ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

GEOTECHNICAL APPLICATION OF SOIL MECHANICS

1. Shallow Foundation

Shallow foundations or also known as footings, are situated at the lowest point of structure. It is
the first constructed element of a structure where soil layer at shallow depth up to 1.5m is able to support
the structural loads after excavating the ground. A shallow foundation's depth is usually less than its
width.

Shallow foundations are often utilized since they are the most cost-effective and simple to
construct foundation system. To design the foundation and minimize future degradation of the foundation
performance, a thorough research of the foundation site and precise information on the subsurface strata
is required. Moreover, certain design requirements incorporate bearing capacity safety such as underlying
shear strength of soil and excessive settlements that can damage the overlying structure or disrupt
functionality must be controlled. Types of shallow foundation consist of Spread or Isolated Footing; Strip
Foundation; Mat or Raft Foundation; and Combined Foundation.

2. Deep Foundation

A type of foundation that is placed at a greater depth than the ground surface and transfers loads
to the earth is called a deep foundation. The foundation’s depth to width ratio is normally more than 4 to
5.

The procedure of building a deep foundation is more complex, requires skilled labors, can be
time-consuming and costly than building a shallow foundation. A deep foundation, on the other hand, is
considered to be the best option when dealing with weak compressible soils or fills are placed on to
stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at shallow depths or functional reasons, substantial design
loads, and site constraints. Types of deep foundation includes, pier foundation, pile foundation, caissons,
cylinders, and shaft foundation. If unsuitable soils are available near the surface, a deep foundation can be
employed to shift the load to a deeper, more capable strata at depth.

3. Retaining Walls

A retaining wall also known as revetment or breast wall is a structure that is built to withstand
lateral soil pressure or to hold soil materials back and prevent embankment erosion. Earth filling, liquid
pressure, sand, and other granular materials behind the retaining wall structure could all contribute to
lateral pressure.

To resist the lateral force against such a wall, a variety of techniques are applied. The gravity wall
is the most basic type of reinforced retaining wall, consisting of huge concrete that is held in place by
gravity. Cantilever footings with tie beams balance the asymmetrical weight on the cantilever retaining
wall. A cantilever wall with counterforts, or buttresses, affixed to the interior face of the wall to further
resist lateral thrust is known as a counterfort retaining wall. Treated lumber, concrete block systems,
poured concrete, stone, and brick are all common retaining wall materials.

4. Earth dams

A dam constructed by compacting consecutive layers of soil, forming a core with the most
impermeable materials and placing more pervious materials on the upstream and downstream edges. This
dam is classified as an embankment dam because it is constructed in the shape of an embankment or
wedge that blocks a waterway. A crushed stone facing inhibits wind and rain erosion, while a large
spillway, usually made of concrete, prevents catastrophic washout should water overtop the dam.

Soils and rock pieces lack the strength of concrete, are significantly more permeable, and are
more susceptible to deterioration and disturbed by flowing water. These shortcomings are offset by a
significantly lower cost and the flexibility of earth fill to react to deformation caused by dam foundation
movements. This requires that enough usable soil or rockfill is available near the dam site. Earth fill can
be very cost-effective if a suitable "borrow" area is available near the construction site.

5. Concrete Dam

Concrete dams are gravity dams that are often constructed in huge blocks separated by joints to
make construction convenient and reduce thermal stress. After the dam has cooled, the joints are grouted.
The dam axis is perpendicular to the transverse joints. A concrete dam is a significant construction project
that necessitates a large amount of concrete, which necessitates the usage of a lot of cement. Cement
manufacture emits CO2, which is harmful to the environment, and it is also a high-cost technique.

Dams are constructed for many purposes, including flood control, electricity generating, and
water management. Concrete dams are more commonly utilized to generate hydroelectric power than fill
dams because gates (also known as sluices) or other types of outlet structures may be placed into the
concrete to allow for regulated water escape from the reservoir. When water is required downstream for
power, drinking water, or irrigation, the gates can be opened to discharge the required volume over a set
period of time.

6. Earthworks

Earthwork is the process of moving a section of the earth's surface from one place to another and
into a new position. It also entails the creation of a new location for earth materials such as sand. The
construction of a new desirable shape and physical condition for the earth material being moved is also a
part of earth movement. Excavation is another name for it.

In the construction process, earthwork entails the loosening, removal, and handling of earth
quantities. Earthworks are completed to create a level "bench" with an even longitudinal slope on which
drainage and camber can be erected. It is the most expensive operation in road construction which
accounts for more than half of the total cost.

Principal activities in earthworks are: measuring and calculation of volumes; excavation which
includes levelling, cut to cross fill, U-cut and borrow excavation; loading, hauling and unloading; filling,
including spreading and compaction. It is ideal for incentive schemes like task work since the volume of
the work can be easily measured. After the basic soil qualities, such as hardness and cohesiveness, have
been specified, these acceptable "tasks" can be determined.

7. Geofabrics

Geotextiles are permeable fabrics made of polyester or polypropylene. When employed in a

variety of applications, most common of which is soil, geotextiles have the ability to separate, filter,
reinforce, protect, and drain. Nonwoven geotextiles, woven geotextiles (needle punched), and heat
bonded geotextiles (structural woven) are the three types of geotextile fabrics.

Geotextiles have achieved remarkable popularity over the last 30 years for providing excellent
filtration, drainage, and separation of engineering materials in a variety of construction structures
associated with a range of transportation and other infrastructure activities. When geotextile materials are
chosen carefully, they can be used to replace typical granular filter and drainage layers, resulting in
considerable environmental and financial benefits.

Geotextiles are a relatively low-cost product that, when designed and implemented properly, it
can replace typical granular treatments with significant cost savings, both in aggregate quantities utilized
and in labor costs to install such aggregate systems.
 8. Reinforced Earth Wall

A reinforced earth wall is built to withstand lateral soil pressure and to support the soil laterally
so that it can be maintained at different levels on both sides. Earth filling, liquid pressure, sand, and
granular solids could all contribute to lateral pressure. The walls are used to bind soils between two
distinct elevations, which is common in locations with steep slopes. These walls are a cost-effective
approach to meet everyday earth retention requirements for highway and bridge grade separations,
railroads, and public transportation networks. They're also used in response to challenging design
constraints including very high structures, limited space, and impediments within the soil mass.

9. Soil Nailing

Soil nailing is a ground stabilization method for reinforcing and strengthening existing soil. It
works on both natural and excavated slopes. It entails drilling holes in a slope face to insert steel bars,
which are subsequently grouted in place. It is cost-effective and can be used in earthquake zones.
Increases overall soil mass shear strength and can be employed in a variety of soil types. On the other
hand, soil nailing techniques include; drilled and grouted soil nailing method, driven soil nailing method,
self-drilling soil nailing method, jet grouted soil nailing method, launched soil nail method.

Soiling nailing is used to stabilize existing retaining walls and excavate retaining structures for
high-rise buildings and underground facilities in urban settings. It also helps to stabilize highway and
roadway embankments, as well as steep cutting and existing embankments. Landslide redemption and
temporary excavation shoring will be accomplished, and existing concrete structures will be stabilized for
the long term without the need for destruction and rebuilding.

10. Sheet Pile

Sheet pile walls are thin retaining walls used to keep soil, water, or other fill materials in place.
They are usually thinner than masonry or reinforced concrete retaining walls, such as cantilever retaining
walls, and can be built out of steel, concrete, or wood. Timber sheet pile walls are used to resist light
loads and for temporary works like braced sheeting in cuttings, and they must be attached with tongue
and groove joints. Reinforced concrete sheet piles are tongue and groove precast concrete elements. The
piles are relatively large and displace a significant amount of earth when driven.

Steel sheet pile walls are the most prevalent type of sheet pile wall. They have the benefit of
withstanding strong driving forces created by hard or rocky formations. They are lighter in weight and
can be utilized in a variety of situations. Steel sheet piling is utilized in a variety of temporary and
permanent construction projects. The chosen portion must be constructed to provide optimum strength
and longevity while maintaining appropriate driving characteristics.

11. Cofferdam

Cofferdams are temporary structures that are utilized when work is taking place in areas
submerged in water. They're most typically utilized to make dams, piers, and bridges easier to build or
repair. A cofferdam's goal is to be as feasibly watertight in order to provide a dry space in which to
perform the essential building work, or at the very least to limit water infiltration to a safe level that can
be pumped out.

Cofferdams must be able to bear extremely high pressures and might be dangerous if not installed
appropriately. Steel sheet piles are driven into the ground and supported by internal braces and cross
braces in most cases. Concrete, timber sheet piles, or a combination of materials can also be used.

Any shape can be used for a cofferdam. Its design will be determined by the required depth, the
required working area, soil conditions, water level variations, and other factors.

12. Landslides

A landslide is the downslope movement of rock, earth, or debris. Rain, earthquakes, volcanoes,
and other factors make the slope unstable, resulting in landslides.

According to geologists, who study the Earth's physical structures, landslides are one sort of mass
wasting. Any downward movement of the Earth's surface that wears away is referred to as mass wasting.
Rockfalls and the flow of alluvium, or beach deposits, are other examples of mass wasting. Landslides
near populated areas pose a serious threat to both lives and property.

13. Shoring

Shoring is the temporary construction of a structure to support a hazardous structure. These

provide lateral support for walls. When walls bulge or crack due to unequal foundation settlement and
repairs are needed, when a neighboring structure needs to be pulled down, and when apertures in a wall
need to be constructed or extended, shoring might be utilized. For example, temporary support may be
needed to ease the load on a masonry wall while it is repaired or reinforced. Shoring the wall with large
timbers sloping upward at around 65° to 75° can provide stability. Part of the wall load is passed to the
top of the timber, while the lower end of the timber is framed onto a base to transfer the load to the
ground with minimal distortion. Wedges can be employed to bring the shore into close proximity to the
wall. A vertical succession of shore may be necessary if the wall is many stories high. In reinforced
concrete frames, shores are also utilized to support the forms for cast-in-place concrete slabs, beams, and
girders.

14. Tunneling

Tunnels are underground passages created by civil engineering structures that can pass under a
hill, under buildings or highways, under water, or even through entire towns. They may be required to
overcome a barrier, build mass transportation systems, provide links beneath the water, accommodate
pipelines, and install sewage systems, among other things.

For the design and construction of tunnels, a variety of approaches can be utilized, depending on
the size of the tunnel, the specific ground and groundwater conditions, the depth, the available space, and
so on. The main considerations are the purpose of tunneling, which will influence the tunnel's size and
cross-section, as well as the type of ground, which will influence the tunnel's route selection and whether
it is cost-effective or feasible to construct where there may be poor conditions or strata defects. Other
factors to consider include the construction method, which varies depending on the type of tunnel, ground
conditions, tunnel length required, and project deadlines, debris removal: the size and length of the tunnel
will determine the equipment required for 'mucking out' debris, and water control: pumping is the most
common method for dealing with the presence of water while tunneling.

15. Blasting

Blasting is the use of an explosive to reduce a solid body, such as rock, to fragments. Drilling
holes, inserting a charge and detonator in each hole, detonating the charge, and clearing away the broken
material are all standard blasting processes.

To undertake structural engineering activities, blasting technology is an important aspect of the

construction process. Blasting is the process of breaking up rock material with a little amount of explosive
so that it can be broken up into smaller pieces.

Additional processes in the rock mass can be classified as effective if they result in energy release
and a transition of the rock mass to a new stable equilibrium state. Every blasting for roof caving had a
good effect in the chosen longwall.

16. Ground Improvement

 The technique of employing mechanical means to remedy poor ground conditions is known as
ground improvement. Ground improvement techniques enhances the engineering parameters of the
treated soil mass in order to satisfy project performance goals. Common reasons for ground
improvements includes, bearing capacity, increase density and slope stability, control settlements and
permeability, and mitigate liquefaction.

17. Environmental Geomechanics

Environmental Geomechanics is a new field at the intersection of the built and natural
environments. It focuses on the mechanical behavior of geomaterials (mostly soil and rock, but also
concrete and other materials) under a variety of environmental conditions. The novel theories and models
produced in this context will be useful in a wide range of technical fields (waste disposal, underground
structures, agriculture, natural disasters, energy production, depollution, etc.). Environmental
Geomechanics is known for its complexity, which includes the mixing of numerous species and phases,
extensive interactions between constituents, and highly nonlinear behavior.

Environmental geomechanics is a large category of problems involving deforming geomaterials,

frequently in conjunction with fluid movement and chemical transport. Contaminants and other chemicals
may be transported in fluids, such as water, water vapor, and air, which fill the pores of geomaterials, as
in waste disposal or durability issues. Mass transport also takes place in reservoir engineering problems,
where the fluids involved are oil, water, and gas.

18. Instrumentation

Geotechnical instrumentation is required for any engineering projects involving any level of risk,
whether it be a risk to lives, infrastructure, or finances. Instrumentation is used to determine soil and rock
parameters and to monitor ground displacements caused by natural events like landslides or construction
activity. The selection and installation of monitoring instruments should be treated as a project-specific
activity, based on the expected ground movements and the instrument's ability to monitor a ground
response.

19. Soil Testing

Soil testing, also known as soil investigation or geotechnical investigation, is done at building
sites to help evaluate soil qualities. This helps assess the soil conditions and whether they are suitable for
construction, as well as the qualities of the building itself. It is accomplished as part of the construction
and site preparation process by drilling into the soil to an acceptable depth, as determined by the
construction plans, and then having a professional grade the soil and estimate its qualities along the length
of the drilled hole.

The length and depth of the pillar are governed by the soil condition during the foundation. Soil
testing is the sole way to detect the water level of the soil. The quality of the material can be determined
based on the soil testing findings. If the location is prone to corrosion owing to moisture, for example,
only corrosion resistant TMT Bars should be used in the building.

A soil test is a crucial phase in the construction process. If soil testing is not done, the building
will be exposed to unforeseen threats, which could be fatal in the end.

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