UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Basics of Indian Philosophy

Inidan philisophy refers to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated
in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy and Jain philosophy.
It is considered by Indian thinkers to be a practical discipline, and its goal should always be to
improve human life. Indians did not see philosophy as a disinterested investigation of the nature of
reality. Rather, philosophy was a practical matter: useful for daily life and in shaping one’s destiny.

Every system of philosophy in India is a quest for Truth, which is one and the same, always and
everywhere. The modes of approach differ, logic varies, but the purpose remains the same – trying
to reach that Truth.
“I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world tolerance and universal acceptance.
We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions as true.”

– Swami Vivekananda at Parliament of world Religions in Chicago 1893

In the West, philosophical schools tended to rise and fall, one after the other. But in India all
these systems competed for adherents beside each other for centuries.
Each system (or darshana,literally “view”) eventually developed sutras: aphoristic
summaries of its positions, along with quick responses to common objections and brief attacks on
the other systems. But the systems themselves predate their sutras, probably by many centuries.
Indians distinguish two classes of Indian philosophies : Astika & Nastika. The Astika system
respects the vedas(the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism) and they take the ancient Vedas as their
source and scriptural authority. Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta come
under Astika philosophical system. The main Hindu orthodox (astika) schools of Indian philosophy
are codified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism.
The Nastika system (Jainism,Buddhism and Lokayata) rejects vedic thought.

Astika philosophical system(Shat Darshanas) :

1.Samkhya(Kapila):
Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems, and it postulates that everything in
reality stems from purusha (self or soul or mind) and prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy). It is
a dualist philosophy, although between the self and matter rather than between mind and body as in
the Western dualist tradition, and liberation occurs with the realization that the soul and the
dispositions of matter (steadiness, activity and dullness) are different.

2.Yoga(Patanjali):
The Yoga school, as expounded by Patanjali in 2nd Century B.C., accepts the Samkhya psychology
and metaphysics, but is more theistic, with the addition of a divine entity to Samkhya's twenty-five
elements of reality. The relatively brief Yoga Sutras are divided into "ashtanga" (eight limbs,They
are 1.Yama 2. Niyama 3. Asana 4. Pranayama 5. Pratyahara 6. Dharana 7. Dhyana 8.Samadhi),
reminiscent of Buddhism's Noble Eightfold Path, the goal being to quiet one's mind and achieve
kaivalya(solitariness or detachment).

3.Nyaya(Gautama):
The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada Gautama in the 2nd Century
B.C. Its methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by the
majority of the Indian schools, in much the same way as Aristotilean logic has influenced Western
philosophy. Its followers believe that obtaining valid knowledge (the four sources of which are
perception, inference, comparison and testimony) is the only way to gain release from suffering.
Nyaya developed several criteria by which the knowledge thus obtained was to be considered valid
or invalid. In this sense, NYAYA is equivalent in some ways to Western analytic philosophy.

4.Vaisheshika(Kanada):
The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., and it is atomist and
pluralist in nature. The basis of this school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe
are reducible to a finite number of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that
causes consciousness in these atoms. The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged
because of their closely related metaphysical theories (although Vaisheshika only accepted
perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).

5.Purva Mimamsa(Jaimini):
The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school is to interpret and establish the authority of the
Vedas. It requires unquestionable faith in the Vedas and the regular performance of the Vedic fire-
sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. Although in general the Mimamsa accept the
logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, they insist that salvation can only be
attained by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas. The school later shifted its
views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahmanand freedom, allowing for the release or escape
of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity.

6.Vedanta (Adi shankaracharya):

The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the
Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas
(instructions for ritual and sacrifice). The Vedanta focus on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual
connectivity, more than traditional ritualism. Due to the rather cryptic and poetic nature of the
Vedanta sutras, the school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way
and producing its own series of sub-commentaries: Advaita (the best-known, which holds that the
soul and Brahman are one and the same), Visishtadvaita (which teaches that the Supreme Being has
a definite form, name - Vishnu - and attributes), Dvaita(which espouses a belief in three separate
realities: Vishnu, and eternal soul and matter), Dvaitadvaita(which holds that Brahman exists
independently, while soul and matter are dependent), Shuddhadvaita(which believes that Krishna is
the absolute form of Brahman) and Achintya Bheda Abheda(which combines monism and dualism
by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from Krishna, or God).

Heterodox (Non-Hindu) Schools

The main heterodox (Nastika) schools, which do not accept the authority of the Vedas, include:

Charvaka:
Also known as Lokayata, charvaka is a materialistic, skeptical and atheistic school of thought. Its
founder was Charvaka, author of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C., although the
original texts have been lost and our understanding of them is based largely on criticism of the ideas
by other schools. As early as the 5th Century, Saddaniti and Buddhaghosa connected the Lokayatas
with the Vitandas (or Sophists), and the term Charvaka was first recorded in the 7th Century by the
philosopher Purandara, and in the 8th Century by Kamalasila and Haribhadra. As a vital
philosophical school, Charvaka appears to have died out some time in the 15th Century.

Buddhist philosophy:
Buddhism is a non-theistic system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama,
an Indian prince later known as the Buddha, in the 5th Century B.C. The question of God is largely
irrelevant in Buddhism, and it is mainly founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu
philosophical concepts (although it does share some philosophical views with Hinduism, such as
belief in karma). Buddhism advocates a Noble Eightfold Path to end suffering, and its philosophical
principles are known as the Four Noble Truths (the Nature of Suffering, the Origin of Suffering, the
Cessation of Suffering, and the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering). Buddhist philosophy
deals extensively with problems in metaphysics, phenomenology, ethics and epistemology.

Jain philosophy:
The central tenets of Jain philosophy were established by Mahavira in the 6th Century B.C.,
although Jainism as a religion is much older. A basic principle is anekantavada, the idea that reality
is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely
true. According to Jainism, only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true
answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. It stresses spiritual independence
and the equality of all life, with particular emphasis on non-violence, and posits self-control as vital
for attaining the realization of the soul's true nature. Jain belief emphasizes the immediate
consequences of one's behavior.

Indian Political Philosophy:

The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya in the 4th Century B.C., is one of
the earliest Indian texts devoted to political philosophy, and it discusses ideas of statecraft and
economic policy. During the Indian struggle for independence in the early 20th Century, Mahatma
Gandhipopularized the philosophies of ahimsa (non-violence) and satyagraha (non-violent
resistance), which were influenced by the teachings of the Hindu Bhagavad Gita, as well as Jesus,
Tolstoy and Ruskin.
Indian philosophy is distinctive in its application of analytical rigour to metaphysical
problems and goes into very precise detail about the nature of reality, the structure and function of
the human psyche and how the relationship between the two have important implications for human
salvation (moksha). Rishis centred philosophy on an assumption that there is a unitary underlying
order in the universe which is all pervasive and omniscient. The efforts by various schools were
concentrated on explaining this order and the metaphysical entity at its source (Brahman). The
concept of natural law (Dharma) provided a basis for understanding questions of how life on earth
should be lived. The sages urged humans to discern this order and to live their lives in accordance
with it.
When Indian philosophers speak of intuitive knowledge, they are concerned with
making room for it and demonstrating its possibility, with the help of logic-and there, as far as
they are concerned, the task of philosophy ends. Indian philosophers do not seek to justify
religious faith; philosophic wisdom itself is accorded the dignity of religious truth. Theory is
not subordinated to practice, but theory itself, as theory, is regarded as being supremely
worthy and efficacious.

Concept of Culture
The English word Culture is derived from the Latin term cult or cultus meaning tilling, or
cultivating or refining and worship. In sum it means cultivating and refining a thing to such an
extent that its end product evokes our admiration and respect. This is practically same as the word
"Samskriti" of the Sanskrit language.
Culture is a way of life. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language you speak in
and the God you worship all are aspects of culture. In very simple terms, we can say that culture is
the embodiment of the way in which we think and do things. It is also the things that we have
inherited as members of society. All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups
can be called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and science
can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also includes the customs, traditions, festivals,
ways of living and one‘s outlook on various issues of life. Culture refers to the patterns of thought
and behaviour of people. It includes values, beliefs, rules of conduct, and patterns of social, political
and economic organisation. These are passed on from one generation to the next by formal as well
as informal processes. Culture consists of the ways in which we think and act as members of a
society. Thus, all the achievements of group life are collectively called culture. Culture is the
product of such an organization and expresses itself through language and art, philosophy and
religion. It also expresses itself through social habits, customs, economic organisations and political
institutions.
Culture has two types: (i) material, and (ii) non-material. The first includes technologies,
instruments, material goods, consumer goods, household design and architecture, modes of
production, trade, commerce, welfare and other social activities. The latter includes norms, values,
beliefs, myths, legends, literature, ritual, art forms and other intellectual-literary activities. The
material and non-material aspects of any culture are usually interdependent on each other.
Sometimes, however, material culture may change quickly but the non-material may take longer
time to change.

General Characteristics of Culture

Now let us discuss some general characteristics of culture, which are common to different cultures
throughout the world.

Culture is learned and acquired: Culture is acquired in the sense that there are certain behaviours
which are acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit certain qualities from their parents but
socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are learnt from family members, from the group and
the society in which they live. It is thus apparent that the culture of human beings is influenced by
the physical and social environment through which they operate.

Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be called culture if it is shared
and believed or practiced by a group of people.

Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed from one
generation to another generation. More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as the
time passes by. Each may work out solution to problems in life that passes from one generation to
another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time.

Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as new cultural traits are
added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within the particular culture as time passes.

Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is changing constantly as
new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is
the characteristics of culture that stems from the culture‘s cumulative quality.

Culture gives us a range of permissible behaviour patterns: It involves how an activity should
be conducted, how an individual should act appropriately.

Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts. Although these
parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming culture as whole.

Culture and Civilisation

The word ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ are often used synonymously. However, they have
clearly defined meanings differentiating them. ‘Civilization’ means having better ways of living and
sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. It also includes organizing societies into
politically well-defined groups working collectively for improved conditions of life in matters of
food, dress, communication, and so on. Thus some groups consider themselves as civilized and look
down upon others. This disposition of certain groups has even led to wars and holocausts, resulting
in mass destruction of human beings.
On the other hand ‘culture’ refers to the inner being, a refinement of head and heart. This
includes arts and sciences, music and dance and various higher pursuits of human life which are
also classified as cultural activities. One who may be poor and wearing cheap clothes may be
considered ‘uncivilized’, but still he or she may be the most cultured person. One possessing
ostentatious wealth may be considered as ‘civlilized’ but he may not be cultured’.
Therefore, when we think of culture, we have to understand that it is different from
civilization. As we have seen, culture is the ‘higher levels of inner refinement’ of a human being.
Humans are not merely physical beings. They live and act at three levels: physical, mental and
spiritual. While better ways of living socially and politically and better utilization of nature around
us may be termed as civilization. This is not enough to be cultured. Only when the deeper levels of
a person’s intellect and consciouness are brought into expression can we call him/her ‘cultured’.

Culture and Heritage

Cultural development is a historical process. Our ancestors learnt many things from their
predecessors. With the passage of time they also added to it from their own experience and gave up
those which they did not consider useful. We in turn have learnt many things from our ancestors. As
time goes we continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and sometimes we
give up some which we don’t consider useful any more. This is howculture is transmitted and
carried forward from generation to next generation. The culture we inherit from our predecessors is
called our cultural heritage. This heritage exists at various levels. Humanity as a whole has inherited
a culture which may be called human heritage. A nation also inherits a culture which may be termed
as national cultural heritage.
Cultural heritage includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings
by their ancestors from generation to generation. They are cherished, protected and maintained by
them with unbroken continuity and they feel proud of it.
A few examples would be helpful in clarifying the concept of heritage. The Taj Mahal,
Swami Narayan Temple of Gandhinagar and Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhi’s Qutub Minar, Mysore
Palace, Jain Temple of Dilwara (Rajasthan) Nizamuddin Aulia’s Dargah, Golden Temple of
Amritsar, Gurudwara Sisganj of Delhi, Sanchi Stupa, Christian Church in Goa, India Gate etc., are
all important places of our heritage and are to be protected by all means.
Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual
achievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are also the
part of heritage. In Indian context the contributions of Baudhayan, Aryabhatta,Bhaskaracharya in
the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad and Varahmihir in the field of Physics;
Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, Susruta and Charak in the field of Medicines and Patanjali in
the field of Yoga are profound treasures of Indian Cultural heritage. Culture is liable to change, but
our heritage does not. We individuals, belonging to a culture or a particular group, may acquire or
borrow certain cultural traits of other communities/cultures, but our belongingness to Indian cultural
heritage will remain unchanged. Our Indian cultural heritage will bind us together e.g. Indian
literature and scriptures namely Vedas, Upanishads Gita and Yoga System etc. have contributed a
lot by way of providing right knowledge, right action, behavior and practices as complementary
to the development of civilization.

IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE

Culture is closely linked with life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as human beings can use.
It is not merely a touch of colour. It is what makes us human. Without culture, there would be no
humans. Culture is made up of traditions, beliefs, way of life, from the most spiritual to the most
material. It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human beings are creators of culture and,
at the same time, culture is what makes us human.
A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolic expression.
We must value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to make progress in terms of
interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural dialogue. As the world is becoming more and
more global and we coexist on a more global level we can’t just think there’s only one right way of
living or that any one is valid. The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and
beliefs necessary. In order to not make such mistakes, the best thing we can do is get to know other
cultures, while also getting to know our own. How can we dialogue with other cultures, if we don’t
really know what our own culture is? The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and
Goodness are closely linked with culture. It is culture that brings us closer to truth through
philosophy and religion; it brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic
beings; and it is culture that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings
and teaching us the values of love, tolerance and peace.

Indian Culture
Indian culture is one of the most ancient cultures of the world. The ancient cultures of Egypt,
Greece, Rome, etc. were destroyed with time and only their remnants are left. But Indian culture is
alive till today. Its fundamental principles are the same, as were in the ancient time. One can see
village panchayats, caste systems and joint family system. The teachings of Buddha, Mahavira, and
Lord Krishna are alive till today also and are source of inspiration. The values of spirituality,
praying nature, faith in karma and reincarnation, non-violence, truth, non- stealing, Chastity, Non-
Acquisitiveness, etc. inspire people of this nation, today also. Material development and materials
come under civilization while Art of Living, customs, traditions come under culture. Material
development is possible to a limit. This is the reason, that the civilizations got destroyed while
Indian culture is present till today because the basis of development was spirituality and not
materialism. Thus, Indian culture can be called an ancient culture, whose past is alive even in the
present. The reminiscent of the stone-age found in Pallavaram, Chingalpet, Vellore, Tirunalvelli
near Madras, in the valley of river Sohan, in Pindhighev area in West Punjab, in Rehand area of
Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh, in Narmada Valley in Madhya Pradesh, in Hoshangabad and
Maheshwar, make it clear that India has been the land of development and growth of human culture.
On the basis of excavation done in places like Harappa and Mohanjodaro etc. we come to know the
developed civilization and culture of the pre-historical era, which was flourished around 3000 B.C.
Thus, Indian culture is about 5000 years old.
According to Indologists, Indian culture stands not only for a traditional social code but also
for a spiritual foundation of life. Indian culture is an invaluable possession of our society. Indian
culture is the oldest of all the cultures of the world. Inspite of facing many ups and downs Indian
culture is shinning with all it‘s glory and splendor. Culture is the soul of nation. On the basis of
culture, we can experience the prosperity of its past and present. Culture is collection of values of
human life, which establishes it specifically and ideally separate from other groups.
Indian culture is as many sided as life. It includes intellectual and social aspects of any
human being. It also takes account of the aesthetic instinct as well as the spiritual impulses of
human being. It has also, in effect, an appeal to the subconscious as a force making for the
formation of character.
Look at the map of India and you see India is a vast country with a lot of diversity in her
physical and social environment. We see people around us speaking different languages, having
different religions and practising different rituals. You can also see these diversities in their food
habits and dress patterns. Besides, look at the myriad forms of dance and music in our country. But
within all these diversities there is an underlying unity which acts as a cementing force. The
intermingling of people has been steadily taking place in India over centuries. A number of people
of different racial stock, ethnic backgrounds and religious beliefs have settled down here. Let us not
forget that the composite and dynamic character of Indian culture is a result of the rich contributions
of all these diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. The distinctive features of Indian
culture and its uniqueness are the precious possession of all Indians.

Continuity and Change

Many great cultures had developed in different countries and regions of the world. Many of
them have perished or have been replaced by other cultures. However Indian culture has had an
enduring character. Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of continuity can be
traced throughout the course of Indian history right upto the present day.
The point to be noted here is that continuity and change in our civilization has gone hand in
hand. In fact, a remarkable feature of Indian culture is that along with continuity it has kept on
changing,whereas the basic spirit of our culture continued. It has kept on discarding what was
becoming irrelevant in the modern age. In our long history, there have been periods of ups and
downs. As a result, movements have grown and reforms brought about. The reform movements in
the Vedic religion brought about by Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC and the religious
and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in modern India are a few examples
when revolutionary changes were brought about in Indian thought and practices. Yet the thread of
basic philosophy of Indian culture continued and still persists. Thus a process of continuity and
change has always been a feature of Indian culture. This shows the dynamic character of our
culture.

Variety and Unity

A large number of languages and dialects are spoken in our country which has led to the growth of a
great variety of literature. People belonging to great religions of the world co-exist here in a
harmonious manner. Do you know that India is home to many religions of the world like Jainism,
Buddhism, Sikhism and of course Hinduism. Numerous styles of architecture, sculpture and
painting have developed here. Different styles of music and dance, both folk and classical, exist in
the country. So also are numerous festivals and customs. This wide variety has led to the making of
Indian culture both composite one and rich and beautiful at the same time. Why is there so much
variety in our culture? There are many reasons for this. The vastness of the country and variation in
its physical and climatic features is an obvious reason for the variety.
The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the intermingling among
various ethnic groups. Since time immemorial, people from far and near have been coming and
settling here. We find people belonging to different racial stocks like the Proto-Australoids, the
Negroids and the Mongoloids living in India. Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks,
Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India, settled here
and intermixed with the local population. The people belonging to other cultures brought their
cultural habits, thoughts and ideas, which got amalgamated into the existing culture. You will be
surprised to know that it was only around second century BC that stitched clothes such as salwars,
kurtas, topees, etc. were brought to India, by the Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians. Prior to that
Indians wore clothes which were unstitched. The latest is the introduction of shirts, trousers, skirts,
etc. which were brought by the Europeans in the eighteenth century. India through the ages has
shown a remarkable capacity for assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the variety and
richness of our culture.
Along with contacts with outside cultures, cultural exchange between different regions of
India has also continued. The Chikan work of Lucknow, Phulkari embrodery of Punjab, Kantha
embroidery of Bengal, Patola of Orissa show a distinct regional styles. Although the centres in the
South, North, East and West of India have their characteristic cultures, yet these did not develop in
absolute isolation. Inspite of physical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of the country to
another for trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joined together through conquests or by
alliance. As a result, people transmitted cultural habits and thoughts from one part of the country to
the other. Military campaigns too took people from one place to another. This helped in exchanging
ideas. Such contacts have led to the development of commonness in Indian culture, which has been
maintained throughout our history. Another unifying factor is climate. Despite geographical
diversity and climaticvariations India experiences an inherent unity. The system of monsoons is the
most important component of the Indian climatic pattern and this gives unity to the whole country.
The coming of the monsoon has ensured that agriculture remains the main occupation of the people
of India. On the other hand the differences in physical features have affected the food habits, dress,
houses and economic activities of people leading to the formation of social, economic and political
institutions. These factors in turn influenced the thinking and philosophy of the people. The variety
in physical features and climate of India has thus led to the development of a variety of cultures in
different regions. The typical features of different regions have given some identity to these
cultures.
The composite nature of our culture is reflected in our music, dance forms, drama and art
forms like paintings, sculpture and architecture as well. Our literature in different languages
also reflects this composite nature.
Unity in diversity is reflected in our political forms as well. During the early Vedic period,
society was pastoral, that is, people used to move from place to place in search of pastures. But as
these people started practising agriculture, they settled down. This settled life led to community
development and growth of towns which needed rules and regulations. Thus emerged a political
organisation. This included the sabhas and samitis which were political bodies through which
people participated in governance. In course of time, the concept of rashtra emerged and possession
of territory became the new measure of power. In some places, republics came up. The period from
sixth to fourth century BC is known as the age of mahajanapadas in India. In these kingdoms kings
had more powers. Subsequently large empires were also established with emperors exercising
absolute powers. You may be aware of ancient rulers such as Ashoka, Samudragupta and
Harshavardhana. The Mughals also established a vast empire in India. The British established
themselves in India and in l858, India became a part of the British Empire. However in 1947, we
were able to gain our freedom after a long struggle. Today we are a sovereign, socialist, secular and
democratic republic and a uniform system of government prevails over the length and breadth of the
country.

Culture : Ancient India

India has a continuous history covering a very long period. Evidence of neolithic habitation
dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. However, the first
notable civilization flourished in India around 2700 BC in the north western part of the Indian
subcontinent, covering a large area. The civilization is referred to as the Harappan civilization. Most
of the sites of this civilization developed on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar anditstributaries.
The culture associated with the Harappan civilization is the first known urban culture in
India. The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation, drainage
system and broad well-laid roads. They built double storied houses of burntbricks each one of
which had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well. The walled cities had other important buildings such as
the Great Bath, Grannaries and Assembly Halls. Agriculture was the main occupation of the
Harappans who were living in rural areas. Those living in the cities carried on internal and external
trade and developed contacts with other civilizations such as Mesopotamia. They were excellent
potters. Various types of utensils, toys, seals, figurines have been excavated from different sites.
Harappans also had the technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying. The bronze
sculpture of a dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro testifies the sculptural skills and aesthetic sense of
the Harappans. Shell, ivory, bone and faience were used as material for different crafts and objects.
Lothal was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat. It was also a well
planned wall city. It was an important centre of sea trade with the western world. Another important
town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in Rajasthan.
Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinocerous known as unicorn, the
Ages peepal leaves and a male god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans. It appears
that they worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature. They worshipped a male god
resembling Lord Shiva of later times and a mother goddess among others. They probably believed
in life after death and also in charms and spells. Seals engraved with animal figures like the humped
bull, elephant and rhinocerous suggest that these animals were considered sacred. ‘Peepal’ has been
found depicted on many seals.
Harappans knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script. But
unfortunately no one has yet been able to decipher that script. As a result, our knowledge of the
Harappan civilization is based on the archaeological evidence alone. The figures of men and women
on various seals found in the excavations reveal that the people knew the art of spinning and
weaving. They were perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton. A large number of Indus seals
found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible trade between the Indus valley and
Mesopotamian civilization.
By 1800 BC the Harappan civilization began declining. However, we do not know the exact reasons
why this happened.

Vedic culture
A few centuries after the decline of the Harappan civilization, a newcultureflourishedinthe same
region and gradually spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains. This culture came to be known as the
Aryan culture. There were significant differences between this culture and the culture which
preceded it.
Aryans settled on the banks of rivers Indus (Sindhu) and Saraswati (which is now non
existent). They composed many hymns in honour of the gods and goddesses they worshipped.
These were compiled in four Vedas - the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharvana Veda.
The word veda means knowledge of the sacred spiritual knowledge. These vedas were considered
infallible as they imparted the highest spiritual knowledge. Initially the Vedas were transmitted
orally. Since our knowledge of the early Aryans is based on these Vedas, the culture of this period is
referred to as the Vedic Culture. Scholars divide the vedic period into the earlier and later Vedic
period. The earlier is represented by the Rig Veda while the latter by all other Vedic literature
including the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. Two epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata and the Puranas, though compiled much later, also throw light on the life and society
of an earlier period. For this period archaeological evidence has also been found in some areas of
Uttar Pradesh.

Society and Religion

Though Aryan society was patriarchal, women were treated with dignity and honour. The
family was the smallest social unit; several families(kula) made a village(grama) and several
villages formed a vis. A number of villages formed a tribe or jana which was ruled by a chief called
rajan. His chief function was to protect the tribe from external attack and maintain law and order.
He was assisted by the members of two councils called sabha and samiti. The Purohita performed
religious functions while the senani looked after military activities. There was no concept of the
state or kingdom at this stage. Although the post of Rajan had become hereditary, he could be
removed from power if found weak and inefficient or cruel.
Towards the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas – Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. This was also called the Varna-Vyavastha. To begin with it
denoted categories of people doing different kinds of functions but with the passage of time this
division became hereditary and rigid. The teachers were called Brahmans, the ruling class was
called Kshatriyas, farmers, merchants and bankers were called Vaishyas while the artisans,
craftsmen, labourers were called Shudras. Moving from one occupation to another became difficult.
Simultaneously, the Brahmans also occupied a dominant position in the society.
Another important social institution of the time was the system of chaturashrama or the
division of life span into four distinct stages i.e. brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and
disciplined life in guru’s ashram), grihastha (a period of family life), vanaprastha (a stage of gradual
detachment and sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from worldly life). However it
should be noted that these stages were not applicable to women or to the people of lower varnas.
Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom, had access to education and were often
free to choose their partners through swayamvara. Purdah and sati was not prevalent. The ultimate
aim of life was to attain moksha or salvation through the pursuit of dharma, artha and kama. Karma
or performance of duty without any expectation or return was preached in the Bhagavad Gita.
The early Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as gods and goddesses.
Indra, Agni, Varuna, Marut were some of their gods while Usha:Aditi, Prithvi were some of their
goddesses. Some of the solar Gods and goddesses referred to in the Rig Veda are Surya, Savitri and
Pushan. Yajna (sacrifice) was performed along with chanting of Vedic hymns. People poured ghee
(clarified butter) and other ingredients into the fire to invoke the blessings of gods. Agni or fire was
looked upon as an intermediary between Gods and humans. The vedic people prayed individually as
well as collectively for the welfare of the jana.
There was a change in religious practices during the later Vedic period. The prominent
Gods of the early Vedic period like Indra, Agni and Varuna lost their prominence and popularity.
Their place was taken by a new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the supreme position, while
Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva completed the trinity. The religion became extremely
ritualistic. Sanskrit mantras, which were the monopoly of Brahmins, became an essential part of all
religious functions. This made the Brahmins very powerful and the Yajnas expensive. Participation
in them was restricted to the upper three classes. The kings performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and
Vajapeya sacrifies to establish their position. It is very interesting to know that some elements of the
culture of the Vedic Age have survived over a period 3,000 yrs and continues to be a part of Indian
culture even today. By the end of the latter Vedic age changes started occuring in the society. For
the first time people started discussing certain beliefs such as creation of the universe, life after
death and essence of life. These were questions which were dealt with in great detail in the
Upanishads.

Material life and economy

The Aryans were primarily pastoral and agricultural people. They domesticated animals like
cows, horses, sheeps, goats and dogs. They ate simple food consisting of cereals, pulses, fruits,
vegetables, milk and various milk products. They drank a beverage called Soma. Games of chess,
chariot racing etc. were their modes of entertainment.
In the early period there was no money transaction or taxes. Bali or voluntary donation was
prevalent. Cows were the measure of wealth. As the time passed, extensive use of iron brought great
changes in their material life. Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the expansion of
agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains. Iron tools resulted in varied crafts and technology. Use
of iron weapons and horses enabled them to fight wars and defendthemselves better against enemies
Increasing number of crafts, availability of surplus food and growth of population led to specialisat-
ion of skills and urbanisation.
Towns and cities grew and territorial states emerged. High quality earthenware called
‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished Ware’ have been found in many areas. Coins
came into circulation. Trade was carried on, both overland and through waterways,enhancing
material prosperity.
By sixth century BC, there were some sixteen large territorial states in North India and upper
Deccan known as Mahajanapadas. Important among them were Anga, Magadha,Kosala, Kashi,
Kuru, and Panchala.

Medieval culture
During the medieval period the relationship between the classical and the folk was not
disturbed. In ancient India the classical tradition was linked not only to Sanskrit but there were also
streams of the classical tradition associated with Pali and Tamil. Sanskrit was the bearer of the
Hindu classical tradition and the Mahayana Buddhist tradition and some of the Jain science
traditions as well. Pali was the vehicle of the Theravadi Buddhist tradition and Tamil was the bearer
of the South Indian classical tradition.
Developments in the field of religion, folk art and language in India during the medieval
times have been important milestones in the evolution of the composite culture of India. New
religions movements like Sufi and Sikhism along with Bhakti movement contributed to this
process. If you look around, you will see the impact of Islam on many aspects of Indian culture. You
might have visited some famous monuments in India. These monuments stand as the symbols of the
composite nature of Indo-Islamic culture in India. You can also see how various religions in India,
including Islam, have influenced each other. Besides, every region in India is famous for giving
shape to some folk art or the other. Development of folk arts through which the common people
display their creativity is another significant aspect of Indian culture. The various regional
languages that we speak today too have an interesting history which evolved during this period.
The Muslims first came to India in the eighth century AD mainly as traders. The rulers of
Delhi, who ruled from 1206-90, were Mamluk Turks. They were followed by the Khiljis, Tughlaqs,
Sayyids and Lodis, who ruled northera India from Delhi till 1526. All these rulers were called
Sultans.
They were fascinated by the socio-cultural scenario in this country and decided to make
India their home. The traders who came to India from Central and West Asia carried back with them
traces of Indian science and culture. As a result they became cultural ambassadors of India by
disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to Europe. The immigrant
Muslims also entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and learned to live together in
harmony. There was mutual exchange of ideas and customs. The Muslims also brought with them
their religion, Islam which had a deep impact on Indian society.

Art and Architecture

It was in the field of art and architecture that the rulers of this period took a keen
interest. The composite cultural characteristic of the medieval period is amply witnessed in
these fields. A new style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic style was born out of
this fusion. The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were the (a) dome; (b) lofty
towers or minarets; (c) arch; and (d) the vault.
The Mughal rulers were great lovers of nature. They took pleasure in spending their
time in building beautiful forts and gardens. The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar
Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. There were
waterways and fountains criss-crossing these gardens and finally, there were gardens with
stages or levels. The water, while cascading from one stage to another, was made to fall in
small streamlets with lamps lit behind them, making the water shimmer and lend a special
charm to the whole atmosphere. It could also be made to flow over a chiselled and sloping
slab, so that the water flowing over it shimmered. The best example of this type of garden is
the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore (now in Pakistan). The Lahore garden has three stages. But
a better example can be seen in India at Pinjore Garden situated on the Chandigarh-Kalka
road where we have a seven-stage garden. This impressed the British so much that they
created a three-stage garden in the Vice-Regal Lodge (now the Rashtrapati Bhawan) in New
Delhi, It was on these very lines that the famous Vrindavan Garden in Mysore were built in
the twentieth century.
The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the
days of Shah Jahan and the finest examples of this type of work are available in the Red
Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra. Besides, the structures within the Fatehpur Sikri
complex, the forts at Agra and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore are an
important part of our heritage. During this period mosques, tombs of kings and dargahs
came to dominate the landscape.

Religion
The Sufis were not the only popular religious teacher of the time. There were also the
Bhakti saints. Their teachings were similar to those of the Sufis but they had been teaching
for a longer time. They were popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders in the towns.
The people in the villages also flocked to listen to them.
The Sufi and Bhakti saints had many thoughts and practices in common. Their
essential belief was in the need to unite with God. They laid stress on love or devotion as the
basis of the relationship with God. To achieve all this a Guru or a Pir was needed.
The Bhakti saints attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship. They
disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their religious gatherings. The Bhakti
saints did their entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it comprehensible
even to simple minds.

Development Of Folk Arts

The rural masses got opportunities to display their creative skills in many fields.
Several occasions associated with agricultural operations, for example the tilling of soil,
sowing of saplings, picking of cotton, pulling out the weeds and many other social
functions provided opportunities for singing and dancing. The festivals and rituals we
perform today have continued from the past with necessary changes in keeping with time.
The advent of rains became occasions for dancing and merry-making. The gods were
invoked and special pujas offered in the temples. It was also an occasion for enjoying the
swings. Similarly, ladies on their spinning wheels accompanied by other ladies would sit
together and sing till late into the night. This was a common sight in almost all the villages
in India.
It is important to note that almost every region developed its own peculiar dance
form with a local flavour. Thus Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gïddha, Bamboo dance, Lavani
and innumerable other dance forms, came into existence. Today, some of these are
performed during the Republic Day celebrations as well as on other festive occasions.
Formal education was not considered very important for women but this did not
prevent them from showing their talent in various other fields. They displayed their
creativity in needlework. In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis,
shirts and ghagras. The Rajasthanis also created beautiful designs of tie and dye work in
fabrics used both by women and men. Even today, we find the people of Rajasthan as the
most colourfully dressed in India. Their lavishness could be seen in the way they decorate
their animals (horses, bullocks, camels and even elephants). In Punjab, the girls created
beautiful phulkaris. In and around Lucknow, came up the chikan work on shirts, salwars,
odhanis and even sarees.

South India
Between the ninth and eleventh centuries AD, a dynasty known as the Cholas was
ruling the Cholamandalam region in Southern India. The Cholas developed a strong army,
besides a powerful navy. Rajendra Chola is said to have conquered some Indonesian islands.
They also developed democratic institutions at the village level. Even Buddhism and
Jainism flourished in this region. Literature, fine arts, sculpture and metal castings of the
highest order flourished under their patronage. The fourteenth century saw the rise of a new
state called Vijayanagara now called Karnataka. To the north of this state across the
Tungabhadra river rose a new Islamic state, called the Bahamani, now known as Andhra
Pradesh. The Bahamani and Vijayanagara kingdoms were pitted against each other over the
rich Raichur Doab.
In the Cholamandalam region, the Tamil language was popular. In Karnataka,
Kannada, in Andhra, Telegu and in Kerala, Malyalam flourished, all having different scripts.
It is just possible that originally the entire region spoke Tamil, as it is a very old language.
But by the middle ages, the four languages had come to have distinct identities. However,
between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries, Vijayanagara achieved great heights.
Some foreigners, who visited these areas in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, have
praised the kings, the town and the people. The remains of Vijayanagara found in Hampi
dazzle the world even today.
During the Chola period, Kanchi became a great seat of learning. The Vijayanagara
kings also became great patrons of art and leaming.

INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY[Modern India culture]

Rise Of The West And Its Impact On India
Among the European countries, the Portuguese and then the
Dutch(Netherland/Holland), the French and finally, the British entered into a race to control
the trade from India. The British ultimately succeeded in not only controlling trade but also
the country and for about two centuries India remained under the domination of Britain and
the entire human resources of India recklessly exploited and India's wealth was drained
away for the benefit of the ruling nation. To further their interest the British used the
prevailing social and political situation in India. Where a large number of states had cropped
up after the decline of the Mughal Empire. The British took advantage of this situation and
had one ruler fight against the other or supported a usurper to the throne. Though Tipu
Sultan of Mysore tried to use the same principle as used by the British, that is making use of
the rivalry between the French and the British, he could not match the superior diplomacy
and fire power of the British.
The British domination of India was built upon successive phases. The first phase
consisted
of taking hold of the Indian trade. They bought Indian goods at very low prices and sold
them in the Western markets at very high prices, thereby making enormous profits without
giving anything to the peasants. In this, they were helped by the Indian Seths and gomastas.
In the second phase, the British took control of the production activities in a manner that
would suit their export objectives. In the process they successfully destroyed the Indian
industries. This was because India was a potential buyer of their goods. The third phase was
an intensified phase of British Imprialism and colonial exploitation when India was ruled by
the British for fulfilling British economic interests.
The Britishers came to India for making profits through trade. Slowly they gained
political
and economic control of the country. After the Battle of Plassey(Nawab of Bengal+french
VS East India Co.) in 1757 A.D., they had become the real masters of Bengal. They used
political control over Bengal to increase their trade and export of foreign goods. They
eliminated the Indian as well as foreign rivals in trade so that there could be no competition.
They monopolised the sale of raw cotton and made the Bengal weaver pay exorbitant prices.
They imposed heavy duties on Indian goods entering Britain so as to protect their own
industry.
With the coming of the industrial revolution in Europe, the Indian industries were hit
very hard. By 1813, the Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the foreign
market. Indian goods could not compete with the British factory made products, where
machines were used.
On the other hand, the English merchants had accumulated a lot of wealth which they
now invested in setting up industries and trade. The East India Company helped in financing
and expanding their industrial base. During this time there was a class of manufacturers in
England who benefitted more from manufacturing than trading. They were interested in
having more raw materials from India as well as sending their finished goods back. Between
1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its
trade monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately in 1813, they succeeded in
abolishing the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an
economic colony of industrial England.
As a result, Indian hand made goods faced extinction as British machine made goods
were
cheaper. These goods either had a free entry or paid very low tariff rates to enter India.
Indians were to be modernised so that they could develop taste for western goods and buy
them. The Indian industries suffered as a result of exploitation at the hands of the British,
who did not at all care about Indian trade interests. They did not protect Indian trade nor did
they introduce any advanced technology in the country during this period. Indian handicrafts
suffered when foreign goods were given free entry. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were
taxed heavily when they entered Britain. Indian sugar mills paid duty three times its original price
when sent to Britain. So the trade from India virtually came to a stop.
India had become an excellent consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw
materials by the year 1813 A.D.Since England wanted to exploit India for commercial gains, that is,
by buying raw materials and selling finished goods, they introduced steam ships and railways in
India. The railways opened a vast market to the British and facilitated export of Indian raw material
abroad.
Do you know that it was in 1853 that the first railway line running from Bombay to Thane
was opened to public? The railways connected the raw material producing areas with the exporting
ports. As a result British goods flooded the Indian market.
Do you know that the railways played an important role in the national awakening of the
country, too? They helped to bring people and ideas come closer together—something that the
British had never anticipated. Isn’t this ironical?
Do you know that it was again in 1853 that Dalhousie opened the first telegraph line from
Calcutta to Agra and also introduced the postal service in India?

Economy
Indian in the eighteenth century was a picture of many contrasts and contradictions.
Economically agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Since the rulers were constantly at
war, they did not have the time to improve agricultural conditions of the land.
Foreign trade was flourishing under the Mughals. India imported pearls, raw silk, wool,
dates, dried fruits from the Persian Gulf region; Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from Arabia; tea,
porcelain and silk came into India from China; luxury goods were also brought in from Tibet,
Singapore, Indonesian Islands, Africa and Europe.
Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar, pepper and many other things. India’s
cotton textiles were famous all over the world. In spite of such a favourable balance of trade, India’s
economic condition could not improve for ages because of constant warfare. Within the country,
there were revolts of the Sikhs, Jats, Marathas and from outside, foreign invasions, like that of
Nadir shah (1739 A.D.) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1761),were common.
 By the eighteenth century European countries like France, England, Portugal and Spain were
interested in trading with India. They helped in creating more political and economic instability in
the country and ultimaely they destroyed its economy. But, by this time, India’s fame had spraed all
over the world as a land of beautiful handicrafts.
Socially, there was no unity of pattern in the social and cultural life of the people. Whether
they were Hindus or Muslims, there was division among them on the basis of region, tribe,language
and caste. Caste rules were to be observed in matters of marriage, diet, interdining as well as in
choosing a profession. Any one found disobeying rules was most likely to be thrown out of the
community.
In the field of science that India, which was so advanced, had by now neglected her
mathematics and sciences. They remained ignorant of the advances made in the field of science by
the West.
Teacher were respected in society during those times. Education was steeped in tradition.
The students were taught reading and writing along with arithmetic. Girls seldom went to school.
Eduation was not patronised by the State, but by local rulers, members of the aristocracy and
benevolent contributors.

Society & Culture

By the turn of the century, the condition of women had little to be happy about. The birth
of a girl child was considered to be unfortunate. Girls were married off in their childhood.
Polygamy was permitted. Women had no right to property or divorce.
Perpetual widowhood was the injunction of the society, especially amongst the upper castes.
These widows could not wear coloured clothes, or attend marriages since their presence was
considered inauspicious. As child marriages were common in such occasions sometimes even the
infant girls became widows and were condemned to perpetual widowhood.
Inter-caste marriages were not allowed. Even the prevailing social system did not permit a
person from a lower caste to eat with a person of a higher caste. The condition of muslim women
was much the same. They faced immense hardship due to the practice of purdah, polygamy, lack of
education and rights to property.
Christian priests came to India along with the employees of the East India Company to
perform their religious rituals at the time of baptism, marriage, burials and church service. But these
priests soon started preaching Christianity to the non-Christian employees of the Company as well.
Slowly they started opening schools that were attended by the Indian children. It were these
missionaries, who also started the printing press and magazines for disseminating Christian precepts
and literature.
Along with Christian propaganda, English education was introduced which had a great
impact on the society and economy of India. Though the purpose of introducing English education
was to fulfil British political and administrative needs, it opened the windows for Indians to the
West. They imbibed new ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality and freedom. Soon
English language also became the lingua franca of the English educated Indians and acted as a
cementing force.
Printing presses were the biggest boon which the West had conferred on India growing
literate population. Since the new printing presses were not costly, their number grew at a fast pace.
This, in turn, encouraged a large number of writers to produce literature in different Indian
languages. Their original works as well as translations and adaptations of old Indian and Western
classics helped enrich our cultural heritage. This helped to bring about an awakening of the Indians.
Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers were published almost in every
language. Although the total number of readers of newspapers was small as compared to their
number in the European countries, a whole new set of national literature in the form of novels,
essays and poems played a significant role in generating nationalism. BankimChandra’s Anandmutt,
Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan, Bhartendu HarishChandra’s Bharat Durdasha, Subramania
Bharti’s writing in Tamil and Altaf Hussain’s works in Urdu stirred the minds of the Indians.
UNIT-2
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY & LITERATURE

Sanskrit
Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages. The Vedas,Upanishads,Puranas and Dharmasutras
are all written in Sanskrit. There is also a variety of secular and regional literature. By reading about
the languages and literature created in the past, we shall be able to understand our civilization better
and appreciate the diversity and richness of our culture. All this was possible because of the
language that developed during that time.
Sanskrit is the most ancient language of our country. It is one of the twenty-two languages
listed in the Indian Constitution. The literature in Sanskrit is vast, beginning with the most ancient
thought embodied in the Rig Veda, the oldest literary heritage of mankind, and the Zend Avesta. It
was Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study of linguistics scientifically during the eighteenth
century. The great grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit and its word formation in his unrivalled
descriptive grammar Ashtadhyayi. The Buddhist Sanskrit literature includes the rich literature of the
Mahayana school and the Hinayana school also. The most important work of the Hinayana school is
the Mahavastu which is a storehouse of stories. While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana
text which supplied literary material for the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa. Sanskrit is perhaps the
only language that transcended the barriers of regions and boundaries. From the north to the south
and the east to the west there is no part of India that has not contributed to or been affected by this
language. Kalhan‘s Rajatarangini gives a detailed account of the kings of Kashmir whereas with
Jonaraja we share the glory of Prithviraj. The writings of Kalidasa have added beauty to the
storehouse of Sanskrit writings.

The Vedic Literature

The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and
were handed down orally from one generation to the other. The preservation of the Vedas till
today is one of our most remarkable achievements. To be able to keep such a literary wealth
as the Vedas intact when the art of writing was not there and there was a paucity of writing
material is unprecedented in world history. The word Veda literally means knowledge. In
Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal and divine revelations. They treat the whole
world as one human family Vasudaika Kutumbakam.
There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharvana Veda.
Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.

It is very difficult to determine the age of the Vedas and also the time they were written. Max
Muller says that the Rig Veda was composed before 1000 B.C. While according to Lokmanya Tilak
it appeared before 6000 B.C.

The Rig-veda Samhita

The Rig-Veda Samhita which has come down to us belongs to the branch known as the Sakala
Shakha. It consists of 1,028 suktas (hymns) including eleven additional hymns. These hymns,
which are made up of a varying number of mantras in the form of metrical stanzas, are distributed
in ten books called mandalas. The formation of the mandalas was governed mainly by the principle
of homogeneity of authorship. Among the classes of the Vedic Aryans certain families had already
acquired some measure of socio-religious importance. The mantras, or hymns, which the progenitor
and the members of any of these families claimed to have seen were collected in the book of that
family. The nucleus of the Rig- Veda mandalas 2 to 7 are formed of six such family books, which
are respectively ascribed to the families of Gritsamada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja,
and Vashista. The eighth mandala belongs to the Kanvas. The ninth mandala is governed by the
principle of the homogeneity not of authorship but of subject-matter, for all the suktas in this
mandala relate to soma (an intoxicating juice). The 1st and the 10th mandalas, each of which has 191
hymns, are miscellaneous collections of long and short suktas.
Tradition requires that before starting the study of any sukta one should know 4 essential
things about it: rishi(authorship); devata(subject-matter); chandas(metre); and viniyoga(ritualistic
application). The poets of the Rig-Veda show themselves to have been conscious artists and they
sometimes employed various stylistic and rhetorical devices. The majority of the suktas in the
RigVeda are of the nature of prayers addressed to different divinities usually with background
descriptions of their various exploits and achievements. Apart from these prayers and their
mythology, however, we do get in some suktas the Rig-Veda intimations of the further development
of Vedic thought in the directions of ritualism and philosophical speculation. In connection with the
latter, special mention may be made of the Hiranyagarbha-sukta and the Purusha-sukta.

The Yajur-Veda Samhita

The Yajur-Veda is essentially ritualistic in character. Indeed, the Yajur Veda may be regarded
as the first regular text book on Vedic ritual as a whole. It deals mainly with the duties of the
adhvaryu (fire-priest), who is responsible for the actual performance of the various sacrificial rites.
Incidentally, it may be mentioned that while the Sama-Veda represents a very early stage in the
history of Indian music, the Yajur Veda marks the beginning of Sanskrit prose. Tradition speaks
variously of the Yajur-Veda having 86 or 101 shakhas. But for our present purpose we may consider
only its two main recensions, the Krishna YajurVeda and the Shukla Yajur-Veda. The difference
between these two recensions lies not so much in their content as in their arrangement. In the
Krishna Yajur-Veda the mantras (mostly derived from the Rig-Veda) and the yajus (sacrificial
formulas in prose) and their ritualistic explanations (called the Brahmana) are mixed up together.
That is to say, in the matter of form and content, the Samhita of the Krishna Yajur-Veda is not
particularly distinguishable from the Brahmana or the Aranyaka of that Veda. As against this, the
Samhita of the Sukla Yajur-Veda contains the mantras and yajus only, reserving the corresponding
ritualistic explanation and discussion for the Satapatha Brahmana which belongs to that Veda.
From among the many schools of the Krishna Yajur-Veda the Samhitas of only 4 schools are
available today, either entirely or in fragments. These four schools are: the Taittiriya, the Kathaka,
the Maitrayani, and the Kapisthala-katha. The Taittiriya School is traditionally divided into two
branches, the Aukhya and the Khandikeya. The Khandikeya is further subdivided into five
branches: the Apastamba, the Baudhayana, the Satyasadha, the Hiranyakesin, and the Bharadwaja.
The Taittiriya School has preserved its literature perhaps most fully amongst all the Vedic
schools, maintaining its continuity from the Samhita period, through the Brahmana, the Aranyaka,
and the Upanisad periods, to the Sutra period. It is presumably on account of this fact that the
Taittiriya School is often equated with the whole of the Krishna YajurVeda.
The name Taittiriya is variously explained. There is, for instance, the legend which narrates
how Yajnavalkya, who had developed differences with his teacher Vaisampayana, vomited the Veda
which he had learned from his teacher; how, at the instance Vaisampayana, his other pupils,
assuming the form of tittiri birds, consumed the vomited Veda; how, consequently, the Veda so
recovered by the tittiri birds was called the Taittiriya-Veda; and how, finally, Yajnavalkya secured
from the Sun-god another Veda which came to be known as the Sukla or bright Yajur-Veda. It is
also suggested that, on account of the interspersion in it of the mantras and the brahmana portion,
the Krsna Yajur-Veda appears variegated like a taittiri bird, and is therefore called the Taittiriya
Samhita. However, the most satisfactory explanation of the name seems to be that an ancient sage
called Tittiri was traditionally regarded as the seer of this Veda.

The Sama-Veda Samhita

Sama means melody or songs. This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or musical
notes. Out of total 1875 verses only 75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda. The Sama
Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda. It may be called the book
of Chants (Saman). This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.

The Sama-Veda Samhita is a collection of mantras prescribed for chanting at various soma
sacrifices by the udgatr (singer-priest) and his assistants, thus this Veda serves an avowedly
ritualistic purpose. Though called Sama-Veda, it is not strictly speaking a collection of samans
(chants). The Sama-Veda, as we have said, is essentially a derivative production in the sense that
most of its mantras are derived from the Rig-Veda. Three distinct stages may be inferred in the
evolution of this Veda. The Sama-Veda is actually a collection of such samayoni-mantras. The
collection is in two main parts: the Purvardka and the Uttarardika. The Purvardka consists of 585
single verses, of which the first 114 are addressed to Agni, the next 352 to Indra, and the last 119 to
Soma. The Uttarardika consists of 1,225 verses grouped into 400 units of connected verses. The
total number of mantras in the Sama-Veda, excluding the repeated ones, is 1,549, all of which
(except 78) are taken from the Rig-Veda, mostly from its eighth and ninth mandalas (books).

The Atharva-veda Samhita

In contrast to the Rig- Veda, the Atharva- Veda is essentially a heterogeneous collection of
mantras. It concerns itself mostly with the everyday life of the common man, from the pre-natal
stage to the post-mortem. The interest of the Atharva-Veda is varied and its impact is irresistible.
The purohita (priest) of a Vedic king was expected to be an adept in both white and black
magic, and in order to discharge adequately the duties of his responsible office he naturally
depended on the mantras and practices of the Atharva-Veda. Thus it was that this Veda also came to
be called the Purohita-Veda. It was also called the Kshatriya-Veda, because it included within its
scope many practices specifically relating to the Ksatriya rulers.
The Atharva-Veda consisted of magically potent mantras and was therefore, according to
one view, called the Brahma-Veda. But there is another reason why it is called the Brahma-Veda,
which is far more significant. On account of the peculiar character of the contents of the Atharva-
Veda, it was, for a long time, not regarded as being on a par with the other three Vedas, called trayi.
As a reaction against this exclusive attitude of the Vedic hierarchy, the Atharva-Vedins went to the
other extreme and claimed that their Veda not only enjoyed by right, the full status of a Veda, but
actually comprehended the other three Vedas. The view had already been independently gaining
ground that the Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Sama-Veda were essentially limited in scope and
that Atharva-veda alone was truly limitless. The sponsors of the Atharva-Veda claimed that this
Brahman was adequately embodied in their Veda, and that the Atharva-Veda was therefore the
Brahma-Veda.
However, it is not unlikely that the name Brahma-Veda became stabilized because the priest
of the Atharva-Veda in the Vedic ritual was called Brahman. The Atharva-Veda is usually
considered to be a Veda of magic, and magic bccomes effective only through the joint operation of
mantras and the corresponding practices. The Atharva-Veda Samhita itself contains only the
mantras, while its various practices are described in its many ancillary texts, particularly in its five
kalpas. The Atharva-Veda is accordingly sometimes referred to as the Veda of the five kalpas. But
mystic and esoteric verses are there in the Atharva-Veda, and this justifies in a way its claim to be
regarded as the Brahma-Veda, dealing specifically with Brahman, the supreme Spirit, the other three
being more or less connected with the ritual of worship.
The contents of the Atharva-Veda are remarkably diverse in character. There are in this Veda
charms to counteract diseases and possession by evil spirits. The AtharvaVeda presents perhaps the
most complete account of primitive medicine. There are also prayers for health and long life, for
happiness and prosperity. There are also spells pertaining to the various kinds of relationship with
women, sthreekarmani. Another significant section of this Veda contains hymns which concern
themselves with affairs involving the king(rajakarmani) and others which are intended for securing
harmony in domestic, social, and political spheres.
As for black magic, the Atharva-Veda abounds in formulas and imprecation, for exorcism
and counter-exorcism. Polarity may be said to be one of the most striking features of the Atharva-
Veda, for side by side with the incantations for sorcery and black magic, it contains highly
theosophical or philosophical speculations. These speculations, indeed, represent a significant
landmark in the history of Indian thought. As has been mentioned, the Rig-veda and the Atharva
veda are the only two primary Samhitas, the other two Samhitas being mostly derivative in
character. Again, it is to be noted in the same context that the Sama-veda and the Yajur-veda may
be styled as Samhitas since they are, in a sense, collections of mantras, but in them are reflected
tendencies which are not of the Samhita period but are of the Brahmana period.

The Upanishads
The word upanisad is interpreted variously. It is made to correspond with the word upasana
which is understood to mean either worship or profound knowledge. The word is also connected
with the Pali word upanisa and thus made to mean something like cause or connection. In his
bhasya(commentary) on the Taittiriya Upanisad Sri Shankara interprets upanisad as that which
destroys ignorance. But the sense most commonly signified by the word upanisad is the esoteric
teaching imparted by the teacher to the pupil who sits(sad), near him(upa), in a closed select(ni),
group. Bhagavad-Gita says "नच सुश्रूषवे वाच्यम",which means knowledge should not be imparted to
those who does not have the sacred will and Interest to learn.
The Upanisads are also called the Vedanta, because they represent the concluding portion of
the apauruseya Veda or Shruti, or the final stage in Vedic instruction, or the ultimate end and aim of
the teachings of the Veda.
The Upanishads are one of the most significant sources of the spiritual wisdom of India, and
are traditionally regarded as one of the three prasthanas(source books) of Indian philosophy. Also,
one cannot fail to be impressed by certain notable features of the Upanisads, such as: their unity of
purpose in spite of the variety in their doctrines; the note of certainty or definiteness which informs
them; and the various levels at which they consider and represent reality.
There are over 200 Upanisads. The Muktikopanisad gives a traditional list of 108 Upanisads,
of which 10 belong to the Rig-Veda, 19 to the Sukla Yajur-Veda, 32 to the Krishna Yajur-Veda, 16 to
the Sama veda, and 31 to the Atharva veda, but even out of these, usually, 10 Upanishads, known as
Dashopanishads, are regarded as the principal Upanishads. They are ISHA, KENA, KATHA,
PRASHNA, MUNDAKA, MANDUKYA, AITEREYA, TAITTARIYA, BRUHADARANYAKA,
and CHANDOGYA, these are traditionally connected with one or the other Vedic Shaka.
The Ishavashyopanishad belongs to the Shukla Yajur veda and is included in the Vajasaneya
Samhita as its last adhyaya. This Upanisad, which derives its name from its first word, emphasizes
the unity of being and becoming, but in this connection it speaks of Isha, the Lord, rather than of
Brahman. It elaborates the doctrine of vidya(knowledge) and avidya(ignorance), and sets forth the
view that a fusion of both is a necessary precondition for the attainment of amaratva (immortality).
The Kena Upanisad, which also derives its name from its initial word, forms part of the
Sama veda. It consists of four sections, of which the first two, which are in verse, deal with
Brahman, higher knowledge(para vidya), and immediate liberation(sadyomukti); while the last two
sections, which are in prose, deal with Isvara, lower knowledge(apara vidya), and gradual liberation
(krama-mukti).
One of the better-known Upanisads is the Katha or Katopanisad, which belongs to the
Krishna Yajur-Veda. It consists of two chapters which have three vallis (sections) each. For the
background of its philosophical teaching it has the striking legend of Yama and Nachiketa. A
noteworthy point about this Upanisad is that it has many passages in common with the Bhagavad-
Gita.
The Prashna Upanisad, Mundaka Upanisad, and the Mandukya Upanisad belong to the
Atharva-Veda. The Prashna Upanisad, as its name suggests, deals, in its six sections, with six
questions relating to such topics as the nature of the ultimate cause, the significance of Om, and the
relation between the Supreme and the World. The name Munda is suggestive of renunciation, and in
its three chapters this Upanisad discusses sannyasa (renunciation) and para vidya as against samsara
(the world) and apara-vidya. Incidentally, India‘s national motto satyameva jayate (truth alone
triumphs) is taken from this Upanisad. The Mandukya Upanisad is a very small text consisting of
only twelve stanzas, but it has attained a significant place in the philosophical literature of India on
account of the fact that Gaudapada, Sankara‘s preceptor, wrote a commentary on this Upanisad, his
famous Mandukya-kdrika, which may be said to contain the first systematic statement of the
doctrine of absolute monism, later elaborated upon and given full form by Sankara.
The Taittiriya7 Upanisad is a part of the larger literature complex of the Taittiriya school of
the Krishna Yajur veda. As has been pointed out, the seventh, eighth, and ninth books of the
Taittiriya Aranyaka constitute the Taittiriya Upanisad, the tenth and last being the Mahanarayana
Upanisad. The Taittiriya Upanisad is divided into three sections called vallis: the Siksa-valli, the
Brahmananda-valli and the Bhrigu-valli.
The Aitareya8 Upanisad of the Rig-Veda is equivalent to the Aitareya Aranyaka By far the
most important of the Upanisads are the Chandogya and the Brhadaianyaka. The Chandogya
Brahmana, belonging to the Gauthuma Sakha of the Sama-Veda, consists of ten chapters. The last
eight chapters constitute the Chandogya Upanisad.
The Bruhadaranyaka9 Upanisad, which belongs to the Sukla Yajur-Veda, is the biggest and
perhaps the oldest of the Upanisads. The Kanva Bruhadaranyaka Upanisad (which, incidentally,
Sankara chose for his commentary) is analogous to the last six chapters of the sixteenth kanda of the
Kanva Satapatha Brahmana. Added to these ten traditionally recognized Upanisads are three others,
making altogether the thirteen principal Upanisads. These three are the Svetasvatara and the Maitri,
or Maitrayani, both of which belong to the Krsna Yajur-Veda, and the Kausitaki which belongs to
the Rig-Veda.
The Svetasvataropanisad10, which has six chapters and 113 stanzas, is essentially a theistic
text. It presents the supreme Brahman as Rudra, the personal God, and teaches the doctrine of
bhakti (devotion). This Upanisad is also remarkable for its use of Samkhya terminology and its
attempt to reconcile the different religious and philosophical views which were then in vogue. The
Maitrai or Maitrayani Upanisad has seven chapters,the last two of which are comparatively modern.
The Kausitaki Upanisad, though also called Kausitaki Brahmana Upanisad, is not connected with
the Kausitaki (or Sankhayana) Brahmana. This Upanisad is the third chapter of the Sahkhayana
Aranyaka. Among other topics, it deals with the progressive definition of the Brahman, the course
to Brahmaloka (the sphere of Brahman), and Indra as life and immortality.
Apart from these principal Upanisads there are many others, but they are essentially
sectarian in character and pseudo-philosophical in content. They are usually divided into various
classes, such as Slmanya-Vedanta, Yoga, Sannyasa, Saiva, Vaisnava, and Sakta, in accordance with
their main tendencies. As for the age of the principal Upanisads, they may be said to extend roughly
over a period from the 8th to the 3rd century B.C., the older ones among them being decidedly pre-
Buddhistic. As far as the relative chronology of the Upanisads is concerned, it is customary to speak
of four classes, namely: ancient prose, early metrical, later prose, and later metrical. The Upanisads
can, no doubt, be said to represent the high watermark of Vedic thought; but it also needs to be
realized that certain features of their teachings, such as Brahma-vidya (knowledge of Brahman),
were too subtle to be adequately comprehended by ordinary people. They demanded a high
intellectual level and strict spiritual discipline on the part of the seeker. The Upanishads gave the
people a philosophy but not a religion.

Other Religious & Philosopical Literature

Vedangas
There are 6 vedangas, they are known as shad-angas(6 limbs) of vedas, these are the
auxilary disciplines which are useful in undersatnding and interpreting the vedas in their correct
sense. The six Vedangas are: 1)Shiksha (phonetics); 2)kalpa (socio-religious practices and rituals);
3)Vyakarana (grammar); 4)Nirukta (etymology); 5)Chandas (metrics); and 6)Jyotisha (astrology
& astronomy). Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters,
structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-
Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of Hindu philosophy.
By the Kalpa-Sutra usually meant a whole literary corpus comprising the Srauta-Sutra, the
Gruhya-Sutra, and the Dharma-Sutra; these, broadly speaking, refer respectively to the religious, the
domestic, and the social aspects of the life of the people. These Sutras primarily seek to regulate
and codify the practices which were already in vogue, but at the same time they also initiate new
practices or modify the old ones in accordance with the times and the traditions of the school in
which they originated.
The response of Hinduism to external and internal challenges was one of gradual assimilation and
adaptation rather than of opposition and isolation, and the tendency to synthesize various religious
practices and philosophical doctrines into a single harmonious way of life and thought.
Dr. Binod Bihari Satpathy
The Ithihasas(Ramayana & Mahabharatha)
The sanskrith word Ithihasa means traditional accounts of former events. These epics
(Ramayana & Mahabharata) were in existance long before we know writing. They were transmitted
orally for many generation. Before they were committed to writing, the epic stories gathered many
accretions; and even after they were written down, additions and alterations continued. The diverse
nature of the changes made explains the great popularity of the epics throughout the length and
breadth of India. Though the epic stories are very old and some of them hark back to Vedic times,
their present forms are of a much later date. It is generally believed that the Mahabharata had
attained its present form by about the fourth century A.D. The Ramayana probably assumed its
present shape a century or two earlier.
The Ramayana is one of two Hindu epics, the other being the Mahabharata. Whereas the
Mahabharata is a heroic (or folk) epic deriving from an oral tradition, the Ramayana is more nearly
a literary epic, written in conscious imitation of the heroic tradition. Whatever the original may
have been, the Ramayana has been altered many times by subsequent rewriting and critical revision.
In its extant versions, the Ramayana contains about twenty-four thousand couplets (less than one-
fourth the length of the Mahabharata) and is divided into seven chapters (the Mahabharatahas
eighteen chapters). Of the seven chapters of the Ramayana, the central story covers chapterss 2
through 6; chapter 1 is introductory. Chapter 7 provides both epilogue to and critique of the
preceding six chapters. The Ramayana, unlike the Mahabharata, has unity in its narrative, which
stems from its concentration on one main story.
The Ramayana is more ornate than the Mahabharata, more refined and sophisticated. The
Ramayana, indeed, is a marvellous piece of art which India can legitimately be proud of. In the
whole range of Sanskrit literature, there are very few poems more charming than this one by the
adikavi. The classical purity, clearness, and simplicity of its style, the exquisite touches of true
poetic feeling with which it abounds, its graphic descriptions of heroic incidents and nature‘s
grandest scenes, the deep acquaintance it displays with the conflicting workings and most refined
emotions of the human heart, all entitle it to rank among the most beautiful compositions that have
appeared at any period or in any country.
The Mahabharata, as we know it today, is the outcome of a long process of addition,
assimilation, expansion, revision, and redaction. Presumably, it originated as a bardic-historical
poem called Jaya samhita, which had the eventful Bharata war as its central theme. In the course of
time, a large amount of material belonging to the literary tradition of the bards, which had been
developing side by side with the mantra tradition embodied in the Vedic literature, was added to the
historical poem, thereby transforming it into the epic Mahabharat. This transformation of Jaya
samhita into Mahabharat received added momentum from another and, from our point of view,
more significant factor, the rise of Krishnite Hinduism.
The Mahabharata, which must have assumed its present form in the first centuries before
and after Christ, is traditionally believed to consist of 100,000 stanzas divided into 18 parvas.

The Puranas
Purana(पुराण)means event of the past. It is also defined as(सर्गश्च प्रतिसर्गश्च वंशो मन्वंिराति
च। वंशानुचररिं चैव पुरािं पंचलक्षिम् ॥) the composition which describes or explains the following
1. Creation of 5 elements 2. Creation of all kinds of life form 3. Family history of great dynasties
4. History of Gods and great sages 5. Discription of great people.
There are 18 puranas originally composed in Sanskrit by Vyasa, they are 1. Brahmapurana
2. Shivapurana 3.Vishnupurana 4. Lingapurana 5.Garudapurana 6.Brahmandapurana
7. Kurmapurana 8.Markandeyapurana 9. Mastyapurana 10.Naradapurana 11. Bhagavathapurana
12. Bhavishyapurana 13.Varahapurana 14.Vayupurana 15.Agnipurana 16.Brahmavaivartapurana
17. Padmapurana 18. Skandapurana.

The Smritis
The Smritis are the texts which describe the traditional rules and regulations goverining the
individual and social behavior of human beings basing on their varna. In other words we can say
that the Smritis are the Civil and Criminal codes of that time. The famous Smritis are Narada
Smriti, Manu Smriti, Parashara Smriti and Yagnavalkya Smriti.
There are many other literary works in Sanskrith by various people. Saints like Sri
Gaudapada, Sri Adi-Shankaracharya, Sri Vidyaranya and learned individuals like Madhavacharya,
Sayanacharya wrote commentaries(Bhashyas) on vedas and upanishads.
Maha-bhashya of Patanjali from the 2nd century BC is among the earliest known Bhashyas.
Sri Adi-Shankaracharya's writings come under various categories. For instance he worte Bhasya
(commentaries), prakarana granthas(treatises), Stotras, and Bhajans.
Poets like Kalidasa wrote novels viz. Meghasandesham, Abhignana shakuntalam,
Raghuvmsam, Kumarasambhavam.etc...other great literacy works, which marked the golden era of
Indian literature include ‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka, ‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa, 'Buddha
charitha' by Ashvaghosha and ‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha. Some other famous works are Chanakya’s
‘Arthashastra’ and Bhartruhari wrote Shatakas, Panini wrote Ashtadyayi (Book on grammar).
We also have a large body of books dealing with various sciences, law, medicine and
grammar. To this class belong the law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis, together known as
Dharmashastras. The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC. These lay down
duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribed the rules
according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited. They also prescribe punishments for
persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The Manusmriti tells us about the role of man and
woman in society, their code of conduct and relationship with each other.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the state of
society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient Indian polity
and economy.
Buddhist And Jain Literature In Pali, Prakrit And Sanskrit
The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents.
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South Bihar.
The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.
The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets Vinaya
Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of
daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while
Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It includes discourses on various
subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.
The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the most
interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was finally
born as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed through more than 550 births, in many
cases even in the form of animals. Each birth story is called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable
light on the social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century
BC. They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakarnas, Chhedab Sutras
and Malasutras. Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri,
(eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism helped in the growth of a
rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages
which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain texts
refer repeatedly to trade and traders.

Famous Sanskrit Authors of the Gupta Period

The Gupta period was India’s golden age of culture and one of the greatest and most
glorious times. The Gupta kings patronized the classical Sanskrit literature. They helped liberally
the scholars and poets of Sanskrit. This enriched the Sanskrit langauge. In fact Sanskrit language
became the language of cultured and educated people. Many great poets, dramatists and scholars
appeared during this period and works in Sanskrit reached great heights.
1. Kalidas: Poet Kalidas wrote many beautiful poems and plays. His works in Sanskrit are
considered the gems of Literature. He wrote passionate plays and poems. His wonderful skill is
exhibited in his poem Meghaduta, Ritusamhara, Kumar Sambhavam and Raghuvamsham. His plays
are Abhijan Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashi and Malvikaganimithram.
2. Vishakhdutta: Vishakhdutta was another great play writer of this period. He wrote two great
historical plays like- Mudra Rakshas and Devi Chandra Gupta.
3. Shudraka: He wrote an exciting play Mrichchha Katikam or the Toy Cart. It is a great source of
socio-cultural conditions of that time.
4. Harisena: Among the great poets and play writers of the Gupta period was Harisena. He wrote
poems praising the valour of Samudra Gupta. It is inscribed on Allahabad pillar.
5. Bhasa: He wrote thirteen plays which echo the lifestyle of the era along with its prevalent beliefs
and culture.

Literature of South India(Telugu, Kannada And Malayalam Literature)

The four Dravadan languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malyalam developed their own
literature. Tamil being the oldest of these langauges began writing earlier and produced the sangam
literature - the oldest literature in Tamil.
Telugu Literature
The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somanatha, a court poet
of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam. Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the
greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is
regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu literature. Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly
known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court. Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of
Manucharitra, was the greatest. He was known as Andhra kavitapitamaha. The other seven poets of
the group were Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari Mallana, Dhurjati,
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali Ramakrishna.
Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known as
Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam, Pingali Suran composed two works
Raghavapandaviyam and Kalapuranodayam. In the former, he attempted a literary feat telling the
story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata simultaneously. Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester,
was an interesting figure of the Krishnadevaraya’s court. His practical jokes on high-placed men of
the time are recounted with pleasure even today. Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga
Mahatmayam which was considered one of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
Ramarajabhushana was the author of Vasucharitram. He was also known as Bhattumurti. His other
works include Narasabhupaliyam and Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam. It is a poetical work on the
model ofRaghavapandaviyam. One can read in it stories of Nala as well as Harishchandra.
Madayagari Mallana’s work Rajashekharacharitra is a prabandha dealing with the wars and loves of
Rajashekhara, king of Avanti. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra was the author of two works
Ramabhyudayam and Sakalakathasara Sangraham.

Kannada Literature
Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada and Sanskrit writers as
well. Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature. Madhava wrote
Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara. Another Jain scholar,Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma
Parikshe. The Sanskrit works of the period include Yadavabhyudayam by Vedanatha Desika and
Parasara Smriti Vyakhya of Madhavacharya.
Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary
work in Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I.
Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vïkramarjiva
Vijaya in the tenth century AD. Pampa lived in the court of Chalukya Arikesari. In his poetic skill,
beauty of description, delineation of character and development of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled. Ponna
and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III. Ponna wrote
an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha Purano. Together Pampa, Ponna and
Ranna earned the title ratnatraya (the three gems).
In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara wrote
Harishchandra Kavya and Somanatha Charita whereas Bandhuvarma wrote Harivamshabhyudaya
and Jiva Sambodhana. Under the patronage of later Hoysala rulers, several literary works were
produced. Rudra Bhata wrote Jagannathavijaya. Andayya’s Madana Vijaya or Kabbïgara Kava is a
work of special interest in pure Kannada without the mixture of Sanskrit words. Mallikarjuna’s
Suktisudharnava, the first anthology in Kannada and Kesirja’s Shabdamanidarpana on grammar are
two other standard works in the Kannada language.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
under the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups made important
contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana This is the
first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis Ramayana. Lakshamisha who
lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaïmini Bharata and earned the titled of Kamata-
Karicutavana-Chaitra (the spring of the Karnataka mango grove).
The other eminent poet of this period was the great Sarvajna, popularly known as the
people’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi (three-lined) compositions serve as a source of wisdom and
ethics. A special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the first outstanding poetess in
Kannada. Her Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife) is a compendium of ethics.

Malayalam Literature
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam emerged
around the eleventh century AD. By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised as an independent
language.
Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are two great works.
Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature.
Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam has made a
mark as a powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of journals, newspapers and
magazines are published in Malayalam. When people read and write in their own language, they
enjoy it more. This is because language is a part of their culture. It is so well inter woven in their
social life that they can express and feel their emotions as well in their own language. This, must
also be the case with you and your language also.

Tamil Or Sangama Literature

Tamil as a written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era. It is, therefore, no
wonder that considerable Sangama literature was produced in the early four centuries of the
Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD. Poets who in these assemblies were
patronised by kings and chieftains produced the Sangama literature over a period of three to four
centuries. Poets, bards and writers, authors came from various parts of South India to Madurai.
Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and the literature produced in these assemblies was
called “Sangama literature”. The contributions of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’
which has been translated into many langauges are noteworthy. The Sangama literature is a
collection of long and short poems composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and
heroines. They are secular in nature and of a very high quality. Three such sangams were held. The
poems collected in the first sangam have been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have
been collected.
There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called
Ettuttokoi. There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eighteen lower collections)
and Pattupattu (the ten songs). The former is generally assumed to be older than the latter, and
considered to be of more historical importance. Thiruvallurar’s work ‘Kural’ is divided into three
parts. The first part deals with the epics, the second part with polity and government and the third
part with love.
Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar
and poetry. In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. These two
were composed around the sixth century AD. The first is considered as the brightest gem of Tamil
literature and deals with a love story. The second epic was written by a grain merchant of Madurai.
These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of Tamils from second century to sixth century
AD.
From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars (saints
who sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement which engulfed the
entire Indian sub-continent. During this period, Kambaramayanam and Periya Puranam were two
Tamil literary classic writers.

Northern Indian Languages & Literature

We have already seen how languages evolved in India right upto the early medieval period.
The old apabhramsha had taken new forms in some areas or was in the process of evolving into
other forms. These languages were evolving at two levels: the spoken and the written language. The
old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change. The alphabets during Ashoka’s
period were uneven in size but by the time of Harsha, the letters had become of the same size and
were regular, presenting the picture of a cultivated hand.
The studies have indicated that all the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except
that of Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi. A long and slow process had given them this
shape. If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily understand this
change. As for the spoken word, there are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India at present.
Some are widely used while others are limited to a particular area. Out of all these, only twenty-two
have found their way into our Constitution.
A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha, and
Avadhi (spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila), and
Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant or dialect of Hindi.
This classification has been made on the basis of literature produced by great poets over a length of
time. Thus, the language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of Braj Bhasha; that
used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called Avadhi and the one used by Vidyapati has been
termed as Maithili. But Hindi, as we know it today is the one called Khadi Boli. Though Khusrau
has used Khadi Boli in his compositions in the thirteenth century its extensive use in literature
began only in the nineteenth century. It even shows some influence of Urdu.

Urdu
Urdu emerged as an independent langauge towards the end of the 4th century AD. Arabic
and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and the Mongols. Persian
remained the court langage for many centuries. Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction
between Hindi and Persian.
After the conquest of Delhi (1192), the Turkish people settled in this region. Urdu was born
out of the interaction of these settlers and soldiers in the barracks with the common people.
Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formal language when the
authors started using Persian script. It was further given an impetus by its use in Bahamani states of
Ahmadnagar, Golkunda, Bijapur and Berar. Here it was even called dakshini or daccani (southern).
As time passed, it became popular with the masses of Delhi.
Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote accounts of
later Mughals in Urdu. Gradually it achieved a status where literature-both poetry and prose-started
being composed in it. The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar wrote poetry in it. Some of his
couplets have become quite well known in the Hindi and Urdu speaking areas.
Urdu was given its pride of place by a large number of poets who have left inimitable poetry
for posterity. The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau (1253-1325). He started writing as a
poet in the reign of Sultan Balban and was a follower of Nizam ud-din Auliya. He is said to have
composed ninty-nine works on separate themes and numerous verses of poetry. Among the
important works composed by him are Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-din-
Khalji. Among other well-known poets are Ghalib, Zauq, and Iqbal. Iqbal’s Urdu poetry is available
in his collection called Bang-i–dara. His Sarejahan se achcha Hindostan hamara is sung and played
at many of the national celebrations in India. No army parade is considered complete without the
army band playing this tune. In big Indian cities like Delhi these are many programmes in which
famous singers are invited to sing nazams or Ghazals written by famous poets like Ghalib, Maum,
Bulley Shah, Waris Shah besides many others. So you can imagine how rich our language
and literary culture must have been to continue till today. It has enriched our lives and is central to
people meeting and intermingling with each other.
Among the best prose writers were people like Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar, who wrote the
famous Fasanah- i-Azad. Even in the early days, Munshi Prem Chand, who is supposed to be a
doyen of Hindi literature, wrote in Urdu. Urdu has given us a new form of poem that is called a
nazm. Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums in this language.
Slowly it became quite popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu as the state language.

Hindi Literature
These was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,
Marathi and Gujarati during this time. In the South, Malayalam emerged as an independent
language in the 14th century The emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of
Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through which the administrative machinery
functioned. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these regional langages by the various
saints helped in their growth and development. We have already noted the various dialects that
developed in northern and western India. Prithviraj Raso is supposed to be the first book in the
Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation several other
rasos were written. The language went on changing as the area where it was used expanded. New
words to express new situations were either coined or taken from areas coming under its influence.
Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance and Bharata’s Natyashastra was kept in
mind by Hindi writers. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there started a movement in
southern India that was called the Bhakti movement. As its influence reached the north, it started
affecting the prose and poetry that were being composed in Hindi. Poetry now became largely
devotional in nature. Some of the poets like Tuisidas wrote poetry in a language which was of that
region only, while others like Kabir, who moved from place to place added Persian and Urdu words
as well. Though it is said that Tuisidas wrote Ramcharit Manas based on Valmiki’s Ramayana, he
also alters situations and adds quite a few new scenes and situations based on folklore. For example,
Sita’s exile is mentioned in Valmiki’s version but it is not mentioned in Tulsidas’s account. Tuisidas
has deified his hero while the hero of Valmiki is a human being.
Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. and
the 14th C. It was characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the Adi Kala
(early period). It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and poetry. The most
famous figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern times, the Khadi dialect
became more prominent and a variety of literature was produced in Sanskrit.
Similarly, Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a young lad
indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in dalliance with the gopis. These poets made a deep
impression on the minds of the listeners. If the festivals associated with Rama and Krishna have
become so very popular, the credit goes to these poets. Their versions became the source of
inspiration not only for other poets but also for painters in the medieval ages. They inspired
Mirabai, who sang in Rajasthani language, and Raskhan, who, though a Muslim, sang in praise of
Krishna. Nandadasa was an important Bhakti poet. Rahim and Bhushan were a class apart. Their
subject was not devotion, but spiritual. Bihari wrote his Satsai in the seventeenth century; it gives
us a glimpse of shringar(love) and other rasas.
All the above mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed their sentiments essentially
to satisfy their own devotional instincts. Kabir did not believe in institutionalised religion. He was a
devotee of a formless God. Chanting His name was the be-all and end-all for him. All these poets
influenced the north Indian society in a manner that had never happened earlier. As it is easier to
remember poetry than prose, they became immensely popular.
During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to the development of modern
India literature, written in a number of regional languages as well as in English. One of the greatest
Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to win the Nobel Prize for literature
(Geetanjali) in 1913.
However, it is only with the beginning of nineteenth century that-Hindi prose came into its own.
Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to produce dramas in Hindi which were basically
translations of texts written in Sanskrit and other languages. But he set the trend. Mahavir Prasad
Dwivedi was another author who wrote translations or made adaptations from Sanskrit. Bankim
Chandra Chatterji (l 838-94) wrote novels originally in Bangla. They came to be translated into
Hindi and became very popular. Vande Mataram,our national song, is an excerpt from his novel,
Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujarati and
a scholar of Sanskrit, he advocated Hindi as a common language for the whole of India. He started
writing in Hindi and contributed articles to journals essentially engaged in religious and social
reforms. Satyartha Prakash was his most important work in Hindi. Among other names who have
enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who switched over from Urdu to Hindi.
Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned the orthodoxies in
society. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight issues related to women.
Maithili Sharan Gupt is another important name. Jaishankar Prasad wrote beautiful dramas.
Hindi Language Makes Progress in Modern Period

Hindi Language: The development of modern language started at the end of the 18th century. The
main writers of this period were Sadasukh Lal and Enshallah Khan. Bhartendu Harishchandra also
strengthened Hindi language. Similarly Raja Lakshman Singh translated Shakuntala into Hindi.
Hindi continued to develop in adverse circumstances as the office work was done in Urdu.
Hindi Literature: Bhartendu Harish Chandra, Mahavira Prasad Dwivedi, Ramchandra Shukla and
Shyam Sunder Das were the main among the prose writers of Hindi literature. Jai Shanker Prasad,
Maithalisharan Gupta, Sumitranandan Pant, Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Mahadevi Verma,
Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ and Haribans Rai ‘Bacchan’ made great contribution to the development
of Hindi poetry. Similarly Prem Chand, Vrindavan lal Verma and Ellachandra Joshi wrote novels
and enriched Hindi literature.
If we look at the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand wrote
in order to reform the Hindu society and rid it of false beliefs and social evils. Munshi Prem Chand
tried to draw the attention of the society to the miserable existence of the poor and Mahadevi Verma
recipient of Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award highlighted the conditions of
women in the society. ‘Nirala’ became the pioneer of awakening of Modern India.

BENGALI, ASSAMESE AND ORIYA LITERATURE

After Hindi, the next significant literature was the one that developed in Bengal. The Baptist
Mission Press was established in Serampore near Calcutta in 1800. East India Company founded
the Fort William College in the same year. It provided training to civil servants of the Company in
law, customs, religions, languages and literatures of India to enable them to work more efficiently.
In this regard, a very important landmark was achieved by William Carey, who wrote a
grammar of Bengali and published an English-Bengali dictionary and also wrote books on
dialogues and stories. It may be noted that the grammar and dictionaries are important in the
development of a literature. They guide the writers as to the correctness of a sentence and also help
them in finding suitable words for a particular situation and idea. Although the aim of the press run
by the missionaries was mainly to propagate Christian faith but other presses run by local people
helped in the flourishing of non-Christian literature. Scores of pamphlets, small and big books and
journals were produced. In the meantime education spread, although at a very slow pace. But after
1835, when Macaulay won the battle against Orientalists, it spread at a faster pace. In 1854 came
Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch and in 1857 the three universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
were established. Besides textbooks for schools and colleges, other literature were also produced.
However it was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who wrote in Bengali besides English that gave impetus to
Bengali literature. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91) and Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820-86) were
two other writers of this early period. In addition to these, Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l834-94),
Sharat Chandra Chatterji (l876-1938), and R.C. Dutta, a noted historian and a prose writer, all
contributed to the making of Bengali literature. But the most important name that influenced the
whole of India was that of Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941). Novels, dramas, short stories,
criticism, music and essays, all flowed from his pen. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913
for his Geetanjali.
However, a few things need to be noted about the influence of Western ideas which permeated
Bengal and later on other parts of India. Upto 1800, most of the literature produced was limited to
religion or courtly literature. The Western influence brought the writers closer to the man in the
street. The subjects were mundane. Some religious literature was also produced but it hardly said
anything new.
The final years of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century saw a new
subject, nationalism, being taken up. Two things were seen in this new trend. The first was the love
for old history and culture and an awareness of the facts of British exploitation. The second was a
clarion call for arousing the Indians to drive out the foreigners, both by persuasion and force. This
new trend was expressed by Subrahmanyam Bharti in Tamil and Qazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali. The
contributions of these two writers in arousing the nationalistic sentiments in the readers was
tremendous. Their poetry was translated into other Indian languages.
Assamese - Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in response to the Bhakti movement.
Shankardeva who introduced Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the growth of Assamese poetry. Even
the Puranas were translated in Assamese.
The earliest Assamese literature consisted of buranjis (court chronicles). Shankardev has left
several devotional poems, which people song with rapturous pleasure, but it was only after 1827
that more interest was shown in producing Assamese literature. Two names, Lakshmi Nath
Bezbarua and Padmanaba Gohain Barua cannot be forgotten. From Orissa, a couple of names are
worth mentioning and these are Fakirmohan Senapati and Radha Nath Ray, whose writings deserve
considerable attention in the history of Oriya literature.
The works of Upendra Bhanja (1670 - 1720) were important as they ushered a new period of Oriya
literature. In Orissa the works of Saraladasa are regarded as the first works of Oriya literature.

Marathi Literature
Maharashtra is situated on a plateau where a large number of local dialects were in use. Marathi
grew out of these these local dialects. The Portuguese missionaries started using Marathi for
preaching their gospel.
The earliest Marathi poetry and prose is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who lived in the
thirteenth century. He wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. He was the one who started
the kirtan tradition in Maharashtra. He was followed by Namdev (l 270-1350), Gora, Sena and
Janabai. All these sang and popularised the Marathi language. Their songs are sung even today by
the Verkari pilgrirns on their way to Pandharpur pilgrimage. Almost two centuries later, Eknath (l
533-99) came on the scene. He wrote the commentaries on the Ramayana and the Bhagawat Purana.
His songs are very popular all over Maharashtra.
Then came Tukarama (1598-1650). He is supposed to be the greatest Bhakti poet of them all.
Ramdas (1608-81), who was the guru of Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers. He was the
devotee of Rama. He inspired Shivaji. The closing years of the nineteenth century saw an upsurge
in the Marathi literature. It was a nationalist movement that made Marathi prose popular and
prominent. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (l 857-1920) started his Journal Kesari in Marathi. This helped the
growth of Marathi literature. But the role of Keshav Sut and V.S. Chiplunkar was no less. Hari
Narayan Apte and Agarkar wrote novels which became very popular. All these prose writers made
great contribution to the development of Marathi literature. The name of H.G Salgaokar is
remembered for writing inspirational poetry. Besides, the names of M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang, G.T.
Madholkar (poet and novelist) are no less important.
 UNIT-3
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation on religion.
Religion played an important part in the lives of the Indians from the earliest times. It
assumed numerous forms in relation to different groups of people associated with them.
Religious ideas, thoughts and practices differed among these groups, and transformations
and developments took place in the various religious forms in course of time. Religion in
India was never static in character but was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.
Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious traditions of
the land. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence.
Indian sages called Rishis or ‘seers’, developed special techniques of transcending the sense
and the ordinary mind, collectively called yoga. With the help of these techniques, they
delved deep into the depths of consciousness and discovered important truths about the true
nature of human being and the universe.
The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind,
which are ever changing and perishable but the spirit which is unchanging, immortal and
pure consciousness. They called it the Atman.
The Atman is the true source of human’s knowledge, happiness and power. The rishis
further found that all individual selves are parts of infinite consciousness which they called
Brahman. Brahman is the ultimate reality, the ultimate cause of the universe. Ignorance of
human’s true nature is the main cause of human suffering and bondage. By gaining correct
knowledge of Atman and Brahman, it is possible to become free from suffering and bondage
and attain a state of immortality, everlasting peace and fulfillment known as Moksha.
Religion in ancient India meant a way of life which enables a human to realize his
true nature and attain Moksha.
Thus philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the correct
way of life; philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the fulfillment;
philosophy was the theory, and religion was the practice. Thus in ancient India, philosophy
and religion complemented each other.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-The philosophy must give a theory which will be simplest in its nature and, at the same
time, will explain all the principles which are left as insoluble by science. At the same time
will harmonize with the ultimate conclusions of science as well as establish a religion which
is universal and is not limitedbysectsordoctrinesordogmas.
When we are concerned with philosophy as a science, it means a set of thoughts put
into a system, such that one of them does not contradict another in the set and the entire set
as a whole is coherent.
‘Science means knowledge partially unified, while philosophy means knowledge
completely unified Beyond the knowable is the unknowable, but in that realm of the
unknowable laid the solution of all the principles regarding the nature of the soul, of the
heavens, of God and everything’.
–Herbert Spencer -
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 PRE VEDIC AND VEDIC RELIGION

From the archaeological findings in the pre and proto-historic sites it seems that these
people believed in the sanctity of the creative force and venerated the male and female
aspects of divinity. It appears that they were worshippers of the forces of nature like the sun
and the moon. This belief is also partly substantiated by the early literature of the Aryans.
The nature of the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is also known from the Rig
Veda, They believed in many gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra. Sacrifices,
and ritual offering of food and drink to fire in honour of the Gods, constituted the main
religious practices. The Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda elaborated the different aspects of
the sacrificial acts and this ritualism was further elaborated in the Brahmanas. The Atharva
Veda contained a great deal of animistic beliefs. The seers entertained doubts about the
utility and efficacy of the Vedic ritualism. Polytheism was challenged by monotheistic ideas
and the various deities were introduced as different ways of naming one eternal entity.
The Aranyaka and Upanishad sections of the Vedic literature envisage a progressive
outlook. The Upanishads, represent the early stage in the origin and development of the
religions metaphysical concepts which were used later by the religious leaders and
reformers of ancient and medieval India. Some of them followed the traditional lines while
others proceeded along the paths of unorthodoxy.
India down the ages attempted to grapple with the fundamental problems of life and
thought. Philosophy in India began with a quest after the highest truth- truth not as mere
objective certitude, but as being closely linked with the development of personality and
leading to the attainment of the highest freedom, bliss and wisdom. It demanded, therefore,
not only a philosophical discipline of reasoning, but also a discipline of conduct and the
control of emotions and passions.
Thus the synthesis between deep philosophical analysis and lofty spiritual discipline
is an abiding feature of Indian philosophy and its outlook is entirely different from that of
western philosophy.
It is hoped that it will serve not only to make plain the spiritual aspirations of an
ancient nation, but also to show the relevance of those aspirations to the modern world and
thus forge a powerful link in the chain of human fellowship and universal concord.
Philosophy in India is not a product of speculation but of experience, direct and personal. A
true philosopher is he whose life and behaviour bear testimony to the truths he preaches.

UNORTHODOX RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

The religious movements associated with persons like Mahavira and the Buddha in
about the middle of the first Millennium BC fall under this category. There were many other
creeds during this time as well. The creeds preached by some of them contained elements
that were not in keeping with the Vedic tradition. They ignored the infallibility and
supernatural origin of the Vedas. Unlike the Vedic seers who were Brahmin sages, many of
these new teachers were Kshatriya. Both Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic creeds in the
beginning. However, Buddhism endorsed the doctrine of the Law of Karma and upheld the
belief in rebirths of the embodied skandhas and the inevitability of suffering in the very
existence of beings. Many of these view points are also found in the major Upanishads.

THEISTIC RELIGIONS
Creeds of theistic character evolved almost simultaneously with the non-theistic religions.
The important deities of these religions were not primarily Vedic ones but those that came from
unorthodox sources. Influence of pre-vedic and post-vedic folk elements were most conspicuous in
their origin. The primary factor that motivated these creeds was Bhakti, the single-souled devotion
of the worshipper to a personal god with some moral link. This led to the evolution of different
religious sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Saktism, which came to be regarded as components
of orthodox Brahminism. These sects in course of time came to have a significant impact on the
popular forms of Buddhism and Jainism.

FOLK CULTS
The worship of Yakshas and Nagas and other folk deities constituted the most important part
of primitive religious beliefs, in which Bhakti had a very important role to play. There is ample
evidence about the prevalence of this form of worship among the people in early literature as well
as in archaeology.
Vasudeva/Krishna Worship, VAISHNAVISM and SHAIVISM are some important names to
mention is theistic religious movements.
Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted mainly of
worship of numerous deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers. It was
during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophies about the true nature of soul or
Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the ultimate reality were developed.
These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different schools of philosophies called
shad-darshanas, they fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas is
recognised by all of them,viz. 1)SAMKHYA 2)YOGA 3)NYAYA 4)VAISHESHIKA 5)MIMAMSA
6)VEDANTA

RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS IN MODERN INDIA

COMMON CHARECTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM

MOVEMENTS:

From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars started the study of
ancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions and literature. This growing knowledge of
India’s past glory provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in their civilization. It also helped
the reformers in their work of religious and social reform for their struggle against all type of
inhuman practices, superstitions etc. Since they had become associated with religious beliefs,
therefore most of the movements of social reform were of a religious character. These social and
religious reform movements arose among all communities of the Indian people. They attacked
bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class. They worked for abolition of castes and
untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy. Some of these
reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the British officials and some of the reformers
also supported reformative steps and regulations framed by the British Government.

BRAHMO SAMAJ AND RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY

Men and women enjoy certain rights and freedom today. But do you know that they were
given to us by the untiring efforts made by certain reformers. Among the great reformers of this
period, Raja Rammohan Roy deserves special mention. He presented a fine combination of East and
the West. A man of great literary talent and well versed in Indian culture, he also made special effort
to study Christianity and Islam so that he could deal with them with understanding. He felt great
revulsion for many practices prevailing in India that enjoyed religious approval.
His main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of both image worship,
sacrificial rites and other meaningless rituals. He condemned the priestly class for encouraging
these practices. He opined that all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached monotheism or
worship of one God. His greatest achievement in the field of relisious reform was an setting up in
1828 of the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization of religious reforms.
It forbade idol-worship and discarded meaningless rites and rituals. The Samaj also forbade its
members from attacking any religion. It believed in the basic unity of all the religions. Raja
Rammohan Roy believed that man should adopt truth and goodness and should give up things based
on falsehood and superstition.
Raja Rammohan Roy was not merely a religious reformer but a social reformer also. His
greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1929. Raja Rammohan Roy realized that the
practice of Sati was due to the extremely low position of Hindu women. Therefore he started
working as a stout champion of women’s rights. He worked very hard for years to stop this practice
of ‘Sati’. In the early 1818 he set out to rouse public opinion on the question of Sati. On the one
hand he showed by citing the authority of the oldest sacred books that the Hindu religion at its best
was opposed to the practice and on the other, he appealed to reason and humanity and compassion
of the people. He visited the burining ghats of Calcutta to try and persuade the relatives of widows
to give up their plan of selfimmolation. His campaign against Sati aroused the opposition of the
orthodox Hindus who bitterly attacked him.
Raja Rammohan Roy was also deeply opposed to the caste system that prevailed in Indian
society. A humanist and democrat to the core, he wrote and talked against the caste system. Another
important area that concerned him was Hindu theology. Study of the Vedas and Upanishads gave
him ground to show that monotheism was the original Hindu belief and hence he denounced
polytheism and idolatry. In fact the philosopher did not insist on the creation of a new religion but
merely endeavoured to ‘purify’ the Vedic religion from the crude and most ignorant superstitions.
He proclaimed that there is only one God for all religions and for all humanity. He wrote in Bengali
and English. He was an ardent promoter of English education. He was also well versed in the
Persian language and some of his most liberal and rational ideas were expressed in his early
writings in that language.
He advocated the abolition of polygamy (a practice of man having more than one wife) and
child marriage. He wanted women to be educated and given the right to inherit property. He
condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the prevailing ideas that women were inferior to
men in intellect or in a moral sense. He advocated the rights of widows to remarry.
To bring his ideas into practice, Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in 1828
which later came to be known as Brahmo Samaj. It was open to all persons regardless of their
colour, convictions, caste, nationality, and religion. It emphasised human dignity, opposed idol
worship and condemned social evils like sati pratha. It was not meant to be a separate religious sect
but only a place where all those who believed in one true God could meet and pray. No images were
allowed and no sacrifices and offerings permitted.
Debendra Nath Tagore (l817-1905), the son of Dwarkanath Tagore, founder member of
Brahmo Samaj, succeeded Raja Rammohan Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He put new life
in the Samaj and propagated Raja Rammohan Roy’s ideas. Keshub Chandra Sen (l838-1884) took
over the leadership of the Samaj from Tagore. The Brahmo Samaj stood for the principles of
individual freedom, national unity, solidarity and collaboration and the democratisation of all social
institutions and relations. It thus became the first organised vehicle for the expression of national
awakening and inaugurated a new era for the people of India. However, the Brahmo Samaj was
weakened by internal dissensions and its influence remained confined to urban educated groups.
But it left its impact on the intellectual, social and political life of Bengal.

SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI (1824-1883) AND ARYA SAMAJ

Attend a meeting of the Arya Samaj any day. You will find many women attending it. They
are also performing yajana and reading the scriptures. This was the basic contribution of Mool
Shanker an important representative of the religions reform movement in India from Gujarat. He
later came to be known as Dayanand Saraswati (l824-1883). He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.
The most influential movement of religious and social reform in northern India was started
by Dayanand Saraswari. He held that the Vedas contained all the knowledge imparted to man by
God and essentials of modern science could also be traced in them. He was opposed to idolatry,
ritual and priesthood, particularly to the prevalent caste practices and popular Hinduism as preached
by the Brahmins. He favoured the study of western science. With all this doctrine, he went about all
over the country and in 1875 founded the Arya Samaj in Bombay.
Satyarth Prakash was his most important book. The use of Hindi in his writings and
preachings made his ideas accessible to the common people of northern India. Arya Samajis
opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. It made rapid progress in Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
A Network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout northern
India to promote the spread of education. Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School of Lahore, which soon
developed into a premier college of Punjab, set the pattern for such institutions. Instruction was
imparted through Hindi and English on modern lines. Lala Hansraj played a leading role in this
field. In 1902, Swami Shradhananda started the Gurukul near Hardwar to propagate the more
traditional ideas of education. This was set up on the pattern of ancient Ashrams.
Arya Samaj tried to inculcate the spirit of self-respect and self-reliance among the people of
India. This promoted nationalism. At the same time one of its main objectives was to prevent the
conversion of Hindus to other religions. It also prescribed a purificatory ceremony calld suddhi for
those Hindus who had been converted to other religions like Islam and Christianity.

THE RAMAKRISHNA MISSION AND SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya (l836-86) was a poor Brahmin priest who later came to be known
as Ramakrishna Paramahansa: His education did not proceed beyond the elementary stage and he
had no formal education in philosophy and Shastras. He dedicated his life to God. He believed that
there were many roads to God and the service of man was the service of God, because man was the
embodiment of God. Hence sectarianism had no place in his teachings. He realised the divinity in
humanity and looked upon the service of mankind as a means to salvation. Narendra Nath Datta
(l863-1902) later known as Swami Vivekananda was the most devoted pupil of Ramakrishna
Paramahansa who carried the message of his Guru Ramakrishna all over the world, specially in
America and Europe.
Vivekananda was proud of India’s spiritual heritage, but he believed that no individual or
nation can live by holding himself or itself apart from the community of others. He condemned the
caste system, rigid rituals,century old superstitions and advocated liberty, free thinking and equality.
Vivekananda was indeed, a patriot from the core of his heart. He had tremendous faith in the
evolution of Indian culture and an intense zeal to revive all that was good and great in her culture so
as to serve her in all possible ways for her onward march.
Swami Vivekananda laid stress on Ramakrishna’s teaching on the essential oneness of all
religions. He promoted the Vedanta philosophy which he considered the most rational system.
The principal feature of Vivekananda’s social philosophy was his insistence on the
upliftment of the masses. For him, service to the poor and downtrodden was the highest religion. To
organise such service, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. This Mission to date has
played an important role in providing social service in times of national distress like famine, floods,
and epidemic. Many schools, hospitals, orphanages are run by it.
In 1893 he participated in the All World Religious Conference (Parliament of Religions) at
Chicago in the United States of America. He argued that Vedanta was the religion of all and not of
the Hindus alone. His address there made a deep impression on the people of other countries and
thus helped to raise the prestige of Indian culture in the eyes of the world. Though his mission was
mainly of religious nature, he was keenly interested in the improvement of all aspects of national
life. He expressed his concern for the miserable and poor conditions of the people and said that
neglect of the masses is a sin. He frankly stated, “It is we who are responsible for all our misery and
all our degradation.” He urged his countrymen to work for their own salvation. For this purpose
bands of workers devoted to this cause were trained through the Ramakrishan Mission. Thus
Vivekananda emphasized social good or social services.
OTHER REFORMERS
Bal Shastri Jambekar was one of the first reformers in Bombay. He attacked Brahmanical
orthodoxy and tried to reform popular Hinduism. In 1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in
Poona, Satara and other towns of Maharashtra. Its followers had faith in one God and they opposed
caste system. At its meetings, members took food cooked by low-caste people. They favoured
education of women and supported widow remarriage.
Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919) pioneered the movement in support of widow
remarriage and girls education in Andhra. Veda Samaj founded in Madras in 1864 advocated
discarding of caste distinctions and promotion of widow remarriage and women’s education. It
condemned the superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one
supreme God.
An important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the so-called
backward and oppressed sections of Indian society was started by Shree Narayana Guru (1854-
1928) in Kerala. In 1903 he founded the Shree narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) to
carry on the work of social reform. Shree Narayana Guru considered differences based on caste and
religion as meaningless and advocated what he called ‘One Caste, one Religion and on God’ for all.

ALIGARH MOVEMENT AND SAYYID AHMAD KHAN

You have just read about reform within the Hindu religion, its practices and social
institutions. A similar reform movement was also taking place within Islam. The Muslim upper
classes had tended to avoid contact with Western education and culture and it was only after the
revolt of 1857 that modern ideas of religious reform began to appear. The beginning was made by
the Muhammedan Literary Society founded in Calcutta in 1863 founded by Nawab Abdul Latif
1828-1893. It promoted discussion of religious, social and political questions in the light of modern
ideas and encouraged upper and middle class Muslims to adopt Western education. It also played an
important role for Muslim Unity. The Muslim masses were also influenced by movements carried
on by the Chishti sufis who preached not only submission to God but also promoted the veneration
of saints. Another movement is associated with Shah Waliullah in Delhi, who opposed the
unorthodox religious practices and revived the Shia sect and strict monotheism. The philosophical
and learned tradition of the Firangi Mahal in Lucknow was incorporated into the new educational
syllabus and propagated throughout India during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Sharitulla
of Bengal was the leader of the Faraizi movement Bengal which took up the cause of the peasants
and even spoke against the caste system among the Muslims.
The most notable of the Muslim reformers was Sayyid Ahmed of Rai Bareilly, in Uttar
Pradesh. He attracted the Muslim artisans of the declining weaving towns of Allahabad and Patna
finding a ready audience and giving the common people dignity and an identity through a common
faith at a time of social dislocation. He realised that unless the Muslims adapted themselves to the
changed circumstances of British rule, they would be deprived of all new opportunities for status
and prosperity. He was highly impressed by modern scientific thought and worked all his life to
reconcile it with Islam. He interpreted the Quran in the light of rationalism and science. He urged
the people to develop a critical approach and freedom of thought. He also warned against
fanaticism, narrow-mindedness and exclusiveness. He asked the people to be broadminded and
tolerant. In 1883 he said: “Now both of us (Hindus and Muslims) live on the air of India, drink the
holy waters of the Ganga and Jamuna. We both feed upon the products of the Indian soil… we are a
nation and the progress and welfare of the country, and both of us, depend on our unity, mutual
sympathy, and love, while our mutual disagreement, obstinacy and opposition and illfeeling are sure
to destroy us”.
Syed Ahmed Khan rightly felt that isolation would harm the Muslim community and to
prevent that he did his best to create a link with the progressive cultural forces of the outside world.
He worked hard to remove the hostility of the British rulers towards the Muslims whom they
considered as their real enemies.
He felt that the religious and social life of the Muslims could be improved only with the help
of modem Western scientific knowledge and culture. Therefore, promotion of modern education
was the first task. As an official, he founded schools at many places. He got many Western books
translated into Urdu. He started the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 at Aligarh. It was
meant to be a centre for spreading Western sciences and culture. Later, this college grew into the
Aligarh Muslim University.
The liberal, social and cultural movement started by Sayyid Ahmad Khan among the
Muslims is known as the Aligarh Movement as it originated in Aligarh. The Anglo-Oriental College
was the centre of this movement. It aimed at promoting modern education among Muslims without
weakening the ties with Islam. It became the central educational institution for Indian Muslims.
The Aligarh Movement was largely responsible for the Muslim revival that followed. It
provided a focal point for the scattered Muslim population in different parts of the country. It gave
them a common fund of ideas and a common language - Urdu. A Muslim press was developed for
the compilation of works in Urdu.
Sayyid Ahmad’s efforts extended to the social sphere as well. He worked for social reforms.
He wanted women to be educated and advocated the removal of the purdah. He was also against
polygamy.
REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG PARSIS
Religious reform began among the Parsis in Mumbai in the middle of the 19th century. In
1851, the Rehnumai Maz’dayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was founded by Nauroji
Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and others. They started a journal Rast Goftar, for the
purpose of social-religious reforms among the Parsis. They also played an important role in the
spread of education, specially among girls. They campaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in
the religious field and initiated the modernization of Parsi social customs regarding the education of
girls marriage and the social position of women in general. In course of time, the Parsis became
socially the most westernized section of Indian society.

RELIGIOUS REFORMS AMONG SIKHS

Religious reform among the Sikhs was started at the end of the 19th Century when the
Khalsa College started at Amritsar. Through the efforts of the Singh Sabhas (1870) and with British
support, the Khalsa College was founded at Amritsar in 1892. This college and schools set up as a
result of similar efforts, promoted Gurumukhi, Sikh learning and Punjabi literature as a whole. After
1920 the Sikh momentum gained momentum when the Akali Movement rose in Punjab. The chief
object of the Akalis was to improve the management of the Gurudwaras or Sikh Shrines that were
under the control of priests or Mahants who treated them as their private property. In 1925, a law
was passed which gave the right of managing Gurudwaras to the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak
Committee.

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

You will recall that Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. Islam saw the rise of many
religious and spiritual movements within it. These movements were centered mainly around the
interpretation of the Quran. There were two major sects that arose within Islam the Sunnis and
Shias. Our country has both the sects, but in many other countries like Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. you
will find followers of only one of them.
Among the Sunnis, there are four principal schools of Islamic Law, These are based upon
the Quran and Hadis (traditions of the Prophet’s saying and doings). Of these the Hanafi school of
the eighth century was adopted by the eastern Turks, who later came to India.
The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy or
Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and has nothing to do
with man’s evil actions. Men are endowed with free will and are responsible for their own actions.
The Mutazilas were opposed by the Ashari School. Founded by Abul Hasan Ashari (873-935 AD),
the Ashari school evolved its own rationalist argument in defence of the orthodox doctrine (kalam).
This school believes that God knows, sees and speaks. The Quran is eternal and uncreated. The
greatest exponent of this school was Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111 AD),who is credited with
having reconciled orthodoxy with mysticism. He was a great theologian who in 1095 began to lead
a life of a Sufi. He is deeply respected by both orthodox elements and Sufis. Al-Ghazali attacked all
non-orthodox Sunni schools. He said that positive knowledge cannot be gained by reason but by
revelation. Sufis owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the Ulemas did.
The influence of the ideas of Ghazali was greater because of the new educational system set
up by the state, It provided for setting up of seminaries of higher learning (called madrasas) where
scholars were familiarised with Ashari ideas. They were taught how to run the government in
accordance with orthodox Sunni ideas. These scholars were known as ulema. Ulema played an
important role in the politics of medieval India.

The Sufis
Contrary to the ulema were the Sufis. The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who
were shocked at the degeneration in political and religious life. They opposed the vulgar display of
wealth in public life and the readiness of the ulema to serve “ungodly” rulers. Many began to lead a
retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state. The Sufi philosophy also differed from the
ulema. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas. They were against formal
worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve
religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and
service of humanity. In course of time, the Sufis were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with
each silsilah having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his disciples lived in a
khanqah (hospice). A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his work.
The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra in Iraq
became the centre of Sufi activities. It must be noted that the Sufi saints were not setting up a new
religion, but were preparing a more liberal movement within the framework of Islam. They owed
their allegiance to the Quran as much as the ulema did.

Sufism in India
The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One of the
early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known
as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure). In the beginning, the main centres of the
Sufis were Multan and Punjab. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread to
Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan. It may be mentioned that Sufism had already taken on a
definite form before coming to India. Its fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders,
system of fasting, prayers and practice of living in khanqahs had already been fixed. The Sufis came
to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and
service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.
Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis.
However, in this lesson we shall outline only some of the important ones. These silsilahs were
divided into two types: Ba-shara and Be-shara. Ba-shara were those orders that followed the
Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives such as namaz and roza. Chief amongst these were the
Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs. The beshara silsilahs were not
bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this group.

The Chishti Silsilah

The Chishti order was founded in a village called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat). In India, the
Chishti silsilah was founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born c.1142) who came to India around
1192. He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching. He believed that serving mankind was the
best form of devotion and therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden. He died in Ajmer in
1236. During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim centre because the emperors regularly
visited the Sheikh’s tomb. The extent of his popularity can be seen by the fact that even today,
millions of Muslims and Hindus visit his dargah for fufilment of their wishes. Among his disciples
were Sheikh Hamiduddin of Nagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The former lived the life of a
poor peasant, cultivated land and refused Iltutmish’s offer of a grant of villages. The khanqah of
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was also visited by people from all walks of life. Sultan Iltutmish
dedicated the Qutub Minar to this Saint. Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan in Pakistan)
popularised the Chishti silsilah in modern Haryana and Punjab. He opened his door of love and
generosity to all. Baba Farid, as he was called, was respected by both Hindus and Muslims. His
verses, written in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth.
Baba Farid’s most famous disciple Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) was responsible
for making Delhi an important centre of the Chishti silsilah. He came to Delhi in 1259 and during
his sixty years in Delhi, he saw the reign of seven sultans. He preferred to shun the company of
rulers and nobles and kept aloof from the state. For him renunciation meant distribution of food and
clothes to the poor. Amongst his followers was the noted writer Amir Khusrau.
Another famous Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known as
Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi). Following his death in 1356 and the lack of a spiritual
successor, the disciples of the Chishti silsilah moved out towards eastern and southern India.

The Suhrawardi Silsilah

This silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. It was established in India by
Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He set up a leading khanqah in Multan,
which was visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants. Sheikh Bahauddin
Zakariya openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha and received from him the
title Shaikhul Islam (Leader of Islam). It must be noted that unlike the Chishti saints, the
Suhrawardis maintained close contacts with the state. They accepted gifts, jagirs and even
government posts in the ecclesiastical department.
The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind. Besides these two
silsilahs there were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah,
Naqshbandi Silsilah.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SUFI MOVEMENT

The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti saints who were
engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a new liberal outlook
within Islam. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more
liberal movements of the fifteenth century. You will read that Sant Kabir and Guru Nanak had
preached a non-sectarian religion based on universal love. The Sufis believed in the concept of
Wahdat-ul-Wajud(Unity of Being) which was promoted by Ibn-i-Arabi (l165-1240). He opined that
all beings are essentially one. Different religions were identical. This doctrine gained popularity in
India. There was also much exchange of ideas between the Sufis and Indian yogis. In fact the hatha-
yoga treatise Amrita Kunda was translated into Arabic and Persian.
A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections
of society. While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day to day problems of the
people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people.
Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or
caste. It is said that he did not rest till he had heard every visitor at the khanqah. According to the
Sufis, the highest form of devotion to God was the service of mankind. They treated Hindus and
Muslims alike. Amir Khusrau said “Though the Hindu is not like me in religion,he believes in
the same things that I do”.
The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. In fact, The Islamic emphasis
upon equality was respected far more by the Sufis than by the ulema. The doctrines of the Sufis
were attacked by the orthodoxy. The Sufis also denounced the ulema. They believed that the ulema
had succumbed to world by temptations and were moving away from the original democratic and
egalitarian principles of the Quran. This battle between the orthodox and liberal elements continued
throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Sufi saints tried to bring about
social reforms too.
Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth of a rich regional
literature. Most of the Sufi saints were poets who chose to write in local languages. Baba Farid
recommended the use of Punjabi for religious writings. Shaikh Hamiduddin, before him, wrote in
Hindawi. His verses are the best examples of early Hindawi translation of Persian mystical poetry.
Syed Gesu Daraz was the first writer of Deccani Hindi. He found Hindi more expressive than
Persian to explain mysticism. A number of Sufi works were also written in Bengali.
The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau (l 252-1325) the follower of
Nizamuddin Auliya. Khusrau took pride in being an Indian and looked at the history and culture of
Hindustan as a part of his own tradition. He wrote verses in Hindi (Hindawi) and employed the
Persian metre in Hindi. He created a new style called sabaq-i-hindi. By the fifteenth century Hindi
had begun to assume a definite shape and Bhakti saints such as Kabir used it extensively.

THE BHAKTHI MOVEMENT

The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and twelfth
centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars
(devotees of Vishnu). These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving
bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper. They wrote in local languages,
Tamil and Telugu and were therefore able to reach out to many people.
In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North but it was a very slow
process. Sanskrit, which was still the vehicle of thought, was given a new form. Thus we find that
the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century was not written in the old Puranic form. Centered around
Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits to explain deep philosophy in
simple terms. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavite movement which
was an important component of the Bhakti movement.
A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of local
languages. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also translated Sanskrit
works to make them understandable to a wider audience. Thus we find Jnanadeva writing in
Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva popularising Assamese, Chaitanya and
Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani. In addition,
devotional poetry was composed in Kashmiri, Telugu, Kannad, Oriya, Malayalam, Maithili and
Gujarati.
The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no distinction of
caste, creed or religion before God. They themselves came from diverse backgrounds. Ramananda,
whose disciples included Hindus and Muslims, came from a conservative brahman family. His
disciple, Kabir, was a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village accountant’s son. Namdev was a tailor.
The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked institutionalised religion. The
saints did not confine themselves to purely religious ideas. They advocated social reforms too. They
opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of
Kashmir) composed verses that are popular even today.
Amongst the non-sectarian Bhakti saints, the most outstanding contribution was made by
Kabir and Guru Nanak. Their ideas were drawn from both Hindu and Islamic traditions and were
aimed at bridging the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims. Let us read in some detail about
them.
Kabir (1440-1518) is said to have been the son of a brahman widow, who abandoned him.
He was brought up in the house of a Muslim weaver. Kabir believed that the way to God was
through personally experienced bhakti or devotion. He believed that the Creator is One. His God
was called by many names - Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc. No wonder then that
the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his
songs in the Adi Granth. The external aspects of religion were meaningless for Kabir. His beliefs
and ideas were reflected in the dohas (Sakhi) composed by him. One of his dohas conveyed that if
by worshipping a stone (idol) one could attain God, then he was willing to worship a mountain. It
was better to worship a stone flour-grinder because that could at least fill stomachs.
Kabir emphasised simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the easiest way to attain
God. He refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior reasoning. For him, a man
could not achieve success without hard work. He advocated performance of action rather than
renunciation of duty. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led both Hindus and Muslims to become his
disciples.
Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion. He attempted to change the narrow thinking of
society. His poetry was forceful and direct. It was easily understood and much of it has passed into
our everyday language.
Another great exponent of the Nankana school was Guru Nanak (1469-1539). He was born
at Talwandi (Nakana Sahib). From an early age, he showed leanings towards a spiritual life. He was
helpful to the poor and needy. His disciples called themselves Sikhs (derived from Sanskrit sisya,
disciple or Pali sikkha, instruction).
Guru Nanak’s personality combined in itself simplicity and peacefulness. Guru Nanak’s
objective was to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices in society. He showed a
new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social order. Like Kabir, Guru Nanak was as much
a social reformer as he was a religious teacher. He called for an improvement in the status of
women. He said that women who give birth to kings should not be spoken ill of. His vani (words)
alongwith those of other Sikh Gurus have been brought together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy
book of the Sikhs.

The Vaishnavite Movement

You have read that saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak had preached devotion toward
anirankarform of God. During this period, another movement based upon devotion towards a sakar
form of God had also developed. This movement, called the Vaishnavite movement, centered
around the worship of Rama and Krishna, who were seen as incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu.
Its main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya. Their path to salvation was
expressed through the medium of poetry, song, dance and kirtans.
Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara. He was a blind
poet, whose songs are centered around Krishna. His Sursagar recounts the exploits of Krishna
during his childhood and youth with gentle affection and delightfulness.
The love for Krishna was also expressed through the songs of Mirabai (l503-73). Widowed
at an early age, she believed in a spiritual marriage with her Lord. Her poems have a quality of their
own and are popular even today.
The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484- 1533).
Chaitanya considered Krishna not as a mere incarnation of Vishnu but as the highest form of God.
The devotion for Krishna was expressed through Sankirtans (hymn session by devotees) which took
place in homes, temples and even street processions. Like other Bhakti saints, Chaitanya too was
willing to welcome everyone, irrespective of caste, into the fold. The saints thus promoted a sense
of equality amongst the people.
The worship of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470). He
considered Rama as the supreme God. Women and outcastes were welcomed. The most famous of
the Rama bhaktas was Tulsidas (l532-1623) who wrote the Ramacharitmanas.
The Vaishnavite saints developed their philosophy within the broad framework of Hinduism.
They called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings. Their philosophy was broadly
humanist.
The Importance Of The Bhakti And Sufi Movements
You will recall that the Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed religious
bigotry and social rigidities. It emphasised good character and pure thinking. At a time when society
had become stagnant, the Bhakti saints infused new life and strength.
They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and religious
values. Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian lines.
Their call to social equality attracted many a downtrodden. Although Kabir and Nanak had no
intention of founding new religions but following their deaths, their supporters grouped together as
Kabir panthis and Sikhs respectively.
The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by them,
which continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later centuries.
Akbar’s liberal ideas were a product of this atmosphere in which he was born and brought up. The
preaching of Guru Nanak were passed down from generation to generation. This resulted in the
growth of a separate religious group, with its separate language and script Gurmukhi and religious
book, Guru Granth Sahib.Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs grew into a formidable political
force in the politics of North India.
The interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon Indian society. The
Sufi theory of Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was remarkably similar to that in the Hindu
Upanishads. Many Sufi poet-saints preferred to use Hindi terms rather than Persian verses to
explain concepts. Thus we find Sufi poets such as Malik Muhamniad Jaisi composing works in
Hindi. The use of terms such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna,Ganga etc. became so common in
such literature that an eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hïndi to explain
their Islamic equivalents. In later years this interaction continued as Akbar and Jahangir followed a
liberal religious policy.
The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a musical
renaissance. New musical compositions were written for the purpose of group singing at kirtans.
Even today Mira’s bhajans and Tulsidas’s chaupais are recited at prayer meetings.

Philosophy in Medieval India

The major religious movements were brought about by the mystics. They contributed to the
religious ideas and beliefs. Bhakti saints like Vallabhacharya, Ramanuja, Nimbaraka brought about
new philosophical thinking which had its origin in Shankaracharya’s advaita (non-dualism)
philosophy.

Vishistadvaita of Ramanujacharya
Vïshistadvaita means modified monism. The ultimate reality according to this philosophy is
Brahman (God) and matter and soul are his qualities.
Sivadvaita of Srikanthacharya
According to this philosophy the ultimate Brahman is Shiva, endowed with Shakti. Shiva exists in
this world as well as beyond it.
Dvaita of Madhavacharya
The literal meaning of dvaita is dualism which stands in opposition to non-dualism and monism of
Shankaracharya. He believed that the world is not an illusion (maya) but a
reality full of differences.
Dvaitadvaita of Nimbaraka
Dvaitadvaita means dualistic monism. According to this philosophy God transformed himself into
world and soul. This world and soul are different from God (Brahman). They could survive with the
support of God only. They are separate but dependent.

Suddhadvaita of Vallabhacharya
Vallabhacharya wrote commentaries on Vedanta Sutra and Bhagavad Gita. For him. Brahman (God)
was Sri Krishna who manifested himself as souls and matter. God and soul are not distinct, but one.
The stress was on pure non-dualism. His philosophy came to be known as Pushtimarga (the path of
grace) and the school was called Rudrasampradaya.

SUMMARY
1. The Bhakti and Sufi movements were liberal movements within Hinduism and Islam
emphasising a new and more personalised relationship between the human being and God.
2. The message of the Sufi movement was universal love and brotherhood of man.
3. Because of their belief in the concept of unity of being, Sufis were able to establish an ideological
relationship with Hindu thought.
4. The Bhakti movement grew amongst Nayanars and Alvars of the south and stressed a new
method of worship of God based upon devotional love.
5. The Bhakti saints were divided into the Nirgun and Sagun believers.
6. Unlike the Nirgun believers the Sagun believers saw God as having a definite form such as Rama
or Krishna.
7. The Bhakti and Sufi saints made valuable contributions to medieval Indian society in terms of
laying a liberal foundation and promoting a tremendous growth of regional literature and local
languages.
 UNIT – 4
INDIAN FINE ARTS & ITS PHILOSOPHY

Indian Painting
Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early times as is evident from the remains
that have been discovered in the caves, and the literary sources. The history of art and painting in
India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) where we have drawings
and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted
deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals
of Harappan civilization.
Both Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and techniques for example,
Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the representation of folklore, the second
one was line drawing and painting on textile while the third one was painting on the floor.
The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures in
many royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions numerous paintings or
Patas. The 6th Century AD text on aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting
amongst 64 kinds of arts and says that it was based on scientific principles. The Vishnudharmottara
purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra which describes the six
organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portryal of colour etc. Thus,
archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The
best specimens of Gupta paintings are the ones at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees,
flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka.
Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. 9 depicts the
Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. 10 Jataka stories are depicted. But the best
paintings were done in the 5th – 6th centuries AD during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict
religious scenes from the life of the Buddha and the Buddhist Jataka stories but we also have ecular
scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies
in their chambers, coolies with loads over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, together
with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of India.

Materials used in the paintings

Different materials were used in different types of paintings. Mention of chitra shalas (art gallery)
and Shilpasashtra (technical treatises on art) have been made in literary sources. However, the
principal colours used were red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kum kum or sindura), yellow ochre
(haritala), indigo (blue) lapis lazuli blue, lampblack (kajjala), chalk white (Khadi Mitti) terra verte
(geru mati) and green. All these colours were locally available except lapis lazuli which came from
Pakistan. Mixed colours e.g. grey were used on rare occasions. Use of colours were decided by the
theme and local atmosphere.
Remains of Buddhist paintings have also been found at the Buddhist caves at Bagh in the North and
at various Deccan and southern sites of sixth and ninth centuries. Though the theme of these
paintings is religious but in their inner meanings and spirit, nothing could be more secular, courtly
and sophisticated. Though only a small part remains of these paintings but they depict a crowded
world of Gods and goddesses semi divine being like kinnars and apsaras, a rich and varied flora and
fauna, gaiety, love, grace and charm. Example can be seen in cave 3 at Badami (Karnataka), at
temples of Kanchipuram, at Jain caves of Sittanavasal (Tamil Nadu) and the Kailasa and Jain caves
at Ellora (eighth and ninth centuries). Many other South Indian temples such as Brihadeshwara
temple at Tanjavur are decorated with wall paintings on themes from epics and mythology. If Bagh,
Ajanta and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and Deccan at its best, Sittana
Vassal, Kanchipuram, Malayadipatti and Tirunalaipuram show the extent of its penetration in the
south. The paintings of Sittanavasal (abode of the Jaina Siddhas) are connected with jaina themes
while the other three are Saiva or Vaishnava in theme and inspiration. Despite having a very
traditionally secular design and theme the paintings of these times started showing the impact of
medieval influences i.e. flat and abstract surfaces on the one hand and linear and somewhat angular
designs on the other.

Art In Medieval India

During the period of Delhi Sultanate, mural painting has been reported from the royal palaces and
royal bed-chambers and mosques. These chiefly depict flowers, leaves and plants. During the time
of Iltutmish (1210-36) we have references of paintings. During the time of Alauddin Khalji (1296-
1316) we have mural painting, miniature painting (of illustrated manuscripts) and paintings on
cloths. During the Sultanate period, we notice the Persian and Arabic influences on Indian painting.
We have references of the coming of Persian and Arabic illustrated manuscripts from Iran and the
Arab world for the Muslim elites. During this period, we have paintings from other regional states.
The decorative paintings of the palace of the Gwalior king Man Singh Tomar impressed both Babur
and Akbar.
During 14th – 15th centuries A.D. miniature painting emerged as a powerful movement in Gujarat
and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and Eastern India because of the patronage of rich Jain
merchants. Mandu in M.P., Jaunpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal in Eastern India were other
great centres of manuscripts illustrated with paintings.
In Eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, during the Pala kingdom in the 9th – 10th century
A.D., a new kind of painting developed called the miniature painting. The miniature, as the name
suggests, were small works which were made on perishable materials. In this category, Buddhist,
Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. They resemble the Ajanta style, but on
a miniature scale. These were made on the request of the merchants, who donated them to the
temples and monasteries.
From the thirteenth century onwards, the Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with them
important features of Persian court culture. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries illustrated
manuscripts of Persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal, Delhi, Jaunpur, Gujarat and the
Deccan. The interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted in the synthesis of the
two styles evident in the works of the sixteenth century. During the early sultanate period,
significant contribution to the art of painting was made by the Jain community of Western India.
Illustrated manuscripts of Jain scriptures were presented to temple libraries. These manuscripts
depicted the lives and deeds of the Tirthankars. The art of textual illustration got a new look under
the Mughals. Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual
illustrations. From this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as
the most vital form of art. Emperor Akbar patronised artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun
brought two Persian painters to his court. For the first time painters’ names were recorded in
inscriptions. Some great painters of this period were Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan.
Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a few years an
integrated and dynamic style resulted from the synthesis of Persian and Indian style and the
independent style of Mughal painting was developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of nearly
1400 cloth paintings were produced representing the new style and were placed in the imperial
studio. Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits.
The art of painting reached its climax during the period of Jahangir who himself was a great painter
and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and were
able to give three dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were the most
gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. Mansur had made an outstanding portrait of the artist Abul Hasan
and specialised in paintings of birds and animals. Though Shah Jahan was more interested in
architectural splendours, his eldest son Dara Shikoh patronised painting like his gradfather. He
preferred depicting natural elements like plants and animals in his painting. However withdrawal of
royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the
country. This helped in the development of the art of painting in Rajasthan and the Punjab hills
giving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for example, Rajasthani and Pahari Schools. These
works were painted on a small surface and were called miniature painting. They painted themes
drawn from epics, myths and legends. Other themes were Barahmasa (seasons) and Raga mala
(melodies). Miniature painting was also developed at local centres like Kangra, Kulu, Basoli, Guler,
Chamba, Garhwal, Bilaspur, and Jammu.
The rise of the Bhakti movement in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries also inspired
illustrative texts on the themes of Vaishnava devotional cults. In the pre-Mughal era mural paintings
on the walls of temples gained prominence in the northern part of India.

Art In The Modern Period

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries paintings comprised semi westernised local
styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors. Themes were generally drawn from
Indian social life, popular festivals, and Mughal monuments. These reflected the improvised
Mughal traditions. Shaikh Zia-ud-Din’s bird studies for Lady Impey and the portrait paintings of
Ghulam Ali Khan for William Fraser and Colonel Skinner are the examples of some excellent
paintings of this period.
In the later nineteenth century art schools on the European model were established in major Indian
cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore depicting
mythological and social themes became highly popular at this time.
Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and Ananda Kehtish Coomaraswamy
played an important role in the emergence of the Bengal school of Art. The Bengal School had a
great flowering at Shantiniketan where Rabindranath Tagore set up the Kala Bhavan. Talented
artists like Nandalal Bose, Binod Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij rendered training to
aspiring artists. Nandalal often derived inspiration from Indian folk art and also from Japanese
painting while Binod Behari Mukerjee was deeply interested in oriental traditions. Jamini Roy,
another great painter of this period, drew inspiration from Qrissa’s pata painting and Kalighat
painting of Bengal. Amrita Shergil, a great painter received education in Paris and Budapest.
Considered a prodigy from a Sikh father and Hungarian mother, she painted on Indian themes in
bright colours specially Indian women and peasants. Though she died very young, she left behind a
rich legacy of Indian paintings.
Gradually some deeper changes took place in the thinking of the English educated urban middle
class which began to be reflected in the expressions of the artists. Increasing awareness about
British rule, ideals of nationalism and the desire for a national identity led to creations which were
distinct from earlier art traditions.
In 1943, during the period of the second world war Calcutta painters led by Paritosh Sen, Niroda
Majumdar and Pradosh Dasgupta formed a group who depicted the condition of the people of India
through new visual language, and novel techniques.
Another significant development was the formation of the Progressive Artists Group in Bombay in
1948 under Francis Newton Souza. The group also included S .H. Raza, M.F.Hussain, K.M. Ara,
S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This group broke away from Bengal School of Art and represented the
modern forceful art of independent India.
In the 1970s artists began to critically survey their environment. Daily encounters with poverty and
corruption, the political morass of the country, the explosive communal tension, and other urban
issues became the themes or subject matter of their works.
The Madras School of Art under Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Paniker emerged as an
important art centre in post independence period and influenced a new generation of modern artists.
Some of the artists who made their mark as modern Indian artists are Tyeb Mehta, Satish Gujral,
Krishan Khanna, Manjit Bawa, K.G. Subramaniyan Ram Kumari, Anjolie Ela Menon, Akbar
Padamsee, Jatin Das, Jehangir Sabavala and A. Ramachandran.
Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India. The National
Gallery of Modern Art has the largest collection of modern art under one roof. The second one is the
Lalit Kala Akademi which recognises and patronizes artists in all fields.
Decorative Art
The artistic expression of the Indian people is not limited to painting on canvas or paper only.
Decorative painting on walls of homes even in rural areas is a common sight. Rangoli or decorative
designs on floor are made for auspicious occasions and pujas whose stylised designs have been
passed on from one generation to the other. The designs are called rangoli in the North, alpana in
Bengal, aipan in Uttaranchal, rangavalli in Karnataka, Kollam in Tamilnadu and mandana in
Madhya Pradesh. Usually rice powder is used for these paintings but coloured powder or flower
petals are also used to make them more colourful.
Adorning walls of houses and huts is also an old tradition. The following are some of the examples
of folk art of this kind.

Mithila Painting
Mithila painting also known as Madhubani folk art is the traditional art of the Mithila region of
Bihar. They are produced by village women who make three dimensional images using vegetable
colour with few earthen colours and finished in black lines on cow dung treated paper. These
pictures tell tales especially about Sita’s exile, Ram-Laxman’s forest life, or depict the images of
Lakshmi, Ganesha, Hanuman and others from Hindu mythology. Apart from these women also
paint celestial subjects like sun and moon. Tulsi, the holy plant also is to be found in these
paintings. They also show court scenes, wedding and social happenings. Drawings in Madhubani
pictures are very conceptual. First, the painter thinks and then she “draws her thought”. No pretence
is there to describe the figures accurately. Visually they are images that speak in lines and colours
and are drawn for some rituals or festivals on household and village walls to mark the seasonal
festivals or special events of the life cycle. Intricate flora, animal and birds motifs can also be found
along with geometrical designs to fill up the gap. In some cases it is a special practice for mothers to
make these art items in advance for their daughters as a marriage gift. These paintings also convey
advice on ways to lead a good married life. There is also a social variation in subjects and use of
colours. One can identify the community to which the painting belongs from the colours that are
used in them. Paintings made by the upper, more affluent classes are colourful while those made by
the lower caste people use red and black line work. But the technique of painting is safely and
zealously guarded by the women of the village to be passed on by the mother to the daughter.
Nowadays Madhubani art is being used as decorative gift items, greeting cards and has become a
source of income for local women folk.

Kalamkari Painting
The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art got enriched as it came
down from one generation to another. These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh. It is hand
painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth. Vegetable dyes are used for
colour in the Kalam Kari work. A small place Sri-Kalahasti is the best known centre of Kalamkari
art. This work is also found at Masaulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to
decorating temple interiors with painted cloth panels, which was developed in the fifteenth century
under the patronage of Vijaynagar rulers. Subjects are adopted from the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata and Hindu religious mythology. This art form is a continuous legacy from father to
son. After deciding the subject of the painting, scène after scene is painted. Every scene is
surrounded by floral decorative patterns. These paintings are made on cloth. They are very durable
and flexible in size and made according to theme. Figures of deities have a very rich border
embellishments and were created for the temples. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the
Masulipatnam kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs. The outlines and
main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later done using the pen. This
art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick
pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to serve as brush or pen. The
kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colours from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron,
tin, copper, alum etc.
Phad Paintings
Phad is a type of scroll painting. The paintings depicting exploits of local deities are often carried
from place to place and are accompanied by traditional singers, who narrate the theme depicted on
the scrolls. This type of painting is a most famous painting of Rajasthan, mainly found in the
Bhilwara district. Phad painting depicts the heroic deeds of a heroic figure, the daily life of a
peasant, rural life, animals and birds, flora and fauna. These paintings are created using bright
colours and subtle colours. The outlines of the paintings are first drawn in black and later filled with
colours. The main themes of the phad paintings depict the deities and their legends and the stories
of erstwhile Maharajas. Raw colours are used for these paintings. The unique features of phad
paintings are the bold lines and a two dimensional treatment of figures with the entire composition
arranged in sections.
The art of painting the phads is approximately 700 years old. It is said that it was originated in
Shahpura, some 35 kms from Bhilwara in Rajasthan. The continuous royal patronage gave a
decisive impetus to the art which has survived and flourished for generations.

Warli Painting
Warli painting derives its name from a small tribe inhabiting the remote, tribal regions of
Maharashtra. These are decorative paintings on floors and walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes’ homes
and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to create a composite whole in a
Warli painting. These paintings are made mostly by the women as part of their routine at auspicious
celebrations. Subjects are predominantly religious with simple and local materials like white colour
and rice paste and local vegetable glue on a plain contrasting background, made in a geometric
patterns like squares, triangles, and circles. Dots and crooked lines are the units of these
composition. Flora and fauna and people’s day to day life also form a part of the painted. The
paintings are expanded by adding subject after subject in a spiraling manner. The rhythm of the
Warli way of life is beautifully captured in simple images. Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli
paintings do not employ religious iconography and is a more secular art form.

Kalighat Painting
Kalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Kolkata. Kalighat is a bazaar
near the Kali temple in Kolkota. Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to
make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenth century. These paintings on paper made
with water colours comprise clear sweeping line drawings using bright colours and a clear
background. Subjects are images of Kali, Lakshmi, Krishna, Ganesha, Shiva, and other gods and
goddesses. In this process, artists developed a unique new form of expression, and effectively
portray a wide range of subjects commenting on the social life of Bengal. Similar kind of pata
paintings may be found in Orissa. This painting form has its roots in the culture upheavds of 19th
century colonial Bengal.
As its market grew, the artists began to liberate themselves from the routine depiction of Hindu
deities and began to explore the world of contemporary social events in their paintings. The genre
derived much inspiration from the introduction of photography, western style theatrical
performances, the rise of babu culture in Bengal as a result of the impact of British colonial and
administrative system. The emergence of the unique lifestyle of the nouveau riche of Kolkota in
response to these diverse influence also inspired these paintings. All these stimuli gave birth to a
new imagery that occupied the centre stage of Bengali literature, theatre and visual arts of the
period. Kalighat paintings became the best mirror of this cultural and aesthetic shift. Based on their
preexisting models of the Hindu deities, the artists created a whole repertoire of images, courtesans,
actresses, heroines, pompous babus and conceited dandies, resplendent in their fancy attire and hair
styles, smoking pipes and playing the sitar. Kalighat paintings are often referred to as the first works
of art that came from Bengal.
Indian Handicrafts
India is a virtual treasure house of the most exquisite handicrafts. Simple objects of daily life have
been crafted with delicate design which give expression to the creativity of the Indian artisan. Every
state of India can boast of some unique creation which is special to the region, for example,
Kashmir is famous for embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silk and walnut wood furniture.
Rajasthan is famous for its tie-and-dye (bandhnï) fabrics, jewellery, using precious stone and jems,
blue glazed pottery and minakari work. Andhra Pradesh is famous for Bidri work and Pochampally
saris while Tamil Nadu is well known for bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris. Mysore is
well known for silk, sandalwood items and Kerala is famous for ivory carvings and rosewood
furniture. Chanderi and kosa silk of Madhya Pradesh, chikan work of Lucknow, Brocade and silk
saris of Benaras, cane furniture and goods of Assam, Bankura terracotta modelling and handloom
items of Bengal are just a few examples of unique traditional decorative arts and crafts which
constitute the heritage of modern India. These arts have been nurtured for thousands of years and
provided employment to a great number of artisans who carried forward the art to the next
generation. Thus you see how the Indian artisans with their magic touch can transform a piece of
metal, wood or ivory into objects of art.

PERFORMING ARTS: MUSIC, DANCE AND DRAMA

India is a land of rich culture and heritage. Since the beginning of our civilization, music, dance and
drama have been an integral aspect of our culture. Initially, these art forms were used as medium of
propagation for religion and social reforms in which music and dance were incorporated to gain
popularity. From the Vedic era to the medieval period, the performing arts remained an important
source of educating the masses. The Vedas laid down precise rules for the chanting of Vedic hymns.
Even the pitch and the accent of singing different hymns have been prescribed. There was more of
exemplary presentation through them than education or social reforms. Presently, these art forms
have become means of entertainment for people all over the world.

Concept Of Performing Arts

What is art? “Art is an expression of all characteristics of the human mind aesthetically”. These
characteristics, i.e. the varied human emotions, are known as ‘RAS’. In Hindi, ‘ras’ literally means
a sugary juice. It signifies the ultimate satisfaction or ‘aanand’. Human emotions can be categorized
into nine sub-headings or ‘navras’. They are:
1. Hasya — laughter
2. Bhayanak — Terrible Sentiment or Fear
3. Raudra — chivalrous
4. Karuna — pathos
5. Vira — courage
6. Adbhuta — astonishing
7. Bhibhatsa — terrifying glory
8. Shaanti — peace
9. Shringaara — decorating one’s self
Art reflects human emotions and human beings spontaneously express their frame of mind
through various art forms. Thus the intellectual mind merges with the artistic streak, giving birth to
art. The expression is reflected in various styles like singing, dancing, drawing, painting, acting,
sculpture. Some of these are expressed through live performances and others through visual arts.
Sketching, painting, sculpture are visual arts. Singing, dancing, acting are attributes of performing
arts. Music from time immemorial has been the most popular art form of India. They are Sa, Re,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ne.
The earliest tradition of Indian music may be traced to Sama Veda which contained the
slokas that were put to music. Chanting of Vedic hymns with prescribed pitch and accent still form a
part of religious rituals. The earliest text dealing exclusively with performing arts is Bharata’s
Natyashashtra (compiled between second century BC and second century AD) which has six
chapters on music. Another major text is Matanga’s Brihaddesi compiled between eight and ninth
century AD. In this work ragas were first named and discussed at great length. Sangeet Ratnakara
written by Sarangdeva in the thirteenth century mentions 264 ragas. A variety of string and wind
instruments were invented over the period of time. In ancient texts references have been made to
flutes, drums, veena, and cymbals. Many rulers such as Samudragupta, King Bhoja of Dhara and
King Someshavra of Kalyana patronised music. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was himself an
accompolished musician. In some of his coins, he is shown playing on the Veena. Music was also
associated with the worship of Gods and Goddess in the temples. In the twelfth century, Jayadeva of
Orissa produced the most brilliant raga kavya, the Gita Govinda, each song of which was set in a
raga and was composed on the theme of love of Radha and Krishna. Abhinavagupta’s (993-1055)
Abhinavabharati provides useful information about music. Tamil music has a number of terms and
concepts parallel to what is found in Sanskrit texts. The Saivite Nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars
too set their psalms (poems) to music.
Similarly in the medieval period the Sufi and Bhakti saints encouraged music. Qawwalis were sung
in Sufi khanqahs and devotional music like kirtan and bhajan became popular with the Bhakti
saints. Names of Kabir, Mirabai, Surdasa, Chandidasa, Tulsidasa, Vidyapati are closely associated
with religious music. Great scholars like Amir Khusrau contributed equally to the promotion of
music. The legendary ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur and his wife Rupmati introduced new ragas.
Kitabe Navras written by Ibrahim Adil Shah II during the seventeenth century is a collection of
songs in praise of Hindu deities as well as Muslim saints. The most famous musician of Akbar’s
court was Tansen and there was nobody to match him, even though there were all kinds of singers.
Baiju Bawra was also a well known musician during Akbar’s time. The patronage given to these
artists by the ancient and medieval rulers have been instrumental in keeping the traditions alive. In
fact the Mughal rulers were great patrons of music. According to Lanepoole- “Babar himself was
fond of music. He is supposed to have developed some very popular musical style forms like
Qawalis, Khayal, etc. Humayun was said to have illustrated Indian texts on music. Akbar composed
songs and encouraged musicians. Swami Haridas and his disciples composed many songs in
different tunes. Pundarika Vittal was a great scholar of music who wrote the famous Ragamala.
Hindustani Music was also enriched by devotional songs sung by Mira Bai, Tulsidas and Surdas.

Divisions Of Indian Classical Music

During the medieval period Indian classical music was broadly based on two traditions, the
Hindustani classical music prevalent in North India and the Carnatic music of South India.

Hindustani Classical Music

Hindustani classical music may be traced back to the period of the Delhi Sultanate and to Amir
Khusrau (AD 1253-1325) who encouraged the practice of musical performance with particular
instruments. He is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced
new ragas. Most of the Hindustani musicians trace their descent to Tansen. Different styles of
Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Dhamar, Thumri, Khayal and Tappa. It is said that Tansen’s music
had the effect of magic. He could stop the rising waves of the Yamuna and by the force of his
‘Megh Rag’ he could cause the rain to fall. In fact his melodious songs are sung in every part of
India even now with great interest. Some of Akbar’s courtiers patronised Musicians like Baiju
Bawra, Surdas etc.
The most popular ragas are: Bahar, Bhairavi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Bhim Palasi, Darbari, Desh,
Hamsadhwani, Jai Jayanti, Megha Malhar, Todi, Yaman, Pilu, Shyam Kalyan, Khambaj.
India also has a rich variety of musical instruments of different types. Amongst the stringed
instruments the most famous are sitar, sarod, santoor and sarangi. Pakhawaj, tabla and Mridangam
are precussion or tal giving instruments. Likewise, flute, shehnai and nadaswaram are some of the
chief wind instruments.
The musicians of Hindustani classical music are usually associated to a gharana or a
particular style of music. Gharanas refer to hereditary linkages of musicians which represent the
core of the style and distinguish them from the other. The gharanas function in guru shishya
parampara, that is, disciples learning under a particular guru, transmitting his musical knowledge
and style, will belong to the same gharana. Some famous gharanas are Gwalior gharana, Kirana
gharana, and Jaipur gharana.
Devotional music like kirtan, bhajan, ragas contained in the Adi Grantha and singing in the
Majlis during Muharram also deserve a special place in Indian music. Along with this, folk music
also shows a very rich cultural heritage.

Carnatic Music
The compositions in Carnatic music may be attributed collectively to three composers who lived
between AD 1700 and 1850. They were Shyam Shastri, Thyagaraja and Mutthuswami Dikshitar.
Purandardasa was another great composer of Carnatic music. Thyagaraja is revered both as a saint
and an artist and epitomises the essence of Carnatic music. The main compositions are known as
kriti and are devotional in nature. The three great musicians experimented with new forms. Some
notable musicians of this period are Maha Vaidyanath Ayyar (1844-93), Patnam Subrahmanya
Ayyar (l854-1902) and Ramnad Srinivasa lyengar (l860-1919). Flute, veena, nadaswaram,
mridangam, ghatam are some of the instruments to accompany Carnatic music.
Despite contrasting features between Hindustani and Carnatic music, one can find some
similarities, for example, the Carnatic alapana is similar to alap in Hindustani classical. Tilana in
Carnatic resembles Tarana of Hindustani. Both lay stress on tala or talam.

MODERN INDIAN MUSIC

With the British rule came Western music. Indians adopted some of their instruments such as violin
and clarinet to suit the demands of Indian music. Orchestration of music on stage is a new
development. Use of cassettes replaced oral transmission of tunes and ragas. Performance which
were earlier limited to a privileged few have now been thrown open to the public and can be viewed
by thousands of music lovers throughout the country. Music education no longer depends on the
master-disciple system but can be imparted through institutions teaching music.

Musicians
Amir Khusrau, Tansen, Gopal Nayak, Swami Haridas, Pt. V.D. Paluskar, Thyagaraja, Mutthuswami
Dikshitar, Pt. Omkar Nath Thakur, Pt.Vinaik Rao Patwardhan, Ustad Chand Khan, Bade Ghulam
Ali Khan, Faiyaz Khan, Nissar Hussain Khan, Amir Khan, Pt. Bhimsen Joshi, Pt. Kumar
Gandharva, Kesarbai Kerkar and Smt. Gangubai Hangal are all vocalists.
Among the instrumentalists Ahmed Jaan Thirakwa,Allauddin Khan, Pt. Ravi Shankar, Bismillah
Khan, Alla Rakkha Khan, Zakir Hussain are some of the well known musicians.

Folk Music
Besides classical music India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This music represents the
emotion of the masses. The simple songs are composed to mark every event in life.They may be
festivals, advent of a new season, marriage or birth of a child. Rajasthani folk songs such as Mand
and Bhatiali of Bengal are popular all over India. Ragini is a popular form of folk songs of Haryana.
Folk songs have their special meanings or messages. They often describe historical events and
important rituals. Kashmir’s Gulraj is usually a folklore and Pandyani of Madhya Pradesh is a
narrative put to music. Muslims sing Sojkhwani or mournful songs during Muharram and Christmas
carols and choral music are sung in groups on the festive occasions.
DANCES OF INDIA
In the Brahmanas, Jaiminiya and Kausitaki dance and music are mentioned together. The Epics are
full of references to dances on earth and heaven. Like music, Indian dance has also developed a rich
classical tradition. It has a great power of expression and emotions while telling a story.
In India, the art of dancing may be traced back to the Harappan culture. The discovery of the
bronze statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that some women in Harappa performed dances.
In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to
religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the
cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraja clearly shows the popularity of
dance form on the Indian people. There is not a single temple atleast in the southern part of the
country which does not show the sculptures of the dancers in their different forms. In fact classical
dance forms like Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Kuchi pudi and Odisi are an
important part of our cultural heritage.
It is difficult to say at what point of time dance originated, but it is obvious that dance came
into existence as an effort to express joy. Gradually dances came to be divided as folk and classical.
The classical form of dance was performed in temples as well as in royal courts. The dance in
temples had a religious objective whereas in courts it was used purely for entertainment. In both
cases for the artists devoted to this art form, it was no less than praying to God. In southern India
Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam developed as an important aspect of the rituals in temples.
Yakshagana, a form of Kathakali in Kerala, tells us stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata whereas
Kathak and Manipuri are mostly related to the stories of Krishna and his leela (exploits).
Performance of Odissi is related to the worship of Lord Jagannath. Though the Krishna leela and
the stories related to Lord Shiva was the theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed in royal
courts in medieval times. Romantic gestures contained in Thumri and Ghazal, that were also
performed with accompanists for the kings, reflect this aspect. Manipuri dance was also preformed
for religious purposes. Folk dances evolved from the lives of common people and were performed
in unison. In Assam people celebrate most of the harvesting season through Bihu. Similarly Garba
of Gujarat, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, bamboo dance of Mizoram, Koli, the fisherman’s dance
of Maharashtra, Dhumal of Kashmir, and Chhau of Bengal are unique examples of performing arts
that gave expression to the joys and sorrows of the masses.
As far as the analytical study of this art form is concerned, the Natyashastra of Bharata, is a
primary source of information, and basically deals with drama. Bharata has discussed dance and its
various angas (limbs) in detail. Facial expressions, body movements, hasta mudras and the footsteps
have all been brought together under three broad categories namely, as nritta (pada sanchalan),
nritya (anga sanchalan) and natya (abhinay). Both men and women took keen interest in dance but
generally women dancers were looked down upon in society. However, with the efforts of great
music thinkers and various religious and social reform movements, people have started to hold
women performers with great respect.
In the medieval period Kathak dance form was promoted by the Muslim rulers. We hear of
these performances in the courts of most of the Mughal rulers except for Aurangzeb. In the south,
temples, ‘court’ and other parts of the building provided an important stage for all dancers. Navaras,
mythological tales of Rama, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga were all enacted in the form of dance. Some
rulers of the north like Wajid ali Shah was a great patron of music and dance and here the seeds of
the Lucknow gharana or ‘school of dance’ was sown. The modern day dancers like Pt. Birju
Maharaj all have come from the Lucknow school of dance. In the medieval period, the south
remained very rigid with the rules of dances that were imbibed from ancient Sanskrit texts. It
became a seat of learning and institutions of dance sprung up first in the southern region.
In the modern period, we find maximum dance forms in the south Indian classical dance stream.
They are Kucchipudi, Bharatnatyam, Mohiniatyam, Kathakali. On the eastern side, Odissi dance
flourished greatly.
Along with classical dance forms, folk dance also flourished. In most of the regions the local
dance form became very popular. Manipuri dance, Santhal dance, Rabindranath’s dance, drama,
chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some of the folk dances that have flourished in India. They are
equally popular and have extreme acumen and innovation. Practically every region of our country
has developed their own rich tradition of folk dances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask
dance of Ladakh, Wangla of Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of Sikkim. Similarly we also have
some dances which are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttranchal, Kalari paittu of Kerala,
Thang-taa of Manipur among the more famous ones.
Presently, all the three art forms are flourishing in the country. Musical institutions have
opened up giving opportunities to many. Schools, universities have departments of music. Indira
Kala Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music, Gandharva MahaVidyalaya, Kathak
Kendra and many institutes in the south are all propagating music in their own ways. Music
conferences, Baithaks, lecture, demonstrations are all spreading music to nooks and corners of
India. Societies like Spic-macay, India International Rural Cultural Centre have worked very hard to
bring about a rapport and bondage with artists and the modern generation.
Abroad musicians have also flourished and different institutions of music started by Pt. Ravi
Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Alla Rakkha etc. are prestigious teaching centres for foreigners.
Many foreign universities also have facilities of art forms giving degrees and diplomas to students.
All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in various festivals and
occasions.

Well-known Dancers of Modern India

Kathak :Pt. Birju Maharaj, Pt. Shambhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Pt. Gopi Krishna, and Pt.
Lacchu Maharaj.
Bharatanatyam :Saroja Vaidyanathan, Padma Subhramaniam, Geeta Chandran.
Odissi : Kelucharan Mahapatra, Sanjukta Panigrahi, Kiran Sehgal and Madhavi Mudgal.
Kuchpudi : Swapna Sundari, Satya Narayan Sarma, Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy and Sonal
Mansingh.

ARCHITECTURE-ORIGINS AND INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his
own shelter to live in. Man first began to create and fix his own shelter when he stepped out from
the natural habitat of dense jungle covers. With the artistic faculties of man awakened in the search
for larger and better-sheltered spaces, he began to build, with inherent aesthetic sense, shelters that
seemed pleasing to the eye.Thus emerged architecture which is a combination of needs,imagination,
capacities of the builders and capabilities of the workers.
Architectural Forms and Construction Details: Architecture accommodated the local and
regional cultural traditions and social requirements, economic prosperity, religious practice of
different times. Hence, the study of architecture reveals to us the cultural diversities and helps us
understand the rich traditions of India.
Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the country. Apart from
these natural and obvious evolutions from the pre-historic and historic periods, evolution of Indian
architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic developments. Naturally,
the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-continent, each in their way
influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of Indian architecture. External influences have also
shaped the nature of Indian architecture and so has the influence of different regions of the country.
Let us have a look at the process of evolution of Indian Architecture.

HARAPPAN PERIOD AND ARCHITECTURE

The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro and several other sites of the Indus Valley
Civilisation revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilisation with expert town planning
and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well planned roads and
houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India before the coming of
the Aryans. The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavated under the Archaeological
Survey of India established by the British.
The Harappan people had constructed mainly three types of buildings-dwelling houses pillared halls
and public baths.
Main features of Harappan remains are:
1. The settlements could be traced as far back as third millennium BC.
2. Some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus particularly at the
bends that provided water, easy means of transportation of produce and other goods and also some
protection by way of natural barriers of the river.
3. All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people.
4. The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut each other at right angles.
5. The Indus Valley people used standardised burnt mud-bricks as building material.
6. There is evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps were public buildings,
administrative or business centres, pillared halls and courtyards, There is no evidence of temples.
7. Public buildings include granaries which were used to store grains which give an idea of an
organised collection and distribution system.
8. Along with large public buildings, there is evidence of small one roomed constructions that
appear to be working peoples quarters.
9. The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public bath that was discovered
at Mohenjodaro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called, is still functional and there is no leakage or cracks
in the construction.The existence of what appears to be a public bathing place shows the importance
of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this culture. It is significant that most of the houses had
private wells and bathrooms.
10. At some sites a dominant citadal was excavated in the western part containing the public
buildings including the granaries. This can perhaps be treated as evidence of some kind of political
authority ruling over the cities.
11. There is evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities which shows
that there may have been a fear of being attacked.
12. Lothal, a site in Gujarat also has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those
times by sea.
Another remarkable feature was the existence of a well planned drainage system in the
residential parts of the city. Small drains from the houses were connected to larger ones along the
sides of the main roads. The drains were covered and loose covers were provided for the purpose of
cleaning them. The planning of the residential houses were also meticulous. Evidence of stairs
shows houses were often double storied. Doors were in the side lanes to prevent dust from entering
the houses.
The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town planning skills and
cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout. Roads cut each other at right
angles and were very well laid out. As the Indus Valley settlements were located on the banks of the
river, they were often destroyed by major floods. In spite of this calamity, the Indus Valley people
built fresh settlements on the same sites. Thus, layers upon layers of settlements and buildings were
found during the excavations. The decline and final destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization,
sometime around the second millennium BC remains a mystery to this day.
Many thick layers of well baked bricks laid in gypsum mortar were joined together for the
purpose of making the whole construction very strong. The strength of the buildings can be seen by
the fact that they have successfully survived the ravages of atleast five thousand years.
The Harappans had the knowledge and skill of sculpting and craft. The world’s first bronze
sculpture of a dancing girl has been found in Mohenjodaro. A terracotta figure of a male in a yogic
posture has also been excavated. Beautiful personal ornaments, soft stone seals with a pictoral script
and images of humped bulls, Pashupati unicorn have also been excavated.
The Vedic Aryans who came next, lived in houses built of wood, bamboo and reeds; the
Aryan culture was largely a rural one and thus one finds few examples of grand buildings. This was
because Aryans used perishable material like wood for the construction of royal palaces which have
been completely destroyed over time. The most important feature of the Vedic period was the
making of fire altars which soon became an important and integral part of the social and religious
life of the people even today. In many Hindu homes and especially in their marriages, these fire
altars play an important role even today. Soon courtyard and mandaps were build with altars for
worship of fire which was the most important feature of architecture. We also find references of
Gurukuls and Hermitages. Unfortunately no structure of the Vedic period remains to be seen. Their
contribution to the architectural history is the use of wood along with brick and stone for building
their houses.
In the 6th century B.C. India entered a significant phase of her history. There arose two new
religions - Jainism and Buddhism and even the Vedic religion underwent a change.
Almost simultaneously larger states sprang up which further provided for a new type of
architecture from this period i.e. the expansion of Magadha into an empire, the development of
architecture received further impetus. From now it was possible to trace Indian architecture in an
almost unbroken sequence.
Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism helped in the development of early architectural style.
The Buddhist Stupas were built at places where Buddha’s remains were preserved and at the major
sites where important events in Buddha’s life took place. Stupas were built of huge mounds of mud,
enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. One was built at his birthplace Lumbini; the
second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where he
gave his first sermon and the fourth at Kushinagar where he passed away attaining Mahaparinirvana
at the age of eighty.
Buddha’s burial mounds and places of major events in his life became important landmarks
of the significant architectural buildings in the country. These became important sites for Buddha’s
order of monks and nuns - the sangha. Monasteries (viharas), and centres of preaching, teaching and
learning came up at such places. Congregational halls (chaitya) for teaching and interaction between
the common people and the monks were also built up.
From now on religion began to influence architecture. While Buddhists and Jains began to build
stupas, Viharas and Chaityas, the first temple building activity started during the Gupta rule.

EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD

An important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan period. The material prosperity
of the Mauryans and a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields. Megasthenes,
the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta
Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement. It was a large palace carved out of wood.

In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture saw a great
advancement. Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks. During
the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’
were inscribed. The highly polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top (capitals) are
unique and remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been accepted as the emblem of
the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50 tonnes and is about 50 ft high.
The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of Mauryan architechture. The
gateways of the Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes from Jataka stories are
specimens of the skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans.
The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the development of Gandhara art which developed later.
The other schools of art and architecture were the indigenous Mathura school and Amaravati
school. A large number of statues of the Buddha were built by the artisans of these schools specially
after first century AD under the influence of the Kushanas. Under the Gandhara school of art life-
like statues of Buddha and Bodhisattavas were made in the likeness of Greek gods even, though the
ideas, inspirations and subjects were all Indian. Rich ornaments, costumes ,drapery were used to
impart physical beauty. The sculptures were in stone, terracotta, cement like material and clay.
The figures of the Mathura school were made of spotted red stone. They had more of spiritual look
in them. Here along with Buddha we find sculptures of Jaina dieties also.
The Amaravati school developed under the patronage of the Satavahanas of the Andhra region. A
great stupa was built at Amaravati in the Lower Godavari region. The walls of the stupa are adorned
with bas relief, had carved medallion and decorative panels. Nagarjunkonda is another place that is
famous for Buddhist architecture.
The Gupta period marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples. An
example of this is the temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) which had a central shrine or garbhagriha
where the image of the deity was placed. Another temple at Bhitrigaon (Kanpur district) are two
fine examples of this period.

Cave Architecture
The development of cave architecture is another unique feature and marks an important phase in the
history of Indian architecture. More than thousand caves have been excavated between second
century BC and tenth century AD. Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of
Maharashtra, and Udaygiri cave of Orissa. These caves hold Buddhist viharas, chaityas as well as
mandapas and pillared temples of Hindu gods and goddesses.

Rock-cut temples
Temples were hewn out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavated in western
Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. The chaitya at Karle with fine high halls and polished
decorative wall is a remarkable example of rock-cut architecture. The Kailash temple at Ellora built
by the Rashtrakutas and the ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas are other
examples of rock-cut temples. Most probably the stability and permanence of rocks attracted the
patrons of art and builders who decorated these temples with beautiful sculptures.

FREE-STANDING TEMPLES
The temple building activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in later
periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later the rulers of the
Vijaynagar kingdom were great builders of temples. The Pallava rulers built the shore temple at
Mahabalipuram. Pallavas also built other structural temples like Kailashnath temple and Vaikuntha
Perumal temples at Kanchipuram. The Cholas built many temples most famous being the
Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore. The Cholas developed a typical style of temple architecture of
South India called the Dravida style, complete with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway
topped by gopuram. Magnificent temples were built at Belur, Halebid where the stone engravings
reached even greater heights.
In north and eastern India magnificent temples were also constructed and the style followed by
them is referred to as the Nagara style. Most of them consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the
garbhagriha (sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall).
Orissa has some of the most beautiful temples such as the Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga
rulers and the Mukteshwara temple at Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannath temple at Puri.
The sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga ruler Narshimha
Deva I. The temple is dedicated to Surya (the sun god) and has been designed as a twelve-wheeled
chariot.
The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth and eleventh
centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important among them is the
Kandariya Mahadev temple.
Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras. These were
built in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. These were built under the
patronage of Solanki rulers.
Somnath temple at Gujarat, Vishwanath temple at Banaras, Govinda temple at Mathura, Kamakhya
temple at Guwahati, Shankaracharya temple at Kashmir and the Kali temple at Kalighat of Kolkata
are some other important temples which bear testimony to temple building activity of the Indian sub
continent.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE

Delhi Sultanate
With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture- the
architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The engineering features of these buildings
were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs built by the rulers had these
features which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in
architecture was achieved. This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services
of the local Indian craftsmen who were very skillful and had already constructed beautiful
buildings. In the buildings that came up we find the simplicity of the Islamic structure as well as the
detailed sculptures and designs they made on their own indigenious structures. A middle path was
followed in all their designs in the architecture of this period.
The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub Minar. The
latter is a tower, whose height is 70 metres. It is a tapering tower that has five stories. There are
beautiful engravings of calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower. Many other buildings were
later constructed by the Sultans. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a
gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway is called the Alahi Darwaja and is one of the
most beautiful architectural designs even today. Decorative elements were used to make the
building outstanding in its beauty. He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic
structure. The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some
examples. Though their buildings were not beautiful but had very strong walls, massive as well as
impressive. During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s tomb at
Sasaram were built. The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous styles were adopted
and utilised by the builders. During these years, the Turks were still in the process of settling down.
The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who made sudden invasions from the north. This is why
the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy and practical.

Regional Kingdoms
With the establishment of regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful buildings
having their own style were constructed. The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Saiyyad Mosque and the
shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a few examples of this architecture. In Mandu (central India) the
Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and Jahaz Mahal were built. In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a
number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar,
Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort at Golkunda are just a few famous buildings.
Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style from the
buildings of north India. In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of
roof construction were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like
the Adina mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque at
Gaur. In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering the
dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and is made of yellow
and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen. The rulers of Vijayanagar, an empire
which was established during this period also erected many beautiful buildings and temples and had
a number of achievements to their credit. Though only ruins remain but the temples of Vithalswami
and Hazar Rama at Hampi are good examples.

BAHAMANI
The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of
Southern India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of this mosque is
covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in India which has a covered
countryard.

MUGHALS
The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture. The synthesis of style which began
earlier reached its zenith during this time. The architecture of Mughal style started during Akbar’s
rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent building red
stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many
consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal. Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Bulund
Darwaza reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire. This building was made following
Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is about 41 m high and is perhaps
the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat
Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and
Indian elements. During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra
near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of marble.
Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble extensively. Decorative
design in inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful arches and minarets were the features of his
buildings. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal are some of the
buildings built by Shahjahan. The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built in marble and
reflects all the architectural features that were developed during the Mughal period. It has a central
dome, four elegant minarats, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main building. The
Mughal style of architecture had a profound influence on the buildings of the later period. The
buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had courtyards and pillars. For
the first time in the architecture of this style living beings- elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds
were sculptured in the brackets.
Next came the British who ruled the country for 200 years and left behind a legacy of colonial style
architecture in their buildings.

Monuments Built by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri

The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. He erected many important buildings. The
crowning achievements of his reign was the building of his new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri.,
40km from Agra. Fatehpur Sikri is a romance of stones. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is the
most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Saint Salim Chisti is exquisite in its beauty.
Jodha Bai Palace is a fine example of ancient Indian architecture. The Jama Masjid was built with
the influence of the Persian style. The Dewan-i-Amm and the Dewan-i-Khas are famous for their
planning and decoration. The Ibadat Khana and Panch Mahal are another notable buildings. The
Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure in five storeys. It was build on the pattern of a Buddhist
Vihara.
From 1526, the Mughal architecture gave a totaly different dimension to tomb building. These are
built on platforms and are surrounded by gardens laid out with ornamental fountains. A famous
example is the mosque at Fatehpur Sikri - three domes of 290 ft by 470 ft and with two royal tombs.
Another famous tomb is Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra (A.D. 1593-1613). The Taj Mahal, Agra (A.D.
1630) built by Shah Jehan is considered one of the ‘Wonders of the World’. It is a royal tomb in
marble built on a platform 18ft high and 313 ft. square. Each corner is marked by a minaret 133ft
high. The central dome is 80 ft. high and 58ft in diameter. Marble is inlaid with semi-precious
stones like jasper and agate. It stands by the bank of the river Jamuna in the middle of marble
terraces, fountains and lakes flanked by cypress trees. Mughal architecture declined with the failing
political power of the Mughal Empire.
A unique architectural development in the Mughal time was the beautiful gardens developed around
the tombs and other buildings. The Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir and lahore were developed by
Jahangir and Shah Jahan respectively. The Mughals encouraged cultural and architectural growth of
India.
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE AND THE MODERN PERIOD
The colonial influence can be seen in office buildings. Europeans who started coming from
sixteenth century AD constructed many churches and other buildings. Portuguese built
many churches at Goa, the most famous of these are Basilica Bom Jesus and the chruch of
Saint Francis. The British also built administrative and residential buildings which reflect
their imperial glory. Some Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the colonnades or
pillared buildings. Parliament House and Connaught Place in Delhi are good examples. The
architect Lutyens, designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s residence. It is built
of sandstone and has design features like canopies and jaali from Rajasthan. The Victoria
Memorial in Calcutta, the former capital of British India, is a huge edifice in marble. It now
houses a museum full of colonial artefacts. Writers’ Building in Calcutta, where generations
of government officers worked in British times, is still the administrative centre of Bengal
after independence. Some Gothic elements can be seen in the church buildings like St.
Paul’s Cathedral in Calcutta. The British also left behind impressive railway terminals like
the Victoria Terminus in Mumbai. More contemporary styles of building are now in
evidence, after Independence in 1947. Chandigarh has buildings designed by the French
architect, Corbusier.
In Delhi, the Austrian architect, Stein, designed The India International Centre where
conferences are held by leading intellectuals from all over the world and more recently, the
India Habitat Centre which has become a centre of intellectual activities in the capital.
In the past few decades, there have been many talented Indian architects, some trained in
premier schools of architecture like the School of Planning and Architecture (SPA) in
Delhi. Architects like Raj Rewal and Charles Correa represent this new generation. Raj
Rewal has designed the SCOPE Complex and Jawahar Vyapar Bhavan in Delhi. He takes
pride in using indigenous building material like sandstone for construction and also
combines steps and open spaces from the plazas of Rome. An example of this is the C1ET
building in Delhi. Charles Correa from Mumbai is responsible for the LIC Building in
Connaught Place, Delhi. He has used glass facades in the high-rise to reflect light and create
a sense of soaring height.
In domestic architecture in the last decade, Housing Cooperative Societies have
mushroomed in all metropolitan cities combining utility with a high level of planning and
aesthetic sense.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

Development of Science in Ancient India
Mathematics has been called by the general name of Ganita which includes Arithmetic’s,
Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Arithmetic is called by several names such as
Pattin Ganita (calculations on board), Anka Ganita (calculations with numerals). Geometry
is called Rekha Ganita (line works) and Algebra, Bija Ganita (seed analysis), Astronomy
and Astrology are included in the term Jyotisa.
India has a rich heritage of science and technology. The dependence on nature could be
overcome by developments in science. In ancient India, religion and science worked in
close proximity. Let us find out about the developments in the different branches of science
in the ancient period.
Astronomy
Astronomy made great progress. The movement of planets came to be emphasized and
closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but
the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is a concise
text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions,
methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the
sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was
that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on
the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it
caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where
the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by
Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy
present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific
outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were
studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology
which stressed more on beliefs than scientific explorations.

Mathematics
The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of
measurement and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate
stream of study. Indian mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras.
Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle,
obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars where
the kings offered sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were
the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the numerals
were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero
was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta
is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered
as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta
discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of
Trignometry.
The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth
century AD is another pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the
moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun found recognition and
later discoveries were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy together ignited
interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became
the cornerstones for further research and progress.

Medicine
Diseases, cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. Fever,
cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases
mentioned. The diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s
body. The remedies recommended were replete with magical charms and spells.
From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Varanasi emerged as
centres of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhita by
Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. How important was their work can be understood
from the knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia through translations in
various languages.
The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in Charaksamhita.
Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushruta was
a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing
arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. Along with this he
also mentions the methods of operations, bone setting, cataract and so on. The surgeons in
ancient India were familiar with plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Sushruta
mentions 760 plants. All parts of the plant roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were used. Stress
was laid on diet (e.g. salt free diet for nephrites). Both the Charaksamhita and the
Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of the development of Indian medicine in the later
centuries.

Metallurgy
The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point
towards a highly developed metallurgy. The vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and fruits,
tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of alloys like
brass and bronze were taking place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the
high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were produced and utilised for
making medicines. This technology was also used for other crafts like producing dyes and
colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on the quality of colour.
These paintings have survived till date.
A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (Near
Bhagalpur).

Geography
The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to study geography. Though
the people were clear about their own physical geography, that of China and also the
Western countries, they were unaware of their position on the earth and the distances with
other countries. Indians also contributed to shipbuilding. In the ancient period, voyages and
navigation was not a familiar foray for the Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat has
the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those days by sea. In the early
medieval period with the development of the concept of tirtha and tirtha yatra, avast mass of
geographical information was accumulated. They were finally compiled as parts of Puranas.
In many cases separate sthala purana was also compiled.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

During the medieval period (eleventh to eighteenth century) science and technology in India
developed along two lines: one concerned with the already charted course of earlier
traditions and the other with the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and
European influence. The maktabs and madrasas came into existence that followed a set
curricular. These institutions used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, Sheikh
Abdullah and Sheikh Azzizullah, specialists in Rational Sciences (Magulat), headed the
madrasas at Sambhal and Agra. Learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were
invited to teach in these madrasas.
A large number of karkhana (workshops) were maintained by the kings and the nobles to
supply provisions, stores and equipment to royal household and government departments.
The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as centres for
technical and vocational training to young men. The karkhanas trained and turned out
artisans and craftsmen in different branches, who later set up their own independent
karkhanas (workshops).
Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important
subjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public
administration and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primary education.
Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet
science did not make much headway during this period. Efforts were made to seek a kind of
synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent approach to
science in other countries.

Biology
Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra in the thirteenth century which gives a general,
though not always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The
medieval rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and
falcons. Animals, both domesticated and wild, existed in their menageries. Akbar showed
special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses.
Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded his observations and experiments of weeding
and hybridisation. He described about thirty-six species of animals.
His court artists, specially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portraiture of animals,
some of which are still preserved in several museums and private collections.
As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their
floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.

Mathematics
Brahmagupta the great 7th century mathematician has given a description of negative
numbers as debts and positive numbers as fortunes, which shows that ancient Bharatiyas
knew the utility of mathematics for practical trade.
In the early medieval period the two outstanding works in mathematics were Ganitasara by
Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara deals with multiplication, division, numbers,
cubes, square roots, mensuration and so on. Ganesh Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini, a
commentary on Lilavati, containing a number of illustrations. In 1587, Lilavati was
translated into Persian by Faidi. Bija Ganita was translated by Ataullah Rashidi during Shah
Jahan’s reign. Nilkantha Jyotirvid, a courtier of Akbar, compiled Tajik, introducing a large
number of Persian technical terms. Akbar ordered the introduction of mathematics as a
subject of study, among others in the educational system. BahauddinAmuli, Nasiruddin
Tusi, Arraq and Al-Kashi made valuable contributions to this field. Nasiruddin Tusi, the
founder director of the Maragha observatory, was recognised as an
authority.

Chemistry
Before the introduction of writing paper, ancient literature was preserved generally on palm
leaves in South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northern regions of
the country. Use of paper began during the Medieval period. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad,
Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore were well-known centres of paper
production. During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a paper-making factory, producing a
special type of paper that had a gold surface. The paper making technique was more or less
the same throughout the country, differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw
materials.
The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in guns. Indian
craftsmen learnt the technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. They were
aware of the method of preparation of gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in
different ratios for use in different types of guns.. The principal types of fireworks included
those which pierced through air (rockets), produced sparks of fire, blazed with various
colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuk-i--aburi gives an account of the casting of
cannons. The melted metal was made to run into the mould till full and then cooled down.
Besides explosives, other items were also produced. Ain-i-Akbari speaks of the
‘Regulations of the Perfume Office of Akbar’. The attar of roses was a popular perfume, the
discovery of which is attributed to the mother of Nurjehan. Mention may also be made
here of the glazed tiles and pottery during the period.

Astronomy
In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical
notions appeared. Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Delhi were the main observatories. Firoz
Shah Tughaq established observation posts at Delhi. Firoz Shah Bahmani under Hakim
Hussain Gilani and Syed Muhammad Kazimi set up an observatory in Daulatabad. Both
lunar and solar calendars were in use.
Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Firoz Shah developed an astronomical instrument
called Yantraja. Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers
and almanac- makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta.
Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamic
knowledge as well. Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomical observatories
in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.

Medicine
There was an attempt to develop specialised treatises on different diseases. Pulse and urine
examinations were conducted for diagnostic purposes. The Sarangdhara Samhita
recommends use of opium for medicines. The rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a
host of mineral medicines including metallic preparations. The Tuhfat-ul-Muminin was a
Persian treatise written by Muhammad Munin in seventeenth century which discusses the
opinions of physicians.
The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in India in the
medieval period. Ali-bin-Rabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine as well
as the Indian medical knowledge in the book Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicine system
came to India along with the Muslims around the eleventh century and soon found a
congenial environment for its growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majinye
Diyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Firoz Shah
Tughlaq wrote a book, Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is
based on Ayurvedic sources. The Musalajati- Darashikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad,
dedicated to Darashikoh deals with Greek medicine.

Agriculture
In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or less the same as
that in early and early ancient India. Some important changes, however, were brought about
by the foreigners such as the introduction of new crops, trees and horticultural plants. The
principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane and
indigo. The Western Ghats continued to yield black pepper of good quality and Kashmir
maintained its tradition for saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon from Tamilnadu,
cardamom, sandalwood and coconuts from Kerala were becoming increasingly popular.
Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were the important
new plants which made India their home in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The
region of Malwa and Bihar were also well known for the production of opium from the
poppy plants. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with great success. The
systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the middle of the
sixteenth
century.
In the field of irrigation, wells, tanks, canals, rahats, charas (bucket made of leather) and
dhenkli, were used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen, which continued to be the
means of irrigation. Persian wheel was used in and around Agra region. In the medieval
period, agriculture was placed on a solid foundation by the State which brought about a
system of land measurement and land classification, beneficial both to the rulers and to the
tillers.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN INDIA

Before considering the progress of science and technology in India since independence, it is
necessary to understand what we mean by the terms science and technology. Science can be
defined as any systematic activity that seeks to gain knowledge about the physical world.
Technology is that activity which seeks to put this knowledge to productive use. As these
definitions show, science and technology are clearly interlinked in the present day world.
In India the role of science and technology in national development has been duly
recognised by the government. The Second Five Year Plan emphasised that “the most
important single factor in promoting economic development is the community’s readiness to
apply modem science and technology”. In 1971, the Department of Science and Technology
(DST) was set up to promote new areas of science and technology. Similarly State Councils
of Science and Technology have also been established at the state levels. As part of the
national policy, the government is promoting various research and development schemes to
encourage scientific activities. In this section, we will take up some of the main areas in
which scientific knowledge and modem technology have made an impact.

Agriculture
It is mainly because of the application of modern science and technology in agriculture that
India is able to produce 135 million tonnes of foodgrains today as compared to 50 million
tonnes thirty ears ago. These applications range from the cultivation of hybrid seeds to
energy management in agriculture and post-harvest technology. In these efforts the Indian
Council for Agricultural Research has played a leading role. Through seventy three
agricultural, thirty two veterinary, eight agricultural engineering and one dairy colleges, the
ICAR has been playing a key role in the scientific education of the farmers as well as others
engaged in different sectors of agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries and forestry. The
challenges that lie ahead in agriculture are in the areas of increasing the yields of rice,
pulses, oilseeds and many cash crops; initiating plantations and promoting social forestry;
and shifting from agriculture based on chemical fertilizers to organic fertilizers.

Industry
It is in the field of industry that modern science and technology made its earliest and most
revolutionary impact. In India the government has consistently tried to use modern science
and technology for industrial development. Two government organisations, Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Defence Research and Development
Orgnisation (DRDO) cover between them a wide range of science and technology research
for civil and defence purposes. A large number of items have emerged from CSIR
laboratories for industrial production, such as, indigenous agricultural machinery, chemicals,
drugs and pesticides, products in the areas of food echnology, furnished leather goods, glass
and ceramics, colour television, and receiver sets. The research carried out in the field of
coal, such as, upgrading of coal and extraction of electricity from coal has been effectively
utilized. In the area of defence, India’s own technological capability has increased
considerably. The most recent example of such capability is the advanced research that is
now being done to produce missiles in India. Some missiles have already been tested for
further development.

Nuclear Energy
India’s aim is to utilise nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. During the last sixty three
years, since the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948, India has made
significant progress in the field of nuclear technology. In 1957, the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre (BARC) was established at Trombay. It is the largest single scientific establishment
in the country. Nuclear power stations have already been established at Tarapur
(Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP) and Kakrapar
(Gujarat). The adoption of modern technology has led to the increase in indigenous content
of nuclear power reactors constructed in India. As a result, India is today one of the few
countries in the world which can indigenously design, construct and operate nuclear reactors
without relying on foreign help. Besides nuclear sciences, research and development work
in fields such as electronics, medicine, biology, agriculture, metallurgy is also being done at
some nuclear centres.

Space Technology
The Indian space programme is directed towards the goal of self-reliance in the use of space
technology for national development. Over the years, the space programme has established
itself with a succession of achievements. They include the launching of the first Indian
space satellite Aryabhatta in 1975 and then Bhaskara I and Bhaskara II from the Soviet
Union, the Rohini satellite on India’s own SLV-3 rocket and the Apple satellite on the
European Arianne rocket. A far reaching experiment in education through satellite, SITE,
was conducted in India in 1975. Subsequently, INSAT I-IB, launched in 1983, provided
radio, television, telecommunication and meteorological services. A perspective of major
space mission planned for the decade 1985-95 aims at using space technology for
nationwide application in communication, survey and management of natural resources and
meteorology.
Electronics
Since independence, India has acquired the capability to produce a wide variety of
electronic goods such as radio and television sets, communication systems, broadcasting
equipments, radars, nuclear reactors, power control systems and underwater systems. A very
large part of the components required for these are produced indigenously. The production
of electronic goods has been growing at the rate of 18 per cent per annum over the past
decade. Today we are even exporting electronic goods to different parts of the world.
Further, computers have been introduced to improve efficiency and enhance production.
Major facilities, recently set up, include the Semi Conductor Limited (Chandigarh),
National Computer Centre (Bombay), National Information Centre (New Delhi) and a
number of regional computer centres.
Medical and Health Sciences
In the field of medicine there have been many achievements. Major advances have been
made in preventing and treating various diseases. Small pox has been eradicated. Treatment
of diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, filaria, goitre, and cancer has been considerably
improved. Research is being carried out to control communicable diseases. Research based
activities have already increased life expectancy appreciably and death rate has declined,
while schemes such as the immunisation programme have reduced infant mortality
considerably. Improved medical facilities in the form of government-run hospitals and
dispensaries, research councils, and primary health centres for rural areas are also being
provided.

Ocean Development
India has many interests in the field of ocean development, such as, exploration of offshore
oil, fishery resources to increase food supplies, etc. A department of Ocean Development
was established in 1981, under the charge of the Prime Minister, to coordinate and direct
India’s activities in the field of ocean research. This department has two vessels ORV Sagar
Kanya and FORV Sagar Sampada, which have advanced facilities for working in the field of
physical, chemical, biological, geological and geophysical oceanography and meteorology.
India’s achievements during the past few years include sea-bed mining using the research
ship Gaveshna and setting up of research station named Dakshin Gangotri on the Antartica.
Other Areas
Apart from the major areas mentioned above, India has made much progress in several other
fields as well. These include the activities of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission in oil
exploration and refining and of the National Committee Environment Planning in
environment protection and production of solar energy. A Central Ganga Aurthority has
been set up to check pollution in the river Ganga by using sewage treatment plants.

Evaluation of Progress of Science and Technology

It is clear that progress of science and technology in India has been quite significant. Many
new methods, products and better quality goods have been developed in the country. India
has made rapid progress in the frontier areas of science and technology like space research
and atomic energy. At present the country has a strong base in modem technology. It also
has the third largest scientific and technical manpower in the world.
At the same time there have been some serious shortcomings in this progress. For
instance in basic products like textiles and steel, India has been importing foreign
technologies. Continuous import of foreign technology shows lack of ability to create new
technology to suit our needs and this creates dependence on other countries. Excessive
reliance on foreign technology is also visible in the important areas of defence, where the
latest weapons are often imported from other countries. Apart from this weakness in
creating new technology, India has also lagged behind in developing technology to meet the
needs of the poor. In the area of housing for instance, India is yet to develop, low-cost
technology to meet the needs of the poor who do not have houses. Advances in the fields of
nuclear and space research are praiseworthy but these have not helped the poor people so
far. We may say that the progress of modem science and technology have not, as yet,
benefited the people of India equally.

UNIT-5
EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA

What did the ancient Indian Education System Look Like?

Like the culture and traditions of India, the system of education also has a rich
history of its own. Majorly influenced by the Hindu religion, the knowledge acquired by
people of ancient times was passed on from one generation to another and is reflected even
in the teachings of today. Here’s a brief take on what the system of education was like
during the early days of the Indian civilization.
In the olden days, there was no formal education in India. A father passed on
knowledge, primarily related to his occupation, to his child. Much later, two systems of
education emerged – Vedic and Buddhist. The Vedic system revolved around the
Gurukulas,where vedas,vedangas and Upanishads were taught, while the Buddhist system
preached the thoughts of the major Buddhist schools. The language of education was
Sanskrit for the Vedic system and Pali for the Buddhist system.

What was unique about ancient Indian education?

Education in ancient India was quite different from the rest of the world back then.
The society and state couldn’t interfere with the curriculum or the administration. To get an
education, a child had to leave home and live with a teacher in a gurukul for the entire
duration of his studies. No fee was charged for education; in fact, the teacher took care of
everything, including food, clothing and housing. According to this system, physical labor
was of utmost importance. So, even if a child was interested in acquiring philosophical
knowledge, he would still have to do some manual work every day. Debates and discussions
were a part of education, even in ancient days.

When could a child start acquiring education?

In the Vedic system, a child started his education at the age of five. To mark this
commencement, the Vidyarambha ceremony, which included worshiping Goddess Saraswati
and learning alphabets for the first time, was conducted. Leaving home and starting to live
with ateacher required the child to conduct another ceremony called Upanayana. Boys
practiced this ceremony at different ages according to their castes (only children of the
Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya did so).
In the Buddhist system, a child started his education at the age of eight, with a
ceremony called Pabbajja or Prabrajya. Unlike the Vedic system, this initiation ceremony
could be practiced by boys of all castes. After this, the child would leave home and go to
live in a monastery under the guidance of his teacher (a monk).

The education of women

Education for women was quite important in ancient India. They were trained in
housekeeping, as well as in dancing and music. Girls also had to conduct the Upanayana
ceremony. Educated women were divided into two classes –Sadyodwahas, those who
pursued their education just until they got married, and Brahmavadinis, those who never
married and continued studying throughout their lives.Vedas and Vedangas were taught to
women, too, but were limited to religious songs and poems necessary for rituals. Some
notable Vedic and Upanishad women scholars were Apala, Indrani, Ghosha,
Lopamudra, Gargi and Maitreyi.
What were the subjects of study?
Both Vedic and Buddhist systems of education had different subjects of study. The Vedic
system comprised of the four Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda), six
Vedangas (ritualistic knowledge, metrics, exegetics, grammar, phonetics and astronomy), the
Upanishads,Tarka Shastra(logic and reasoning),Puranas(history), and more. The main subjects in
the Buddhist system were the three Pitakas(Vinaya, Abhidhamma and Sutta),the most recognized
works of all 18 Buddhism schools. Certain other subjects common to both the systems were
arithmetic, military science, law, performing arts, ethics, and art and architecture.
The period of learning and vocational education
Mastering oneVeda took 2 years. Thus,depending on how many subjects the student wanted
to learn, the study period varied accordingly. The education could go on for as long as 48 years.
In order to earn a livelihood, men needed to know an art form. As per the ancient Indian
education system, there were about 64 art forms, including dance, music, jewel making, sculpture,
agriculture, and medical sciences. To acquire vocational Ancient educationaltraining in a particular
art form, men were required to work as trainees under a master to gain expertise. They were taught
without any cost, and food and boarding were also taken care of by the master.
Methods of teaching
Though teaching in groups was common back then, students were also taught individually
by their teachers based on their capabilities and aptitudes. Oral recitation was the basic medium of
imparting knowledge and was practiced through various methods like introspection (listening,
contemplation and concentrated contemplation), storytelling, memorization, critical analysis,
practical study and seminars.
Institutions
Just as we have world renowned universities today, there were popular educational
institutions here during the ancient times as well. Four of these institutions were quite prominent
and known for different specializations. The University of Nalanda was famous for its cosmopolitan
character and its department of logic. Takshasila University, in an area what is now modern-day
Pakistan, was well-known across the world for its medical school and was the chief learning centre
in 6th century BC. What Nalanda University was to east India, Vallabhi was to west India. It was
also a famous study center that specialized in subjects like law, medicine and economics, and had
students attending from all parts of the country. Vikramshila was yet another esteemed institution,
best for Tantric Buddhism.
Different types of institutions through which education was imparted to people in
ancient India.
Broadly speaking three different types of institutions were in vogue which imparted
education to the people in Ancient India. In the first instance there was the popular system under
which the teacher, as a settled householder, admitted pupils of a tender age and imparted
instructions to them.
We also get references in the earlier period when a child received education from his father.
Usually the pupils were admitted by the teachers on request by the preceptor and the rite of
upanayana was performed. The students usually spent twelve years with their guru. During this
period the student lived at the house of teacher and performed several duties as a means of his moral
and spiritual discipline.
The usual duties performed by the students included begging for the teacher, collection of
wood for sacrificial fires, looking after the house work as well as the cattle. They devoted the rest of
the time to their studies.
On his part the teacher had also to fulfill certain moral and spiritual conditions. He was to be
well versed in sacred lore and live entirely as a Brahman. He was expected to teach his pupil the
truth as was known to him, without concealing anything. Education was open to people of all
classes of the Indo-Aryan stock. But the course of training and subjects were not uniform for
students of all castes.
While the Brahmana student was specially trained up for teaching and performing sacrifices
for others and receiving gifts, the Kshatriya was taught about defence or protection of his people.
But we frequently come across references in Upanishads of Brahmanas of the learned Kshatriyas
and princes who studied the Vedas and attained proficiency in the sacred lore, which was special
property of the Brahmans. For example king Janaka of Videha was a learned Kshatriya who
imparted sacred knowledge to the Brahmanas.
Women were also permitted to receive education in Ancient India. In the Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad we get a reference to Gargi taking important part in the philosophical discussions. The
Upanishads also mention several women taking as teachers. However, the women specialised in
fine arts like dancing and singing, the accomplishments which were considered unfit for men.
Education was imparted through discourses by the teachers. The students could ask
questions and were supposed to introspect and contemplate on those topics. They were to acquire
knowledge about Ultimate Truth and Reality through meditation.
The acquisition of knowledge was supposed to precede by annihilation of all desire and
annihilation of the illusion of a manyfold universe, of the consciousness of plurality. This could be
attained through sannyasa and yoga.
The former meant casting off of one’s home, possessions and family and all that stimulated
desire. Yoga meant withdrawal from all organs of sense and concentrating mind on the Inner Self
endeavors with a view to secure union with Atma.
The second type of institutions were meant for the imparting of advanced education to the
students who were not satisfied with the knowledge acquired as students and were popularly known
as academies. Usually the specialists and literary celebrities held academic meetings in different
parts of the country for the purpose of philosophical discussion.
The students keen to acquire advanced education held discussions with these specialists and
learnt the truth about the Atma. Participation in debates with these academies enabled the students
to check their knowledge which they had acquired at elementary schools. In addition to these
academies located in different areas, the king often called special national gatherings or Congress,
in which the representative thinkers of the country of various schools were invited to meet and
exchange their views. Such Congresses helped a great deal in the spread of learning in those days.
We learn of one such Congress of rishis in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Satapatha Brahmana
and the Vayu Purana.

Education in the Medieval Period

The period under the medieval India comes from about the 10th century A.D. to the
middle of the eighteenth century, i.e. before the British rule. During this system, the Muslim
system of education was predominant. Education in medieval India was a domain that was
limited to a few to a large extent, who were involved in the management of transmission, it
was something technically that was within the reach of everyone.
The rise of Mohammedanism is one of the most remarkable events in the history of
the world. The entire history of India underwent transformations with the rise of
Mohammedanism. The Mohammedan invasions in India took place from the beginning of
the eighth century A.D. The Arabs and the Turks introduced most of the new customs,
cultures and institutions within the country. Out of these, one of the most remarkable was
the Islamic pattern of education, which was different to a major extent from the Buddhist
and the Brahmanic systems.
The transformations that were brought about in the system of education since the
ancient times is a reflection that there have been changes and transformations in the social
contexts. The system of education in medieval India primarily focused upon Islamic and the
Mughal system.

Objectives of Education in Medieval India

1. During the Muslim period, the education was meant to extend the knowledge and propagate
Islam.
2. The impartment of education took place with the propagation of Islamic principles, laws and
social conventions.
3. Education was based on religion and its main purpose was to make the individuals religious-
minded.
4. The Muslim education aimed at the achievement of material wealth and prosperity.

Organization of Education
It was unfortunate that some of the renowned and prominent institutes of higher learning of
the Hindus have been destroyed by the Muslim rulers. The most notable example is that of the
Nalanda. It was an international centre for learning. In the medieval period of education, emphasis
was put upon religion-oriented education. The individuals possessed strong beliefs and viewpoints
that religion-oriented education would inculcate the knowledge,values, morals and ethics among the
individuals, which are vital for existence. Elementary education was imparted in the pathshalas,
which existed both in urban and rural areas. Pathshalas were organized mostly in the verandahs of
the building or underneath the trees. There were separate houses for the pathshalas and there were
not any establishment of buildings for them.
The students from the elementary level were trained in terms of arithmetic, calculations,
weights, measures, shapes and so forth. Therefore, mathematics was regarded as essential.
Literature was another subject that was focused upon. In addition, the other subjects that were
taught in educational institutions included, science, social science, astronomy, accountancy, public
administration and religious education. In some of the schools, students were also given instruction
regarding Hindu mythology.
The institutions that provided school education were known as the maktabs. Whereas, those
institutions that made provision of higher learning were known as the madrasas. The maktabs were
generally run by public donations, while the madrasas were maintained by the rulers and the nobles.
There were six different types of institutions, these include, those that were maintained by the rulers
and the nobles, those that were launched by the individual scholars with the help and support
obtained from the state or donations, those that were associated with the mosques, those that were
associated with the tombs, those that were started by the individual scholars and those that were
attached to the Sufi hospices.
During this period, women were not allowed to go in front of the outsiders without covering
their faces. This was known as the purdah system. Due to the prevalence of the purdah system,
education among women was not given recognition. The presence of the Hindu religion schools,
where Sanskrit was the medium of instruction and the maqtabas of the Muslim religion, where
Persian was the medium of instruction, led to the formation of a new language, Urdu. It was
generally written in Persian characters with the words of Arabic and Persian origin. The origination
of vocational and technical education were regarded to be major developments under the Muslim
period.
Education In the medieval period, the Islamic system of education replaced the Vedic system
of education and Buddhist education system. The reason being,it was felt that there was an
increasing need for Islamic administration. The Islamic system of education was introduced with
the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Islam gives great importance to education, which is the
process of teaching, acquiring or learning knowledge. In the Islam religion, education renders a
significant contribution in leading to progression and enhancement of every individual, so that he
can be successful in securing his future and living an efficient life. The system of education in
medieval India was structured on the lines of the tradition of education that was developed under
the Abbasids of Baghdad. The scholars belonging to countries such as, Samarqand, Bukhara and
Iran looked up to the Indian scholars for guidance. Amir Khusrau, a scholar from the Indian sub-
continent, not only developed the skill of writing, prose and poetry, but also formulated a new
language, suitable to the local conditions. Some of the contemporary scholars, like Minhaj-us-Siraj,
Ziauddin Barani and Afif have written about Indian scholarship (Education in India, n.d.). In this
period, there were number of subjects that were introduced, these include, logic, mathematics,
geometry, history, geography, accountancy, public administration, literature, science, and
astronomy.

EDUCATION IN MODERN INDIA

The modern education system was introduced during the British rule. In the 1830s
Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay brought English language to India and the syllabus was
limited to modern and specific subjects like science, mathematics, language, history,
geography and civics. Subjects like philosophy and metaphysics were considered
unnecessary at school level education system. The mode of teaching was mainly confined to
classroom and the teacher student relationship became stronger. The education system in
India got shaped by the influence of various institutions throughout different periods.
During the second half of nineteenth century Rama Krishna Mission and the Theosophical
Society of India tried to combine the western pattern of education with the congenial ancient
knowledge to inspire the young minds of Indians and making them more open and accepted
universally. For a rational mind set intellectuals had come together from various countries
and have translated their knowledge and skills. Education became free and was allowed to
be pursued by anyone without any discrimination like caste, creed religion and color. As
India progressed and got its independence from the British colonial modern education
system gradually evolved. Presently in the Indian School System has four levels pre-
primary, primary, secondary and higher secondary. There are two national level boards
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and Indian Certificate of Secondary
Education (ICSE) and also state boards. Government run schools and the private schools
mainly follow both CBSE and ICSE board for their students. However with the introduction
of E-Learning through technology many of the private schools are moving towards
digitization. Some of the schools have increased their students engagement with the smart
teaching techniques like digital textbooks.
There has been a radical change in the Indian education system from teaching
religion, Vedas, scriptures etc. to coaching technologies like virtual reality, programming
and others. After Independence India established numerous schools to foster education in
every region among every strata of the society. English medium schools have sprouted up in
every corner of the country therefore it is important for the parents to identify the potentials
of their child and send them to the school that is giving the best of education and co-
scholastic outlook.
The educational system established by the British in India was colonial in character.
It was designed to prepare Indians only for taking certain subordinate positions in
government offices. The main educational objective of colonial education can better be
understood from the declaration of Lord William Bentinck in his educational policy (1835):
“We want a class of persons Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes in opinion, in
morals and in intellect.” The Wood’s Despatch declared almost the same policy. The aim of
British education was to inculcate European knowledge in the minds of the Indians. But
after independence the Indian leaders had realised the inherent defects in the system of
education introduced by the British. After the achievement of independence, a new phase
had begun in the history of education.
Administration of Education Since 1947, Education Department in the Center has
developed in a full-fledged Ministry under the Central Government. The education at the
State level is primarily the responsibility of the State Governments; the Union Government
is concerned only with the coordination and determination of academic standards in respect
of higher education, research and scientific and technical education. The problem of
standards and co-ordination in the sphere of higher education is now the responsibility of
the University Grants Commission. Co-ordination in regard to primary and secondary
education is secured through All-India Councils. The Union Government is also managing
Central Universities of Delhi, Aligarh, Benaras and Shantiniketan and other such institutions
of national importance as may be decided by the Parliament of the country. The Central
Advisory Board of Education lays down the general educational policy. The Board has four
Standing Committees dealing with the primary, secondary, university and social education.
These Standing Committees formulate aims and objectives, assess present position and draw
up future plans of development in their respective fields. In the States there is an Education
Minister assisted by subordinate Ministers and then a secretary to execute the government’s
plans. The Director of Education controls the Elementary and Secondary education in states
with the help of inspectorate, which is directly responsible for the supervision of schools.
The Universities in India are purely autonomous bodies, where as secondary
institutions are partly under the State Government, partly under local bodies and largely
under private control, but recognized and aided by the State departments of education. The
majority of educational institutions are managed on grant-in–aid basis, by non-
governmental agencies, such as local bodies, religious or denominational trusts, private
associations or individuals.
University Education Commission (1948-49) was the first Commission on
education after Independence. Its major emphasis was on higher education but it also
touched upon the issues related to school education. The Commission was appointed under
the chairmanship of Dr S. Radhakrishan, a great visionary of modern era.
The Commission made, after extensive deliberations, some very significant
recommendations, many of which are pertinent even in the contemporary context. The
recommendations were as follows:
1. The aim of education must be to awaken and promote the innate ability of a person and to
train him/her for development of self and democratic attitudes. Thus, the purpose of
education is to acquaint an individual with his/her cultural heritage and to impart
professional and vocational training.
2. The Commission emphasized the role of post-graduate education, training and research
for the advancement of knowledge.
3. It stressed the university’s role in studying agriculture in an agrarian economy like India
and suggested that special attention should be paid to the development of higher education
in rural areas. It also emphasized that the scientific and technical base of the education
system should be strengthened.
4. Realizing the importance of the medium of instruction, the Commission recommended
that English as a medium of instruction in higher education should be replaced as early as
possible by an Indian language.
5. A university degree should not be required for government administrative services.
Special State examination for recruitment to various State services should be organized.
6. Realizing the deficiencies of the examination system and the magnitude of the wastage,
the Commission recommended a thorough study of the scientific methods of educational
testing and appraisal.
In subsequent years, several Commissions and Committees were also appointed by
the government for educational restructure and changes in the system of higher education in
India. The important documents that have been published are:
1. Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66
2. National Policy on Education, 1968
3. Draft Policy on Education, 1978
4. National Commission on Teachers-II, 1983
5. Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective, 1985
6. National Policy on Education, 1986
7. National Policy on Education: A Programme of Action, 1986
8. Towards an Enlightened and Human Society- A Perspective Paper on Education, 1960
9. National Policy on Education: A Programme of Action, 1992

The concerns of education articulated during the freedom struggle were revisited by
the National Commissions – The Secondary Education Commission (1952- 53), and The
Education Commission (1964-66). A separate education commission was appointed under
the chairmanship of Dr. Lakshamanaswami Mudaliyar in 1952 to address the issues related
to school education. The Secondary Education Commission presented its report in 1953
which had recommendations on almost all aspects of secondary education.
Based on the recommendation of ‘Kothari Commission’, the first National Policy
on Education was formulated by the Government of India in 1968. After seventeen years of
experiment, an attempt was made to evaluate the national education policy, 1968. At the
threshold of the new century, it was felt that a mere review and minor modification would
not be enough. Hence, on becoming Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi had declared, in January
1985, that a new education policy to equip the country both scientifically and economically
to enter the 21st century would be formulated soon. Accordingly, the Ministry of Education,
Government of India had prepared a document ‘Challenge of Education– A Policy
Perspective’ in 1985. The Government of India declared its new education policy under the
title “National Policy on Education, 1986” which was intended to prepare India for the 21st
century.
As per the National Policy on Education (1968), the aim of education is “to
promote national progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture and to strengthen
national integration”. Education should foster among students an understanding of the
diverse cultural and social characteristics of the people living in different parts of the
country.
As per the National Policy on Education (1968) the aims of education should be:
1) To foster all round material and spiritual development of the individual, as well as, the
society as a whole.
2)To promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy,
socialism and secularism, equality of the sexes, national cohesion, removal of social barriers
etc.
3) To provide education of comparable quality to all students, irrespective of caste, creed,
location or gender.
4) To develop manpower for different levels of the economy which would further guarantee
national self-reliance.
5) To develop a scientific temper and independence of mind and spirit.
6) To reconstruct the educational system to improve its quality at all stages, and give much
greater attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer
relationship between education and the life of the people.
7) To inculcate in the mind of the students the importance of national integration and certain
national values like secular, scientific and moral values.
8) To strengthen the world view and motivate the younger generations towards international
cooperation and peaceful coexistence.
9) To promote equality, it is necessary to provide equal opportunity or access, but also
provide conditions for success.
10) To develop awareness of the importance of protection of environment and observance of
the norms of a small family.
11) To encourage students towards the cherished goal of life long education through open
and distance education.

On April 20, 1986 a New Educational Policy was placed before the Indian Parliament
for consideration and approval. It was a result of the renewed priority assigned to Education
by the Government of Late Shri Rajiv Gandhi. The policy had the following objectives:
1. Vocationalization of education; particularly at the secondary stage of education, the
curriculum should be job-oriented.
2. To awaken people about the various scientific and technological developments and to
make the students at the various stages of education aware of the same in order that they
may utilize them in their future life.
3. To encourage the governmental and non-governmental efforts for wiping out illiteracy
and to emphasize the necessity of adult education, formal education and open schools.

The basic recommendations of the policy were related to national form of education,
more emphasis on learning, delinking degree for any service, vocationalization of education,
importance on moral values, emphasis on reforms in the examination system, education of
the weaker section of the society, starting of an All India Educational Service, starting of
Open Universities, establishing many Navodaya Vidyalayas, women education, Operation
Blackboard and preservation of culture.

To encounter the educational challenges in 21st century, National Knowledge Commission

(NKC) was constituted in June 2005 by the Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh, under the
Chairmanship of Mr. Sam Pitroda, to prepare a blueprint for reform of our knowledge
related institutions and infrastructure which would enable India to meet the challenges of
the future. NKC has submitted recommendations on areas such as Right to Education,
libraries, language, translation portals and knowledge networks.
Some aims which reflects our Constitutional commitments are as follows :
1) Development of Democratic Citizenship and values in the people.
2) Training in skilful living.
3) Development of Social, Moral and Spiritual Values.
4) Promoting National Consciousness.
 The basic aims which form the basis of National Curriculum Framework (NCF-
2005) are 1.Lifelong Learning 2.Democratic Values 3.Meaningful work leading to Social
Transformation 4.Development of Creativity 5.Development of Life Skills
6.Independence of Thought and Action 7. Holistic Development of Children.

Recommendations of the Yashpal Committee 2009

The most recent Yashpal Committee, 2009 emphasized that at the undergraduate level
students should be exposed to various disciplines like humanities, social sciences, aesthetics
etc.,in an integrated manner. This should be irrespective of the discipline they would like to
specialize in,whether general or professional higher education like medicine, engineering,
etc. Therefore, the Committee recommended that professional institutions, including IITs
and IIMs, should be returned to universities in a complete administrative and academic
sense by abolishing intermediary licensing bodies. Such a measure will open the possibility
of new kinds of course designing for professional learning in all fields from management
and architecture to medicine and engineering. Whether the IITs and IIMs should be returned
to universities or not require an intense informed debate, the roleplayed by them cannot be
undermined.

In 2019, the Ministry of Human Resource Development released a Draft New

Education Policy 2019, which was followed by a number of public consultations. The Draft
NEP discusses reducing curriculum content to enhance essential learning, critical thinking
and more holistic experiential, discussion-based and analysis-based learning. It also talks
about a revision of the curriculum and pedagogical structure from a 10+2 system to a
5+3+3+4 system design in an effort to optimise learning for students based on cognitive
development of children.
Salient features of NEP 2019
•The policy aims to universalize the pre-primary education by 2025 and provide
foundational literacy/numeracy for all by 2025.
•It proposes new Curricular and Pedagogical Structure, with 5+3+3+4 design covering the
children in the age group 3-18 years. Under this, Pre-Primary & Grades 1-2 is considered as
foundational Stage; Grades 3-5 as Preparatory Stage; Grades 6-8 as Middle Stage and
Grades 9-12 as Secondary Stage. This is an academic restructuring only; there will be no
physical restructuring of schools.
•Universal Access & Retention with 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio for all school education
by 2030.
•Children learn languages, most quickly between 2-8 years, and multilingualism has great
cognitive benefits for students. Therefore a three-language formula has been proposed.
•It proposes the teaching of other classical languages and literature, including Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Pali, Persian, and Prakrit in schools.
•A new independent State School Regulatory Authority (SSRA) to be created.
•It aims to consolidate 800 universities & 40,000 colleges into around 15,000 large,
multidisciplinary institutions.
•The policy proposes three types of Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs): Research
Universities, Teaching Universities and Autonomous degree-granting colleges.
•It aims to provide autonomy to all higher education institutions. Higher education
institutions to be governed by Independent Boards with complete academic and
administrative autonomy.
•An autonomous body called the National Research Foundation (NRF) to be set up through
an Act of Parliament.
•Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog or the National Education Commission - apex body - to be
constituted. It will be chaired by the Prime Minister and will comprise eminent educationists
researchers, Union Ministers, representation of Chief Ministers of States, eminent
professionals from various fields.
•MHRD to be re-designated as the Ministry of Education (MoE).
•Increase in public investment by the Central and State Governments to 20% of overall
public expenditure over a 10 year period.
•The policy focuses on online learning as an alternative to regular classroom interaction
between teachers and students. It helps in achieving the twin objectives of cutting costs and
increasing enrollment.
It aims to protect and promote our culture through the study of classical languages, mother
tongues, and regional languages.

INDIAN SCIENTISTS (ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL)

Science and Mathematics were highly developed during the ancient period in India.
Ancient Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well as various
branches of Science. In this section, we will read about the developments in Mathematics
and the scholars who contributed to it. You will be surprised to know that many theories of
modern day mathematics were actually known to ancient Indians. However, since ancient
Indian mathematicians were not as good in documentation and dissemination as their
counterparts in the modern western world, their contributions did not find the place they
deserved. Moreover, the western world ruled over most of the world for a long time, which
empowered them to claim superiority in every way, including in the field of knowledge. Let
us now take a look at some of these contributions of ancient Indian mathematicians.
1. Aryabhatta
Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was
a pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a
summary of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work.
In the first section he describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by
alphabets. In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern day
Mathematics such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The
remaining two sections are on astronomy.
Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept.
Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and
the moon. The discovery of zero also opened up a new dimension of negative numerals.
As we have seen, the last two sections of Aryabhattiya were on Astronomy.
Evidently, Aryabhatta contributed greatly to the field of science, too, particularly
Astronomy. In ancient India, the science of astronomy was well advanced. It was called
Khagolshastra.Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where
Aryabhatta studied. In fact science of astronomy was highly advanced and our ancestors
were proud of it. The aim behind the development of the science of astronomy was the need
to have accurate calendars, a better understanding of climate and rainfall patterns for timely
sowing and choice of crops, fixing the dates of seasons and festivals, navigation, calculation
of time and casting of horoscopes for use in astrology. Knowledge of astronomy,
particularly knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of great importance in trade, because
of the requirement of crossing the oceans and deserts during night time. Disregarding the
popular view that our planet earth is ‘Achala’ (immovable), Aryabhatta stated his theory that
‘earth is round and rotates on its own axis’ He explained that the appearance of the sun
moving from east to west is false by giving examples. One such example was: When a
person travels in a boat, the trees on the shore appear to move in the opposite direction. He
also correctly stated that the moon and the planets shined by reflected sunlight. He also gave
a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipse clarifying that the eclipse were not
because of Rahhu and/or Ketu or some other rakshasa (demon).
2. Bhaskara (I)
He was a 7th century mathematician, who was the first to write numbers in the Hindu
decimal system with a circle or the zero, and who gave a unique and remarkable ratinal
approximation of the sine function in his commentary on Aryabatta's work. This
commentary, Aryabhatiyabhasya, written in 629 CE, is among the oldest known prose works
in Sanskrit on mathematics and astronomy. He also wrote two astronomical works in the
line of Aryabhatta's school, the Mahabhaskariya and Laghubhasariya.
3. Brahmgupta
In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods
of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He
introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm
Sputa Siddantika through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system.
4. Baudhayan
Baudhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which were
later rediscovered by the western world. The value of pi was first calculated by him. As you
know, pi is useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What is known as
Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, which was written
several years before the age of Pythagoras.
5. Bhaskaracharya
Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka.
He is famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati
(Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of
planets). Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic
equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European mathematicians,
who called it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an English man, James Taylor,
translated Lilavati and made this great work known to the world.
6. Mahaviracharya
There is an elaborate description of mathematics in Jain literature (500 B.C-100B.C). Jain
gurus knew how to solve quadratic equations. They have also described fractions, algebraic
equations, series, set theory, logarithms and exponents in a very interesting manner. Jain
Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in 850A.D., which is the first textbook on
arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least common Multiple
(LCM) of given numbers was also described by him. Thus, long before John Napier
introduced it to the world, it was already known to Indians.
 7. Kanad
Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian
philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a
child, he was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a
match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of
kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further
subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible. This is,of course, as you may be
knowing, what the modern atomic theory also says.
8. Varahamihira
Varahamihira was another well known scientist of the ancient period in India. He lived in
the Gupta period. Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology
and ecology. He was one of the first scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the
indicators of the presence of underground water. He gave a list of six animals and thirty
plants, which could indicate the presence of water. He gave very important information
regarding termites (Deemak or insects that destroy wood), that they go very deep to the
surface of water level to bring water to keep their houses (bambis) wet. Another theory,
which has attracted the world of science is the earthquake cloud theory given by
Varahmihira in his Brhat Samhita. The thirty second chapter of this samhita is devoted to
signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea
activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal behaviour of animals.
Another field where Varahamihira’s contribution is worth mentioning is
Jyotish(Astrology). Astrology was given a very high place in ancient India and it has
continued even today. Jyotish, which means science of light, originated with the Vedas. It
was presented scientifically in a systematic form by Aryabhatta and Varahmihira. You have
already seen that Aryabhatta devoted two out of the 4 sections of his work Aryabhattiyam to
astronomy,which is the basis for Astrology. Astrology is the science of predicting the future.
Varahamihira was one of the nine gems, who were scholars, in the court of Vikramaditya.
Varahamihira’s predictions were so accurate that king Vikramaditya gave him the title of
‘Varaha’.
9. Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his experiments was to transform
base elements into gold, like the alchemists in the western world. Even though he was not
successful in his goal, he succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine. Till date,
this technology is used in making imitation jewelry. In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has
discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.
10. Charaka
Charak is considered the father of ancient Indian science of medicine. He was the Raj
Vaidya (royal doctor) in the court of Kanishka. His Charak Samhita is a remarkable book on
medicine. It has the description of a large number of diseases and gives methods of
identifying their causes as well as the method of their treatment. He was the first to talk
about digestion, metabolism and immunity as important for health and so medical scienc. In
Charak Samhita, more stress has been laid on removing the cause of disease rather than
simply treating the illness. Charak also knew the fundamentals of Genetics. Don’t you find
it fascinating that thousands of years back, medical science was at such an advanced stage in
India.
11. Susruta
Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. He considered surgery as “the highest division
of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He studied human anatomy with the help of a
dead body. In Susruta Samhita, over 1100 diseases are mentioned including fevers of
twenty-six kinds, jaundice of eight kinds and urinary complaints of twenty kinds. Over
760 plants are described. All parts, roots, bark, juice, resin, flowers etc. were used.
Cinnamon, sesame, peppers, cardamom, ginger are household remedies even today.
In Susruta Samhita, the method of selecting and preserving a dead body for the
purpose of its detailed study has also been described. The dead body of an old man or a
person who died of a severe disease was generally not considered for studies. The body
needed to be perfectly cleaned and then preserved in the bark of a tree. It was then kept in a
cage and hidden carefully in a spot in the river. There the current of the river softened it.
After seven days it was removed from the river. It was then cleaned with a brush made of
grass roots, hair and bamboo. When this was done, every inner or outer part of the body
could be seen clearly.
Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and
Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting of nose and/or ears was
a common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In
Susruta Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations.
Surprisingly, the steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed by
modern surgeons while doing plastic surgery. Susruta Samhita also gives a description of
101 instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included taking foetus
out of the womb, repairing the damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc.

SCIENTISTS OF MODERN INDIA

1. Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1920)

Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan (FRS) better known as Srinivasa Iyengar Ramanujan, one of
India’s greatest mathematical genius, was born at Erode in Tamil Nadu on 22 December,
1887. His love of mathematics was unusual. Numbers seemed to draw him by a strange
magnetism.He started working and developing his own ideas in mathematics. He used to
write his ideas and results and make notes on his findings. Three of his research note books
are available to us. They are called Ramanujan’s Frayed Notebooks. He could not complete
his college education as he kept on developing his ideas and started posing problems and
solving them in the Journal of Indian Mathematical Society. In 1911, he published in the
same journal a brilliant research paper on Bernoulli Numbers. This got him recognition and
he became well known in Madras circles as a mathematical genius.
Lack of formal education made it very difficult for him to make both ends meet. With
great difficulty he could get the job of a clerk at Madras Port Trust which proved fortunate
for him. Here he came in contact with many people who had training in mathematics. He
found a book ‘Orders of Infinity’written by G. H. Hardy. He wrote a letter to him in which
he mentioned 120 theorems and formulae. Hardy was quick to recognise his genius and he
responded by arranging for him a passage to London. Despite his lack of required
qualification he was allowed to enroll at Trinity College from where he got his Bachelor of
Science degree in less than two years. He formed a wonderful team with Hardy and J.E.
Littlewood and made amazing contributions to the field of mathematics. He published many
papers in London. He was the second Indian to be elected Fellow of the Royal Society of
London and the first Indian to be elected Fellow of Trinity College.
 Ramanujan had an intimate familiarity with numbers. In 1917, he fell seriously ill,
but the numbers remained his friend, though his body betrayed him. Unfortunately, his
health became worse and he returned to India in 1919, “With a scientific standing and
reputation”. He died in 1920. His mathematical genius is a proof that India indeed is the
birthplace and source of great mathematical ideas.

2. Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman(1888-1970)

Chandrasekhara V. Raman, popularly known as C.V. Raman, was not only a great
scientistbut also believed in the promotion of human well being and human dignity. He won
theNobel Prize for Physics in 1930. He was the first Asian to receive this award.
C.V. Raman was born on 7 November 1888 in Tiruchirapalli, in Tamil Nadu. His
father was a professor of Physics and Mathematics. He grew up in an environment of
Sanskrit literature, music and science. Nature had gifted him with great power of
concentration, intelligence and spirit of inquiry. Even in his childhood, he was popular as a
child genius.
He stood first in the Indian Audit and Accounts (IAAS) Examination and was
appointed as Assistant Accountant General in the Finance Department in Calcutta at the age
of nineteen. He sacrificed his high post for his love for science and joined the Science
College of Calcutta University as a professor of Physics. Due to his deep love of music, he
started working on musical instruments like the veena, violin, tabla and mridangam. In 1921
he read a paper on the theory of Stringed Instruments before the Royal Society of London.
In 1924, he was made Fellow of the Royal Society. On his journey to England, he was
greatly attracted by the blue colour of the sea. He was curious to know why it remained blue
even when big waves rolled up. Then he got the intuitive flash that it was due to the
breaking up of sun’s light by water molecules. He conducted many experiments and
prepared a long paper on molecular scattering of light and sent it to the Royal Society of
London. The world of science was dumb struck at the brilliance of his mind. Dr. Raman’s
life is a great example for us to follow. Even when India was under British rule and there
was hardly any basic infrastructure for experimentation, he used his great mind as his
laboratory. He proved through the example of his life, how our ancestors formulated great
theories using the power of their mind.
3. Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858-1937)
He was born on 30 November, 1858 at Mymensingh, now in Bangladesh, where he had his
early education. He had his higher education at St. Xaviers College, Calcutta. In 1885 he
was appointed Assistant Professor of Physics at the Presidency College but refused to take
salary because it was nearly half of that of an Englishman. Later on, he decided to become a
scientist to recover the fame that India enjoyed all over the world in ancient times. He made
an apparatus to study the properties of electric waves. For his paper on “The
Electromagnetic Radiation and Polarization of Electric Ray”, he was made a Knight in 1917
and Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1920. He was the first Indian scientist in
Physics to receive this honour.
Dr. Bose is famous all over the world as the inventor of Crescograph that can record
even the millionth part of a millimeter of plant growth and movement. Dr.Bose proved
through graphs taken by the Crescograph that plants have a circulatory system too.
Crescograph has also shown that the upward movement of sap in plants is the activity of
living cells.
Dr. Bose also made many other instruments famous all over the world as Bose
instruments, to prove that even metals react to outward stimuli. Bose’s instruments have
shown, how even steel and metals used in scissors and machinery get tired and regain
efficiency after a period of rest.
Besides Crescograph and other Bose instruments, his wireless inventions too
antedated those of Marconi. He was the first to invent a wireless coherer (radio signal
detector) and an instrument for indicating the refraction of electric waves. When someone
drew his attention towards this fact, he simply remarked that it is an invention which is
more important for mankind than the inventor.
4. Homi Jehangir Bhabha(1909-1966)
Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha was a great scientist. He led India into atomic age. He is
called the father of Indian Nuclear Science. He was born on 30th October, 1909 in a famous
Parsi family. Even as a boy, he showed his intelligence and won many prizes.He did his
early studies in Mumbai. He took a degree in Mechanical Engineering in First Class from
Cambridge, completed research work there and received his doctorate in 1935. Till 1939, he
carried outstanding original research relating to cosmic radiation. He returned to India when
the Second World War started. Dr. Bhabha joined the Indian Institute of Sciences at
Bangalore as a Reader at the request of Dr. C.V. Raman. Soon he became a Professor of
Physics. It was here that he got the idea of building a research institute for some of the new
areas of Physics. He took a very bold decision and wrote a letter to Sir Dorab Ji Tata
suggesting that an institution should be established which would lay the foundation of India
as a world nuclear power. This institute would produce its own experts and the country
would not have to depend on outside sources. As a result, Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research(TIFR) was started in 1945, at Dr. Bhabha’s ancestral home.
India’s first atomic research centre now called Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC) was established at Trombay. India’s First atomic reactor, Apsara was also
established under his expert guidance. Bhabha became the first chairman of the Atomic
Energy Commission set up in 1948. His studies in the field of atomic energy are considered
of great importance in international circles. He served as the chairman of international
conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy, supported by the United Nations. The
Government of India honoured him with Padma Bhushan. In 1966, Dr. Bhabha died in a
plane crash.
5. Dr.Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai(1919-1970)
Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai is another great genius of modem India. He was the main
personality behind the launching of India’s first satellite Aryabhatta. He received his
primary education at a school run by his parents. He studied cosmic rays under the guidance
of Dr.C.V. Raman and received his Ph.D. degree from Cambridge University. His studies of
cosmic rays have made it clear that cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles coming
from the outer space. While reaching the earth, they are influenced on the way by the
sun,the earth’s atmosphere and magnetism.
Dr. Sarabhai had a multifaceted personality. He was a great industrialist. Today, there
are many industries founded by him such as Sarabhai chemicals, Sarabhai Glass, Sarabhai
Geigy Ltd., Sara Bhai Merck Ltd. and many others. He also helped in saving crores of
rupees for India by starting the mission of manufacturing military hardware and producing
antibiotics and penicillin in India which were being imported from abroad. He was also the
founder of Ahmedabad Textile Industrial Association and Ahmedabad Money Association.
In this way, he established a large number of successful industries.
Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai established many institutes which are of international
repute. Most notable among them are Indian Institutes of Management (IIMS) which are
considered world class for their management studies.
He was the Chairman of the Indian National Commission for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) and of the Atomic Energy Commission. He directed the setting up of Thumba
Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS). He also made plans to take education to the
villages through Satellite communication. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1966 and
the Padma Vibhushan after his death. His death was a great loss to the nation.
6. Dr.A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Dr. A.P.J .Abdul Kalam, the eleventh President of India was born on 15 October, 1931, in
the island town of Rameshwaram, in Tamil Nadu. He wasawarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s
highest civilian honour in 1997 for his contributions in the field of science and engineering.
Dr. Kalam had his primary education at Rameshwaram. He passed his class ten
exams from Schwartz High School, Ramanathapuram and obtained a degree in Aeronautical
Engineering from Madras Institute of Technology. Dr. Kalam served in Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO) from 1963 to 1982. At Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, he
developed the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV3), which put the satellite Rohini into orbit. In
1982, as Director, Defence Research Development Organisation (DRDO), he was given the
responsibility of Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). He
developed five projects for defence services Prithvi, Trishul, Akash,Nag and Agni. He led
India into an era of self-dependence. Agni, which is a surface to surface missile, is a unique
achievement. Its successful launch made India a member of the club of highly developed
countries. The light weight carbon material designed for Agni has been used to make
calipers for the polio-affected. The material has reduced the weight of calipers to 400gms
from 4 kgs. It is a great blessing for human beings. The material has also been used for
making spring like coils called stents, which are used in Balloon Angioplasty for treating
heart patients.
Dr.Kalam’s life is a symbol of the true spirit of India. He is a real follower of Indian
tradition and religion. He has integrated science with religion and philosophy. He strongly
believes in being guided from inside i.e. “relying more on inner signals and less on external
cues” as well as doing duties selflessly. Dr. Kalam says, “I have no belongings in the
worldly sense. I have acquired nothing, built nothing, possess nothing, no family, sons,
daughters.”

VALUE BASED EDUCATION

Education haslong been recognized as a central element in development. It is considered as
a vital input in modernization where the developing countries like India began its drive for
social and economic development since its independence.
Education is important in a country like India, because it promotes the knowledge,
skills, habits, values, or attitudes and understanding of the people in the country. And it is
also considered as the backbone of the development of India. Therefore, greater concern and
emphasis must be put into the means and ways by which education transfers the needed
knowledge and information to students/children. It helps people to become a useful member
of the society and to develop an appreciation of their culture heritage and live more
satisfying human lives.
There is an acute need for incorporative values on the realms of religion, education,
social service, economics and politics in India. The term “Value” refers to a development of
“heart”. It is not enough to find for Mother India a modern independent, secular,
technological “herd” if, in the process she has lost her “heart”.
“Value-Based-Education is highly needed in our modern society because our lives
have become more miserable. The quantity of education has considerably increased, but the
quality has decreased. Why? The number of educated people has reached at a high level, but
murder, hatred, and selfishness have spread out like wildfire everywhere. Why? Many
institutions are opened, but only few civilized people are produced. Why? Degrees are
available for all, but the dignity has gone down. Why? Trained people are produced from
many institutions, but sincere people are very few. Why? Many books are written; much
research is done; many professional achievements are attained, but humanity is threatened.
Therefore, we need Value-Based-Education.”
An educated person should have all kinds of qualities. Education should make every
individual capable physically, mentally, intellectually, emotionally and spiritually.Therefore,
some universal ideals of “love, peace, respect, tolerance, forgiveness, co-existence and non-
violence” should be accepted by all the educators worldwide. These values are truly
indispensable, devoid of which, our society cannot sustain itself and people will forget
humanity. "The real difficulty is that people have no idea of what education truly is. We
assess the value of education in the same manner as we assess the value of land or of shares
in the stock-exchange market". We want to provide only such education as would enable the
student to earn more. We hardly give any thought to the improvement of the character of the
educated.

To sumup “if we want to foster a culture of nonviolence and peace within multi-
cultural societies or global society, we have to focus on: Skills and values based education is
in line with the international human rights framework on the right to education, which spells
out that the promotion of a culture of nonviolence and peace at the individual, family,
community and society levels is a major purpose of education of every child.