Tight Gas Reservoirs

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
P.M.B. 5323, CHOBA, EAST-WEST ROAD, PORT HARCOURT.

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM AND GAS ENGINEERING
RESEARCH ON
TIGHT GAS RESERVOIRS
BY
GROUP 5
IGWE JUSTUS UZOMA U2017/3065021

AKPAN AUGUSTINA MICHAEL U2017/3065048
MICHAEL CHUKWUEBUKA PAUL U2017/3065026
OBINI DESTINY OBINNA U2017/3065053
ISIAKPERE MIRABEL U2017/3065023
DASENIBO FRED U2017/3065016
ORLU STELLA U2017/3065040
MICHAEL PENTECOST ODINWONMA U2017/3065066
AKPOGHENOBOR ESE RAPHAEL U2017/3065075
DUMBILI DANIEL U2017/3065030
COURSE CODE : PNG 510.1

COURSE LECTURER : DR AIMIKHE VICTOR
7th, JULY 2023
1
Tight Gas Reservoirs Characterization
TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT 2
TABLE OF FIGURES 3
ABSTRACT 4
CHAPTER ONE 5
1.1 INTRODUCTION 5
1.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF UNCONVENTIONAL RESOURCES 7
1.2 OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN 10
CHAPTER TWO 12
2.1 RESERVES 12
2.2 GLOBAL TIGHT GAS RESOURCE: 14
2.2.1 The United States 14
2.2.2 China 19
2.2.3 Canada 22
2.2.4 Australia 24
2.2.5 Australia 25
2.2.6 Middle East and North Africa 26
2.2.7 Nigeria 27
2.4 VOLUME ESTIMATION 30
2.4.1 SOLVED EXAMPLE 31
CHAPTER THREE 34
3.0 PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING METHODS: 34
3.1 TIGHT GAS PRODUCTION: 34
3.2 TIGHT GAS PROCESSING: 44
3.3 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: 48
3.3.1 Economic challenges: 48
3.3.2 Environmental Challenges: 50
CHAPTER FOUR 51
4.1 AREAS OF APPLICATION FOR TIGHT GAS RESERVOIRS: 51
4.2 ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY: 53
CHAPTER FIVE 60
5.1 CONCLUSION 60
REFERENCES 61
2
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Resources triangle for gas reservoirs proposed by Masters (1979) and Gray (1977). .................... 8
Figure: 1.2: Description of conventional, near tight, and tight sandstone reservoirs based on their in situ
permeability (Rezaee et al., 2012). .................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.1: Map showing the global distribution of tight gas resources (Rajput and Kumar Thakur, 2016). . 13
Recoverable Tight Gas (Tcm) ........................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.2: Recoverable tight gas resources in the world’s top countries. Note: CIS, Commonwealth of the
Independent States; CSA, Central and South America; ODA, Other Developing Asia. ................................... 13
Figure 2.3: Distribution map of major tight gas reservoirs in the America (Chinedu Ozobeme, 2006). ......... 15
Figure: 2.4: Chart showing the historical (1990 - 2010) and predicted (2010 - 2035) proportion of various
gases produced in the United States (Dai et al., 2012). .................................................................................. 18
Figure 2.5: Distribution map of major tight gas reservoirs in China (Dai et al., 2012). ................................... 20
Figure 3.1: Process of Hydraulic fracturing. Source: Google ........................................................................... 40
Figure 3.1: Gas treatment processing ............................................................................................................. 46
Figure 4.1: Microseismic Monitoring Activity. Source: Google ....................................................................... 55
3
ABSTRACT
Tight gas reservoirs are unconventional natural gas deposits with low permeability, requiring
advanced extraction methods. They occur worldwide in sedimentary basins, typically in formations
like sandstones, shales, and carbonates. These reservoirs hold significant reserves of natural gas,
although volume estimation can be challenging. Drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking)
techniques are used to enhance gas production by creating fractures in the tight rock. Economic and
environmental challenges exist, including high drilling costs and potential environmental impacts.
The primary application of tight gas is natural gas production, supporting electricity generation,
heating, and industrial processes. Technological advances in horizontal drilling, fracking, and
reservoir management have improved extraction efficiency. Overall, tight gas reservoirs contribute to
energy security and economic benefits while requiring ongoing innovation and addressing
environmental concerns.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Background
The growing global energy demand has brought unconventional resources into focus. Unconventional
gas resources encompass shale gas, tight gas, coalbed methane (CBM), and gas hydrates. Among
these, tight gas sandstones hold significant importance and promise a bright future. Permeability is a
critical factor in characterizing and classifying hydrocarbon reservoirs. Tight gas sandstones are
characterized by low permeability but contain substantial amounts of natural gas. Tight gas sandstones
are categorized as unconventional reservoirs with matrix permeability below 0.1 mD and matrix
porosity below 10% (Law and Curtis, 2002). The average pore throat size in tight gas sandstones
ranges from 0.3 to 2 micrometres (Nelson, 2009). When referring to their gas content, they are called
tight sandstone gas, whereas the term tight gas sandstone is used to describe the host rocks. The
accumulation of gas within tight sandstones of a sedimentary basin relies on factors such as low
permeability, abnormal pressure (overpressure or under-pressure), high gas saturation, absence of gas-
water contacts in down dips, and extensive areal coverage. These reservoirs are typically found in the
central or deeper regions of a basin structure, exhibiting a wide regional distribution. They are often
referred to as continuously distributed, basin-centered, or deep basin gas reservoirs. Efficient gas
production from tight sandstones necessitates a comprehensive understanding of their geological and
physical properties, including sedimentary facies, depositional setting, diagenesis, flow units,
porosity, permeability, fluid saturation, capillary pressure, and pore size distribution. To overcome
the challenge of low matrix permeability, the use of horizontal wells and stimulation techniques such
as hydraulic fracturing has proven to be an effective approach for commercial production from tight
sandstones. This chapter provides an overview of tight gas sandstone reservoirs, their distribution,
and their global significance.
Tight gas reservoirs are unconventional gas reservoirs which require special well completion
techniques to stimulate production. These gas reservoirs are regarded as tight gas reservoirs because
of their extremely low permeabilities which prevent the gas from flowing freely and hence difficulty
in their extraction. (Wiki, 2023).
Tight gas is found in tight sand which are usually impermeable and nonporous formations such as
sandstone or limestone as well as carbonates, shales, and coal-seams of very low-permeability. Tight
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gas reservoirs are extensive, often called continuous-type accumulations. These reservoirs are
widespread across almost all petroleum provinces, frequently located in basin centres, and are usually
abnormally pressured. (Kuuskraa, 2022)
Tight gas deposits are substantially older than normal gas formations, which are typically found in
Tertiary basins that are younger. Tight gas deposits are commonly found in Palaeozoic formations
deposited about 248 million years ago. The permeability of the rock is decreased because of
cementation, recrystallization, compacting, and other processes that have been applied to the rock
formations over time.
In developing and extracting gas from tight gas reservoirs, series of processes and techniques are
carried out, geologists and geoscientists analyse the subsurface through seismic surveys, well logs
and other geological data. When the potential well is identified, horizontal drilling techniques are
usually employed. Artificial well stimulation, typically hydraulic fracturing, also known as “fracking”
and acidizing can be used to attain commercial rates of gas flow from tight gas sands, unless the well
encounters an extensive cluster of natural fractures that enhances permeability. (RIGZONE, 2023)
Tight gas reservoir economic viability is greatly impacted by issues including gas prices, drilling
costs, regulatory frameworks, and environmental concerns. Although tight gas reservoirs have a lot
of potentials, their development needs to be done properly, considering issues like water use,
wastewater disposal, and the possibility of induced seismicity brought on by hydraulic fracturing
activities. (Energy Education, 2023).
To create tight gas more effectively, engineers are constantly creating new methods and technologies,
through their efforts, tight gas might no longer be viewed as an unconventional play in the near future.
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1.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF UNCONVENTIONAL RESOURCES
Unconventional resources can be categorized into eight distinct groups as follows:
Tight gas: Natural gas trapped within low-permeability sandstones. Hydraulic fracturing or steam
injection methods are employed to extract gas from these formations.
Shale gas: Natural gas, either free or absorbed, trapped within organic-rich shale formations.
Extraction of gas from shale requires hydraulic fracturing techniques.
Coalbed methane: Natural gas present in coal seams, occurring in three forms: dissolved in coalbed
water, free gas within coal pores, and gas adsorbed onto the coal matrix.
Gas hydrates: Solid combinations of gas and ice found in molecular pores, particularly abundant in
ocean floors below 500 meters. Gas hydrates hold potential as a future energy source but pose drilling
challenges and risks at present.
Heavy oil: High-viscosity crude oil that does not flow easily at typical reservoir temperatures.
Tar sand (or oil sand): Sandstone formations containing a mixture of asphalt, clay, water, and other
minerals.
Oil shale: Flammable shale rock with a high ash content. Low-temperature carbonization processes
are employed for oil extraction from oil shale.
Tight oil: Oil accumulated within low-permeability carbonate or sandstone formations. Hydraulic or
acid fracturing techniques are utilized for extracting tight oil.
Masters (1979) and Gray (1977) introduced the concept of a Resources triangle, representing different
types of natural gases found in geological strata. This triangle illustrates the log-normal distribution
of gas resources in nature. Conventional gas resources, though smaller in size, are relatively easier to
develop. On the other hand, unconventional gas resources exist in larger volumes but present greater
challenges in terms of development. As we move deeper within the triangle, reservoir quality
decreases due to diminishing permeability, while the volume of reserves increases significantly.
7
Figure 1.1: Resources triangle for gas reservoirs proposed by Masters (1979) and Gray (1977).
Figure: 1.2: Description of conventional, near tight, and tight sandstone reservoirs based on their in situ
permeability (Rezaee et al., 2012).
8
Rezaee et al. (2012) based on the in-situ permeability values divided the hydrocarbon reservoirs into
three categories of conventional reservoirs with a permeability of more than 1 mD, semi-permeable
or near-tight reservoirs with a permeability of 0.1 to 1 mD, and tight reservoirs with a permeability of
less than 0.1 mD (Fig. 1.2) (Rezaee et al., 2012).
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1.2 OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN

Tight gas reservoirs are formed through a complex process involving the origin of natural gas and the
specific geological conditions that lead to its entrapment within low-permeability rock formations.
Tight gas was formed 248 million years ago in Palaeozoic formations. It’s created from organic
material that is found in rocks. Overtime, heat, and pressure cause the organic material to breakdown
and form natural gas. The gas migrates through the rock until it is trapped in an underground formation
that’s extremely tight and locked in impermeable, hard rock. This means the gas is unable to flow
freely through the rock which makes it difficult to extract. They are found in low -permeability
reservoir rocks, also in onshore and offshore locations and associated with shale gas and coalbed
methane. These rocks are typically sandstone, shale or limestone that have low porosity and
permeability. (U.S. Energy Information Administration 2012).
The general overview of the origin and occurrence of tight gas reservoirs is as follows:
1. Organic Matter Deposition: The origin of natural gas begins with the deposition of organic matter
in sedimentary basins. This organic matter comes from the accumulation of dead marine organisms,
such as algae and plankton, as well as land-based plant material. Over time, these organic materials
get buried under layers of sediment.
2. Sediment Compaction and Diagenesis: As more sediment accumulates over the organic-rich
layers, the weight of the overlying sediments increases. This leads to compaction, where the pressure
from the overlying layers squeezes the sediments together. Compaction reduces the pore spaces within
the sediment, making it less permeable.
3. Heat and Pressure: As the sediment continues to be buried deeper within the Earth's crust, it
experiences increased temperatures and pressures. This process, known as burial, subjects the organic
matter to heat and pressure, causing chemical reactions that transform the organic matter into
hydrocarbons, including natural gas. This conversion is called thermal maturation or catagenesis.
(SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering, 2015).
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5. Generation and Migration of Natural Gas: The thermal maturation of organic matter produces
natural gas, primarily composed of methane (CH4), as well as other hydrocarbons. The generated gas
is lighter than the surrounding rock and water, causing it to migrate upward through the rock
formations, seeking pathways to escape.
6. Trapping Mechanisms: The migration of natural gas can encounter various geological barriers
that prevent it from escaping, leading to its entrapment within specific rock formations. The
occurrence of tight gas is commonly associated with low-permeability rock formations, such as tight
sandstones or shale, which have very limited interconnected pore spaces. The tightness of these rocks
makes it difficult for the gas to flow freely through them.
7. Structural Traps: Geological structures, such as anticlines, fault zones, or stratigraphic traps, can
act as physical barriers that trap the migrating gas within the low-permeability rock formations. These
structures create closures or compartments where the gas can accumulate, forming a reservoir.
8. Matrix and Fracture Porosity: Within the low-permeability rock formations, the natural gas is
stored in two primary types of porosity: matrix porosity and fracture porosity. Matrix porosity refers
to the small pore spaces between the grains of the rock, while fracture porosity refers to the network
of fractures and fissures within the rock. The gas is adsorbed onto the surfaces of the rock grains or
fills the open spaces within fractures.
9. Occurrence and Distribution: Tight gas reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins worldwide.
They occur in areas where the geological conditions are favourable for the deposition and preservation
of organic-rich sediments. The distribution of tight gas reservoirs is often associated with deeper parts
of basins or regions with significant burial history.
To extract gas from tight gas reservoirs, specialized drilling techniques are required, such as
horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking). Horizontal drilling allows for the creation of
longer wellbores within the reservoir, maximizing contact with the gas-bearing rock. Hydraulic
fracturing involves injecting fluids at high pressure into the reservoir, creating artificial fractures that
enhance the permeability and allow for better gas flow. (Journal of Natural Gas Science and
Engineering, 2017).
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CHAPTER TWO
2.1 RESERVES
Tight gas reserves refer to the natural gas trapped within low-permeability sandstone formations
known as tight sandstones. These reservoirs have limited interconnected pore spaces, making it
challenging for gas to flow through the rock and be extracted using conventional drilling and
production methods. The term "tight" refers to the low permeability of the rock.
Tight gas reserves are considered unconventional resources due to their unique characteristics and the
specialized techniques required for their extraction. The development of tight gas reserves typically
involves the use of advanced drilling techniques, such as horizontal drilling, and stimulation methods
like hydraulic fracturing (fracking) to create fractures in the rock and enhance gas flow.
The worldwide distribution of tight gas reserves is significant, with major reserves found in various
regions around the globe. Countries with notable tight gas reserves include the United States, China,
Canada, Russia, Australia, India, Mexico, Africa, and Argentina. These regions have identified
substantial volumes of tight gas resources and have made significant investments in exploration and
production activities.
Estimating the exact size of tight gas reserves can be challenging due to the complex nature of the
reservoirs and variations in geological conditions. However, global estimates suggest that tight gas
reserves are substantial, with potential resources estimated to be around 7400 trillion cubic feet (tcf).
(U.S. Energy Information Administration 2012).
Tight gas reserves have gained increasing importance as the demand for natural gas continues to rise,
and conventional reservoirs become depleted. They play a crucial role in meeting energy needs and
are expected to contribute significantly to the world's future energy supply.
Among unconventional gas resources, shale gas accounts for 71.1%, followed by coalbed methane at
21.7% and tight gas at 7% of the global recoverable unconventional gas (Wang et al., 2016). Tight
gas reservoirs play a vital role in the overall reserves of natural gas worldwide.
The exploration of tight gas began in the United States in 1970, with the initial production from the
San Juan Basin. Over time, American research groups identified approximately 23 tight gas basins
with more than one hundred thousand wells, contributing to a gas production volume of 17.54 x 10^10
m3 by 2010.
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The global estimated resources of tight gas amount to approximately 7400 trillion cubic feet (tcf) (Fig
2.1). The primary reserves of tight gas are in various countries, including the United States, China,
Canada, Russia, Australia, India, Mexico, Africa, and Argentina (Campbell, 2009; McGlade et al.,
2012).
Figure 2.1: Map showing the global distribution of tight gas resources (Rajput and Kumar Thakur, 2016).
United States
ODA
Mexico
Middle East
India
Europe
CSA
CIS
China
Canada
Australia
Africa
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Recoverable Tight Gas (Tcm)
Figure 2.2: Recoverable tight gas resources in the world’s top countries. Note: CIS, Commonwealth of the
Independent States; CSA, Central and South America; ODA, Other Developing Asia.
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2.2 GLOBAL TIGHT GAS RESOURCE:
2.2.1 The United States

Tight gas represents 310 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of the technically recoverable gas resources in the
United States. According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), approximately 17% of the
country's recoverable gas is found in tight gas reservoirs. The annual production of tight gas in the
United States amounts to 6 tcf, which is equivalent to 25% of the total gas production in the country.
The United States is home to several significant tight gas basins, including the Appalachian Basin,
Michigan Basin, Northern Great Plains/Williston Basin, Greater Green River Basin, Uinta-Piceance
Basin, Wind River Basin, Big Horn Basin, Douglas Creek Basin, Denver Basin, San Juan Basin,
Anadarko Basin, Permian Basin, Texas Gulf Coast Basin, Arkoma Basin, East Texas Basin, Black
Warrior Basin, Ozona Basin, Sonora Basin, Edwards Lime Basin, Cotton Valley (sweet) Basin,
Cotton Valley (sour) Basin, and Ouachita Basin (Fig 3.3).
The first production from tight sandstones occurred in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico, covering
an area of 9,325 square kilometers. The porosity of the reservoirs in this region ranges from 5.8% to
7.6%, while permeability varies from 0.01 to 0.15 millidarcies (mD). The primary reservoir units in
the San Juan Basin are the Late Cretaceous Mesaverde (Chacra sandstone member), the Early
Cretaceous Dakota, and the Late Cretaceous Pictured Cliff formations in the Balnco field. These
formations hold geological reserves of approximately 0.9 trillion cubic meters (m3).
Another significant tight gas basin in the United States is the Red Desert Basin in Wyoming, also
known as the Great Divide Basin.
The Red Desert Basin in Wyoming, covering an area of 24,100 square kilometres, is estimated to hold
1.4 trillion cubic meters (m3) of natural gas. The porosity of the reservoir in this basin ranges from
3% to 7%, with permeability below 1 mD. The major tight gas reservoirs in the Red Desert Basin are
found in the Late Cretaceous sandstones of the Almond, Lance, Ericson, Rock Springs, and Blair
formations, along with the Paleocene Fort Union formation.
14
Figure 2.3: Distribution map of major tight gas reservoirs in the America (Chinedu Ozobeme, 2006).
15
Another significant basin is the Greater Green River Basin, which has a geological gas reserve of 0.26
trillion cubic meters (m3) and covers an area of 51,022 square kilometers. The porosity of the reservoir
in this basin varies from 8% to 12%, with permeability ranging from 0.1 to 0.9 mD. The main tight
gas reservoirs in the Greater Green River Basin include the Late Cretaceous U. Almond, Blair, and
Mesaverde formations of the Echo Spring field, along with the Frontier formation of the La Barge
platform.
The major tight gas formations and fields of the United States Basins are listed in Table 1. The
historical and predicted proportion of various gases production from 1990 to 2035 in the United
States is shown in Fig. 2.4. As is seen, it is expected that tight gas with a proportion of 21% in 2035
will receive the second rank of total gas output after shale gas.
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Table 1: Major Tight Gas Fields and Formations in the United States
S/No Basin Field Formation Geological age
1 Arkoma Kinta Spiro sandstone L. Atokan

2 Anadarko Ellis Ranch Cleveland U. Pennsylvanian
Strong City Cherokee Pennsylvanian
Hemphill Granite wash Pennsylvanian
3 Appalachian Clinton Clinton medina L. Silurian

Berea Berea sandstone U. Devonian
4 Denver Wattenberg Muddy (J) sandstone L. Cretaceous

5 Fort Worth Boonesville Davis sandstone Pennsylvanian
6 Gulf Coast J.C. Martin Wilcox lobo Paleocene
J.C. Martin Wilcox deltaic Eocene
McAllen Ranch Vicksburg Oligocene
7 Great Plains Bowdoin Dome Bowdoin sandstone Cretaceous

8 Green River La Barge Platform Frontier U. Cretaceous
Echo Springs U. Almond U. Cretaceous
Echo Springs Blair U. Cretaceous
Echo Springs Mesaverde U. Cretaceous
9 Hugoton Embayment Panhandle Chase group Permian

10 Maverick Dos Hermanos Olmos U. Cretaceous
11 North Louisiana Carthage Cotton valley U. Jurassic
Carthage Travis peak L. Cretaceous
12 Permian Pecos Slope Abo L. Permian

Indian Basin Upper Penn. Dolostone U. Pennsylvanian
Pitchfork Ranch Morrow L. Pennsylvanian
Spraberry Spraberry (Oil) Permian
13 Piceance Douglas Creek Dakota sandstone L. Cretaceous

Shire Gulch Mancos B Shale U. Cretaceous
Plateau Mesaverde group U. Cretaceous
14 San Juan Blanco Dakota L. Cretaceous

Blanco Mesaverde group Ss. U. Cretaceous
Blanco Pictured cliff Ss. U. Cretaceous
Blanco Charca Ss. U. Cretaceous
15 Uinta Altamount Green river Eocene

Douglas Creek Douglas creek arch Eocene
16 Val Verde Ozona Sonora Canyon U. Pennsylvanian

18 Wind River Riverton Dome Frontier Ss. U. Cretaceous
17
Figure: 2.4: Chart showing the historical (1990 - 2010) and predicted (2010 - 2035) proportion of various gases
produced in the United States (Dai et al., 2012).
18
2.2.2 China
The tight gas exploration in China was first reported in 1971 through the discovery of the Zhongba
field in the western Sichuan Basin. The main tight gas-bearing basins in China include Ordos,
Sichuan, Tarim, North Songliao, South Songliao, Juggar, Jianghan, Jiuquan, East Sea, TurpanHami
(Tuha), Qaidam, Chuxiong, Bohai Bay, Taixi, Yingqiog, and Pearl River Mouth Basin. The upper
Paleozoic sandstones of Ordos and the Triassic Xujiahe sandstones of Sichuan along with the Jurassic
Lower Cretaceous sandstones of Tarim Basins host about 40% of proven natural gas in China
(equivalent to 3.63x1012 m3) (Hu et al., 2010; Dai et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2014).
19
Figure 2.5: Distribution map of major tight gas reservoirs in China (Dai et al., 2012).
20
Tight gas sandstones in the Sulige gas field (Ordos Basin), the western gas fields of the Sichuan Basin,
and the Kuqa depression in the Tarim Basin are associated with the coal beds. The coal measures are
rich in organic matter, widely distributed, and have high gas production intensity. Accordingly, coal
measures and lacustrine mudstone have been considered the main source rocks of tight gas in the
central and western gas fields of China. The proximity of coal measures to reservoir rocks, short
migration distances, and widely distributed sandstones has increased the expulsion efficiency of
source rocks and gas accumulation in the prolific basins (Yang et al., 2008; Jiang et al., 2015).
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2.2.3 Canada
Unconventional gas plays in Canada have widely been considered exploration and development
targets since 2005. Western Canada and the Rocky Mountains’ gas-prone sedimentary basins contain
significant amounts of unconventional gas (Law, 2002). There are nearly 20 tight gas basins across
the Rocky Mountains Basin Group and Gulf coast (Lei et al., 2010). The giant Elmworth deep tight
gas of Alberta Basin is the largest field in North America covering an area of 13,000 km 2 with a
geological reserve of 4.83 1012 m3. It produces from the Lower Cretaceous tight sandstones of Cadotte,
Falher, Bluesky, and Cadomin formations with average porosity of 8% and permeability less than 1
mD. The Western Canada Deep Basin hosts the deepest basin-centered tight gas reserves of the
Triassic Montney siltstones. Montney reservoir of up to 300 m thick with a geological reserve of 449
tcf gas covers an area of 100 km wide and hundreds of kilometers long (Jiang et al., 2015).
22
Figure 2.6: Distribution map of major tight gas reservoirs in Canada.

Map source: From ConocoPhillips Canada (2013); Hamblin (2010); Ontario Geological
Survey (2009); PacWest Consulting Partners (2013); US Energy Administration (2011); Yukon Government (2015).
23
2.2.4 Australia
The Australia is one of the pioneer countries in the exploration and production of tight gas sandstones.
Warro tight gas field of Perth Basin is one of the largest unconventional gas resources in Western
Australia (WA). It can supply more than 10% of WA gas consumption. The mail-producing tight gas
fields occur in Perth Basin and Cooper Basin. (Orsini et al., 2011; Johnson et al., 2019; Kadkhodaie
et al., 2021).
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2.2.5 Australia
Tight Gas Sandstones can be found in several productive basins in India, including the Krishna-
Godavari (KG), Cauvery, Cambay, Bengal, and Vindhyans Basins. In the KG Basin, the gas-bearing
tight sandstones are in the Cretaceous Raghavapuram and deeper Golapalli Formations. The porosity
and permeability of these reservoirs have been significantly reduced due to mechanical compaction
and the presence of authigenic clay minerals. In the Cauvery Basin, the Andimadam Formation of the
Early Cretaceous and the Bhuvanagiri Formation of the Late Cretaceous are tight sandstone
formations. The area where the Mukta and Bassein Formations have thinned out in the southern
plunge of the Bombay High also consists of tight reservoirs. The Cambay Basin contains thick
sequences of Eocene deposits that hold considerable resources of tight gas. In certain locations within
the Assam and Arakan Basin, the lower and middle Tipams Formation of the Tertiary period, along
with the Barail and Kopilies Formations in the Geleki field, are tight sandstones that require hydraulic
fracturing for commercial production (Kumar and Shandilya, 2013).
25
2.2.6 Middle East and North Africa

Due to the significant production achieved from the large and conventional oil and gas fields, the
development and production of unconventional resources have not been given much attention in the
Middle East. However, there are several countries in the region, including Oman, Saudi Arabia,
Egypt, Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Afghanistan, and Iran, that possess substantial resources of tight
gas sandstones.
In the Caspian Sea Basin, the deep-water tight sandstones of the Middle Pliocene series, specifically
the Pereriv formation (also known as the Fasila), hold significant amounts of natural gas. Apart from
Iran and Egypt, the main reserves of tight gas sandstones in the Middle East are found in the Paleozoic
sequences.
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2.2.7 Nigeria
The tight gas reservoirs in Nigeria are in the Niger Delta and Benue Trough. The Niger Delta is the
most prolific tight gas region in Nigeria, with estimated reserves of 10 Tcf. The Benue Trough is also
a significant tight gas region, with estimated reserves of 20 Tcf.
The development of tight gas reservoirs in Nigeria has the potential to significantly increase the
country's natural gas production. Nigeria is currently the largest gas producer in Africa, and it has the
potential to become a major global gas exporter. The development of tight gas reservoirs would help
to meet the growing demand for natural gas in Nigeria.
The Benue Trough, situated in the northeastern part of Nigeria, is a geological formation that stretches
approximately 800 kilometers (500 miles) across the country. It is known for its significant potential
for various hydrocarbon resources, including tight gas.
The Benue Trough is characterized by its sedimentary basins, which consist of layers of rocks that
have accumulated over millions of years. These sedimentary basins are believed to contain vast
amounts of organic material that have the potential to generate natural gas.
The geology of the Benue Trough is composed of different rock formations, including shales,
sandstones, and limestones. The tight gas reservoirs in this region are primarily found within the
shales, which are low-permeability rocks that trap natural gas within their pore spaces.
Exploration activities in the Benue Trough have indicated the presence of significant tight gas
reserves. Studies have suggested that the area holds substantial untapped potential, with estimates
ranging from tens to hundreds of trillions of cubic feet of tight gas resources. These estimates make
the Benue Trough a promising area for future gas development.
However, the development of tight gas in the Benue Trough faces several challenges. The low-
permeability nature of the reservoir rocks makes it difficult for the gas to flow freely, requiring
advanced extraction techniques such as hydraulic fracturing. Additionally, the lack of infrastructure
and limited access to the area pose logistical challenges for exploration and production operations.
To unlock the potential of tight gas in the Benue Trough, the Nigerian government and industry
stakeholders have been taking steps to encourage exploration and investment. This includes the
offering of exploration blocks and the implementation of policies and incentives to attract companies
to the region.
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In conclusion, the Benue Trough in northeastern Nigeria is considered a key area with significant
potential for tight gas development. While challenges exist, ongoing efforts by the government and
industry players aim to explore and exploit the untapped tight gas resources in this region to further
enhance Nigeria's natural gas production and reserves.
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2.3 TIGHT GAS RESERVE ESTIMATION ANALYSIS

Reserve estimation in tight gas reservoirs can be a complex process that requires detailed geological
and engineering analysis. The estimation of reserves involves assessing various factors such as
reservoir properties, production performance, and economic considerations. The following are some
key points related to reserve estimation in tight gas reservoirs:
1. Reserve estimation in tight gas reservoirs involves various techniques and considerations
(Raghavan et al., 2019). The process begins with a comprehensive understanding of the reservoir's
geological and petrophysical properties (Montgomery et al., 2010). Production data analysis,
including decline curves and well deliverability, is crucial for evaluating the reservoir's performance
(Cipolla et al., 2010).
2. Material balance methods and PVT analysis are used to determine the original gas in place (OGIP)
and estimate recoverable reserves (Mukerji et al., 2007). Reservoir simulation models, considering
the reservoir's complexity and heterogeneity, aid in predicting future production behaviour (Lee et al.,
2019).
3. Recovery factors in tight gas reservoirs tend to be lower due to the challenges posed by low
permeability (Ghosh et al., 2018). Factors such as reservoir characteristics, recovery mechanisms, and
production techniques (e.g., hydraulic fracturing) influence recovery factor determination (Hu et al.,
2017).
4. Economic factors, including gas prices, production costs, and regulatory constraints, play a
significant role in assessing the economic viability of tight gas reserves (Al-Awad et al., 2015).
5. It's important to consult industry guidelines and work with qualified reservoir engineers and
geoscientists to ensure accurate reserve estimation in tight gas reservoirs (SPEE, 2011).
It's important to note that reserve estimation in tight gas reservoirs can vary depending on the specific
reservoir characteristics and the methodologies employed by different companies and regulatory
bodies. Consulting industry guidelines, technical publications, and working with qualified reservoir
engineers and geoscientists is essential to ensure accurate reserve estimation in tight gas reservoirs.
29
2.4 VOLUME ESTIMATION

Estimating the volume of gas in tight gas reservoirs can be challenging due to the complex nature of
these formations. It requires integrating data from geological surveys, well logs, core samples, and
production history. Advanced techniques like reservoir modelling and simulation are used to estimate
the volume of gas in place, known as the original gas in place (OGIP).
Estimating the volume and calculating the reserves of tight gas reservoirs involves several key
parameters and equations. Here's a general formula that can be used as a starting point for volume
estimation and reserves calculation (Petrowiki, 2017):
Volume of Gas in Place:

7758 x A∗h∗∅∗(1−Swi)
𝑉=
𝐵𝑔 𝑥 𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑥 𝑅
Where:
V = Volume of gas in place (cubic feet or cubic meters)
A = Reservoir area in acres (1 square mile = 640 acres)
h = Reservoir thickness in feet
Φ = Porosity
Sg = Gas saturation (1 - Water saturation)
Bg = Gas formation volume factor (RB/SCF)
Boi = Initial oil formation volume factor (RB/STB)
R = Recovery factor
30
2.4.1 SOLVED EXAMPLE

You are tasked with estimating the reserves of a tight gas reservoir. The reservoir has the following
properties:
- Porosity: 5%
- Water saturation: 30%
- Formation volume factor: 1.2 RB/STB (reservoir barrels per stock tank barrel)
- Gas compressibility: 0.001 psi^-1
- Average reservoir pressure: 4,500 psi
- Reservoir area: 1 square mile
- Reservoir thickness: 100 feet
- Gas viscosity: 0.02 cp
- Gas formation volume factor: 1.1 RB/SCF (reservoir barrels per standard cubic foot)
- Recovery factor: 10%
You have the following data from well tests:

- Average well productivity index: 10 STB/day/psi
- Average well drainage area: 20 acres
- Number of wells drilled: 10
Assumptions:
- The reservoir is homogenous and isotropic.
- The reservoir is in the pseudo-steady state.
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the original gas in place (OGIP)
The formula to calculate OGIP is:
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝐱 𝐀∗𝐡∗∅∗(𝟏−𝐒𝐰𝐢)
𝑶𝑮𝑰𝑷 =
𝑩𝒈 𝒙 𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝒙 𝑹
Where:
A = Reservoir area in acres (1 square mile = 640 acres)
h = Reservoir thickness in feet
Φ = Porosity
Sg = Gas saturation (1 - Water saturation)
Bg = Gas formation volume factor (RB/SCF)
31
Boi = Initial oil formation volume factor (RB/STB)

R = Recovery factor
In this example, we need to convert the given values to the appropriate units:
A = 1 square mile x 640 acres = 640 acres
h = 100 feet
Φ = 0.05 (5% expressed as a decimal)
Sg = 1 - 0.30 = 0.70 (gas saturation)
Bg = 1.1 RB/SCF
Boi = 1.2 RB/STB
R = 0.10 (10% recovery factor)
Plugging in the values:

OGIP = (7758 x 640 x 100 x 0.05 x 0.70) / (1.1 x 1.2 x 0.10)
= 1,197,040,000 RB
Step 2: Calculate the recoverable reserves

Recoverable reserves = OGIP x R
Recoverable reserves = 1,197,040,000 RB x 0.10
= 119,704,000 RB
Step 3: Calculate the production rate per well.

The production rate per well can be calculated using the well productivity index (PI) and the average
reservoir pressure (Pavg):
Q = PI x (Pavg - Pwf)
Where:
Q = Flow rate in STB/day
PI = Well productivity index in STB/day/psi
Pavg = Average reservoir pressure in psi
Pwf = Well flowing pressure in psi
In this example, we'll assume a flowing pressure (Pwf) of 4,400 psi (a slight drawdown from the
average reservoir pressure).
32

Q = 10 STB/day/psi x (4,500 psi - 4,400 psi)
= 1,000 STB/day
Step 4: Calculate the number of wells required.

The number of wells required can be calculated using the equation:
Number of wells = (Recoverable reserves / (Q x Days per year x Hours per day))
Where:
Recoverable reserves = Total recoverable reserves in STB (from Step 2)
Q = Flow rate per well in STB/day (from Step 3)
Days per year = Number of days in a year (usually 365)
Hours per day = Number of hours per day (usually 24)
Let's continue with the calculation using the given values:

Recoverable reserves = 119,704,000 RB (converted to STB using appropriate conversion factor)
Q = 1,000 STB/day
Days per year = 365
Hours per day = 24
Converting Recoverable reserves from RB to STB:

Recoverable reserves = 119,704,000 RB x (42 gallons per RB / 5.615 gallons per STB)
≈ 884,152,769 STB

Number of wells = (884,152,769 STB / (1,000 STB/day x 365 days/year x 24 hours/day))
≈ 32.2
Therefore, the estimated number of wells required to produce the recoverable reserves from the tight
gas reservoir is approximately 32 wells.
33
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING METHODS:
3.1 TIGHT GAS PRODUCTION:

Due to the low permeability of tight gas reservoirs, specialized drilling and extraction techniques
are necessary to maximize gas production. Horizontal drilling combined with hydraulic fracturing
(fracking) is commonly employed to create fractures in the reservoir rock, allowing gas to flow more
easily. The fracturing fluid consists of water, sand, and chemical additives, which prop open the
fractures and enhance gas recovery. (Rigzone, 2015).
State-of-the-art production and recovery methods for tight gas reservoirs involve advanced
technologies and techniques aimed at maximizing gas production and improving recovery
efficiency. Here are some of the key methods:
1. Hydraulic Fracturing: Hydraulic fracturing is accomplished by pumping large volumes of

fluid down the wellbore, increasing the pressure on the rock formation until it breaks down
and fractures. Because the fractures would tend to close when the fluid is removed especially
in deep reservoirs where the pressure of the rock is great sand or other materials are added to
the fluid. Left behind when the fluid is removed, are these “proppants” are wedged into the
fractures and prevent them from closing, Hydraulic fractures tend to be unidirectional,
generally extending out in opposite directions from the wellbore (J.W Crafton 1983). Is one
main method used to access the gas, and this method involves breaking apart the rocks in the
formation by pumping the well full of high pressure fracking fluids. This improves
permeability and allows gas to flow more easily. Acidizing the well—or pumping the well
full of acids to dissolve the limestone and sediment—allows the gas to flow more freely by
establishing paths for the gas to follow. Fracturing, also known as "fracking," a well involves
breaking the rocks in the formation apart. Performed after the well has been drilled
and completed, hydraulic fracturing is achieved by pumping the well full of frac fluids under
high pressure to break the rocks in the reservoir apart and improve permeability, or the ability
of the gas to flow through the formation. With the fracking well encased in steel and/or
cement to prevent leakage into ground water, a fracking fluid is pumped down the well at
pressures that can exceed 9,000 pounds per square inch (psi) or 62,050 kilopascals (kpa).
This pressure can fracture the surrounding rock and create fissures and cracks for oil and gas
flow. (Rigzone, 2015).
34
Hydraulic fracturing (also known as hydrofracturing, hydrofracking, fracking, or fracture

stimulation technology, or various other derivatives of the term) is a method by which access
to crude oil and natural gas trapped in impermeable and hard‐to‐reach geologic formations is
achieved. The hydraulic fracturing process involves the pressurized injection of a fluid
(fracturing fluid) into geologic formations (shale formations or unusually tight rock
formations consisting of a clastic sedimentary rock composed of silt‐ to clay‐sized grains)
until the reservoir rock cracks (causing fractures in the formations) and then extending that
fracture by continued injection of fluid. A solid proppant, typically sand, is also injected into
the formation with the fracturing fluid so that the fracture cannot close and remains propped
open by the proppant left behind. This creates a flow path for reservoir fluids to be rapidly
produced from the reservoir. In terms of project timing, the process may take less than 1
month with reward being decade long production of crude oil and natural gas. (James 2016).
Gas flows from a reservoir towards a well bore because of a pressure difference between the
reservoir and the well bore. The rate of flow is dependent on the difference in pressure and
the permeability of the formation. Fracturing is designed to increase flow rates by cracking
the reservoir rock, exposing more of the reservoir surface to the lower wellbore pressure.
Hydraulic fracturing is accomplished by pumping large volumes of fluid down the wellbore,
increasing the pressure on the rock formation until it breaks down and fractures. Because the
fractures would tend to close when the fluid is removed especially in deep reservoirs where
the pressure of the rock is great sand or other materials are added to the fluid. Left behind
when the fluid is removed, these “proppants” are wedged into the fractures and prevent them
from closing, hydraulic fractures tend to be unidirectional, generally extending out in
opposite directions from the wellbore. By convention, their length is measured along one
wing. Their direction and orientation (vertical, horizontal, or inclined) are controlled by the
regional stress regime and the depth of the target formation. Induced fractures at depths
greater than 2,000 ft are oriented in the vertical plane. At shallower depths, such might be
found in the biogenic gas reservoirs of the Northern Great Plains, fracture orientation may
be horizontal. Use of new fracturing technology help accessing the pay-zones, e.g., with
multiple jobs, each optimized to specific formation properties. Each treatment, while not
achieving propped lengths once envisioned, can be pumped at significant cost savings and
effective proppant placement allows for quick and complete well cleanup, enhancing
productivity. An unfractured well in a tight (0.001 md) blanket sand can drain only about 20
acres of the field during a 30-year production life, and during that time would average less
than 40 MCF/D of gas production, a very low rate. A massive hydraulic fracture creating a
35
1,000-ft fracture would increase the average production rate by nearly five - fold and allow
complete drainage of the field with six wells per section rather than nearly 30 with
unfractured wells. An advanced technology producing a 4,000-ft fracture would increase the
average production rate by a factor of 15 and allow the tight field to be drained with a 320-
acre (two wells per section) spacing, a common spacing in conventional gas fields.
Successful fracturing in tight formations is complex and faces substantial obstacles. A few
critical points should be understood.
2. First, the great majority of tight gas recovery has been restricted to areas “characterized by
thick, fairly uniform, blanket-type formations, only a limited knowledge of the formation
characteristics is necessary to stimulate economic production rates.” The majority of the
resource, however, is more complex, and greater understanding of the geology and
production mechanics is critical.
3. Second, although fracturing dates from the 1800s, and hydraulic fracturing dates from 1947
and has the benefit of the experience gained by thousands of separate fracturing treatments,
the type of massive hydraulic fracture needed to begin to fully exploit the tight resource has
only been developed in the last 10 years or so. The process is not fully understood and
extrapolation to new geologic situation is difficult.
4. Third, aside from the difficulty of forecasting what a fracture will do, it is hard to tell in any
detail what a fracture has done even after it has been completed and the well is producing (or
has proved to be unproductive). In addition, as with any new and rapidly developing
technology, state-of-the-art techniques are not necessarily standard practice in commercial
ventures. For these reasons, our extensive experience in fracturing has not been as much
benefit in projecting future performance as might have been expected. Despite these
difficulties, however, well service companies and producers have been responding vigorously
to the various problems encountered in tight formations and have developed a number of
variations to the standard fracture treatments, Of particular importance are the development
of new fracture fluids and proppants which can increase fracturing efficiency and fracture
conductivity. In addition, improved techniques for fracture containment (i. e., keeping the
fracture within the gas-bearing layer), fracture prediction, and onsite monitoring will result
in more accurate production estimates, greatly reducing the risk of developing these high-
cost resources, Proppants. Development of new proppants is an important area of innovation
by the service companies in response to a need for material that will not crush at high
36
pressures and is light enough for the fluid to transport to the end of the fracture. Recent
developments include;
1. Ceramic beads; and
2. Resin-coated sands that have lower densities than bauxite the material currently used in high
pressure situations and thus can be more efficiently transported by the fluid. They appear to
have sufficient strength for most fracture applications.
5. Fracturing Fluids: The need for a fracture fluid that simultaneously can avoid formation
damage (clay swelling, etc.) and maintain a high capacity to carry proppants in suspension
into the fracture has led to the development of very sophisticated fluids. A particularly
significant development is “cross-linking,’ which temporarily increases the viscosity of the
fluid and thus its fracturing and proppant carrying capability by linking together polymer
chains. After emplacement of the proppant, this viscous fluid alters to a low-viscosity fluid
so that it can flow back to the wellbore, minimizing formation damage.
6. Fracture Containment: A common problem in thin blanket sands is the difficulty of keeping
the fracture within the blanket, or pay zone, so that it does not waste its energy fracturing
non- productive rock or actually cause reserves to be lost by fracturing into a water zone or
fracturing the reservoir “cap.” In general, readily available techniques have not been
successful at containing fractures within the pay zone. New techniques have been proposed
(including careful placement of the fracture initiation point, very careful control of the
fracturing fluid viscosity and pressure, and use of floating proppants to seal off upper
nonproducing portions of the fracture) and are being tested. Understanding the mechanisms
of fracturing: which is being able to predict fracture behavior is critical to reducing the
economic risk of tight sands development to manageable levels. The state of the art of fracture
prediction, however, comes from sophisticated mathematical models and laboratory
experiments with very little field verification. Current practice in the field is to use relatively
simple analytical models against which to compare fracture behavior, proppant placement,
fracture length, and well performance. These simple models will often be inadequate in
complex tight gas situations, but the more sophisticated models currently available are
expensive, time consuming, and dependent on input data that often are not readily obtained.
And, although laboratory experiments allow interesting possibilities for tightly controlled
conditions and parametric analysis, it is difficult to be confident that field-scale fractures will
behave in the same manner as the small-scale laboratory fractures.
37
7. Field-scale testing: using experimental wells or excavating a created fracture, can overcome
some of these problems but is extremely expensive. Only a few field-scale tests have been
completed and ongoing projects have been curtailed due to Federal funding cuts.
Nevertheless, they are providing valuable information on actual fracture configuration.
8. The difficulties of fracture prediction: they are particularly acute in the early stages of field
development, when theoretical models and analogy with other fields provide the only
forecasting guides, Continued development of the field provides data for performance
matching of prospective sites with producing wells, and the percentage of successful well
stimulations should increase with experience, however, this learning process may be
disrupted by problems associated with monitoring fracturing success and interpreting well
performance.
9. Monitoring Fracture Behaviour: The ability to monitor fracture behaviour is critical to tight
sands development for two reasons. First, it is how the existing experience in fracturing can
be translated into an ability to predict fracture behaviour for new wells. The inability to
measure what has occurred underground in past fracture treatment is responsible for our poor
predictive capability. Second, it is critical to field development, because knowing fracture
location is necessary in planning additional wells to minimize interference between wells.
Most of the technologies under development to monitor fractures in the field are adaptations
of existing geophysical and well logging techniques. Some success has been realized in
determining fracture height adjacent to the borehole, and in some cases, total fracture length
and propagation direction. Problems still exist in determining propped length of the fracture
and vertical growth at a distance from the wellbore. Most of these technologies are still
experimental and costly and are difficult to use. However, fracture diagnostics has received
major attention from service companies in the past few years, and innovation has been rapid.
improvement and widespread commercial use of these monitoring techniques would have a
major effect in lowering the economic risk of tight sands development. In tight gas
formations, improved fracturing technologies, developed in blanket sands, have for the most
part realized considerable success. Increased fracture lengths in blanket formations often
appear to be attainable simply by increasing the volume of fluid and proppant pumped.
Fractures over 2,000ft long have been reported. Where design lengths have not been
achieved, failure can generally be attributed to fracturing out of the pay interval, inadequate
38
proppant transport, or extensive formation damage. An additional but less obvious major
problem may still exist in blanket formations. Because massive hydraulic fracturing in low
permeability formations is still a relatively new technology, there are no data on whether the
permeability of the fractures can be maintained through time. There is concern that the
fractures may close or become plugged before the 30year production histories are complete.
Counteractive measures, such as periodic clean-up treatments or multiple small fracture
treatments over the life of the wells, have not been evaluated in terms of their costs, risks,
and effect on well performance. The overall success rate of massive hydraulic fracturing in
tight formations is likely to improve to the extent that new technologies are developed to
counteract problems such as formation damage and inadequate proppant transport. A certain
number of reservoirs, however, may never be amenable to production using massive
hydraulic fracturing. For example, adequate fracture containment in some reservoirs may
never be possible due to the intrinsic characteristics of the rock. If reservoir boundary layers
are substantially weaker than the reservoir rock, the fracture will grow vertically at the
expense of horizontal growth. In effect, much of the fluid and proppant is being used to create
a fracture i n a non-productive interval. Recovery from such reservoirs cannot be based on
the creation of 1,000-ft fractures. More work needs to be done in identifying such formations
and determining the optimal fracture treatment to maximize recovery at minimum cost. Gas
Supply Through the Year 2000, Lenticular reservoirs represent a situation where new
technologies have not been effective. The NPC-estimated base technology (1,000-ft
fractures) is not yet the acknowledged state of the art, nor is there substantive evidence that
fractures will penetrate lenses not actually intersected by the well bore. Where large-scale
fracture treatments have been attempted in Lenticular formations, results have been
disappointing. Commercial flow rates were not attained. Insufficient data were collected both
before and after treatment of reservoirs and to help determine their relationship to one another
are crucial to designing more efficient stimulations and making accurate estimates of reserves
and recovery rates for economic analysis, Accurate reservoir characterization reduces both
the costs and risks of field development. This is a key technique used to extract gas from tight
gas reservoirs. It involves creating fractures in the rock formation by injecting water, sand,
and chemicals under high pressure. These fractures increase the permeability of the rock,
allowing the gas to flow more easily.
39
Figure 3.1: Process of Hydraulic fracturing. Source: Google
40
Several conditions are required for successful hydraulic fracturing:
10. Suitable Rock Formation: The presence of a suitable rock formation is crucial for hydraulic
fracturing. The ideal formation should have a high content of natural gas or oil trapped within
it. Common formations include shale, tight sandstone, and coalbed methane reservoirs.
11. Permeability: The rock formation must have low permeability, meaning that the flow of gas
or oil through the rock is restricted. This allows for the creation of fractures and the release
of trapped resources.
12. Water Availability: Hydraulic fracturing requires a significant amount of water. Access to
an adequate water source, such as rivers, lakes, or underground aquifers, is essential. The
availability of water in sufficient quantities is necessary for mixing with proppants and
chemicals to create the fracturing fluid.
13. Proppants: Proppants are small solid particles (typically sand or ceramic materials) that are
added to the fracturing fluid. These proppants are injected into the fractures created in the
rock formation to keep them open. The presence of proppants is necessary to maintain the
permeability of the fractures, allowing gas or oil to flow.
14. Fracturing Fluid: Fracturing fluid is a mixture of water, proppants, and chemicals. It is
pumped into the wellbore under high pressure to create fractures in the rock. The fluid should
have the right viscosity, be compatible with the rock formation, and contain additives to
enhance the fracturing process, such as reducing friction or preventing bacterial growth.
15. Well Design and Construction: Proper well design and construction are critical for
successful hydraulic fracturing. The wellbore needs to be drilled and cased appropriately to
reach the target formation. The well must be constructed with integrity to prevent fluid leaks
and ensure the safe extraction of resources.
16. Regulatory Compliance: Compliance with local regulations and environmental guidelines
is crucial for successful hydraulic fracturing. Obtaining necessary permits, adhering to safety
protocols, and minimizing potential impacts on water sources, ecosystems, and nearby
communities are important considerations.
17. Geologic Knowledge and Engineering Expertise: Adequate geologic knowledge of the
target formation, along with engineering expertise, is vital for successful hydraulic fracturing.
Proper understanding of the subsurface conditions, including the rock properties, stresses,
and geologic structures, helps optimize the fracturing process and maximize resource
recovery.
18. Deliquifaction: of the tight gas wells can help with extraction. In most tight gas formations,
the reservoirs also contain some water which can collect and make extraction difficult.
Deliquefying by pumping water up from the reservoir makes removing the gas simpler.
Furthermore, deliquification of the tight gas wells can help to overcome some production
challenges. In many tight gas formations, the reservoirs also contain small amounts of water.
This water can collect and undermine production processes. Deliquification is achieved in
this instance through artificial lift techniques, such as using a beam pumping system to
remove the water from the reservoir, although this has not proven the most effective way to
overcome this challenge (Rigzone, 2015).
41
Other Production methods includes:
2. Horizontal Drilling: Horizontal drilling is an important technique for tight gas reservoirs.
Instead of drilling vertically, the well is drilled horizontally within the gas-bearing formation.
This technique allows for increased exposure to the reservoir, maximizing contact with the gas-
bearing rock and increasing the potential for gas production. Horizontal drilling, combined with
hydraulic fracturing, has proven to be highly effective in enhancing gas recovery from tight gas
reservoirs (Rigzone, 2015).
3. Reservoir Characterization and Modelling: State-of-the-art reservoir characterization

techniques, such as advanced well logging, 3D seismic imaging, and formation evaluation
technologies, are used to accurately understand the reservoir's properties and behavior. This
information is then incorporated into sophisticated reservoir models that simulate the fluid
flow and predict reservoir performance. These models help optimize well placement,
fracturing design, and production strategies, leading to improved recovery efficiency.
4. Integrated Production Systems: Integrated production systems involve the integration of

surface facilities, well designs, and production optimization strategies to maximize gas
recovery. Advanced monitoring and control technologies are used to continuously monitor
well performance, reservoir conditions, and production rates. Real-time data analysis and
automated control systems enable operators to make timely decisions and optimize
production, resulting in higher recovery rates and improved operational efficiency (Stephen
et. al. 2007).
5. Advanced Well Completion and Stimulation: Innovations in well completion and

stimulation techniques are continually being developed to enhance gas production in tight
gas reservoirs. This includes the use of advanced proppants, optimized fluid systems, and
innovative completion designs to improve fracture conductivity and stimulate larger surface
areas within the reservoir (Ghassemi, 2017).
6. Various Enhanced Recovery Techniques are being explored for tight gas reservoirs to
further improve gas recovery. These techniques include gas injection (such as nitrogen or
42
carbon dioxide) to maintain reservoir pressure, water flooding to displace gas, and chemical
injection to modify fluid properties and enhance gas mobility. These methods aim to
supplement natural reservoir energy and improve the sweep efficiency, ultimately increasing
the recovery factor.
State-of-the-art production and recovery methods for tight gas reservoirs are constantly evolving
as new technologies and techniques are developed and implemented. These advancements focus
on increasing the productivity of wells, improving reservoir characterization, optimizing
production strategies, and maximizing overall gas recovery from tight gas reservoirs.
43
3.2 TIGHT GAS PROCESSING:

Tight gas processing involves a series of steps to extract, treat, and condition the natural gas from
tight gas reservoirs before it can be transported and used as a commercial energy source. The
processing steps for tight gas typically include the following:
o Wellhead Production: The first step is the production of gas from the tight gas wellhead. The
gas is typically a mixture of hydrocarbons, including methane, along with impurities such as water
vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), and other trace components (Margot and
David, 2018).
o Wellhead Separation: The produced gas is usually accompanied by liquids, such as condensate
and water. At the wellhead, separation equipment is employed to separate the gas from the liquids.
The liquids are further processed separately, while the gas undergoes additional treatment (Thomas
and Matthias, 2015).
o Gas Compression: The gas is compressed to increase its pressure, which facilitates its
transportation through pipelines to processing facilities or downstream consumers. Compression
helps in maintaining the flow and pressure of the gas over long distances. Gas compression is used
in all aspects of the gas industry, including gas lift, reinjection of gas for pressure maintenance, gas
gathering, gas processing operations (circulation of gas through the process or system), transmission
and distribution systems, and reducing the gas volume for shipment by tankers or for storage. The
benefits of operating at higher pressures include the ability to transmit larger volumes of gas through
a given size of pipeline, lower transmission losses due to friction, and the capability to transmit gas
over long distances without additional boosting stations. In gas transmission, two basic types of
compressors are used: reciprocating and centrifugal compressors. Reciprocating compressors are
usually driven by either electric motors or gas engines, whereas centrifugal compressors use gas
turbines or electric motors as drivers. The key variables for equipment selections are life cycle cost,
capital cost, and maintenance costs, including overhaul and spare parts, fuel, or energy costs. (Saeid
et. al., 2006).
o Contaminant Removal: The gas is treated to remove impurities and contaminants. This includes
the removal of acid gases like CO2 and H2S, which are typically done through various processes
such as amine gas treating, physical absorption, or membrane separation. These contaminants are
removed to meet the required gas quality specifications for transportation and utilization.
44
o Acid Gas Removal: Techniques like amine sweetening or alkali salt are used to remove
acid gases such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the gas stream.
o Amine Gas treating: Also known as amine scrubbing, gas sweetening and acid gas
removal, refers to a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of
various alkylamines(commonly referred to simply as amines) to remove hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from gases. It is a common unit process used
in refineries, and is also used in petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants and
other industries.
Processes within oil refineries or chemical processing plants that remove hydrogen
sulphide are referred to as "sweetening" processes because the odour of the processed
products is improved by the absence of hydrogen sulphide.
o Mercury Removal: Natural gas may contain traces of mercury, which can be harmful to
pipelines and equipment. Specialized adsorbents or chemical processes are utilized to
remove mercury contaminants. Mercury can be observed in many of the world’s natural
gas fields. Natural gas process facilities with brazed aluminium heat exchangers, including
LNG facilities and nitrogen rejection units, are particularly susceptible to corrosive attack
by mercury. There is an increased awareness on the part of gas processors to better protect
their assets and address environmental concerns by removing mercury at the most
appropriate location from their facilities. There are many mercury removal technologies
for natural gas, oil and produced water process facilities. Metal sulphide adsorbents and
activated carbons are popular technique to remove mercury from natural gas and oil
(Abdelaziz, 2021).
45
Figure 3.1: Gas treatment processing
46
o Dehydration: The natural gas usually contains water vapor, which needs to be removed to
prevent corrosion and equipment damage. Dehydration is achieved by passing the gas through
a desiccant bed or using glycol dehydration units, which absorb the moisture from the gas.
Water vapor in a natural gas stream can result in line plugging due to hydrate formation,
reduction of line capacity due to collection of free water in the line, and increased risk of
damage to the pipeline due to the corrosive effects of water. Therefore, water vapor must be
removed from natural gas to prevent hydrate formation and corrosion from condensed water.
• Gas dehydration is the process of removing water vapor from a gas stream to lower the
temperature at which water will condense from the stream; this temperature is called the
“dew point” of the gas. Molecular sieves, silica gel, glycol, etc, are considered as one of
the most important materials that are used as desiccant materials in industrial natural gas
dehydration (Hassan et. al., 2011).
o Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) Recovery: Some tight gas reservoirs contain natural gas liquids,
which are valuable hydrocarbon components such as ethane, propane, and butane. NGL
recovery processes, such as cryogenic fractionation or absorption, are employed to separate
and recover these liquids for further processing or sale.
o Gas Compression and Transportation: Once the gas is processed and treated, it is
compressed again for transportation through pipelines or converted to liquefied natural gas
(LNG) for export or storage. Compression is necessary to maintain the pressure required for
efficient transport over long distances.
o Storage and Distribution: The processed gas is then stored in underground storage facilities
or distributed through pipeline networks to end-users, such as residential, commercial, or
industrial consumers.
It's important to note that the specific processing steps and technologies employed in tight gas
processing can vary depending on the composition of the gas, reservoir characteristics,
environmental regulations, and market requirements. Advanced technologies and processes are
continually being developed to optimize the efficiency and environmental performance of tight gas
processing.
47
3.3 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES:

Tight gas reservoir development faces several economic and environmental challenges. The initial
cost of drilling and hydraulic fracturing operations can be substantial. Moreover, the long-term
production decline in tight gas reservoirs requires continuous drilling of new wells to maintain
production levels. Environmental concerns associated with hydraulic fracturing include water usage,
potential contamination of groundwater, and the disposal of fracturing fluids. Below are the distinct
economic and environmental challenges with tight gas production (Wang, et al 2013).
3.3.1 Economic challenges:

Tight gas reservoirs contain no natural fractures but cannot be produced economically without
hydraulic fracturing. Fractured, tight and unconventional reservoirs are often perceived as
entailing higher costs and risks than conventional reservoirs. An unconventional reservoir is one
that cannot be produced at economic flow rates or that does not produce economic volumes of oil
and gas without assistance from massive stimulation treatments or special recovery processes and
technologies, such as steam injection (Alam, 2011).
Unlike conventional reservoirs, which are comparatively small in volume but easy to develop,
unconventional reservoirs are large in volume but difficult to develop. Engineers look
unfavourably on them because they are difficult to evaluate, and recovery techniques must be
carefully chosen and applied in order to avoid production problems. However, new technologies
developed recently are making more and more of these accumulations economic. Economic
production of natural gas from these resources, including tight gas, is a great challenge in the
world in general.
To find the economic viability of the tight gas production, we need to make an in-depth study of
cost elements involved in the production of tight gas and division of revenues (James, 2009).
48
The production of tight gas involves several cost elements, including:

1. Exploration and drilling costs: The first stage in producing tight gas involves exploring
and drilling wells to access the gas reserves. This process can be expensive, as it often
involves drilling deeper and more complex wells than conventional gas production (Mark,
2021).
2. Hydraulic fracturing costs: Once the well has been drilled, hydraulic fracturing, or
"fracking," is typically required to extract the gas. This process involves injecting a
mixture of water, sand, and chemicals into the well at high pressure, which fractures the
rock and releases the gas. Fracking can be a significant cost element, as it requires
specialized equipment and materials (Fitzgerald, 2013).
3. Production and processing costs: Once the gas has been extracted, it must be processed
and transported to market. This involves treating the gas to remove impurities and
compressing it for transportation. These processes can be costly, particularly if the gas
must be transported long distances to reach markets (Jiwei and Wang 2018).
4. Environmental and regulatory compliance costs: The production of tight gas can be
subject to a range of environmental and regulatory requirements, including permits,
monitoring, and reporting requirements. Compliance with these requirements can be a
significant cost element, particularly if there are concerns about the environmental impact
of the production process (Thornton, 2008).
5. Labour and equipment costs: Finally, the production of tight gas requires a significant
amount of labour and specialized equipment. This includes drilling rigs, fracking
equipment, and processing facilities, as well as skilled workers to operate and maintain
these systems. These costs can vary depending on the location and complexity of the
production operations (Hossain, 2015).
49
3.3.2 Environmental Challenges:

The environmental concerns surrounding drilling for tight gas are like those that surround
shale gas drilling. This is largely due to concerns involving the fracking process.
1. First, drilling and fracturing these wells requires a large amount of water. In some areas,
significant water use for shale gas could affect the availability of water for other uses or
affect aquatic habitats.
2. In addition, drilling and fracturing produces large amounts of wastewater that may contain
contaminants. This results in the water requiring treatment before disposal or reuse. How
wastewater should be treated and disposed is a complex issue.
3. Additionally, hydraulic fracking fluid can be a contaminant if not managed properly as

spills or leaks could occur.
4. The chemicals in the fracking fluid can be dangerous, and any release of the fluid could
result in contamination of groundwater for drinking or habitats for wildlife.
5. Environmental concerns regarding acidization are also prominent. The use of hydrofluoric
acid to release tight gas in these reserves is potentially an issue simply because the
substance is so dangerous. A spill or a leak could harm workers and pollute groundwater
for residential uses.
6. Finally, the ability to drill into these reserves directionally or horizontally leads to
concerns about drilling companies having access to potentially environmentally
significant areas. By making access easier, more and more previously unreachable sources
in previously preserved areas could be disturbed (Wang, et al 2013).
50
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 AREAS OF APPLICATION FOR TIGHT GAS RESERVOIRS:

The types of application areas for tight gas reservoirs can vary depending on specific focuses
and objectives. Here are some common areas where tight gas reservoirs are applied:
1. Exploration and Production Companies: These companies are directly involved in

developing and producing gas from tight gas reservoirs. They invest in exploration, drill
wells, and employ advanced technologies to extract natural gas. Their goal is to maximize
gas recovery and generate profits.
2. Engineering and Service Companies: These companies play a crucial role in the
development of tight gas reservoirs. They provide technical expertise and services related
to drilling, completion, hydraulic fracturing, reservoir characterization, and production
optimization. Specialized equipment, tools, and technologies are offered to enable
efficient and cost-effective gas extraction.
3. Research and Development Institutions: Research institutions and academic

organizations conduct studies and research on tight gas reservoirs. They investigate
reservoir properties, rock mechanics, geomechanics, and fluid behaviour to enhance
understanding. These institutions contribute to technological advancements, develop
improved extraction techniques, and explore sustainable and environmentally friendly
approaches.
4. Government and Regulatory Bodies: Government agencies and regulatory bodies

oversee the development and production of tight gas reservoirs. They establish
regulations, policies, and standards to ensure safe and environmentally responsible
operations. Compliance monitoring, permit issuance, and guidance on best practices are
provided for tight gas exploration and production.
51
5. Energy and Utilities Companies: Energy and utilities companies are consumers of
natural gas produced from tight gas reservoirs. They utilize natural gas for power
generation, heating, cooling, and industrial processes. Natural gas is procured from
producers to meet customer demand and incorporated into their energy portfolios.
6. Environmental and Conservation Organizations: These organizations focus on

monitoring and assessing the environmental impacts associated with tight gas reservoir
development. They advocate for sustainable practices, conduct research on potential
ecological effects, and work to protect sensitive ecosystems. Their role is critical in
ensuring responsible and sustainable development.
7. Financial Institutions and Investors: Financial institutions and investors provide

funding and investment for tight gas projects. They evaluate project economic viability,
provide capital, and support development and production. Their involvement is crucial in
the financial aspects of tight gas operations.
It's important to note that these application areas are interconnected, and collaboration among
different stakeholders is essential for successful development and production of tight gas
reservoirs.
52
4.2 ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY:

4.2.1 Microseismic Monitoring:
Microseismic monitoring is a technique used to monitor and analyze small-scale seismic
events that occur during hydraulic fracturing or other subsurface operations. It involves
the detection and recording of low-magnitude seismic events, typically ranging from -2
to 2 on the Richter scale, which are induced by the fracturing process. During hydraulic
fracturing, high-pressure fluid is injected into the reservoir to create fractures in the rock
formation, allowing for the extraction of tight gas or oil. As the fractures propagate
through the rock, they generate microseismic events, also known as microseismicity or
microseismic events.
Microseismic monitoring utilizes an array of geophone sensors placed on the surface or

downhole to detect and record these microseismic events. Geophones are sensitive
instruments that can detect and measure the tiny vibrations caused by the seismic events.
The recorded data from the geophone array is processed and analyzed to determine the
location, magnitude, and orientation of the microseismic events. The data is typically
plotted on a map, known as a microseismic event map, which shows the distribution and
extent of the induced fractures within the reservoir. Microseismic monitoring provides
valuable insights into the effectiveness and behavior of the hydraulic fracturing process.
It helps in assessing the extent and geometry of the fractures, the interaction between the
fractures and the reservoir, and the containment of the fracturing process within the
target formation.
The information obtained from microseismic monitoring is used for various purposes,
including:
1. Fracture Optimization: By analyzing the microseismic event data, engineers can

gain insights into the growth and propagation of the fractures. This information helps
in optimizing the design of subsequent fracturing stages, including the placement of
perforation clusters and the adjustment of pumping parameters, to improve the
connectivity between the wellbore and the reservoir.
2. Reservoir Characterization: Microseismic monitoring aids in characterizing the
subsurface reservoir by providing information about the rock properties, fracture
density, and fracture network distribution. This data helps in understanding the
53
reservoir's response to hydraulic fracturing and its potential for hydrocarbon

production.
3. Geomechanical Analysis: The analysis of microseismic events can provide valuable
information about the stress regime, mechanical properties, and geomechanical
behavior of the reservoir. It helps in understanding how the fractures interact with
pre-existing natural fractures or faults, and how the reservoir may respond to
production activities.
4. Environmental and Safety Monitoring: Microseismic monitoring can also be used
for environmental and safety purposes. It helps in monitoring and mitigating the risk
of induced seismicity associated with hydraulic fracturing operations. By monitoring
the microseismic activity, operators can identify and manage the risk of potential
seismic events that could impact well integrity or nearby infrastructure.
54
Figure 4.1: Microseismic Monitoring Activity. Source: Google
55
4.2.2 Advanced Wellbore Imaging Technologies:

They play a crucial role in the characterization and optimization of tight gas reservoirs.
Here are some advanced wellbore imaging technologies specifically used for tight gas:
1. Microresistivity Imaging: Microresistivity imaging tools use an array of sensors to

obtain high-resolution images of the wellbore and surrounding formations. These
tools can provide detailed images of the borehole wall, fractures, bedding planes, and
formation dip angles. Microresistivity imaging helps in identifying and
characterizing reservoir features, optimizing drilling and completion operations, and
evaluating wellbore stability in tight gas reservoirs.
2. Ultrasonic Imaging: Ultrasonic imaging techniques use sound waves to create
detailed images of the wellbore and surrounding formations. These technologies can
provide information about formation properties, fracture characterization, and
borehole integrity. In tight gas reservoirs, ultrasonic imaging helps in identifying
natural fractures, determining fracture density, and assessing the presence of
formation damage.
3. Acoustic Televiewer Logging: Acoustic televiewer logging involves the use of
acoustic waves to produce high-resolution images of the borehole wall. It provides
detailed information about borehole shape, wall rugosity, and the orientation of
fractures and bedding planes. Acoustic televiewer logging helps in characterizing the
wellbore stability and fracture networks in tight gas reservoirs.
4. Optical Imaging: Optical imaging technologies use fiber-optic systems to capture
high-resolution images of the wellbore wall. These tools can provide detailed visual
information about the borehole condition, including features like borehole breakouts,
drilling-induced fractures, and wellbore stability. Optical imaging helps in real-time
monitoring and assessment of drilling operations, wellbore integrity, and completion
quality in tight gas reservoirs.
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI adapted from medical imaging
technology can be utilized for wellbore imaging in tight gas reservoirs. It involves
the use of magnetic resonance principles to measure and image fluid properties, such
as porosity, permeability, and fluid composition. MRI can provide insights into the
reservoir fluid distribution, evaluate fluid saturation, and assist in reservoir
characterization and optimization.
56
6. Cross-Dipole Acoustic Logging: Cross-dipole acoustic logging measures the

direction and magnitude of the formation's anisotropy by analyzing the propagation
of acoustic waves. In tight gas reservoirs, where rock layers are often highly
laminated, cross-dipole acoustic logging helps in identifying layer boundaries,
determining rock fabric, and assessing the potential for horizontal fractures.
4.2.3 Infill drilling and Well Spacing Optimization:
Infill drilling and well spacing optimization are strategies used in reservoir management
to maximize hydrocarbon recovery from tight gas reservoirs. These techniques involve
optimizing the placement and spacing of wells within the reservoir. Here's an overview
of infill drilling and well spacing optimization in tight gas reservoirs:
• Infill Drilling:
Infill drilling refers to the drilling of new wells in the spaces between existing wells
within a reservoir. The primary objective of infill drilling in tight gas reservoirs is to
enhance the contact between the wellbores and the gas-bearing formations, thereby
increasing the recovery of natural gas. Here are some key considerations for infill
drilling in tight gas reservoirs:
1. Reservoir Characterization: Accurate reservoir characterization, including

reservoir properties, rock quality, and fluid distribution, is essential for identifying
suitable locations for infill wells. This involves analyzing seismic data, well logs,
and production data to identify areas with higher hydrocarbon potential.
2. Geostatistics and Simulation: Geostatistical techniques and reservoir simulation
models are used to analyze the spatial distribution of reservoir properties and predict
the reservoir performance under different infill drilling scenarios. This helps in
identifying optimal well locations and designing effective drilling patterns.
3. Well Placement: Well placement plays a critical role in infill drilling. It involves
identifying areas of higher gas saturation, bypassed zones, or unswept areas and
placing new wells strategically to intersect these regions. Geophysical and geological
data, along with reservoir simulation studies, help determine the most favorable
locations for infill wells.
4. Well Spacing: Infill drilling requires careful consideration of well spacing to avoid
interference between wells and ensure effective drainage of the reservoir. The
57
optimal well spacing depends on reservoir characteristics, such as permeability,

pressure distribution, and production rates. It is typically determined through a
combination of reservoir simulation studies, historical production data analysis, and
engineering judgment.
• Well Spacing Optimization:
Well spacing optimization focuses on determining the ideal distance between wells to
maximize the recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir. This optimization process
involves considering factors such as reservoir properties, production performance,
economic considerations, and operational constraints. Here are some key aspects of well
spacing optimization in tight gas reservoirs:
1. Reservoir Heterogeneity: Reservoir heterogeneity, including variations in

permeability, porosity, and natural fractures, influences the optimal well spacing.
Analyzing well performance and reservoir properties helps identify regions with
higher permeability or sweet spots that require closer well spacing.
2. Fracture Stimulation Design: Hydraulic fracturing techniques, such as multi-stage
fracturing, impact well spacing optimization. Designing fracture stimulation
treatments with varying sizes, orientations, and spacing can enhance reservoir
connectivity and productivity, affecting the ideal well spacing.
3. Economic Considerations: Economic factors, such as drilling and completion costs,
infrastructure requirements, and gas prices, play a crucial role in determining the
optimal well spacing. Economic modeling and sensitivity analysis help evaluate the
economic viability of different well spacing scenarios.
4. Environmental Considerations: Environmental factors, such as well pad footprint,
surface disturbance, and water usage, need to be considered in well spacing
optimization. Minimizing surface impact and optimizing resource utilization
contribute to sustainable development.
5. Reservoir Management: Well spacing optimization is an ongoing process that
requires continuous monitoring and adjustment. Incorporating data from production
surveillance, pressure monitoring, and reservoir simulation assists in evaluating and
optimizing well spacing over the life of the reservoir.
58
59
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, tight gas reservoirs represent a valuable but challenging resource for the global
energy industry. These unconventional reservoirs, characterized by low permeability and
complex geology, require advanced drilling and stimulation techniques to achieve economic
production rates. However, advancements in technology and innovative approaches have
significantly improved the viability of exploiting tight gas reservoirs.
Over the years, substantial progress has been made in understanding the reservoir characteristics,
enhancing reservoir modelling techniques, and optimizing drilling and completion practices. The
application of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has been instrumental in unlocking the
vast potential of tight gas reservoirs. These techniques have allowed for increased well
productivity and improved recovery rates.
Tight gas reservoirs have emerged as a significant contributor to global energy supplies, with
several regions around the world witnessing a surge in production from these resources. They
have the potential to bolster energy security, provide a transition fuel, and reduce reliance on
conventional sources. The development of tight gas resources also offers economic benefits,
including job creation, revenue generation, and regional development.
However, challenges remain in the development of tight gas reservoirs. Environmental concerns,
such as water usage, induced seismicity, and greenhouse gas emissions, require careful
management and mitigation strategies. Additionally, the economic viability of tight gas projects
depends on various factors, including gas prices, regulatory frameworks, and technological
advancements.
Continued research, innovation, and collaboration among industry stakeholders, governments,

and academia are crucial for addressing these challenges and maximizing the potential of tight
gas reservoirs. This includes further improvements in drilling and completion techniques,
reservoir characterization, and environmental stewardship.
In summary, tight gas reservoirs offer a significant opportunity to meet growing energy demands.
With continued advancements in technology and responsible development practices, these
resources can play a pivotal role in the global energy mix while ensuring sustainable and
environmentally conscious operations.
60
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62

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UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

P.M.B. 5323, CHOBA, EAST-WEST ROAD, PORT HARCOURT.

IGWE JUSTUS UZOMA U2017/3065021

COURSE CODE : PNG 510.1

7th, JULY 2023

1.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF UNCONVENTIONAL RESOURCES

Unconventional resources can be categorized into eight distinct groups as follows:

1.2 OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN

2.2 GLOBAL TIGHT GAS RESOURCE:

2.2.1 The United States

S/No Basin Field Formation Geological age

1 Arkoma Kinta Spiro sandstone L. Atokan

Hemphill Granite wash Pennsylvanian

3 Appalachian Clinton Clinton medina L. Silurian

4 Denver Wattenberg Muddy (J) sandstone L. Cretaceous

McAllen Ranch Vicksburg Oligocene

7 Great Plains Bowdoin Dome Bowdoin sandstone Cretaceous

Echo Springs Blair U. Cretaceous

Echo Springs Mesaverde U. Cretaceous

9 Hugoton Embayment Panhandle Chase group Permian

12 Permian Pecos Slope Abo L. Permian

Pitchfork Ranch Morrow L. Pennsylvanian

Spraberry Spraberry (Oil) Permian

13 Piceance Douglas Creek Dakota sandstone L. Cretaceous

Plateau Mesaverde group U. Cretaceous

14 San Juan Blanco Dakota L. Cretaceous

Blanco Pictured cliff Ss. U. Cretaceous

Blanco Charca Ss. U. Cretaceous

15 Uinta Altamount Green river Eocene

16 Val Verde Ozona Sonora Canyon U. Pennsylvanian

Figure 2.6: Distribution map of major tight gas reservoirs in Canada.

2.2.6 Middle East and North Africa

2.3 TIGHT GAS RESERVE ESTIMATION ANALYSIS

2.4 VOLUME ESTIMATION

Volume of Gas in Place:

2.4.1 SOLVED EXAMPLE

You have the following data from well tests:

Boi = Initial oil formation volume factor (RB/STB)

Plugging in the values:

Step 2: Calculate the recoverable reserves

Step 3: Calculate the production rate per well.

Plugging in the values:

Step 4: Calculate the number of wells required.

Let's continue with the calculation using the given values:

Converting Recoverable reserves from RB to STB:

Plugging in the values:

3.0 PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING METHODS:

3.1 TIGHT GAS PRODUCTION:

1. Hydraulic Fracturing: Hydraulic fracturing is accomplished by pumping large volumes of

Hydraulic fracturing (also known as hydrofracturing, hydrofracking, fracking, or fracture

Figure 3.1: Process of Hydraulic fracturing. Source: Google

Several conditions are required for successful hydraulic fracturing:

Other Production methods includes:

3. Reservoir Characterization and Modelling: State-of-the-art reservoir characterization

4. Integrated Production Systems: Integrated production systems involve the integration of

5. Advanced Well Completion and Stimulation: Innovations in well completion and

3.2 TIGHT GAS PROCESSING:

Figure 3.1: Gas treatment processing

3.3 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES:

3.3.1 Economic challenges: