MTH404 Lecture 1: Real Numbers

1.1: Number system

A number system is defined as a system of writing to express numbers. It is the mathematical notation
for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. It
provides a unique representation of every number and represents the arithmetic and algebraic structure
of the figures. It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
The value of any digit in a number can be determined by:
• The digit
• Its position in the number
• The base of the number system
Types of Number Systems
There are various types of number systems in mathematics. The four most common number system
types are:
1. Decimal number system (Base- 10)
2. Binary number system (Base- 2)
3. Octal number system (Base-8)
4. Hexadecimal number system (Base- 16)
Now, let us discuss the different types of number systems with examples.
Decimal Number System (Base 10 Number System)
The decimal number system has a base of 10 because it uses ten digits from 0 to 9. In the decimal
number system, the positions successive to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
hundreds, thousands and so on. This system is expressed in decimal numbers. Every position shows a
particular power of the base (10).
Example of Decimal Number System:
The decimal number 1457 consists of the digit 7 in the units position, 5 in the tens place, 4 in the
hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands place whose value can be written as:
(1×103) + (4×102) + (5×101) + (7×100)
(1×1000) + (4×100) + (5×10) + (7×1)
1000 + 400 + 50 + 7
1457
Binary Number System (Base 2 Number System)
The base 2 number system is also known as the Binary number system wherein, only two binary
digits exist, i.e., 0 and 1. Specifically, the usual base-2 is a radix of 2. The figures described under this
system are known as binary numbers which are the combination of 0 and 1. For example, 110101 is a
binary number.
We can convert any system into binary and vice versa.
Example
Write (14)10 as a binary number.
Solution:

∴ (14)10 = 11102

Octal Number System (Base 8 Number System)

In the octal number system, the base is 8 and it uses numbers from 0 to 7 to represent numbers. Octal
numbers are commonly used in computer applications. Converting an octal number to decimal is the
same as decimal conversion and is explained below using an example.
Example: Convert 2158 into decimal.
Solution:
2158 = 2 × 82 + 1 × 81 + 5 × 80
= 2 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 5 × 1
= 128 + 8 + 5
= 14110
Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16 Number System)
In the hexadecimal system, numbers are written or represented with base 16. In the hexadecimal
system, the numbers are first represented just like in the decimal system, i.e. from 0 to 9. Then, the
numbers are represented using the alphabet from A to F. The below-given table shows the
representation of numbers in the hexadecimal number system.
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5

Number System Chart

In the number system chart, the base values and the digits of different number systems can be found.
Below is the chart of the numeral system.
Number System Conversion
Numbers can be represented in any of the number system categories like binary, decimal,
hexadecimal, etc. Also, any number which is represented in any of the number system types can be
easily converted to another. Check the detailed lesson on the conversions of number systems to learn
how to convert numbers in decimal to binary and vice versa, hexadecimal to binary and vice versa,
and octal to binary and vice versa using various examples.
With the help of the different conversion procedures explained above, now let us discuss in brief
about the conversion of one number system to the other number system by taking a random number.
Assume the number 349. Thus, the number 349 in different number systems is as follows:
The number 349 in the binary number system is 101011101
The number 349 in the decimal number system is 349.
The number 349 in the octal number system is 535.
The number 349 in the hexadecimal number system is 15D
Number System Solved Examples
Example 1:
Convert (1056)16 to an octal number.
Solution:
Given, 105616 is a hex number.
First, we need to convert the given hexadecimal number into decimal number
(1056)16
= 1 × 163 + 0 × 162 + 5 × 161 + 6 × 160
= 4096 + 0 + 80 + 6
= (4182)10
Now we will convert this decimal number to the required octal number by repetitively dividing by 8.
 8 4182 Remainder
8 522 6
8 65 2
8 8 1
8 1 0
1

Therefore, taking the value of the remainder from bottom to top, we get;
(4182)10 = (10126)8
Therefore,
(1056)16 = (10126)8
Example 2:
Convert (1001001100)2 to a decimal number.
Solution:
(1001001100)2
= 1 × 2 9 + 0 × 2 8 + 0 × 2 7 + 1 × 2 6 + 0 × 2 5 + 0 × 2 4 + 1 × 2 3 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 2 0
= 512 + 64 + 8 + 4
= (588)10
Example 3:
Convert 101012 into an octal number.
Solution:
Given,
101012 is the binary number
We can write the given binary number as,
010 101
Now as we know, in the octal number system,
010 → 2
101 → 5
Therefore, the required octal number is (25)8
Example 4:
Convert hexadecimal 2C to decimal number.
Solution:
We need to convert 2C16 into binary numbers first.
2C → 00101100
Now convert 001011002 into a decimal number.
101100 = 1 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 20
= 32 + 8 + 4
= 44

1.2: Integers
In Mathematics, integers are the collection of whole numbers and negative numbers. Similar to whole
numbers, integers also does not include the fractional part. Thus, we can say, integers are numbers that
can be positive, negative or zero, but cannot be a fraction. We can perform all the arithmetic operations,
like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, on integers. The examples of integers are, 1, 2,
5,8, -9, -12, etc. The symbol of integers is “Z“. Now, let us discuss the definition of integers, symbol,
types, operations on integers, rules and properties associated to integers, how to represent integers on
number line with many solved examples in detail.
What are Integers?
The word integer originated from the Latin word “Integer” which means whole or intact. Integers is a
special set of numbers comprising zero, positive numbers and negative numbers.
Examples of Integers: – 1, -12, 6, 15.

Symbol
The integers are represented by the symbol ‘Z’.
Z= {……-8,-7,-6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……}

Types of Integers
Integers come in three types:
• Zero (0)
• Positive Integers (Natural numbers)
• Negative Integers (Additive inverse of Natural Numbers)
Zero
Zero is neither a positive nor a negative integer. It is a neutral number i.e. zero has no sign (+ or -).
Positive Integers
The positive integers are the natural numbers or also called counting numbers. These integers are also
sometimes denoted by Z+. The positive integers lie on the right side of 0 on a number line.

Z+ → 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,….
Negative Integers
The negative integers are the negative of natural numbers. They are denoted by Z–. The negative
integers lie on the left side of 0 on a number line.

Z– → -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -
20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30,…..

CLASSIFICATION OF INTEGERS

How to Represent Integers on Number Line?

As we have already discussed the three categories of integers, we can easily represent them on a number
line based on positive integers, negative integers and zero.
Zero is the centre of integers on a number line. Positive integers lie on the right side of zero and negative
integers lie on the left. See the below figure.
INTEGER NUMBER LINE

Rules of Integers
Rules defined for integers are:
• Sum of two positive integers is an integer
• Sum of two negative integers is an integer
• Product of two positive integers is an integer
• Product of two negative integers is an integer
 • Sum of an integer and its inverse is equal to zero
• Product of an integer and its reciprocal is equal to 1
Arithmetic Operations on Integers
The basic Maths operations performed on integers are:
• Addition of integers
• Subtraction of integers
• Multiplication of integers
• Division of integers
Addition of Integers
While adding the two integers with the same sign, add the absolute values, and write down the sum with
the sign provided with the numbers.
For example,
(+4) + (+7) = +11
(-6) + (-4) = -10
While adding two integers with different signs, subtract the absolute values, and write down the
difference with the sign of the number which has the largest absolute value.
For example,
(-4) + (+2) = -2
(+6) + (-4) = +2.
Subtraction of Integers
While subtracting two integers, change the sign of the second number which is being subtracted, and
follow the rules of addition.
For example,
(-7) – (+4) = (-7) + (-4) = -11
(+8) – (+3) = (+8) + (-3) = +5
Multiplication of Integers
While multiplying two integer numbers, the rule is simple.
• If both the integers have the same sign, then the result is positive.
• If the integers have different signs, then the result is negative.
For example,
• (+2) x (+3) = +6
• (+3) x (-4) = – 12
Thus, we can summarise the multiplication of two integers with examples in the below table.
 Multiplication of Signs Resulting Sign Examples

+×+ + 3 × 4 = 12

+×– – 3 × -4 = -12

–×+ – -3 × 4 = -12

–×– + -3 × -4 = 12

Division of Integers
The rule for dividing integers is similar to multiplication.
• If both the integers have the same sign, then the result is positive.
• If the integers have different signs, then the result is negative.
Similarly
• (+6) ÷ (+2) = +3
• (-16) ÷ (+4) = -4

Division of Signs Resulting sign Examples

+÷+ + 15 ÷ 3 = 5

+÷– – 15 ÷ -3 = -5

–÷+ – -15 ÷ 3 = -5

–÷– + -15 ÷ -3 = 5

Properties of Integers
The major Properties of Integers are:
1. Closure Property
2. Associative Property
3. Commutative Property
4. Distributive Property
 5. Additive Inverse Property
6. Multiplicative Inverse Property
7. Identity Property
Closure Property
According to the closure property of integers, when two integers are added or multiplied together, it
results in an integer only. If a and b are integers, then:
• a + b = integer
• a x b = integer
Examples:
• 2 + 5 = 7 (is an integer)
• 2 x 5 = 10 (is an integer)
Commutative Property
According to the commutative property of integers, if a and b are two integers, then:
• a+b=b+a
• axb=bxa
Examples:
• 3 + 8 = 8 + 3 = 11
• 3 x 8 = 8 x 3 = 24
But for the commutative property is not applicable to subtraction and division of integers.

Associative Property
As per the associative property, if a, b and c are integers, then:
• a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c
• ax(bxc) = (axb)xc
Examples:
• 2+(3+4) = (2+3)+4 = 9
• 2x(3×4) = (2×3)x4 = 24
Similar to commutativity, associativity is applicable for the addition and multiplication of integers only.

Distributive property
According to the distributive property of integers, if a, b and c are integers, then:
a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c
Example: Prove that: 3 x (5 + 1) = 3 x 5 + 3 x 1
LHS = 3 x (5 + 1) = 3 x 6 = 18
RHS = 3 x 5 + 3 x 1 = 15 + 3 = 18
Since, LHS = RHS
Hence, proved.

Additive Inverse Property

If a is an integer, then as per the additive inverse property of integers,
a + (-a) = 0
Hence, -a is the additive inverse of integer a.

Multiplicative inverse Property

If a is an integer, then as per the multiplicative inverse property of integers,
a x (1/a) = 1
Hence, 1/a is the multiplicative inverse of integer a.

Identity Property of Integers

The identity elements of integers are:
• a+0 = a
• ax1=a
Example: -100,-12,-1, 0, 2, 1000, 989 etc…
As a set, it can be represented as follows:
Z= {……-8,-7,-6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……}
Applications of Integers
Integers are not just numbers on paper; they have many real-life applications. The effect of positive and
negative numbers in the real world is different. They are mainly used to symbolize two contradicting
situations.
For example, when the temperature is above zero, positive numbers are used to denote temperature,
whereas negative numbers indicate the temperature below zero. They help one to compare and measure
two things like how big or small or more or fewer things are and hence can quantify things.
Some real-life situations where integers come into play are player’s scores in golf, football and hockey
tournaments, the rating of movies or songs, in banks credits and debits are represented as positive and
negative amounts respectively.
Examples on Integers
Example 1:
Plot the following integers on the number line:
-121, -97, -82, -67, -43, -10, 0, 10, 36, 55, 64, 77, 110, 126, 147.
Solution:

In the above number line, each number has been plotted with a red dot.
Example 2:
Solve the following:
• 5+3=?
• 5 + (-3) = ?
• (-5) + (-3) = ?
• (-5) x (-3) = ?
Solution:
• 5+3=8
• 5 + (-3) = 5 – 3 = 2
• (-5) + (-3) = -5 – 3 = -8
• (-5) x (-3) = 15
Example 3:
Solve the following product of integers:
• (+5) × (+10)
• (12) × (5)
• (- 5) × (7)
• 5 × (-4)
Solution:
• (+5) × (+10) = +50
• (12) × (5) = 60
• (- 5) × (7) = -35
• 5 × (-4) = -20
Example 4:
Solve the following division of integers:
• (-9) ÷ (-3)
• (-18) ÷ (3)
 • (4000) ÷ (- 100)
Solution:
• (-9) ÷ (-3) = 3
• (-18) ÷ (3) = -6
• (4000) ÷ (- 100) = -40

1.3: Fractions
What are Fractions?
Definition 1: A fraction represents a numerical value, which defines the parts of a whole.
Definition 2: A fraction is a number that represents a part of a whole.
Generally, the fraction can be a portion of any quantity out of the whole thing and the whole can be
any specific things or value.
The basics of fractions explain the top and bottom numbers of a fraction. The top number represents
the number of selected or shaded parts of a whole whereas the bottom number represents the total
number of parts.
Suppose a number has to be divided into four parts, then it is represented as x/4. So the fraction here,
x/4, defines 1/4th of the number x. Hence, 1/4 is the fraction here. It means one in four equal parts. It
can be read as one-fourth or 1/4. This is known as fraction.
FRACTIONS

Fractions play an important part in our daily lives. There are many examples of fractions you will
come across in real life. We have to willingly or unwillingly share that yummy pizza amongst our
friends and families. Three people, four slices. If you learn and visualize fractions in an easy way, it
will be more fun and exciting. For example, slice an apple into two parts, then each part of the sliced
apple will represent a fraction (equal to 1/2).

Parts of Fractions
The fractions include two parts, numerator and denominator.
• Numerator: It is the upper part of the fraction, that represents the sections of the fraction
• Denominator: It is the lower or bottom part that represents the total parts in which the
fraction is divided.
Example: If 3/4 is a fraction, then 3 is the numerator and 4 is the denominator.
Properties of Fractions
Similar to real numbers and whole numbers, a fractional number also holds some of the important
properties. They are:
• Commutative and associative properties hold true for fractional addition and multiplication
• The identity element of fractional addition is 0, and fractional multiplication is 1
• The multiplicative inverse of a/b is b/a, where a and b should be non zero elements
• Fractional numbers obey the distributive property of multiplication over addition
Types of Fractions
Based on the properties of numerator and denominator, fractions are sub-divided into different types.
They are:
• Proper fractions
• Improper fractions
• Mixed fractions
• Like fractions
• Unlike fractions
• Equivalent fractions
Proper Fractions
The proper fractions are those where the numerator is less than the denominator. For example, 8/9
will be a proper fraction since “numerator < denominator”.
Improper Fractions
The improper fraction is a fraction where the numerator happens to be greater than the denominator.
For example, 9/8 will be an improper fraction since “numerator > denominator”.
Mixed Fractions
A mixed fraction is a combination of the integer part and a proper fraction. These are also called
mixed numbers or mixed numerals. For example:

Like Fractions
Like fractions are those fractions, as the name suggests, that are alike or same.
For example, take ½ and 2/4; they are alike since if you simplify it mathematically, you will get the
same fraction.
Unlike Fractions
Unlike fractions, are those that are dissimilar.
For example, ½ and 1/3 are unlike fractions.
Equivalent Fractions
Two fractions are equivalent to each other if after simplification either of two fractions is equal to the
other one.
For example, ⅔ and 4/6 are equivalent fractions.
Since, 4/6 = (2×2)/(2×3) = 2/3

Unit Fractions
A fraction is known as a unit fraction when the numerator is equal to 1.
• One half of whole = ½
• One-third of whole = 1/3
• One-fourth of whole = ¼
• One-fifth of whole = ⅕

Fraction on a Number Line

We have already learned to represent the integers, such as 0, 1, 2, -1, -2, on a number line. In the same
way, we can represent fractions on a number line.
For example, if we have to represent 1/5 and 3/5 parts of a whole, then it can be represented as shown
in the below figure.

Since the denominator is equal to 5, thus 1 is divided into 5 equal parts, on the number line. Now the
first section is 1/5 and the third section is 3/5.
Similarly, you can practice marking more of the fractions on the number line, such as 1/2, 1/4, 2/11,
3/7, etc.
Rules for Simplification of Fractions
There are some rules we should know before solving the problems based on fractions.
Rule #1: Before adding or subtracting fractions, we should make sure that the denominators are equal.
Hence, the addition and subtraction of fractions are possible with a common denominator.
Rule #2: When we multiply two fractions, then the numerators are multiplied as well as the
denominators are multiplied. Later simplify the fraction.
Rule #3: When we divide a fraction from another fraction, we have to find the reciprocal of another
fraction and then multiply with the first one to get the answer.

Adding Fractions
The addition of fractions is easy when they have a common denominator.
For example, ⅔ + 8/3 = (2+8)/3 = 10/3
Hence, we need to just add the numerators here.
Adding Fractions with Different Denominators
If the denominators of the two fractions are different, we have to simplify them by finding the LCM
of denominators and then making it common for both fractions.
Example: ⅔ + ¾
The two denominators are 3 and 4
Hence, LCM of 3 and 4 = 12
Therefore, multiplying ⅔ by 4/4 and ¾ by 3/3, we get;
8/12 + 9/12
= (8+9)/12
= 17/12

Subtracting Fractions
The rule for subtracting two or more fractions is the same as for addition. The denominators should be
common to subtract two fractions.
Example: 9/2 – 7/2 = (9-7)/2 = 2/2 = 1
Subtracting with Different Denominators
If the denominators of the two fractions are different, we have to simplify them by finding the LCM
of denominators and then making it common for both fractions.
Example: ⅔ – ¾
The two denominators are 3 and 4
Hence, LCM of 3 and 4 = 12
Therefore, multiplying ⅔ by 4/4 and ¾ by 3/3, we get;
8/12 – 9/12
= (8-9)/12
= -1/12

Multiplication of Fractions
As per rule number 2, we have discussed in the previous section, when two fractions are multiplied,
then the top part (numerators) and the bottom part (denominators) are multiplied together.
If a/b and c/d are two different fractions, then the multiplication of a/b and c/d will be:
(a/b) x (c/d) = (axc)/(bxd) = (ac/bd)
Example: Multiply ⅔ and 3/7.
(⅔) x (3/7) = (2×3)/(3×7) = 2/7

Division of Fractions
If we have to divide any two fractions, then we will use here rule 3 from the above section, where we
need to multiply the first fraction to the reciprocal of the second fraction.
If a/b and c/d are two different fractions, then the division a/b by c/d can be expressed as:
(a/b)÷(c/d) = (a/b)x(d/c) = (ad/bc)
Example: Divide ⅔ by 3/7.
(⅔) ÷ (3/7) = (⅔) x (7/3) = (2×7)/(3×3) = 14/9

Real-Life Examples of Fractions

Let us visualize some of the fractions examples:
1. Imagine a pie with four slices. Taking two slices of pie for yourself would mean that you have
two out of the four. Hence, you represent it as 2/4.
2. Fill half a glass of water. What do you see? 1/2 glass is full. Or 1/2 glass is empty. This 1/2 is
fractions where 1 is the numerator that is, the number of parts we have. And 2 is the
denominator, the number of parts the whole glass is divided into.

How to Convert Fractions To Decimals?

As we already learned enough about fractions, which are part of a whole. The decimals are the
numbers expressed in a decimal form which represents fractions, after division.
For example, Fraction 1/2 can be written in decimal form as 0.5.
The best part of decimals are they can be easily used for any arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, etc. Whereas it is difficult sometimes to perform operations on fractions. Let us take an
example to understand;
Example: Add 1/6 and 1/4.
solution: 1/6 = 0.17 and 1/4 = 0.25
Hence, on adding 0.17 and 0.25, we get;
0.17 + 0.25 = 0.42

How to Simplify Fractions?

To simplify the fractions easily, first, write the factors of both numerator and denominator. Then find
the largest factor that is common for both numerator and denominator. Then divide both the
numerator and the denominator by the greatest common factor (GCF) to get the reduced fraction,
which is the simplest form of the given fraction. Now, let us consider an example to find the simplest
fraction for the given fraction.
For example, take the fraction, 16/48
So, the factors of 16 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16.
Similarly, the factors of 48 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48.
Thus, the greatest common factor for 16 and 48 is 16.
i.e. GCF (16, 48) = 16.
Now, divide both the numerator and denominator of the given fraction by 16, we get
16/48 = (16/16) / (48/16) = 1/3.
Hence, the simplest form of the fraction 16/48 is 1/3.
Solved Examples on Fractions
Example 1:
Is 12/6 a fraction?
Solution:
Yes, it is. It is called an improper fraction.
Example 2:
Convert 130.1200 into a fraction.
Solution:
Here will use the concept of how to convert decimals into fractions
130.1200 = 130.1200/10000
= 13012/100
Example 3:
Add 3/ 5 and 10/15.
Solution:
3 /5 + 10/15
LCM of 5 and 15 is 15
= (9 + 10)/15
= 19/15
Example 4:
Which of the following fraction is the largest?
(a) 29/23
(b) 29/27
(c) 29/25
(d) 29/30
Solution:
To find whether the largest fractions among the given options, first convert the fractional value to the
decimal value.
(a) 29/23 = 1.261
(b) 29/27 = 1.074
(c) 29/25 = 1.16
(d) 29/30 = 0.967
Thus, 29/23 is the largest fraction among the given options.
Hence, option (a) 29/23 is the correct answer.
Example 5:
Reduce the fraction 15/65 to the simplest form.
Solution:
Given fraction: 15/65.
Factors of 15: 1, 3, 5 and 15
Factors of 65: 1, 5, 13, and 65
Hence, the greatest common factor of 15 and 65 is 5.
i.e. GCF (15, 65) = 5.
Now, divide both the numerator and the denominator of the given fraction (16/65) by 5, we get
15/65 = (15/5) / (65/5) = 3/13.
Hence, the simplest form of the fraction 15/65 is 3/13.

1.5: Significant Figures & Rounding off

The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures that are known with some
degree of reliability. The number 13.2 is said to have 3 significant figures. The number 13.20 is said
to have 4 significant figures.
What are Significant Figures?
Significant figures can be defined as important numbers from 0 to 9 that are used in the coefficient of
an expression that explains the precision of the expression. These figures are obtained by rounding off
the expression after the calculations are executed on them. There are certain rules to follow when it
comes to arithmetic operations. Following is the table of examples with decimal notation, scientific
notation, and significant figures:
 Decimal notation Scientific notation Significant figures

1.324*106 4
1,324,000.00
1.32400000*106 9

6.75*10-5 3
0.00006750000
6.750000*10-5 7

-1*10-8 1
-0.0000000100
-1.00*10-8 3

Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured quantity:

(1) All nonzero digits are significant:
1.234 g has 4 significant figures,
1.2 g has 2 significant figures.
(2) Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant:
1002 kg has 4 significant figures,
3.07 mL has 3 significant figures.
(3) Zeroes to the left of the first nonzero digits are not significant; such zeroes merely indicate the
position of the decimal point:
0.001o C has only 1 significant figure,
0.012 g has 2 significant figures.
(4) Zeroes to the right of a decimal point in a number are significant:
0.023 mL has 2 significant figures,
0.200 g has 3 significant figures.
(5) When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right of a decimal point, the zeroes are not
necessarily significant:
190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures, 50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant figures. The
potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of standard exponential, or” scientific,”
notation. For example, depending on whether 3, 4, or 5 significant figures is correct, we could write
50,6000 calories as:
5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures)
5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures), or
5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).

Rules for Arithmetic Operation of Significant Figures

The general rule to follow is the rule of the weakest link which states that the chain is as strong as its
weakest link. The accuracy of a measurement or a calculation is limited by the least accurate
measurement in the calculation.
Following is the set of arithmetic operations that are used in significant figures are:
• Addition
• Subtraction
• Multiplication
• Division
Addition and Subtraction
The result is rounded off to the last common digit occurring furthest to the right in all components.
Another way to state this rule is as follows: in addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off so
that it has the same number of digits as the measurement having the fewest decimal places (counting
from left to right). For example,
200 (assume 3 significant figures) + 69.693 (5 significant figures) = 269.693
Which should be rounded to 269 (3 significant figures). Note, however, that it is possible two
numbers have no common digits (significant figures in the same digit column).
13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2290
We can see that the second number, 234.6, is only accurate to the tenths place; all the other numbers
are accurate to a greater number of decimal places. Complying with the rule of the weakest link, the
answer should be rounded to the tenth place. We get,
13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2
Multiplication and Division
Let’s see how to perform multiplication and division by keeping significant figures. The
multiplication is performed normally and the decimal points are all noted down. The rule of the
weakest link also extends to the multiplication of significant figures. In both multiplication and
division, the result should be rounded off to have the same number of significant figures as the
component with the least number of significant figures.
16.235 × 0.217 × 5 = 17.614975
Since the component with the lowest number of significant digits has only one significant digit, we
will need to round 17.614975 to 20 which is the nearest answer with one significant digit. Another
example is,
0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.02001
4.6 here has only 2 significant digits, we will round 0.02001 to two significant digits. From this, we
get,
0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.020
0.02 here is not the right answer, because 0.02 has only one significant digit; namely, the “2”. The
trailing zero in 0.020 indicates that “this is accurate to the thousandths place, or two significant
digits”, and is necessary to complete the answer.

Rules for rounding off numbers

(1) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the last retained digit is increased by one. For example,
12.6 is rounded to 13.
(2) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the last remaining digit is left as it is. For example, 12.4 is
rounded to 12.
(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5, and if any digit following it is not zero, the last remaining digit is
increased by one. For example, 12.51 is rounded to 13.
(4) If the digit to be dropped is 5 and is followed only by zeroes, the last remaining digit is increased
by one if it is odd, but left as it is if even. For example, 11.5 is rounded to 12, 12.5 is rounded to 12.
This rule means that if the digit to be dropped is 5 followed only by zeroes, the result is always
rounded to the even digit. The rationale is to avoid bias in rounding: half of the time we round up, half
the time we round down

Exercises
Practice questions on Number System
1. Convert (242)10 into hexadecimal. [Answer: (F2)16]
2. Convert 0.52 into an octal number. [Answer: 4121]
3. Subtract 11012 and 10102. [Answer: 0010]
4. Represent 5C6 in decimal. [Answer: 1478]
5. Represent binary number 1.1 in decimal. [Answer: 1.5]
Practice Questions on Integers
1. Sum of two positive integers is a positive integer. True or False?
2. What is the sum of first five positive integers?
3. What is the product of first five positive odd integers?
4. Plot the integers from -10 to +10 on the number line.
Practice Questions on Fractions
Solve the following:
1. 3/7+9/2-8.
2. 22/7+8/11.
3. 32/9 x 81/4.
4. 44/9 ÷ 36/4.
5. Reduce 35/84 to the simplest form.
6. Convert the fraction 81/63 to the reduced form.