are the best evidences of his sentiments; "Sahces", (59,540), Santa Anna (48,120), San Miguel (24,768),
account of metamorphosis; and especially the "De and Nueva San Salvador (18,770); the chief port is
partu Virginia", a poem in three cantos which cost La Union (4000). With the exception of a narrow
him twenty years of labour and won him the name alluvial seaboard Salvador is a high plateau, inter-

of the Christian \'irgil. These works show that he sected by mountains containing many volcanoes, five

was a dihgent imitator of Ovid and Virgil. The of which are active. The most remarkable of the
 SAN SEFOLCRO 451 SAN SEPOLCRO
latter, Izalco, popularly called the "Lighthouse of form of his name is the traditional one, Piero della
Salvador" from its almost continual eruptions (three Francesca, which is better authenticated in con-
to each hour), broke out in a small plain on 23 Febru- temporary documents than what in late research had
ary, 1770, and has now a cone over 6000 feet high. been supposed to be the more correct form, Piero
Earthquakes are frequent and San Salvador has often DEI Franceschi (Gronau, "Repertorium fiir Kunst-
suffered, especially on 16 April, 1854, when the entire wissenschaft", xxiii, 392HI). He was the son of a
city was levelled in ten seconds. Salvador is rich in notary, Ser Benedetto, a member of an influential fam-
minerals, gold, silver, copper, mercury, and coal being ily long identified with the government of the town
mined. The chief imports, which in 1909 had a value the Franceschi. His earliest artistic training is unknown,
of $4,176,931 (gold), are machinery, woollens, cottons, but he was active at Perugia in 1438, probably as an
drugs, hardware; the chief exports besides minerals assistant to Domenioo Veneziano, and he was certainly
are indigo, sugar, coffee, and Peruvian balsam, valued employed in the same capacity in the Church of
at .516,963,000 (silver). Sant' Egidio, Florence, in 1439^0. To Domenico
Railroads connect the capital with Santa Tecla and probably also to Paolo Uccello, Florentine Realists
and the port of Acajutla. Education is free and who did much for the technical side of painting, we
compulsory but very backward. There are about may ascribe the formative influence in his art. Piero
600 primary schools, with 30,000 enrolled pupils, 20 first appears as an independent master in 1445, when
high schools (3 normal, and 3 technical), and a uni- he painted a still surviving altar-piece of many panels
versity at San Salvador with faculties of engineering, for the Brotherhood of the Misericordia in his native
law, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry. The Na- town. He is said to have laboured with Domenico
tional Library (founded 1867) has 20,000 volumes; a at Loreto, and he was certainly at Rimini in 1451,
National Museum was established in 1903. Salvador when he painted a remarkable fresco in the chapel of

Piero da San Sepolcho

PORTHAIT OF BaTTISTA SfORZA Virgin and Child Portrait op Federigo da Malatesta
UfEzi Gallery, Florence Villamarina Collection, Rome UflBzi Gallery, Floience

was invaded by Pedro Alvarado in 1524, emancipated San Francesco, representing Sigismondo Malatesta,
from Spain in 1821, and made part of the Federation Lord of Rimini, venerating his patron saint, Sigismund.
of Central America in 1824. In 1839 it became free. After this he was active at Ferrara and Bologna, and,
Its Constitution finally adopted in 1886 provides for a according to Vasari, he also decorated a room of the
president elected for four years, with a right to nomi- Vatican for Pope Nicholas V. In 1454 he was again
nate four secretaries of State, and a National Assembly at Borgo San-Sepolcro, where in 1460 he painted a
of 70 members, 42 of whom are landholders, all elected fresco of St. Louis of Toulouse, nowpreserved in the
by universal male suffrage. Catholicism is the state town hall. It was probably between this date and
religion, but the civil authorities are hostile and have 1466 that he painted his masterpiece, the frescoes in
confiscated the sources of church revenue. San Sal- the choir of San Francesco at Arezzo, which may,
vador on the Rio Acelhuate in the valley of Las Ha- however, have been begun earlier. The subject is
macas was founded in 1528, but rebuilt in 1539, about the "Story of the True Cross", involving incidents
twenty miles south of its first site; the diocese, erected beginning with Adam and including the story of
on 28 September, 1842, is suffragan of Santiago of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, Constantino and
Guatemala, and contains 589 churches and chapels, St. Helena, Heraclius and Chosroes. These frescoes
190 secular and 45 regular clergy, 70 nuns, 89 parishes, rank with those by Masaccio in the Brancacci Chapel
3 colleges for boys and 3 for girls, and a Catholic popu- as epoch-making in the decorative art of the fifteenth
lation of over 1,000,000; the present
bishop, who suc- century.
ceeded Mgr. Carcamo, is Mgr. Antonio Adolfo P^rez In the spring of 1469 Piero was at Urbino, lodging
y Aguilar, born at San Salvador, 20 March, 1839, and in the house of Giovanni Santi, the father of Raphael,
appomted on 13 January, 1888. in which city a large part of his later activity occurred.
balmdor: Bulletin of the Bureau
of American Republics
wasluDgton, 1892); Reyes, Nociones de hisloria del Salvador
From this period probably dates the remarkable
"'• 1886); Pector, Notice sur le Salvador (Paris,
diptych of the UflSzi, containing the portraits of the
Ifilm
losa); A
ConsAlez, Duke (then Count) of Urbino, the ideal prince of the
Datos sobre la repHblica de El Salvador (San
yIqS"''' '^"1'; Keane, Central America, II (London, 1901), Renaissance, and the mild and refined image of his
"*'''^^-
A. A. MacErlean. wife. Bat tista Sforza, with allegorical triumphs of these
San Sepolcro. See BoRGO San-Sepolcro, Dio- rulers on the reverse sides. About this time he also
OESB OF. painted the well-knovra "Madonna" with saints and
San Sepolcro, Piero da, painter, b. at Borgo San- angels, venerated by the Duke of Urbino, now in the
Sepolcro, about 1420; d. there, 1492. Brera, Milan; and the "Flagellation of Christ", a
The most usual
 SAN SEVERING 452 SAN SEVERING
beautiful architectural composition in the cathedral San Severino, Diocese of (Sancti Severini). —
of Urbino. According to a well-established tradition San Severino a small town and seat of a bishopric
is
recorded by Vasari, Piero became blind in later in the Province of Macerata in the Marches, Cen-
life. At this time he wrote his celebrated treatises: tral Italy. It has two cathedrals, the ancient one
"De quinque corporibus regularibus", which show near the old castle, which contains precious quattro-
him as a great geometrician, and his "Prospettiva cento paintings and inlaid stalls in the choir. The
Pingendi" (Treatise on Perspective), a manual for new cathedral, dating from 1821, is the old Augustin-
painters. This work reveals him as the greatest ian church and contains paintings by Pinturiochio
master of the theory of perspective in his day, (Madonna), Antonio and Gian Gentile da S. Severino,
and gave him a reputation beyond Italy. His Pomarancio, and others. The Churches of S. Domen-
testament recorded 5 July, 1478, and he was
is ico and S. Francesco are also adorned with fine pictures;
interred in the present cathedral of his native town the Church of S. Maria in Doliolo, formerly a Benedic-
in 1492. tine monastery, has a crypt believed to be the ancient
His principal frescoes, besides those mentioned, temple of Feronia converted later into a church. The
include: the "Resurrection," in the town hall of two sanctuaries of S. M. del Glorioso and S. Maria del
Borgo San-Sepolcro, a marvellous piece of foreshort- Lumi are worthy of note. The most important civic
ening and per- building the communal palace, which contains some
is
spective; a "Her- halls richly decorated and a collection of ancient in-
cules", now in the scriptions. S. Severino stands on the site of the
possession of Mrs. ancient Septempeda, a city of Picenum, later a Roman
J. L. Gardner of colony. In the eighth century it was a fortress of the
Boston and an im-
; Duchy of Spoleto. The Church of San Severino gave
posing "Magda- its name later to the new town that grew up around it.
len" in the ca- In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was at con-
thedral of Arezzo. stant war with the neighbouring cities, especially with
Among his panel Camerino, and always supported the cause of the
pieces are the 'Tri-
' emperors, particularly of Frederick II. Louis the
umph of Chivalry" Bavarian named as vicar of San Severino Smeduccio
(New York His- della Scala, who, passing into the service of the
torical Society); Holy See, gave great help to the expedition of Cardinal
the "Baptism of
Christ" and the
"Nativity", both
in the National
Gallory, London,
the latter the first
I'lf/i'Ro 1JF.I.1.A ^R,^^CKSC\ I'nroRt
moonlight scene in
., ,, DAI, BOJ«» AS.StPOL. ,-,i.,
modern painting;
,, ,
,

an "Annunciation"
in the Gallery at Perugia; "St. Michael" in London;
and "St. Thomas Aquinas" in the Poldo-Pezzoli Mu-
seum at Milan. The charming "Portrait of a Young
Girl" attributed to him in this gallery, as well as similar
portraits in other European galleries, is now generally
ascribed to another artist. Piero's position in the devel-
opment of Italian art is a unique and important one.
He is the greatest of that group of pathfinders, the
Realists, whose scientific experiments created the
grammar of modern painting. In mural painting
he towers above his contemporaries as the worthy
successor of Masaccio, and the connecting link be-
tween his art and that of Raphael. In the Central
Italian painting of the Renaissance his position was
a dominant one; he may be called the founder of
the school. The chief masters of the following gener-
ation —
Perugino and the rest —
either studied
under or were influenced by him. Of his more
intimate pupils, Melozzo da Forli carried perspective
to the highest perfection, while Luca Signorelli
developed figure-painting to the greatest excellence
attained before Michelangelo. To Florentine excel-
lence of draughtsmanship Piero united the superior
colour sense of the Umbrians. Most remarkable The Old Cathedral, San Severing, XIII Centort
was his rendition of light and air, in which he easily
surpassed his contemporaries. His types are seldom Albornoz and became feudal lord of San Severino, a
beautiful, but they are strong and primeval, admir- post held later by his son Onofrio. His nephew
ably modelled, and as impassive as the sculptures Antonio paid with his life for attempting to resist
at the Parthenon. Perhaps the most striking feature the arms of Pietro Colonna, the representative of
of his art is this wonderful objectivity, in which Martin V; his sons tried in vain to recapture the city
regard he .stands rivalled by Holbein and Veldzquez (1434), which remained immediately subject to the
alone in modern painting. Holy See. Among its illustrious sons were: the
Va8ari, Vite. ed. Milanesi (1878); tr. Blashfield and Hop- lacquer-workers Indovino and Giovanni di Pier Gia-
kins (1897). Of the biographies of Piero that by Pichi {Borgo como, the poet Panfilo, the physician Eu.stacchi, the
San-Sepolcro, 1893) is rather a panegyric; that of Witting condoltiere Francuocio da S. Severino, and the Francis-
(Strasburg, 1898) is the moat scholarly; another is by Waters
(London, 1901): Ricci, Piero detla Francesra (Rome, 1910), is can, Saint Pacifieo. A local legend attributes the
best for illustrations. preaching of the Gospel to a holy priest, Maro. Under
George Kriehn. the high altar of the cathedral are the relics of Sts.
 SANSEVERINO 453 SANSOVINO
Hippolytus and Justinus. saint from whom the
The tate, which in turn succeeded the ancient city of
city takes its name is believed to have been
commonly Teanum. Civitate, where the papal troops were de-
Bishop of Septempeda, but his date is unknown. In feated by the Normans in 1052, was an episcopal see
the Middle Ages S. Severino was suffragan of Came- in 1062 under Amelgerio. Among the bishops of
rino; the old cathedral was then a collegiate church. Civitate were: Fra Lorenzo da Viterbo, O.P. (1330), a
In 1566 it had a seminary. In 1586 Sixtus V made it distinguished theologian; Luca Gaurico (1545), a
an episcopal see, the first bishop being Orazio Marzari. distinguished astronomer; Franc. Alciato (1561), later
Among his successors were: Angelo Maldacchini, a cardinal. In 1580 the first occupant of the See of
O.P. (1646); Alessandro Calai Organi (1702), the San Severo was Martino de Martini, a Jesuit; other
restorer of the seminary; Angelo Antonio Anselmi bishops are: Fabrizio Verallo (1606), nuncio in Swit-
(179'2), exiled in 1809. The diocese is a suffragan of zerland, later a cardinal; Franc. Venturi (1625), a
Fermo, and has 29 parishes with 18,000 inhabitants, distinguished canonist and defender of the rights of
3 houses of nuns and 5 of religious men. the Church; Orazio Fortunati (1670), who restored
Gentili, De ecdesia septempedina (Macerata, 1836), S; Idem, the cathedral; Carlo Felice de Mata (1678), founder
Sopra gli Smeducci vicari per Santa Chiesa in S. Severino
(Macerata, 1841); Cappelletti, Le chiese d' Italia, III (Venice,
of the seminary, which was enlarged by two of his
successors. Carlo Franc. Giacoli (1703) and Fra Dio-
U. Bbnigni. dato Sommantico (1720), an Augustinian. To this
diocese was added later the territory of the ancient
Sanseverino, Gaetano, restorer of the Scholastic Dragonaria, a city built in 1005 by the Byzantine
philosophy in Italy, b. at Naples, 1811; d. there of Governor of Apulia. Cappelletti gives the names
cholera, 16 Nov., 1865. He made his studies in the of twenty-eight bishops between 1061 and 1657. It
seminary at Nola, where his uncle was rector. After seems never to have been formally suppressed. The
his ordination, he continued the study of philosophy, diocese is suffragan of Benevento, and has 7 parishes,
with the special view of comparing the various sys- about 46,000 inhabitants, and 6 religious houses.
tems. He became a canon of the cathedral of Naples, Cappelletti, Le chiese d' Italia, XIX (Venice, 1857).
professor of logic and metaphysics in the seminary, U. Benigni.
substitute-professor of ethics in the university, and
eventually scrittore in the National Library. Sansovino, Andrea Contucci del, b. at Monte
Sanseverino had been educated in the Cartesian San Sovino, Arezzo, 1460; d. 1529. He was a sculp-
system, which at that time prevailed in the ecclesiasti- tor of the transition period at the end of the fifteenth
cal schools of Italy, but his comparative study of the and beginning of the sixteenth century, and showed
various systems supphed him with a deeper knowledge the qualities of the transition in his style. He worked
of the Scholastics, particularly St. Thomas, and of the at first in his native town and in Florence, then for
intimate conne.xion between their doctrine and that about eight years in Portugal. His best sculptures
of the Fathers. From that time until the end of his were produced in Florence and Rome after his return.
life, his only concern was the restoration of Christian
The "Baptism of Christ", a marble group in the
philosophy, in which, not only by his writings, but baptistery of Florence, contains very effective fig-
by his lectures and conversation, he was of supreme ures finely contrasted. The monuments of Cardinals
assistance to Leo XIII. With this object, he founded, Basso and Sforza Visconti in the Church of Santa
inl840, "La ScienzaelaFede", a periodical which was Maria del Popolo at Rome are also, striking. They
continued until 1887 by his disciples and associates, Si- prove that he was able to combine what he had
gnoriello and d'Ameho. His principal work is "Philo- fully learned from antiquity with the art of the
sophia Christiana cum antiqua et nova comparata " (5 mature early Renaissance. The central and chief
vols., Naples, 1862). This work is incomplete, covering
niche stands upon a high pedestal between Corinthian
only logic and psychology, but one hardly knows pillars; above the round arch of this niche is an attic,
whether to admire most its lucidity of exposition, its that supports the figure of God the Father upon i
copiousness of argument, or the vast number of au- shell throne with a genius at each side. In the cen-
thors cited and discussed. His first work on a large tral niche the dead are represented asleep, their
scale, and that which assured his reputation as a
heads resting upon their arms, awaiting resurrection;
teacher, was "I principah sistemi della filosofia del
above them in the vault of the niche is a figure of the
criterio, discussi colla dottrina de' Santi Padri e de'
Blessed Virgin, on a smaller scale. In and above
Dottori del Medio Evo" (Naples, 1850-53), in which side niches are the cardinal virtues, which rise up-
he discusses and confutes the systems of Hume and wards towards the genii just mentioned. The unity
Gioberti on the criterion of truth. Another important in the conception of the structure and the rich dec-
work of his is "La dottrina di S. Tommaso sulF origine oration of the details show great skill in art. It has
del potere e sul preteso diritto di resistenza" (on the
been often asserted that there is a touch of the spirit
origin of authority and the pretended right of resist-
of Raphael in the combination of dignified repose
ance) (Naples, 1853). "Elementa philosophise chris- and subdued movement in the figures. Sansovino had
tianae " (Naples, 1864-70) was written for the use of his
a great task given him in the Casa Santa of Loreto,
classes, the last volume (Ethics) being edited by his and twenty-
where he was to produce nine reliefs
disciple Signoriello. Besides the two already men- two statues. Bramante had encased the Casa with a
tioned, his disciples included Talamo, Frisco (now a
marble covering, architecturally very fine, which was
cardinal) Cacace, Galvanese, and Giustiniani.
designed to have rich plastic ornament. Sansovino
PnoVEEiTA, Del Canonico Gaelano Sanseverino (Naples, 1867).
was only able to make a few of the reliefs, such as the
U. Benigni. "Annunciation" and the "Birth of Christ'^, the other
reliefs and statuettes were made by his assistants and
San Severo, Diocese of (Sancti Severini), in successors.
the Province of Foggia (Capitanata), Southern Italy, Among these pupils was Andrea Tatti (about 1480-
situated in a fertile plain, watered by the Radioosa 1570) of Florence, who took the name of his master
and Triolo. The origin of the city is obscure. Un- Sansovino. During the forty later years of his long
der the Normans it became the residence of a prince, life he was, next to Titian, one of the
most distin-
then passed under the Benedictines of Torre Mag- guished artists of Venice. In Venice he represents
giore, laterunder the Templars, on whose suppres- the second epoch of the grand style in art, and was
sion it was disamortized. It suffered frequently from the head of a clearly defined school. Among his first
earthquakes, especially in 1627, 1828, and 1851. The works were a statue of St. James, at Florence, which,
Diocese of San Severo was established in 1580. The with exception of a somewhat unnatural pose, has
episcopal see is only the continuation of that of Civi- striking qualities, and a Bacchus entirely m the an-
 SANTA AGATA 454 SANTA CASA
tique style, also at Florence. Among his works at the Normans. It was almost completely destroyed
Rome is the celebrated "Madonna del Prato" in the by an earthquake in 1456. Besides the Saticulan in-
Church of San Agostino. At Venice he adopted a scriptions there are two Christian inscriptions of the
style more akin to painting, which is pleasant in sixth century. It had already been an episcopal see
small works, especially if movement and animation for a long time when the first bishop, Madelfridus, was
are expressed. Among works of this class are the appointed (970) a metrical epitaph of his successor,
;

statuettes of Pallas, Apollo, Mercury, Pax, the relief Adelardus, is preserved in the Church of the Miseri-
of Phrixos and Helle which adorns the small loggia cordia. Of the other bishops we may mention FeUce
he built on the campanile, a terra-cotta Madonna, Peretti (1566), later Sixtus V; FeUciano Ninguarda,
formerly gilded, placed within the campanile, a statue O.P. (1583), visitor of the monasteries in Germany;
of Hope, and a group containing the Madonna in Giuho Santucci, a Conventual (1595), and distin-
the palace of the Doges. The colossal statues of guished theologian; Filippo Albini (1699), who re-
Mars and Neptune in front of this palace are less suc- formed the discipUne and studies of his clergy; St.
cessful. The bronze reliefs around the choir of San Alphonsus Liguori (1762-75). The diocese is suf-
Marco, and the fragan of Beneven-
bronze doors of the to; it contains 26
sacristy of the same, parishes, 63 churches
however, show pic- and chapels, 93 secu-
torial beauty. San- lar and 14 regular
sovino made for the priests, 30,500 in-
Chapel of St. An- habitants, 3 houses
thony at Padua a of reUgious men and
marble relief in the 6 of nuns, 1 institute
grand style it repre- ; for young boys, and
sents the bringing 3 for yotmg girls.
back to life of one Cappelletti, Lp chi-
who had been ese d' Italia, XIX (Ven-
drowned,
tains extraordinary
contrasts of graceful
and repellent figurea
As an architect,
Jacopo adopted
and con-

iOillOl ice,

S.
1870) Anon.,

ples, 1841).
;

U. Benigni.

Santa Casa
Memo-
Tie istoriche della ciltA di
Agata dei Goti (Na-

di
much from the style Loreto. —Since the
of Bramante, and in fifteenth century,
architecture as well and possibly even
as in sculpture earlier, the "Holy
brought much of the House" of Loreto
Roman Cinquecento Sansovino's Logqetta, St. Mark's, Venice has been numbered
to Venice. His chief among the most fa-
architectural work, the public library, has always been mous shrines of Italy. Loreto is a small town a few miles
greatly idmired on account of its classic form, rich south of Ancona and near the sea. Its most conspicu-
decoration, and wholly pictorial arrangement. It ous building is the basilica. This dome-crowned edi-
displays a double order of columns, Tuscan and Ionic, fice, which with its various annexes took more than a
over which is a rich frieze and a balustrade with century to build and adorn under the direction of
statues. One of his most beautiful decorative works many famous artists, serves merely as the setting of
is the small loggia mentioned before. The best of the a tiny cottage standing within the basilica itself.
churches he built is San Giorgio de' Greci; it has al- Though the rough walls of the httle building have
ways been greatly admired for its fine work in mar- been raised in height and are cased externally in
ble. Another building of tasteful construction that richly sculptured marble, the interior measures only
is ascribed to Sanso\'ino is the Palazzo Corner della thirty-one feet by thirteen. An altar stands at one
Ci\ Grande. Sanso\'ino gathered about him a large end beneath a statue, blackened with age, of the Virgin
number of assistants, who executed the decorations Mother and her Divine Infant. As the inscription.
of the buildings he erected. These buildings were Hie Verbum caro factum est, reminds us, this building
architecturally entirely in accordance with Venetian is honoured by Christians as the veritable cottage at
taste. Thus he was universally regarded in Venice Nazareth in which the Holy Family lived, and the
as a master of the first rank, and felt himself com- Word became incarnate. Another inscription of the
pletely at home there, although at first he had sixteenth century which decorates the eastern facade
thought of going to France. of the basilica set.s forth at greater length the tradi-
Cicognara, Sioria delta ScuUura, 11 (Prato, 1823); Sch5n- tion whicn makes this shrine so famous. "Christian
FELD, A. Sansovino und feme Schule (Stuttgart, 1881); Perkins,
I'attan Sculptor': (London. ISOS); Le fabbriche di Venezia, pilgrim", it says, "you have before your eyes the Holy
I
(Venice, 1815) Moli.n'ier, VeriL^e, ses arts decoratifs (Paris, 1889).
; House of Loreto, venerable throughout the world on
G. GlETMANN. account of the Divine mysteries accomplished in it
and the glorious miracles herein wrought. It is here
Santa Agata dei Goti, Diocese of (S. Agath.e that most holy Mary, Mother of God, was born; here
Gothokum), in the Province of Benevento, Southern that she was saluted by the Angel, here that the eter-
Italy; the city, situated on a hill at the base of Monte nal Word of God was made Flesh. Angels conveyed
Tabumo, contains an ancient castle. In the vicinity this House from Palestine to the town Tersato m
are many antiquities and inscriptions belonging to the Illvria in the year of salvation 1291 in the pontificate
aneii'nt Saticula, a town taken from the Samnites by of Nicholas IV. Three years later, in the beginning
the Romans and made a Latin colony in 313. The of the pontificate of Boniface VIII, it was carried
present name is ilerived possibly from a body of Goths again by the ministry of angels and placed in a wood
who took refuge there after the battle of Vesuvius near this hill, in the vicinity of Recanati, in the March
(.j.'yjthe church of the Goths in Rome, too, was dedi-
I ;
of Ancona; where having changed its station thrice
cated to Si Agatha. In 866 Emperor Louis II captured
.
a year, at length, by the wiU of God,
in the course of
it from the Byzantines who had taken it from the it took up permanent position on this spot three
its
Duchy of Benevento in 1066 it fell into the hands of
;
hundred years ago [now, of course, more than 600]
 SANTA CASA 455 SANTA CASA
Ever since that time, both the extraordinary nature which the Blessed Virgin had lived, what was pointed
of the event having called
forth the admiring wonder out to pilgrims was a sort of natural cavern in the
of the neighbouring people and the
fame of the mira- rook. (2) Oriental chronicles and similar accounts of
cles wrought in this sanctuary having spread far and pilgrims are absolutely silent as to any change which
wide, this Holy House, whose walls do not rest on any took place in 1291. There is no word of the disap-
foundation and yet remain sohd and uninjured after pearance at Nazareth of a shrine formerly held in
so many centuries, has been held in reverence by veneration there. It is not until the sixteenth cen-
all nations." That the traditions thus boldly pro- tury that we find among Orientals any hint of a con-
claimed to the world have been fully sanctioned by the sciousness of their loss and then the idea was sug-
Holy See cannot for a moment remain in doubt. gested from the West. (3) There are charters and
More than forty-seven popes have in various ways other contemporary documents which prove that a
rendered honour to the shrine, and an immense num- church dedicated to the Blessed Virgin already ex-
ber of Bulls and Briefs proclaim without qualification isted at Loreto in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
the identity of the Santa Casa di Loreto with the that is to say, before the epoch of the supposed trans-
Holy House of Nazareth. As lately as 1894 Leo XIII, lation. (4) When we eliminate certain documents
in a Brief conceding various spiritual favours for the commonly appealed to as early testimonies to the tra-
sixth centenary of the translation of the Santa Casa dition, but demonstrably spurious, we find that no
to Loreto, summed up its history in these words: writer can be shown to have heard of the miraculous
"The happy House of Nazareth is justly regarded and translation of the Holy House before 1472, i. e., 180
honoured as one of the most sacred monuments of the years after the event is supposed to have taken place.
Christian Faith and this is made clear by the many
: The shrine and church of Loreto are indeed often
diplomas and acts, gifts and pri-\-ileges accorded by mentioned; the church is said by Paul II in 1464 to
Our predecessors. No sooner was it, as the annals have been miraculously founded, and it is further im-
of the Church bear witness, miraculously translated plied that the statue or image of the Blessed Virgin
to Italy and exposed to the veneration of the faithful was brought there by angels, but all this differs widely
on the hills of Loreto than it drew to itself the fer- from details of the later accounts. (5) If the papal
vent devotion and pious aspiration of all, and as the confirmations of the Loreto tradition are more closely
ages rolled on, it maintained this devotion ever ar- scrutinized it will be perceived that not only are they
dent." If, then, we would sum up the arguments relatively late (the first Bull mentioning the transla-
which sustain the popular belief in this miraculous tion is that of Julius II in 1507), but that they are at
transference of the Holy House from Palestine to first very guarded in expression, for Julius introduces
Italy by the hands of angels, we may enumerate the the clause "ut pie creditur et fama est", while they
following points: (1) The reiterated approval of the are obviously dependent upon the extravagant leaflet
tradition by many different popes from JuUus II in compiled about 1472 by Teramano.
1511 down to the present day. This approval was It is clearly impossible to review here at any length
emphasized liturgically by an insertion in the Roman the discussions to which Canon Chevalier's book has
Martyrologium in 1669 and the concession of a proper given rise. As a glance at the appended bibliography
Office and Mass in 1699, and it has been ratified by will show, the balance of recent Catholic opinion, as
the deep veneration paid to the shrine by such holy represented by the more learned Catholic periodicals,
men as St. Charles Borromeo, St. Francis de Sales, St. is strongly in his favour. The weight of such argu-
Ignatius Loyola, St. Alphonsus Liguori, and many ments as those drawn from the nature of the stone or
other servants of God. (2) Loreto has been for cen- brick (for even on this point there is no agreement)
turies the scene of numerous miraculous cures. Even and the absence of foundations, is hard to estimate.
the sceptical Montaigne in 1582 professed himself a' As regards the date at which the translation tradition
believer in the reahty of these (Waters, "Journal of makes its appearance, much stress has recently been
Montaigne's Travels", II, 197-207). (3) The stone laid by its defenders upon a fresco at Gubbio repre-
of which the original walls of the Santa Casa are built senting angels carrying a little house, which is as-
and the mortar used in their construction are not such signed by them to about the year 1350 (see Faloci-
as are known in the neighbourhood of Loreto. But Pulignani, "La s. Casa di Loreto secondo un affresco
both stone and mortar are, it is alleged, chemically di Gubbio", Rome, 1907). Also there are appar-
identical with the materials most commonly found in ently other representations of the same kind for which
Nazareth. (4) The Santa Casa does not rest and has an early date is claimed (see Monti in "La Scuola
never rested upon foundations sunk into the earth Cattolica", Nov. and Dec, 1910). But it is by no
where it now stands. The point was formally investi- means safe to assume that every picture of angels
gated in 1751 under Benedict XIV. What was then carrying a house must refer to Loreto, while the as-
found is therefore fully in accord with the tradition of signing of dates to such frescoes from internal evi-
a building transferred bodily from some more primi- dence is one of extreme difficulty. With regard to
tive site. the papal pronouncements, it is to be remembered
It must be acknowledged, however, that recent that in such decrees which have nothing to do with
historical criticismhas shown that in other directions faith or morals or even with historical facts which
the Lauretan tradition is beset with difficulties of the can in any way be called dogmatic, theologians have
gravest kind. These have been skilfully presented always recognized that there is no intention on the
in the much-discussed
work of Canon Chevaher, part of the Holy See of defining a truth, or even of
Xotre Dame de Lorette" (Paris, 1906). It is pos- placing it outside the sphere of scientific criticism so
sible that the author
has in some directions pressed long as that criticism is respectful and takes due re-
his evidence too far and
has perhaps overstated his gard of place and season. On the other hand, even
case, but despite the efforts
of such writers as Esch- if the Loreto tradition be rejected, there is no reason
bach, Faloci-PuUgnani, Thomas, and Kresser, the sub- to doubt that the simple faith of those who in all con-
stance of his argument remains intact and has as fidence have sought help at this shrine of the Mother
yet found no adequate
reply. The general conten- of God may often have been rewarded, even miracu-
y^D of the work may be summarized under five heads: lously. Further it is quite unnecessary to suppose
(1) From the accounts left by pilgrims and others it that any deliberate fraud has found a place in the evo-
appears that before the time of the first translation lution of this history. There is much to suggest that
(1291) there was no httle cottage venerated at Naza- a sufficient explanation is afforded by the hypothesis
reth which could
correspond in any satisfactory way that a miracle-working statue or picture of the Ma-
with the present
Santa Casa at Loreto. So far as donna was brought from Tersato in Illyria to Loreto
there was question
at all in Nazareth of the abode in by some pious Christians and was then confounded
 SANTA CATHARINA 456 SANTA FE
with the ancient rustic chapel in which it was har- Florianopolis, the capital of the state, situated on the
boured, the veneration formerly given to the statue western shore of Santa Catharina Island, with a mag-
afterwards passing to the building. Finally, we shall nificent harbour, pleasant climate, and a population
do well to notice that at Walsingham, the principal of 1S,000.
English shrine of the Blessed Virgin, the legend of Besides the cathedral, there are at Florianopolis
"Our Lady's house" (written down about 1465, and 12 churches, 2 monasteries (Franciscans and Jesuits),
consequently earher than the Loreto translation tra- and 2 nunneries (Sisters of the Divine Providence,
dition) supposes that in the time of St. Edward the and Sisters of the Immaculate Conception). The
Confessor a chapel was built at Walsingham, which diocese maintains an excellent high school in the
exactly reproduced the dimensions of the Holy House state capital, known as the Gymnasio de Santa Ca-
of Xazareth. A\'hen the carpenters could not com- tharina. There is also a college for girls, in charge of
plete it upon the site that had been chosen, it was the Sisters of the Divine Providence, called Collegio
transferred and erected by angels' hands at a spot two Coragao de Jesus. The same sisters have an asylum
hundred feet away (see "The Month", Sep., 1901). for orphan girls. Florianopolis has 12 Catholic cem-
Curiously enough this spot, like Loreto, was within a eteries, 1 Protestant, and 1 municipal. The Fran-
short distance of the sea, and Our Lady of Walsing- ciscan Friars publish two periodicals in the diocese,
ham was known to Erasmus as Diva Parathalassia. one entitled "L'Amico", in the city of Blumenau, and
Of the older works on Loreto it will be sufficient to mention another, " Sineta de C6o ", in the city of Lages. There
Angelita, Historia della Translatione. etc. (first printed about is another Catholic publication, edited in Florian-
1579, but written in 1531). It is founded upon Baptista Man-
opolis by the Associa^ao Protectora des Desampara-
tuanus, Teramano, and a supposed "tabula, vetustate et carle
consumpta". The official history of Loreto may be regarded as dos Irmao Joaquim, under the name of "A Fe".
contained in Tursellinus, LauretaruR HistoricB Libri V (Rome, The present bishop of Santa Catharina, Rt. Rev.
1697); and Martorelli, Teatro istarico delta <S. Casa nazarena Joao Becker, was b. 24 Feb., 1879, and appointed
(3 vols., fol., Rome, 1732-1735). In more modern times we have
VoGEL, De eccUsiis Recanatensi et Lauretana (written in 1806, 3 May, 1908.
but printed only in 1859) and Leopahdi, La Santa Casa di Loreto
, Julian Moreno-Lacalle.
(Lugano, 1841). Both these writers showed an appreciation of
the grave critical difficulties attending the Loreto tradition, but
they did not venture openly to express disbelief. Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Diocese of (Sanct^
A new epoch in this discussion, already heralded by Father Crucis de Sierra), in Bolivia, erected on 6 July,
Grisar at the Munich Congress; by M. Boudinhon in Revue du 1605, as suffragan of Lima, but since 2 July, 1609, it
C'lerge Franfais, XXII (1900), 241; by L. DE Feis, La S. Casa di
Nazareth (Florence, 1905) and by Le Hardi, Hist, de Nazareth
;
has been dependent on La Plata (Charcas) Its first .

(Paris, 1905), was brought to a climax by Chevalier, Notre bishop was Mgr. Antonio Calder6n. The diocese
Dame de Lorette (Paris, 1908). Among the learned Catholic re-
comprises the departments of Santa Cruz (area 126,-
views which have openly pronounced in Chevalier's favour may
be mentioned the Analecta Bollandiana, XXV (1907), 47S-94; 000 sq. miles) and Beni (district of Mojos), which lie
Stimmen aiis Maria-Laach, II (1906), 373; Revue Bihlique, IV immediately west of Matto Grosso, Brazil. The rural
(1907), 467-70; Revue Benidictine, XXIII (1906), 626-27;
Zeilschriftf. Kath. Theologie, XXVI (1906), 109-16; Theologische
and wooded portions of these regions are inhabited
Quartalschrift, XCIX (1907), 124-27; Revue d'Histoire Eccle- by the Moxos Indians, among whbm flourishing mis-
siastique, VII (1906), 639-58; Historisches Jahrbuch, XXVIII sions were estabhshed in the seventeenth century by
(1907), 356; 585; Revue des Questions Historiquis, LXXXl (1907),
308-10; Revue Pratique d'Apologetique^ III. (190(i), 758-61); i?e»ue the Jesuits under Father Cipriano Baraza. The con-
du Clergt Franfais, XLIX (1906), 80-86, and many others. On verted Indians numbered over 50,000 at the time of
the same side may further be mentioned Boudintton, LaQuestion the suppression of the society, after which the mis-
di Loretto (Paris, 1910) Bouffard, La VeritS sur h: Fait de Loretto
sions declined rapidly; but though many of the Moxos
;

(Paris, 19i0); and Chevalier, La Santa Casa de Loretto (Paris,

1908). See also the articles on Loretto in the Kirrfdichr^ Hand- are now pagan, the converted Indians are fervent
lexikon (Munich, 1908), and in Herder's iiConpersa^ions-Lexi^on Catholics (see Moxos Indians). The town of Santa
(Freiburg, 1907),
The articles that have openly taken part against Chevalier's Cruz (population 18,000), formerly called also San
thesis are comparatively few and unimportant, for example in Lorenzo de la Frontera, was founded in 1575 on the
UAmi du Clerge (1906-1907); a series of articles by A. Moxti in Rio Piray, on the eastern slope of the Andes. The
—
La Scuola Cattolica (Milan, Jan. Dec, 1910); and other articles
of more weight by G. Kresser in Theol. praktische Quartalschrift diocese contains about 250,000 Cathohcs; 103 priests;
(Tubingen, 1909), 212-247. Isolated works in favour of the 54 parishes; and 74 churches and chapels. The pres-
Loreto traditiim are those of Eschbach, La Verite sur le Fait de ent bishop, Mgr. Belisario Santistevan, was born in
Lorette (Paris, 1908) F. Thomas, La Santa Casa dans VHistoire
the Diocese of Santa Cruz de la Sierra on 2 January,
;

(Paris, 1909) Poisat, La Question de Loreto (Paris, 1907) Faloci-

; ;

PuLiGNANi, La Santa Casa di Loreto secondo un affresco di Gubbio 1843; and on 26 June, 1890, appointed titular Bishop
(Rome, 1907). of Dansara and coadjutor to Mgr. Baldivia, whom he
For an account of Loreto in English reproducing the old tradi-
tions from an uncritical standpoint see Garratt, Loreto the New succeeded on 1 June, 1891.
Xazareth (London, 1895). Sinopsis estad. y geogrdf. de la repllbl. de Bolivia (La Paz, 1903);
Ballivan, Docum. para la hist, geogrdf. de la repUb, de Bolivia (La
Herbebt Thurston. Paz, 1906).

Santa Catharina (Florianopolis), Diocese op Santa Pe, Archdiocese of (Sanct^ Fidbi in

(Florianopolitana), a suffragan see of the Archdio- America), in New Mexico, was erected by Pius IX
cese of Porto Alegre (Sao Pedro do Rio Grande), in in 1850 and created an archbishopric in 1S75. It
Brazil, South America, created in 1906. Its jurisdic- comprised at first the three territories of New Mexico,
tion comprises the whole territory of the State of Colorado, and Arizona, detached from the Diocese
Santa Catharina, with a Catholic population of of Durango, Mexico. Since 1868 it has been re-
405,800 out of a total of about 500,000 in 1909. It is stricted to the larger portion of New Mexico. Suf-
conjectured that in 1515 Juan Diaz Soils and Vicente fragans: the Bishops of Tucson and Denver. The
Yanez Pinz6n were the first white men who explored Catholics number about 150,000, of whom 12,000 are
this territory, landing in the Bay dos Perdidos; Se- Pueblo Indians (Tiguex and Quirix); the majority
bastian Cabot in l.')25 and Diego Garcia in 1526 dis- of the remainder are of Spanish descent. There are
embarked on the Island of Santa Catharina, then (1911) 50 parish churches and 350 mission chapels,
known as the Island of Patos, and thence they pro- most of them built or thoroughly repaired since
ceeded to the River Plate. Santa Catharina was con- 1852; these are attended by 70 priests, 50 seculars,
stituted as a state of the BraziUan Union 11 Jun., and 20 regulars (Jesuits and Franciscans) each prie.st ;

1^91, having adhered to the repubhc on 17 Nov., is a missionary in charge of from six to ten scattered
1 S90. The diocese comprises the following vicariates missions, some of them very far apart. Of the
Florianopolis, Santo Antonio, Blumenau, Brusque, priests, there is but one native; the others arc Freni^h,
Cresciuma, San Francisco, Itajahy, .Joinville, Garo- Belgian, and Italian. Their ministerial
German,
paba, Lages, Laguna, Tijucas, Tubarao, Trussanga, work is governed by the decrees of the Baltimore
and \'illa Nova. The residence of the bishop is Council and of the diocesan synods; they have ec-
 SANTA FE 457 SANTA LUCIA
clesiastioal conferences and annual retreats; they CoUegio Flo Latino Americano, Rome; 52 Catholic
form also among themselves a Clergy Relief Union, colleges and schools, in addition to several Indian
incorporated, and they are aided by 160 religious; schools, orphanages at Santa Fe, Esperanza, and Ro-
Christian Brothers, Sisters of Loretto, of Charity, sario, and Catholic hospitals at Santa Fe, Rosario,
of the Most Blessed Sacrament, of St. Francis, and Esperanza, and Las Rosas. The rehgious orders in-
of the Sorrowful Mother. clude the Dominicans, Franciscans, Fathers of the
Despite the increase in recent years of English- Sacred Heart, Missionaries of the Heart of Mary,
speaking people and the exclusive teaching of EngUsh Fathers of the Divine Word, Jesuits, and Salesians;
in the schools, the diocese at large still is a Spanish- Dominicanesses, Capuchin Sisters, Sisters of the Holy
American community. The assimilation of Mexicans Union, Daughters of Maria Auxiliadora. Among the
and Indians with the Americans, desired by some many Catholic societies are the Apostleship of Prayer,
and dreaded by many, is an arduous task. All the Workingmen's Circles, Conferences of St. Vincent'de
priests speak both English and Spanish, besides other Paul, and Priests' Eucharistic League. The Prov-
languages; but Spanish to-day is and must be used ince of Santa Fe has an area of about 51,000 sq. miles,
in the confessional and from the pulpit, except in and a population of 820,000. Its capital, Santa Fe
a few cities (Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Las Vegas, (45,000 inhabitants), situated on the Rio Salado,
Raton, and Roswell) where both languages are used. founded by Juan de Garay in 1573, is associated with
Likewise some of the old Spanish customs are re- the most important events in the national life of Ar-
tained, such as the administration of confirmation gentina. In its old cabildo, or city hall, the Con-
to infants. "Roma non objiciente", the privileges stituent Congress of 1882 and the National Conven-
of Spain in regard to fast and abstinence are still tion of 1860 were held. It contains a Jesuit Church
in vogue, and the clergy live on the offerings of the (1654) and a large Jesuit College of the Immaculate
faithful without regular salaries. Education, when Conception. There are 14 churches and chapels be-
the diocese was erected, was limited to the teaching sides the 3 parish churches; the cathedral is dedi-
in Spanish, exclusively, of the primary elements of cated to St. Joseph. The "El amigo del obrero" is
religion, reading, and writing, by either the priests published twice a week in the interests of the Catho-
or lay teachers. To-day there are in the archdiocese lic working man.
a college for boys (Santa Fe) a high school (Al-
; Rosario, 186 miles from Buenos Aires, the most
buquerque); eight academies for young ladies; two important city in the diocese and the second in the re-
boarding schools for Indians; parochial schools in public, was founded in 1725 by Francisco Godoy, as a
Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Las Vegas, Bernalillo, settlement for the Calchaqui Indians, and has a popu-
Jemez, Pena Blanoa, Folsom, Goswell, and Gallup, lation of about 190,000. It is situated on the Rio
with an average, daily increasing, of 4000 children Parand, and, being the centre of the Argentine grain
under CathoUc care, despite the poverty of the people, trade, has very extensive commerce, its exports be-
and the moneyed competition of the Presbyterian ing valued at £7,301,398 and its imports at£6,397,-
and Methodist missions, which have selected New 579 in 1907. The town is beautifully constructed and
Mexico as a field of operation. There is also in the contains many large public parks. In 1907 it had 130
diocese an orphan asylum for girls, and four sanatoria schools attended by 15,563 children. It contains 4
with hospital annexed, conducted by sisters, at parishes, 2 vice-parishes, and 22 pubhc or semi-public
Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Las Vegas, and Roswell. chapels, including an Irish church. The Salesian
The flourishing condition of the diocese is due to the Fathers publish a weekly newspaper "Cristoforo Co-
zeal of: Archbishop Lamy
(1850-85); Archbishop lombo".
Salpointe (1885-94);Archbishop Chapelle (1894- The Territories of El Chaco (area about 52,700
97); Archbishop Bourgade (1898-1908) who built sq. miles, population 25,000) and Formosa (about
the cathedral at Tucson; and Archbishop Pitaval 41,400 sq. miles, population 15,000) from real mis-
(1909 —); and of the pioneers Very Rev. P. Eguillon,
:
sionary regions entrusted to the ministrations of
Revs. G. J. Macheboeuf (afterwards Bishop of Den- the Franciscans of San Lorenzo in Santa Fe, of La
ver), J. B. Salpointe, Gabriel Ussel, J. M. Coudert, Merced at Corrientes, and of San Francisco in Salta.
A. Truchard, J. B. Ralliere, J. B. Fayet, J. Fialon, They form a vicariate forane with headquarters at
C. Seux, A. Fourchegu etc. Resistencia, R. P. Pedro Iturralde, commissary gen-
The relations between Church and State authori- eral of the Franciscan missionaries, being the present
ties are harmonious. Mass is said and catechism vicar forane. There is a parish church at Resistencia
taught at the penitentiary and at the Government and chapels at San Jose and San Antonio. The
Indian school at every Legislature a Catholic priest
; fathers have a mission (founded in 1900) at Nueva
is chosen for chaplain and in nearly all country schools Pompeya on the Rio Bermejo, with a school for the
the teachers are Catholics. Mataco Indians (40 pupils) they minister also in the
;

SiLpoiNTE, Soldiers of the Cross (Banning, 1898); Defouri, colonies of La Florencia (Rio Teuco), La Buenaven-
Histmcal Sketch of the Catholic Church in New Mexico (San
Francisco, 1887); Engelhardt, The Franciscans in Arizona
tura (Rio Pilcomayo), and Frias (Rio Berno). There
(Harbor Springs, 1899). is a native mission at San Francisco Solano (Rio Pil-
j^^^^ DbkACHES. comayo), with an Indian school equipped with forges,
Santa Fe, Diocese of (Sanctis Fidei), in the Ar- saw-mills, carpentry works, and a sugar factory.
gentine Repubhc, suffragan of Buenos Aires, compris- The mission at San Francisco de Laishl near Colonia
ffig the Province
of Santa Fe and the goberna- Aquino (Formosa) is exclusively of the Tobas Indians,
cwnes of El Chaco and Formosa, was separated from and contains a similar school directed by the mission-
the Diocese of Parand,
(q. v.) on 15 February, 1897. aries.
Our Lady of Guadalupe (feast on second Sunday after UssHER, Guia eclesidstica Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1910)
Anuario estadistica de la ciudad del Rosario de Santa Fe (Rosario,
Easter) is the diocesan patroness. The first and pres- current issue) Martin, Through Five Republics of South America
;

ent bishop, Mgr. Juan Agustin Boneo (b. at Buenos (London, 1906); Hm8T, Argentina (London, 1910), 264-77.
Au-es, 23 June, 1845, preconized titular Bishop of A. A. MacEklean.
Arsinoe, 15 June, 1893, as coadjutor to Archbishop
Le6n Pederico Aneiros of Buenos Aires), was trans-
Santa Lucia del Mela, Prelature Ndllius op,
ibT'^
to the newly-established see on 27 January, within the territory of the Archdiocese of Messina,
1598. The diocese has an area of about 145,100 sq. Sicily, now governed by an administrator Apostolic,
miles and a population of
860,000 inhabitants, mostly who is always a titular bishop. It comprises 7 par-
Utholics. There are 65 parishes; 48 vice-parishes; ishes, with 72 secular priests.
* Indian mission centres; 143 secular clergy a conoiliar
: For bibliography, see Sicily; Messina.
seminary with 45 students, and two students in the U. Benigni.
 SANTA MARIA 458 SANTANDER
Santa Maria, Diocese of ( Saxct^ Mari.e), a an episcopal palace, public college, and conciliar
Brazilian sec, suffragan of Porto Alegre. The latter, seminaiy. Sim6n Bolivar d. 17 Dec, 1830, at San
formerly known as the See of Hao Pedro do Rio Grande Pedro, a few miles distant. A diocesan sj-nod was
do Sul, was recently made an archdiocese and divided, held at Santa Marta in 1S81. The present bishop,
three new sees, Pelotas, Santa Maria, and Uruguay- Mgr. Francisco Sim6n y Rodenas, O.F.M., was b.
ana, being separated from it by Pius X
on 15 August, at Orihuela, 2 Oct., 1849; appointed as successor of
1910. Santa Maria, containing twenty-two parishes, Mgr. Caledontothesee, 11 June, 1904; and enthroned,
comprises the central and northern portions of the 14 Xov. following. The diocese has an area of 20,400
State of Rio Grande do Sul. The climate is mild, the square miles, and contains S deaneries, 42 parishes, 40
country well wooded and fertile, and there are many secular priests, 3 convents of the Presentation Sisters
colonies of German and Italian emigrants among the of Tours with 15 nuns, and about 100,000 inhabitants,
inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in agriculture practically all Catholics. The Sisters of Charity estab-
and cattle-raising. The population is almost entirely lished a hospital and school at Santa Marta in 1883.
Catholic. The most important town is Cachoeira on MoZANS, Up the Orinoco and down the Magdalena (New York '

1910)- A. A. MacErlean.
the Rio Jacuhy, 120 miles west of Porto Alegre, with
which itcommunicates by steamboat and rail. The Santander, Diocese of (Sancti Anderii, San-
other main centres of population are Rio Pardo, Santa tanderiensis), in Spain, takes its name not from St.
Maria, Passo Fundo, and Cruz Alta By a Decree of Andrew as some, misled by the sound of the name,
the S. C. of the Consistory, 6 Feb., 1911, Mgr. Lima de believe, but from St. Hemeterius (Santemter, San-
Valverde was appointed first Bishop of Santa Maria. tenter, Santander), one of the patrons of the city
CIalanti, Compendio de Historia de Brazil (Sao Paulo, 1896- and ancient abbey, the other being St. Celedonius.
1905). A. A. MacErlean. The diocese is bounded on the north by the Bay of
Biscay, on the east by Vizcaya and Burgos, on the
Santa Maria de Monserrato (Beat« Mari^
ViRGINIS DE MoNTSERRATO), AbBEY NULLIUS OF. south by Burgos and Palencia, on the west by Leon
\\'hen it was determined to restore the Benedictine
and Oviedo. It is suffragan of Burgos, and comprises
Order in Brazil, the work was entrusted to the Con-
most of the civil Province of Santander and parts
gregation of Beuron, 24 April, 1895, under the guid- of those of Alava and Burgos. In Roman times
ance of Dom Gerard van Caloen. By a Decree of the Santander was called Portus Victoriae, in memory of
Sacred Congregation of the Consistory, 15 Aug., Agrippa's having conquered it from the Cantabrians,
1907, the Abbey of Santa Maria de Monserrato at Rio and in the period of the reconquest was regarded as
de Janeiro, founded in 1589, was erected into an ab- —
one of the Asturias Asturias de Sant Ander, be-
bey nullius, the same Decree separated the District tween the Rivers Saja and Miesa. The territorj' was
of Rio Branco from the Diocese of Amazones and repeopled by Alfonso I, the Catholic. Alfonso II,
subjected it to the jurisdiction of the Abbot of Santa the Chaste, founded there the Abbey of Sts. Heme-
Maria de Monserrato. This mission territory is terius and Celedonius, where the heads of those
bounded on the north and west by ^'enezuela, on the holy martyrs were kept. Alfonso VII, the Emperor,
north and east by British Guiana, on the south by the made it a collegiate church. As early as 1068,
two branches of the Rio Branco and the Rio Negro. King Sancho II, the Strong, granted a charter to the
In the early part of 1898 it was visited by Fathers Abbey and port of St. Hemeterius in reward for
Libermann and Berthon of the Congregation of the services, and Alfonso V did as much. Alfonso VIII
Holy Ghost, who did a little apostolic work among gave the abbot the lordship of the town on 11 July,
the Catholics scattered along the banks of the Rio 1187. In the fourteenth century the canons were
Branco. The region contains 6000 Catholic Brazil- still living in community in this abbey, and Abbot

ians, and 50,000 pagan Indians. Mgr. van Caloen, Nuno Perez, chancellor to Queen Maria, drew up
born, 12 March, 1853; entered the Benedictine Con- constitutions for them; these constitutions were
gregation of Beuron; was appointed Abbot of Sao confirmed by King Fernando IV in 1312, and later
Bento at Olinda, 20 May, 1896, and general vicar of the by John XXII. The town of Santander aided King
Brazilian congregation in 1899; he was transferred, 28 St. Ferdinand when he conquered Seville; it broke
Feb., 1905, to the monastery of Sao Bento, at Rio de the iron chains with which the Guadalquiver had
Janeiro; made titular Bishop of Phocea, 13 Dec, 1907; been closed, by ramming them with a ship which —
and elected abbot-general of the Brazilian congrega- is the armorial blazon of the city.
tion, 6 Sept., 1908. He resides at Rio de Janeiro. On Santander did not become an episcopal see until
S June, 1907 he obtained a coadjutor, Abbot Dom the reign of Fernando VI. By a Bull of 12 December,
Chrysostom de Saegher, Abbot of St. Martin of The- 1754, Benedict XIV confirmed the creation of the
baen, who has the right of succession to the abbatial See of Santander, making the collegiate church a
See of Monserrato. A. A. MacErlean. cathedral, and giving it territory taken from the
Archdiocese of Burgos. In 1755 Fernando VI raised
Santa Marta, Diocese of (Saxct.e Martha), the town to the rank of a city. The last Abbot and
in Colombia, erected in 1535, its first bishop being first Bishop of Santander was Francisco Javier de
Alfonso do Tobes; suppressed by Paul IV in 1562; it Arriaza, a native of Madrid, who took possession in
—
was re-estabhshed by Gregory XIII 15 April, 1577,
as suffragan of Santa Fe de"Bogotii; it became suf-
1755 and ruled until 1761. The Province of San-
tander was formed in 1801, and in 1816 became an
fragan of Cartagena in 1900, at which time it com- independent intendenda and one of the provinces
prised the State of Magdalena and the territories of in the definitive political organization (see Spain).
Siena Xo\'ada y Motilones and Goajira. In 1905 the The city at present has a population of 54,700 and
north-eastern portion of the diocese was formed into is one of the most important harbours on the Bay of
the \'icariate Apostolic of Goajira. Magdalena was Biscay. The cathedral is a structure of very diverse
first visited by Alonso de Ojeda in U99. Santa periods, and at one time had the character of a for-
Marta, the second town founded by the Spaniards in tress. Its lower portion contains a spacious crypt,
America, was established b>- Rodrigo de Bastidas called the parish church of Christ because it serves
29 July, l.VJ.l; it was sacked in 1543 and again in parochial uses. The dark and sombre character of
1555; while Sir Francis Drake reduced it to ashes in the structure marks its original purpose of a pan-
1596. St. Louis Bertrand laboured at Santa Marta theon. It consists of three naves with three apses
for a time, and baptized 15,000 pagans there. The forming as many chapels, and a baptistery has been
town is situated at the mouth of the Ri(] Manzaneres, erected in it. The building dates from the twelfth
on the Gulf of Santa Marta, 46 miles north-east of or early thirteenth centun,-, but presents added fea-
Barranquilla, and contains about 6000 inhabitants. tures of many later periods. A spiral staircase,
 SANT' ANGELO 459 SANTA SEVERINA
constructed in the wall, leads from the crypt to the Sant' Angelo in Vado and Urbania, Dio-
cathedral properly so called, to which the cloister cese OF (Sancti Angeli in Vado et Uebaniensis) .

of the old abbey serves as vestibule,

opening on the S. Angelo in Vado is a city in the Marches, on
principal street (Rua Mayor) of the city. The the site of the ancient "Tifernum Metaurense",
church itself, exclusive of the capilla mayor, is formed a town of the Umbrian Senones, near the River
of three naves of unequal height, 128 J^ feet in length, Metaurus, believed to have been destroyed by
and 59j feet in width. In the choir is buried the the Goths. Later there arose a new burg called,
abbot, Pedro Luis Manso y Luniga (d. 1669), who from the Church of S. Michele, Sant' Angelo in
had it built. In a corner of the nave on the Gospel Vado, which in 1635 became a city and an epis-
side is a holy-water font of Arabic workmanship, copal see. Urbania is situated on the River Can-
probably brought as a memorial of the conquest from diano near S. Angelo, on the site of the ancient
C6rdoba where it served as a basin for ablutions; it Aleria, considerable ruins of which still remain. It
bears a veiy poetical Arabic inscription, which has was destroyed at an unknown date, and rebuilt under
been translated by Don Pascual Gayangos. The the name of Castel Ripeggiano, but, in 1280, being in
cafilla mayor, or principal chapel, was built late in favour of the Guelphs it was demohshed by the Ghi-
the seventeenth century by Abbot Manuel Francisco bellines. It was restored again through the munifi-
de Navarrete y Ladr6n de Guevara (1695^1705). cence of the Dominican bishop, Guglielmo Durante,
The relics of the martyrs Sts. Hemeterius and Cele- and called Castel Durante; it was included in the
donius are kept in the high altar. On the south is Duchy of Urbino, and contained a magnificent ducal
a cloister which long served as a cemetery; and in palace. It is uncertain whether the Tifemate bishops
the south-eastern corner was the Chapel of the Holy Eubodius (Euhodius?), Marius, and Innocent, who as-
Ghost, the last remains of the hospice founded by sisted at the Roman Councils of 465, 499, and 500,
Abbot Nuno P^rez Monroy, counsellor to Dona belonged to Tifernum Tiberiacum (CittS, di Castello)
Maria de Molina in the distracted reigns of Fernando or to S. Angelo. At the beginning of 1635 S. Angelo
IV and Alfonso XI. was an archpresbyterate nullius, subject to the Abbot
The other parishes of Santander are: San Francisco, of the Monastery of S. Cristoforo of Castel Durante,
an ancient convent of the Friars Minor, facing on to whom the Archpresbyterate of Castel Durante
the Plaza de Becedo; Consolaci6n; the parish of the was also subject. In that year Urban VIII erected
Society of Jesus, connected with the old Jesuit col- the two towns into dioceses, changing the name of
lege; the newparish of Santa Lucia. Among the benev- Castel Durante to Urbania, and uniting them ceque
olent institutions are: the civil and military hospital prindpaliter under Onorato degli Onorati, who gov-
of San Rafael, built in 1791 by Bishop Rafael Tomd,s erned it for forty-eight years Other bishops were Gian
. :

Menendez de Luarca; the House of Charity; the Vincenzo Castelli, O.P. (1711), who restored the cathe-
Asylum of San Josd, for the education of poor boys; dral of Urbania, and Paolo Zamperoli, O.P. (1779),
the Casa Cuna (foundling hospital); the provincial sent into exile under Napoleon, dying there. The dio-
inclusa (foundUng asylum) founded in 1778 by Bishop
, cese is a suffragan of Urbino, and has 78 parishes with
Francisco Laso de San Pedro. The intermediate about 20,000 souls, a Capuchin convent, and 8 houses
school. Institute de Segunda Ensenanza, has been of nuns.
established in the old convent of the nuns of St. Cappelletti, Le chiese d' Italia, III (Venice, 1857).

Clare since 1839; and the ecclesiastical seminary U. Benigni.

since 1852 in the monastery of Santa Catalina de Monte
Santarem, Peelatuee nullius created in
of,
Corbdn, formerly Hieronymite, a short distance from
1903, in the ecclesiastical Province of Belem do Pard,
the city. There is also the pontifical seminary of
with a Catholic population of 200,000. The present
Comillas, founded by Antonio Lopez, Marques de
bishop is Rt. Rev. Armando Bahlmann, titular Bishop
Comillas, placed under the care of the Jesuit Fathers,
of Argos, b. 8 May, 1862, appointed 10 Jan., 1907,
and raised to the rank of a pontifical university. The consecrated 19 July, 1908. The residence of the bishop
distinguished men whom this diocese has produced
is at Santarem, State of Pard, created a city by law of
are numberless; among them may be mentioned: St.
Beatus of Liebana, Fray Antonio de Guevara, Juan
24 Oct., 1848. It is beautifully situated on the north-
de Herrera, Amador de los Rios, and Pereda.
ern shores of the Tapajos River, and has a popula-
Flohez, Esp. sagrada, XXVII C2nd ed., Madrid, 1824); tion of 28,000. The city is divided into four parishes
Amador de los Rigs, Santander. Espafia. sus monumentos Santarem, Alter do Chao, Boim, and Villa Franca.
(Barcelona, 1891) Mariana, Hist. gen. de Esp. (Valencia, 1794).
;
The monastery of the Franciscan friars, who have
Ramon Ruiz Amado. charge of the missions of the prelature, is located
also in Santarem. In this town, the government of
Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi, Diocese of (Sancti the State of Pard supplies the necessary funds for a
Angeli Lombakdoeum et Bisacciensis), in the Prov- school of over 200 pupils; there are also 3 colleges for
ince of Avellino, Southern Italy. The city was estab- boys, 2 for girls, and 1 for boys and girls.
lished by the Lombards at an unknown period. There Julian Moeeno-Lacalle.
aresulphurous springs in its vicinity. In 1664 it was
almost completely destroyed. It became an episcopal Santa Ruflna. See Poeto and Santa-Rufina,
seeunder Gregory VII, but its first known bishop is Diocese of.
Thomas, in 1 179, when the see was a suffragan of Conza.
In 1540 under the episcopate of Rinaldo de' Cancel- Santa Severina, Aechdiocese of (Sanot^b Sbve-
heri, it was united to
the Diocese of Bisaccia (the an- EiN^), in the Province of Catanzaro in Calabria,
cient Romulea), a Samnite
town captured by the Ro- Southern Italy. Situated on a rocky precipice on the
mans in 295 B. c; it appears first as a bishopric in site of the ancient Siberena, it became an important
^^°*'h^'' of its prelates, Ignazio Cianti, O.P. fortress of the Byzantines in their struggles with the
Jie
(1646), was distinguished for his learning. In 1818 it Saracens. It is not known whether it was an epis-
was incorporated with the See of Monteverde, the copal see from the beginning of the Byzantine domi-
earliest known bishop nation; when it became an archbishopric, probably in
of which is Mario (1049), and
which in 1531 was united to the Archdiocese of Canne the tenth century, its suffragan sees were Orea, Acer-
and Nazareth, from
which it has been again separated, enza, Gallipoli, Alessano, and Castro. The Greek
ine see contains
9 parishes with 40,000 souls, 45 secu- Rite disappeared from the diocese under the Normans,
lar priests,
and some religious, 3 monastic establish- but was retained in the cathedral during a great part
ments, and a girls' of the thirteenth century The earliest known bishop
.

school.
i-APPELLETTi,lecWesed'Jtoha, XX (Venice, 1857). was one Giovanni, but his date is uncertain. From
U. Benigni. 1096, when the name of Bishop Stefano is recorded, the
 SANTIAGO 460 SANTIAGO
list of prelates uninterrupted. Among them we
is tinguished professors of the university may be men-
may mention Ugo (1200 ), formerly prior of the Holy tioned Pedro de Vitoria and Alvaro de Cadabal, and
Sepulchre in Jerusalem; Jacopo (1400), who died in in the second epoch Villagran and Jose Rodriguez
y
repute of sanctity; Alessandro della Marra (14SS), Gonzdlez, professor of mathematics, appointed by the
who restored the episcopal palace and the cathedral; Emperor of Russia to direct the observatory of St.
Giov. Matteo Sertori, present at the Lateran Council; Petersburg, and associated with Blot and Arago in
Giulio Sertori (1535), legate to Ferrara under Charles the measurement of the meridional circle, and many
V and Philip II; Giulio Antonio Santorio (1566), others. After many disputes and agreements the
later a cardinal, and Fausto Caffarello (1624), both Jesuits were given charge of the grammar courses in
renowned for learning and piety; Gian Antonio Par- 1593, and remained in charge until their expulsion
ravicini (1654), even as parish priest of Sondrio in Val- from the Spanish possessions in 1767. The depart-
tellina was distinguished for his zeal in combatting ment of arts was transferred from the Azabacheria to
and converting heretics; Francesco Falabello (1660), the university. The constitutions of Cuesta were
who suffered much in defence of the rights of his modified by Guevara, by Pedro Portocarrero in 1588,
church; Carlo Berlingeri (1678), a zealous pastor; and finally by Alonso Munoz Otalora. All these
Nicolo Carmini Falco (1743), the learned editor of the changes were approved by Philip II and were in vogue
history of Die Cassius. until the general reforms which took place in the
In 1818 the territories of the suppressed dioceses of eighteenth century.
Beloastro and S. Leone were united to Santa Seve- The colleges of Fonseca, San Clemente, San Mar-
rina. Belcastro, considered by some authorities to be tin, Pinario, and that of the Jesuits were independent
the ancient Chonia, had bishops from 1122; the most colleges which were founded and which thrived in the
noted was Jacopo di Giacomelli (1542), present at the shadow of the university. In the seventeenth century,
Council of Trent. Bishops of S. Leone are known in this as in all the other universities, studies fell into a
from 1322 till 1571, when the diocese was united to state of decadence; between the university and Fon-
that of S. Severina. The archdiocese has now only seca College arose serious differences which were not
one suffragan see, Caritati, and contains 21 parishes settled until the middle of the eighteenth century in
with 42,000 inhabitants, 80 priests, 4 convents, and time of Ferdinand VI. About this time (1751), how-
2 houses of nuns. ever, many notable reforms were introduced, the
Cappelletti, Le chiese <ritalia, XXI (Venice, 1857). number of professorships was increased, and more
U. Benigni. extensive attributes were granted to the university;
a treasurer was also appointed and the rector was
Santiago (Cape Verde). See Sao Thiago de
named by royal order.
Cabo Verde, Diocese of. In 1769 the university was transferred to the build-
Santiago, Knights op. See Saint James op ing formerly occupied by the Jesuits and the faculties
CoMPOSTELA, Order op. were increased making a total of thirty-three, seven of
theology, five of canon law, six of ci\il law, five of
Santiago, University op. It has been asserted medicine, one of mathematics, one of moral phil-
by some historians t hat as early as the ninth century a osophy, one of experimental physics, three of arts, and
course of general studies had been established at the four of grammar. After the univcr.sity had taken pos-
University of Santiago by King Ordono who sent his session of the old Jesuit college it soon became evident
sons there to be educated, but no absolute proof can that some additions would ha^'e to he made, and al-
be adduced to prove it. The first reliable sources say though these were carried out without any special
that it was founded in 1501 by Diego de Muros plan they resulted in a spacious building with a .severe
(Bishop of the Canaries), Diego de Muros (dean of and dignified facade. In 1799 the faculty of medicine
Santiago), and Lope G6mez Marzo, who on 17 July, was suppressed, but it was restored once more in 1801.
1501, executed a pubhc document establishing a school Canon Juan Martinez 01i^•a was appointed royal visi-
and academy for the study of the humanities, intend- tor; his visit, however, was not productive of lasting
ing, as the document proves, to later include all the results, the recommendations he had made being set
other faculties. The founders endowed the school aside in 1807. From then until the present time the
from their private fortunes. On 17 December, 1504, university has suffered from the constantly altering
Julius II issued a Bull in which the foundation was de- plans of the Government which has depri-\-ed all col-
clared of public utihty for the whole of Gahcia and leges and universities of their former state of auton-
granted it the same privileges as those enjoyed by omy. The faculty of theology was definitely sup-
all the other general schools {esludios generates). In pressed in l.'^52. The influence of the university in
1506 the faculty of canon law was founded by Bull of Galicia has been great, and from its halls men eminent
Julius II. The faculties of theology and Sacred Scrip- in aU walks of life have passed. The library of 40,000
ture were founded in 1555 and those of ci-\'il law and volumes is good, as are also the laboratories of physics,
medicine in 104S, thus completing the university chemistry, and natural history. The latter possesses a
courses which were required at that time. The real crystaUographical collection of 1024 wooden models
founder of the University of Santiago was Archbishop which formerly belonged to the Abbe Haiiy. The
Alfonso de Fonseca, who founded the celebrated col- present number of students reaches between 700 and
lege which bears his name. He endowed it munifi- 1000, the majority of whom follow the medical and
ccnfly and obtained from Clement VIII (1526) the law courses.
right to found faculties, assign salaries, frame statutes VlNAS, Anunrio de la Universidad de Santiago para el curso de
for the rector, doctors, lectors, and students and for l.ise to 1867: DE LA FuENTE, Hid. de his VniversiiJades (Madrid,
1S.S4): DE LA Campa, Hisl. filosdfica de la IiiHruccwn Pvhhca de
conferring degrees. The faculty of grammar and arts Espafla (I872J ;.Semper y Guarinos, Ensayo de una Bihlwhra
was installed in the hospital of Azabacheria which espaHola de los Mijons e.-^critores dd reinndo de Carlos III 17.S.J);f

Boletln oficial de Direccidn General de Inslraccion Publxca 'Id alio

had been suitably arranged. In 1555 Charles V sent la
de 1895.
Cuesta as royal delegate with instructions to organ- TeODORO RoDRtcUEZ.
ize the infant university. Knowing, doubtless, the
wrangling which generally existed between the higher Santiago de Chile, Archdiocese of (Sancti
colleges and the universities, Cuesta's first care was Jacobi de Chile), comprises the dxW Provinces of
to completely separate the University and the Aconcagua (area 622(j square miles), Valparaiso (area
College of Fonseca, both as to organization and 1G59 square miles), Santiago (area 5223 square miles),
administration. O'Higgins (2.524 square miles, this province is named
During the first period of its existence, that is from after the liberator of Chile, Bernard O'Higgins), Col-
its foundation to the time of Fonseca, among the dis- chagua (area 3795 square miles), Curic6 (area 2913
 SANTIAGO 461 SANTIAGO
square miles), and Talcas (area 3678 square miles), National Union, also for working men; the Society of
and the islands of Juan Fernandez, and extends from the Buena Prensa (Good Press), the Society of Pri-
the River Choapa, which separates it
from the Diocese mary Instruction, for Catholic schools, under the pa-
of Serena, to the River Maule,
which forms the bound- tronage of St. Thomas Aquinas; the Federation of So-
ary line between it and the Diocese of Concepci6n. Its cial Works, for the promotion of temperance; the
area is 26,018 square miles, and its population is esti- Centro Cristiano, for the promotion of learning; the
mated at 1,600,000, of whom 14,000 are non-Catho- Centro ApostoUco, for aiding the missions and help-
lios. Erected by Pius IV in 1561 as a suffragan of the ing the poor of the different parishes; that of St. Je-
Archdiocese of Lima, it comprised all of Chile and the rome, for spreading a knowledge of the Holy Gospels.
Argentine Provinces of Cuyo and Tucumdn. This ex- There are forty conferences of St. Vincent de Paul
tensive territory was gradually subdivided, portions with a membership of 1200, who help more than 500
being taken to form new dioceses. In 1563 the entire families. There are 15 patronatos dominicales in the
southern portion of Chile from the River Biobio was city of Santiago, and 8 workingmen's clubs. Several
separated to form the Diocese of Imperial, the pres- Catholic societies also exist whose object is to procure
ent Diocese of Concepoi6n. In 1570 Tucumdn was cheap and healthful homes for the families of working
separated to form the Diocese of Cordova, the Prov- men, and seven parishes of the capital and of Valpa-
ince of Cuyo being added in 1806. In 1840 Santiago raiso have houses of refuge where needy women are
was raised to metropolitan rank by Gregory XVI, the gratuitously housed. The Society for the Propaga-
Diocese of Serena being also erected by him, taking tion of the Faith is under the direction of the Laza-
from Santiago all the territory which lay north of the rists;these priests collect annually 50,000 francs. The
River Choapa. The archdiocese has three suffragan Library Society supports a Cathohc hbrary and has
dioceses: Concepci6n, Serena, and Ancud. The prin- been the means of establishing many others through-
Santiago (area eight square miles), the
cipal cities are: out the whole republic. Confraternities of all kinds,
capital of Chile, has 400,000 inhabitants; Valparaiso, about 230 in number, flourish in all the parishes. The
170,000; Talca, 42,000; Curic6, 19,000; Quillota, principal are those of the Blessed Sacrament, Our
12,000; Vina del Mar, 27,000; and San Fehpe, 11,000. Lady of Mount Carmel, the Apostleship of Prayer,
Twenty-one bishops and four archbishops have gov- the Sacred Heart, the Children of Mary, the Congre-
erned the diocese, the Most Rev. Juan Ignacio Gon- gation of Mary and St. Aloysius, the Most Holy Ro-
zalez being the present incumbent. The cathedral is sary, Christian Doctrine, Christian Mothers, and
a beautiful three-naved stone edifice, Roman in style Peterspence.
it is dedicated to the Assumption of the Blessed Vir- Six diocesan synods— 1586, 1612, 1625, 1670, 1688,
gin, was built in the eighteenth century, and was re- —
1763, 1895 have been held in the archdiocese. In
stored during the latter part of the nineteenth cen- the latest of these (1895) all canonical legislation use-
tury by Archbishop Casanova. It is 321 feet long, ful for the government of the archdiocese was col-
95 feet wide, and 52 feet high. The cathedral chap- lected in a code of 1888 articles. Constitutionally,
ter is composed of a dean, archdeacon, precentor, the state is Catholic; other forms of religion are sim-
mwstre escuela, treasurer, and eight canons. ply tolerated, and all pubhc manifestation of wor-
The archdiocese is divided into 117 parishes. Val- ship on their part prohibited. Bishops, canons, parish
paraiso and Talca are governed by ecclesiastical gov- priests, curates, and substitutes are paid by the State,
ernors who are invested with some episcopal jurisdic- which also contributes to the building of the churches
tion. The churches and public chapels number about pursuant to an agreeement made with the Holy See,
481, and semi-public oratories are very numerous. to compensate for the suppressed contribution of the
There are 20 reUgious institutes of men, with 905 mem- diezmo, which was in force until 1853. The constitu-
bers and 76 houses, and 29 religious orders of women, tion gives the State the right of patronage, by virtue
with 1727 members and 120 houses. The secular clergy of which the president of the republic proposes to the
nuinber 412, and the regular 451. There are three pope the candidates for all sees, and to the bishops
seminaries, with 43 students, and a Catholic univer- the candidates for canoru-ies. The parish priests are
sity, with 619 students. The latter has faculties of named by the bishop, subject to the placet of the
law, engineering, mines, architecture, agriculture, and president. The Holy See does not recognize this
a coiirse in engineering. The Institute of Humani- right of patronage, which the civil power has arro-
ties, which attached to the university, has 400 pu-
is gated to itself. The dioceses, churches, seminaries,
pils. In the secondary schools, for men as well as for chapters, cathedrals, parish churches, and rehgious
women, directed by the secular clergy or members of communities established with the consent of the Gov-
religious institutes, 5140 students are in attendance. ernment are incorporated and are legal persons.
Primary instruction is given to more than 25,000 chil- Canonical legislation is recognized in these matters,
dren in the parochial and other schools under religious and these artificially constituted persons can acquire
direction. Normal schools for teachers are directed property to any extent. The churches, convents,
by the Christian Brothers, for men, and by the Sa- schools, and charitable institutions do not pay direct
lesians and the Society of St. Thomas Aquinas, for taxes. The present (1911) archbishop, Mgr. Juan
women. There are 35 hospitals in the archdiocese Inigo Gonzales Eyzaguirre, was born at Santiago de
vmder the patronage of the State, the municipaUties, Chile, 11 July, 1844; was appointed titular Bishop of
the Church, or private individuals; 30 of these are un- Flavias, 18 April, 1907: and was promoted to the arch-
der the care of rehgious, as are also the lunatic asy- bishopric in 1909.
lums and houses for deaf-mutes. The Little Sisters Catdlogo de los edesidsticos . . . de Chile (Santiago, 1911);
of the Poor conduct two Anuario EstadUtico de Chile (Santiago, 1910); Censo de la
homes for the aged, and the Republica de Chile en 1907 (Santiago, 1908); La Provmcia
bisters of the Good Shepherd have houses of correc- BdesidsHca de Chile (Freiburg, 1895) Boleiin Edesidslico de San-
;

tion for women, and ten

asylums for penitents. More tiago (16 vols., Santiago, 1861 to 1908).
than 300 missions are preached annually in the arch- Carlos Silva Cotapos.
diocese to prepare the
people for complying with the
Piaster precept,
and more than 15,000 persons make —
University of Santiago. For many years the
retreats in the 19
houses which are dedicated to this prelates and influential Catholics of Chile, dissatisfied
purpose. with the instruction given by the State University
Among the numerous Catholic societies may be which had under its control all the secondary and
mentioned those of Dolores
(Our Lady of Sorrows), higher grades, had desired to found in Santiago a
lor the care
of the sick; of St. Francis Regis, for the free Catholic university. The Cathohc Assenibly of
regularization of marriages;
of St. Philomena, for 1885 appointed a committee which in accord with the
mutual aid; St. Joseph's
Union, for working men; the bishops formulated a plan to realize this desire. On
 SANTIAGO 462 SANTINI
21 June, I'^KS, Archbishop Mariano Casanova issued Anuario de la Unu'cr^idad Catdlica de Santiago df Chile, 3 vols •

the decree founding the Catholic University and nam- Caidlogo de los eclesidsticos de . Chile (Santiago, I'J] 1).
. "'

ing as its iirst rector D. Joaquin Larraln Gandarillas, Carlos Silva Cotapos.
titular Bishop of JMartyropolis. The university was Santiago de Compostela. See Compostela.
solemnly opened on 31 March, 1889; at that time it
comprised only the faculties of law and mathematics, Santiago de Cuba. See Cuba.
and an institute for literary and commercial courses. Santiago del Estero, Diocese op (Sancti Jacobi
There was no further addition until 1896, when DE EsTERo), in the Argentine Repubhc, erected 25
mathematics was divided into the two courses of civil March, 1907, suffragan of Buenos Aires. Its terri-
engineering and architecture. In 1900 the Institute
tory exactly corresponds with that of the State of San-
of Humanities was founded, adding a department of tiago, bounded by the States of Salta and Tucuman
letters to the courses at the university. The princely on the N. W., La Rioja on the W., Cordova on the ,'^.,
legacy left in 1904 by D. Frederico Scotto and his Sante F6 on the E., and by the Territory of El Chaco ori
mother made possible the foundation of an industrial the N. E. It has an area of nearly 40,000 sq. miles
and agricultural school, a course of much utility in and a population averaging about 5 to the sq. mile.
this country where scientific industry and agriculture
Santiago, the cathedral city as well as the capital
are still in their infancy. In 1905 a sub-course of en-
of the state, is situated on the Rio Dulce, about
gineering was founded to fill a much felt want for the
forty miles north of the Salinas Grandes, or Great
training of foremen and assistants to the engineers. Salt Marshes, of Northern Argentina. Although the
The faculty of medicine, although undoubtedly the
newest diocese in the republic, its capital was the
most necessary, has not yet been established, as the seat of the first bishop in that part of South America.
cost of maintaining it would be more than that of The ecclesiastical organization of what afterwaids
all the others combined. Up to the present time no becanie the Argentine Republic began in 1570 under
faculty of theology has been founded, owing to vari-
St. Pius V, who erected what was at first known as
ous difficulties, but it wiU not be long before this also the Diocese of Tucuman. This, the original diocese
will be organized. The attendance in 1910 for the of all but the seaboard of that country, covered a
courses of law, mathematics, agriculture, industries,
vast and almost unexplored territory of the same
and engineering was 619, with 51 professors; and in name. The Spanish settlement of Santiago del
the Institute of Humanities 400, with 44 professors.
Estero was then designated as the seat of the Bishop
The university has chemical, physical, electrical, and of Tucuman, and its church, built about 1570, was
mineralogical laboratories and a library of more than
the cathedral. Not until nearly one hundred and
30,000 volumes. Its property, movable and immov- thirty years later (1699), in the episcopate of Juan
able, amounts to about five million francs.
Manuel Mercadillo, O.P., was the see transferred to
The Catholic University, although in many respects Cordova. The old diocese thenceforward took its
incomplete, is beginning to exercise considerable in-
name from its capital, being known as the Diocese
fluence in the country on account of the increasing
number of students and the high standing of its pro-
of Cordova. Thus Cordova is still regardc>d as the
most ancient diocese of Argentina, while the most
fessors. Many of the text books compiled by them ancient cathedral in the country is at Santiago del
have been adopted by the State University. Much
Estero. Early in the nineteenth century the Diocese
would be added to its power and development if the
of Salta was formed out of that part of the Cordova
state would authorize it to confer degrees which would
jurisdiction which included Tucuman and Santiago;
enable those holding them to exercise the professions
from a portion of the Salta jurisdiction the (new)
of lawyer, engineer, or doctor and occupy such pub-
Diocese of Tucuman was formed in 1897, and from
lic offices as require these decrees. Up to the present
this new diocese, again, was formed, ten years later,
the official university reserves this right exclusively to
the Diocese of Santiago del Estero.
itself, imposing at the same time its programme and
For three years after its erection the diocese was
plan of studies on the Cathohc University. Since its
foundation the university has had three rectors. The
governed by Right Rev. Pablo Padilla, Bishop of
first was the titular Bishop of Martyropolis later Tucuman, as administrator Apostolic, until in 1907
creatnl Archbishop of Anazarba, D. Joaquin Larrain
Right Rev. Juan Martin Janiz, its first bishop, was
appointed by Pius X. It is divided into twelve
Gandarillas, the most eminent of the educators of
Chile, for to him principally is due the foundation of
parishes. The parochial clergy are few for so large
the seminary and the Cathohc University of Santiago. —
a territory not more than one priest to each parish,
besides a vicar forane and the bishop's personal
He devoted his entire private fortune and that of
many of his relatives to the maintenance of these two staff. There are, however, three schools for boys,
great works. The second was the titular Bishop of and an orphanage under the care of religious at the
capital, besides several other approved Catholic
Amatonte, D. Jorge Monies, who on account of poor
health was obhged to resign shortly after his appoint- educational institutions.
Guia edes. de la Rep. Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1910); Bat-
ment. The third is the Rev. Rodolfo Vergara Antl- TANDIER, Annuaire pont. (1911).
mez, journalist, orator, poet, and author of various E. Macphebson.
historic and didactic works which have attracted con-
siderable notice. Among the most noted professors Santiago de Venezuela. See Caracas, Arch-
of the university may be mentioned: D. Abdon Ci- diocese OP.
fuentes, senator and Minister of State, who has de- Santini, Giovanni Sante Gaspero, astronomer,
voted his entire life to working for the freedom and the b. at Capre.se, inTuscany, 30 Jan., 1787; d.at Padua,
progress of private education; D. Clemente Fabres, 26 June, 1877. He received his first instruction from
D. Carlos Risopatr6n, D. Ventura Blanco Viel, D. his parental uncle, the Abate Giovanni Battista
Ram6n Gutierrez, D. Enrique Richard Fontecilla, all Santini. This excellent teacher implanted at the
noted jurists and public men; D. Joaquin Walker same time the deep religious sentiments which San-
Martinez, Chilian representative to the United States tini preserved throughout his life. After finishing
and the Argentine Republic, parliamentary orator his philosophical studies in the school year 1801-2, at
and statesman; D. Miguel Cruchaga, author of „ the seminary of Prato, he entered in 1802 the Uni-
treatise on international law; D. Luis Barros Mendez versity of Pisa. He very soon abandoned the study
litterateur; D. Francisco de Borja Echeverria, econo- of law in order to devote himself, under the direction
mist and sociologist Canon Estcban Muiioz Donaso,
;
of Prof. Paoli and Abate Pacchiano, exclusively to
orator and poet; and Rev. Ram6n Angel Jara, the mathematics and the natural sciences. It appears
present Bishop of Serena. that at Pisa Santini still wore the cassock. This cir-
 SANTO DOMINGO 463 SANTO DOMINGO

cumstance, and possibly also his being confused with "Correspondance du Baron de Zach", "Astrono-
his uncle Giovanni
Battista, may account for the mische Nachrichten", etc. Besides some twenty Ital-
dictionaries he still fig- ian scientific societies, Santini became a member
fact that in bibliographical
abate. It is certain, however, in 1825 of the London Royal Astronomical Society;
ures under the title of
that he never received major
orders. In 1810 he in 1845 a corresponding member of the Institut de
married Teresa Pastrovich, and one year after her France; and in 1847 member of the Kaiserliche
death, in 1843, he contracted a second marriage with Akademie der Wissenschaften of Vienna. When in
Adriana Conforti, who outhved him. During his 1866 Venice was separated from Austria, he became a
stay at Pisa he won by his diUgence the love
and con- corresponding member of the last-named association.
fidence not only of his professors but also of the rector Danish, Austrian, Spanish, and Italian decorations
of the university and of the influential
Fossombroni. were bestowed upon him. A complete hst of his
At their urgent suggestion Santini's family, especially writings may be found in the "Discorso" (pp. 42-67)
his uncle, made great sacrifices to enable him to by Lorenzoni, mentioned below.
con-
LoRENZONi, Giovanni Santini, la sua vita e le sue opere. Dis-
tinue his studies in Milan (1805-1806) under Oriani, corso letto nella chiesa di S. Sofia in Padova (Padua, 1877)
Cesaris, and Carhni. On 17 Oct., 1806, the Italian Idem, In occasione del prima centenario dalhx nascita dell' astro-
Government appointed him assistant to the direc- nomo Santini (Padua, 1887); von Wurzbach, Biograf. Lexikon
des Kaiserthums Oestreich mit Vnterstiitzung durch die Kais. Akad.
tor of the observatory at Padua, Abate Chiminello, der TT^?' .S3. (Vienna, 1874), g. v.; Poggendohpf, Biograf. lilt. Handb.,
whom he succeeded in 1814. In 1813 the university II (Leipzig, 1859), s. v.
offered him the chair of astronomy, a position in J. Stein.
which he was confirmed by the Emperor Francis I
in 1818 after the Venetian territory had become part Santo Domingo, Archdiocese op (Sancti Dom-
of Austria. In addition he taught for several years, iNici), erected on 8 August, 1511, by Julius II,
as substitute, elementary algebra, geometry, and who by the Bull "Pontifex Romanus" on that date
higher mathematics. During the school years 1824- established also the Sees of Concepci6n de la Vega
1825 and 1856-7 he was rector of the university, and and of San Juan of Porto Rico Three prelates, who
from 1845 to 1872 director of mathematical studies. had been appointed to the sees comprising the ecclesias-
Towards the end of 1873 he suffered repeatedly from tical province created previously (1504) by the same
fainting spells which were followed by a steadily in- sovereign pontiff, united their petition to that of the
creasing physical and mental weakness and final Crown in requesting the Holy See (see Porto Rico)
breakdown. He died in his ninety-first year at his to suppress the same and to establish the three new
villa, Noventa Padovana. dioceses as suffragans to the See of Seville. This
Both as a practical and theoretic astronomer, San- alteration was effected before any one of the prelates
tini has made the Observatory of Padua famous. When in question had taken possession of his diocese or had
he took charge the observatory was located in an old received consecration. Father Francisco Garcia de
fortified tower, in a precarious condition. The most Padilla, Franciscan, who had been in 1504 the prel-
valuable instrument he found was a Ramsden mural ate designed to occupy the See of Bayuna (Baynoa,
quadrant eight feet in diameter. On account of the Baiunensis), on the extinction of the same was chosen
political complications and Chiminello's protracted the first Bishop of Santo Domingo, having been so
illness, the practical work was reduced to a minimum mentioned in the Bull of the erection of the diocese.
regular meteorological observations. Santini at once He died before his consecration, after having named
began to take careful observations of comets, planets, Rev. Carlos de Arag6n his vicar-general and having
planetoids, occultations, and eclipses. In 1811 he authorized him to take possession of the diocese in the
determined the latitude of Padua with the aid of name of the bishop, who never reached America. The
Gauss's method of three stars in the same altitude, first bishop to occupy the See of Santo Domingo was
and in 1815 again, with a new repeating circle. In Alessandro Geraldini, appointed in 1516 and died in
1822, '24, and '28 he assisted the astronomical and 1524. He was a native of Italy, and perhaps the only
geodetic service of Italy by making observations in representative of all America to assist at the Fifth
longitude. Constantly striving to equip this insti- Lateran Council.
tute in accordance with the latest requirements of sci- Paul III on 12 Feb., 1545, elevated Santo Domingo
ence, he installed in 1823 a new Utzschneider equa- to the rank of an archdiocese, the incumbent of the
torial, and in 1837 a new meridian circle. With these see at the time. Bishop Alonso de Fuenmayor, be-
last he began at once to make zonal observations for a coming the first archbishop. Santo Domingo as the
catalogue of stars between declination + 10° and — 10°, first metropolitan see of America, according to the
an undertaking which he carried out on a large scale, terms of the Bull of erection "Super Universas Orbis
and which he, with the aid of his assistant, Trette- Ecclesias", had five suffragan sees, as follows: San
nero, completed in 1857, after ten years of work. In Juan in Porto Rico, Santiago in Cuba, Coro in Vene-
1843 he made a scientific journey through Germany, zuela, Santa Marta of Cartagena, and Trujillo in Hon-
and in the most scientific centres he conferred with duras. The Diocese of Concepci6n de la Vega had
distinguished savants in his own and related fields. been united, after the death of its first bishop, Pedro
As a theoretic astronomer, Santini deserves notice for Sudrez de Deza, to the See of Santo Domingo by Apos-
his researches concerning the comets. In the Encke- tolic authority. Nothing in the text of the Bull of
Galle catalogue he is credited with the calculation erection would warrant the use of the title of Primate
of nineteen orbits. He acquired his greatest fame of the Indies by the archbishop of this see, although it
by his calculations of the orbital disturbances dur- remains indisputable that it is the first metropolitan
ing the period from 1832-1852 caused by the great see of all America. Santo Domingo is equally en-
planets on the comet of Biela. The time and place of titled to be called the cradle of Christianity in America,
the appearance of this
comet in 1846 corresponded being the centre of the religious and missionary zeal
exactly with previous
calculations. In 1819-20 he that radiated thence to the adjoining islands and main-
pubhshed his "Elementi di Astronomia" (2nd ed., land. The Bull of Alexander VI, dated 24 June,
radua, 1830), a work in two parts, of classic soberness 1493, designated the Franciscan Father Bud (Boil)
and thoroughness.
In 1828 appeared his "Teorica to accompany Columbus on his second voyage of
^«?" Stromenti Ottici", also published in Padua, in discovery, with ample faculties as Apostolic dele-
Which he explains by means
of the most simple for- gate or vicar, and to bring to the New World a
mulas the construction
of the different kinds of tele- body of zealous missionaries. The unfortunate inci-
scopes, microscopes
etc. Anumber of dissertations dent which deprived America of his services doubtless
on geodetic marred the growth of the Church in the beginning.
and astronomic subjects from his pen ap-
peared in the annals
of learned associations, in the But on 30 August, 1495, a band of Franciscans and
 SANTORIN 464 SAN XAVIER
other missioners arrived in Hispaniola to replace a dis- isnow lost and which has retained to this day the con-
contented element that occasioned no small annoy- sistency of cement. Its inside dimensions are 105 feet
ance to the great discoverer, and to lay the solid foun- by 70 in the transept and 27 in the nave. It has the
dation of the Faith among the native Indians. form of the Latin cross. Experts have been at vari-
The archdiocese contains 600,000 Cathohcs; 66 ance regarding the style of architecture at San Xa-
secular and 12 regular priests; 32 Sisters of Charity; 68 vier, some pronouncing it Moorish, others Byzantine,
churches; 103 chapels; 1 seminary; 257 schools. The others again describing it as a mixture of both. It
present archbishop, Mgr. Adolfo Nouel, was born at seems now estabhshed that it may not be called Moor-
iiMxto Domingo, 12 December, 1862; elected titular ish, as it has nothing in common with the Moorish
..\rchbishop of Alethymna, 8 October, 1904; conse- architecture as exemphfied in the Orient and South-
eritted at Rome eight days later as coadjutor to Arch- ern Spain, although it bears traces of the influence
bishop de Merino of Santo Domingo, whom he suc- exercised by Moorish art over the Renaissance in
ceeded in August, 1906. Spain. The proper denomination should be the
Boletia eclesid^tico de la arquididcesis de Santo Domingo; BuU Spanish Mission style, viz. Spanish Renaissance as
Ponii/ex Romanus in ArchiDO de Sijnancas; Brau, La colonizacidn
de Puerto Rico (Wan Juan, 1907) ; Documents in episcopal archives,
modified by local conditions in the Spanish colonies
San tfUan, Porto Rico. of the New World.
W. A. Jones. Directly in front of the church is an atrium, en-
closed by a fence wall, where the Indians used to hold
Santorin. See Tecera, Diocese of.
their meetings. The fagade, profusely adorned with
Santos, JoAO dos, Dominican missionary in India arabesques of varied colours and bearing the coat-
and Africa, b. at Evora, Portugal; d. at Goa in 1622. of-arms of St. Francis, is flanked by two towers 80
His book "Ethiopia Oriental" is the best description
of the Portuguese occupation of Africa at the end
of the sixteenth century, when Portugal was at the
zenith of her power there. His account of the man-
ners and customs of the Bantu tribes at that date is
most valuable; he was a keen observer, and generally
a sober narrator of things that he saw. This work
is now a Portuguese classic. On 13 August, 1586,
four months after leaving Lisbon, dos Santos arrived
in Mozambique. He was at once sent to Sofala,
where he remained four years with Father Joao
Madeira. Between them they baptized some 1694
natives and had built three chapels when they were
ordered back to Mozambique. After a journey of
great hardships they were forced to remain on the
Zambesi River, dos Santos staying at Tete for
eight months. From registers found there he dis-
covered that the Dominicans had baptized about
20,000 natives before the year 1591 at Tete alone.
From Mozambique he was sent to the small island
of Querimba, where he remained for two years. The
registers here gave the information that 16,000
natives had been baptized before the year 1593.
Next he was appointed commissary of the Bulla da
Cruzada at Sofala, where he stayed more than a
year. His labours in Africa ended on 22 August,
1597, when he left Mozambique for India. With the
exception of eleven years spent in Europe (1606-17)
he lived the rest of his life in India. MisaioN OF San Xavieb del Bag
Ethiopia Oriental (Lisbon, 1891) Theal, The Portuguese in
;

South Africa (Cape Town, 1896).

Sidney R. Welch. feet high. From the top, made accessible by easy
winding stairs cut in the thickness of the walls, a
San Xavier del Bac, Mission op, one of the eight comprehensive view may be obtained over the ver-
missions founded by the Spanish Padres between 1687 dant Santa Cruz valley, the distant city of Tucson
and 1720 in the Pimeria Alta, within the present lim- and the circle of lofty, pinnacled mountains.
its of the State of Arizona, viz. Guevavi, San Xavier The interior is frescoed throughout, and contains a
del Bac (of the water) Tumacacuri (San Jos6, which
, great number of artistic statues made of wood. The
has been rcser\'ed by Act of Congress as a national reredos of the main altar and of the side chapels are
monument), Tubac (Santa Gertrudis), Sonoitag (San elaborately decorated in bas-rehef with scroll work
Miguel), Arivaca, Santa Ana, and Calabasas (San covered with gold leaf, and are supported by columns
Cayetano). Of these only Tumacacuri and San of unique designs. Above the centre of the transept
Xavier del Bac are extant: the former, situated forty- a cupola rises to a height of 55 feet. Six minor domes
five miles south of Tucson, is in a ruinous condit ion the ; divide the remaining space. Two figures of hons
latter, nine miles south of Tucson, in the fertile Santa carved in wood guard the access to the sanctuary.
Cruz valley and close to the Papago village, has re- The terraced roof is surrounded by a balustrade in
mained in a remarkable state of preservation and is masomy, each baluster tapering into a cement ^

visited annually by a great number of pilgrims, tour- finial either side a hons head,
and supporting on
ists and students of art and history. Founded in 1699 reminiscent of the escutcheon of Castile and Loon.
by the Jesuit missionary Eusebius Kino (Kiihne), a To the west of the church is an open cortile, the
in
native of the Austrian Tyrol who resigned the chair of ancient burying ground, with fourteen pillars
mathematics at the University of Ingolstadt to evan- the wall bearing niches for the Stations of the Gross
gelize the aborig-mps of the New \\'orld, the Church of worked in high-relief. At the west end of the cortile
aa
San Xavier del Bac was completed by the Spanish stands a domed chapel with a belfry, used formerly
a mortuary chapel, since dedicated to Our Lady
ot
Franciscans at a later date, with the exception of one
of the towers, which remained unfinished. It is built Sorrows. . .

of stone and brick, with a mortar the process of which Adjacent to the church are gathered the mission
 SAO CARLOS 465 SAO PAULO
buildings, surrounding a spacious patio lined with Sao Luiz de Maranhao, Diocese op (Sancti
arcades and a monumental entrance consisting of LuDovici DE Maragnano), suffragan of Bel6m de
seven arches. As it now stands, SanXavierdelBac Pard, comprises the State of Maranhao in Northern
is considered the most
remarkable relic of the Spanish Brazil. The Prefecture of S5o Luiz was annexed to
period north of Mexico; many important features the See of Ohnda by Innocent XI, 15 July, 1614;
on
which had gradually disappeared were replaced dur- 30 Aug., 1677, it was created a bishopric depend-
ing the years 1906-10 by the Bishop of Tucson on his ent on Lisbon; Frei Antonio de S. Maria, a Capu-
own responsibility, in an effort to restore the ancient chin of S. Antonio, was appointed to the see, but
and venerable pile to its pristine grandeur and to before he took possession he was transferred to
preserve it for future generations. Miranda, and Gregorio dos Anjos, a secular canon
From 1827, the date of the expulsion of the Spanish of the Congregation of St. John the Evangelist, be-
missionaries, to 1866, when the Rev. J. B. Salpointe came its first bishop. It comprised then all Maran-
(later Archbishop of Santa F6) came to Tucson, the hao, Pard, and Amazonas. The see was vacant from
mission of San Xavier del Bac was completely aban- 1813 till 1820; Leo XII made it suffragan to Sao Sal-
doned and to the care of the Papago Indians, who
left vador (15 June, 1827). In Jan., 1905, the Diocese of
saved from destruction by the Apaches. Since
it Piahuy was separated from Sao Luiz, which became
1868, when the Vicariate Apostolic of Arizona was suffragan to Beliim de Pard, 3 May, 1906. The Dio-
erected, the bishops of Tucson have, by unremitting cese of Sao Luiz has an area of 177,560 square miles,
care and frequent outlay, warded off decay and ulti- and contains about 500,000 inhabitants, practically
mate ruin from the precious monument, constantly all Catholics; 57 parishes; 36 secular clergy; 12 La-
devoting at the same time especial and personal at- zarists and Capuchins; 2 congregations of nuns; and
tention to the spiritual welfare of the Papago In- about 100 churches and chapels. The present bishop,
dians gathered around the mission. For the past Francisco de Paula Silva, CM., successor of Mgr
thirty-five years a school has been maintained by the Albano, was born at Douradinho on 31 Oct., 1866;
clergy of the parish of Tucson for the benefit of the joining the Lazarists he was professed in 1891; or-
Papago children. It is located in the mission build- dained on 24 Jan., 1896; appointed master of novices at
ings and is conducted by the Sisters of Saint Joseph Petropolis, and later rector of the Lazarist College, at
of Carondelet. Serra de Caracas, named Bishop of Sao Luiz on 18
Arricivita, Crdnica serdfica del Apostdlico colegio de QuerStaro; Aprilj 1907; consecrated on 14 July following by
GriTEKAS in Bull. Am. Cath. Hist. Soc, V, no. 2 (June, 1894) Or- ; Cardinal Arcoverde of Rio de Janeiro.
tega, Historia del NayarU, Sonora, Sinaloa y Ambas Californias
(Mexico, 1SS7) CHiTiNEAC-JoLY, Hist, de la campagnie de JSsus,
;
The territory of Maranhao was discovered by
V (Paris, 1869), iii; de Long, Hist, of Arizona; Hamilton, Re- Pinz6n in 1500 and granted to Joao de Barros in
sources of .irizona ; History of Arizona Territory (San Francisco, 1534 as a Portuguese hereditary captaincy. The
1884); Salpoixte, Soldiers of the Cross (Banning, Cal., 1898);
Francisco Garces, Diary, tr. Coues (New Yorlc, 1900). Island of Maranhao lies between the Bays of Sao
Marcos and Sao Jos6. It was seized in 1612 by the
Henry Granjon. French under Daniel de La Touche, Seigneur de La
Rividiere, who founded Sao Luiz, near the Rio
Sao Carlos do Pinhal, Diocese op (S. Caroli
Itapicurii, the site being blessed by the Capuchins
PiNHALENsis), suffragan of the Archdiocese of Sao
Paulo, Brazil, South America, created on 7 June,
who accompanied him and who established the Con-
vent of St. Francis. The island was seized by the
1908. The Rt. Rev. Jos6 Maroondes Homem de
Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1614. Very suc-
Mello, the present bishop, was born on 13 Feb., 1860,
cessful Indian missions were soon begun by the
and elevated in May, 1906; he had been Archbishop
Jesuits, who were temporarily expelled as a result
of Pari, from which he resigned. The residence of of a civil war in 1684 for their opposition to the en-
the bishop is at Sao Carlos do Pinhal, State of Sao
slavement of the Indians. Sao Luiz city has about
Paulo, founded in 1857 and raised to the rank of city
on 21 April, 1880. It is connected with the city of 30,000 inhabitants, and contains several convents,
charitable institutes, the episcopal palace, a fine
Sao Paulo, capital of the state, by a railroad, the trip
occupying about six hours. Its population is estimated
Carmelite church, and an ecclesiastical seminary.
at 67,000, mostly Catholics.
Galanti, Hist, do Brazil (Sao Paulo, 1896-1905).
Besides the public
schools and those maintained by the diocese, there is
A. A. MacErlean.
an excellent institution for the education of girls,
known as "Collegio de Sao Carlos" and directed by Sao Paulo, Archdiocese of (S. Pauli in Bra-
the Sisters of the Most Holy Sacrament. silia). —
The ecclesiastical province of Sao Paulo, in
the Repubhc of Brazil, South America, comprises the
Julian Moreno-Lacalle.
Dioceses of Campinas, Riberao Preto, Taubat(5, Bo-
Sao Luiz de Caceres, Diocese op (Sancti Alot- tucatii, Corityba, and Sao Carlos do Pinhal, all these
sii DE Caceres), in dioceses being in the State of Sao Paulo. Created a
Brazil, suffragan of Cuyabd,
trom which diocese (archdiocese since 5 April, bishopric in 1745 it was raised to metropolitan rank
1910)
itwas separated by a papal Decree of 10 March, 1910. in 1908, when the above mentioned dioceses were also
bao Luiz de Cd,ceres, otherwise known as Villa Maria, created. The Catholic population in the province in
IS situated
in the State of Matto Grosso on the left
1910 amounted to over 2,500,000 souls. There are
bank of the Rio Paraguay about 115 miles 203 secular priests; 50 regular priests, distributed
W. S. W. among 7 religious .orders and institutions of learn-
01 tuyabd and 50 miles from the Bolivian
boundary,
founded in 1776 by Luiz de Albuquerque de Mello ing; 4 convents; 530 churches and chapels; and 36
Caceres as a fort to oppose the Spaniards Catholic schools. In the city of Sao Paulo, the seat
andJ "'^i'' of the archdiocese, are located: the Seminario Pro-
called Maria in honour of the Queen of Portugal,
It was
chartered as a town in 1859. vincial, for ecclesiastical students; the Seminario Cen-
In 1895 its popu-
lation was only tral; the Seminario das Educandas, under the Sisters
about 1500 (mostly Indians), but
owing to the increasing of St. Joseph, for the education of poor girls; the
commerce between Matto
wosso and the South which is carried on entirely bv Gymnasio de S. Bento, directed by the Benedictines;
the Gymnasio Diocesano de S. Paulo, under the Mar-
^^^-^ (being the most southerly Brazihaii
no?'°° ? ist Brothers; the Gymnasio de Nossa Senhora do
J. ; i?® ^°
Paraguay) has become an important
Monte Carmo; and the Lyceu de Artes e Officios do
^^™^- The cathedral church is dedicated to St. Aloy-
™8 ihe diocesan statistics are not yet available. Sagrado Coragao de Jesus. The Catholic publica-
'"'*'""'" Brazil, III (SSo Paulo, tions in the diocese are: the "Boletin ecclesiastico",
1902) '™''*° ''' '*''
226-41 the official organ; "Ave Maria"; "Estandarte Catho-
A. A. MacErlean. lico"; "Uniao Catholica" The city of Sao Paulo,
XIII.—30
 SAO PEDRO 466 SAO SEBASTIAO
founded in 1561, is one of the most populous (350,000 Belem do Pard, on 26 June, 1890; and transferred as
in 1910) and prosperous in Brazil; the centre of the
it is successor of Mgr Macedo Costa to Sa(j Sah'ad(H- on
coffee trade, Brazil's greatest industry. The present 12 Sept., 1893, being enthroned in Feb., 1894.
archbishop, the Most Rev. Duarte Leopoldo da Silva Galanti, Compendia de historia do Brazil (Sao Paulo, 1896-
(b. 4 Apr., lS(i4), was transferred to Sao Paulo in 1905), an excellent account of the early Indian tribes, their
languages, customs, and religions ia given in I, 90-139; Southet,
1907, and consecrated in 1908. His;, of Brazil (London, 1810-19).
Julian Moeeno-Lacallb. A. A. jMacErlean.
Sao Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul. See Poeto
Albgre, Archdiocese of. Sao Sebastiao do Rio de Janeiro, Archdiocese
of (S. Sebastiani Fluminis Januarii). —
The ecclesi-
Sao Salvador de Bahia de Todos os Santos, astical province of Rio de Janeiro, the third of the
Archdiocese of (Sancti Sadvatoris omnium Sanc- seven constituting the Brazilian episcopate, was first
torum), a Brazilian see erected by Julius III, 25 created a bishopric, as a suffragan see of the Archdio-
Feb., 1551, as suffragan of Lisbon, and raised to cese of Sao Salvador da Bahia, by a Bull of 22 Nov.,
archiepiscopal rank by Innocent XI, 16 Nov., 1676. 1676. It was raised to an archbishopric in 1S93,
The diocese at first comprised aU Brazil, which had its jurisdiction comprising the Dioceses of Nictheroy
previously formed part of the Diocese of Funchal; the (1893) and Espirito Santo (1892) and the Prefecture
first Mass in Brazil was celebrated on 26 April, 1500, of RioBranco. The total Catholic population of the
at Coroa Vermelha Island by Henrique de Coimbra, whole province in 1910 was 2,051,800, and that of the
O.F.M. In 1537 the Mercy Hospital was erected at archdiocese proper, 800,000. The jurisdiction of the
Santos. The first bishop, Pedro Fernandes Sardinha, latter extends over the whole territory of the federal
arrived at Bahia on 22 June, 1552; he left on 2 June, district in which Rio de Janeiro, the capital of the re-
1556, to return to Europe, but was shipwrecked be- public and seat of the archdiocese, is located. There
tween the rivers Sao Francisco and Cururipu, and are in the federal district 20 parish churches, 59 chap-
murdered by the Indians, 16 June, 1556. The Church els, various monasteries and nunneries, and 63 Catho-
was then governed by Francisco Fernandes till the ar- hc associations prominent among which arc: the "Ir-
ri^'al of the second bishop, Pedro Leitao (1559), who mandade do Sanctissimo Sacramento da Candelaria",
held the first Brazilian sjmod at Bahia, whore he died founded in 1669 and in charge of the bureau of chari-
in 1573. By 1581 there were sixty-two churches at ties caring for nearly 1000 indigent persons, and of the
Bahia and in the neighbouring region, the Reconcavo. Asylum of Our Lady of Piety for the education of or-
The first archbishop, Gaspar de Mcndonga, took pos- phan girls; the "Irmandade da Santa Casa da Miseri-
session of his see by procuration on 3 June, l(i77. cordia", operating since 1545 and maintaining a gen-
Archbishop Sebastiao Monteiro da Vida (1702-22) eral hospital, a foundling asylum, an orphan asylum,
held a provincial council and published the statutes, and a funeral establishment for the burial of the poor.
known as " Constituicao do Arcebisjiado da Bahia". These benevolent associations, known in Brazil as
The first governor of Brazil, Thom6 do Souza, arrived irimmdailcs (brotherhoods), do a highly charitable and
at Bahia on 29 March, 1549; with him were six Jes- eminently Christian work, assisting the poor and car-
uits, the first sent to the New World, under Manoel ing for tlie orphans and the sick, by the maintenance
da Nobrega. Two days later the first Mass was said of hospitals, asylums, savings banks, schools, etc.
at Bahia. On 1 July, 1553, there arri\-ed at Bahia the There are also several associations of St. Vincent of
Venerable Josr Anchicta, S.J., the Apostle of Brazil. Paul, performing similar work. Of religious orders,
A native mission, 8ao Andre, was begun forthwith there are in the archdiocese Jesuits, Franciscans, Car-
near the city. In 1554 Father da Nobrega opened a melites, Lazarists, Dominicans, and Benedictines; of
college at Piratininga. The early Jesuit missionaries female orders, there are Sisters of Charity, Ursulines,
contributed greatly to the progress of the new colony, Carmelites, Poor Clares, and others. The archdio-
giving free education, curbing the violence of the cese maintains at Rio de Janeiro the Seminary of St.
pioneers, and protecting the Indians from slavery, for Joseph. Among other Catholic institutions of learn-
which purpose they obtained a royal decree in 1570. ing are: the College of the Immaculate Conception for
They also constructed, from Santos to Sao Paulo, a girls; the Jesuit college; the College of the Sacred
road which for three centuries remained the princi- Heart of Jesus; the College of the Sacred Heart of
pal highway of the region. They compiled many im- Mary for girls. Mention should also be made of the
portant works on the native Indian languages, among "Circulo Catholico", a large association founded on
which may be mentioned the grammars by Anchieta, 15 Sept., 1N99, for the propagation of the Faith, and
Manoel da \'eiga, Manoel de Moraes, Luiz Figueira, to provide young men with moral recreation. The
"
and Montoya; and Mammiani's "Catechismo dadou- organ of the Church in Rio de Janeiro is " O Universe
trina christa na lingua brazilica da naeao kiriri "- The (Rua Evaristo Vega No. (il).
seminai-j' at Bahia was founded by Damasus de Abreu Rio de Janeiro was the first spot in the New World
Vieira, O.F.M. in 1.>S3 the Benedictines established
; where a colony of Protestants settled. A little island
theAbbey of Sao Sebastiao at Bahia. in the bay was colonized and fortified by Villegaignon
The episcopal city, Bahia, was founded by Thomg de under the patronage of Admiral Coligny in 1555. This
Souza in 1549 near the site of Mctoria which had been Huguenot settlement was destroyed ijy the Portu-
established in 1536 by Francisco Peretra Coutinho. guese in l.'iiiO, and the name of the island changed to
At the beginning of the nineteenth century it con- Sao Sebastiao. The city of Rio de Janeiro was pro-
tained houses of the Benedictines, Franciscans, Car- claimed the capital of Brazil in 1763. After the em-
melites, .Vugustinians, Italian Capuchins, and the pire was established, the imperial chapel near the pal-
Mendicants of the Holy Land; also the Carmehte, ace was selected for a cathedral, which building is at
Trinitarian, Franciscan, and Dominican tertiaries, a present being reconstructed. Adjacent to it is the
mercy hospital, a leper hospital, and two orphanages, Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. Both are
in addition to man>' schools. It has now a popula- small structures, but preserve to a wonderful degree
tion of over 200,000 inhabitants; the archdiocese con- the effe(^ts of Latin-American architecture. The
tains about 2,500,000 Cathohcs, 5000 Protestants, 208 most noteworthy place of worship in Rio de Janeiro is
parishes, 240 secular and 80 regular priests, 3 colleges, the Church of the Candelaria. The corner-stone was
and 72."i churches and cliapels. The present arch- laid about 1780, the funds having been donated by a
bishop, Jerome Thome da Silva, was born at Sobral pious Brazilian lady in gratitude for her rescue from
on 12 June, 1x49; educated at the Collegio Pio-latino- a great peril at sea. The building was planned by a
amerieano, Rome; ordained there on 21 Dec,, 1872; Brazilian architect, Evaristo de Vega. Its two towers,
appointed Vicar-General of Olinda; named Bishop of surmounted by glittering domes, are among the first
 SAO THIAGO 467 SAPPA
objects to attract the eye on entering the Bay of Rio —
Ethnography. The population of Cape Verde
de Janeiro; they rise to a height of 228 feet above the copsists of European and native whites, blacks, and
street, but, unfortunately, the narrowness of the thor- mixed {mestizos). The language is a dialect called
oughfare prevents a good impression of the size and crioulo, which is made up from various languages
beauty of the structure. The three bronze doors, with with Portuguese predominating. The people are half
relief work showing extraordinary artistic detail, and mild in disposition, not inclined to hard
civilized, are
the interior, finished in marble, with fine wall and ceil- work, and by no means provident, so that whenever
ing paintings, are among the best of their kind in the rains fail they are liable to suffer from great
Latin-America. The present Archbishop of Sao Se- scarcity of food. They have little practical ability
bastiao do Rio de Janeiro is His Eminence Joaquim and are given to pleasure, particularly to dancing;
Cardinal Arcoverde do Albuquerque Cavalcanti, born balls, which are organized on the slightest pretext, be-
IS Jan., 1850, elected 26 June, 1890, transferred to Rio ing their favourite pastime. The arts are not culti-
de Janeiro, 24 July, 1898, and created cai-dinal on —
vated; industry and commerce what little there is
—
11 Dec, 1905. (See Brazil, the United States of.) are exclusively in the hands of Europeans. The
Allain, Rio de Janeiro (Paris, 1886); Ferreira da Rosa, Rio Catholic rehgion is professed, but its practice is
dc Janeiro (Riode Janeiro, 1905). mingled with many superstitions. The average an-
Julian Moreno-Lacalle. nual frequentation of the sacraments is: baptisms,
4872; marriages, 534; confessions and communions,
SS,o Thiago de Cabo Verde, Diocese of (Sancti 36,0()0.
Jacobi Capitis Viridis), has the seat of its bishopric With respect to Guinea little can be said, its popu-
on the Island of S. Nicolau and comprises the Cape lation being still in a condition of savagery. Its an-
Verde Archipelago, which forms one civil province, nual statistics are: baptisms, 330; marriages, 10; con-
and Portuguese Guinea, on the coast of Senegambia, fessions and communions, 20. Arabic and various
which forms another. Each of these two provinces African dialects are spoken.
is under a governor who is appointed by the national —
History. It is known that the Cape Verde Archi-
Government. pelago was discovered by the Portuguese in 1460, and
The Province or Cape Verde (Cabo Verde), Guinea in 1445. In 1553 these territories were
with the seat of the civil and military Government at erected into a diocese by a Bull of Clement VII dated
Praia, on the Island of S. Thiago, lies between 14° 40' 31 January. The diocese has been governed by
and 17° 14' N. latitude and between 22° 50' and prelates of great learning, some of them also of great
25° 30' longitude W. of Greenwich. It is made up of virtue, and to them is due all the improvement that
ten islands which are divided into the two groups of has been wrought in the condition of Cape Verde. It
Barlavento and Sotavento. The Barlavento group has no charitable organizations except a Confrater-
consists of the islands of Boa-Vista, Sal, S. Nicolau, nity of the Blessed Sacrament on the Island of S.
Santa Luzia, S. Vicente, and S. Antao; the Sota- Nicolau, which supports a primary school and supplies
vento group, of Maio, S. Thiago, Fogo, and Brava. the lack of rural banks by lending capital at a low
In the Barlavento group of islands there are two judi- rate of interest. Mitra, Cabido, and some of the
cial districts, one with its seat at Santo Antao, the parishes enjoy the benefit of legacies made by bene-
other at Mindello, on the Island of S. Vicente. The So- factors of the diocese, which are liberally adminis-
tavento group forms but one judicial district, the seat tered. There are no religious societies. The clergy
of which is at Praia, on the Island of S. Thiago. Each are subsidized by the State and are exempt from the
of these islands is under a municipal council (murd- pubhc burdens of military service, jury duty, etc. It
cipio), except Maio, which belongs to the municipio is expected, however, that the legal separation of
of Praia, and Santa Luzia, which is still uninhabited. Church and State, already put in force at the national
The province has a population of 142,000, of whom capital, will very soon be applied in this colony, and
4718 are whites, 50,033 blacks, and 87,249 mulattoes. the changes which will result are as yet unknown.
The number of foreigners is very small, not exceed- Jos£ Alves Martins.
ing 828. The areas and population of the islands
are: Boa Vista, 236)4 square miles, 2691 inhabitants; Sappa, Diocese of (Sappensis, Sappatensis,
Sal, 79*2 square miles, 640 inhabitants; S. Nicolau, Zappatensis), in Albania, established in 1062, by
94'-^ square miles, 10,462 inhabitants; S. Vicente, Alexander II. In 1491 Innocent VIII joined to it the
75'^ square miles, 10,086 inhabitants; Santa Luzia,
See of Sarda (Sardoniki), and the united sees were suf-
15'2 square miles, uninhabited; Santo Antao, 302J'2
fragans of Antivari until the end of the eighteenth
square miles, 33,838 inhabitants; Maio, 42 square century. The See of Sarda comprised also the Diocese
miles, 1895 inhabitants; S. Thiago, 419'4 square of Daynum (Dagnum, Dagno, Danj Daynensis)
;

miles, 56,082 inhabitants; Foga, 204?-^ square miles, founded as suffragan of Antivari about the second
17,582 inhabitants; Brava, 21''i square miles, 8970 half of the fourteenth century and united with Sarda
inhabitants. S. Vicente is an important port and by Martin V in 1428. The exact number of bishops
coaling station. of Sappa is unknown. The first Bishop of Sappa men-
Ecclesiastically the province is divided as follows: tioned is Paulus about 1370. The most famous bishops
Boa Vista, 2 parishes; Sal, 1; S. Nicolau, 2; S. Vi- of Sappa were George Blanko (1623-35), deliverer of
cente, 1; Santo Antao, 6; Maio, 1; S. Thiagn, 11; his fatherland from the Turks, and Lazarus 'S'ladanja
Fogo, 4; Brava, 2. Boa Vista contains 3 primary of Scutari (1746-49). The present, forty-first, Bishop
schools; Sal, 2; S. Nicolau, 1 lyceum-seminary and 6 of Sappa is Msi'- James Serecci, suffragan of Scutari.
primary schools; S. Vicente, 1 school of navigation, He has his re.'iidence at the village of Nensat (Ncn-
and 7 primary schools; Maio, 1; S. Thiago, 22; Fozo, sciati). His diocese comprises about 22,000 inhabi-
7; Brava, 6. tants of various creeds, of whom 17,280 are Catholics.
The Province op Portuguese Guinea has an By the Albanian Council in 1703 the Bishop of Sappa
area of about 14,270 square miles, with a population obtained some parishes pertaining to the Diocese of
oi 300,000. Its capital, Bolama, is the seat of the only Pulati. The ecclesiastical students of this diocese are
judicial district in the province, and of the municipal educated at the seminary of Scutari. The Diocese of
council. It has also three military districts, Bissau, Sappa also includes the Franciscan monastery at
Cacheu, and Geba. Portuguese Guinea has a vicar- Trosan (Trosciani), where the Minorites have a
general who is nominated by the bishop of the "Collegium seraphicum" for their students of phi-
diocese. It contains six parishes: Bolama, Bissau, losophy.
Cacheu, Farim, Buba, and Geba. There are a few Farlati-Coleti, Illyricum sacrum, VII (Venice, 1819),
primary schools, which, however, are poorly attended. 229-32, 271-91; Gams, Series episcoporum ecclesice catholicos
 SARA 468 SARAGOSSA
(Ratisbon, 1873 and 1886), 405-406, 415-416; Theineh, origin dates back to the coming of the Apostle James
Monumenla Slavorum, I, nos. 148, 153; II, nos. 233, 219; Hoffer
in Zeil^chrifl fur kath. Theul. (Innsbruck, 1895), 360 (1S96),
— a fact of which there had never been any doubt
1U4; MiHACEvic, Sfrafinski Perivoj, XXIII, 126; Mahkovic, until Baronius, influenced by a fabulous story of
Dukljansko-barska metropolija (Agram, 1902), 47-50. Garcia de Loaisa, called it in question. Urban VIII
Anthoxy Lawrence GancevkS. ordered the old lesson in the Breviary dealing with
this point to be restored (see Compostela). Closely
Sara (,l~w, princess; another form, ^TiJ, Sarai, involved with the tradition of St. James's coming to
the signification of which is doubtful, is found in pas- Spain, and of the founding of the church of Sara-
sages occurring before Gen., xvii, 1.5). Sara was the gossa, are those of Our Lady of the PiUar (see Pilar,
wife of ,\braham and also his step-sister (Gen., xii, 15; NuESTRA Senora del) and of Sts. Athanasius and
,xx, 12). V\'e do not find any other account of her Theodore, disciples of St. James, who are supposed to
parentage. When Abraham goes down to Egypt be- have been the first bishops of Saragossa. About the
cause of the famine, he induces Sara, who though year 256 there appears as bishop of this diocese Felix
sixty-five years of age is very beautiful, to say that she Csesaraugustanus, who defended true discipline in
is his sister; whereupon she is taken to wife by the the case of Basilides and Martial, Bishops, respec-
King of Egypt, who, however, restores her after a
Divine admonition (Gen., xii). In a variant account
(Gen., xx), she is represented as being taken in simi-
lar circumstances by Abimelech, King of Gerara, and
restored likewise to Abraham through a Divine inter-
vention. After having been barren till the age of
ninety, Sara, in fulfilment of a Divine promLse, gives
birth to Isaac (Gen., xxi, 1-7). Later we find her
through jealousy ill-treating her handmaiden Agar
the Egyptian, who had borne a child to .-Abraham, and
finally she forces the latter to drive away the bond-
woman and her son Ismael (Gen., xxi). Sara lived to
the age of one hundred and twenty-seven years, and
at her death was buried in the ca\-e of Macjjhelah in
Hebron (Gen., xxiii). Isaias, h, 2, alludes to Sara
as the mother of the chosen people; St. Peter praises
her submission to her husband (I Pet., iii, 6). Other
New Testament references to Sara are in Rom., iv,
19; ix 9; Gal, iv, 22-2.3; Heb., xi, 11.
Von Humrielauer, Comment, in Geneaim, passim.
James F. Driscoli,.

Sarabaites, a class of monks widely spread before

the time of St. Benedict. They either continued, like
the early ascetics, to live in their own homes, or dwelt
two or three together in or near cities. They ac-
knowledged no monastic superior, obeyed no definite
rule, and disposed individually of the product of their
manual labour. St. Jerome speaks of them under the
name of Remoboth, and John Cassian tells of their
wide diffusion in Egypt and other lands. Both
writers express a very unfavourable opinion concerning
their conduct, and a reference to them in the Rule of
St. Benedict (c. i) is of similar import. At a later
date the name Sarabaites, the original meaning of
which cannot be determined, designated in a general
wa3' degenerate monks. Faqade of the Old Cathedral, Saragossa
St. Jerome, Epist., xxii, 34; Cassivn, Coll., xviii. 4, 7; Funk,
tr. Cappadelta, Church History, I, 213. tively, of Astorga and M6rida. St. Valerius, who
N. A. Weber. assisted at the Council of Iliberis, was bishop from
290 to 315 and, together with his disciple and deacon
Saragfossa, Diocese of (CjEsaraugustana), in St. Vincent, suffered martjTdom in the persecution
Spain, comprises a great part of the civil Prov- of Dacian. It is believed that there had been martyrs
ince of Saragossa (Zaragoza). It is bounded at Saragossa in previous persecutions, as Prudentius
on the north by Navarre and Huesca; on the seems to afiirm; but no certain record is to be found
east by Huesca, LiSrida, and Tarragona; on the of any before this time, when, too, St. Engratia and
south by Valencia and Teruel; on the west by Gua- the "numberless saints" {santos irmumerahlcs) as ,

dalajara and Soria. The episcopal city, situated on they are called, gained their crowns. It is said that
the Ebro, has 72,000 inhabitants. Before the Roman Dacian, to detect and so make an end of aU the faith-
period the site of Saragossa appears to have been ful of Saragossa, ordered that liberty to practise their
occupied by Salduba, a little village of Edetania, religion should be promised them on condition that
within the boundaries of Celtiberia. Here in a. u. c. they all went out of the city at a certain fixed time
727 Octavius Augustus, then in his seventh consulate, and by certain designated gates. As soon as they
founded the colony of Caesar Augusta, giving it the had thus gone forth, he ordered them to be put to
Italian franchise and making it the capital of a juridi- the sword and their corpses burned. Their ashes
cal cotJi'eiilHS. Pomponius Mela called it "the most were mixed with those of criminals, so that no vener-
illustrious of the inland cities of Hispania Tarra- ation might be paid them. But a, shower of rain fell
conensis". In a.d. 452 it fell under the power of the and washed the ashes apart, forming those of the
Suevian king Reciarius; in 466 under that of the Visi- martyrs into certain white masses. These, known
goth Euric. St. Isidore extolled it as one of the best as the "holy masses" {las santas masas), were depos-
cities of Spain in the Gothic period, andPacensis ited in the crypt of the church dedicated to St.
En-
called it "the most ancient and most flourishing". gratia, where they are still preserved.
St. Vincent was taken to Valencia, where he
sut-
The diocese is one of the oldest in Spain, for its
 SARAOOSSA 469 SARAOOSSA
fered a long and terrible martyrdom. St. Valerius chinum to be erected, but one of its pillars fell down,
was exiled to a place called Enet, near Barbastro, and it was reduced to its present condition. In 1490
where he died, and whence his relics were translated Archbishop Alonso of Aragon raised the two lateral
first Roda, the head and arm being brought thence
to naves, which had been lower, to an equal height
to Saragossa when that city had been reconquered. with the central, and added two more; Fernando of
The See of Saragossa was occupied during the Aragon added three other naves beyond the choir,
Gothic period by two illustrious bishops: St. Braulius to counterbalance the excessive width of the building,
(q. v.), assisted at the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth
who and thus, in 1550, was the Gothic edifice completed.
Councils of Toledo; and Tai6n, famous for his own The great chancel and choir were built by order of
writings and for having discovered at Rome the third Archbishop Dalmau de Mury Cervell6n (1431-58).
part of St. Gregory's "Morals". From 592 to 619 In the chapel of S. Dominguito del Val are preserved
the bishop was Maximus, who assisted at the Councils
of Barcelona and Egara, and whose name, combined
with that of the monk Marcus, has been used to form
an alleged Marcus Maximus, the apocryphal contin-
uator of Flavins Dexter. In 542, when the Franks
laid seige to Saragossa to take vengeance for the
wrongs of the Catholic princess, Clotilde, the besieged
went forth in procession and delivered to the enemy,
as the price of their raising the siege, a portion of the
blood-stained stole of St. Vincent, the deacon.
Before the Saracen invasion three national coun-
cils were held at Saragossa. The first, earlier than
those of Toledo, in 380, when \^alerius II was bishop,
had for its object the extirpation of Priscillianism;
the second, in 592, in the episcopate of Maximus,
was against the Arians; the third, under Bishop
Valderedus, in 691, provided that queens, when
widowed, should retire to some monastery for their
security and for the sake of decorum. During the
Saracen occupation the Catholic worship did not
cease in this city; the churches of the Virgin and of
St. Engratia were maintained, while that of the
Saviour was turned into a mosque. Of the bishops
of this unhappy period the names are preserved of
Senior, who visited St. Eulogius at Cordoba (849),
and of Eleca, who in 890 was driven from the city
by the Moslems and took refuge at Oviedo. Pater-
nus was sent by Sancho the Great to Cluny, to intro-
duce the Cluniac reform into Spain in the monasteries
of S. Juan de la Pena and S. Salvador de Leyre, and
was afterwards appointed Bishop of Saragossa.
Alfonso I, the Fighter, of Aragon, reconquered the
city on 18 Dec, 1118, and named as bishop Pedro
de Librana, whose appointment was confirmed by
Gelasius II. lApez, in his "Historia de Zaragoza",
says that Librana first resided at the Church of the
Pillar, and on 6 Jan., 1119, purified the great mosque,
which he dedicated to the Saviour, and there estab-
lished his episcopal see. Hence the controversy, Church of S. Engracia, Saragossa
which began in 1135, in the episcopate of Garcia the relics of who was cruci-
that saint, a boy of seven
Guerra de Majones, between the canons of the fied by the Jews The f agade of the cathedral
in 1250.
Pillar and those of St. Saviour as to the title of cathe- is Renaissance, and beside it rises the tower, more
dral. modern than the body of the church, having been
In 1318 the See of Saragossa was made metropoli- begun in 1790.
tan by a grant of John XXII
(14 June), Pedro L6pez The Church of Nuestra Senora del Pilar is believed
de Luna being bishop. For more than a century to have originated in a chapel built by the Apostle
(1458-1577) princes of the royal blood occupied the James. Bishop Librana found it almost in ruins
see: Juan of Aragon, natural son of Juan 11(1458); and appealed to the charity of all the faithful to
Alonso of Aragon (1478); another Juan of Aragon rebuild it. At the close of the thirteenth century
(1520); Fernando of Aragon, who had been the Cis- four bishops again stirred up the zeal of the faithful
tercian Abbot of Veruela. to repair the building, which was preserved until
In the factions which followed upon the death the end of the seventeenth century. In 1681 work
of Kmg Martin, Archbishop Garcia Fernandez de was commenced on the new church, the first stone
Heredia was assassinated by Antonio de Luna, a being laid by Archbishop Diego de Castrillo, 25
partisan of the Count of Urgel (1411). In 1485 the July, 1685. This grandiose edifice, 500 ft. (about
first
inquisitor-general, St. Peter Arbues, fell a martyr 457 Enghsh feet) in length, covers the capella angelica,
in the cathedral,
slain by some relapsed Jews who where the celebrated image of the Blessed Virgin is
were led by Juan de la Abadia. venerated. Though the style of the building is
,
Jhe cathedral is dedicated to the Saviour, as it not of the best period, attention is attracted by its
had been before the Mohammedan invasion. It exterior, its multitude of cupolas, which are reflected
J f
D-i
'***^*^ ^"^^ Church of Nuestra Senora
^'^^'^ in the waters of the Ebro, giving it a character all
del Pilar, half of the chapter residing at each of the itsown.
two churches, while the dean resides six months at Saragossa possesses many very noteworthy
each alternately The building of the cathedral was churches. Among them are that of St. Engratia,

in ^?i
T
^
^'^'^'° Tarrjao in the fourteenth century, built on the spot where the victims of Dacian were
1412 Benedict XIII caused a magnificent balda- martyred. It was destroyed in the War of Inde-
 SARAJEVO 470 sarayactJ
pendence, only the crj'pt and the doorway being Sarajevo. See Serajevo, Diocese op.
left; a few years ago, however, it was rebuilt, and
Sarayacii Mission, the chief Franciscan mission
now serves as a parish church. The University of of the Uoayali river country. Department of Loreto,
SaraRossa obtained from Carlos I (the Emperor
north-east Peru, in the eighteenth century, and situated
Charles V) in 1542, the privileges accorded to others upon a small arm of the river, on the west side, about
in Spain. Its importance was afterwards promoted 6° 45' south and 275 miles above its junction with
the
by Pedro Cerduna. Bishop of Tarazona; he gave it Amazon. The name signifies "River of the Wasp". The
a building which lasted until it was blown up by
evangelization of the wild tribes of Eastern Peru, in the
the French in 180S. A separate building has been forests beyond the main Cordillera, was divided be-
erected for the faculties of medicine and sciences.
tween the Jesuits and the Franciscans, the former hav-
The archiepiscopal palace is a splendid edifice ing the territory immediately along the Marafion
erected by Archbishop Agustin de Lezo y Palomeque.
(Amazon) and its northern affluents, directed from the
There are two ecclesiastical seminaries: that of Sts.
college of Quito, while the Franciscans took under
Valerius and Braulius, founded by Archbishop Lezo their care the territory along the middle and upper
in 1788, was destroyed by an explosion and was
courses of the Huaflaga and Ucayali, directed latterly
rebuilt in 1824 by Archbishop Bernardo Frances
from the Franciscan college of Ocopa, near Jauja,
Caballero; that of St. Charles Borromeo, formerly
Central Peru, founded in 1712, especially for the
a Jesuit college, was converted into a seminary by
education of missionaries. Sarayacii was established
Carlos III.
Florez-Risco, Es-p. sagrada, XXX, XXXI {2nd ed., Madrid); in 1791 by Father Narciso Girbal, his first colonists
Lamberto de Zaragoza, Teatro hist, de las iglesias . . . de being some of the wild Setebo Indians. These were
Aragdn ("Pamplona, 1780); Cuadrado, Aragdn in Espafla, sus soon joined by bands from other tribes, and the popu-
monuvfiento^ y artes (Barcelona, 1886) Blantvs, Diego de Espew,
lation grew rapidly.
;

Carrillo, Episcopotogios; DE la Fl entp:, Ili-t. de Uis universidades

In 1801 it was placed in charge
de Espaila (Madrid, 1899) ; O'Reilly, Heroic Spain (New York,
1910).
Ram6n Ruiz Amado.
—
University or Saragossa. This universitj' was
not definitively established until 1.5.N.5, its real founder
being Don Pedro Cerbunc, Prior of the Cathedral of
Saragossa, and later Bishop of Tairazona, who, by
commission of the city of Saragossa, organized the
university, prepared its statutes, and endowed it with
.^^ Wl^Sf^wF-W) \: -i^H

Jgfei-:hK<i.^id[-
an income of 30,000 reales. At, the end of the six- llll

s
teenth century theology, philosophy, canon and civil
law, medicine, and the humanities were taught. The
IN tM ^^^'11
university was subjei^t, to the municipality that had
created it until the time of Charles III. The influ-
ence of this university was always great in lower
Aragon, and during the reign of Charles III, it was
great throughout the kingdom. It produced the
W^:«S^^^
'- ly^^^^i^^^^r^^
^
1^^ 'faj^^^^^^t^^^
P»!^^i
economists and the principal Jesuits who contributed Old Mission Church, .Sarayacu
so much to give to the reign of Charles III the laicist
character that it de\elopcd. At about this time the of Fr. Manuel Plaza, who remained with it nearly
so-called Voltairean ideas were introduced into the fifty years until his death and was succeeded by Fr.
university, the " Academia de Buen Gusto" was estab- Vicente Calvo. In the half-century during which
lished,and political economy began to be dealt with, Fr. Plaza with his three or four assistants thus
which gave rise to many noisy polemics, led by governed their little community in the heart of a
Normante and Carcaviella. The study of economics savage wilderness, they saw visitors from the outside
was introduced by Aio and Aurano, and the Royal world only twice, viz. Smyth and Lowe in 1835 and
Academy of Aragon and the Academia de San Lucas Castelnau in 1846. Under his direction a church
helped in the development of letters. Among the and residence were built, and the grass- thatched houses
professors were the physician Juan Sobrarias, the poet laid out upon a regular town plan. The portico of
Antonio Geron, Pedro Malon de Chaide, Juan the church, which called forth the admiration of
Loernzo Palmireno, Pedro Simon de Abril, the Jesuit these travellers, was designed and executed by one
Mice Andres Serveto de Avinon, Clemente Comenge, of the fathers, an Italian with architectural training.
Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, Juan Francisco Guillen, With the opening of the revolutionary struggle
Archbishop of Burgos, Ustarroz, Aramburo, Carrillo, in 1815 all governmental aid was withdrawn from
Portolcs, Vargas Machuca, etc. With regard to its the missions, most of which were abandoned, a part
government and to the programme of its studies, the of the Indians, in some eases, joining these at Saray-
l'ni\ersity of Saragossa, like all the universities of acii, which continued to prosper through the tireless
Spain, has lost its individual Ufe, the professors being energy of Fr. Plaza. In 1835 it contained a popular
reduced to the level of state officials, each having the tion of about 2000 souls, representing many tribes
anarchical individual licence of explaining the matter — Pano, Omagua, Yameo, Conibo, Setebo, Sipibo.
assigned to him according to any programme he may Sensi, Amahuaca, Remo, Campa, Mayoruna, and
see fit, or according to no programme at all. The Capanahua, some of them from as far as the Huallaga
uni\crsity has faculties of law, medicine^ exact and the Amazon. Each of the three principal tribes
sciences, physics and chemistry, and Icttci-s (historical first named occupied a distinct section of the town.
section). There are on an average 600 students, The Pano language was the medium of intercom-
nearh- half of whom stud>- medicine, and about one munication. Besides the main town there were
quarter each, law and science, while the remainder several other branch villages along the river, chief
follow the studies of letters. of which was Tierra Blanca. All of the few travellers
Traylla, Uiftoria de la Universidad de Zaragoza (1603);
Lajaxa and Quartaxet, E^fatutos de la Citiversidad y e&tudio who have left records of their visits to Sarayacii are
the
general de la ciadad de Zaragoza (1618); Josef, Discursos kistd- full of praise for the hospitable kindness of
ricospoliticos (1684); de Carmox y Tbajmulles, Mumorias litera- fathers and the good effect of their teaching upon
rias de Zaragoza (ITlis); Borao, Historia de la Universidad de
Zaragoza (s. d.) de La Fuente, Historia de las Universidades the mission Indians as compared with the wild tribes
;

of the forest, except as to the besetting sin of

drunk-
de Espafia (1887).
beer
Teodoro Rodriguez. enness, from the drinking of chicha, a sort of
<
!B
O'
O
Pi

<
Q
W
H
<
O
w
H

o
in
o
w.
w

o
M
c>
<1
m
 SARBIEWSKI 471 SARBIEWSKI
made from corn or plantains (bananas),in which both his familiarity with these great poets he added an
sexes constantly indulged, despite the protests and mdustry which has given the splendid yield of his
warnings of the missionaries. poetic works. The latest edition of these, printed
Smyth, the English officer, who saw it at perhaps its at Starawife in 1892, embraces four books of lyrics,
best in 1835, gives an interesting account of the town, a book of epodes, his posthumous "Silviludia"
the various tribes, the routine of mission life, and the (Woodland Notes), and his book of epigrams. Of
holiday celebrations. Ten years later a general epi- all these the lyrics furnish the best example of his
demic wasted all the tribes of the Ucayali, and in 1S46 qualities of mind and heart. All are pitched in a
Castelnau found only 1200 Indians at the mission. high key of thought, sentiment, or passion. His
A large part of this decrease, however, was due to the themes are for the most part love and devotion for
removal of the men to engage with the rubber gath- Christ Crucified, for Our Blessed Lady, or friendship
erers and the boat crews on the Amazon. In 1851 for a noble patron, such as Bishop Lubienski, Cardi-
the American Lieutenant Hernden stopped there and nal Francis Barberini, nephew to Urban VIII, and
was kindly received by Fr. Calvo, who was then in that pontiff himself, whom he hailed as his Maece-
charge. "Father Calvo, meek and humble in personal nas in several odes of exquisite finish. His noblest
concerns, yet full of zeal and spirit for his office, clad and most sustained efforts, however, are his patriotic
in his long serge gown, belted with a cord, with bare odes upon the fatherland, the Knights of Poland,
feet and accurate tonsure, habitual stoop and gener- and kindred sub-
ally bearing upon his shoulder a beautiful and saucy jects. His tender-
bird of the parrot kind, was my beau ideal of a mis- est pieces are
sionary monk. He is an Arragone.se, and had served those in praise of
as a priest in the army of Don Carlos. " Two other the rose, the
priests, an Italian and a Catalan, with a lay brother, violet, and the
who did the cooking and was unwearied in his at- grasshopper, in
tentions, made up the household. He adds, "I was which he rivals
sick here, and think that I shall ever remember with the grace and
gratitude the affectionate kindness of these pious and happy touch of
devoted friars of St. Francis. Horace himself.
The government was patriarchal, through Indian He was crowned
officersunder supervision of the priest. The Indians with the poet's
were tractable and docile, but drunken, and although wreath by King
the location was healthy, and births exceeded deaths, Wladislaw IV.
the population constantly diminished from emigra- Urban VIII
tion down the river. From various industries they named him one
derived an annual income of about twelve hundred of the revisers of
dollars,from which, with their garden, the four priests the hymns of the
and lay brother supported themselves, bought vest- Breviary, and he Mathias Casimik Sarbiewski
ments and supplies, and kept the church in repair and m particular is From the title page of an edition of liis
decoration. In 1856 the mission was visited by an- credited with hav- 'yrioa published at Strasburg, 1803
other epidemic. In 1859 the official geographer Rai- ing softened their previous ruggedness of metre. Some
mondi found there 1030 inhabitants and a flourishing critics have urged that in his love of Horace he went so
school, besides about 200 more at Tierra Blanca. In far as to become servile in imitating him, while others
the same year Fr. Calvo estabhshed another branch again have made a very virtue out of this close
station at Callaria, higher up the Ucayali, as a meet- imitation. As a rehgious he was noted for his love
ing-ground for the wild tribes in that direction. This of soUtude, turning from the attractions of court
had the effect of further drawing from the diminish- life to solitude, prayer, and useful study and occu-
ing importance of Sarayacti, which was finally aban- pation. His prose works are: (1) "De acuto et
doned as a mission in 1863. It continues, however, as arguto liber unicus"; (2) "Dii gentium", a specula-
the chief port of the UcayaH, with a mixed Indian and tive work on the ancient arts and sciences; (3) "De
Spanish population with the Quichua language as the perfecta poesi libri quattuor"; (4) "De Deo uno et
medium. (See also Pano Indians; Setebo Indians.) trino traotatus"; (5) "Deangelis"; (6) "De physico
Cabtelx.4U, Expedition dans les partes centrales de V Amerique continuo"; (7) "Memorabiha"; (8) scattered ora-
duSud, IV (Paris, 1S51) Hebndon. Exploration of the Valley of the
;

Amazon, I (Waahington, 1854); Ordinaire, Les Sauvages du tions, sermons, and letters.
Ftrou in Revue d'EthnograpUe, VI (Paris, 1.887) Raimondi, El
;
Select poems
of Sarbiewski have been translated
Peru, III (Lima, 1879) Idem, Apunfes sobre la Provincia litoral
;
from the original Latin into other languages. But
de Loreto (Lima, 1862) Smyth and Lowe, Narrative of a Journey
his poetical works, as a whole, have found few trans-
;

from Lima to Pard (London, 1836).

JaMBS MoONET. lators. In Polish may be counted no less than
Sarbiewski, Mathias Casimib, the Horace of twenty-two versions of the poet; yet, only two of
Poland, b. near Plonsk, in the Duchy of Masovia, these are in any measure complete, the rest being
24 February, 1595; d. 2 April, 1649. He entered the translations of chosen odes. The most notable
novitiate of the Jesuits at Vilna on 25 July, 1612; PoUsh version, embracing almost all the poems, is
studied rhetoric and philosophy during 1614-17; that of Louis Kondratowicz, who also wrote the life
taught grammar and humanities during 1617-18, of Sarbiewski and translated his letters. There is
and rhetoric at Polotsk during 1618-20; studied theol- also a copy in Pohsh of all the odes extant in manu-
ogy at Vihia from 1620-22; was sent in 1622 to com- script at Starawies, the work of some few Jesuit
plete his theology at Rome, and was there ordained fathers of the province of White Russia. Detached
priest in 1623. Returning to Poland he taught translations also exist in Italian, Flemish, and Bohe-
rhetoric, philosophy, and theology at Vilna from mian. In German there are at least eight or nine
1626 to 1635, was then made preacher to King Wla- translations, principally from the odes, and also
dislaw, and was for four years companion in his incomplete. The French versions are of the same
travels. The fame of Sarbiewski is as wide as the character: they are three or four in number, choice
world of letters. He was gifted with remarkable odes or pieces taken from the "Poems". The Eng-
general talent, especially in music and the fine arts, lish translations are fuller and more complete than
but his chief excellence was as a poet versed in all any others. There are at least four that rnay be
the metres of the ancients. He was especially de- styled integral versions: "Odes of Casimire by
voted to Horace, whose odes he knew by heart. He G. H.," printed for Humphrey Moseley at the Princes
also made the lyrical poetry of Pindar his own. To Armes in St. Paul's Church Yard, 1646; "Transla-
 SARCOPHAGUS 472 SARDICA
tions from Casimir with Poems, Odes, and specimens Sardica, a titular metropohtan see of Dacia Medi-
of Latin Prose", J. Kitchener (London and Bedford, terranea. The true name of the city (now Sophia,
1821); "Wood-notes; the Silviludia Poetica of M. C. the capital of Bulgaria) was Serdica, the city of the
Sarbievius with a translation in Enghsh verse", by Serdi, a Thracian people defeated by Crassiis in 29
R. C. Coxe (Neweastle-on-Tyne, 1848); "Specimens B. c. and subjected to the Kingdom of Thrace, the vas-
of the Polish poets, with notes and observations on sal of Rome. When this kingdom was suppressed in
the Literature of Poland", by John Bowring (printed 49 the Serdi were included in the Roman Prov-
B. c.
for the author, London, 1827). ince of Thracia. The Emperor Trajan transformed
SoMMERvofiEL, Bibl. de la C. de J., t. VII, vol. II; Mathia: Casi- the borough of the Serdi into a city which he called
miri Sarbiewski, S.J Poemata Omnia (Staravies, 1812); Father
.

Prout's Reliques; Baumgartner, WeUlilleratur, IV; Kolanow- Ulpia Serdica. In 275 Aurelian caused Dacia beyond
8KI, De M. C. Sarbievio Polonix Horatio disftertatio; Diel in Stim- the Danube to be evacuated, and transplanted to Ala'-
men aus Maria-Loach (1873) Daniel, Etudes classique.^,
;
sia and Thracia the soldiers and colonists who were
John F. Quikk.
faithful to the Roman cause. The country occupied
Sarcophagus. See Catacombs, subtitle V. by these immigrants formed the new Province of Da-
cia, Sardica being included in this province (Homo,
Sardes, a titular see of Lydia, in Asia Minor, prob- "Essai sur le r^gne de I'empereur Aur^hen", 313-21).
ably the ancient Hyde of Homer (Iliad, II, 844; XX, Later, Diocletian divided Dacia into Dacia Ripensis
385), at the foot of Mount Tmolus; see also Strabo and Dacia Mediterranea. Sardica was the civil and
(XIII, iv, 5); Pliny (Hist, nat., v, 29); Stephen of ecclesiastical metropolis of the latter. Gallienus es-
Byzantium, s. v. The name Sardes, which replaced
tabhshed a mint at Sardica, and Constantine the
that of Hyde, seems to have been derived from the
Great, who was born in the region, contemplated
Shardani, a people mentioned in the cuneiform in-
making it his capital. Ecclesiasticall.v, Sardica be-
scriptions as inhabiting this region. At an early
longed to the Patriarchate of Rome until 733, when it
period Sardes wa.s the capital of the Lydians, an early
was annexed to that of Constantinople until 809.
dynasty of whom reigned from 766 to 687 B. c. a sec- ;

Upon the conversion of the Bulgarians, in 86.5, Sardica

ond, that of Mermnades founded by Gyges in 687 B. c,
was one of the first cities which had a see. Until 1204
reigned until .546 B. c. Its last king, the celebrated
it was included in the Grteco-Bulgarian Patriarchate
Crcesus, was dethroned by Cyrus. Thenceforth it
of Achrida, until 1393 in the Bulgarian Patriarchate of
was the residence of the Persian satraps, who adminis-
Tirno\'o, and until 1872 in that of Constantinople.
tered the conquered kingdom. The capture of the
Since then Sardica, or, as it is now called, Sophia, be-
city by the lonians and the Athenians in 498 B. c. was
longs to the national Church of Bulgaria. The earli-
the caijse of wars between the Persians and Greeks.
est known bishop is Protagenes, who assisted at the
In 334 it surrendered without a struggle to Alexander
Council of Nicaea in 325; the best known is Bonosus,
the Great, after whose death it belonged to Antigonus
until 301, when it fell into the power of the Seleucides.
who shortly afterwards attacked the virginity of the
Blessed Virgin. (For the council held here in the
Antiochus III having been defeated at Magnesia by
fourth century see Sardica, Council of.)
the Romans 190 B. c, Sardes was incorporated with
the Kingdom of Pergamus, then with the Roman Although taken by Attila and often destroyed by
Empire, becoming the capital of the Province of the Slavs, the town remained under Byzantine do-
Lydia. The famous river Pactolus flowed through its minion until 809, when it was captured by the Bul-
agora, or forum.
gars, who changed its name to Sredetz, later trans-
In the Apocalypse (iii, 1-3) a letter is written to the formed by the Greeks into Sraditza and Triaditza.
Church of Sardes by St. John, who utters keen re- Again occupied by the Greeks from 1018 to 1186, it en-
proaches against it and its bishop. Among its martyrs joyed great prosperity; a section of the population
are mentioned the priest Therapon, venerated 27 was Paulician or Manichsean. After some years of
May, and Apollonius (10 July). Among its bishops, troubles it again fell into the power of the Bulgars.
of whom Le Quien (Oriens Christ., I, 859-66) gives a Its present name of Sophia dates from the Middle
long list, were St. Meliton (second century), writer Ages, though the precise date of its first use cannot be
and apologist; St. Euthymius, martyred for the ven- assigned. In the sixteenth century Sredetz and So-
eration of images (26 Dec, 824); John, his successor, phia were used simultaneously. In 13S2 the city was
who also suffered for the Faith Andronicus, who made
;
captured by the Turks, and for more than four cen-
several attempts for the reunion of the Churches. As turies it was the residence of the beglerbeg, or governor
religious metropolis of Lydia, Sardes ranked sixth in general, of Rumelia. In 1878 Sophia was chosen as
the hierarchy. As early as the seventh century the capital of the Principality of Bulgaria, and since
(Gelzer, "Ungedruckte . Texte der Xotitiae
.
1908 has been the capital of the Kingdom of Bulgaria.
episcopatuum 537), it had 27 suffragans, which A vicariate Apostohc was created here at an early date
In 1610 Rome re-
,

number scarcely varied until the end of the tenth and confided to the Franciscans.
century. At the beginning of the fourteenth century estabUshed the See of Sophia, which in 1643 was made
the town, which was still very populous, was captured archiepiscopal. It was suppressed towards the end of
and destroyed by the Turks. In 1369 it ceased to the eighteenth century, because the Cathohcs were
exist, and Philadelphia replaced it as metropolis persecuted by the Turks and had emigrated, mostly to
(\\'aechter, "DerVerfall des Griechentums in Kleina- Austria and Russia. Relative peace was restored in
im XIV Jahrhundert", 44-46). Since then it has 1835, and Rome confided the direction of the Catholics
been a Greek titular metropolitan see. At present, to the Redemptorists, under a vicar Apostolic who
under the name of Sart, it is but a miserable Turkish had not received episcopal consecration. The Re-
village in the sandjak of Saroukhan, and the vilayet demptorists were replaced by the Capuchins in 1841,
of Smyrna. Not one well-preserved and important their superior being consecrated bishop in 1848. At
monument is found among the very extensive ruins. present an archbishop is at the head of this vicariate
Arundell, Discovi^ries in Asia Minor, I (Loadon, 1834) 2(i-28 , Apostohc. Sophia has 105,000 inhabitants, of whom
Fellow, Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor a small number are Catholics. The Christian Broth-
(London, 1839), 289-295; Head. Catalogue of the Greek Coins of
Lydia (London, 1901, 236-77); Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven ers have a school there, and the Sisters of St. Joseph
Churches of Asia (London, 1908), 354-68; Smith, Diet. Greek and of the Apparition three convents.
Roman Geog., s. v.; Fillion in ViG., Diet, de la Bib., s. v.; Ra- Le Quien, Oriens christ., II, 301-08; Gams, Series episcopo-
DET, La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Merm-nades (Paris, rum 416- £c/iosd'Orten(, VII, 209-11; JmBCK, Das FUrslenthum
1S93); Tchihatchef, .\sie Mineure, I, 232-42; Texier, Asie Bulgariens (Prague, 1891), 357-78; Vailh^ in Vacant, Iljcl.de
Mincnre (Paris. 1862), 2,^2-59; Pahgoire, Saint-Euthyme et Jean tUol. cath., II, 1233; Hilaire de Barendon, La France calho-
de Sardes in Echos d'Orirnt, V, 157-61; Le Camus, Les sept lique en Orient (Paris, 1902), 280-63; Mhnnini, f^'""""'--.'
Eglises de VApocalypse (Paris, 1896), 218—30; Lampakes, The sullo stato del suo apostolico vicario nel 1890-1891 alilan^ 1S91).
Seven Stars of the Apocalypse, in Greelc (Athena, 1909). DupuY-P^YOD, La Bulgarie aux Bulgares (Paris, 189.5), 2. S-.i/4;.
S. Vailh^i. Missiones Catholicx (Rome, 1790), 117. S. VaILHE.
 SARDICA 473 SARDINIA
Sardica, Council op, one of the series of councils Hefele Conahmgeschichle, Fr. tr. Hist, des conciles: Gwatkin.
,

S/«dteso//lrta7iism (Cambridge, 1900), 120 eq.; Turmel, La

called to adjust the doctrinal and other difficulties pauUaSardique mRev. Calk. desEglises (1906);Tvhnbr, TheGen-
va-
caused by the Arian heresy, held most probably in 0/ ""e Sardica Canons ia Journal of Theological Studies
343. (For date see Hefele, French tr., "Histoire des aooSr*
conciles", II, pt. II, 737-42, and Duchesne, "Hist, Patrick J. Hbaly.
ancienne de I'Eglise", II, 215.) It was convoked by
the Emperors Constans and Constantius at the Sardinia, the second largest Italian island in the
urgent entreaty of Pope Julius. Hosius of Cordova Mediterranean, lying between 41° 15' and 38° 51'
and other Western bishops, desirous of peace and N. lat. and having an area of 9294 square miles. The
hoping to secure a final judgment in the case of St. principal gulfs, almost all on the western coast, are
Athanasius and other bishops alternately condemned those of Cagliari, the largest, Teulada, Palmas, Car-
and vindicated by councils in the East and the West; loforte, Terranova, and Tortoh. These gulfs give
desirous, also, of setthng definitively the confusion their names to as many ports, all of which, like the
arising from the many doctrinal formulae in circula- smaller ports, are fine natural harbours. The largest
tion, suggested that all such matters should be re- islands belonging to Sardinia are: S. Antioco, S. Pie-
ferred to a general council. In order to make the tro, Asinara, Caprera, and S. Stefano. There are
council thoroughly representati\-e, Sardica in Dacia three mountain ranges in the island the most north-
(now Sofia, in Bulgaria),was chosen as the meeting- — —
;

erly the mountains of Limbara rise to an elevation

place. Athanasius, driven from Alexandria by the of 4468 feet; the central range contains Gennargentu,
Prefect Philadrius in 339, was summoned by the the culminating point of Sardinia, 6016 feet high;
Emperor Constans from Rome, where he had taken and the southern Monte Linas, 4055 feet. There
refuge, first to Milan and afterwards to Trier. At are numerous extinct volcanos: Monte Ferru
the latter place he met Hosius, who was commissioned (3448 ft.), Monte Mannu Nurri (3104 ft.), Chere-
by the pope and the emperor to preside over the mule (2924 ft.), etc. The largest river is the Tirso,
council, and whom he accompanied to Sardica. Pope 94 miles long, rising in the Budduso mountains, with
Julius was represented by the priests Archidamus and two estuaries, one at the lagoon of St. Giusta, the
Philoxenus, and the deacon Leo. Ninety-six Western other at the sea near Oristano. Among the other
bishops presented themselves at Sardica: those from rivers are the Rio di Porto Torres, Coquinas, iMannu,
the East were not so numerous. Flumendosa, and Samassi. There are thirty-seven
Being in the minority, the Eastern bishops decided lagoons along the sea-coast (Cagliari, a great fishing
to act as a body, and, fearing defections, they all centre, Oristano, Sassu, Palmas, etc.). In addition
lodged in the same place. On the ground of being un- there are many marshes now being reclaimed for
willing to recognize Athanasius, Marcellus of Ancyra, agricultural purposes. The most extensive plains
and Asclepas, who had been excommunicated in are the Campidano near Caghari, the Piano della
Eastern synods, they refused to sit in council with the Nurra, and the Campo di Ozieri. The island is formed
Western bishops. Hosius of Cordova attempted to chiefly of granite, trachyte, basalt, other volcanic
effect a compromise by inviting them to present rocks, and of chalk deposits. The climate is tem-
privately to him their complaints against Athanasius, perate, but malaria prevails in the plains in summer,
and by promising, in case Athanasius should be ac- which accounts for the small population. The
quitted, to take him to Spain. These overtures failed. fata morgana (mirage) is of common occurrence. In
—
The Eastern bishops although the council had been 1901 the population was 791,754; at present (1911)
called expressly for the purpose of reopening the case it is estimated to be about 850,000 (90 to the square
in regard to those who had been excommunicated mile).
defended their conduct on the fictitious plea that one Sardinia is rich in minerals; the most plentiful metal
council could not revise the decisions of another. is lead, mingled with silver. The richest beds of ore
They withdrew from Sardica and met at Philippop- lie in the circumscriptions of Iglesias, Nuoro, Lanusei,
olis, where they composed an encyclical and a new Sassari, and in the mountains of Nurra. Iron is
creed, which they falsely dated from Sardica. The found chiefly in the mountains of the south-west,
Western bishops, thus abandoned, examined the cases especially about Capoterra and Ogliastra. Copper,
of Athanasius, Marcellus, and Asclepas. No fresh manganese, antimony, and zinc are mined in certain
investigation of the charges against Athanasius was districts. Lignite occurs in fairly extensive beds
considered necessary, as these had been already re- near Gonnesa, Iglesias, and Sulcis; anthracite and
jected, and he and the other two bishops, who were graphite in smaller quantities. There are 117 mines,
permitted to present exculpatory documents, were employing 12,000 men, and having an output valued
declared innocent. In addition to this, censure was at about 21,000,000 francs (1903). The flora of the
passed on the Easterns for having abandoned the island includes vast forests of oak which supply an
council, and several of them were deposed and ex- immense quantity of cork, oUves, oranges, quinces,
communicated. chestnuts, walnuts, and carob-beans. Among the
The question of a new creed containing some ad- fauna the principal are the numerous herds of mouf-
ditions to that of Nicaea was discussed, but although flons (Ovis Ammon), with large curving horns, and of
the formulae had been drawn up, the bishops wisely goats; deer, stags, and wild boars are plentiful in the
decided to add nothing to the accepted symbol, and wooded mountains; wild horses disappeared only a
thus gave the Arians no pretext for saying that few decades ago. The domesticated horses are re-
hitherto they had not been explicitly condemned. markably sturdy; a species of small horse is largely
Though the form of the proposed creed was presented exported to Algeria. The small Sardinian ass is in
to the council, it was not inserted in the encychcal great demand as a pet on the peninsula. Oxen are
addressed by the council to "all the bishops of the used in ploughing, the beef is good, but the milk
CathoUc Church" Before separating, the bishops supply very short. In the oak forests there still
enacted several important canons, especially concem- exists a species of wild pig, like the wild boar.
*^® transfer and trial of bishops and appeals. Agriculture is in a backward state owing to the
Tk
These canons, with the other documents of the coun- scanty population; the farms are mostly medium-sized
cil, were
sent to Pope Julius with a letter signed by or small; 618^ square miles are incapable of culti-
the majority of the
attending bishops. The council vation. One of the worst agricultural pests in Sar-
tailed entirely to
accomplish its purpose. The paci- dina is the locusts which come over from Africa in
ncation of the Church was not secured, and the large swarms. The total produce for 1903 was
iiiastem bishops
grew bolder and more contu- wheat, 4,824,090 bushels; Indian corn, 178, 775 bushels;
macious. wine, 63,664,970 gallons; oil, 221,110 gallons; the salt-
 SARDINIA 474 SARDINIA
pans of Cagliari are the most productive in Italy, the and 363 communes. Ecclesiastically it is divided
output for the year 1905 being 1,403,372 pounds. into 3 archdioceses and 8 dioceses: Cagliari, with its
The birds most worthy of notice are the pehcans, suffragan sees Galtelh-Nuoro, Iglesias, Ogliastra;
herons, and flamingos which come over during Au- Oristano with its suffragans Ales and Terralba;
gust in large flocks from Africa. The seas abound Sassari with its suffragans Alghero, Ampurias and
in fish of every kind, sardines, anchovies, and espe- Tempio, Bisarchio, Bosa. Formerly there existed
cially tunny-fish, of which more than 661,386 pounds the Sees of Doglia, Forum Traianum, Fasiana, Suelio
are exported annually. Near the island of S. Pietro, (Cagliari), Sulcis (Iglesias), Torres, Sorra, Ploaghe
the Gulfs of Palmas, Asinara, Oristano, and Cape (Sassari), Ottaba, Castro (Alghero), Civita (Ampu-
Carbonara there are extensive beds of coral, 5512 rias),Sta Giusta (Oristano).
pounds of which are exported each year. —
History. The name of the island is derived from
In historic times the people of Sardinia have under- Sardon or Sardus, the principal god venerated by
gone less amalgamation than any other Italian popu- the inhabitants, who had a large temple at the Gulf
lation. According to the ancient geographers, the of Oristano. Some writers wish to identify the Sar-
primitive population of Sardinia was akin to the dinians with the Shardana who, in the reign of Rameses
Libyans; Iberians, Greeks, Phoenicians, Carthagin- III, invaded Egypt. Concerning their race, ancient
ians, and Italians came later. Certainly the Latin writers believe them akin to the Libyans, the Iberians,
language was adopted in the island, and even to-day or the Corsicans. A comparison of the idols of the
the Sardinian resembles Latin more than any other most ancient inhabitants with the style of dress of
of the Italian dialects. There are three chief Sardin- the present inhabitants shows that the present Sar-
ian dialects: that of Sassari which approaches Cor- dinian race is practically identical with the primitive
sican and Tuscan, that of Logudoro, and that of race. To the latter must be attributed the pecuhar
Cagliari (Sardinian properly so-called, somewhat like monuments (about 3000 in number), called nuraghe,
Sicilian). The most striking characteristic of the scattered through the island, which are like truncated
Sardinian language is that, while throughout the cones, 53 feet high, and 99 wide at the base, con-
peninsula of Italy the article is derived from the Latin structed of large masses of hmestone, granite, or tufa,
pronoun ille iil, lo, la, 'o, 'u), in Sardinian it is deri^-ed superimposed without mortar. The entrance to the
from ipse (sit, masculine; sa, feminine). In the nuraglie faces the south and is about fi\-e or six feet
neighbourhood of Alghero, Catalan is spoken. The high, and two feet \\'ide; it leads to a spiral stairway
Sardinian is by nature taciturn and laborious, but in the wall of the nuraghe, which communicates with
clings to his ancient customs; the women provide the two or three superimposed circular rooms, having
all the household necessities (flour, bread, linen, cloth a sharp angular roof like that of the treasury of My-
etc.); they like bright coloured clothing, especially cenae. Other smaller cones are frequently found
red, while the men dress in black: the latter wear a around the principal nuraghe. There are various
peculiar cap, which is like a long stocking covering opinions as to the object of these buildings: fortified
the head and hanging down the back. They are towers, dwellings, sacerdotal sepulchres (in none
vivacious and love singing and dancing to the ac- have arms been found; all contained skeletons and
companiment of the launcflfla, the ancient tibia. ornaments), pyres etc.
In the environs of Gallura the people meet together Scattered throughout the length of the entire is-
in the winter evenings and practise improvisation. land and not unlike the nuraghe in appearance are a
There is little education among the poorer classes, number of groups of circular dwellings of stone meas-
but the wealthier famiUes fully appreciate the value uring from fifteen to twenty-five feet in diameter.
of higher education, jurisprudence being a favourite Their proximity to each other would suggest that they
study. The percentage of illiterates is comparatively had once formed part of villages. They are not often
speaking lower (68-3 per cent of those under the age met with in the north-eastern extremity, but in the
of 21 and 69-6 for those over 21) than in the middle of the island they are very frequent. Close to
Abruzzi, Apulia, Sicily, Basilicata, and Calabria. each of these buildings was the tombe de gianli or
There are in the island 1056 public elementary, and 40 giant's tomb; a vaulted chamber of about thirty or
private, schools, 48 e^•ening and vacation schools, forty feet in length, with sides of rough masonry and a
4 normal schools, 9 public academies and one not yet roof formed by a superimposed slab. Smaller tombs
completed, 2 lyceums and one in course of construc- {domus de gianas) were also found in a great many
tion, 3 technical schools, 2 technical institutes, 1 places, but were more often met with in the most in-
school of applied art, 2 schools of music, 2 universities accessible regions, and assumed the shape of grottoes
in Cagliari and Sassari. chiselled from the rock rather than that of va,ulted
The bonds of family life are very strong, there chambers. The Phoenician traders naturally visited
being few illegitimate births the Sarchnian is
; the island; Caralis (Cagliari) was their great market;
quick to avenge the honour of his wife or family. Phoenician inscriptions too have been found. The
The percentage of convictions is higher than Carthaginians were not content to trade with Sar-
that of the kingdom, but serious offences are dinia, they wished to subdue it (about 500 b. c); bit-
less frequent (25 per 100,000 inhabitants against ter wars were waged. Nevertheless, various cities
25-3). Brigandage, which in times gone by afflicted were founded. In the First Punic War, L. Comelitts
the island, was caused partly by the sparse- Scipio defeated the Carthaginians (259) near Olbia
ness of the population, which offered malefactors (Terranova). A little later the mercenaries rebelled
a greater chance of escaping, or by the custom of against their Carthaginian masters and established a
the vendetta, on account of which one who had been military government against which the natives re-
guilty of an act of vendetta or who feared to fall a volted, thus giving the Romans an excuse for inter-
\ictim to it had to conceal himself and to become a vening (238) and taking possession of the island, which
brigand; another cause, in the last century, was the along with Corisca was formed into a province under a
radical changes introduced in the eighteenth and praetor. Native uprisings were repressed with ex-
nineteenth centuries in regard to economic customs treme severity: Sempronius Gracchus (181) partly
and rights (the right of cutting timber, of pastur- killed and partly sold into slavery 80,000 of the in-
age etc.). Howe\-er, for some years there have been habitants; again in 114 Caecilius Metellus had to
no properly authenticated cases of brigandage in crush an insurrection.
Sardinia. The island is divided civilly into two The Romans by constructing roads improved the
prfj\inces: Cagliari (called under the Spanish regime economic conditions of the island, which, although it
Capo di sotto) and Sassari (Capo di sopra). These was considered by the Government for the most part
two provinces contain 9 departments, 92 boroughs. poor and unproductive and a place of punishment
 SARDINIA 475 SARDINIA

for those condemned to the mines, enjoyed great their respective rights. Moreover, as Pisa was an
prosperity. The chief towns were CaraUs, Sulci, imperial city, the emperors claimed rights over the
Nura, Xeapolis, Tharros, Othoca, Olbia, Forum island. In the struggle only the seaboard towns suf-
Traia'ni, Bosa, Tibulse. The province was now fered, but the commercial advantages compensated
imperial and now senatorial. It is possible that the the damage caused by war. The interior which was
first seeds of Christianity were
introduced into Sar- under the control of the judges exclusively continued
dinia by the few Christians who with 4000 Jews were to flourish. Barbarossa named his uncle Welf, King
exiled to the island by Tiberius. In the second and of Sardinia, but in 1164 sold the kingdom to Barisone,
third centuries many Roman Christians, including judge of Arborea, who was crowned at Pavia. Other
Callistus, later pope, Pope St. Pontianus, and the families in the peninsula like the Malaspina of Luni,
antipope Hippolyius, were sent to the island (de- the Visconti of Pisa, and the Doria of Genoa, had ac-
scribed as nocjco): the last two died there. Among quired property in the island and become related to
the Sardinian martyrs are the bishops who preceded the judges by marriage. The judicatures of Caghari,
St. Lucifer of Cagliari, of whom St. Athanasius speaks, Torres, and Gallura were suppressed by the Pisans.
which shows that at least in the time of the Diocle- When later Adelasia, widow of Ubaldo Visconti and
tian persecution that city was the seat of a bishopric mistress of the judicatures of Torres and Gallura,
St. Bonifacius, Bishop of Cagliari, whose tombstone married (1238) Enzo, Frederick IPs bastard, the latter
was discovered in 1617 in the cathedral (Corpus proclaimed himself King of Sardinia; but he was soon
Inscript. Lat. Sicilise et Sardiniae, II, n. 7753), was overthrown and after twenty-two years' imprisonment
not a personal disciple of Christ but belonged to the died at Bologna. The marriage of the Genoese Mi-
age after Constantius. Other martyrs are recorded chele Zanche with Enzo's mother embittered the war
at Cagliari, Sulci, Torres; not all of them, however, between Pisa and Genoa. When Pisa was victorious
have been authenticated. Up to the present time their vassals, the della Gherardesca and Nino di Gal-
only one Christian cemetery is known, that of Bonorva lura, rose in revolt, some signiories passing to the Vis-
near Cagliari; there are ruins of a fourth-century conti of Milan. Finally the Genoese got the north-
Christian basihca at Tharros. Christian inscriptions west and the Pisans the south-east.
have been found in Cagliari (66), Tharros, Torres, In 1297 Boniface VIII, in order to induce the King
Terranova. of Aragon to restore Sicily to Charles of Anjou,
In 456 the island was taken by the Vandals, who granted the investiture of Sardinia to Alfonso of Ara-
were wont to exile thither, especially to the neigh- gon. The latter aided by Branca Doria, judge of
bourhood of Cagliari, the African bishops and Catho- Logudoro and lord of Alghero, Ugone of Arborea, and
lics. In 534 it was recovered for the empire by Cyril- thecommune of Sassari, began war against the Pisans,
lus, and included in the Diocese of Africa. In 551 who in 1324 had to sign a treaty which left them only
it was captured by Totila. As far as is known the the port and lagoon of Cagliari and two suburbs; and
Longobards raided the island only once (589), but did from these they were expelled later. On the defeat
not obtain control of it. Sardinia, moreover, was of the Pisans it was necessary to subdue the ancient
abandoned to its fate by the Byzantines more than allies: i. e. the Genoese and the rulers of Arborea. Ma-
the peninsula, and consequently the tradition which riano IV fought successfully against the Aragonese, but
dates in the sixth century the origin of the three was carried off by a pestilence (1367) his son Gu-
;

(later four) judicatures, into which the island was glielmo IV abdicated in favour of the Aragonese, and
later divided, may have a historical foundation. died a little later. In the beginning the King of
The traditiori runs that Taletus, a citizen of Cagliari, Aragon planted colonies of Catalonians and Arago-
rebelled against the Byzantine Government, pro- nese in the island. Sardinia had a viceroy and a par-
claimed himself King of Sardinia, and divided the liament composed of the three orders barons, clergy,
:

island among his three sons. From the letters of and the commons meeting separately and communi-
St. Gregory we know that in some parts of the island, cating among themselves by means of deputies. The
especially in the ecclesiastical possessions, there charter of Eleanora Tvas adopted as a Constitution;
were many pagans who had to pay a tax to the judex and the King of Aragon swore in the presence of the
of the island for each sacrifice. In the ninth century Sardinian deputies to observe it. Nevertheless, the
such was the general depravity that Paulus, Bishop Aragonese Government succeeded in estabhshing in
of Populonia, and Abbot Saxo, legate of Nicholas I, the island a dominant Spanish class, either by grant-
placed the whole island under excommunication. ing most of the fiefs to Spanish nobles or by appoint-
The episcopal sees were reduced to four in the tenth ing Spanish prelates to most of the sees. This stirred
century. This decadence is to be attributed in part up enmity between the natives and the ruling classes;
to the inroads in the seventh century of the Saracens, but only one attempt at rebellion is recorded, that of
who were, however, always repulsed by the Sardin- Leonardo Alagon (1470). In the history of the suc-
ians. The latter had to establish an autonomous ceeding years we may note the expulsion of all the
military organization, which naturally led to a Corsicans (1479) and Jews (1492), some Saracen in-
political organization, the chiefs of which, while roads, and three attempts of the French to conquer
preserving the title of Byzantine governor, were the island (1528 at Castel Sardo; 1637 at Oristano;
called judges. In the tenth century there were 1644 at Alghero).
four of these judges in Torres, Arborea, Gallura, and The War of the Spanish Succession plunged the
Cagliari; this distribution of the island remained till island in anarchy. By the Peace of Utrecht (1713)
the Aragonese conquest. Sardinia was given to Austria, for which the moun-
Shortly after 1000, Mughebid, Emir of the Balearic taineers of Gallura had declared themselves from the
Islands, conquered Sardinia and from there made de- beginning. Cardinal Alberoni's bold attempt (1717)
scents on the Tuscan coast (Pisa and Luni). En- regained the island for the Spaniards; but in 1718 by
couraged by the pope, to whom Charlemagne had the Treaty of London it was given to Savoy in ex-
given Sardinia, the Pisans with the assistance of the change for Sicily which was awarded to Austria.
Sardinians drove him out. Mughebid was defeated a The dukes of Savoy then assumed the title of King
»;Oond time with the help of the Pisans and Genoese. of Sardinia. The kingdom comprised at that time
1 he pope's suzerainty was then recognized willingly the Island of Sardinia, the Duchies of Savoy, Aosta,
by the judges. The Genoese and the Pisans had a and Monferrato, the Principahty of Piedmont, the
monopoly of the trade and also possession of several Marquisate of Saluzzo, the Counties of Asti and Nizza,
towns on the coast, and moreover acted as arbiters and some Lombard towns as far as the Ticino. King
"> the quaxrels of the
judges. But later a dispute Charles Emmanuel III (1720-73) and his minister
arose between the
two cities, in regard to the limits of Bogino began certain reforms in the island, a work
 SAREPTA 476 SAREPTA
which was interrupted from 1773 till 1820. In 1792 rected. In 1847 Charles Albert granted freedom of
the French admiral, Truquet, attempted to land at the press and other hberal institutions. On 8 Feb-
Cagliari but was repulsed. In the following years ruary he promulgated the statute which still remains
there were several attempts to throw off the power of the fundamental law of the Kingdom of Italy. One
the Piedmontese. King Charles Emmanuel IV took month later he declared war on Austria in order to
refuge in the island from 1799 till 1806, when his come to the rescue of the Lombards who were eager
domains were invaded by the French. The Congress to throw off the Austrian yoke at once. Though
of Vienna gave the RepubUc of Genoa to the Sardin- victorious in the first engagements, he suffered a
ians. The kingdom then contained thirty-seven severe defeat at Custoza and, after the armistice of
provinces. Between 1820 and 1848 feudalism, which Salasco, was again defeated at Novara (1849).
in 1807 had caused widespread rebellion of the bur- The King of Sardinia had for the time being to
gesses against the nobles, was abolished. Another abandon his idea of conquest. Charles Albert ab-
project was the construction of a vast network of dicated in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II
roads which were greatly needed. In general however (1849-78) and withdrew to Oporto where he died the
the Savoy and Italian Governments have neglected same year. There followed ten years of mihtary
the wants and interests of the Sardinians. In 1861 preparations, which were tested in the Crimean War,
after the annexation of almost all the peninsula the and vigorous diplomatic and sectarian operations to
Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed at Florence and the detriment of the other Italian rulers, carried out
that of Sardinia came to an end. under the direction and inspiration of Count di Cavour,
The following is a list of the kings: Victor Ama- who did not hesitate to enter into league with ]\Iazzini,
dous II (1718-30), who abdicated in favour of his the head of the Republicans, knowing well that the
son Charles Emmanuel III (1730-73), regretting which latter's principles while bringing about the destruction
he was imprisoned at Moncalieri where he died (1732). of the other Itahan states on the one hand, could not,
Charles Emmanuel to conquer the Milanese allied on the other, serve as a basis for a permanent political
himself with France and Spain, in the War of the Po- organization. In 1859 the Sardinian Go\ernment,
lish Succession he was frequently victorious but only
; aided by France, declared war on Austria and captured
obtained the region on the right of the Ticino (1738). all Lombardy with the exception of Mantua. At the
He took part in the War of the Austrian Succession; same time in Tuscany, the Duchies of Parma and
gained splendid victories (the siege of Toulon, 1746; Modena, the legations, the marquisates, and in Umbria
the battle of Col dell' Assietta, 1747), but with very the national committees established provisional gov-
little profit, gaining only the county of Angera and ernments and declared the supremacy of the House
Arona, the valley of Ossola, Vigevano, and Bobbio. of Savoy. Garibaldi landed in Sicily and passed
Victor Amadeus III (1773-96), for having crushed thence into Calabria. The royal armies ever>'where
the nationahst movement in Savoy (1791) with ex- joined with the revolutionary party and on 27 Alarch,
cessive severity, was overthrown by the revolutionary 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed which
army which captured Savoy and Nizza. He allied included all the peninsula except Venice and the
himself with Austria and the campaign was conducted Patrimony of St. Peter.
with varying fortunes, but when Bonaparte took com- The King of Sardinia was confirmed by Pope Bene-
mand of the French troops Victor Amadeus had to dict XIII in his right of nominating bishops and
agree to a humiliating peace. Charles Emmanuel IV other high dignitaries, a right conceded previously
(1796-1802) made an offensive treaty with France, by Nicholas V to the dukes of Savoy. In 1742 a
whereupon his subjects revolted. The rebellion was concordat was concluded between the Sardinian
crushed with severity and thousands of democrats Government and the Holy See, which granted ex-
emigrated either into France or to the Cisalpine Re- tensive privileges to the Government, which were
public, whence they returned in arms. The royal- increased further by Clement XIV and Pius VI. As
ists having obtained the upper hand, France inter- the Italian Concordat of 1803 was extended to Pied-
vened and obliged the king to abandon his possessions mont after the restoration there was no doubt as to
on the mainland (19 December, 1798). Charles the validity of the old and the new treaties. Conse-
Emmanuel withdrew to Sardinia; and in 1802 abdi- quently in 1816 Pius VII made suitable provisions,
cated in favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel I and in 1824 an agreement concerning the adminis-
(1802-21), who in 1814 was returned to Turin and tration and distribution of ecclesiastical property was
saw his dominions increased by the inclusion of Genoa. arrived at. In 1854 attempts were made to have a
As happened elsewhere the restoration did not do new concordat, but as on the one hand, the demands
justice to the legitimate aspirations of the democrats. of the Government were too exorbitant, and, on the
There followed the revolution of 1821 caused by a other, the civil authorities had enacted laws injurious
demand for a Constitution and for war with Austria to the Church, nothing was done. After the promul-
to obtain possession of Lombardy, which Piedmont gation of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Sardinia
had coveted for centuries. As the king had agreed the following dioceses were founded or else re-estab-
with Austria and Naples not to grant the Constitution, Ushed: in Sardinia, Iglesias (1764); Galtelli-Nuoro
he abdicated in favour of Charles Feli.x, his brother, (1780); Bisarchio (1805); Ogliastro (1824); on the
who was absent at the time; Charles Albert, Prince of peninsula: Pinerolo (1748), Susa (1772), Cuneo (1S17),
Carignano, assumed the regency and on 13 March, Biella (1772). During the Revolutionary epoch (1805)
1821, promulgated the Constitution of Spain, which the dioceses of Alba, Fossano, Alessandria, Pinerolo,
was not accepted by Charles Felix (1821-31). Mean- Susa, Biella, Aosta, Bobbio, Tortona, were suppressed.
while, the revolutionary party had joined in the move- In 1817 Vercelli became an archiepiscopal see.
ment for Itahan unity, but there was difference of Cossn, La Sardegna (Rome, 1901); Bresci.vni, / costumt
delta Sardegna (Milan, 1890); Cimba.li, La Sardegna i %n ItahaT
opinion as to the form of that unity, whether there
Mattei, Sardinia Sacra (Rome, 1761) Pintus, Sardinia Sacra
;

should be a great republic, or a federation of repub- 1904); Bogqio, La Cliiesa e lo Stato di Sardegna dal
I (Iglesias,
lics, or again a single monarchy or a federation of Manno, Storia di Sardegna (3rd ed,,
1000 al ISBi (Turin, 1854) ;

principalities. Many however were indifferent to the Turin, 183.5).

U. Benigni.
form. In 1831, therefore, disturbances began in Cen-
tral Italy but were easily suppressed. The same year Sardis. See Sardbs.
Charles Fehx died without offspring and was succeeded Saxepta, a titular see in Phoenicia Prima, suffragan
by Charles Albert (1831^8). The Piedmontese then of Tyre. It is mentioned for the first time in the voy-
decided in favour of a United Kingdom of Italy under age of an Egyptian in the fourteenth century B.C.
the House of Savoy, and to that end all the efforts Chabas, "Voyage d'un Egyptien" (ChMons, 1866),
of the Sardinian Government were henceforward di- Abdias (i, 20), says it was the northern
20, 161, 163.
 SARLAT 477 SARPI

boundary of Chanaan. Sennacherib captured it in to WTite many excellent works. He will always be
701 B c (Schrader, "Die Keilinschriften und das known for his insistence on meditation as morally
Alte Testament", 1883, 200 and '288). learn We necessary for perseverance. He showed how simple
is and within the reach of everyone.
from III Kings, xvii, 8-24, that it was subject to it It was his
Sidon in the time of Achab and that the Prophet labours and success in this matter that occasioned,
Elias, after having multiplied the meal
and oil of a after the servant of God's death, the Apostolic letter
poor woman, raised her son from the dead; the of Benedict XIV and the Indulgences then granted to
chai'ity of this widow was recalled by Our Saviour meditation (16 Dec, 1746). A complete edition of
(Luke, iv, 26). It was probably near this place that Venerable Sarnelli's works has been published at
Christ cured the daughter of the Chanaanite or Syro- Naples, Tipografia, Largo S. Martino, No. 4, as
phcenician woman whose faith He praised (Mark, vii, follows: II Mondo Santificato, 2 vols.; L'Anima
24-30). Sarepta is mentioned also by Josephus, Illuminata; II Mondo Reformato, 3 vols.; L'Eccle-
"Ant. jud.", VIII, xiii, 2; Pliny, "Hist, natur.", siastiooSantificato; Le Glorie e Grandezze della
V, 17; the "Itinerarium Burdigalense; the "Onomas- Divina Madre; Le Discrezione degli Spiriti; II Cris-
ticon" of Eusebius and St. Jerome; by Theodosius tiano Ilium inato; Dirretto ed ammaestrato; Opera
and Pseudo-Antoninus who, in the sixth century calls contra la Bestemmia; Ragioni Cattoliohe, legali e
it a small town, but very Christian (Geyer,"Intinera politiche^ in difesa della oitta rovinata dall'insolentito
hierosolymitana", Vienna, 1898, 18, 147, 150). It meretrioio; II Cristiano Santificato; Lettere Spiri-
contained at that time a church dedicated to St. tuali; Devozioni pratiche per onorare la SS. Trinita
Elias. The "Notitia episcopatuum" of Antioch in e Maria e Devozioni per apparecchio ad una buona
the sixth century, speaks of Sarepta as a suffragan see morte.
of Tyi-e (Echos d'Orient, X, 145); none of its bishops He died in his forty-second year. His first biog-
are known. Some Latin bishops, but merely titulars, rapher, S. Alphonsus, writes: "As soon as he had
are mentioned after 1346 (Eubel, "Hierarchia breathed his last breath his countenance suddenly
catholica medii aevi", I, 457; II, 253; III, 310; —
became beautiful and his body exhaled a sweets
"Revue btoedictine", XXI, 281, 345-53, 353-65; —
odour which remained in the room long after the
XXIV, 72). In 1185, the Greek monk Phocas interment." His body reposes in a side chapel in the
(De locis Sanctis, 7), found the town almost in its Redemptorist church in Naples. He was declared
ancient condition; a century later, according to Venerable in 1874. A decree on his heroic virtues
Burchard, it was in ruins and contained only seven or was published in 1906, and now only miracles are
eight houses (Descriptio Terrse sanctae, II, 9). To- required for his Beatification.
day, Sarepta is known as Khirbet Sarfend between Vita de Gennaro P, D. M. Samelli S, Alfonso, tr. in Com-
panions of S. Alphonsus, Oratorian Series: Dumohtier, Le Vin^-
Tyre and Sidon, on the seashore; the ruins show that rable Serviteur de Dieu, Le Ph'e Janvier-Marie Samelli (Paris,
the town extended 1800 metres north and south, but 1886) — Introductio causae. See Alphonsus Liguori, St.
that it was not very wide. J. Magnier.
Smith, Did, of Greek and Roman Geog., s. v.; Renan, Mission
de Phenicie (Paris, 1864), 663-66; Vigouroux in Diet, de la Same. See Cava and Sarno, Diocese op.
Bible, s. Gtj^rin, Description de la Palestine, GaliUe, II
v.;
(Paris, 1880), 178-81. Sarpi, Paolo, a Servite and anti-papal historian
S. Vailh£. and statesman, b. at Venice, 14 August, 1552; d.
there 14 or 15 January, 1623. At the age of 13 he
Saxlat. See P^rigueux, Diocese op.
joined the Servite Order, exchanging his baptismal
Samelli, Januabids Mahia, one of S. Alphonsus's name of Pietro for that of Paolo. He was ap-
earhest companions, fourth son of Baron Angelo pointed professor of theology and canon law when
Samelli of Ciorani, b. in Naples 12 Sept., 1702; d. he was only twenty. After four years he spent a
30 June, 1744. From his childhood he was remarkable short time at Milan and then taught philosophy in
for modest}-, self-denial, piety, and great diligence in his monastery at Venice. Having been ordained in
his studies. At the age of fourteen he desired to be- 1574, he was elected provincial of his order for the
come a Jesuit, but his father objected and directed Venetian Republic in 1579, and held the office of
him to study law. He succeeded admirably in the procurator general, with residence in Rome, from
legal profession, while daily Mass, visits to the 1585 to 1588. Returning to Venice he devoted him-
Blessed Sacrament, and attendance on the sick in the self chiefly to literary pursuits, and about this time
up all his spare time. At
hospital of incurables filled his anti-ecclesiastical tendencies became manifest.
twenty-six he abandoned the bar and became a cleric. His intimacy with Protestants and statesmen hostile
His zeal showed itself at once in his labours for chil- to the Church caused on various occasions com-
dren, whom he catechized with wonderful success. plaints to be lodged against him before the Venetian
Admirable instructions on this most important matter inquisitor. His hatred of Rome was further in-
may be found in his works for ecclesiastics. He was creased when on three different occasions the Roman
ordained priest in 1732 and immediately became a Curia rejected his nomination for an episcopal see
member of the PropagandaNaples, a congrega-
of by the Republic of Venice. The three sees to which
tion of secular priests devoted to Apostolic work. Venice had nominated him were Milopotamo in
A year later he went to Scala and became one of the 1593, Caorle in 1600, and Nona in Dalmatia in 1601.
earliest companions of S. Alphonsus in founding the The more he hated Rome, the more acceptable he was
Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer. Both to Doge Leonardo Donato and the Venetian senate,
these holy men worked together and gave missions which by a special decree guaranteed him protection
along the coast of Amalfi till 1735, when Ven. Sar- against Rome and appointed him theological con-
nelli's health gave way. He had to.return to Naples, suitor of the state with an annual salary of two hun-
where he spent nine years in a poor apartment with dred ducats. In this capacity he effected the enact-
one lay brother as companion. Scarcely had his ment of various anti-ecclesiastical laws, and it was
health improved than he began a crusade against the chiefly due to the influence of "the terrible friar"
immorality of his time which has rarely been sur- that the interdict which Paul V
placed upon Venice
passed in boldness. In his writings he laid the respon- (1606) remained without effect and was revoked
sibility a,t the doors
of ministers of state, while by his (21 April, 1607). A murderous assault made upon
exhortations he created a public opinion which helped him on 5October, 1607, is often ascribed to his
mm on to success; and God evidently protected him ecclesiastical enemies, but there is not suflScient tes-
m.the dangers to which his zeal exposed him. His timony for their complicity (see the authentic tes-
"'™Ph was complete. His labours amongst the lowly timony of the witnesses, edited by Bazzoni in "Arch-
and abandoned
were continual; yet he found time ivio Storico Italiano", third series, XII, I, Florence,
 SARSFIELD 478 SARTO
1870, S sq.). When peace had been restored between utter destruction. In the second siege of Limerick
Venice and the pope, Sarpi's political influence grew he was again prominent, but finding prolonged re-
less, and during the remainder of his life he gave vent sistance impossible assented to the Treaty of Lime-
to his hatred of Rome by pubhshing bitter invectives rick, which ended the war. He then joined the army
against the pope and the Catholic Church. Despite of France, in which with the Irish Brigade he saw
his desire to subvert the Catholic rehgion and make much service. At Landen in 1693, he commanded the
Venice a Protestant republic, he hypocritically per- left wing of Luxembourg's army, and there received
formed the ordinary offices of a Catholic priest until his death wound. There is a tradition that as he
his death. His best known work is a history of the lay mortally wounded he put his hand to his wound,
Council of Trent, "Istoria del Concilio Tridentino" and drawing it forth covered with blood, he lamented
(London, 1619) pubHshed under the pseudonym of that the blood was not shed for Ireland. He was
Pietro Soave Polano by the apostate Marcantonio carried to Huy where he fingered for a few days.
de Dominis, with adchtions by the latter. Without His widow married the Duke of Berwick.
these additions it was published at Geneva, 1629, O'Callaghan, Irish Brigades in the Seriice of Franrr (Glasgow,
1870); Kelly, Macarioe Excidium, ed. O'Callaghan (Dublin,
and was translated into Latin and some modern 1850); D'Alton, King James's Army List (London, 1861);
languages. It is a bitter invective against the popes, ToDHUNTER, Life of Sarsfield (London, 1895); Clarke, Memoirs
and even Protestants, like Ranke, consider it devoid of James II (London, 1816); Story, Wars of Ireland (London,
1693)- D'Alton, History of Ireland (London, 1910).
of all authority. For the refutation of this work by
E. A. D'Alton.
Pallavicino see Pallavicino, Pietro Sforza. His
works were published in six volumes (Helmstadt, Sarsina, Diocese of (Sarsinatensis), in ^Emilia,
1761-5) and two supplementary volumes (Verona,
Province of Forli, Italy. Besides agriculture and cat-
176S). His letters are: "Lettere Italiane di Fra tle-raising, the principalemployments of the popula-
Sarpi" (Geneva, 1673); " Scelte lettere inedite de P.
tion are the sulphur and maganese industries. There
Sarpi", edited by Bianchi-Giovini (Capolago, 1S33);
are some deposits of fossilized carbon and various sul-
"Lettere raccolte di Sarpi", edited by Polidori
phur springs. Ruins of temples, baths, and fortifica-
(Florence, 1863); "Lettere inedite di Sarpi a S.
tions; and urns, pillars, bronze objects, etc., show
Contarini", edited by Castellani (Venice, 1892);
that this town, the birthplace of Plautus, was impor-
important new letters (1608-16) edited by Benrath
tant in ancient days. It was an Umbrian city, was
(Leipzig, 1909).
Bi.\N'cHl-Gl0VlNI, Biografia di Fra Sarpi (Brussels, 1836);
captured by Cornelius Scipio in 271 and was later a
Campbell, Vita di Fra P. Sarjn (Turin, 1S7.5) ; Cappaso, P. municipium. In the tenth century the bishops ob-
Sarpi e l' Interdvtto di Venezia (Florence, ISSO); Balan, Fra P. tained the temporal sovereignty of the city and the
Sarpi (Venice, 1887); Pascolato, Fra P. Sarpi (Milan, 1893);
Trollope, Paul the Pope and Paul the Friar (London, I860); surrounding district. From 1327 till 1400 it was dis-
Robertson, Fra Paolo Sarpi (London, 1894), extremely anti- puted for by the Ordelaffi of Forli, the popes, and the
papal, compare Murphy in Iri.ih Ecd. Review, XV (1894), 524- bishops. In the fifteenth century it was subject in
40; Campbell, The Terrible Friar in The Messenger, fifth series,
V (New York, 1904), 243-59; Uein, Paolo Sarpi und die Protes- turn to the Malatesta of Cesena, and then to those of
tanten (Helsingfora, 1904); coneerning the sources of his history Rimini, from whom it was taken by Ca3sar Borgia
of the Council of Trent see Ehses in Histori.^ches Jahrbuch, (1500-03), on whose death it was captured by the
XXVI (Munich, 1905), 299-313; XXVII (1906), 66-74. Venetians (1503-09). In 1518 it was enfeoffed to
Michael Ott.
the Pio di Meldola, passing later to the Aldobrandini.
Patrick, at Lucan near Dublin,
The cathedral is a noteworthy monument of the eighth
Sarsfield, b.
century. The patron of the city is St. Vicinus, beheved
about 1650; d. at Huy in Belgium, 1693. On his
to have been bishop about the year 300; another
mother's side he was descended from the O'Mores,
bishop was St. Rufinus (fifth century). We may also
princes of Leix, his grandfather being Roger More,
mention: Benno (770), who erected the cathedral;
the ablest of the leaders who planned the rebellion
St. Apollinaris (1158), monk; Guido (12.55), who de-
of 1641; on his father's side from Anglo-Norman
fended the rights of his church and was killed for so
stock. One of his ancestors was mayor of Dublin
doing; Francesco Calboli (1327), had to defend the
in 1566 and was knighted by Sir Henry Sidney for
city by force of arms against Francesco Ordelaffi;
valuable services rendered to the Government against
Benedetto Mateucci Accorselli (13.S5), the last prince
Shane O'Neill. Another Sarsfield, in the reign of
bishop; Gianfilippo Negusanti (1398), renowned for
Charles I, became a peer with the title of Lord
Kilmallock. His father left him landed property
his piety and erudition; Raffaele degli Alessi (1524),
bringing an income of £2000 a year. His elder
reformed the discipline and the morals of the people;
brother was married to an illegitimate daughter of Nicol6 Branzi (1602) was imprisoned in the Castle
of S. Angelo but Uberated later. In 1807 Napoleon
Charles II, sister of the Duke of Monmouth, and it
was as an ensign in Monmouth's Regiment of Foot suppressed the see, which, having been re-estab-
that Sarsfield first saw service in the army of Luxem- hshed in 1817, was in 1824 united to that of Berti-
noro; but in 1853 was again re-established. The
bourg; but at Sedgemoor, where he was wounded,
Sursfiuld was on the king's side.
diocese is suffragan of Ravenna, and contains 34 par-
In 1688 he followed
ishes,with 90 secular priests, 32,000 inhabitants, and
James II to France, and landed with him at Kinsale
in the following year. James recognized his bravery, 2 houses of monks.
but thought him incapable of high command. Never- Cappelletti, Le chirse d' Italia; Azzalli-Frediani, Delle anti-
child di Sarsina (Faenza, 1769); Copim quorumdem prinlegiorum
theless in 1689 he captured Sligo and secured all Ecclesi(s Sarsiiuc coticcsf^orum (Forli, 1692).
Connaught for the king. At the Boyne he was U. Benigni.
compelled to inacti\'ity, and when James fled to
Dublin he took Sarsfleld with him. After James's Sarto, Andrea del (Andrea d'Agnolo), b. at
departure for France, it was largely through Sarsfield Florence in 1486; d. there in 1531. He received the
that Limerick was defended so well, and it was he surname Sarto from the fact that he was the son of a
who destroyed William's siege train, the most brilliant tailor. At first he was the pupil of an obscure mas-
exploit of the whole war. James was so well pleased ter, G. Barile, but in 1498 he entered the studio of
with him that he created him Earl of Lucan. In the Piero di Cosimo. He visited Rome for a short time.
campaign of 1691 he held a subordinate position Vasari .says, that had he remained there long enough
under St. Ruth. The two often disagreed, and at to study its masterpieces, he would have "surpassed
Aughrim St. Ruth allowed Sarsfield no active share all the artists of his day" Naturally diffident, he
in the battle, leaving him in command of the ca^•alry felt himself a stranger there, and hastened to return to
reserve. When St. Ruth fell Sarsfield could not Florence. Despite his brief career, he producca a
turn defeat into victory, but he saved the Irish from large number of frescoes and easel pictures. In 1509
^!IPV;mr C,,„,,il
,f p„„.,^ p^„

THE MADONNA OF THE HARPIES

ANDREA DEL SARTO, UFFIZI GALLERY, FLORENCE
 SARTO 479 SARUM
he began the fresco decoration of the little cloister of coquette, he squandered the money and did not
re
the Annunziata, connected with the SeTvite church turn to Paris. He has left several portraits of
himself
and convent at Florence He depicted five scenes (Pitti Palace, Uffizi, and National Gallery).
Andrea
from the life of St. Philip Benizi General of the Ser- del Sarto owes much to Fra Bartolommeo,
borrowing
vites; "His Charity to a Leper The Smitingof the
;
from him the architectural arrangement of his composi-
Blasphemers The Cure of the
;
Woman
Possessed tions, as in "Charity" of the Louvre,
where tri
with a Devil'; The Resurrection of Two Children angle
^gle grouping is used. Andrea was above
khnvp «ll
all a
=

near the Tomb

of the isamt ihe Veneration of his
; colourist,"the greatest colourist of the sixteenth
Relics". Later he added the " Adoration of the Magi century, in the region south of the Apennines"
(1511) and the "Nativity of the Virgin" (1514). In (Hurckhardt). In this also he resembles Bartolom-
1525, by way of farewell, he painted for this convent meo but shows more care for chiaroscuro. Like
the masterpiece, "The Madonna of the Sack", so Leonardo da Vinci he excels in sfumato. His draw-
called because in it St. Joseph is represented leaning ings, many of which are preserved at the Uffizi
and
against a sack. In 1514, m
the c'oister of the Scalzo, the Louvre, are characterized by a melting softness
he executed a series of ten frescoes, recounting the which recalls Correggio's dehcate execution but this
history of St. John the Baptist. Four allegorical excessive love of colour led him to neglect the
figures, Faith, Hope, Charity, and Justice, complete superior beauty of expression; his pictures lack con-
the decorative cycle. The in- ^^^.^^ ^^j character. Not un-
fluence of Albrecht Dtirer haa derstanding the true character
been traced in several, but that which each face should express,
of Ghirlandajo has been recog- he usually confines himself to
nized in this as well as in the repeating the same type of Ma-
preceding cycle, though here donnas and Infant Christs, and
Andrea displays a more origi- thus produces an effect of cold-
nal bent. In Poggio's villa at ness and artificiality.
Cajano he painted the fresco Vasari, Le file de' piii eccellenti
(1521), "Caesar receiving the pittori, ed. Milanesi, V (Florence,
1880), 5-72; Reumont, AndTea del
Tribute of the AnimanVorld", Sarto (Leipzig, 183.5); Crowe and
by way of comphmenting the Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in
zoological tastes of Lorenzo the Italy, III (London, 1866), 542;Mantz,
Gazette des Beaux Arts (1876), I, 465;
Magnificent. The work was (1877), I, 38, 261, 338; Champlin,
finished in 1582 by Al. AUori. Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings,
A beautifully executed series IV (New York and London, 1888);
of figures, especially those of
MuNTZ, Hist, de I'art pendant la Re-
naissance, III (Paris, 1895), 508-10;
Sts. Agnes, Catherine, and GuiNNE.9s, Andrea del Sarto (London,
Margaret, were painted (1524) 1899); Knapp, Andrea del Sarto (Biele-
feld, 1907) P^RAT^, Andrea del Sarto in
;
in the cathedral of Pisa. His Michel, Hist, del' Art, IV (Paris, 1909),
last fresco, "The Last Supper", 382-86. Gaston Sohtais.
was done for the refectory in the
convent of San Salvi, at the Sarto, Giuseppe Melchi-
gates of
Florence. Here An- OBRE. See Pius X, Pope.
drea drew his inspiration from
Sarum Rite (more accu-
Leonardo da Vinci. The beau-
rately Sarum Use), the man-
tiful work shows Uvely and ner of regulating the details
varied colouring, but lacks the Self-portrait of Andrea del Sahto of the Roman Liturgy that ob-
perfection of drawing and es- Uffizi Gallery, Florence
tained in pre-Reformation times
pecially the dramatic quaUty of
the "Last Supper in the south of England and was thence propagated over
of Milan.
the greater part of Scotland and of Ireland. Other,
His pnncipal pictures are: at the Pitti
Palace, "The though not very dissimilar Uses, those of York,
Annunciation (1513); " Madonna with Sts. Francis Lincoln, Bangor, and Hereford, prevailed in the
and John the Evangelist"
(1517); "Disputation con- north of England and in Wales. The Christian
cemmg the Tnnity" (1517), a \'ery careful painting Anglo-Saxons knew no other Liturgy than that of
the
in which^the artist
"comes closest to intellectual ex- Mother Church of Rome. Their celebrated Synod
j™'^^'''^*)' "Descent from the Cross" of Clovesho (747) lays down: "That in one and the
Flw/iTaAV
U0Z4), Madonna with four saints" (1524); "The same manner we all celebrate the Sacred Festivals
Assumption (1526), of which there are
two variations; pertaining to Our Lord's coming in the Flesh; and
at the Uilizi
Madonna of the Harpies, with St. so in everything, in the way we confer Baptism, in
ancis and fet. John"
(1517), so called because of the our celebration of Mass, and in our manner of singing,
aecorations on the pedestal
on which the Blessed Vir- All has to be done according to the pattern which we
gm stands with the Infant Jesus in
her arms; at the have received in writing from the Roman Church"
°',^'='''in' "The \irgin with Saints" {Canon IS).— "That the Seven Canonical Hours be
in tT'n' (1528);
"ijf^ j^'^'^sden Gallery, " The Sacrifice of Abraham " everywhere gone through with the fitting Psalmody
"-P^SB of St. Catherine"; at the Hermitage and with the proper chant; and that no one presume
Mnsp
useum, bt. Petersburg,
"Madonna between Sts. to sing or to read aught save what custom admits,
'^®*^^"' ^* the Museum of Vienna, what comes down to us with the authority of Holy
"Th7p°t<'*iw,f
ttio T f i T
^^°^'^y> ^t the Louvre, "The Virgin with Scripture, and what the usage of the Roman Church
Ehzabeth and St. John," which allows to be sung or read" (Canon 15).
is an -^t f-*'^"^'

"Cha'^'' 'Ti,°^'^*P'^^^?'^
"Madonna Canigiani"; St. Osmund, a Norman nobleman, who came over
" ' "®^^ two pictures were purchased by to England with William the Conqueror, and was by
Fran T
According to Vasari, the King of France him made Bishop of Sarum or Salisbury (1078),
Wasch^
to Pari "w-
^ ^^ talent and induced him to come compiled the books corresponding to our Missal,
must ^' lP°'^''^'t of the dauphin and " Charity" Breviary, and Ritual, which revised and fixed the
?° painted during his stay at the Anglo-Saxon readings of the Roman Rite. With
court Oht
denar'tprl -^'u
'°^ permission to visit Florence, he these he appears very naturally to have incorporated
money to collect works of art for certain liturgical traditions of his Norman fellow-
Fmncis f'^
'°S of weak character and dom- countrymen, who, however, equally with the con-
inated h w'
Dy ins wife, a
beautiful and unscrupulous quered English, ever sought to do all things in
 SARUM 480 SARUM
church exactly as was done in Rome. In appreciat- the Way and the Life." The "Quod ore sumpsimus"
ing the wide-spread Sarum Use, concerning which the and some other prayers accompanied the taking of
extant literature is very copious, it is well to bear in the ablutions, and the Communion and Postcommun-
mind that just as the Roman Rite itself has always ion followed as now. But no Blessing was given and
been patient of laudable local customs, so, in medieval the beginning of the Gospel of St. John was recited
times the adopting of the Sarum Service Books did by the priest on his way from the sanctuary to the
not necessarily mean the rejecting of existing cere- sacristy.
monial usages in favour of those in vogue at Salis- (2) The Sarum Breviary, Uke the Sarum Missal,
bury, but only the fitting thereof into the framework is essentially Roman. The Psalter is distributed
outlined in the Sarum Missal, Breviary, and other through the seven Canonical Hours for weekly recita-
liturgical manuals. Again, it must not be forgotten tion exactly as with us, though naturally the psalms
that the Sarum Use represents in the main the Roman (XXI-XXV) left over from the Sunday Matins and
Rite as carried out in the eleventh century, and that assigned by Pius V for the Prime of different feriaa
the reforms introduced by Gregory VII and his im- are, as in the Dominican and Carmehte Breviaries,
mediate successors which culminated in the thirteenth- marked to be recited together on Sundays in their old
century Franciscan revision of the Breviary, only very place at the beginning of that Canonical Hour. Nor
slowly and very partially found their way into the in the Sarum Matins do there occur the short prayers
service books of the Gallic and British Churches. termed Absolutions. On the other hand, a ninth
Hence, the marked resemblance of the Sarum Use Responsory always preceded the Te Deum which
to those of the Dominicans, Calced Carmelites, and was followed by the
so-called "Versus Sacerdotalis",
other medieval religious orders. that to say, a versicle intoned by the officiating
is
The following are the more noticeable variants of priest and not by a cantor. At least on festival days,
the Use of Sarum from the developed Roman Rite a Responsory was sung between the Little Chapter
of our own times. and Hymn of Vespers. When there were Commem-
(1) At Mass, as in the Dominican Use, the Sarum orations or Memories as they are called in the Sarum,
priest began by saying a verse of the psalm "Con- Dominican and allied Uses, the "Benedicamus
fitemini", with a shortened Confiteor followed by the Domino " of Vespers and Lauds was twice sung; once
verse "Adjutorium nostrum in nomine Domini". after the first Collect, and once after the last of the
Nevertheless, at Salisbury every celebrant was bound Commemorations. Compline began with the verse
to have recited the whole psalm "Judica me Deus" "Converte nos Deus", the hymn followed instead of
in the sacristy before coming to the foot of the altar. preceding the Little Chapter, and the Confiteor, as at
The prayer "Aufer a nobis" was said, but not that Prime, was said among the Preces. The Compline
which now follows it, in lieu of which the priest Antiphons, hymn, etc., varied with the ecclesiastical
simply made the sign of the cross and proceeded to seasons; but the introduction of a final Antiphon and
read the Officium, or as we call it, the Introit, repeating Prayer of Our Blessed Lady closing the Divine Office
it not onl}' after its Gloria Patri but also after the (Divine Service, it was called at Sarum) is posterior
psalm-verse wliich precedes the latter. From the to Sarum times. The Antiphons of the Sarum Offices
Kyrie to the Offertory the deviations from our actual differ considerably from those in the actual Roman
usage are slight, though on festival days this section Breviary; but both from the literary and from the
of the sacred rite was often enormously lengthened devotional point of view the latter are in most in-
by varied and prolix sequences. Like the Dominican stances preferable to those they have superseded. The
and other contemporaneous Uses, that of Sarum sup- proper psalms for the various Commons of Saints and
poses the previous preparation of the chalice (put by for feast days are nearly always the same as now; but
the Sarum Missal between the Epistle and Gospel), for the First Vespers of the greater solemnities the
and thereby materially abbreviates the Offertory five psalms beginning with the word "Laudate"
ceremonial. According to an archaic usage, still were appointed as in the Dominican Breviary. The
familiar to ourselves from the Roman Good-Friday order of the reading of Holy Scripture at Matins is
Rite, the prayer "In spiritu humilitatis" followed in practically identical with that of the Breviary of
place of preceding the washing of the priest's hands, Pius V, though in the Middle Ages the First Nocturn
and the psalm "Lavabo" was omitted, so also to the was not as now reserved for these Lections only. An
"Orate Fratres" (at Sarum, "Orate Fratres et interesting feature of the Sarum Breviary is its inclu-
Sorores") no audible response was made. From the sion of Scripture Lections for the ferias of Lent. The
Preface onward through the Canon, the Sarum Mass Lections taken from the writings of the Fathers and
was word for word and gesture by gesture that of our from the Legends of the Saints were often dispropor-
own Missals, except that a profound inclination of tionately long and obviously needed the drastic re-
head and shoulders took the place of the modern vision they received after the Council of Trent. The
genuflection and that during the first prayer after the Sarum hymns are in the main those of the Roman
Elevation the celebrant stood with arms stretched Breviary as sung before their revision under Urban
out in the form of a cross. As in France and generally VIII and comprise by consequence the famous "Veni
in Northern and Western Europe the Benediction Redemptor" of Christmas Vespers and the "0 quam
given at the breaking of the Sacred Host was not glorifica" of the Assumption with one or two others
curtailed to the mere pronouncing of the words in like manner now obsolete.
"Pax Domini sit semper vobiscum" but, more par- (.3) Very striking in the Sarum Use is the elaborate
ticularly when a bishop officiated, was very solemnly splendour of the accompanying ceremonial, which
given with a formula varying according to the festival. contrasts vividly with the comparative simplicity of
The Agnus Dei in the Sarum Use was said as by the Roman practice. Three, five, seven deacons and as
Dominicans after and not before the Commingling, many subdeacons, two or more thurifers, three cross-
but the prayers before the priest's Communion were bearers and so on are often prescribed or at least con-
other than those with which we are familiar. The kiss templated. Two or four priests vested in copes,
of peace was given as with us but there was no termed Reclores Chori or Rulers of the Choir, presided
"Domine non sum dignus". The words pronounced over the sacred chants. There was censing of many
by the celebrant at the moment of his own Communion altars, and even during the reading of the Lections at
are striking and seem peculiar to the Sarum Missal. Matins priests in their vestments offered incense at
They may therefore be fittingly quoted: "Hail for the high altar. Processions were frequent, and that
evermore, Thou most holy Flesh of Christ; sweet preceding the High Mass on Sundays was specially
to me before and beyond all things beside. To me magnificent. On the altar itself rarely more than two
a, sinner may the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ be or at the most four candlesticks were placed, but
 SARZANA 481 SARZANA
standing round or suspended from the roof were many (8) The Sarum Holy Week was imposing. The
other lights. An ornament used at Sarum, which at Palm-Sunday procession moved to a tent or chapel
was the a,t some distance from the church, whither
present survives only at papal functions, the Blessed
ritual fan. It was made of rich materials and was Sacrament had been conveyed at daybreak, and re-
waved by a deacon over the priest during his cele- turned preceding two priests bearing the Blessed
bration of the Holy Mysteries. Sacrament in a feretory on their shoulders. At the
(4) The Sarum churches followed the Roman eccle- words in the Passion: "And the veil of the temple
siastical calendar, supplementing it, as is still done, was rent in the midst", a great white curtain which
with a multiphcity of local feasts. We note one or from the first day of Lent had concealed the altar and
two variants. The feast of the Apparition of St. sanctuary from the choir and people was divided and
Michael at Mont-St-Michel in Normandy (16 Oct.) drawn aside. The Tenebras candles were twenty-four
was kept instead of that of the same archangel in in number iristead of fifteen, and the Office itself was
Italy (8 May) ;Sts. Crispin and Crispinian take as in almost identically that now in use among the Domin-
France and elsewhere the place of Sts. Chrysanthus icans, Calced Carmelites, etc. On Maundy Thursday,
and Darias (25 Oct.) a feast of Relics is kept in July;
; three hosts were consecrated for, in addition to the
:

that of the Jilost Sweet Nameof Jesus on 7 August; one to be consumed in the Good-Friday service, an-
that of St. Linus the Pope in November instead of in other was needed to remain m
the sepulchre until
September, etc. The classification of festivals in Easter Sunday morning, beside which on Good Fri-
Sarum Use is slightly more compUcated than that day, with much ceremony and the formal sealing of
which now prevails. To the cleverly drawn up Book the tomb, the unveiled crucifix was laid. The Easter
of Rules for finding out the particulars of the Office or Sepulchre itself was mostly a permanent stone struc-
Mass to be said, which was parti-coloured, being ture recalling in its shape and decoration the altar-
written in red and black, the name of "Pica" or tombs of the period. Very much, too, was made of
"Pie" was given. Feasts are either double or simple, the Easter Sunday procession of the return of the
the former being subdivided into principal doubles, crucifix and of the Blessed Sacrament to the high
non-principal doubles, greater doubles, etc. Simple altar, the latter again to be enshrined in the pendant
feasts (among which are reckoned days within octaves) dove for which our tabernacle has been substituted.
have only three lessons at Matins, though the nocturn The Holy Saturday function was very similar to that
preceding these is sometimes of three, sometimes of of the present day. The grand old h}Tnn of Pruden-
nine and sometimes of twelve psalms. tius "Inventor rutili" has, however, long since given
(5) The order of Collects, Epistles, and Gospels place to our "Lumen Christi", and the prolix five-
differs from that of our Missals in that the summer fold and seven-fold Litanies have been materially
Sundays being called First, Second, etc., after Trinity, abridged. In medieval England, as in French churches
instead of being counted from Pentecost, there is some almost to our own day, the solemn visit to the font
slight inversion of order. The Second Sunday of Lent by the officiating clergy during the Second Vespers
had its proper Gospel (Matt., XV, 21) in lieu of that of Easter was the occasion of much musical display.
of the Transfiguration now repeated from the pre- (9) Holy Church in all ages has tolerated consider-
ceding Saturday. For the Sunday next before Advent, able diversity in the accessory ceremonies accompany-
the Gospel assigned was not that of the Last Judg- ing the ministering of Sacraments other than that of
ment, but the entering of our Lord into Jerusalem on the Holy Eucharist. The ritual still in use in England
Palm Sunday (Matt., XXI, 1), our Gospels of the perpetuates some of the Sarum peculiarities such as
First, Second, and Third Advent Sundays becoming the manner of the plighting of troths^ the giving of
those of the Second, Third, and Fourth respectively. gold and silver by bridegroom to bride during the
It is evident, therefore, that the selection of Sunday marriage ceremony, and the like, though some other
Gospels in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer observances, such as the holding of a silken canopy
merely perpetuates a Catholic tradition. over the newly-married couple and the falling of the
(6) The Sarum sequence of colours is very ill- bride at her husband's feet to kiss them in token of
defined. However, as in the Dominican Missal, it is subjection, have dropped out. As evidence of the
expressly laid down that on solemn days the most dependence of the Sarum Use on the Roman tradition,
precious vestments be used irrespective of their hue. it may also be noted that in place of the Anglo-
Otherwise, the recognized Sarum colours were white, Saxon form for the Sacrament of Extreme Unction
red, green, and yellow, with black for Masses for the "Ungo oculos tuos", etc, the Sarum books prescribe
Dead. In the later centuries purple or violet, and the Roman formula "Per istam sanctam Unctionem",
blue, seem to have been very generally added. Yellow etc, a change which from the point of view of the
vestments are prescribed for feasts of Confessors. To theologian is of real importance.
our Blessed Lady white was allotted, but never blue, During the few years of the reign of Mary Tudor
which colour, on its introduction from the Continent, an attempt was made in England to resuscitate the
was looked upon as merely a substitute for purple or Sarum Use, which lingered on for sometime after-
violet. In Passion-tide (Good Friday included) the wards among the Seminary priests of persecution
—
Sarum liturgical colour was red a custom still ob- times; but it is now wholly obsolete, except, as the
served at Milan. Astriking peculiarity of the Sarum reader will have remarked, in so far as the Dominican,
Use was the appointing of white vestments for Lent, Carmelite and kindred Uses, cling, like that of Sarum,
except at the Blessing of Ashes on Ash Wednesday, to certain liturgical practices derived from early
when the celebrant wore a red cope. Similarly the Roman discipline, but which the Church has allowed
sacred pictures and statues were veiled in white and to fall into desuetude.
not as with us in purple. They were thus covered not
Sarum Missal (Cambridge, 1880) Sarum Breviary (Cambridge,
;

only during the two last 1886); Rock, Church of our Fathers (London, 1903); Idem,
weeks of Lent, but from its
Easter Sunday morning. Hierurgia (London, 1892) Fhebe, Use of Sarum (Cambridge,
mT^ until ;

(7) Sarum customs included elaborate ceremonial

1898); VS^ORDSWORTH, Mediceval Services in England (London,
1898) ;Idem, Salisbury Processions and Ceremonies (Cambridge,
observance at Christmas-tide, of the feast of Deacons 1901);Maydston, Tracts (Bradshaw Society, 1894); Feaset,
on St. Stephen's Day Ancient English Holy Week Ceremonial (London, 1897);
(26 Dec), of the feast of Priests
Mabkell, Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England (Oxtord,
Pvii- '^°h°'s Day (27 Dec), and of the feast of 1882); Proceedings of tlie St. Paul's amd otlier ecclesiological
^hildren or Childermas, on Holy Innocents' Day (28 societies, etc. „ „ ,..
^ec.). Much also was made of the traditional re- F. Thomas Bergh.
nearsmg of the twofold genealogy of our Blessed Lord;
on l-hnstmas Day
itself that according to St.Matthew, Sarzana. See Luni, Sarzana-Brtjgnato, Dio-
and on the Epiphany cese OP.
that according to St. Luke.
XIIL—31
 SASIMA 482 SASKATCHEWAN
Sasima, a titular see in Cappadocia. Sasima is passing through a long chain of more or less important
mentioned only in three non-religious documents: lakes, becomes the Churchill, and pursues its course in
"Itiner. Anton.", 144; "Itiner. HiersoL", 577; an easterly direction until it empties itself into Hudson
Hieroclcs, 700, 6. This poor hamlet, hidden in an Bay, at the trading post of the same name. Xorthern
arid region, is known to all as the first see of St. Alberta is drained by still larger rivers, such as the
(iregory of Xazianzus who was appointed to it by Peace, which lises in Lake Thutage (Thutade), British
.St. Basil. The saint soon left it without having Columbia. It is first called the Finlay, and after its
exerci-sed any episcopal functions there. One of the confluence with the Parsnip, is known as the Peace,
reasons was that Anthimus, metropoUtan of Tyana, but north of Lake Athabasca it again changes its
claimed jurisdiction over the see, which is, in fact, name to the Slave, only to course further on the great
said by all the Greek "Notitiae episcopatuum " to Canadian Northland as the Mackenzie River. South
be subject to Cappadocia Secunda; however, the of the Peace is the Athabasca River, which flows into
official catalogue of the Roman Curia continues to the lake of the same name. This fine sheet of water
place it under Cappadocia Prima, i. e., as a suffragan is common to both provinces. It has an area of 2S42
of Caesarea. Ambrose of Sasima signed the letter square miles. Alberta can boast only one important
of the bishops of the province to Emperor Leo in lake, namely Lesser Slave Lake, which in spite of its
458. About the same time Eleusius appears as an name is almost 70 miles in length. Saskatchewan, on
adversary of the Council of Chalcedon. Towards the other hand, counts such bodies of water as Cree
1143 Clement was condemned as a Bogamile. The Lake, 407 square miles; WoUaston Lake, 906 miles;
"Notitiae" mention the see until the following cen- Reindeer or Caribou Lake, 2437 miles, and a host of
tury. Sasima is the present village of Zamzama, a smaller ones, which lie mostly in the north. There
little to the north of Yer Hissar, in the vilayet of are in either province few mountains, none of which
Koniah, where a few inscriptions and rock tombs are are important.
to be found.
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geography, g. v.; Ramsay,
—
Resources. Saskatchewan is par excellence the
wheat-growing region of Canada. Its plains are
Asia Minor, 293 and passim; Le Quien, Oriens Christianas,
I, 405; Gr^goire in Bulletin de correspondance hdiimigue,
famous for their fertility. They extend from the in-
XXXIII, 129. ternational boundary, practically to Prince Albert,
S. Petrid^s. 53° 1.5' X. lat., where the northern forest, which itself
contains important stretches of agricultural land, com-
Saskatchewan and Alberta, the twin provinces mences. The total area under cultivation (1910) was
of the Canadian A^'est, so called because they were 7,558,170 acres. The crops were then poorer than
formed on the same day (1 Sept., 1905), by an Act of usual. The previous year (1909) the yield in the
the Dominion Parliament, which gave them an various cereals had been as follows: wheat, 90,215,000
identical constitution. The former derives its name bushels; oats, 105,465,000; barley, 7,833,000; and flax,
from the important river, Kissiskalchiwan, or Swift 4,448,700. The acreage under cultivation this year
Current, now better known under the abbreviation (1911) is considerably larger. Alberta's best farm-
of Saskatchewan, whose two branches drain it from ing-lands are in the northern interior (the region of
west to east. The latter was called after the episco- which Edmonton is the centre), and this extends much
pal borough of St. Albert, nine miles from Edmonton, farther north than in Saskatchewan, while the south-
which itself had been named after its founder. Father ern portion of Alberta, being rather high and of lighter
Albert Lacombe, O.M.I., the veteran missionary of soil, is better adapted to stock-raising. In addition to
the Far A\'est. the above cereals the province also grows alfalfa, and
—
Boundaries and Area. Saskatchewan was made up all classes of roots, notably the sugar-beet, whose culti-
of the unorganized districts of Assiniboia, Saskatche- vation constitutes one of its most important indus-
wan, and Eastern Athabasca, while the original Terri- tries. Lumbering is carried on around the upper
tory of Alberta and the remaining half of Athabasca waters of the North Saskatchewan and Athabasca
contributed to form the second province. Both prov- Rivers in Alberta, while in Saskatchewan large saw-
inces have identical southern and northern boundaries mills have been established at and near Prince Albert.
(49° and 60° N. lat.). Saskatchewan hes between Alberta is also rich in coal and oil. Its principal
102° and 110° W. long, while the western frontier of mining centres are Lethbridge, Coleman, Frank, Can-
Alberta is the summit of the Rocky Mountains as far more, Edmonton, and Morinville. Oil is also found at
as 54° N. lat. and the 120th meridian. The greatest the last-named place, as well as in the south of the
length of both provinces is 760 miles. Saskatchewan province.
is 393 miles wide in the south, and 277 in the north,
thus forming an immense quadrangle of 250,650
Population.— Few countries have such a cosmopol-
itan population as the twin provinces of the Canadian
sq. miles, of which S318 are water. The breadth West. The British Isles, the United States, Austro-
of Alberta varies from 200 miles in the south, to nearly Hungary and ermany together with Eastern Canada
, ,

400 in its northern half. Its total area is estimated at are the great feeders of the stream of immigration,
253,4.")0square miles. which is there so active that statistics, which are per-
Physical Charncteristicf. —
Saskatchewan may be de- fectly correct one day are far below the mark a few
scribed as a vast plain, quite treeless in the south, with months afterwards. The total population of Saskatch-
an average elevation of 1500 feet above the sea-level. ewan is now estimated at over 453,508 though five
Its northernmost part is considerably lower, since years ago it was barely 255,211. Of the present in-
Lake Athabasca, in the extreme north-east, is only 690 habitants almost one-fourth, or 104,000, are Catholics.
feet above sea-level. The mean altitude of Alberta is Among the latter some 31,000 are of French origin;
3000feet, which likewise notably decreasesin the north. 28,000 came from Galicia, and follow the Ruthenian
The climate of both provinces is exceedingly healthful, rite; 26,900 are Germans; and 8000 have English for
though the cold is at times intense on the treeless their mother-tongue. In Alberta, the present (1911)
prairies of Saskatchewan. A warm south-west wind, population is given as 372,919, its two chief cities,
called Chinook, occasionally crosses the Rocky Moun- Calgary and Edmonton (the capital), having of
tains, and renders the winters of Alberta appreciably late grown rapidly. The former has 43,736 inhabi-
milder and shorter in spite of its great altitude. This tants, and the latter 41,000. Regina, the capital
immense region is traversed by the River Saskatche- of Saskatchewan, to-day counts about 30,210 inhabi-
wan, which has its source in the Rocky Mountains, and tants. The Catholics of Alberta number about 70,-
after winding its way for some 1200 miles, empties into 000, of whom perhaps 6,000 are Indians. The total
Lake Winnipeg. There is also in the Province of native population of Saskatchewan is officially put
Saskatchewan proper the Beaver River which, after down at 7971 by the Blue Book of the Ottawa Indian
 SASKATCHEWAN 483 SASKATCHEWAN
Department, which gives the number of Catholics The present educational situation is this: con-
among them as 2939. The aboriginal races within formably to the Act of 1905 there are in Sas-
the two provinces are the Blackfeet and cognate katchewan and Alberta pubhc and separate schools.
tribes, in the south of Alberta; the Sarcees, a small The former are estabhshed by the majority of
D6ne division adopted by the Blackfoot confederacy; the rate-payers of a place, the latter may be set
the Assiniboines, or Stone Indians, a branch of the up by the minority of the same. Either kind is
Sioux family; the Sioux proper, groups of whom have supported by the taxes levied on that part of the
remained in Saskatchewan ever since Custer's Mas- population for which it is intended, to which is added
sacre (1876) the Saulteux, an Algonquin tribe for-
; a Government grant based on the quality of the
merly stationed considerably to the east of its present teaching and the number of days the school is open.
haunts, and the Crees, who can claim as their own On the petition of three resident rate-payers, a sepa-
the great Saskatchewan plains, the muskegs of the rate school district may be erected, which will thence-
north-east, and the southern fringe of the great north- forth be governed by commissioners, elected by the
ern forest. To these may be added a few Den6 tribes, rate-payers interested therein, and will enjoy the same
who are to be found near the northern boundaries of rights and privileges as those of a public school dis-
both provinces at lie £1 la Crosse on Lake Athabasca, trict. One of these consists in the right to choose the
near Caribou Lake, etc. The French, and the French teacher who, whether in separate or public schools,
half-breed population of Alberta is estimated at 23,- must hold a certificate of qualification. No religious
000, who have at least a score of parishes, mostly instruction is allowed except during the last half-hour
around and north of Edmonton. of the afternoon class. AH the schools must be taught
Ecclesiastical Organization. —
The two provinces in English, though it is permissible for the board of
of Saskatchewan and Alberta comprise to-day any district to cause a primary course to be taught in
five ecclesiastical di\-isions, viz.: The Diocese French . This is the only concession made to the spirit
of St. Albert, in Alberta; those of Prince Albert, of the Federal Constitution, such as is represented
and Regina, in Saskatchewan, and the two Vica- by the North America Act of 1867, which practically
riates Apostohc of Athabasca, mostly in Northern declares both English and French to be the official
Alberta, and of Keewatin, partly in Northern Saskat- languages of the Dominion.
chewan (separate articles are devoted to those dio- By the side of real advantages the school laws in
ceses, and to the Vicariate Apostolic of Athabasca). force in Saskatchewan and Alberta have regrettable
The Vicariate Apostolic of Keewatin was erected on drawbacks. The advantages consist in the fact that,
4 March, 1910, the Right Rev. Ovide Charlebois, wherever they are. Catholics can have schools of their
O.M.L, being appointed vicar Apostolic 8 August fol- own. If they form the majority of a place, their
lowing, and consecrated Bishop of Berenice by Mgr. school is termed public. They elect the commission-
Langevin, Archbishop of St. Boniface on 30 Nov. of ers best suited to their wants and aspirations, and
the same year. The limits of the new vicariate are through them the teachers. If they are in the minor-
very complicated. They run from the North Pole ty, they can, with the consent of the proper authority,
along 100° W. long, as far as 60° N. lat. then follow erect a separate school district with exactly the same
the watershed 56° N. lat., where they coincide with the privileges. The drawbacks consequent on present
eastern boundaries of the Athabasca vicariate, and the conditions lie mostly in the text-books used, since
northern limits of the Dioceses of Prince Albert and St. some of the histories prescribed unfortunately con-
Boniface as far as 91° W. long, which they then follow tain assertions and omissions that are quite objec-
to Hudson Bay. The territory included is of the most tionable from a Catholic standpoint. A short time ago
desolate character; marshes and dreary wastes, which the Government of Saskatchewan authorized the use
afford meagre support to a native population of 10,000 of Catholic readers for the Cathohc separate schools of
or 12,000 souls, almost all of whom are Crees, D^n6s, or that province. It happens also that both in Saskatch-
Eskimos. Among these there are about 6000 Catho- ewan and in Alberta there is a council of public
lic converts. The most prosperous group is that instruction composed of five members, two of whom
which has settled at the pioneer mission of He k la are Catholics. But neither of these advantages is
Crosse, established in 1844. guaranteed by the constitution. Furthermore, Catho-
Education. —
In the west as in the east of Canada lic normal schools are a boon which is beyond the
the education of youth has long been a bone of con- reach of the Catholic population of either province.
tention between the secular and the religious au- As exemplifying the educational activities of that part
thorities. What is now Saskatchewan and Alberta of Canada, it may be stated that (1905) there were in
had been for five years governed from Ottawa, Saskatchewan 716 schools; 873 (1906); 1101 (1907),
under the name of North- West Territories, when, in and 1422 in 1908. Between 1 Sept., 1905, and the
1S7.5, some sort of autonomy was granted them, close of 1909, the number of school districts increased
and theCathoUcs settled therein were accorded from 942 to 2001. There are in each province a num-
the right of having their own schools, without contrib- ber of non-denominational collegiate schools, as well
uting to the maintenance of any others. This equi- as two State Universities, whose seats are at Saska-
table arrangement coming from a higher, or constitu- toon, and at Strathcona (Edmonton) respectively.
tive authority, should have been considered beyond In this connexion it may be worth while to remark
the reach of a lower legislature. Yet in 1892 it was that the first unofficial lecturer appointed by the
abrogated by an ordinance of the territories, which University of Saskatchewan was a Cathohc priest,
decreed the absolute neutrality, from a denominational who was also its first graduate, though his degree was
standpoint, of all the schools of the Far West. This conferred ad honorem.
act was afterwards admitted
by some lawyers of note History. —The first white man to set foot in what
to be unconstitutional. Therefore when the new is now the Province of Saskatchewan, was Henry Kel-
provinces were created in 190.5, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, sey, a boy in the employ of the Hudson Bay Company
then Premier of Canada made an effort to insert in traders. He started from Fort Nelson, and reached a
their constitution
a proviso (clause xvi) whereby the point between the valley of the Saskatchewan and
school system of 1875 was reintroduced. Unfortu- Lake Athabasca. This was in the summer of 1691.
nately he did not
succeed in overcoming the opposi- In the autumn of 1748, the sons of De La\'t'Tendrye,
tion of one of his
co-ministers supported by the clam- the real discoverer of the Canadian West, navigated
ours of the
anti-Catholic element in the east. The the Saskatchewan to its forks, where they established
result was a sort
of compromise, which does not satisfy Fort Poskoyao. In the course of 1751 Boucher de
the Catholic
minority, though it certainly gives it Niverville sent ten Frenchmen from that post up the
some appreciable advantages. river, who erected a fort (La Jonquiere) on the Bow
 SASKATCHEWAN 484 SASKATCHEWAN
River, where Calgary now stands. Two years later ferent from that of 1869, when the proper authority
St-Luc de La Corne, one of the successors of De had abdicated its rights, were striving to keep him
Lav6rendrye, explored the valley of the Carrot River, within legal bounds. As the priests refused their
where he (>stablished (1754) Fort Pasquia, and made ministrations to him and his abettors, he tried to re-
the first attempt on record to cultivate land within the place them by his own, and proclaimed himself a
limits of the present .Saskatchewan province. Fort prophet. At the same time he raised the standard of
Pasquia was visited the same year by an English ad- revolt against the Canadian Government, and, 26
venturer, Anthony Hendry, who crossed the whole March, 1885, was present at the engagement of Duck
north-west, and went as far as the country of the Lake in which the troops were defeated. Then fol-
Blackfeet, in Alberta. Then follows the founding of lowed the battles of Fish Creek (24 April), Cut Knife
Cumberland House, in 1742, and owing to the rivaby (2 May), and Batoche, where the Metis were finally
between the Xorth-West Company (founded 1784), routed (12 May) after four days' fighting with troops
and the older Hudson Bay Company, A-arious other vastly superior in number and equipment. Perhaps
trading posts were soon after established, such as the most regrettable incident of this ill-advised in-
Forts He a la Crosse (1791), Carlton (1793), Augustus surrection was the massacre of Fathers Fafard and
(or Edmonton) (1798), and a few others. Until the Marchand, O.M.I., with a number of white settlers
arrival of the first missionaries. Father F. N. Blanchet of Frog Lake, at the hands of pagan Crees. The
and Father M. Demers in 1838, revelry and lawless- country was laid waste and numerous missions were
ness prevailed in the north-west, which were due to ruined by the same tribe of natives. Despite the testi-
intoxicants furnished by the rival traders. mony of the physicians, who declared his irresponsi-
The religious history of the two provinces will be bihty, Louis Riel was sentenced to death and executed
found under the heads of the various dioceses within at Regina, dying in the profession of the most Chris-
their boundaries. Further events of a secular char- tian-hke sentiments (16 Nov., 1885). Then the Gov-
acter are the explorations of Captain Palliser (1857); ernment of Canada did what it had so long neglected.
the Hind-Daws on surveys (1858) the journey of the
; It examined the claims of the half-breeds and re-
Earl of Southesk to the sources of the Saskatchewan dressed their grievances.
(1859); that of Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle in 18G2; Later History. —
The one good result of the Sas-
and the surveying expedition of Sandford Fleming ten katchewan Rebellion, apart from the necessity to
years later. which the Ottawa Government was put of recognizing
—
The Louis Reil Rebellion. To understand the event the rights of the northern M6tis, consisted in the fact
which took place in 1885 we must go back to the that it drew the attention of the civilized world to the
troubles which agitated Manitoba in 1869-70. Half fertile plains of the Canadian West. The first trans-
the population of that country was then made up of continental railway was completed (7 Nov., 1885).
French half-breeds, whose native land was sold, with- It served to bring thither large numbers of colonists
out their consent, to the newly-formed Dominion of some of whom (the Doukhobors of
of all nationalities,
Canada. Prompted by the arrogance of the agents Saskatchewan and the Mormons of Alberta) were
of Ottawa, and by their interference with the rights of scarcely of a desirable class. The new inhabitants
the original settlers, now threatened with being dis- soon clamoured for a larger share of influence in the
possessed of their farms by parties who had at the time territorial government than had previously been en-
no jurisdiction over them, the French and some of the joyed by the people, and their agitation resulted in
English rose against the intruders under the lead of the Federal Parliament granting the territories, in the
Louis Riel (b. at St. Boniface, 22 Oct., 1844), a young course of 1888, a legislative assembly with a correspond-
man with a college education, and for about ten months ingly larger degree of autonomy. On 4 July of that
held possession of the country, sending demands to year, a French Catholic, in the person of Joseph Royal,
Ottawa, the reasonableness of which was so far recog- was appointed lieutenant-governor. The territories
nized that corresponding clauses were inserted in what had then a common capital in Regina, previous
was called the Manitoba Act. Sore at the thought to 27 March, 1SS2 this had been at Battleford (at the
that they had been outdone by mere M^tis, the anti- confluence of the Battle and Saskatchewan Rivers).
Catholic and anti-French strangers from the East The total white population was (1888) 69,500.
wreaked vengeance, after the arrival of Wolseley's Then, following a long agitation for still fuller
troops, on the leaders and partisans of the insurrection provincial rights, there came (1905), the formation of
which had been perfectly legitimate. To escape the the territories into the two provinces of Saskatchewan
petty persecution that ensued numbers of half-breeds and Alberta, each with a lieutenant-governor and a
headed for the north and settled in the valley of the legislative assembly, together with a constitution
Saskatchewan, between Saskatoon and the forks of which, among other things, determined the nature of
that river, just below Prince Albert. Unfortunately the education which was to be imparted, as stated
with the increase of white immigration to the above. At the same time Edmonton, heretofore
prairies, difficulties similar to those which had resulted scarcely more than a Hudson's Bay Company trading-
in trouble on the Red River soon arose among them. post by the Northern Saskatchewan, was made the
They vainly petitioned for the titles to their lands, capital of Alberta, while Regina continued to hold the
which were threatened with being surveyed in such a same rank with regard to the Province of Saskatche-
way as to ri?ndor useless the improvements they had wan. The first Ueutenant-governor of the latter was
made on tliem, and even jeopardized their rights to A. E. Forget, a Cathohc, who had long been employed
the same. They also repeatedly asked for the re- in Governmental offices. Ever since, the two prov-
dress of se\-eral other grievances in which claims they inces have smoothly pursued identical lines of self-
had tlie sympatliy of their clergy and the respectable development, and "the few events worth recording
part of the white population. Tired of being ignored have been of a purely political character.
by the Federal authorities, they next called to their RoBSON, An Account of Six Years' TIesiilenre in Hudson'-: Bny
assistance Louis Riel. He was then teaching school (London, 1752); Kane, Wanderimj^ of an .iriist (London, IS'J'jj;
in Montana, after having been in various asylums as Dawson, Report of the ErphTation of tin- Counlri/ (Toronto, l'^59';
Hind, Northwest Territari/: Report of Pror/re^s (Toronto, 1859);
a result of the persecution of those who tracked him Idem, Narrative of the Canadian Red River Expedition (2 vols., Lon-
for the saki- of the money put on his head by the On- don, 1860) Palliser, Further Papers Relntue to the Expedthm
;

tario Government. (London, 1860) Butler, The Great Lone Land (London, ISj.i);
;

Milton and Cheadle, North-West Passage by Land (London,

Unfortunately his mind proved unequal to the task 1865) Grant, Ocean to Ocean (London, 1873) Flemino, EnghMl
; ;

of leading a second agitation successfully. He gradu- and Canada (London, 1SS4); Begq. Historij of the Northwest
(JoroaXo,
(.3 vols., Toronto, 1894); Willson, The Great Company
aH>- broke away from the control of the clergy who
1899); Laht, The Conqueil of the Great Northwest (2 vols.. New
conscious of the fact that the case was now quite dif- York, s. d.); Burpee, The Search for the Western Sea (Toronto,
 SASSARI 485 SATALA
a d.): MORICE,
History of the Catholic Church in Western Canada and through him was a pupil of the Carracci. Sev-
(2 vols., Toronto,
1910); also other works. Also The School Act
Saskatchewan^ Canada (Regina, s. d.) Land and eral of his pictures are direct imitations of Perugino,
(Regina, 1911); ;

AoricuUure in Alberta (Edmonton, 1911). Raphael, and Titian. His Madonnas, especially, are
A. G. MoBiCB. inspired by Raphael, and in their quiet sweetness rival
those of Carlo Doloi. In the seventeenth century,
Sassari, Archdiocese of (Turrit ana), in Sar- the Blessed Virgin was too frequently portrayed with a
dinia, Italy, situated on the River Rosello in a fertile cold dignity, and reserve so austere towards the Child
region: a centre of the oil, fruit, wine, and tobacco in- Jesus that it is difficult to realize her motherhood.
dustries. The city has a university founded in 1634. "Consequently, men grew more fond of Sassoferrato
There is a monument to the Duke of Maurienne in the whose Madonnas, tender, lovely, carefully painted, all
cathedral; the Church of the Most Blessed Trinity reveal the mother's heart, as men more readily for-
contains a beautiful picture by an unknown artist of give certain errors when they are lofty, and certain
the Quattrocento. Other noteworthy buildings are weaknesses when
the palace of the Duke of Vallombrosa, the Aragonese they are pictur-
castle with its high tower, the Fontana del Rossello, esque" (Burek-
and a thirteenth-century wall. Sassari was unknown hardt). Sassofer-
till about the eleventh century; it developed with
rato gave to his
the decay of the ancient Torres {Turris Lybissonis) compositions a
which till then had been the principal city on the pleasing air of
island. It was sacked by the Genoese in 1166. In intimacy, and a
1294 it became a republic with the consent of the Gen- certain naivete,
oese, who were pleased to see it thus withdrawn from in happy contrast
the control of the Pisans. Its statutes of 1316 are to the melancholy
remarkable for the leniency of the penalties imposed expression too fre-
when compared with the penal laws of the Middle quently found in
Ages. In 1390 it was united to the giudicaiura of the paintings of
Arborea, of which it became the capital, but in 1420 it his time. Among
fell into the hands of the Aragonese. In 1527 it was others the "Ador-
sacked by the French. The ecclesiastical history of ation of the Shep-
Sassari commences with that of Torres. In 304 the herds", and the
soldier Gavinus, Protus a priest, and the deacon Janu-
"Workshop of the
arius suffered martyrdom there. Later Gavinus and Carpenter Joseph
Protus were reputed bishops, and said to have Mved in Giovanni Battista Salvi, called
with the Infant
the second and third centuries respectively. St. Gau- Sassoferrato
Jesus Sweepingthe
dentius, who seems to have belonged to the beginning Self-portrait, Uffizi Gallery, Florence.
Shavings" (Mu-
of the fourth century, is also venerated there. The seum of Naples) present tliis charming character of in-
first bishop whose date is known is Felix (404). timacy. His masterpiece, however, is to be found in
Other bishops: Marinianus, a contemporary of St.
Rome, in the Church of St. Sabina on the Aventine:
Gregory the Great; NoveUus (685), whose ordination
"Our Lady of the Rosary with St. Dominic and St.
caused a controversy between John V
and the Arch- Catherine". This was painted at the request of the
bishop of Caghari; Felix (727), who took refuge at
Princess de Rossano, and finished in 1643, the artist re-
Genoa to escape the cruelty of the Saracens; almost
ceiving the sum of one hundred ecus (crowns) in pay-
nothing is known concerning bishops of Torres for the
ment. "The Virgin in a blue cloak and purple dress
next three centuries, till Simon (1065). His succes- is seated in the centre with the Infant Jesus on her left
sor, Costantino de Crasta (1073), was an archbishop.
knee kneeling at the right is St. Dominic to whom she
;
Other archbishops: Blasius (1199), representative of
presents the rosary, whilst the Divine Child with one
Innocent III, on several occasions; Stefano, O. P.
hand extending the rosary to St. Catherine, who kneels
(1238), legate of Innocent IV in Sardinia and Corsica;
at the left, with the other places upon her head rever-
Trogodario (about 1278) who erected the episcopal
ently bent, the crown of thorns. Circling the head of
palace in Sassari, to which Teodosio (1292) added the
the Virgin is a crown of five small angels of ravishing
Church of St. Andrea; after this the archbishops re-
grace and devotion " (Berthier). Besides these there ,
sided habitually at Sassari. Pietro Spano(1422) was
is at the Louvre, the "Assumption of the Blessed
a restorer of discipUne; under him the episcopal see
was definitively transferred to Sassari by Eugenius
Virgin"; at the Mus6e des Offices, the "Infant Jesus
asleep on His Mother's knees" (this last subject is also
IV. This bishop intended to erect a seminary for the
training of the clergy, but his death frustrated the
found in the Museums of Dresden and Madrid) his ;

Portrait; "The Virgin of Sorrows"; at the Vatican

plan. Angelo Leonini (1509) was at the Fifth Lateran
there is the "Madonna with Angels"; at Turin, the
Council; Salvatore Salepusi (1553) was distinguished
at the Council of Trent; Alfonso de Sorca
"Madonna of the Rose" at Berlin, the "Holy Fam-
;

(1585), ily"; at Frankfort-on-the-Main, Galerie Stadel, the

highly esteemed by Clement VIII. At about the
year 1500 there were united to the Archdiocese of Sas- "Virgin praying" Madonnas of Sassoferrato are
sari the Sees of Sorca (Saralapsis) which is mentioned
likewise to be found in the Museums at London, St.
as a bishopric in 1106, and whose last bishop was Ja- Petersburg, Brussels, Vienna.
Lanzi, History of Painting in Italy, tr. from the Italian by
copo Poggi; and of Ploaghe (Plubium), the first known RcscOE, I (London, 1847), 469; Blanc, Histoire des peintres
DLshop of which is Jacentius (1090). The sees suiTra- de toutes les Ecoles: Ecole ombrienne (Paris, 1869-77) ; BuRCK-
gan to Sassari are: Alghero, Ampurias and Tempio, hardt and Bode, Le Cicerone, tr. Gerard, II fPari.s, 1892),
810-11; Bryan, Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, V (Lon-
pisarchio, Bosa. The archdiocese contains 35 par- don, 190.5); Berthier, L'EffZise de sainte Sabine d. Rome {Rorae,
ishes, 140 secular;
41 regular priests: 112,500 inhabi- 1910), 313-16.
tants, 9 convents of
religious, and 13 monasteries, 7
Gaston Sortais.
boys and 5 girls' institutions.
Satala, a titular see in Armenia Prima, suffragan
,

Lappelleiti, Le cMese d' Italia (Venice, 1870); Filia, La

todEsnacrwitana, I (Sasaari, 1909). BenIGNI. of Sabastia. Satala according to the ancient geog-
XJ.
raphers was situated in a valley surrounded by
Sassoferrato, Giovanni Battista Salvi da, b. mountains, a little north of the Euphrates, where the
at bassoferrato
the March of Ancona, 1609; d. at
in road from Trapezus to Samosata crossed the boundary
Kome, 1689, where he had passed the greater part of of the Roman Empire. Later it was connected with
lis hfe. His father, Tarquinio Salvi was his first Nicopolis by two highways. This site must have
master. At Naples, he studied under Dominichino been occupied as early as the annexation of Lesser
 SATAN 486 SAUL
Armenian under Vespasian. Trajan visited it in Satolli's works include: "Enchiridion Philosophise"
115 and received the homage of the princes of the (Rome, 1884); Commentaries on the Summa Theol.
Caucasus and the Euxine. It was he doubtless who of St. Thomas (5 vols., Rome, 1884-88); "Prima
established there the Legio XV Apollinaris and began principia juris pubhci eccles. de conoordatis" (Rome,
the construction of the great castra stativa (per- 1888); "Loyalty to Church and State" (Baltimore,
manent camp) which it was to occupy till the fifth 1895).
century. The town must have sprung up around Aynerica, 15 Jan., 1910; Catholic UniverHty Bulletin, Feb., 1910.

this camp; in the time of Ptolemy it was already im- Edward A. Pace.
portant. In 530 the Persians were defeated under
Justinian constructed more powerful for-
Satuminus, Saint, was, says Tillemont, one of
its walls.
the most illustrious martyrs France has given to
tifications there, but these did not prevent Satala
the Church. We possess only his Acts, which are
from being captureil in 607-S by the Persians. It is
very old, since they were utilized by St. Gregory of
now Sadagh, a village of 500 inhabitants, in the Tours. He was the first Bishop of Toulouse,whither
vilayet of Erzeroum. The remains of the camp still he went during the consulate of Decius and Gratus
exist strewn with fragments of brick bearing the stamp
(250). Whether there were already Christians in
of the legion; there are also the ruins of an aqueduct
the to^\-ii or his preaching made numerous conver-
and of Justinian's citadel; some Latin and Greek
inscriptions, the latter Christian, have been dis-
sions, he soon had a little church. To reach it he
had to pass before the capitol where there was a temple,
covered. The Christians were numerous in the time
and according to the Acts, the pagan priests ascribed
of Diocletian. Le Quien, "Oriens Christianus", to his frequent passings the silence of their oracles.
I, 431, mentions seven of its bishops: Evethius, at
One day they seized him and on his unshakable
Nicaea, 325; Elfridius, 360; Poemenius, about 378;
refusal to sacrifice to the idols they condemned him
Anatolius, 451; Epiphanius, 458; Gregory, 692;
to be tied by the feet to a bull which dragged him
Philip, 879. The see is mentioned in the "Notitia; about the town until the rope broke. Two Chris-
episcopatuum " until the thirteenth century, and we tian women piously gathered up the remains and
know the name of the bishop, Cosmas, in 125(). buried them in a deep ditch, that they might not be
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog., s. v.; MtJLLER, (ed.
Didot) Notes d Ptolemy I, 8S-1 Ch.\pot, La frontiirr de I'Euphrate
,
, ;
profaned by the pagans. His successors, Sts. Hilary
de Pompee a la conquSle arahe (Paris, 1907), 351; C'i'MONT, titudia and Exuperius, gave him more honourable burial.
Pontica (Brussels, 190b), 343-51.
S. PAtridJis.
A church was erected where the bull stopped. It
still exists and is called the church of the Taur (the
Satan. Sec Devil. bull). The body of the saint was transferred at an
early date and is still preserved in the Church of St.
Satisfaction. See Penance.
Sernin (or Satuminus), one of the most ancient and
Satisfaction of Christ. See Redemption. beautiful of Southern France. His feast was entered
on the Hieronymian Martyrology for 29 November;
Satolli,Francesco, theologian, cardinal, first Apos-
his cult spread abroad. The account of his Acts was
tohc delegate to the United States, b. 21 July, 1839,
embellished with several details, and legends linked
at Marsciano near Perugia; d. 8 Jan., 1910, at Rome.
his name with the beginning of the churches of
He was educated at the seminary of Perugia, ordained Eauze, Auch, Pamplona, and Amiens, but these are
in 1862, and, after receiving the doctorate at the
without historic foundation.
Sapienza, was appointed (1864) professor in the sem- RuiNART, Acta Mariyrum (Ratisbon, 1859), 177-80; Gregorii
inary of Perugia. In 1870 he became pastor at Mars- Buronensis opera Hist, Francorum, ed. Arndt and Krusch,
ciano and in 1872 went to Montecassino, where he re- I (Hanover, 1884), xxxix; Tillemont, Hist. eccUsiastique, III
(Paris, 1701), 297; Laban, Vie de Saint Saturnin (Toulouse,
mained two years. Called to Rome by Leo XIII in 1864) ; Duchesne, Pastes ipiscopaux de I'ancienne Gaule
1880, he was appointed professor of dogmatic the- (Paris, 1894), 25, 295.
ology in the Propaganda and (1882) in the Roman Antoinb Degbrt.
Seminary, rector of the Greek College (1884), presi-
dent of the Accademia dei Nobih Ecclesiastici (1886), Sauatra, a titular see of Lycaonia, suffragan of
and Archbishop of Lepanto (1888). As professor he Iconium. Nothing is known of the history of this
had an important share in the neo-Scholastic move- town, but some of its coins have been preserved and
ment inaugurated by Leo XIII. His lectures, al- it is mentioned by Strabo, XIV, 668; Ptolemy, V,
ways fluent and often eloquent, aroused the enthu- 4, 12; Hierocles, 672, 2; and the Tabula Peutinge-
siasm of his students for the study of St. Thomas, riana. The name it occurs
in this title is spelled as
while his writings opened the way for an extended on the coins; Sabatra which equivalent in
is its

hterature in Thomistic philosophy and theology. pronunciation is also found, also Soatra, in Strabo.
Satolh came to the United States in 1889, was pres- The town was situated in an arid region on the road
ent at the centenary of the hierarchj' celebrated in from Laodicea to Archelais, that is, near the village
Baltimore, and deUvered an address at the inaugura- of Souverek, in the vilayet of Koniah: according to
tion of the Cathohc University of America in No- Ramsay "Asia Minor", 343, at the ruins four hours
vember. On his second visit, he attended (16 Nov., south-west of Eskil; according to Miiller, "Notes to
1892) a meeting of the archbishops held in New York Ptolemy", ed. Didot, I, 858, near Djelil between
City, and formulated in fourteen propositions the Obrouklou, or Obrouk, and Sultan Khan. Le
solution of certain school problems which had been Quien, "Oriens Christianus", I, 1083, mentions two
for some time under discussion. He then took up bishops of Sauatra: Aristophanes, present at the
his residence at the Cathohc University of America, First (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, 381;
where he gave a course of lectures on the philosophy and Eustathius, who was Hving at the time of the
of St. Thomas. On 24 Jan., 1893, the Apostohc Del- Council of Chalcedon, 451. The Greek "Notiti*
egation in the United States was estabhshed at episcopatuum" mention the see till the thirteenth
AVashington, and SatoUi was appointed first delegate. century.
He was created cardinal-priest on 29 Nov., 1895, with Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog,, a. v.; Ramsat, Asia
Minor (London, 1890), 343, and passim.
the title of Sta. Maria in Ara Cceli. Returning to
S. P^TRIDfes.
Rome in October, 1896, he was appointed prefect of
the Congregation of Studies and archpriest of the Saul, "-ixr, postulatus, referring probably to the
Lateran Basihca. He became Cardinal Bishop of petition mentioned in I Kings, viii, 5, the first King
Frascati 22 June, 1903. His last visit to the United of Israel, the son of Cis of the tribe of Benjamin
States was on the occasion of the St. Louis Exposi- (ix, 1, 2). Waiving critical discussion of the parallel
tion, 1904. though often divergent sources underlying I Kings,
 SAULI 487 SAULT

suffice itto say that the narrative of the life and times oured to continue the dynasty of his father's house,
of Saul is constructed from two traditional accounts was assassinated by two captains of his own army
each of which has its particular viewpoint. This ap- (II Kings, V, 6). Thus was removed the last obsta-
pears especially in the divergent accounts relative to cle to the accession of Iving David.
ScHULTZ, Diss. Saulis regimen antecedentia exhibens (Strasburg,
the circumstances attending the election of Saul and
his fall from Divine favour. The
prophet Samuel, who
the last of the great Judges of Israel,
Jambs F. Dbiscoll
is counted as

was growing old and the administration of civic and Sauli, Alexander. See Alexander Sauli,
religious affairs had been confided to his sons. These Blessed.
proved unfaithful to their trust and the people being Sault Sainte Marie (Sanct^-Marm-Ormensis),
dissatisfied petitioned Samuel to select a king to rule Diocese of, was erected by Decree of 16 Sep-
over them after the manner of the other nations. tember, 1904. It embraces the southern paits of the
Samuel resents this request, and the Lord, though distiiots of Thunder Bay, Algoma, and Nipissing (i.e.
affirming it to be an offence against Himself, a virtual between the height of land and the Lakes Superior,
rejection of the theocratic regime, nevertheless in- Huron, and Nipissing. The Recollects were the first
structs the prophet to accede to the demands of the missionaries in the Nipissing region. Father Guil-
people. Samuel informs them of the Lord's displeas- laume Poullain (1622) and Jacques de la Foyer (1624)
ure and predicts the retributory evils that will come spent a few months there and baptized several chil-
upon them through the exactions of the future king dren on the point of death. However, Father Claude
(I Kings, viii). The choice of the new ruler is deter- Pijart, a Jesuit, was the piincipal apostle of the Al-
mined by a providential incident. Saul, in quest of his gonquins at Nipissing and around Geoigian Bay. He
father's strayed asses, happens to consult Samuel the devoted to their conversion nine years of indefatigable
"seer" in the hope of obtaining information as to zeal (1641-50), being aided in his work by F'ather
their whereabouts. The prophet assures him of their Charles Raymbault (1641-42), Ren^Maynard (1641-
safety, and after entertaining Saul, reveals to him his 44; 1648-50), Leonard Gareau (164-4-46), Joseph
mission with regard to the Chosen People and anoints Poncet (1646-50), Adrien Daran (1649-50). They
him king. Forthwith Saul's heart is changed, and to were the first who preached the Gospel to the tribes
the surprise of many he prophesies in the midst of the of the ManitouKn Islands and Georgian Bay as far
company of prophets (I Kings, x, 10). A
month after as Sault Sainte Marie. As early as 1641 Fathers
these events the newly-chosen king, who had hitherto Jogues and Raymbault had visited the latter place.
refrained from asserting his royal prerogatives, justi- The Jesuits established three missions in the midst of
fies his election by defeating the Ammonites and de- the Algonquins of this country: St-Esprit:, St-Charles
livering Jabes Galaad. Later he engages in war with and St-Pierre. Their ministry was not altogether
the Phihstines, and being in straits, he presumes to fruitless: travelling to Lake Nipigon, in 1667, Father
offer the holocaust because of Samuel's unexplained AUouez found some of their neophytes who had stood
delay in arriving on the scene. For this usurpation firm in the Faith, although they had not seen a priest
function he is reproved by the prophet
of the priestly for nearly twenty years. The ruin of the Algonquin
and already the end of his kingdom is announced missions accompanied the destruction of the Huron
(I Kings, xiii) nation. In 1668 the Jesuits founded the mission of
the composite character of the narra-
Illustrative of Sault Sainte Marie. From this centre they evangel-
tive is the fact that an entirely different motive for his ized the adjacent country, and pushed their apostolic
rejection is given in chapter xv, viz. his failure to carry expeditions as far as the legions of the Nipissirinians.
out fully the command of the Lord to utterly destroy Well-known among the apostles of this period are
the tribe of Amalec. Consequently upon the Lord's Fathers Gabriel Druillettes, Louis Andr6, Henri Nou-
disfavour Samuel is directed to anoint David to be a vel, and Pierre Bailloquet. In the beginning of the
king "after God's own heart", and though merely a eighteenth century, the founding of Detroit caused the
shepherd boy he is taken into Saul's household. The centre of the western missions to be transferred east-
many graphic incidents connected with Saul's jeal- ward; those of Georgian Bay were abandoned, be-
ousy and persecution of David are narrated in I Kings ing resumed only in 1836, when Rev. Jean Baptiste
xviii-xxvii. The narrative goes on to relate how on the Proulx, a diocesan priest, settled in Manitoulin Island.
occasion of a new invasion by the Philistines, Saul, In 1838 another secular priest, the zealous Father
being now forsaken by Yahweh and still seeking su- Pierz, founded the missions of Grand Portage, Michi-
perhuman guidance, has recourse to a witch living at picoton, etc. Hardly had the Jesuits returned to the
Endor. Through her mediation the spirit of Samuel, country, when the evangehzation of the savages of
who in the meantime had passed to his reward, is what is now New Ontario was entrusted to their care.
recalled. The departed prophet reproaches Saul for In 1844 they replaced Father Proulx at Wikwemi-
his infidelity and announces his impending fate at the kong, founded Garden River in 1846, and two years
hands of the Phihstines (I Kings, xxviii). The fulfil- later erected at Riviere aux Tourtes (Pigeon River),
ment of this dire prediction is related in the final chap- a mission which they transferred in 1849 to Fort
ter of the First Book of Kings. Saul and his forces William. From these different stations they bore the
are overwhehned by the Phihstines; the valiant Jona- consolations of religion, not only to the Indians, but
than and his brothers are slain in the battle, and the also to the miners and woodcutters scattered along the
kmg, fearing lest he fall into the hands of the uncir- shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. Among the new
cumcised, begs his armour bearer to take his life. The missionaries Fathers Chon^, Hanipaux, Duranquet,
latter, fearing to lay hands on the Lord's anointed, re- Hubert, and Baxter are to be mentioned.
fuses, and Saul being in desperate straits ends his life In 1874 Pius IX, adding to the territory already
by falling on his own sword. His head was cut off by described the districts of Parry Sound, created the
the victorious Philistines and sent as a trophy to the Vicariate Apostolic of Northern Canada, with Mgr
various towns of their country, while his body and Jean-Fran5ois Jamot as its first titular. The Catho-
those of his sons were hung on the walls of Bethsan, lics of the new vicariate numbered S500. A few other
.

but the inhabitants of Jaljes Galaad hearing of these districts were added in 1882, when the vicariate Apos-
things came in the night, and removing the bodies tolic became the Diocese of Peterborough. The con-
earned them to their own town and burnt them there, struction of the Canadian Pacific Railway opened
burying the ashes in the neighbouring woods (I Kings, these regions to progress and brought thither numbers
^™). Achinoam is mentioned as the wife of Saul of workmen and colonists. Mgr Jamot called in the
U Kings, xiv, 50). Three of his sons perished with him Jesuits, and opened to their zeal the eastern country
(1 Kings, xxxi, 2), and another, Isboseth, who endeav- extending from North Bay to Sudbury, and later the
 SAULT 488 SAVARIC

country as far as Bonheur (a stretch of 800 miles). present bishop upon the ruins of the one completed
At its erection the Dioci'se of Sault Sainte Marie had by Bishop Gfross, destroyed by fire 6 Felsruary,
a fixed population of 2t;,0()4 Catholics, 20,090 of whom 1898. The cornerstone of the first church of St. John
were French Canadians, the rest being of different the Baptist was laid 30 May, 1800. There are acad-
nationalities. There were besides 5000 Cathohe In- emies in Savannah, Macon, Augusta, Columbus,
dians. To-day (1911) the Cathohcs number 37,S7.5, and Washington under the care of the Sisters of St,
including 24,470 French Canadians. The diocese Joseph and Sisters of Mercy; day colleges for boys:
has 50 churches, 3 hospitals, 30 parishes, and 50 mis- in Augusta, under the Jesuit Fathers; in Savannah,
siims. The school system is the same as that of the under the Benedictine Fathers, and in Atlanta under
Pro\ inoe of Ontario (see Ontario) The Daughters
. the Marist Fathers. There is an orphanage for girls,
of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (from BufTalo) in Savannah, in charge of the Sisters of Slercy, and
direct the Indian industrial school and the boarding- for boys, in Washington, in charge of the Si.stersof
school at Wikwemikong. The iSisters of Saint Joseph, St. Joseph. Hospitals, at Savannah and Atlanta,
besides many other schools, have at Fort ^A'illiam a are under the Sisters of Mercy. Under certain re-
boarding-school for the Indians and the whites, and strictions. Mass is said in the Federal prison at Atlanta
a hospital and boarding school at Port Arthur. The where a Catholic priest exercises the duties of chaplain
Cirey Nuns (from Ottawa) have charge of the two under a salary from the Government. Under the
hospitals of Sudbury and of Sault Sainte Marie, and administration of Bishop Keiley the entire charge of
also afew schools. The Daughters of Wisdom direct the coloured people has been given to the Fathers of
the schools of Blind River and Sturgeon Falls. the African Mission, who have established churches
Right Rev. David Joseph Scollard, the first bishop, in Savannah, Atlanta, and one at Macon, adjoining
was born at Ennismore, Ontario, 4 Nov., 1862, and the novitiate of the Jesuits. Diocesan collections are
was ordained priest on 21 December, 1890. He was taken annually. The Eucharistic League is widely
curate at the cathedral of Peterborough until his ap- established, St. Vincent de Paul Conferences and Holy
pointment to the rectory of North Bay (1896), and Name Societies are local throughout the diocese, as
was consecrated bishop at Peterborough on 24 Feb., well as Sodalities of the Sacred Heart and of the
1905. He resides temporarily at North Bay. Blessed Virgin Mary. In addition to the orders
Jesuit Relations, 1640-1671: Jones, Huronia {published by mentioned there are Sisters of St. Francis for the col-
the Bureau of Archives, Toronto, 1907) Rezek, Hist, of the
oured people at Savannah and Augusta, and Little
;

Dioc. of Sault Ste. M'lrie and Marqu^Hr (Houghton, Michigan,

1906); Congr^s d'Eduration r/c,s- C'nidiUcn^-Franqais d'Ontario Sisters of the Poor at Savannah. The annual re-
COttawa, 1910); Missvuiks ratholiac (Rome, 1907), treats are attended by every priest in the diocese.
Arthur Melanqon. The statistics in May, 1911, were: priests, regular and
Sault Saint Louis. See Caughnawaga. secular, 74; churches with resident priests, 19; mis-
sions with churches, 14; stations regularly attended,
Savannah, Diocese of (Savanensis), comprises 81; chapels, 14; colleges, 3; academies, 10; parish
the State of Georgia and was created as such by Pius schools, 16; white orphanages, 2; coloured, 2; home
IX, 1850. The first bishop. Rev. F. X. Gartland, V. for aged poor, 1; hospitals, 2; population, 15,583.
G. of Philadelphia, was consecrated 10 September, Shea, History of the Catholic Church in the TJ. S., IV (New
1850; died 20 September, 1854; succeeded by Rev. York, 1892), passim.
John Barry of Augusta, who was consecrated 2 Au- Jarvis Keiley.
gust, 1857, and died 21 November, 1859. Rev. Au-
gustus Verot, Vicar-Apostolic of Florida, was ap- Savaric, Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury, and
pointed to succeed Bishop Barry but resigned in 1870 cousin of the Emperor Henry VI, date of birth un-
and returned to Florida where he died 10 June, 1876. known; d. at Rome, 1205. He was archdeacon of
Rt. Rev. Ignatius Persico, then in the Diocese of Canterbury, 1175, and archdeacon of Northampton,
Charleston, was transferred to Sa\annah, 11 March, 1180. In 1191, while on the continent with the
1S70, resigning two years after through ill health. crusaders, he was elected Bishop of Bath, and the
On 27 April, 1873, Rev. WiUiam H. Gross, C.SS.R., following year was ordained priest at Rome. Pope
was consecr;ited but transferred to the Archiepiscopal Celestine III consented to the annexation of Glaston-
Sec of Oregon City in 1,S85, and was succeeded by the bury Abbey to the Sec of Bath, and Savaric's plan
Rt. Rev. Thomas A. Becker, who was transferred was to be joint Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury.
from the Sec of Wilmington, 16 May, ISSti. He died The monks of Glastonbury objected to the incor-
27 July, 1899, and was succeeded by the present in- poration and appealed to Rome, but their appeal
cumbent \'(Ty Rev. B. J. Keiley. Bishop Keiley was was disallowed in 1196. In spite of the fact that
born in 1S47; went to school at Petersburg, Va. Savaric had been one of the hostages at Mainz
entered the Confederate service in lS(j4; went to St. for the ransom of Richard I, the king, on his release,
Charles College, EUicott City, Md., for a brief period supported the monks, and it was not till 1199 that
in IsCS; went to Rome in 1809; was ordained priest the bish(jp, after a forcible entry, was enthroned in the
31 December, 1S73; ajipointed pastor of New Castle, abbey. A second appeal of the monks to the new
Delaware, 24 September, 1873; transferred to rector- pope. Innocent III, was dismissed and in 1202 Savaric
ship of pro-cathedral, Wilmington, Delaware, August, was again declared abbot. From that time all oppo-
ISSO. On the transfer of Bishop Becker to Savannah sition vanished and Savaric became a considerable
in May, 1886, he obtained permission from Rome to benefactor to Glastonbury. At Wells he instituted
go to that diocese, where he was made pastor of Im- a daily Mass in honour of Our Lady, and left instruc-
maculate Conception Church and vicar-general 3 tions for the feeding of 100 poor persons both at Wells
December, ISsii. Called to Savaimah, 12 July, 1896, and at Bath. Savaric also gave a charter to Wells,
he w-as made rector of the cathedral, appointed Bishop and persuaded King John to grant a charter from the
of Sa\'annah, 19 April, 1900, and consecrated by crown to that city. Not the least of his services to
CardinalCiibbons, 3 .lune, 1900, in St. Peter's Cathe- Bath was his intervention to save the treasury of the
dral, Richmond. The Bishop of Savannah is a cor- abbey from being emptied for the ransom of Richard
poration sole and title to church property rests in I. Savaric died whilst busying himself on behalf of
him. .V nuijority of the secular priests are of Irish Peter des Roches, episcopus designatus of Winchester.
descent, with a few German and French. There is E-pistotce Canluariensis: Benedict of Peterboro, Chronicle of
no diocesan seminary; students are sent to St. Ber- Henry II and RirJuird I; Roger de Hoveden; R. de Dicfto; Grrvase
nard's, Rochester, Dunwoodie, X. Y., and Belmont nf Cnnterhnni; ed. StubbS. R. de Cngiir^hall. cd. STEVENSON,
N. C. The present cathedral, that of St. John the
All in Riilh Series. Chubch, Chaptrra m Wrlls History: Weill
Cathedral MSS. (Historic MSS. Commis.^ion).
Baptist, was finished during the administration of the Joseph Clayton.
 SAVARY 489 SAVONA

Savary.— A noble French family of the seven- construction of adequate buildings, in which was in-
teenth, century especially devoted to trade and to the stituted the monastic life, following the Rule of St.
publication of works on commercial matters of last- Benedict, and interpreted in a manner similar to the
ing and widespread authority. The most illustrious Cistercians. Rudolph, lord of Fougeres, confirmed
member was Jacques Savary, b. at Dou^ in Anjou, to the monastery (1112) the grants he had formerly
22 September, 1622; d. 7 October, 1690. He be- made to Vital, and from then dates the founda-
longed to the younger branch of the Savary. His tion of the monastery. Once firmly established, its
parents being in the commercial class had destined growth was rapid, and it soon became one of the most
their son Jacques for that career. After having celebrated in France. Its founder was judged worthy
studied law in Paris with a procureur he entered the of canonization, and many of his successors in the
ranks of the haberdashers as a wholesale merchant, abbatial office, as well as simple religious of the Abbey,
and in 16.58 his fortune was made. His relations with were canonized or beatified by the Church; the best
the superintendent, Fouquet, enabled him to devote known of them being St. Aymon. From the number
his abilities to the service of the State; the contract for of its foundations Savigny became the head of a
collecting the revenues of crown lands was given to hirti Congregation, numbering thirty-three subordinate
After Fouquet's fall Savary gained the favour of the houses, within thirty years of its own inception. In
Chancellor Siguier, and as the numerous arbitrations 1119 Pope Celestine II., then in Angers, took it
with which Savary was charged in all commercial ques- under his immediate protection, and strongly com-
tions daily increased his prestige, he was summoned in mended it to the neighbouring nobles. Under
1670 to take an active part in the commission for the Geolfroy, successor to Vital, Henry I., of England,
revision of the laws pertaining to trade. So well did he established and generously endowed twenty-nine
acquit himself there that Pussort, president of this monasteries of this Congregation in his dominions.
commission, named the ordinance of 1673 the "Code St. Bernard also held them in high esteem, and it
Savary". On the appearance of this ordinance Pous- was at his request that their monks, in the troubled
sort and several other commissioners requested Sa- times of the antipope Anacletus, declared in favour
vary to pubUsh in book form the numerous memoirs of Pope Innocent II. Serlon, third successor of the
read by him before the Commission during the prep- Founder, found it diflacult to retain his jurisdiction
aration of the ordinance. This book appeared in over the EngUsh monasteries, who wished to make
167.5 under the title, "Le parfait n^gociant ou In- themselves independent, and so determined to
struction g^ni5rale pour ce qui regarde le commerce affihate the entire Congregation to Citeaux, which was
des marchandises de France et des pays strangers." effected at the General Chapter of 1147. Several
(The Perfect Merchant or General Instruction re- English monasteries objecting to this, were finally
garding the mercantile trade of France and foreign obliged to submit by Pope Eugene III (1148). Little
countries). Numerous editions followed, and it was by little discipline became relaxed, and commenda-
translated into various languages. "Les Pareres, ou tory Abbots Ijeing introduced (1501) it never re-
Avis et Conseils sur les plus importantes Matieres de gained its first greatness. In 1509 it was pillaged and
Commerce" was published by Savary in 1688 as a partly burned by the Calvinists, and records of the
sequel to "Le parfait negociant" following year mention but twenty-four monks re-
Such was the authority of Savary that during his maining. It continued to exist until the Revolution
lifetime lawyers quoted his opinion as equal in value reduced it to a heap of ruins, and scattered its then
almost to a law. After the death of Colbert (1683), existing members. The church, a model of Cis-
the controller general of finances, Pelletier, continued tercian architecture, was restored in 1869, and now
his patronage of Savarj^ and ordered him to make an serves for parish purposes. Of all its former de-
investigation of the financial affairs of the Western pendencies, there remains only La Grande Trappe.
crown lands. Hisfamily was very numerous. He had This, though not founded directly, was a daughter of
seventeen children, eleven of whom survived him. the Abbey of Breuil-Benoit, which latter was a direct
His son Jacques Savary des Bruslons (b. 1657; d. fihation of Savigny.
1716) was appointed by Louvois, in 1686, inspector TissiER, Bibliotheca patrum cisterciensum (Bonnefont, 1660-
general of the Custom House in Paris. He under- 69); Meklet and MonTjER, Cartulaire des Vaux de Cernay
(Paris, 1857); de Dion, Etudes sur les iglises de I'ordre de CUeaux
took the composition for his personal use of an alpha- (Tours, 1889); on Monstieb, Neustria Pia (Rouen, 1663);
betical hst of all objects subject to duty, then- of all Hist. Liu. de la France, by the Benedictines of St. Maur IX, X,
XII (Paris, 1868-70); Manhiqde, Annates cistercienses (Lyons,
the words relating to commerce and industry. He 1642-59)' Martene and Durand, Thesaurus novus anecdo-
added a repertoire of the ordinances and rules regard- torum (Paris, 1717) Gallia Christiana, XI (Paris, 1865) Janac-
; ;

ing commerce in France and abroad. This double BCHEK, Originum cisterciensuim (Vienna, 1877), I: Dodsworth,
work was the starting-point of his " Dictionnaire du Monasticon anglicanum (London, 1682), II; Jo.mgelinus, Notitia
abbatiarum ord. cist. (Cologne, 1640); Miqne, Diet, des Ord.
Commerce", which he undertook in collaboration
with his brother Louis-Philemon and which he left un-
Ke!w. (Paris, 1850). _ ,, ^
Edmond M. Obhecht.
finished. But Louis-Philemon Savary (b. 1654; d.
1727), at first a preacher, later canon of the Chapter Saviour. See Jesus Christ.
of Saint-Maur, and French agent for the reigning
Savona andNoli, Diocese of(Savonensis etNau-
house of Mantua, finished the dictionary and pub- LENSis), province of Genoa, on the Gulf of Genoa, hav-
lished it in 1723. This Dictionary of Commerce was ing a small but safe harbour In addition to its maritime
.

translated into EngUsh in 1774. At the time of his trade and ship-building, the population is chiefly en-
death Louis Philemon had nearly completed a sup- gaged in manufactures of steel, glass, delph, majolica,
plementary volume, which appeared in 1730.
Vie de Savary, prefixed to
and in the quarrying of lignite and marble. The
MosEEi, Grand Diet. Hist.,
Le parfait nigocianl (Paris, 1721); cathedral, dating from 1589, restored in the nine-
v.
teenth century, has three naves and a cupola; it con-
a.

Gboeges Goyatt. Close by the

tains beautiful frescoes by Coghetti.
IV,
Savigny, Abbey of, situated on the confines of Nor- cathedral is the Sistine chapel, erected by Sixtus
mandy and Brittany, Diocese of Coutances, France, whose ancestors belonged to Savona. The other
founded by Vital de Mortain, Canon of the Collegiate churches contain paintings of great value. Among
the
J.-nurch of St. Evroul, who, resigning his prebend the secular buildings the most noteworthy is
to embrace an eremitical
life under Robert of Arbrissel Palazzo della Rovere, constructed by Sangallo; the
in the forest
of Craon (,\njou), and leaving the latter, paintings of Semini were destroyed when thp palace
retired to the forest
of Savigny (1105), where he built was converted into a convent. Savona was formerly
a hermitage.
Soon, however, the number of dis- called Sabbatia or Savo. In the tenth century its
count-
ciples who gathered
around him necessitated the bishops were counts of Savona, but later the
 SAVONAROLA 490 SAVONAROLA
ship passed to the marquesses of Monferrato (981) (1248); among his successors may be mentioned the
and afterwards to the marquesses of Vasto (1084); pious and gifted Barnabite Paolo .\ndrea Borelli
Savona was even then obliged to recognize a certain (1700) and Benedetto Solaro, O.P. (1778), a supporter
Ijroteetorate of the Republic of Genoa. From 1191 of the Synod of Pistoia. Savona is suffragan of Genoa
till 1215 it was a free commune. In 1238 it became and contains 60 parishes with 88,000 inliabitants, 170
subject to Genoa, but succeeded later on several secular and 75 regular priests, 9 educational institu-
occasions in gaining its independence (1238-51 1318- ;
tions for boys and 15 for girls.
C.^PPELLETTI, Le chiese d' Italia: Risso, Notizie della chieaa
1332; 1335-50). In 1525, the Genoese through jeal- vescovik di Vado (Genoa, 1829) Tarteroli, Storia del Comune
;

ousy obstructed its port. In 1745 it was bombarded di Sai'jiia (Savona, 1S49); Savonensis reipublicte monumenta
liy the English; the following year it was taken by the historica (Savona, 1851) Gaboni, Delle memorie particolari, etc,
;

di Savona (Savona, 1885-91) Verzellinio, Guida

King of Sardinia, who restored it to Genoa, whose artistica di
;

Savona (Savona, 1874).

storica e

fortune it thenceforward shared. In 1809 Pius MI U. Benigni

was imprisoned there by the French; he returned
thither in 1816 to crown the Madonna della Aliser- Savonarola, Girolamo, b. at Ferrara, 21 Septem-
icordia. Savona is the birthplace of Popes Sixtus IV ber, 1452; d. May, 1498.
at Florence, 23 The Do-
and Julian II, as also of the poet Gabriele Chiebrera. minican reformer came from an old family of Ferrara.
The See of Savona derives from that of \'adum Intellectually very talented he de\'oted himself to his
Sabbatium, now a small village three miles from studies, and especially to philosophy and medicine.
Sa\-ona. The first known bishop was Benedict
(680) In 1474 while on a journey to Faenza he heard a pow-
Bishop Bernard established the monastery on
in 9'.)2 erful sermon on repentance by an Augustinian and re-
the island of Berzezzi, after the see had been trans- solved to renounce the world. He carried out this de-
ferred to Savona; cision at once and
Blessed .\ i c u sm entered the Domin-
(1049) reformed the ican Order at Bo-
canons. Grossolanus logna without the
(1098), previously knowledge of his
.-Vbbot of Ferrania, parents. Feeling
founded by Mar- deeply the wide-
quese Boniface of spread depravity of
Savona (1097), was the era of the Re-
selected as Arch- naissance, as is e\'i-
bishop of Milan, but dent from the poem
was opposed by "On the Dechne of
others and passed his the Church ", which
days in continued he wrote in the first
turmoil ; Blessed year of his monas-
Vidone Lomello was the young
tic life,
present at the Dominican devoted
Lateran Council of himself with great
1179; Ambrogiodel zeal to prayer and
Carretto (1191) in- ascetic practices.
duced the marquess, In the monastery
his brother, to grant at Bologna he was
independence to the entrusted with the
Comune Savona;
of instruction of the
Church of Madonna della Mibericordia, Savona He here
Blessed Alberto di novices.
Novara had frequent conflicts with the comune, began to write philosophical treatises based on Aris-
which took possession of the property of the Church totle and St. Thomas Aquinas. In 1481 or 1482 he was
Enrico Ponsoni (12S8) made peace with the neigh- sent by his superior to preach in Florence. In this
bouring cities. In 1327 the city adhered to the anti- centre of the Renaissance he immediately opposed
pope Nicholas V, for which it was put under in- with <ireat energy the pagan and often immoral life
terdict for several years; Antonio Male, a soldier prevalent in many classes of society and especially at
rather than a bishop, had trouble with the Genoese, the court of Lorenzo de Medici. Savonarola's ser-
who kept him imprisoned at Noli; later, ho avenged mons made no impression, for his method and
himself by having the doge, Antoniotto .\dorno, de- mode of speaking were repulsive to the Florentines;
posed; Vincenzo Viale (1413) was famous for his but this did not discourage his reforming zeal. He
erudition; Jacopo della Rovere (1504) is said to have preached in the other cities of Italy during the years
died because he was not made a cardinal. In the 1485-89. At Brescia, in 1486, he explained the Book
sixteenth century the Republic of Genoa destroyed, of Revelation and from that time became more and
without I'ompensation, many churches and religious more absorbed in Apocalyptic ideas concerning his
pLires to make way for fortifications. .\s the cathe- own era, the judgment of God which threatened it,
dral, constructed by Julius II, was amongst these, the and the regeneration of the Church that was to follow.
canons in 1550, of their own accord, occupied the church At the same time he was filled with an intense zeal for
of the Conventuals, who were absent that day, and the the salvation of souls, and was ready to risk all in or-
latter «ere deprived of their church till 1589, when der to combat wickedness and to spread holiness of
the new cathedral was completed. Bishop Ciio. Batt. life. In 1489 he returned to Florence which was to be
Centurione (1592) was distinguished by his zeal in the scene of his future labours and triumphs as well aa
introducing reforms; Francesco M. Spinola (1632) of his fall.
had frequent disputes with the Genoese government, In August, 1490, Savonarola began his sermons in
by whom he was exiled; Domenico M. Gentile (1775) the pulpit of San Marco with the interpretation of the
restored the seminary; Vine. M. Maggiolo (1801) en- Apocalypse. His success was complete. AU Flor-
tertained Pius VII for several years; Agostino M. ence thronged to hear him, so that from his sermons
de' Mari (1833), a zealous pastor, instituted evangel- in the cathedral he acquired a constantly growing in-
ical works. In 1820 the Diocese of Noli, the ancient fluence over the people. In 1491 he became prior ol
Naulum, was united to Savona. That diocese had the monastery of San Marco. He made manifest his
been separated from Savona in 1230 at the request of feelings towards the ruler of Florence by failing to
the Republic of Genoa. The first bishop was Filippo visit Lorenzo de Aledici, although the Medici had
 SAVONAROLA 491 SAVONAROLA
always shown themselves generous patrons of the take away dice and cards from the citizens, to exhort
monastery. Lorenzo took no notice of this but con- luxuriously dressed married and single women to lay
tinued his benefits, without however changing the aside frivolous ornament. Thus there arose an actual
opinion of the new prior. Savonarola began at once which also carried on its
police for regulating morality,
with the inner reform of the monastery itself. San work by the objectionable methods of spying and de-
Marco and other monasteries of Tuscany were sepa- nunciation. The principles of the severe judge of
rated from the Lombard Congregation of the Domini- morals were carried out in practical life in too extreme
can Order and jvere formed in 1493 with papal ap- a manner. Success made Savonarola, whose speech
proval into an independent congregation. Monastic in his sermons was often recklessly passionate, more
life was reformed in this new congregation by rigid and more daring. Florence was to be the starting
observance of the original Rule. Savonarola, who point of the regeneration of Italy and the Church.
was the vicar-general of the new congregation, set the In this respect he was constantly looking for the inter-
example of a strict life of self -mortification; his cell position of Charles VIII for the inner reform of the
was small and poor, his clothing coarse, his food sim- Church, although the loose life and vague extrava-
ple and scanty. The lay brothers were obliged to gant ideas of this monarch in no way fitted him to un-
learn a trade and the clerics were kept constantly at dertake such a task.
their studies. Many new brethren entered the mon- These efforts of Savonarola brought him into con-
astery; from 50 the number of the monks of San flict with Alexander VI. The pope, like all Italian
Marco rose to 238, among them being members of the princes and cities, with the exception of Florence, was
first families of the city. an opponent of the French policy. Moreover, Charles
IMeanwhile Savonarola preached with burning zeal VIII had often threatened him with the calling of a
and rapidly won great influence. He was looked reform council in opposition to him. This led Alex-
upon and venerated by his followers as a prophet. ander VI to regard all the more dubiously the support
His sermons, however, were not free from extrava- that Florence under the influence of Savonarola gave
gance and vagaries. Without regard to consequences the French king. Furthermore the Dominican preach-
he lashed the immoral, vain-glorious, pleasure-seeking er spoke with increasing violence against the pope
life of the Florentines, so that a very large part of the and the Curia. On 25 July, 1495, a papal Brief com-
inhabitants became temporarily contrite and returned manded Savonarola in virtue of holy obedience to
to the exercise of Christian virtue. Both his sermons come to Rome and defend himself on the score of the
and his whole personality made a deep impression. prophecies attributed to him. Savonarola excused
He bitterly attacked Lorenzo the Magnificent as the himself on the plea of impaired health and of the dan-
promoter of paganized art, of frivolous living, and as gers threatening him. By a further Brief of 8 Sep-
the tjTant of Florence. Nevertheless, when on his tember the Dominican was forbidden to preach, and
death bed, Lorenzo summoned the stern preacher of the monastery of San Marco was restored to the
morals to administer spiritual consolation to him. It Lombard Congregation. In his reply of 29 Septem-
is said that Savonarola demanded as a condition of ber, Savonarola sought to justify himself, and de-
absolution that Lorenzo restore its liberties to Flor- clared that, as regards his teaching, he had always
ence; which, however, the latter refused to do. This submitted to the judgment of the Church. In a new
however cannot be proved with absolute historical papal Brief of 16 October written with great modera-
certainty. From 1493 Savonarola spoke with in- tion the union of the monastery of San Marco with the
creasing violence against the abuses in ecclesiastical Lombard Congregation was withdrawn, Savonarola's
life, against the immorality of a large part of the conduct was judged mildly, but the prohibition to
clergy, above all against the immoral life of many preach, until his vindication at Rome, was main-
members of the Roman Curia, even of the wearer of tained.
the tiara, Alexander VI, and against the wickedness of In the meantime Savonarola had again entered the
princes and courtiers. In prophetic terms he an- pulpit on 11 October in order to rouse the Florentines
nounced the approaching judgment of God and the against Pietro de Medici, and on 11 February the
avenger from whom he hoped the reform of Church Signoria of Florence actually commanded the Domin-
lite. By the avenger he meant Charles VIII, King of ican to preach again. Savonarola now resumed his
France, who had entered Italy, and was advancing sermons on 17 February and was thus unjustifiably
against Florence. Savonarola's denunciation of the disoijedient to ecclesiastical authority. In these Len-
Medici now produced its results. Lorenzo's son ten sermons he violently lashed the crimes of Rome
Pietro de Medici, who was hated both for his tyranny thereby increasing the passionate excitement at Flor-
and his immoral life, was driven out of the city with ence. A schism threatened and the pope was again
his family. forced to interpose. On 7 November, 1496, the Do-
The French king, whom Savonarola at the head of minican monasteries of Rome and Tuscany were
an embassy of Florentines had visited at Pisa, now formed into a new congregation, the first vicar of
entered the city. After the king's departure a new which was Cardinal Caraffa. Even then Savonarola
and peculiar constitution, a kind of theocratic democ- refused obedience and again during the Lenten season
racy, was established at Florence, based on the politi- of 1497 preached with uncontrolled violence against
cal and social doctrines the Dominican monk had pro-
the Church in Rome. On 12 May, 1497, he was ex-
claimed. Christ was considered the King of Florence communicated. Under the date of 19 June he pub-
and protector of its hberties. A great council, as the lished a letter "against the excommunication" as be-
representative of all the citizens, became the govern- ing fraudulently obtained and sought to show that the
ing body of the
republic and the law of Christ was to judgment against him was null and void. The Flor-
be the basis of political and
social life. Savonarola entine ambassadors at Rome probably hoped to pre-
Old not interfere directly
in politics and affairs of vent any further measures on the part of the pope, but
state, but his teachings and his ideas were authorita- their hopes were unfounded, especially as Savonarola
tive. The moral Ufe of the citizens was regenerated. became more defiant. Notwithstanding his excom-
Many persons brought articles of luxury, playing- munication he celebrated Mass on Christmas Daj-
wds, ornaments, pictures of beautiful women, the and distributed Holy Communion. Moreover, disre-
writmgsof pagan and immoral poets, etc., to the mon- garding an archiepiscopal edict, he began again on
astery of San
Marco; these articles were then publicly 11 February, 1498, to preach at the Cathedral
and to
Dumed. A brotherhood founded by Savonarola for demonstrate that the sentences against him were void.
young people encouraged a pious. Christian life among Even at this juncture the pope desired to act with gen-
Its members.
Sundays some of this brotherhood went tleness, if the obstinate monk would submit,
but the
latter remained defiant and with his adherents
aoout from house set
to house and along the streets to
 SAVOY 492 SAVOY
about calling a council in opposition to the pope. He gundians, with Gundiok as their ruler, settled in Sa-
drew up letters to the rulers of Christendom urging baudia, as allies of the Romans, and after the fall of
thfm to carry out this scheme which, on account of the Roman power they estabhshed a new kingdom
the alliance of the Florentines with Charles VIII, was which, towards the end of the fifth century, extended
not altogether beyond possibihty. over the entire basin of the Rhone as far as the Ce-
In Florence itself the opposition to Savonarola grew vennes and to the Mediterranean. In 532 Savoy was
more powerful, and an adversary from the Franciscan incorporated along with this Burgundian kingdom in
Order offered to undergo the ordeal by fire in order to the Frankish empire. During the supremacy of the
prove him in error. Savonarola himself did not want Franks the people changed from Arianism to Catholi-
to take up the challenge, but some of his ardent ad- cism. In the ninth century the Empire of the Franks
herents among the Dominicans declared themselves was divided into several kingdoms, and Savoy
ready for it. The ordeal for both sides was to take fell to the Kingdom of Aries, or Lower Burgundy,
place on 7 April, 1498, before a large pubhc gathering. which was founded in 879 by Count Boso of Vienne.
Everything was ready for the test, but it did not take Together with this territory it passed in 930 to the
place. Two people now turned against Savonarola. Kingdom of Upper Burgundy, established in 887 by
There were outbreaks, and the monastery of San the Guelph Rudolph between the Swiss Jura Alps and
Marco was attacked; Savonarola and a fellow-mem- the Pennine Alps. Rudolph III (964-1032) had no
ber of the order, Domenico da Pescia, were taken direct heirs, and bequeathed his land to the German
prisoners. The papal delegates, the general of the Emperors Henry II and Conrad II who were related
Dominicans and the Bishop of Ilerda were sent to to him. After Rudolph's death Conrad II main-
Florence to attend the trial. The official proceed- tained his claim to the country against Odo of Cham-
ings, which were, however, falsified by the notary, pagne, the candidate whom a number of Burgun-
still exist. The captured monks were tortured; Sa- dian spiritual and secular lords se1> up for the throne.
vonarola's following in the city fell away. On 22 May, In these struggles much aid was given the German
1498, Savonarola and two other members of the order ruler by a Burgundian noble. Count Humbert White
were condemned to death "on account of the enor- Hands of Savoy; for these services the count was re-
mous crimes of which they had been convicted". warded with large gifts of land. The ancestors of this
They were hanged on 25 May and their bodies Humbert came apparently from eastern Saxony, not
burned. In the beginning Su\ onarola was filled with far from Magdeburg; the earliest known members of
zeal, piety, and self-sacrifice for the regeneration of the family are the brothers Amadeus and Humbert,
religious
life. He was led to offend against these vir- who are mentioned in the second half of the tenth cen-
tuesby his fanaticism, obstinacy, and disobedieiice. tury. The oldest possessions of the line of Savoy
He was not a heretic in matters of faith. The erection were the counties of Maurienne (the upper valley of
of his statue at the foot of Luther's monumerit at the River Arc), Savoy (the district between Arc,
\A'orms as a reputed "forerunner of the Reformation" Is^re, and the middle course of the Rhone), and also
is entirely unwarranted. Among his writings men- Belley, with Bugey as its chief town. In the eleventh
tion should be made of: "Triumphus Crucis de fidei century there was added to this territory the valley of
veritate" (Florence, 1497), his chief work, an apol- Aosta, the Tarantaise (the upper valley of the la^re),
ogy for Christianity; "Compendium revelationum and Chablais (the district on the Rhone between
(Florence, 1495); "Scclta di prediche e scritti", ed. Martigny and Lake Geneva). About 1050 Hum-
Villari-Casanova (Florence, 1898); "Trattato circa il bert's son Odo married Adelaide, the oldest daughter
Reggimento di Firenze", ed. Rians (Florence, 1S4S); and heiress of Count Manfred of Turin, and by
further letters edited by Marchese in the "Archivio this marriage the House of Savoy gained large pos-
storico itaUano", App. XIII (1850) poems edited by
;
sessions in Italy, particularly the greater part of Pied-
Rians (Florence, 1S47). The "Dialogo della verita" mont, while at the same time the possessions east and
(1497) and fifteen sermons were placed later on the west of the Alps were joined together. Odo's second
.

Index. son, Amadeus II, aided his brother-in-law, the Em-

Della Mirandola, Vita SavonarolcB, ed. Qvetif (Paris, 1674) peror Henry TV, while on his expedition to Canossa,
BT7RLAMACCHI, Vita del Fra G. Savonarola, ed. ]Mansi (Lucca,
in return for which Henry resigned to him the secu-
1761) Gherakdi, Nuovi documenti e studi intorno a Gir. Savona-
;

rola (2nd ed., Florence, 1SS7) Villari, Storia di Gir. Savonarola

; lar administration of five Italian dioceses. After the
(3rd ed., 2 vols., Florence, 1898); Cappelli, Fra. G. .Savonarola death of his mother Adelaide, Humbert II took pos-
e Notizie mtomo al suo tempo (Modena, 1869) Procter, II do-
;

session of the Itahan inheritance (1091). His S()n

menicano Savonarola e la Riforma (Milan, 1897); Fehretti, Per
la causa di Fra Gir. Savonarola (Milan, 1897) Pastor, History
; Amadeus III joined the Second Crusade and died in
of the Popes, ed. Antrobus, V (St. Louis, 1902), passim; Idem, 1149 on the Island of Cyprus while returning home.
Zur Beiirleilung Savonarolas (Freiburg, 1S98) LroTTO, Gir.
;

Thomas I (1189-1233), grandson of Amadeus, as im-

Savonarola (Florence, 1897) Schnitzer, Quellen u. Furseliungen
—
;

zur Gesch. Savonarolas, I-III (Munich, 1902 ), IV (Leipzig, perial vicar did much to aid Frederick II, and en-
1910); Olschki, Bibliotheca Savonaroliana (Florence, 1898);
— larged his possessions by acquiring Chambdry, Ro-
Ryder, Essays (London, 1911), s. v.; Hogan, A Great Reformer
Fra Gir. Savonarola in Irish Eccl. Record (Dublin, July, 1910);
mont, etc. His eight sons divided the inheritance
Lucas, Fra Girolamo Savonarola (2nd ed., London, 1906) O'Neil,
; among themselves, yet the eldest Amadeus IV (1233-
Jerome Savonarola (Boston, 1898) Idem, Was Savonarola really
;
53), who was an adherent of Frederick II in his con-
excommunicated? (Boston, 1900).
test with the popes, maintained a certain supremacy
J. P. KlRSCH.
over his brothers . Of all the brothers only Thomas II
Savoy Savoja; Fr. Savoie), a district in the
(Ital. (d. 1250) left any male heirs; his sons Thonias III and
south-eastern part of France that extends from the Amadeus V were the founders of the two lines of Sa^
Lake Geneva to south of the River Arc, and forms voy and Piedmont that were reunited in 1418.
to-day the French Departments of Sa\-oie and Haut- Amadeus V (12S.5-1323), who inherited Savoy, ob-
Savoie. The House of Savoy which at the present tained in 1290 the secular governorship of the city of
time rules the Kingdom of Italy takes its name from Geneva. He accompanied Henry VII on his expedi-
this country. Sa\oy, the Roman Sahawlia, was in- tion to Italy, and was, as a reward, made a prince of
habited in "antiquity by the Celtic AUobroges who the empire (1311). He was succeeded by his sons
were conquered by the Romans in the first century be- Edward (1323-29) and Aymon (1329-43). The lat-
to Montferrat. Ay-
fore Christ and gradualh' became Romanized. AMien ter bv marriage gained a claim
mon's son Amadeus VI (1343-83), called the "Queen
in ^. D. 437 the kingdom of the Germanic Burgun-
dians, with AA'orms as its capital, was destroyed by the Count" because of the colour of his ensign at to"™^'
Hunnio hordes. King Gundikar and the greater num- ments, was a famous warrior who fought over half
ber of his people were killed. With the permission of of Europe and in 1366 battled against the Turks m
the Roman general .Etius, the remainder of the Bur- Greece; he won Vaud, Gex, and parts of the dioceses
 GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA
FRA BARTOLOMMEO, MUSEUM OF ST. MARK, FLORENCE
 SAXE 493 SAXE-ALTENBURG
of Ivrea and Vercelli, and made a law that his terri- joined Austria and its confederates. Upon this the
toriesshould never be divided and that the succession French took possession once more of his country; the
should be by primogeniture. In order to form a bar- victory of Eugene of Savoy (a member of the Carig-
rier against the increasing influence of the French nan branch of the family) at Turin in 1706 freed Pied-
kings the Emperor Charles IV in 1361 separated Savoy mont from the enemy. In the Peace of Utrecht in
from Aries and appointed Amadous imperial vicar 1713 the duke recovered Savoy and Nice from the
for Aries (until 1378). Amadous VII (1383-91), the French, while the emperor gave him Montferrat from
"Red Count", gained Nice, Ventimigha, and Chi- the Spanish inheritance, parts of the Duchy of Milan,
vasso. and the Island of Sicily, as well as the title of king.
Amadeus VIII (1391-1434), known as the antipope In 1718 he was obliged to abandon Sicily to Austria
Felix V (q. v.), was made a duke by Emperor Sigis- and accept in return the much less valuable island of
mund in 1416; in 1422 he received the County of Sardinia, but in consideration of this he was acknowl-
Geneva in fief, and in 1426 gained ^^erceUi and feudal edged as king by Spain. The House of Savoy now
supremacy over Montferrat. Under his weak and took the title of King of Sardinia from the island of
idle son Louis (1334-65) the power of the rising house that name, although Savoy and Piedmont remained
declined. Amadeus IX the Fortunate (1465-72) left its chief possessions. Henceforth the history of Savoy
the government to his wife Yolande, sister of the is in general the same as that of the Kingdom of Sar-

French king Louis XI, who was also regent for her dinia (q. v.). During the French Revolution Savoy
minor son Philibert I (1372-S2). French influence was occupied by the French, and by the Treaty of Nice
increased in Savoy and involved the countiy in the in 1796 was surrendered to France together with Nice.
wars between France and the emperors. Philibert II It was restored to Sardinia by the Congress of Vienna.
(1497-1504) inchned in politics more to the Austrian In the war of 1859 with Austria Lombardy fell to Pied-
and Spanish side; this was also the policy of Charles mont, but in 1860 King Victor Emmanuel II was
III (1504-53). The latter received Asti in 1530 from obliged to cede Savoy and Nice to France in return
his brother-in-law, the Emperor Charles V, but in 1534 for the aid that Napoleon III, in accordance with the
lost Geneva, in 1536 Vaud and the southern shore of secret treaty of Plombi&res (1858), had given the king
the Lake of Geneva as far as the Swiss cantons of in this war. Thus the ancestral lands of the Italian
Berne, Freiburg, and Valais, and in 1536 he was royal family belong to-day to the French, much to the
driven out of Savoy and Piedmont by the French king. vexation of the Italians.
The Truce of Xice in 1538 left the French in possession Manno, Bibliografia storico degli stati detta monarchia di Savoia
(8 vols., Turin, 1884-1908); Cibraeio, Notizia sopra la storia dei
of their conquests, and Charles retained only Cuneo, principi di Savoia (2nd ed., Turin, 1866); Idem, Storia delta
Asti, and Vercelli. However, his son Emmanuel Phili- monarchia di Savoia (3 vols., Turin, 1840-44); Idem, Originie pro-
bert (1553-80) regained nearly all his territories in gresso delle istituzioni delta monarchia di Savoia (2 vols., Flor-
ence, 1869); RicOTTi, Storia delta monarchia piemontese (6 vols.,
1559 by the Peace of Cateau-Cambri5sis; in 1564 he Florence, 1861-70); St-Genis, Hist, de Savoie (3 vols., Cham-
concluded the Treaty of Lausanne with the Swiss Con- b6ry, 1869) Cartjtti, Storia delta diptomazia detle corte di Savoia
;

federation, in agreement with which he recovered Cha- (4 vols., Turin, 1875-80) Idem, Regesta comitum Sabaudios ab
;

ultima stirpis origine ad annum 1263 (Turin, 1889) Gerbaix di ;

blais, but renounced his claim to Geneva and the SoNNAZ, Studi storici sul contado di Savoia e sul marchesato in
Vaud. He acquired Tenda and Oneglia, founded the Italia (3 vols., Turin, 1883-1903) ; Gabotto, LoSabaudo da
stato
University of Mondovi, and replaced the feudal sys- Amadeo VIII ad Emanuele Filiberto (3 vols., Turin, 1892-95);
Pehhin, Bist. de Savoie (Chamb^ry, 1900) Hellman, Die Grafen
;

tem by an enlightened absolutism which afterwards von Savoyen u. das Reich bis zum Ende des staufisch. Periode (Inns-
became a model for Europe. bruck, 1900); DE Angeli, Storia di casa Savoia (Milan, 1906)
Emmanuel I the Great (1580-1630), son of Em- Ardouin-Dumazet, Voyage en France, VIII-X (Paris and
Nancy, 1903).
manuel Philibert, sided in politics sometimes with
Joseph Lins.
Spain and the emperor, sometimes with France, ac-
cording as he hoped to gain the greater advantage. Sase, Jean de. — For a long time two astronomers
In 1588 he conquered the Margraviate of Saluzzo, to of the Middle Ages were confounded under this name.
which France also laid claim, and retained it in the Joannes Danko, or de Danekowe, de Sax-
(1)
Peace of Lyons (1601) as the ally of Philip of Spain. ONiA, composed (1297) the "Notulae super compo-
In return, however, he was obliged to concede the
tum"; there is also in Paris a copy of the Canons of
provinces of Gex, Bresse, and Valromy to France. Jean de Lini^res made by him (1323).
During this reign Chablais, which had become almost
(2) Jean de Counnout (de Conn aught), called
entirely Protestant during its dependency on Berne,
DE Saxonia, was likewise a disciple and great admirer
was regained for the Catholic Faith by the labours of of Jean de Linieres, and a composer of various as-
St.Francis of Sales (q. v.). The ambition of Em- tronomical and astrological works. In 1327 he drew
manuel I even led him in 1619 to aim at the imperial up the "Canones super tabulas Alfonsii regis Cas-
crown. On account of his claims to Montferrat. great and lasting fame; in 1331 he reviewed
tellae", of
which in 1536 had fallen to Mantua, he took part in
the " Introduotorium ad judicia astronomiae" of Al-
the War of the Mantuan Succession (1628-31). His Kabici (Alohabitius). In 1355 he composed examples
son Victor Amadeus I (1630-37) by the treaty of
of numerical computation on the "Canons " of Jean de
peace obtained parts of Montferrat, but was obliged
Liniferes, later on his own "Canons", to give the
to yield Pinerolo and the valley of Perosa to France. students of the University of Paris practice in the use
In 1635 he supported the French army in the struggle of astronomical tables. The "Canones in tabulas Al-
with the emperor for the Duchy of Milan. fonsii" were printed following the " Alfonsian Tables"
Charles Emmanuel II (1638-75), a prince fond of in 1483 . The Scriptum super Alkabicium was pub-
'
'
'
'

art and anxious for the prosperity of his people, came lished at Venice, 1489, 1491, 1502, 1503, and in Paris
into possession of the
lands of the counts of Geneva, a in 1,520.
branch of the House of Savoy. Victor Amadeus II BONCOMPAGNI, Intorno alle vite inedite di tre matematici {Gio-
(*^75-1730), son of Charles Emmanuel, refused in vanni Dancic di Sassonia, Giovanni de Lineriis e Fra Luca Pacioli
1690 to bring an army to the aid of Louis XIV against di Borgo San Sepolcro) scritte da Bernardino Baldi in Bullelino_ di
Bibliografia e di Storia delle Scienze matematiche e fisiche, t. XII,
the alliance between
the emperor, England, Sweden, 1879.
f^pam, and the
Netherlands; in return the French Pierre Duhem.
seized Savoy and
Piedmont. When in 1696 the duke
withdrew from the alliance by an independent treaty Saxe-Altenburg, one of the Saxon duchies in the
ne received from east of Thuringia. situated on the west frontier of the
France not only all that had been
^^^° Pinerola and Perosa. Consequently in Kingdom of Saxony. It has an area of 511 sq. miles,
t^ w'
the War of
the Spanish Succession Victor Emmanuel and consists of two parts (separated by the principal-
at first was
a partisan of Louis XIV, but in 1703 he ity of the younger branch of the Reuss family), the
 SAXE-COBURG 494 SAXE-COBURG
Ostkreis (254 sq. miles) and the Westkreis (257 sq. the inhabitants of Saxe-Coburg of Prankish. The
miles). It contained 216,312 inhabitants in 1910; two duchies originated in the division of the ancestral
206,50s in 1905, including 5,449 Cathohos (3 per estates of Duke Ernest the Pious (d, 1675), the founder
cent), 200,511 Protestants, and 131 Jews. The of all the Saxon ducal Unes (except the grand-ducal
duchy became a s(^parate state in 1826, when in con- line of Saxe-^^'eimar-Eisenach), among his seven sons.
sequence of the extinction of the Saxe-Gotha line With Duke Frederick IV, who had become a Catholic
(1.S21), its possessions were divided among the Sa.xon at Rome in 1807, the line of Saxe-Gotha became ex-
ducal Unes, the territory of Altenburg falling to the tinct (1821), and, after long disputes concerning the
,S:ixe-Hildburghausen line as an independent domain. succession, the territory of Gotha fell to the line of
Duke Ernest II (b. 1S71) has ruled since 1902. The Coburg-Saalfeld in 1826. Members of the ruling
present duchy was separated from the former Burgra- house of Coburg-Gotha ascended the thrones of several
viate of Altenburg, which belonged to the ancestral European countries during the nineteenth century;
estates of the House of Saxe-Meissen, by the par- by his marriage with Queen Victoria (1S40), Prince
tition treaty of 1485, to which is to be traced the divi- Albert became the founder of the pre.sent royal
sion of the princely House of Saxony into the Ernestine house of England; Prince Leopold was elected heredi-
Line, ruUng over the various Thuringian states, and tary King of Belgium in 1831, the Belgian branch of
the Albertine Line, ruhng in the Kingdom of Saxony. the House of Saxe-Coburg becoming Catholic. The
Altenburg fell to the Ernestine Line. A
special fine of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (often
Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg was founded in 1603, but, called Coburg-Kohary), founded through the marriage
on the extinction of the ruling famOy (1672), the of Prince Ferdinand with the heiress of the Hun-
territory fell to Saxe-Gotha. garian princely House of Kohary (1816), is also Catho-
The inhabitants of the territory constituting the lic. A son of this marriage, Ferdinand, was the
modern duchy were prevaihngly Protestant from the founder (1837) of the dynasty which ruled in Portugal
beginning of the Reformation movement. The few until 1910; a grandson, also named Ferdinand, became
Catholics in the duchy are mostly immigrants who in 1S87 hereditary Prince, and in 1909 King (Tsar) of
settled there during the latter half of the nineteenth Bulgaria. In the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
century; in 1871 the Catholics formed only 0.14 per the main line became extinct in 1S93, the succession
cent of the population. Catholic ser\-ices have been falling to the English branch; Duke Charles Edward
held in the city of Altenburg by priests from Leipzig (b. 18S4), son of the Duke of Albany and grandson of
(Kingdom of Saxony) since the third decade of the the Prince Consort Albert and Queen Victoria, has
—
nineteenth century in the beginning only at long in- reigned since 1899 (until 1905 under a guardian).
ter\'als. Since 1880 Altenburg has had its own priest, In the old Cathohc days the territory of the present
and to-day Catholic service and religious instruction Duchy of Gotha belonged to the Archdiocese of Mainz,
are held in seven places in the duchy, partly by priests the episcopal jurisdiction being exercised by the coad-
from the Principality of Reuss and the neighbouring jutor bishop living at Erfm-t. The Reformation de-
Prussian territories. By a Rescript of the Propaganda stroyed all Catholic Ufe, and it was onlj- at the end of
of 27 June, 1869, the Catholics of the duchy were the eighteenth century that a, small Catholic commu-
placed under the Bishop of Paderborn, and by Decree nity was again formed in the town of Gotha, the re-
of the Propaganda of 19 Sept., 1877, under the vicar ligious ministration being supplied from Erfurt and
Apostolic in the Kingdom of Saxony. There are no by the Franciscans of the Saxon province. Though
legal provisions governing the relations between the accorded parish rights in 1807, this community had
Catholic Church and the State, the government usu- not a special priest until 1857. In 1868 all Catholics
ally conforming to the principles ob.ser\-ed in the in the Duchy of Gotha were assigned to the parish of
Kingdom of Saxony. The public primary schools are Gotha. The relations between the Catholic Church
all Evangelical-Lutheran; there is a Catholic private and the State were fixed in one-sided fashion by the
school (220 pupils in 1910) in the town of Rositz, to "Regulativ fiir die kirchliche Verfassung der romisch-
which the State has granted a subsidy since 1909. kathoUschen Glaubensgenossen im Herzogtum Gotha"
The erection of a private Catholic elementary school of 23 August, 1811 regulations were therein made for
;

in the city of Altenburg (120 Catholic children under the state supervision of the entire ecclesiastical life,
obligation to attend school) has not yet materialized for the establishment of the ruler's placet, etc. The
owing to lack of funds. The Catholics are mostly validity of this "Regulativ" has never been recog-
poor immigrant factory hands. nized by the Catholic Church. On the reorganization
Bhatjn, Erinnerungsbldtter aus der Gr.<:ch. AUenburgs von 1525 of the German sees at the beginning of the nineteenth
his 1826 (Altenburg, 1876); Lobe, Gesck. der Kircheii u. Schulcn century the Catholics of Gotha were assigned to no
des JlcrZ'intiims Sachsen- Altenburg (3 vols., .\ltenburg, 18S7-91).
Protestant; Freisen, Staat u. kath. Kirche in den deutschen diocese. At the desire of the Government of Gotha,
Bundesstaalen, II (Stuttgart, 1906), 327 sq. expressed through the medium of Prussia, the Catho-
Hermann Sacher. lics of the duchy were assigned to the Diocese of
Paderborn by papal Decree of 13 Dec, 18.53. The
Saxe-Coburgand Gotha.one of the Saxon-Thurin- publication of this Decree, however, was forbidden by
gian duchies, has an area of 751 sq. miles and two chief the Government of Gotha, because the Bishop of
divisions, the Duchy of Coburg (216 sq. miles) and the Paderborn refused to recognize the validity of the
Durhy of Gotha (541 sq. miles). These divisions are "Regulativ" of 1811, and the sovereign prerogatives
separated from each other by a portion of Saxe-Mein- of the duke in ecclesiastical affairs. Despite frequent
ingen and a strip of land belonging to Prussia (Kreis attempts at settlement (the last in 1899), this dispute
Schleusingen) .In 1910 the territory had 257,208 in- continues to the present day, the bi.shop being allowed
habitants; in 1905 its population of 242,432 included to discharge episcopal functions in the duchy only
3S97 CathoUcs (2 per cent),^ 237,187 Evangelicals, after securing the permission of the Government;. The
and 714 Jews. The two duchies were united in 1826, duke and diet grants a small annual subsidy (about
but each territory has still its own constitution, diet, S200) for Cathohc objects. The raising of church
and internal administration, even as regards religion taxes is forbidden, and the administration of church
and education. Only for certain specified kinds of property is controlled by the State. There are no
business do the diets hold a common session. Apart special legal regulations concerning reUgious orders;
from the separation of the two states, and the marked the Sisters of St. EKzabeth (Grey Sisters) from Bres-
difference in the extent of their Crown lands, which lau have an establishment in the duchy.
greatly influences questions of taxation, racial differ- The territory of the Duchy of Coburg was eccle-
ences also contribute to keep the states separate, the siastically subject to the Diocese of Wtirzburg until the
inhabitants of Saxe-Gotha being of Saxon stock and Reformation, after the inauguration of which the few
 SAXE-MEININGEN 495 SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH
remaining Catholics were ministered to by the Bene- the Government. Before making an appointment,
dictines from the Monastery of Banz (on the Main). the bishop presents to the ducal Government a priest
At the end of the eighteenth century a small CathoUc of the Diocese of Wiirzburg provided with the royal
community was again formed in Coburg. The rela- Bavarian Htulus mensce, and asks if this cleric is a
tions between Church and State were regulated here persona grata to the duke. On the approval of the
also in a partial manner by the "Herzoglich-Coburg-
duke, the priest receives episcopal institution, and
ische Regulativ fiir die kirchliche Verfassung der promises on oath before the ducal Government that he
katholischen Glaubensgenossen " of 30 October, 1812. will observe the laws of the land and faithfully fulfil
This "Regulativ" has also failed to find recog- his duty. The State grants a small subsidy towards
nition from the Church. At the request of the Arch- the payment of the clergy. Several districts are
bishop of Bamberg, the Catholics of the Duchy of attended as a matter of charity by priests of neigh-
Coburg were assigned to that see; the duke refused, bouring dioceses. If Catholic priests wish to exercise
however, to give his consent to the Decree, pending; their priestly functions outside of their appointed
the results of the negotiations then being conducted district, they must first inform the Evangelical clergy-
by some German princes concerning the formation of man of their intention. In the case of interments,
a new diocese (Frankfort Conferences), but offered no the Catholic priest must, even within their special
objection to the provisional assignment of priests and district, obtain the approbation of the Evangelical
the provisional exercise of episcopal jurisdiction in the clergyman as regards the time. There are no legal
duchy. There has been no change in these relations ordinances concerning religious orders. For the es-
to the present day. The priests take an oath to up- tablishment in Meiningen of the Daughters of the
hold the constitution. In 1868 all the Catholics of the Divine Redeemer from Wiirzburg notice to the po-
duchy were assigned to the parish of Coburg; the lice only was necessary. The primary schools are
parish priest has for some years received a small an- Evangelical Lutheran, although this is not expressly
nual allowance from the State (about $125). No provided for in the law. Religious instruction for
church tax may be levied. Religious orders which the denominations in the minority (and thus for
care for the sick are free to enter without State per- Catholics) must be provided in a manner deemed suf-
mission. The question of the religious training of the fici.jnt by the representatives of such churches.
children of mixed marriages is left open in both A public Catholic primary school exists at Wolf-
duchies; until 1900, however, the principle religio mannshausen (70 pupils), and a private school with-
sequiiur sexum was applied to such children. The out state or communal support at Poessneck (since
public elementary schools of both duchies are Evan- 1883; 31 pupils in 1910). The Primary School Law
gelical-Lutheran, although religious supervision has of 1908 definitively set aside the religious supervision
been abolished since 1863, and a complete separa- of schools, and effected a sharp division of church
tion of Church and State thus effected. Private Cath- and school; even the supervision of religious in-
olic elementary schools exist in Gotha (since 1857; 100 struction no longer pertains to the parish priest.
pupils in 1910) and Coburg (since 1807; 100 pupils Bruckner. Landeskunde des Herzogtums Meiningen (2 vols.,
Meiningen, 1851-53); Zertel, Kleine Landeskunde (Hildburg-
in 1910).
hausen, 1903); Freiben, Der kath. und evang. Pfarrzwang (Pa-
Beck, GescK des gothaischen Landes (3 vols., Gotha, 1868-76); derborn, 1906).
LoTz, Coburgische Landesgesch. (Coburg, 1892) ; Freisen, Staat Hermann Sacher.
u. kalh. Kircke in den deutschen Landcsslaaien, II (Stuttgart,
1906), 361 sqq.; Idem, Der kathol. u, protest. Pfarrzwang (PsideT-
bom, 1906), 94 sqq. Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, a grand duchy in Thu-
Herman Sachee. ringia, also in recent times as the Grand duchy
known
of Saxony. It has an area of 1397 sq. miles, and consists
Saxe-Meiningen, a Saxon-Thuringian duchy. It of three non-contiguous parts: Weimar (678 sq. miles)
has an area of 953 sq. miles, and 278,792 inhabi- Eisenach (465); and Neustadt (254). In 1910 the
tants (1910). In 1905 its population of 268,916 grand duchy had 417,166 inhabitants; in 1905 it had
included 4870 Catholics (2 per cent), 262,283 Evan- a population of 388,095, including 18,049 CathoHcs
gelicals, and 1276 Jews. The duchy cameinto exist- (5 per cent), 367,789 Protestants, and 1412 Jews.
ence in 1681, as the result of the various succession Like the other Saxon-Thuringian minor states, the
agreements among the seven sons of Duke Ernest grand duchy originated in the partitions among the
the Pious of Saxe-Gotha. Later agreements in- heirs of the House of Wettin, which ruled in Saxony.
creased the territory of the duchy, especially that of The House of Saxe-Wettin divided in 1485 into the
1826, when the previously independent Duchy of Ernestine and Albertine lines. John Frederick the
Saxe-Hildburghausen was assigned to it (560 sq. Magnanimous, of the former line, lost in the Witten-
miles, with 70,000 inhabitants). In the Austro- berg Capitulation of 1547 (see Saxony), in addition
Prussian War of 1866, Duke Bernard II (d. 1882) to his electoral dignity, his estates with the exception
was the only Thuringian prince of the Saxon house of Thuringia. Even under the sons of John Fred-
to adhere to Austria or the German Confederation. erick Thuringia began to be divided up into separate
Prussia therefore occupied his territory and had the principaUties. Since the division of 1672 the Ernes-
government transferred to his son, George II (b. tine line is represented by two main branches —
the
1826), who is still reigning (1911). The heir apparent Weimar (now the grand ducal) line which rules in
'^Prince Bernard, who married Charlotte, sister of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, and the Gotha line, from which
the German Emperor. In pre-Reformation times the three ducal lines have issued, ruUng to-day in Saxe-
territory of the present Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, and Saxe-Altenburg
belonged to the Diocese of Wiirzburg, to whose care respectively. The Weimar line also divided into
to-day also the few Catholics of the country are —
three branches the hues of Weimar, Jena, and Eisen-
committed. The Reformation caused the disap- ach; the last two lines however became extinct, so that
pearance of Catholicism. the three duchies were reunited in 1741. The best-
In 1808, in consequence of a treaty between Saxe- known ruler of the grand-duchy is Charles Augustus
Meimngen and the then Grand Duchy of Wurzburg, (175S-1S2S), who made his capital, Weimar, the intel-
the Catholic parish
of WoKmannshausen was ceded lectual centre of Germany by attracting to his court the
to baxe-Meinmgen. In the course of the nineteenth most famous Germans of his day; the poets Goethe,
century, Catholic
pastoral stations were established Schiller, Wieland, and Herder shed lustre on his reign.
at Heinmgen, Hildburghausen, Poessneck, and Sonne- In the war between Prussia and France (1806) Charles
oerg (seat of
the celebrated toy industry). The Augustus first espoused the cause of Prussia, but to
legal statute
of the various parishes or stations is save his domains he was compelled to join iheRhein-
regulated by special
treaties between the bishop and bund formed by Napoleon after the defeat of Prussia
 SAXE- WEIMAR-EISENACH 496 SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH
at Jena (14 Oct., 1806). In consequence of the Con- the name of his Catholic subjects, fidehty, homage,
gress of Vienna Prussia surrendered to Saxe-
(1S1.5J and obedience. The State has regulated the condi-
Weimar a territory of 6600 sq. miles with 78,000 in- tions ofthe Catholic Church in a narrow spirit by the
—
habitants including Neustadt, which had previously law of 1 Oct., 1S23; these conditions have not been
belonged to the Kingdom of Saxony, and the Catholic substantially changed by the laws of 6 May, 1857,
Eisenach Highlands. On 31 April, 1815, Duke Charles and 10 April, 1895. " For the preservation and exer-
Augustus received the title of grand duke. In the cise of the rights of the State, which, as regards the
Austro-Prussian War of 1866 Saxe- Weimar supported Catholic Church, its goods, and servants, are deri\ed
Prussia; it was a member of the North German Confed- from the secular supreme direction and the power to
eration, and in 1871 became a federal state of the Ger- maintain order " there exists an " Immediatkommis-
,

man Empire. William Ernest (b. 1876) has been the sion fur das katholische Kirchen- und Schulwesen"
reigning grand duke since 1901. (Commission for the Catholic Church and Schools)
Before the Reformation of the sixteenth century, the immediately responsible to the Go\'ernment; to this
territories constituting the present grand duchy were, must be referred all matters in which the cognizance,
ecclesiastically speaking, under the Archdiocese of agreement, confirmation, etc. of the Government have
Mainz, the coadjutor bishop residing at Erfurt exer- been expressly required. Purely dogmatic decrees
cising jurisdiction in the name of the archbishop. and decrees relating to the domestic discipline of the
The Reformation removed every vestige of Catholic Church and not affecting the State are excepted.
life. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries In the course of time custom has given rise to the
some Catholics immigrated sporadically into the terri- state regulations that all episcopal ordinances, papal
tories of Weimar, Jena, and Eisenach. Spiritual briefs etc., in so far as they affect the grand duchy,
ministration was supplied, as far as possible, by the must be laid before the Government for inspection be-
Benedictines and secular priests of the city of Erfurt, fore promulgation or delivery, and that spiritual pre-
which remained a secular possession of the Archbishop cepts may not be published without the ruler's placet,
of Mainz until 1802, when it fell to Prussia. Duke except they be of purely moral or dogmatic import.
Ernest Augustus II (1748-58) of Weimar erected a Until 1857 processions outside the church and church-
chapel for his Cathohc soldiers, so that they could yards and to places of pilgrimage were forbidden.
not desert under pretence of attending service at Er- Parochial positions and prebends are assigned by the
furt. Catholic Divine Service was inaugurated in bishop with the approval of the grand duke, in so far
1795 for the Catholic students of the University of as the right of patronage does not pertain to the latter
Jena. The spiritual care of the students was entrusted alone. In every parish and succursal church there is
to the French priest Gabriel Henry, who had been a church directorate, which consists of the pastor and
compelled to leave France on the outbreak of the two Catholic parishioners, and is entrusted with the
Revolution, because he refused to take the oath of administration of the church property, the mainten-
the civil constitution of the clergy demanded by the ance of buildings, etc For a long period the terri-
French National Assembly. After the battle of Jena, torial dean (Landdechant), the pastor of Geisa, had to
Napoleon, at the request of Father Henry, proclaimed visit each pastor and church once annually, and for-
the political and religious equality of Catholics and ward a report of his visitation to the Immedialkom-
Protestants it was also due to Father Henry that the
; mission. Should the bishop wish to make a visitation
declaration of the various German states on joining in person, he must first inform the territorial ruler of
the Rheinbimd contained the article concerning the his purpose, whereupon it is decided whether or not a
equality of Catholics and Protestants. Through secular counsel shall be co-ordinated with the visita-
Father Henry's exertions the first Catholic parish in tion. As regards the children of mixed marriages and
Jena was established in 1808; it was endowed by change of religion the law of 10 April, 1895, decrees
Napoleon, and all the Catholics of the territory were that the children must follow the religion of the
assigned to it. In 1819 the seat of the parish was father, even when he changes his religion. However,
transferred to Weimar. In 1815 Prussia ceded the the change of reUgion in the case of the father does
Eisenach Highlands to the grand duchy. Until 1802 not affect the denomination of the children who are
this territory, entirely Catholic, had belonged to the more than twelve years old. The father can also
immediate ecclesiastical domain of Fulda; it contained agree to the training of the children in the rehgion of
nine parishes, united in the deanery of Geisa. the mother, although not before the birth of the first
To-day (1911) the grand duchy contains altogether child and only by means of a declaration before the
14 parishes and a number of curacies and chaplaincies, courts. Persons who have completed their eighteenth
21 priests, and about 30 churches, all of which are sub- year may choose their own denomination. Whoever
ject to the deanery of Geisa. The Sisters of Mercy wishes, after the completion of his eighteenth year,
from Fulda have establishments in four places; the to leave the Cathohc or Evangehcal Church, must
Sisters of St. Elizabeth (Grey Sisters) from Breslau first declare his intention to the proper clergyman,
have a house at Eisenach. Male religious orders are who will instruct him as to the importance of the step,
forbidden to open houses in the grand duchy. With and draw up an attestation of the conversion. The
the agreement of the grand ducal government, the declaration of secession must be made before the courts.
grand duchy was placed under the ecclesiastical juris- The school system is regulated by the law of 24 June,
diction of the Diocese of Paderborn by the Bull "De 1874, in the form published on 5 December, 1903.
salute aniraarum" of Hj July, 1821; the Bull "Provida The public primary schools are maintained by the
solcrsque" of 16 Aug., 1821, placed the nine parishes political community or a special school community.
of the deanery of Geisa under the Diocese of Fulda; —
They are denominational either Catholic or Evan-
but it was only in 1829 that the grand ducal govern- gelical according as either creed is in the majority.
ment recognized the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Only in one place (Dermbach) is there both a Catholic
Fulda over these parishes. In answer to the petition (170 pupils in 1910) and an Evangehcal division of the
of the Bishop of Fulda (17 Dec, 1856), the whole public primary school. In Geisa there are Catholic
grand duchy was plaoed under his jurisdiction by and Jewish divisions in the pubHc primary schools,
brief of Cardinal Secretary of State Antonelli (17 Feb., thanks to the tolerance of the Catholics— an example
1857). The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of each new not imitated in the Evangelical towns. In six places,
Bishop of Fulda in the grand duchy is recognized by where the Catholics are in a minority (Weimar, Eisen-
the Government only after the receipt of an announce- ach, Apolda, Jena, Neustadt on the Oria, and Weida),
ment of his entr;\- into office and of a written guarantee there are Catholic private primary schools, to which
(a bond), in which the bishop promises to observe all the State grants no subsidy. Negotiations between
the grand ducal rights and powers, and promises, in the Catholic primary schools and the Supreme School
 SAXO 497 SAXONY
Board are effected through the medium of the Im- in his own time the work received scant attention,
mediatkommission for the Cathohc Church and Catho- partly, no doubt, because it was written in such
licSchools. difficult Latin. An epitome was made by an anony-
Kron'FELd, Landeskunde des Grossherzogtums Sachsen (2 vola., mous writer in 1431 and here the epithet "Gram-
Weimar, 1878-79); Fkeisen, Die bischOfliche Jurisdiktion iiber die maticus" (the lettered one) was first used. The first
Katholiken im Grossherzogtum Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (Stutt-
gart, 1910).
printed edition, made from a MS. since lost, appeared
Hermann oacher. in Paris in 1514 and has been the basis of all subse-
quent editions. The first critical edition was given
Saxo Grammaticus, Danish historian of the by Stephanus Johannes Stephanius (Soro, 1644). The
thirteenth century, author of the "Gesta Danorum". best modern editions are those of Miiller-Velschow
The scanty information we have concerning his Ufe (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1839-58) and of Alfred Holder
is based chiefly on
statements in his work, especially (Strasburg, 1886). The latter contains also a careful
in the preface. His father and grandfather took part bibliography. Translations were made into Danish
in the campaigns of Waldemar I of Denmark by Anders Soffrinson Vedel (Copenhagen, 1575), by
(1157-
1182). He himself was a cleric a layman of that time
; Grundtvig (Copenhagen, 1818) and by W. Horn
would hardly have had his knowledge of theology (Christiania and Copenhagen, 1898). The first nine
and classic lore. No doubt, he studied at foreign books have been translated into English by O. Elton,
universities, probably in Paris. In the eleventh book with notes by F. York Powell (London, 1894); into
of his history he speaks of the funeral of Bishop Asker German by H. Jantzen (Berlin, 1900) and Paul
(Esger) as ha^-ing taken place in his own time. As Herrmann (Leipzig, 1901).
that event happened in 1158 we may conclude that Consult the introductions to the works of Elton and Powell;
Saxo was tjorn about 1150, but we do not know where; MxiLLER-VELacHOW; Jantzen; see also HEaRMANN, op. cit.,
4G6-470; Olrik, Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie (Copenhagen,
from the favour shown to Zealand, it has been in- 1892 and 1894) Pineau, Saxo Grammaticus (Tours, 1901)
;

ferred that that was his birthplace. Wattenbach, Deuischlands Geschichtsguellen, II (6 ed., 1893),
Saxo's history was written at the suggestion of 347.

Archbishop Absalon of Lund, who died in 1201 Akthub F. J. Remt.

before the work was finished, whereupon the historian
addressed himself to Absalon's successor Anders, Saxony. — I. The Saxon —
Tribe. There arose in
who held the see until 1222. There is some doubt Germany during the third and fourth centuries after
as to Saxo's position. In his preface he modestly Christ the great tribal confederations of the Alamanni;
refers to himself as the least among the followers of Bavarians, Thuringians, Franks, Frisians, and Saxons,
Absalon, but it is not likely that the bishop would which took the place of the numerous petty tribes
have entrusted to an obscure and unimportant man with their popular tribal form of government. With
the important task of writing a history of his native the exception of the Saxons all these confederations
land. It is much more probable that Saxo held a were ruled by kings; the Saxons were divided into a
high office, possibly a secretaryship, and that he number of independent bodies under different chiefs,
enjoyed the bishop's intimate acquaintance. More and in time of war they elected a duke. The Saxons
than this we do not know. Attempts to identify (Lat., Saxones) were originally a small tribe living on
him with a provost at Roskilde, a subdeacon in the the North Sea between the Elbe and Eider Rivers
monastery of St. Laurentius at Lund, or with a in the present Holstein. Their name, derived from
scribe named in Absalon's will, are purely conjectural their weapon called Sax, a stone knife, is first men-
and cannot be verified. The date of his death is also tioned by the Roman author Claudius Ptolemaus
uncertain. The writing of the history occupied the (about 130 A. D.). In the third and fourth centuries
greater part of Saxo's fife. About the year 1185 the the Saxons fought their way victoriously towards the
clironicler Swen Aggeson refers to the history as west, and their name was given to the great tribal
already planned, and the preface was not written confederation that stretched towards the west exactly
until Waldemar II (1202-41) had "encompassed the to the former boundary of the Roman Empire, con-
ebbing and flowing waves of the Elbe". This seems sequently almost to the Rhine. Only a small strip
to refer to events of 1215 (or 1208?). Originally the of land on the right bank of the Rhine remained to the
work was to be a history of Absalon's own time, but Prankish tribe. Towards the south the Saxons
it grew to be a complete history of Denmark from the pushed as far as the Harz Mountains and the Eichs-
earliest mythical period to the year 1187. It is feld, and in the succeeding centuries absorbed the
written in an elegant, highly ornate Latin which greater part of Thuringia. In the east their power
excited the admiration of Erasmus of Rotterdam. extended at first as far as the Elbe and Saale Rivers;
The style is carefully modelled on that of the Latin in the later centuries it certainly extended much far-
authors of the "Silver Age", especially Valerius ther. AH the coast of the German Ocean belonged
Maximus and Martinus Capella. to the Saxons excepting that west of the Weser, which
The work is divided into sixteen books, of which the the Frisians retained. The history of the powerful
first nine contain mainly mythological and legendary Saxon tribe is also the history of the conversion to
material, which is presented in uncritical fashion. Christianity of that part of Germany which lies be-
The last seven, however, relating the events nearer tween the Rhine and the Oder, that is of almost the
to Saxo's time, are historical, and are believed to have whole of the present Northern Germany. From the
been written first. For these he relied on oral com- eighth century the Saxons were divided into the four
munication, especially on Absalon's own reports sub-divisions: Westphalians, between the Rhine and
which, so Saxo tells us, he accepted like a Divine Weser; the Engern or Angrians, on both sides of the
revelation. For the first nine books dealing with Weser; the Eastphahans, between the Weser and
Northern antiquity the sources are old Danish poems. Elbe; the Transalbingians, in the present Holstein.
Runic inscriptions, and Norwegian-Icelanchc sagas, The only one of these names that has been preserved
these books possess a special interest for us on ac- is Westphalians, given to the inhabitants of the Prus-
count of the ancient legendary material preserved sian Province of Westphalia.
therein, much of which
has come down to us in no In company with the G{!rman tribe of Angles a part
other form. Among the famous legends found here of the Saxons settled on the Island of Britain from
may be mentioned those of Balder and Hother which the Romans had withdrawn, where as Anglo-
(Book III), of Amleth (ibid.), the basis of Shake- Saxons, after having accepted Christianity about 600,
speare's Hamlet, and of the archer Toko or Palnatoki they laid the foundation of Anglo-Saxon civilization
(cook X), the prototype of the Tell of Swiss legend. and the present Great Britain. In attempting to
«o complete MS. of Saxo's history is extant. Even reach Gaul by land the Saxons came into violent
XIII.— 32
 SAXONY 498 SAXONY
conflict with the Franks living on the Rhine. The (descendants of Liudolf ) Otto was able to extend his
;

Prankish king Clovis (481-511) united the various power over Thuringia. Otto's son Henry was elected
Prankish tribes, conquered Roman Gaul, and with his King of Germany (919-936); Henry is justly called
people accepted Christianity. The new Prankish the real founder of the German Empire. His son
kingdom was able to bring all German tribes except Otto I (936-973) was the first German king to receive
the Saxons under its authority and to make them from the pope the imperial Roman crown (962).
Christian. Por more than a hundred years there was Otto I was followed as king and emperor by his son
almost uninterrupted warfare between Frank and Otto II (973-983), who was succeeded by his son
Saxon. Many Anglo-Saxon Christian missionaries Otto III (983-1002); both the kings last mentioned
sought to convert the Saxons, some were killed, some vainly endeavoured to estabhsh German authority in
driven away; the names of only a few of these men Italy. The line of Saxon emperors expired with
have been preserved, as St. Suitbert, St. Egnert, the Henry II (1002-1024), who was canonized in 1146.
saint called Brother Ewald, St. Lebuin, etc. St. Henry I had been both King of Germany and Duke
Boniface also preached without success among the of Saxony at the same time. Mainly for the sake of
Saxons. The Saxons were finally brought under his ducal possessions he had carried on a long and diffi-
Prankish supremacy by the great Prankish ruler, cult struggle with the Slavs on the eastern boundary
Charlemagne, after a bloody struggle that lasted of his country. The Emperor Otto I was also for the
thirty years (772-804). Charlemagne was also able greater part of his reign Duke of Saxony. Otto I
to win them to Christianity, the Saxons being the last brought the Slavonic territory on the right bank of
German tribe that still held persistently to belief in the Elbe and Saale under German supremacy and
the Germanic gods. At different times the Saxon Christian civihzation. He divided the region he had
wars of Charlemagne have been called "religious acquired into several margravates, the most impor-
wars" and the assertion, which cannot be proved, has tant being the North Mark, out of which in the course
:

been made that Pope Adrian had called upon Charle- of time the present Kingdom of Prussia developed,
magne to convert the Saxons by force. Charle- and the Mark of Meissen, from which has sprung the
magne's campaigns were intended mainly to punish present Kingdom of Saxony. Each mark was di-
the Saxons for their annual marauding expeditions to vided into districts, not only for military and political
the Rhine, in which they burned churches and monas- purposes but also for ecclesiastical: the central point
teries, killedthe priests, and sacrificed their prisoners of each district was a fortified castle. The first
of war to the gods. The earliest dute at which it can churches built near these castles were plain buildings
be proved that Charlemagne had the conquest of the of wood or rubble-stone.
Saxon districts in view is 776. It is evident that if Otto the basis of the organization of the
I laid
peace was to be permanent the overthrow of the Sax- Church in this territory, that had been won for the
ons must be accompanied by their conversion to German race and Christianity, by making the chief
Christianity. The necessity for this was based also fortified places which he established in the different
on the nature of the Prankish kingdom in which poli- marks the sees of dioceses. The Ottonian emperors
tics and religion were never separated. At the same also aided much in bringing to Christianity the great
time it is true that various measures taken by Charle- Slavonic people, the Poles, who lived on the right
magne, as the execution of 4.500 Sa.xons at ^'crden bank of the Oder, as for a time the PoUsh country was
in 782 and the hard laws issued to the subjugated, under German suzerainty. Unfortunately the prom-
were shortsighted and cruel. The Church, however, ising beginnings of Christian civilization among the
cannot be made responsible in any case for this policy Slavs were largely destroyed by the violence of the
of Charlemagne's which it never approved. Although Slavonic rebelUons in the years 980 and 1060. In 960
the opposition in the Saxon territories to Christian Otto I had transferred the ducal authority over Sax-
teaching had been obstinate only a few decades before, ony to a Count Hermann, who had distinguished him-
the Saxons grew accustomed to the new life. The self in the struggle with the Slavs, and the ducal title
Christian conception of life sank deep into the hearts became hereditary in Count Hermann's family.
of the people, and in little more than a hundred years This old Duchy of Saxony, as it is called in distinc-
the Saxons were the messengers and defenders of a tion from the Duchy of Saxe- Wittenberg, became the
Christian, German civilization among the Slavonic centre of the opposition of the German princes to the
tribes. The work of converting Saxony was given imperial power during the era of the Franconian or
to St. Sturmi, who was on terms of friendsliip with Salian emperors. With the death of Duke Magnus
Charlemagne, and the monks of the monastery of in 1106 the Saxon ducal family, frequently called the
Fulda founded by Sturmi. Among the successful Billung Une, became extinct. The Emperor Henry V
missionaries of the Faith were also St. Willihad, the (1106-2.5) gave the Duchy of Saxony in fief to Count
first Bishop of Bremen, and his Anglo-.Saxon com- Lothair of SuppUnburg, who in 112.5 became King of
panions. After St. Sturmi's death (779) the country Germany, and at his death (1137) transferred the
of the Saxons was divided into missionary districts, Duchy of Saxony to his son-in-law, Duke Henry the
and each of these placed under a Prankish bishop. Proud, of the princely family of the Guelphs. The
Parishes were established within the old judicial dis- hundred years of war waged by the family of Guelph
tricts. With the generous aid of Charlemagne and with the Hohenstaufen emperors is famous in history.
his nobles large numbers of churches and monasteries The son of Henry the Proud (d. 1139) was Henry the
were founded, and as soon as peace and quiet had been Lion (d. 1105), who extended German authority and
re-estabhshed in the different districts, permanent Christianity into the present Mecklenburg and Pom-
dioceses were founded. erania, and re-established Christianity in the terri-
—
The Medieval Duchy of Saxony. ^^^^en the Prank- tories devastated by the Slavonic revolts. Henry
ish kingdom was divided by the Treaty of Verdun the Lion refused to aid the Emperor Frederick I
(843) the territory east of the Rhine became the East Barbarossa in his campaign against the cities of
Frankish Kingdom, from which the present Germany Lombardy in 1176, consequently in 1180 the bann of
has developed. A strong central authority was lack- the empire was proclaimed against Henry at Wilrz-
ing during the reigns of the weak East Frankish kings burg, and 1181 the old Duchy of Saxony was cut up
of the Carlovingian dynasty. Each German trilse was at the Diet of Gelnhausen into many small portions.
forced to rely upon itself for defence against the incur- The greater share of its western portion was given,
sions of the Xormans from the north and of the Slavs as the Duchy of Westphalia, to the Archbishop of
from the east, consequently the tribes once more Cologne. The Saxon bishops who had before this
chose dukes as rulers. The first Saxon duke was Otto possessed sovereign authority in their territories,
the lUustrious (880-912) of the Liudolfinger line though under the suzerainty of the Duke of Saxony,
 SAXONY 499 SAXONY
were now subject only to the imperial government; August, 1485, which led to the still existing separation
the case was the same with a large number of secular of the Wettin dynasty into the Ernestine and Alber-
countshipsand cities. tine lines. Duke Ernest, the founder of the Ernestine
.
„ ,

The Diet of Gelnhausen is of much importance in line, received by the Partition of Leipzig the Duchy

the history of Germany . The Emperor Frederick exe- of Saxony and the electoral dignity united with it,
cuted here a great legal act. Yet the sphtting up of besides the Landgravate of Thuringia; Albert, the
the extensive country of the Saxons into a large num- founder of the Albertine hne, received the Margravate
ber of principalities subject only to the imperial of Meissen. Thus the Ernestine line seemed to have
government was one of the causes of the system of the greater authority. However, in the sixteenth
petty states which proved so disadvantageous to century the electoral dignity fell to the Albertine line,
Germany in its later history. The territory of the and at the beginning of the nineteenth century it re-
old duchy never again bore the name of
Saxony; the ceived the royal title as well.
large western part acquired the name of WestphaUa. The Protestant revolt of the sixteenth century was
However, as regards customs and pecuharities of effected under the protection of the electors of Saxe-
speech, the designation Lower Saxony is still in exist- Wittenberg. The Elector Frederick the Wise estab-
ence for the districts on the lower Elbe, that is, the lished a university at Wittenberg in 1502, at which the
northern part of the present Province of Saxony, Augustinian monk Martin Luther (q. v.) was made
Hanover, Hamburg, etc., in distinction from Upper professor of philosophy in 1508; at the same time he
Saxony, that is, the present Kingdom of Saxony, and became one of the preachers at the castle church of
Thuringia. From the era of the conversion of the Wittenberg. On 31 October, 1517, he posted up on
Saxons up to the revolt of the sixteenth century, this church the ninety-five theses against indulgences
a rich religious life was developed in the territory with which he began what is called the Reformation.
included in the medieval Duchy of Saxony. Art, The elector did not become at once an adherent of the
learning, poetry, and the writing of history reached a new opinions, but granted his protection to Luther;
high degree of perfection in the many monasteries. consequently, owing to the intervention of the elector,
Among the most noted places of learning were the the pope did not summon Luther to Rome (1518);
cathedral and monastery schools of Corbie, Hildes- also through the elector's mediation Luther received
heim, Paderborn, and Miinster. This era produced the imperial safe-conduct to the Diet of Worms (1521 )
architecturally fine churches of the Romanesque style When Luther was declared at Worms to be under the
that are still in existence, as the cathedrals of Goslar, ban of the empire the elector had him brought to the
Soest, and Brunswick, the chapel of St. Bartholomew Castle of the Wartburg in Thuringia. The new doc-
at Paderborn, the coUegiate churches at Quedlinburg, trine spread first in Saxe-Wittenberg. The succes-
Konigslutter, Gernrode, etc. Hildesheim, which con- sor of Frederick the Wise (d. 1525) was his brother
tains much Romanesque work, has especially fine John the Constant (d. 1532). John was already a
churches of this style. The cathedrals at Naumburg, zealous Lutheran; he exercised full authority over the
Paderborn, Miinster, and Osnabriick are striking ex- Church, introduced the Lutheran Confession, ordered
amples of the Transition period. Only a few of these the deposition of all priests who continued in the
buildings still belong to the Catholic Church. Cathohc Faith, and directed the use of a new liturgy
II. —
Electoral S.ixoNY. After the dissolution of drawn up by Luther. In 1531 he formed with a num-
the medieval Duchy of Saxony the name Saxony was ber of other ruling princes the Smalkaldic League for
first applied to a small part of the ancient duchy situ- the maintenance of the Protestant doctrine and for
ated on the Elbe around the city of Wittenberg. common defence against the German Emperor Charles
This was given to Bernard of Ascania, the second V, because Charles was an opponent of the new doc-
son of Albert the Bear, who was the founder of the trine. The son and successor of John the Constant
Mark of Brandenburg, from which has come the pres- was John Frederick the Magnanimous (d. 1554). He
ent Kingdom of Prussia. Bernard's son, Albert I, also was one of the heads of the Smalkaldic League,
added to this territory the lordship of Lauenburg, and which was inimical to the emperor and Catholicism.
Albert's sons divided the possessions into Saxe-Wit- In 1542 he seized the Diocese of Naumburg-Zeitz, and
tenberg and Saxe-Lauenburg. When
in 1356 the attacked and plundered the secular possessions of the
Emperor Charles IV issued the Golden Bull, the fun- Dioceses of Meissen and Hildesheim. The Catholic
damental law of the empire which settled the method Faith was forcibly suppressed in all directions and the
of electmg the German emperor, the Duchy of Saxe- churches and monasteries were robbed. John Fred-
Wittenberg was made one of the seven electorates. erick was defeated and captured by Charles V at the
The duke as elector thereby received the right to Battle of Mvihlberg on the Elbe, 24 April, 1547. In
elect, in company with the other six electors, the Ger- the Capitulation of Wittenberg, 19 May, 1547, the
man emperor. In this way the country, though small elector was obhged to yield Saxe-Wittenberg and the
in area, obtained an influential position.
The elec- electoral dignity to Duke Maurice of Saxe- Meissen.
toral dignity had connected with it the obligation of After this the only possession of the Ernestine line of
primogeniture, that is, only the oldest son could suc- the Wettin family was Thuringia, which, however, on
ceed as ruler; this excluded the division of the terri- account of repeated divisions among the heirs was soon
tory among several heirs and consequently the dis-
cut up into a number of duchies. Those still in exist-
integration of the country. The importance of this ence are: the Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eise-
stipulation is shown by the history of most of the Ger- nach, the Duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Mein-
man principahties which were not electorates. The ingen, and Saxe-Altenburg.
Ascanian hne of Saxe-Wittenberg became extinct in Duke Albert (d. 1500) was succeeded in the Duchy
?- The Emperor Sigismund bestowed the country of Saxe-Meissen by his son George the Bearded (d.
and electoral dignity upon Margrave Frederick the Val- 1539). George was a strong opponent of the Lu-
iant ofMeissen, a member of the Wettin line. As was theran doctrine and had repeatedly sought to influ-
mentioned above, the Margravate of Meissen had been ence his cousins the Electors of Saxe-Wittenberg in
'ounded by the Emperor Otto I. In 1089 it came into favour of the Cathohc Church, but George's brother
successor, Henry the Pious (d. 1541), was won
the possession of
the Wettin family, who from 1247 also and
owned the eastern part of the Margravate of Thurin- over to Protestantism by the influence of his wife
gia. In 1422
Saxe-Wittenberg, and the Margravates of Catharine of Mecklenburg, and thus Saxe-Meissen
Meissen and Thuringia were united into one country, was also lost to the Church. Henry's son and suc-
Which gradually received
the name of Saxony. Elec- cessor Maurice was one of the most conspicuous per-
tor iTederick
the Vahant died in 1464, and his two sons of the Reformation period. Although a zealous
sons made a
division of his territories at Leipzig on 26 Protestant, ambition and desire to increase his pos-
 SAXONY 500 SAXONY
sessions led him to join the emperor against the mem- Elector Frederick Augustus I (1694-1733) returned
bers of the Smalkaldic Leugue. Tiie Capitulation of to the Cathohc Faith and in consequence of this was
AMttenberg ga\'e him, as already mentioned, the elec- soon afterwards elected King of Poland. The forma-
toral dignity and Saxe-Wittenberg, so that the Elec- tion of a Catholic parish and the private practice of
torate of Saxuny now consisted of Saxe- Wittenberg the Cathohc Faith was permitted at least in Dresden.
and .Saxe-Meissen together, under the authority of As the return of the elector to the Chiu-ch aroused the
the Albertine line of the Wettin family. Partly from fear among Lutherans that the Cathohc religion would
resentment at not receiving also what was left of the now be re-established in Saxony, the elector trans-
Ernestine possessions, but moved still more by his ferred to a government board, the Privy Council, the
desire to have a Protestant head to the empire, Mau- authority over the Lutheran churches and schools
rice fell away from the German Emperor. He made which, until then, had been exercised by the sovereign •

a treaty with France (1.5.)1) in which he gave the Dio- the Priv>' Council was formed exclusively of Protes-
ceses of Aletz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine to France, tants. Even after his conversion the elector remained
and secretly shared in all the princely conspiracies the head of the Corpus Evangelicnrum, as did hia
against the emperor of whom he was apparently a Catholic successors until 1806, when the rorpijswaa
faithful adherent. In 1.5.52 he even led an imperial dissolved at the same time as the Holy Roman Empire.
army against the emperor who only escaped capture His son, Elector Frederick Augustus II (173.3-63),
by flight; and during the same year the emperor was was received into the Catholic Church on 2S Novem-
obliged by the Treaty of Passau to grant freedom of ber, 1712, at Bologna, Italy, while heir-apparent.
religion to the Protestant Estates. Maurice died in With this conversion, which on account of the excited
1.5.5o at the age of thirty-two. His brother and suc- state of feeling of the Lutheran population had to be
cessor Elector Augustus took the Dioceses of Merse- kept secret for five years, the ruling family of Saxony
burg, Xaumburg, and Meissen for himself. The last once more became Catholic. Before this, individual
Bishop of Merseburg, Michael Helding, called Sido- members of the Albertine line had returned to the
nius, died at Vienna in 1.561. The emperor demanded Church, but they had died without issue, as did the
the election of anew bishop, but the Elector Augustus last ruler of Saxe-Wcissenfels, a collateral line founded
forced the election of his son Alexanrler, who was eight in 1657, and the master of the imperial ordnance, John
years old, as administrator; when Alexander died in Adolphus of Saxe-'\^'eissenfels (d. 1740). Another
1.j6.") he administered the diocese himself. In the same collateral line founded in 1657 was that of Saxe-
manner after the death of Bishop Pflug (d. 1.564), the Naumburg-Zeitz, which became extinct in 1759.
last Catholic bishop of Xaumburg, the elector con- Those who became CathoUcs of this line were Chris-
fiscated the Dioeese of Naumburg and forbade the tian Augustus, cardinal and Archbishop of Gran in
exercise of the Catholic religion. Those cathedral Hungary (d. and Maurice Adolphus, Bishop of
1725),
canons who were still Cathohc were only permitted Leitmeritz in Bohemia(d. 1759). The most zealous
to exercise their religion for ten years more. promoter of the Catholic Faith in Saxony was the
In 1.581 John of Haugwitz, the last Bishop of Austrian Archduchess Maria Josepha, daughter of the
Meissen, resigned his office, and in 1587 became a Emperor Joseph I, who in 1719 married Frederick
Protestant. The episcopal domains fell likewise to Augustus, later the second elector of that name. The
Saxony, and the cathedral chapter ceased to exist. Court church of Dresden was built 1739-51 by the
During the reigns of the Elector Augustus (d. 1586), Italian architect, Chiaveri, in the Roman Baroque
and Christian (d. 1591), a freer form of Protestantism, style; this is still the finest and most imposing church
called Crypto-Calvinism prevailed in the duchy. edifice in Saxony and is one of the most beautiful
During the reign of Christian II (d. 1611) the chan- churches in Germany Notwithstanding the faith
cellor, Crell, who had spread the doctrine, was over- of its rulers, however. Saxony remained entirely a
thrown and beheaded (1(301) and a rigid Lutheranism Protestant country; the few Catholics who settled
was reintroduced and with it a religious oath. The there remained without any political or civil rights.
great religious war called the Thirty Years' War When in 1806 Napoleon began a war with Prussia,
(1618-4.S) occurred during the reign of Elector John Saxony at first allied itself to Prussia, but afterwards
George (1611-56). In this struggle the elector was joined Napoleon and entered the Confederation of the
at first neutral, and for a long time he would not Rhine. Elector Frederick Augustus III (1763-1827)
listen to the overtures of Gustavus Adolphus, King received the title of King of Saxony as Frederick
of Sweden. It was not until the imperial general Augustus I.
Tilly advanced into Saxony that the elector joined III. The Kingdom of Saxony. —The new kingdom
Sweden. However, after the Battle of Nordlingen was an ally of France in the Napoleonic wars of
all
(1634) the elector concluded the Peace of Prague the years 1S07-13. At the beginning of the great
(IGiio) with the emperor. By this treaty Saxony War of Liberation (1813) the king sided neither with
received the Margravates of Upper and Lower Lusatia Napoleon nor with his allied opponents, but united
as a Bohemian fief, and the condition of the Church his troops with those of France when Napoleon threat-
lands that had been secularized was not altered. The ened to treat Saxony as a hostile country. At the
Swedes, however, revenged themseh-es by ten years Battle of Leipzig (16-18 October, 1813), when Napo-
of plundering. The Treaty of WestphaHa of 1648 leon was completely defeated, the greater part of the
took from Saxony forever the possibility of extending Saxon troops deserted to the allied forces. The King
its territory along the lower course of the Elbe, and of Saxony was taken as a Prussian prisoner to the
confirmed the preponderance of Prussia. In 1653 Castle of Friedrichsfeld near Berlin The Congress
the direction of the Corpus Eivngelicorum fell to of Vienna (1814-15) took from Saxony the greater
Saxony, because the elector became the head of the part of its land and gave it to Prussia, namely 7800
union of the Protestant Imperial Estates. Under the square miles with about 850,000 inhabitants; this
following electors religious questions were not so ceded territory included the former Duchy of Saxe-
prominent; a rigid Lutheranism remained the prevail- Wittenberg, the former possessions of the Dioceses of
ing faith, and the practice of any other was strictly Merseburg and Naumburg, a large part of Lusatia, etc.
prohibited, .\bout the middle of the seventeenth What Prussia had obtained, with addition of some old
century Itahan merchants, the first Catholics to re- Prussian districts, was formed into the Province of
appear in the country, settled at Dresden, the capital Saxony. The Kingdom of Saxcjny had left only an
and at Leipzig, the most important commercial city; area of 5789 square miles with a population at that
the exercis(/ of the Catholic rehgion, however, was not era of 1,500,000 inhabitants; under these conditions
permitted to them. it became a member of the German Confederation
A change followed when on 1 June, 1697, the that was founded in 1815. King John (1854-73)
 SAXONY 501 SAXONY
sided with Austria in the struggle between Prussia Prague, the capital of Bohemia; this seminary, which
and Austria as to the supremacy in Germany. Con- was founded in 1740 by two Wends, was originally
sequently in the War of 1866, when Prussia was suc- intended only for Lusatia but now is used for the whole
cessful, the independence of Saxony was once more of Saxony. Its pupils first attend the gymnasium of
in danger; only the
intervention of the Austrian Prague and then the university there.
Emperor saved Saxony from being entirely absorbed The Vicariate Apostolic of Saxony was established
by Prussia. The kingdom, however, was obliged to in 1763 by Pope Clement XIII; before this the con-
join the North German Confederation of which fessors of the electors, who like all the priests in Sax-
Prussia was the head. In 1871 Saxony became one ony at that era were Jesuits, conducted the affairs
of the states of the newly-founded German Empire. of the Church under the title of superior. The most
King John was followed by his son King Albert (1873- celebrated of these was Father Carlo Maurizio Vol-
1902) Albert was succeeded by his brother George
; tor, an Italian, the confessor of the elector and King
(1902-04); the son of George is King Frederick Frederick Augustus I. Father Voltor was also a noted
Augustus in (b. 1865). Prince Maximilian (b. 1870), diplomatist who had much influence at the Court of
a brother of the present king, became a priest in 1896, Vienna, for example, he had some share in obtaining
was engaged in parish work in London and Nurem- the title of King of Prussia (1701) for the Protes-
berg, and since 1900 has been a professor of canon law taiit Elector of Brandenburg. The first vicar Apos-
and liturgy in the University of Freiburg in Switzer- tolic wah Father Augustin Eggs, S.J.; for some un-
land. known reason he left Saxony after the death of the
The Kingdom of Saxony is the fifth state of the ElectorFrederick Christian (1764). He was followed by
German Empire in area and third in population; in Father Franz Herz, S.J., who continued to adminis-
1905 the average population per square mile was ter his office after the suppression of the Jesuits in
778.S. Saxony is the most densely peopled state of 1773; after his death (1800) Dr. Johann Alois Schneider
the empire, and indeed of all Europe; the reason is (d. 1818) was appointed vicar Apostolic. In 1816
the very large immigration on account of the develop- Dr. Schneider was consecrated titular Bishop of Argia,
ment of manufactures. In 1910 the population being the first Saxon vicar to be made a bishop. In
amounted to 5,302,485; of whom 218,033 were Cath- the troubled times of 1813-14 he was the true friend
olics; 4,250,398 Evangelican Lutherans; 14,697 Jews; and trusted adviser of the royal family; he also ac-
and a small proportion of other denominations. The companied the king when the latter was imprisoned
Catholic population of Saxony owes its present num- by Prussia. His successor, Ignatz Bernhard Mauer-
bers largely to immigration during the nineteenth mann (d. 1845), had the title of titular Bishop of Pel-
century. Catholicism that can be traced back to the lia. In 1831 the canons of the cathedral of Bautzen
period before the Reformation is found only in one elected Bishop Mauermann as cathedral dean of
section, the governmental department of Bautzen. Bautzen. After Bishop Mauermann's death this
Even here there is no continuous Catholic district, union of the two highest ecclesiastical offices in Sax-
but there are a number of villages where the popula- ony was dissolved, but since the death of the cathe-
tion is almost entirely Catholic, and two cities (Ostritz dral dean of Bautzen, Johann Kutschank (1844), the
and Schirgiswalde) where CathoUcs are in the major- bishop has held both offices with the exception of the
ity. It should also be mentioned that about 1.5 per years 1900-04. Bishop Mauermann was succeeded
cent of the inhabitants of Saxony consists of the re- by his older brother Franz Lorenz Mauermann (d.
mains of a Slavonic tribe called by the Germans 1845) with the title of Bishop of Rama. The next
Wends, and in their own language "Serbjo" These bishop was Johann Dittrich (d. 1853), titular Bishop
Wends, who number about 120,000 persons and live of Korykus, who in 1844 had been elected cathedral
in Saxon and Prussian Lusatia, are entirely surrounded dean of Bautzen; he was followed by Ludwig Forwerk
by a German population; consequently owing to (d. 1875), titular Bishop of Leontopohs.
German influence the Wendic language, manners, and After the Vatican Council (1869-70) Bishop For-
customs are gradually disappearing. About 50,000 werk's skill enabled him to prevent the spread of Old
Wends live in the Kingdom of Saxony; of these about CathoHcism in Saxony at the time when the procla-
12,000 belong to the CathoUc Church; some fifty mation of the Dogma of Infallibility led to its devel-
Wendic villages are entirely CathoUc. There is also opment in Germany. He was followed by Franz
a large Wendic population in the city of Bautzen, Bernert (d. 1890), titular Bishop of Azotus, who was
where among 30,000 inhabitants 7,000 are Wends. succeeded by Dr. Ludwig Wahl (d. 1904), titular Bishop
The Vicariate Apostolic of Saxony, and the Prefect- of Cocusus (Cocrun). From 1900 this bishop was
ure Apostolic of Saxon Upper Lusatia. — As regards the not able to exercise his office on account of severe
Cathohc Church the Kingdom of Saxony is divided into illness; during this period the Apostohc See appointed
two administrative districts; the Vicariate ApostoUc of the prothonotary, Monsignor Karl Maas, adminis-
Saxony, and the Prefecture Apostolic of Saxon Upper trator for the vicariate Apostohc, and the canon of
Lusatia. The vicariate Apostolic includes the hered- the cathedral at Bautzen, Monsignor Georg Wu-
itary lands, that is, those portions of Saxony which schanski, as administrator for Upper Lusatia. In
before 1635 belonged to the Electorate of Saxony and 1904 Wuschanski was made Vicar Apostolic of Saxony
which the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 did not take from and titular Bishop of Samos. Bishop Wuschanski
the country; the vicariate also includes the Duchy of died, however, by the end of 1905. In 1906 his place
Saxe-Altenburg, and the two principaUties of Reuss. was filled by Dr. Alois Schafer. Dr. Schafer was born
The Prefecture Apostohc of Lusatia includes the for- at Dingelstadt in the Eichfelde (Prussian Province of
mer Margravate of Lusatia, which in 1635 was sepa- Saxony) on 2 May, 1853, and in 1863 his parents
rated from Bohemia and given to Saxony; since the settled at Chemnitz in the Kingdom of Saxony. In
Treaty of Vienna of 1815, however, this ecclesiastical 1878 Dr. Schafer was ordained priest, and was at first
district comprises only that part of Upper Lusatia active in parish work; in 1881 he was made professor
that has remained Saxon, the present fifth Saxon of exegesis at the lyceum at Dillingen in Bavaria;
admmistrative Department of Bautzen. Since the in 1885 he became professor of New Testament exe-
adjustment of the parishes in 1904 the Vicariate Apos- gesis at the University of Miinster in Westphalia; m
tolic of Saxony
comprises (including the small princi- 1894 he was a professor of the same at the University
palities of Reuss and Saxe-Altenburg), 26 parishes of Breslau, and in 1903 at the University of Stras-
and 7 expositorships, with, in 1909, 55 priests; Upper burg. His title is: Titular Bishop of Abila, Vicar
Ij.usatia comprises 16
parishes, of which 7 are Wen- Apostolic in the Kingdom of Saxony, Administrator
™, and 2 expositorships, with altogether 30 priests, Ecclesiasticus in Saxon Upper Lusatia. The vicar
the clergy are educated
at the Wendic seminary at Apostolic is appointed by the pope upon the nomma-
 SAXONY 502 SAXONY
tion of the King of S;ixony. According to the Con- supreme right of protection. The Catholics of Lusa-
stitution of Saxony the dean of the cathedral at Baut- tia had the right to the free exercise of religion, but
zen is u permanent member of the Upper House of the in agreement with the earlier legal rights of the State
Saxon (lift, but not the vicar Apostolic as such; he is Church, only so far as they belonged to one of the
a member only because the two offices are generally old parishes. Cathohcs who Uved within the bound-
united. The two ecclesiastical offices are combined aries of Protestant parishes were obliged to call
on account of the re\enues, and the union is effected upon the Protestant pastor of the community for all
thus: the chapter of Bautzen elects as dean the vicar baptisms, marriages, and burials, or at least must pay
Apostohc who has already been appointed for the for these the customary fees. 'This compulsion ex-
hereditary possessions of Saxony. It should be said, ercised upon the Catholics living in Protestant par-
howe\'er, that the union is only a personal one and ishes was not annulled for Lusatia until 1863.
that the two administrative districts of the Church By a treaty of peace between Saxony and France
exist the same after as before the union. that was signed at Posen 11 December, 1806, Saxony
At the time of the Reformation Lusatia belonged was made a kingdom and entered the Confederation
politically, as has already been said, to Bohemia, i.e., of the Rhine. This treaty granted the Catholics of
to Austria. Before his resignation the last Bishop Saxony nominally, although not in reality, civil and
of Meissen transferred in 1581, with the approval of political equality with the Lutherans. The fifth
the Holy See, the ecclesiastical administration of a,rticle of the treaty declared that the Roman Catho-
Lusatia to Johann Leisentritt of Juliusberg, dean of the lic Church services were placed on an absolute parity
cathedral chapter of Bautzen, as administrator epis- with the services of the Augsburg and allied confes-
copntus. 'When the Reformation entered the country sions, and subjects belonging to both rehgions were
Dean Leisentritt was able to keep at least a part of to enjoy equal rights. Now for the first time the
the population faithful to the Catholic Church. bells of the Court Church at Dresden, which had
Most important of those bodies that remained Catho- hung silent in the tower for fifty years, could be rung.
lic were: the cathedral chapter of St. Peter's at Baut- The concessions to Saxon Cathohcs made in the con-
zen; the two celebrated Cistercian abbeys for women, vention of 1806 were confirmed by the royal edict of
Marienthal near Ostritz on the Xeisse and Marien- 16 February, 1807, and by the Constitution of the
Btern between the cities of Kamenz and Bautzen; German confederation of 1815 (art. XVI). 'The re-
a part of the parishes that had been under the con- lations between Church and State were still further
trol of the monasteries, and some other independent defined by the Edict of 19 February, 1827, which is
towns. The only members of the chapter of St. still in force. This edict abrogated for the hereditary
Peter's at Bautzen that remained Catholic were the territories the compulsory dependence of Cathohcs
dean, the senior, the canliyr, and the scholasficus; the on Protestant pastors and created the Catholic Con-
provost, who according to the rules of the foundation sistory for the administration and jurisdiction of the
was elected from the chapter at Meissen, became a Church including matters pertaining to marriage.
Lutheran. Ever since that time the provostship has This consistory is made up of three ecclesiastical and
been granted by the Saxon Go\'ernment to a Protes- two secular councillors. The vicar Apostolic has the
tant, generally to one of the higher state officials. right of nomination for the appointments. A vica-
This secular provost has, however, no connexion rial court was created as, with the exception of Rome,
whatever with the cathedral chapter; he receives from the highest court of appeal; it consists of the vicar
the government ministry the revenues yielded by the Apostolic, two ecclesiastical councillors, one secular
lands belonging to the provostship. The cathedral Catholic councillor, a legal assistant, and in addition
chapter consists of four resident canons and eight for matters pertaining to marriage two Protestant
honorary ones; when the position of dean is vacant councillors. At the same time the vicariate Apos-
the power of administration belongs to the cathedral tolic was declared to be simply a special department
canons; the dean is elected by the regular and hono- for Church and school matters under the supervision
rary canons in the presence of a royal commissioner of the Protestant state ministry. In Upper Lusatia
and is confirmed by the Apostolic See. The Cathe- the ecclesiastical administration and jurisdiction was
dral of St. Peter's at Bautzen is the oldest church in placed in the hands of the "consistory of the chapter
Lusatia, and was built 1215-21; at the end of the fif- at Bautzen", which consists of the dean, three eccle-
teenth century it was much altered. Since the Ref- siastical councillors and a secular justiciary. The
ormation the choir has belonged to the Cathohcs, vicarial court was made the court of appeal.
and the rest of the cathedral, which is divided from The Constitution of 4 September, 18.31, confirmed
the choir by a grating, belongs to the Protestants. the ordinances and arrangements that were then
Another church in Bautzen retained by the Cathohcs vahd. It was forbidden to establish new monasteries
is the Church of Our Lady, built in the thirteenth in addition to the two convents of Marienthal and
century, in which the services for the Catholic Wends Marienstern already in existence in Lusatia, or to
are held. The cathedral chapter has the right of admit into Saxony the Jesuits or other religious or-
patronage for six Catholic parishes, the right of ap- ders. It was not until a few years ago that a few Grey
pointment for the Catholic seminary for teachers at Sisters and nuns of St. Charles Borromeo were allowed
Bautzen, the same for the cathedral school, and also to settle in Saxony, in all in thirteen places within
the right of patronage for five Protestant parishes. eight cities. The authority of the State over the
The convent of ^^arienstern, in the Wendic district Church, the supreme supervision and the right of
of Lusatia, that was founded in the middle of the protection were assigned by the Constitution to the
thirteenth century, and the convent of Marienthal in king as jus circa sacra. By the Law of 7 November,
the German section, that was founded before 1234, 1837, this authority was given to the department of
have done much to preserve Catholic life in Lusatia. the minister of education and worship, who by the
For hundreds of >-ears the pastoral care of the two Constitution must always be a Protestant. The ad-
ecm^'onts has been exorcised by priests of the Cister- ministration and use made of the property of the
cian monastery of Osseg in Bohemia. A pilgrimage Church is also under the supervision of the State.
church much \nsited, especially by the Wends, is at Money for the needs of the Church beyond what is
Rosenthal in the Wendic parish of Ralbitz. In the provided by the property of the parish or endowments
treaty between Sa.xony and Austria of 13 May, 1635, is obtained from a Church tax laid by the State (law
by which Lusatia was transferred to Saxony, the Saxon of 2 August, 1S78). The tax is raised as a supple-
elector was obliged to grant his special sovereign pro- mentary income tax; the yearly amount of the tax
tection to the Catholic communities of Lusatia and the is fixed by the Protestant minister of worship and edu-
two convents, the emperor, as suzerain, retaining the cation, while the Protestants can fix the amount of
 SAXONY 503 SAXONY
their Church tax themselves. In the years succeed- children attend Cathohc schools; of the remaining
ing 1870 there was a bitter struggle in most of the 9000 children about 3500 have no Cathohc religious
German states between Church and State called the instruction. The pressing necessity of new schools
Kulturkampf (q. v.); during this period a law was cannot be met on account of the lack of money, as
issued in Saxony
concerning the exercise of State most of the Catholics who have come into the coun-
supervision. This law contains the greater part of try are poor factory hands. On account both of this
the ordinances
which had been up to then in effect, lack of schools and of the equally great lack of
and in its measure for putting the law into action churches, far more than 10,000 Cathohcs became
follows the Austrian and Prussian laws of the decade Protestant during the years 1900 and 1910.
of 1870-1880, that were inimical to the Church. Pub-
can only be held in the 57 parishes,
IV. The Prussian Province of Saxony. The —
province has an area of 9,746 square miles, and in
lic church service
dependent parishes, and chapels; mission services and 1905 had 2,979,221 inhabitants. Of its population
religious instruction can further be held at certain 230,860 (7.8 per cent) are Catholic, 2,730,098 (91
periods of time in about sixty places. In addition per cent) are Protestant; 9981 hold other forms of
there are 8 churches and chapels that are private prop- Christian faith, and 8050 are Jews. During the
erty. Very few church processions are permitted. summer months about 15,000 to 20,000 Catholic
The approval of the State is necessary for the general labourers, called Sachsenganger, come into the coun-
decrees of the Church authorities when these in any try; they are Slavs from the Prussian Province of
way encroach upon State or municipal affairs; the Posen, from Russian Poland, or Gahoia. The prov-
State authorities are to decide whether infringement ince is divided into the three government depart-
has taken place. The approval of the ministry is nec- ments of Magdeburg, Merseburg, and Erfurt. The
essary for the founding of new churches and institu- Prussian Province of Saxony was formed in 1815
tions for priests, for settling or changing the boun- from the territories, about 8,100 square miles in
daries of parishes, for establishing church service at extent, ceded by the Kingdom of Saxony, with the
new stations, in general for new acts of ecclesiastical addition of some districts already belonging to
administration of any kind, which in any way what- Prussia, the most important of which are the Alt-
ever come into contact with national affairs or the mark, from which the State of Prussia sprang; the
ordinary ones of civil life. former immediate principalities of the Archbishop of
A Cathohc ecclesiastical office, whether in public Magdeburg and of the Bishop of Halberstadt, which
or private service, permanent or subject to recall, can Prussia had received by the Peace of Westphalia
only be given to a German who has finished the course (1648) at the close of the Thirty Years' War; and the
at a gymnasium, studied three years at a university, Eichsfeld, with the city of Erfurt and its surround-
and has passed a theological examination for his office. ings. Up to 1802 the Eichsfeld and Erfurt had
Whoever has been trained at a seminary conducted belonged to the principality of the Archbishop of
by the Jesuits or a similar order is excluded. Fur- Mainz; a large part of the population had, therefore,
ther, the national Government can reject anyone who retained the Catholic Faith during the Reformation.
has been chosen for an ecclesiastical office, if it be- As regards ecclesiastical affairs the Province of
lieves that he will use his influence against the State Saxony had been assigned to the Diocese of Paderborn
laws or ordinances. The State Government is to be by the papal BuU "De salute animarum" of 16
notified at once of every vacancy and of every appoint- July, 1821. The province contains three ecclesias-
ment of a spiritual office. As a rule change of re- tical administrative divisions: the episcopal commis-
ligion is not permitted before the twenty-first year; sariat of Magdeburg that embraces the entire govern-
before change of faith the convert must notify the mental department of Magdeburg and consists of
pastor of the parish of his intention and may have a four deaneries and 25 parishes; the "ecclesiastical
four weeks' period of reflection assigned to him; after Court" of Erfurt, which includes the governmental
the expiration of this term the convert can demand a Department of Merseburg and the eastern half of
certificate of dismissal. The religion of the father is the governmental Department of Erfurt; and con-
determinative for children of mixed marriages, unless sists of 2 deaneries (Halle and Erfurt) and 28 par-
the parents have made a legal agreement otherwise ishes; the episcopal commissariat of Heiligenstadt,
before the child is six years old. All the State schools which embraces the western half of the governmental
are denominational; they are not established and department of Erfurt, that is called the Upper Eichs-
maintained by the pohtical communes but by special feld, and consists of 16 deaneries and 129 parishes.
school conmaunes. In localities where the population In those parts of the governmental Department of
is of different faithsthe religious minority, if able Magdeburg which belonged originally to the former
to do so, can form a new school commune special ; Archdiocese of Magdeburg and the Diocese of Hal-
religious instruction for the benefit of the rehgioua berstadt all Catholic life was not entirely destroyed
minority is not given at the expense of the school during the Reformation. Besides fourteen monas-
commune of the majority where that alone exists. Up teries that continued in existence, there were in
to the twelfth year Protestant religious instruction Halberstadt a number of benefices in connexion with
is legally permissible for Catholic children. At pres- the cathedral and the collegiate Church of Sts.
ent a new school law is being prepared, as the School Peter and Paul. As the entire native population
Law of 1873 contains many ordinances that are now had become Protestant these monasteries were only
out of date; however, the confessional character of the maintained by the immigration of Catholics who,
schools and the religious supervision of the schools by from the time of the Treaty of Westphalia, though
the pastor of the respective place is to be retained; but in small numbers, steadily came into the country;
efforts have been and are still made to set aside at thus there arose around the monasteries small
least the religious supervision
of the schools. As re- Catholic communities. The monasteries were all
gards Catholic schools there is a preparatory gymna- suppressed during the great secularization of the
sium in Dresden, a seminary at Bautzen, for train- beginning of the nineteenth century, and thirteen
ing Cathohc teachers for the primary schools, that parishes were formed, for which the State provided
IS supported
by the cathedral chapter of Bautzen, a fund from a part of the property of the monasteries.
and 51 Catholic pubho primary schools. There are The other parishes in the governmental Department
about 300 Catholic male teachers and about 20 of Magdeburg were created after the middle of the
UthoHc fernale teachers. Special Catholic religious nineteenth century, when, in consequence of the
iMtruction is given at more than one hundred and development of the manufacture of sugar, increas-
tmrty places where there ing numbers of Catholics came into the country;
are only Protestant schools.
Unly about 15,000
of the 24,000 Catholic school the St. Boniface Association gave the money to
 SAXONY 504 SAX0N7
found these parishes. In 1905 the governmental einer kurzen Gesch, der kath, Kirche in Sachsen (Dresden, 1851)-
Machatschek, Gesch, des Konigreichs Sai-hsen (Leipzig, 1861)'
Department ofMagdebm'g contained 70,288 Catho- Idem, Gesch, der BischOfe des Hochstiftes Meissen (Dresden, 1884).'
hcs, that is, 6.25 per cent of the population. The Hermann Sacher.
Reformation of the sixteenth century had its origin
in the jire.sent governmental Department of Merse-
Saxony, Albert of (Albert of Heliistadt)
burg, which includes parts of the old dioceses of
fourteenth-century philosopher; nicJinamed Albertus
Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Mcrseburg, Naumburg-
Parvus, Albertutius, and Albertilla by the Italian
Zeitz, and Brandenburg; in this region all Catholic
Scholastics of the Renaissance. In 1351 he passed
life was destroyed. It was not until after the Peace
the first examination {determinatio) at the Univer-
of Westphalia that small Catholic communities arose,
sity of Paris, where he figured as a member of the
from the entrance into the district of miners, mer-
English Xation. In the same year he was elected
chants, pedlars, etc.; these communities grew espe-
procurator of the English Nation; in 1353 rector
cially in the nineteenth century on account of the
of the university; in 1361, collector of dues of the
development of manufactures. The first Catholic
English Nation; in 1358 he had been one of the
church service to be held again in this district was
representatives of this Nation in the concordat with
established in 1710 at Halle on the Saale by Fran-
the Picard Nation. In 1361 the English Nation sug-
ciscans of the Monastery of St. Andreas at Halber-
gested him for the suburban parish of Sts. Cosmas and
stadt; the first puri.sh was also erected at Halle in
Damian, which depended on the university. In 1368
1810; the other parishes were founded by the St.
he still belonged to the faculty of arts at the Univer-
Boniface Association.
sity of Paris, where he compiled his questions on Aris-
In 190.5 the governmental Department of Merse-
burg contained 47,3S2 CathoKcs, that is, 4 per cent
totle's " De Caelo et Mundo" Owing to their common
of the population. The governmental Department of surname of Albert of Saxony, Albert of Helmstadt has
often been confused with Albert, son of Bernardthe
Erfurt is an almost entirely Protestant district in
Rich, of Ricmerstorp (Diocese of Halberstadt), The
which, during the nineteenth century, scattered
latter's name occurs for the first time in 1362 among the
Catholics settled near districts which had preserved
their faith amid the storms of the Reformation era;
masters of the English Nation at the University of
Paris; in 1363 he was rector of the universiti,'; in 1365
these districts are the Eichsfeld and a part of the
population of Erfurt and its vicinity. Erfurt was Rudolf, Duke of Austria, sent him as ambassador to
founded in 742 by St. Boniface as the See of Thurin- Pope Urban V. In that same year the University of
gia. The first and only bishop, St. Adelar, suffered Vienna was founded and through the influence of
martyrdom in 755 with St. Boniface, and the terri- Rudolf, Albert of Ricmerstorp was elected first rector.
tory of the diocese was united with the Archdiocese
He was consequently appointed a canon of Hildes-
of Mainz. From the beginning, however, the arch- heim and (21 Oct., 1366) Bishop of Halberstadt.
All the works which we possess under the name of
bishops of Mainz had episcopal assistants at Erfurt,
who, from early in the fourteenth century, were in Albert of Saxony belong to Albert of Helmstadt.
reality coadjutor bishops and gradually retained
Some were devoted to logic, others to physics. The
almost the same position as a diocesan bishop. After study of these books is admirably calculated to in-
the suppression of the Archdiocese of Mainz (1802), form us on the views current at the University of
the Diocese of Erfurt was assigned to the Diocese of Paris in the middle of the fourteenth century. The
Ratisbon, then in 1807 to Corbie, and in 1821 to treatises on logic written by Albert of Saxony are de-
Paderborn. Up to the present day there is still in voted to the detailed and subtle dialectic which at the
existence at Erfurt an ecclesiastical board with cer- end of the thirteenth century Petrus Hispanus had
tain episcopal powers which is called the "Ecclesias- introduced into the teaching of the Parisian Scholas-
tical Court". Celebrated Catholic churches of Er- ticism, but they present neither the disorder nor the
furt are: the cathedral that was begun about the multitude of empty quibbles which about the same
middle of the twelfth century upon the spot where time were introduced into the instruction at the Uni-
had stood a church built by St. Boniface; and the versity of Oxford and which became predominant
Church of St. Severus, erected in the fourteenth cen- there under the influence of WiUiam Heytesbury.
tury. In 1905 the governmental Department of Albert of Saxony's treatises on physics consist of a
Erfurt contained 107,190 CathoKcs, that is, 21.53 "Tractatus proportionum " and questions on Aris-
per cent of the population; the number of Catholics totle's "physics", "De Coelo", and "De generatione
stearlily declines, in 1817 it amounted to 29 per cent. et corruptione" These contain, in a clear, precise,
Outside of Erfurt and its immediate vicinity, where and concise form, an explanation of numerous ideas
the CathoUos form 12 per cent of the population, the which exercised great influence on the development
Cathohcs in the main live together in communities of modern science, which ideas, however, were not
in the Upper Eichsfeld in the three counties of Hei- wholly personal to Albert of Helmstadt, many of the
ligenstadt (91 per cent Catholic), Worbis (77 per cent most important of them being derived from his mas-
CathoUc), and Miilhausen-Land (43 per cent Cath- ter, Jean Buridan. He abandoned the old Peripa-
olic). The soil of the Upper Eichsfeld is not pro- tetic dynamics which ascribed the movement of pro-
ductive; it does not offer, therefore, any of the jectiles to disturbed air. With Buridan he placed the
conditions for industrial development, and many of cause of this movement in an impetus put into the
its inhabitants are forced to emigrate. In the De- projectile by the person who threw it; the part he
partment of Erfurt the collegiate foundation of Nord- assigned to this impetus is very like that which we
hausen has also remained Catholic from the early now attribute to living force. With Buridan he con-
times; in 1811 it was made into a parish. As regards sidered that the heavens were not moved by intelli-
schools, the religious orders, and the other questions gences, but, hke projectiles, by the impetus which
cnncorning the relations between Church and State, God gave them when He created them. With Bun-
the laws of the Kingdom of Prussia are in force. dan he saw in the increase of impetus the reason of
Weisse, Gefich. der kuTsdchischen Staaten (7 vols., Leipzig. the acceleration in the fall of a heavy body. He fur-
ther taught that the velocity of a falling weight
in-
I.sn2-I2); GRETSCHEL-Bfii..\n, Gexch. rirs sachischen Volkes (3
vols., 2nl ed., Leipzig, 1^03-641: Bottiger-Flathe, Gesch. des creased in proportion cither to the space traver.scd
Kurstaates und Koniqreichs Sachsen (3 vela., 2nd ed., Gotha,
1S67-73) : SturnhGfel, Gesch. rlrr sdchisrhen Lande u. ihrer from the beginning of the fall or to the time elapsed,
Herrscher (2 vols., Chemnitz, lSriS-1909); .Jacob.s, Gench. der but he did not decide between these two.
in der Protinz Sachsen vereinigten Gebiete (Gotha, 1884) Theiner,
;
The equilibrium of the earth and seas is the subject
Gesch. der Ruckkrhr der regiereridrn Hauser von Braunschweiq u.
Sachsen in den Schloss der kath. Kirchp im IS. Jahrh. (Einsiedeln, of a favourite theory of Albert's. The entire terres-
of
1S43); FoRWERK, Gesch. der kath, Hofkirche zu Dresden nebst trial element is in equilibrium when its centre
 SAXONY 505 SCALA
world. More- Stairs were brought from Jerusalem to Rome about
gravity coincides with the centre of the
over the terrestrial mass has
not everywhere the same 326 by St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great.
density so that its centre of gravity does
not coincide In the Middle Ages they were known as Scala
with the centre of its figui-e. Thus the lightest part Pilati, the Stairs of Pilate. From old plans it can
the earth is more distant from the centre of
gravity be gathered that they led to a corridor of the Lateran
of
of the earth than the heaviest part. The erosion pro- Palace, near the Chapel of St. Sylvester, were covered
duced by rivers constantly draws terrestrial
particles with a special roof, and had at their sides other stairs
from the continents to the bosom of the sea. This
for common use. When Sixtus V in 1589 destroyed
erosion, which, by scooping out
the valleys, has the old papal palace and built the new one, he ordered
shaped the mountains, constantly displaces the centre the Holy Stairs to be transferred to their present site,
and this mass is in before the Suncta Sanctorum (Holy of Holies). The
of gravity of the terrestrial mass,
motion to bring back the centre of gi-avity of the latter is the old private papal chapel, dedicated to St.
earth to the centre of its figure. Through this motion Lawrence, and the only remaining part of the former
the submerged portions of the earth constantly push
upwards the emerged parts, which are incessantly be-
ing eaten away and afterwards replaced by the sub-
merged parts. At the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury this theory of Albert's strongly attracted the
attention of Leonardo da Mnci, and it was to confirm
it that he devoted himself to
numerous observations
of fossils. Albert of Saxony, moreover, ascribed the
precession of the equinoxes to the similar very slow
movement of the terrestrial element.
His"Tractatus proportionum " went through
eleven editions; one bears no date or indication of its
origin; three were issued at Padua in 1482, 1484, and
1487; four were printed at Venice in 1487, 1494, and
twice in 1496; two were printed at Venice 1502 and m
1506; finally, an edition without date or printer's
name was issued at Paris. The " Subtilisimse quajs-
tiones super octo libros Physicorum" were printed at
Padua in 1493, at Venice in 1504 and 1516. The
"Quaestiones in Aristotelis libros de Ccelo et Mundo"
were published at Pavia in 1481, at Venice in 1492 and
1497. The "Quaestiones in libros de generatione et
corruptione", with the commentaries and questions
which Gilles of Rome and Marsilius of Inghen had
compiled on the same subject, were printed at Venice
in 1504, 1505, and 1518. Albert's "Quaestiones" on
the Physics, the "De Ccelo", and the "De genera-
tione", followed by the questions of Th^mon and of
Buridan on the "De anima", were printed in Paris
in 1516 and 1518. The "Quaestiones super libros
posteriorum Aristotelis" were printed at Venice in
1497; the "Sophismata" at Paris in 1489; the The Scala Sancta
"Tractatus obligationum " at Lyons in 1498; the two Church of S. Salvatore, Rome
last-named works, joined with the "Insolubilia",
Lateran Palace, receiving its name from the many
were published at Paris in 1490, 1495, and at an un-
known date. In 1496 was printed at Bologna the precious relics preserved there. The Sancta Sanc-
"Expositio aurea et admodum utilis super artem
torum also contains the celebrated image of Christ,
veterem, edita per venerabilem inceptorem fratrem
"not made by human hands", which on certain occa-
sions used to be carried through Rome in procession.
Gulielmum de Ocham cum questionibus Alberti parvi
de Saxonia". Finally, the "Logica Albertucii" was
These holy treasures, which since Leo X (1513-21)
edited at Venice in 1522.
have not been seen by anybody, have recently been
Phantl, Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande, IV (Leipzig, the object of learned dissertations by Grisar and
1867); Thtjrot, Recherches historiques sut le principe d' Archim^de, Lauer.
3rd article in Revue archeologique, new series, XIX (1869) BoN-
;
In its new site the Scala Sancta is flanked by four
COMPAGNI, IntoTno al Tractatus proportionum di Alberto di Sas-
sQnia in Bulletino di Bibliografia e di Storia delle Scienze mate- other stairs, two on each side, for common use, since
watiche e fisiche, IV (1871); Jacoli, Intorno ad un comento di the Holy Stairs may only be ascended on the knees,
Benedetto Vittori, medico Faentino, al Tractatus proportionum di
Alberto diSassoniain ibid,; Suter, Der Tractatus, " De quadratura
a devotion much in favour with pilgrims and the
circuli" des Alhertus deSaxonia in Zeitschrift fiir Mathematik und Roman faithful, especially on Fridays and in Lent.
Physik, XXIX (1884); Suter, Die Queslio " De proportione Not a few popes are recorded to have performed this
dyameiri quadrati ad costam ejusdem" des Albertus de Saxonia,
ibid,, XXXII (1887);
pious exercise; Pius IX, who in 1853 entrusted the
Duhem, Les origines de la statique, II
(Paris, 1906); Idem, Etudes sur Leonard de Vinci, ceur qu'il Passionist Fathers with the care of the sanctuary,
aluset ceux qui I'ont lu, 1st ser. (Paris, 1906) ; 2nd ser. (Paris, ascended the Holy Stairs on 19 Sept., 1870, the
1909); 3rd aer. (in press).
eve of the entrance of the Piedmontese into Rome.
PlEREB DUHBM. Pius VII on 2 Sept., 1817 granted those who ascend
Sasony, Vicariate Apostolic of. See Saxony. the stairs in the prescribed manner an indulgence of
nine years for every step. Finally Pius X, on 26 Feb.,
Scalabrini Fathers. See Missionaries op Saint 1908, granted a plenary indulgence to be gained as
Charles Borromeo, Congregation of. often as the stairs are devoutly ascended after con-
fession and communion. Imitations of the Scala
Scala Sancta (Holt Stairs), consisting of twenty-
Sancta have been erected in various places, as in
eight white marble steps, at Rome, near the Lateran;
according to tradition the staircase leading once to
Lourdes and in some convents of nuns, and indul-
the prstorium of Pilate at Jerusalem, hence sancti-
gences are attached to them by special concessions.
Thurston, The Holy Year of Jubilee fI..mdon, 1900), 185-
fied by the footsteps of Our Lord during his Passion. 196; Manner of visiting and devoutly ascending the Holtl Stairs
The historians of the monument relate that the Holy (Rome, 1907); Tomasi, Scalce Sancta: pice deosculationes
 SCALIGER 506 SCANDAL
(Rome, 1667J Soresin'I, De Sr.iila Sancta ante Sancla Sanctorum
; commentaries on the treatises on plants of Theo-
in Laterano culta (Rumc, 1072) Marangoni, Istoria dell'
;
phrastes and Aristotle. As a physician he was much
antichissimo oratorio o cappdla di S. Lorenzo ncl Patriarchio
Lateranense . (Rome, 1747); Bambi, Memorie sacre della
. .
interested in botany; he demonstrated the necessity
cappella di Sancta Sanctorum e della Scaki del PaUizzo di Pi- of abandoning the classification of plants ba.sed on
iato delta volgarmente la Scala Sancta (Rome, 1798); Maz- their properties and of estabhshing one based on
ZUCCONI, Memorie storiche della Scfilo Santa e dell' insigne san-
tuario di Sancta Sanctorum (Rome, 1S40) Rasponi, De Basilica et
;
their distinctive characteristics. He was violent,
Patriarchio Laliranensi (Rome, 1656) 331-33; 361-X4; Quaken- vain, and given to exaggeration. His faults spoiled
8IMUH, Historica Terra Sancfce elucidatio, II (2nd ed., Venice,
. . .

issl), 140-41; Adindlfi, Roma neW etd di mezzo, 1 (Rome, 1881),

pleasing natural gifts and wide learning.
NiSARD, Les gtadiateurs de la rcpublique des lettres aux \V<^
232 ^qq.; Armellini, Le Chiese di Roma, 2nd ed. (Rome, 1891),
lOX sqq.; Beringer, Die Abldsse, 13th ed. (Paderborn, 1910), XVI', et XVII' sieclex, I
(Paris, 1860), 305-400; Saintsbury'
43.')-36; Lauer, Le tresor du Sancta Sanctorum (Paris, 1906);
History of literary criticism, II (Edinburgh and London, 1902)
Ghisar, II Sancta Sanctorum ed il suo tesoro sacro (Rome, 1907). 69; LiNTiLHAC, De J. C. Scaligeri Poetica (Paris, 1887); .Sandys!
A History of Classical Scholarship, II (Cambridge, 1908), 177.
LivABius Oligee.
Paul Lejay.
Scaliger (It., Della Scala), Julius C^sar,
Scalimoli, theologian, better known by his reli-
humanist, b. at Riva on Lake Garda in 1484; d. at
Agen, France, 21 Oct., 1558. He was brought to
gious name, Andrea di Castellana, from his place of
France as physician to Antonio de la Rovera, Bishop
origin in ApuUa. He entered the Order of the Con-
ventual Franciscans in the Province of St. Nicholas
of Agen, and became a French citizen under the
(Bari), of which he was later appointed provincial.
name of Jules
His experience as a missionary in Moldavia, Wal-
C^sar de I'Escale
lachia, and Transylvania, as Prefect Apostolic of Hun-
de Bordonis. He
gary, and as visitor general of the Franciscan missions
took part in the
in Russia led him to the composition of a work which
discussion c o n -
eeming Cicero-
was approved by the general of the order in 1642, and
is dedicated to Cardinal Barberini "Missionarius
nianism and be-
apostohcus a Sacra Congregatione de Propaganda
gan his career as
Fide instructus quomodo debeat inter haereticos vi-
a humanist by a
vere, pravitates eorum convincere, et in fide catholica
violent work
proficere per Germaniam, Poloniam, Ungariam, et per
against Erasmus,
"Oratio pro Ci-
omnes partes ubi vigent blasphemiae lutheranse"
(Bologna, 1644).
cerone contra Wadding, Scriptores ordinis minorum (Rome, 1906), 16;
Erasmum " (Paris, Sbaraglia, Supplementum et castigatio ad scriptores trium ordinum
1531). He de- S, Francisci (Rome, 1908), 35-36; Franchini, Bibliosofia e
memorie letterarie di scrittori francescani conventuali (Modena,
fended the abso-
1693), 36.
lute perfection of C. A. DUBRAT.
Cicero's stjde and
denounced Eras- Scammon, Ellakim Parker, educator, b. at
mus as a mere Whitefield, Maine, U. S. A., 27 Dec, 1816; d. at
proof corrector, a New York, 7 Dec, 1894. Having received an ap-
parasite, and a, pointment to the U. S. Military Academy at West
parricide. Eras- Point he made the usual course there and graduated
mus kept silence. (1837) fifth in a class of fifty-two. He remained at
In 1536 Scaliger the academy as a tutor in mathematics, having among
issued a still more violent discourse. The two dis- his pupils the future Generals Grant, Rosecrans,
courses were combined: "Adversus D. Erasmum ora- Newton, and other famous army officers. During
tiones duae eloquentise romance vindices cum auctoris the Seminole war he saw active service and was one
opuscuUs" (Toulouse, ltj21). He wrote a more sohd of General Scott's aides in the Mexican war (1846-
work in a calmer tone in "De causis Unguae latinae 47), his bravery at Vera Cruz winning him promotion.
libri XIII" (Lyons, 1540; Geneva, 1580), in which Just before starting from New York for the war in
he analyzed the correct style of Cicero and indicated 1846 he became a convert. From 1847 to 1854 he
634 mistakes of Valla and his predecessors. He was was attached to the topographical corps surveying
the first to attempt a systematic treatise on poetry: the Upper Lakes. In 1856 he left the army. Later
"Poetices libri oeto" (Lyons, 1561; Leyden, 1581; he taught mathematics at St. Mary's College, and at
Heidelberg, 1607). The general principles of this the Polytechnic College, Cincinnati, Ohio. He took
work are ilcrived from Aristotle whom he calls " im- an active part as a volunteer in the Civil War, re-
perator noster; omnium bonarum artium dictator ceiving the commission of brigadier-general on 15
perpetuus" Like Aristotle he makes imitation the Oct., 1862. He was U. S. Consul at Prince Edward
basis of all poetry. He spoiled his work by exagger- Island from 1866 to 1871, and, from 1875 until his
ations; not only docs he place \'irgil above Homer retirement (1882), was professor of mathematics at
but he places the Homeric epics below the "Hero Seton Hall College, South Orange, New Jersey.
and Leander" of Musaeiis, a poet of the Byzantine CuLLUM, Biog. Register Officers and Graduates U. S. Military
period; it is true that Scaliger identifies him with Acadamy (Boston, 1891); Fltnn, Catholic Church in New
Jersey (Morristown, 1904); Nat. Cyclopedia Am. Biog., a. v.;
the legendary MusEeus, a disciple of Orpheus (Poet., Freeman's Journal (New York) , files.
\', '2). He declared that Seneca was not surpassed Thomas F. Meehan.
in grandeur by any of the Greek tragedians. This
la,st opinion was not without its consequences; it ScandaL —This article will treat: I. The Notion
explains the cxcessi\-e liking of Shakespeare, Cor- OF Scandal; II. Its Divisions; III. Its Malice;
neille, and many of their contemporaries for the IV. Cases in which the Sin op Scandal Occurs.
tragedies of .Spneoa. I. Notion of Scandal. —
According to St. Thomas
Scaliger is also the author of the following works: (II-II, Q. liii, a. 1) scandal is a word or action enl in
"De comicis dimensionibus " (Lyons, 1539); "Exo- itself, which occasions another's spiritual ruin. It is
teriearum cxercitationum de subtilitate ad H. Car- a word or action, that is either an external act for an —
danum" 1537; Basle, 1560);
(Paris, "Poemata" internal act can have no influence on the conduct
(Geneva, 1574; Heidelberg, 1600); "Epistola; et of another —
or the omission of an external act, be-
Orationes" (Leyden, 1600). He translated into cause to omit what one should do is equivalent to
Latin Aristotle's "Xatural History" (Toulouse, doing what is forbidden; it must be evil in itself, or in
1619), the "Insomnias" of Hippocrates, and wrote appearance; this is the interpretation of the words of
 SCANDAL 507 SCANDAL

St. Thomas: minus rectum. It is not the physical isalso contrary to charity (see above) but is it also
;

cause of a neighbour's sin, but only the moral cause, or opposed to the virtue violated by another? St. Al-
occasion; further, this moral causality may be un- phonsus answers in the affirmative; others, and this
derstood in a strict sense, as when one orders, re- seems the true opinion, deny this. In fact no one has
quests, or advises another to commit the sin (this hitherto proved this species of malice, and those who
is
inductive scandal, which some call co-opera-
strictly admit it are not consistent with themselves, for they
tion in abroad sense), or in a large sense, as when a should also maintain, which no one does, ttat anyone
person without being directly concerned in the sin who is indirectly the cause of an injustice by another
nevertheless exercises a certain influence on the sin of is also bound to restitution; what is true of justice
his neighbour, e. g. by committing such a should hold good for the other virtues.
sin in his
presence (this is inductive scandal in a broad sense). IV. The question remains: When is there a sin of
For scandal to exist it is therefore essential and suffi- scandal? for it is obvious that not all who are the
cient, with regard to the nature of the act and the occasion of sin to others are thereby guilty. (1) As
circumstances under which it takes place, that it be a general rule the sin of scandal exists when one di-
of a nature to induce sin in another; consequently it is rectly induces another to do a thing which he cannot
not necessary that the neighbour should actually fall do without sin, either formal or material, e. g. by
into sin; and on the other hand, for scandal strictly soliciting a person to perjury, drunkenness, sins of the
so-called, it is not enough that a neighbour take oc- flesh, etc., even though the person induced to this act
casion to do evil from a word or action which is not a is habitually or at the time disposed to commit it.

subject of scandal and exercises no influence on his It is otherwise when the thing we ask is good or indif-
action; it must be a cause of spiritual ruin, that is of ferent; this may be done without scandal and without
sin, consequently that is not scandal which merely sin, when there is a just cause or serious reason for
dissuades the neighbour from a more perfect act, as for asking it; even though one foresees that the other will
instance, prayer, the practice of the Evangelical vir- probably sin in granting it; thus for the common weal
tues, the more frequent use of the sacraments, etc. a judge may demand an oath even from those who
Still less can that be considered scandal, which only will probably commit perjury; one who has need of
arouses comment, indignation, horror etc., for in- money and who cannot find anyone who will lend to
stance blasphemy committed in the presence of a him may have recourse to an usurer although he fore-
priest or of a rehgious; it is true that the act arouses sees that the latter will exact exorbitant and unjust
indignation and in common parlance it is often called interest, etc. The thing asked must be without sin
scandalous, but this way of speaking is inaccurate, and either formal or material because it is not allowed to
in strictly theological terminology it is not the sin of profit by the ignorance of another to induce him to
scandal. Hence scandal is in itself an evil act, at commit what is forbidden; to cause a child to utter
least in appearance, and as such it exercises on the will blasphemies, to induce someone who is unaware of the
of another an influence more or less great which in- precept of the Church to eat flesh on a fast day, and
duces to sin. Furthermore, when the action from so on. In fact in all these cases the sin is to be as-
which another takes occasion of sin is not bad, either cribed to the person who endeavours to cause it.
in itself or in appearance, it may violate charity (see This is the general rule, but here the question arises,
below), but strictly speaking it is not the sin of scan- may one advise another bent on committing a great
dal. However, some authorities understanding the crime to be satisfied instead with doing something less
word scandal in a wider sense include in it this case. evil? This question is much discussed, but the opin-
II. Divisions. —
(1) Scandal is divided into active ion which considers such a course justifiable is prob-
and passive. Active scandal is that which has been de- able and may be followed in practice. In fact the
fined above; passive scandal is the sin which another advice thus given is not properly speaking advice to
commits in consequence of active scandal. Passive do evil but to do a lesser evil or rather not to do the
scandal is called scandal given {scandalum datum), greater evil which a man intends to commit therefore;

when the act of the scandalizer is of a nature to oc- some writers exact that the words or circumstances
casion it; and scandal received (acceptum), when the must demonstrate that one advises the evil solely as
action of the one who scandalizes is due solely to ig- the lesser evil; others, however, consider it sufficient
norance or weakness —
this is scandal of the weak that such be the intention, even when not made mani-
(infirmorum), —
or to malice and evil inclinations —
this fest, of the person who gives the advice. Nevertheless,
is Pharisaical scandal, which was that of the Pharisees it a man had decided to do an injury to a certain per-
with regard to the words and actions of Christ. (2) —
son one could not unless in exceptional circumstances
Active scandal is direct when he who commits it has — induce him to do a lesser injury to any other person.
the intention of inducing another to sin; such is the (2) He is guilty of the sin of scandal who without
sm of one who solicits another to the crime of adultery, positively pledging or inducing to sin nevertheless per-
theft etc. If one prevails upon another to commit the forms an act evil in itself which will be an occasion
sin not only because of an advantage or pleasure be- of sin to another. The same must be said when the
lieved to accrue therefrom but chiefly because of the act is evil only in appearance, unless there be sufficient
sin itself, because it is an offence to God or the ruin of reason to act and to permit the fault of another.
a neighbour's soul, direct scandal is called by the ex- Thus those who blaspheme before others when they
pressive name of diabohcal scandal. On the other foresee that their example will cause the latter to
hand scandal is only indirect when without the inten- blaspheme are guilty of scandal; so also those who
tion to cause another to tall into sin we say a word or attack religion or morals, hold immoral conversation,
perform a deed which is for him an occasion of sin. sing immoral songs or (by their behaviour, dress, writ-
.
III. Malice. —(1) That active scandal is a mortal ings etc.) offend against the laws of decency and
sin Christ Himself has taught (Matt., xviii, 6sqq.) and modesty, when they foresee, as is usual, that those
reason makes evident. If charity obliges us to assist who see, hear, or read will be impelled to sin. (3) To pre-
our neighbour's temporal and spiritual necessities vent another's sin one may even be bound to forego an
(see Alms; Correction) it obliges us still more act which is sinful neither in itself nor in appearance,
strongly not to be to him a cause of sin or spiritual but which is nevertheless the occasion of sin to an-
uin. Hence it follows other, unless there be sufficient reason to act otherwise.
that every sin of scandal is
contrary to charity. Moreover (2) direct scandal is It has already been shown that when there is a just
obviously contrary to the virtue against which an- cause we may ask of another a thing which he can do
other is induced
to sin; in fact every virtue forbids not without sin although we may foresee that he will not
only Its violation
by ourselves but also that we should do it without fault. Likewise we are not bound to be
Qesire its violation
by another. (3) Indirect scandal disturbed by pharisaioal scandal, which may follow an
 SCANLON 508 SCAPULAR
action we perform but we must avoid scandalizing the
; thus hanging down from two narrow connecting
weak if we can do so easily. The application of these segments resting on the shoulders. Originally the
principl(!s depends on concrete circumstances, which longitudinal segments of cloth were confined by cross
vary with each case; however, the following general —
segments passing under the arms a form "which
rules may be given: (1) To prevent scandaUzing exists even to-day. In former times also two seg-
another we must never transgress the negative pre- ments of cloth hung over the shoulders, which they
cepts of the natural law, nor its positive precepts in covered, and thus formed a cross with the longi-
cases where they truly bind; thus it is not permitted tudinal segments over the breast and back (cf. P.
to lie to prevent a mortal sin, neither can one neglect L., CIII, 1231, editorial note). This monastic scap^
receiving baptism to avoid the blasphemies of one's ular, hke the whole monastic habit and indeed the Ut-
parents. (2) It is not permitted to pass over any urgical vestments of the priest, developed from the
precept whatever in order to prevent pharisaical scan- ordinary clothing of the laity. And, just as the
dal, but we may and e^-en should, in special oases and stole is the special sign of the priestly dignity and
for one oi two occasions, pass over a precept whether power, the scapular is now the sign of the monk.
Divine or human, to avoid scandalizing the weak. In the West, in the case of St. Benedict, the scapular
(3) 'W'e should, to avoid scandal, forego good or in- was at first nothing else than a working garment or
different works which are not of precept, if we can do apron such as was then worn by agricultural labourers.
so without great inconvenience. (4) Finally, to pre- Thus, in the Rule of St. Benedict, it was expressly
veat the scandal of the weak we are sometimes obliged termed "scapulare propter opera" (c. x.xv in P. L,
to sacrifice some temporal good of less importance, LXXVI, 771). From this developed the .special
but we are not bound to do this when the goods are of monastic garment, to which a hood could be fas-
greater importance. tened at the back. In fact, the original scapular
Berardi, Theolof/ia moralis, theorico-practica (Faenza, 1904); of the Dominican Order was so made that it acted
Bitot, Compend. IJieol. mor. ad menlem P. Gnr'i (Paris, 1908); also as a covering for the head, and thus as a hood
D'Anntbale, Summula ther>l. mor. (Rome, IDOS); G]6ntcot-
Sal.sman8, Theol. mor.instU. fBrussels, 1*109); I.ehmkuhl, Theol. (cf. Qu6tif-Echard. "Scriptores ord. praed.", I, 7.5;
mar. (Freiburg, 1910j; Xoldix, Siimma theologicB moralis: De "Theodemari epist. ad Carol. Reg." in Mon.
pracpptis et ecclenia (Innsbruclc, 1908); St. Thomas, Summa theol.
Germ, hist.: Epp., IV, Carol, ssv., 2, 513; cf. "S.
II-II, Q. xliii, with Caiftan's commentary; S. Alpitonsus, Theol.
mor. 11, tr. Ill (Rome, lOOo) Bouqcillon, D' oirtutibus theologicis
:
Benedicti Anianensis concord, regular.", c. Ixii,
(BniKos, 1890) with annotations by \V\fpblvert (Tiruces, 1900); in P. L., CIII, 1231, and ibid., editorial note; Du
\^^VFFELAERT, Qiidlc espkce de peche commet celui qui donne h scan-
dahf in Nouvclh' renue theologique, XV(Tournai, IS.Sli); Cnlla-
Cange-Favre, " Glossarium " s. v. Scapulare). The
,

tion^s brugenses (Bruges, 1896-—), especially VIII (1903) and XIV scapular of the West corresponded to the analahus
(1U09). of the East (cf. "S. Dorothei abbatis doctrina",
A. Y.\N DER HeEREN. I, -xiii, in P. G., LXXXVIII, 1634; Cassian, "De
Scanlon, Lawrence. ccenob. instit.", in P. L., XLIX, 68 sqq.; Simeon
See Salt Lake, Diocese
Thessal. archiep., "De poenitentia", cclxxiii, in
OF.
P. G., CLV, 40.5; Goar, "Euchologium", 2nd ed.,
Scannabecchi, Filippo [Dalmasio; Lippo di Venice, 17.30, pp. 411, 417 sqq.).
Dalmasio; Lippo Dalle AIadonne; MaRATORi(?)], Monastic formulae of profession of the West from
Bolognese painter, b. about 1360; d. about 1410. Of the ninth century make no mention of the investment
his life and career we know exceedingly little. Mal- with the scapular. It was only gradually that it
vasia gives few details, but regards his work as of
became one of the important parts of the monastic
the highest importance, and says that no great habit. Later, like the analabus, it was solemnly
family in Bologna was without an example of it.
presented during the clothing, and the symbolism
It is not easy at the present day to know upon what
of the scapular is emphasized in the formula used
basis Alalvasia wi'ote, because there is no work of
during this ceremony. Especially the analabus but
Scannabecchi which seems to modern critics to de-
also the scapular was often called simply crux (cross)
serve such praise. He was, howc\er, one of the earliest
on account of its shape, and symbolism intro-
painters of Bologna, and one of the first to reveal
duced accordingly. It was thus natural to term
beauty in the features of the Aladonna and Child. the scapular jugum Christi (the yoke of Christ);
His father, Dalmasio Scannabecchi, who painted in
it was also called scutum (shield), as it was laid over
the same city, trained him, and also \ltale da Bologna.
the head, which it originally covered and protected
W'e luu'e no definite dates concerning him, .sa\-e that
with one portion (from which the hood afterwards de-
he made his will in 1410. The name Muratori, by
veloped). (Cf."S. Dorothei doctrina", loc. cit.; Goar,
which one or two writers have styled him, really
loc. cit.; "Vetusdiscipl. monast.", Paris, 1726, formulae
belongs to another artist of the name of Sc;innabecchi,
professionis; Gianius, "Annales ord. Server.", 2nd ed.,
a woman, Teresa, a seventeenth-century painter, and
I, Lucca, 1719, 499 sq., 409 sqq.). In the rules of
should not be applied to him. His name of Lippo
the religious it is expressly prescribed under penalties
Dalle Madonne was given him because he usually
that even at night the scapular must be worn, e. g.
painted the Madonna.
There is a reference to him in Lr Pubbliche Pitlure di Piacenza in the case of the Servites and Carmelites ("Mon.
(Piacenza, 17SI1); Malvama, Feldna Pit'rice (Bologna, 1678); Ord. Servorum B. M. V.", I, xxi; "Const, s. Bona-
the unpublished memoirs of Oretti in the Bolotrna Museum. junta; 1257"; "Mon. hist. Carmel. Const.", 1324, in
George Charles Williamson. Zimmerman, 31: "Statuimus quod fratres in tunica
Scannell, Richard. See Omaha, Diocese op. et scapular! dormiant supracincti, sub poena gravis
culpae"). For night the Carmelites have now a
Scapular. — I. Name, ^Meaning, and Origin. — special smaller scapular which, however, is still much
The scapular (from Lat. scapula, shoulder) forms a larger than the so-called great scapular of the Third
part, and now the most important part, of the habit Order of St. Francis; it measures about twenty
of the monastic orders. Other orders and numerous inches in length and ten in width. In the Con-
religious congregations (both male and female) have stitutions of the Carmehte Order of 1369 (Cod.
also adopted the scapular from the monastic orders. Vatic, lat. 3991 fol. 33 v.) it is appointed that each
It is usually worn o\er the habit or soutane. It candidate of the order must bring with him his bed
consists essentially of a piece of cloth about the width and in addition: "habeat etiam cum rauba sua
of the breast from one shoulder to the other (i. e. par\'um scapulare cum tunica ad jacendum" (cf.
about fourteen to eighteen inches), and of such a We.ssels, "Analeota Ord. Carmel.", Rome, 1911, p.
length that it reaches not quite to the feet in front and 122). Perhaps the smaller scapular for the night is
behind. There are also shorter forms of the scapular. here hinted at or foreshadowed. Perhaps even the
In the middle is the opening for the head, the scapular small scapular of the confraternity (that for the
 SCAPULAR 509 SCAPULAR
laity) may be suggested, since the reference is nected with each other by two strings or bands.
to persons coming from the world (novices) who The best known scapular is that of the Third Order
should have this small scapular. It is likewise pre- of St. Francis, or, as it is simply called, the Scapular
scribed in the Constitutions of the Servites of 1257 of St. Francis; it is brown, grey, or black in colour,
"quod nullus accedat sine scapulari et tunica dor- and has (at least generally) on one of the woollen
mitum". Again, after St. Benedict had declared segments the image of St. Francis and on the other
in his Rule XXII: "Vestiti dormiant et cinoti that of the little church of Portiunoula. For these
cingulis aut funibus", it was prescribed in the "Con- large scapulars the same general rules hold good as
suetudines sublacenses " :"Vestiti autem dormiant described in detail below in the case of the small
id est ad minus in una tunica et scapulari et cincti, scapulars. It is especially necessary that persons
ut sint parati surgere" (Albers, "Consuet. monas- who desire to share in the indulgences and privileges
ticje", II, 126). This scapular thus appears to have of the third orders shall wear the scapulars con-
been a portion of the night clothing of monks. stantly. However, the Congregation of Indulgences ex-
II. The Scapular of the Third Orders. —To the pressly declared on 30 April, 1885, that the wearing
first orders have been gradually added the second of the scapulars of smaller form and of the same size
and third orders and the oblates, who receive the as those of the confraternities entitled one to gain the
proper habit from the first orders. Early in the Mid- indulgentips of the third order (cf. Constit. Leonis
dle Ages numerous lay persons had already joined XIII, "Misericors Dei Filius", 30 May, 1883;
the Benedictine Order as oblates; these often re- "Acta S. Sed.", XV, 513 sqq.; Beringer, "Les in-
ceived from the first order the entire monastic habit, dulgences", 3rd ed., II, 499 sqq.).
which they wore either constantly in the world or
It was regarded as a
III.The —
Small Scapulars. Like the large scapu-
at least during Divine Service. lars the first and oldest small scapulars originated to a
great grace and privilege to be able to die and be certain extent in the real monastic scapular. Pious
buried in the monastic habit, which was frequently lay persons of either sex attached themselves to the
given to the dying or placed on the deceased before Servites for instance; many of those who were in a
burial. In the revised statutes of the Oblates of the position to do so attached themselves to the third
Benedictine Order, confirmed in 1891 and 1904, it order with vows, but in the case of many others
is stated in conclusion: "The Oblates may be buried either this was impossible or the idea of doing so
in the black habit of the order, with scapular and had as yet not occurred to them. In this manner
girdle, wherever the conditions allow the fulfilment developed, shortly after the foundation of the Servite
of this pious wish" (Beringer, "Die Ablasse", 13th Order, the Confraternity of the Servi B. Mariae
ed., 817; French tr. "Les indulgences", 3rd. ed., II, Virginis (cf. Giani, "Annales", I, 2nd ed., Lucca,
516). In the first Rule of the Third Order of St. Francis 1719, p. 162; 1st ed., Florence, 1618, p. 58). Similarly
of 1221 (also in that of 1289), the investment is originated the Confraternity of Our Lady of Mount
fairly exactly described, but there is no mention of a Carmel; that this existed in 1280 is proved by the
scapular (cf. Sabatier, "Opuscules de critique his- still extant "Libro degli ordinamenti de la compagnia
torique", I, Paris, 1903, "Regula antiqua fratrum et di Santa Maria del Carmine scritto nel 1280" (ed-
sororum de poenitentia , pp. 17 sq., "De modo ves- ited by GiuHo Piccini at Bologna, 1867, in "Scelta
tium"; "Seraphicse legislationis textus originates", di Curiosity letterarie ")
. The members of these con-
III, Quaracchi, 1897, pp. 81 sq., "De forma habitus fraternities were called the confratres and consorores
et quahtate indumentorum"). The first Rule of the of the respective orders; they had special rules and
Third Order of St. Dominic in the first half of the participated in the spiritual goods of the order to
thirteenth century prescribed likewise a formal and which they belonged. It is probable also that many
complete investment. Here also there is no mention of those who could not be promoted to the third
of the scapular. As in the case of the other third order or who were special benefactors of the first
orders this made its appearance later, until finally it order received the habit of the order or a large
became usual to wear the scapular under one's ordinary scapular similar to that of the oblates, which they
clothing instead of the f uU habit of the order (cf "Regola
. might wear when dying and in which they might be
del terz' ordine di San Domenico", Rome, 1888, pp. buried. It was only later and gradually that the
26 sqq. Concerning the investment of the Oblati, idea developed of giving to everyone connected with
Mantellatae, and Bizzoche, see also Giani, "Annales", the order the real scapular of the order in miniature
2nd ed., I, Lucca, 1719, pp. 198, 405 sqq., 626; as their badge to be always worn day and night over
2nd ed., II Lucca, 1721, pp. 319, 392, 414, 420, or under their ordinary clothing.
442;"Bullar. CarmeUt.", II, Rome, 1718, p. 373; It was now that these confraternities developed
III, Rome, 1768, p. 611; Linas, "Bullar. B. M. V. de into scapular confraternities in the modern sense.
Mercede", Barcelona, 1696, p. 15; cf. Potthast, On account of the scapulars the faithful resorted ever
"Regest. Pontif.", 1825 sq.). By the Decree of the more to these confraternities, especially after they had
Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars of heard of the wonderful graces which members had
20 December, 1616, it was declared that the Bizzoche, received through the scapulars, and above all when
who lived in the houses of relatives (and thus quite the story of the apparition of the Blessed Virgin and
without restraint in the world), might wear the ter- of her promise to all who wore the Scapular of Mount
tiary habit, but without supriectum, sottogola, and Carmel faithfully until death became known. Con-
patimtia (i. e., without veil, pectorale,and scapular). sequently, the four oldest small scapulars are like-
Later, the wearing of the special habit of an order wise the badges of four confraternities, attached re-
became unusual, and the constant wearing of such spectively to the CarmeUtes, Servites, Trinitarians,
was regarded as a privilege. Gradually, however, and Mercedarians. Later on the Franciscans gave the
the most distinctive article of the monastic habit, members of their third order for the laity the large
the scapular, was given, and is in an ever smaller scapular, and founded also a Franciscan confraternity,
fornl It has thus come to pass that the third orders the members of which were given as their badge,
'^'*^! ^'^"^ ^^ those of the Franciscans, Servites not a small scapular, but a girdle. The Dominicans
}r,
^"0 pominicans, wear to-day as their special badge likewise assigned to their third order the large scapular
and habit a "large" as its badge, and to their principal confraternity the
scapular, consisting essentially
01 two segments of rosary. Since 1903, however, there is a small scapular
woollen cloth (about four and a half
inches long and
two and three-eighths inches broad of St. Dominic provided with an indulgence but con-
'"j "^^^ "^ *^^ Franciscan scapular; much longer nected with no confraternity ("Analecta eccl.", 1904,
u
a-nd broader
no particular
in the case of the Carmelite — although p. 261). The Benedictines, on the other hand,
length or breadth is prescribed) con- founded a special confraternity in the latter half of
 SCAPULAR 510 SCAPULAR
the nineteenth century, and gave to its members the bands of the Red Scapular of the Passion must
a small scapular of St. Benedict. An attempt was be of red wool. On either or both of the woollen
later made to give the oblates of the Benedictines a segments rnay be sewn or embroidered becoming
larger scapular which could be worn constantly. representations or other decorations (emblems, names
However, the regulation which was already quoted etc.) of a different material. It is only in the case
from the new statutes of the Benedictines Oblates of the Red Scapular that the images are expressly
stiU remains in force. prescribed.
In the course of time other orders received the Several scapulars may be attached to the same
faculty of blessing small scapulars and investing the pair of strings or bands; each scapular must of course
faithful with them, although such scapulars were not be complete, and must be attached to both bands.
always connected with a confraternity. Thus orig- In many cases the five best-known of the early
inated the Blue Scapular of the Theatines in the scapulars are attached to the same pair of bands;
seventeenth century, in connexion with which a this combination is then known as the "fivefold
confraternity was not founded until the nineteenth scapular". The five are: the Scapular of the Alost
century. The Fathers of the Precious Blood have Blessed Trinity, that of the Carmelites, of the Scr-
a scapular and confraternity named after their vites, of the Immaculate Conception, and the Red
order. Similarly the Camillians have the Confra- Scapular of the Passion. When the scapulars are
ternity and Scapular of Our Lady the Help of the thus joined together, the bands must be of red wool,
Sick, and the Augustinians the Confraternity and as required by the Red Scapular; it is customary to
Scapular of the Mother of Good Counsel, in which wear the Red Scapular uppermost and that of the
cases the scapular and confraternity are not insepara- Most Blessed Trinity undermost, so that the images
bly united; finally the Capuchins have the Scapular specially prescribed in the case of the Red, and the
of St. Joseph without a corresponding confraternity. small red and blue cross on the Scapular of the Blessed
The Lazarists have the Red, and the Passionists Trinity,may be visible.
the Black Scapular of the Passion. Under Leo XIII Only at the original reception of any scapular is
originated in Rome the Scapular Confraternity of St. either the blessing or the investment with such by an
Michael the Archangel, which is attached not so authorized priest necessary. ^Mien a person needs
much to an order as to the church in which it exists. a new scapular, he can put on an unblessed one.
Also under Leo XIII, in 1900, were approved the If the investment with a scapular be inseparably
Scapular of the Sacred Heart, the Scapular of the connected with reception into a confraternity, the
Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary (both without a reception and enrolment must take place on the same
corresponding confraternity), and the Scapular of the occasion as the blessing and investment. To share
Immaculate Heart of Mary, which originated in 1877. in the indulgences and privileges of a scapular, one
These complete the hst of the seventeen known must wear it constantly; it may be worn over or
small scapulars. under one's clothing and may be laid aside for a short
The history of the origin of the first foiu' small time, if necessary. Should one have ceased wearing
scapulars is still to a great extent obscure. It is the scapular for a long period (even through indif-
probable that the revival of the reUgious Ufe in the ference), one gains none of the indulgences, during
sixteenth century (the Counter-Reformation) gave this time, but, by simply resuming the scapular, one
the chief impetus to the development of the scapulars, again participates in the indulgences, privileges, etc.
as to other institutions and practices (e. g., con- Every scapular, which is not merely an object of
fraternities and novenas). To assign an exact date private devotion (for there are also such) but is also
to the origin of the first small scapular is stiU impos- provided with an indulgence, must be approved by
sible; it appears, however, that the CarmeUte scapular the ecclesiastical authorities, and the formula of
antedated aU the others, as a prototype well worthy blessing must be sanctioned by the Congregation of
of imitation, and had its origin in the above-men- Rites. In this article we speak only of scapulars
tioned scapular prescribed for wearing at night. At approved by the Church.
the end of the si.xteenth century the scapular was —
V. The Scapular Medals. Since 1910 and the
certainly widespread, as is clear from the information regulation of the Holy Office of 16 December of that
given by the Carmehte Joseph Falcome in "La year (Acta Apost. Sedis, III, 22 sq.) it is permitted
Cronica Carmelitana", a book which was published to wear, instead of one or more of the small scapulars,
at Piacenza in 1595 (cf. Wessels, "Analecta Ord. a single medal of metal. This medal niust have on
Carmel. ", Rome, 1911, pp. 120 sq.). Before entering one side a representation of Jesus Christ with His
into further detail concerning the individual scapulars, Most Sacred Heart and on the other any image of the
we must gi\-e the general rules and regulations which Mother of God. All persons who have been validly
apply to all the small scapulars. invested with a blessed woollen scapular may replace
IV. General Ecclesiastical Regulations Con- such by this medal. The medal must be blessed by a
—
cerning THE Small Scapulars. The small scapulars priest possessing the faculty to bless and invest with
consist essentially of two quadrilateral segments of the scapular or scapulars, which the medal is to re-
woollen cloth (about two and three-quarter inches place. The faculties to bless these medals are subject
long by two inches wide), connected with each other to the same conditions and limitations as the faculties
by two strings or bands in such a manner that, when to bless and invest with the corresponding scapulars.
the bands rest on the shoulders, the front segment If the medal is to be worn instead of a number of
rests before the breast, while the other hangs down different scapulars, it must receive the blessing that
an equal distance at the back. The two segments of would be attached to each of them, i. e. as many
cloth need not necessarily be equally large, various blessings as the number of scapulars it replaces.
scapulars having the segment before the breast of the For each blessing a sign of the Cross suffices. This
above dimensions while the segment at the back is medal must also be worn constantly, either about the
much smaller. The material of these two essential neck or in some other seemly manner, and with it
parts of the scapular must be of woven wool; the may be gained all the indulgences and privileges
strings or bands may be of any material, and of any of the small scapulars without exception. Only the
one colour. The colour of the segments of woollen small (not the large) scapulars may be validly re-
cloth depends on the colour of the monastic habit, placed by such medals.
which it to a certain extent represents, or on the ine
VI. The Individual Small Scapulars.— A.
mystery in honour of which it is worn. Here, how- Scapular of the Most Blessed Trinity.— The smaU
ever, it must be remarked that the so-called Brown white scapular, provided with the blue and red cross,
Scapular of the Carmelites may be black, and that is the badge of the members of the Confraternity
ot
 SCAPULAR 511 SCAPULAR
the Most Blessed Trinity. To Innocent III, who litt. ecel.", 1911, pp. 24 sqq., 85 sqq.), still its
sanctioned the Order of the Trinitarians on 28 general content remains a reliable pious tradition;
January, 1198, an angel is said to have appeared, in other words, it is credible that St. Simon Stock was
wearing a white garment and on his breast a cross, assured in a supernatural manner of the special pro-
of which the transverse
shaft was blue and the tection of the Blessed Virgin for his whole order and
longitudinal shaft red. The Trinitarians were ac- for all who should wear the Carmelite habit; that the
cordingly assigned this as their habit. When later Blessed Virgin also promised him to grant special
the sought to associate themselves more
faithful aid, especially in the hour of death, to those who
closely with their order in confraternities, the Trini- in holy fidelity wore this habit in her honour through-
tarians gave them as their outward badge the scapular out life, so that they should be preserved from hell.
described above. The red and blue cross is essential And, even though there is here no direct reference
only on the front segment of woollen cloth which to the members of the scapular confraternity, in-
hangs before the breast. Each person who joins the directly the promise is extended to all who from
Confraternity of the Blessed Trinity must be in- devotion to the Mother of God should wear her habit
vested with this scapular and must constantly wear or badge, like true Christians, until death, and be
it. The indulgences of this confraternity were last thus as it were affiliated to the Carmelite Order.
approved by a Decree of the Congregation of Indul- Heretofore no authenticated testimony has been
gences of 13 August, 1899. The General of the discovered proving that the small scapular was known
Trinitarians may communicate to other priests the from the second half of the thirteenth century and
faculty of receiving into the confraternity and of was given to the members of the Confraternity of
blessing and investing with the scapular (Beringer, Our Lady of Mt. Carmel. On the contrary there
"Die Ablasse", 13th ed., 584 sqq.; French tr., are many reasons for the view that the small scapu-
3rd ed., II, 107; cf. Baro Bonav., "Annales Ord. lar, as we now know it and in the form it has
SS. Trinit.'^ Rome, 1684, p. kxviii ad an 1598). certainly had since the sixteenth century, is of
B. The Scapular of Our Lady of Ransom {B. much later origin. Zimmerman (Mon. hist. Carmelit.,
Marks V. de Mercede redemptionis captivorum) — loc. cit.) and Saltet (loc. cit.) give very reasonable
Like the Trinitarians, the Fathers of the Order of grounds for this view. In any case, the scapular
Our Lady of Mercy for the Ransom of Prisoners was very widespread in European countries at the
give the faithful a special scapular on their entering end of the sixteenth century, as is evident from
the confraternity erected by them. The order was "La cronica Carmelitana" of the Carmelite Joseph
founded by St. Peter Nolasco (d. 1256) The scapular
. Falcone (Piacenza, 1595). In 1600 appeared at
is of white cloth, and bears on the front part, which Palermo the "Giardino Carmelitano" of the Car-
hangs over the breast, the picture of Our Lady of melite Egidio Leoindelicato da Sciacca (the approval
Ransom. The other part consists simply of a smaller is dated 1592). Towards the end the author gives,
segment of white cloth. The summary of indulgences after the formula of benediction for the Fratelli
of the confraternity was last approved by the Con- and Sorelle della Compagnia della Madonna del
gregation of Indulgences on 30 July, 1868 (Rescr. Carmine (who receive the complete habit of the order),
auth. S. C. Indulg., pp. 483 sqq., n. 36). The General the formula for the blessing of the scapular for the
of the Mercedarians communicates to other priests Devoti della Compagnia Carmelitana (pp. 239 sqq.).
the faculty of receiving into the confraternity and This is the earliest form of benediction for the small
of blessing and investing with the scapular. In scapular with which we are acquainted. It is also
the "BuUar. Ord. B. M. V. de Mercede" (Barcelona, noteworthy that the formula for the sisters con-
1696), p. 16, mention is made of a Constitution of tains no reference to the scapular, while in that for
Urban IV issued at Viterbo on 25 March, 1263, the brothers there is a special blessing for the scapular
granting afresh to the laity who wear the scapular (cf. ibid., pp. 228 sqq.).
of the order (habitum nostrum) in the world many Nevertheless, even should we admit that the small
graces and indulgences. We do no more than record scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel originated
this circumstance exactly as it is related in the even as late as the beginning of the sixteenth century,
"BuUarium" However, the encyclical could not yet the above promise, which is designated the first
have been issued from Viterbo on 25 March, 1263, for privilege of the Carmelite Scapular, remains unim-
Urban IV was at that time in Orvieto. paired. For this privilege declares nothing else than
C. The Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel is that all those who out of true veneration and love
the best known, most celebrated, and most widespread for the Blessed Virgin constantly wear the scapular
of the small scapulars. It is spoken of as "the in a spirit of fidelity and confiding faith, after they
Scapular", and the "feast of the Scapular" is that have been placed by the Church itself with this habit
of Our Lady of Mount Carmel on 16 July. It is or badge under the special protection of the Mother
probably the oldest scapular and served as the proto- of God, shall enjoy this special protection in the rnat-
type of the others. According to a pious tradition ter and crisis which most concerns them for time
the Blessed Virgin appeared to St. Simon Stock (q. and eternity. Whoever, therefore, even though he be
V.) at Cambridge, England, on Sunday, 16 July, now a sinner, wears the badge of the Mother of God
1251. In answer to his appeal for help for his op- throughout life as her faithful servant, not pre-
pressed order, she appeared to him with a scapu- sumptuously relying on the scapular as on a miracu-
lar in her hand
and said: "Take, beloved son, lous amulet, but trustfully confiding in the power
this scapular of thy order as a badge of my con-
and goodness of Mary, may securely hope that Mary
fraternity and for thee and all Carmelites a special will through her powerful and motherly intercession
sign of grace whoever
; dies in this garment, will not suf- procure for him all the necessary graces for true
fereverlasting fire. It is the sign of salvation, a, safe- conversion and for perseverance m good. Such is
guard in dangers, a pledge of peace and of the covenant' ' the meaning and importance of the first privilege
1 his tradition, however, appears in such a precise form of the Carmelite Scapular, which is wont to be ex-
tor the first time
in 1642, when the words of the Blessed pressed in the word: "Whoever wears the scapular
^'^®°
^''!'® ™
^ circular of St. Simon Stock, until death, will be preserved from hell" The second
if-^'k
which he said to have dictated to his companion,
is privilege of the scapular, otherwise known as the
secretary,and confessor, Peter Swanyngton. Although Sabbatine privilege, may be briefly defined as mean-
It has
now been sufficiently shown that this testimony ing that Mary's motherly assistance for her servants
cannot be supported in the Scapular Confraternity will continue after
by historical documents (cf.
f.„^"nmerman, "Mon. hist. Carmelit.", I, Lerins, death, and will find effect especially on Saturday
1«07, pp. 323 sqq.;
Louis Saltet m
"BuUetin de (the day consecrated to her honour), provided that
 SCAPULAR 512 SCAPULAR
the members fulfil faithfully the not easy conditions dulgences, and then raised to an arohoonfraternity
necessary for obtaining this privilege (see Sabbatinb (cf. Analeota ecolesiastica, p. 189 sq.). According
Privilege). to the statutes of the confraternity admission is
As regards the external form of the scapular, it effected by the blessing and investing with the Blue
should consist of two segments of brown woollen Scapular, the presentation of the small chaplet of
cloth: black, however, is also admissible. This the Immaculate Conception, and the enrolling of the
scapular usually bears on one side the image of our name in the register of the confraternity. However,
Lady of Mount Carmel, but neither this nor any other those who received the scapular before 18 September,
image is prescribed. The authentic list of indulgences, 1894, are not obhged to have themselves enrolled
pri\il(;ges, and indults of the Scapular Confraternity in the confraternity. Similarly, priests who may have
of Mount Carmel was last approved on 4 July, 1908, received the faculty only of blessing and investing
by the Congregation of Indulgences. It is note- with the scapular may continue to exercise it.
worthy that this summary says nothing of the above- At present priests who receive this faculty from the
mentioned first privilege; what it says of the Sab- General of the Theatines, receive simultaneously the
batine privilege is explained in the article on that faculty of admitting the faithful into the confraternity,
subject. Concerning the often miraculous protection and must forward the names of those admitted to
which Mary on account of this her badge has granted Rome or to some other canonically erected confra-
to pious members of the Scapular Confraternity in ternity of this kind (Beringer, "Die Ablasse", 13th
great perils of soul and body, there exist many rec- ed., 424 sqq.; "Les indulgences", 3rd ed., I, 560).
ords and rehable reports (some of recent times), to F. The Scapular of the Most Precious Blood. —
which it is impossible to refuse credence. Like the Priests who can receive the faithful into the Con-
rosary, this scapular has become the badge of the fraternity of the Precious Blood have also the
devout Catholic and the true servant of Mary (cf. faculty of blessing and investing these with this
op. cit.; Beringer, "Les indulgences", 3rd ed., II, red scapular (or a red girdle). No special indul-
244 sqq.). gences, however, are connected with the wearing of
D. The Blade Scapular of the Seven Dolours of this scapular, and the wearing of it is left optional
—
Mary. Shortly after Alexander IV had sanctioned to the members of the confraternity. For the scapu-
the Servite Order in 12.5.5, many of the faithful of lar it is prescribed only that it be of red cloth. The
either sex associated themselves with the order in scapular as used in Rome bears on one portion a
ecclesiastical confraternities in honour of the Seven representation of the chalice with the Precious Blood
Dolours of Mary. The members of this Confra- adored by angels; the other segment which hangs
ternity of the Seven Dolours of Mary also wore in at the back is simply a smaller portion of red cloth
later times a scapular, which, hke the habit of the (Beringer, "Die Ablasse", 13th ed., 618; "Les in-
order, had to be of black cloth. In other respects dulgences", 3rd ed., II, 161).
nothing is prescribed concerning this scapular, al- G. The Black Scapular of the Passion. It is —
though it usually bears on the front portion (over the related in the Ufe of St. Paul of the Cross that,
breast) an image of the Mother of Sorrows. This before founding the Congregation of the Passionists,
scapular must likewise be worn constantly, if one he received in apparitions the black habit of the
wishes to gain the indulgences of the confraternity. order with the badge on the breast. Later, after
The summary of indulgences was last approved by the foundation of the congregation, the Passionist
the Congregation of Indulgences on 7 March, 1888. Fathers gave the faithful who wished to associate
Priests may obtain from the General of the Servites the themselves more closely with their order a black
faculty to receive the faithful into the confraternity scapular in honour of the Passion of Christ. This
and to bless and invest with the scapular (cf Beringer,
. bears an exact repUca of the badge of the Passion-
"Die Ablasse", 13th ed., pp. 680 sqq.; "Les in- ists, namely a heart above a cross, on which is written
dulgences", 3rd ed., II, 277). For the history of the "Jesu XPI Passio" and below "sit semper in oor-
scapular consult especially Giani, "Annales Ord. dibus nostris" The other portion of the scapular,
Servorum B. Marife Virginis", III (2nd ed.), 25. hanging at the back, consists simply of a small
E. The Blue Scapular of the Immncidnle Concep- segment of black woollen cloth. At various times
tion.— The Venerable Ursula Benicasa, foundress of indulgences have been granted to the faithful who
the Order of Theatine Nuns, relates in her autobiog- wear this scapular, the summary being last approved
raphy how the habit which she and her sisters were by the Congregation of Indulgences on 10 May,
to wear in honour of the Immaculate Conception was 1877. The Superior-General of the Passionists com-
revealed to her in a vision. When Jesus Christ had municates to other priests the faculty to bless and
in return promised great favours for her order, she invest with the scapular (" Rescr. auth. S. C. Indulg.",
begged the same graces for all the faithful who should Ratisbon, 1885, pp. 571 sqq., n. 56).
devoutly wear a small sky-blue scapular in honour H. The Red Scapular of the Passion owes its origin
of the Immaculate Conception and to secure the con- to an apparition which Jesus Christ vouchsafed to a
version of sinners. Her petition having been granted, Sister of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul in 1846.
she herself disseminated such scapulars, after they Jesus Christ showed the sister a scapular, such as is
had been blessed by a priest. This devotion Ijore worn, and promised to all who should wear it on
such rich fruits that Clement X by the Brief of 30 every Friday a great increase of faith, hope, and
January, 1671, expressly granted the faculty to bless charity. The apparition having been several times
and invest with this scapular. Clement XI granted repeated, and finally in the following year reported
certain indulgences for the wearing of the scapular, to Pius IX, the latter sanctioned the scapular by a
and succeeding popes increased the number. The Rescript of 25 June, 1847, and granted the Priests
summary was approved by the Congregation of In- of the Mission (the Lazarists) the faculty of blessing
dulgences first in 1845 and finally on 26 August, the scapular and investing the faithful with it. He
18S2 (Rescr. auth. S. C. Indulg., pp. 574 sqq., n. simultaneously granted many indulgences for the
57). Only the blue woollen cloth is essential and wearing of the scapular. The Superior-General of
necessary. The scapular usually bears on one portion the Lazarists can communicate the faculty of blessing
a syrabolization of the Immaculate Conception and and investing with this scapular to other regular
on the other the name of Mary. In 1894 a con- or secular priests. The scapular and bands must
fraternity of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed both be of red woollen material. On one woollen
Virgin and Mother of God Mary was erected in the segment Jesus Christ is represented on the Cross;
Theatine Church of S. Andrea della Valle at Rome. at the foot of the Cross are the implements of the
In the same year it was endowed with various in- Passion, and about it are the words: "Holy Passion
 SCAPULAR 513 SCAPULAR

of Our Lord Jesus Christ, save us.'' On the other ments of eloth have the form of a small shield; of
are representedthe Hearts of Jesus and Mary, and these one is made of blue and the other of black
above these a cross with the inscription: "Sacred cloth, and of the bands likewise one is blue and the
Hearts of Jesus and Mary, protect us." These irn- other black. Both portions of the scapular bear the
ages also are essential to the scapular (Acta 8. Sedis, well-known representation of the Archangel St.
XXX, 748; Hilgers, "Goldenes Buchlein", 2nd ed., Michael slaying the dragon, and the inscription
pp. 192 sqq.; French tr.,
"Livre d'or", Paris, 1911, "Quis ut Deus" ("Libretto di aggregazione alia pia
pp. 164 sqq.).
Unione di S. Michele Arcangelo in S. Angelo in Pes-
Scapular of the Blessed Virgin Mary under the cheria", Rome, 1910; "Acta S. Sedis", XV, 286).
title
I.

of —
"Help of the Sick". In the Church of St. L. The Scapular of St. Benedict. — To associate
Magdalen at Rome, belonging to the Clerks Regular the faithful, who were not Oblates of St. Benedict,
of St. Camillus, a picture of the Blessed Virgin is in a certain measure with the Benedictine Order, a
specially venerated under the title of Help of the confraternity of St. Benedict was founded in the
Sick. This picture is said to have been painted by second half of the nineteenth century, at first by the
the celebrated Dominican painter, Fra Angelioo da English Congregation. Reception is effected by
Fiesole, and before it Pope St. Pius V is said to have the enrolment of the members and investment with
prayed for the victory of the Christian fleet during a, small blessed scapular of black cloth. One of the
the battle of Lepanto. This picture suggested to a segments usually has a picture of St. Benedict, but
brother of the Order of St. Camillus, Ferdinand no picture is necessary. The confraternity was en-
Vicari, the idea of founding a confraternity under the dowed with indulgences in 1882 and 1883. (Beringer,
invocation of the Mother of God for the poor sick. "Die Ablasse", 13th ed., 762 sq.; French tr., "Les
He succeeded in his plan, the confraternity being Indulgences", II, 3rd ed., 361).
canonically erected in the above-mentioned church M. The Scapular of the Mother of Good Counsel. —
on 15 June, 1860. At their reception, the members At the petition of the Augustinian monks this
are given a scapular of black woollen cloth; the por- scapular was approved and endowed with indulgences
tion over the breast is a copy of the above picture by Leo XIII in a Decree of the Congregation of Rites
of the Mother of God and at her feet Sts. Joseph and of 19-21 December, 1893. The faculty of blessing
Camillus, the two other patrons of the sick and of the and investing with the scapular belongs primarily
confraternity. On the small segment at the back is to the Augustinian monks, but the General of the
sewed a Uttle red cloth cross; although this receives Augustinians communicates this privilege to other
separate and special blessing for the sick, it does not priests. The two segments of cloth must be of white
constitute an essential portion of the scapular. The wool; though the bands are usually also white, this
scapular is the badge of the confraternity, which is not essential. The segment of cloth which hangs
received its indulgences from Pius IX and Leo XIII before the breast bears the image of the Mother of
in 1860 and 1883; these were last ratified by a Re- Good Counsel (after the well-known picture in the
script of the Congregation of Indulgences, 21 July, Augustinian church at Genazzano) with the inscrip-
1883. (Cf. the manual of the archconfraternity, tion: "Mother of Good Counsel". On the other
Rome, 1883; Seeberger, "Key to the Spiritual segment the papal arms (i. e., the tiara and the keys
Treasures", 1897, p. 214.) of Peter) with the inscription: "Son, follow her
J. The Scapular of the Immaculate Heart of counsel. Leo XIII". (Beringer, "Die Ablasse", 13th
Mary. —This
scapular originated with the Sons of ed., pp. 429 sq.; French tr., "Les indulgences",
the Immaculate Heart of Mary in 1877, and was 3rd ed., I, 567; "Acta S. Sedis", XXVI, 503).
sanctioned and endowed with indulgences by Pius —
N. The Scapular of St. Joseph. This scapular
IX on 11 May of that year. The scapular was later was approved for the Diocese of Verona by a Decree
approved by the Congregation of Rites in 1907, of the Congregation of Rites of 8 July, 1880. On 15
and its form more exactly decreed; in the same year April, 1898, Leo XIII granted to the General of the
it was assigned new indulgences. The superior- Capuchins the faculty of blessing and investing the
general of the above congregation can communicate faithful everywhere with this scapular. From the
to other priests the faculty of blessing and investing Diocese of St-Claude in France this scapular (at
with this scapular ("Acta Pontificia", Rome, March, first white) was spread by the Capuchins (of. Analecta
1911, appendix). The scapular is of white woollen ord. Min. Capuc, IX, 1893, pp. 161 sqq.); but it was
cloth: on the portion which hangs before the breast later decreed that the shape and colour of that used
is represented the burning heart of Mary, out of in Verona should be used. Nevertheless, owing to a
which grows a lily; the heart is encircled by a wreath mistake, a slight difference crept in, and it was ex-
of roses and pierced with a sword. pressly declared later by the Congregation of Indul-
K. The Scapular of St. Michael the Archangel. — gences that the scapular might be lawfully retained
While this scapular originated under Pius IX, who in the form now customary among the Capuchins.
gave it his blessing, it was first formally approved In this form, the two segments of woollen cloth are
under Leo XIII. In 1878 a confraternity in honour of a violet colour; to these are sewed two pieces of
of St. Michael the Archangel was founded in the gold-coloured material (linen, cotton, etc.) of equal
Church of St. Eustachius at Rome, and in the follow- size. On the gold-coloured segment before the breast
ing year in the Church of Sant' Angelo in Pesoheria is the representation of St. Joseph with the Child
(Sancti Angeli in foro Piscium). In 1880 Leo XIII Jesus on his right arm and the staff of lilies in his
raised it to the rank of an archconfraternity, which left hand, while underneath is the inscription: "St.
was expressly called the Archconfraternity of the Joseph, patron of the Church, pray for us." On the
Scapular of St. Michael. At first (1878) the con- other gold-coloured segment is represented the papal
fraternity received indulgences from Leo XIII for crown, the tiara, above it the dove as the symbol
seven years; the summary of indulgences of the of the Holy Ghost, and underneath it a cross and the
nous Association of St. Michael was last approved keys of Peter with the inscription: "Spiritus Domini
for ever by a Decree
of the Congregation of Indul- ductor eius" (The Spirit of the Lord is his Guide).
gences, 28 March, 1903. The scapular is so associated The bands are white. This scapular having been ap-
with the confraternity that each member is invested proved by the Congregation of Rites on 18 April,
with it. The formula for blessing and investing 1893, various indulgences were granted for all the
with the scapular, given in the Rituale Romanum, faithful who wear it by a, Rescript of the Congrega-
Was first approved by the Congregation of Rites tion of Indulgences, 8 June, 1893 ("Acta S. Sedis",
on 23 August, XXXIV, 317; Beringer, "Les indulgences", 3rd
1883. In outward form this scapular
K different from the others, inasmuch as the two seg- ed., I, 569 sqq.).
XIII.— 33
 SCARAMELLI 514 SCARAMPI
O. The Scapular of the Most Sacred Heart of Zimmerman, The Origin of the Scapular in Irish Eccl. Rec
Jesus. — The constant wearing of a small picture of XV (Dublin, 1904), 142-,5.3. 206-34, 331-51; Putzer, B. V. U.
de M. Carmeli in Am. Eccl. Rec., XIV (Philadelphia, l,S9(i),
the Hourt of Jesus was already recommended by 345-52 Thurston, Scapular Tradition and Its Defenders in Irish
;

Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoquo, who herself made Eccl. Rec, XXIX (Dublin. 1911), 492; Lambing, Sacramenlals
of the Catholic Church (Xew York, 1892); Beringer, Die .ibUase
and distributed them. They were made of a small (Paderborn, 1900), Fr.tr. (Paris, 1905); Ousterlau, Thr .Sig-
piece of white woollen cloth, on which was embroid- nificance and Use of the Scapular in Irish Eccl. Rec, X
(Dublin
ered or sewed in red a picture of the Heart of Jesus. 1901), 311-29.
This badge was especially employed during the plague Joseph Hilgers.
at Marseilles as a protection against the pest. Dur-
ing the terrors of the French Revolution it also Scaramelli, Giovanni Battista, ascetieal writer,
served as a safeguard for the pious faithful. Al- b. at Rome, 24 Nov., 1687; d. at Macerata, 11 Jan.,'
though this badge is often called a scapular, it is not 1752. He entered the Society of Jesus 21 Sept., 1706.
really such; consequently the conditions governing He devoted himself to preaching for fifteen years, and
scapulars do not apply to it. It was only in 1872 long fulfilled the duties of the sacred ministry. He
that an indulgence was granted by Pius IX for the wrote the following works: (1) "Vita di Suor Maria
wearing of this badge (Hilgers, "Goldenes Buchlein", Crocifissa Satellico Monaca francescana nel mo-
2nd ed., Ratisbon, 1911, pp. 1S2 sqq.; "Livre d'or", nastero di monte Nuovo", Venice, 1750; 5th ed.,
Paris, 1911, pp. 155 sqq.). A real scapular of the revised and corrected, Rome, 1819; (2) "Discerni-
Sacred Heart was first introduced in France in 1876, mento de' spiriti per il retto regolamento delle azione
when it was approved by Decree of the Congregation proprie ed altrui. Operetta utile specialemente ai
of Rites and a special formula for blessing and in- Direttori delle anime", Venice, 1753; 7th ed., Rome,
vesting with it appointed 4 April, 1900. This scapu- 1866; Sp. tr., Madrid, 1804; Ger. tr., Mainz, 1861;
lar consists of two segments of white woollen cloth, (3) "Direttorio ascetico in cui s' insegna il modo di
connected in the usual manner by two strings; one condurre 1' Anime per vie ordinarie della grazia alia
segment boars the usual representation of the Sacred perfezione Christiana, indirizzato ai direttori delle
Heart, while the other bears that of the Blessed A'irgin Anime", Naples, 1752, still reprinted; tr. and ed.
uniler the title of Mother of Mercy. By a Brief of 10 Eyre, "The Directorium Asceticum", with preface
July, Leo XIII granted many indulgences for the by Cardinal Manning, Dublin and London, 1870-71;
pious wearing of this scapular (Hilgers, "Livre d'or new revised ed., London, 1879-81; Lat. tr., Brixen,
du Coeur de Jijsus", Paris, 1911, pp. 158 sqq.; "Acta 1770; Louvain, 1848; Ger. tr., Augsburg, 1778;
S. Sedis", XXXII, 630). Sp., Madrid, 1806; Fr., Paris, 1854; still reprinted.
P. The Scapular of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus In this work the author devotes four treatises to the
—
and Mary. This is very similar to the Red Scapular study of (a) the means and helps necessary to attain
Christian perfection; (b) the obstacles which hinder
of the Passion. Like the Scapular of the Heart of
Jesus, it was approved, at the request of the Arch- us and the way to surmount them; (c) the virtues
bishop of Marseilles, by a Decree of the Congregation to be acquired (cardinal virtues, virtues of religion,
of Rites, 4 April, 1900. The two segments of cloth those opposed to the capital sins) (d) the theological
;

are of white wool; one bears the image of the Heart of virtues and especially charity, which is the essence of
Jesus with the well-known emblems and also the Christian perfection. His manner of dividing his
Heart of Mary pierced with a sword, underneath subject and his method are frankly traditional and
being the implements of the Passion; the other seg- intellectualist; his unoriginal, but, as it were, classic
ment has a small cross of red material. Indul- doctrines are proved by reason and authority, while
gences were granted for the wearing of this scapular the study of scruples at the end of the second treatise
in 1901, and increased by Pius X
in 1906 (Hilgers, retains all its value after the researches of modern
"Li\Te d'or du Cceur de Jesus", 170 sqq.). The psychologists.
scapular owes its origin and spread to the Congre- (4) "II direttorio mistico indirizzato a' direttori di
gation of the Daughters of the Sacred Heart, quelle anime che Iddio conduce per la via della con-
founded at Antwerp in 1873 (Acta S. Sedis, XXXII, templazione" (Venice, 1754; Lat. tr., Brixen, 1764;
633 sq.). Louvain, 1857; Sp., Madrid, 1817; Ger., Ratisbon
—
Q. The Scapular of St. Dominic. On 23 Novem- and Mainz, 1855-56; Fr., Paris, 1865; Polish, War-
ber, 11103, this scapular was endowed by Pius X with saw, 1888; Itahan abridgement in the form of dia-
an indulgence of 300 days in favour of all the faithful logues by Santoni, Rome, 1776; new abridgement,
who wear it, as often as they devoutly kiss it. The Rome, 1895) . This work completes the method of
scapular is thereby also approved. It is made of spiritual direction the first part of which is set forth
white wool, but the bands, as in the case of so many in the preceding work. Here likewise the doctrine
other scapulars, may be of another material. No is intellectualist and strongly opposed to the purely

image is prescribed for the scapular, but the scapular sentimental forms of mysticism such as Quietism.
given in the house of the Dominican General at Rome (o) "Dottrina di S. Giovanni della Croce compresa
has on one side the picture of St. Dominic kneeling con metodo chiaro in tre brevi trattati nel prime dei
before the crucifix and on the other that of B. Regi- quali si contiene la 'Salita del Monte', nel secondo
nald receiving the habit from the hands of the Alother le 'Notti oscure', nel terzo 'I'Esercizio di Amore' e la
of God. The General of the Dominicans communi- 'Fiamma di Amor vivo' " (Lucca, 1860).
cates to other priests the faculty of blessing and in- SoMMEKVOGEL, Bib. de la comp. de Jesus (Brussels, 1896),
suppl. (Brussels, 1900); Eludes religieuses, published by the
vesting with the scapular ("The Booklet of the Fathers of the Society of Jesus (1893), bibl., p. 321.
Faculties", Rome, 1909; cf. Beringer, " Die Ablasse", Henry Ollion.
432; "Les indulgences", 711).
I,
R. Finally, to complete this article, we must men- Scarampi, Pierfkancesco, Oratorian, papal
tion the Scapular of the Holy Face. It bears on a lenvoy, b, of a noble and ancient family in the Duchy
piece of white cloth the well-known Roman picture of Monferrato, Piedmont, 1596; d. at Rome, 14 Oct.,
connected with St \'eronica. This scapular is worn
.
1656. He was de.stined by his parents for the mih-
by the members of the Archconfratemity of the Holy tary career, but during a visit to the Roman Court
Face. The members can, howe^er, wear the picture he "felt called to the religious state. After much
on a medal or cross, in place of the scapular. The praver and with the advice of his confessor, he entered
wearing of this picture is simply one of the pious the Roman Oratory of St. PhiUp Neri on 4 November,
practices of the archconfratemity, without any special 1636. At the request of Fr. Luke Wadding, the agent
indulgences (Berineer, "Les Indulgences", 11,150; at Rome for the Irish Confederates, Urban VIII, by
Hilgers, " Manuel des Indulgences", p. 317). Brief dated 18 April, 1643, sent Fr. Scarampi to assist
 SCARISBRICK 515 SCARLATTI
at the Supreme Council of the Confederation. At the by the bishops, clergy, and laity, many comparing his
same time the pope addressed letters to the arch- departure to that of St. Paul from Miletus. All were
bishops and bishops of Ireland and also to the mem- in tears. He was accompanied by five Irish youths
bers of the Supreme Council, telling them that in destined for the priesthood, whom he wished to edu-
order to show his great love and admiration for the cate and support at his own expense at Rome. Among
Irish people he had decided to send to their aid Fr. these youths was Oliver Plunket, the martyr Arch-
Scarampi, a man of noble birth and eminent for his bishop of Armagh. On his arrival at Rome he was
virtues and great administrative abilities. He told thanked and praised by the pope for the great work he
them to place full confidence in him as his repres(^nta- had done in Ireland. When the plague broke out in
tive and give him all help in the fulfilment of his duties. Rome in 1656, he asked to be allowed to attend the
He was received by the Irish CathoUcs as an angel sick mthe lazaretto. He caught the sickness and died.
from heaven. Wherever he went he was met by the By special permission he was buried in the Basilica
bishops, clergy, and nobility. He was received with of KS. Nereus and Achilleus on the Appian Way,
military honours and firing of canon. On his arrival the titular church of Cardinal Baronius. In the
in Kilkenny he immediately saw that the danger that lazaretto he wrote a most touching letter to Oliver
threatened the existence of the Confederation was dis- Plunket. Benedict XIV commanded the Master of
sension amongst its members. He made an earnest the Sacred Palace to make known to the Fathers of
appeal to the Council to avoid all dissension and to the Oratory that the title of Venerable was to be
make no compromise with the enemies of their religion given to Fr. Scarampi when writing about him and
and country. Richard Bellings, Secretary of the on his pictures.
Council, addressed to Fr. Scarampi a statement of the Haraldus, Vita L.Waddingi (Rome. 1602) Rinuccini, Nun-
reasons in favour of a cessation of hostiUties. Fr.
ziatura m Irlanda (Florence, 1844)
;

Ahinqhi, Memorie Storiche

;

delta vita del Yen. P. F. Scarampi (Rome, 1744); Hwerty Hist

Scarampi immediately gave a noble answer showing of Ireland (Dublin, 1860); Brenan, Bed. Hist, of Ireland (Dub-
why the war should be continued, and that the Enghsh lin, 1864); Meehan, Confederation of Kilkenny (Dublin,
1882);
Rise and Fall of I. F. Monasteries (Dublin, 1877) Moran, Spicile-
desired the cessa- ;

gium Ossoriense (Dublin, 1874) Gilbbut, Contemporary Hi^t. of

;

tion of hostihties Affairs in Ireland (Dublin, 1879); Bellings, Hist, of the Irish
solely to relieve Confederation (Dublin, 1882); D'Alton, History of Ireland
their present ne- (London, 1911); Gardiner, History of the Cicil War 1642-49
(London, 1910); MS. Life of F. Scarampi and other MSS. in
cessities. The Vallicellana Library, Rome; Barberini MSS. in Vatican Li-
bishops and the brary; MSS. in Franciscan Library, Dublin.
Supreme Council Gregory Cleary.
thanked the pope Scarisbrick, Edward (Neville). See Neville,
for having sent to
Edmund.
their aid a person
of such exemplary Scarlatti, Alessandro,
b. in Sicily, either at
life and excellent Trapani or at Palermo, in 1659; d. at Naples 24 Oct.,
abilities of mind, 1725; buried there in the musicians' chapel of the
and rejoiced at Church of Montesanto. On his tombstone he is
his presence called musices instaurator maximus, which title he
amongst them. deserves in that he originated the classical style of
The author of the eighteenth century, and gave a high development
'
' Contemporary to concerted instrumental music. The scenes of his
History of Affairs activity were alternately Rome and Naples. His
in Ireland" says first opera (1679), "Gli Equivoci nel Sembiante"
that Fr. Scarampi was performed at the palace of Queen Christina of Swe-
was a "verie apt den, who lived in Rome after her abdication and con-
and understand- version to the Catholic Church. Five years later we
inge man, and find him in Naples, where he obtained the position
was receaved with much honour. This man in a shorte of Maestro di capella to the Viceroy. He remained
tune became soe learned in the petegrees of the re- there for about eighteen years. After a short stay
spective Irish families of Ireland, that it proved his witt at Florence, he returned to Rome (1702), where he
and diligence, and allsoe soe well obsearved all the was made assistant maestro and afterwards maestro
proceedings of both ancient and recent Irish, that to at S. Maria Maggiore. In 1708 or 1709 he returned
an ince, he knewe whoe best and worst beheaved to Naples and lived there for ten years. He lived
himself in the whole kingdome. in Rome from 1718 until 1721, thence proceeding to
The Supreme Council decided to supplicate the pope Naples, where he died in 1725. His fertility of pro-
to raise Fr. Scarampi to the dignity of archbishop duction is astonishing. He wrote more than a hun-
and
Apostohc nuncio, and the bishops of Ireland entreated dred operas (of which less than half are extant).
him to accept the Archbishopric of Tuam, which was It is said that he composed two hundred Masses,
vacant at the time. He decUned all honours and re- which is questionable, as but few survived him; he
tused to walk under the canopy prepared left several Oratorios, the best of which are "Agar
for him in
Watertord. He was present with the Confederate ed Ismaele", "La Vergine addolorata", and "S.
lorces at the siege of Dunoannon,
and when the fort Filippo Neri"; many motets and innumerable
was taken on the eve of St. Patrick, he ordered a chamber - cantatas and serenatas. Moreover he
cnapel to be immediately erected in honour of the shows great capacity in his compositions for the
saint and celebrated
the first Mass. On 5 May, 1()45, organ, the cembalo, and other instruments. Not all
be was recalled to Rome
by Innocent X. In taking his religious music is for liturgical use; but many of
leave of the General
Assembly, he thank(«l all the his compositions, although in his days the Pales-
members for their kindness to him, and again urged trinian-style was fast declining, are written in severe
tbem to be firmly united. and noble polyphony. We may quote here his
The President of the
Assembly, after referring to all the fatigues that Fr. mass for Cardinal Ottoboni (edited by Proske),
scarampi had endured for the Irish cause, said "that his "Missa ad usum Cappellce Pontificise" (recently
?s long as the
name of the Catholic reUgion remained found by GiuUo Bas in the library of the Academy of
5 ' ^° ^""^S would the name of Scarampi be S. Cecilia at Rome, and published by L. Schwann at
"ff
anectionately remembered and cherished." After Dilsseldorf), his famous "Tu es Petrus", performed
receiving the Apostolic
nuncio, Rinuccini, he set out on in Paris by the Roman singers at the coronation of
JUS journey
to Rome. He was followed to the ship Napoleon I (printed by Ricordi of Milan).
 SCARRON 516 SCEPTICISM
His great distinction in the musical world was odd characters that Moliere borrowed. He achieved a
to have laid the foundation for the new style, after- lasting reputation by his burlesque productinns, "Le
wards brought to perfection by the most famous Typhon" (l(i44), and "Le Virgile travesti" (1648-
composers, not only of the Neapolitan school, which 1652), in which he displayed all the resources of his
was in great part formed by his influence (Leo, humour. The "Roman comique" (1649-1657), who,s(<
Durante, Pergolcsi), but also of Germany (Haydn, realistic presentation of customs and manners was imi-
Mozart, and Beethoven). Domenico Alessandro's tated by later novelists, is not far from being a master-
eldest son was born at Naples 2fj Oct., 16S5 (in the piece. There is no certainty about the place where
baptismal register he is called Giuseppe Domenico), Scarron's remains were taken, but it is now belie\'ed
and died in IT.'j". The esteem in which Alessandro that he was buried in the church of Saint-Gervais.
was held, may be seen from the fact that Domenico's MORILLOT, Scarron et le genre burlesque (Paris, 18.SN) Idem,
;