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The Subject ; subject in a sentence or clause is the person or thing doing, performing, or controlling
the action of the verb. For example; Ali is play hockey .Fatima is washing her clothes. BUT in state or
in possessive sentences about whom or which we talk is also called subject .Ex; Ali is my brother .Quetta
is the capital of Balochsitan .Fatima has new phone. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=GUUO5vn1RVE&list=PLy_V2pa51zzRSgaPEbgnNZjoyyjIg40OH

Objects; Grammatical objects have two grammatical roles: the direct object of a verb, the indirect

object of a verb, or the object of a preposition. Object always answers to what and whom.

Direct objects Direct objects are what receive the action of the verb in a sentence or clause. For
example: teacher beats students . Salar is teaching grammar here students and grammar are the
direct receiver of actions. Students answers to whom whereas grammar answers to what .

Objects of prepositions ;Nouns are also used after prepositions to create prepositional phrases.
When a noun is part of a prepositional phrase, it is known as the object of the preposition. For example:

• “I am looking for work.” (The noun work is the object of the preposition for, which creates the
prepositional phrase for work.) I am going to bazaar. she is going to her home .

Complement ; the word complement has been taken from the word complete which to fulfill or
complete . in sate or in possessive sentence we do not use any object instead of object we put
complement in order to complete the sense of sentence , For examples ; Ali has house , she is my
student , sir Salar is our teacher . they are very happy . complement can be nouns pronouns as well as
adjectives whereas the object will be only noun or pronoun not adjective .

Helping verbs . helping verbs are the verbs, which help the main verb to show the timing of that action ,
and helping verbs are used only and only in action sentences .

They are learning English at universal academy.

Were will be they are helping the main action learning that when it takes places Helping
verbs are always followed by main verb which is also known as action verb.

Main verbs in state sentences . in state sentences the words which show timing are known as
main verbs

Sir salar is teacher . Ali is my brother . she has a house . the bolded words show timing in state
sentences therefore, they are called main verb . we can not call them helping verbs , because helping
verbs are always followed by main verb, and are only used in action sentences , so here neither is ,has
are followed by main verb nor the sentences are action sentences .

Subject-Verb Agreement Because countable nouns can be either singular or plural, it is very
important to use the correct subject-verb agreement when they are functioning as the subject of a
clause. Subject-verb agreement refers to using certain conjugations of verbs for singular subjects and
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using other conjugations for plural subjects. This happens most noticeably with the verb to be, which
becomes is or was with singular subject nouns and are or were with plural subjects.

For example: • “Ali is back from college.” (singular present simple tense)

• “The company was in financial trouble.” (singular past simple tense)

• “Many people are getting frustrated with the government.” (plural present simple tense)

 He comes early in the morning.

• “The computers were rather old.” (plural past simple tense) For any other verb, we only need to make
a change if it is in the present simple tense. For most verbs, this is accomplished by adding an “-s” to the
end if it is singular and leaving it in its base form if it is plural. For example:

• “My father runs his own business.” (singular) 5th form of the verb is known as singular form of the verb

• “But his sons run it when he’s away.” (plural) 1st from of verb is known as plural form of the verb

It means if your subject is singular , so verb must be singular with that whereas if it is plural then verb
must be plural .

Noun:
Definition of Noun:
A ‘noun’ is denoted as the name of the person, thing, place, idea, and quality of the person / Any
naming word is called noun .

Kinds of Noun:
There are eight kinds of Noun:

 Proper noun. Common noun. Material noun. Abstract noun. Collective noun. Countable noun.
Uncountable noun. Compound noun.
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 Proper Noun Definition:

It is the name of a particular person, thing, or place. It always writes in a capital letter at the
beginning of the word.

For example:

 Karachi  is a busy city.William Shakespeare was an English poet. Ali is my best friend


.
 Common Noun Definition:
It is the name given to every common person or a thing of the same kind or class or type.
Common is means shared by all.

 For example, Dog, cat, table, chair, boy, girl, poet, phone, computer, shop, carrot, etc
 Material Noun Definition:
It denotes the material of the thing and the matter of substance, these are not counted.

For example: This jewelry is made of gold. The chair is built of wood.

 NOTE: Sometimes material noun behaves like a common noun

 For example:
 The tea of Quetta is exported to many countries.

Here tea is used as a common noun.

Collective Noun Definition:

It is the name of a collection of persons or things taken together orFor example, Flock, audience, class,
committee, crowd, fleet, herd, jury, family, etc.A fleet of ships. A crowd of people A mob of angry
people These generally take a singular verb.a group For example, A heard of cattle is passing.

Some of these types like family, team, jury, etc. can take both verbs (Singular and Plural) depends on
their usage, like this- The jury has issued a notice. (Here ‘the jury’ behaves like a single unit). The jury are
divided into their decisions. (Here ‘the jury’ refers to all the members separately and behaves as the
Noun of Multitude).
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Countable Noun Definition: It is for something that can be counted.

For example, house, apple, tree, girl, etc.

Uncountable Noun Definition: It stands for something that cannot be count, it only can be
measured. For example, Sand, grass, water, etc.

Compound Noun Definition:

When two or more words create a noun then this type of nouns are called a Compound noun.

For example, credit card, daughter-in-law, etc.

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Rules of Noun:
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1; Some Special Nouns are Plural in form but singular in use: – means they look like plural but they
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are used as singular and will take singular verb always Mathematics, news, politics, mathematics,
physics , linguistics , politics ,news . ethics , summons etc. Rickets, Billiards, Draughts, Innings Politics is
not meant to me . since long no news has been heard of her . summons of the court is about to issue.I
have a good news. Economics is my favorite subject. It was a good innings by pak.

Rule .2 there are some nouns they are always used in singular format but in plural sense and will
always take plural verb. they don’t have singular form. Ex; cattle, clergy , cavalry, children, poultry ,
gentry , police , people .vermin Ex;. They clergy are attending sermon. Police are registering FIR against
many , the cattle are grazing in the field . Vermin do much harm to crops Children are playing in the
ground. Cattle are not allowed to enter in the ground. Police are coming.

Rule 3 ; there are some nouns that always are used with ‘s’ form they are always used in plural form
and with plural verb we can not remove ‘s’ form following nouns . means all those noun which we get
in pairs can not treat as singular; Sunglasses, clothes, pants trousers, goggles . Spectacles.
Scissors .clippers. Belongings, stairs, shoes, , annals .binoculars, , Trousers, Pants, Clippers, Shambles,
Bellows, Gallows, Fangs, Measles, Eyeglasses, Tidings, Goggles, Belongings, Breeches, Braces, Binoculars,
Dregs, Entrails, Embers, Fireworks, Lees, Odds, Outskirts, Particulars, Proceeds, Proceedings, Riches,
Bowels,  Remains, Shears, Spectacles, Surroundings, Tactics, Tongs, Vegetables, Valuables. It is used with
pair + of+ noun = I bought 1 pair of binoculars. She wanted to buy 3 pairs of glasses. If we want to show
more than one pair then a , an articles cannot be used . I bought a binocular, wrong. a, an is used with
only one pair .

Rule 4 ; the units of measurements can be used as singular and plural both , Dozens, hundreds
thousands, millions, But if numeral adjective is used before these nouns then we cannot use its plural
form . Ex ; she bought dozens of eggs , thousands of people were there . I bought 3 dozen of eggs. 5
hundred people were there. I lent him 6 hundred rupees

Rule 5 ; When a noun is used as an adjective, it takes a singular form.Here nouns are used as adjective
and we can not make plural of adjective . For example,

1. Five-year plan.
2. Five-year-old boy.
3. Six month course .
4. 9 year class .

Rule 6 If ‘the’ is used before ‘poor’ ‘rich’, blind. Refers to plural the verb will be plural.For
example, The rich are not always happy.The blind are given food and shelter.

 Rule 7 ;A material noun is always used in singular form.

For example, The house is made of brick (Not bricks). This cabin is made of wood . [not woods]

Rule no8 ; ‘The’ is not used before an abstract noun. For example, Honesty is the best policy.
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Rule9 ;Some nouns are always singular. These are uncountable nouns. Articles A/An are not used with
these nouns.These nouns are:
Machinery, Work, Wood, Dust, Traffic, Electricity, Scenery, Poetry, Furniture, Advice, Luggage,
Information, Luggage, Hair, Money, Language, Business, Mischief, Knowledge, Bread, Stationery,
Crockery,  Baggage, Postage, Wastage, , Jewellery, Breakage etc

Ex He gave me information .Ali transported his furniture by Truck. Salar has good knowledge of
grammar.,
If we want to show there plural then number +of + piece/ types / kinds + that noun will be used .
Ex . she ate 5 pieces of bread . I have 5 pieces of information. My father gave him 5 pieces of
advice . but with money business these can not be used .
Rule 10: Some nouns have the same form in singular as well as in plural form.
These nouns are:
Sheep, Fish, Crew, Family, Team, Carp, Pike, Trout, Deer, Aircraft, Counsel, Swine, Vermin, Species Etc.
ex A deer is grazing in the field. Deer are grazing in the field. Sparrow is now a rare species.
There are many species of cow.
Rule 11 : Plural noun is used after One of, Neither of, Either of, and Each of.
Ex: One of my friends is an Engineer. Either of them will come. Neither of the students failed

 Rules For Using Apostrophe

 Here are some rules for the use of Apostrophe 's' or possessive nouns. Rule12 : Possessive
case is used with the nouns of living things. Means it is used only with humans . for non living
we use preposition of
Ex:  This is Ali’s bat. The car’s wheel is punctured (Wrong) The wheel of the car is punctured
(Correct)
 Rule13: Non-living things are used in possessive case when they are personified.
Ex mahii is at death’s door. This is earth’s surface.
Rule14:  Possessive case is used with nouns denoting space, time or weight.
Ex: I want a day’s leave. He will be back in a month’s time.
 Rule15:  If two or more noun jointly possess something then possessive sign is put on the latter only
Ex: Akaram and Asad’s partnership was awesome. This is Rahul and Ali’s shop.
Rule16:  If else is used after somebody, anybody, nobody etc then apostrophe is used with else.
Ex:
Rule: If else is used after somebody, anybody, nobody etc then apI obey your orders and nobody else’s.
 This watch is not mine, it is somebody else’s.
 Rule17:  Apostrophe is not used with possessive pronouns like; his, hers, yours, mine, ours,
its, theirs, etc
  
Rule18:   Apostrophe is not used with two consecutive nouns.
Ex:
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 Fatimia ’s car’s color is very nice. (Wrong) The color of Fatima’s car is very nice. (Correct)
Pronouns
Definition Pronouns are words that are used in place of nouns in a sentence. The noun being
replaced . to avoid the repeating of noun we use pronouns .

is known as the antecedent of the pronoun

Using pronouns We commonly use pronouns in speech and writing to avoid sounding unnatural
and repetitive by reusing the same noun in a sentence multiple times. Take,

for example, the following sentence: • “Ali said that Ali wants to use the computer that belongs to Ali.”
The sentence is awkward because ALI is repeated so many times. Instead, we can use personal
pronouns to stand in for the name of the antecedent to make the sentence sound more natural, as in: •
“Ali said that he wants to use the computer that belongs to him.”

Types of Pronouns
personal pronoun . personal pronoun are used to represent people in a sentence .

(first person, second person, or third person),

First person {{ I WE}} first person always speaker .

Second person , {{you}} listener

Third person {{ they ,He , She ,and it }} third person is the person who will be absent ,
means third person is not the part of the conversation . the conversation is between first and second
person and third person is the person about whom they talk . that person can be there during the
conversation but not the part of conversation For examples ; first person wants to know from the
second person that who is she ? she is sitting next to 2 nd person so she is there but not the part of
conversation .

Order or arrangement of personal pronoun

There are two formulas of personal pronoun {1,2,3} {2,3,1}

1, 2, 3 is the formula of negative sentence , means if the sentences context are negative then we will
have to follow the above formula of {{1 2 3 }} For examples . I, you ,and she will damage his face .i you
and they will be responsible for this loss.

{{231}} formula is used when the contnxt of sentence is positive ,

For ex; you ,she and I will help him . you ,we and he had gone for picnic .

Subjective Case ;When a personal pronoun is acting as the subject of a verb (that is, it is the person
or thing doing the action), it is said to be in the subjective case. For instance: • “I know that she said
that.” (Both pronouns are subjective, as both are agents of their respective actions.) • “He told her to be
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quiet.” (Here, only he is in the subjective case; her, the recipient or “object” of his action, is in the
objective case.)

Objective Case A personal pronoun is in the objective case when it is a direct or indirect object of a
verb, or else if it is the object or a preposition. A direct object directly receives the action of a verb. For
example: • “Please send them in straight away.” • “Take him away!” An indirect object, on the other
hand, is the recipient of the direct object—it the indirectly receives the action of the verb via the direct
object. For example: • “Please tell me any news immediately!” I did not beat him’’ she hate me .

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used when someone or something is both the subject and the object of the same
verb—that is, both that which is performing the action of the verb and that which is receiving the action.
When this happens, the reflexive verb is used as the object of the verb to represent the person or thing.
For example, in the sentence “I heard you speaking,” “I” is the subject, and “you” is the object—they are
not the same person, so a reflexive noun is not used. Likewise, “I’ll be sure to thank himself” is not
correct: “him” should be the object of “thank,” while “I” is the subject. But in the sentence “I heard
myself speaking,” the speaker (“I”) is both the subject of the verb “heard” and its object (what was
heard), she burnt herself . introduce yourself . he cheats himself and thus is represented by the
reflexive noun “myself.” The reflexive pronouns are myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself,
himself, itself, themselves, and oneself. The last of these is formed from the gender-neutral indefinite
pronoun one (which also has the possessive form one’s); however, the pronoun one is not a personal
pronoun. Here are some more examples:

• I wish you could hear yourselves right now! • She admitted to herself that she was wrong. • The vole
hides itself beneath the ground for safety. • The players have really outdone themselves today! • One
should strive to better oneself every day. On a final note, a reflexive pronoun can never be used as the
subject of a verb—it can only act as the object, and only when the person or thing it represents is
already being used as the subject. For example, “myself taught me to read” is very clearly wrong,
because myself should be used as the object of “taught,” while the personal pronoun I should be used as
the subject. “John and myself will be in attendance” is also incorrect because the speaker (and John) is
the subject of the verb “be,” without an object—it should read “John and I will be in attendance.

Intensive Pronouns or Emphatic pronoun

Intensive pronouns are identical similar to reflexive pronouns—myself, yourself, ourselves, himself,
herself, itself, and themselves. However, intensive or emphatic pronouns do not serve a grammatical
function in a sentence; instead, they add emphasis by reiterating the subject of the sentence (known as
the pronoun’s antecedent). Means they only put stress on the subject of the verb . it will be used after
direct subject of the sentences .for examples , I myself saw her . she herself told me . you yourself called
me .

Indefinite Adjectives vs. Indefinite Pronouns

Some indefinite pronouns can also function as indefinite adjectives if they come immediately before a
noun. For example:
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• “There is more to be done.” (indefinite pronoun) • “There is more work to be done.” (indefinite
adjective)

• “There is another who can fill in, if necessary.” (indefinite pronoun) • “There is another student who
can fill in, if necessary.” (indefinite adjective)

Demonstrative Pronouns
Definition; Demonstrative pronouns are pronouns used to replace nouns or noun phrases in a
sentence, representing that which is nearby or far away in space or time. Because demonstrative
pronouns are less specific than the nouns or noun phrases they replace, this can mean having to gesture
toward, point to, or look at the thing or things indicated by the demonstrative pronoun. In written
English, demonstrative pronouns are usually used to refer to previously mentioned nouns, ideas, or
topics. Here is a complete list of demonstrative pronouns: this. That. these .those

For examples , this is my house’’ that is your pen ‘’ thses are my books and those are my
friends .demonstrative pronoun are used for both living as well as non living things as I has been
mentioned in above examples.

Demonstrative pronouns vs. demonstrative adjectives

determiners Some demonstrative pronouns may also be used as demonstrative adjectives or

determiners, but their usage is quite different. As demonstrative pronouns, this, that, these, those, such,
nouns. As demonstrative adjectives and determiners, however, these same words instead modify nouns,
appearing immediately before them in a sentence. We can see this in the examples below:

• “She wants to photograph this.” (demonstrative pronoun)

• “She wants to photograph this painting.” (demonstrative adjective)

• “That is one of my favorites.” (demonstrative pronoun)

• “That book is one of my favorites.” (demonstrative adjective)

• “These taste the best.” (demonstrative pronoun)

• “These chocolates taste the best.” (demonstrative adjective)

Interrogative Pronouns

Definition Interrogative pronouns are used in interrogative sentences to ask questions, functioning
either as the subject or object of such sentences. There are five primary interrogative pronouns: who,
whom, whose, which, and what, and interrogative pronoun will answer to noun for examples . who
teaches you English {{ans}}.{{ sir salar}} what is your name ?{{salar}} whose is this pen {{salar}} which of
the following is your teacher {{sir salar}} to whom are you talking {{salar}}

“Who is coming to the party tonight?” (subject) “Whom did you ask to fill in for Mr. salar?” (object)* •
“Whose is this computer?” (subject)

Interrogative Adjectives
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Three of the interrogative pronouns—whose, which, and what—can also function as interrogative
adjectives, but these interrogative pronoun will always be followed by a noun, whereas interrogative
pronoun are followed by HELPING VERB OR VERB .

Which shirt should I wear?” (interrogative adjective) • “Which would you choose if you were me?”
(interrogative pronoun) • “Whose book is this on the table?” (interrogative adjective) • “Whose is this
that I’m holding?” (interrogative pronoun)

Relative Pronouns
Who, whom, which, and whose can also be used as relative pronouns in declarative sentences. They are
not considered interrogative in this form, because they are no longer associated with a question. In
order to relate something or any action with person or with non –living thing we have to use relative
pronoun. A relative pronoun is a type of pronoun used to connect a relative clause (also known as an
adjective clause) to the main clause in a sentence. Relative clauses either help clarify who or what a
sentence is talking about (known as the antecedent), or else give extra information about it.

Here are the five most commonly used relative pronouns: that ,which, who, whom whose . For
example;

 “I helped the old man who lives in Jinnah town .” • “The computer, which belonged to my brother,
is very slow.” ‘’the boy who abused me is a teacher .’’ ‘’ the teacher who was teaching at universal
academy is my son .’’ the boy whom was beaten by us is his student .’’ the girl whom is liked by
everyone is my student .’’ ‘’ the pen which I gave was not as much expensive . ‘’ the laptop which
was there belongs to salar . ‘’ the room which is painted is mine .’’ I found what I was looking for. ‘’
you teacher and his bag that were found in river.’’ • “She tried to help the student whose parents
live in Karachi.
Important rule , if we have all, the only the same . the only one or superlative degree of an adjective
then in all cases whether the antecedent is living or non living we only have to use’’ that ‘’ relative
pronoun . for examples ;he is the only boy that can help you, ; this is the same book that I was
looking for. She the best girl who can help me . this is wrong. He is the only boy who can call police .
incorrect in such sentences only that relative pronoun is allowed to be used .
Reciprocal Pronouns Definition
Reciprocal pronouns are used to refer to two or more people who are or were the subject of the
same verb, with both or all parties mutually receiving or benefiting from that action in the same
way. Reciprocal pronouns always function as the objects of verbs, referring back to the two or more
people who are or were the subject .there are two reciprocal pronoun , each other and one
another . each other is used for two persons , whereas one another is used for more than two
persons , For examples .
Ali as asad should help each other. Pakistan and Afghanistan can discuss it with each other . we
Pakistani must love one another . Ali Asad and salar will call one another .here we have seen in
examples that each other was used for two where as one another was is used for more than two
persons .
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Indefinite pronoun
 An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that doesn’t specifically identify what it is
referring to.
another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, enough, everyone, everybody, everyone,
everything, less, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone,
something  both, few, fewer, many, others, several . Everyone was shocked by the sudden
announcement.
Plural indefinite pronouns
 Both of my friends are hungry.We invited all of the neighbors to the picnic, but few have come. Many of
the cats have striped tails. Several of the boys know how to swim.

ere . nobody can help you. Someone is waiting for you . many were sleeping . both are teachers .
in above mentioned all examples indefinite pronoun neither number nor the number is clear is
clear , nor gender ,so when the number or gender is not clear , then English gives priority or
preference to male and when number is not clear then priority goes to singular For examples ;
everyone should do his work . everybody should bring his laptops .

Verbs
Definition Verbs are used to indicate the actions, processes, conditions, or states of beings of people
or things. When we discuss verbs’ role in the predicate, we usually divide them into two
fundamental categories: finite and non-finite verbs
verb

finite verb non-finite verb

finite verbs means the verbs which can be changed according to tense and number but non- finite verbs
are those which can not be changed according to time and tense

finite verbs are dived into the following