+1 Bio Zoo em Vol 2

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-: GOD GRACE :-
BIO- ZOOLOGY
( NEW EDITION FOR 2023-2024 )
VOLUME –II
( Included Govt Question paper – March-2023 added )
7. Body fluids & Circulation.

8. Excretion.
9. Locomotion & Movement.
10. Neural Control & Coordination .
11. Chemical Coordination & Integration.
12. Trends in Economic Zoology.
Prepared by :-
P.SENGUTTUVAN. M.Sc.,M.Ed.,M.Phil. &
C.VALARMATHI. M.Sc.,M.Ed.,M.Phil.
P.G.Teachers-Zoology.
DHARMAPURI-Dist.
Cell : 9865449511.
P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

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7. BODY FLUIDS & CIRCULATION.

BOOK BACK ONE MARK ANSWER KEY
1. c. Bring interstitial fluid in blood 8. c. Closure of semi-lunar values
The total surface area of the capillaries is
2. b. Fibrinogen 9. c. larger than the total surface area of the
arterioles.
+
3. d. Bilirubin 10. c. O
4. c. Heamoglobin is absent 11. d. Active transport
5. c. Antigens of the surface of RBC 12. a. Greater than the hydrostatic pressure
6. c. AB 13. c. 150
7. a. Foetal RBCs 14. b. presence of valves
15. Distinguish between arteries and veins ?

No Arteries Veins
1. They are carry Pure blood (except the They carry deoxygenated blood (except the
pulmonary artery) from the heart to various pulmonary vein) from the various part of the
part of the body. body to the heart.
2. The walls of the arteries are thick, non- The blood pressure is low and the lumen has
collapsible to withstand high pressure. a wide wall which is collapsible.
3. Valves are absent and have a narrow lumen. The presence of semilunar valves that
prevents backflow of blood.
16. Distinguish between open and closed circulation :-

Open circulation Closed circulation
1. The circulating fluid is called haemolymph, it The circulating fluid called blood, it is red in
is colourless. colour.
2. This fluid is pumped by the heart, which Blood is pumped by the heart and flows
flows through blood vessels into the sinuses through blood vessels to every parts of the
called as haemocoel. body.
3. Respiratory pigment is absent. Respiratory pigment is present.
4. Ex :Arthropods , Molluscs. Annelids, Cephalopods and Vertebrates.
17. Distinguish between mitral valve and semi lunar valve :-

Mitral valve Semi lunar valve
1. The opening between the left atrium and left The pulmonary artery and aorta are
ventricle is guarded by the mitral valve. guarded by semilunar valves.
2. It has two flaps or cusps. It is made of three half-moon shaped cusps.
18. Right ventricular wall is thinner than the left ventricular wall. Why?
 The Left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta, which distributes pure blood to all parts of body.
 But Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery which carry blood to the lungs only.
 So the wall of the right ventricular thinner than the left vetricular wall.

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19. What might be the effect on a person whose diet has less iron content?
 The red colour respiratory pigment haemoglobin is made of Iron.
 The insufficient of iron diet, it leeds to less supply of oxygen in the tissues .
 It causes the Anaemic diseases.
20. Describe the mechanism by which the human heart beat is initiated and controlled. OR
Origin and Conduction of Heart Beat :- (March -2023)
 The human heart is myogenic type.

 The cardiac cells with fastest rhythm are called the Pacemaker cells, since they determine the
contraction rate of the entire heart.
 These cells are located in the right SinuAtrial node or SA node. It‟s also called Pacemaker.
 On the left side of the right atrium is a node called AuriculoVentricular node or AV node.
 Two special cardiac muscle fibres originate from the auriculo ventricular node and are called the
Bundle of His which runs down into the interventricular septum.
 The fibres spread into the ventricles are called the Purkinje fibres.
 Pacemaker cells produce excitation through depolarisation of their cell membrane.
21. What is lymph? Write its function.

 About 90% of fluid that leaks from capillaries eventually seeps back into the capillaries and the remaining
10% is collected and returned to blood system by means of a series of tubules known as lymph vessels or
lymphatics. The fluid inside the lymphatics is called lymph.
Function :-
1. These vessels serve as return ducts for the fluids that are continually diffusing out of the blood capillaries
into the body tissues.
2. The lymph nodes successfully prevent the invading microorganisms from reaching the blood stream. Cells
found in the lymphatics are the lymphocytes.
3. Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the villi of the intestinal wall.
22. What are the heart sounds? When and how are these sounds produced?
 HEART BEAT- Rhythmic contraction and expansion of heart is called heart beat.
 The contraction of the heart is called systole and the relaxation of the heart is called diastole.
 The heart normally beats 70-72 times per min in a human adult.
 During each cardiac cycle 2 sounds are produced that can be heard through a stethoscope.
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1. Lub - is associated with the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
2. Dub - is associated with the closure of the semilunar valves.
23. Select the correct biological term. -

a. Disc shaped cells which are concave on both sides – Erythrocytes.
b. Most of these have a large, bilobed nucleus – Leucocytes.
c. Enable red cells to transport gas through the blood - Red Blood Cells.
d. The liquid part of the blood – Plasma.
e. Most of them move and change shape like an amoeba – Phagocyte.
f. Consists of water and important dissolved substances – Plasma.
g. Destroyed in the liver and spleen after circulating in the blood for four months - Erythrocytes.
h. The substances which gives red cells their colour – Haemoglobin.
i. Another name for red blood cells – Erythrocytes.
j. Blood that has been changed to a jelly - Blood clot.
k. A word that means cell eater – Phagocyte.
l. Cells without nucleus – Erythrocytes / Platelets.
m. White cells made in the lymphatic tissue – Lymphocytes.
n. Blocks wound and prevent excessive bleeding - Blood clot.
o. Fragment of cells which are made in the bone marrow - Red Blood Cells.
p. Another name for white blood cells - Leucocytes.
q. Slowly releases oxygen to blood cells - Haemoglobin
r. Their function is to help blood clot in wounds - Platelets.
24. Name and Label the given diagrams to show A,B,C,D,E,F and G
A - Aortic arch
B – Left pulmonary artery
C – Left pulmonary vein

D – Pulmonary artery
E – Left Ventricle
F – Right Ventricle.
G – Inferior Vena cava.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the compound present in plasma ?
 Plasma mainly consists of water (80- 92%) in which the plasma proteins, inorganic constituents (0.9%),
organic constituents (0.1%) and respiratory gases are dissolved.
 The Plasma proteins are albumin, globulin, prothrombin and fibrinogen.
 Albumin maintains the osmotic pressure of the blood.
 Globulin facilitates the transport of ions, hormones, lipids and assists in immune function.
 Both Prothrombin and Fibrinogen are involved in blood clotting.
 Organic constituents include urea, amino acids, glucose, fats and vitamins.
 The inorganic constituents include chlorides,carbonates and phosphates of K, Na, Ca & Magnesium.
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2. Red blood cells/corpuscles (erythrocytes) :-
 Red blood cells are abundant than the other blood cells.
 There are about 5 million to 5.5 millions of RBC in a man and 4.5-5.0 millions of RBC in women.
 The RBCs are very small, biconcave shaped with the diameter of about 7μm (micrometer).
 The red colour of the RBC is due to the presence of a respiratory pigment haemoglobin.
 Haemoglobin plays an important role in the transport of respiratory gases.
 The average life span of RBCs is about 120 days, after which they are destroyed in the spleen.
 The Iron component returns to the bone marrow for reuse.
 Erythropoietin is a hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to manufacture of the bone marrow.
3. White blood cells/corpuscles (Leucocytes) :-
 They are colourless, amoeboid, nucleated cells. 6000 to 8000 per cubic mm of WBCs are seen in the blood.
 Depending on the presence or absence of granules, WBCs are divided into two types.They are
1. Granulocytes - are presence of granules in the cytoplasm. They are neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.
i) Neutrophils –
 They are 60%- 65% , and also called heterophils or polymorphonuclear,cells with 3-4 lobes of nucleus,
 They are phagocytic in nature and appear in large numbers in and around the infected tissues.
ii) Eosinophils –
 They are 2-3% , and have bilobed nucleus, and are non-phagocytic.
 Eosinophils increase during certain types of parasitic infections and allergic reactions.
iii) Basophils –
 They are 0.5%- 1.0% , The cytoplasmic granules are large sized,Nucleus is large sized and constricted
into several lobes, and are secrete substances such as heparin, serotonin and histamines.
 They are also involved in inflammatory reactions.
2. Agranulocytes- They are absence of granules in the cytoplasm and of 2 types lymphocytes and monocytes.
i) Lymphocytes –
 28% , large round nucleus and small amount of cytoplasm. The two types of lymphocytes are B and T
cells. Both B and T cells are responsible for the immune responses of the body.
 B - cells produce antibodies to neutralize the harmful effects of foreign substances.
 T - cells are involved in cell mediated immunity.
ii) Monocytes (Macrophages) –
 They have kidney shaped nucleus and constitute 1-3% of the total WBCs.
 The macrophages are phagocytic cells .

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4. Platelets / Thrombocytes:-
 They are also called that are produced from megakaryocytes (special cells in bone marrow) and lack nuclei.
 Blood normally contains 1, 50,000 -3, 50,000 platelets mm-3 of blood.
 They secrete substances involved in coagulation or clotting of blood.
 The reduction in platelet number can lead to clotting disorders.
5. ABO blood grouping :- (March -2023)

 Depending on the presence or absence of surface antigens on the RBCs, blood group in individual belongs
to 4 different types: namely, A, B, AB and O.
 The plasma of A, B and O individuals have natural antibodies (agglutinins) in them. Surface antigens are
called agglutinogens.
 Agglutinogens are absent in O blood group.
 Agglutinogens A and B are present in AB blood group and do not contain anti A and anti B in them.
 Distribution of antigens and antibodies in blood groups are shown in Table:
Blood group Agglutinogens (antigens) on the RBC Agglutinin (antibodies) in the plasma
A A Anti B
B B Anti A
AB AB No antibodies
O No antigens Anti A and Anti B
6. Coagulation of blood :-
 If get yourself hurt, your wound bleeds for some time after which it stops to bleed. This is because the
blood clots or coagulates in response to trauma.
 The mechanism by which excessive blood loss is prevented by the formation of clot is called blood
coagulation or clotting of blood.
 The blood vessel is damaged and the connective tissue in its wall is exposed to the blood.
 Clotting factors released from the damaged cells mix with clotting factors in the plasma.
 The protein called prothrombin is converted to its active form called thrombin in the presence of
calcium and vitamin K.
 Thrombin helps in the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin threads. The threads of fibrins become interlinked
into a patch that traps blood cell and seals the injured vessel.
 Schematic representation of blood coagulation is shown Figure:

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7. Blood pressure :-
 It is the pressure exerted on the surface of blood vessels by the blood.
 This pressure circulates the blood through arteries, veins and capillaries.
 There are two types of pressure, the Systolic pressure and the Diastolic pressure.
 Systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries as the chambers of the heart contracts.
 Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries when the heart chambers relax.
 Blood pressure is measured using a Sphygmomanometer (BP apparatus).
 Normal blood pressure in man is about 120 / 80mm Hg.
8. Electrocardiogram (ECG) :-
 It records the changes in electrical potential across the heart during one cardiac cycle.
 The special flap of muscle which initiates the heart beat is called as sinu-auricular node or SA node in the
right atrium. It spreads as a wave of contraction in the heart.
 The waves of the ECG are due to depolarization and not due to contraction of the heart.
 This wave of depolarisation occurs before the beginning of contraction of the cardiac muscle.
 A normal ECG shows 3 waves designated as P wave, QRS complex and T wave .
1. P Wave (atrial depolarisation)- It is a small upward wave and indicates the depolarisation of the atria. This
is the time taken for the excitation to spread through atria from SA node. Contraction of both atria lasts for
around 0.8-1.0 sec.
2. PQ Interval (AV node delay) - It is the onset of P wave to the onset of QRS complex. This is from the start
of depolarisation of the atria to the beginning of ventricular depolarisation. It is the time taken for the impulse
to travel from the atria to the ventricles (0.12-0.21sec). It is the measure of AV conduction time.
3. QRS Complex (ventricular depolarisation)- Atrial depolarisation occurs simultaneously with the ventricular
depolarisation. The normal QRS complex lasts for 0.06-0.09 sec. QRS complex is shorter than the P wave,
because depolarisation spreads through the Purkinjie fibres.
4. ST Segment - It lies between the QRS complex and T wave. It is the time during which all regions of the
ventricles are completely depolarised . The ST segment lasts for 0.09 sec.
5. T wave (ventricular depolarisation)- It represents ventricular depolarisation. The duration of the T wave is
longer than QRS complex because repolarisation takes place simultaneously throughout the ventricular
depolarisation.

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9. Double circulation :-
 Circulation of the blood was first described by William Harvey (1628). There are 2 types of blood
circulation.
 The blood circulates twice through the heart first on the right side then on the left side to complete one
cardiac cycle.
 The complete double blood circulation is more prominent in mammals because of the complete partition
of all the chambers (Auricles and ventricles) in the heart.
 Systemic circulation - the oxygenated blood entering the aorta from the left ventricle is carried by a
network of arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues.The deoxygenated blood from the tissue is
collected by venules, veins and vena cava and emptied into the right atrium.
 Pulmonary circulation - the blood from heart (right ventricle) is taken to the lungs by pulmonary artery
and the oxygenated blood from the lungs is emptied into the left auricle by the pulmonary vein.
 Completely separated circuits have an important advantage. Different pressures are maintained in the
pulmonary and systemic circulation.
10.Hypertension : -
 The normal blood pressure in man is 120/80 mmHg.
 In cases when the the systolic pressure exceeds 150 mm Hg and diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mmHg
persistently, the condition is called hypertension.
 Uncontrolled hypertension may damage the heart, brain and kidneys.
11. Coronary heart disease :-

 It occurs when the arteries are lined by atheroma.
 The build-up of atheroma contains cholesterol, fibres, dead muscle and platelets and Atherosclerosis.
 The cholesterol rich atheroma forms plaques in the inner lining of the arteries making them less elastic
and reduces the blood flow.
 Plaque grows within the artery and tends to form blood clots, forming coronary thrombus.
 Thrombus in a coronary artery results in heart attack.
12. Stroke :-
π It is a condition when the blood vessels in the brain bursts, (Brain haemorrhage) or when there is a block
in the artery that supplies the brain, (atherosclerosis) or thrombus.
π The part of the brain tissue that is supplied by this damaged artery dies due to lack of oxygen.
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13. Angina pectoris (ischemic pain in theheart muscles):-
 It is experienced during early stages of coronary heart disease.
 Atheroma may partially block the coronary artery and reduce the blood supply to the heart.
 As a result, there is tightness or choking with difficulty in breathing.
 This leads to angina or chest pain. Usually it lasts for a short duration of time.
13. Varicose veins :-

 The veins are so dilated that the valves prevent back flow of blood.
 The veins lose their elasticity and congested.
 Common sites are legs, rectal-anal regions (haemorrhoids), the oesophagus and the spermatic cord.
15. Embolism:-
 It is the obstruction of the bloodvessel by abnormal mass of materials such as fragment of the blood clot,
bone fragment or an air bubble.
 Embolus may lodge in the lungs, coronary artery or liver and leads to death.
16. Aneurysm:-
 The weakened regions of the wall of the artery or veins bulges to form a balloon like sac.
 Unruptured aneurysm may exert pressure on the adjacent tissues / may burst causing massive haemorrhage.
17. Myocardial infarction (Heart failure )

 The prime defect in heart failure is a decrease in cardiac muscle contractility.
 When the blood supply to the heart muscle or myocardium is remarkably reduced it leads to death of the
muscle fibres. This condition is called heart attack or myocardial infarction.
 The blood clot or thrombosis blocks the blood supply to the heart and weakens the muscle fibres.
 It is also called Ischemic heart disease due to lack of oxygen supply to the heart muscles.
 If this persists it leads to chest pain or angina. Prolonged angina leads to death of the heart muscle.
18. Rheumatic Heart Disease (RHD):-

 Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune disease which occurs 2-4 weeks after throat infection usually a
streptococcal infection.
 The antibodies developed to combat the infection cause damage to the heart.
 Effects include fibrous nodules on the mitral valve, fibrosis of the connective tissue and accumulation of
fluid in the pericardial cavity.
19. Cardio pulmonaryResuscitation (CPR) :-

 In 1956, James Elam and Peter Safar were the first to use mouth to mouth resuscitation.
 CPR is a life saving procedure that is done at the time of emergency conditions such as when a person‟s
breath or heart beat has stopped abruptly in case of drowning, electric shock or heart attack.
 CPR includes rescue of breath, which is achieved by mouth to mouth breathing, to deliver oxygen to the
victim‟s lungs by external chest compressions which helps to circulate blood to the vital organs.
 CPR must be performed within 4 to 6 minutes after cessation of breath to prevent brain damage or death.
 Along with CPR, defibrillation is also done. Defibrillation means a brief electric shock is given to the
heart to recover the function of the heart.

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8. EXCRETION
BOOK BACK QUESTION & ANSWER
1. b. length of Henle‟s loop 7. c. Blood with proteins but without cells
2. d. The urine will be more dilute 8. d. calcium ixalate
3. a. Micturition will continue 9. c. uricotelic
4. c. urea 10. a. Aquaphorins
+ +
5. d. PCT - Absorption of Na and K ions 11. c. antidiuretic hormone
6. b. Inner wall of Bowman‟s capsule 12. c. haemolymph
13. Arrange the following structures in the order that a drop of water entering the nephron would encounter them.
Answer :-
1) Afferent arteriole
2) Glomerulus
3) Bowman‟s capsule
4) Proximal tubule
5) Loop of Henle
6) Distal tubule
7) Collecting duct
8) Renal pelvis
14. Name the three filtration barriers that solutes must come across as they move from plasma to the lumen of
Bowman‟s capsule. What components of the blood are usually excluded by these layers?
1) Glomerular capillary endothelium – Prevents the blood cells.
2) Basal lamina – Glycoproteins, plasma proteins.
3) Epithelium of bowman‟s capsule.
15. What forces promote glomerular filtration? What forces opposes them? What is meant by net filtration pressure?
 Net filtration Pressure = Glomerular hydrostatic pressure - (Colloidal osmotic pressure + Capsular
hydrostatic pressure).
 Net filtration pressure = 55 mmHg - (30 mmHg + 15 mmHg) = 10mmHg
 The effective glomerular pressure of 10 mmHg results in ultrafiltration.
16. Identify the following structures and explain their significance in renal physiology?
a. Juxtaglomerular apparatus –
 The ascending limb of Henle returns to the glomerular region of its own nephron, where it passes through
the fork formed by the afferent and efferent arterioles.
 Both the tubular and vascular cells at this point are specialized to form juxta glomerular apparatus that lie
next to the glomerulus.
b. Podocytes –
 The glomerular membrane consists of octopus like cells called podocytes that entangles the glomerular tuft.
 Each podocyte bears many foot processes.

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c.Sphincters in the bladder -
 The urinary bladder is guarding by external and internal sphincters muscles.
 Somatic motor neurons induce the sphincters to close.
 Smooth muscles contracts resulting in the opening of the internal sphincters passively and relaxing the
external sphincter.
 When the stimulatory and inhibitory controls exceed the threshold, the sphincter opens and the urine is
expelled out.
17. In which segment of the nephron most of the re-absorption of substances takes place?
 Reabsorption takes place by the tubular epithelial cells in different segments of the nephron either by
active transport or passive transport, diffusion and osmosis.
 Per day nearly 99% of the glomerular filtrate that has to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules as it contains
certain substances needed by the body. This process is called selective reabsorption.
18. When a molecule or ion is reabsorbed from the lumen of the nephron, where does it go? If a solute is filtered
and not reabsorbed from the tubule, where does it go?
i. When a molecule or ion is reabsorbed from the lumen of the nephron, it goes out of – Efferent arteriole.
ii. If a solute is filtered and not reabsorbed from the tubule, it finally reach the collecting duct to be sent out
as waste in the form of urine.
19. Which segment is the site of secretion and regulated reabsorption of ions and pH homeostasis?
 The distal convoluted tubule recovers water and secretes potassium into the tubule.
 Na+ , Cl - and water remains in the filtrate of the DCT.
 Most of the reabsorption from this point is dependent on the body‟s need and is regulated by hormones.
-
Reabsorption of bicarbonate ( HCO3 ) takes place to regulate the blood pH.
-
 Homeostasis of K+ and Na in the blood is also regulated in this region.
20. What solute is normally present in the body to estimate GFR in humans ?
 Renal clearance is a parameter that reflects the amount of solute passing from the plasma to the urine in a
given period of time.
 If the renal clearance is equal to the GFR it means that there is efficient filtration with little reabsorption
and secretion.
 It is one of the parameters used to identify the efficiency of the kidney.
21. Which part of the autonomic nervous system is involved in micturation process?
 The functioning of kidneys is efficiently monitored and regulated by hormonal feedback control
mechanism involving the hypothalamus, juxta glomerular apparatus and to a certain extent the heart.
 Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are activated by changes in the blood volume, body fluid volume
and ionic concentration.
22. If the afferent arteriole of the nephron constricts, what happens to the GFR in that nephron? If the efferent
arteriole constricts what happens to the GFR in that nephron? Assume that no auto regulation takes place.
i. If the afferent arteriole of the nephron constricts, what happens to the GFR in that nephron.
- Decrease in GFR.
ii. If the efferent arteriole constricts what happens to the GFR in that nephron – Increase in GFR.
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23. Indentfiy the biological term
( Homeostasis, excretion, glomerulus,urea, glomerular filtration, ureters, urine, Bowman’s capsule, urinary
system, reabsorption, micturition, osmosis, glomerular capillaries via efferent arteriole, proteins.)
a. A liquid which gathers in the bladder - urine
b. Produced when blood is filtered in a Bowman‟s capsule - glomerular filtrate
c. Temporary storage of urine – Urinary bladder
d. A ball of inter twined capillaries - glomerulus
e. Removal of unwanted substances from the body - excretion
f. Each contains a glomerulus - Bowman’s capsule
g. Carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder - ureters
h. Scientific term for urination - micturition
i. Regulation of water and dissolved substances in blood and tissue fluid - Homeostasis
j. Consists of the kidneys, ureters and bladder - urinary system
k. Removal of useful substances from glomerular filtrate - reabsorption
l. What solute the blood contains that are not present in the glomerular filtrate? – proteins
With regards to toxicity and the need for dilution in water, how different are ureotelic and uricotelic excretions?
Give examples of animals that use these types of excretion? (March -2023)
Uricoteles Ureoteles
Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects In terrestrial animals, less toxic urea anduric acid are produced
excrete uric acid crystals, with a minimum to conserve water. Mammals and terrestrial amphibians
loss of water and are called uricoteles. mainly excrete urea and are called ureoteles.
24. Differentiate protonephridia from metanephridia:-

Protonephridia Metanephridia
Most invertebrates have a simple tubular structure in the metanephridia means -Vertebrates have complex
form of primitive kidneys called protonephridia tubular organs called kidneys. Ex : Annelids and
Ex : flame cells in Tapeworm, Solenocytes in Amphioxus. molluscs, Malpighian tubules in most insects.
25. What is the nitrogenous waste produced by amphibian larvae and by the adult animal?
 The tadpole larvae of aquatic amphibians, that excrete most of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia are
called ammonoteles.
 But the terrestrial amphibians live in land and they mainly excrete urea are called ureoteles.
26. How is urea formed in the human body?

 The nitrogenous waste formed as a result of breakdown of amino acids is converted to urea in the liver by
the Ornithine cycle or urea cycle.
 Urine formation involves three main processes namely, glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and
tubular secretion.

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28. Differentiate cortical from medullary nephrons :-
Cortical nephrons Medullary nephrons (JMN)
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too Some nephrons have very long loop of Henle that
short and extends only very little into the medulla run deep into the medulla and are called juxta
and are called cortical nephrons. medullary nephrons (JMN).
29. What vessels carry blood to the kidneys? Is this blood arterial or venous?
i. The vessels carry blood to the kidneys is – Renal artery.
ii. The blood carry to the kidneys is - Arterial blood.
30. Which vessels drain filtered blood from the kidneys?

 The vessels drain filtered blood from the kidneys is – Efferent arteriole.
31. What is tubular secretion? Name the substances secreted through the renal tubules ?
+ + +
 Substances such as H , K , NH4 , creatinine and organic acids move into the filtrate from the peritubular
capillaries into the tubular fluid.
+
 Most of the water is absorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule and Na is exchanged for water in the
loop of Henle.
 Hypotonic fluid enters the distal convoluted tubule and substances such as urea and salts pass from
peritubular blood into the cells of DCT.
 The urine excreted contains both filtered and secreted substances. Once it enters the collecting duct,
water is absorbed and concentrated hypertonic urine is formed.
+ + +
 For every H secreted into the tubular filtrate, a Na is absorbed by the tubular cell. The H secreted
+ - - + +
combines with HCO3 , HPO3 and NH3 and gets fixed as H2CO4 , H2PO4 and NH4 respectively.
+ +
Since H gets fixed in the fluid, reabsorption of H is prevented.
32. How are the kidneys involved in controlling blood volume? How is the volume of blood in the body related
to arterial pressure?
 Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) is a specialized tissue in the afferent arteriole of the nephron that
consists of macula densa and granular cells.
 The macula densa cells sense distal tubular flow and affect afferent arteriole diameter, whereas the
granular cells secrete an enzyme called renin.
 A fall in glomerular blood flow, glomerular blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate, can activate JG
cells to release renin which converts a plasma protein, angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.
 Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACH) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II.
+
 Angiotensin II stimulates Na reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule by vasoconstriction of the
blood vessels and increases the glomerular blood pressure.
 Angiotensin II acts at different sites such as heart, kidney, brain, adrenal cortex and blood vessels.
+ +
 It stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone that causes reabsorption of Na , K excretion and
absorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
 This increases the glomerular blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate.
 This complex mechanism is generally known as Renin- Angiotensin- Aldosterone System (RAAS).
 Figure shows the schematic representation of the various hormones in the regulation of body fluid
concentration.
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33. Name the three main hormones are involved in the regulation of the renal function?
1) ADH – Antidiuretic hormone.
2) Renin- Angiotensin
3) Aldosterone.
34. What is the function of antidiuretic hormone? Where is it produced and what stimuli increases or decreases its
secretion?
 when there is an increase in the blood pressure, the osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus respond by
stimulating the neurohypophysis to secrete the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin (a positive
feedback).
 ADH facilitates reabsorption of water by increasing the number of aquaporins on the cell surface
membrane of the distalmconvoluted tubule and collecting duct.
 This increase in aquaporins causes the movement of water from the lumen into the interstitial cells,
thereby preventing excess loss of water by diuresis.
 When you drink excess amounts of your favourite juice, osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus is no longer
stimulated and the release of ADH is suppressed from the neurohypophysis (negative feedback) and the
aquaporins of the collecting ducts move into the cytoplasm.
 Vasopressin secretion is controlled by positive and negative feedback mechanism.
35. What is the effect of aldosterone on kidneys and where is it produced?

 Angiotensin II acts at different sites such as heart, kidney, brain, adrenal cortex and blood vessels.
+ +
 It stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete Aldosterone that causes reabsorption of Na , K excretion and
absorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
 This increases the glomerular blood pressure and glomerular filtration rate.
 This complex mechanism is generally known as Renin- Angiotensin- Aldosterone System (RAAS).

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36. Explain the heart‟s role in secreting a hormone that regulates renal function? What hormone is this?
 Excessive stretch of cardiac atrial cells cause an increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart and release
+
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide or factor (ANF) travels to the kidney where it increases Na excretion and
increases the blood flow to the glomerulus, acting on the afferent glomerular arterioles as a vasodilator or
on efferent arterioles as a vasoconstrictor.
 It decreases aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex and also decreases release of renin, thereby
decreasing angiotensin II.
 ANF acts antagonistically to the reninangiotensin system, aldosterone and vasopressin.
ADDITIONAL QUESTION
1. Ammonoteles :-
 Animals that excrete most of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia are called ammonoteles.
 Many fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects are ammonotelic.
 In bony fishes, ammonia diffuses out across the body surface or through gill surface as ammonium ions.
2. Structure of kidney :-
 Excretory system in human consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
 Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures, that lie in the superior lumbar region.
 The right kidney is placed slightly lower than the left kidney. Each kidney weighs is120-170 grams.
 The outer layer of the kidney is covered by cortex, inner medulla and pelvis.
 The medulla is divided into a few conical tissue masses called medullary pyramids or renal pyramids.
 The part of cortex that extends in between the medullary pyramids is the renal columns of Bertini.
 The centre of the inner concave surface of the kidney has a notch called the renal hilum, through which
ureter, blood vessels and nerves innervate.
 Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with projection called calyces.
 The renal pelvis is continuous with the ureter once it leaves the hilum.
 The walls of the calyces, pelvis and ureter have smooth muscles which contracts rhythmically.
 The calyces collect the urine and empties into the ureter, which is stored in the urinary bladder
temporarily.
 The urinary bladder opens into the urethra through which urine is expelled out.

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3. Structure of a nephron :- (March-2023)
 Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidneys. Each kidney has nearly one million nephron.
 Each nephron consists of a filtering corpuscle called renal corpuscle (malpighian body) and a renal tubule.
 The renal tubule opens into a longer tubule called the collecting duct.
 The renal tubule begins with a double walled cup shaped structure called the Bowman’s capsule, which
encloses a ball of capillaries that delivers fluid to the tubules, called the glomerulus.
 The Bowman‟s capsule and the glomerulus together constitute the renal corpuscle.
 The endothelium of glomerulus has many pores (fenestrae).
 The external layer of the Bowman's capsule is made up of simple squamous epithelium and the visceral
layer is made of epithelial cells called podocytes.
 The podocytes end in foot processes are called filtration slits.
 The renal tubule continues further to form the proximal convoluted tubule [PCT] followed by a
U-shaped loop of Henle (Henle‟s loop) that has a thin descending and a thick ascending limb.
 The ascending limb continues as a highly coiled tubular region called the distal convoluted tubule [DCT].
 The DCT of many nephrons open into a straight tube called collecting duct.
 The collecting duct runs through the medullary pyramids in the region of the pelvis.
 Several collecting ducts fuse to form papillary duct that delivers urine into the calyces, which opens into
the renal pelvis.
4. Mechanism of urine formation in human :-

 The Urine formation involves 3 main processes namely glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and
tubular secretion.
1) Glomerular ultra filtration:-

 A malpighian body comprises bowman’s capsule and glomeruli.
 Malpighian body acts as a biological filter.The kidneys receive an abundant blood 120-125 ml/min.
 Net filtration pressure = 55 mmHg - (30 mmHg + 15 mmHg) = 10mmHg .The effective glomerular
pressure of 10 mmHg results in ultrafiltration.
 The fluid in the capsule which obtained by the filtering process is glomerular filtrate.
 In 24hours the total volume of glomerular filtrate is 180 liters.

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2) Tubular Reabsorption:-
 The volume of filtrate formed per day is around 170-180 L .
 The urine released is around 1.5 L per day, i.e., nearly 99% of the glomerular filtrate that has to be
reabsorbed by the renal tubules as it contains certain substances needed by the body. This process is called
selective reabsorption.
 Reabsorption takes place by the tubular epithelial cells in different segments of the nephron either by active
transport or passive transport, diffusion and osmosis.
3) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) :-
 Glucose, lactate, amino acids, Na1 and water in the filtrate is reabsorbed in the PCT.
+ -
 Sodium is reabsorbed by active transport through sodium- potassium (Na K ) pump in the PCT.
 Small amounts of urea and uric acid are also reabsorbed.
4) Henle’s loop:-
 Descending limb of Henle‟s loop is permeable to water due the presence of aquaporins, but not permeable
+ -
to salts. Water is lost in the descending limb, hence Na and Cl gets concentrated in the filtrate.
+ - +
 Ascending limb of Henle’s loop is impermeable to water but permeable to solutes such as Na , Cl , K .
5) Distal convoluted tubules (DCT) :-
+ -
 recovers water and secretes potassium into the tubule. Na , Cl and water remains in the filtrate of the DCT.
 Most of the reabsorption from this point is dependent on the body‟s need and is regulated by hormones.
 In this tubules, the urine becomes isotonic, due to active transport of Na and passive transport of water.
6) Collection tubule-
+ +
 Collecting duct is permeable to water, secretes K and reabsorbs Na to produce concentrated urine.
 The change in permeability to water is due to the presence of number of water permeable channels called
aquaporins.
5. Haemodialysis :-
 Malfunctiong of the kidneys can lead to accumalation of urea and other toxic substances, leading to kidney
failure.
 In such patients toxic urea can be removed from the blood by a process called haemodialysis.
 A dialyzing machine or an artificial kidney is connected to the patient‟s body.
 A dialyzing machine consists of a long cellulose tube surrounded by the dialysing fluid in a water bath.
 The patient‟s blood is drawn from a conveinent artery and pumped into the dialysing unit after adding an
anticoagulant like heparin.
 The tiny pores in the dialysis tube allows small molecules such as glucose, salts and urea to enter into the
water bath, whereas blood cells and protein molecules do not enter these pores.
 This stage is similar to the filtration process in the glomerulus.
 The dialysing liquid in the water bath consists of solution of salt and sugar in correct proportion in order to
prevent loss of glucose and essential salts from the blood.
 The cleared blood is then pumped back to the body through a vein.

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6. Kidney Transplantation :-
 It is the ultimate method for correction of a acute renal failures.
 This involves transfer of healthy kidney from one person (donor) to another person with kidney failure.
 The donated kidney may be taken from a healthy person who is declared brain dead or from sibling or
close relatives to minimise the chances of rejection by the immune system of the host.
 Immunosuppressive drugs are usually administered to the patient to avoid tissue rejection.
7. Uremia :–
 Uremia is characterized by increase in urea and other non-protein nitrogenous substances like uric acid
and creatinine in blood .
 Normal urea level in human blood is about 17-30mg/100mL of blood.
 The urea concentration rises as 10 times of normal levels during chronic renal failure.
8. Renal calculi :-
 Renal calculi, also called renal stone or kidney stone or nephrolithiasis, is the formation of hard stone like
masses in the renal tubules of renal pelvis.
 It is mainly due to the accumulation of soluble crystals of salts of sodium oxalates and certain phosphates.
 This result in severe pain called “renal colic pain” and can cause scars in the kidneys.
 Renal stones can be removed by techniques like pyleothotomy or lithotripsy.
9. Glomerulonephritis :-
 It is also called Bright‟s disease and is characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli of both kidneys and
is usually due to post-streptococcal infection that occurs in children.
 Symptoms are haematuria, proteinuria, salt and water retention, oligouria, hypertension and pulmonary
oedema.

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9. LOCOMOTION & MOVEMENT

1. b. mesoderm 11. a. epimysium
2. a. myocytes 12. b. hidge joint
3. a. skeletal muscle 13. b. pivot joint
4. a. tendon 14. c. myosin
5. b. fasicle 15. d. freely movable joints
6. a. myoglobin 16. a. Gout
7. a. sarcomere 17. b. hip bone
8. a. myosin 18. a. girdle and their limbs
9. b. actin 19. d. amoeboid
10. a. sarcomere 20. c. olecranon process
21. Name the different types of movement ?

 The different types of movements that occur in the cells of our body are amoeboid, ciliary, flagellar and
muscular movement.
1) Amoeboid movement – Cells such as macrophages exhibit amoeboid movement for engulfing pathogens
by pseudopodia.
2) Ciliary movement - This type of movement occurs in the respiratory passages and genital tracts which are
lined by ciliated epithelial cells.
3) Flagellar movement - This type of movement occurs in the cells which are having flagella or whip-like
motile organelle. The sperm cells show flagellar movement.
4) Muscular movement -The movement of hands, legs, jaws, tongue are caused by the contraction and
relaxation of the muscle which is termed as the muscular movement.
22. Name the filaments present in the sarcomere ?

 Inside the sarcomere two types of filaments are present namely the thick and thin filaments.
 The thick filaments extend the entire length of the A-band.
 The thin filaments extend across the I-band and partly into the A-band.
23. Name the contractile proteins present in the skeletal muscle ?

i. Contractile proteins are - actin and myosin
ii. Regulatory proteins are - tropomyosin and troponin.
24. When describing a skeletal muscle, what does “striated” mean ?

 Along the length of each myofibril there are a repeated series of dark and light bands.
 The dark A-bands (Anisotropic bands) and the light I-bands (Isotropic bands) are perfectly aligned with
one another. This type of arrangement gives the cell a striated appearance.
25. How does an isotonic contraction take place ?

 In isotonic contraction the length of the muscle changes but the tension remains constant.
 Here, the force produced is unchanged. Example: lifting dumbbells and weightlifting.

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26. How does an isometric contraction take place ?
 In isometric contraction the length of the muscle does not change but the tension of the muscle changes.
 Here, the force produced is changed. Example: pushing against a wall, holding a heavy bag.
27. Name the bones of the skull ?

 The skull is composed of two sets of bones – cranial and facial bones.
 It consists of 22 bones of which 8 are cranial bones and 14 are facial bones.
 The cranial bones form the hard protective outer covering of the brain and called the brain box. The
capacity of the cranium is 1500cm3..
 These bones are joined by sutures which are immovable. They are a paired parietal, paired temporal
and individual bones such as the frontal, sphenoid, occipital and ethmoid.
28. Which is the only jointless bone in human body ?

 A single U-shaped Hyoid bone is present at the base of the buccal cavity.
 It is the only bone without joint.
29. List the three main parts of the axial skeleton ?

 Axial skeleton consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column and thoracic cage.
1) The skull - is composed of 28 bones – cranial (8) and facial bones(14).
2) Vertebral column - is also called the back bone. It consists of 33 vertebrae.
3) Thoracic cage – Sternum (1), and Ribs (24).
30. How is tetany caused ?

 Rapid muscle spasms occur in the muscles due to deficiency of parathyroid hormone resulting in reduced
calcium levels in the body.
31. How is Rigor mortis happened ?

 Several hours after death all the muscles of the body attain a state of contracture called.R.M.
 This is due to complete depletion of ATP in muscle fibres.
 The lysosome enzymes completely destroy all muscle proteins ,it will take place 15-25 hours after death.
32. What are the different types of rib bones that form the rib cage ? (March-2023)
1) True ribs’ / vertebro–sternal ribs – The first 7 pairs of ribs.
2) False ribs’ / vertebro-chondral ribs - The 8, 9 and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the
sternum but joined with the cartilaginous (hyaline cartilage) part of the seventh rib.
3) Floating ribs’ / vertebral ribs - The last 11th and 12th pairs of ribs are not connected ventrally.
33. What are the bones that make the pelvic girdle?
 The pelvic girdle is composed of two hip bones called Coxal bones that secure the lower limbs.
 Each Coxal bone consists of three fused bones, ilium, ischium and pubis.
 A deep hemispherical socket called the acetabulum is present on the lateral surface of the pelvis. It
receives the head of the femur.
 Ventrally the two halves of the pelvic girdle meet and form the pubic symphysis containing fibrous
cartilage.

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 The ilium is the superior flaring portion of the hip bone. Each ilium forms a secure joint with the sacrum
posteriorly.
 The ischium is a curved bar of bone. The V-shaped pubic bones articulate anteriorly at the pubic
symphysis.
34. List the disorders of the muscular system ?

1) Disorders of muscular system Myasthenia gravis :- An autoimmune disorder affecting the action of
acetylcholine at neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles.
When the disease progresses, it can make chewing, swallowing, talking and even breathing difficult.
2) Muscle fatigue :- Muscle fatigue is the inability of a muscle to contract after repeated muscle contractions.
This is due to lack of ATP and accumulation of lactic acid by anaerobic breakdown of glucose.
3) Atrophy :- A decline or cessation of muscular activity results in the condition called atrophy which results
in the reduction in the size of the muscle and makes the muscle to become weak, which occurs with lack
of usage as in chronic bedridden patients.
4) Muscle pull :- Muscle pull is actually a muscle tear. A traumatic pulling of the fibres produces a tear
known as sprain. This can occur due to sudden stretching of muscle beyond the point of elasticity.
5) Muscular dystrophy:- The group of diseases collectively called the muscular dystrophy are associated
with the progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle fibres, weakening the muscles and leading to death
from lung or heart failure. The most commonly called as Duchene Muscular Dystrophy (DMD).
35. Explain the sliding- filament theory of muscle contraction ?

 Sliding filament theory proposed in 1954, Andrew F. Huxley and Rolf Niedergerke.
 According to this theory, overlapping actin and myosin filaments of fixed length slide past one another in
an energy requiring process, resulting in muscle contraction.
 The contraction of muscle fibre is a remarkable process that helps in creating a force to move or to
resist a load. The force which is created by the contracting muscle is called muscle tension.
 Muscle contraction is initiated by a nerve impulse sents by the central nervous system (CNS) through a
motor neuron.
 The junction between the motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called the neuromuscular
junction or motor end plate.
 When nerve impulse reaches a neuromuscular junction, acetylcholine is released. It initiates the opening of
multiple gated channels in sarcolemma.
 The action potential travels along the T-tubules and triggers the release of calcium ions from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 The released calcium ions bind to troponin on thin filaments. The tropomyosin uncovers the myosin-
binding sites on thin filaments.
 Now the active sites are exposed to the heads of myosin to form a cross-bridge. During cross-bridge
formation actin and myosin form a protein complex called actomyosin.
 Utilizing the energy released from hydrolysis of ATP, the myosin head rotates until it forms a 90o angle
with the long axis of the filament.
 In this position myosin binds to an actin and activates a contraction – relaxation cycle which is followed by
a power stroke.

~ 22 ~
36. What are the benefits of regular exercise?
1) The muscles used in exercise grow larger and stronger.
2) The resting heart rate goes down. Protection from heart attack.
3) More enzymes are synthesized in the muscle fibre.
4) Ligaments and tendons become stronger. Joints become more flexible.
5) Influences hormonal activity. Improves cognitive functions.
6) Prevents Obesity. Promotes confidence, esteem.
7) Aesthetically better with good physique.
8) Over all well-being with good quality of life.Prevents depression, stress and anxiety.
ADDITIONAL QUESTION
1. Structure of a skeletal muscle fibre :- (fig :9.2 – page :30)
 Each muscle fibre is thin and elongated. Most of them taper at one or both ends.
 Muscle fibre has multiple oval nuclei just beneath its plasma membrane or sarcolemma.
 The cytoplasm of the muscle fibre is called the sarcoplasm. It contains glycosomes, myoglobin and
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 Myoglobin is a red- coloured respiratory pigment of the muscle fibre. It is similar to haemoglobin and
contains iron group that has affinity towards oxygen and serves as the reservoir of oxygen.
 Glycosomes are the granules of stored glycogen that provide glucose during the period of muscle activity.
 Actin and Myosin are muscle proteins present in the muscle fibre.
 Along the length of each myofibril there are a repeated series of dark and light bands.
 The dark A-bands (Anisotropic bands) and the light I-bands (Isotropic bands) are perfectly aligned with
one another. This type of arrangement gives the cell a striated appearance.
 Each dark band has a lighter region in its middle called the H-Zone. Each H-zone is bisected vertically by a
dark line called the M-line.
 The light I-bands also have a darker mid line area called the Z–disc.
 The myofibrils contain the contractile element, the sarcomere is the functional unit of the skeletal muscle.
 A Sarcomere is the region of a myofibril between two successive Z-discs. It contains an A-band with a
half I-band at each end.
 Inside the sarcomere two types of filaments are present namely the thick and thin filaments.
 The thick filaments extend the entire length of the A-band, the thin filaments extend across the I-band and
partly into the A-band.
 The invagination of the sarcolemma forms transverse tubules (T–tubules) and they penetrate into the
junction between the A and I-bands.
2. Functions of skeletal system :- (March-2023)

1) Support –It forms a rigid framework and supports the weight of the body against gravity.
2) Shape - It provides and maintains the shape of the body.
3) Protection – It protects the delicate internal organs of the body.
4) Acts as reservoir – It stores minerals such as calcium and phosphate. Fat (Triglyceride) is stored in
yellow bone marrow and represents a source of stored energy for the body.
5) Locomotion – It acts as lever along with the muscles attached to it.
6) Strength – It can withstand heavy weight and absorbs mechanical shock.
7) As a haemopoietic tissue – Red and White blood cells are produced in the bone marrow of the ribs.

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3. Types of joints
 Joints are essential for all types of movements performed by the bony parts of the body. The joints are points
of contact between bones.The joint acts as a fulcrum of a lever.They are 3 types.
(i) Fibrous joints or Synarthroses:
They are immovable fixed joints in which no movement between the bones
is possible. Sutures of the flat skull bones are fibrous joints.
(ii) Cartilaginous joints or Amphiarthroses:
They are slightly movable joints in which the joint surfaces are
separated by a cartilage and slight movement is only possible. E.g., Joints of adjacent vertebrae of the
vertebral column.
(iii) Synovial joints or Diarthroses joints:
They are freely movable joints, the articulating bones are seperated by
a cavity which is filled with synovial fluid.
4. Structure of a typical long bone :-

 A typical long bone has a diaphysis, epiphyses and
membranes.
 A tubular diaphysis or shaft, forms the long axis of
the bone.
 It is constructed of a central medullary cavity or
marrow cavity.
 The epiphyses are the bone ends.
 Epiphyses interior contains spongy bone with Red
marrow.
 The diaphysis and epiphyses meet is called the
metaphysis.
 The entire bone is covered by a double-layered
membrane called the periosteum.
 The outer fibrous layer is dense irregular connective
tissue.
 The inner osteogenic layer consists of osteoblasts
and osteoclasts .
 In addition, there are primitive stem cells, osteogenic
cells, that give rise to the osteoblasts.
 The periosteum is richly supplied with nerve
fibres,lymphatic vessels and blood vessels.
 Internal bone surfaces are covered with a connective
tissue called the endosteum.
 The endosteum covers the trabeculae of spongy bone
and lines the canals that pass through the compact
bone.
 Between the epiphysis and diaphysis epiphyseal
plate or growth plate is present.

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10. NEURAL CONTROL & COORDINATION
BOOK BACK ONE MARK - ANSWER KEY

1. c. Oval window 8. a. (P-iv), (Q-iii), (R-i), (S-ii)
2. a. Sensory nerve - afferent 9. b. K+
3. a. P = Acetylcholine, Q = Ca++ 10. a. In a resting neuron, the axonal membrane is
more permeable to K+ ions and nearly
impermeable to Na+ ions
4. c. Cell-B is concerned with colour 11. c. Increased energy output for nerve impulse
vision in bright light conduction.
5. a. Both Assertion and Reason are true 12. b. (ii) , (iii), and (iv)
and Reason is the correct explanation
of the Assertion
6. d. Hypothalamus 13. d. Its pathways always involve four neurons.
7. a. Medulla oblongata 14. c. Repolarization
15. Why is the blind spot called so?
 The optic nerves and the retinal blood vessels enter the eye slightly below the posterior pole, which is
devoid of photo receptors; hence this region is called blind spot.
16. Sam‟s optometrist tells him that his intraocular pressure is high. What is this condition called and which
fluid does it involve?
 Any block in the canal of schlemm increases the infra ocular pressure of aqueous humor and leads to
„Glaucoma’.
 Where the optic nerve and the retina are compressed due to pressure.
17. The action potential occurs in response to a threshold stimulus; but not at sub threshold stimuli.What is the
name of the principle involved?
 The principle involved - all or none principle.
 The action potential occurs in response to a threshold stimulus but does not occur at subthreshold stimuli.
 This is called all or none principle.
18. Pleasant smell of food urged Ravi to rush into the kitchen. Name the parts of the brain involved in the
identification of food and emotional responses to odour.
 The hypothalamus contains a pair of small rounded body called mammillary bodies that are involved in
olfactory reflexes and emotional responses to odour.
19. Cornea transplant in humans is almost never rejected. State the reason.
 The Cornea is a non-vascular transparent coat formed of stratified squamous epithelium.
 They donot have blood vessels, So it can be transplanted from one person to another.
20. At the end of repolarization, the nerve membrane gets hyperpolarized. Why?
 If repolarization becomes more negative than the resting potential -70 mV to about -90 mV, it is called
Hyperpolarization.
 During this, K+ ion gates are more permeable to K+ even after reaching the threshold level as it closes
slowly; hence called Lazy gates.

~ 25 ~
21. The choroid plexus secretes cerebrospinal fluid. List the function of it.
 Choroid plexus is a network of blood capillaries found in the roof of the ventricles and forms
cerebro spinal fluid (CSF) from the blood.
1) CSF provides buoyancy to the CNS structures.
2) CSF acts as a shock absorber for the brain and spinal cord.
3) It nourishes the brain cells by transporting constant supply of food and oxygen.
4) It carries harmful metabolic wastes from the brain to the blood.
5) It also maintains a constant pressure inside the cranial vessels.
22. What is the ANS controlling centre? Name the parts that are supplied by the ANS.
 ANS controlling centre is in the hypothalamus.
 The autonomic neural system is auto functioning and self governed.
 It is a part of peripheral neural system that innervates smooth muscles, glands and cardiac muscle.
 This system controls and coordinates the involuntary activities of various organs.
23. Why the limbic system is called the emotional brain? Name the parts of it.
 The inner part of the cerebral hemisphere constitutes the limbic system.
 The main components of limbic system are olfactory bulbs, cingulate gyrus, mammillary body,
amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus.
 The limbic system is called „emotional brain‟ because it plays a primary role in the regulation of pleasure,
pain, anger, fear, sexual feeling and affection.
24. Classify receptors based on type of stimuli .
25. Difference between rod and cone cells :

~ 26 ~
26. The sense of taste is considered to be the most pleasurable of all senses. Describe the structure of the receptor
involved with a diagram.
 The sense of taste is considered to be the most pleasurable of all senses.
 The tongue is provided with many small projections called papillae which give the tongue an abrasive feel.
 Taste buds are located mainly on the papillae which are scattered over the entire tongue surface.
 Most taste buds are seen on the tongue few are scattered on the soft palate, inner surface of the cheeks,
pharynx and epiglottis of the larynx.
 Taste buds are flask-shaped and consist of 50 – 100 epithelial cells of two major types. Gustatory
epithelial cells (taste cells) and Basal epithelial cells (Repairing cells).
 Long microvilli called gustatory hairs project from the tip of the gustatory cells and extends through a
taste pore to the surface of the epithelium where they are bathed by saliva.
 Gustatory hairs are the sensitive portion of the gustatory cells and it send the signal to the brain.
 The basal cells that act as stem cells, divide and differentiate into new gustatory cells.
27. Describe the sensory receptors present in the skin.

1) Tactile merkel disc - is light touch receptor lying in the deeper layer of epidermis.
2) Hair follicle receptors - are light touch receptors lying around the hair follicles.
3) Meissner’s corpuscles - are small light pressure receptors found just beneath the epidermis in the dermal
papillae.They are numerous in hairless skin areas such as finger tips and soles of the feet.
4) Pacinian corpuscles - are the large egg shaped receptors found scattered deep in the dermis and
monitoring vibration due to pressure. It allows to detect different textures, temperature, hardness and pain.
5) Ruffini endings - which lie in the dermis responds to continuous pressure.
6) Krause end bulbs - are thermoreceptors that sense temperature.
ADDITIONAL QUESTION
1. Name the first five Cranial nerves, their nature and their functions.

~ 27 ~
2. Describe the structures of Olfactory receptors ?.
 The receptors for taste and smell are the chemoreceptors.
 The smell receptors are excited by air borne chemicals that dissolve in fluids.
 The yellow coloured patches of olfactory organs that are located on the roof of the nasal cavity.
 It contains three types of cells: supporting cells, Basal cells and millions of pin shaped olfactory
receptor cells.
 The olfactory glands and the supporting cells secrete the mucus.
 The unmyelinated axons of the olfactory receptor cells are gathered to form the filaments of olfactory
nerve which synapse with cells of olfactory bulb.
 The impulse, through the olfactory nerves, is transmitted to the frontal lobe of the brain for identification
of smell and the limbic system for the emotional responses to odour.
3. The function of Brain lobes :- (March-2023)

i. Frontal – Behaviour, intelligence, memory, movement.
ii. Parietal – Language, Reading, Sensation.
iii. Temporal – Speech, Hearing, Memory.
iv. Occipital- Visual Processing.
4. The structure of Neuron : (March-2023)

 A neuron is a microscopic structure composed of 3 parts namely cell
body,dendrites and axon.
 The cell body is the spherical part of the neuron that contains all the
cellular organelles.
 The plasma membrane covering the neuron is called neurilemma and
the axon is axolemma.
 The branched short fibres coming out of the cell body are called
dendrites, which transmit impulses towards the cell body.
 The cell body and the dendrites contain cytoplasm and granulated
endoplasmic reticulum called Nissl’s granules.
 An axon is a long fibre that arises from a cone shaped area of the cell
body called the Axon hillock.
 The axon, is surrounded by Schwann cells to form myelin sheath,
which act as an insulator.
 Myelin sheath is associated only with the axon; dendrites are always
non-myelinated.
 There are gaps - Nodes of Ranvier. in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells.
 Each branch at the distal end of the axon terminates into a bulb like structure called synaptic knob which
possesses synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
 The axon transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body to an inter neural space or to a neuro-
muscular junction.
5. The types of neurons : they are 3 types
1. Multipolar neurons - have many processes with more dendrites. They are mostly interneurons.
2. Bipolar neurons - have two processes with one axon and one dendrite. These are found in the retina of the
eye, inner ear and the olfactory area of the brain.
3. Unipolar neurons - have a single short process and one axon. Unipolar neurons are located in the ganglia
of cranial and spinal nerves.
~ 28 ~
11. Chemical Coordination and Integration

1. b. homoeostasis 8. a. Testosterone is produced by Leydig cells under the

influences of luteinizing hormones
2. c. Parathyroid & adrenal 9. b. Gigantism
3. b. insulin 10. a. Low secretion of growth hormone
4. a. Luteinising hormone 11. d. Hypophysial portal system
5. d. Thyroid & Parathyroid 12. d. Cortisol and aldosterone are steroid hormones.
6. c. goitre 13. d. (i) and (iii)
7. c. thymus
14. Comment on homeostasis.:-

 Maintence of constant internal environment of the body by the different coordinating system.
 Hormones coordinate different physical, physiological, mental activities and maintain homeostasis.
15. Hormones are known as chemical messenger. Justify.:-

 Hormones are chemical messengers because they act as organic catalysts and coenzymes to perform
specific functions in the target organs.
16. Write the role of oestrogen in ovulation.:-

 In females, FSH acts on the ovaries, it secrete the steroid hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
 Oestrogen is responsible for the maturation of reproductive organs and the development of secondary
sexual characters at puberty.
17. Comment on Acini of thyroid gland.:-

 The thyroid gland lobules consist of follicles called acini.
 Each acinus is lined with glandular, cuboidal or squamous epithelial cells.
 The lumen of acinus is filled with colloid, a thick glycoprotein mixture consisting of thyroglobulin
molecules.
18. Write the causes for Diabetes mellitus and Diabetes insipidus.
Diabetes mellitus Diabetes insipidus
It is caused due to reduced secretion of insulin. It is caused due to hyposecretion of vasopression
As the result, blood glucose level is elevated. The (ADH) from neurohypophysis. The symptoms are
Symptoms are polyurea, polydipsia and polyphagia. polyurea and polydipsia.
19. Specify the symptoms of Acromegaly :-

 Acromegaly is due to excessive secretion of Growth hormone in adults.
 The symptoms are - Over growth of hand bones, feet bones, jaw bones, malfunctioning of gonads,
enlargement of viscera, tongue, lungs, heart, liver, spleen and endocrine gland like thyroid, adrenal etc.,

~ 29 ~
20. Write the symptoms of Cretinism :-
 In infants, hypothyroidism causes cretinism.
 A cretin shows retarded skeletal growth, absence of sexual maturity, retarded mental ability, thick
wrinkled skin, protruded enlarged tongue, bloated face, thick and short limbs occurs.
 The other symptoms are low BMR, slow pulse rate, subnormal body temperature and elevated blood
cholesterol levels.
21. Briefly explain the structure of thyroid gland. :-

 It is largest endocrine gland in the body.
 The butterfly shaped, bilobed gland, located below the larynx on the
each side of upper trachea.
 Its two lateral lobes are connected by a median tissue mass called
isthmus.
 Eache lobe is made up of many lobules. It consist of follicles called
acini.
 Each acinus is lined with glandular, cuboidal epithelial cells. It is filled
with colloid, a thick glycoprotein mixture consisting of thyroglobulin
molecules.
 Hormones of the thyroid gland are often called the major metabolic
hormones.
 The follicular cells of thyroid gland secrete two hormones namely tri-iodothyronine (T3 ) and thyroxine
or tetra- iodothyronine (T4).
 The parafollicular cells or „C‟ cells of thyroid gland secrete a hormone called thyrocalcitonin.
 Iodine is essential for the normal synthesis of thyroid hormones.
 Thyroid releasing hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the adenohypophysis to secrete TSH,
which inturn stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete the thyroid hormones.
 Thyroid hormones show a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary.
22. Name the layers of Adrenal cortex and mention their secretions. :-
 The outer region of the kidney is the cortex and the inner
region is the medulla.
 Histologically the adrenal cortex has three distinct zones,
zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis.
1) Zona glomerulosa - an outer thin layer constitutes about
15% of adrenal cortex, and secretes mineralocorticoids.
2) Zona fasciculata - the middle layer constitutes about 75%
of adrenal cortex and secretes glucocorticoids such as
cortisol, corticosterone and trace amounts of adrenal
androgen and oestrogen.
3) Zona reticularis - an inner zone of adrenal cortex constitute about 10% of adrenal cortex and secretes the
adrenal androgen, trace amount of oestrogen and glucocorticoids.
23. Differentiate hyperglycemia from hypoglycemia :-

Hypoglycemia. Hyperglycemia
It is due to increased secretion of insulin thereby It is due to decreased secretion of insulin thereby
blood glucose level decreases. In this disorder blood glucose level increase. In this disorder blood
blood glucose level lowers. glucose level is higher .
~ 30 ~
24. Write the functions of (CCK) Cholecystokinin :-
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) is secreted by duodenum in response to the presence of fat and acid in the diet.
 It acts on the gall bladder to release bile into duodenum and stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes
and its discharge.
25. Growth hormone is important for normal growth. Justify the statement :-
 Growth hormone promotes growth of all the tissues and metabolic process of the body.
 It influences the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
 It stimulates chondrogenesis (cartilage formation), osteogenesis (bone formation) and helps in the
retention of minerals like nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sodium etc., in the body.
 GH increases the release of fatty acid from adipose tissue.
 Thus it conserves glucose for glucose dependent tissues, such as the brain.
26. Pineal gland is an endocrine gland, write its role. :-

 The Pineal gland / epiphysis / cerebri/ conarium is located behind the 3rd ventricle of brain.
 It is formed of parenchymal cells and interstitial cells. It secretes the hormone melatonin.
 Melatonin plays a central role in the regulation of circadian rhythm of our body and maintains
the normal sleep wake cycle.
 It also regulates the timing of sexual maturation of gonads.
 In melatonin influences metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle, and defence mechanism of our body.
27. Comment on the functions of Adrenalin :-

 The Adrenal medulla secretes the hormones Adrenalin and noradrenalin and are referred as
“3F Hormone” –Fight, Flight, and Fright hormone.
 It increases liver glycogen breakdown into glucose and increase the release of fatty acids from fat cells.
 During emergency it increases heart beat rate and blood pressure.
 It stimulates the smooth muscles of cutaneous and visceral arteries to decrease blood flow.
 It increase blood flow to the skeletal muscles thereby increases the metabolic rate of skeletal muscles,
cardiac muscles and nervous tissue.
28. Predict the effects of Removal of Pancreas from the human body.
 Pancreas is a composite gland which performs both exocrine and endocrine functions.
 If removal of Pancreas from the human body can be dangerous and life-chaning.
 Removing the pancreas can also indegestive process takesplaces, due to lack of amylase, lypase,
Carboxypeptidase, and nuclease enzymes.
 People cannot produce enough insulin and develop Diabetes and sugar level not balance in the blood.
29. Enumerate the role of kidney as an endocrine gland.

 In kidneys, hormones such as Renin, Erythropoietin and Calcitriol are secreted.
1) Renin - is secreted by juxta glomerular cells (JGA), which increases blood pressure when angiotensin
is formed in blood.
2) Erythropoietin - is also secreted by the JGA cells of the kidney and stimulates erythropoiesis (formation
of RBC) in bone marrow.
3) Calcitriol - is sercreted by proximal tubules of nephron. It is an active form of vitamin D3 which promotes
calcium and phosphorus absorption from intestine and accelerates bone formation.
~ 31 ~
30. Write a detailed account of Gastro intestinal tract hormones.
 Group of specialized endocrine cells present in gastro-intestinal tract secretes hormones such as Gastrin,
Cholecystokinin (CCK), Secretin and Gastric inhibitory peptides (GIP).
1) Gastrin - acts on the gastric glands and stimulates the secretion of HCl and pepsinogen.
2) Cholecystokinin (CCK) - is secreted by duodenum in response to the presence of fat and acid in the diet.
It acts on the gall bladder to release bile into duodenum and stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes
and its discharge.
3) Secretin - acts on acini cells of pancreas to secrete bicarbonate ions and water to neutralize the acidity.
4) Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
ADDITIONAL QUESTION
1) Differentiate Exocrine glands from Endocrine glands :-
Exocrine glands Endocrine glands
The exocrine glands secrete enzymes, saliva and The endocrine glands, called ductless glands produce
sweat and have ducts that carry their substances to hormones and lack ducts; they release their hormone
the membrane surfaces. to the surrounding tissue fluid. Example : Pituitary,
Example: salivary gland and gastric gland. thyroid, parathyroid, pineal, adrenal, thymus
2) Types of Endocrine glands :-

a) Exclusive endocrine glands - pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pineal, adrenal, thymus
b) Neuro endocrine gland - The hypothalamus along with its neural function also produces hormones.
c) Partial endocrine glands- In addition several organs such as pancreas, gastro intestinal tract epithelium,
kidney, heart, gonads and placenta are also endocrine tissues and are known as partial endocrine glands.
3) Hypothalamus :-
 It is a small cone shaped structure, that projects downward from the brain ending into the pituitary stalk.
 It interlinks both the nervous system and endocrine system.
 The master endocrine Pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus.
 Hypothalamus contains groups of neurosecretory cells. It produces neurotransmitters which regulate
the secretions of the pituitary.
 It produced hormones, it act either as a releasing hormone or as an inhibitory hormone.
 Hypothalamus maintains homeostasis, blood pressure, body temperature, cardio and fluid electrolyte
balance of the body. As the part of limbic system it influences various emotional responses.
4) The Pituitary gland :-

 It is ovoid in shape and is located in the base of brain and connected to the hypothalamic region of the
brain by a stalk called infundibulum.
 It is 1cm in diameter and 0.5 gm in weight. The pituitary consists of two lobes, anterior glandular
Adenohypophysis and posterior neural Neurohypophysis.
 The anterior lobe originates from the Rathke’s pouch, and the posterior lobe is from the base of the brain.
 Adenohypophysis has three lobes or zones namely pars intermedia, pars distalis and pars tuberalis.
 The Neurohypophysis is otherwise known as pars nervosa. The anterior lobe of pituitary secretes six
tropic hormones such as GH,TSH, ACTH, LH, LTH and MSH.
 The posterior lobe of pituitary secretes the hormones namely Vasopressin and Oxytocin.

~ 32 ~
5) Hormones of neurohypophysis
i) Vasopressin or Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH) :
 ADH is a peptide hormone which promotes reabsorption of water and electrolytes by distal tubules of
nephron and thereby reduces loss of water through urine.
 Hence it is called as anti diuretic hormone. It also causes constriction of blood vessels when released in
large amount and increases blood pressure.
 ADH deficiency causes Diabetes insipidus which induces the production of large amount of urine.
ii) Oxytocin (means quick birth):-

o It is a peptide hormone which stimulates vigorous contraction of the smooth muscles of uterus during child
birth and ejection of milk from the mammary glands.
6) Thymus gland :-
 Thymus gland is partially an endocrine and partially a lymphoid organ.
 It is a bilobed structure located just above the heart and aorta, behind the sternum.
 It is covered by fibrous capsule and it is divisible into an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
 It secretes four hormones such as thymulin, thymosin, thymopoietin & thymic humoral factor (THF).
 The primary function is the production of „T’ lymphocytes which provides cell mediated immunity.
7) The function of Insulin :-

1. It is a peptide hormone and plays an important role in glucose homeostasis.
2. It‟s main effect is to lower blood glucose levels by increasing the uptake of glucose into the body cells,
especially muscle and fat cells.
3. Insulin also inhibits the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, the conversion of amino acids or fats to
glucose, so insulin is rightly called a hypoglycemic hormone.
8) The function of Glucagon :-

1. It is a polypeptide hormone. It is a potent hyperglycaemic hormone that acts on the liver and
promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose (Glygogenolysis).
2. Synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and from non-carbohydrate molecules (Gluconeogenesis).
3. Glucagon releases glucose from the liver cells, increasing the blood glucose levels.
4. Since glucagon reduces the cellular uptake and utilisation of glucose it is called a hyperglycemic hormone.
5. Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to the disorder called diabetes mellitus.
9) Functions of testosterone:-
 Under the influence of FSH and LH, testosterone initiates maturation of male reproductive organs.
 The appearance of secondary sexual characters, muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary hair,
masculine voice and male sexual behaviour.
 It enhances the total bone matrix and plays a stimulating role in the process of spermatogenesis.

~ 33 ~
9) The function of Ovary:-
 The ovaries secrete the steroid hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
 Oestrogen is responsible for the maturation of reproductive organs and the development of secondary
sexual characters at puberty.
 Along with progesterone, oestrogens promotes breast development and initiate the cyclic changes during
menstrual cycle.
 Progesterone prepares the uterus for implantation of the fertilized ovum.
 It decreases the uterine contraction during pregnancy and stimulates the development of mammary glands
and milk secretion.
 It is responsible for premenstrual changes in the uterus and is essential for the formation of placenta.
10. Hypo and Hyper activity of endocrine glands and related disorders :-
N Diseases Secretion type Symptoms
Hypo secretion of In children - skeletal growth, sexual maturity is arrested, they attain a
1. Dwarfism
Growth hormone maximum height of 4 feet only.
Hyper secretion of In children – overgrowth of skeletal , upto 8 feet.
2. Gigantism
GH
Excessive secretion In Adult - Over growth of hand bones, feet bones, jaw bones,
3. Acromegaly
of GH malfunctioning of gonads, enlargement of viscera, endocrine gland.
Hypothroidism- In infants- retarded skeletal growth, absence of sexual maturity,
4. Cretinism hypo secrrtion of retarded mental ability, thick wrinkled skin, protruded enlarged tongue,
Thyroid bloated face, thick and short limbs occurs.
In adults- decreased mental activity, memory loss, slowness of
Myxodema /
Hypo secretion of movement, speech, and general weakness of body, dry coarse skin,
5. Gull‟ disease
Thyroid scarce hair, puffy appearance, disturbed sexual function, low BMR,
poor appetite, and subnormal body temperature.
Grave‟sdisease enlargement of thyroid gland, increased BMR (50% - 100%),
Thyrotoxicosis Hyper secretion elevated respiratory and excretory rates, increased heart beat, high BP,
6.
Exophthalmic of thyroid increased body temperature, protrusion of eyeball and weakness of eye
goitre muscles and weight loss.
Simple Hyposecretion Enlargement of thyroid gland, fall in serum thyroxine level, increased
6. 7.
goitre of thyroxine TSH secretion.
Tetany Hyposecretion of Serum calcium level decreases (Hypocalcemia), Generalized
7. 8. (March- Parathyoid convulsion, locking of jaws increased heart beat rate, increased body
2023) hormone (PTH) temperature, muscular spasm are the major symptoms.
Hyperpara- Hypersecretion of Demineralisation of bone, cyst formation, softening of bone, loss of
8. 9.
thyoidism PTH muscle tone, general weakness, renal disorders.
Hyposecretion of Muscular weakness, low BP., loss of appetite, vomiting, hyper
9. 10 Addison‟s glucocorticoids and pigmentation of skin, low metabolic rate, subnormal temperature,
. disease
mineralocorticoids reduced blood volume, weight loss are the symptoms.
Obesity of the face and trunk, redness of face, hand, feet, thin skin,
11 Cushing‟s Excess secretion of excessive hair growth, loss of minerals from bone (osteoporosis).
. syndrome cortisol systolic hypertension, and suppression of sexual function like atrophy
of gonads.

~ 34 ~
12. Trends in Economic Zoology

Book Back Questions
1. c. b and d is not correct. 8. a. crustacea.
A combination of aquaculture and
2. c. Eudrillus 9. b.
hydroponics
3. c. 3 - iii - III 10. c. Raising and capturing fishes in fresh water
4. c. Attacus ricini 11. d. Inland fishery
Assertion and reason is correct but b.
5. c. 12. Clearing of wines
related.
6. d. Apiculture 13. d. Ornamental breeds - Silkie
The male lac insect is responsible for
7. d.
large scale production of lac.
14) Animal husbandry is the science of rearing, feeding and caring, breeding and disease control of animals.
It ensures supply of proper nutrition to our growing population through activities like increased production
and improvement of animal products like milk, eggs, meat, honey, etc.
a. Poultry production depends upon the photoperiod.Discuss
 The photoperiod is an important for growth and reproductive process in chicken.
 The light increase the metabolism of chicken and laying more eggs.
b. Polyculture of fishes is of great importance.
1. All available niches are fully utilized.
2. Compatible species do not harm each other.
3. No competition among different species is found.
15) Write the advantages of Vermicomposting.

1. Vermicompost is rich in essential plant nutrients.
2. It improves soil structure texture, aeration, and water holding capacity and prevents soil erosion.
3. It is a rich in nutrients and an eco-friendly amendment to soil for farming and terrace gardening.
4. It enhances seed germination and ensures good plant growth.
16) Name the three castes in a honey bee colony

 In honey bees, a highly organized division of labour is found.
 A well developed honey bee colony consists of the Queen, Drones and Workers.
 All the three types depend on each other for their existence.
 There is normally one queen, 10,000 to 30,000 workers and few hundred drones (male bees) in a colony.
17) Name the following

i. The largest bee in the colony – Queen bee.
ii. The kind of flight which the new virgin queen takes along with the drones out of the hive
-“ nuptial flight ”

~ 35 ~
18) What are the main duties of a worker bee?
1. During the first half of her life, she becomes a nurse bee attending to indoor duties such as secretion
of royal jelly.
2. Prepares bee-bread to feed the larvae.
3. Feeds the queen, takes care of the queen and drones.
4. Secretes bees wax, builds combs.
5. cleans and fans the bee hive.
19) What happensto the drones after mating flight?

 During swarming the drones follows the queen, copulates and dies after copulation.
20) Give the Economic importance of Silkworm ?

1) Silk fibers are utilized in preparing silk clothes. Silk fibers are now combined with other natural or
synthetic fibers to manufacture clothes like Teri-Silk, Cot-Silk etc.
2) Silk is dyed and printed to prepare ornamented fabrics.They are generally made from Eri-silk or spun silk.
3) Silk is used in industries and for military purposes.
4) It is used in the manufacture of fishing fibers, parachutes, cartridge bags, insulation coils for telephone,
5) Wireless receivers, tyres of racing cars, filter fibres, in medical dressings and as suture materials.
21) What are the Nutritive values of fishes ? (March-2023)

1) Fishes frrm a rich source of protein food and provide a good staple food to tide over the nutritional
needs of man.
2) Fish species such as sardines, mackerel, tuna, herrings have high amino acids concentrations.
3) It is rich in fat such as omega 3 fatty acids. Minerals such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus,
potassium, iron, manganese, iodine and copper. Some of the fish by - products are;
4) Fish oil - is the most important fish by product. It is derived from fish liver and from the fish body. Fish
liver oil is derived from the liver which is rich in vitamin A and D, whereas fish body oil has high content
of iodine, It is used in the manufacture of laundry soaps, paints and cosmetics.
5) Fish meal - is prepared from fish waste after extracting oil from the fish. The dried wastes are used to
prepare food for pig, poultry and cattle. The wastes obtained during the preparation of fish meal are
widely used as manure.
6) Isinglass - is a high-grade collagen produced from dried air bladder or swim bladder of certain fishes viz.
catfish and carps. It is primarily used for clarification of wine, beer and vinegar.
22) Give the Economic importance of prawn fishery :-

 Most important aquatic crustacean is prawn, which is widely cultured prawn flesh is palatable.
 Rich in glycogen, protein with low fat content.
23) Give the Economic importance of Lac insect :- (March-2023)

1. Lac is largely used as a sealing wax and adhesive for optical instruments.
2. It is used in electric industry, as it is a good insulator.
3. It is used in preparations of shoe and leather polishes and as a protective coating of wood.
4. It is used in laminating paper board, photographs, engraved materials and plastic moulded articles.
5. Used as a filling material for gold ornaments.

~ 36 ~
24) Name any two trees on which lac insect grows:-
1. Karanagalli (Acacia catechu).
2. Karuvelai (Acacia nilotica).
3. Kumbadiri (Schleichera oleosa).
25) Define cross breeding. :-

 Breeding between a superior male of one breed with a superior female of another breed.
 The cross bred progeny has superior traits ( hybrid vigour or heterosis.)
26) What are the advantages of artificial insemination ?

1. It increases the rate of conception
2. It avoids genital diseases
3. Semen can be collected from injured bulls which have desirable traits.
4. Superior animals located apart can be bred successfully.
27) Discuss the various techniques adopted in cattle breeding?

1. Inbreeding:
 Breeding between animals of the same breed for 4-6 generations is called inbreeding.
 Inbreeding increases homozygosity and exposes the harmful recessive genes.
 It helps to restore fertility and yield.
2. Outbreeding:
 The breeding between unrelated animals is called outbreeding.
 Individuals produced do not have common ancestors for 4-6 generations.
 It produce hybrids with superior qualities and helps to create new breeds.
 New and favourable genes can be introduced into a population through outbreeding. Its 3 types:
i) Out crossing: It is the breeding between unrelated animals of the same breed but having no common
ancestry. The offspring of such a cross is called outcross.
ii) Cross breeding: Breeding between a superior male of one breed with a superior female of another breed.
The cross bred progeny has superior traits ( hybrid vigour or heterosis.)
iii) Interspecific hybridization: In this method of breeding mating is between male and female of two
different species. The progeny obtained from such crosses are different from their parents,
and may possess the desirable traits of the parents.
28) Mention the advantages of MOET.

 It is another method of propagation of animals with desirable traits.
 This method is applied when the success rate of crossing is low even after artificial insemination.
 This technology can be applied to cattle, sheep and buffaloes.
 Advantage of this technology is to produce high milk yielding females and high-quality meat yielding
bulls in a short time.
29) Write the peculiar characters of duck.

 The body is fully covered with oily feathers.
 They have a layer of fat under their skin which prevents it from getting wet.
 They lay eggs at night or in the morning.
 The ducks feed on rice bran, kitchen wastes, waste fish and snails.
~ 37 ~
30) Explain the life cycle of Bombyx mori :-
 The adult of Bombyx mori is unisexual in nature.

 A single female moth lays 400 to 500 eggs depending upon the climatic conditions.
 The eggs after ten days of incubation hatch into larva called as caterpillar.
 The newly hatched caterpillar is about 3 mm in length and is pale, yellowish-white in colour.
 The caterpillars are provided with well developed mandibulate type of mouth-parts adapted to feed easily
on the mulberry leaves.
 After 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th moultings caterpillars get transformed into 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th instars
respectively. It takes about 21 to 25 days after hatching.
 The fully grown caterpillar is 7.5 cm in length. It develops salivary glands, stops feeding and undergoes
pupation.
 The caterpillars stop feeding and move towards the corner among the leaves and secretes a sticky fluid
through their silk gland.
 The secreted fluid comes out through spinneret and takes the form of long fine thread of silk which hardens
on exposure to air and is wrapped around the body of caterpillar in the forms of a covering called as cocoon.
 It is the white coloured bed of the pupa whose outer threads are irregular while the inner threads are regular.
 The length of continuous thread secreted by a caterpillar for the formation of cocoon is about 1000-1200
metres which requires 3 days to complete.
 The pupal period lasts for 10 to 12 days and the pupae cut through the cocoon and emerge into adult moth.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
1. What the three main components of silk industry ?
1) Cultivation of food plants for the silkworms,
2) Rearing of silkworms, and
3) Reeling and spinning of silk.

~ 38 ~
2. Different types of Silk worm and Silk types.
3. Economic importance of Honey :-

1) Honey is the healthier substitute for sugar.
2) The constituents of honey are: levulose, dextrose, maltose, other sugars, enzymes, pigments, ash and water.
3) It is an aromatic sweet material derived from nectar of plants.
4) It is a natural food, the smell and taste depends upon the pollen taken by the honey bee.
5) It is used as an antiseptic, laxative and as a sedative.
6) It is generally used in Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine.
7) It is also used in the preparation of cakes, breads and biscuits.
4. What are uses of Bee wax ?

 The resinous chemical substance present in the wax is called propolis which is derived from pollen grains.
 The pure wax is white in colour and the yellow colour is due to the presence of carotenoid pigments.
 It is used for making candles, water proofing materials, polishes for floors, furniture, appliances,
leather and taps.
 It is also used for the production of comb foundation sheets in bee keeping and used in pharmaceutical
industries.
5. List out the Characteristics of cultivable fishes :-

1) Fishes should have high growth rate in short period for culture.
2) They should accept supplementary diet.
3) They should be hardy enough to resist some common diseases and infection of parasites.
4) Fishes proposed for polyculture should be able to live together without interfering or attacking other fishes.
5) They should have high conversion efficiency so that they can effectively utilize the food.
6. Composite fish farming :-

 Few selected fishes belonging to different species are stocked together in proper proportion in a pond.
 This mixed farming is termed composite fish farming or polyculture.
 The advantages include,
1. All available niches are fully utilized.
2. Compatible species do not harm each other.
3. No competition among different species is found.
4. Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala (surface feeder) are the commonly used fish species
for composite fish farming.
-: God blees all :-

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7. Body fluids & Circulation.

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

7. BODY FLUIDS & CIRCULATION.

15. Distinguish between arteries and veins ?

16. Distinguish between open and closed circulation :-

17. Distinguish between mitral valve and semi lunar valve :-

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

 The human heart is myogenic type.

21. What is lymph? Write its function.

23. Select the correct biological term. -

B – Left pulmonary artery

C – Left pulmonary vein

G – Inferior Vena cava.

3. White blood cells/corpuscles (Leucocytes) :-

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

5. ABO blood grouping :- (March -2023)

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

11. Coronary heart disease :-

13. Varicose veins :-

17. Myocardial infarction (Heart failure )

18. Rheumatic Heart Disease (RHD):-

19. Cardio pulmonaryResuscitation (CPR) :-

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

24. Differentiate protonephridia from metanephridia:-

26. How is urea formed in the human body?

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

30. Which vessels drain filtered blood from the kidneys?

35. What is the effect of aldosterone on kidneys and where is it produced?

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

4. Mechanism of urine formation in human :-

1) Glomerular ultra filtration:-

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

9. LOCOMOTION & MOVEMENT

21. Name the different types of movement ?

22. Name the filaments present in the sarcomere ?

23. Name the contractile proteins present in the skeletal muscle ?

24. When describing a skeletal muscle, what does “striated” mean ?

25. How does an isotonic contraction take place ?

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

27. Name the bones of the skull ?

28. Which is the only jointless bone in human body ?

29. List the three main parts of the axial skeleton ?

30. How is tetany caused ?

31. How is Rigor mortis happened ?

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

34. List the disorders of the muscular system ?

35. Explain the sliding- filament theory of muscle contraction ?

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

2. Functions of skeletal system :- (March-2023)

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

4. Structure of a typical long bone :-

P.Senguttuvan.M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil.& C.Valarmathi. M.Sc., M.Ed.,M.Phil. –Dharmapuri.

10. NEURAL CONTROL & COORDINATION