CHE 512 PROCESS DYNAMICS, OPTIMIZATION AND CONTROL II OUTLINE

Week Date Topic

1 12/06-16/06 Sensors and Transducers; Measurement of and signal transmission for
pressure
2 19/06-23/06 Measurement of and signal transmission for temperature
3 26/06-30/01 Measurement of and signal transmission for flow rate and levels
4 03/07-07/07 Programmable controllers.
5 10/07-14/07 Computer aided control of Chemical process plant.
6 17/07-21/07 Distributed control systems
7 24/07-28/07 Distributed control systems continued
8 31/07-04/08 Intelligent controllers and Actuators
9 07/08-11/08 Neural Networks
10 14/08-14/08 Revision And Continuous Assessment Test

Recommended Textbooks

• J. F. Richardson and D. G. Peacock, Chemical Engineering, Volume 3, Butterworth-

Heinemann, 3rd Edition, Oxford, 2006.
• W. L. Luyben, Process Modeling, Simulation and Control For Chemical Engineers,
McGraw Hill inc., 2nd Edition, New York, 1990.
• T. E. Martin, Process Control: Designing Processes and Control for Dynamic
Performance, McGraw Hill Inc., 1st Edition, New York, 1995
• D.E. Seborg, T.F. Edgar, D.A. Mellichamp, Process Dynamics and Control. 3rd Edition,
Wiley, NJ, 2009.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years the performance requirements for process plants have become increasingly
difficult to satisfy. Stronger competition, tougher environmental and safety regulations, and
rapidly changing economic conditions have been key factors in tightening product quality
specifications. A further complication is that modern plants have become more difficult to
operate because of the trend toward complex and highly integrated processes. For such plants, it
is difficult to prevent disturbances from propagating from one unit to other interconnected units.

In view of the increased emphasis placed on safe, efficient plant operation, it is only natural that
the subject of process control has become increasingly important in recent years. Without
computer-based process control systems it would be impossible to operate modern plants safely
and profitably while satisfying product quality and environmental requirements. Thus, it is
important for chemical engineers to have an understanding of both the theory and practice of
process control.

The two main subjects of interest in this course are process dynamics and process control. The
term process dynamics refers to unsteady-state (or transient) process behaviour. By contrast,
most of the chemical engineering curricula emphasize steady-state and equilibrium conditions in
such courses as material and energy balances, thermodynamics, and transport phenomena. But
process dynamics are also very important. Transient operation occurs during important situations
such as start-ups and shutdowns, unusual process disturbances, and planned transitions from one
product grade to another.

The primary objective of process control is to maintain a process at the desired operating
conditions, safely and efficiently, while satisfying environmental and product quality
requirements. The subject of process control is concerned with how to achieve these goals. In
large-scale, integrated processing plants such as oil refineries or ethylene plants, thousands of
process variables such as compositions, temperatures, and pressures are measured and must be
controlled. Fortunately, large numbers of process variables (mainly flow rates) can usually be
manipulated for this purpose. Feedback control systems compare measurements with their
desired values and then adjust the manipulated variables accordingly.

As an introduction to the subject, we consider representative process control problems in several

industries.

REPRESENTATIVE PROCESS CONTROL PROBLEMS

The foundation of process control is process understanding. Thus, we begin this section with a
basic question: what is a process? For our purposes, a brief definition is appropriate:

Process: The conversion of feed materials to products using chemical and physical
operations. In practice, the term process tends to be used for both the processing
operation and the processing equipment.

Note that this definition applies to three types of common processes: continuous, batch, and
semi-batch. Next, we consider representative processes and briefly summarize key control issues

A process control problem is characterized by identifying three important types of process

variables:

 Controlled variables (CVs): The process variables that are controlled. The desired value
of a controlled variable is referred to as its set point.
 Manipulated variables (MVs): The process variables that can be adjusted in order to
keep the controlled variables at or near their set points. Typically, the manipulated
variables are flow rates.
 Disturbance variables (DVs): Process variables that affect the controlled variables but
cannot be manipulated. Disturbances generally are related to changes in the operating
environment of the process: for example, its feed conditions or ambient temperature.
Some disturbance variables can be measured on-line, but many cannot.

The specification of CVs, MVs, and DVs is a critical step in developing a control system. The
selections should be based on process knowledge, experience, and control objectives.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESS CONTROL STRATEGIES

A controller is a system designed to regulate a given process. Process typically obeys physical
and chemical conservation laws; Controller obeys laws of mathematics and logic (sometimes
intelligent). For example, when riding a bicycle or driving a car, the controller is human being..

Feed back control strategy: The distinguishing feature of feedback control is that the controlled
variable is measured, and that the measurement is used to adjust the manipulated variable. For
feedback control, the disturbance variable is not measured.

It is important to make a distinction between negative feed back and positive feed back. In the
engineering literature, negative feedback refers to the desirable situation in which the corrective
action taken by the controller forces the controlled variable toward the set point. On the other
hand, when positive feedback occurs, the controller makes things worse by forcing the controlled
variable farther away from the set point.

An important advantage of feedback control is that corrective action occurs regardless of the
source of the disturbance. Its ability to handle disturbances of unknown origin is a major reason
why feedback control is the dominant process control strategy. Another important advantage is
that feed back control reduces the sensitivity of the controlled variable to unmeasured
disturbances and process changes. However, feedback control does have a fundamental
limitation: no corrective action is taken until after the disturbance has upset the process, that is,
until after the controlled variable deviates from the set point.

Note: most control systems are feedback control systems

Feed forward control strategy: The distinguishing feature of feed forward control is that the
disturbance variable is measured, but the controlled variable is not; it is used to remove the effect
of
measurable disturbances .The important advantage of feed forward control is that corrective
action is taken before the controlled variable deviates from the set point. Ideally, the corrective
action will cancel the effects of the disturbance so that the controlled variable is not affected by
the disturbance. Although ideal cancelation is generally not possible, feed forward control can
significantly reduce the effects of measured disturbances.

Feed-forward control has three significant disadvantages: (i) the disturbance variable must be
measured (or accurately estimated), (ii) no corrective action is taken for unmeasured
disturbances, and (iii) a process model is required.

In industrial applications it is generally uneconomical to attempt to measure all potential

disturbances. A more practical approach is to use a combined feed-forward-feedback control
system, in which feedback control provides corrective action for unmeasured disturbances, while
feed-forward control reacts to eliminate measured disturbances before the controlled variable is
upset. Consequently, in industrial applications feed-forward control is normally used in
combination with feedback control.

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

The operation of complex industrial plants would be difficult, if not impossible, without the
measurement and control of critical process variables. Large plants typically have hundreds or
thousands of process variables that are repetitively measured on-line every few seconds or
minutes. In addition, important product properties are measured in quality control laboratories
less frequently-e.g., once per hour, once an eight-hour shift, or daily. Consequently, the design
and maintenance of accurate, reliable measurement systems is a critical aspect of process control.
The lack of a reliable, cost-effective on-line sensor can be a key limitation on the effectiveness of
a process control system.

A physical variable is measured by a sensor which produces a physical response (e.g., electrical
or mechanical) that is related to the value of the process variable. For example, in the stirred-tank
heating system, the thermocouple generates a millivolt electrical signal that increases as the
temperature of the liquid increases. However, for this temperature measurement to be used in the
control calculations the millivolt level signal must be converted to an appropriate voltage or
current signal in a standard input range for the controller; this conversion is done by a
transmitter.

Figure 1: A controller/process interface

It is often necessary to convert an instrumentation signal from one form to another. A device that
performs this conversion is referred to as a transducer. One common application is when the
controller output signal is a current signal and the final control element is a pneumatic control
valve. The required conversion is performed by a current-to-pressure (I/P) transducer. Voltage-
to-pressure (E/P) transducers are also quite common.
A transmitter usually converts the sensor output to a signal level appropriate for input to a
controller, such as 4 to 20 mA. Transmitters are generally designed to be direct acting; that is, the
output signal increases as the measured variable increases. In addition, most commercial
transmitters have an adjustable input range (or span). For example, a temperature transmitter
might be adjusted so that the input range of a platinum resistance element (the sensor) is 50 to
150 oC. In this case, the following correspondence is obtained:

Input Output
50 OC 4 mA
150 OC 20 mA

This instrument (transducer) has a lower limit or zero of 50 OC and a range or span of 100 OC.
note that the transmitter is designed for a specific type of sensor; hence the zero and span of the
overall sensor/transmitter are adjustable.

The principal controlled variables in process control systems comprise temperature, pressure,
flow-rate, composition and liquid level.

SENSORS

The main categories of measurements used in process control are temperature, pressure, flow
rate, liquid level, and composition. Table 1 lists sensor options for each of these five categories.

Measuring Device Selection Criteria

The selection of a measurement device should consider the following factors:

1. Measurement range (span): The required measurement range for the process variable must
lie entirely within the instrument's range of performance.

2. Performance: Depending on the application, accuracy, repeatability, or some other measure

of performance is appropriate. For closed-loop control, speed of response is also important.

3. Reliability: Manufacturers provide baseline conditions. Previous experience with the

measurement device is very important.

4. Materials of construction: The instrument may need to withstand high temperatures, high
pressures, and corrosive and abrasive environments. For some applications, seals or purges may
be necessary.

5. Prior use: For the first installation of a specific measurement device at a site, training of
maintenance personnel and purchases of spare parts might be necessary.
6. Potential for releasing process materials to the environment: Preventing exposure to
fugitive emissions for maintenance personnel is important when the process fluid is corrosive or
toxic. Sterility in bioprocesses must be maintained.

7. Electrical classification: If the sensor is not inherently compatible with possible exposure to
hazards, suitable enclosures must be purchased and included in the installation costs.

8. Invasive or non-invasive: The insertion of a probe (invasive) can cause fouling, which leads
to inaccurate measurements. Probe location must be selected carefully to ensure measurement
accuracy and minimize fouling.

Note

i. Precision is defined as the ability of the instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings
within a given accuracy. For example, if a particular transducer is subjected to an accurately
known input and if the repeated read outs of the instrument lie within say ± 1 %, then the
precision or alternatively the precision error of the instrument would be stated as ± 1%. Thus, a
highly precise instrument is one that gives the same output information, for a given input
information when the reading is repeated a large number of times. Precision of an instrument is
in fact, dependent on the repeatability.

ii. Accuracy of a measuring system is defined as the closeness of the instrument output to the
true value of the measured quantity. It is also specified as the percentage deviation or inaccuracy
of the measurement from the true value. Accuracy of the instrument mainly depends on the
inherent limitations of the instrument as well as on the shortcomings in the measurement process.

Table 1 :On-line Measurement options for Process Control

Temperature Flow Pressure Level

Thermocouple Orifice Liquid column Float-activated
Resistance Temperature Venturi Elastic element -chain gauge
detector (RTD) Rotametre -bourdon tube Lever
Filled system Turbine - bellows - Magnetically coupled
thermometer Vortex-shedding - diaphragm Head devices
Bimetal thermometer Ultrasonic Strain gauges -bubble tube
Pyrometer Magnetic Piezoresistive Electrical (conductivity)
-Total radiation Thermal mass transducers Radiation
-Photoelectric Coriolis Piezoelectric Radar
- ratio Target transducers
Laser Optical fibre
Surface acoustic wave
Semiconductor
 PRESSURE SENSORS

There are three types of pressure measurements:

1. Absolute
pressure
:
atmospheric
pressure
plus
gauge
pressure.


2. Gauge
Pressure
:
absolute
pressure
minus
atmospheric
pressure.

3. Differential
Pressure
:
pressure
difference
between
two
locations.


There are various types of pressure sensors that are available in the market today for use in
industry. Each functions best in a certain type of situation.

PRESSURE SENSOR SELECTION CRITERIA

In order for a pressure controlled system to function properly and cost-effectively, it is important
that the pressure sensor used be able to give accurate and precise readings as needed for a long
period of time without need for maintenance or replacement while enduring the conditions of the
system. Several factors influence the suitability of a particular pressure sensor, these include the:

- The process

- environmental conditions of the system

- pressure range of the process

- level of precision and sensitivity required in measurements made.

i. The Process

The pressure sensing element (elastic element) will be exposed to the materials used in the
process; therefore materials which might react with the process substances or degrade in
corrosive media are unsuitable for use in the sensor. Diaphragms are optimal for very harsh
environments.

ii. Environmental Conditions of the system

The environment (as in the system -- pipes, vibrations, temperature, etc.) in which the process is
carried out also needs to be considered when choosing a suitable pressure sensor. Corrosive
environments, heavy vibrations in the piping units, or extreme temperatures would mean that the
sensors would have to have an added level of protection. Sealed, strong casing materials with
interior liquid containing glycerine or silicone are often used to encase the internal components
of the sensor (not including the sensing element), protecting them from very harsh, corrosive
environments or frequent vibrations.
iii. Pressure
Range of process

Most processes operate within a certain pressure range. Because different pressure sensors work
optimally in different pressure ranges, there is a need to choose pressure gauges which are able
to function well in the range dictated by the process.

Iv . Level of precision and sensitivity required in measurements made

Different processes require different levels of precision and accuracy. In general, the more
precise the sensor, the more expensive it is, thus it is economically viable to choose sensors that
are able to satisfy the precision desired. There is also a compromise between precision and the
ability to detect pressure changes quickly in sensors; hence in processes in which the pressure is
highly variable over short periods of time, it is unadvisable to use sensors which take a lot of
time to give accurate pressure readings, although they might be able to give precise pressure
values.

PRESSURE
MEASURING
METHODS

Several pressure measuring methods have been developed and utilized; these methods include
visual inspection of the height of liquid in a column, elastic distortion, and electrical methods.

i. Height of Liquid in Column

The height of a liquid with known density is used to measure pressure. Using the equation P =
ρgh, the gauge pressure can be easily calculated. These types of pressure measuring devices are
usually called manometers. Units of length may be used to measure the height of the liquid in the
column as well as calibrated pressure units. Typically water or mercury is used as the liquid
within these columns. Water is used when you desire greater sensitivity (its density is much less
than liquid mercury, so its height will vary more with a pressure change). Mercury is used when
you desire higher pressure measurements and not as great sensitivity.

ii. Elastic
Distortion

This pressure measuring method is based on the idea that deformation of an elastic material is
directly proportional to the pressure being measured. There are mainly three sensor types that are
used in this method of measuring pressure: Bourdon-tubes, diaphragms and bellows.

iii. Electrical
Methods

Electrical methods used for measuring pressure utilize the idea that dimensional changes in a
wire affect the electrical resistance to the conductor. These devices that use the change in
resistance of the wire are called strain gauges. Other electrical sensors include capacitive sensors,
inductive pressure transducers, reluctive pressure transducers, potentiometric transducers,
piezoresistive transducers and piezoelectric sensors.
TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSORS

There are many different pressure sensors to choose from when considering which is most
suitable for a given process, but they can generally be placed into a few categories, namely
elastic sensors, electrical transducers, differential pressure cells and vacuum pressure sensors.

1) ELASTIC
SENSORS

Most fluid pressure sensors are of the elastic type, where the fluid is enclosed in a small
compartment with at least one elastic wall. The pressure reading is thereby determined by
measuring the deflection of this elastic wall, resulting in either a direct readout through suitable
linkages, or a transduced electrical signal. Elastic pressure sensors are sensitive; they are
commonly fragile and susceptible to vibration, however. In addition, they tend to be much more
expensive than manometres, and are therefore preferentially used for transmitting measured data
and measuring pressure differences. A wide variety of flexible elements could conceivably be
used for elastic pressure sensors; the majority of devices use some form of a Bourdon tube,
bellows, or diaphragm.

i. Bourdon
Tube
Gauges: The principle behind all Bourdon tubes is that an increase in

pressure on the inside of the tube in comparison to the outside pressure causes the oval or flat
shaped cross-section of the tube to try to achieve a circular shape. This phenomenon causes the
tube to either straighten itself out in the c-type or spiral cases or to unwind itself for the twisted
and helical varieties. This change can then be measured with an analog or digital metre
connected to the tube. Tube materials can be changed accordingly to suit the required process
conditions. Bourdon tubes can operate under a pressure range from 0.1-700 MPa. They are also
portable and require little maintenance; however, they can only be used for static measurements
and have low accuracy.

ii. Bellows: Bellows elements are cylindrical in shape and contain many folds. They deform
in the axial direction (compression or expansion) with changes in pressure. The pressure that
needs to be measured is applied to one side of the bellows (either inside or outside) while
atmospheric pressure is on the opposite side. Absolute pressure can be measured by evacuating
either the exterior or interior space of the bellows and then measuring the pressure at the opposite
side. Bellows can only be connected to an on/off switch or potentiometre and are used at low
pressures, <0.2 MPa with a sensitivity of 0.0012 MPa.

iii. Diaphragms: Diaphragm elements are made of circular metal discs or flexible elements
such as rubber, plastic or leather. The material from which the diaphragm is made depends on
whether it takes advantage of the elastic nature of the material, or is opposed by another element
(such as a spring). Diaphragms made of metal discs utilize elastic characteristics, while those
made of flexible elements are opposed by another elastic element. These diaphragm sensors are
very sensitive to rapid pressure changes. The metal type can measure a maximum pressure of
approximately 7 MPa, while the elastic type is used for measuring extremely low pressures (.1
kPa - 2.2 MPa) when connected to capacitative transducers or differential pressure sensors.
Examples of diaphragms include flat, corrugated and capsule diaphragms. As previously noted,
diaphragms are very sensitive (0.01 MPa) . They can measure fractional pressure differences
over a very minute range (say, inches of water) (elastic type) or large pressure differences
(approaching a maximum range of 207 kPa) (metal type).
Diaphragm elements are very versatile -- they are commonly used in very corrosive
environments or with extreme over-pressure situations.

2) ELECTRIC
SENSORS

Sensors today are not necessarily only connected to a gauge metre needle pointer to indicate
pressure, but may also serve to convert the process pressure into an electrical or pneumatic
signal, which can be transmitted to a control room from which the pressure reading is
determined. Electric sensors take the given mechanics of an elastic sensor and incorporate an
electrical component, thus heightening the sensitivity and increasing the amount of instances in
which you could utilize the sensor. The types of pressure transducers are capacitive, inductive,
reluctive, piezoelectric, strain gauge, vibrating element, and potentiometric.

i. Capacitive: A capacitive sensor consists of a parallel plate capacitors coupled with a

diaphragm that is usually metal and exposed to the process pressure on one side and the
reference
pressure on the other side. Electrodes are attached to the diaphragm and are charged by a
high frequency oscillator. The electrodes sense any movement of the diaphragm and this
changes the capacitance. The change of the capacitance is detected by an attached circuit
which then outputs a voltage according to the pressure change. This type of sensor can be
operated in the range of 2.5 Pa – 70 MPa with a sensitivity of 0.07 MPa.

ii Inductive: Inductive pressure sensors are coupled with a diaphragm or a Bourdon tube. A
ferromagnetic core is attached to the elastic element and has one primary and two secondary
windings. A current is charged to the primary winding. When the core is centered then the same
voltage will be induced to the two secondary windings. When the core moves with a pressure
change, the voltage ratio between the two secondary windings changes. The difference between
the voltages is proportional to the change in pressure. The range of pressure in which this sensor
may be used is determined by an associated elastic element but falls in the range of 250 Pa - 70
MPa .

iii. Reluctive sensor: Reluctive pressure sensors also charge a ferromagnetic core. When the
pressure changes, the flexible element moves a ferromagnetic plate, leading to a change in the
magnetic flux of the circuit which can be measured. The situations in which one would use a
reluctive electric element is one in which the inductive sensor does not generate a precise enough
measurement. The pressure range is 250 Pa - 70 MPa with a sensitivity of 0.35 MPa.

iv. Piezoelectric sensors: Piezoelectric sensors use a crystal sensor. When pressure is applied to
the crystal, it deforms and a small electric charge is created. The measurement of the electric
charge corresponds to the change in pressure. This type of sensor has a very rapid response time
to constant pressure changes. Similar to reluctive electric element, the piezoelectric element is
very sensitive, but responds much, much faster. Thus, if time is of the essence, a piezoelectric
sensor would be desired. The pressure range is .021 – 100 MPa with a sensitivity of 0.1 MPa.

v. Potentiometric Sensors: Potentiometric sensors have an arm mechanically attached to the

elastic pressure sensing element. When pressure changes, the elastic element deforms, causing
the arm to move backwards or forwards across a potentiometre and a resistance measurement is
taken. These sensing elements do possess an optimum working range, but are seemingly limited
in their resolution by many factors. As such, they are low end sensors that aren't used for much.
With a low sensitivity and working range, they may be best suited as a cheap detector evaluating
a coarse process. The pressure range is 0.035 - 70 MPa with a sensitivity of 0.07 -0.35 MPa.

vi.Strain gauge : The strain gauge detects changes in pressure by measuring the change in
resistance of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. In general, this circuit is used to determine an
unknown
electrical resistance by balancing two sections of a bridge circuit such that the ratio of resistances
in one section resistances in one section, resulting in a zero reading in the galvanometre in the
centre branch. One of the sections contains the unknown component of which the resistance is to
be determined, while the other section contains a resistor of known resistance that can be varied.
The strain gauge places sensors on each of the resistors and measures the change in resistance of
each individual resistor due to a change in pressure. These gauges are affected greatly by
variations in temperature (unlike the other types of electrical components). The pressure range is
0 - 1400 MPa with a sensitivity of 1.4 - 3.5MPa.

vii.Vibrating element: Vibrating element pressure sensors function by measuring a change in

resonant frequency of a vibrating element. A current is passed through a wire which induces an
electromotive force within the wire. The force is then amplified and causes oscillation of the
wire. Pressure affects this mechanism by affecting the wire itself: an increase in pressure
decreases the tension within the wire and thus lowers the angular frequency of oscillation of the
wire. The sensor is housed in a cylinder under vacuum when measuring absolute pressures.
These absolute pressure measuring sensors are very efficient: they produce repeatable results and
are not affected by temperature greatly. They lack sensitivity in measurement, so they would not
be ideal for a process in which minute pressures need monitoring. The pressure range is 0.0035 -
0.3 MPa with a sensitivity of 1*10-5 MPa.
3
DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
CELLS: Differential pressure cells are used with various
kinds of sensors in which measurement of pressure is a result of a pressure differential such as
orifice plates, flow nozzles, or venturi metres. The differential pressure cell converts the pressure
differential into a transmittable signal. Where the differential pressure (DP) cell is placed
depends on the
nature of the fluid stream that is being measured. A typical DP cell is minimally invasive (an
external component attached across the point of measurement); it is commonly employed with a
capacitive element paired with a diaphragm that allows the capacitive body to separate or move
together, generating a signal (via change in capacitance) that can be interpreted to a pressure
drop.

The range of pressure measured and sensitivity of a differential cell depends upon the electric
and elastic components used in the cell itself. It is a great sensor to use when measuring a
pressure drop; however, for all other applications, it is fairly useless.

4. VACUUM SENSORS: These sensors are able to measure extremely low pressures or
vacuum, referring to pressures below atmospheric pressure. Besides diaphragm and electric
sensors designed
to measure low pressures, there are also thermal conductivity gauges and ionization sensors.

i. Thermal Conductivity Gauges

The principle involved here is the change in gas thermal conductivity with pressure.
However, due to deviation from ideal gas behavior in which the relationship between these two
properties is linear, these kind of gauges, which are also called Pirani gauges, can only be used at
low pressures, in the range of (0.4*10-3 to 1.3*10-3) MPa. They can detect changes of 6*10-13
MPa.

In these gauges, a coiled wire filament has a current flowing through it, which heats up the coil.
A change in pressure changes the rate of heat conduction away from the filament, thereby
causing its temperature to vary. These changes in temperature can be detected by thermocouples
in the gauge, which are also connected to reference filaments in the gauge as part of a
Wheatstone bridge circuit.

ii. Ionization
Gauges

There are two categories for these types of gauges: hot cathode and cold cathode. For hot
cathode gauges, electrons are emitted by heated filaments, while for the cold cathode gauges
electrons are released from the cathode due to collision of ions. Electrons hit the gas molecules
entering the gauge forming positive ions, which are collected and cause an ion current to flow.
The amount of cation formation is related to the gas density and consequently the pressure to be
measured, as well as the constant electron current used, hence the ion current flow is a direct
measure of the gas pressure. These both are highly sensitive instruments and thus most suited for
fractional pressures. The hot cathode gauges are even more sensitive than cold cathode gauges
and are able to measure pressures near 10-8Pa. Their sensitivity ranges from (1*10-16 to 1*10-13)
MPa.

Table 2: Summary

Types of Pressure range Sensitivity Advantages Disadvantages

elements
Bourdon tube 0.1-700 MPa 0.03 MPa Portable Static measurement
Low maintenance Low accuracy
Bellows < 0.2 MPa 0.0012 Mpa Can be used at low Can only be connected to
Pressure on/off switch or
potentiometre
Diaphragms 0.1-2.2 MPa 0.01 MPa Quick response time Very expensive
Very accurate
Generally good linearity
Can be exposed to
corrosives
Capacitive 2.5 Pa – 70 MPa 0.07 MPa Used for low pressure or Electronically complex
vacuum ranges Capacitor plates can stick
Robust together
Inductive 250 Pa – 70 MPa 0.35 MPa High sensitivity Limited by elastic
elements
Reluctive 250 Pa – 70 MPa 0.35 MPa High sensitivity Requires external AC
source
Piezoelectric 0.021Pa-100 0.1 MPa Very rapid response time Affected by high
MPa temperatures and static
forces
Potentiometric 0.035-70 MPa 0.07-0.35 MPa Can be made very small Low sensitivity and
working ranges
Strain gauge 0-1400 MPa 1.4 -3.5 MPa Very high sensitivity Extremely slow response
Can be used on mobile time
parts Very small signal output
Differential Depends on other Depends on Used for pressure drop Can only be used for
elements other elements pressure drop
Thermal 4*10-4-1.3 *10-3 6*10-13 MPa Measures vacuum ranges Has linearity only at low
conductivity pressure
-13 - -13 -16
Ionization 1.3*10 -1.3 *10 1*10 -1*10 High sensitivity Limited by photoelectric
8
MPa Mpa Can measure high and effect
ultra-high vacuum ranges
Vibrating 0.0035-0.3 MPa 1*10-5 MPa Very accurate;Not affected Can’t be used at high
by temperature changes pressures

Example 1

Suppose you have a semi-batch reactor (1,000 L) with 50 kg of zinc within the reactor at 1 atm.
and 25 OC. 6M hydrochloric acid is flowing in at 1 L / min to react with the zinc to produce zinc
chloride for use in another process.
a) What factors should be considered?

b) If the valve fails at an operating pressure of 4 atm (i.e. it will not close and the reactor will be
flooded with HCl) , at what pressure would you (safely) set the shutdown point?

c) What type of sensor should be used?

Solution

a) The factors to be considered are: Process, range of pressure, environment and sensitivity
i) Process:
Hydrochloric
acid
is
very
caustic
(especially
at
such
a
high
molarity),
and
thus
whatever

sensor
you
choose,
it
should
be
able
to
withstand
the
corrosive
natue
of
the
process.


ii) Range of pressures: Initially the reactor is at

1atm
 of
 pressure.
 Considering
 the
 reaction: 2HCL(aq) + Zn(s) → H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq),
you're
 producing
 one
 mole
 of
 hydrogen
 gas
 in
 addition
 to
 the
 existing
 air
 press
ure
 in
 the
 vessel.
As the reaction proceeds, the pressure would increase substantially within
the vessel.
From the equation above 6 moles of HCl will produce 3 moles of H2 gas
Considering a minute reaction time, let us determine the pressure developed by 3 moles of
H2 gas.

Modeling the pressure of H2(g) ideally, P = nRT/V

n = 3 moles, V = 1000 l; T = 273+25 = 298 K

P = 0.073 atm/min
After
about
1
hour,
the
pressure
of
H2(g)
would
increase
to
4.38
atm,
putting
 the total
pressure in the vessel
at
5.38
atm
(past
failing
pressure
for
the
valve).

iii) Environment : There is no danger of high temperatures or excessive vibration due to

high flow/ reaction.

iv) Sensitivity :Since this is a moderately dangerous process,
we
need
to
have
the


sensor
output
to
a
computer
so
an
engineer
can
monitor
the
process
as
a
fail‐
safe.
We
assume the
sensor
will
signal
the
HCl
valve
to
close
once
the

operating
pressure
becomes
3
atm,
however
devices
do
fail
from
time
totime.We
also
ne
ed
high
sensitivity,
so
electric
components
will
be
preferable
(i.e.,
we
don't
want
the
process
to
runaway
as
it
potentially
could
if the
sensor
isn't
highly
sensitive
to
incremental
changes).


The
shutdown
point : Considering the rapid increase in pressure, as earlier evaluated , and the
failure of the valve at 4 atm, the shutdown point should be approximately 3 atm.


The
type
of
sensor: The pressure sensors to be considered are elastic
sensors,

differential
pressure
cells, vacuum sensors, electric
sensors, we automatically

vacuum
sensors
as
they
operate
at
very
low
pressures
(almost
vacuum, hence
the
name)
and differential
pressure
sensors
as
we
are
not
looking
for
a
pressure
drop
across
the
vessel.


Since
we
desire
high
sensitivity, we
would
like
to
use
, electric
sensors.
 Considering

the
range
of
pressures (3
atm
max
~
0.3
MPa)
a
capacitive
 element
would
be
optimal
because
it
is
robust
and
functions
well
in
low
 pressure
system.


Noting
the
corrosiveness
of
the
HCl
in
the
system,a
diaphragm
is
likely
to
be
used
as
the
elastic
element.
Diaphragms
are
also
fairly
robust
and
offer
quick
response
times.


This
combination
is
likely
to
be
filled
in
a
strong,sealed,
glycerine/silicone
filled
case
so

as
to
protect
the
sensor
from
degradation.


So, overall, the sensor we choose will utilize a diaphragm as the elastic component, a capacitive
element as the electrical component, and an anti-corrosive body.

Example 2

Your supervisor told you to add a pressure sensor to a very expensive and important piece of
equipment. You know that the piece of equipment is operating at 1MPa and at a very high
temperature. What sensor would you choose?

Solution

Because the piece of equipment that you are dealing with is very expensive, you need a sensor
that has the greatest sensitivity. An electric sensor would be desired because you could have it
connected to a computer for quick and easy readings. Also, you need to pick a sensor that will
operate at 1 MPa and a sensor that will be able to withstand high temperatures. From the
information given in this note you know that there are many sensors that will operate at 1 MPa,
so you need to decide on the other factors. One of the most sensitive electric sensors is the
capacitive sensor. It has a sensitivity of 0.07MPa. The capacitive sensor usually has a
diaphragm as the elastic element. Diaphragms have a rapid response time, are very
accurate and can work at 1 MPa.