Unified Field Theory

Unified field theory
In physics, a unified field theory (UFT)

is a type of field theory that allows all
that is usually thought of as
fundamental forces and elementary
particles to be written in terms of a pair
of physical and virtual fields. According
to the modern discoveries in physics,
forces are not transmitted directly
between interacting objects but instead
are described and interpreted by
intermediary entities called fields.
Classically, however, a duality of the

fields is combined into a single physical
field.[1] For over a century, unified field
theory has remained an open line of
research. The term was coined by
Albert Einstein,[2] who attempted to
unify his general theory of relativity with
electromagnetism. The "Theory of
Everything" [3] and Grand Unified
Theory[4] are closely related to unified
field theory, but differ by not requiring
the basis of nature to be fields, and
often by attempting to explain physical
constants of nature. Earlier attempts
based on classical physics are
described in the article on classical
unified field theories.
The goal of a unified field theory has

led to a great deal of progress for future
theoretical physics, and progress
continues.
Introduction
Forces
The Standard Model of elementary particles + hypothetical Graviton
All four of the known fundamental

forces are mediated by fields, which in
the Standard Model of particle physics
result from the exchange of gauge
bosons. Specifically, the four
fundamental interactions to be unified
are:
Strong interaction: the interaction

responsible for holding quarks
together to form hadrons, and
holding neutrons and also protons
together to form atomic nuclei. The
exchange particle that mediates this
force is the gluon.
Electromagnetic interaction: the
familiar interaction that acts on
electrically charged particles. The
photon is the exchange particle for
this force.
Weak interaction: a short-range
interaction responsible for some
forms of radioactivity, that acts on
electrons, neutrinos, and quarks. It is
mediated by the W and Z bosons.
Gravitational interaction: a long-range
attractive interaction that acts on all
particles. The postulated exchange
particle has been named the
graviton.
Modern unified field theory attempts to

bring these four forces and matter
together into a single framework.
History
Classic theory
The first successful classical unified

field theory was developed by James
Clerk Maxwell. In 1820, Hans Christian
Ørsted discovered that electric currents
exerted forces on magnets, while in
1831, Michael Faraday made the
observation that time-varying magnetic
fields could induce electric currents.
Until then, electricity and magnetism
had been thought of as unrelated
phenomena. In 1864, Maxwell
published his famous paper on a
dynamical theory of the
electromagnetic field. This was the first
example of a theory that was able to
encompass previously separate field
theories (namely electricity and
magnetism) to provide a unifying theory
of electromagnetism. By 1905, Albert
Einstein had used the constancy of the
speed of light in Maxwell's theory to
unify our notions of space and time into
an entity we now call spacetime and in
1915 he expanded this theory of
special relativity to a description of
gravity, general relativity, using a field to
describe the curving geometry of four-
dimensional spacetime.
In the years following the creation of

the general theory, a large number of
physicists and mathematicians
enthusiastically participated in the
attempt to unify the then-known
fundamental interactions.[5] In view of
later developments in this domain, of
particular interest are the theories of
Hermann Weyl of 1919, who introduced
the concept of an (electromagnetic)
gauge field in a classical field theory[6]
and, two years later, that of Theodor
Kaluza, who extended General Relativity
to five dimensions.[7] Continuing in this
latter direction, Oscar Klein proposed in
1926 that the fourth spatial dimension
be curled up into a small, unobserved
circle. In Kaluza–Klein theory, the
gravitational curvature of the extra
spatial direction behaves as an
additional force similar to
electromagnetism. These and other
models of electromagnetism and
gravity were pursued by Albert Einstein
in his attempts at a classical unified
field theory. By 1930 Einstein had
already considered the Einstein-
Maxwell–Dirac System [Dongen]. This
system is (heuristically) the super-
classical [Varadarajan] limit of (the not
mathematically well-defined) quantum
electrodynamics. One can extend this
system to include the weak and strong
nuclear forces to get the Einstein–
Yang-Mills–Dirac System. The French
physicist Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat
published a paper in the early 1940s on
the standard commutation relations for
the quantized spin-2 field. She
continued this work in collaboration
with Erwin Schrödinger after World War
II. In the 1960s Mendel Sachs proposed
a generally covariant field theory that
did not require recourse to
renormalization or perturbation theory.
In 1965, Tonnelat published a book on
the state of research on unified field
theories.
Modern progress
In 1963, American physicist Sheldon

Glashow proposed that the weak
nuclear force, electricity, and
magnetism could arise from a partially
unified electroweak theory. In 1967,
Pakistani Abdus Salam and American
Steven Weinberg independently revised
Glashow's theory by having the masses
for the W particle and Z particle arise
through spontaneous symmetry
breaking with the Higgs mechanism.
This unified theory modeled the
electroweak interaction as a force
mediated by four particles: the photon
for the electromagnetic aspect, and a
neutral Z particle, and two charged W
particles for the weak aspect. As a
result of the spontaneous symmetry
breaking, the weak force becomes
short-range and the W and Z bosons
acquire masses of 80.4 and
91.2 GeV/c2, respectively. Their theory
was first given experimental support by
the discovery of weak neutral currents
in 1973. In 1983, the Z and W bosons
were first produced at CERN by Carlo
Rubbia's team. For their insights,
Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg were
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1979. Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der
Meer received the Prize in 1984.
After Gerardus 't Hooft showed the

Glashow–Weinberg–Salam
electroweak interactions to be
mathematically consistent, the
electroweak theory became a template
for further attempts at unifying forces.
In 1974, Sheldon Glashow and Howard
Georgi proposed unifying the strong
and electroweak interactions into the
Georgi–Glashow model, the first Grand
Unified Theory, which would have
observable effects for energies much
above 100 GeV.
Since then there have been several

proposals for Grand Unified Theories,
e.g. the Pati–Salam model, although
none is currently universally accepted.
A major problem for experimental tests
of such theories is the energy scale
involved, which is well beyond the reach
of current accelerators. Grand Unified
Theories make predictions for the
relative strengths of the strong, weak,
and electromagnetic forces, and in
1991 LEP determined that
supersymmetric theories have the
correct ratio of couplings for a Georgi–
Glashow Grand Unified Theory.
Many Grand Unified Theories (but not

Pati–Salam) predict that the proton can
decay, and if this were to be seen,
details of the decay products could give
hints at more aspects of the Grand
Unified Theory. It is at present unknown
if the proton can decay, although
experiments have determined a lower
bound of 1035 years for its lifetime.
Current status
Theoretical physicists have not yet

formulated a widely accepted,
consistent theory that combines
general relativity and quantum
mechanics to form a theory of
everything. Trying to combine the
graviton with the strong and
electroweak interactions leads to
fundamental difficulties and the
resulting theory is not renormalizable.
The incompatibility of the two theories
remains an outstanding problem in the
field of physics.
See also
Sheldon Glashow
Unification (physics)
References
1. Ernan McMullin (2002). "The Origins of
the Field Concept in Physics" (http://phy
sics.gmu.edu/~rubinp/courses/416/pip
_fields.pdf) (PDF). Phys. Perspect. 4
(1): 13–39. Bibcode:2002PhP.....4...13M
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200
2PhP.....4...13M) . doi:10.1007/s00016-
002-8357-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F
s00016-002-8357-5) . S2CID 27691986
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus
ID:27691986) .
2. "How the search for a unified theory
stumped Einstein to his dying day" (http
s://phys.org/news/2015-11-theory-stum
ped-einstein-dying-day.html) . phys.org.
3. Stephen W. Hawking (28 February
2006). The Theory of Everything: The
Origin and Fate of the Universe. Phoenix
Books; Special Anniv. ISBN 978-1-
59777-508-3.
4. Ross, G. (1984). Grand Unified Theories.
Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8053-6968-
7.
5. See Catherine Goldstein & Jim Ritter
(2003) "The varieties of unity: sounding
unified theories 1920-1930" in A.
Ashtekar, et al. (eds.), Revisiting the
Foundations of Relativistic Physics,
Dordrecht, Kluwer, p. 93-149; Vladimir
Vizgin (1994), Unified Field Theories in
the First Third of the 20th Century,
Basel, Birkhäuser; Hubert Goenner On
the History of Unified Field Theories (htt
p://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lr
r-2004-2/) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110805194546/http://relat
ivity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2004-
2/) 2011-08-05 at the Wayback
Machine.
6. Erhard Scholtz (ed) (2001), Hermann
Weyl's Raum - Zeit- Materie and a
General Introduction to His Scientific
Work, Basel, Birkhäuser.
7. Daniela Wuensch (2003), "The fifth
dimension: Theodor Kaluza's ground-
breaking idea", Annalen der Physik, vol.
12, p. 519–542.
Further reading
Jeroen van Dongen Einstein's
Unification, Cambridge University
Press (July 26, 2010)
Varadarajan, V.S. Supersymmetry for
Mathematicians: An Introduction
(Courant Lecture Notes), American
Mathematical Society (July 2004)
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Unified field theory.
On the History of Unified Field
Theories (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20110805194546/http://relativity.li
vingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2004-
2/) , by Hubert F. M. Goenner
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In physics, a unified field theory (UFT)

Classically, however, a duality of the

The goal of a unified field theory has

The Standard Model of elementary particles + hypothetical Graviton

All four of the known fundamental

Strong interaction: the interaction

Modern unified field theory attempts to

The first successful classical unified

In the years following the creation of

In 1963, American physicist Sheldon

After Gerardus 't Hooft showed the

Since then there have been several

Many Grand Unified Theories (but not

Theoretical physicists have not yet

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