Fuel Cell Seminar: O Ctober 2 6 - 2 9, 1 9 8 6 Tucson, Arizona

1986
Fuel Cell
Seminar
> Abstracts
O ctober 2 6 - 2 9 , 1 9 8 6
Tucson, Arizona
Sponsored by the
National Fuel Cell
Coordinating Group
DO NOT MICROFILM
COVER
Neither the U .S. Government nor any of its empioyees makes any warranty
expressed or implied or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the
accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any inform ation, apparatus,
product, or process disclosed or represents th at its use does not infringe
upon privately owned rights.
^ CONF-861008— Absts.
DE88 008298
1986
Fuel Ceil
Seminar
Program
and
Abstracts
October 2 6 -2 9 , 1 986
Sheraton El Conquistador
Tucson, Arizona
-4 - i «
tV ^ ^
In Cooperation with
Department of Defense
Department of Energ>'
Electric Power
Research Institute
Gas Research Institute
National Aeronautics
and Space Administration
Seminar Coordinated by
Courtesy Associates, inc.
Washington, D.C.
Preface
The members of the National Fuel Cell Coordinating Group (NFCCG) welcome
all national and international participants to this, the tenth in the series of Fuel
Cell Seminars. While the level of participation has increased significantly over the
decade since the initial Seminar, the objectives have changed very little.
The objective of the initial Seminar, as stated in its Program and Abstracts
document, was to bring together participants in the major U.S. fuel cell research,
development and demonstration programs to: give participants the opportunity to
learn more about the various activities: make contact with others working
towards similar objectives; and to help establish an integrated national program.
For the second Seminar in the series, this objective was expanded to increase
participation levels by potential users of the technology, including gas and electric
utilities as well as industrial, military and aerospace organizations. Providing a
forum for the interchange of information between developers and users has been
the underlying motivation for organizing all subsequent Seminars including this
tenth in the Series.
Presentations in the initial Seminars dealt almost exclusively with U.S.
programs and applications. The seventh Seminar, in 1982, was the first to have a
significant number of international presentations describing development
programs or applications in Canada, Europe and Japan. International participation
has increased in each of the subsequent Seminars both in numbers of
presentations and in the numbers of countries from which they originate. This
certainly reflects the rapidly growing international interest in the technology.
Another measure of the increasing interest in fuel cell technology is the
number of papers that will be presented in this Seminar. The poster sessions,
introduced at the previous Seminar, w ill contain many more presentations this
year. It is interesting to note that the number of presentations to be made in the
1986 Fuel Cell Seminar exceeds the number of people who attended the initial
Seminar just a decade ago. I believe this continually growing interest also reflects
the technical progress being achieved which in turn improves the prospects for
the successful commercialization of fuel cells in the near future.
E.A. GILLIS
Chairman
National Fuel Cell Coordinating Group
Agenda
Sunday, October 26, 1986
3 :0 0 - R egistration
7 :0 0 pm
5 :0 0 - W eicom ing Reception

7 :0 0 pm Hosted by American industry' sponsors
Monday, October 27, 1986
8 :0 0 am C ontinentai B reakfast
9 :0 0 - Opening Session
1 1 :3 0 am Chairman: Edward Gillis
Electric Power Research Institute
Ke>’note Address
D. Bruce Merrifield, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Productivity,
Technology and Innovation
“ Status of Fuel Cell Technologies” .......................................................................... 1
James R. Huff, Los Alamos National Laboratory
“ Overview of R&D Activities on the Fuel Cell in Japan” ......................................... 2
Nohoru Itoh, New Energy Development Organization
“ Fuel Cell Activities in the United States” ................................................................ 6
Fritz R, Kalhammer and Edward A. Gillis, Electric Power Research Institute
1 1 :3 0 am - B uffet Luncheon
1:00 pm
1:00- Gas Industry’s 4 0 kW Program

4 :0 0 pm Chairman: R, Root Woods
“ On-Site Fuel Cell Field Testing Results” ................................................................ 7
W,C, Racine and T,C, Londos, Science Applications International Corporation
“ Utility Experiences—A Panel Discussion” .......................................................... 11
Brooklyn Union Gas Company; R,N, Arcari, Consolidated Edison Company of
New York; S,K, Arentsen, Dayton Power and Light Company; V,D. Ferraro,
R,W, Taylor and R,K, Ishii, SAIC; G, Lynch, U,S, Department of Defense
“ On-Site 40 kW Fuel Cell Field Test” ....................................................................23
J,M, King and R, FlacineUi, International Fuel Cells Corporation; R,R, Woods,
“ The National Economic Market Opportunity and Commercialization
of On-Site Fuel Cells” .............................................................................................27
S, Knable, Gas Research Institute
1 :0 0 - Solid Oxide Fuei Celi Technoiogy
3:30 pm Chairman: Charles M. Zeh
U.S. Department of Energ>'—METC
“ Overview of the Westinghouse Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Program "..........................28
W.J. Dollard and J.T. Brown, Westinghouse Electric Corporation
"Development Status of Multi Cell Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Generators".................. 32
P. Reichner and J.M. Makiel, Westinghouse Research and Development Center
‘ 'TVA Test of SOFC Subscale Generator’ ’ ............................................................ 36
D. R. Stephenson, Tennessee Valley Authority and S.E. Veyo, Westinghouse
Electric Corporation
“ Monolithic Fuel Cell Development"......................................................................40
D.C. Fee, P.F. Blackburn, D.F. Busch, T.D. Claar, D.W. Dees, J. Dusek, T.F.
Easier, W.A. Ellingson, B.K. Flandermeyer, R.J. Fousek, J.J. Heiberger, T.F.
Kraft, S. Majumdar, C.C. McPheeters, F.C. Mrazek, J.J. Picciolo, R.B. Poeppel,
and S.A. Zwick, Argonne National Laboratory
“ Fabrication of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Monolithic Structure"............................... 44
C.C. McPheeters, D.C. F'ee, R.B. Poeppel, T.D. Claar, D.F. Busch, B.K.
Flandermeyer, T.F. Easier, J.T. Dusek and J.J. Picciolo, Argonne National
Laboratory
3 :3 0 - Poster Session on Solid Oxide Technology

6 :0 0 pm Pkii'ic note: The letter and monber designations following each title o f a poster
presentatwn mdeh those that w ill appear on the poster displays Ihetmelves. These w ill
eimble you to easily loeate each presentation.
Chairperson: Alayme A. Adams

U.S. Army Belvoir RD&F Center
"Oxide Electrodes for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells" (S O -1)........................................... 48
J.L. Bates and C.W. Griffin, Battelle Memorial Institute
“ Nondestructive Evaluation Methods Applied to Solid Oxide Fuel Cells" (SO-2) . 52
W.A. FUingson, B. Sawicka, C.C. McPheeters, h'. Mrazek and B. Van Pelt,
Argonne National Laboratory
“ Characterization of Monolithic Fuel Cell Components" (S O -3)............................56
D.W. Dees and f'.C. Mrazek, Argonne National Laboratory’
“ Stress and Fracture Behavior of Monolithic Fuel Cell Tapes" (SO-4).................. 60
S. Majumdar, Argonne National Laboratory
“ Tape Casting High-Density Electrolyte for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells" (S O -5 ).........64
C.C. McPheeters and T.D. Claar, Argonne National Laboratory
“ Interconnection Development for Monolithic Solid Oxide Fuel Cells” (SO-6) . . . 68
B.K. Flandermeyer, J.T. Dusek, P.F. Blackburn, D.W. Dees, C.C. McPheeters
and R.B. Poeppel, Argonne National Laboratory
“ Electrode Development for Monolithic Fuel Cells" (SO-7)................................... 72
T.F. Easier, B.K. Flandermeyer, T.D. Claar, D.F. Busch, R.J. Fousek, J.J.
Picciolo and R.B. J'oeppel, Argonne National Laboratory
“ Experimental Investigation of Resistivity, Thermal Expansion and
Oxygen Permeation of Lanthanum Chromite Films Similar to Those
in the Westinghouse Solid Oxide Fuel Cell” (SO-8) ...............................................76
R.J. Ruka and S. Sinharoy, Westinghouse Research and Development Center
“ Fuel Cell Production Process Control and Qualification of
Finished Cells” (SO-9).............................................................................................80
R.J. Bratton, P. Reichner and L.W. Montgomery, Westinghouse Research and
Development Center
“ Zirconia Fuel Cell Power System PlanarStack Development” (8 0 -1 0 )............... 84
M. Hsu, Ztek Corporation
“ The Effect of S-Poisoning on the Anodic Oxidation of Hydrogen
in a SOFC” (SO-11)................................................................................................ 88
E.G. Ong and D.M. Mason, Stanford University, Department of Chemical
Engineering
3 :3 0 - Poster Session on Phosphoric Acid Technoiogy

6 :0 0 pm Chairperson: Alayne A. Adams
U.S. Army Belvoir RD&E Center
“ Study on Performance of A ir Cooled PAFC” (P A -1 )........................................... 92
T. Sakai, N. Funikawa, S. Murakami. M. Nishioka and Y. Itoh, Sanyo Electric
Co., Ltd.
“ First Hea\y"-Duty Qualification of a kW-Size PAFC Stack System
in Italy” (PA-2) ...................................................................................................... 96
A. Ascoli and G. Redaelli, CISE S.p.A.
“ Recommendations for Commercial On-Site Fuel Cell
Grid-Interconnect Requirements” (P A -3 )............................................................ 100
T. Londos, Science Applications International Corporation; S. Knable, Gas
Research Institute; E. Houts, Georgia Power Company
“ Remote Monitoring and Display of On-Site Fuel Cell System
Performance" (P A -4 )...........................................................................................105
The Brooklyn Union Gas Company and Science Applications International
Corporation
“ Assessment of Fuel Cell Applications for Remote ' Force Sites
in Alaska” (PA-5) .................................................................................................106
R.W. Taylor, T,C. Londos and M, Khazra, Science Applications International
Corporation; W,G, Taschek, U.S. Army Belvoir RD&E Center; J.P. Fellner. A ir
Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories
“ Effect of Operating Conditions on Performance of
High-Pressure Type PAFC” (P A -6 )....................................................................110
Y. Tsutsumi, I. Sone and Y. Nanba, Hitachi Research Laboratory
“ DvTiamic Re.sponse of Fuel Cells Power Plant to Load Reference” (PA-7) . . . . 114
K. Kurosawa, H. Tanaka and T. Makabe, The Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc.;
Y, Na.gata, K. Akiyama and Y. Matsumoto, Toshiba Corporation
“ Power Generation 'best Results of 50kW PAFC Test Plant Pressurized
by 2-Shafts 2-Stage Turbocompressors" (PA-8)...................................................118
Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc. and Toshiba Corporation
7 :0 0 - W estern Theme P arty and Cookout

1 0:0 0 pm
Tuesday, October 28, 1986
7:30 am Continental B reakfast
8 :3 0 - Phosphoric Acid Fuei Ceii Program

11:30 am Chairman: Jeffrey A. Serfass
Technology Transition Corporation
“ Electric Utility Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Technology Development” ..................119
T.G. Schiller and W.H. Johnson, International Fuel Cells Corporation
“ A ir Cooled Stack Development Status Westinghouse Phosphoric Acid
Fuel Cell Program” ................................................................................................123
M.K. Wright, Westinghouse Electric Corporation
“ Construction of Dispersed Type 1 MW PAFC Pilot Plant” .................................. 127
N. Itoh and M. Itoh, NEDO; M. Tada, Kansai Electric Power Company, Inc.; A.
Hijikata and K. Kishida, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation; R. Anahara, Fuji Electric
Co., Ltd.; K. Suzuki, Fuji Electric Corporate Research and Development, Ltd.
“ Outline of PAC Test for IM W PAFC Pilot Plant—High Temperature,
High Pressure Type” ............................................................................................ 131
M. Ito and M. Hanawa, NEDO; M. Ishihara and H. Yoshida, Chubu Electric
Power Co., Inc.; S. Hyuga and S. Akimaru, Hitachi, Ltd.; A. Yamaguchi, Toshiba
Corporation
“ Fuel Processing System Development and Reformer Test Results” ....................135
W.A. Summers and W.G. Parker, Westinghouse Electric Corporation; D.M.
Rastler, EPRI; N.R. Udengaard and L.J. Christiansen, Haldor Topsoe, Inc.
8 :3 0 - Carbonate Fuei Ceii Technoiogy

11:30 am Chairman: Frank D. Gmeindl
and U.S. Department of Energy—METC
1:00-
3 :00 pm “ Molton Carbonate Fuel Cell Technology Development” ...................................... 140
C.A. Reiser, C.R. Schroll and M.J. Smith, International Fuel Cells Corporation
“ Direct Fuel Cell Development” ............................................................................. 143
L. Paetsch, P.S. Patel, H.C. Maru and B.S. Baker, Energy Research Corporation
“ Status of MCFC Development at Toshiba” ...........................................................147
K. Murata and T. Shirogami, Toshiba Corporation
“ An Overview of the Dutch MCFC Program” .......................................................151
S. Pietersz, The Netherlands
“ Development of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Technology” .................................. 155
I. Hirata, T. Murahashi, K. Sato, H. Urushibata and M. Matsumura, Mitsubishi
Electric Corporation
“ Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Technology' Development at Fuji” ........................... 159
K. Koseki, T. Nakanishi and K. Kobayashi, Fuji Electric Corporate Research and
Development, Ltd.
“ Progress on Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Alternative Cathodes” ........................... 163
J.L. Smith, G.H. Kucera and N.Q. Minh, Argonne National Laboratory
"Oxide Dispersion Strengthened (CDS) Anode” ....................................................168
D.S. Erickson, E.T. Ong and R. Donado, Institute of Gas Technology
“ Anal>"sis of the Decay of an Isothermal MCFC at 893 K ” .................................... 172
N. Giordano, S. Freni, R. Quagliata, S. Cavallaro and P. Carbonaro, Italy
“ Modeling of H 2S Effects on the Performance of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells” .. 177
G. Wilemski, Physical Sciences Inc.
“ The Status of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Development at Hitachi” ......................182
K. Ohtsuka, A. Sohma, K. Hisano and Y. Hishinuma, Hitachi, Ltd.
11:30 a m - B uffet Luncheon

1:00 pm
1 :0 0 - Phosphoric Acid Fuei Celi Systems

3:0 0 pm Chairman: Marvin Warshay
NASA Lewis Research Center
“ Low Cost Methanol—Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Power Plants” ........................ 186
C. Chi, J. Fan, L. Richards and S. Abens, Energy Research Corporation
“ Development of Small Capacity Phosphoric Acid Fuel CeU Power System
at Fuji Electric” .....................................................................................................190
K. Harashima and T. Hirota, Fuji Electric Corporate Research and Development,
Ltd.
“ Engelhard Technology' Update” .........................................................................194
A. Kaufman, Engelhard Corporation
“ Construction and Testing of PAFC Demonstration Power Plant” ...................... 195
T. Okamoto and N. Funahashi, The Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc.: R. Saito and
S. Sumi, Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd.
“ On-Site Fuel Cell Technology and System Progress” ...........................................199
G.W. Scheffler and F.S. Kemp, International Fuel Cells; J.C. Acevedo, NASA
Lewis Research Center
3 :0 0 - Poster Session on MoKen Carbonate Technology

5 :30 pm Chairperson: Alayne A. Adams
U.S. Army Belvoir RD&E Center
“ MCFC R&D in The Netherlands” (M C -1 )..........................................................203
K. Joon, S.B. van der Molen and j.E. de Vries, Netherlands Energy' Reseai'ch
Foundation
“ Cooling Characteristics of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells” (M C -2 )........................ 207
K. Watanabe and I. Nikai, Research Institute; M. Tooi, K. Navazawa and H.
Hosaka, Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd.
"Modeling of ElectroKle Migration in the Molten Carbonate
Fuel Stack” (M C -d )............................................................................................ 211
A. Figeaud and R. Chamberlin, Energ\' Research Coi-]X)ralion:
G. Wilemski and 1). Rigos, Physical Sciences Incorjrorated
“ Development of Electrode :ind Electrohte Plate for Molten Carbonate

Fuel Cell" (M C -4 )................................... 215
M. Takeuchi, K. Tamura, Y. Hishinma and K. Ohtsuka, Hitachi. Ltd.
"The Qjntrol of NiO Cath<xle DissokUion"(MC-5).................................................219
E.T. Ong, R.J. Remick and R. Donado. Institute of (las Technology
"lO T 's MCFC Stack Testing Program” (M C -b ).................................................... 223
E.H. Cam;ira, T.G. Benjamin and R.J. Petri, Institute of Gas 'I'echnology
“ Carbon Deposition in Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells" (M C-7)................................ 228
D.O. Ham and G.W. Lord, Physical Sciences Inc.
"Magnesium Oxide Based Internal Reforming Catalysts for the
Direct MCFC" (M C -8 ).................................. .’ ............................................ 230
N. Giordano and A. Mezzapica, CNR-TAE Institute: F. Frusteri. P. Tsiakaras and
A. Parmaliana, Institute of Industrial Chemistry, Italy
"Electronic Defects in LiFe()2 ” (M C -9 )................................................................ 234
J.L. Smith, G.H. Kucera, N.Q. Minh and J.R. Moreschi, .Argonne National
Laboratoty
"Physical and Chemical Characterization of Ganima-Lithium Aluminate
for Use in Molten Carbonate P'uel Cells” (M C -10)................................................. 239
G.H. F'ttirchild and P.M. Brown, Foote Mineral Gtmpany
“ Material Studies of Molten Cartonate Fuel Cell" (MC-11) .................................. 244
T. Kodama, V. Miyazaki, S. Tanase, M. Yanagida, K. 'I'anlmoto and S. Rose,
Government Industrial Research Institute (GIRIO), Japan
3 :0 0 - Poster Session on Power Plant Technology

5 :30 pm Chairperson: ALayne A. Adams
U.S. Anny Belvoir RD&E Center
"Development of Phosphoric Acid Fuel CeU Technology'" (P P -1 )......................... 248
M. Matsumoto, A. Hijikata and Y. Otaka, Mitsubishi Electric Coiporation
“ Hydrogen Storage Options for Fuel Cells” (P P -2 )............................................... 254
S. Gross, Boeing Aerospace Company
"Design and Economics of Large F'uel CeU Power Plants” (P P -3)......................... 255
V. Minkov, E. Daniels, C. Dennis and M. Krumpelt, Argonne National Laboratory
“ Preliminary' Design of Coal Gasifier/Phosphoric Acid Fuel CeU Power Plants
on an Electronic Spreadsheet" (PP-4)....................................................................263
Cheng-Yi Lu, NASA Lewis Research Center
"Performance and 0)rrosion Resistant Supports for Acid F'uel CeUs" (PP-5)........ 268
A. Kush, P. 5 eh, H. Ohar and L. Christner, Energy Research Corjroration
“ Development of a Membrane AUraUne Fuel CeU for Caustic Concentration
in the Chlor-AUcaU Industry'” (PP-6) ......................................................................271
E.J. Taylor, A. Gelb and R. Waterhouse, Physical Sciences Inc.
"De\ elopnient of l’ol\'iiu‘r I-'uel Cells for C;uiadian De])artment
of Nation;!] Defence" (PP-7).................................................................................. 275
D.S. \V;!tkins, K.W. Diirks, D.Ci. Epp and D.D. Mclêod, IkiUard Technologies
Coiporation
“ Fuel Cells as a Long Range Highway Vehicle Propulsion .Mtemative’' (PP-8) . . .279
R.L. Rentz. Mueller Associates, Inc.; C.L. Hagey and R.S. Kirk. U.S. Department
of Eneigy
“ Life Prediction of F'uel CeU Reformer Tube by Creep-F'atigue Analysis” (P P '9). .284
T. Yokomaku, M. Saori, T. Okuda, A. Nohara, H. Tai and Y. Imoto, Kobe Steel.
Ltd.
“ Testability Analysis of a Fuel Cell .Air Pressuiization System Losing the
System Testability and Maintenance Program (STAMP)” (PP-10)....................... 288
C.R. Unkle and H.P. Himpler. Jr.. ARINC Research Corporation
“ Effect of Improved Heat Transfer Catalyst Support on Steam Refoniiing
of Methane" (PP-11)..............................................................................................292
N. Rohatgi and G.E. Voecks, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
“ Integrated Electrode Substrate of Phosphoric Acid F'uel Cell (KEIS-I)" (PP-12). .29,5
H. F'ukida and .M. Shigeta, Kureha Chemical Industry Q}.. Ltd.
“ Computer .Analysis of Cooling Flffects in Phosphoric Acid Fuel
Cel) Stack" (P l>-i3)................................................................................................299
C. Lu and .A. Presler, N.AS.A Lewis Research (Tenter
"Advanced Electrocatalysts for Phosphoric Acid F'uel CeUs" (PP-14)................... 303
V. Jalan, ElectroChem; R. King and A. Antoine, NASA Lewis Research Center;
J.,A. Kosek, Giner, Inc.
“ Economic Spidy on Fuel Cell Power Generation at Kenteng Village
in Indonesia for Rural Electrification" (PP-15).......................................................304
M. Moechtar, Indonesian Directorate for Conversion and Conservation of Energy
“ Modelling of Porous Gas-Diffusion Electrode Structures for Phosphoric
Acid Fuel CeUs" (PP-16)........................................................................................ 305
P. Stoneheart and A. Ngoc-Diep Ho, Stonehart Associates, Inc.; M.B. Cutlip and
S.C. A'ang, University of Connecticut
6:00- Japanese Reception

7 :30 pm Hosted by NEDO/MITl 1 Japanese industry sponsors
Wednesday, October 29, 1986
7:30 am Continental B reakfast
8 :3 0 - Fuei Cell Power Plant Designs

11:30 am Ch;iimian: D.M. Jewell
U.S. Department of Energ>’—METC
“ Assessment of Molten Carbonate and Phosphoric Add Fuel Cells
for Utility Central Station Applications'' ................................................................ 308
M. Krumpelt, V. Minkov, E. Daniels and C. Dennis, Argonne National Laboratory
“ A Comparison of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells to Internal Combustion Engine
Cogeneration Systems as Suppliers of Uninterruptable P o w e r".............................313
G.C. Ailing. Jr., Arthur D. Little. Inc.; C. Miles, Na\w CivilEngineering Laboratory
“ Site Specific Fuel Cell/Coal Gasification Plant Designs” ........................................ 317
T.J. Grant and P.J. Estreich, Ebasco Services Inc.
"Developments and Applications of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
Power Plant Models” ............................................................................................ 321
C. Lu and A.F. Presler, Cleveland State University and NASA Lewis Research
Center
“ Fuel CeU and Fuel CeU/Batter>r Hybrid Power Sources for Vehicles” ....................325
P.G. Patil, Department of Energy'; J.R. Huff and H.S. Murray, Los Alamos
National Laboratory
"Financial and Strategic Benefits of F'uel CeUs” ..................................................... 326
D.M. Rigney, Electric Power Research Institute; M. Farber, Temple, Barker and
Sloane
8 :3 0 - Unconventional Fuels
11:30 am Chairman; Daniel M. Rastler
“ Coalbed Methane as a Fuel for Fuel CeU Power Plant” ........................................ 333
A.F. EUis and M.T. Newton, Southern Company Services, Inc.; C.E. Brett and
D.A. Thompson, The University of Alabama
“ Operation of Fuel CeUs on LandfUl Gas Fuel—UtUity, Contractor
and Manufacturer Perspective” ............................................................................. ,337
J.D. L,eeper, Southern CaUfomia Edison Company; L.M. Handley, International
Fuel CeUs Corporation; D.W. Warren and P. Pietrogrande, Kinetics Technology
International Corporation
“ MTCFs Advanced Fuel Processor Development” ................................................341
M. Mansour and K. Durai-Swamy, Management & Technical Consultants, Inc.
“ A ir Force Remote Site Fuel CeU Development Program” .................................... 342
W.G. Taschek, U.S. Army Belvoir RD&E Center; J.M. Turner and J. FeUner, A ir
Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories
“ Market Assessment of By-Product Gaseous Fuels for Phosphoric
Acid Fuel CeUs” ..................................................................................................... 346
J.M. Torrey, Science AppUcations International Corporation; J.D. L-eeper, Southern
CaUfomia Edison Company
11 :3 0 a m - B uffet Luncheon
1:00 pm
1:00- Fuel Cell Application and Economic Assessments

2 :3 0 pm Chairman: Malcolm Jones
Niguel Technology Group
“ Prospects of Fuel Cell Application for Industrial Use in Japan" ...........................350
M. Shioiri and T. Satomi, The Institute of Applied Energy
“ Application of Fuel Cells to the Petroleum Refining Industry” .............................354
J.H. Altseimer, J.F. Roach and M.C. Krupka, Los Alamos National Laboratory;
J.M. Anderson. Energy Options, Inc.
“ Fuel CeU Integration with Renewable Power Technologies: Some
Technical PossibUities and Potential Impacts” .......................................................358
F. Sissine, Science PoUcy Research Division, Library of Congress
“ Financial Implications of On-Site Fuel CeUs for a Gas UtUity” .............................360
S. Knable, Gas Research Institute
“ Potential of Fuel CeU AppUcations for DecentraUzed Power Generation
in India” .................................................................................................................361
J.D. Pandya, Tata Energy Research Institute
“ National Fuel CeU Program and Its AppUcation in Indonesia—
A Proposed Program” .......................................................................................... 364
M. Moechtar, Agency for the Assessment and AppUcation of Technology
2 :3 0 - Plans for Commercial Development

4 :3 0 pm Chairman: John J. Cuttica
“ The PC23 Fuel CeU—A Strategic Alternative” .....................................................369
L.M. Flandley, International Fuel CeUs Corporation; G.W. May, Bechtel National,
Inc.
“ The Westinghouse 1.5 MW Fuel CeU PUot Power Plant—The Next
Step to Commercialization” .....................................................................................372
D. Newby, Westinghouse Electric Corporation
“ CommerciaUzation of EngeUiard Phosphoric Acid Fuel CeU Technology” 375
D.T. Hooie, EngeUiard Corporation
4 :3 0 pm Conclusion of th e 198 6 Fuel Cell Seminar

STATUS OF FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGIES
JAMES R. HUFF
LOS ALAMOS NATIONAL LABORATORY
An abstract of this presentation was not available

at press time.
OVERVIEW OF R&D ACTIVITIES ON
THE FUEL CELL IN JAPAN
Noboru Itoh
New Energy Development Organization ( NEDO )

Higashi-ikebukuro, Toshima-ku
Tokyo 170 Japan
The Agency of National Resources and Energy of MITI is promot

ing the "21st Century Energy Vision Investigative Committee"
to investigate policy themes and the energy supply structure
for the year 2000. One of the themes regards the impact of
technological development for the year 2000, and a wider sele
ction at the supply and demand levels for energy resulting
from utilization and energy conversion technologies such as
cogeneration and fuel cells. It will also examine the possibi
lities for diversification of the energy supply sources.
The final report "21st Century Energy Vision" will suggest us
how to introduce fuel cell into the energy supply system after
the year 2000.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
On the manufacturers' side, development of a component techno

logy has centered on manufaturers of heavy electrical industry,
but with the everincreasing possibility of the adoption of this
technology by users, joint research between both sides has
steadily increased.
Tokyo Gas Co. and Osaka Gas Co. participated in the GRI project,
and introduced a 40 kW PC-18 fuel cell from UTC. and began
field tests from March 1982. Tokyo Gas installed a fuel cell in
a swimming pool at Tsurumi, Kanagawa Pref. while Osaka Gas ins
talled a fuel cell in a restaurant to determine the total perf
ormance of a fuel cell and its continuous performance with an
actual load. They were both used to verify a cogeneration system
and to determine changes in the state of PAFC when subject to
long-term use. Both Tokyo Gas and Osaka Gas participated in the
field test project and each acquired improved fuel cells between
Oct. and Nov. 1984. Tokyo Gas demonstrated the cell's operation
at the Gas Pavilion of the Tsukuba Expo'85, while Osaka Gas
demonstrated its fuel cell in a similar restaurant so that a
parallel demonstration could be conducted with the proto-type
PC-18. Both companies have stopped using their proto-types, but
Tokyo Gas began operating an advanced PC-18 at the Dai-ichi Inn
in Tokyo in January 1986, while Osaka Gas has been making head
way with the operating of its advanced PC-18.
Tokyo Electric Power Company introduced the 4.5 MW plant No.2
of UTC. This plant was developed for generating electricity and
for the possibility of using a fuel cell as an electric power
supply facility. This was installed at the Goi Power Generation
Plant in 1981, undergoing PAC test, and in Feb. 1984, it became
the first fuel cell to attain full output operation. Phase I of
the verification testing conducted by TEPCO was to attain 4.5MW
rated output, and Phase II was to confirm the durability of the
plant itself with tests complated in December 1985.
Total generated power output is 5428 MWh and total operating
time 2887 h r s . Part of the fuel cell was dismantled to determ-
Itoh
- 2 -
ine the operational effects and the results will be used for
valuable information on PAFC.
The above has been a description of the R&D that has taken
place between Japan and US, but independent R&D has also been
taking place in Japan.
Japanese manufacturers are competing in the manufacture of
their own fuel cell plants and some have reached the develop
ment level. In the later half of the 1970s, the electrode
area of cell had been enlarged to 3600 cm2 and the manufactu
re of pressure-type stacks became possible. Stacks of 20-50kW
have been manufactured by Hitachi Ltd., Fuji Elec. Co.,
Toshiba Co. and Mitsubishi Elec. Corp. respectively, and inv-
stigations are being carried out on operating temperature,
pressure influence, gas utilization and the effects of water-
cooling. Many research results have been announced for making
cells larger and improving the fuel cell itself.
As a result, the Fuel Cell Power Generation Development Proj
ect carried out by the NEDO was based on the Moonlight Proje
ct formulated by the Agency of Industrial Science and Techno
logy in Fall 1981. Previousfour manufacturers cooperated in
this project and constructed two 1 MW PAFC plants at the end
of 1985. These were installed at the Sakai-ko Power Plant of
Kansai EPCo. and at the Chita No.2 Power Plant of Chubu EPCo.
to undergo operational testing until 1987.
In fields other than ML Project, Tohoku EPCo. has a signed a
joint research agreement with Fuji Electric Co. so that it can
determine the electric power system operating characteristics
of a 50 kW water-cooled PAFC system that uses methanol as fuel.
It announced that operational research will be conducted at
the Niigata Thermal Power Station from the latter half of '86
and will continue until the end of '88. It has already entered
the stage of fuel cell design.Hokkaido EPCo. is also investig
ating into the use of fuel cells as power sources for isolated
islands and remote areas, and has installed a PAFC test plant
with verificationtesting planned. It plans to use a 100 kW
Fig. 1 PAFC Plant Field Test Site
Location
50 KW Naiuraf gas
Fu|i Electric
Osaka Gas/KEPCo. \
200kW Natural gas
Kyushu EPCo Mitsubishi.
400kW L P G - -
Mitsubishi Heavy Inaustnes/WH 40 KW Natural gas
Tokyo EPCo
200 kW Natural gas
Toyama Sanyo
Tokyo EPCo
4 6M W Natural gas
UTC (now 1FC)
Tokyo Gas
iOCkW Methan< 40 KW Natural gai
Shikoku EPCo. 1 MW Natural gr.s

5kW Methanol yjbfh'i , ..
Itoh
- 3 -
water-cooled PAFC at the Date Power Station. Preparations for

a joint research project with MELCO are being set from April
'86 to Sept.'89.
Fig.1 shows the sites where PAFC testing is being conducted or
under constructions.
As part of the gevernment measures for promoting a new type of
power generating technology, many plans for the introduction
and verification of PAFC for practical use, and for a communi
ty type power supply system are underway. This has brought
about the near commercialization of PAFC.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
Since 1960, universities, government and private research lab

oratories have been conducting fundermental research on M C F C , but
significant progress has only been made since the Moonlight
Project. From 1981 to '83, research to find MCFC materials was
conducted at gevernment research laboratories while manufacture
rs performed element research for 1 kW cell stack. From 1984 to
'85, Hitachi, Toshiba, Fuji Electric, MELCO and IHI respective
ly succeeded with the development of a 1 kW cell stack.
Initially, the development was for the forming of electrolyte
plates by the hot-press method, but flexible paste and the tape
casting methods, which have proved to give large electrolyte
plates that have a longer working life, are being used. They are
more resistant to the heat cycle and will enable the development
of a larger fuel cell which will be a step closer to practical
use.
The development objectives of N E D O have ranged from 2 5 - 7 0 cells,
a size of 3 600 - 1600 c m2, for their developments of a 10 kW
stack with continuous operation over a period of several thousa
nd hours. Recent state of R & D in 5 sisters is settled in Table 1.
Table 1 MCFC Cell, Stack Tests in Japan ( State of R&D )
Hitachi Ltd. Toshiba Corp. M i tsubishi Electric Fuji E l ectric Corp. I. a. I.

1
1 May ) 1 Apr ) ( Jan ) 1 Feb ) ( May 1 ;
5 00cm^ X : celia eO Ocm^.x 10 cells lOOOcm^ single cell 200cm^ single c«il 3600cm^ Single celi [
0.7V, 150mA/cm^ 0.7V, 15 OmA/cm^ Internal R e f o rming New tape casting 0.0V, i50mA/cm^ [
1SOOhr 1OOOhr 0,65V, 150mA/cm^ 0.02V, i50mA/cm^ • 50 » 1
2 ]
Uj,* 4 0 I
S , /
i
( Jun e J 2 ,000hrs
( Apr I 400hrs 1
900cm^ X 15 celli
2900cm^ single cell 1
0.7W, 150mA/cm^ ( July ) i
( May )
O.GV, 150wA/cin^
lOOOcm^ X 10' cells i,000cm^ Single cell
300cm^ X 3 cells
OOOhrs
0.76V, 150mA/ctn^ 0.75V, 150mA/cm^
' T a p e casting
U * 40 %
O.OV, 150mA/cm^ 1 ,000hrs
2
U » 40 I
( Aug 1 "l
250hr 500hrs ( July )
3600cm^ X 3 celli
3600cm^ single cell
0.77 - 0.73V,
0.01V, 150mA/cm^
1 50(rA/cm^ ( Aug )
• 50 I
3 00hr, contlnul.ng 2 ,QQQcm^ x 3 cells
2
U ‘ 20 \ 0.01 - 0 .60V, U . 50 t
2 150mA/cm^ ^2
700hrs
'
■ 40 t
400hrs, Conti n u i n g
----------
Itoh
- 4 -
Fuel Cell Application Fields and Their Potencial Markets
During April 1983 through March 1986, NEDO has conducted the
survey and fiesibility study on the fuel cell generating systeir
concerning introduction into market under the charge of A N R E ,
MITI. As a result, the possible areas of EC application and
their potential markets are summerized in Table 2.
Table 2 Possible areas of introduction & application system
Possible are a of I n t r o d u c t i o n case

introduction
Establishment as a front-line power plant.
Thermoelectric power
Establishment of fuel cel l power plants
plant substitute use at p r i m a r y substation leve l and above
( s u b s t i t u t e for superannuated po w e r
p l a nt s, etc.)
fa3
-J o
I n t r o d u c t i o n as a d i s p e r s e d power sup pl y
Substation at primary substation le ve ls a n d above,
installation use up to the d i s t r i b u t i o n line lev el
(C ap aci ty: 20 M W - 30MW)
Introduction in r e g i o n s where concentration

Regiop.a I
of heat d e m a n d is h i g h , as in r e g i o n a l h e a t
Q installation use
s u p p l y w o r k s in c i t y planning, etc.__________
Introduction in a p r i v a t e company to s u p p l y
Factory
p o w e r or heat. Direct utilization of D.C.
installation us e
Power generation utilizing hydrogen produced
as a by-oroduct of factory p r oc e s s e s .
Introduction in such business-use buildings

£ ousiness use
as h o t e ls , hospitals, restaurants, etc.
B.E.Cost ($/kW) Potential Market (MW)

1985 level 2000 level
A 1,263 - 1 ,325 4,000 - 8,000 6,700 - 13,400
B 1463 2,000 - 4,000 3,350 - 6,700
C 1,288 - 1,620 3,000 - 6,000 5,000 - 10,000
D 1,238 - 669 500 - 1 ,000 840 - 1,680
E 1,669 - 2,813 3,500 - 7,000 5,800 - 11,600
Total 13,000 - 26,000 21 ,690 - 43,380
cf) 1$ = 160 yen

FUEL CELL ACTIVITIES IN THE UNITED STATES
F.R. Kalhammer and E.A. Gillis

Palo Alto, CA 94303
Fuel cell development activities have been underway in the

United States for nearly thirty years. The level of effort
and duration of these activities in the U.S. has been
greater than in any other country or continent, and there
can be little doubt that the developmental programs
currently underway in Europe and Japan are based on U.S.
technology.
Most of the U.S. developmental activities were begun long

before the formation of the Department of Energy (or its
predecessor Energy Research & Development Agency), the
Electric Power Research Institute, and the Gas Research
Institute. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration and the Department of Defense were the
principal public sector R&D sponsors in the nineteen
sixties. However, there were a number of privately
sponsored programs underway as well aimed at many different
applications, all of which contributed to the current
technology base. This paper will summarize some of the
early U.S. fuel cell R&D programs and trace them to the
present time. In addition, the near-term plans for public-
sector sponsored R&D will be described.
ONSITE FUEL CELL FIELD TESTING RESULTS
W C. Raoine and T.C. Londos

Energy Systems and Conservation Division
Science Applications International Corporation
La Jolla, California
In December, 1983, the Gas Research Institute (GRI), the

United States Department of Energy (DOE), 36 gas and electric
utilities and an industrial participant began field testing
onsite fuel cell power plants manufactured by International
Fuel Cells (IFC). These 40-kW power plants were installed at
36 different utility-selected sites throughout the USA and in
Japan. A total of 42 plants were installed and are being
tested in a variety of building types with wide variations in
use patterns and energy system configurations.
This field testing effort is one part of an overall Onsite

Fuel Cell Program. The Program has three parts: a Field Test
Project to evaluate fuel cell technology in real-world appli
cations and define the requirements of an energy service
business; a Technology Development effort to advance fuel cell
technology and reduce its cost; and an Onsite Fuel Cell Users
Group to direct and evaluate commercialization efforts for the
utility industry.
GRI and DOE coordinate the Program to promote and foster

dialogue between the m a n u f a c t u r e r and the p a r t i c ipating
utilities. The technical and market issues that are being
evaluated under the Field Test Project are continually fed
back to the Tec h n o l o g y Development Project for product
improvement. Results of all these efforts, as well as the
findings from utility market/business assessments of commer
cial onsite fuel cells, will define the Onsite Fuel Cell power
plant to be introduced into the marketplace.
POWER PLANT INSTALLATION EXPERIENCE
Each utility participant was responsible for power plant site

selection, site design and installation of one or more onsite
fuel cell power plants. Participants selected field test
sites which are compatible with the unique operating charac
teristics of the onsite fuel cell: high electrical effi
ciency, availability of useful by-produce heat, electric load
following capability, low air pollutant emissions, low noise
generation and utility quality power output. Thirty-six sites
in 18 different market segments were selected for power plant
testing.
Two-thirds of the utility participants did the site/power

plant interface designs using in-house engineers and the
remainder employed engineering firms to do the design work.
Two-thirds of the utilities hired construction contractors to
perform the site preparation and power plant installation
activities. The other utility participants used in-house
crews to install the plants. An average of 5 weeks were
required to prepare a site for onsite fuel cell delivery and 4
weeks were needed to complete fuel cell power plant
7
w.c . Raoine and T.C. Londos
-2-
installation once the power plant was delivered. The average

cost of design and installation of these small field test
units was $1,000/kW. Utilities experienced no major problems
completing the design and installation activities. Based on
their field testing experiences, utilities have projected
substantially reduced schedules and costs for commercial
service power plant installation.
One goal of the Field Test Project was to test power plants
serving a variety of electrical and thermal loads. Eight
sites used the fuel cell power pi ant to serve an electrical
load independent from the electric utility grid. At these
sites, the power plants were operated in a load following
mode. At the remaining 28 sites, power plants were elec
trically connected to the grid and operated at a constant 40
kW output. Building electric load demands above 40 kW were
served from the utility.
Thermally, the power plants were used for domestic water

heating, space heating and process heating. The following
processes obtained heat from an onsite fuel cell during the
field testing; photograph developing, swimming pool heating,
food processing, fuel pre-heating, plant propagation, and
aluminum parts processing.
The majority of power plants were sited outdoors. However,

six plants were located inside. The most notable of these was
the Tokyo Gas Company plant which was located in the Gas
Pavilion at the Tsukuba Exposition. Three other plants were
located indoors at hotels due to space and aesthetic consider
ations. Two additional plants were placed indoors to increase
maintenance personnel comfort during the winter.
POWER PLANT OPERATING EXPERIENCE
The overall operating goals for the Field Test Project were to
achieve 300,000 hours of total power plant operation at an
availability of 55-65 percent. These goals were met. Total
operating time exceeded 300,000 hours with an overall avail
ability of 63 percent. Fourteen plants had availabilities of
TO percent or more. Thirteen plants operated over 8,000 hours
and there have been 71 individual, uninterrupted runs of over
1,000 hours. The longest continuous operating run was 2,165
hours.
Utility operating experience indicates that the power plants

meet the electrical efficiency specification. Figure 1
illustrates power plant efficiency measurements over a 15
month operting period for a grid-independent, load following
power plant. Data collected from all power plants indicate
that only 16 power plants operated at average efficienoes
below the specification, while the remainder operated at or
above the electrical efficiency expectations. The field
testing also verified the onsite fuel cell's high part-load
electrical efficiency specification.
w.c. Racine and T . C . Londos
-3-
Measured thermal performance of the power plants averaged

about 10 percent below specification. Figure 2 illustrates
low grade heat recovered from one power plant as a percentage
of the specification. As with the majority of power plants,
actual heat produced averages about 10 percent below
specification. Even with this reduced thermal output, the
power plants produce one thermal kW-hr for each electrical
kW-hr generated. Improved power plant designs which produce
greater quantities of useful heat per electrical kW-hr have
been prepared in the Technology Development Project.
During the field test, there were very few operating problems
with the main power plant components; the fuel processors,
fuel cell stack and inverter have operated well. Most of the
operating problems encountered during the field test involved
ancillary equipment such as pumps, valves, fittings and
controls.
The major operational problems involved the stack coolant

system and electrical/electronic controls. The fuel cell
stack coolant system has shown a propensity to plug after
about 2,000 hours of operation. This has required power plant
shutdowns each 1,500 to 2,000 hours to clean and flush the
coolant system. Electrical/electronic control failures have
been a primary cause of power plant grid-disconnects and
forced outages. Problems with both of these systems have been
communicated to the T e c h nology D e v elopment Project, and
improved prototype designs are being tested as part of that
project.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The utility participants encountered no insurmountable

problems in designing, installing, operating and
maint a i n i n g the power plants at their customers'
sites.
2. The powerplants met the project’s availability and

electrical efficiency goals.
3. The onsite fuel cell sites represent numerous market

segments and provide varied electrical and thermal
interfaces for power plant testing.
4. Operational problems discovered during field testing

are being resolved in a technology development effort.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The work reported on in this paper was sponsored by the Gas

Research Institute, 8600 W. Bryn Mawr Avenue, Chicago, Illinois
60631. Science Applications International Corporation (P.O.
Box 2351, La Jolla, California 92038) is GRI's coordinating
contractor for the Onsite Fuel Cell Field Test Project.
w.c. Racine and T.C. Londos
-n -
DATA: +
I
>- 20
S IT E 18
JANUARY 1985 - APRIL 1986
P O W E R P LA NT 8 230
30 40
ELECTRIC OUTPUT - KW
Figure 1. Electrical Efficiency vs. Electric Output for
Single Load Following Power Plant
120
DATA: +
SPEC:
O
uj 100
a. T T -
CO
O
80
++++
\
3
O. 60
+ 1 1
+ 1 ^ 1 1
+ 1 1 1
w 1 1 I
1 1 1 1
S 40 J’ s l f i 18
z I J
< 1 + > ' JA N U A R Y 1985 * A P R IL
z
o 1 1 1 POWER PLANT 8230
X
lij 20
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 i
1 1 1 <
0 10 20 30 40
ELECTRIC OUTPUT - KW
Figure 2. Low Grade Heat Exchanger Output vs. Electric
Output for Single Load Following Power Plant
10
UTILITY EXPERIENCES - A PANEL DISCUSSION
BROOKLYN UNION GAS COMPANY
An abstract of this presentation was not available at

press time.
II
SPECIAL TESTING OF ELECTRICAL AND
THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF A 40 KW ONSITE FUEL CELL
Richard N. Arcarl
Consolidated Edison Company
New York, NY
Ronald K. Ishii , V. David Ferraro

La Jolla, CA
INTRODUCTION
This abstract summarizes the purpose and results of special

tests performed by Con Edison on a 40 kW fuel cell power plant
at the Skyview Haven Nursing Home located in Croton-on-Hudson,
New York. Con Edison is one of the 30 gas, electric, and
combined utilities participating in the Gas Research Institute
(GRI) 40 kW phosphoric acid fuel cell field test. Con
Edison's unit began operation on June 3, 1985 and had
accumulated 1590 hours of service when the field test was
interrupted to perform the special tests to characterize
thermal and electrical characteristics of the fuel cell. The
testing took place during the week of October 7-11, 1985.
FUEL CELL DESCRIPTION
The 40 kW fuel cell power plant was designed and manufactured

by International Fuel Cell (IFC), formerly a division of
United Technologies Corporation. It is a packaged unit which
includes the fuel cell stack, inverter, fuel processing, water
cooling system, water treatment, and microprocessor controls.
An auxiliary grid-connect unit (GCU) has been added to allow
interface with the utility grid.
The power plant was designed to operate unattended in either a

line commutated dispatchable. mode (grid-connect) or self
commutated load following mode (grid-isolated). Electrical
protection features are included as part of the microprocessor
control scheme. Out-of-limit conditions can be sensed and
appropriate action is initiated by the fuel cell to protect
itself and the load. In addition, the protection features
include an automatic return to service, depending on the type,
duration, and severity of the out-of-limit condition.
Performance data for the field test is continually collected

by an onsite data acquisition system (DAS). The system scans
pertinent instruments, converts the measurements into engi
neering units, and logs the data on to quarter-inch magnetic
tape. The tapes are collected about once a month and sent to
Science Applic a t i o n s International C o r p o r a t i o n (SAIC) for
processing and analysis.
12
ARCARI ET AL.
-2-
SPECIAL TEST OBJECTIVES
Although data were continuously recorded by the onsite DAS and

processed on a monthly basis, Con Edison wished to conduct
additional testing. These "special" tests were performed to
assess partial load electrical and thermal performance, and to
simulate certain overrated conditions. An exercise of dis
tressed grid-isolated and grid-connected operating conditions
permitted an evaluation of the 40 kW fuel cell's intrinsic
electric protection system. Specifically, the special test
objectives were:
o To determine the electric and thermal conversion

capacities and efficiencies of the IFC 40 kW fuel cell
over the load range,
o To characterize the power output quality in terms of

load response, signal distortion, load and voltage
tracking, and power factor,
o To evaluate the intrinsic electrical protection

features of the power plant, and
o To assess the unit's en v i r o n m e n t a l emission

characteristics (exhaust, d i s c harge water, noise
output, and electromagnetic interference (EMI)).
TEST PROCEDURES
The additional fuel cell tests were a joint effort by SAIC and
the Con Edison engineering staff. They were responsible for
planning, coordinating, and supervising the tests. In addi
tion, two IFC engineers were present during the tests to give
additional support and to advise in the test setup. Con
Edison staff performed all "hands on" aspects of the test.
Tests were conducted for grid-connect and grid-isolated fuel

cell operating modes. Many of the tests were redundant
between the two operating modes, but features characteristic
of a particular operating state were tested when possible.
The redundant tests included:
o Fuel inp u t /electrical and thermal energy output

performance testing over the load range,
o Electrical output quality, i.e., power factor, harmonic

distortion, over the load range,
o Loss of phase and grounded phase tests,
o Exhaust emission and d i s c harge water sampling and

analysis,
o Sound level measurements.
13
ARCARI ET AL.
-3-
The fuel cell is a load-following generating system when

placed in the grid-isolated operating mode. Therefore, to
simulate a load the fuel cell tests utilized a variable resis
tive load bank. The load bank was interconnected to the fuel
cell via a 200 amp three-phase disconnect switch by wiring it
to the GCU side of the isolated load transfer switch.
In the grid-connect mode the fuel cell requires a reference

frequency and voltage to be present on the grid in order to
synchronize and adjust its supply voltage to initiate a
positive power flow. The protection features limit the
frequency and voltage tracking ability of the fuel cell by
setting out-of-limit trip set points. In order to test these
set points a grid circuit was simulated by interconnecting the
fuel cell to the resistive load bank parallel with a variable
voltage, variable frequency 24 kVa signal generator.
TEST RESULTS
ELECTRIC AND THERMAL PERFORMANCE
In the grid-isolated operating mode, the combined thermal and

electric conversion LHV conversion e f f iciency range was
measured to be from 48.2% @ 1.7 kW to 79.6% @ 30.2 kW. Full
load (39.9 kW net) grid-isolated electric conversion LHV
efficiency was 36.5% (10,350 Btu/kWhr HHV heat rate). Peak
thermal output was 142,344 Btu/hr @ 39.9 kW with a 72.6°F heat
exchanger supply water temperature.
Grid-connected combined thermal and electrical LHV efficiency

ranged from 62.8% @ 9.7 kW to 60.5% @ 40.4 kW. The decrease
in the composite efficiency is due to an increase in the
temperature of the water (117°F) supplied to the fuel cell's
heat exchanger. This inhibits the removal of heat through the
low-grade heat e x c h anger and s u bsequently the fuel cell
manages the thermal waste by rejecting it to the atmosphere.
Electric conversion LHV efficiency at full load (40.4 kW net)
was 36.9% or 9263 Btu/kWhr HHV heat rate. The maximum thermal
output occurred at 30.5 kW and was measured at 98,000 Btu/hr.
The peak current total harmonic distortion was measured at 18%

@ 20 kW for grid-connected and 10% @ 11 kW for grid-isolated.
The peak voltage total harmonic distortion was found to be
about 1.3% over the load range for grid-connected and approx
imately 9% for grid-isolated.
The near unity power factor did not change for the grid-
isolated fuel cell over the load range which is expected with
a resistive load. However, the grid-connect load showed a
degradation of power factor at lower loads. It ranged from .62
@ 9.7 kW to .99 @ full load. IFC has commented that this was
the intended design.
14
ARCARI ET AL.
-4-
ELECTRIC PROTECTION CHARACTERISTICS
The loss of phase test in the grid-isolated mode did not

initiate a response by the fuel cell although a 2.9% voltage
degradation occurred on the remaining active phases. In
instances of long grid-isolated phase outages (2 hours or
more), the Scott-T transformer-in the inverter would trip out
on high temperature. This feature was not tested.
In the grid-connect mode, a loss of phase is interpreted as a

loss of grid. This protection feature is essential in pre
venting an inadvertent energizing of grid circuits during a
power outage. A manual opening of a phase circuit, during the
test resulted in the fuel cell cycling off the grid into a
"disconnect" mode. The time interval to disconnect was
measured from .1 to 5.07 seconds. At higher loads it took
longer for the fuel cell to respond and cycle off.Itwas
able to reestablish grid connection upon closing of the lost
phase.
In the grid-isolated mode, complete power plant shutdowns

resulted from all three single-phase to neutral fault tests.
IFC was not able to explain the full plant trips with the
limited information from the tests. The fuel cell is designed
to disconnect from the load and cycle the inverter off in
approximately 5 seconds. The inverter should then restart at
zero net load in about 6 seconds.
Grounded phases in the grid-connected mode resulted in immedi

ate disconnect from the grid and subsequent operation at zero
net load. A current spike of 425 amp was detected during the
test, but IFC has indicated that this is more than the peak
commutable pole current. It is possible that the current
spike was actually produced by the paralleled 24 kVa signal
generator.
An overload condition was induced while the fuel cell was in

the grid-isolated operating mode by increasing the load bank
resistance in steps of 2 to 3 kW. At 58 k W , the fuel cell
disconnected itself from the load and 4 seconds later the
inverter shut down and did not restart. This is the predicted
operation for grid-isolated overloads of this magnitude.
The voltage tolerance range for the grid-connected fuel cell

was found to be 112 volts to 135 volts. When voltages outside
this range were dialed into the signal generator the fuel cell
disconnected itself from the simulated grid. The fuel cell
was able to cycle back on the simulated grid once the out-of
limit voltages were returned to the proper 120 volt level.
The out-of-limit frequency test for the grid-connected oper

ating mode was not completed because of problems synchronizing
the fuel cell with the signal generator in the variable
frequency mode.
15
ARCARI ET AL.
-5-
ENVIRONMENTAL EMISSION TESTING
The fuel cell was found to have a constant sound level over
the load range in both the grid-connected and grid-isolated
operating modes. The loudest area of the fuel cell was found
to be in front of the fans. At a distance of 4.5 feet the
sound level was measured to be 81 dB within the enclosure.
The discharge water of the fuel cell was found to be cleaner

than the referenced city water and no measurable EMI was found
at selected locations around the power plant.
Stack exhaust emissions were found to be low except for CO.

It was measured to be at 1400 PPM at full load; this is still
lower than the most strict air emissions requirement set by
the Southcoast Air Quality District in Los Angeles.
CONCLUSIONS
In general, the fuel cell thermal and electrical conversion

efficiency were within 5 percent of IFC specifications. This
is in light of the poor resolution of the fuel and water flow
meters which were used (gas meter: 1 pulse==2 S C F , water meter:
1 pulse=l gallon). Its full load electric conversion heat
rate (9263 Btu/kWhr) is very good compared to other generating
units of this size (<100 kW).
The intrinsic protection features of the fuel cell in general,

were able to detect out-of-limit conditions and to initiate
proper action to protect the fuel cell and the load. Some of
the time intervals and set points did not match IFC specifica
tions exactly, but many of these are adjustable.
The voltage T H D s , at full load, are approximately .8 percent

age points higher than IFC specifications. It does not appear
to be a serious difference. However, the current THDs, 18%
for grid-connect, appear very high. There is not an IFC
specification for current THD.
Only CO measurements indicated a possible exhaust emission

problem with the fuel cell. But even at these levels it is
still lower than the most stringent air quality requirements.
All other possible environmental perturbations (sound, dis
charge water EMI) by the fuel cell were found to be small or
negligible.
16
40 KW FIELD TEST EXPERIENCE
Scott K. Arentsen
The Dayton Power and Light Company
Courthouse Plaza
Dayton, Ohio 45401
As part of the 40 KW Onsite Fuel Cell Field Test, The Dayton Power and
Light Co mpany installed a 40 KW fuel cell at a hotel in Dayton, Oh io in
September 1984. Over the course of the field test the system provided
electricity for use in the guest rooms of the hotel and supplemented the
domestic water heating requirements of the facility. During the 14 month
field test period, the fuel cell operated for 6,227 hours producing
189,000 KWh and 148 million BTU of usable heat. Overall power plant
av ailability was 60% with several months during the test at 100%
availability. Utility personnel performed the majority of operation and
maintenance w o r k x e q u i r e d on the system.
Since this project was designated as a field test rather than a

demonstration project, its main goal was to determine the operational
feasibility of the fuel cell system while at the same time identifying
areas for needed improvement. The operation of the fuel cell at DP&L
along with those of other participants in the program helped to reveal
specific subsystems requiring modification or design changes that need
implementation prior to full scale commercialization. At the DP&L site,
the following are examples of areas for improvement that were identified;
* Cold weather operation; Several components experienced freeze
damage both during unit operation as well as while the system was
shut down.
* Heat recovery; Local water supplies appear to have deposited scale
on the fuel cell heat exchangers which reduced flowrates through
the system and inhibited heat transfer.
* Control logic; At times during the field test random, unexplained
fuel cell shutdowns were experienced.
While there were numerous opportunities during the field test to perform
ma intenance on the system, the problems encountered were of the type
which should not inhibit fuel cell development. The results of the field
test indicate that fuel cell technology is capable of providing both
el ectricity and heat energy according to specifications.
17
FIELD EXPERIENCE WITH 40 KW FUEL CELL
POWER PLANTS AT MILITARY BASES
V.D. Ferraro, R.W. Taylor

La Jolla, California 92038
Garry Lynch
DoD Elmendorf Power Plant
Elmendorf, Alaska 99506
Introduction
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), in cooperation with the

Department of Defense (DoD), is sponsoring the field testing
of four 40 kW fuel cell power plants at military bases in the
United States. The purpose of the project is to gain
experience with the operation and performance of onsite fuel
cell power plants to demonstrate their viability for military
bases. Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC)
is responsible for the power plant/site design, installation,
and performance data collection and analysis.
The fuel cell power plants were scheduled to operate for one
year at each site providing electricity and heat for space
heating, domestic hot water and process heat. A complete data
acquisition system (DAS) was installed at each site to monitor
the power plants' performance.
The installation of 40 kW fuel cells at four military bases is

a separate, but parallel program to the Gas Research Insti
tute's (GRI) and D O E 's Onsite Fuel Cell Field Test Project.
In the GRI/DOE Project, over forty 40 kW fuel cell power
plants are being field tested by approximately thirty gas
and/or electric utilities.
Site Characterizations
The first of the DoD fuel cell power plants was installed at
the Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio in August 1984.
The power plant was installed at the USAF Museum to supply
electricity and space heat. Operation continued for over 2300
hours until a leak in an internal heat exchanger caused water
to flow back through the reformer and into the cell stack
washing out the electrolyte. Significant damage resulted, and
it was decided to decommission this power plant early and
concentrate the field test efforts on the other three power
plants.
The second power plant was installed at Sheppard AFB near

Wichita Falls, Texas in November 1984. It provided elec
tricity to a dormitory as well as heat for domestic hot water.
This power plant operated for a full year as planned,
accumulating 5100 hours.
The third power plant was installed at Ft. Belvoir, Virginia

in February 1985. It provides heat for domestic hot water for
an Army dining hall. The electric output is provided to the
18
FERRARO ET AL.
-2-
mess hall In a grid-connected mode as were the first two

installations. However, the power plant is also electrically
connected to serve an isolated lighting load. In the case of
a grid power outage, the fuel cell can continue to operate and
demonstrate its ability to serve an isolated load. This power
plant has accumulated over 6200 hours of operation and is
intended to go into extended testing beyond the one year (8000
hour) operation originally planned.
The last fuel cell was installed at Elmendorf AFB near

Anchorage, Alaska in August 1985. It provides process heat
for the boiler make up water at an adjacent base power plant.
The power plant also is grid-connected and serves an isolated
lighting load. The power plant has accumulated over 4600
hours and it also is expected to perform extended testing.
Power Plant/Site Data Collection
The purpose of the DAS was to collect data vital to the oper
ation and maintenance of the power plant and analyze this data
to determine performance characteristics.
Figure 1, a simplified block diagram of the DAS which was

installed at the DoD sites, shows the flow of data from elec
trical sensors (select load panel) and thermal sensors (water
and gas flowmeters, resistance temperature devices) to the
datalogger and data recorder. The datalogger, which is capa
ble of monitoring up to 75 data points, scans each data point
every fifteen seconds. Average maximum and minimum values are
recorded by the data recorder every half-hour on magnetic tape
cassettes.
IN S T R U M E N TE D SITE
W a te r
R T D 's 1 F lo w m e te rs
1
G as
F lo w m e te rs
S e rv ic e ■--1
Panel "I I I I
I I I I
D ec 10
S e le c t R e c o rd e r/ - C o m p u te r
D a ta lo g g e r ^ P ro g ra m s T o D o D S ite
L o a d Panel R eader
(S A IC )
T o IF C -> T o D oD S ite
Figure 1. Data Acquisition System (DAS)
19
FERRARO ET AL.
-3-
Every two weeks the DoD site personnel send a data tape to
SAIC for initial analysis. S A I C s computer program analyzes
the data, provides a statistical correlation of each param
eter, calculates and provides power plant performance data,
and summarizes the performance. A plot of the fuel cell
electrical output and the total fuel utilization is also
generated.
System Performance
All four of the fuel cell power plants normally operated in

the grid-connected mode and were usually set to maximum capac
ity (40 kW). Tables 1 and 2 show a comparison of the perform
ance characteristics of the four power plants as of June 1,
1986. The major reason the average kW power level was below
40 kW was that on many occasions operation and maintenance
problems dictated operating at reduced power levels.
Table 1. Fuel Cell Power Plant Performance Characteristics
Average Average
Electric Thermal Cumulative
Capacity Capacity Availability Operating
Factor (%) Factor (%) (%) Hours
WPAFB 70 45 46 2300
Sheppard AFB 73 67 61 5100
Ft. Belvoir 77 31 61 6200
Elmendorf AFB 72 54 78 4655
Table 2. Fuel Cell Power Plant Operating Characteristics
Average
Average Heat Average Average
Power Output Electrical Fuel
Output Btu/hr Ef f iciency Ut ilization
(kW) X 1000 (%) (%)
WPAFB 28 68 37 60
Sheppard AFB 29 100 31 61
Ft. Belvoir 24 44 38 59
Elmendorf AFB 34 81 39 57
The expected efficiency for the power plants at the power

levels indicated was 37- 40 percent based on the lower heating
value of the natural gas. The Elmendorf and Ft. Belvoir fuel
cells equalled or exceeded the specification. The Sheppard
power plant had lower efficiency because it operated at lower
power levels for longer time periods as a result of operating
problems.
The average electric capacity factors shown in Table 1, are

calculated by dividing the actual kWhrs produced by the kWhrs
that would have been produced if the fuel cell had operated at
20
FERRARO ET A L .
-4-
40 kW for the entire operating period. These capacity factors

correlate well with the other power plants in the GRI program.
The availability is a measure of the percent of time that the
power plant actually operated. This is a good indicator of
the reliability of the power plant. However, it should be
understood that due to the prototype nature of the 40 kW fuel
cell and the R&D nature of the field tests, more maintenance
problems and downtime to receive parts are expected when
compared to commercial operation. The availabilities ranged
from 46 percent to 78 percent. The Elmendorf power plant's
availability of 78 percent was one of the highest in the GRI
field test. The GRI/DOE p rogram goal was to achieve
availabilities of 55-65 percent. The actual program average
is 63 percent.
The thermal output from the fuel cells ranged from 44,000 Btuh
to 100,000 Btuh at Sheppard AFB. The design specification for
heat output was approximately 150,000 Btuh based on 2.5 gpm
flow, 160°F supply water temperature and 8 0 “F return water
temperature. The thermal output is more indicative of the
site load than the performance of the power plant.
The thermal capacity factor is a measure of the actual heat

produced and used by the site vs. the predicted heat produc
tion (150,000 Btuh) during average conditions at 40 kW
electrical output. For the reasons already discussed, these
ranged from 31 percent at Ft. Belvoir to 67 percent at
Sheppard AFB.
The overall fuel utilization is calculated by dividing the

actual energy produced (heat plus electricity) by the energy
supplied (fuel). Based on the higher heating value of natural
gas the predicted fuel u t i l i z a t i o n was app r o x i m a t e l y 73
percent. For the reasons previously discussed, all four power
plants had lower fuel utilization, ranging from 57 percent to
61 percent.
Problems
Almost all of the problems encountered by the four DoD fuel

cell power plants had also occurred with many of the other
GRI/DOE 40 kW fuel cells. Most of these types of problems can
be expected in a pr e p r o d u c t i o n scale field test. The
following is a list of the most significant problems.
The cell stack coolant loop plugged as a result of

dissimilar metals, small orifices, and inadequate
condensate blowdown
Unrealiable logic cards
Inadequate pumps
Steam and water leaks
Extremely sensitive grid-connect unit (GCU) tolerances
Freeze-ups of coolant loop components
21
FERRARO ET AL.
-5-
Unreliable solenoid valves

High-grade HEX water hammer
Low-grade HEX undersizing
Successes
The major success was the reliable operation of the fuel c

stacks. Almost all of the problems encountered were with i
conventional part of the fuel cell power plant and they wn
be rectified. In addition, the following successes we
achieved.
o The electrical efficiency met specifications

o The inverter produced extremely good power quality
o Very low levels of emissions were produced
o The load following capabilities were proven
Conclusions
The four 40 kW fuel cell power plants field tested a

compatible with conventional m i l i t a r y base energy usag
Through this project, much experience has been gained with t
operation and performance of developing phosphoric acid fu
cell power plants. Site personnel performed most of t
maintenance and all of the operational aspects of the projec
In particular, the personnel at Elmendorf AFB have perforr
all but the first fuel cell coolant loop chemical clean:
unassisted. Problems were encountered but were understoi
The major challenges now facing military applications of f
cell power plants is to improve the operating and performa
characteristics, prove the reliable operation of a commerc
power plant, reduce the capital costs and determine
appropriate early applications for the military.
22
ON-SITE 40-kW FUEL CELL FIELD TEST
J. M. King and R. Falcinelli

International Fuel Cells
R. R. Woods
During the period 1982 through 1986, a 40-kW fuel cell power
plant was designed, fabricated, and field tested. The 40-kW
program evaluation was both comprehensive and intense:
1) Forty-six plants were produced. A picture of one of

the installed units is shown in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1. 40-kW FUEL CELL POWER PLANT
2) The 42 power plant sites in 21 states of the United

State and two locations in Japan provided exposure
to a broad range of environments. Figure 2 shows
the installation locations.
3) The power plants operated both independent from and

connected to the utility grid. Three installations
involved two grid-independent power plants operating
in parallel. The power plant heat was used to
supply domestic hot water, space heating, pool
heating, and low-temperature process loads.
4) Thirty-six organizations served as field test hosts

performing power plant installation, operation, and
maintenance.
5) The average power plant operated for over 6500

hours. Fourteen power plants exceeded 8000 hours of
operation with the longest running unit operating
for over 11,000 hours. Total operating experience
exceeds 300,000 hours.
23
KING ET AL
-2-
% so CALfFORMA GAS
SAN DIEGO GbE
GASCO. I N C .#
OSAKA GAS
FIGURE 2. 40-kW FUEL CELL LOCATIONS
The field test was successful in demonstrating the performance

features of on-site fuel cell power plants and the ability of
the host utility organizations to install, operate, and
maintain the equipment.
The power plants were produced in an experimental fabrication

facility using process control, rather than component testing,
as the quality control approach for the cell stack and
reformer. The resulting power plant characteristics were as
predicted and quite consistent throughout the fleet. The
ability of a standard power plant design to meet the needs of
a range of electrical and thermal loads was demonstrated.
24
KING ET AL
-3-
The attractive fuel cell characteristies of high efficiency,

low environmental intrusion, and rapid response were
demonstrated repeatedly. The efficiency was quite stable over
the operating period. Figure 3 is a typical plot of
electrical efficiency and overall efficiency (including
recovered heat) over a power plant operating period. At a few
sites, air pollution emissions were measured; the measured
values were lower than the most stringent U.S. Standards.
Rapid load response was demonstrated in grid-independent
sites. Figure 4 shows excellent load sharing and rapid
response of two grid-independent units operating in parallel.
O v e r a ll
0.6
Efficiency
(L H V )
0.4
E le c t r ic a l
0.2
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Hours of operation
FIGURE 3. EFFICIENCY STABILITY FOR OPERATING PERIOD
The cell stack and reformer showed excellent operating

integrity throughout the program. The program approach to
ancillary components was to utilize available catalog items
with limited evaluation testing. As a consequence, field test
ancillary component operating integrity was deficient.
Approaches to overcome these deficiencies have been identified
and are being evaluated in the parallel technology development
activity. In spite of this, the potential for long operating
periods without maintenance was demonstrated. Most of the
power plants had at least one continuous run of 1000 hours or
more, with the longest being 216S hours (3 months). One power
plant operated for 4025 hours without a forced outage.
One hundred twenty-five individuals from host organizations

attended the two-week training course of International Fuel
Cells. This course and the power plant manuals provided
attendees with the ability to install, operate, and maintain
25
KING ET AL
-4-
200
175 S/N 8228
150-
Phase 125- S/N 8229 A

current
Amps lOO-
75-
50- 20 HP
motor Steady state
25- start running
-3 0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
1 second
Tim e - Cycles
FIGURE 4. RESPONSE TO LOAD CHANGE FOR

TWO PARALLELED POWER PLANTS
the power plant with a reasonable level of assistance from

IFC. The level of support required declined as the host
organizations gained experience. The major reason for
requesting assistance was in diagnosis of the cause of
shutdown. This area will be addressed with improved
diagnostic information in future power plants.
Acknowledgements
The power plant fabrication and field test support activities

were sponsored by the Gas Research Institute and the U.S.
Department of Energy through the DOE Morgantown Energy
Technology Center. NASA-Lewis served as project manager of
the DDE-funded activity. The host organizations funded site
activities. The efforts of a large number of personnel at the
host utilities, the sponsoring organizations, and
International Fuel Cells in achieving the results reported
herein are gratefully acknowledged.
26
THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC MARKET OPPORTUNITY AND
COMMERCIALIZATION OF ON-SITE FUEL CELLS
STEVE ENABLE
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE
An abstract of this presentation was not available at

press time. Copies will be provided to attendees at the
Seminar.
27
OVERVIEW OF THE WESTINGHOUSE
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL PROGRAM
W. J. Dollard, General Manager

J. T. Brown, Deputy Venture Manager
Solid Oxide Technology Venture

Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Pittsburgh, PA 15235
The Solid Oxide Technology Venture of the Westinghouse Electric

Corporation located at the Research and Development Center in
Pittsburgh is the organization with the dedicated objective of
development and commercialization of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
technology.
Westinghouse conceived the solid oxide fuel cell in 1958 during

the course of corporate sponsored fundamental research on oxygen
ion conductivity of cubic phase zirconia. The present state of
solid oxide fuel cell technology has grown out of this work,
financially supported over the past 28 years by Westinghouse and
several agencies of the U.S. Government — Office of Coal
Research of the Department of the Interior, Energy Research and
Development Administration, and most recently the Department of
Energy (DOE). The current DOE contract is under the direction
of the Morgantown Energy Technology Center.
Prior to the initiation in 1980 of our present contract with

DOB, Westinghouse devised both the tubular solid oxide fuel cell
with axial interconnection strip and a seal-less generator
concept that permits the interconnection of cells in an array
with both series and parallel cell interconnection. These
inventions promised the potential for practical, clean,
efficient, and economic solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems for
cogeneration of useful heat and electric power as well as for
all electric power applications.
Performance under this contract has thus far corroborated this

potential. It has been demonstrated that hydrogen and carbon
monoxide in any proportion are acceptable as elemental fuel
gases. The focus of the DOE program has been on coal derived
fuel gases, and the reference fuel is a synthetic reformate gas
(67% hydrogen, 22% CO, and 11% water vapor). Individual cells
(approximately 1.5 eg diameter by 30 cm length, i.e.,
approximately 110 cm active cell surface area) have delivered a
peak power of 22 watts using this simulated reformate fuel (85%
utilization) and air oxidant (25% utilization). The contract
goal for these conditions was 11 watts. Using the state-of-the-
art materials and cell design, a three-cell stack was operated
for over 9000 hours with no evidence to suggest that corrosion,
phase change or component materials interdiffusion would limit
life. A 24 cell, subscale generator module was operated for
over 2000 hours, and verified the seal-less design concept. The
test also demonstrated that this generator could operate in a
thermally self-sustaining mode. Data showed that the efficiency
28
DOLLARD ET AL
- 2 -
(i.e., the ratio of electric power output to the power

equivalent of the high heating value of the methane fuel flow
input) of this generator exceeded 45%, with no utilization of
the high quality exhaust heat. This data was obtained with the
standard fuel and air utilizatigns stated above, atmospheric
pressure, and nominal 250 ma/cm cell current density.
The culmination of the DOE program phase just completed was the
designing, building, and testing of a 324 cell generator, called
the 5 kW unit. Its purpose was to show that SOFC technology
could be applied to a thermally self-sustaining generator
encompassing key features of a large-scale power generating
system. The cell arrangement was 108 cells in series and three
cells in parallel. Under test at the standard conditions
mentioned earlier the generator output initially was over 61
volts at 85 amps producing in excess of 5200 watts.
A modification to our contract with DOE has been negotiated

which will provide S15M of continued support for SOFC technology
development through April 1989. With this latest modification,
our DOE funded contract effort since 1980 will exceed $28
million. Of this Westinghouse will have contributed $6M as
direct cost share. The effort planned for the continuing DOE
program includes:
• Establishment of user requirements.

• Conceptual design and trade-off studies to delineate the
performance and cost goals for cells and other components
to be applied in early market entry units.
• Continued technology advancement of the fuel cell, fuel
cell generator module, and process technologies directed
toward developing the capability to meet performance and
cost goals necessary for viability in a competitive
marketplace.
• The manufacture and testing of numerous cells and the
development, construction and test of two SOFC generator
modules of roughly multi-kW electrical capacity in order
to verify technological advances and provide the design
for a generator module suitable for a 25 to 200 kW SOFC
generation system.
During the course of the DOE contract, Westinghouse will commit

approximately $5M million in additional capital funds for the
construction of a "miniplant" to increase the scale of our SOFC
manufacturing capability. This plant will incorporate larger
scale batch type processes including significant scale-up of the
key film application process (EVD) and will focus on reducing
the cost (i.e., mechanization) of the most labor intensive
process steps while instituting a broad ranging quality
assurance program. The "miniplant" will be operational in 1988.
Westinghouse has recently been awarded a contract with the Gas

Research Institute for solid oxide fuel cell development. The
ultimate objective of this program is the development of natural
gas fueled cogeneration systems for application to the
29
DOLLARD ET AL
- 3 -
commercial and industrial sectors. The first phase of this

program is a 21 month effort funded at $2.6 million by GRI.
The first phase objective of the GRI program is the development

and proof of concept testing of an SOFC generator module that
can be fueled by direct input of natural gas. In our DOE
development programs, the fuel has been a simulated coal
derivable reformate fuel gas that required no further
processing. It can be shown thermodynamically that the direct
reformation of methane on the anode surface should be possible
at the normal SOFC operating temperature near 1000°C. The
kinetics of the reforming reaction are very rapid, however, and
provision of adequate heat transfer may be a limiting factor.
This is a major issue which will be thoroughly investigated.
Beyond heat transfer considerations, the most significant
problem expected is the avoidance of carbon deposition,
especially across the range of operating conditions and expected
natural gas fuel compositions. We plan to verify the
feasibility of insitu reformation of natural gas early in the
GRI program using single cell tests. As an alternative
technical strategy, we will develop means to integrate an SOFC
exhaust gas heated reformer within the generator module. The
direct use of natural gas will be demonstrated in the design,
construction and test of a proof of concept SOFC generator
module before the end of 1987.
The proposed second phase of the GRI program will yield a 100+kW
class cogeneration system, and the development of several such
systems as field experiments.
The proposed third phase includes the successful maintenance of

the field test plus the development and test of a MW class
cogeneration system at an industrial site as a field experiment.
Westinghouse has designed, built, tested, and delivered to the

Tennessee Valley Authority a 400 watt SOFC generator module,
very similar to our 24 cell unit tested on the DDE program, and
installed it in a host test apparatus. Much more about the
details of operation of this unit will be discussed in another
paper. This unit was sold to TYA because we felt TVA testing
the unit, corroborating generator performance, and gaining first
hand experience with the technology was an important early step
toward ultimate commercialization. Contracts have now been
signed with large, overseas gas utilities for test units as the
first phase of continued cooperative efforts between us to
familiarize them with the technology and enable Westinghouse to
benefit from their particular technical and market expertise.
We are presently addressing the questions:
• Do we have a market?
• Do we have a product?
• Can we be competitive?
• What is the proper strategy to implement?
30
DOLLARD ET AL
- 4 -
We know many potentially different applications exist and

cogeneration is one likely market entry application. We assert
that learning curve theory applies to this product and that low
cell cost will require high volume production. Initial cost of
production will be high, much higher than that of competing
technologies such as gas turbines and diesels. Our business
approach then is to familiarize potential system partners with
the technology, concentrating initially on those with a long
term view who have a valuable expertise to bring to the program.
We' have included in our consideration potential overseas
demonstration plants.
Westinghouse will be the systems integrator for some

applications but we believe a market approach by varied system
integrators will be appropriate to broaden the SOFC market. We
do intend to be a low cost, high quality cell and generator
vendor.
We believe competitive commercial offerings can be made in the

early 1990’s and this puts solid oxide fuel cells on a
competitive commercial timescale with other fuel cell
technologies. SOFC’s should no longer be considered an
interesting technology for some time in the far distant future.
31
DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF MULTI-CELL
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL GENERATORS
P. Reichner and J.M. Makiel

Westinghouse Research and Development Center
1310 Beulah Road
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235
INTRODUCTION
Solid oxide fuel cell technology has seen major advances over
the past few years. Tubular cells, with a thin-film
electrolyte, were found to be stable during tests which
approached 9000 hours duration.^ ^ Cell fabrication
techniques were developed which permit the production of the
large cell quantities required for SOEC generators, and a 24
cell generator was built and tested.' During the past year,
testing of the 24 cell generator was continued and a 5 kW
generator was fabricated and tested.
24 CELL GENERATOR DESIGN
The 24 cell generator was a major step in the development of

practical large-scale SOFC power generation systems. It was
the first successful operation of a self-heating SOFC
generator. Cell temperatures were controlled through the air
delivery system and not by enveloping heaters typical of
laboratory experiments.
This generator consisted of two cell bundles, each containing

twelve tubular cells in a three-parallel by four-series
matrix. A series connection was made between the two bundles
and power take-off leads were joined to the free end of each
bundle. The terminal voltage was eight times and the current
three times that of the individual cell.
Air was supplied through feed tubes suspended from a common

supply plenum. Each air feed tube extended into the tubular
cell to introduce air near the closed end of the cell. The
air then passed along the air electrode in the cell bore and
exited at the open end of the cell. The air flow provided
cell temperature regulation and oxygen for cell function.
The cell stack was surrounded by a thin-walled inner canister

which directed the gaseous fuel through the spaces between
cell outer surfaces, and isolated the fuel from the
surrounding insulation package.
24 CELL GENERATOR TEST RESULTS
The prescribed test plan for the 24 cell generator included a

750 hour endurance run followed by a series of five shutdown
and start-up cycles designed to check out the thermal cycle
ability of the design. A special experiment was then run
during which the air supply to one of the cells was
interrupted for several hours. This test checked the parallel
interconnection current path of cells in this unit and
demonstrated the current sharing ability of parallel cells.
Finally, the unit was run again for a second endurance test
32
REICHNER ET AL
- 2 -
before being shut down and dismantled, In all, the unit ran
for over 2000 hours.
Figure 1 presents two voltage versus current characteristics

for this 24 cell generator, one at the beginning and one at
the end of the tests. The unit satisfied most of its pre-test
goals and encouraged us to proceed with the construction of
the 324 cell unit. A problem in the sinter-bond to the
peripheral cells was observed during the thermal cycle tests,
but this was resolved through additional development efforts.
85% U tiliz a tio n

A ir ; 5 .3 S toich
T e iu p e rd tu r e ; o 1000®C. +4® , -10®
^ 1030®C. ±r
Open C ir c u it V oltage = 7 .7 2 v (7 /1 5 /8 5 )
Open C ir c u it V oltage = 7.71 v ( 1 0 /2 5/8 5)

S' 6
O
>
■g 4
Goal 85% Fuel U tiliz a tio n /

2 O cto be r 25, 1985
J u ly 15, 1985
0 i : I I 1- i ■■ I 1 --
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
StacK C u r r e n t { A m pe res)
0 30 60 90 120 1 50 180 210 240 270 300

C u r r e n t D e n sity ( m .A/sq. c m .)
FIGURE 1
V vs. I C U R V E F O R 24 CELL GENERATOR

5 KW GENERATOR DESIGN
The 5 kW generator incorporated proven design features of the
24 cell generator to the greatest possible extent. For
example, the electrical power take-off and leads were almost
identical to those of the smaller generator. Each pre
assembled 18 cell bundle was composed of a three-parallel,
six-series cell matrix. Eighteen of these bundles were
series-connected to form the 324 cell stack, which is shown in
Figure 2 during assembly. As in the smaller generator each
air supply plenum fed two adjacent bundles, but now 36 instead
of 24 cells. The nine air plenums were joined to a single
manifold by slip-joint tube couplings which accommodate
thermal expansion and tolerances. Al\imina-fiber blanket
material was incorporated adjacent to the inner canister walls
to accommodate the larger thermal growth for the 5 kW
33
REICHNER ET AL
- 3 -
generator. Fuel distribution was accomplished by flow

channels cut into the insulation boards under the cell stack.
The completed 5 kW generator is shown in Figure 3 during
operation in the test installation.
FIGURE 2
5 kW GENERATOR CELL STACK
5 kW GENERATOR TEST RESULTS
The start-up procedure, test plan, and performance goals for

the 324 cell generator were similar to those of the 24 cell
unit. After successfully reaching full power operation, the
initial endurance run of this unit was interrupted at around
200 hours by anomalous temperatures and low voltages in two of
the bundles of cells. The unit was partially disassembled and
two 18 cell bundles were replaced. The unit was successfully
restarted and Figure 4 shows a power versus current plot which
was measured during this second run. The extrapolation of the
measured data indicated that the peak output of this unit
could have been around 6 kW. Heat balance calculations were
run which confirmed the integrity of the test instrumentation
and verified both our thermal and electrical prediction for
the performance of this unit. A total operating time of 400
hours at full power (greater than 5 kW) has been accomplished.
34
REICHNER ET AL
- 4 -
C 3
■S 2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 n o 120
Amps
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
5 KW GENERATOR 5 kW (324 CELL) GENERATOR

AND TEST FACILITY POWER-CURRENT TEST RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
1. The SOFC generator design features were proven to be

s o und.
2. Electrical performance of the generator can be predicted
on the basis of single-cell performance.
3. The generator design permits access for service and
individual cell bundles can be replaced.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by both the U.S. Department of Energy

under the direction of Morgantown Energy Technology Center and
Westinghouse Electric Corporation. The contributions of both
sponsors and the other Westinghouse personnel involved in this
work are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. A.O. Isenberg, "Performance and Life Test of a Solid Oxide

Fuel Cell Stack," National Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts,
May 19-22, 1985, pp. 102-106.
2. G.W. Zymboly, P. Reichner, and J.M. Makiel, "Cell

Fabrication, Design, and Operation of a Solid Oxide Fuel
Cell Generator," National Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts, May
19-22, 1985, pp. 95-101.
35
TVA TEST OF SOFC SUBSCALE GENERATOR
Don R. Stephenson, Jr. Stephen E. Veyo

Tennessee Valley Authority Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Chattanooga, TN 37401 Pittsburgh, PA 15235
I. Introduction and Objectives
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) has purchased a laboratory

prototype 400-Watt Westinghouse Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
generator module installed in a host test apparatus for the
purposes of demonstrating the capabilities of the technology,
providing independent corroboration of overall performance and
reliability, and gaining familiarity with the technology. TVA is
the first organization outside of a research and development
laboratory to initiate a program to explore the systems aspects of
this technology. The test apparatus is housed in a special TVA
facility located in Chattanooga, Tennessee.
This 400 Watt SOFC testing program is envisaged as the initial

phase in a potentially long-term TVA program which has as its
ultimate goal the development of a fuel cell technology for
dispersed, cogenerating electrical power generators that operate
on coal-derived fuels. SOFC technology has the high temperature
heat and the potential for fuel flexibility that are required for
this application. The Westinghouse solid oxide fuel cell generator
has certain inherent features which may be advantageous. These
features include:
• Cooling with process air.
• By-product heat available in the gaseous exhaust stream at
temperatures in excess of 600°C (1086°F), temperatures
sufficiently high to support virtually any cogeneration
application.
• The demonstrated ability to utilize hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, the principle constituents of all coal derived fuel
gases, as electrochemically consumed fuel.
• The formation of water at the fuel electrode, at cell
operating temperature of 1000°C, a feature which promises the
capability to reform natural gas, within the fuel cell
generator, without the need for external fuel processing
equipment such as reformers and shift converters.
• All solid state construction with demonstrated material
compatability, stability, and freedom from corrosion.
• A limited tolerance for sulfur in the fuel gas.
• A stack design that requires no gas tight seals.
• An exhaust effluent that should be free of NO^.
The test apparatus designed and built by Westinghouse is capable

of exercising the SOFC generator module with variations in the
parameters perceived to be of interest for potential applications.
II. Generator & Test Apparatus Description
The TVA SOFC generator module utilizes 24 state-of-the-art tubular

cells arranged in two series connected bundles, each bundle
36
STEPHENSON ET AL
- 2 -
consists of a two-dimensional cell array with four cells in series

and three in parallel. The generator has a power output of
nominally 400 Watts. In order to facilitate steady operation, the
thermal enclosure is equipped with electrically powered guard
heaters.
The test apparatus consists of fuel and air flow modulation means,
an electrically powered air preheater, fuel humidification means,
an external electrically heated natural gas reformer, an
electrical load, an inert gas purge system, and a control system.
The fuel system is configured to permit fuel cell operation on
either a hydrogen plus carbon monoxide mixture or on reformer
output. The inert gas purge system is used at startup and during
both programmed and unprogrammed shutdowns.
The dc output from the fuel cell generator module can be routed
through an inverter system to produce 120 volt ac, with the ac
output absorbed in a servo controlled rheostat, or the dc can be
absorbed in an FET electronic load for operation at constant
current.
The control system is designed to permit unattended automatic

operation at set point values for generator temperature, fuel
utilization, and air utilization for arbitrary values of
electrical load. In automatic mode, the fuel gas can be either a
fixed reference mixture of hydrogen and CO (H„/CO = 3) or reformer
output, with the moisture content determined By the set point
value for the bubbler temperature. The fuel flow rate will
automatically adjust in response to the delivered current in order
to maintain the set point value for fuel utilization as the
electrical load is varied. The air flow rate is automatically
adjusted similarly. In manual mode, the flow rates of the fuel
gases are adjusted individually to set point values, and load
follow operation at constant utilization is not automatic.
Switchover from hydrogen and carbon monoxide to natural gas fuel
is accomplished in automatic mode by throwing a switch. The
control system also includes a programmable logic controller which
monitors the value of important parameters and takes appropriate
action (such as an automatic, unattended shutdown) when the
permitted operating envelope is violated.
The test apparatus is housed in two structural steel cabinets.

The assembly occupies a space roughly 36 inches deep, 96 inches
long, and 80 inches high.
In addition to the sensors coupled to the control system and the

associated digital displays, there are 27 thermocouples and 20
voltage channels connected to the TVA supplied data logging
system. There are 9 thermocouples installed inside the generator
module, as well as a voltage probe for each quadrant of the cell
bundle. Data recorded includes internal generator temperatures
and voltages, feed and effluent gas temperatures, feed gas
pressures, feed gas mass flow rates, and generator current,
terminal voltage, and power.
37
STEPHENSON ET AL
- 3 -
III. Test Program Description
The initial experimental design consists of two overlapping

fractional factorial designs with the range of parameter values
shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 TEST MATRIX VARIABLES

Current, Amperes 95 90 80 60 30
Fuel Utilization, % 55 70 80 85
Mean Temperature, *C 800 900 1000 1050
Air Stoichs 3 4 5 6 7
Fuel type preformed reformed
After startup, the generator is to be moved to a new set of

experimental conditions every other day, thus, allowing time for
the change of conditions and achievement of equilibrium, there
will be roughly 40 hours of steady operation accumulated at each
condition in the matrix. Assuming that the matrix is repeated
three times, the duration of the initial test program will be
about six months.
Upon completion of the test matrix, the generator voltage will be

statistically fitted to a full second order functional model
containing linear, quadratic, and cross-product terms in the five
independent variables (current, fuel utilization, temperature, air
stoichs, and duration of operation) for the two fuels. Note that
if the natural gas were methane, and the reforming accomplished
with 1.5 moles of water per mole of methane, then the reformer
supplied fuel would be the reference preformed fuel (6795 H2, 22%
CO, 1155 HgO) .
Following this initial phase of testing, TVA expects to operate

the device aggressively, demonstrating various aspects of
transient operation, reformer operation across a range of water to
carbon ratios, and direct operation of the unit on natural gas
without the external reformer.
IV. Results & Conclusions
Prior to shipment, the apparatus was exercised to demonstrate

operation and to familiarize TVA personnel with its operation.
Among the operating conditions established were the following:
1. Steady operation at nominally lOOO'C on hydrogen plus CO

fuel gas, 5 stoichs of air flow, nominally 82.355 fuel
utilization, 90 Amperes, 4.47 Volts, 402 Watts DC output.
2. Steady operation on hydrogen fuel.
3. Steady operation in both manual and automatic control
modes.
4. Steady operation in automatic mode with hydrogen plus CO
fuel across the range of fuel utilizations between 5555 and
8555, air stoichs between 3 and 7 stoichs, and loads between
30 and 100 amperes.
38
STEPHENSON ET AL
- 4 -
5. Rapid traversing across the load range.

6. Sudden loss of electrical load.
7. Operation of the AC inverter system.
8. Loss of electrical supply power for 20 seconds.
9. Switchover operation between the reformer and preformed
fuel.
10. System response to a trip condition calling for shutdown
followed by manual reset and resumption of operation.
The apparatus was shipped to Chattanooga as a complete assembly in

a cushioned crate using a dedicated commercial moving van, and was
put into place within the TVA facility on the day it arrived.
During initial startup, the unit was deficient in output and
evidenced characteristics of a cracked cell. Subsequent
disassembly of the generator module revealed one badly cracked
cell, attributed to a defect in manufacturing. After the
generator is repaired, it will be reinstalled and the test matrix
will be executed.
Conclusions to date:
1. The test apparatus meets its design requirements for
automatic unattended operation, and operation at set point
conditions for load follow.
2. Loss of electrical load is without deleterious
consequences.
3. There was no shipping damage to either generator or test
apparatus.
V. Acknowledgment
The development of SOFC technology has been supported by

Westinghouse and the United States Department of Energy under a
cost shared contract currently managed by the Morgantown Energy
Technology Center (METC).
VI. Legal Notice
Neither TVA, the United States, Westinghouse, nor any of their

agents or employees: 1) make any warranty, or representation,
express or implied, as to the accuracy, completeness, usefulness,
or reliability of any information, apparatus, product, method or
process discussed in this document; 2) assume any liability or
responsibility for the use of, or for damages resulting from the
use of any information, apparatus, product, method, or process
discussed in this dociiment; or 3) represent that the use of any
information, apparatus, product, method, or process would not
infringe upon privately owned rights.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process,

method, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not constitute or imply an endorsement or
recommendation by TVA, the United States, or any of their agents
or employees.
The views and opinions of the authors represented herein do not

necessarily state or reflect those of TVA or Westinghouse.
39
MONOLITHIC FUEL CELL DEVELOPMENT
D. C. Fee, P. E. Blackburn, D. E. Busch, T. D. Claar, D. U. Dees,

J. Dusek, T. E. Easier, W. A. Ellingson, B. K. F l a n d e r m e y e r , R. J. Fousek,
J. J. Heiberger, T. E. Kraft, S. Majumdar, C. C. M c P h e e t e r s ,
F. C. Mrazek, J.J. Picciolo, R. B. Poeppel, a nd S. A. Z w i c k
A r g o n n e N a t i o n a l L a b o rat o r y
Argonne, XL 60A39
A n e w fuel cell design, called the "mono l i t h i c fuel c ell," is bei n g

d e v e l o p e d at A r g o n n e N a t i o n a l Laboratory. The m o n o l i t h i c d e s i g n e m p l o y s
the s a m e thin c e ramic c o m p o n e n t s used in other o x i d e fuel cel l s in a
strong, ligh t w e i g h t h o n e y c o m b s t r u c t u r e of small cells, and thus can
a c h i e v e v e r y high pow e r per unit mass or volume. T h e light w e i g h t a nd low
v olume, as well as the e f f i c i e n c y and r e l i a b i l i t y of e l e c t r i c a l s y s tems,
a re a d v a n t a g e o u s is s p ace and terrestial systems.
In the m o n o l i t h i c concept, fuel and o x i dant are c o m b i n e d e l e c t r o c h e m -

i c a l l y in a c e ramic cell at an o p e r a t i n g tempe r a t u r e of 1100 to 1 3 0 0 K.
C e l l c o m p o n e n t s are fabric a t e d as one piece, muc h like a b l o c k of c o r r u
g a t e d p a p e r -board, as s h own in Fig. 1. Fuel and oxid a n t are c o n d u c t e d
t h r ough a l t e r n a t i n g pass a g e s in the stack. T h e s e p a s s a g e s a r e f o r m e d from
thin (0.025 to 0 . 1 0 0 mm) layers of the a c t i v e cell com p o n e n t s : electro
l y t e ( y t t r i a s t a b i l i z e d zirconia), c a t h o d e (stro n t i u m d o p e d l a n t h a n u m
m a n g a n i t e ) , a n o d e ( n i c k e l - z i r c o n i a cermet), and the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n
m a t e r i a l ( m a g n e s i u m - d o p e d l a n t h a n u m chr o m i t e ) that c o n n e c t s c e l l s in e l e c
t r i cal ser i e s (bipolar plate). Th e c o r r u g a t i o n s also form the g a s s e a l at
the e d g e s of the structure. A d v a n t a g e is taken of the a b i l i t y to f a b r i
c a t e the sol i d e l e c t r o l y t e and o t h e r solid cell c o m p o n e n t s into s h a p e s that
c a n not be a c h i e v e d in liquid e l e c t r o l y t e systems. In l i quid e l e c t r o l y t e
s y s tems, m u c h of the mass and v o l u m e goes into b u i l d i n g the inert c o n t a i n e r
for the liquid. E l i m i n a t i n g this u n n e c e s s a r y ma t e r i a l g i v e s the m o n o l i t h i c
fuel cell a s i g n i f i c a n t a d v a n t a g e in performance .
T h e p o t e n t i a l for the high p o wer d e n s i t y of the m o n o l i t h i c fuel cell

r e s u l t s from the small cell size. Cells 1 to 2 m m in d i a m e t e r or s m a l l e r
a re a c h i e v a b l e w h e n the inert c o n t a i n e r for e l e c t r o l y t e a nd the inert
s u p p o r t for the thin act i v e layers are e l i minate d . T h e sma l l cell s i z e
i n c r e a s e s the ac t i v e s u r f a c e a r e a per unit vol u m e of the cell. More
i m p o r t a n t l y , the small cell size in the m o n o l i t h i c d e s i g n r e d u c e s the
v o l t a g e lo s s e s due to internal e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e ( l ) . T h i s r e d u c t i o n is
a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n s i deration, b e c a u s e internal r e s i s t a n c e is the p r i n c i p a l
d i s s i p a t i v e loss for the c e ramic m a t e r i a l s and t e m p e r a t u r e s of interest.
D e c r e a s i n g the cell size d e c r e a s e s the c u rrent path l e ngth b e c a u s e c u r r e n t
is c a r r i e d in-pl a n e by the e l e c t r o d e s in the m o n o l i t h i c design.
FABRICATION
T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a l l e n g e for the d e v e l o p m e n t of the m o n o l i t h i c fuel c e l l is

f a b r i c a t i o n of the in t r i c a t e structures. Well d e v e l o p e d c e r a m i c
f a b r i c a t i o n techni q u e s are b e ing employed. T a p e c a s t i n g m e t h o d o l o g y is
b e i n g o p t i m i z e d to f a b r i c a t e thin, high d e n s i t y l ayers of e l e c t r o l y t e and
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n material. Tape c a s t i n g Is used to form thin, h i g h - d e n s i t y
l a y e r s in the c e ramic cap a c i t o r industry. T a p e c a s t i n g is a l s o b e i n g u s e d
to f o r m the thin po r o u s layers of ano d e and cathode. A l t e r n a t e thin l a y e r
f a b r i c a t i o n techniques, such as spraying, c u r t a i n coating, and hot roll
m i l ling, a r e also bei n g considered.
T h e f a b r i c a t i o n effort focuses on the crit i c a l t h r e e - l a y e r com p o s i t e s :

c a t h o d e - e l e c t r o l y t e - a n o d e and c a t h o d e - i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n - a n o d e . T h e s e a re the
f u n d a m e n t a l b u i l d i n g bl o c k s of the array. C o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n is g i v e n
to a c h i e v i n g a d e q u a t e b o n d i n g b e t w e e n the layers. In a d dition, m e t h o d s
40
FEE, ET AL
- 2 -
h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d to p r o d u c e the d e s i r e d c o r r u g a t e d structure. Thermo
s e t t i n g resins are e m p l o y e d w h i c h make the s t r u c t u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y r i g i d so
that the c o r r u g a t e d tapes may be s t a c k e d in the g r e e n state.
A l l l a y e r s of the a r r a y are co-f i r e d in ai r u n d e r the same c o n d i t i o n s . The

p r i n c i p a l c h a l l e n g e for c o - f i r i n g is to m a tch the s h r i n k a g e r a tes of all
f o u r m a t e r i a l s by tai l o r i n g the p a r t i c l e size and the b i n d e r c o n t e n t in
e a c b layer. G a s m a n i f o l d i n g is a d ded a f ter the a r r a y is fired. T he
p r e s e n t effort e m p l o y s c r o s s - f l o w gas p a s s a g e s to r e d u c e the c o m p l e x i t y of
manifolding.
P R E S E N T ST A T U S
CELLS - C e lls of the m o n o l i t h i c d e s i g n have been f a b r i c a t e d a nd oper a t e d .

T h e c e lls w e r e three layer c o m p o s i t e s of c a t h o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / a n o d e w i t h an
a c t i v e a r e a of 3 cm . Th e cell tests r e q u i r e d a c o n f i g u r a t i o n d i f f e r e n t
f r o m that of a m o n o l i t h i c array. The cell g e o m e t r y w as flat in o r d e r to
s i m p l i f y gas m a n i f olding. The unsupported three-layer composite was sealed
to the en d of a tube. Th e seal was m a d e w i t h a c o m m e r c i a l z i r c o n i a / s i l i c a
cement. For the cell test, air was s u p p l i e d to one side of the c e l l and
h y d r o g e n to the other side. T h e e l e c t r i c a l con t a c t s a p p l i e d to the cell
for test purp o s e s w e r e a p l a t i n u m pas t e and p l a t i n u m screen. T h e c e l l and
test a p p a r a t u s were m a i n t a i n e d in an i s o t h e r m a l zone.
C e l l p e r f o r m a n c e has been improved. The fabrication methodology has been

u p g r a d e d so that cell p e r f o r m a n c e more c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s the m a t e r i a l s
re s is t a n c e , as sho w n in Fig. 2 (for tests at 1 0 0 0 ° C w i t h h y d r o g e n a s fuel
an d ai r as oxidant). T h e p r i n c i p a l incre a s e in cell p e r f o r m a n c e a r i s e s
f r o m r e d u c i n g the r e s i s t a n c e at e l e c t r o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e interfaces. In
p a r t i c u l a r , tai l o r i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of ni c k e l at the fuel e l e c t r o d e / -
e l e c t r o l y t e int e r f a c e is i m portant to r e d u c i n g i n t e r f a c i a l r e s i stance.
CO
O
>
z
o
z
< ®
2^
tr
o
ir
Fue l F l o w
Cur rent
0 100 0 ?00 0 300 0 <00.0 .9
C U R R E N T D E N S IT Y IN M IL L IA M P S /C M ^
Fig. 1. Monolithic Fuel Fig. 2. Performance of Single

Cell. Cells.
41
FEE, ET AL
- 3 -
H i g h c u rrent d e n s i t i e s h a v e been achieved. C e l l s of the m o n o l i t h i c

d e s i g n h a v e been oper a t e d at 2.2 A / c m w i t h h y d r o g e n as fuel a n d a i r as
o x i dant. T h i s current d e n s i t y is about a factor of two h i g h e r than p r e
v i o u s l y a c h i e v e d w i t h these c o n d i t i o n s and m a t e r i a l s ( 2 ) . T h e h i g h c u r r e n t
d e n s i t y r e s u l t s d i r e c t l y from the low inte r n a l r e s i s t a n c e of the m o n o l i t h i c
cells. Further, the high current d e n s i t y c l e a r l y e x c e e d s the m o n o l i t h
d e s i g n goal of 0.5 A / c m . M o r e importantly, the d a t a i n d i c a t e that t h e r e
is no f u n d a m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n to a c h i e v i n g h i g h cur r e n t d e n s i t i e s w i t h s o l i d
o x i d e fuel cell materials.
A R R A Y S - A r r a y s of the m o n o l i t h i c des i g n h a v e a l s o b e e n f a b r i c a t e d and

ope rated. An a r r a y has been o p e r a t e d for m o r e than 6 50 hours, as s h o w n in
Fig. 3. T h e a r r a y was two cells in e l e c t r i c a l series; e a c h w i t h a n a c t i v e
a r e a of 9 cm . T h e o p e r a t i n g co n d i t i o n s w e r e 1000 ® C , 5 0 mA/cm^, h y d r o g e n
as fuel, and air as oxidant. T h e p e r f o r m a n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s the f e a s i b i l i t y
of the m o n o l i t h i c fuel c e l l concept.
TIME IN HOURS
Fig. 3. P e r f o r m a n c e of M o n o l i t h i c F u e l C e l l Array.
O p e r a t i o n on h y d r o c a r b o n fuels w a s also de m o n s t r a t e d . The hydrocarbons

w e r e m i x e d w i t h s t e a m and in t r o d u c e d d i r e c t l y into the array. T h e fuels
i n c l u d e methane, propane, octane, ethanol, and n a t u r a l gas. The array
p e r f o r m a n c e w a s s i m i l a r to o p e r a t i o n on hydrogen. The natural gas c o n
t a i ned abo u t 5 pp m sulfur in the form of an o d o r p r o d u c i n g m e r c a p t a n . So
o p e r a t i o n w i t h a sulfur c o n t a i n i n g fuel has a l s o b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d .
T h e a r r a y i n c o r p o r a t e d a c r o s s - f l o w p a t t e r n of g as channels. T h e elec-
t r o c h e m i c a l l y a c t i v e region was a three lay e r c o m p o s i t e of c a t h o d e / e l e c
t r o l y t e / a n o d e , as s h own in Fig. 4 for an a r r a y of four c e l l s in e l e c t r i c a l
series. A c o r r u g a t e d a n ode layer formed the fuel g as c h a n n e l s o n o n e s i d e
of the three lay e r composite. Similarly, a c o r r u g a t e d c a t h o d e l a y e r f o r m e d
the o x i d a n t gas chan n e l s on the o t h e r side of the three lay e r c o m p o s i t e .
T h e o x i d a n t chan n e l s in the c a t h o d e are at right a n g l e s to the fuel
c h a n n e l s in the anode, as s h own by a cut at 45 d e g r e e s thr o u g h a n a r r a y in
Fig. 5. Co n s e q u e n t l y , the c o r r u g a t i o n s in the c a t h o d e d o not s h o w in the
p h o t o g r a p h of the a n o d e face of the a r ray in Fig. 4. An interconnection
l a y er s e p a r a t e d the fuel and o x i dant chan n e l s and l i n k e d the l a y e r s in
e l e c t r i c a l series.
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of the first m o n o l i t h i c ar r a y s is s i m i l a r to the p e r f o r

m a n c e of the first m o n o l i t h i c fuei cells. Th e a r r a y p e r f o r m a n c e is
e x p e c t e d to i m p r o v e w i t h time in m u c h the same m a n n e r as the c e l l p e r f o r -
42
FEE, ET AL
- k -
Inte rco n n e ctio n
Anode
A n o d e /E le c t ro ly te /C a th o d e
C athode
1 mm
Fig. 4. F o u r - c e l l M o n o l i t h i c Fuel C e l l Array.
Anode
Electrolyte
Cathode
1 mm
Fig. 5. C u t - a w a y V i e w S h o w i n g C r o s s - f l o w G as Chan n e l s .
raance, as s h own in Fig. 2. In addition, a slight i m p r o v e m e n t is d e s i r e d in

m a t c h i n g the f i r i n g s h r i n k a g e in o r d e r to reduc e the i n c i d e n c e of c r a c k s in
the e l e c t r o l y t e a n d i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n layers, as s h o w n in Fig. 5. The cracks
a l l o w a l l o w fuel a n d o x i d a n t gas to mix. T h e m i x i n g is the p r i n c i p a l l i m i
ta t i o n o n open c i r c u i t p e r f o r m a n c e of the array. The internal resistance
of the a r r a y is s i m i l a r to the first cells tested.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: W o r k s u p p o r t e d by the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e u n d e r

D e f e n s e A d v a n c e d R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s Agency. The submitted manuscript has been authored
by a cofitractor of the U. S. Gowernmertt
under contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38-
Accordingly, the U. S. Government retains a
nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish
or reproduce the published form of this
contribution, or allow others to do so, for
U. S. Government purposes.
REFERENCES
D. C. Fee, R. K. S t e u n enberg, T. D. Claar, R. B. Poeppel, and

J. P. Ack e r m a n , " M o n o l i t h i c Fuel C e l ls , " 1983 N a t i o n a l F u e l C e l l
S e m inar A b s t r a c t s , C o u r t e s y Associates , (1983) p. 74.
S. N a gat a, Y. Ohno, Y. K a s u g a and H. Sato, " D e v e l o p m e n t of H i g h

T e m p e r a t u r e S o lid E l e c t r o l y t e Fuel Cel l at E l e c t r o t e c h n i c a l
L a b o r a t o r y , " 1983 N a t i o n a l Fuel Cell S e m i n a r A b s t r a c t s , C o u r t e s y
A s s o c i a t e s , (1983) p. 165.
43
FABRICATION OF A SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE*
C. C. M c Pheeters, D. C. Fee, R. B. Poeppel, T. D. Claar,

D. E. Busch, B. K. Flandermeyer, T. E. Easier,
J. T. D u s e k and J. J. Picci o l o
Argonne, IL 60439
T h e m o n o l i t h i c fuel cell str u c t u r e is a h o n e y c o m b - l i k e s t r u c t u r e

w i t h g a s - f l o w p a s s a g e s built into the fuel and oxi d a n t ele c t r o d e s . The
s t r u c t u r e is com p r i s e d of the four s o l i d - o x i d e fuel cell materi a l s :
e l e c t rolyte, anode, cathode, and interconnection. T h e g a s c h a n n e l s in the
e l e c t r o d e s h a v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimens i o n s on the o r d e r of 1 to 2 mm.
T h e Mod 1 des i g n ^ ^ ^ consists of a l t e r n a t i n g l ayers of a node/

e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e composite, w h ich is corrugated, and c a t h o d e /
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n / a n o d e co m p o s i t e w h i c h is flat. Fuel and o x i d a n t flow in
a l t e r n a t e s e c t i o n s of the c o r r u g a t i o n on o p p o s i t e sides of the a node/
e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e composite. This de s i g n prov i d e s a h i g h p o wer d e n s i t y
b e c a u s e it has high e l e c t r o l y t e s u r face area per unit volume; however, the
m a n i f o l d a r r a n g e m e n t for this d e s i g n is relati v e l y complex. T h e Mod 0
d esi g n' ' c o n s i s t s of a l t e r n a t e flat layers of a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e
c o m p o s i t e s and c a t h o d e / i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n / a n o d e c o m p o s i t e s s e p a r a t e d by
c o r r u g a t e d a n ode and c a t h o d e layers to p r ovide the fuel a n d o x i d a n t flow
p ass a ges. T h e a n ode and c a t h o d e c o r r u g a t i o n s are o r i e n t e d at 90° a p art to
a l l o w s i m p l e fuel and o x i dant mani f o l d design. The o b j e c t i v e of this w o r k
is to d e v e l o p the pro c e s s e s for fabri c a t i o n of the Mod 0 M o n o l i t h i c Fuel
Cell, and to fab r i c a t e the first w o r k i n g fuel cells of this design.
D e s c r i p t i o n of Design
I n the d e s i g n of the Mod 0 Mo n o l i t h i c Solid O x i d e Fuel Cell, the
e l e c t r o l y t e layer is f a b r icated as an a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e c o m p o s i t e
tape, and the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n layer is n o m i n a l l y f a b r i c a t e d as a c a t h o d e /
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n / a n o d e c o m p o s i t e tape. The ear l y m o d e l s of the m o n o l i t h i c
fuel cell h a v e been f a b r i c a t e d u s ing a single tape of i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n
r a t h e r than the c a t h o d e / i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n / a n o d e composite. T he e l e c t r o d e
tapes ar e c o r r u g a t e d to p r ovide gas flow passages, and these c o r r u g a t i o n s
a r e o r i e n t e d 90 apart to a l l o w manifolding. The gas m a n i f o l d s m ay be
a p p l i e d in a si m p l e man n e r by p l acing the fuel inlet and o u t l e t m a n i f o l d s
on o p p o s i t e sides of the m o n o l i t h i c structure. Likewise, the a ir inlet
and o u t l e t m a n i f o l d s are l o c ated on oppo s i t e sides of the s t r u c t u r e and
r o t a t ed 90° from the fuel manifolds. This si m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t a l l o w s rapid
t e s t i ng of the first g e n e r a t i o n of m o n o l i t h i c fuel cells a nd r e s u l t s in a
s m all s a c r i f i c e in p e r f o r m a n c e from the Mod 1 design.
D e s c r i p t i o n of F a b r i c a t i o n Process
Al l of the f u el-cell compon e n t s are fabric a t e d by tape c a s t i n g ^ ^ \
T a p e c a s t i n g has been used for many years to form thin, u n i f o r m c e r a m i c
sect i ons, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the e l e c t r o n i c s industry. Products including
c e r a m i c c a p acitors, solid s t ate chip substrates, etc, h a v e been
s u c c e s s f u l l y f a b r icated u s i n g this technology. Ta p e c a s t i n g is a pro c e s s
W o r k s p o n s o r e d by the D e f e n s e Adva n c e d R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s A g e n c y (DOD),

tinder A R P A Order No. 4850.
The submitted manuscript has been authored
by a contractor of the U. S. Government
under contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38-
nonexclusive, royallv-free license to publish
contribution, or allovw others to do so. for
44
w h i c h uses a do c t o r blade to d i s t r i b u t e a d i s p e r s e d cer a m i c s l i p u n i f o r m l y
o v e r a c a s t i n g s u r f a c e such as glass. Th e solv e n t s in the s l i p are
e v a p o r a t e d and the c e ramic p a r t i c l e s and binder re m a i n in a thin, c o h e r e n t
l a y e r ca l l e d a tape. T h e slip is f o r m u l a t e d to a l l o w the tape to be
e a s i l y s t r i p p e d from the c a s t i n g s u r f a c e and to re m a i n f l e x i b l e for e a s e
of h a ndling. A f t e r stripping, the tape is stored e i t h e r as a r o l l w i t h a
s e p a r a t o r to prevent the tape from s t i c k i n g to itself or it is s t o r e d flat
b e t w e e n sh e e t s of paper or o t her s u i t a b l e separator. W h e n c o m p o s i t e tapes
s u c h as the a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e tapes are made, they may be cast
e i t h e r by m a k i n g s e q u e n t i a l pa s s e s over the same c a s t i n g s u r f a c e u s i n g the
thr e e materials, or a s p ecial d o c t o r bla d e may be used h a v i n g three or
m o r e c o m p a r t m e n t s for the s e p a r a t e slips and three or m o r e s e p a r a t e b l a d e s
to d i s t r i b u t e the slips in sequence. O t her f a b r i c a t i o n m e t h o d s i n c l u d e
v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s of spray coats and tape-cast layers. The composite
tap e s that have b e e n used to m a k e the m o n o l i t h i c fuel c e lls h a v e b e e n cast
in s e q u e n t i a l passes over the same s u b s t r a t e w i t h d r y i n g time b e t w e e n
p a s s e s an d by c o m b i n a t i o n s of s p r a y i n g and tape casting.
T h e a n o d e and c a thode tapes are c o r r u g a t e d u s i n g a m o l d that was

d e s i g n e d to p r ovide the d e s i r e d c o r r u g a t i o n pitch and amplit u d e . T h e tape
is laid on the b o t t o m half of the mold, and the top half is m o v e d s t e p
w i s e from one end of the tape to form the co r r u g a t e d shape. A f t e r the
e l e c t r o d e tapes ar e c o r r u g a t e d and all tapes are cut to size, they a re
s t a c k e d w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n and e l e c t r o l y t e l a yers in the
p r o p e r s e q u e n c e an d w i t h the pr o p e r o r i e n t a t i o n to form the f u e l - c e l l
stack. F i g u r e 1 s h ows this s t a c k i n g p r ocess in ex p l o d e d view. The
e l e c t r o d e tapes ar e s h own off to the sid e s in their flat c o n d i t i o n p r i o r
to c o r r u gation. One r e p e a t i n g unit is s h own w i t h the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n tape
on the bottom, then the c o r r u g a t e d anode, the a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e
c o m p o s i t e , and the c o r r u g a t e d c a t h o d e on top. Thi s unit is r e p e a t e d as
m a n y times as d e s i r e d to form the fue l - c e l l stack. The top of the s t a c k
is f i n i s h e d off by a d d i n g a n o t h e r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n tape as a t e r m i n a t i o n .
A f t e r the s t a c k has b e e n assembled, it is heated, u n d e r r e s t r a i n t ,

t h r o u g h the firing process. T h e binder burn-out s t e p is c r itical, a n d
c a r e is taken to a s s u r e that the binder is r e moved from the tapes v e r y
slowly. E x c e s s i v e b inder b u r n - o u t rate is li k e l y to c a use d e l a m i n a t i o n of
the c o m posites, for m a t i o n of blis t e r s in the tapes, etc. A f t e r the b i n d e r
b u r n - o u t stage, the s t a c k is he a t e d r a p idly to the s i n t e r i n g c o n d i t i o n s ,
then co o l e d to room temperature. Fi g u r e 2 shows an e x a m p l e of a f o u r - c e l l
s t a c k that was fa b r i c a t e d w i t h this procedure. T h e s t r u c t u r e is flat,
w e l l bonded, and free of v i s i b l e cracks. The c o r r u g a t i o n s a p p e a r o p e n and
w e l l formed, and the edges are r e l a t i v e l y free of c u r l i n g and oth e r
distortions.
Structural Examination
A f t e r fabrication, the stacks are e x a m i n e d by s e v e r a l m e t h o d s
i n c l u d i n g visual, radiography, and c e r a m o g r a p h y . In some cases, in o r d e r
to f a c i l i t a t e m a n i f olding, the e d ges of the stacks a re cut o ff u s i n g a
s l o w s p e e d d i a m o n d s aw and e t h a n o l lubricant. T h e s e e d g e trim p i e c e s are
e x a m i n e d m i c r o s c o p i c a l l y to d e t e r m i n e the n u m b e r and s e v e r i t y of defec t s .
F i g u r e 3 is an e x a m p l e of such a trim piece. In this case, the cut w as
m a d e p a r a l l e l to the air e l e c t r o d e and p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the fuel e l e c t r o d e
co r r u g a t i o n s . T h e c o r r u g a t i o n s that are v i s i b l e are the fuel e l e c t r o d e
45
w h i l e the ai r e l e c t r o d e a p pears as a single, stra i g h t section. In
gener al, this fuel cell has a good a p pearance. The corrugations are well
formed, the i n t e r f a c e s are well bonded, and few c r a c k s a r e pres e n t in the
structure. T h i s s t r u c t u r e is typical of the m o n o l i t h i c fuel cell
s t r u c t u r e s c u r r e n t l y bei n g fabricated. W h i l e the s t r u c t u r e is not d e f e c t
free, the n u m b e r and s e v e r i t y of the d e fects all o w s the f u e l - c e l l s t a c k to
p e r f o r m at a lev e l above the current p e r f o r m a n c e goals.
An imp o r t a n t e v a l u a t i o n tool used to e x a m i n e the f u e l - c e l l s t a c k s

for i n t e g r i t y is x - r a y r a d i o graphy' Th e st a c k s are r a d i o g r a p h e d u s i n g
a v e r y low e n e r g y x-r a y to m a t c h the l o w - e n e r g y k - a b s r o p t i o n e d g e of
zi rconia. F i g u r e 4 is a p h o t o g r a p h of an x - r a y n e g a t i v e from a typ i c a l
stack. T h e c h e c k e r b o a r d p a t t e r n r e sults from the c r o s s e d c o r r u g a t i o n
pattern. As the x - r a y s p e n e t r a t e the c o r r u g a t e d s t r u c t u r e v e r t i c a l l y , the
p a t h len g t h t h r o u g h solid m a t e r i a l is longer in the s l o p i n g s i des of the
c o r r u g a t i o n s than through the peaks and valleys. Thus, a sort of s i n e -
w a v e v a r i a t i o n in i n tensity occurs in the x - r a y nega t i v e . These sine-wave
v a r i a t i o n s ar e o r i e n t e d at 90°, thus f o r m i n g the c h e c k e r b o a r d pattern.
T h e r a d i o g r a p h a p p ears defect free at this m a g n i f i c a t i o n b e c a u s e the

d e f e c t s w h i c h ar e present are very small. E x a m i n a t i o n of these
r a d i o g r a p h s at 4 0 x m a g n i f i c a t i o n a l l o w s d e t e c t i o n of v e r y sma l l c r a c k s of
the o r d e r of 5 to 10 pm. To m i n i m i z e or e l i m i n a t e these cracks, it is
n e c e s s a r y to c l o s e l y mat c h the s i n t e r i n g s h r i n k a g e of the four m a t e r i a l s ,
to m a t c h the thermal e x p a n s i o n s of the four m a t e r i a l s as n e a r l y as
pos s i ble, an d to d e s i g n the s t r u c t u r e to be f l e x i b l e e n o u g h to a c c o m m o d a t e
s o m e mismatch.
Conclusions
A p r o c e s s has been d e v e l o p e d to fab r i c a t e s o l i d o x i d e fuel c e l l s in
a m o n o l i t h i c s t r u c t u r e w i t h c r o s s - f l o w design. T h e p r o c e s s u s e s tape-
c a s t i n g to form the fuel-cell components, and the g as flow c h a n n e l s a r e
f o r m e d by c o r r u g a t i o n of the e l e c t r o d e tapes. This fabrication process
h as b e e n s h o w n to be e f f e c t i v e in p r o d u c i n g r e l a t i v e l y d e f e c t - f r e e
s t r u c t u r e s that h a v e e x c e e d e d the p e r f o r m a n c e goals. C e r a m o g r a p h i c and
r a d i o g r a p h i c m e t h o d s have been used to e x a m i n e the fuel c e lls to d e t e r m i n e
the n u m b e r an d s e v e r i t y of defects. These examination methods have been
s u c c e s s f u l in d e t e c t i n g v e r y small d e f e c t s and h a v e b e e n u s e d to s c r e e n
those fuel c e lls w h i c h should be tested.
References
1. D. C. Fee, et al, " M o n o l i t h i c Fuel Cell s " , N a t i o n a l F u e l C e l l
S e m i n a r Abstra c t s , pg 74, N o v e m b e r 13-16, 1983.
2. G. Y. Onoda, Jr., "Ceramic P r o c e s s i n g B e f o r e F i r i n g , " J o h n W i l e y
& Sons, N e w York, pp 411-448, 1978.
3. W. A. Ellingson, R. A. Roberts, E. Segal, a nd B. V a n Pelt, "Non-
D e s t r u c t i v e E v a l u a t i o n M e t h o d s A p p l i e d to Sol i d O x i d e Fuel
Cells", T h i s Conference, Po s t e r Session, O c t o b e r 27, 1986.
46
Figure 1. Exploded view of Solid Figure 2. Sintered four-cell stack.
Oxide Fuel Cell assembly. Elec Flat, well bonded structure free
trodes shown before and after from visible cracks.
corrugation.
MUM
4>Lt>i;r MunoliUi
I ft
34
\Buclr/l->rttnl> lr/('M h n rir

( 'altmrlr 3^2222
1 cm
Figure 3. Edge section of four Figure A. Radiograph of typical
cell stack cut across fuel elec two-cell stack. Bright spots
trode corrugations and parallel are alundum particles.
to air electrode corrugations.
47
OXIDE ELECTRODES EOR SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS
J. Lambert Bates and Curtis W. Griffin

Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Battelle Memorial Institute
Richland, Washington
State of the art solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use different
materials metals as electrodes, electrolytes and current
interconnections, i.e. chromites, manganites, zirconates, metal-
composites and nickel. These materials exhibit different properties
unless modified, may require different, multiple-step fabrication
process conditions and are susceptible to degrading chemical and
electrochemical interactions.
High-temperature oxides materials based on rare-earth (RE„Oy)

stabilized Zr 0 2 (or Hf 0 2 ) are being studied as advanced SOFC
electrode and interconnection materials. The objective is to develop
high-electronically conducting oxide materials with thermal and
fabrication characteristics similar to the solid electrolyte,
lonically conducting Y 2 O 3 or REjÔy stabilized Zr 0 2 (HfOo) solid
electrolytes are made electronically conducting with additions of
other oxides, e.g., 1 0 2 0 3 , with structures similar to the fee
electrolyte. These related structures may provide: 1) thermal
expansion match with the electrolyte, 2 ) simultaneous fabrication of
electrode/electrolyte as integral cell component, 3) compositions
which minimize material interactions between SOFC components, and ‘V)
improved electrode/electrolyte reaction rates. These same materials
may also be used as current connections for similar reasons.
This paper describes the research and development of materials based
on the ZrO 2 -PrO 2 (REj^0 y)-In 2 O 3 system as electrodes and current
interconnections for SOFC. The electrical transport and thermal
properties are described in relationship to structure, phase
equilibria and composition. Some compositions containing Hf 0 2 which
are isomorphic with the Zr 0 2 systems are also discussed.
Fabrication - The mixed oxides were prepared by coprecipitation and

air sintered at 1823K. Composite discs of dense Y 2 O 3 (REjÔy)
stabilized Zr 0 2 (Hf 0 2 ) solid electrolyte sandwiched between porous
electrode materials were fabricated for electrochemical testing.
Phase Equilibria - A phase diagram for the lr02-P'r02'^'^Z^^ 1823K

in air was developed as a base for electrical transport, thermal and
electrochemical property studies. Figure 1 (1). (Pr 0 2 is used for
actual PrOj 3 3 in this report for convenience.) The two and three
component phase fields containing the bcc 1 0 2 0 3 solid solution (B)
with 1 0 % Pr 0 2 +Zr 0 2 , the Pr2Zr207 pyrochlore fP) and the fee 1 0 2 0 3
stabilized Zr 0 2 (F) (all percentages are in mole%) are considered
most important since these compositions and structures represent the
best match of thermal, electrical and structural properties with the
Y 2 O 3 stabilized Zr 0 2 electrolyte. A similar phase diagram was
43
J.L. Bates and C.W. Griffin
Page 2
In 203-P r 0 2 - Z r 02 Phase
D ia g ra m ( 1 8 2 3 K ) ‘M onoclinic (M)
Face
Centered
Cubic iF)
Pyrochlore (P)
PfzZrzO?
Body
Centered
P+O Cubic (8)
Cubic (C)
Orthorhom bic (O)

PrlnOs
■igure 1. Zr 02' Pr0 ^ 83'^'^2*^3 D i a g r a m (1823K)
9 0 /5 /5
80/10/»0
- 9 0 /1 0 /0
8 0 /6 /1 5
7 0 /1 5 /1 5
6 0 /1 8 /2 2 v 7 5 / 0 '2 5
7 0 /5 /2 5
6 0 /4 0 0
2 2 /1 8
6 0 /1 0 /3 0
50/23/27
20-0
4 Q /2 6 /3 4
----- ^^ 4032/28 3 6 .6 /2 8 6 - 3 4
5 0 /1 0 /4 0
4 0 - 6 0 /0
2 0 1 39 6 / 4 0 3
23 0 /3 4 3 /4 2 7
50/20/30
2 0 '7 0 10
3 0 /7 0 /0
0 /6 0 /4 0
15 / 3 5 SO
33 6 7 / 0
M ole%
2/43/55
l* 'iO j/P rO j- Z tO t
YSZ»95M O Y ^ ,- 9 0 5 M O ZrO
F i g u r e 2. Elect ric al C o n d u c t i v i t y of In gOj-PrO^ 83'^'"°2
49
Page 3
developed for the Isomorphic Zr 0 2 -Pr 0 2 -In 2 0 3 system, the only

significant difference being the formation of an In 2 Hf 2 0 y
rhombohedral phase on the Hf 0 2 -In 2 0 3 binary (2 ).
Electrical Conductivity - The dc electrical conductivities (o) in air
to 1583K Zr 0 2 -Pr 0 2 -In 2 0 3 vary significantly and are directly related
to the oxide composition, structure and phases. Figure 2. The
highest electrical conduction is associated with the bcc 1 0 2 0 3 solid
solution. The 0 decreases with decreasing bcc phase in the fcc-bcc,
bcc-P and fcc-bcc-P phase fields. Figure 3. The fcc-bcc compositions
exhibit the highest 0 with the lowest bcc concentration. The 0 are
near those for the La(Sr)Mn 0 3 and La(Sr)Cr 0 3 , Figure 3. The
electrical conductivity of some compositions can also be increased by
2 to 5 times with the small additions of another REjÔy, such as
Yb 2 0 3 , especially for isomorphic bcc-fcc Hf 0 2 structures (2 ).
Seebeck Coefficients - The Seebeck coefficients in air for the fcc-
bcc compositions high in bcc are negative indicating an n-type
semiconductor. As the fee phase increases, an n- to p-type
transition occurs near 800-900K which is consistent with increasing
ionic conduction by oxygen ion vacancies similar to YoO-> stabilized
ZrOg.
Transference Numbers - The ionic transference number (t^) were
determined for some fcc-bcc compositions to 1275K in high oxygen
pressures. Conduction in fee In 2 0 3 +Pr 0 2 stabilized Zr 0 2 is >99%
ionic. As the bcc phase increase to 30 and 60%, tj decreased to 0.9
and 0.0003 with 0 at 1273K of 3 and 250 (ohm-cm)’ , respectively.
For 0. 2 1 1 0 2 0 3 - 0 .3 9 Pr 0 2 - 0 .3 9 Hf 0 2 - 0 .0 1 Yb 2 0 3 between 1073 and 1223K, U
was <0.01 with 0 at 1223K of 0.16 (ohm-cm)’ . In the Zr 0 2 -Pr 0 2 -In 2 0 3
system, the ti can be varied with composition until a substantial
ionic transport exists, potentially improving oxygen adsorption and
charge transfer rates at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces.
Thermal Expansion - The thermal expansion in_air for the bcc-P and
bcc-fcc compositions are close to 10 (in lO" /K) reported for
stabilized Zr 0 2 . The coefficient of thermal expansion of the bcc
phase is 9.2 and increases with increasing fee or pyrochlore
structures. The bcc-P phases increase to 9.6 for a 50% composition.
The fcc-bcc compositions increase linearly from 9.3 to 10.2 for 20
and 69% fee phase, respectively.
Thermal Stability - The bcc-B and bcc-fcc compositions are stable at
1473K in air at atmosphere pressure. Weight losses are within
experimental error (0.01%). The bcc phase is not stable at 1273K in
a reducing atmosphere of 4% hydrogen-96% argon.
Electrochemical Testing - The interactions between Zr 0 2 -Pr 0 2 -In 2 0 3

and Y 2 O 3 stabilized Zr 0 2 were determined during electrochemical
testing using a sintered electrode/electrolyte sandwich. For
example, a cell with a fcc-bcc porous 0 .3 1 0 3 0 3 - 0 .3 Pr 0 2 - 0 .3 5 Zr 0 2
cathode operated in air and 5 %H 2 for 96 hours at 1273K without
materials interaction. The cell produced 10 mA with a density near
50
Page 4
Conclusions
0 Highly electronically conducting oxides based on Zr 0 2 (Hf 0 2 )-
REjÔy-In2 0 3 have been developed as cathodes and possibly cu current
interconnections and can be fabricated integrally with Y 2°3 2 O3
stabilized ZrOo electrolyte.
0 The Zr 0 2 -Pr 0 3 8 3 - 1 0 2 0 3 phase diagram at 1823K was developed and
the electrical transport and thermal transport properties were
related to the compositions and structures of this diagram. The bcc
1 0 3 0 3 solid solution is the major conducting phase.
0 Electrical conductivities as high as those for the lanthanum
manganites and chromites now used in SOFC can be achieved.
0 The two phase fcc-bcc compositions provide the best electrical,
thermal and electrochemical properties as SOFC cathodes with
sufficient electrical conductivity, good thermal expansion match with
electrolyte, and significant ionic conductivity for improved
electrode/electrolyte reactions.
R e fere nce s:
1. J. Lambert Bates and Curtis W. Griffin, "Oxide Electrodes for
High-Temperature Fuel Cells", Fossil Energy Materials Program,
Q uarterly Progress R e p o r t , December 31, 1985, ORNL/FMP-86-1,
(1986) pp. 105-124.
2. J. Lambert Bates and David D. Marchant. Ib id. December 31,
1983, ORNL/FMP-84-1 (1984), pp 483-500.
A c k now led gmen t: This work performed by Pacific Northwest Laboratory
for the United State Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC06-RLO
1830.
2 ~ (LaogSro 1) M nO a-
“ (Lao BsSro 15) C rO a

1
2 ■ B C C + FCC
3
BCC + P + O
4
A Bcc + P + FC C
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
m o l % B C C Phase
Figure 3. tlectrical Conductivity at 1273K
51
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION METHODS APPLIED TO SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS*
W. A. El l i n g s o n , B. Sawicka**, C. M c P h e e t e r s , F. Mra z e k , a n d B. V an P e l t ”^
ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Argonne, IL 60439
Introduction
The A N L sol i d o x i d e fuel cell (SOFC) design yields a rather complex

s t r u c t u r e a f t e r assembly. Theref o r e , for the g r e a t e s t reliability, non
d e s t r u c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n (NDE) i n s p e c t i o n should b e c o n d u c t e d on i n d i v i d u a l
l a m i n a t e s or s u b a s s e m b l i e s (e.g., 3-4 s t a c k e d cells). As w i t h m u l t i l a y e r
ceramic capacitors, d e t e c t i o n of b o t h d e l a m i n a t i o n s and cracks is i m
po rt a n t , and N D E m e t h o d s m u s t be able to y i e l d i n f o r m a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n
of d e p t h into the S O F C as w e l l as p l a n v i e w inf o r m a t i o n . "Conventional"
r a d i o g r a p h y y i e l d s X - r a y s h a d o w g r a m s of an obj e c t a nd d o e s n ot p r o v i d e any
i n f o r m a t i o n on the l o c a t i o n of a de f e c t r e l a t i v e to the t h i c k n e s s (z-axis)
of the sample. C o m p u t e d t o m o g r a p h i c imaging, on the o t her han d , y i e l d s
i n f o r m a t i o n on the z- a x i s l o c a t i o n of defects, b u t p r e s e n t l y not at a h i g h
s p a t i a l resolution.
Ot her N D E m e t h o d s , s u c h as a c o u s t i c e m issi o n , a re b e i n g s t u d i e d in
o r d e r to help d e t e r m i n e d e s i r a b l e firing s c h e d u l e s ( t e m p e r a t u r e range
r ates, h o l d times, etc.) for best r e l i a bility. T h i s p a p e r p r e s e n t s r ecent
r e s u l t s on the a p p l i c a t i o n of s e v e r a l N D E m e t h o d s that are b e i n g d e v e l o p e d
as part of the A N L S O F C program.
Inspection of L a m i n a t e d Tapes: Low-kV Radiography
The p r i m a r y lo w - k V r a d i o g r a p h i c m e t h o d s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d for i n s p e c t i o n
of t h r e e - l a y e r c o m p o s i t e tapes are contact, p r o j e c t i o n , and r e a l - t i m e
r a d i o g r a p h y w i t h b o t h s t a n d a r d and m i c r o f o c u s ( < 2 0 - y m f o c a l spot) X-r a y
heads. B o t h g r e e n and s i n t e r e d c o m p o s i t e tapes h a v e b e e n studied.
Fig u r e 1 is an e x a m p l e of a low-kV c o n tact r a d i o g r a p h of a g r e e n

t h r e e - l a y e r composite. The ima g e wa s o b t a i n e d b y u s e of a m o l y b d e n u m
a n o d e X - r a y h e a d w i t h an a l u m i n u m w i n d o w and l O - y m f o c a l spot. The a c c e l
e r a t i n g v o l t a g e w a s 20 kV and the fila m e n t curr e n t w a s 4.2 mA. T he space
b e t w e e n the X - r a y h e a d a n d the ob j e c t w a s fi l l e d w i t h hel i u m . Both voids
a nd n e a r b y f e a t u r e s that a p p e a r to be f i s s u r e s are det e c t e d . As n o t e d
e a r l i e r , c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n t a c t (or proj e c t i o n ) r a d i o g r a p h s g i v e no i n f o r
m a t i o n on the z - a x i s l o c a t i o n of defects. In o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h the p l a n e
of the voids, a s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n m i c r o g r a p h (SEM) w a s tak e n of a cross
s e c t i o n t h r o u g h the g r e e n c e r a m i c c o m p o s i t e of Fig. 1. The r e s u l t i n g S E M
i m age (Fig. 2) shows that the v o i d s are at the c a t h o d e - e l e c t r o l y t e inter
face. In add i t i o n , the v o i d s a p p e a r to be r e a s o n a b l y large, i.e, 50-100 pm
in diameter.
Fi g u r e 3 is a lo w - k V r a d i o g r a p h i c i m age of a s i n t e r e d c o m p o s i t e , ob
ta i n e d u n d e r the s a m e c o n d i t i o n s as for Fig. 1. E x t e n s i v e p o r o s i t y w as
a g a i n detected. Destructive a n a l y s i s at an o b l i q u e a n g l e (see Fig. 4)
sh ows that the p o r o s i t y a g a i n occ u r s at the c a t h o d e - e l e c t r o l y t e interface,
w i t h v o i d sizes of '^50-100 pm.
* W ork s p o n s o r e d by the D e f e n s e A d v a n c e d R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s A g e n c y (DoD)
u n d e r A R P A O r d e r No. 4850.
* * C h a l k R i ver N u c l e a r L a b o r a t o r i e s , Onta r i o , Canada.
LIXI, Inc., D o w n e r s Grove, IL.
52
Fig. 1, Low-kV Radiographic Image of Green Fig. 2. SEM Image of Cross Section Through r*
r*
Anode-Electrolyte-Cathode Composite. Composite of Fig. 1.
CATHO DE
E LE C T R O L Y T E
ANODE
Fig. 3. Low-kV Radiographic Image of Sintered Fig. 4. SEM Image of Tapered Cross Section
Composite. Through Sintered Composite of Fig. 3.
ELLINGSON ET AL
- 3 -
I n s p e c t i o n of C o m p l e t e S u b a s s e m b l y : Computed Tomographic Imaging
U n l i k e the r a d i o g r a p h i c i m a g i n g m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , c o m p u t e d
t o m o g r a p h i c (CT) imaging-^ p r o v i d e s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l ima g e s , a n d thus i n f o r
m a t i o n on the z- a x i s l o c a t i o n of defects. CT i m a g i n g studies have been
c o n d u c t e d on a t w o - c e l l (four-layer) confi g u r a t i o n . T he C T s c a n n e r u s e d
in these s t u d i e s w a s a f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n d e v i c e w i t h a r a d i o a c t i v e s ource
192ir in this case. A CsF sc i n t i l l a t o r , h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d to a p h o t o
multiplier tube, wa s u s e d as the detector. The f u e l c e l l w a s p l a c e d on a
t u r n t a b l e m o u n t e d on t r a n s l a t a b l e stage. T h e t u r n t a b l e and s t a g e w e r e
d r i v e n by i n d i v i d u a l s t e p p e r m o t o r s w i t h a b s o l u t e p o s i t i o n s c o n t i n u o u s l y
m o n i t o r e d by s h aft a n g l e encoders. Tomographic image r econstruction was
e x e c u t e d on an L S I - 1 1 / 2 3 w i t h the a s s i s t a n c e of an a r r a y p r o c e s s o r . After
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , im a g e s w e r e d i s p l a y e d on a g r a p h i c s screen, and p h o t o
g r a p h e d off the screen.
F i g u r e 5 sh o w s a s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of the t w o - c e l l c o n f i g u r a t i o n u s e d
in this e x p l o r a t o r y test an d one of the CT images obta i n e d . T he i m a g e w a s
r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m 360 p r o j e c t i o n s taken o v e r 180°. A 256x256 mat r i x with
a p i x e l size of 100 p m w a s used. U n b o n d e d areas, l a c k of a d e q u a t e c h a n n e l
d efi n i t i o n , l a c k of u n i f o r m c h a n n e l size, a n d a p p a r e n t d i f f e r e n c e s in
m a t e r i a l d e n s i t y are c l e a r l y seen. The p o t e n t i a l of CT i m a g i n g f or
v i s u a l i z a t i o n of a v a r i e t y of d e f e c t s in fuel c e l l s u b a s s e m b l i e s is thus
d e m onstrated.
D e t e c t i o n of C r a c k F o r m a t i o n D u r i n g Fi r i n g
If r a d i o g r a p h i c i m a g i n g or v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n r e v e a l s c r a c k s in the
f uel cell stack, it is of i n t e r e s t to k n o w w h e n t h ese c r a c k s d e v e l o p e d in
the final s i n t e r i n g p r o c e s s , e.g., d u r i n g h e a t - u p or c o o l - d o w n . Heat-up
a nd c o o l - d o w n s c h e d u l e s c o u l d then b e m o d i f i e d to m i n i m i z e cra c k i n g .
A c o u s t i c e m i s s i o n ^ (AE) is a p a s s i v e m o n i t o r i n g m e t h o d w e l l s u i t e d to the
d e t e c t i o n of i n c i p i e n t c r a c k i n g in i n a c c e s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s s u c h as the
i n s i d e of a furnace. Ou r p r o g r a m has i n c l u d e d e f f o r t s t o w a r d s i m p l e m e n t i n g
AE m e t h o d s to d e t e c t c r a c k i n g d u r i n g s i n t e r i n g of f u e l c e l l arrays. A
s c h e m a t i c of the e x p e r i m e n t a l a r r a n g e m e n t u s e d for A E m o n i t o r i n g is sho w n
in Fig. 6.
Fi g u r e 7 s h ows a h e a t - u p and c o o l - d o w n s c h e d u l e a nd the a c c o m p a n y i n g

A E activity. T h e A E a c t i v i t y w a s d e t e c t e d in o n l y t h r e e temperature
regions. Th e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h of the d e t e c t e d e m i s s i o n s can b e a s s e s s e d
by u s i n g a m p l i t u d e d i s t r i b u t i o n analysis. The a m p l i t u d e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
o b t a i n e d at the ten p o i n t s s h o w n in Fig. 7 are p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 8. The
data, as p r e s e n t e d , show the c h a n g e s in d i s t r i b u t i o n s f r o m t he p r e v i o u s
measurement. The a m p l i t u d e d i s t r i b u t i o n p l o t s s h o w a h i g h l e v e l of A E
a c t i v i t y at p o i n t s 8, 9, an d 10. The r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h of the p u l s e s
i n c r e a s e s n e a r p o i n t 10. T h ese i n i t i a l f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t that A E h o l d s
p o t e n t i a l for t r a c k i n g c r a c k f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g fuel c e l l f a b r i c a t i o n .
1. G. T. H e r m a n n , I m a g e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m P r o j e c t i o n s , A c a d e m i c P r e s s ,
N e w Y o r k (1980).
2. A. A. Poll o c k , " A c o u s t i c E m i s s i o n A m p l i t u d e s , " J. N o n d e s t r . Test. 10,
2 6 4 - 2 6 9 (1973).
54
P o o r C h a n n e l D e f i n i t i o n and
N o n u n i f o r m C h a n n e l Size Crack
Apparent Differences in Delamination

Average Material Density
for T h e s e L a y e r s
w
r*
r*
Fig. 5. S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m of F o u r - L a y e r F u e l C e l l Fig. 6. S c h e m a t i c D i a g r a m of A c o u s t i c HH
Iz
U s e d for I n i t i a l G a m m a - R a y (^^Îr) C T S c a n E m i s s i o n and D e f l e c t i o n o
c/5
Test a n d R e s u l t i n g R e c o n s t r u c t e d Image. D e t e c t i o n System. I $
Cn
® -
'AMPLITUDE DISTRIBUTION
RELATIVE POINTS
SIGNAL
.VOLTAGE
UJ
® - ®-
%
< 'a c o u s t ic &
s
Q.
EMISSION s
2
UJ I
J-
s
<
z
q;
Z)
u.
TEST TIM E .t ( h ) -
Fig. 7. Acoustic Emission Activity during Fig. 8. Acoustic Emission Amplitude

Hcat-I3p an d C o o l - D o w n of the F u e l D i s t r i b u t i o n s M e a s u r e d at I n d i c a t e d
Cell Stack. P o i n t s on T i m e - T e m p e r a t u r e Plot
of Fig. 7.
CHARACTERIZATION OF MONOLITHIC FUEL CELL COMPONENTS
D. W. Dees and F. C. Mrazek

A r g o n n e N a t i o n a l Labora t o r y
Argonne, IL 60439
E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of mat e r i a l s and c o m p o n e n t s is an
important part of the m o n o l i t h i c fuel cell d e v e l o p m e n t effort. The high power
d e n s i t y of the m o n o l i t h d e pends on a c h i e v i n g low d i s s i p a t i v e l o s s e s in the
bulk m a t e r i a l s and at interf a c e s b e tween materials.
Th e bulk e l e c t r i c a l / i o n i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of all cell m a t e r i a l s h as b e e n

d e t e r m i n e d oyer the range of tem p e r a t u r e s ( 8 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 ° C ) and o x y g e n p r e s s u r e s
(0.2 to 1 0 “ atm). C o m p l e x i m p edance m e t h o d o l o g y was u t i l i z e d to d e t e r m i n e
the c o n d u c t i v i t y of the four fuel cell c o m p o n e n t s as a f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r
ature, w h ich is g i ven in Fig. 1. All m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e taken w i t h the
c o m p o n e n t s in the same envir o n m e n t as it sees in the fuel cell d u r i n g
o p e ration. All co m p o n e n t s were fabric a t e d by the same m e t h o d s u s e d in the
d e v e l o p m e n t of the monoli t h i c fuel cell.
A series of AC impedance s t udies has been p e r f o r m e d on v a r i o u s t h r e e - l a y e r

( a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e ) com p o s i t e samples. The s t u d i e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d
u s i ng a s p ecial ve s s e l d e s i g n e d and built in this lab o r a t o r y . T h e m a n i f o l d in
the ve s s e l a l lowed for sepa r a t e a t m o s p h e r e s to be e s t a b l i s h e d on e a c h s i d e of
the composite. Th e fueJ envir o n m e n t on the a n o d e side w as a m i x t u r e of H 2 and
H pO ( H 2/H20=97/3) w h ich produced a partial press u r e of o x y g e n e q u a l to
0.4X10 at 1000°C. The oxidant on the c a thod e side was air. Platinum
s c r e e n current collec t o r s were a t t a c h e d to the sam p l e s w i t h p l a t i n u m paste.
A c o m p l e x i m p edance d i a g r a m for one of the c o m p o s i t e s is g i v e n in Fig. 2.

T h e size of the circ u l a r arc ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.7 ohms on the g r a p h ) w h e n
c o m p a r e d to its high frequency intercept of the real c o m p o n e n t axis
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.1 ohms on the graph) i n d icates that the s u m of the i n t e r
f acial r e s i s t a n c e s is r e l a tively large w h e n com p a r e d to the b u l k r e s i s t a n c e of
the m a t e r i a l s in the fuel cell. It was found that the sum of the i n t e r f a c i a l
r e s i s t a n c e s for the fuel cell could be varied m o r e than two o r d e r s of
m a g n i t u d e ( 0 .238-33.6 ohm cm ) by v a r y i n g the p a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n in
the e l e c t r o d e s next to the interfaces. Th e size of the i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r f a c i a l
r e s i s t a n c e s has been d e t e r m i n e d through the use of a r e f e r e n c e e l e c t r o d e in
the test system. M e a s u r e m e n t s indicate that the a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e and
c a t h o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e i n t erfacial r e s i s t a n c e s are of the s a m e o r d e r of
magni t u d e .
B oth a "contact resistance" at the i n t erfac e and k i n e t i c e f f e c t s can g i v e

rise to an i n terfacial resistance. The two are c o n n e c t e d in that an i m p r o v e
ment in one will improve the other. Linear I-V curves o v e r a w i d e r a n g e of
current de n s i t i e s were obtained in recent DC p o l a r i z a t i o n s t u d i e s on the fuel
r^lls. This indicates that k i n e t i c e f f e c t s are not signif i c a n t .
Cell tests show that d i f f u s i o n a l e f f e c t s in the e l e c t r o d e s are u n i m p o r t a n t

as long as their poro s i t y is g r e a t e r than 10%. T h i s has been c o n f i r m e d
t hrough AC impedance studies and DC p o l a r i z a t i o n studies. Theoretical
56
DEES, ET AL.
- 2 -
c a l c u l a t i o n s also indic a t e this for the 25 to 50 m i c r o m e t e r t h ick e l e c t r o d e s .

A t y p ical c r o s s - s e c t i o n of a t h r e e - l a y e r c o m p o s i t e is g i v e n in Fig. 3. The
p o r o s i t y of the a n o d e and c a t h o d e is well a b o v e the 10% m i n imum. Generally
the e l e c t r o d e p o r o s i t y is b e t w e e n 20% and 50%.
w h i l e c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s up to 2.2 a m p s / c m h a v e b e e n o b served, f u r t h e r
i m p r o v e m e n t s are p o s s i b l e through r e d u c t i o n s in the i n t e r f a c i a l r e s i s t a n c e s .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
W o r k s p o n s o r e d by the D e f e n s e A d v a n c e d R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s A g e n c y (DOD), under

A R P A O r d e r No. 4850.
The submitted manuscript has been authored

bv a contractor of the U. S. Government
under contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38.
Accordingly, the U, S. Government retain
nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publrsh
57
DEES, ET AL.
- 3 -
'O.
LEGEND
■ = A NO DE
o = CATHO DE
o = IN TE R C O N N E C TIO N
• = ELECTROLYTE
1 0^ /TE M P E R A TU R E . 1/K
Fig. 1. C o n d u c t i v i t y of I n d i v i d u a l So lid O x i d e
Fuel Cell Components.
COMPLEX IMPEDANCE PLOT

Lo n g e r c i r c u l a r a r c g i v e s l ow er cell p e r f o r m a n c e ,
CO
5
I
O•
z °
H
z
Z 6
o
CL
2
o ^
oo
>-
cc
<
z
o
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0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.« 0.7 o.s 0.9 1.0
REAL C O M P O N E N T IN O HM S
lOOO'^C, 3 cm^, A l r / 9 7 H j - S HÔ
Fig. 2. Complex I m p e d a n c e P l o t of Solid O x i d e Fuel Cell.
58
>
3
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t e s s g f A
w A ’'
. ' ÂAt - O
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Fig. 3. Typical Cross-section of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell.

STRESS AND FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF MONOLITHIC FUEL CELL TAPES
S. M a j u m d a r
Argonne, Illinois
T he d e s i g n of a so l i d oxi d e m o n o l i t h i c fuel cell e m p l o y s t h i n c e r a m i c

c o m p o n e n t s in a h o n e y c o m b structure. Th e tec h n i c a l c h a l l e n g e is to fab
r icate a c e r amic h o n e y c o m b from r e p e a t i n g thin l a y e r s of four c o m p o n e n t s
- a node, elec t r o l y t e , cathode, an d i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n u n d e r t he same c o n d i
tion. The c a t h o d e consists of a p o r o u s lay e r of l a n t h a n u m m a n g a n i t e , the
e l e c t r o l y t e c o n s i s t s of a d e n s e layer of y i t t r i a s t a b i l i z e d (fully) z i r
conia, the ano d e c o n s i s t s of a p o r o u s l a yer of f u lly s t a b i l i z e d z i r c o n i a
c o n t a i n i n g ni c k e l (NiO in the g r e e n s t a t e ) , and the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n c o n
sists of a den s e lay e r of l a n t h a n u m chromite. D u r i n g s i n t e r i n g of i n d i
v i d u a l layers the total li n e a r s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l
(^>30%). Howev e r , w h e n thr e e or m o r e l a y e r s ar e f a b r i c a t e d as a c o m p o s i t e ,
the tot a l s h r i n k a g e st r a i n d u r i n g s i n t e r i n g is f o u n d to b e c o n s i d e r a b l y
less (''^20-25%). On cl o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n , the s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n h i s t o r y of
the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n w a s found to b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of
the rest. Similarly, a l t h o u g h the c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n of
the c a t h o d e and the e l e c t r o l y t e are c l o s e l y matc h e d , the a n o d e c o n t a i n i n g
N i O ha s a sligh t l y h i g h e r c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n , d e p e n d i n g on
the N i O content. D u r i n g the e a r l y p h a s e of the p r o g r a m a t ANL, c r a c k i n g
w a s e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g c o o l d o w n a f t e r f i r i n g if the N i O c o n t e n t in the
a n o d e l a yer e x c e e d e d a b out 30%. T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w a s u n d e r t a k e n to a n a
lyse the stress an d creep b e h a v i o r s of a t h r e e - l a y e r tape d u e to d i f f e r
e n t i a l s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n rates d u r i n g s i n t e r i n g , a n d the f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r
of a t h r e e - l a y e r tape due to t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g c o o l d o w n
a f t er sintering.
S h r i n k a g e Stress a n d S t r a i n : For s i m p l i c i t y , c o n s i d e r a t h r e e - l a y e r s y m
m e t r i c a l tape w i t h the out e r la y e r s of t h i c k n e s s e s h^ and t he m i d d l e l a yer
of t h i c k n e s s h^. Th e shr i n k a g e s t r a i n r a tes of the o u t e r a n d the m i d d l e
l a y ers ar e d e noted by e ^ and e _ r e s p e c t i v e l y . A l t h o u g h the s h r i n k a g e
s t r a i n rat e s can be d i f f e r e n t , the t o t a l s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n s of a ll the
l a y ers are a s s u m e d to be e q ual to Ae . It is d i f f i c u l t to c a l c u l a t e a b s o
lute v a l u e s of stre s s e s d u r i n g s i n t e r i n g b e c a u s e , the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r
ties of the v a r i o u s layers change w i t h time a n d a r e u n k n o w n a t the p r e s
ent. Howe v e r , the r e l a t i v e v a l u e s of s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n s a nd s t r e s s e s can
b e c a l c u l a t e d u s ing simple thin p l a t e th e o r y if it is a s s u m e d that the
r a t ios of m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the layers r e m a i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n
s t ant d u r i n g sintering. To s i m u l a t e the s i n t e r i n g of a d e n s e i n t e r c o n n e c
tion lay e r s a n d w i c h e d b e t w e e n two p o r o u s e l e c t r o d e s , it is a s s u m e d that
the r a tio of the m o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y b e t w e e n the l ayers
c r eep s t r a i n rate of each layer is e x p r e s s e d as a p o w e r f u n c t i o n of s t r e s s
w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t s A. (i = 1,2) and e x p o n e n t e q u a l to 1, in k e e p i n g w i t h
the a s s u m p t i o n that the domi n a n t m e c h a n i s m for c r eep d u r i n g s i n t e r i n g is
d i f f u s i o n a l creep. F i g u r e 1 shows the v a r i a t i o n of the c o m p o s i t e s h r i n k
a g e s t r a i n as a f r a c t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n for a
v a l u e of r e l a t i v e s h r i n k a g e st r a i n rate e q u a l to 5 ( a s sumed g r e a t e r than
I to r e f l e c t the h i g h e r shr i n k a g e r a t e s o b s e r v e d in the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n )
as a f u n c t i o n of the n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l q u a n t i t y d e f i n e d as
“i =
w h e r e v is the P o i s s o n ^ s ratio. N o t e that if the c o m p o s i t e s h r i n k a g e is
to be less than the i n d i v i d u a l lay e r s h r i n k a g e , then the r a t i o b e t w e e n the
c o e f f i c i e n t s of the cre e p e q uation, A^/A^, has to be less than 0.5 (,i.e*»
60
MAJUMDAR
2
V
(/) 0.5
M/
<
0.8 0. 25
0.6
0. 4l—
O.Ot 0.1 10 100
a,
FIGURE 1
V a r i a t i o n of r a tio b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e (At ) an d i n d i v i d u a l l a yer (*t^)

linear shrinkage strain w i t h for v a r i o u s v a l u e s of
the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n sh o u l d b e m o r e r e s i s t a n t to c r e e p d e f o r m a t i o n t h a n
e i t h e r of the e l e c t r o d e s ) , an d can n o t b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n 10.
F i g u r e 2 sho w s the e f f e c t s of t h i c k n e s s r a t i o on t h e m a x i m u m n o n d i m e n -
s i o n a l t e n s i l e a n d c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s of the v a r i o u s l a y e r s for a g i v e n
set of v a l u e s of m a t e r i a l p a r a m e t e r s , a n d for a c a s e w h e r e the s h r i n k a g e
r a t e of the m i d d l e lay e r is 10 tim e s that of the o u t e r layers. N o t e that
b o t h th e m a x i m u m t e n s i l e an d c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s in the m i d d l e l a y e r can
b e r e d u c e d b y i n c r e a s i n g it's r e l a t i v e thickn e s s . However, such an in
c r e a s e in t h i c k n e s s also i n c r e a s e s the m a x i m u m s t r e s s e s in the o u t e r
layers.
E x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a n e e d e d to v e r i f y theses p r e d i c t i o n s a r e n o t c u r r e n t l y
a v a i l a b l e , b u t w i l l be coad-'cted l a ter o n in the p r o g r a m .
T h e r m a l S t r e s s a n d F r a c t u r e : T h e m o d e l c o n s i s t s of a t h r e e - l a y e r c i r c u l a r
disk, w i t h e a c h lay e r p o t e n t i a l l y h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t t h e r m a l a n d e l a s t i c
properties. Th e p l a t e is a s s u m e d to b e flat and f r e e of s t r e s s a t the
f i ring t e m p e r a t u r e at the b e g i n n i n g of cooldown . Stresses are generated
i n the e x t e r n a l l y u n c o n s t r a i n e d p l a t e d u r i n g co o l d o w n , r e a c h i n g a m a x i m u m
at the e n d of c o o l d o w n w h e n the p l a t e is at a u n i f o r m t e m p e r a t u r e (200°C).
St r e s s a n d f r a c t u r e a n a l y s e s of the p l a t e a r e c a r r i e d o ut u s i n g s m a l l d i s
p l a c e m e n t l i n e a r e l a s t i c th e o r y of plate, an d l i n e a r e l a s t i c f r a c t u r e
m e c h a n i c s [1]. F r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s p r o p e r t i e s of t he v a r i o u s t h i n c e r a m i c
c o m p o n e n t s ar e not c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . A f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s v a l u e (1.25
M P a /m) of the e l e c t r o l y t e w a s d e d u c e d b y c o r r e l a t i n g the f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r
of s y m m e t r i c a l A / E / A tapes of t h i c k n e s s e s 51 p m w i t h the c a l c u l a t e d m a x i
m u m s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y factor. T h e p r e d i c t i o n s of t he m o d e l a r e c o m p a r e d
w i t h e x p e r i m e n t s on s y m m e t r i c a l (A/E/A) a n d u n s y m m e t r i c a l (C/E/A) t a pes in
Fig. 3. The c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n of t he a n o d e in the e x p e r i -
61
MAJUMDAR
3
-T = 0.4
to
Ml
<
U
?b'
10*
r2MAx (COMPRESSIVE)
FIGURE 2
V a r i a t i o n of m a x i m u m n o n d i m e n s i o n a l t e n s i l e an d c o m p r e s s i v e s h r i n k a g e
s t r e s s e s in a s y m m e t r i c a l t h r e e - l a y e r c o m p o s i t e as a f u n c t i o n of t h i c k
n e s s ratio.
m e n t a l tapes were 12 x 10 /°C in a l l cases. As is e v i d e n t f r o m the

f i g ures, the p r e d i c t i o n s are in good a g r e e m e n t w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l results.
T he m o d e l a l s o p r e d i c t s that for a set of g i v e n t h i c k n e s s e s of the layers,

f r a c t u r e d u r i n g c o o l d o w n can be a v o i d e d b y e i t h e r t a i l o r i n g the N i O d i s
t r i b u t i o n or by i n c r e a s i n g the p o r o s i t y of the anode, as s h o w n in Fig. 4.
C o n c l u s i o n s : A s h r i n k a g e stress a n a l y s i s ha s sh own that a p o s s i b l e e x

p l a n a t i o n for the r e l a t i v e l y low linear s h r i n k a g e of a c o m p o s i t e as c o m
p a r e d to that of it's co m p o n e n t s ma y be the o c c u r e n c e of c r e e p str a i n s
that h e l p rel a x the stre s s e s g e n e r a t e d b y d i f f e r e n t i a l s h r i n k a g e s t r a i n
ra tes d u r i n g sintering.
A m o d e l ha s b e e n d e v e l o p e d for the a n a l y s e s of t h e r m a l s t r e s s and f r a c t u r e

of a t h r e e - l a y e r c o m p o s i t e d u r i n g c o o l d o w n a f t e r sintering. The e x p e r i
m e n t a l r e s u l t s are in good a g r e e m e n t w i t h the p r e d i c t i o n s of the model.
The m o d e l a l s o p r e d i c t s that the fract u r e b e h a v i o r of t h r e e - l a y e r c o m
p o s i t e s ca n be i m p r o v e d by t a i l o r i n g the N i O d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d i n c r e a s i n g
the p o r o s i t y of the anode.
Reference
1. S a u r i n Maj u m d a r , T e r r y Claar, a n d B r i a n F l a n d e r m e y e r , " S t r e s s and

F r a c t u r e B e h a v i o r of M o n o l i t h i c Fuel C e l l T a p e s , " to a p p e a r in J. Am.
Ceramic Soc.
62
MAJUMDAR
4
K,^ of El ectrolyte =1.25 M P a‘ v m
a o f A n o d e
(|0'V°C) = 14
100-
i, ICO E
C r o c k of C r o c k ot
Cothode- Anode-
0)
TO [iectrolyte Electrolyte
xo: Interface
"o
o
o
(/)
10- 0)
U 10- C r a c k at C r a c k ot
'jz ] A.node-
WidpiaH' Electroiyt e
Interface
10 100
T h ic k n e s s of Ele ctrolyte ( / x m ) 10 100
Thickness of A n o d e (fi-rn)
FIGURE 3
M a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e t h i c k n e s s e s of e l e c t r o d e s a n d e l e c t r o l y t e to a v o i d
c r a c k i n g of s y m m e t r i c a l a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / a n o d e (left) a n d u n s y m m e t r i c a l
a n o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e / c a t h o d e (right) tapes w i t h a n e l e c t r o l y t e t h i c k n e s s of
38 pm. O p e n s y m b o l s r e p r e s e n t a c t u a l f a b r i c a t e d c o m p o s i t e s that s u r v i v e d
a c o o l d o w n a f t e r s i n t e r i n g and the fi l l e d s y m b o l r e p r e s e n t s o n e that
cracked.
(b)
O .
®---.
10-
Q !..io‘ i.'0‘
@ 6 9 >>0* 1•to'
(T) 1.5 . to ’ 2.2 X 10'
10 100
T h ic k n e s s o f E le ctro lyte ( /x m ) T h ic k n e s s o f E le c tro ly te ( /x m )
FIGURE 4
E f f e c t s of a l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n of Ni O (i.e., c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r m a l e x
p a n s i o n ) and p o r o s i t y (i.e., r e d u c e d e l a s t i c m o d u l u s ) in the a n o d e on the
m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e t h i c k n e s s e s of e l e c t r o d e s a n d e l e c t r o l y t e to a v o i d
c r a c k i n g of a c o m p o s i t e d u r i n g cooldown. In the left figure, the i n t e r
face of the a n o d e w i t h the e l e c t r o l y t e is a s s u m e d to c o n t a i n z e r o NiO.
Dashed lines r e p r e s e n t composites w i t h a un i f o r m NiO distribution.
63
TAPE CASTING HIGH-DENSITY ELECTROLYTE FOR SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS
C. C. M c P h e e t e r s and T. D. Claar, A r g o n n e N a t i o n a l Lab o r a t o r y ,

A rgonne, IL 60A39
Y t t r i a - s t a b i l i z e d z i r c o n i a (YSZ) has m a n y a p p l i c a t i o n s in h i g h -
t e m p e r a t u r e e l e c t r o c h e m i s t r y b e c a u s e of its r e l a t i v e l y h i g h o x y g e n - i o n
c o n d uct i v i t y , g o o d stability, and f a b r icability. Its u se as the o x y g e n - i o n
c o n d u c t o r in the m o n o l i t h i c s o l i d - o x i d e fuel cell d e p e n d s o n its
f a b r i c a b i l i t y into h i g h d e n s i t y s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h a r e v e r y thin yet
i m p e r m e a b l e to the fue l - c e l l gases. T h e o b j e c t i v e of this w o r k w a s to
d e v e l o p a p r o c e s s for f a b r i c a t i n g thin, h i g h - d e n s i t y , g a s - i m p e r m e a b l e YSZ
structures. M o r e s p ecifically, the f a b r i c a t i o n p r o c e s s must be c a p a b l e of
p r o d u c i n g s t r u c t u r e s on the o r der of 25 to 100 u m t h i c k w i t h d e n s i t i e s
g r e a t e r than 9 4 % of t h eoretical density, firing s h r i n k a g e as l ow as
p o s s i ble, and r o o m - t e m p e r a t u r e gas p e r m e a b i l i t i e s less than 10' c m /s. The
p r o c e s s e s c o n s i d e r e d for this a p p l i c a t i o n i n c l u d e d h ot rolli n g , tape
casting, a n d c u r t a i n coating. T a p e c a s t i n g was s e l e c t e d o n the b a s e s of its
a d v a n c e d s t a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t and e x t e n s i v e use in o t h e r t e c h n i c a l a r e a s
s u c h as the e l e c t r o n i c industry, and its r e l a t i v e simp l i c i t y .
P r i o r s t u d i e s w i t h a l u m ina^^^ and w i t h b a r i u m tita n a t e ^ ^ ^ h a v e s h o w n

that the most im p o r t a n t parame t e r s for d e v e l o p m e n t of a g o o d tape c a s t i n g
p r o c e s s i n c l u d e the powder charact e r i s t i c s , the d i s p e r s a n t c o m p o s i t i o n and
a mo u n t, the s o l v e n t / b i n d e r system, and o t h e r p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s . This study
was, t h e r e f o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d on d e v e l o p i n g the o p t i m u m c o m b i n a t i o n of these
v a r i a b l e s to meet the a b o v e p e r f o r m a n c e requireme n t s .
P o w d e r s f r o m s e v eral sup p l i e r s of Y S Z w e r e tested to d e t e r m i n e the

m o s t s u itable, an d two w e r e sele c t e d for f u rther study: 1) Z i r c a r type ZYP,
f u l l y stabi l i z e d , an d 2) T o y o Soda, TZ-8Y. Th e Z i r c a r p o w d e r h as a s p e c i f i c
s u r f a c e a r e a in the range of 50 to 65 m /g a n d an u l t i m a t e c r y s t a l l i t e s i z e
of 0 . 0 2 to 0 . 0 3 pm. T h e T o y o Soda p o w d e r s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e a r e a is in the
r a n g e of 20 to 25 m /g with u l t i m a t e c r y s t a l l i t e s i z e of the o r d e r 0.1 pm.
T h e a g g l o m e r a t e s i z e s of these p o w d e r s were m e a s u r e d a f t e r u l t r a s o n i c a l l y
d i s p e r s i n g the p o w d e r s in d i s t i l l e d water. The Zircar powder had a n arrow
p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n from 0.1 to 2.5 p m w i t h the p e a k at 1 p m
tJiameter. T h e T o y o Soda p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n w as broader, r a n g i n g
f r o m 0. 1 to 20 p m w i t h two peaks at 1 and 5 pm.
G o o d d i s p e r s i o n of the powder in the t a p e - c a s t i n g s l i p is the most

i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e for s u c c e s s f u l tape casting. Several solvent/binder/
d i s p e r s a n t c o m b i n a t i o n s w e r e tried d u r i n g the co u r s e of this study. In
g e n e r a l , those s y s t e m s s t u d i e d included a c r y l i c b i n d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s
s u p p l i e r s w i t h a v a r i e t y of o r g a n i c solvents. E f f e c t i v e d i s p e r s a n t s m u s t be
s o l u b l e in the s o l v e n t w h i l e f o r ming a s t r o n g bon d w i t h the YSZ p a r t i c l e s .
O n e end of the d i s p e r s a n t m o l e c u l e n o r m a l l y a t t a c h e s f i r m l y to the p a r t i c l e
w h i l e the tail en d of the m o l e c u l e e x t e n d s into the s u r r o u n d i n g s o l vent.
I n t e r a c t i o n of the tails from s e p a r a t e par t i c l e s c a u s e s a l o cal i n c r e a s e in
ene r g y, thus the d r i v ^ g ^ force is toward s e p a r a t i o n or d i s p e r s i o n of the
i n d i v i d u a l particles.' As i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 1, it is i m p o r t a n t to add
"'Work s p o n s o r e d by the D e f e n s e A d v a n c e d R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s A g e n c y (DOD),

u n d e r A R P A O r d e r No. 4850. --------------------------
The subntitted manuscript has been authored
by a contractor of the U. S. Government
under contract No. W-31-109-6NG-38-
Accordingly, the U. S- Government retains a
contribution, or allow Others to do so. for
64
a s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y of d i s p e r s a n t to e f f e c t i v e l y form the s t e r i c h i n d r a n c e
to s e p a r a t e the particles. S u s p e n s i o n s of Zi r c a r p o w d e r in solvent w e r e
p r e p a r e d u s i n g v a r ious q u a n t i t i e s of d i s persant. These suspen- sions were
v i b r a t o r y m i l l e d for 2 hours, then a l l o w e d to settle. The h e i g h t of the
i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n the clear s o lvent and the s u s p e n s i o n was m e a s u r e d as a
f u n c t i o n of time to d e t e r m i n e the s e t t l i n g rate of the s m a l l e r s u s p e n - ded
particles. For q u a n t i t i e s of d i s p e r s a n t b e l o w a b out 40 m g / g YSZ, the
s e t t l i n g rate was qui t e high, w h i l e a b ove that level, the d i s p e r s i o n a p p e a r s
adequate.
S i n t e r i n g aids are o f ten used to improve the fired d e n s i t i e s of

c e r a m i c bodies. P r ior work^ has sho w n that a l u m i n a can act as an
e f f e c t i v e s i n t e r i n g aid for YSZ, and the m e c h a n i s m has been p r o p o s e d to be
s c a v a n g i n g of i m p u r i t y si l i c a from the YS Z and p r e c i p i t a t i n g it in the g r a i n
b o u n d a r i e s thus i n h i b i t i n g g r a i n g r o w t h and p r o m o t i n g sinter i n g . A series
of tape c a s t i n g slips w e r e p r e p a r e d c o n t a i n i n g i n c r e a s i n g a d d i t i o n s of
a l u m i n a (added in the form of a l u m i n u m i s o p r o p o x i d e ) . T h e s e slips w e r e
p r o c e s s e d in the normal fashion, tape cast, s a m pl e d and fired. T he
r e s u l t i n g fired d e n s i t i e s and fi r i n g s h r i n k a g e s w e r e m e a s u r e d and p l o t t e d in
F i g u r e 2 as a f u n c t i o n of we i g h t percent alumina. It was found that
i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of a l u m i n a resul t e d in incr e a s e d fired d e n s i t y up
to a m a x i m u m at 0.6 wt^. F u r t h e r a d d i t i o n s resu l t e d in a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e in
fir e d density. Th e firing s h r i n k a g e s of the s a m p l e s i n c r e a s e d a l o n g w i t h
the i n c r e a s i n g densities, i n d i c a t i n g that the s i n t e r i n g p r o c e s s was i m p r o v e d
by i m p r o v e d mass transfer ra t h e r than by improve d p a r t i c l e packing.
10 *
n 10
//
■'5
CO 10* E-
C D LN S ITY
• SHRINICAGE
15 0 300
DISPERSANT. m g /gY S Z A LU M IN A CONTENT, w t '
Fig. 1 Effect of d i s p e r s a n t c o n c e n Fig. 2 E ffect of a l u m i n a as

tr a tion on d i s p e r s i o n in terms s i n t e r i n g aid on d e n s i t y
of p a r t i c l e s e t t l i n g rates. and s h r i n k a g e of YSZ.
65
O n e of the o b j e c t i v e s of this w o r k w a s to m i n i m i z e the f i r i n g
s h r i n k a g e of the Y S Z so that d i s t o r t i o n s of the m o n o l i t h i c s t r u c t u r e d u r i n g
f i r i n g c o uld be minimized. Th e a p p r o a c h to this o b j e c t i v e w a s to i m p r o v e
p a r t i c l e p a c k i n g in the g r e e n body. On e m e t h o d to impr o v e p a r t i c l e p a c k i n g
is to u s e a g r a d e d p a r t i c l e size d i s tribution. T h e T o y o S o d a p o w d e r c a n be
c o n s i d e r e d a "coarse" powder w i t h a fairly w i d e p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
r e l a t i v e to the Zi r c a r po w d e r w h i c h has a n a r r o w p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
a nd is a r e l a t i v e l y "fine" powder. T h e s e p o w d e r s w e r e m i x e d in v a r i o u s
p r o p o r t i o n s and s e veral slips were prepared w i t h i n c r e a s i n g total s o l i d s
loading. T h e total c e ramic c o n tent of the s l ip s w as i n c r e a s e d to the
m a x i m u m that could be a c h i e v e d w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g a r e a s o n a b l y w o r k a b l e
v i scos i t y . T a p e s were cast from these slips, s a m p l e s w e r e fired, a n d the
f i red d e n s i t i e s and s h r i n k a g e s were d e t ermined. F i g u r e 3 s h o w s the e f f e c t
of so l i d s l o a d i n g on the d e n s i t i e s and s h r i n k a g e s that w e r e a c hieved.
S o l i d s l o a d i n g is e x p r e s s e d h e r e as the r a tio of the fir e d s a m p l e w e i g h t to
the wei g h t lost d u r i n g firing. All of the s a m p l e s in this s e r i e s h a d fired
d e n s i t i e s g r e a t e r than 98% of t h e oretical density, a n d the d e n s i t y s e e m s to
be a m a x i m u m at m e d i u m solids loadings. Very high solids loadings may
inhibit g o o d p a r t i c l e p a c k i n g b e cause of the hi g h e r v i s c o s i t y u n d e r t h e s e
conditions. As expected, the s h r i n k a g e is an a l m o s t l i n e a r d e c r e a s i n g
f u n c t i o n of solids loading. Th e more c l o s e l y p a c k e d the p a r t i c l e s in the
g r e e n body, the less s h r i n k a g e is n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e t h e o r e t i c a l d e n s i t y .
In the solid o x i d e fuel cell e n v i ronment , it is i m p o r t a n t that the

Y S Z e l e c t r o l y t e layer is i m p e r m e a b l e to the fuel and o x i d a n t gases. The
r e q u i r e m e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y less than 10' cm /s is a c r o s s - l e a k a g e
e q u i v a l e n t to a current loss of 1 m A / c m . A v a c u u m a p p a r a t u s w a s u s e d to
m e a s u r e p e r m e a t i o n rates of room t e m perature a i r thr o u g h fir e d s a m p l e s of
Y S Z tapes. T h e s a m ples were a t t a c h e d to the end of a c o p p e r tube w i t h
epoxy. T h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of the e p oxy ha d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y m e a s u r e d to a s s u r e
that it was n e g l i g i b l e rela t i v e to the p e r m e a b i l i t i e s b e i n g m e a s u r e d . The
v a c u u m p r e s s u r e was r e duced to about 40 0 to 5 0 0 torr (50 to 65 KPa), the
s y s t e m was isolated, and the rate of p r e s s u r e rise was m e a s u r e d . T he
p e r m e a b i l i t y of the m e m b r a n e was then c a l c u l a t e d f r o m the rate of rise. It
w a s found that for YS Z samples h a v i n g g r e a t e r than abo u t 92 to 9 3 % of
t h e o r e t i c a l density, the rate of rise wa s too s m a l l to be m e a s u r e d o v e r a
p e r i o d of 7 to 10 days. Based on the u n c e r t a i n t i e s of e a c h i n s t r u m e n t
i n v o l v e d (p r e s s u r e gauge, barometer, thermomete r , s t a n d a r d vol u m e , etc), the
s m a l l e s t p e r m e a b i l i t y m e a s u r a b l e was about 1 x 1 0 “ c m /s. T h e p o r o s i t y in
Y S Z s a m p l e s h a v i n g d e n s i t i e s > 9 4 % of t h e o r e t i c a l is a p p a r e n t l y not c o n n e c t e d
porosity. S a m p l e s h a v i n g d e n s i t i e s less than 9 0 % e x h i b i t e d p e r m e a b i l i t i e s
w h i c h w e r e e a s i l y m e a s u r a b l e and were > 1 0 ' cm /s.
T h e tape cast YS Z s t r u c t u r e was e x a m i n e d b o t h as f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s

a n d as p o l i s h e d a n d t h e rmally e t c h e d surf a c e s u s i n g the S c a n n i n g E l e c t r o n
M i c r o s c o p e (SEM). Fi g u r e 4 shows a frac t u r e s u r f a c e o n the left of a Y S Z
s a m p l e w h i c h has a d e n s i t y of 94 % of theoretical. T h e p h o t o g r a p h on the
right is a p o l i s h e d sam p l e w h i c h was the r m a l l y e t c h e d at 1 3 0 0 ° C for 30 min.
T h e s e p h o t o g r a p h s illust r a t e the fine-grain, u n i f o r m s t r u c t u r e that w a s
a c h i e v e d by this tape c a s t i n g process. T h e p o r o s i t y is i solated, s o m e w h a t
sp heri c a l , and not i n t e r c o n n e c t e d as infe r r e d f r o m the p e r m e a b i l i t y data.
66
Conclusions
This work has shown that high-density, impermeable, thin YSZ
structures can be produced by tape casting. The most important parameters
in developing the tape casting process were found to be the YSZ powder
characteristics, the binder/solvent system, the dispersant which must be
compatible with the solvent/binder system, adequate milling to assist
dispersion, and the proper solids loading to minimize firing shrinkage.
References
1. G. Y. Onoda, Jr and L. L. Hench, "Ceramic Processing Before
Firing", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1978.
2. Kurt Mikeska and W. Roger Cannon, "Forming of Ceramics",
Advances in Ceramics - Vol 9, American Ceramic Society,
Columbus, OH, pg 164, (1984)
3. K. C. Radford and R. J. Bratton, Zirconia electrolyte cells.
Part 1, Sintering studies, J. Mat'l Sci., 14(1979)59-65.
. DENsmr
a SHRINKAGE
e Fig. 3 Effect of solids loading on

K
YSZ fired density and
E'
CO shrinkage during firing.
z
u
Q
S O U D Si'B IN DER RATIO
m :
Fig. 4 Fracture surface (left) of 94% dense tape cast YSZ, and ther
mally etched surface (right) of 97% dense tape cast YSZ.
67
INTERCONNECTION D E V E L O P M E N T FOR M O N O L I T H I C
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS
B. K. Flandermeyer, J. T. Dusek, P. E. Blackburn,

D. W. Dees, C, C. McPheeters, a n d R. B. Poeppel
Argonne, IL 60439
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of an i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n l a y e r for Che m o n o
lithic solid oxide fuel cell (MSOFC) has p o s e d a s i g n i f i c a n t
m a t e r i a l s d e v e l o p m e n t c h a l l e n g e b e c a u s e of t h e p a r t i c u l a r l y
demanding s e t of e l e c t r i c a l , m e c h a n i c a l , and c h e m i c a l r e q u i r e
m e n t s that this m a t e r i a l must meet. P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s had
i d e n t i f i e d L a C r O ^ a c c e p t o r d o p e d w i t h M g or Sr as a m a t e r i a l
’■ h a t w o u l d satisfy these conditions except fo r the f a c t tha t
it, l i k e a l l C r o x i d e s , w i l l n o t s i n t e r to h i g h d e n s i t i e s i n
air. T h e c h a l l e n g e w i t h t h e s e m a t e r i a l s is t h a t t h e p r e d o m i
nant method of m a s s t r a n s p o r t d u r i n g f i r i n g is a n e v a p o r a t i o n -
o o n d e n s a t i o n m e c h a n i s m w h i c h l e a d s to c o a r s e n i n g o f t h e
('riginal p a r t i c l e s w i t h o u t d en s i f ic a t ion . To o b t a i n h i g h
densities, it h a s b e e n f o u n d n e c e s s a r y to f i r e L a C r O ^ to
Lemperatures in e x c e s s o f 1 6 5 0 ° C in a h y d r o g e n a t m o s p h e r e .
However, these conditions are u n a c c e p t a b l e for fabrication of
the o t h e r c e l l c o m p o n e n t s fortwo r e a s o n s . O n e is t h a t
i n t e r d i f f u s 1 o n of t h e c e l l components will become significant
at; s u c h h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d t h e o t h e r is that the L a M n O ^
cathode will d e c o m p o s e to L a 2 0 ^ a n d M n O in the hydrogen atmo
sphere. G i v e n t h e f a v o r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s of L a C r O ^ (thermal
expansion characteristics, electrical conductivity, and
chemical stability under reduction), efforts were concentrated
on d e v e l o p i n g s o m e m e t h o d of s i n t e r i n g it a t < 1 6 0 0 ° C i n a
relatively oxidizing atmosphere (Tq2 atm) r a t h e r t han
developing a new material.
A s u r v e y of the l i t e r a t u r e i m p l i e d t h a t t h e roost
p r o m i s i n g a p p r o a c h to e n h a n c i n g t h e s i n t e r a b i 1 i t y o f L a C r O - j
w a s to s u b s t i t u t e t r a nsition metal cations (i.e., M n , F e , Ni)
for Cr. A possible a l t e r n a t i v e w o u l d be to f i n d a s e c o n d -
phase a d d ition that would promote liquid phase sintering.
Accordingly, t h e i n i t i a l a p p r o a c h w a s to p e r f o r m a s u r v e y o f
p o t e n t i a l d o p a n t s by p r e p a r i n g a s e r i e s of L a C r O ^ ’ s d o p e d w i t h
the d e s i r e d c a t i o n s a n d t h e n to u s e h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e d i l a -
t o m e t r y to d i r e c t l y m e a s u r e the f i r i n g s h r i n k a g e vs. temper
ature. Any promising sintering aids found by this s u r v e y
would then need to b e t e s t e d for t h e i r e f f e c t o n the o t h e r
required characteristics, such as electrical conductivity and
stability under reducing conditions.
Samples were prepared by a "liquid mix" technique (!)•

N i t r a t e s o l u t i o n s of the d e s i r e d c a t i o n s w e r e p r e p a r e d a n d
mixed with ethyl e n e g 1 y c o 1-citric acid. This s o l u t i o n was
then slowly evap o r a t e d down to a s o l i d a n d t h e o x i d e w a s
f o r m e d by a 1 o w - t e m p e r a t u r e c a l c i n a t i o n at a b o u t 8 0 0 ® C . The
^ u n c t i o n o f t h e e t h y l e n e g l y c o l - c i t r i c a c i d is to m a i n t a i n
homogenous mixing t h r o u g h the e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s and e n s u r e a
uniformly doped final oxide. After calcination, these powders
were v i b r a t o r y m i l l e d f o r 16 h, m i x e d w i t h 2 - 3 w t % b i n d e r ,
68
FLANDERMEYER EX AL
- 2 -
and then spray dried to r e d u c e a g g l o m e r a t i o n a n d o b t a i n a f i n e

powder suitable for dry p r essing. Small sample pellets
approximately 1 . 5 c m l o n g b y 0 . 7 c m in d i a m e t e r w e r e p r e s s e d
and t h e i r s h r i n k a g e as a f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e d in a
high-temper ature (1550°C) differential pushrod dilatometer
( s u p p l i e d by T h e t a , Inc.).
Figure 1 shows some typical firing shrinkage results; the

data a r e d i s p l a y e d as t h e o r e t i c a l d e n s i t y vs. temperature,
w h i c h w a s i n c r e a s e d at a c o n s t a n t r a t e o f 2 0 0 ° C / h . As c a n be
seen from this plot, the s u b s t i t u t i o n a l d o p i n g of t r a n s i t i o n
metal cations ( M n s u b s t i t u t e d f o r the Cr in t h i s c a s e ) does
indeed i n c r e a s e d e n s i f i c a t i o n , b u t not s u f f i c i e n t l y for the
p u r p o s e of f a b r i c a t i n g an i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n f o r the p r o p o s e d
m o n o l i t h i c fuel cell.
100
GOAL
LaCrO 3
>- Baseline
t
CO X (C a.N i)-D ope d _
z • (£a,^)-Dop«l
LU SO
Q
: F lu oride E u te ctic
_i
< O xide E u te ctic
O TO
cc
0 60
LU
1
H
50
40
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
TEMPERATURE (K)
FIGURE 1
P l o t of t h e o r e t i c a l d e n s i t y v s . temperature for various doped

LaCrO^'s compared to t h e b a s e l i n e L a C t Q g M g Q D e n s i t y is
required to be >94% of theoretical.
Accordingly, a t t e n t i o n w a s t u r n e d to a l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d s
of e n h a n c i n g d e n s i f i c a t i o n b y u s i n g d e l i b e r a t e l y a d d e d s e c o n d
p h a s e s w h i c h c o u l d b e s e p a r a t e l y f o r m u l a t e d a n d a d d e d to t h e
69
FLANDERMEYER ET AL
- 3 -
base La(Cr,Mg)02 In low quantities. Although the selection

of such a second phase is a l m o s t a n e m p i r i c a l p r o c e s s b e c a u s e
of the w i d e v a r i e t y of factors concerned (i.e., w e t t i n g
phenomena, chemical reactions, solubilities, etc.), two
general approaches were employed, b o t h of w h i c h used the
p r e m i s e that the a d d i t i v e s s h o u l d be as c h e m i c a l l y s i m i l a r to
the b a s i c L a C r O j as p o s s i b l e . One approach involved searching
the l i t e r a t u r e for a l o w - m e l t i n g ( 1 0 0 0 - 1 2 0 0 ° C ) o x i d e c o m p o u n d
or e u t e c t i c t h a t c o u l d b e a d d e d to L a C r O ^ . The other approach
i n v o l v e d an a t t e m p t to f i n d a m o r e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l sintering
aid, s u c h as a c a r b o n a t e p r e c u r s o r t h a t w o u l d m e l t to p r o m o t e
d e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d t h e n d e c o m p o s e to f o r m L a C r O g or a b e n i g n
second phase. Of t he m a n y c a n d i d a t e s t h a t w e r e c o n s i d e r e d ,
two a d d i t i v e s p r o v e d e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g as s h o w n in
Fig. 1. O n e is a l o w - m e l t i n g o x i d e e u t e c t i c w h o s e c o m p o n e n t s
are st a b l e u n d e r the e x p e c t e d o x y g e n p o t e n t i a l g r a d i e n t . The
s e c o n d a p p r o a c h w a s to a d d 8 - 1 0 w t % o f a ( L a o r Y ) - M g
fluoride mixture to t h e b a s i c L a C r O j . As s h o w n in F i g . 1,
r e m a r k a b l e i m p r o v e m e n t in d e n s i f i c a t i o n is f o u n d w i t h e i t h e r
of t h e s e a d d i t i v e s . W i t h i n the l i m i t s of x - r a y diffrac-
tometry, the f l u o r i d e s e c o n d - p h a s e a d d i t i o n s do not r e m a i n
after firing.
I n i t i a l a t t e m p t s to u s e t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s t o f a b r i c a t e a n
acceptable three-layer anode/ interconnection/cathode composite
have been successful. It was noted that these sintering aids
do a f f e c t the a d j o i n i n g e l e c t r o d e l a y e r s by g e n e r a l l y
i n c r e a s i n g the d e n s i t y and g r a i n s i z e . This effect produces
u nexpectedly large firing shrinkages for the e l e c t r o d e s in t h e
c om p o s i t e , w h i c h can cause warping, curling, or c r a c k i n g .
C o n s i d e r a b l e w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e to o p t i m i z e t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f
sintering aids present, the p a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n s , and
the f a b r i c a t i o n techniques so a s t o c o n t r o l t h e d i m e n s i o n a l
s t a b i l i t y of t h e s e c o m p o s i t e s .
As n o t e d e a r l i e r , just i n c r e a s i n g the s i n t e r a b i 1 i t y of
these m a t e r i a l s m a y n ot be s u f f i c i e n t ; the thermal expansion,
stability, and e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of the n e w m a t e r i a l s
must still be a c c e p t a b l e . F i g u r e 2 d i s p l a y s t h e r e s u l t s of
thermal expansivity testing for the two new proposed materials
a s c o m p a r e d to t h e b a s e l i n e L a C r O j ; clearly, t h i s p r o p e r t y is
n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by the s i n t e r i n g a i d s . Although
s p a c e d o e s n o t p e r m i t a c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e T G A or
electrical conductivity results, initial work has revealed no
i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m s in t h e s e a r e a s .
In summa r y , a l t h o u g h t h e u s e of s u c h s i n t e r i n g a i d s in
t h e M S O F C a p p l i c a t i o n h a s o n l y j u s t b e g u n to be t h o r o u g h l y
investigated, i n i t i a l r e s u l t s a r e v e r y e n c o u r a g i n g in t e r m s of
improved s i n t e r ability, apparent stability under reduction,
and e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y . An operating fuel cell ar r a y has
been fabricated from these materials. Issues remaining
include optimization of the t h r e e - l a y e r c o m p o s i t e s , long-term
t e s t i n g to e n s u r e that d e g r a d a t i o n e f f e c t s are not s i g n i f i
cant, and d i m e n s i o n a l and shape c ontrol during firing.
70
FLANDERMEYER ET AL
- 4 -
0.015
LaCrOg
I B a s e lin e
_l
Fluoride Euie ctic
_1
0.010
Oxide Eutectic
>-
>
CO
2
^ 0 005
X
LJ
o.ooc
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 14 00 1600 1800
TEMPERATURE (K)
FIGURE 2
Plot of expansion vs. temperature for LaCrO^ doped with two

types of sintering aids as compared to that of the baseline
material.
This work was sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research

Projects Agency.
REFERENCE
1. M. Pechini, U. S. Patent No. 3,330,697, July 11, 1967.
71
ELECTRODE DEVELOPMENT FOR MONOLITHIC FUEL CELLS
T. E. Easier, B. K. Flandermeyer, T- D, C l a a r , * D . E . Busch,

R. J. F o u s e k , J. J. P i c c i o l o , a n d R. B. P o e p p e l
Argonne, IL 60439
*Now with Lanxide Corporation
Newark, DE 19711
The m e t h o d o l o g y for p r o d u c i n g e l e c t r o d e s for m o n o l i t h i c

s o l i d oxide fuel c e l l s has b e e n d e v e l o p e d . Ceramic powder
particle size d i s t r i b u t i o n s and s o I v e n t / b i n d e r s y s t e m s have
been tailored to y i e l d t h e d e s i r e d e l e c t r o d e p o r o s i t y l e v e l s
(20-50%), while matching t h e f i r i n g s h r i n k a g e s of o t h e r c e l l
components. Electrodes have been fabricated with thicknesses
of 2 5 - 1 2 5 u m . C a r e f u l c o n t r o l of the s t o i c h i o m e t r y a nd p o w d e r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c a t h o d e m a t e r i a l ( s t r o n t i u m - d o p e d
lanthanum manganite) is n e c e s s a r y for the p r o d u c t i o n of
acceptable layers. In the t w o - p h a s e n i c k e l / z i r c o n i a a n o d e ,
the n i c k e l c o n t e n t is a k e y v a r i a b l e . Lower nickel contents
r e d u c e the t h e r m a l expansion mismatch among the c e l l c o m p o
nents; however, the a n o d e c o n d u c t i v i t y b e c o m e s i n s u f f i c i e n t at
nickel contents below about 35 vol. %.
CATHODE DEVELOPMENT
The cathode, or air electrode, is strontium-doped

lanthanum manganite ( L a g g S r Q j^MnO^)* The c a t h o d e m u s t be
s t a b l e in an o x i d i z i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a n d m u s t b e an e l e c t r o n i c
conductor w i t h a m i n i m u m c o n d u c t i v i t y of 3 0 ohm*"^ c m ” ^ a t
1000°C. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n d e s c r i b e d h e r e h a s a c o n d u c t i v i t y of
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 o h m “ ^ c m ” ^ a t 1 0 0 0 ° C . T he m a t e r i a l m u s t be
f a b r i c a t e d w i t h a p o r o s i t y l e v e l of 2 0 - 5 0 % to a l l o w f o r g a s
f low t h r o u g h the l a y e r , a n d to p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t s u r f a c e a r e a
at the c a t h o d e / e l e c t r o l y t e (zirconia) i n t e r f a c e for the e l e c
t r o c h e m i c a l r e d u c t i o n o f o x y g e n to t a k e p l a c e . Close matching
of the f i r i n g s h r i n k a g e a nd the t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
to t h o s e o f t h e o t h e r c e l l c o m p o n e n t s is a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t
consideration. T a p e c a s t i n g h a s b e e n c h o s e n as t h e f a b r i c a
t i o n t e c h n i q u e for f o r m i n g th e t h i n l a y e r s of c a t h o d e m a t e
r i a l , w h i c h m u s t b e l e s s t h a n 10 m i l s ( O . O l in.) thick.
The most satisfactory results are obtained when two

lanthanum manganite p o w d e r s of d i f f e r i n g s i n t e r a b i l i t y are
combined. One powder is f a b r i c a t e d b y a s o l i d - s t a t e r e a c t i o n
p r o c e s s in w h i c h a s o l u t i o n o f n i t r a t e s o f t h e c a t i o n s i s
s p r a y d r i e d to p r o d u c e a p o w d e r w h i c h is s u b s e q u e n t l y
calcined. This powder is r e l a t i v e l y c o a r s e a n d o f l o w e r
sinterability. T h e s e c o n d p o w d e r is p r o d u c e d b y a n o r g a n i c
s y n t h e s i s m e t h o d w h i c h y i e l d s a r e l a t i v e l y f i n e - g r a i n e d and
more sinterable powder. T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e p o w d e r s
a r e s h o w n in F i g . 1. Since the d e g r e e of d e n s i f i c a t i o n of t h e
c a t h o d e m u s t be c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d , v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s of
t h e s e p o w d e r s c an be u s e d to a t t a i n d e s i r e d d e n s i t y ( a n d
porosity) levels, a n d to a d j u s t t h e f i r i n g s h r i n k a g e o f t h e
layers. Additional f l e x i b i l i t y is a f f o r d e d b y the i n c o r
poration of p o r e f o r m e r s w h i c h b u r n o u t d u r i n g firing to
72
EASLER ET AL
- 2 -
4
‘
FIGURE 1
S t r o n t i u m - d o p e d l a n t h a n u m m a n g a n i t e p o w d e r p r e p a r e d by (a)
s o l i d - s t a t e r e a c t i o n p r o c e s s and (b) o r g a n i c s y n t h e s i s m e t h o d ,
produce more porosity. The r e l a t i o n s h i p of p o r o s i t y to firi ng

s h r i n k a g e as a f u n c t i o n of the two p o w d e r c o n t e n t s is s ho w n in
F ig. 2.
ANODE DEVELOPMENT
The an o d e or fuel e l e c t r o d e is a n i c k e l / z i r c o n i a c e r m e t .
The y t t r i a - s t a b i l i z e d z i r c o n i a s e r v e s as a po r o u s s u b s t r a t e
w h i c h s u p p o r t s the n i c k e l phas e . T he m e t a l l i c n i ck e l c o n d u c t s
e l e c t r o n s a c r o s s the c i r c u i t b e t w e e n the e l e c t r o l y t e and
i n t e r c o n n e c t l a y e r s and s e r v e s as a c a t a l y s t for the e l e c t r o
c h e m i c a l o x i d a t i o n of the fuel. The a n o d e l a y e r must be
s t a b l e in a r e d u c i n g e n v i r o n m e n t and m ust h av e a m i n i m u m
e l e c t r o n i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of 120 o h m ” cm” at l O O O ' C . As for
the c a t h o d e l a y e r s d e s c r i b e d abo ve , the a n o d e m u s t be f a b r i
ca t e d w i t h a p o r o s i t y of 2 0 - 5 0 % , and m u s t have a f i r in g
s h r i n k a g e and c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n c l o s e l y
m a t c h i n g th ose of the ot h e r fuel c e l l c o m p o n e n t s . T ape
c a s t i n g has b e en used s u c c e s s f u l l y to f a b r i c a t e thin
(< 0.01 in.) l a y e r s of a n o d e m a t e r i a l .
T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a l l e n g e d u r i n g a n o d e f a b r i c a t i o n has b ee n
the d e g r e e of t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n m i s m a t c h w i t h the ot her
components. Si n c e it is c o n v e n i e n t to c a r r y out the final
s i n t e r i n g of the c o n s t r u c t e d fuel cell a r r a y in air in o r d e r
to m a i n t a i n the c o m p o s i t i o n of the c a t h o d e m a t e r i a l , the
n i c k e l phase in the a no de is i n t r o d u c e d as n i c k e l o x id e and
s u b s e q u e n t l y r e d u c e d to n i c k e l m e t a l by the fuel d u r i n g o p e r a
tion. The t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n of the n i c k e l o x i d e is s u f f i
c i e n t l y d i f f e r e n t from the o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s to cause
73
E A S L E R ET AL
- 3 -
60
Fabrication
Goal
50
100 %
• ^ 8 0 % SSP
_ SSP
40
^ 6 0 % SSP
S 30 0 4 0 % SSP
cc
o
Q.
20
10 _
100%
0 OSP
0 . 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 20 30 40 50
F IR IN G SHRINKAGE, %
FIGURE 2
Effects of relative percentages of solid-state reaction powder

(SSP) and o r g a n i c synthesis powder (OSP) on porosity and
f i r i n g s h r i n k a g e of c a t h o d e .
development of stresses in the array. As the nickel oxide

content is increased, the thermal expansion mismatch becomes
larger, as illustrated in F i g . 3. T h e t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n of
the zirconia electrolyte l a y e r is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 . 5 x
10 /°C, and it h a s b e e n determined t hat d e v i a t i o n s of ±2 x
10 /°C fr o m th i s v a l u e by the o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s c o u l d result
in u n a c c e p t a b l e s t r e s s e s w i t h i n the a r r a y s . Since the e l e c
t r o n i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e a n o d e is d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a m o u n t o f
nickel present, s o m e t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n m i s m a t c h m u s t be a c c o m
modated. However, as i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g . 4, t h e v o l u m e o f
nickel needed to m a i n t a i n the r e q u i r e d l e v e l of c o n d u c t i v i t y
is k n o w n . The m i n i m u m a m o u n t of n i c k e l r e q u i r e d can t h e r e f o r e
be i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e a n o d e l a y e r s to r e d u c e t h e d e g r e e o f
thermal expansion mismatch. It h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t c h a n g i n g
the m i c r o s t r u e t u r e of the p o r o u s z i rconia sub s t r a t e also
r e d u c e s the a m o u n t of n i c k e l t h a t is r e q u i r e d . A coarse
grained zirconia substrate will result in a c o n t i n u o u s n i c k e l
p h a s e at l o w e r n i c k e l c o n t e n t s b e c a u s e of t h e l o w e r s u r f a c e
a r e a t hat m u s t be c o v e r e d . A l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d s of i n t r o d u c i n g
the m e t a l l i c n i c k e l are a l s o b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d .
This work was sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research

Projects Agency.
74
EASLER ET AL
- k -
Ni, uol. 7o
15 30 51 72 100
14
o 12
20 40 60 80 100
NIO, uol. %
FIGURE 3
Thermal expansion of Ni0/Y 2 O ^ “ s t a b 1 1 1 zed Zr02 anode.
3
C o n d u c t i u i t y Go al
2
Hnode w ith
1 C o arse-G rained
ZrG , S t r u c t o r e
Rnode w ith
0 Fine-G rained
ZrO_ Structure
n
o
O)
2
10 20 30 40 50 60
N ic k e l, 7o o f Total Solids
FIGURE 4
Conductivity of anode as a function of nickel content.
75
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF RESISTIVITY, THERMAL EXPANSION AND
OXYGEN PERMEATION OF LANTHANUM CHROMITE FILMS SIMILAR TO THOSE
IN THE WESTINGHOUSE SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL
R.J. Ruka, S. Sinharoy

Westinghouse R&D Center
1310 Beulah Road
The design of the Westinghouse solid oxide electrolyte fuel cell

incorporates an interconnection layer of magnesium-doped lanthanum
chromite made by the electrochemical vapor deposition technique
(BVD). Measurements of properties of this layer, such as thermal
expansion, electrical resistivity, stability to oxygen loss at high
temperatures and oxygen permeability are difficult to measure when
the film is incorporated in the cell due to interference of other
cell components. To avoid such interference we have grown by E VD,
similar lanthanum chromite layers on a porous calcia-stabilized
support tube. These layers were used either directly for oxygen
permeation experiments, or the layer was stripped off to give a free
standing layer for thermal expansion and electrical resistivity
measurements.
The electrical resistivity of a thin layer of LaCr gggMg q 12^3

measured and analyzed in terms of a solid state defect model. The
resistivity values of the (EVD) layer in the temperature range of 800
to 1100 C and oxygen partial pressure range of 0.2 to about 1 x 10
atm were found to vary between 0.5 to 1.55 ohm-cm. The resistivity
values (/j) of this oxide and several bulk lanthanum chromite samples
doped with Mg, Ca and Sr are shown Figure 1 as a function of
temperature and have been found to approximately agree with the
following relations for adiabatic hopping of the p-type charge
carriers,
ffT = ne(f^êd2Hp/k)exp(-Ej^kT) = C exp (-Ej^/kT)
where a is the conductivity in ohm ^cm n is the number of charge

carriers/cm (equivalent to the number of Mg^^ doping ions/cm ), e is
the charge on the electron (1.6 x 10 coulomb), f^ ^ is the
fraction of unoccupied hopping sites, d is the distance in cm between
hopping sites (i.e., nearest neighbor chromium ions), H is the
polaron hop rate, k is the Boltzman constant (1.38 x 10 erg K ),
Ej^ is the hopping activation energy and T is the temperature in K.
76
Ruka, Sinharoy
-2 -
The loss of oxygen from LaCrj^_ Mg Og-x 1000°C and different oxygen
oartial pressures has been determined using thermogravimetric
measurements in a flowing gas atmosphere. The results at ^
oxygen pressures ranging from that in air to about 1 x 10 atm
agree well with those calculated from the equation;
log P„ = 4 log [(y-2x)/x] - log

2
where K is the equilibrium constant for the oxygen loss reaction
which assumes an equilibrium of oxygen in the flowing gas atmosphere
with ions, positive hole charge carriers and associated oxygen site
vacancies in the lattice structure of the material. The oxygen loss
below about 1 x 10 atm oxygen pressure exceeded that predicted
from this equation. Data are shown in Figure 2.
Thermal expansion of EVD magnesium-doped lanthanum chromite was found

to be almost identical to pure lanthanum chromite as shown in Figure
3. However, it is about 12 to 14% lower than the thermal expansion
of the calcia-stabilized zirconia support tube of the solid oxide
fuel cell. Modification of the chemical composition with other
alkaline earth components can provide a better thermal expansion
match among all the fuel cell components.
The permeation of oxygen through electrochemically vapor deposited

thin films of magnesium-doped lanthanum chromite has been studied
under UHV conditions using a mass spectrometer. Oxygen permeation
through the interconnection material has been found to be extremely
low. At 1000 C, with 1 atm oxygen pressure on one side and vacuum
on the other side of the interconnection film, the oxygen permeation
— 13 2 1
rate was less than 9.6 x 10 moles/cm -sec. With air on one side
and an H 2 O/H2 mixture (ratio=2) on the other, the permeation rateôf
oxygen through the interconnection film was found to be 1.9 x 10
moles/cm -sec. This rate is over four orders of magnitude less than
the rate of oxygen consumption due to current flow of 300 mA/cm in
the solid oxide fuel cell. Oxygen permeation through the
interconnection layer is thus insignificant in the solid oxide fuel
cell operation.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Morgantown Energy Technology Center of

DOE under Contract No. DE-AC21-84MC21184 and the Westinghouse
Electric Corporation.
77
Ruka, Sinharoy
-3-
The authors acknowledge valuable assistance of M. Stratis, R. Burlai
and J. Fraino in obtaining experimental data.
Cllc. u«.
OlcuMid PBlnIt ir* th« Vilixi

Lt| C in lh« ThMTillul laWlan
C«n4gcthrHy;
? L*|fT » U ( C - ^ / l fT
i
s
p
£
lOOVT. (Tl n*K)
Fis\ir« 1. C o n d u c t - i v ’l'ty da.t.a f o r la^n'tha.xium c hromit-e doped wi'bli

•.XlcaiX x n e eaur^H l o n e f r o m 2 6 ^ o I l O O C.
tL
II AO
o .010
•s X.
I J
.005
S’
(?
o
0
-5 -1 0 -1 5 -20
Log In Atmospheres
Figure a. Oxprgeu lose from LeC Mg O me e f u n c t i o n of oxygen

pertlel preee\ê ^ t ^ O O O C.
Ruka, Sinharoy
-4-
U C rO j Bar
o Experimental Points for the

Interconnection Film
<
C
C
o
(Q
B-
kU
0.4
0 .3
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature in “ C
Figure 3. Comp«.rivon o f -thermal e x p a n e i o n e o f t h e L a C r O ^ bar and

the LaCr Mg O i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n film.
. e s s . o i a 3
79
FUEL CELL PRODUCTION PROCESS CONTROL
AND
QUALIFICATION OF FINISHED CELLS
R. J. Bratton, P. Reichner, and L. W. Montgomery

Westinghouse Research and Development Center
1310 Beulah Road
INTRODUCTION
Qualifying the processes by which solid oxide fuel cells are

produced is an important objective of the Westinghouse-
Department of Energy Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Power
Generation System project. Reaching this objective requires,
among other process control actions, that both product
requirements and their measurements of compliance (quality
measures) be established. At the present time SOFC technology
is still emerging from the research phase of its existence,
and consequently these requirements and quality measures need
as much development as the processes themselves. To
accelerate that development, a set of tentative product
requirements and quality measures were developed along with
the evolution of the processes employed to produce 324 cells
for the first 5 kW generator produced on the project. Thus
this first production experience provides the framework to
define the process limits and refine both the process and
product requirements accordingly.
FUEL CELL CONFIGURATION AND PRODUCTION METHODS
The solid oxide fuel cell used for the 5 kW generator is built
upon a cylindrical porous support tube of calcia-stabilized
zirconia which is 12.8 mm in diameter and closed at one end.
The active fuel cell length for most of the cells used in the
5 kW generator is 303.5 mm; the overall length of the tube is
457.2 mm, and wall thickness is 2 mm. These tubes are
produced by extruding an open cylinder, inserting a plug to
close one end, sintering, and cutting and grinding to final
dimensions and shape.
Cell components built up on the support tube include an air

electrode, an electrical interconnection, an electrolyte, and
the fuel electrode. These components are placed in successive
steps as follows:
• The lanthanum manganite air electrode (~1 mm thick) is

deposited as a slurry and then sintered.
• The lanthanum chromite interconnection (~40 fim thick)
is deposited by electrochemical vapor deposition
(EVD).
• The yttrium doped zirconia electrolyte (~30 fim) is
deposited by EVD.
• The nickel cermet fuel electrode (~100 /im) is
deposited by slurry and fixed by EVD.
The overall diameter of the cell is essentially determined by

the diameter of the support tube and the thickness of the air
electrode.
BRATTON ET AL
- 2 -
Production of cells is organized by areas that follow the

progression of cell construction (Figure 1), starting with
support tube manufacture and ending with fuel electrode
fixing. Quality controls conducted before and after the
process areas are shown.
Area I Area 2 Area 3

Tube Manufacture A ir Electrode EVD-Interconnect
Application - Cleaning
- Solids Preparation
-M a s k in g - Masking
-Tube Manufacturing
- Electrode Deposition - EVD
“ Tube Rnlshlng/
Inspection OC-1 Tubes , - S intering OC-2 Product - Detnasklng
> 0 0 -3 Process
Area 4 Area 3 Area 6

EVD-Electrolyte
- Cleaning t NI Plate-IC
-C le a n in g f EVD Fuel Electrode
- Dip Prxess
-
Masking
EVD
1
00-4 Prxess
- N I Flash
-W ashing/D rying
& Plate
i
QC-5 P rxess
-
- EVD Fix
Cleaning
- Demasklng
0 0 -6 Process
Note: Chemical plant solids

QC to all areas 1-6.
Finish
Testing
FIGURE 1
FLOW SHEET - SOFC GENERATOR MANUFACTURING PROCESS
GENERAL QUALITY ASSURANCE PRACTICES
To ensure that process control and qualification can be

pursued, management must first ensure a general environment of
control. Properties of input materials must be controlled,
process equipment must be capable of performing the desired
operations, and people must be able to consistently exercise
the process.
81
BRATTON ET AL
- 3 -
Cell production used material specifications derived from

processing experience and knowledge that specifications could
be met by material suppliers or by in-house processing. Five
maior groups of raw materials were used:
1. Calcia-stabilized zirconia powder for support tubes.

2. Lanthanum manganite powder for air electrodes.
3. Lanthanum chromite powder to mask cells for EVD process.
4. Various chlorides for thin films via EVD.
5. Nickel powder for fuel electrodes.
In each case, appropriate chemical and physical properties

were specified, the specifications were sent to vendors known
to produce the desired powder, and the received powders were
inspected.
Before producing the 5 kW generator, the production equipment,

and procedures were audited. Results were the adoption of
standard operating procedures, training of technicians,
preparing the process equipment, and instituting practices
such as travelers, operator checklists, and production flow
organization. Quality control measures were also chosen.
People for the production team were carefully chosen and

trained by the technical leaders who developed the processes
and production equipment. Documentation of the processes,
checklists included, were part of the communication of process
requirements that took place during this training. Also,
several managers followed the combined experimentation and
production to consistently resolve resource and schedule
problems.
CELL PRODUCTION PROCESS QUALITY MEASURES
Process quality measures were established for each of the

production areas (Figure 1) to begin a quantitative evaluation
of conformance of the product to requirements specified.
Product requirements and quantitative quality measures are
described for the tube support production area (Area 1) which
serves as an example for the remaining Areas 2-6; high
temperature electrical performance (finish cell) tests are
also described:
Support Tube Specification
SOFC support tubes consist of extruded, sintered, 15 mole %

calcia-stabilized zirconia ceramic. Tubes are 457.20 mm long,
12.8 ± 0.13 mm OD with a straightness tolerance of 0.64 mm and
an 8.80 ± 0.20 mm ID with concentricity of 0.15 mm T.I.R.
Tubes are closed at one end with co-sintered plugs which have
a 6.5 ± 0.10 mm radius, and are 3.6 ± 0.40 mm thick. Physical
property specifications were tenatively set at 34-35%
porosity, permeability of 0.02 Darcy minimum and uniform along
the tube length to within ±15% of normal values, 34.5gMPa
(5,000 psi) minimum hoop strength, 65.5 GPa (9.5 x 10 psi)
maximum elastic modulus, and no cracks as determined by a
candling technique.
82
BRATTON ET AL
- 4 -
Quality Measures
Zirconia powder was the major raw material requiring

inspection. Chemical analysis and x-ray structural parameter
measurements were used to establish powder chemistry and phase
content; a pilot run was made for the powder batch to set
process parameters and establish final requirements for powder
acceptance. Quality measures for finished support tubes
consist of defect identification, dimensions, and physical and
mechanical properties. For the 5 kW generator project, the
tube production process did not always yield tubes which met
tentatively specified requirements (Table 1). Since the
process produced tubes which functioned acceptably, the
specifications will be revised.
TABLE 1
ZIRCONIA SUPPORT TUBE QUALITY MEASURES
Process Meets
Quality Measure Specification Specification
Porosity 34-35% No
Permeability .02 Darcy min. & Yes
±15% along length
Burst Strength 5,000 gsi min. No
Elastic Modulus 9.5 x 10 psi max. Yes
Defects (as No light transmission Yes
determined by
candling process)
Dimensions 12.8 mm ± 0.13 O.D. No
8.80 mm ± 0.20 I.D. Yes
457.2 mm length Yes
0.64 mm straightness Yes
High Temperature Electrical Performance Test Specification
Selected finished cells from each production run are

electrically tested at high^temperature. Cell output greater
than 0.6 volts at 200 mA/cm for 200 hours is required with
simulated coal derived fuel, 85% fuel utilization and 25% air
utilization. This cell output was met for 12 of 13 cells
tested for the 5 kW generator; only the populations
represented by the 12 conforming cells were used in the
generator.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by both the U.S. Department of Energy

under the direction of Morgantown Energy Technology Center and
Westinghouse Electric Corporation.
Other Westinghouse personnel who contributed to this paper

are: J.E. Bauerle, J.G. Cleary, W.A. English, R.R. Jensen,
P.R. Mulik, W. Pollack, and G.E. Zymboly.
83
ZIRCONIA FUEL CELL POWER SYSTEM
PLANAR STACK DEVELOPMENT
M. Hsu
Round Hill Road
Lincoln, Massachusetts
INTRODUCTION
For practical power generation or cogeneration

applications, the zirconia fuel cell systems are required
to be compact in assembly, competitive in cost, and capable
of handling high electrical and thermal energies. To meet
these criteria, a planar cell stack design utilizing a
"composite structure" technique has been under development.
The methods of fabrication, stack assembly and power system
scale-up have been established.
PLANAR CELL STACK
The zirconia fuel cell which has been developed by Ztek is

constructed of thin plates of zirconia electrolyte
alternately arranged with interconnector plates. The
electrolyte plates are made of thin zirconia membrane and
electrode coatings. The interconnector plates are
fabricated from corrosion-resistant conducting materials.
Internal gas passages through the plates provide the air

and fuel supplies, and permit spent gases to exhaust. The
distribution of gases to the surface of the electrode
occurs along grooved networks formed in interconnectors.
Gas seals and electrical contact between plates are
obtained by pressing the interconnector plates against the
surface of the electrolyte plates.
The interconnector plates also serve as thermal conductors

to facilitate the heat transfer, thus reducing the thermal
gradient in the electrolyte plates. The distinctive
features that make this cell stack suitable for practical
power system applications are:
•High power density •Ease of heat removal

•Structural ruggedness •Low stress assembly
•Concealed electrodes
Table 1 summarizes the estimated performance and power

capability of the planar cell assembly.
84
M. Hsu
- 2 -
Ztek has developed a process which promises to be

economical for the fabrication of thin plates of yttria
stabilized zirconia (YSZ). YSZ plates up to 4-inches in
diamter and 0.01-inch thick with better than 0.001-inch
flatness have been fabricated successfully. Serious
curling encountered by isostatic forming or the green-tape
method has not occurred in this approach. No fundamental
limitation is foreseen in fabrication of plates larger than
a 4-inch diameter. Due to the heat rejection design
consideration in the cell stacks, 4-inch-diameter plates
are considered to be optimum for either near-term devices
of multi-kw-level modules or future MW-level plants.
The material cost for the planar cell stack design is

estimated to be below $160/kW.
One major technical difficulty encountered with the

zirconia electrolyte is its brittleness in tension. The
ceramic electrolyte has a low tensile strength which is
only 20 percent of its compressive strength. This property
is not unlike concrete. The use of the concrete became
widespread only after a reinforcing rod was introduced.
Ztek's cell stack design utilizes a similar proven
composite structure technique, in which the components have
dissimilar though complementary properties. Recognizing
the fabrication, assembly and performance constraints
associated with the zirconia electrolyte, Ztek selected
materials for the interconnector which emphasized practical
requirements of ease of fabrication, mechanical reliability
and good electrical conductivity. The thermal-expansion
mismatch which exists between the electrolyte and the
interconnector is utilized to favorably pre-stress the
ceramic electrolyte in compression.
The above design approach can be accomplished with

components that allow low cost and high volume production.
The electrolyte plate and the interconnector plate are
fabricated separately and assembled into the composite
stack. The stack, serving as building block for the fuel
cells systems, possesses excellent thermal/structural
integrity. In addition, gas sealing is obtained in the
assembly process of the stack.
TECHNICAL STATUS
A series of tests on a single-cell as well as a

multiple-cell stack of 2-inch-diameter plates has been
conducted. The results are summarized:
85
M. Hsu
- 3 -
1. A single cell and a two-cel1^stack have

demonstrated up to 0.12 W/cm area power density.
With system optimization of electrolyte thickness,
electrode pore size, and gas distribution network,
further improvement in power density can be
anticipated.
2. The two-cell stack can withstand thermal cycling.

No noticeable performance change or detectable
physical damage occurred after five cycles.
3. A five-cell stack has been tested for quick

thermal transient capability: 100 C/min. of
temperature rise rate. The highly thermal-
conductive interconnectors contribute to this
desirable capability.
4. The porous electrode coatings, compacted under

pressure, have simultaneously provided good
electrical contacts between adjacent plates and
good gas seals along the edges of the plates.
The fuel cell stack integrated with a gas/electric

dual-mode furnace was tested, demonstrating operational
safety, and startup and shut-down procedures.
Self-reforming of a lightweight hydrocarbon fuel has been

demonstrated by continuously operating for several hours
without carbon deposition.
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
Ztek Corporation is devoted to the development of the

zirconia fuel cells. The activities will proceed according
to three phases which represent a logical progression from
a Phase I bench size 1-kW "stack", through a Phase II
multi-kilowatt "prototype", to a Phase III full-up "pilot
plant" system. The system will aim at utility power
generation, industrial/commercial cogeneration
applications, and space power sources.
Presently, Ztek and the Electric Power Research Institute

are jointly funding an effort to evaluate the stability of
the interconnector material and to assess the impact of
unit cell failure to the assembly stack. These activities
will be followed by the development of fuel cell modules
and systems. Ztek's technology has also been selected by
the Department of Defense to be developed for lightweight
power systems in space applications.
86
M. Hsu
- 4 -
TABLE I ENGINEERING SPECIFICATIONS OF PLANAR CELL STACK
English Units Metric Uni ts
Current density 300 Amp/f t^ 3000 Amp/m^
Voltage per cell 0 .7 Volts 0 .7 Vol ts
Cell diameter 4 inches 10 cm
Cell height 1/16 inch 1.6 mm
ft2 2
Cell planar area (80%) 0 .07 0 .007 m
Cell number/unit length 192 /ft 600 /m
Total current 21 Amp 21 Amp
Voltage per unit length 135 V/f t 420 V/m
Power per unit length 2 .8 kw/ f t 8.8 kW/m
Power density (70% pack) 28 kw/f t^ 880 kw/m^
87
T H E E F F E C T OF S - P O I S O N I N G ON TH E AN O D I C
O X I D A T I O N OF H Y D R O G E N IN A SOFC
B.G.ONG and DAVID M. MASON

D e p a r t m e n t of C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g
S t a n f o r d University,
St anford, CA 94305
Performance loss in the a n o d i c o x i d a t i o n of h y d r o c a r b o n s

c a u s e d by the p r e s e n c e of H^S, e v e n at a few p pm level, is a
m a j o r p r o b l e m for low- and m e d i u m - t e m p e r a t u r e fuel c e l l s
u s ing p l a t i n u m or n i c k e l as e l e c t r o d e s s i ^ c g . H ^ S is k n o w n to
c h e m i s o r b v e r y s t r o n g l y on the s e m e t a l s ’ . I n this
study, the ef f e c t of H p S cheraisorption on the a n o d i c
o x i d a t i o n of H^ in a y t t r i a - s t a b i l i z e d z i r c o n i a (YSZ) fuel
cell is being in v e s t i g a t e d . The e l e c t r o l y t e is 10 m o l e % YSZ
in the form of d i s c s 25 mm in d i a m e t e r a n d 2 m m thick.
P o r o u s e l e c t r o d e s of gold, p l a t i n u m and n i c k e l a re m a d e by
s u i t a b l y p a i n t i n g inks of these m e t a l s on the e l e c t r o l y t e
surfaces. The inks ar e s u p p l i e d by E n g e l h a r d I n d u s t r i e s . The
fuels used in this s t u d y are p u r e H as w e l l as h y d r o g e n gas
c o n t a i n i n g 69 p p m H ^ S s u p p l i e d by the M a t h e g o n C o r p o r a t i o n .
The t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s t u d i e d wa s from 750 C to 9 0 0 C. The
r e a c t o r is s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 1 a n d d e t a i l s o n
c o n s t r u c t i o n and e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s h a v e been
previously described ’ .To a v o i d c o n t a m i n a t i o n b y H ^ S of
the p u r e H^ influx stream, s e p a r a t e f e e d - l i n e s i n c l u d i n g the
a l u m i n a f e e d - t u b e s w e r e used for the pure H^ g as a n d the
H ^ S / H ^ mixture.
T y p i c a l c u r r e n t - o v e r p o t e n t i a l c u r v e s for the p o r o u s gold,

p l a t i n u m and n i c k e l e l e c t r o d e s ar e s h own in Figs. 2 ,3 a n d 4
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The s u r p r i s i n g re s u l t d i s p l a y e d by t h e s e
c u r v e s is that the H ^ S d o e s no t appear to h a v e any
s i g n i f i c a n t eff e c t on the e l e c t r o d e k i n e t i c s of the H
a n o d i c oxidat i o n . T h i s b e h a v i o r is in sharp c o n t r a s t t o the
b e h a v i o r in n o n - e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l systems, w h e r e the
c h e m i s o r b e d H 2 S acts as a s t r o n g poison. S i n c e the o x i d a t i o n
of H ^ S to SO^ is t h e r m o d y n a m i c a l l y f a v o r a b l e ,a n d in fact H^S
b u r n s in air a n d ca n be u t i l i z e d as a fuel , a possible
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e d a t a is that the c h e m i s o r b e d H ^ S is
b e ing c o n t i n u o u s l y e l e c t r o - o x i d i z e d to 30^ w h i c h is t h e n
d e sorbed. Even if the k i n e t i c s of the H^S e l e c t r o - o x i d a t i o n
is v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m that of H_, the ne t e f f e c t on t he
o v e r a l l k i n e t i c s w o u l d be small b e c a u s e of the low H g S
concentration.
* On s a b b a t i c a l leave from F a c u l t y of E n g i n ee r i n g ,
U n i v e r s i t y of Malaya, K u a l a Lumpur, Malaysia.
ONG and MASON
- 2 -
In keeping with previous work .there is an alternative

interpretation that can be made, and that is that the
electrolyte itself is playing a major role in determining
the electrode kinetics. In these earlier works, it has been
assumed that F-centers (oxygen vacancies with trapped
electrons) represent the electrocatalytically active sites.
Since sulfur cannot enter into these vacancies to destroy
them, the presence of sulfur in low concentrations in the
fuel gas should not appreciably affect the overall anodic
kinetics. The concentration of these F-centers and thus the
rate of the anodic oxidation can be greatly increased by
"current-blackening" , i.e., by imposing on the electrolyte
a voltage of 3.0 to 3.5 volts , which is sufficient to cause
electrolysis. The upper curve in Fig. 4 for the nickel anode
shows the enhanced effect after one minute of "current-
blackening" treatment of the electrolyte. A brief
electrolysis treatment such as this does not actually lead
to appreciable darkening of the electrolyte, although
prolong|d treatment at high current densities of several
amps/cm will produce a black, highly oxygen-deficient
electrolyte which may become brittle. Similar enhancements
in electro-oxidation rates for the gold and platinum
electrodes have been previously reported and discussed
’ . The porosity and morphology of the electrode
determine the relative area of the electrode/electrolyte/gas
tri-phase boundary available for charge transfer and thus
account for the differences in current densities with
different electrodes on the same electrolyte. The nickel
anode made from the ink used in this work is seen to perform
poorly when compared to the gold and platinum electrodes.
Scanning electron micrographs show that the nickel electrode
has a very different morphology from that of the gold and
platinum electrodes, the nickel electrode consisting of
Individual rounded particles whereas the gold and platinum
electrodes consisted of particles which form continuous web
like structures.
Hestinghouse has reported long term (700 hours)

sulfidation studies at 1000 C on nickel anodes using lean
fuel mixtures of and CO containing up to 50 ppm H^S. A
five percent drop in cell voltage was found to occur It
was also found that sulfidation will not occur for H^S
concentrations below 100 ppm. In this present work, only
short-term chemisorption effects were studied. Typically,
data for pure and the mixture were taken within a
2A-hour period in order to avoid variations caused by
electrode morphology changes as the metal particles
gradually sinter at the elevated temperatures.
89
ONG and MASON
- 3 -
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The grant of sabbatical leave by the University of Malaya to

B.G.Ong is gratefully acknowledged. Acknowledgment is also
made to the donors of the Petroleum Research Fund,
ad:rdnistered by the American Chemical Society, for partial
support of this research.
HEEEHENCES
■|. J. Oudar, "Sulfur Adsorption and Poisoning of Metallic

Catalysts" Catal.Rev.-Sol.Eng. 22(2), pplTI-195(1980)
2. Ib Alstrup,Jens R. Rostrup-Nielsen and Stig Roen, "High

Temperature Hydrogen Sulfide Chemisorption of Nickel
Catalysts" Applied Catalysis, 1, pp303-314(1981)
j. B.G.Ong.C.C.Chiang and D.M.Mason, "Electrocatalytic Role

of Stabilized Zirconia on the Anodic Current-Overpotential
Behavior of Hydrocarbon Fuel Cells", Solid State Ionics,
3/A, ppL47-L52 (1981)
*•.B.C.Nguyen and D.M.Mason, "Electrocatalytic Reactivity of

B/drocarbons on a Zirconia Electrolyte Surface", to be
ou'jlished in J. Electrochem. Soc., September 1986
B. Ciisui Engineering and Shipping Co Ltd, "Successful Power

Generation Using Hydrogen Sulfide as Fuel", Chemical Economy
and Engineering Review, 11(12), p53(I>ec 1979)
6. Westlnghouse Electric Corporation, "High-Temperature,

Solid Oxide Electrolyte Fuel Cell Power Generation System",
Cuarterly Report Sept 1-Nov 30,1980, DOE/ET/17089-3
(i;E3A0l 5927)
FIGURE 1 Schematic Diagram of SOFC Reactor
90
ONG and MASON
- 4 -
100 - - - I ------ 1 " 1 1

0
: 1 J • > I
-
cx -
0 <w-
■» 0
10 ^ —
0 __ w 0 _ “ 0* -
■ ^ 0 ;
_ yed “
- -SfO *5
w 0 -
-
S
OW
*0
a: 1 __ 0 —
Z O K -
— CB
as Z C»M -
=>
0
V
iZ Z „ - PURE H2
0 - PURE H2 I
_p» » - 6 9 ppm H2 S /H 2
>■ - 6 9 ppm H2 S /H 2
.1 y 1 1 1 1
l i l t 0 .1 .2 .3
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 s
OVERPOTENTIAL (V)
OVERPOTENTIAL ( V)
FIGURE 2 Current-Overpotential FIGURE 3 Current-

Curves for Gold Anode at 850 °C Overpotential Curves
for Pt Anode at 850 °C
I ot
I \ I T“
„ _ PURE H2
» - 6 9 ppm H 2 S/H 0
t- - H 2 af ter
blackening
i« _
FIGURE 4
Current-Overpo tential
Curves for Nickel Anode
at 8 5 0 °C
0 .2 .4 .e I
OVERPOTtNTIAL ( V )
91
STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF AIR COOLED PAFC
T. Sakai, N. Furukawa, S. Murakami,

M. Nishioka and Y. Itoh
Sanyo Electric C o . , Ltd. Research Center

1-18-13, Hashiridani, Hirakata
Osaka 573, Japan
Introduction
Sanyo Electric Company has been developing R&D of air cooled

PAFC technologies. In 1984, 50kw air cooled PAFC system
(type 2) was developed and tested by the actual load (1).
The verification test of on-site 200kw air cooled PAFC
system is planned in cooperation with Tokyo Electric Power
Company.
For *che commercialization, the certification of the lifetime

is one of the most important factors. The target of the
PAFC lifetime is 40 ,000hrs, and now its test is continued.
This cell has the acid in the thin porous matrix. The
amount of the acid is so little that acid management such as
acid-adding is important for achieving the high performance
and high durability.
Cell construction
Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the construction of unit cell and

stack, respectively. Unit cell consists of air electrode,
fuel electrode and electrolyte matrix.
F U E L ELEC TR O D E AIR E LEC TR O D E
C A T A L Y S T LA V E R
-B A C K IN G PA P E R
(D IFF U S IO N
LAYER)
BACKING
PAPER
r“^Mr"^C.rA I \
(D IFF U S IO N CATALYST 'S iC M A TR IX
' L A Y E R ) LAY E R \
CARBON M A TR IX
Figure 1. Cell construction
92
T. SAKAI ET AL
- 2 -
■UNIT C E L L
A IR E LE C T R O D E
M A TR IX
•FU E L E LE C TR O D E
■BIPOLAR P L A T E
Figure 2. Cell stack construction
Both electrodes have double layer structure, gas diffusion

layer and catalyst layer, which are wet-proofed.
Electrolyte matrix consists of SiC and carbon layers
impregnated by phosphoric acid.
The amount of the acid in the cell decreases with cell

operation. When it becomes below 75% (Initial;100%) , the
cell resistance sharply increases (Figure 3).
Figure 4 shows the relation between the amount of the acid

in Si c matrix and the cell resistance. Figure 4 shows the
same tendency as Figure 3.
So, it seems that the amount of the acid in SiC matrix
dominates the cell resistance.
100
a
a
70 -
o
c
d
40 *
•• ••
o
too
Rfliount o f a c i d In t h e c e l l ( X )
Figure 3. Relation between cell resistance and
amount of acid in the cell
93
T. SAKAI ET AL
- 3 -
100
50 -
o
• .%.v.
Rmount of acid In SIC n o t r l x ( ■g/ cai 2 )
Figure 4. Relation between cell resistance and

amount of acid in SiC matrix
Acid Management
Acid management, such as acid-adding, storage condition and

so on, is one of the important technologies for achieving
long life.
Figure 5 shows the result of accelated life test without
acid-adding at various storage conditions. The cells which
are stored at high temperature show the sharp decay of cell
voltage. The volume of the acid changes with thermal
cycles. It seems that the volume change of the acid has an
effect on the durability performance. It is expected that
the stable performance is obtained by decreasing the acid
volume change at thermal cycle.
Figure 6 shows the life test result of 5 cells stack with

acid-adding (cell effective area: lOOOcmZ ) . The operating
temperature is 180 °c and the operating current density is
100mA/cm2.
The target of the lifetime is 40,000hrs. Now this life test

exceeds successfully 38,000hrs and continued further more.
Reference
1. T. Sakai et al., "Air Cooled Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

Power Plant," Abstracts, Fuel Cell Seminar, 1985.
94
T. SAKAI ET AL
- 4 -
800
op«r*tlen: 200*C, IOOmR/ob^
ttorag* ; N2 -pftok
tit varlou* t«ap.
700
600
0 500
400
100 120
Cyc le«
Figure 5. Accelated life test
> Ron
E
• ?nn
•
600
»—I son
q :
400
•
G» ?too
700
O
> too
pH u
• 10000 20000 30000 40000
a
Time ( hrs )
Figure 6. Short stack life test
95
FI R ST H E A V Y - D U T Y Q U A L I F I C A T I O N OF A k W - S I Z E PA F C
S T A C K S Y S T E M IN IT ALY
A.Ascoli an d G . R e d a e l l i
C IS E S.p.A. - Segrate, Milano (Italy)
E x t e n d e d a b s t r a c t of a p o s te r p a pe r
to be p r e s e n t e d at the T e n t h Fuel C ell S e m i n a r
(Tucson, A r i z o n a , O c t o b e r 26-29, 1986)
■*
An E R C- ma d e, a i r - c o o l e d 2.5 kW P A F C stack, e q u i p p e d w i t h metji
anol ref or me r and d c - a c in ve r t e r , has b e e n in o p e r a t i o n for
over 3 ye ar s in S e g r a t e ( L o m ba rd y, Italy), u n d e r g o i n g h u n d r e d s
of s t a r t - u p s and s h u t - d o w n s *^^ .
Maintenance operations of the reformer and of the st a ck were

o p t i m i z e d to a d j u s t t h e m to the h u m i d c l i m a t e of the L o m b a r d
R e g i o n and to s e v e r e l y i n t e r m i t t e n t use of the sy s t e m ^ ^ ) ^
S t e a d y - s t a t e and t r a n s i e n t e l e c t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the stack

were widely studied^^^. T h e e f f i c i e n c y of the c a t a l y t i c b ed s
t h r o u g h time w a s f o l l o w e d c h e c k i n g the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of
the r e f o rm er o u t p u t by b o t h g a s c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c s a m p l i n g and on
line i.r. monitoring of CO concentration.
Repetition of the e l e c t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the st ac k a nd of

the e n t i r e s y s t e m at r e g u l a r t ime i n t e r v a l s g i v e s us a u s e f u l
in s i g h t into the b e h a v i o u r of t h i s fuel -to-electricity energy
c o n v e r c e r t h r o u g h its l ife^^^.
R e c e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n s y i e l d e d an o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n to d e c i d e
r e w i c k i n g of p h o s p h o r i c - a c i d e l e c t r o l y t e in the m a t r i c e s .
E l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of F i g . l s h ow the l o n g - r u n w o r s e n i n g
of the stack d u r i n g its u t i l i z a t i o n , v e r y li ke l y du e both to elec
t r o l y t e loss es at the o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e an d to d u t y c y c l e s
( s u p e r c o o l i n g of c o n c e n t r a t e d d u r i n g s h u t - d o w n s ) . No p a r
t i c u l a r d e g r a d a t i o n w a s n o t i c e d in ab ou t six m o n t h s of st a c k in
a c t i v i t y , e x c ep t for the m a x i m u m c u r r e n t (53A an d 5 3 , BA at 44V)
w h i c h is l i m i t e d by the low st ac k v o l t a g e on the b a l l a s t r e s i s
tor of the load.
It turns out that, at low c u r r e n t values, the c u r v e s tend to the

same v o l t a g e v al ues, i.e. a c t i v a t i o n o v e r v o l t a g e s di d not v a r y
in time. T his i n d i c a t e s a s u b s t a n t i a l s t a b i l i t y of the e l e c t r o
c a t a l y s t s d u r i n g time.
96
Ascoli
- 2 -
70
rDSRG
Vs=f (lc )U e = 1 8 5 ° C ± 1 ° C 8/12/83
LT'm = 148°C
To^=183°C 5/12/84
3/12/85
Uu=75 %
” 2
30/6/86
?3| iS3,8
I 11
20 30 40
Ic (A)
FIGURE 1
The electrical characteristics of the stack, repeated after e ac h

year of a c t i v i t y a n d a ft er h a l f year of inactivity
Te = operation temperature
'^■^m
a v e r a g e in le t t e m p e r a t u r e
T O^mm = average outlet temperature
vs s ta ck v o l t a g e
Ic l oad c u r r e n t
DSRG D r y S i m u l a t e d R e f o r m e d Gas
'^H2 = hydrogen utilization factor
Vm = average ten-cell voltage (detected across twenty c el ls
in the m i d d l e r e g i o n of the stack)
Following this determination, the st ac k was rewicked on site with

c o n c e n t r a t e d H PO^, w i t h no p a r t i c u l a r p r e c a u t i o n s , e x c e p t th at
th e st a c k w a s k e pt at its r e g u l a r o p e r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g
wicking.
Further d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of the electrical characteristics are now

in p r o g r e s s to d i s c r i m i n a t e the w i c k i n g - r e v e r s i b l e p ar t of the
d e g r a d a t i o n , du e to e l e c t r o l y t e lo ss e s, f r o m the p e r m a n e n t pa rt,
d u e to d u t y c yc le s. P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s s h o w that the p e r m a n e n t
part is m i n or . Further, hopefully complete results will be shown
in the po st e r.
The temperature coefficient of the st ac k voltage was determined

at a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e a n d at d i f f e r e n t l o a d s ( F i g . 2). As an
e x a m p l e , its v a l u e at the load 1^,= 40A w as ab o u t 36 mV /°C.
Owing to t e m p e r a t u r e gradients along the stack, an a v e r a g e d va]^

ue of the temperature coefficient of the v o l ta g e, over the e n
tire s t ac k or o ve r 10-cell groups, see ms to be m o r e significant
97
Ascoli
- 3 -
th a n a v a l u e m e a s u r e d on a s i n g l e - c e l l . Th e v a l u e s r e l e v a n t to
1 0 - c e l l g r o u p s w er e t a k e n on g r o u p s in the c en t r a l r e g i o n of
the stack {see al s o the c a p t i o n of Fig.l), where t e m p e r a t u r e gra
d i e n t s are smaller. A v e r a g e s i n g l e - c e l l v a l u e s w e r e e s t i m a t e d
on the b a s i s of t he se m e a s u r e m e n t s , and the a v e r a g e of all eval^
n a t i o n s at the v a r i o u s l oa ds g i v e s a b o u t 0,23 m V / ° C per cell.
lc=10 A DSRG
E
> ^ 75 %
” 2
20 A
30 A
6
50 A — . Te=195°C±1°C
^Tifn=188 °C
TOm=216 °C
Te = 165°C±1 Te=185 X ± 1
Ti^ = 160°C T i m = 1 7 9
To^ = 190°C To^ = 207
L.iJ__
160 170 180 190 200 (oqj
FIGURE 2
Th e a v e r a g e t e n - c e l l v o l t a g e (see c a p t i o n of Fig.l for the sym

bo ls) as a f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e : the slo p e of the s t r a i g h t s
g i v e s the t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t of the vol t ag e, as m e n t i o n e d
in the t e x t .
98
Ascoli
- 4 -
As a general conclusion, two fu r t h e r steps of experience were
g a i n e d in the f a r - f r o m - t h e - f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n of p o r t a b l e kW-
s ize a i r - c o o l e d PAFC s y st e m s ; 1) p r o p e r l y s ealed, th es e systems
ca n be s h u t - d o w n for m o n t h s in h u m i d c l i m a t e s , w i t h no m e a s u r
a bl e d e g r a d a t i o n e ff ec t ; 2) o n - s i t e r e w i c k i n g r e q u i r e s no m o r e
specialized training t han d o es normal operation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
T h a n k s are due to S a n d y A b e n s of ERC for assistance and
fruitful discussion.
REFERENCES
(*) Energy Research Corporation, Danbury, Connecticut.
(1) A . A s c o l i a n d G . R e d a e l l i - R e n d i c o n t i d e l l a 84a R i u n i o n e
A n n u a l e d e l l ' A E I - C a g l i a r i , 2-5 o t t o b r e 1983.
(2) A . A s c o l i an d G . R e d a e l l i - 1 985 Fuel C e l l S e m i n a r A b s t r a c t s
T u c s o n , A r i z o n a , Ma y 19-22, 1985.
(3) A . A s c o l i an d G . R e d a e l l i - P r o c e e d i n g s of the U N E S C O W o r k
s ho p on Fuel Cells: t r e n d s in r e s e a r c h and a p p l i c a t i o n s
R a v e l l o , Italy, J un e 10- 14, 1985.
(4) A . A s c o l i an d G . R e d a e l l i - P o s t e r p r e s e n t e d at the XX C on -
g r e s s o d e l l a A s s o c i a z i o n e I t a l i a n a di C h i m i c a F i s i c a
T or in o , 21-24 ottobre 1985.
99
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMERCIAL ONSITE
FUEL CELL GRID-INTERCONNECT REQUIREMENTS
Thomas Londos
La Jolla, CA
Steven Enable
Chicago, IL
Edward Houts
Georgia Power Company
Atlanta, GA
INTRODUCTION
A program demonstrating experimental 40 kW fuel cell power

plants in onsite applications is underway throughout the
United States. The program is sponsored by individual utility
companies; the Gas Research Institute (GRI), and the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE). The fuel cell power plants are
fabricated by International Fuel Cells (IFC).
The power plants were originally designed to operate inde

pendent of the utility grid. The requirement for a grid-
connected operating mode was added subsequent to the design
and testing of the basic power plant. To accomplish this, a
Grid-Connect Unit (GCU) was added to interface the grid-
independent power plant to the utility grid. Twenty-eight of
the 32 utility participants chose to operate 29 fuel cell
power plants in the grid-connect mode.
OBJECTIVES
To resolve technical issues identified during the field test

and assist in the development of future grid-connect features,
a Grid-Connect Technical Committee comprised of utility
participants was established to review the field test
experience and establish grid-interface requirements for
future power plants. The objectives of the Committee were to:
o Review and summarize the 40 kW field test experiences

related to grid-interconnections;
o Outline and coordinate additional testing or grid

monitoring activities, and
o Review and define interconnect and other requirements

for a commercial onsite fuel cell power plant.
To meet these objectives the major issues addressed by the

Committee were: Protection Issues, Electrical Engineering
Issues, and Grid-Interconnection Requirements. The Grid-
Connect Technical Committee was divided into three
Subcommittees to review Protection Issues, Electrical
Engineering Issues, and Utility Grid-Interconnect Standards.
100
LONDOS ET AL.
-2-
PROTECTION ISSUES
The task of the Subcommittee was to identify and emphasize

what needs to be done to protect both the utility grid system
and the fuel cell. The major emphasis of protection engineers
was that at least two independent protection systems would be
required, one to protect the power plant from the utility grid
and one to protect the grid from the power plant. The Commit
tee also recommended that the ability to test the operation
responsiveness and accuracy of the fuel cell protection func
tions while the unit is in operation would be required prior
to the acceptance of a protection system by the electric
utility industry.
The intent of the System "A" protection system is to protect

the fuel cell and customer whether they are connected to the
grid or not. System "A" should trip the fuel cell and/or the
grid-interconnect.
System "A": - Located in Fuel Cell Grid-Connect Unit
- Overfrequency (81-0)
- Underfrequency (81-U)
- Overvoltage (59)
- Undervoltage (27)
- Short circuit/overcurrent per phase (51)
- Ground fault (51N) or (59N)
- Phase voltage balance or current balance (60)
- Port for remote receive transfer trip (reconnect)
- Remote emergency shutdown switch
System "B" is to separate the fuel cell power plant from the
grid when an abnormal situation exists either on the grid or
the fuel cell/customer premises. System "B" should trip the
grid-interconnection only.
System "B":
- Overfrequency (81-0)
- Underfrequency (81-U)
- Overvoltages (59)
- Undervoltages (27)
- Short circuit/overcurrent per phase (51 )
- Ground fault (51N) or (59N)
- Phase voltage balance or current balance (60)
ELECTRIC ENGINEERING ISSUES
The topics addressed by the Subcommittee include power

quality, harmonics, impedence, grounding, fuel cell operating
features and switch gear.
101
LONDOS ET AL.
-3-
Power Quality
Power quality is an important issue for u t i l i t y - c o n n e c t e d

cogeneration systems and will become more important as large
numbers of systems are connected to the electric grid. Power
quality includes both power factor presented to the utility
along with current and voltage harmonics. In designing static
power converters (SPCs) , it is essential to take into account
AC voltage, the magnitude and frequency of voltage transients,
voltage and current imbalances, surge currents, and harmonic
tolerance of the electric distribution system.
Harmonics
Industry-wide, no standards exist for minimum harmonic levels

that may be injected into the uti l i t y grid by d i s p ersed
storage and generation systems. For a commercial fuel cell
power plant the Subcommittee reached a consensus regarding the
setting of levels for allowable harmonic distortion. A total
harmonic distortion (THD) of 2-3 percent for voltage and 4-5
percent for current, based on the full load rating of the SPG,
should not be exceeded.
Impedance
The Subcommittee examined statistical data on feeder impedance

to determine a typical range of distribution impedance which
may be encountered at future fuel cell sites. The S u b
committee found that it is e x t r e m e l y difficult to provide
typical impedance values for fuel cell applications due to the
diversity of conditions on the various electrical systems.
The Subcommittee recommended that the fuel cell be designed to
meet harmonic distortion levels over the widest possible range
of impedances consistent with economic power plant design, and
that the impedance range used in the design should be
specified.
Grounding
the output of the commercial fuel cell power plant should be

wye connected with the neutral b rought out, and should be
capable of either grounded or undergrounded wye operation at
the interconnected utility's option.
Switchgear
A manual, visible air gap disconnect means should be provided.

A shunt-trip break will be needed to disconnect the fuel cell
from the utility system. If current-limiting fuses are used
in conjunction with the air-break switch, a standard molded-
case breaker can be used rather than a hi-capacity breaker.
102
LONDOS ST AL.
-4-
Operatlng Features
The 200 kW fuel cell should have emergency grid-independent

capab ility and as an o ption include no-b r e a k capability.
A n o t h e r desirable feature would be for remote control and
monitoring of the power plant. The monitoring should include:
watt, var, volt, and temperature levels, diagnostic data from
the power plant and alarm conditions.
SURVEY OF ELECTRIC UTILITY GRID-INTERCONNECT STANDARDS
Participants in the Onsite 40 kW Fuel Cell Field Test Project

were asked to obtain published standards and policies pertain
ing to the interconnection of dispersed generation systems to
their local electric utility grids. Utility requirements for
interconnecting dispersed generation to the electric utility
grid vary by the size of the system. The typical sizing
breakdown is as follows:
- less than 100 kW

- 100 kW - 1,000 kW
- greater than 1,000 kW
There are two major areas of dispersed generation system pro

tection that are concerns of the interconnected utility:
- protection during faults

- protection during normal conditions
Each of these in turn can be further broken down into two

general areas:
- protecting the utility from the interconnected dispersed

generation or storage system
- protecting the dispersed generation or storage system

from the utility.
The survey consensus is that the interconnected utility will

not assume responsibility for the protection of the fuel cell
equipment from faults or other disturbances on the grid. The
information contained in the utility grid-connect standards
refers to the m i n i m u m p r o t e c t i o n required to protect the
u t i l i t y grid from the fuel cell or c o g e n e r a t i o n system.
CONCLUSIONS
The wid e s p r e a d and sign i f i c a n t use of g r i d - c o n n e c t e d fuel

cells and other d i s p e r s e d gen e r a t i o n systems give rise to
technical issues and concerns of utility system interconnec
tion not encountered extensively prior to the Public Utility
R e g u l a t o r y Policies Act of 1978 ( P U R P A ) . M a j o r areas of
electric utility concern are:
103
LONDOS ET AL.
-5-
1. System Protection
2. System Stability
3. System Unbalance
4. System Impedance
5. Voltage Regulation and Reactive Power Requirements
6. Harmonics
7. Utility Operations
8. Metering
9. Distribution System Planning and Design
10. Personal Safety
The efforts of the Committee report defined the major techni

cal issues and requirements associated with the interconnec
tion of fuel cell power plants (and other cogenerators) to
electric utility systems. The findings point to some
unresolved technical issues and recognize that few standards,
specifications, or guidelines currently exist in certain areas
of utility concern. However, the Committee did identify
general utility requirements necessary for safe and reliable
interconnection of fuel cell power plants and dispersed
generation systems to utility grids.
Contributing Utilities
Brooklyn Union Gas Company

Consolidated Edison of New York
Consumers Power
Georgia Power
Public Service Electric and Gas
San Diego Gas Electric
Southern California Gas Company
Tennessee Gas Pipeline
Virginia Power
104
REMOTE MONITORING AND DISPLAY OF ON-SITE FUEL
CELL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
THE BROOKLYN UNION GAS COMPANY

AND
SCIENCE APPLICATIONS INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION
An abstract of this presentation was unavailable at press

time.
105
ASSESSMENT OF FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS
FOR REMOTE AIR FORCE SITES IN ALASKA
Robin W. Taylor, Thomas C. Londos, Moojan Khazra

Energy Systems and Conservation Division
La Jolla, California
Walter G. Taschek L t . Joseph P. Fellner

Belvoir Research Development Air Force Wright
and Engineering Center Aeronautical Laboratories
Fort Belvoir, Virginia Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio
The objective of the Air Force Remote Site Fuel Cell Develop
ment Program is to demonstrate logistic fueled fuel cell power
plants at a remote site in Alaska in the early 1990's.
SITE ENERGY SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS
During 1984 and 1985, remote radar sites in Alaska were

undergoing transition from Long Range Radar Stations (LRRS)
built in the early 1950s to the Minimally Attended Radar (MAR)
facilities which i nc orporate system consolidation and
modernization using less m a n p o w e r , less energy and having
reduced operational requirements.
There are a total of twelve MAR sites, four Phase I, four

Phase IIA, and four Phase I IB. The four Phase I sites were
constructed from identical designs. The energy system con
sists of four 175 kW diesel engines used in a cogeneration
mode to supply electricity and heat in addition to two 1.4
MMBtuh diesel fueled boilers sized to supply the entire
thermal load in an emergency. The four Phase IIA MAR facil
ities are very similar in design concept. They have four 250
kW generators rather than 175 k W ,and there are minor differ
ences between the structures and energy systems at the four
s i tes.
The four Phase IIB sites will no longer be remote sites but
will be served by nearby electric grids.
REMOTE SITE ENERGY USE PATTERNS
The thermal and electric energy usage of the remote sites was
obtained, summarized and analyzed for 1984 and 1985. The
analysis includes comparisons of fuel consumption electricity
production, operation parameters, costs and degree days. The
data for the LRRS consist of gross monthly oil consumption and
corresponding degree days. The annual total kWh usage and
Btus consumed were also obtained. Data from the MAR facil
ities consists of total monthly oil consumption, degree days
and kWhs generated. Heat consumption data was not available.
The following table is a summary of the remote site energy
data collected for 1984. Almost all of the data is based on
LRRS facility energy systems.
10 6
TAYLOR ET AL.
-2-
Energy Usage Characteristics at LRRS Facilities - 1984
T h e r m a f to Electric R atio
Electric a n d T h e r m a l C a p a c t t y F a c t o r s
Electric a n d T h e r m a l U s a g e
T / E
M B T U
% Electric % T h e r m a l
Site 1.65
3 ,7 0 6 2 0 ,8 8 7 4 7 .0 16.5
Indian M o u n t a i n
2 .8 4 5 ** 18.0
Fort Y u k o n 2 .5 4
2,7 3 1 2 3 .7 3 0 2 0 .7
Tin City
2 6.2 1.92
3 ,2 1 5 2 1 .0 9 2 16.0
C a p e L i s b u r n e
3 .2 3 3 30 .8
C o l d B a y
3 4.8 1.87
3 ,0 5 0 1 9 ,4 3 6 5 2 .7
Tatalina
2 4.5 1 3.6 .80
S p a r r e v o h n
3 ,8 6 0 1 0 ,5 8 3
3 2 ,1 1 9 2 8 .5
M u r p h y D o m e
2 ,5 7 3 ** 3 2 .6
K o t z e b u e
4 3 .0 29.1 2.31
2,8 3 1 2 2 ,2 9 4
10) C a p e N e w e n h a m
3 4 .9 2 4 .2 2.22
11) C a p e R o m a n z o f
3 ,0 5 5 2 3 ,2 1 0
^ P u r c h a s e d P o w e r Is w h e e l e d th r o u g h local Air F o r c e B a s e
H e a t r e c o v e r y e a u i p m e n t u s e d exc lusiv ely at t h e s e sites
D a t a tor C a p e N e w e n h a m is M A R Site D a t a f r o m 2 / 8 4 - 1 2 / 8 4
Energy data reports were received from the MAR sites during
1985. Engine, boiler and combined fuel consumption for the
Phase I and IIA sites were entered into a computer data base.
Calculations based on this data and several assumptions
provided operational performance parameters as summarized
below.
Ave ra ge
A ve ra ge Maximum Power Mon th ly
A ve ra ge M on th ly Peak Plant Site
M on th ly kWh Demand C ap ac it y Load Electrical
D eg re e Days G en e r a t i o n (kW) F actor Factor E ff iciency
Phase I
Indian M ou nt ai n 989 195151 — .38 ... ,34

(MAR)
S pa rrevohn (MAR) 1019 167269 390 .33 .59 .34
T at alina (MAR) 575 196197 . .. .38 ... .36
C ape R om anzof 980 240824 510 .47 .64 .37

(MAR)
Phase IIA
C ape N ew en ha m 928 178740 350 ,24 .70 .29

(MAR)
Ft. Yukon (MAR) 721 874 98 240 .12 .45 .35
Ft. Yukon (LRRS) 1615 199603 465 .14 .60 .29
C ape L is burne 1373 246028 612 .19 .55 .30

(LRRS)
Tin C ity (LRRS) 1267 222271 443 .28 .69 .28
107
TAYLOR ET AL.
-3-
The power plant capacity factors were relatively low. This

was expected because of the remoteness of the sites and the
criticality of consistent power supply. The site electrical
consumption patterns are all similar. Some variances exist
due to different climatic conditions, site operating
procedures and general site characteristics.
The site load factors show considerable variance from site to

site. It is assumed that severe weather fluctuations caused
the low load factors. The electrical efficiencies of the MAR
site diesel generators was relatively high except for Cape
Newenham which has Caterpillar diesel generators rather than
Cummins.
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (DAS) INSTALLATION
Fort Yukon was chosen as the preferred location for the

installation of a remotely accessed DAS because it was
accessible from Fairbanks, was a Phase IIA site and repre
sented a severe north Alaskan climate. The DAS consists of
sensors, datalogger and modem for data storage and remote
telephone access.
The thermal portion of the instrumentation was installed to

monitor the heat contribution to the MAR facility by the
energy system. Clamp-on RTDs and nonintrusive ultrasonic flow
meters were used to obtain data to calculate the thermal
energy supplied to the site from the engines, boilers and
electric booster heater. The fuel consumption of each of the
four engines and the two boilers was measured with 1/2-inch
flow meters. The electrical instrumentation consists of
current transformers and watt transducers to measure the
electrical consumption of the site.
Data from each sensor is transferred to the memory of the

datalogger which is remotely accessed through the modem. The
data is transmitted over a telephone line to a personal
computer in SAlC's San Diego office where it is stored for
further manipulation.
The information obtained at Fort Yukon will be used to

determine the technical and economic feasibility of using
onsite fuel cell power plants to meet the energy needs of the
MAR facilities in place of diesel engines.
ENERGY SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE COST MODEL
An economic model was developed to evaluate the life cycle

costs of remote site energy systems. It was developed speci
fically to analyze diesel engine systems and fuel cell power
plants, but could be adapted to analyze other energy systems.
The model was exercised to prove its validity with actual data
from the remote site systems.
108
TAYLOR ET AL.
-4-
The model is written in FORTRAN and will run on an IBM

compatible micro computer. It is menu driven to make it easy
to use and it is programmed for maximum flexibility.
A sample run of the life cycle cost model was made based on
the most accurate data available for a generic MAR site.
Fifteen menu pages are used to input data to the program and
three output pages show the results. The first page of the
output is a summary of the inputs. The generic MAR site test
case was based on the inputs shown below.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis Model Input Data
System Description
Prime mover(s) Cummins Engine
Number of generators 4 Units
Electrical capacity 250 kW/unit
Boiler thermal capacity 2.8 MMBtu/hr
Boiler efficiency 80 %
Years of analysis 20 Years
Basic fuel cost 1.5 $/gal
Basic oil cost 4.7 $/gal
Installation cost 886000 $
Construction start date 1/1986

On-Line date 1/1987
Inflation Rates
Consumer Prices 6
Fuel Prices 6
Electricity 6
Discount Rate 6
This work was conducted under a contract with the Belvoir

Research, Development and Engineering Center.
109
EFFECT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS
ON P E R F O R M A N C E OF H I G H - P R E S S U R E T Y P E P A F C
Y . T s u t s u m i , I .S o n e Y.Nanba
Hitachi Research Laboratory Kokubu Works
1-1-1 K o k u b u - c h o , H i t a c h i - s h i , I b a r a k i - k e n , 316 J a p a n
Introduction
H i t a c h i Ltd. w a s i n v o l v e d in r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t
of p h o s p h o r i c a c i d fue l cell (PAFC) t e c h n o l o g i e s u n d e r the
M o o n l i g h t P r o j e c t f r o m 1981 to 1984.
In 1985, H i t a c h i Ltd. b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n of a 1 M W h i g h
p r e s s u r e a n d h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e t y p e d e m o n s t r a t i o n p l a n t for
c o n c e n t r a t e d p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h NEDO,
C h u b u - E l e c t r i c Corp. a n d T o s h i b a Corp. Prior to the plant
o p e r a t i o n v a r i o u s s i m u l a t i o n t e s t s of o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
w e r e p e r f o r m e d to e x a m i n e the s t a b i l i t i e s of the c e l l
p e r f o r m a n c e u s i n g 100 cm^ 5 - c e l l s tacks. T h i s r e p o r t
s u m m a r i z e s r e s u l t s of t h e s e e f f o r t s .
Cell performance on r a t e d operating conditions
F i g u r e 1 s h o w s c e l l p e r f o r m a n c e at h i g h p r e s s u r e a n d
high temperature conditions. M e a n v o l t a g e loss f r o m 1000
h to 1 0 0 0 0 h w a s 5 m V / I O O O h a n d s e e m e d to d e c r e a s e w i t h
time.
E f f e c t of differential pressure between anodes and cathodes
A r elatively large transient differential pressure

b e t w e e n a n o d e s a n d c a t h o d e s of t h e s t a c k s m a y o c c u r w h e n the
p l a n t a s s u m e s an e m e r g e n c y off o p e r a t i n g mode.
F i g u r e 2 s h o w s the e f f e c t of d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e o n
the cell voltages. S i m u l a t e d d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e up to
500 m m A q a n d 10 p u l s e s , 10 s e c o n d s in d u r a t i o n d i d n o t h a v e
a n y e f f e c t o n t h e cel l v o l t a g e s .
Effect of steam concentration
S t e a m c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the c ell c h a n g e s a l o n g t h e g a s
c h a n n e l s , as w e l l as t h e cell i n l e t s t e a m c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d
g a s u t i l i z a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , cel l p e r f o r m a n c e m u s t be s t a b l e
fo r a w i d e r a n g e of s t e a m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
Figure 3 shows cell p e r f o rmance whi c h s i m u lated one
a i r i n l e t / fuel i n l e t p o s i t i o n of a l a r g e s i z e cell. In
t h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e c e l l w a s o p e r a t e d at 10 % air u t i l i z a t i o n
a n d 13 % fuel u t i l i z a t i o n .
F i g u r e 4 s h o w s the p e r f o r m a n c e of a n o t h e r c e l l w h i c h
s i m u l a t e d t w o o t h e r fuel o u t l e t p o s i t i o n s . In o r d e r to
a d j u s t g a s c o m p o s i t i o n s , a n o t h e r s t a c k w a s c o n n e c t e d in
s e r i e s to t h e u p p e r s t r e a m of t h e t e s t s t a c k a n d e x h a u s t
g a s e s f r o m t h e f o r m e r s t a c k w e r e s u p p l i e d to the t e s t stack.
110
Y. TSUTSUMI ET AL.
-2-
S t e a m c o n c e n t r a t i o n up to 22 v o l % corresponding to the
a i r outlet p o sition was tested and did n o t h a v e any
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on the e n d u r a n c e .
Effect of air deficiency
F i g u r e 5 s h o w s t h e e f f e c t of a t e m p o r a r y a i r d e f i c i e n c y
on cell voltages. T h o u g h t h e c e l l v o l t a g e d e c r e a s e d to
a l m o s t 0 m V w h e n a i r w a s in s h o r t s u p p l y , it r e c o v e r e d s o o n
after more air was supplied.
Effect of fuel d e f i c i e n c y
F i g u r e 6 s h o w s the e f f e c t of a t e m p o r a r y fuel d e f i c i e n c y
on cell voltages. W h e n t h e r e w a s a fue l d e f i c i e n c y , cell
v o l t a g e of o n e c e l l d e c r e a s e d to l o w e r t h a n -0.4 V w h i l e
t h a t of t h e o t h e r cel l r e m a i n e d p o s i t i v e . A l t h o u g h the fuel
w a s in s h o r t s u p p l y for o n l y a f e w s e c o n d s , the f o r m e r cel l
e x p e r i e n c e d a n i r r e v e r s i b l e a f t e r e f f e c t o n its p e r f o r m a n c e .
These phenomena may be explained as electrolysis
erosion on the fuel-deficient anode due to the electric
potential of the relatively good cells connected
electrically in series.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mr.K.Joukou and Dr.K.Nozaki

of the Agency of Industrial Science & Technology of M I T I ,
M r .K .Shirahama, Dr.N.Ito and Mr.M.Ito of NEDO for promoting
the PAFC Research and Development of the Moonlight Project.
0.8
<1)
bO
<t!
0.6 100 c m ^
7 a ta
205 °C
0)
0.4
o
220 m A /cm ^
0.2
'10^ 10® 10''
T im e (H ours on T e s t)
Figure 1 Endurance Test
ill
Y. TSUTSUMI ET AL.
-3-
<U +500mmAq
-500mmAq (1 0 sxl0 p u lse s)
^ (
3 </D
) ;iO sx lO p u ls e s ;
to £.
to Q .
q;_
(X ^
I I
I I
I I
> 0.75
-o
0)
-A
bD
(b
0.70 7 a ta , 205°C
o
> 220 m A /c m ^
(1)
O 0.65 j- j_
1 1 2 5 4 5 6
Tim e (H ours on Test)
Figure 2 E ffe c t of D ifferential Pressure

on Cell Voltage
0.8
Q) 0.7 -
00
ro
o 7 a ta
>
0.6 - A ir
205 °C
crz
(1)
O
220 m A / c m ^
J d]
0.5, 1___
1000 2000 5000 4000
Tim e (H ours on Test)
Figure 3 Cell Performance Corresponding to

One A ir inlet/Fuel inlet Position
112
Y. TSUTSUMI ET AL.
-4-
0.8
0.7
0)
t30 7 a ta
m
205°C
220 m A /
0.6 c m ^
0)
O
0.5
1000 2000 5000 4000
Tim e (H ours on T e s t)
Figure 4 Cell Performance Cor responding to

Two D ifferen t Positions
o 200
500 TO
^ 100
n3 5
q: ° 0
u_
§ 100
rr 0
0.8
a) 7 a ta
CiD 0.4
0)
C IO
ra fU 205 "C
7 a ta 220mA/cm^
o 0.4 "o
> 205 "C >
_j_________ U
220 m A /c m ^ 10 20
0) q;
O O
T im e (H o u rs on T e s t)
I 10 20
-0 .4
T im e (H o urs on T e s t)
Figure 5 E ffe c t o f A ir D eficiency Figure 6 E ffe c t o f Fuel D eficiency

on Cell Voltage on Cell Voltage
113
DYNAMI C RFSPONSF OF FUFF CEFl POWER PFANT TO l OAD REFFRENCF
K. Ku r osami a, H . T a n a k a , T . Ha k a b e
The Tok y o E l e c t r i c Power Co. , I n c .
2-4-1, Ni s h I - T s u t s u j I g a o k a , C h o f u - C i t y , Tok y o 182, Japan
V . N a g a t a , K . A k i y a ma . V . H a t s u m o t o
T o s h i b a C o r p o r a t i on
1, T o s h i b a - C h o , F u c h u - C i t y , Tok y o 183, J apan
I NTRODUCTI ON
The Tok y o E l e c t r i c Power Co , , I n c . and T o s h i b a C o r p o r a t i o n

d e v e l o p e d a d y n a mi c s i m u l a t o r f o r a c l a s s of f u e l c e l l power
p l a n t ( FCPP) of c o m m e r c i a l s c a l e ' ' ' . The s i m u l a t o r i s used
f o r t h e s t u d y of d y n a mi c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c o n t r o l l a b i l i
t i e s o f FCPP.
T h i s r e p o r t b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e s t h e s i m u l a t o r and p r e s e n t s
some r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by t h e s i m u l a t i o n .
SI MUI ATOR CONFI GURATI ON
The FCPP d y n a mi c s i m u l a t o r s i m u l a t e s t h e d y n a mi c c h a r a c t e
r i s t i c s i n c l u d i n g t he r e s p o n s e t o t he l oad change. The s i m u
l a t o r i n c l u d e s r ef or mer , s h i f t - c o n v e r t e r s , c e l l st ack, t u r b o
c o mp r es s o r , i n v e r t e r , c e l l s t a c k c o o l i n g s y s t e m and p l a n t
c o n t r o l l e r ( s ee F i g . 1 ) .
The i n p u t s t o t h e s i m u l a t o r a r e t h e a c t i v e po we r and r e
a c t i v e power w h i c h a r e r e q u i r e d . The s i m u l a t o r has a b o u t 90
out put v a r i a b l e s ( pr essur es, f l ow r at es, t emper at ur es, lifts
o f c o n t r o l v a l v e s and so on) and 70 s t a t e v a r i a b l e s . The
s i m u l a t o r i s bas ed on t h e non l i n e a r p h y s i c a l mo d e l . The
l a n g u a g e used t o d e s c r i b e t h e s i m u l a t o r I s FORTRAN- 77.
The b a s i c e q u a t i o n s a p p l i e d a r e l i s t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g .
• Fl o w Rat e F = >T 0 ( Pb - P [1]

• Pr essur e d P / d t = n RT( Fi - F o ) / V [2 ]
• Te mp e r a t u r e d T / d t = ( Qc o nd + Qc on v + Qr e a c ) / Hc [ 3]
• En e r g y T r a n s f e r dho/dt - RTF(hi-ho)/(PV) [ 4]
• Gas Compos i 11 on dxo/ dt = RTF(x,-Xo)/(PV) [ 5]
Tr a n s f e r
Where
Gas Fl ow R a t e j k m o l / h r l ( I : i n l e t s i d e o : o u t l e t s i d e )
Gas P r e s s u r e [ k g / c m n ( h : h i g h e r s i d e l : l o w e r s i d e )
Fl ow Re s I s t anc e [ hr 2 / c m ^ / m n W « : H o l e c u l a r W e i g h t [ k g / kmc I ]
: Po I y t r op i c C o n s t a n t R: Gas C o n s t a n t [ k g m / k m o I ■ K]
T e m p e r a t u r e [ ‘ Cl V: Vol ume [ mM
Gas D e n s i t y [ k g / m^ ] He D : He at Capac i t y f k c a I / ' C]
Heat Fl ow R a t e [ k c a l / h r ] h : Ga s E n t h a l p y I k c a l / k m o l ]
(cond:conductivity conv; c o n v e c t i o n reac: r e a c t i o n )
Gas C o m p o s i t i o n C o i S p e c i f i c H e a t ( k ca I / k m o I ■ K ]
114
KUROSAWA ET AL
-2-
A p a r t of t he s i m u l a t o r b l o c k di agr am i s p r e s e n t e d in
F i g . 2, I t r e p r e s e n t s t h e model s t r u c t u r e of t h e f u e l l i n e
w h i c h s i m u l a t e s t h e d y n a mi c r e s p o n s e s o f r e f o r m e r , s h i f t -
c o n v e r t e r s , anode of c e l l s t a c k and r e f o r m e r b u r n e r . Ot h e r
s u b mo d e l s i n c l u d e d a r e a i r l i n e mo d e l , c e l l s t a c k mo d e l , c e l l
s t a c k c o o l i n g mo d e l , i n v e r t e r model and c o n t r o l l e r mo d e l .
NC-
Fi g. 1 Basi c Sc h e ma t i c of FCPP Dy n ami c Simulator
F i g . 2 Bl ock Di a g r a m of Fuel Li ne Model
115
KUROSAWA FT A1
- 3-
SI HULATI ON RESULTS
S i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s a r e a p p l i e d t o i mp r o v e d y n a mi c c h a r a c t e
r i s t i c s o f FCPP. An e x a mp l e o f s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s i s shown
i n F i g . 3. T h i s r e s u l t shows t h e d y n a mi c r e s p o n s e o f FCPP
ma j o r v a r i a b l e s when t h e l o a d r e f e r e n c e i s d e c r e a s e d f r o m
r a t e d power ( 11HW) t o t h e mi ni mum power at t h e r a t e of
I HW/ s e c , wh e r e t h e s ymbol d e n o t a t i o n s i n F i g . 3 a r e l i s t e d i n
T a b l e 1.
I n t h i s r e s u l t , FCPP f i n a l l y s e t t l e s down t o t h e mi ni mum
power i n d i c a t e d . But p r o b l e ms a r e f o u n d i n t h e t r a n s i e n t
s t a t e , wh i c h ar e l i s t e d i n t he f o l l o w i n g .
( 1) I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e s u d de n d e c r e a s e of t h e a c t i y e
p o w e r , t h e c e l l y o l t a g e ( VCF I ) goes up, [ s p e c i a l l y t he
o y e r s h o o t o f VCFL i s r e c o g n i s e d i n t h e t r a n s i e n t s t a t e ,
w h i c h i s n o t d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e span o f t h e c e l l l i f e .
( 2) Maxi mum v a l u e o f t h e f l u c t u a t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e
r e n c e b e t we e n t h e anode and t h e c a t h o d e i s a b o u t 750mmAq
and t h i s v a l u e i s s e v e r e t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f e l e c t r o
l yte.
( 3) The r e s p o n s e of t h e c o m b u s t i o n at t h e r e f o r m e r b u r n e r
i s no t s t a b l e . The c o m b u s t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e ( TRFB) y a r i e s
w i t h wi d e r a n g e and t h e i n c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n o c c u r s .
CONCLUDI NG REMARKS
The a u t h o r s i n v e s t i g a t e t h e d y n a mi c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n
d e t a i l bas ed on t h e a c t u a l l oad p a t t e r n and ai m t o d e v e l o p
b e t t e r d e s i g n o f FCPP and c o n t r o l s y s t e m bas ed on t h e s e
studies.
REFFRENCF
FPRI . " D e s c r i p t i o n of a G e n e r i c 11- HW Fuel C e l l Power
P l a n t f o r u t i l i t y A p p l i c a t i o n s " , FPRI EM- 3161 I n t e r i m
R e p o r t , Sep 1983.
Tabl e 1 Simulation Out pu t Variables
PAC ! Act l y e Power 1 FAND I Anode Fl ow Rat e

QAC 1 Re a c t i ve Powe r ! FCAT ! Ca t h o d e F 1ow Rat e
!A ! C u r r e n t Dens i t y ! FNG I R e f o r me r NG Fl ow
VCFI ! Cel l Vo l t a g e ! FAC BE 1 AIIX . B RN . NG Fl ow
PAND i Anode P r e s s u r e 1 TRFH 1 R e f o r me r Met a 1 Temp
PCAT ! Ca t h o d e P r e s s u r e 1 TRFR i R e f o r me r R e a c . Temp
DPFC ! St ack A P 1 DTRFH 1 Met a 1 Temp A T
PSFP I EPS Sep. P r e s s u r e ! TRFB I R e f o r me r Comb. Temp
116
KUROSAWA ET AL
-4-
CM O 1 O O PflC
O
^ QflC
o
+ JP
X
c
c
o
o
-10.00 30.00 70.00 tic.00 150.00 190.00 2 30 .00 270.00
PflNO
o PCflT
DPPC
PSEF
o
w>
0 .C 0 3 0.00 00 rn 50 00 190 0 2
o o F9ND
o FORT
+ PNG
X FRXBF
o
c
o
o
o
o
C.CO 3 0 . CO 70 .00 110-00 150.00 ISO .00 2 30 .00 270.00
O ’"PEFf
A ^RFP
+ OTRFn
X TPFB
o
o
GO
cn
o
o
o
cn
10-00 3 0 -CO 70 .00 110.00 150-00 190.00 230-00 270,00
F i g . 3 SiBUlation Resul t ( Cas e of t he Load De c r e a s e )
117
POWER GENERATION TEST RESULTS OF 5 0 k W PAFC
TEST PLANT P R E S S U R I Z E D BY 2 - S H A F T S 2-STAGE TURBOCOMPRESSORS
TOKYO ELECTRIC P O W E R CO., INC.

AND
TOSHIBA CORPORATION
An a b s t r a c t of this presentation was not available

at p r e s s time.
118
ELECTRIC UTILITY PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Thomas G. Schiller and Walter H. Johnson

International Fuel Cells Corporation
South Windsor, Connecticut 06074
International Fuel Cells Corporation (IFC) is conducting a

number of component technology programs for electric
utility phosphoric acid fuel cell power plant development
under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE), with technical management provided by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration/Lewis Research Center
(NASA-LeRC), the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
the Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation (NIMO), the Northeast
Utilities Service Company (NUSCO) and IFC itself. Current
programs are directed towards advancing the technology base
established for IFC's multimegawatt power plant commer
cialization program. Specific areas to be addressed in
this presentation include cell stack technology, reformer
technology, inverter technology and power plant control
system studies.
Large area cell stack development was continued under DOE

and IFC programs. Materials and manufacturing processes
have been verified in three (3) 10-ft^, 28-cell stacks.
Components for the 10-ft’, 469-cell stack have been
manufactured and. assembly will be started shortly. A
structural mock up of the full-height stack with manifolds
attached is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Full-Height 10-Ft^ Mock Up with Manifolds Installed
HP-021?
119
SCHILLER, ET AL
-2-
The stack will be tested in a semi-automated test facility

for up to 4500 hours. Testing will be initiated in the
last quarter of 1986.
Under EPRI sponsorship, a full-scale single-tube reformer

utilizing a low pressure drop catalyst was evaluated for a
total of 396 hours of testing with both natural gas and
naphtha, with the objective of significantly increasing
fuel throughput. Increased fuel throughput per tube would
allow fewer but longer tubes to make up an equivalent rated
reformer. Under DOE/NASA sponsorship, the same low pres
sure drop catalyst, described above, was evaluated for
tolerance to carbon formation. Over a range of specific
fuel flows (W/A) of 1.0 to 3.5lb fuel/hr-ft’ at 125 psig,
no carbon formation was observed.
The success of these tests has led to the design of the

longer reformer tube started under EPRI and completed under
DOE/NASA. A test facility, shown in Figure 2, was
constructed by EPRI to verify performance of a longer
single tube at power plant operating conditions later this
year. A 18-foot reformer tube is being constructed by
DOE/NASA for this test.
Figure 2. Tall Reformer Tube Test Facility
HP- 0219
120
SCHILLER, ET AL
-3-
EPRI has also sponsored construction of the reformer burner

test facility shown in Figure 3. This facility will test
commercial burners sized up to the equivalent heat release
of 2MW. Testing of the first commercial burner will be
conducted in late 1986.
Figure 3. Reformer Burner Test Facility
A 2-MW power switching pole for a two-bridge inverter

system constructed under an EPRI Program was tested under
DOE/NASA sponsorship, to its full rated 3000 Vdc. Dynamic
operating parameters were in agreement with analytical
predictions. A full size set of advanced inverter controls
for a two-bridge inverter was successfully tested at design
and off-design conditions on IFC's two-bridge inverter
model. One of these control units, shown in Figure 4, was
procured by EPRI and used to control the power switching
pole test. In preparation for the design and construction
of an advanced multimegawatt inverter bridge, a
semiconductor manufacturer's survey is currently being
conducted.
Definition of applications software requirements for an
11-MW power plant were generated under a program jointly
sponsored by Niagara Mohawk and Northeast Utilities.
HP-0219
121
SCHILLER, ET AL
-4-
Figure 4. Control Unit for Power Switching Pole Test
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work upon which this abstract is based was performed in

part pursuant to NASA Contract DEN3-364 funded by DOE
(Mr. P. Prokopius of NASA, Project Manager), DOE Contract
DE-AC21-83FE60338, (Mr. P. Prokopius of NASA, Project
Manager and Mr. E. Beyma of DOE, Program Manager), EPRI
Agreement RP-1777-1 (Mr. D. Rastler, Project Manager and
Mr. E. Gillis, Program Manager), Purchase Order No. 34094
with Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation (Mr. A. Stefanski,
Technical Manager) and Purchase Order No. 647129 with
Northeast Utilities Service Corporation (Mr. R. Bumstead,
Technical Manager).
HP-0219
122
AIR C OO LE D STACK D E V E L O P M E N T S TA TU S
W E S T I N G H O U S E PHOSP H OR I C ACID FUEL CELL P R O G R A M
M a y n a r d K. W r i g h t
Program Manager, PAFC Stack Development
Advanced Energy Systems Division
P . 0. B o x 1 0 8 6 4 , P i t t s b u r g h , P A 1 5 2 3 6 - 0 8 6 4
I N T R O D U C T I O N : T h e W e s t i n g h o u s e P h o s p h o r i c A c i d Fuel Ce ll
P r o g r a m k e y o b j e c t i v e is t o c o m m e r c i a l i z e t h e t e c h n o l o g y in
t h e 1 9 9 0 ' s as a w o r l d c l a s s p r o d u c t f o r U t i l i t y p o w e r p l a n t
applications. The C o r por ati on has been d e v e lo pin g the PAFC
technology for over a decade. In 1 9 8 0 , t h e A d v a n c e d E n e r g y
S y s t e m s D i v i s i o n b e g a n an a g g r e s s i v e p r o g r a m f o r t h e a p p l i
c a t i o n of t h i s air c o o l e d t e c h n o l o g y f o r p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n
t o u t i l i t y (a l l e l e c t r i c ) a n d i n d u s t r i a l ( c o g e n e r a t i o n )
needs. T h e t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t is s u f f i c i e n t l y in h a n d
s u c h t h a t la r g e st a c k d e m o n s t r a t i o n s are p r o c e e d i n g . The
p r o g r a m p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l o f 6 9 0 m V p e r c e l l at b e g i n n i n g -
o f - l i f e h a s b e e n e x c e e d e d b y 10 m V . The p r o g r a m goal for
p e r f o r m a n c e loss w i t h t i m e of 8 m V / 1 0 0 0 h o u r s or less has
y e t to b e f u l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d in l o n g t e r m t e s t i n g . These
g o a l s a r e . f o r r a t e d c o n d i t i o n s of 190°C, 70 psia,
2 67 mA/cm'^, w i t h a i r t o t h e c a t h o d e at 5 0 % o x y g e n
u t i l i z a t i o n and s i m u l a t e d r e f o r m a t e fuel (7 5% H 2 , 2 4 %
C O 2 , 1% C O ) t o t h e a n o d e at 8 3 % h y d r o g e n u t i l i z a t i o n .
S M A L L S T A C K S : T o d a t e 37 n i n e a n d t e n c e l l s m a l l s t a c k s
h a v e b e e n b u i l t a n d t e s t e d f o r an a c c u m u l a t e d t e s t t i m e o f
o v e r 3 3 , 0 0 0 h o u r s (by t i m e of s e m i n a r o v e r 4 2 , 0 0 0 e x p e c t e d )
with one (two by se mi n a r ) stack ha v i n g a c c u m u l a t e d over
5000 hours. C u r r e n t l y , t h e s m a l l s t a c k p r o g r a m is in t h e
t e c h n o l o g y v e r i f i c a t i o n p h a s e w h e r e t h r e e s t a c k s ar e on
test for 5000 hours each and one of wh i c h will c o n t i n u e for
10,000 hours. F i g u r e 1 is a p h o t o g r a p h o f t h i s d e m o n s t r a
tion stack. Th e b e g i n n i n g - o f - 1 ife p e r f o r m a n c e f o r t h e s e
s t a c k s is 7 0 0 m V / c e l l w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 7 m V .
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e d e c a y is p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 2 f o r t h e s e
stacks. A s n o t e d , t h i s g o a l is a c h i e v e d e a r l y in l i f e
( < 1 5 0 0 h o u r s ) b u t o n t h e a v e r a g e is a b o u t - 1 2 m V / 1 0 0 0
hours. T h e c a u s e o f t h i s h i g h e r d e c a y r a t e is b e i n g
inves t ig a t e d .
T y p i c a l s t a c k p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s at t h e r a t e d
o p e r a t i n g p o i n t as i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s
a r e as f o l 1 o w s ;
Performance
Operating Parameter C haracteri sties R ange
Polarization -0.46 mV/mA cm'^ 215-315 mA cm"2
Air Utilization -0.47 mV/% Utilization 40-60%
Fuel U t i l i z a t i o n -0.16 mV/% Utilization 70-85%
Stack Temperature +1 m V / ° C 180-200°C
Stack Pressure +1 m V / p s i 65-75 psia
H 2 to SRG Lo s s -16 mV/cell
123
M A Y N A R D K. W R I G H T
- 2 -
LARGE STACKS: D e v e l o p m e n t e f f o r t h a s s h i f t e d to t h e
n o n - r e p e a t i n g co mponents as sociated with large stacks.
S e v e n la r g e s t a c k s are p l a n n e d fo r f a b r i c a t i o n by M a y
1987. T h e f i r s t l a r g e s t a c k is o n t e s t , t h e s e c o n d is
b e i n g r e a d i e d f o r t e s t a n d t h e t h i r d is in f a b r i c a t i o n .
T h i s s t a c k h a s 1 52 c e l l s a n d is r a t e d at 32 k W. Its
p h o t o g r a p h is p r o v i d e d in F i g u r e 3. T h i s s t a c k is t h e
basic building block for the larger stack co ntaining three
32 k W s t a c k s a n d r a t e d at 9 6 k W . An a r t i s t r e n d i t i o n of
t h i s s t a c k is s h o w n in F i g u r e 4. T h e 3 7 5 kW m o d u l e w i l l
c o n s i s t o f f o u r o f t h e s e s t a c k s a s s e m b l e d as a c r u c i f o r m
w i t h a c o m m o n air c o o l i n g e x i t p l e n u m at t h e c e n t e r .
T h e f i r s t l a r g e s t a c k i n i t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e is 6 9 0 m V / c e l l
a v e r a g e w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r t h e 6 c e l l g r o u p s of
20 mV. T h i s b e g i n n i n g - o f - 1 ife p e r f o r m a n c e c o m p a r e s v e r y
well w i t h th e small st a c k s .
C O N C L U S I O N S : T h e t e c h n o l o g y and d e s i g n d a t a b a s e s are
c o m ple te for small stacks with the large stack d e v e l o p m e n t
e f f o r t well u n d e r w a y and being given the p r i m a r y p r o g r a m
emphasis. S m a l l s t a c k e n d u r a n c e t e s t i n g o f up t o 1 0 , 0 0 0
h o u r s is in p r o c e s s w i t h i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e d e g r a d a t i o n
r a t e is 5 0 % g r e a t e r t h a n t h e g o a l a n d t h i s is b e i n g
investigated. T h e b e g i n n i n g - o f -1 i f e p e r f o r m a n c e g o a l is
d e m o n s t r a t e d and e x ceed ed.
T h e t e c h n o l o g y is s u f f i c i e n t l y in h a n d t o p r o c e e d w i t h
l a r g e s t a c k a n d m o d u l e d e v e l o p m e n t as r e q u i r e d f o r t h e
1.5 MW P i l o t P o w e r P l a n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n .
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T : F u n d i n g for the w o r k was p r o v i d e d by th e

U. S. D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y t h r o u g h t h e N A S A L e w i s R e s e a r c h
C e n t e r , C o n t r a c t N u m b e r D E N 3 - 2 9 0 , M r . R. B. K i n g , P r o j e c t
Manager.
124
- 3 -
W
N O IO -2 4
TECHH 0108Y VERIFICATIOW
STACK
r
FIGURE 1
RATED PER FO RM ANCE OF W ESTING HO USE AIR CO O LED SM ALL STACKS
PRESS
C YC LE S C O N D tT tO N S :
W 01022
> - □□
E
O
<
P E R F O R M A N C E G O A L LIN E
o
>
00
L>
T ES T T IM E ( h ri)
FIGURE 2
125
- 4 -
I
%
g
FIGURE 3
^RiSSURE VESSEL HEAD
COVER PLATE
RESSURE VESSEL
RING SECTION
BUS BAR
INTERCONNECTING
PLENUM/SUPPORT
ACCESS PORT
4% PENETRATION
COOLING AIR INLET PROCESS AIR INLET
COOLING AIR EXIT

''STACK SUPPORT PLATE
FIGURE 4 100 kW S T A C K E N G I N E E R I N G M O D E L
126
CONSTRUCTION OF DISPERSED TYPE 1 MW PAFC PILOT PLANT
N. Itoh and M. Itoh

The New Energy Development Organization
Sunshine 60, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 170, JAPAN
M. Tada
The Kansai Electric Power Company, Inc.
Nakoji 3, Amagasaki, Hyogo 661, JAPAN
A. Hijikata and K. Kishida

Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
Wadasaki-cho, Hyogo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 652, JAPAN
R. Anahara
Fuji Electric Co., Ltd.
Yurakucho 1, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100, JAPAN
K. Suzuki
Fuji Electric Corporate Research and Development, Ltd.
Nagasaka 2, Yokosuka, Kanagawa 240-01, JAPAN
INTRODUCTION
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Fuji Electric Co., Ltd.

and Fuji Electric Corporate Research and Development, Ltd.
constructed the 1 MW phosphoric acid fuel cell power plant
under contract with the New Energy Development Organization
(NEDO). The pilot plant is located in Sakaiko thermal
power station, the Kansai Electric Power Company, Inc.
(KEPCO). KEPCO provided buildings and supply of fuel and
so on under contract with NEDO. Demonstration operation
test is scheduled to start in December, 1986. The design
target of the pilot plant is shown in Table 1. The
construction schedule is shown in Fig.1.
Table 1 Design Target of the Pilot Plant
Item Design Target
Output Power 1 MW AC
Efficiency 4055 (HHV Base)
Operating Condition 4kg/cm^G, 190“C
Fuel Natural Gas
Cooling Method of Water Cooled

Fuel Cell
127
ITOH El AL
- 2 -
FY 1984 1985 1986 1987

Item A J 0 J A J 0 J A J 0 J lA J 0 J
1. System Design
2. Components
(1) Cell Stacks
(2) Other Components
3. Civil Works
4. Piping and Wiring
5. PAC Test
6. Trial Operation
7. Operation
----- Design ■Manufacuturing Installation

OUTLINE OF PLANT LAYOUT
The main part of the pilot plant was housed in a

building. This layout was chosen to check the
environmental conditions of future dispersed type PAFC
power generation plant in urban or suburban area and to
make favourable conditions foi’ construction, operation and
maintenance of the pilot plant.
The outline of the pilot plant is shown in F i g . 2.
DETAILS OF SUBSYSTEMS
Fuel cell stacks
Each of four 260 kW dc fuel cell stacks was divided to

several blocks containing about 100 cells.
After assembling cells to blocks, each block was tested in
the factory. In this block test, the expected cell
performance was confirmed. The 260 kW dc fuel cell stack
contained in a pressure vessel is shown in F i g . 3.
Reformer
The fuel processing subsystem includir.g the reformer,

shift converters, heat exchangers was inspected by M I T I 's
conventional standard for thermal power generaliori.
128
ITOH ET AL
- 3 -
By the end of last year, the reformer was installed at the

site. Fig.^ shows the reformer assembles under construc
tion at the s i t e .
Control system
Control system consists of the system controller, unit

controllers, computers and operator console and so on. As
for the system controller, the man-machine Interface system
and record/report format including CRT display were
designed. F i g . 5 shows the operator console. The testing
of each control system component was completed and the PAC
test began in the beginning of May, 1986.
B.O.P
As for the turbine-compressor unit, all components were

assembled and tested in the factory before shipping.
Power conditioning system consists of two SOOkW
inverters connected in parallel at 6.6kV ac bus, converting
the dc output power of two series-connected 260kW dc fuel
cell stacks to ac power respectively.
Water treatment system, flare stack, cooling tower, air
compressor system, hydrogen system, nitrogen system and
other equipments were manufactured. By the end of March
1986, the installation of B.O.P subsystem has been
completed at the site.
PAC TEST
The pilot plant except for fuel cell stacks had been
constructed at the site by the end of April, 1986. Instead
of the fuel cell stacks, the dummy stacks were also
installed in the pilot plant.
In the middle of May, 1986, the natural gas was
introduced to the system. After the testing of each
components, system control and interlockings, the PAC test
of the system is going now on.
Acknowledgement
The work of this pilot plant is performed in the

Moonlight Project of MITI and authors express their
gratitude to Messrs. K. Joko, K. Nozaki and K. shimamura of
AIST (Agency of Industrial Science and Technology), MITI.
Reference
N. Itoh et al. "Outline of Dispersed Type 1 MW PAFC

Demonstrator", Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts, 1985, pp67-70.
129
I T O H E T AL
- 4 -
Fig.2 O u t l i n e of
the pilot
plant
Pig.3 Fuel Cell Stack Fig.4 Reformer
Fi g. 5
Operator BftIK
console
i O f
130
OUTLINE OF PAC TEST FOR IMW PAFC
PILOT PLANT-HIGH TEMP., HIGH PRESSURE TYPE
M. Ito, M. Hanawa
New Energy Development Organization (NEDO)
Sun-Shine 60, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, Japan
M. Ishihara, H. Yoshida
Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc.
Toshin-cho, Higashi-ku, Nagoya, Japan
S. Hyuga, S. Akimaru : Hitachi, Ltd.
Kanda-Surugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
A. Yamaguchi : Toshiba Corporation
Uchisaiwai-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Introduction
The pilot plant was constructed by NEDO's fund at Chita Daini Thermal
Power Station, Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc. (CEPCO)
The targets of the plant design are shown in table 1.
Table 1 Targets of IMW Pilot Plant
Item Target
CXjtput Power IMW ac
Efficiency 42% (HHV base)
Operating Condition 7 ata, 205°C (Fuel Cell)
Fuel Natural Gas
Start up Time 4 hr
Load Following 25^1100% 1 min.
Emission NOx<20ppm, SOxO.lppm
Design, manufacture and installation of the plant were performed

jointly by Hitachi and Toshiba and schedule management, civil work,
building and supply of fuel and utilities were done by CEPCO.
Outline of the pilot plant
The pilot plant consists of generating unit building, main building

including electric machine room, control room and meeting room, uti
lities as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1
Outline of
the pilot plant
131
M, ITO ET AL
-2-
The power section consists of four stacks of fuel cells which were
made by Hitachi and Toshiba half and half.
Natural Gas fuel consumed in the pilot plant is supplied fran the
main fuel pipeline of Thermal Power Station. The pilot plant output
is connected to power supply system (6.6kV) of Thermal Power Station.
Progress of PAC Test
PAC Test was begun from February '86 and will be completed in
September '86.
Main items of PAC test are plant pressurized test, air processing
subsystem test, fuel cell cooling water subsystem test, fuel pro
cessing subsystem test and plant overall test using dummy cell
stacks.
Schedule and progress of PAC Test is shown in figure 2.
'86
Item
1 2 3 4 3 ^ 7 8 9
Plant Pressurized
Air Processing Subsystem
Cell Cooling Water Subsystem
Fuel Processing Subsystem
Plant Overall a
Using Ekimmy Stacks
Figure 2 Schedule and Progress of PAC Test
Results of Main Subsystems Testing
(1) Air Processing Subsystem

The test of Air Processing Subsystem (APS) consists of the
following four major items.
1. Air Starting Test

Verification of turbine catipressor start control.
Checking out air purge in auxiliary combustor.
2. Auxiliary Combustor Burner Ignition Test

Verification of Pilot and main burner ignition
failure routine. Pilot and main burner ignition.
3. Acceleration Test
Verification of turbine conpressor acceleration control.
4. APS Test
Verification of plant base pressure control.
Confirmation of turbine compressor characteristics.
Confirmation of APS general characteristics combined with the
fuel processing subsystem. Auxiliary combustor burner fuel
transition test from natural gas to process gas.
132
M. ITO ET AL
-3-
A example of the APS test result is shown in figure 3. The plant

base pressure control was successfully performed and it was
verified that APS had satisfactory performance.
(2) Fuel Processing Subsystem

The test of Fuel Processing Subsystem (FPS) consists of the
following five major items.
1. Nitrogen Recirculation Test

Verification of start recycle blower control.
Checking out air purge in reformer conbustion chamber.
2. Reformer Burner Ignition Test

Verification of Pilot burner ignition failure routine.
Pilot burner ignition. Verification of main burner ignition
failure routine. Main burner ignition.
3. Heat-up Test
Heating up the fuel processing subsystem with start recycle
blower. Steam-in test.
4. Low Teitperature Shift Converter (LTSC) Catalyst

Activation
Removal of oxide film on catalysts with hydrogen.
5. Reforming Test
Confirmation of reformer characteristics. Activation of high
tenperature shift converter (HTSC) catalyst.
Confirmation of general characteristics combined with the
reformer, HTSC and LTSC.
Reformer burner fuel transition test from natural gas to process
gas.
A exaiiple of the reforming test result is shown in figure 4 and 5.

Fuel transition was successfully performed and it was verified that
the reformer, HTSC and LTSC had satisfactory performance.
Acknowledgement
The pilot plant is performed under Moonlight Project of Agency of

Industrial Science and Technology, MITI and we express our gratitude
to Messrs. K. Joko, K. Nozaki and K. Shimamura of MITI.
Journal Article
N.ITO ET AL, "Outline of 1 Megawatt PAFC Demonstrator

- High Tenperature, High pressure type "National Fue Cell Seminar
Abstructs, May 19-22, 1985, pp.75-78.
133
M. ITO ET AL
-4-
Sote: T / C T'jrbine-Ccrpressor
\ Plan*
Discnarcs Valve Open
icreleraîon
Figure 3 Characteristics of APS Starting
2:a.
— • HTSC t*sp.
—X LTSC J
— 0 R»fersi«r f t i d get }«mg. /
— A fi« f9 rs *r preduet go t t«np. ^
— A C e fibu ttien ehanbtr tta p . j
— • lltifib«tr,«fpncut get fi»t rtfi j
■~XUom buner NG lle » rote I
lo-û lO-OU iy:uu iy:jU

[fml Trefii[ti^r|
Figure 4. C h a ra c te ris tic of temp. 4 f lo w of FPS
- • use
- X HTSC
T_
n:30 I8:ca 18^30 igTct
Figure 5. C h or ac te rls ti c of sh if t co nverter
134
FUEL P R O C ES SIN G SYSTEM D E V E L O P M E N T AND
REFORMER TEST RESULTS
W i l l i a m A. S u m m e r s a n d W a l t e r G. P a r k e r
Advanced Energy Systems Division
D a n i e l M. R a s t l e r
Palo Alto, Ca lifo rni a 9A303
N i e l s R. U d e n g a a r d
H a l d o r T o p s o e , Inc .
Houston, Texas 77258
L a r s J . C h r i sti a n s e n
Haldor Topsoe A/S
Copenhagen, Denmark
Fuel p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m s fo r p h o s p h o r i c ac i d fuel cell p o w e r
plant ap plic a t i o n s require design ch an g e s and process
i m p r o v e m e n t s r e l a t i v e to c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r o g e n pl a n t s .
A l t h o u g h t h e p r o c e s s c h e m i s t r y is s t i l l b a s e d on
h y d r o c a r b o n - s t e a m r e f o r m i n g , t h e p l a n t m u s t be m o r e
e f f i c i e n t , m o d u l i z e d , f a s t e r r e s p o n d i n g , p r e s s u r i z e d on t h e
c o m b u s t i o n s i d e , c o s t - e f f e c t i v e , a n d c a p a b l e of
withstanding frequent thermal cycling. Westinghouse
E l e c t r i c C o r p o r a t i o n , u n d e r s p o n s o r s h i p of the E l e c t r i c
Power Resear ch Institute (EPRI), has c o nduc ted a m u l t i - y e a r
d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m to d e f i n e and a s s e s s fuel p r o c e s s i n g
s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t s and to d e v e l o p c o n c e p t s s a t i s f y i n g th em.
E a r l y w o r k o n t h i s p r o g r a m i d e n t i f i e d t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of
c o n v e n t i o n a l s t e a m r e f o r m i n g h y d r o g e n p l a n t s and
e s t a b l i s h e d d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b o t h th e o v e r a l l fuel
p r o c e s s i n g sy s t e m and the s t e a m r e f o r m e r . In p a r t i c u l a r ,
it w a s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l u n p r e s s u r i z e d
r a d i a n t r e f o r m e r f u r n a c e m u s t b e r e p l a c e d b y an a d v a n c e d
reformer. H a l d o r T o p s o e A / S of C o p e n h a g e n , D e n m a r k , and
t h e i r U. S. s u b s i d a r y , H a l d o r T o p s o e , Inc. of H o u s t o n ,
T e x a s , w h o a r e w o r l d l e a d e r s in t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n
of s t e a m r e f o r m i n g h y d r o g e n p l a n t s , j o i n e d th e p r o g r a m as
the reformer developer.
H a l d o r T o p s o e has d e v e l o p e d a h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y s t e a m
r e f o r m e r for the fuel cell po w e r plant a p p l i c a t i o n . The
s t e a m r e f o r m e r is t h e k e y i t e m in t h e f u e l p r o c e s s i n g
s y s t e m a n d in o r d e r t o i m p r o v e t h e t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y o f
t h e p l a n t , th e h e a t c o n t e n t of th e p r o c e s s gas and the flue
g a s m u s t b e u t i l i z e d t o a h i g h e r d e g r e e t h a n in a
conventional steam reformer. T h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y u s e
of a r e a c t o r , w h i c h us es a p a t e n t e d p r i n c i p l e w i t h
c o m b i n a t i o n of c o - c u r r e n t a n d c o u n t e r c u r r e n t h e a t e x c h a n g e
b e t w e e n t h e p r o c e s s g a s a n d t h e f l u e g a s in o r d e r to
m a x i m i z e t h e t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e t a k i n g
the l i m i t a t i o n s imposed by the c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s into
consideration. A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r e f o r m e r
w a s g i v e n at t h e 1 9 8 5 F u e l C e l l S e m i n a r (1).
135
SUMMERS et al
- 2 -
On the b a s i s of the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d p r i n c i p l e , a
d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m , c o - s p o n s o r e d by EPRI and H a l d o r
Topsoe, w i th p r o g r a m m o n i t o r i n g and d i r e c t i o n by
W e s t i n g h o u s e , w a s i n i t i a t e d in 1 9 8 3 . Under this program,
one full scale m o d u l e of the heat e x c h a n g e r e f o r m e r has
b e e n d e s i g n e d , c o n s t r u c t e d and e r e c t e d at the pi lot
f a c i l i t i e s o f H a l d o r T o p s o e , I n c . a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.
T h e u n i t p r o d u c e s h y d r o g e n , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o an
e l e c t r i c i t y p r o d u c t i o n equal to 1.25 MW. The installation
o f t h e r e a c t o r is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.
FIGURE 1
HEAT EXCHANGE REFORMER PILOT PLANT AT

H A LDO R T O P SO E, INC., HO UST ON, TE X A S
The test pr og r a m for 1986 includes c o m m i s s i o n i n g and

s t a r t u p , r u n s at c o n s t a n t l o a d , c y c l i n g t e s t s , an d
m e c h a n i c a l i n s p e c t i o n s a s s h o w n in T a b l e 1.
T h e p i l o t p l a n t w a s s t a r t e d in M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , a n d h a s , u n t i l
J u l y , b e e n in o p e r a t i o n f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 0 0 h o u r s .
D u rin g the c o m m i s s i o n i n g and st artup, the pilot ran
s m o o t h l y f o r m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 h o u r s at c a p a c i t i e s r a n g i n g f r o
25 p e r c e n t t h r o u g h 8 0 p e r c e n t l o a d ; in t h e p r o o f - o f - c o n c e p
r u n, t h e p i l o t r a n f o r m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 h o u r s at 1 0 0 p e r c e n t
load, d e m o n s t r a t i n g d e s i r e d c o n v e r s i o n and c a p a c i ty . Key
f i g u r e s aro-und t h e r e f o r m e r f o r t h e 1 0 0 p e r c e n t l o a d c a s e
a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 2.
136
S U M M E R S et al
- 3 -
FIGURE 2
I N S T A L L A T I O N OF FULL SCALE HEAT E X C H A N G E

R E F O R M E R M O D U L E IN P I L O T P L A N T
TABLE 1
HEAT EXCHANGE REFORMER PILOT PLANT

1986 TEST PROGRAM
A. Commissioning and Initial Startup
B. Proof of Co nc e p t
C. Detailed Mechanical Inspection
D. Performance Optimization
E. Cycling/Transient Test
F. Mechanical Inspection
137
S U M M E R S et al
- 4 -
TABLE 2
KEY DA TA A R O U N D THE HE AT E X C H A N G E REFORMER
Inlet Pressure 91 p s i g
Inlet Temperature 804°F
Inlet Flow 9174 SCFH
Outlet Temperature 943°F
CH^-Conversion 9 2%
^2 + C O P r o d u c t i o n 34181 SCFH
The e x pe rim en ts have verified that the two bed catalyst

s y s t e m w i t h the c o m b i n e d c o - c u r r e n t and c o u n t e r c u r r e n t
f l u e ga s f l o w o p e r a t e s as p r e d i c t e d an d g i v e s t h e d e s i r e d
d e c r e a s e in t h e m e t a l w a l l t e m p e r a t u r e s .
During the experiments, many c o mp let e data sets were taken

w h i c h c o n s i s t o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s of
t e m p e r a t u r e s , p r e s s u r e s , f l o w s , a n d g a s c o m p o s i t i o n s in
and a r o u n d the heat e x c h a n g e r e f o r m e r . These data were
t r e a t e d o n an e r r o r s m o o t h i n g p r o g r a m w h i c h c a l c u l a t e s t h e
ba si c h e at and m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e s t a k i n g the e x p e r i m e n t a l
u n c e r t a i n t i e s into c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
T h e e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e a l s o s i m u l a t e d on T o p s o e ' s R E F R A O
pr og r a m which calculates the conv ers io n, pressure drops,
and heat t r a n s f e r give n the r e a c t o r s i ze and c o n f i g u r a t i o n
and the inlet data. In F i g u r e 3 a r e s h o w n t h e c a l c u l a t e d
and m e a s u r e d axial t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s in s i d e the heat
exchange reformer.
A f t e r the p r o o f - o f - c o n c e p t run, the p i l o t unit was

intentionally shutdown for a detailed mechanical
i n s p e c t i o n i n c l u d i n g p u l l i n g of the c a t a l y s t b a s k e t and
r e m o v i n g of c a t a l y s t . The mechanical inspection revealed
t h a t t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e r e f o r m e r w a s in e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n .
T h e r e f o r m e r was th en r e a s s e m b l e d , and the p i lo t un it was

r e s t a r t e d in m i d - A u g u s t f o r c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e 1 9 8 6 t e s t
program. T h is test p r o g r a m i n c l u d e s d e m o n s t r a t i o n of
n o n - s t a t i o n a r y o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a s w e l l as a r u n
s i m u l a t i n g a n t i c i p a t e d fuel cell c o n d i t i o n s w i t h d a i l y
c y c l e s f r o m hot s t a n d b y to full load.
References
1. H. S t a h l , J. R o s t r u p - N i e l s e n , a n d N. R. U d e n g a a r d ,
"High E f f i c i e n c y Heat Exch ang e R e f o rme r, " A b st rac ts
f r o m the 1985 Fuel Cell S e m i n a r , T u c s o n , Ar iz o n a .
138
S U M M E R S e t al
- 5 -
TEMPERATURE °C
1300
FLUE GAS
1200
PROCESS GAS
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
AOO AXIAL DISTANCE
FIGURE 3
AXIAL TEMPERATURE PROFILE IN HEAT EXCHANGE REFORMER
139
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
C. A. Reiser, C. R. Schroll & M. J. Smith

International Fuel Cells (IFC)
South Windsor, CT 06074
Recent activities in Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

technology development at IFC have centered on two related
issues; (1) a system update for coal gasifier applications
to account for the use of NiO cathodes, and (2) cell area
scale-up to 8-ft^ to be demonstrated in an upcoming short
stack test.
System Update for Coal Gasification Applications
IFC updated its reference system design of a MCFC power

plant integrated with an Oj-Blown Texaco Coal Gasifier.
Earlier studies did not account for the C O 2 pressure of the
oxidant gas affecting cell durability. Subsequently, IFC
defined the COj pressure of the oxidant to achieve a
projected NiO cathode life of 40,000 hours or greater. The
reference system was updated to incorporate this under
standing .
The major change was to bypass a portion of the CO,-rich

anode exhaust stream and inject the balance into the
oxidant supply. This change is shown as a dashed line on
the powersection system schematic illustrated in Figure 1.
The reference system was also updated to incorporate
details of the fuel processing subsystem based upon recent
EPRI data from their Cool Water studies (1) .
FUEL (
FROM
GAStFI
Figure 1. Updated System Schematic
140
REISER ET AL
-2-
The results of this system update provided the basis for

revising the experimental test conditions used by IFC in
its MCFC stack technology development program.
Stack Scale-Up
IFC's most recent activities in MCFC stack development have

been aimed at evaluating the design issues of scale-up
required for commercial size hardware. A subscale stack
was first tested for this purpose and final preparations
for the test of an 8-ft^ short stack are in progress.
The major objective of the subscale stack test was to

demonstrate that cell sheet metal components, scalable to
larger sizes, could be used without penalty to cell perfor
mance. The objective was met in the 1500 hour test of this
stack.
Figure 2 shows that the average cell performance of the

stack met prediction and dviplicated the bench-scale cell
data. This demonstrated capability to achieve the perform
ance characteristics assumed in the reference system
update, presented above, and confirmed the design of cell
sheet metal components for use in the 8-ft’ short stack.
1.00
0.90 B E N C H -S C A LE
CELL D A TA
0
>
1
0.80
P R E D IC T E D
O 0.70
>
0.60 SUBSCALE STACK

DA TA AVERAGE
0.50
50 100 150 200 250
C U R R E N T D E N S IT Y - AS F
Figure 2. Subscale Stack Performance vs. Prediction
141
REISER ET AL
-3-
The 8-ft^ short stack (20 cells) has been assembled and
installed in the test stand (Figure 3). A test duration of
up to 2000 hours is planned. The primary objective of this
stack test is to demonstrate that cell performance and
stability are maintained in scaleup required for commercial
size hardware. The initial results of the 8-ft^ stack test
will be presented.
Acknowledgement
The activities presented herein were sponsored by the U. S.

Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC21-79ET15440. The
DOE Program Managers have been Mr. F. Gmeindl and Mr. J.
Copley. We express our appreciation for their support,
contributions and guidance to the success of the program.
Reference 1.
Cost and Performance for Commercial Application of

Texaco-Based Gasification-Combined-Cycle-Plants, EPRI
AP-3485 Final Report, prepared by Fluor Engineers,
Inc., Apri1 1984
Figure 3. 8-Ft“ Molten Carbonate Stack

Installed in Test Stand
142
DIRECT FUEL CELL DEVELOPMENT
L. Paetsch, P.S. Patel, H.C. Maru and B.S. Baker

Energy Research Corporation
3 Great Pasture Road
Danbury, CT O 6 8 1 3
Development of the direct molten carbonate fuel

cell (DFC) has recently emphasized both single cell
component improvements and multi-cell testing of these
improvements. Individual component specifications and
goals are derived from considerations of system design
and application requirements. The performance and endur
ance of stackable components have been characterized
in bench-scale cells and 2 to 10-cell stacks. Operability
of DFC was confirmed in a IQ-cell stack with 1 ft^ size
components. Results of these studies are discussed
below.
System Design
System designs for an atmospheric pressure, natural

gas fueled DFC have been presented at the National Fuel
Cell Seminar in the past (1). An advanced system has
been designed recently to ensure high overall utiliza
tions of available fuel value and to improve the reactant
gas composition. This design incorporates an electro
chemical hydrogen transfer device (HTD) resembling a
phosphoric acid fuel cell stack (2). As shown in Figure
1, the anode exhaust from a fuel cell c ntaining H 2 ,
CO 2 , CO and H 2 O is cooled to recover water, passed through
a shift reactor to convert CO to CO 2 and H 2 , and then
fed to the HTD to separate H 2 from the exhaust stream.
kl HEX 7
FIGURE 1. SCHEMATIC FOR DIRECT FUEL CELL SYSTEM

WITH HYDROGEN TRANSFER DEVICE
143
L. Paetsch et al
-2-
The H 2 thus separated Is recycled back to the anode,

while COy is mixed with oxidant stream and fed to the
cathode. This modification in system design can result
in very high, > 9 5 f«, utilization of fuel value In the
fuel cell, and at the same time provide higher partial
pressures of H 2 in the anode and CO 2 in the cathode.
Parametric analyses have shown that very high efficiencies
can be achieved with this system, even after the small
electric power required for the HTD is supplied. The
concept of HTD has already been demonstrated at ERG
in a multicell stack.
A system efficiency of 537® has been estimated,

which assumes presently attained cell performance.
An efficiency of 56% can be obtained if one assumes
a reasonable 37 MV improvement in cell performance.
Thus a very high power plant efficiency is obtained
in a relatively simple power plant even at sizes as
small as 2 MW. No bottoming cycle is required, except
that mechanical auxiliary power (2 .7 %) is recovered
from the cathode waste stream. The installed power
plant cost for this system has been estimated to be
$1250/kW. The cost of electricity, with A $/10^ Btu
natural gas has been estimated to be 5 8 to 60 mills/kWh.
Based on this system design, the stack and other

subsystem specifications, and performance and endur nee
goals have been defined. Development and testing to
meet these goals is in progress as described below.
Endurance of Internal Reforming Catalyst
One important consideration of the cell design

is endurance goals of the internal reforming catalyst
in the anode compartment. The selected material for
internal reforming in the DFC is a supported nickel
catalyst. Bench-scale endurance testing of this catalyst
in a single cell demonstrated 7 , 0 0 0 hours of acceptable
methane reforming activity (3). Post-test analyses
showed that the reformer life was limited by electrolyte
contamination in the peripheral area of the catalyst
bed near the cell edge seals. At the cell periphery,
film creepage is the principal mode of electrolyte trans
port. Electrolyte creepage penetrated only 1/2 in.
of the catalyst bed during the 7,000 hour test. The
area of this 1 / 2 in. band of contaminated catalyst
around the periphery of the reformer amounts to 30%
of the total bed area in a bench-scale cell. Scaling
up the fuel cell to larger dimensions reduces the impor
tance of such edge effects. The size of the direct
fuel cell is going to be scaled up to A ft^. At this
larger size a 1 / 2 in. band of contaminated catalyst
amounts to only 8 % of the total catalyst bed area.
If the assumptions are made that contamination of 30%
of the catalyst area is tolerable and that the rate
144
L. Paetch et al
-3-
of electrolyte creepage is constant, then the reforming

endurance of a 4 ft^ DFC will increase to 26,000 hours.
An additional factor on top of fuel cell scale-up is
also expected to extend the reformer endurance: Since
the time of the 7,000 hour endurance demonstration,
an improved MgO/Ni catalyst formulation has shown a
five-fold improvement in reforming stability in out-of-
cell tests. Thus, fuel cell scale-up and recent improve
ment in catalyst stability are projected to extend the
direct fuel cell reformer endurance well beyond the
25,000 to 40,000 hour economic life requirement.
Reforming Stack Development
The feasibility of internal reforming of methane

was demonstrated in a 10-cell stack. The performance
of subscale (1 ft^) cells in the stack was comparable
to that of bench-scale cells assembled with similar
components. The benefits of internal reforming due
to the internal product exchange were verified. At
■^1200°? and OCV conditions, the stack exhibited close
to theoretical i'^33%) conversion of methane. The conver
sion, as expected, increased to 100? when the fuel utili
zation in the anode chamber was increased above 50?
(Figure 2). No significant cooling in the fuel entry
region due to the highly endothermic reforming reaction
was observed. The stack operated in a thermally self-
sustaining mode with pre-reformed fuel, as well as with
a direct methane feed. The pressure drop through the
reforming anode chamber under practical utilizations
was measured to be less than 2 in. H 2 O. The stack perfor-
mince on a direct methane feed was comparable to that
with pre-reformed fuel (Figure 3)-
STACK CURRENT, amp.
1i
«>
z
o
I
a/)
>
z
o
o A n oda: CH4 Feed
o C a th o d e : A lr /C O s
• A v0. Steeli Temo^ S40*C
ELEC T R O C H E M IC A L FUEL U T ILIZ A T IO N , %
C U RRENT D E N S IT Y . m A /c m *
FIGURE 2. EXPECTED AND OBSERVED METHANE CONVERSION

AS A FUNCTION OF FUEL UTILIZATION
IN A lO-CELL STACK
145
L. Paetsch et al
-4-
STACK CURRENT, amp.
Avg . S ta c k Temp.: 64 0*C
O x Id a n t- A ir - C O i
>
e
o
<
o
>
o
>
<
CURRENT DENSITY , m A /cm *
MDOl07a
FIGURE 3. COMPARISON OF STACK PERFORMANCE WITH

METHANE AND PRE-REFORMED FUELS
More recently, the compatibility of direct fuel

cell hardware with tape matrix and interactions between
these components are being investigated. Initial results
of a stac.. test indicated a need to modify the assembly
and start-up procedures. These changes, along with
bipolar plate design have been incorporated in a stacka-
bility test currently in progress. Initial results
show exce.l lent performance and low gas leakage, as expect
ed .
Acknowledgment
The effort described here was in part supported

by the Department of Energy and Electric Power Research
Institute.
References
1. Snyder, W.G. et al, "High Efficiency Direct Fuel

Cell Systems for Dispersed Generation," National
Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts, 1985, PP- 149-152.
2. Baker, B.S. and Ghezel Ayagh, H., "Fuel Cell
Systems", U.S. Patent 4,532,192, July 30, I 9 8 5.
3 . Tarjanyi, M . , Paetsch, L., Bernard, R., and Ghezel
Ayagh, H., "Development of Internal Reforming
Catalysts for the Direct Fuel Cell", National
Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts, 1985, PP- 177-lSl.
1 46
STATUS OF MCFC DEVELOPMENT AT TOSHIBA
K.Murata and T.Shirogami

Toshiba R&D Center
4-1,Ukishima-cho,Kawasaki-ku,Kawasaki,210,Japan
K.Ogimoto and Y.Sakamoto

Toshiba Corporation, Advanced Power Generation Division
1-6,Uchisaiwai-cho,Chiyoda-ku,Tokyo,100,Japan
Toshiba Corporation has been evolved in the development of

MCFC since 1981, under the contract of MlTl-NEDO's
MOON-LIGHT project. The objectives of the project during
the Phase-1 are to accomplish the basic cell and stack
technology and to conduct the lOkW class stack
demo-operation in 1986 Japanese fiscal year. Full stack
development work is planned to follow the Phase-1.
The program of Toshiba is to develop paste type electrolyte

MCFC, where the paste type is denoted as the electrolyte
layer made of the pre-mixed powders of alkaline carbonate
and electrolyte support. Toshiba has developed new
paste-type electrolyte fabrication process(l), where the
mixture of alkaline carbonate, LiA102 support, crack
arresting ceramic fibers and polyethylene binder are molded
at low pressure ( 100kg/cm2 ) and low temperature (140‘c ) . The
binder is burned out on the way of the cell heating up
procedure. Though the electrolyte layer is not so
impervious to gaseous reactants as hot pressed ones even
after the binder burn out, combination with the dual
porosity anode, which works as bubble pressure
barrier(BPB), provides a good performance cell.
For the lOkW stack assembling, 50cm square cell components

are developed, considering the scale up step to the full
stack and economical standpoints. Cell components, above
mentioned process and scale, have been fabricated.
For the lOkW-stack configuration, external manifolds and

reactant gas cross flow pattern are adopted by putting the
priority on the simplicity of reactant gas supply. Besides
the cathode gas cooling, independent air cooling was
adopted, by providing the cooling plates at each few cells.
Because, more effective heat dissipating method will be
required as the cell scale becomes full stack one, where
the process gas cooling would result in larger pressure
drop.
SHORT STACK TESTS
Several short stacks utilizing 50cm square cells (1600cm2

effective reaction area) were assembled, and the
applicability of the cell components and the stack
configuration were evaluated. In FY1985, 20cell stack,
where three cooling plates were inserted each five cells to
147
MURATA ET AL
- 2-
uniform the vertical temperature distribution, was

assembled and output power of 2.75kW was attained. Recently
another lOcell stack, which took the flattening
pre-treatments to reduce the cell-to-cell contact
resistance, was assembled. Fig.l shows the outer view of
the stack. Fig.2 and 3 show the stack and each cell
performances. Except the 10th cell, whose lower performance
was attributed to the less reactant gas supply due to the
carbon deposition which was found from the post test
teardown examination, each cell had good and uniform
performance.
Fig.l Photograph of the ten 50cm-square-cell stack.
UF*Uox*40%(0.15A/cm2)
2.0
1.77kW
>
7.37V
V
o>
o V
i
0 80 160 240 320

Current (A)
Fig.2 Performance of the ten 50cm-square-cell stack.
(Fuel;80%H2/C02,humidifired at 55C,4036uti1ization,
Ox; 70?JAir/C02 , 40%util. Compression load;lkg/cm2 , 650’C)
148
MURATA ET AL
-3-
o ■o
150 mA/cm'
o
>
o>
O
Cell Number
Fig. 3 Cell performance distribut ion of the ten
50cm-square-cel1 stack.
ENDURANCE IMPROVEMENTS
ANODE BPB: Anode BPB layer is formed on the porous Ni

sintered substrate by coating the slurry of the finer Ni
powder and binder by the blade gap of 0.7mm, and by
sintering the layer in the H2 furnace. The finer pore
layer, 0.2mm thickness and average pore diamerter of about
1.0 microns, is formed. Chromium oxide or alumina is added
into the dual porosity anode body by dipping it in nitrate
aqueous solutions, neutralizing and oxidizing at 430t: in
air, to improve the stability of the BPB layer. The
additives are effective for suppressing the BPB structure
degradation during the binder burning out pocedure.
THERMAL CYCLABILITY: Crack generation in the electrolyte

layer during thermal cycle is evaluated by observing the
crack pattern of the electrolyte plate in the removable
simulated cell, and by measuring the bending strength of
the plate. Crack initiation would be suppressed by the
addition of a few% stable and wettable ceramic fibers,
because the fibers disperse the vacant pores. For the
fibers, LiA102 and Li2Zr03 are favored.
MANIFOLD SEALING: F o r the sealant applied at the external

manifold flange, plasticity, low ionic conductivity and low
mutual solubility with molten carbonate at the operating
temperature are desired, to form the mutual sliding allowed
and the pumping action suppressed interface. Family of the
borate glass, which is thought to be less soluble into the
carbonate melt and has low ionic conductivity compared to
149
MURATA ET AL
-4-
carbonmate melt as shown in (Fig.4), would be applicable as

sealant, when mixed with LiA102 fine power as support and
combined with the zirconia fiber felt. The cell-to-cell
electrolyte redistribution due to the ion migration through
the manifold sealing layer was investigated through the
post-test teardown analysis of the ten 30cm-square-cell
stack, which operated for about 1500 hours under the
continuous electric load. The results show the glass melt
seal thought to be effective to supress the carbonate
trnsportat ion.
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
This work was sponsored by New Energy Development

Organization(NEDO) and Agency of Industrial Science and
Technology(AIST) of Ministry of International Trade and
Industry(MITI), Japan.
REFERENCES
1. T.Shirogami, K.Murata, Y.Sakamoto, DEVELOPMENT STATUS

OF TOSHIBA ADVANCED PASTE ELECTROLYTE MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL
CELLS", Fuel Cell Seminor Abstracts, ppl62-165. May, 1985.
800 600 AOO(»C)

T— rr-r
'□-> M olten
E 'A Corbonote
u
to
\ ""b^/oornoi 10
cn
Q \
-\ A P 2 O 5- B 2 O 3
G la s s
u
D
XI o z 0 0 -6 2 0 3
c
o G lo ss
tj
_-8
o
u
u
UJ
1.0 1.2 1.A

1/Tx10-3(K -’)
F i g .4 Electric conductivity of molten carbonate and borate
glass families, candidates for the manifold sealants.
150
AN OVERVIEW OF THE DUTCH MCFC PROGRAM
S. Pi e t e r s z
P E O - U t r ec h t
Th e N e t h e r l a n d s
Introduction
In d e c e m b e r 1985 the D u t c h g o v e r n m e n t a p p r o v e d a P E O - p r o p o s a l for a

t h r e e y e ar M C F C d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m an d m a d e a v a i l a b l e to P E O 10
m i l l i o n d u t c h g u i l d e r s (appr. US $ 4 m i l l i o n ) for the e x e c u t i o n of the
p ro g r a m . Th e o b j e c t i v e s of the p r o g r a m are:
to b u i l d up the le v e l of k n o w l e d g e o n M C F C t e c h n o l o g y in o r d e r to
b e ab le to c o n t r i b u t e to i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s ;
to c r e a t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s for a D u t c h i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t - d e v e l o p m e n t
of M C F C t e c hn ol o gy .
The main re as on s for the D u t c h g o v e r n m e n t to i nv e st in a M C F C d e v e l o p

ment p r o g r a m we re the fo l lo w in g :
- a potential interesting market in the N e t h e r l a n d s and Europe;

- h i g h e f f i c i e n c y a n d l o w p o l l u t i o n of M C F C - s y s t e m s ;
- s u i t a b i l i t y of n a t u r a l ga s as fuel;
- a v a i l a b l e RAD c a p a b i l i t i e s ;
s p i n - o f f for o t h e r n e w t e c h n o l o g y a r e a s (e.g. n e w m a t e r i a l s ) .
The results fr o m a D u t c h m a r k e t s t u d y s h o w that the e s t i m a t e d m a r k e t

p o t e n t i a l d e p e n d s v e r y m u c h o n s y s t e m i n v e s t m e n t cos ts (see fi gu r e
b e l o w ) . Sin ce the s e c o s t s are s t i ll a m a t t e r of s p e c u l a t i o n s , it is
unwise to sta t e f i r m f u t u r e m a r k e t p o t e n t i a l fi gu res .
S E N s m v rrv an alyses .
O u fc n M C F C M T ftM p o t c f l f u l
75 % 100 % 125 %
00%
50 %
|120%I
0%
•XPMIMIvaOKI
151
s. PIETERSZ
- 2 -
Th e D ut c h p r o g r a m has been set up w it h the h el p of IGT (C h ic a go ) , IIT

(C hi ca g o) and EPRI* The m a i n c o n t r a c t o r for the p r o g r a m is the
N e t h e rl a n ds ' E n e r g y R e s e a r c h F o u n d a t i o n (ECN) in Pe t te n (H oll an d ),
w i t h some u n i v e r s i t i e s as s u b c o n t r a c t o r s . The p r o g r a m w i l l be e x e c u t e d
w i t h s u p po r t of and in cl o s e c o o p e r a t i o n wi t h IGT and IIT in Ch ic ago .
Th e tota l bu d ge t for the th ree ye ar p r o g r a m ( i n c l u d i n g o w n c o n t r i b u
t i on s of ECN and s u p po rt f r o m the E u r o p e a n Co m mi s s i o n ) w i l l be appr.
20 mln. D u tc h g u i l d e r s (appr. US $ 8 m i ll io n ).
In the f o l l o w i n g pa r a g r a p h s a b ri e f d e s c r i p t i o n w il l be g i v e n of the
m a i n a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r this pr o gra m. For a m o r e e x t e n s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n ,
m o t i v a t i o n and first r e s ul t s the re a de r is re f er r ed to mr. K. J oo n 's
presentation.
Development of components
Objective: To e s t a b l i s h the design of c o m p o n e n t s that c a n be u se d for

the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a c e l l / s t a c k wi th s pe c i f i c Dutchknow
how .
Main items to be st ud ie d u n d e r this s u b p r o g r a m are the fol low i ng .
Fundamental r e s e a r c h w i ll be c o n d u c t e d to d e t e r m i n e the r e a c t i o n
m e c h a n i s m s and k i n e t i c s at the Ni O c at h od e , w i t h e mp h a s i s on the Ni
d i s s o l u t i o n in the c a r b o n a t e mel t . Thi s w o r k will be p e r f o r m e d at a
t e c h n i c a l u ni v e r s i t y , wi t h m a i n sponsor the E u r o p e a n Co m mi s s i o n .
As a c o n t r i b u t i o n to a w o r l d w i d e se a r c h for a l t e r n a t i v e a n o de
m a t e r i a l s , f u n d a m e n t a l r e s e a r c h will be c o n d u c t e d at a t e c h n i c a l u n i
v e r s i t y to e l u c i d a t e the r e a c t i o n m e c h a n i s m s and k i n e t i c s at such
a l t e r n a t i v e ano de s. Also, the i n f l u e n c e of In te r n a l r e f o r m i n g on the
a n o d e r e a c t i o n s will be i nv e st i g a t e d .
On the b as is of e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a va l i d m o d e l s for r e a c t i o n k i n e t i c s
an d l o cal m as s and heat t r a ns po r t p h e n o m e n a at the e l e c t r o d e s will be
d e v e l o p e d . This d e v e l o p m e n t wi l l be e x p e r i m e n t a l l y s u p p o r t e d by
m e a s u r e m e n t s on p r es en t da y Ni a n o d e s and by the res ul t s of the
cathode and a l t e r n a t i v e a n od e reaction measurements.
Materials r e s e a r c h wi l l be p e r f o r m e d at E C N to d e v e l o p n e w m a t e r i a l s
for us e in a n o d i c e n v i r o n m e n t s . Th e e f f o r t s wil l focus on p r o d u c t i o n
an d p r o c e s s i n g m e t h o d s for o b t a i n i n g h i g h l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d
( m o n o d i s p e r s e if n e c e s s a r y ) powders of L i F e 5 0 g as a base m a t e r i a l for
c o n d u c t i n g cer a mi cs .
P r o c e s s i n g an d m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s wi ll be d e v e l o p e d by E C N for
w e l l - c h a r a c t e r i z e d p o wd er s as s t a r t i n g m a t e r i a l s for the f a b r i c a t i o n
of e l e c t r o l y t e tiles and e l e c t r o d e s . The pr o c e s s e s w il l be s u i t e d for
u p s c a l i n g and wil l c o ve r b ot h s t a n d a r d and ne w m a t e r i a l s .
152
s. PIETERSZ
- 3 -
To s u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s and c o m p o n e n t d e v e l o p m e n t an d f a b r i ca t io n , a
se r i e s o f l a b - s c a l e c e ll s (3 cm^) w il l be o p e r a t e d to d e t e r m i n e c o m
p o n e n t an d c el l p e r f o r m a n c e , e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and to i d e n
t i f y m e c h a n i s m s l e a d i n g to e v e n t u a l d e g r a d a t i o n .
Design, construction and testing of a pilot-ceXl
Objective: O p t i m a l i s a t i o n of c e l l - d e s i g n t h r o u g h e n d u r a n c e an d p e r f o r
m a n c e t e s ti n g of l a b - c e l l s
Following activities take place u n d e r this s u b p ro g ra m .
The most p r o m i s i n g an d v e r s a t i l e fabrication te c h n i q u e for cell c o m

ponents se e ms to be tape ca st i n g , w h e t h e r or n ot fo l l o w e d by s i n
t e r in g . Th e tape c a s t i n g and s i n t e r i n g p r o c e s s wi l l be f u r th e r
d e v e l o p e d at EC N in o r d e r to i m p r o v e p r o d u c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , o p t i m i z e
the p r oc e ss ( p a r a me t er s) and e n a b l e u p s c a l i n g to m a s s p r o d u c t i o n .
Starting w it h an e v a l u a t i o n of c u r r e n t a n d ol d d es i gn s , a new separa

to r p la t e for st a c k a b l e M C F C ' s w i l l be d e v e l o p e d at ECN. The final
d e s i g n w i l l be o p t i m i z e d in v a r i o u s re s p e c t s , su c h as m a t e r i a l p e r f o r
m a n c e an d cell p e r f o r m a n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , f a b r i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s and
c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s to be a p p l i e d w i l l be in v es t i g a t e d .
As a f o l l o w - u p of l a b - s c a l e c e l l te s ti n g, promising new developments

wi l l be s u b j e c t e d to l o n g term tes t s at EC N w i t h la r ge r e l e c t r o d e s u r
fa c e a r e a (10 x 10 cm^) in b e n c h - s c a l e ce l ls . I m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r s to
b e i n v e s t i g a t e d ar e e n d u r a n c e , e l e c t r o l y t e i n v e n t o r y an d m i g r a t i o n ,
m a c r o - c r a c k i n g , tile c o m p a c t i o n , gas f l o w c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , m e c h a n i c a l
load, etc.
C e l l m o d e l s w il l be f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d , b a s e d on a v a i l a b l e m o d e l s in
the USA. T h e y will be used for e v a l u a t i o n of the c e l l - t e s t i n g r e s u l t s
a nd w i l l s u p p or t the d e s i g n of a sm all stack.
Design, construction and testing of a pilotstack
Objective: O p t i m i s a t i o n of the s t a c k - d e s i g n by m e a n s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n
of c r u c i a l stack properties (such as e l e c t r o l y t e s t a b il i ty ,
flowpatterns and e f f i c i e n c y )
B a se d on e x i s t i n g t e ch n o l o g y , a d a p t e d by s u c c e s f u l d e v e l o p m e n t s fr om
the p ro j e c t s m e n t i o n e d ab o v e an d s u p p o r t e d b y m o d e l c a l c u l a t i o n s , a
s t a c k a b l e 30 x 30 c m^ c el l w i l l be d e s i g n e d , c o n s t r u c t e d a n d tested.
Th i s w il l be the b a s i s for f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t of a s t a c k c o n s i s t i n g
o f some 10 c e ll s w i t h an o u t p u t of ab o u t 1 kW.
153
s.PIETERSZ
- 4 -
T IM E S C H E D U L E M C F C P R O G R A M
1906 1987 1 9 tt 1 9 t9 1990
fe a s a b ili^
studies
com poneut
te s tu ig
c e il p e rfo rn a u ce
te s tiu g
c e ll ■odedipg m m m m mm
-
s la c k aocleU us
c o a s tra c tiiu i
1 a w s ta id i
te s tiu g
1 a w stack
G onstructioa r L' _i
10 a w stack
te s tin g err
10 a w sta ck
design d — T*"J1
too a w stack
co n strn ctio n Clin
100 a w staca
Organizational aspects
In c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h l e a d i n g e x p e r t s f r o m the U S A a p r o g r a m ha s b e e n
d e f i n e d in a w a y that a m e a n i n g f u l c o n t r i b u t i o n to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
M C F C d e v e l o p m e n t s is a i m ed at. Thi s fi rst p h as e of the n a t i o n a l fuel
c e l l R and D p r o g r a m wi l l be e x e c u t e d as a c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t b e t w e e n
D u t c h and U S - o r g a n i z a t i o n s . P a r t i c i p a t i o n of o t h e r i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s
w i l l be e n c o u r a g e d a n d is ex p e c t e d .
The projects as f o r m u l a t e d form a coherent pr og r am . Thus , the

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s an d job s ar e n u m e r o u s .
T h i s r e q u i r e s cl o s e c o o p e r a t i o n , a h i g h d e g r e e of i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e
a n d s tr i ct m a n a g e m e n t . Also, the r e l a t i o n s w i t h the f ue l c e l l p r o g r a m
o f the E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n ar e as su r e d . F u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s for
n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n o n a b i - o r m u l t i l a t e r a l b a si s
will be e x p l or e d.
154
DEVELOPMENT OF MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
I.HIRATA, T.MURAHASHI, K.SATO

H.URUSHIBATA AND M.MATSUMORA
CENTRAL RESEARCH LABORATORY

MITSUBISHI ELECTRIC CORPORATION
1-1, TSUKAGUCHI-HONMACHI, 8-CHOME,
AMAGASAKI, YHOGO 661 JAPAN
INTRODUCTION
Mitsubishi electric corporation has been performing R&D

of molten carbonate fuel cell technology as the highest
priority program. Emphasis during past year was focused on
the estimation of electrolyte loss during long period
operation and the development of stack leading to scale up
of components. This paper reports on the electrolyte
analysis of single cell and stack.
CELL TECHNOLOGY
One of the m a j o r technical issue of cell and stack

technologies is electrolyte loss during operation by
corrosion, creepage and evaporation et al.. Many small cell
testing and post testing have been conducting to make clear
this electrolyte loss mechanism.
Figure 1 shows the result of electrolyte loss analyses

of the cell operated for 9811 hours. The 65% of initial
amount of electrolyte stayed in the active components
(anode, cathode and tile) and the remain 35% was consumed in
the support component (current collectors, separator and
cell housing). The released electrolyte loss separated into
three groups which consist of 3.2% loss by corrosion, 7.5%
loss by creepage (migration loss through component) and
24.4% loss by unknown mechanism including vaporization.
At the sam e time, the Li/K ratio in e l e c t r o l y t e was

analysed and it was found that potassium contents was found
rich in the electrolyte and lithium contents was found rich
in the corrosion products. Since the initial Li/K ratio is
1.0, the change of Li/K ratio indicates that potassium ion
migration takes place and lithium tends to react with the
support components.
155
HIRATA ET AL
- 2 -
| M L - I7 |
9811 hr
.T . .
Initial
1/16.8% 8 3 .2 %
/ / .' / A
Components 6 5 . 0 % ^ ^ ^ ^
r -i
After / T . - ■ . iC l C r d
/
operation / . . 54.6 % , 7jyJ75% 2 4 .4 %
/I ^=1
A Co
3 .3 % 3 .2 %
A;Anode T:Tile C:Cathode

Cr:Creepage CoiCorrosion
Loss ( Creepage + Corrosion ) = 1 0 0 %

I I Li K (Mole ratio)
Current collector
- Anode -
Current collector ~T~/'/ /

- Cathode -
/ 93 / 22%
// // .
Co 99 14%
Housing 89 35%
- Anode
1%
Hous ing 92 14%

- Cathode
Co 97 4%
FIGURE 1. ELECTROLYTE DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS OF SINGLE CELL
156
HIRATA ET AL
- 3 -
STACK TECHNOLOGY
Two short stacks had been constructed and tested. One

was 1kW stack consisting of 10 cells wigh effective area of
1024,cm^ and hot pressed matrix. A continuous load test at
the current density of 100-150 mA/cm^ had been conducted for
1 500 hours. The average cell voltage was 0.7 V at 150
mA/cm^ with 40% utilization of both anode gass (8 OH 2 - 2 OCO 2 )
and cathode gass (70Air-30C02>.
The other 700W stack nconsisting of 3 cells with

effective area of 2 0 0 0 cm and tape m a t r i x has been
operating over 800 hours since this August. The average
cell voltage is 0.8 V at 1 50 m A / c m ^ wit h same c o n d i t i o n <
kW stack. Figure 3 shows the operating history.
100 mV improvement of cell performance has been achived

in which half of the improvement is ascribed to reduction of
iR obtained by changing the electrolyte matrix from a hot
pressed tile to a tape matrix.
1 kW stack was disassembled and a post test examination

was thoroughly conducted. One of the findings was the
redistribution of electrolyte in the stack. As shown in
Figure 3, somewhat higher electrolyte content was found in
the upper region of the stack (minus pole) where potassium
was richer.
TALL STACK FABRICATION
1 0 k W tall stack has bee n d e s i g n e d and is under

construction. The specification are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1. SPECIFICATION OF 10 kW STACK
Effective area 2000 cm^
Cell number 50 cells
Cooling Process gass
Maniforld External
Operating pressure Atmosfer
Output 11 kW
157
HIRATA ET AL
- 4 -
1.0
7 0 0 w stack
(2 0 0 0 c m ’-3ce 11,tape materix)
lOkw goal-0. 75V
o
Ikw s t a k ( l O O O c m ’- l O c e l l , h o t pl e s s tile)
o 0.5 1--------------1_____________ i _
500 1000 1500 2000
T i m e (h r s )
A n o d e gass :80%H,-20CO, Utilization : 40%

C a t h o d e gas :70%Air-3CCOi C u r r e n t density: 150mA/cm'
FIGURE 2. STACK PERFORMANCE
initial total amount
03 anode
o>
(D
0.2
O
<3
UJ tile
o
o
H
(plus) (minus)
Cell Number
FIGURE 3. ELECTROLYTE DISTRIBISION ANALYSIS OF STACK
158
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AT FUJI
K. Koseki, T. Nakanishi and K. Kobayashi

Fuji Electric Corporate Research and Development Ltd.
2-2-1, Nagasaka, Yokosuka, 240-01, Japan
Introduction
Fuji Electric started the research and development of molten

carbonate fuel cells in 1961. The studies were, however,
stopped several years later. In 1980, we restarted, and our
studies have been concentrated on the development of
components such as electrolyte plates, electrodes, and cell
stack configurations. In 1985, a 30-cell stack with 200 cm2
electrodes was built and tested at CRIEPI.
In parallel, we have been developing new electrolyte matrix
fabrication methods under the contract with NEDO since 1984.
In 1986, a 2900 cm2 size single cell using the new matrix
was built. We are now promoting to build a 2500 cm2 size
24-cell stack using the new matrixes, which will be tested
by the end of this fiscal year.
Stack configuration
Fuji's stack is a hybrid manifold type, i.e., consisting of

an inner manifold for fuel gas and a external manifold for
oxydant gas. Figure 1 shows a 200 cm2 size 30-cell stack of
this type. In this stack, the electrolyte plates made by
means of the hot-pressing method are used, and the cooling
plates are inserted every ten cells. The average cell
voltage of the stack was 0.756 V/cell at 150 mA/cm2. Figure
2 shows the performance of the each cell. The voltage
scattering was relatively small at 0-200 mA/cm2 except for
five cells. The post analysis made it clear that the low
performances of the five cells were caused by the
insufficient contacts of the electrodes with the elctrolyte
plates. During the operation, the cracking of the
electrolyte plates occured around the holes of the inner
manifolds in some cells, and the fuel gas leaked out. In
spite of the gas leakage, the stack was successfully
operated for about 500 hours, and it was proved that the
hybrid manifold configuration is fundamentally acceptable.
The problem of cracking was solved by using the new matrix
which will be mentioned later.
Electrode
Anode: The anodes made of Ni, Ni-8Co, and Ni-IOCr alloy were
subjected to a 2000 hours compression creeping test, and the
relations between the creep deformation and the electrode
polarization were determined. The creep deformation
increased in the order, N i » N i - 8 C o > Ni-1OCr, and the
polarization increased in the order, Ni»Ni-8Co~Ni-1OCr. The
159
KOSEKI ET AL
-2-
effects of the porosity, mean pore size,and specific surface

area on the anode polarization were also determined. The
mean pore size and the specific surface area increased
sharply with increaseraent of the porosity when it exceeded
60 %, and the polarization also became sufficiently low at
the porosity above 60 %.
Cathode: The effects of the porosity, mean pore size, and
specific surface area on the electrode polarization were
determined. The polarization was low enough at the porosity
above 70 % and the mean pore size above 10 um. However, the
mutual relation between the polarization and the specific
surface area was not found in the range of 0.1-0.2 m2/g.
Electrolyte matrix
Two matrix fabrication methods have been developed: a paper

making method and a callender rolling method.
Paper making method: A green sheet matrix is fabricated in a
similar way as making a paper. On being mixed with pulp in
water, LiAlG^ powder adheres to the pulp, forming flocks,
and the matrix sheet is prepared by filtering the flocks.
The fabrication process is shown in Fig.3.
We tried the scale-up of the matrix up to 650x600 mm size.
Since the large sized matrix is susceptible to crack, two
improvements were adopted to prevent it from cracking: the
addition of alumina fiber in the matrix, and mixing of
different sizes of LiAlO^ powders. There was another
problem that the matrix contains relatively large pores
which are left after the pulp is burnt out. So the relation
between the amount of pulp and the pore size distribution
was determined. The pore size distribution curve became
sharp and shifted to the smaller pore side as the amount of
pulp decreased. Therefore, we got a closed packed fine pore
matrix by using the minimum amount of pulp as possible.
On the bases of the results described above, a large size
650x600 mm matrix was fabricated by an automatic paper
making machine, and a 184x184 mm matrix was cut out from it.
A 200 cm2 size cell with this matrix showed the performance
of 820 mV at 150 mA/cm2. A 2900 cm2 size single cell with a
650x600 mm matrix was also built and tested. The
performance was, however, lower than that of the 200 cm2
size cell. At present, an improved 2500 cm2 size stack is
being built.
Callender rolling method: We found that the callender
rolling method can produce a closely packed matrix. The
fabrication process is shown in Fig.4. Alumina fiber was
added to strengthen the matrix. A 200 cm2 size cell using
this matrix showed the performance of 730 mV at 150 mA/cra2.
A 650x600 mm matrix was also fabricated by this method.
Conclusion
We have been developing the molten carbonate fuel cells

since 1980, and have reached the technical level capable of
making a 3000 cm2 size cell. We have also developed the new
160
KOSEKI ET AL
-3-
matrix fabrication methods, i.e.,the paper making method and

the Callender rolling method; both are suitable for
fabricating large sized matrixes. At present, we are making
efforts to develop the cells which endure long-term
operation, and to complete the stack technologies.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported in part by NEDO. We also express

our thanks to Toppan Printing Co.,Ltd. for providing us with
the matrixes fabricated by the paper making method.
II
Fig.l 30-cell stack with 200 cm2 electrodes
Fuel : H , / C O , = 0 0 /2 0
O x id a n t : A ir /C 0 2 = 7 0 /3 0
ÔmA/cm*
lO O m A /cm * '
® 0.5
650“C
189h
10 20 25 30
C e ll num ber
Fig.2 Performance of each cell in 30-cell stack
161
KOSEKI ET AL
-4-
LiAlO Alumina Pulp Water Coagulating

fiber agent
Mixing
Flock
Filtering
Drying
I
Green sheet matrix
Fig.3 Flow sheet of paper making method
LiAlO Alumina Organic Organic Water Surface active

fiber binder solvent agent
Mixing
I
FiItering
I
Kneading
I
Dough
Rolling
Drying
I
Green sheet matrix
Fig.4 Flow sheet of Callender rolling method
16 2
PROGRESS ON M O L T E N C A R B O N A T E F U E L CELL
ALTERNATIVE CATHODES
J. L. S m i t h , G. H. K u c e r a , a n d N. Q. Minh
Argonne, Illinois 60439
INTRODUCTION
L i F e 0 2 a n d L i o M n O ^ i n d o p e d f o r m s a p p e a r to m e e t t h e r e q u i r e
m e n t s for c a t h o d e m a t e r i a l s . These were chosen from a larger
n u m b e r of c o m p o u n d s w h i c h w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as b e i n g t h e r m o
d y n a m i c a l l y s t a b l e in t h e c a t h o d e e n v i r o n m e n t . The undoped
forms were extensively tested and meet the r e q u i r e m e n t s of l o w
solubility, nonmigration, and s t a b i l i t y (1,2). D o p i n g c a n be
used to e n h a n c e t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s e t w o m a t e r i a l s .
T h e i r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s are v e r y d e p e n d e n t on s t o i c h i o m e t r y , and
t h e r e f o r e on e n v i r o n m e n t . In t y p i c a l c e l l e n v i r o n m e n t s , the
u n d o p e d m a t e r i a l s h a v e r e s i s t i v i t i e s of f r o m a f e w h u n d r e d to
about one thousand ohm-centimeters resistivity. The precise
requirement f o r c a t h o d e u s e h a s b e e n i l l d e f i n e d d u e to t h e
c o m p l e x n a t u r e a n d i n c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c a t h o d e ' s
operation.
A c a t h o d e m o d e l d e v e l o p e d by P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s I n c o r p o r a t e d
w a s u s e d to e x a m i n e p r e d i c t e d p e r f o r m a n c e o f v a r i o u s c a t h o d e s ,
w i t h m i c r o s t r u c t u r e and e l e c t r o n i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of the m a t e
r i a l as p a r a m e t e r s (3). T h e c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t m a t e r i a l
r e s i s t i v i t y of as h i g h as -20 2 - c m u n d e r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
m a y be a c c e p t a b l e w i t h p r o p e r m i c r o s t r u c t u r e .
R e s i s t i v i t i e s of -10 C - c m c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h d o p e d m a t e r i a l s
under realistic cell conditions. The e m p h a s i s has therefore
shifted toward fabricating appropriate raicrostructures with
doped materials, t h e n t e s t i n g t h e m in c e l l s . The fabrication
of the c a t h o d e s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d .
DOPED MATERIALS
L i F e 0 2 i n t h e u n d o p e d s t a t e is a g o o d c o n d u c t o r ( - 3 S - c m
r e s i s t i v i t y at 6 5 0 0 ) w h e n s y n t h e s i z e d i n a i r , b u t is a b o u t
t w o o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e m o r e r e s i s t i v e w h e n s y n t h e s i z e d in
h i g h e r l e v e l s of C O o (4). T h e o b j e c t i v e o f d o p i n g is to
r e d u c e t h e r e s i s t i v i t y to t h e l e v e l s of a i r - p r e p a r e d m a t e r i a l
a n d to e l i m i n a t e t h e C O 2 s e n s i t i v i t y .
L i F e 0 2 has s u c c e s s f u l l y been doped with m a n ganese, copper,

and cobalt. These dopants can produce LiFe02 with p o t e n
tially useful resistivity. The m a n g a n e s e - d o p e d m a t e r i a l has
been most extensively studied. U n d e r r e a l i s t i c 10 a t m
conditions t h e o p t i m u m d o p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e s u l t s in a
r e s i s t i v i t y o f - 2 5 S - c m at 6 5 0 ° C . T h e r e is e x c e l l e n t
c o r r e l a t i o n between dopant level, r e s i s t i v i t y and l attice
parameter (Figs. 1 a n d 2). The material is a p - t y p e c o n d u c
t o r in c a t h o d e c o n d i t i o n s as i n d i c a t e d b y i t s c o n d u c t i v i t y
b e h a v i o r and by S e e b e c k m e a s u r e m e n t s . Any simple s u b s t i t u
tion of an Mn or Mn w o u l d r e s u l t in a n - t y p e , s o it is
p r o b a b l e that a m ore c o m p l e x defect s t r u c t u r e is o c c u r r i n g
with, for example, oxygen interstitials.
163
SMITH ET AL
- 2 -
L i F e 0 2 d o p e d w i t h c o p p e r p r o d u c e s a r e s i s t i v i t y of ~10 S - c m
under high Pqq2 conditions. T h i s c o n d u c t i v i t y s h o u l d be
a d e q u a t e for ce l l t e s t i n g . O f c o n c e r n is t h e m i g r a t i o n a n d
s u b s e q u e n t p r e c i p i t a t i o n of c o p p e r ; t h i s is a n i s s u e t h a t m u s t
be a n s w e r e d through cell testing. T h e m a t e r i a l is a p - t y p e
conductor, and t h e r e f o r e i m p r o v e s in c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h
increasing P o 2 ‘
C o b a l t - d o p e d L i F e O y h a s r e s i s t i v i t y in t h e < 1 0 S - c m r a n g e a t
6 5 0 ° C (Fig. 3). W h i l e the o p t i m u m d o p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n has
not been d e t e r m i n e d for this system, at t h e m a x i m u m d o p a n t
l e v e l in F i g . 3 t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y is s t i l l i m p r o v i n g , s o it is
p r o b a b l e that f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t s w i l l be s e e n .
Li2Mn03 in the undoped s t a t e is a p o o re r c o n d u c t o r in r e a l

is tic environm ents than LiFe02. It i s an n - t y p e c o n d u c t o r ,
r a th e r than a p -ty p e . I t has v e r y l ow s o l u b i l i t y , and f r o m
cell tests, a p p e a r s t o h a v e no m i g r a t i o n t e n d e n c i e s i n a c e l l
environment. The d o p i n g o f t h i s m a t e r i a l has r e c e i v e d l e s s
attention t h a n t h a t o f L i F e O ^ , but has r e s u l t e d i n r e s i s
tiv itie s o f - 2 0 S-cm i n r e a l i s t i c environments.
CELL TESTING
The cell t e s t i n g w i l l b e g i n w i t h 25 cm b o i l e r - p l a t e cells,

and nickel anodes. T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r c e l l
t e s t i n g is t h e c a t h o d e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e . A n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e (3)
t h a t r e s i s t i v i t i e s o f c a t h o d e m a t e r i a l s o f u p to a b o u t 2 0
9 - c m c o u l d g i v e c o m p a r a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e to n i c k e l - o x i d e c a t h
odes, if c a r e is t a k e n to a c h i e v e the c o r r e c t m i c r o s t r u c t u r e .
The particles from which t h e c a t h o d e is to b e f a b r i c a t e d m u s t

b e o f s u b m i c r o n s i z e to g e t a d e q u a t e c a t a l y t i c s u r f a c e a r e a
a n d to f o r m f l o o d e d a g g l o m e r a t e s . T h e a g g l o m e r a t e s i z e is of
i m p o r t a n c e b e c a u s e t h e r e a c t a n t s m u s t d i f f u s e to t h e r e a c t i o n
s i t e t h r o u g h l i q u i d - p h a s e in t h e a g g l o m e r a t e . The path length
is m i n i m i z e d b y k e e p i n g the a g g l o m e r a t e s i z e s m a l l . The
o b j e c t i v e is s e t at 3 - 8 p m t y p i c a l d i a m e t e r . T h e r e m u s t be
the u s u a l l a r g e gas p a s s a g e s , of - 1 0 p m d i a m e t e r . This dia
m e t e r is, o f c o u r s e , d e t e r m i n e d by the p o r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s . Finally, a p o r o s i t y o f - A 5 - 5 5 Z is b e i n g
sough t .
S p h e r i c a l a g g l o m e r a t e s a l o n e c a n n o t b e u s e d to a c h i e v e t h e
desired structure, a s it w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n of s m a l l a g g l o m e r a t e s a n d l a r g e p o r e s . Conse
quently, p o r e s a r e b e i n g m a d e u s i n g a v a r i e t y of p o r e f o r m e r s
a n d a g g l o m e r a t e s a r e b e i n g m a d e in n o n s p h e r i c a l g e o m e t r i e s .
Pore formers, such as starches, cellulose, flours, etc.,

g e n e r a l l y do not p r o d u c e the d e s i t e d interconnected pores
wit h o u t a very high porosity. With tibrous pore formers, it
is d i f f i c u l t to g e t the d e s i r e d o r i e n t a t i o n n o r m a l to t h e
s u r f a c e of a t h i n p l a n a i body with conventional fabrication
techniques. The fibers t e n d to l i e a l o n g t h e f l u i d ' s
streamlines in a t a p e c a s t i irg o i s i in i 1 ,t i p r o c e s s , and
t h e r e f o r e wi l l not p e n e t r a t e the f a c e s in s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r s .
164
S M I T H ET AL
- 3
A process to p r o v i d e 1 0 - 1 5 p m d i a h o l e s t h r o u g h t h e p l a n e of
such a ca t h o d e has been developed, but t h e n u m b e r d e n s i t y is
s u c h that l a t e r a l c h a n n e l s w i l l be r e q u i r e d for s u f f i c i e n t
gas access. T h e s e m a y b e s t be f o r m e d by f a b r i c a t i n g the
structure using preformed agglomerates. The agglomerates
a r e f o r m e d by s e v e r a l m e t h o d s . O n e is t o f i l l a f o a m o r o t h e r
porous or g a n i c body with a ceramic slip, b u r n off the o r g a n -
ics, a n d s i n t e r . D e p e n d i n g on the d e g r e e of fill, this
p r o c e d u r e can resu l t in a r e p l i c a o f t h e f o a m ( F i g . 4 ) , o r of
t h e v o i d s in the f o a m . T h i s t h e n c a n be c r u s h e d to p r o v i d e
nonspherical agglomerates. In a s i m i l a r p r o c e s s , organic
f i b e r s c a n be m i x e d w i t h a c e r a m i c s l u r r y a n d s i n t e r e d . This
p r o c e s s can y i e l d sm a l l c e r a m i c tubes (Fig. 5), w h i c h c a n be
crushed to p r o v i d e the a g g l o m e r a t e s . Many other organics
c o u l d b e u s e d to p r o d u c e s u c h a g g l o m e r a t e s .
SUMMARY
Li2 Mn03 and LiFeO, have been developed to t h e p o i n t that they

s h o u l d p e r f o r m w e l l in a c e l l . T h e c a t h o d e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e is
of c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e in o b t a i n i n g g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h
t h e s e m a t e r i a l s w h o s e r e s i s t a n c e s a r e h i g h e r than NiO.
Several methods have been developed to p r o v i d e t h e d u a l
p o r o s i t y m a t e r i a l s for f a b r i c a t i o n of t h e r e q u i r e d c a t h o d e
s t r u c t u r e for cell testing.
ACKNOULEDGMENT
W o r k s u p p o r t e d by the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y , Morgantown

Energy Technology Center, Fuel Cell P r o j e c t s S e c t i o n under
C o n t r a c t N o . W - 31 - 1 0 9 - E N G - 38, a n d p e r f o r m e d u n d e r t h e d i r e c
t i o n o f U. J. H u b e r .
The submitted manuscriot has been authored
bv a contractor of the U. S. Government
under contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38.
REFERENCES
1. J. L. S m i t h , T. D. K a u n , N. Q. M i n h , a n d R. D. P i e r c e ,
"Stable Materials for M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e F u e l C e l l
Cathodes," 1983 N ational Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts,
p. 6 5 , O r l a n d o , Florida, November 13-16 (1983).
2. G. H. K u c e r a , N. Q. M i n h , J. L. S m i t h , and
F. C. M r a z e k , "Molten C a r b o n a t e Fuel Cell C athode
Development," 1985 N a t i o n a l Fuel Cell S e m i n a r
Abstracts, p. 1 5 8 , T u c s o n , Arizona, May 19-22 (1985).
3. G. W i l e m s k i and J. L. Smith, in preparation.
4. N. 0. M i n h , G. H. K u c e r a , a n d J. L. S m i t h , P r o c . of the
F i f t h Int. Symp. on M o l t e n Salts, M. L. S a b o u n g i -
Blander, et al., Eds., The E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l Society,
Pennington, N J ( 1 9 8 6 ) p. 5 9 7 .
165
SMITH ET AL
- 4 -
150
• Co-precipltation of hydroxides
^ Ge! process (Prof. H. Anderson)
Eo ■ Co-precipitation of carbonates
E
X
o
>.
0.00 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 0.15 0.20

Mn/Fe Mole Ratio
FIGURE 1
R E S I S T I V I T Y OF M N - D O P E D L i F e O AS A F U N C T I O N OF
D O P A N T LEVEL.
• C o-precipitation of hydroxides
- .0 0 2
* Gel process (Prof. H. Anderson)
■ Co-precipitation of carbonates
O)
- .0 0 8
(J - .0 1 2
- .0 1 4
_J - .0 1 6
0.00 0 .0 5 0.10 0.15 0.20

Mn/Fe Mole Ratio
FIGURE 2
L A T T I C E C O N S T A N T OF M N - D O P E D L i F e O AS A F U N C T I O N
OF D O P A N T LEVEL.
166
SMITH ET AL
- 5 >
FIGURE 3
2 25
O
I RESISTIVITY OF CO-DOPED LiFeO
2 PREPARED IN HIGH CO AND TESTED
X
O IN AIR AT 650®C VS. COMPOSI
^ 20
TION 0.
(/)
10
0.05 o.to
C o /F e M O LA R RATIO
FIGURE 4
LiFe02 STRUCTURE PREPARED BY

IMPREGNATING FOAM WITH SLIP
AND SINTERING.
100 pm
FIGURE 5
LiFeO "TUBES" PREPARED BY

S IN TE HN G WITH PORE FORMERS.
3 pm
167
OXIDE DISPERSION STRENGTHENED (ODS) A N O D E
D. S. Erickson, E. T. Ong, and R. Donado
Institute of Gas Technology
3424 South State Street
Chicago, IL 60616
State-of-the-art (SOA) molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)

anodes are porous plaques prepared by sintering a physical
mixture of metallic nickel and a variety of stabilizing
additives in a reducing atmosphere at about 1000°C. The
anode provides reaction sites for the electrochemical
oxidation of hydrogen in the fuel, which is enhanced by
increased surface area, good electronic conductivity, and
sufficient wetting by the carbonate electrolyte. To main
tain these characteristics, the pore structure and the
wetting characteristics of Che anode are important and,
since the fuel cell will be required to endure 40,000 hours
of operation, Che stability of these properties must be
assured. In consideration of stack designs, several short
comings of the anode began to surface, among the most impor
tant were cost, creep, and morphological stability. As a
result, each developer and technology supporting group
included experimental efforts in their programs to improve
and/or eliminate these shortcomings.
Changes in porosity of a Ni + 10% Cr anode up to 10,000

hours of cell test are presented in Figure 1. A significant
amount of submicron pores formed as a result of LiCr0 2 for
mation. However, very little change in porosity occurred
after 600 hours, indicating that LiCr0 2 formation was prac
tically completed by that time. Micrographs of a Ni + 10%
Cr anode before and after 10,000 hours of test in a fuel
cell are shown in Figure 2. Apparently, each nickel par
ticle precursor became somewhat porous as a result of LiCr0 2
100
POST 10,000
80 - HOURS TEST
58% POROSITY
0 2.Afi MPS
> 60 PRETEST
65Z POROSITY
5 . 5 / i MPS
> POST 600
H HOURS TEST
--I 40 - 572 POROSITY
CO 2 . 9 / i MPS
O
OL
£ 20
100
PORE SIZE, M A86080620P
Figure 1. CHANGES IN PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF

Ni + 10% Cr ANODES IN CELL
168
ERICKSON, ET AL
2
Fieure 2. Ni-10% Cr ANOUE (a) AS RECEIVED AND

(b) AFTER CELL TESTING
169
EKICKSON, tT A L
3
formation. The rather rapid change, during the first ~600

hours of operation, from the initial anode morphological
condition to one that does not appear to change signifi
cantly thereafter would place the burden of long-term
performance decay mostly on changes in the electrolyte,
matrix, and cathode. However, long-term changes in the
anode due to creep, although very slow and not as influ
ential as the changes taking place in the other components,
do contribute to performance decay and to the changes in
stack height. Consequently, a stabilized porous anode
structure whose morphology and thickness do not change
substantially during the life of the stack needs to be
developed. We believe that this can be achieved in a cost-
effective manner by a proper approach to dispersion
hardening where small (<2 %) amounts of oxide particles
(Cr2 0 3 , AI 2 O 3 , etc.) in the nickel may provide enough
resistance to creep, and control long-term changes in the
anode.
Under an Electric Power Research Institute (e PRI) sponsored

project, work has been conducted at IGT toward the develop
ment of oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) MCl'C anodes.
Included in this effort are the following: characterization
of the sintering and creep properties of the SOA and ODS
anodes through out-of-cell creep testing, correlation
between ODS microstructural characteristics and creep
properties; and the development of cost-effective ODS anode
fabrication techniques. Shown in Figure 3 are the b5U°C/
100 psi creep curves for two promising ODS anode microstruc
tures as compared to that obtained for the SOA Ni-10% Cr
anodes tested under the same conditions. The ODS anodes
exhibited less overall shrinkages with stabilization of the
creep rate occurring at shorter times. The microstructural
changes expected for the ODS anodes are much less than for
the Ni-Cr SOA anodes due to the lower amount of second phase
material to react with the molten carbonate. For example,
in Figure 3, the initial Ni-IOCr porosity was 62%. After
LiCr0 2 formation, the porosity drops to ~50%. The final
porosity, from mercury porosimetry measurements, is 47%,
representing a total porosity decrease of 15%. On the other
hand, the total porosity change for Che ODS anodes was only
0.5-1.3%.
IGT experience has shown that ODS anodes present a very

promising alternative to the SOA anodes in terms of improved
creep resistance. Future work will be directed toward opti
mization of the microstructural design and fabrication
parameters with respect to cell test and creep test perform
ance. Optimal ODS microstructures will be compared to SOA
microstructures in terms of long-term creep behavior, micro-
structural stability, and cell performance.
1 70
ERICKSON, ET A L
4
70
65 N I- 1 0 O
SHRINKAGE, X
X 60
■iilB]— 2 .4
>- — B---------□
N I-1 .eCraOa-a.SXAIaO g
HH 55
CO
O 1.0
CK ...... a ------- £kNI 0. 0XA 12O3
S 50'
\ S-TO.-- 7 .8 _
— o -----------© "
N t/L lC rO g
45
40 1 _ J. , I------------- 1------ 1 1 1
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
TIMEj h A86080621P
Figure 3. CREEP OF OUS AND SOA ANODES AT 650°C

AND AN APPLIED PRESSURE OF 100 PSI
(NFCS85-DSE/RPE)
171
ANALYSIS OF THE DECAY OF AN ISOTHERMAL MCFC AT 893 K
N. Giordano, S. Freni, R. Quagliata, S. Cavallaro

and P. Carbonaro
Istituto CNR-TAE Pistunina - 98013 MESSINA (ITALY)
Preliminary results obtained at 893 K on a single MCFC

recently installed in thi s Institute are repo r t e d . The
fully automated test facility (1), which uses " s tate of
the a rt" c o m p o n e n t s s u p p l i e d by the I n s t i t u t e of G a s T e c h n o
logy (IGT, C hic a g o ) , h a s b e e n o p e r a t e d f o r m o r e t h a n two
years under various conditions. The objective of these
tests was to e s t a b l i s h the p e r f o r m a n c e and the e n d u r a n c e
at lower than baseline T (923 K). It w a s r e a s o n e d that,
s i n c e th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t rate p r o c e s s e s a f f e c t i n g c o m p o n e n t ' s
d u r a b i l i t y a n d c e l l ' s p e r f o r m a n c e are m a r k e d by h i g h a c t i v a
tion energies (2), a better understanding of phenomena
so o c c u r r i n g w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a r e f e r e n c e f o r a p r e l i m i n a r y
e v a l u a t i o n of the a t t r a c t i v e n e s s a n d l i m i t s of l o w e r o p e r a
ting temperatures. Results obtained from a series of run s
at 89 3 K are reported including "post-mortem" analyses
of components after these tests, the longest of which
( r u n 4) l a s t e d ca. 4 450 h.
Cell Performance
Runs were carried out w i t h no r e p l e n i s h m e n t of the e l e c t r o

lyte ( T a b l e 1); the c ell was 81 cm2. Performance
was evaluated by periodic (12 h) recording of the cell
impedance (Z, mfi ) and of the o v e r a l l p o t e n t i a l s (n, V).
Two of the planned r uns (runs 2 and 3) were discontinued
d ue to accidental failure of CO^ and thu s w e r e useless
f o r the s a k e of c o m p o n e n t e v a l u a t i o n . R u n 4 w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d
at 4450 h (while still holding 9 0 % of its i n i t i a l r a t e d
power) and the components analyzed (see below). Plots
of the output voltages at different lo a d s ( 1 = 0 (O C V ),
1 3 . 2A a n d 15A), IR and the p o w e r o u t p u t (as % of the i n i t i a l
rated power) are shown in Fig.l (run 4). A slow decay
in the initial rated power is observed from 1200 h up;
the cell still r e t a i n e d 9 0 % of its i n i t i a l a c t i v i t y e v e n
after 4400 h of c o n t i n u o u s operation. The r e s u l t s d e n o t e
improvement in the life-time by operation at lower T,
as m a n i f e s t e d by an a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c e d e c a y of 4,5 m V / 1 0 0 0
h a n d a s t e a d y i n c r e a s e of the IR (4% p e r 1 0 0 0 h) b e f o r e
ca t a s t r o p h i c decay had occurred.
172
GIORDANO ET AL
- 2 -
"Post-mortem" analysis
To identify structural and morphological changes, extensive

a n a l y s e s w e r e c a r r i e d out on i n d i v i d u a l s a m p l e s of anode,
c a t h o d e , m a t r i x and h a r d w a r e (Run 4). P o r o s i m e t r i c d i s t r i b u t i o n
was made, using a Microstructure Porosimeter C.E. Mod.
2000. SEM analysis was performed by using an Autoscan
"E TEC" (4SA) Scanning Electron Microscope coupled with
a M i c r o p r o b e E D A X (P V - 9 1 0 0 ) . C h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s was p e r f ormed
by a Si e m e n s D-500 d i f f r a c t o m e t e r w i t h m o n o c h r o m a t i c Cu/Ka(Ni-
f i l t e r e d ) as r a d i a t i o n source.
TABLE 1
SYNOPSIS OF LIFE ENDURANCE - TESTS ON TAE--MCFC
VARIABLES UNITS RUN 2 RUN 3 RUN 4
Temperatures K 893 893 893

Pressure Bar 1 1 1
F uel E l o w cc/mi n 255 255 255
Fuel Composition % 56 60 60
34 CO^ 40 CO^ 40 C O ^
F uel d e g r e e of
utilization n % 68 75 75
F
Oxid. F l o w cc/mi n 915 915 915
Oxid. Composition % 75 A i r 75 A i r 75 A i r
25 CO^ 25 CO^ 25 CO^
Oxidant Degree of
utilization n % 50 50 50
ox
Life-time h 1144* 500* 4450
Initial power out
2
put (at 13,2 A) m Watt/cm 107.4 108.0 108.0
OCV m Volt 1010 1020 1020
Initial Internal
cell resistance m n 9.0 8.0 8.0
Holding pressure atm 1.0 1.0 1.3
*Run discontinued because of failure in the CO line.

2
Re s u l t s of d i f f e r e n t a n a l y s e s c a n be s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w i n g .
Th e spent anode is c h a r a c ie-i'i z e d by an i n c r e a s e (+ 15%)
173
GIORDANO ET AL
- 3 -
in the to t a l por e v o l u m e w i t h som e sh i f t t o w a r d the l o w e s t

pore sizes. SEM analysis revealed traces of K and Al.
XRD of the naked surface of the anode showed presence
of Li^CO , LiOH and Li„A1^0^. XHÔ (from hydrolysis of
2 3 2 2 2 2 J J
y L i A l D ^ ) . P o r o s i m e t r i c a n a l y s i s of the sp e n t t ile r e v e a l e d
s ome s h i f t to l o w e r radii b u t the sh a p e of the p o r e v o l u m e
d i s t r i b u t i o n w a s the same as f o r the fresh. The t ile a p p e a r s
v i t r e o u s , p o o r l y regular, w i t h some white spots attributable,
by b a c k - s c a t t e r i n g analysis, to Ni a n d Cr. A feature of
the Ni is its even presence w i t h thickening in the proximity
of the c a t h o d e . Cr a lso appears d i s p e r s e d b u t at a m u c h
lower intensity. Comparison between the fresh and used
cathode showed a slight decrease (-10%) of total pore
volume with concomitant appearance of some micropores.
Visual inspection revealed change from a laminar (fresh)
to an incoherent black powder (used). Absence of K was
confirmed by SEM and XRD. Strong li n e s attributable to
L i ^ N i 0^ and Ni^S 0 were also detected. Housing surfaces
w e r e f o u n d c o v e r e d by a w h i t e p o w d e r (Li salts) e s p e c i a l l y
concentrated on the anodic side. This can be taken as
e v i d e n c e of c r e e p on the h o u s i n g m a t e r i a l s . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n ,
together with overall electrolyte losses amounting to
25% of the original, seems to indicate that drainage of
the electrolyte should followed by preferential attack
of the housings by the Li^CO^ while vapor losses could
have been predominantly in the form of K O H as e x p e c t e d
(5). Moreover, l ack of K (XRD a n d SEM) at the anode- and
at the c a t h o d e - e l e c t r o l y t e i n t e r f a c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t insuffi
cient electrolyte inventory in each electrode was the
cause of the observed performance decay. This statement
w e l l c o m p l i e s w i t h c o m m o n b e l i e f tha t c a t h o d e s s h o w o p t i m u m
performance when the electrolyte fills small pores such
that 20-25% o f the c a t h o d e pore volume is o c c u p i e d (4).
With our spent cathode still holding 34% of the total
volume as micropores, lack of the electrolyte contact at
the c a t h o d e is p o s e d as c r u c i a l f o r the life o f the cell.
In t h i s v i e w the e n d of the c e l l is m a r k e d b y a still
filled t ile but the electrodes are "dry", the e l e c t r i c a l
i n t e r r u p t i o n b e i n g l o c a l i z e d at the t i l e - e l e c t r o d e i n t e r f a c e s .
A s to the f a t e of the e l e c t r o l y t e , e v e n if a q u a n t i t a t i v e
a n a l y s i s w a s n ot c a r r i e d o u t n o r the f r a c t i o n a l K / L i c o m p o s i
t i o n in the s p e n t tile a n a l y z e d , we a s s u m e that the o b s e r v e d
o v e r a l l l o s s e s of the e l e c t r o l y t e ( 25%) c o u l d be a c c o u n t e d
mostly by corrosion reactions. Such assumption is based
u p o n the m o d e l e a r l i e r p r o p o s e d b y M a r i a n o w s k i (6) a c c o r d i n g
to w h i c h o v e r a l l l o s s e s in a M C F C o p e r a t e d at 923 K f o l l o w
174
G IORDANO ET AL
- 4 -
an e m p i r i c a l rate l a w of the type;
Losses 3 . 7 8 X 1 0 “ "^ t + 0 . 0 9 + 3.4 (2)

(vaporization) (corrosion) (creepage+lithiation,etc.)
T h e m o d e l , as such, g i v e s in o u r c ase (4400 h) an e s t i m a t e d

l o s s o f 5. 4 g, e q u a l to 1 6 % of the o r i g i n a l m a s s of the
electrolyte. As, however. t h i s m a s s is r o u g h l y t w o - t h i r d s
of t h a t o b s e r v e d , the q u e s t i o n is o p e n as to a r e a d a p t a t i o n
of th e m o d e l to a n y d i f f e r e n t p r e v a i l i n g c o n d i t i o n s . E v i d e n
tly, w i t h the first term in Eq. 2 expected to be lower
at any lower T ( f u n c t i o n of the a c t i v a t i o n energies for
vaporization,usually in the order of 35-59 Kcal/mole),
it is inferred tha t the second and third terms in E q . 2
should have more than compensated, in o u r case, for the
higher observed l osses. Accordingly, simple c o n siderations
call f o r e i t h e r an i n c r e a s e in the e x p o n e n t of the c o r r o s i o n
t e r m a n d / o r an i n c r e a s e of the t h i r d t e r m in e q . ( 2 ) . H o w e v e r ,
as the o b s e r v e d v e r y l o w i n c r e a s e of the IR (Fig.l) t e n d s
to e x c l u d e creepage and the lithiation of the anode was
f o u n d n o t to be d r a m a t i c we c o n c l u d e that, u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n
ces, m a i n c o n c e r n s h o u l d be p o s e d u p o n the c o r r o s i o n term,
most likely as the w e t - s e a l corrosion.
Votftfle [m V l
OCV
1000
900- -100
800- - 90
I
O.
V«t 13.2 A ■o
«>
-8 0
700- 3
10 600-
■»
8 500-
6
400
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
U e T k n e (h )
FIGURE 1
Endurance b e h a v i o u r of a M C F C at 8 9 3 K
175
GIORDANO ET AL
- 5 -
Conclusions
O p e r a t i o n o f a M C F C at 893 K, w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y t e r e p l e n i s h
m ent, has led to 4400 h with performance equal to or
higher than 9 0 % of its initial r a t e d power; the average
d e c a y r ate w a s in the o r d e r of 4.5 m V / 1 0 0 0 h and the i n c r e a s e
in IR o f about 4% every 100 0 h. P o s t - m o r t e m a n a l y s i s of
the components indicated that the principal mechanism
of p e r f o r m a n c e d e c a y c o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n s u f f i c i e n t
carbonate inventory in e a c h e l e c t r o d e . As used components
looked acceptable by SEM and porosimetric analysis, it
is concluded tha t further work at lower than baseline
T s h o u l d be c o n t i n u e d w i t h e m p h a s i s on the c o r r o s i o n behaviour.
Acknowledgment
Work carried out under contract from the European Community

(Non-nuclear energy program contract N. E N 3 E - 0 0 6 8 - 1 ).
Thank for cooperation to CNR-IRTEC Faenza (Italy) and Prof. S.Galvagno.
References
1. S. F r e n i , R. Q u a g l i a t a , F. R o meo, P. C a r b o n a r o a n d R. Di
L e o n a r d o , " R e s e a r c h A c t i v i t y at C N R - T A E d u r i n g 198 4 on the
I GT M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e Fuel C ell T est F a c i l i t y " . Int. Kept.
N . 0 6 / 8 5 - A p r i l 1985.
2. B. Baker, S. G i o n f r i d d o , A. L e o n i d a , M. M a r u and P. Patel,

"Internal Reforming Natural G a s F u e l e d C a r b o n a t e Fuel Cell
S t a c k " . F i n a l Rept. for GRl C o n t r a c t N. 5 0 8 1 - 2 4 4 - 0 5 4 5 , E n e r
gy R e s e a r c h Corp., D a u bury, CT, 1983.
3. N. Giordano, S. Freni, R. Quagliata, G. Moleti, P. Carbona

ro a n d E.H. Camara. Ext. A b s t r a c t N . 412. The 17 9 t h E l e c t r o
c h e m i c a l Soc. S p r i n g M e e t i n g , B o s t o n M a y 4-9th, 1986.
4. H.C. Maru, D. Pa t e l and L. P a e t s c h , Ext. Abstract 81-1, Ele£

t r o c h e m i c a l Soc. P e n n i n g t o n N.J. (1981).
5. E.T. Ong a n d T.D. Clear in"Molten Carbonate Fuel Cel l Tec-

n o l o g y " p a g .54 (J.R. S e l m a n and T.D. Clear, eds) pV 84-13,
E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l Soc. P e n n i n g t o n N.J. (1984).
6. L.G. M a r i a n o w s k i a n d J.B. O ' S u l l i v a n " S t a t u s of M o l t e n C a r

b o n a t e Fuel Cell T e c h n o l o g y " E i g h t A n n u a l E n e r g y T e c h n o l o
gy Conf. a n d E x p . W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. M a r c h 9-11, 1981.
176
MODELING O F H 2S E F F E C T S O N THE PERFORMANCE OF
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS
Gerald Wilemski
P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s Inc.
R e s e a r c h Park/ P.O. Box 3100
A n d o v e r , MA 0 1 8 1 0 - 7 1 0 0 USA
Introduction
A m o d e l has b e e n d e v e l o p e d to p r e d i c t the p e r f o r m a n c e of a
m o l t e n c a r b o n a t e fuel c ell (MCFC) o p e r a t i n g on fuel c o n t a m
i n a t e d by low l e v e l s (1-10 ppm) of H 2 S ) . The c a l c u l a t i o n
of v o l t a g e l o s s e s is b a s e d on a p o i s o n i n g m e c h a n i s m d r a w n
f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s at the I n s t i t u t e of Gas T e c h n o l
o g y (1,2). An e x i s t i n g M C F C p e r f o r m a n c e m o d e l (3) was m o d
i f i e d to i n c l u d e the e f f e c t s of this m e c h a n i s m on cell p o
larization. The p e r f o r m a n c e m o d e l was a l s o m o d i f i e d to
a c c o u n t for the e f f e c t s of S O 2 c r o s s o v e r f r o m the c a t h o d e
to the a n o d e o c c u r r i n g w h e n s p ent, H 2 S - c o n t a i n i n g fuel is
b u r n e d and a d d e d to the c a t h o d e s t r e a m for C O 2 m a k e u p . For
t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n of the fuel cell p e r f o r m a n c e m o d e l (3), a
f l o o d e d a g g l o m e r a t e mo d e l (4) a n d a h e t e r o g e n e o u s f ilm
m o d e l (5) w e r e used, r e s p e c t i v e l y , for the c a t h o d e and
anode. T h e s e two m o d e l s r e p r e s e n t r e a s o n a b l y w ell the N i O
c a t h o d e s a n d 9 0 / 1 0 N i / C r a n o d e s used in IGT cells. Only
c o u n t e r f l o w g e o m e t r y was c o n s i d e r e d in o r d e r to s i m p l i f y
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of r e s u l t s as well as the m o d e l d e v e l o p
m e n t an d v a l i d a t i o n .
Poisoning Mechanism
The m e c h a n i s m d e v e l o p e d at IGT (1,2) p o s t u l a t e s the r e a c

t i o n of d i s s o l v e d H 2 S w i t h c a r b o n a t e ions to f o r m s u l f i d e
i ons w h i c h then r e a c t w i t h the nick e l a n o d e to form a film
o f a n i c k e l s u l f i d e s p e c i e s of u n k n o w n c o m p o s i t i o n :
H^S + C0“ = + HÔ + C O 2
Ni + xS + NiS + 2xe
X
Based on these reactions, a Nernst equation for the poten-
E^ = E° + ( R T/2F) ln(P^^^
w h e r e P is a p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e and E° ( = - 1 . 3 9 3 V ) was
o b t a i n e d f rom h a l f - c e l l e x p e r i m e n t s (1).
Efi
Thus, a p o i s o n i n g t h r e s h o l d e x i s t s that
d e p e n d s on the e l e c t r o d e p o l a r i z a t i o n and fuel c o m p o s i t i o n .
H o w e v e r , it wa s c o n c l u d e d fro m cell t e s t s (1) that e v e n a
1 77
WILEMSKI
-2-
f u l l y p o i s o n e d a n o d e c o n t i n u e s to o x i d i z e h y d r o g e n / a l t h o u g h
with substantially reduced electrocatalytic efficiency.
Modeling of H?S Poisoning
P o i s o n i n g of the a n o d e is a s s u m e d to o c c u r w h e n the a n o d e
p o t e n t i a l Vg is m o r e p o s i t i v e than Eg. Due to fuel u t i l i
z a t i o n / b o t h Eg a n d Vg b e c o m e more p o s i t i v e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
d i s t a n c e in the fuel flow d i r e c t i o n . S i n c e Vg a l s o d e p e n d s
on the l o c a l a n o d e o v e r p o t e n t i a l / the a n o d e ' s p o l a r i z a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l s o help to d e t e r m i n e w h e n the p o i s o n i n g
c o n d i t i o n Vg > Eg is first a c h i e v e d . T y p i c a l l y / at c o n
s t a n t f l o w rate/ the c o n d i t i o n Vg < Eg w i l l h o l d t h r o u g h o u t
the c ell at low current densities/ and no p o i s o n i n g will
occur. At h i g h c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s / the c o n d i t i o n Vg > Eg
w i l l p r e v a i l e v e r y w h e r e / and the e n t i r e a n o d e w i l l be
poisoned. At intermediate current densities/ each i n e q u a l
it y w i l l h o l d ove r p art of the anode/ and p a r t i a l p o i s o n i n g
will occur. In a c o u n t e r f l o w cell/ p o i s o n i n g is p r e d i c t e d
to o c c u r f i r s t at the a n o d e outlet.
A v e r a g e c ell c u r r e n t d e n s i t y is c a l c u l a t e d in the usual

w a y (3) e x c e p t that at any p o i n t in the cell for w h i c h
^ ^s' the a s s u m e d p r e s e n c e of N i S ^ on the e l e c t r o d e s u r
f ace m u s t be a c c o u n t e d for. In c o m p u t i n g the local c u r r e n t
d e n s i t y at t h e s e p oints/ the e x c h a n g e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y for
the a n o d e m o d e l is d e c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r a c c o u n t i n g for the
r e d u c e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the e l e c t r o d e due to H 2 S p o i s o n
ing. B e c a u s e there is no m e a s u r e d v a l u e of the e x c h a n g e
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y on NiS^/ the r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r was d e t e r
m i n e d e m p i r i c a l l y fro m cell dat a w i t h 5 ppm H 2 S in the
fuel. B e s t a g r e e m e n t w i t h m e a s u r e d c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s in
the r a n g e 160 to 240 m A / c m ^ (where c o m p l e t e p o i s o n i n g is
a s s u r e d ) w as f o u n d for the va l u e 1.4 x 1 0 “ 3_
C o m p a r i s o n of c a l c u l a t e d and m e a s u r e d p e r f o r m a n c e on c l e a n
a n d c o n t a m i n a t e d fuel is shown in F i g u r e 1. Calculated
r e s u l t s at 5 a t m w e r e a c t u a l l y o b t a i n e d p r i o r to the cell
t e s t s u s i n g the m o d e l p a r a m e t e r v a l u e s d e t e r m i n e d fro m the
1 atm data. The g o o d a g r e e m e n t r e p r e s e n t s a s u c c e s s f u l
p r e d i c t i v e t e s t of the model. The m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e is
the c l e a r p r e d i c t i o n of s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d v o l t a g e
l o s s e s at 5 a t m in the f u l l - p o i s o n i n g r e g i m e c o m p a r e d to
t h o s e at 1 atm.
Modeling of Sulfide Accumulation Due to C r o s s o v e r
T h i s m o d e l a c c o u n t s for p e r f o r m a n c e d e g r a d a t i o n d u e to s u l
f i d e b u i l d u p v i a c r o s s o v e r from the c a t h o d e . C r o s s o v e r can
o c c u r w h e n a n o d e e x h a u s t gas is o x i d i z e d a n d fed i nto the
c a t h o d e as a C O 2 s o u r c e . A n y H 2 S p r e s e n t w i l l be c o n v e r t e d
i n t o S O 2 w h i c h may re a c t to for m s u l f a t e ions that m i g r a t e
to the a n o d e . T h e r e t hey wil l be r e d u c e d / a d d i n g to the
sulfide already present. The a c c u m u l a t i o n m o d e l is b a s e d
on two p r i n c i p a l a s s u m p t i o n s . First/ the a b s o r p t i o n of
178
WILEMSKI
-3-
1000
CELL AREA: 94 cm^

CELL RESISTANCE: 6,0 m<2
TEMPERATURE: 650'C
900
E 800
700
1 attii
600 O O CLEAN FUEL
MEASURED
• ■ 5 ppm HjS
CALCULATED - - - - -
FUEL: 35 % H2.14* CO, 181 CO 2 , 20i H 2 O,
13% N 2
OXIDANT: 12% O 2 , 24% CO 2 , 20% H 2 O,
500 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 44% N2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
UTILIZATIONS: 70% FUEL, 50% OXIDANT AT 200 mA/cm'
40 80 120 160 200 240 280
CURRENT DENSITY (mA / cm^]

A-1626 A
FIGURE 1
C O M P A R I S O N OF M E A S U R E D AND C A L C U L A T E D E F F E C T S OF 5 ppm
H 2 S ON IGT (I) C ELL P E R F O R M A N C E AT C O N S T A N T F L O W RATE
S O 2 b y e l e c t r o l y t e in the c a t h o d e is a s s u m e d to be first
o r d e r in the p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e of S O 2 in the gas st r e a m .
S e c o n d , all of the S O 2 tha t d i s s o l v e s is a s s u m e d to be
t r a n s f e r r e d to the anod e .
M a t h e m a t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of this m o d e l ( d e t a i l s in A p p e n d i x
of Ref. (1)) for c o u n t e r f l o w g e o m e t r y l e a d s to a s i m p l e e x
p r e s s i o n for the local m o l a r flow rate of H 2 S in the anode,
n ( H 2 S ) , t h a t d e p e n d s on the inlet H 2 S and c a t h o d e (n°)
m o l a r f l o w rates, cell l e n g t h L, c ell p r e s s u r e p, S O 2 a b
s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a , and c r o s s o v e r f r a c t i o n e w h i c h is
the f r a c t i o n of H 2 S in the an o d e e f f l u e n t t hat r e t u r n s to
the a n o d e via r e c y c l e t h r o u g h the c a t h o d e .
Th e e x p r e s s i o n s for n ( H 2 S), Eg and Vg can be u s e d to o b t a i n

an e q u a t i o n for the H 2 S inlet c o n c e n t r a t i o n X ° ( H 2 S) b e l o w
w h i c h no a n o d e p o i s o n i n g w ill o c c u r (the p o i s o n i n g t h r e s h
o l d v a l u e ) ( d e t a i l s in A p p e n d i x of Ref. (1)):
179
WILEMSKI
-4-
X°(H2S) = (2/3/9) (1+X° U p+2 X°(CH^) y) ( 1 - ef) X®(H2)
exp [E°+E° - n^)2F/RT) (2 )

S 9
e
Here, E° is the fuel cell s t a n d a r d s t a t e p o t e n t i a l , ha
a n o d e ove r p o t e n tial at the a n o d e exit. Up a n d y the
total fue 1 (F) a n d m e t h a n e u t i l i z a t i o n s , X° is an inlet
m o l e frac t i o n , X® is an exit mole f r a c t i o n a n d f is the
f rac tion of S O 2 a b s o r b e d in the c a t h o d e . V a r i a t i o n of the
p o i s o n i n g thres h old w i t h c h a n g e s in c r o s s o v e r p a r a m e t e r s
( e , a ] or o p e ra ting c o n d i t i o n s (e.g., fuel c o m p o s i t i o n ,
f l o w rate s , cel 1 v o l t a g e , etc.) can be s t u d i e d w ith Eq. (2)
by using the pe r f o r m a n c e code to d e t e r m i n e na other
exit quan titles
C a l c u l a t e d p o i s o n i n g t h r e s h o l d v a l u e s are s h o w n in Ta b l e 1
for a fuel cell o p e r a t i n g at 200 mA/cra^ a n d 0 . 7 2 5 V w ith
75 p e r c e n t fuel and 50 p e r c e n t c a t h o d e C O 2 u t i l i z a t i o n s . A
c ell r e s i s t a n c e of 5 raJ2 w a s a s s u m e d ; o t h e r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i
t i o n s are s p e c i f i e d in F i g u r e 1. The v a l u e 1.1 x l O"^ m o l /
(cm-s*atra) w a s u sed for the S O 2 a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a.
T h i s v a l u e a d e q u a t e l y r e p r o d u c e s the e x p e r i m e n t a l o b s e r v a
t i o n s m a d e at IGT (1) that all of the S O 2 is a b s o r b e d (f=l)
w i t h i n the f i r s t third of the cell.
TABLE 1
C A L C U L A T E D T H R E S H O L D P O I S O N I N G VALUES, X°( H 2 S ) VERSUS

C R O S S O V E R F R A C T I O N e for M E D I U M - B t u F UEL AT 200 mA/cm2
A N D 75 P E R C E N T FUEL U T I L I Z A T I O N
e 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
X° 1.35 1.22 1.08 0 .95 0.81 0.68 0.54 0.4 1 0 .2 7 0.14

H2S
B e s i d e s s i m p l y d i s p l a y i n g the line a r d e p e n d e n c e of X ° ( H 2 S) on
e s e e n in Eq. (2), the r e s u l t s illust r ate how i m p o r t a n t it is
to r e d u c e the inlet H 2 S c o n c e n t r a t i o n in o r d e r to a v o i d p e r -
f o r m a n c e l o s s e s as the f r a c t i o n of H 2 S r e c y c l i n g t h r o u g h the
c ell via c r o s s o v e r is i n c r e a s e d . The r e a s o n for this is ob-
vious. C r o s s o v e r i n c r e a s e s the exit c o n c e n t r a t i o n of H 2 S. To
a v o i d p o i s o n i n g , this exit c o n c e n t r a t ion m u s t be h eld b e l o w a
c r i t i c a l v a l u e d e t e r m i n e d by the cond it i o n E g ( e x i t ) = V a ( e x i t ) .
H e n c e the i n l et c o n c e n t r a t i o n m u s t de c r e a s e as e i n c r e a s e s .
C a l c u l a t e d or m e a s u r e d t h r e s h o l d v a l u e s for one typ e of

e l e c t r o d e in a g i v e n st a t e of p e r f o r m a n c e c a n n o t a u t o m a t
i c a l l y be a s s u m e d to a p p l y to o t h e r types of e l e c t r o d e s or
to o t h e r p e r f o r m a n c e s t a t e s . Due to the e x p o n e n t i a l d e p e n
d e n c e on Tia Eq. (2) c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s of the p o i s o n i n g
t h r e s h o l d w i l l d e p e n d on how w ell the a n o d e is p e r f o r m i n g .
180
WILEMSKI
-5-
A g o o d a n o d e w i l l have a h i g h e r p o i s o n i n g t h r e s h o l d than a
p o o r one. B e s i d e s fuel c o m p o s i t i o n , the p o r e s t r u c t u r e ,
e l e c t r o l y t e c o n t e n t and m a t e r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the e l e c
t r o d e w i l l a f f e c t its p o l a r i z a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Even
for a g i v e n t ype of a n ode, Eq. (2) m a k e s it c l e a r that fuel
c o m p o s i t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n w ill a l s o i n f l u e n c e the t h r e s h
old po i s o n i n g value. C e l l s o p e r a t i n g w i t h fu e l s rich in H 2
a n d / o r at l o w e r fuel u t i l i z a t i o n w i l l t o l e r a t e h i g h e r H 2 S
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e f o r e s u f f e r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e l o s s e s than
c e l l s o p e r a t i n g on fuels lean in H 2 a n d / o r at h i g h e r fuel
utili z a t i o n .
Acknowledgment
T h i s w o r k wa s s u p p o r t e d by a s u b c o n t r a c t f r o m the Institute
of Ga s T e c h n o l o g y un d e r U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y Contract
No. D E - A C 2 1 - 8 3 M C 2 0 2 1 2 .
R eferences
1. R.J. R e m i c k , " E f f e c t s of H 2 S on M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e Fuel

C e l l s , " F i n a l Rep o r t , D O E / M C / 2 0 2 1 2-2 0 3 9 , N T I S /
DE86010431, Institute of Gas T e c h n o l o g y , May 1986.
2. R.J. R e m i c k and D.R. Vasil, "Fate of S u l f u r C o n t a m i

n a n t s at the PPM L e v e l in M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e Fuel Cel l s , "
Fuel C e l l S e m i n a r A b s t r a c t s , 1985, p 173.
3. T.L. W o l f a n d G. W i l e m s k i , " M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e Fuel Cell

P e r f o r m a n c e M o d e l , " J. Electrochera. Soc. 1 3 0 , 48
(1983).
4. G. W i l e m s k i , " M a t h e m a t i c a l M o d e l i n g of Fuel Cel l E l e c

t r o d e s , " F i n a l Rep o r t , PSI TR-350, Physical Sciences
Inc., O c t o b e r 1982.
5. G. W i l e m s k i , N.H. Kemp, and A. Gelb, " M o l t e n Carbonate

F u e l C ell P e r f o r m a n c e M o d e l U p d a t e , " F i n a l Rep o r t , PSI
TR-449, DOE/FE/15078-1742, N T I S / D E 8 5 0 0 3 3 5 6 , Physical
S c i e n c e s Inc., J a n u a r y 1985.
181
STATUS OF MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL
DEVELOPMENT AT HITACHI
K. O h t s u k a , A. S o h m a and K. H i s a n o
H i t a c h i Works, H i t achi, Ltd.
3-1-1, S a i w a i - c h o , H i t a c h i - s h i , I b a r a k i - k e n , 317, Japan
Y. H i s h i n u m a
H i t a c h i R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , H i t a c h i , Ltd.
1|026, K u j i - c h o , H i t a c h i - s h i , I b a r a k i - k e n , 319-12, Japan
INTRODUCTION
H i t a c h i , Ltd., h a s bee n e v o l v i n g d e v e l o p m e n t of m o l t e n
c a r b o n a t e fuel c e l l s (MCFC) s i n c e I960, and the m a t r i x type
e l e c t r o l y t e M C F C h a s b e e n s t u d i e d s i n c e 1981 u n d e r c o n t r a c t of
the M I T I / A I S T and N E D O ' s M O O N - L I G H T p r o j e c t . ( M i n i s t r y of
I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a d e and I n d u s t r y / A g e n c y of I n d u s t r i a l S c i e n c e
and T e c h n o l o g y , a n d New E n e r g y D e v e l o p m e n t O r g a n i z a t i o n ) . (1)
(2)(3)(il)
L a r g e s i z e d ( 3 » 0 0 0 c m 2 c l ass) e l e c t r o l y t e p l a t e s m a d e by d o c t o r
b r a d e (tape c a s t i n g ) m e t h o d hav e b een p r o d u c e d s u c c e s s f u l l y ,
and s i n g l e c e l l and 3 - o e l l st a c k tests w i t h 3,500cra2
c o m p o n e n t s , and 1 5 - o e l l s t a c k and 30-cell s t a c k t e s t s w i t h
9 0 0 c m 8 c o m p o n e n t s w e r e a c h i e v e d u s i n g the lOkW c l a s s test
facility.
COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT
1 ELECTRODE: N i c k e l a n o d e c o n t a i n i n g c o b a l t and n i c k e l
o x i d e c a t h o d e c o n t a i n i n g s i l v e r are p r o d u c e d c o n t i n u o u s l y by
the s t i c k i n g m e t h o d on the w i r e mesh. The B . O O O c m ^ cl a s s
m a n u f a c t u r i n g a p p a r a t u s s h o w n in Fig.l has b e e n o p e r a t e d
sat i s f a c t o r i l y .
2 E L E C T R O L Y T E PLATE: The d o c t o r b r a d e (tape c a s t i n g ) m e t h o d

is a d o p t e d for m a k i n g the thin, e asy h a n d l i n g m a t r i x and for
m as s p r o d u c t i o n . By use of h i g h s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e a r e a L i A L O p
p o w d e r and a l u m i n a lon g fibers, the m i c r o p o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and
the s t r e n g t h of the m a t r i x s h e e t s w e r e i m p r o v e d , and the
r e t a i n i n g a b i l i t y of e l e c t r o l y t e was a l s o i mproved.
The 3.000crn2 c l a s s e l e c t r o l y t e p l a t e s hav e b e e n p r o d u c e d w i t h
the m a n u f a c t u r i n g a p p a r a t u s s h o w n in F i g . 2.
3 SEPARATOR: By c o r r o s i o n test on 28 k i n d s of s t e e l s
a g a i n s t m o l t e n c a r b o n a t e , it was found that the c o r r o s i o n
r e s i s t a n c e i m p r o v e s w i t h i n c r e a s e in c h r o m i u m c o n t e n t a n d 25
ir s t e e l (T Y P E 310) is s u p e r i o r to any ot h e r s t a i n l e s s steels.
182
OHTSUKA ET AL
- 2 -
CELL AND STACK PERFORMANCE
S i n g l e c e l l s an d c el l s t a c k s w i t h 6 4 , 1 0 0 , 2 0 0 , 9 0 0 and 3 , 6 0 0 c m 2
e l e c t r o d e a r e a s h a v e b e e n a s s e m b l e d a n d tested. F i g . 3 shows
the l O k W c l a s s t e s t f a c i l i t y a n d F i g . 4 sh o w s the 3 , 6 0 0 c m 2 3-
c e l l stack. The p e r f o r m a n c e of the s t a c k is s h o w n in F i g . 5.
The a v e r a g e c e l l v o l t a g e was 0 . 7 5 V at a c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of
ISOmA/cm^. The o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e s h o w n in T a b l e . 1.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
M o s t of the w o r k d e s c r i b e d in t h i s p a p e r w a s p e r f o r m e d under
the s u p p o r t of the A g e n c y of I n d u s t r i a l S c i e n c e and
T e c h n o l o g y , M i n i s t r y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a d e a n d I n d u s t r y
(MITI) an d Ne w E n e r g y D e v e l o p m e n t O r g a n i z a t i o n (NEDO).
REFERENCES
1. M. T o n a m i , M. T a k e u c h i , and F. N a k a j i m a ; " D e v e l o p m e n t and

T e s t i n g of M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e Fue l C e l l M a t e r i a l s " , 1982
N a t i o n a l F u e l Cell S e m i n a r A b s t r a c t s , p p . 99- 1 0 7 , Nov.,
1982.
2. T. K o d a m a , K. Ta m u r a , K. M u r a t a a n d N. H o r i u c h i ; "St a t u s
of J a p a n e s e M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e Fue l C e l l P r o g r a m " , 1983
N a t i o n a l F u e l Cell S e m i n a r A b s t r a c t s , p p . 161-164, Nov.,
1983.
3. M. T a k e u c h i , K. Tam u r a , Y. H i s h i n u m a a n d A. S o h m a ; "The
S t a t u s of M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e F u e l C e l l D e v e l o p m e n t at
H i t a c h i , L t d . " , 1985 F uel C ell S e m i n a r A b s t r a c t s , p p . 153-
156, May., 1985.
4. Y. H i s h i n u m a ; "The S t a t u s of M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e F u e l Cell
D e v e l o p m e n t at H i t a c h i , Ltd.", lAE I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m
on F u e l C e l l a n d A d v a n c e d B a t t e r y A b s t r a c t s , pp. 104-108,
J a n ., 1986.
183
OHTSUKA ET AL
- 3 -
Figure 1. B.OCOcm^ class Figure 3- lOkW class

electrode test facility
manufacturing
apparatus
Figure 2. SiOOOcm^ class electrolyte plate manufacturing

apparatus
184
OHTSUKA ET AL
- 4 -
Figure 4. 3,600cm^ 3 -cell stack
Q) L
bO
<d Q)
3
O
o 04
>
•e
.
50 100 150 200
Current Density (mA/cm^)

Figure 5- Performance of 3,600cm2 3-cell stack
Table 1. Operating conditions of 3,600cm2 3 -cell stack
Temperature 650°C
Pressure Atmosphere
Gas Composition Anode 80? H2 - 20 ? CO2
Cathode 30 ? C02 - 70 ? Air
Gas Utilization Anode 20 ?
Cathode 50?
185
LOW COST METHANOL-PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL POWER PLANTS
Chang Chi, Jen Fan, Lew Richards, Sanders Abens

ENERGY RESEARCH CORPORATION
Danbury, CT 06813
ERG is developing low-cost methanol fuel cell power

plants for commercial applications in the 2-10 kW range.
Our main objectives are: (1) Compact size, (2) Cost
reduction, (3) Improved reliability, (4) Fully automatic
operation and control.
Fig. 1 shows a fully automatic 7 kW DC prototype

power plant with an on-board microprocessor. The unit is
self-contained, portable and adaptable to field service
and/or base power installation. The plant was built using
commercial components for low cost and ready availability.
Additional features which further decrease the cost are:
(1) DC parasitic power required to operate the unit
supplied directly from the stack center tap without
auxiliary power converters; (2) Reliable low-cost passive
controls replaced electrically driven units; (3) Subsystem
design improvements provide compact, simple and functional
operation that will yield low production costs.
FIGUPE 1
PPOTOTYPB POWeP PLANT NO. i
VP5209
186
C. CHI ET AL
-2-
Fig. 2 depicts component arrangement for the p o w e r plant.
1. Fuel cell stack w ith 75, 12 in. x 17 in. cells.
A s y m m e t r i c Z g a s c h a n n e l p a t t e r n is u s e d in the
cells to r e d u c e a i r s ide p r e s s u r e d r o p a n d t h u s p a r a s i t i c
p o w e r loss. A l s o , Z p a t t e r n r e s u l t s in an i n c r e a s e d o x y g e n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h i c h l e a d s to c e l l p e r f o r m a n c e gain.
S e p a r a t e a i r c o o l i n g s y s t e m a n d a n e w t y p e of
compact burner provide fast stack start-up and simplify
p o w e r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n . T h e u n i t c a n be h e a t e d f r o m c o l d
s t a r t to f u l l l o a d o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n 15 m i n u t e s .
V a r iable heat transfer area c o o l i n g plate channel

d e s i g n a l l o w s e f f e c t i v e r e m o v a l of h e a t g e n e r a t e d in the
stack to p r o v i d e u n i f o r m f u e l c e l l t e m p e r a t u r e for the
o p t i m u m c e l l / s t a c k p e r f o r m a n c e a n d l o n g life.
2. Reformer - A partially heated annular design

r e s u l t e d in c o m p a c t s ize a n d i m p r o v e d p e r f o r m a n c e . The
t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e in t h e c a t a l y s t bed, as w e l l as the
conversion and t he reformer product concentration, is
p r e s e n t e d in F ig. 3.
FIG. 2
7 KW METHANOL FUEL CELL POWERPLANT
187
C. CHI ET AL
-3-
3. I n s t r u m e n t a n d C o n t r o l N a c e l l e - T h i s s u b s y s t e m
c o n s i s t s of m i c r o p r o c e s s o r , p o w e r supply, power driver,
control panel, relay b o x and b a t t e r y charger.
4. B a t t e r y - T w o 12V b a t t e r i e s internally recharged

during operation are used for the start-up electrical
p o w e r supply.
P f o d . C o n c .,%
a : Near Flue Gas O utlet C O 2: 23.1

C O : O.S
o: F arth e st Point From The Flue G as O utlet
900 CHaOH: -
CH4 :-
u. 800
o C o n v .: 9 9 .
uj* 700'
cc
2 600
<
cn 500
LU
0.
5 400
LU
^ 300
200
BOTTOM 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 TO P
C A T A L Y S T BED, INCH
FIG. 3
T E M P E R A T U R E P R O F IL E OF NE W R E F O R M E R ( 5 8 1 - 2 )
Fig. 4 d e s c r i b e s h o w t h e s t a c k p o w e r is d i s t r i b u t e d
fo r th e c u s t o m e r a n d p a r a s i t i c loads. T y p i c a l o p e r a t i n g
d a t a is s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 1. T h e k e y f e a t u r e s a r e g i v e n
in T a b l e 2 a n d the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s a r e i n d i c a t e d
below:
C o m p a c t p o w e r p l a n t , 20 cu.f t . for 7.6 k w (7 k W

net).
L o w p a r a s i t i c powe r , 0.6 k W w h i c h is a b o u t 8%.
C o s t r e d u c t i o n t h r o u g h u s e of o f f - t h e - s h e l f
c o mmercial comp o n e n t s and passive control.
Fully a u t o matic o p e r a t i o n and control.
S t a n d - a l o n e a n d p o r t a b l e unit.
O v e r a l l p o w e r p l a n t e f f i c i e n c y of 36% for full
load.
S t a c k h y d r o g e n u t i l i z a t i o n of 69%.
Testing of this prototype power plant has been

c o m p l e t e d a n d h a s p r o v i d e d a b a s i s for the p r e - p r o d u c t i o n
p r o t o t y p e power plant.
188
c. CHI ET AL
-4-
48 VDC (6 .6 k W LINE LOAD FOR COSTOM ER)
FULL LOAD
C ENTER TAP 24 VDC (0 6 K W * FOR PARASITIC POWER)
GLOW PLUGS
M OTOR S
MICRO
PR O C ES S AIR
FUEL PUMP VALVES & PR O C ES SO R
S Y S T E f-f (A C )
F IG . 4
7 K W METH ANOL FUEL CELL PO W ER PL ANT

POV/ER DISTRIBUTION
TABLE 1
7 kW P r o t o t y p e P o w e r P l a n t
Inter- I n ter
O P E R A T I N G C O N D ITIONS: Full m e d 1 ate Idle Full m ediate Idle
S t ack avg. temp., 365 346 338 Fuel Consum p t i o n , kg/h 6.42 ^ .7 3 3.63
B o t t o m U Q cells load, A 17i.4 126.7 94.9 Stack Hz utiliz a t i o n , 7. 69 66 62
To p 35 c e lls load, A 150.0 101.0 68.6 Plant Effi c i e n c y , X
A v e r a g e load, A 163.0 114.7 82.6 G r o s s/Net 36/33 36/32 35/30
S t ack v o l tage, V 45.6 47.7 49.6 Refo r m e r Product
S t ack power, kW 7.43 5.5 4.1 Conc e n t r a t i o n , X
P a r a s i t i c c u r rent, A 24.4 25.7 26.3 Hz 74.5 74.1 73.6
P a r a s i t i c v o l tage, V 24. 1 25.2 26.3 COz 4.0 24.0 24.1
P a r a s i t i c power, kW 0.59 0.6 0.70 CO 1.5 1.9 2.3
C u s t o m e r power, kW 6.84 4.85 3.40 CH3q H
TABLE 2
7 ’ PROTOTYPE POWER PLANT
Power Plant Prototype

I.D. G-2
kW, Gross/Net 7.6/7.0

Size, ft3 20
kW/ft3, Gross/Net 0.38/0.35
Operation/Control Full Auto.
Housekeeping Pwr. From Stack
Housekeeping Comp. 24V DC
Start-up Burner 4"D X 3"L
Reformer 10"D X 24"L
Start-up Heat Ex. None
Idle Heaters Incorp.
189
DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL CAPACITY PHOSPHORIC ACID
F UEL CELL POWER S Y S T E M AT FUJI EL E C T R I C
K.Harashiraa a n d T . H i r o t a
Fuji Electric Corporate R e s e a r c h and Deve l o p m e n t Ltd.
2-2-1 N a g a s a k a ,Y o k o s u k a , 2 4 0 - 0 1 , J a p a n
Y .Tsuj i
Fuji E l e c t r i c Company
1-1 T a n a b e s h i n d e n ,K a w a s a k i , 2 1 0 , J a p a n
Introduction
F u j i E l e c t r i c s t a r t e d the research a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of P A F C
in 1973. F r o m 1982 to 1983, we p e r f o r m e d 30 kW P A F C p o w e r
plant testing under cooperation with Kansai Electric Power
C o m p a n y Inc.. T h e p l a n t was installated in premises of
Sakai-ko Thermal Power Station of Kansai Electric Power
Company Inc. in A p r i l , 1 982 and was operated by steam
r e f o r m a t e d L NG. T h e 30 k W s t a c k w a s a r i b b e d s e p a r a t o r t y p e
w h i c h h as a n a c t i v e a r e a of a b o u t 1000 cm a n d w a s c o o l e d lay
air. T h e p l a n t r e c o r d e d about 3500 hours of accumulated
operation including un-manned 500 hours continuous {n o n
i n t e r r u p t e d ) o p e r a t i o n by r e m o t e c o n t r o l .
W e a l s o e m p h a t i c a l l y s t a r t e d t h e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of
methanol r e f o r m e r in 1984. We c o n s t r u c t e d 3-7 kW methanol
reformers and e v a l u a t e d thier p e r f o r m a n c e s w i t h i n one year.
Being based o n t h e s e a c t u a l r e s u l t s , w e w e r e d e v e l o p i n g 3-7
k W m e t h a n o l r e f o r m e d P A F C p o w e r s y s t e m s . T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s
d e v e l o p m e n t is m a i n l y to i n c r e a s e the u s e f u l n e s s of F C p o w e r
s y s t e m s in J a p a n , i.e., to replace diesel g en erators and
batteries by FC power system.
For the present, we are promoting to investigate the
problems which will occur on the p r a c t i c a l use, s u c h as
o perability,maintenability and performance under the actual
conditions.
A l s o w e a r e i n t e n d i n g to e n t e r i n t o the f i e l d testing with
o u r p o t e n t i a l c u s t o m e r s a n d to a c c u m u l a t e the r e a l o p e r a t i o n
experience under various conditions.
In f u t u r e , w e w i l l s u p p l y it to t h e m o r e g e n e r a l application
fields.
D e v e l o p m e n t of 3kW power systems
W e c o n s t r u c t e d 3 k W D C m e t h a n o l reforraated PAFC power system

m o d e l in 1 9 8 4 . F i g u r e 1 s h o w s t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e 3 k W p o w e r
system model. T h e s t a c k i^ a r i b b e d s e p a r a t o r t y p e a n d has
a n a c t i v e a r e a of 1000 c m . C o o l i n g is a c h i e v e d by a i r . T h e
s t a c k is o p e r a t e d at a t o m o s p h e r i c pr e s s u r e and 180°C. Fuel
processor o p e r a t e s o n a 1 : 1 . 3 m o l a r m i x t u r e of m e t h a n o l a n d
w a t e r . M e t h a n o l is c o n v e r t e d to hydrogen r i c h g a s by C u - Z n
catalyst in a st e a m reformer. Off gas from the stack is
b u r n e d to p r o v i d e h e a t to t h e r e f o r m e r .
190
Harashima et al
-2-
Figure 2 shows the s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of 3 k W p o w e r system

model. Figure 3 s h o w s t h e p r o f i l e of s t a r t up of 3kW p o w e r
system model. S t a r t u p w a s p e r f o r m e d in t e n s t e p s up to
1 0 0 % l o a d o n a c c o u n t of t h e t i m e d e l a y of r e f o r m e r r e s p o n s e .
W e h a v e c o m p l e t e d a b o u t 1 GO t i m e s of s t a r t up a n d shut d o w n
t e s t i n g in o u r l a b o r a t o r y .
S u b s e q u e n t l y ,w e c o n s t r u c t e d 3 k W DC power system in 1985.
T h e s t a c k p o w e r was a D C 2 9 V 4 k W and the system operation
m o d e w a s f u l l a u t o m a t i c . T h e s t a r t u p t i m e w a s a p p r o x 30 m i n
from R.T. The power c o n d i t i o n e r was the DC/DC converter
which outputs a DC 110V 3kw. It was designed and
m a n u f a c t u r e d b a s e d on t h e N E D O p r o j e c t as a power supply
system which incorporated with solar-battery system for use
in t h e r e c r e a t i o n h o u s e of Hokuriku Electric Power Company
Inc.. This 3kW DC po w e r sytem was installated in the
e n d of 1985.
Development of 5kVA/4kW power systems
Currently,we are developing a 5kVA/4kW methanol reformated

PAFC pow e r s y stem.The stack and the re f o r m e r configurations
a r e a l m o s t s a m e as t h e 3 k W p o w e r sy s t e m . Table 1 shows the
specification of 5kVA/4kW power system. Rated output
v o l t a g e a n d f r e q u e n c y of i n v e r t e r a r e o r d i n a r y 1 - p h a s e 100 V
A C a n d 50 o r 60 Hz r e s p e c t i v e l y .
M e t h a n o l / w a t e r m i x i n g s u b s y s t e m -th e w a t e r is r e coverd from
exhaust gas- and waste heat recovery subsystem are
optional.
We are m a k i n g efforts to s i m p l i f y the o p e r a b i l i t y a n d the
m a i n t e n a b i l i t y of the s y s t e m by the f o l l o w i n g improvements:
R e d u c i n g th e s t a r t u p t i m e of the system by r e d u c i n g the

s t a r t u p t i m e of the r e f o r m e r .
E l i m i n a t i n g of the s t a c k s t o r a g e heater by i m p r o v e m e n t of
t h e t o l e r a n c e of t h e e l e c t r o l y t e f r e e z i n g .
W e w i l l be a b l e to d e l i v e r t h e f i r s t 5kVA/4kW power system

fo r th e f i e l d t e s t i n g b y t h e e n d of f i s c a l 1986.
Referances
1 . M . Y o n e h a r a ,R . A n a h a r a a n d K .S u z u k i ," O P E R A T I O N A L E X P E R I E N C E S
O F 30 K W P H O S P H O R I C A C I D F U E L C E L L P O W E R PLANT" National
Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts, Nov 1 3 - 16,1983,p p . 169-172
2.K . S h i n o b e , " D E V E L O P M E N T OF P HOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL T E C H
NOLOGY" Extened A b s t r a c t s l A E I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m on
F u e l C e l l a n d A d v a n c e d B a t t e r y , J a n 21 -22 ,1 9 8 6 , p . 84
191
Harashima et al
-3-
Figure 1 The appearance of 3kW DC power system model
Converter
Air
Exhaust gas
Methanol tank Burner

-cx>
SV-2
SV-3
Fuel cell
Reformer
Air
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of 3kW DC power system model
192
Harashima et al
-4-
SV-3(N.C.)
SV-2(N.C.)
A+A
Current of FC
5 Pressure of reformer outlet
DC/DC
Time (Imin/dev)
Figure 3 The profile of start up of

3kW DC power system model
Table 1 5kVA/4kW specification
Rated output 5kVA/4kW

Output voltage 1-phase 100 V AC
Frequency 50/60 Hz
Fuel cell power 5.9 kW
Methanol consumption 3.5 1/H
Operation mode Full automatic
Start up time approx 30 min from R.T.
Noise 55 dB(A) 7m
Installation location Indoor
(Outdoor...option)
Ambient temperature 5-40 °C
Dimention 650Wx1eOOLxl200H
Weight 700 kG(except fuel)
193
ENGELHARD T EC HNO LOG Y UPDATE
A. K a u f m a n
Engelhard Corporation
M e n l o Park, E d i s o n , NJ
T h e E n g e l h a r d p h o s p h o r i c a c i d fuel c ell s t a c k
technology - directed toward multi-kilowatt,
a t m o s p h e r i c - p r e s s u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s - c o n t i n u e s to b e b a s e d o n
t he f o l l o w i n g k e y f e a t u r e s ; single-phase liquid cooling,
cooling plates and b ipolar plates comprising commercial
g raphite, e l e c t r o l y t e - m a t r i x c o n f i g u r a t i o n that incorp o r a t e s
an a c i d - t r a n s p o r t layer, c o n t i n u o u s a c i d - r e p l e n i s h m e n t
s y s t e m , a nd i n - h o u s e d e v e l o p e d c a t a l y s t s . Recent e m p hasis
in t h e t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m h a s i n v o l v e d i m p l e
m e n t a t i o n o f t h i n n e r g r a p h i t e e l e m e n t s , s e l e c t i o n o f the
m o s t a t t r a c t i v e g r a p h i t e p l a t e b o n d i n g r e sin, s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
of the a c i d - r e p l e n i s h m e n t s y s t e m configuration, and q u a l i f i
c a t i o n o f an i m p r o v e d a c i d - t r a n s p o r t l a y e r s t r u c t u r e .
The improved a c i d - t r a n s p o r t layer conf i g u r a t i o n serves

t o i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e , p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h a r e d u c t i o n of
cell IR-loss. T h i s c o m p o n e n t is n o w e l e c t r o n i c a l l y
n o n - c o n d u c t i n g ; t h e r e f o r e , w h i l e it is t h i n n e r t h a n the
p r e v i o u s v e r s i o n , it a l s o a l l o w s t h e a d j a c e n t m a t r i x l a y e r
to be thinner. T h e r e s u l t i n g r e d u c t i o n in I R - l o s s is
substantial, but an u n a n t i c i p a t e d bene f i t has been a h i g h e r
I R - f r e e p e r f o r m a n c e as well.
T h e k e y tes t v e h i c l e s f o r c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y
i m p r o v e m e n t s h a v e b e e n s t a c k s of t h e 4 k W size. These stacks
t y p i c a l l y c o n s i s t o f 24 c e l l s of t h e 13 inch x 23 inch size;
t h e a c t i v e a r e a is 1.75 s q u a r e feet. One such stack was
b u i l t in l a t e 1985 t o e x a m i n e t h e i m p r o v e d a c i d - t r a n s p o r t
l a y e r as w e l l as o t h e r n e w - t e c h n o l o g y f e a t u r e s . This stack
i n c o r p o r a t e d a s i x - c e l l s u b - s t a c k ( g r o u p of c e l l s b e t w e e n
c o o l i n g p l a t e s ) t h a t u t i l i z e d the i m p r o v e d a c i d - t r a n s p o r t
l a y e r , w h i l e the r e m a i n i n g t h r e e s u b - s t a c k s u t i l i z e d the
previous configuration.
T h e a b o v e 4 k W s t a c k w a s t e s t e d for 3200 h o u r s a n d t h e n
t o r n d o w n f o r e x a m i n a t i o n of s e v e r a l n o v e l f e a t u r e s . Over
a l l s t a c k p e r f o r m a n c e h a d b e e n s t e a d y t h r o u g h o u t t h e test;
a l s o , it is n o t a b l e t h a t t h e s i x - c e l l s u b - s t a c k w i t h the
improved acid-transport layer sustained a sizable p er
formance advantage over those with the prior design during
this period.
I m p r o v e m e n t s s u c h as t h a t c i t e d a b o v e a r e c u r r e n t l y
b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d in a 2 5 k W stac k . This stack will reflect
t e c h n o l o g y f e a t u r e s q u a l i f i e d t h r o u g h the e a r l y p a r t of
1986. S t a c k t e s t i n g w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
a m e t h a n o l p r o c e s s i n g s u b - s y s t e m d u r i n g the l ast q u a r t e r of
1986. A natural gas processing sub-system, currently under
d e v e l o p m e n t , w i l l t h e n be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h the 2 5 k W s t a c k
e a r l y in 1987.
194
CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING
OF P A F C D E M O N S T R A T I O N P O W E R P L A N T
T. O k a m o t o , N. F u n a h a s h i
T h e T o k y o E l e c t r i c P o w e r Co., Inc.
Engineering Development Center
N o . 1-3, 1 - c h o m e , U c h i s a i w a i - c h o , C h i y o d a - k u
T o k y o 100, J a p a n
R. S a i t o , S. Sumi
Sanyo Electric C o . , L t d . , Ap p l i e d Research Center
100, D a i n i c h i H i g a s h i , M o r i g u c h i - s h i
O s a k a 570, J a p a n
1. Introduction
T h e T o k y o E l e c t r i c P o w e r Co., Inc. (TEPCO) is n o w c a r r y i n g

o u t a s m a l l 2 0 0 k W c l a s s a i r - c o o l e d t y p e P A F C p l a n t u n d e r the
j o i n t w o r k w i t h S a n y o E l e c t r i c Co., Ltd. T h e p l a n t is
s c h e d u l e d to be i n s t a l l e d a t the s ite o f the S h i n - T o k y o
T h e r m a l P o w e r S t a t i o n l o c a t e d at T o y o s u , T o k y o a n d be t e s t
ed f r o m n e x t A p r i l f o r a b o u t 1.5 year s . S a n y o is o n e of the
m o s t a c t i v e e n t e r p r i z e s in P A F C f i e l d a n d h a s s u c c e s s f u l l y
c o m p l e t e d two 50kW PAFC d e m o n s t r a t i o n programs.
2. Outline of the D e m o n s t r a t i o n
T o p r e d i c t t h e f u t u r e o f t h e c o g e n e r a t o r b a s e d o n s m a l l s ize
P A F C s y s t e m , f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s a r e s t u d i e d d u r i n g the d e m o n
stration.
(1) C o g e n e r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e 2 0 0 k W c l a s s P A F C
plant
(2) R e l i a b i l i t y a n d s a f e t y
(3) M a i n t e n a n c e
(4) C o m p a c t n e s s
(5) E c o n o m i c s
3. Outline of the System
F i g u r e 1 s h o w s t h e f l o w d i a g r a m of t h e 2 0 0 k W c l a s s P A F C
d e m o n s t r a t i o n p o w e r p l ant.
T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p l a n t a r e as f o l l o w s :
(1) F u e l is n a t u r a l g a s (town gas)
(2) T h e f u e l c e l l is a i r c o o l e d t y p e a n d c o n s i s t e d o f 4
s t a c k s of 6 0 k W r a t e d dc p o w e r . The o p e r a t i n g pr e s s u r e and
t emperature are a t m o s p h e r i c and 180°C respectively. The
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f u e l c e l l s t a c k is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2.
(3) A i m i n g fo r p r a c t i c a l u s e in the future, 2500 cm^ c e l l
s ize is u s e d for t h e f i r s t step. T h e a r e a o f 2500 c m ^ v/as
d e s i g n e d b a s e d o n a c t u a l r e s u l t s o f t h e f o r m e r 1000 c m ^
cell.
(4) T o m a k e t h e s y s t e m m o r e c o m p a c t , t h e r e c t a n g u l a r r e
f o r m e r is u s e d . T h i s r e c t a n g u l a r s h a p e is o n e of t h e first
s t e p s to p r a c t i c e t h e s m a l l P A F C p l a n t in t h e future.
195
T. OKAMOTO ET AL
- 2 -
F i g u r e 3 s h o w s the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e r e f o r m e r .
(5) Th e i n v e r t e r , in w h i c h G T O e l e m e n t s a r e used, c a n be
self c o m m u t a t e d and o p eratable under var operation.
(6) Th e c o n t r o l l e r u s e s D D C to k e e p h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y in a c
c o r d a n c e w i t h m a n y k i n d s of e x p e r i m e n t s d u r i n g the w h o l e t e s t
in g p e r i o d . T h e c o n t r o l s y s t e m c a n be a u t o m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d
a n d m a k e s th e w h o l e s y s t e m t r a n s i t a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n t o s afe
s t a t u s in e m e r g e n c y .
(7) T o e n h a n c e s a f e t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y , h e a t e x c h a n g e r s of
s h e l l - a n d - t u b e t ype are a d a p t e d as w e l l as t a k i n g c o n s i d e r a
t i o n t h a t c o m b u s t i b l e gas a n d a i r do n o t f l o w t h r o u g h s ame
heat exchangers.
(8) T h i s p l a n t h a s a h e a t e x c h a n g e r to m a k e v a r i o u s k i n d s of
t h e r m a l load. F i g u r e 4 s h o w s t h e s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of the
t h e r m a l - l o a d s i m u l a t i o n t e s t s y s t e m to s u r v e y c o g e n e r a t i o n
characteristics.
(9) V a r i o u s e q u i p m e n t s are so a r r a n g e d t h a t t e s t i n g , o p e r a
t i o n , m a i n t e n a n c e etc., c a n be e a s i l y done.
(10) Th e d a t a a q u i s i t i o n s y s t e m is f u l l y e q u i p p e d to m e a s u r e
v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p l ant.
GAS RECOV ERY
FUEL HEAT
PROCESSOR RECOV ER Y
CO NDENSATE
TOWN R E F O R M E D GAS
FU EL
GA S '
C EL L
SPENT F U EL COOLIN G A IR
ELECTROLYTE
COOLIN G AIR
PROCESS BLOWER
AIR
C OMBU STIO N AC POWER

AIR
PO W ER
CO N D IT IO N E R
R E F O R M IN G ST EAM
Figure 1. Flow Diagram of 200KW Class PAFC Demostration

Power Plant
196
T. OKAMOTO ET AL
- 3 -
.C OOLIN G P L A T E
AIR ELECTRODE
M ATR IX
FUEL ELECTRODE
BIPO LAR PLATE
Figure 2 . Structure of Fuel Cell Stack
REFORMED
GAS
T O W N GA S
STE AM
E X H A U S T GAS
CATALYST
BURNER
SP EN T
FUEL
Figure 3 . Structure of Reformer
19 7
T. OKAMOTO ET AL
- 4 -
HEAT EXCHANGER
FOR HEAT IN G
COOLIN G TOWER
HOT
WATER
tx-
-Q)— txi-
H E A T EXC HAN GER FOR T H E R M A L -

L O A D S I M U L A T I O N TEST
AB SORPTIO N C HILLER
AIR C ON DIT IO NER
— t x -------
P RE SSU RE C O N T R O L C A L O R IE MET ER
VALVE
Figure 4 . Schematic Diagram of Thermal - Load Simulalion Test System
198
ON-SITE EUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEM PROGRESS
G. W. Scheffler and F. S. Kemp

International Fuel Cells
J. C. Acevedo
The purpose of this On-Site Fuel Cell Technology Development

Program is to develop the technology base for a 200-kW power
plant that will meet requirements for on-site electric power
generation. Present activities are focused on building and
testing a 200-kW Verification Test Article (VTA) and tran
sistor inverter.
The VTA is a dc system test rig which includes:
1) A Fuel Processing System to convert natural gas fuel into

a hydrogen-rich fuel gas mixture,
2) A cell stack to produce dc power from hydrogen and oxygen

(in air),
3) A Thermal Management System to reject waste heat and
recover water for the fuel processor, and
4) A Water Treatment System to clean the recovered water.
The Verification Test Article is scheduled to begin testing in

early 1987. Prior to operation of the VTA, key subsystems and
controls will be evaluated separately.
The Water Treatment and Thermal Management Systems, shown in

Figure 1, were fabricated and tested in the first half of
1986. The systems include equipment to clean the recovered
water from the condenser, pump the water to the cell stack
Figure 1. WTS/TMS
199
SCHEFFLER, ET AL
-2-
cooling water loop, and reject cell stack waste heat to the
facility coolant system. Successful operation over the full
power range was demonstrated by simulating stack waste heat
with electric heaters. Control stability and response
evaluations were made to ensure that the systems were ready
for operation with the cell stack in the VTA.
The Fuel Processor System, shown in Figure 2, was also fabri

cated in 1986. In addition to the full-size reformer, built
and tested last year, the system includes the first full-scale
application of the hydrodesulfurizer catalyst evaluated as
part of this on-site technology program. A new process
control approach featuring process feedback and electric
actuation to lower cost and increase reliability is also
included. The fuel processor evaluation started in June.
Operation at rated power flows has been achieved, and testing
is expected to be completed this fall.
Figure 2. FUEL PROCESSOR - INSTALLATION IN TEST STAND
200
SCHEFFLER, ET AL
-3-
The cell stack for the VTA is being fabricated. This stack
will include improvements demonstrated in previous short
stacks of full area cells. A mock-up of the 200-kW stack is
shown in Figure 3 along with a 40-kW stack from the On-Site
Field Test Program.
' m -
fI
9
Figures. COMPARISON OF 40-kW AND 200-kW
In addition to fabrication and development of the VTA, testing

of an advanced single-bridge transistor inverter was also
conducted. The transistor inverter shown in Figure 4 is
smaller, simpler and less expensive than the two bridge
thyristor inverter it replaced. The transistor inverter
bridge has completed verification testing over the full power
and voltage range, operation with a resistive load bank.
Later this year, this inverter bridge will be tested with
output magnetics.
201
SCHEFFLER, ET AL
-4-
Figure 4. BREADBOARD TRANSISTOR INVERTER
Acknowledgements
This effort conducted by a team of International Fuel Cells

personnel was sponsored by the Gas Research Institute and the
U.S. Department of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technology
Center (DOE-METC). NASA-Lewis Research Center manages the DOE
contract.
202
M9?C_R&D_IN_THE_NETHERLANDS
K. Joon, S.B. van der Molen, J.E. de Vries

Netherlands Energy Research Foundation ECN
P.O. Box 1, 1755 ZG PETTEN, The Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION
In another paper at this conference, Pietersz gives an "Overview of
the Dutch MCFC Programme". Reference is made to this paper for gene
ral information and head lines of the specific activities. The pre
sent paper details the latter.
The programme is a nationally coordinated effort, which for about 60%
is financially supported by the government. However, it is limited
both in budget and time and thus in scope. Therefore, compromises had
to be reached both with respect to goals and to specification of ac
tual activities.
Based on state-of-the-art know-how to be bought, available relevant

capabilities, international cooperation and avoiding redundancy as
far as possible, 13 projects have been defined. These cover and
strike a balance between fundamental and applied research, develop
ment of materials and components as well as manufacturing techni
ques, and construction and engineering. The results will be instru
mental in establishing a basis for fundamental understanding and in
providing industrial partners with commercially interesting techno
logy-
2. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
In order to give impetus to the programme and to maximize its re
sults, it was decided to buy existing knowledge abroad. For this pur
pose an agreement has been concluded with GDC/IGT, Chicago, for sup
port and education as well as mutual cooperation in MCFC R&D. The
agreement covers a large number of subjects on which both fundament
al knowledge and practical information are transferred. An expansion
203
JOON ET AL
- 2 -
to include also technological issues is envisaged. So fan, both the

concept and the way in which it is effectuated have proven to be
highly effective.
3. RESEARCH
Fundamental and applied research will be conducted in two areas:
electrochemistry and materials science. In the first area three pro
jects were defined aiming at improved performance and durability by
optimization of operating conditions and materials properties. For
this purpose advanced theoretical and experimental techniques will be
applied for investigating fundamental processes at each of the elect
rodes .
Parameters are composition and physico-chemical properties of each

electrode, composition of electrolyte and feed gasses, feed gas
pressure, and operating temperature. Recently the Eindhoven Univer
sity of Technology THE announced that it will not participate in the
programme, in spite of the fact that it was designated as the con
tractor and its experts were involved in defining the programme of
work. Presently, therefore, the work is being redefined but at a
substantially lower level of effort.
Materials research is performed along two lines. The first involves

determination of a relatively large number of physico-chemical pro
perties and characteristics of materials used in cell components,
and their influence on processability, component fabrication techni
ques, properties and characteristics of the final product, and cell
performance. Such work is of course a necessary part of materials,
component and fabrication technique development, and is therefore
actually incorporated in those projects. All necessary measuring
techniques are available already, and presently modelling support is
being acquired and (further) developed.
The second line focusses on preparation of starting powders with op

timal characteristics for component fabrication and performance.
Both state-of-the-art and new materials are adressed. As an example
of the first group, an investigation has been started on the influen
204
JOON ET AL
- 3 -
ce of the morphological properties of LiAlO^ powder on matrix perfor

mance, which might lead to an adaption of the powder preparation pro
cess .
As for new materials, the preparation of lithium ferrites is studied.

From these, conducting ceramics may be produced for manufacturing
improved anodes and cathodes. This research has yielded spherical
lithium-containing iron (hydro)oxyde particles with reasonable sinte
ring properties. However, the starting iron sol does not seem suited
for large scale production. Presently, an alternative way for prepa
ring this sol is "studied and thermodynamic calculations for suppor
ting the project have been initiated.
A. DEVELOPMENTS
Some of the development projects include a research stage. Because of
the recent start of the programme (May 1st, 1986) these have not
yet reached the actual development stage. This is true for the deve
lopment of new materials, i.e. conducting ceramics for improved
long-term behaviour of both electrodes. And also for the powder tech
nology development, where research will indicate which adaptations
in the chemical preparation or physical conditioning of what powders
will be successful. The development will then also include process
upscaling to at least pilot production levels.
Mastering component fabrication techniques is a pre-requisite for

both R&D and commercial activities. Such techniques will be (fur
ther) developed and optimized as well as adapted in response to new
developments and product specifications. The development Includes
upscaling to commercial application. Presently, state-of-the-art
techniques have been acquired, a comparative study of different
techniques is underway, pressing techniques are being explored and an
adaptable-size tape casting machine has been constructed and put into
operation. New developments may include issues such as a multi-layer
tape casting process that could produce e.g. cathodes with a pore
size gradient to prevent cathode flooding and improve the resistance
of the interface with the matrix.
205
JOON ET AL
- -
The programme will also engage in the developments concerning the se
parator plate, as this is one of the weakest points in stack con
struction and operation. This project will include design studies,
materials and corrosion R&D, evaluation and development of construct
ion techniques, etc. The aim is an optimized plate design with re
spect to configuration, functions to be fulfilled, construction
,(long term) performance and cost. The work has only very recently
started with technology transfer and evaluation of existing designs.
Though many of the R&D subjects need support by model calculations,

no large efforts in model development are envisaged. Existing models
from IGT have been acquired, implemented and made operational.They
will be used as such and updated when appropriate, while further de
velopment will depend on experimental requirements and results.
5. CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING

Practical experience in this field will be gained with the different
types of test cells that will support much of the R&D work described
earlier. Apart from some single cells, a 6-cell semi automatic test
train for 3 cm^ laboratory cells has been designed and construction
is nearing completion. A similar 5-cell train for 10 x 10 cm benoh-
scale cells has been designed and construction has started. Shortly,
a design of a 30 x 30 cm cell for testing upscaled manufacturing
techniques and separator plate developments will be started.
Finally, theengineering, design, construction and operation of a

sub-scale MCFC stack is planned. This will be based mainly on IGT
technology, but where possible and feasible developments mentioned
above will be incorporated. This will be the prototype for larger
test and demonstration plants to be constructed immediately and
shortly after the termination of the present propgramme period. En
gineering and design studies for these will be initiated much ear
lier, as they will also give guidance to the R&D work.
206
COOLING CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL
K. WATANABE and I. N I K A I , Research Institute

M. TOOI, K. NAKAZAWA, H. HOSAKA,
and J. TANAKA, Fuel Cell Operations
Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co. Ltd., Japan
1. Introduction
Of the three basic methods of flowing fuels and oxidizers in a

molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), the cross flow, the co
flow, and the counterflow, the first is being used today to
amazement of any heat engineers. This may simply be a
custom from an early day of phosphate FC development, which
needed no more than steam to control temperature. But,
whatever the reason, situation is not that simple for MCFC.
As little is known of cooling characteristics of MCFCs (1), we

report the results of simulator tests and calculations we
conducted to analyze the FC performances under those three
different flow conditions.
2. Heat Transmission within an MCFC
The heat generated in an MCFC consists of the chemical

reaction heat due to electrochemical reactions, that due to
fuel reformation reactions, and the ohmic heating of electro
lyte, the first two occurring in the anode, and the last in
the electrolyte. As shown in Fig. 1, those heats transmit
themselves through convective heat transfer from electrodes to
fuel and oxidizer, movement of gases, radiation and contact
heat transfer from electrodes to separator plates, and heat
exchange between fuel and oxidizer through separator plates.
"current
Anode LJ.
T i I e ( Electrolyte)
tathodedL^;
atOL^C—
.SeoeratQi •
: Fuel Oxidant
® : Heat released by electro-

Fuel u (3)u n r r \
chem. reaction t fuel reformng r—^
(2) : Heat released by joule heating
^ Heat transfer by reaction gas ^P’
Convection heat tra n s fe r
Conduction heat transfer ' ‘ f ft
DOOCO Radiation heat transfer
Hz ♦ CO3 sHzO+COz+Ze" :Anode(-)

C0240z*2e-= CO3 :Cathodef+)
Fig. 1 Heat Transmission within a Fuel Cell
Here, the following are noted as characteristic of MCFC;

(1) the flow rate and the gas composition of the process gas
change due to diffusion of reaction product gases;
(2) the heat transfer coefficient at anode decreases due to
207
Watanabe, et al.
- 2 -
welling effect of the reaction product gases; and

(3) as the resistance to heat transfer of electrode is onlv
R 0.0015 m^h/kcal, the heat generated at the anode is
transferred through electrolyte as well as through anode
itself to cathode, there to be removed by the oxidizer.
3. Experiments and Results
The Simulator, which models an internal manifold type 4-cell

MCFC of an electrode area of 50 x 37 cm, complete with mock
electrolyte plates and separator plates, is shown in Fig. 2,
while Fig. 3 depicts an example of temperature distribution
within a cell, ijoth as measured and as calculated, for cases
of co-flow and counterflow. The mock electrolyte plate con
sists of three sintered stainless steel plates of such porosity
that allows simulated passage of reaction product gases, while
the heat a real electrolyte will generate is supplied by
electrically, heating the central plate. The channel depth is
2 mm for oxidizer and 1 mm for fuel, and air is used for
either.
Gas heater Fbnxjs heater

ccntrotler controller
C Z I
oo Fgel chan nel
FC S im u la to r
Pertorated plate
F lo w Porous plate
meter
Porous heatinq
plate
■Qxid. channel
A ir
Circulator
(out)-
Fig. 2 The Experimental Apparatus - An FC Simulator
500
A n o d e Ca t h o d e
g as gas
Counter flow Co-flow
flow rate ^ : 2 26
inlet temp, dpgc: 250 293
400 fieat flux mi : 1290
w elling rate ta
of prod, gases TT
0.33
m ock electrolyte
separator plate
300 fu e l gas
X + ox id. gas
02 04 06 0.8 to
D is ta n c e fro m fu e l in le t X /L
Fig. 3 Temperature Distribution within a Cell for

Fuel-Oxidizer Co-Flow and Counterflow
208
Watanabe, et al.
- 3 -
It will be noted in Fig. 3 that in the case of co-flow, the

temperature becomes monotonically higher in the direction of
flow, whereas in the case of counterflow, a maximum appears
near the fuel inlet end, because the fuel flow rate is only a
fraction of that of the oxidizer.
Further, the result of calculation, presented by lines, gave a

good agreement with the actual measurement. This is taken as
proving the reliability of the present computational scheme
for immediate application to the cases of cross flow also.
4. The Cooling Effects
The power generation performance of MCFC was analyzed on the

basis of mass balance between fuel and oxidizer and Nernst's
formula, with heat transmissions taking place within the MCFC
to be as discussed in the previous section. Here, the over
voltage was calculated by the effective resistance Z due to
Sampath et al. (2), i.e., Z = Rohm + (''an ‘''ca where a
formula due to Ogawa et al. (3), i.e., Z = 10.44 - 0.0129-t
(t, the tile temperature in °C) was used for Z.
Calculation was conducted both for co-flow and for cross flow
in terms of temperature distribution, current density
distribution, and utilization rates of fuel and oxidizer, of
which the case of co-flow is given in Fig. 4.
( Co -flow )
Ox id. flow rate

0.15 700 G o = 16 kg/m^h
Inlet gas temp.
l,.in = 600 'c
lo-in ~ 600 *c
Operation voltage
V = 0.75 V
Fo.1 -650 0.5 s Fuel flow rate
: Of =0.4 kg/m^h
: G( =0.6
^ G) =1.0
0 0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1.0

Distance fro m g a s inlei x /L
Fig. 4 Temperature Distribution, Current Distribution,

and Utilization of Fuel and Oxidizer in Co-Flow
It can be shown, though not illustrated here, that cross flow

will give rise to a more complicated distribution of both
current and temperature, and that the maximum temperature is
some 50°C higher than the case of co-flow shown in Fig. 4.
209
Watanabe, et al.
- 4 -
The changes in the cell temperature (maximum, mean, and

minimum) and the power generation due to changes in the
oxidizer flow rate is shown in Fig. 5. As the cooling
performance of an MCFC should be considered better, the lower
the cell maximum temperature and the more uniform the
temperature distribution, the co-flow method should be the one
that is to be adopted for the supply of process gas.
Utilization param. of oxid. u,
.2 5 .2 .15 .125 .1 .09
800
Fuel flow rate
Of = 1.0 kg/m'h
1.0 J
Inlet gas temp,
T,.in = 600 'c
To.in = 600 °c
Operation voltage
V = 0.75 V
O Q.
0.5
Tt m tn LU
600
:CO -1low
: cross flow
Oxid flow rate Go k g / m ’h

Fig. 5 Changes in Power Output due to Changes in
Flow Mode and Flow Rate of Process Gas
References
(1) T. L. Wolf and G. Wilemski, "Molten Carbonate Fuel cell

Performance Model" J. Electrochem. Soc.; Electrochemical
Science and Technology, Vol.130, No.l, pp.48-55, Jan.
1983.
(2) V. Sampth et al., "A Performance and Current Distribution
Model for Scaled-Up Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells" J.
Electrochem. Soc., Electrochemical Science and
Technology, Vol. 127, No.l, PP.79-85, Jan. 1980.
(3) T. Ogawa et al., "Performance Model of Molter carbonate
Full Cell" Denki Kagaku, Vol.53, No.8, pp.626-627, 1985.
210
MODEL I N G OF E L ECTROLYTE M IGRATION
IN THE MOLT E N C A R B O N A T E FUEL C E L L STACK
A. Pigeaud, G. Wilemski*, D. Rigos*, R. Chamberlin

ENERGY RESEARCH CORPORATION
Danbury, CT‘ 06813
♦PHYSICAL SCIENCES INC.
Research Park, P.O. Box 3100
Andover, MA 01810
lO TR O D U C nC W
Electrolyte Management in the MCFC to prevent loss of electrolyte from
active cell components has been a concern. Contributing causes are:
• Vapor Loss;minor and mostly in the anode exit gas as KOH vapor,
• Loss due to Corrosion Reactions; mostly Li-rich scaleformation,
• Loss due to Carbonate Creepage and absorption in oxide scales,
• ElectrolyteMigration losses; main concern in a stack situation.
Although as stated in a recent paper (1), it is difficult to eliminate

vapor loss fron gas fed molten carbonate fuel cells, corrosion and
electrolyte creepage can be, and have been, substantially reduced by
suitable choices of stainless steel hardware and surface coatings. The
mechanisms of Electrolyte Migration are modeled in this paper to
understand how best to eliminate their causes by either changing stack
geometry, gasket porosity, and/or coatings to modify the electrochemical
activity of the hardware surfaces.
THEXXffiTICAL BASIS
Electrolyte migration due to so-called electrochemical "punping" of carbo
nate melt occurs as a result of two different carbonate electrolysis
reactions, the 1/2-cell equations of which are the following:
Chemical-Potential driven Carbonate Transfer
Fuel side: H + M CO, 2M'*‘+2e”+ H,0+ CO [1]

2 2 3 ' ^ j | 2 2
Oxidant side: 2M^+2e + C 0 ^ + ► M^CO^ [2]
Electric-Potential driven Carbonate Transfer
tSurfaces: M CO, ^ 2M'^+2e”+ C0,+ *30, [3]

i i
-Surfaces: 2M +2e + C0^+ *sO^ ^ ^2 ^ 3 ^ ^
A sinple 2-cell stack is illustrated in Figure 1 showing where cations and

electrons are transferred from the inside to the outside of individual
cells (Equations 1 and 2) and from one site on the outside of a stack to
another (Equations 3 and 4). Surrmation of both sets of equations shows
that the driving forces produce parasitic (lateral and vertical, respec
tively) electrolysis currents which consume electrolyte, fuel, and fuel
cell generated current. Thus electrolyte migration from one location to
another can be expressed in terms of short-circuit electrolysis currents.
APPRCtfCH TO M X E L U G
Multistep electrolyte transfer occurs mainly on the oxidant entry and exit
faces of the stack because abundant oxygen and CO are available there.
The sequence of transfer steps is illustrated in Figure 2, showing that a
211
A. Pigeaud et al
-2-
IZ IS
o I
5 i
W O
m >
> 2
^ S
> 2
^
^ H
m
> _
!U [2j --- Equations
C h a m l c a l ' P o t e n t l a l - d r l v e n C A R B O N A T E TR ANSFER
3
HUO210 IN W E T S E A L A R E A (type a. migration)
FIGURE 1. LOCATION OF CARBONATE MIGKATrON AfO TSANSFER IN THE MOPC ST3CK
continuous flow of alkali cations occurs from inside the cells to exter
nal stack surfaces (e.g. type a migration; cation flow due to reactions 1
and 2). This is followed by migration to the corners of the stack by ca
pillary forces (i.e. type b migration) and then by deconposition/forma-
tion electrolysis to the more negative cells and end-plate of the stack
(e.g. type c migration or transfer due to reactions 3 and 4). Finally the
matrix of the most negative cell, by capillary pressure, will absorb much
of the excess electrolyte and in that process the cell will beccxne heavily
flooded (i.e. type d migration) while the most positive cells dry out.
''lU>
:V
FIGURE 2.ELE)CTH0LYTE TRANSFER SEQUENCE ON OXIDANT FACE OF MCPC STftCK
212
A. Pigeaud et al
-3-
STSCK CONFIGURATICW
To convert the conceptual model to a scheme for computational purposes,
the folded-open drawing of Figure 3 was constructed. This third version of
Our Stack Electrolysis Model (SEM III) illustrates a comer betvreen two
faces of a cross-flow stack. This figure, in contrast to the previous
sketches shows the assembly with the negative end-cell at the bottom of
the stack. It should also be noted that the gasket footprints are off-set
with respect to each other to minimize the dimension ^ttm^”^' 'Hiese
changes were suggested by preliminary work vrfiich showed that type c
electrolysis can be substantially reduced by minimizing the exposed area
on the outside of the most negative cells. In this connection, it is
helpful when the negative end-plate is at the bottom of the stack — where
very little settling of the cells can occur in a multicell situation — so
that the above mentioned dimension cannot increase whth time the way it
will at the tc» of the stack, i.e. (+).
to p
O XID AN T SIDE FUEL SIDE
s T r' o LOCATION
TILE
CATHODE 3I0E SIPOLAn PLATE

RAIL WIDTH
ANODE Sid e b ip o l a r p l a t e
RAIL WIDTH
O X I D A N T M A N I F O L D G A S K E T
F U E L M A N I F O L D G A S K E T
I N S U L A T O R A L U M I N A P L A T E
FIGURE 3. SCHEJlftTIC CF POIOED-OPEW CC»NER OF OWSS-FLOW,

EXTERNALLY MANIP0IJ3ED, M 3 C STICK (3-CELLS)
BASIC BQUAnONS
Initial modeling focussed on estimating type c migration or vertical
transfer of carbonate at the comers of the stack, assuming that all m|tal
surfaces are always wetted with an electrolyte film estimated from 10 to
10 cm in film thickness. In an early version of our stack electrolysis
model, WE determined the equation below for the current density, which
equals the parasitic c-migration in a manifold gasket of an N-cell stack.
It showed that j increases with N until it reaches a critical value above
which it is constant and therefore independent of the number of cells in
the stack:
NV
[5]
= 2Z + Nd/V
where V = potential of a single cell, spacing per cell
Z = polarization resistance effective gasket
at electrolysis boundary ionic conductivity
213
A. Pigeaud et al
-4-
The above expression for the vertical (c flow) current density between end
plates is approximate because a linear Butler-Volmer equation is assumed
for the overpotential range of interest and in this sinple form the equa
tion also neglects the small current densities (estimated at a few per
cent) that are consumed or generated by the intervening bipolar plate
strips. Hovrever, the approximations were assumed to be valid for stacks
of moderate size (e.g. N <50) ;*ose effective ionic gasket conductively is
low enough to use up most of the driving'potential (NV) as IR-loss thereby
keeping the end plate polarizations relatively small (Z is a small
fraction of the overall resistance). Vfe have recently ascertained,
however, that the linear polarization assumption used is inadequate, by
calculating the mass flux of melt transported through the gasket and
comparing it with the maximum possible mass flux supportable by
O^-reduction kinetics to form on the negative end-plate when this is
a limiting current controlled process.
Accordingly, the main goal of our latest Stack Electrolysis Model (SEMIII)
has been to use a non-linear B-V equation for calculating the current and
hence mass flux through the gasket; solutions now have to be obtained nu
merically, iterating until convergence is achieved. But with this model,
it is now also possible to directly include contributions of the indivi
dual bipolar plate strips and electrolyte matrices as well as to increase
the number of cells in thestack without significant coiputational
penalty.
RESULTS
In accordance with the upper bound of current transportable to the
negative end-plate (i.e. limiting current density for 0 -reduction), we
have calculated by SEM III the total mass flux of M CO in g/kh migrating
via c-flow. Different values of carbonate film thicwiess and effective
gasket conductivity were the parameters employed in the following
tabulation using a standard configuration, 3-cell, cross flow stack:
~~— -— ^ __ Melt Film

Effective '---- - Thickness, pm 0.1 1.0 10.0
Gasket Conductivity, 1/qTan ^ _____
0.06 8.03 5.13 0.513

0.006 1.87 1.93 0.513
0.0006 0.29 0.31 0.291
Limiting Mass Flux (0^-reduction) 51.3 5.13 0.513
For the very largest gasket conductivity, we observe 0 -kinetics limiting

behavior for both 1 pm and 10 pm melt film thickness. For medium gasket
conductivity only a 10 pm carbonate film is limuting.
REFERENCE
1. H.C. Maru et.al., "Electrolyte Management in MCFCs", Proc'ds. of
Symposium on Electrochem. and Ihermal Modeling of Battery, Fuel Cell and
Photoenergy Systems; Electrochemical Society, Pennington, N.J. (Oct. '86).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ihis modeling study was supported by the Electric Power Research Institute
under contract No. RP 1085-3 and by Energy Research Corporation.
214
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRODE AND ELECTROLYTE PLATE
FOR MOLTEN C ARBONATE FUEL CELL
M. Takeuchi, K. Tamura and Y. Hishinuma

Hitachi, Ltd., Hitachi Research Laboratory
4026, Kuji-cho, Hitachi-shi, 319-12, Japan
K. Ohtsuka
Hitachi, Ltd., Hitachi Works
3-1-1, Saiwai-cho, Hitachi-shi, 317, Japan
INTRODUCTION
Research and Development of molten carbonate fuel cell

(MCFC) in Japan was started in 1981, as one themes ofMoon
light project by the Agency of Industrial Science and Tech
nology, Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI).
This program is now being promoted by MITI and New Energy
Development Organization (NEDO).
Hitachi has been participated in the program from the first.
Research and development of MCFC in Hitachi has recently
focused on the improvement of cell component properties and
cell performance and the establishment of cell stacking
technologies.
COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT
CATHODE : The porous nickel oxide plate containing silver

(NiO-Ag, Ag : 2 5 atom%) is used as cathode. This cathode
is made by impregnation of silver nitrate solution to the
sintered porous nickel plate and calcination of it in air
atmosphere.
The polarization of cathode is affected by the temperature to
sinter the porous nickel plate in hydrogen atmosphere.
The cell using the NiO-Ag cathode (sintering temperature :
700°C, calcination temperature : 700~850°C) shows high
per formance.
ANODE ; The porous nickel plate containing cobalt (Ni-Co,

Co : 5 atom%) is now used as anode. This anode is made by
impregnation of cobaltous nitrate solution to the sintered
porous nickel plate and calcination of the plate in inert gas
atmosphere.
The cell using the Ni-Co anode shows high performance.
ELECTROLYTE PLATE : The characteristics of the electrolyte

plate made by impregnation of molten carbonate electrolyte,
Li 2 C O 3 /K 2 C O 3 , to lithiated alumina fiber matrix was
investigated.
The matrix made of alumina fiber did not so strongly keep the
electrolyte. Therefore, the composite type matrix made of
the alumina fiber and lithium aluminate powder was studied.
The method of making the electrolyte plate is very important
215
TAKEUCHI ET AL
- 2 -
for keeping the long life of MCFC at high performance. Two

kinds of method have been adopted for making the electrolyte
matrix. One is the filter-accumulation method similar to a
paper making method and the other is the tape casting method
using a doctor blade. The pore distribution of these elec
trolyte matrices made by each method are shown in Figure 1.
The matrix made by the tape casting method possesses the pore
of smaller diameter compared with the other matrix. The mean
pore diameter of the matrix was changed into about l.SxlO^X
across by the improvement of the condition to make the matrix
using the alumina fiber and fine lithium aluminate powder
(surface area : 23 m ^ / g ) .
As shown in Figure 2, the bubble pressure of the electrolyte
plate was about 0.4 kg/cm^ when the matrix was made by the
tape casting method.
The gas cross-over phenomenon was prevented because the
property of the electrolyte plate was improved.
The tape casting method is suitable for making the thin
matrix and the mass production of it.
CELL PERFORMANCE
The labo-scale single cell (effective electrode area :

64 cm2) âs assembled with the NiO-Ag cathode, the Ni-Co
anode, the electrolyte plate and a stainless steel separator.
Electrolyte was put between matrices and impregnated to the
pore of the materices in the cell at the stage of heating the
cell. Figure 3 shows the effect of the electrolyte added to
matrices on the resistance of the electrolyte plate at 650°C.
The resistance of the electrolyte plate became constant when
the volume ratio of the added electrolyte to the matrix pore
was over 1.1. The pore of the matrices was successfully
filled with the electrolyte.
Figure 4 shows the effect of the electrolyte added to
electrodes on the cell performance.
The single cells showed high performance in a wide range of
the volume ratio of the added electrolyte to the electrode
pore, 0 .0 ~ 0.9.
The cell voltage at 150 mA/cm^ was 0.78V+0.04V.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Most of the work described in this paper was performed under

the support of the Agency of Industrial Science and
Technology, Ministry of International Trade and Industry
(MITI) and New Energy Development Organization (NEDO).
216
TAKEUCHI ET AL
-5 -
=1 100
Filter-Accumulation M e t h o d
80
Q_
60
T a p e Casting'
40 Method
20
2 ,3 10®
Pore Diameter ( A )
Fig.1 Por e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Electrolyte Matrices
5.0
4.0
Filter-Accumulatlon M e t h o d
I
3.0 0
1
I
2.0 I
I
o
1.0
O/
/
O/ Tape Casting M e t h o d
0.2 0.5 0.4 0.5

Differential P r essu re ( k g / c m )
Fig.2 Strength of E l e c t r o l y t e Plates
217
T AKE UCHI ET A L
-4 -
650 C
<D
cr
50 75 100 125 150

V o lu m e R a t i o o f E l e c t r o l y t e to M a t r i x P o r e ( v o l . / v o l .)
F ig. 5 E f f e c t o f E l e c t r o l y t e Added t o M a t r i x on
Resi stance of E l e c t r o l y t e Pl at e
150 m A / c m
O
>
0 20 40 60 80 100
V o lu m e R a t i o o f E l e c t r o l y t e to E le c tr o d e P o r e ( v o l. / v o l. )
Fig.4 E f f e c t o f E l e c t r o l y t e Added t o E l e c t r o d e s
on C e l l P e r f o r m a n c e
218
THE CONTROL OF NiO CATHODE DISSOLUTION
Estela T. Ong, Robert J. Remick, Rafael Donado

Chicago, IL 60616
Although nickel oxide cathodes have been used in single

cells for periods in excess of 40,000 hours at atmospheric
pressure, cathode dissolution is believed to be a potential
problem at elevated pressure operation due to increased CO^
partial pressure of the oxidant. Cathode dissolution in
volves transport of the dissolved species into the electro
lyte structure where they are reduced and deposited as
nickel. This process leads to eventual thinning of the
cathode and a possible short-circuiting of the cell by the
deposited nickel. Cathode dissolution studies at IGT are
being carried out in two separate but parallel programs.
The EPRl-sponsored program (EPRl Contract No. RP-1U85-1U),
involves in-cell testing of alternative cathode materials
and also the implementation of measures to control the
dissolution. The measures under investigation are based
upon an understanding of dissolution and transport mechan
isms and upon observation of the microstructural changes
that take place within the cathode and the precipitation
behavior of the nickel within the electrolyte structure
itself. On the other hand, the objective of the program
sponsored by DOE (under DOE Contract DE-AC21-85MC 22224) was
to investigate the rate of dissolution and the mechanism of
transport of dissolved nickel species from the cathode into
the molten electrolyte.
Alternative Cathodes
A number of porous materials were tested as cathodes in 3-

cm cells. They included LaNiOo, Ni + 3% Ag, Ni + 10% C r ,
Cu + Spinel, and Mi + 25% Co. Among them, the nickel-cobalt
appears to be promising, exhibiting a nickel dissolution
rate of 64% of that observed for the pure NiO cathode.
Acid/Base Chemistry
NiO may dissolve in molten carbonates in three different

ways according to the reactions
NiO(s) + CO^(g) : Ni^(soln) + ^'03 ( soln)
NiO(s) + + C02(g) (2)
2NiO(3) + + l/202(g) : 2Ni02(3oln) + ^^2(g) (3)
219
ONG ET AL
2
each having a different Pco, (and hence acid/base) depen

dency. Our dissolution dat^ from cells operated with bO%
H2/40% CO 2 fuel and oxidants with different Pqq > presented
in Figure 1, show a linear dependency on Pqoo consistent
with Reaction 1. ^
30
20
10
0 0 .5 1 .0
, Oxidant
Figure 1. NICKEL DEPOSITED IN 7U MILS ELECTROLYTE

STRUCTURES TESTED IN 3-CM^ CELLS FOR 2000 HOURS
WITH OXIDANTS OF DIFFERENT COMPOSITION
(Electrolyte Molar Composition was 62 Li 2 C0 3 / 3 8 K 2 CO 3 )
However, the acid/base chemistry can also be affected by the

carbonate composition with lithium being the most basic com
ponent. Therefore, to examine the effect of electrolyte
composition, three different hot-pressed electrolyte
matrices containing electrolytes with lithium carbonate to
potassium carbonate molar ratios of 50 Li/50 K, 62 Li/38 K,
and 75 Li/25 K respectively, were tested in bench-scale (94-
cm'^) fuel cells. The cells were assembled with cobalt
anodes to quantitatively account for the amount of dissolved
cathode that was transported to the electrolyte structure
and the anode. The cells were operated for 1800 hours on
medium-Btu fuel and on an oxidant containing 24% CO 2 , 20%
HoO, and 56% air. Post-test analysis was performed on the
electrolyte tiles and on the cobalt anodes to determine the
nickel content. Table 1 lists the results.
220
ONG ET AL
3
Table 1 . RESULTS FROM NICKEL TRANSPORT STUDIES
Electrolyte Nickel Found Nickel Transported

Composition in Tile, niK/cm to anode, m^/cm
50 Li/50 K 14.9 0.6

62 Li/3a K b.6
75 Li/25 K 6.9 1.0
Analysis of the cobalt anode indicated that small amounts of

nickel did succeed in crossing the electrolyte tile to
deposit in the anode. In the 75 Li/25 K experiment, the top
layer of the cobalt anode next to the electrolyte was found
to contain 2 mg/cm‘ nickel after 1800 hours of operation.
The original cobalt anode contained only 1 mg/cm nickel as
an impurity. Therefore, approximately 1 mg/crn of the
nickel cathode transported across the electrolyte to deposit
in the anode. Less nickel was transported to the anode ot
the cell using the 50 Li/50 K tile, the average being about
0.6 mg/cm , The conclusions drawn from this work is that
the nickel cathode dissolves via both Reactions 1 and 2 and
that the nickel which transported across the electrolyte to
deposit in the_anode was transported rapidly as negative
nickelate (NiO^) ions produced according to Reaction 2. The
larger concentration of nickel deposited in the tile results
from slow chemical diffusion of positive nickel (Ni ''') ions
produced via Reaction 1. Higher lithium carbonate content
both favors the formation of nickelate (NiO^) ions and
decreases the amount of nickel deposited in the tile.
Nickel Deposition Behavior
The log of the amount of Ni found_in hot-pressed electrolyte

tiles that were operated in 94-cm cells at 650°C and 1 atm
pressure plotted as a function of log time is shown in
Figure 2. These cells were operated with 75 H^/25 COy fuel
at 75% utilization and 3U CU-^/yo air at 50% utilization.
The linear relationship indicates that the rate of deposi
tion decreases with time. The data further show that nickel
deposition rate is independent of the tile thickness. Since
both tile and cathode undergo microstructural changes simul
taneously during cell operation, the observed rate of Ni
deposition could be associated with changes in either compo
nent, or both. Therefore, there is much to be gained in
studying the microstructural development of the cathode and
the nickel deposition behavior in the electrolyte structure.
Results of these studies and their implications on the
control of NiO cathode dissolution will be discussed in this
presentat ion.
221
ONG ET AL
4
CM 100
E
u
c
o
•H 10 -
* 45 rails til e
D 150 m i l s til e
1000 10,000 100,0
Cell Life, h
Figure 2. NICKEL DEPOSITED IN FUEL CELL

ELECTROLlfTE STRUCTURES
(NFCS86-ETO/RPE)
222
IGT'S MCFC STACK TESTING PROGRAM
E. H. Camara, T. G. Benjamin, and R. J. Petri

Chicago, IL 60616
The Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) has been involved in

molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) stack testing for nearly
25 years. Figure 1 shows an early (1962) IGT stack oper
ating on reformed natural gas and delivering 25 watts of dc
power. The hardware used in this 1962 stack are shown to be
heavy machined boilerplate in Figure 2. IGT's advanced
light-weight sheet metal hardware is shown in Figure 3 and
one stack design using this hardware is shown in Figure 4.
The major feature of IGT's sheet metal design is the use of

a single corrugated separator plate in place of a flat
separator plate with ribbed electrodes or separate current
collectors. The advantages of the one-piece assembly are
lower contact resistances, easier assembly, lower materials
costs, and less weight. The design also presents some chal
lenges associated with the inherent formability of the
separator plate material. IGT's present design meets these
challenges by providing adequate anode support and uniform
flow distribution in 94-cm2 cells and low pressure drop in
flow simulation tests of 930 cm^ hardware. However, the
sheet metal is close to its formability limit, cathode
strength must be improved, and manifolding presents addi
tional challenges which can be solved by advanced techniques
such as laser welding. Stack testing of the one-piece
separator stack is planned for early 1987.
The latest phase of IGT's MGF’C stack, testing program began

in late 1985 through two contracts with GDC, Inc. of
Chicago.
The first GDC contract involves conceptual design and design

analysis, identification and resolution of specific stack
related issues such as carbonate management and dimensional
stability, scale-up of components and fabrication processes
including metal forming and joining, assembly and verifi
cation testing of stacks, and internal reforming.
The second GDC contract is for design, construction, and

shakedown of a molten carbonate fuel cell stack testing
facility for verification of designs and advanced compo
nents. The facility, now under construction and scheduled
for completion early next year, has been designed to accept
stacks of up to 3 kW operating at pressures up to 10 atmo
spheres. The facility has the flexibility required for
either internal or external reforming stacks and either
internal or external manifolding.
IGT's stack testing program will verify solutions to current

life-limiting phenomena such as anode creep and cathode
223
CAMARA ET AL
2
dissolution and the other issues ll-sted in Table 1.1 Work

to resolve these issues at the individual cell level is cur
rently bein^ funded by the Electric Power Research Institute
(EFRI) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).
Dimensional stability is one of the major challenges facing

MCFC developers as R&D becomes more heavily stack-oriented.
Two key aspects of component geometrical stability are being
addressed at IGT: anode creep and cathode dissolution.
IGX's approach to controiling anoue creep is oxide disper
sion strengthening (CDS) whereby a second metal is intro
duced into the nickel lattice and oxidized under very low
oxygen partial pressures.2 The effectiveness of the ODS
anodes is being evaluated through out-of-cell comparisons of
SOA and ODS anode sintering and creep behavior, correlation
of ODS anode microstructure with creep properties, and
development of cost-effective ODS anode fabrication tech
niques. Preliminary data indicate that ODS presents a
promising approach to creep inhibition.
The cathode dissolution problem is being addressed on

several fronts at IGT.3 Primary efforts are aimed at
elucidation of dissolution and transport mechanisms, cathode
microstructural changes, and nickel precipitation behavior
in the electrolyte and at the anode. Acid/base chemistry is
playing a major role in IGT's work. Sacrificial cathodes,
nickel barriers, and alternative materials are being con
sidered. The effect of electrolyte matrix thickness, elec
trolyte composition, and carbon dioxide partial pressure are
also being evaluated.
The electrolyte support structure (L1A102) long-term suit

ability is being improved by evaluation of particle size,
shape, and uniformity.
References
1. "Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Component Design Require

ments," Petri, R. J. and Benjamin, T. G. Paper pre
sented at the 21st Intersociety Energy Conversion
Engineering Conference, San Diego, California,
August 25-29, 1986.
2. "Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Anode," Erickson, D. S.,

Ong, E. T., and Donado, R. A. Paper presented at the
Tenth National Fuel Cell Seminar, Tucson, Arizona,
October 26-29, 1986.
3. "The Control of NiO Cathode Dissolution," Ong, E. T . ,

Remick, R. J., and Donado, R. A. Paper presented at
the Tenth National Fuel Cell Seminar, Tucson, Arizona,
October 26-29, 1986.
224
CAMARA ET AL
3
Table 1, COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
electrolyte Optimize L 1 2 CU 3 content between b2

COMPOSITION and 75 moI%
ELECTROLYTE Develop continuous processing

techniques
SUPPORT Optimize particle size, shape,

STRUCTURE packing arrangements, geometry for
carbonate management, cost ionic
resistivity
Crack resistant matrix
Aqueous binder
Commercial LiAlO^
ANODE Improve dimensional stability

Develop continuous processing
techniques
Optimize as electrolyte support
structure
Develop copper-based anodes
CATHODE Resolve dissolution

Improve crush strength
Optimize pore matching
BUBKLE BARRIER Standardize fabrication techniques

Optimize location between electrodes
Define materials and microstructure
Evaluate dual porosity anode
CELL HARDWARE One piece design

Define anode-side materials
Define cathode-side materials
Define long-term dimensional
stability.
(NFCSB6-TB/RPE)
225
CAMARA ET AL
4
Figure 1. 1962 STACK PACKAGE
Figure 2. 1962 STACK BOILER PLATE COMPONENTS
226
CAMARA ET AL
5
Figure 3. SHEET METAL COMPONENTS
O END PLATE
® END FRAME
(D BIPOLAR PLATE SUPPORT
0 BIPOLAR PLATE
0 CATHODE HOUSING FRAME
® CATHODE
® TILE
0 ANODE
0 ANOOE HOUSING FRAME
0 FUEL INLET MANIFOLD
® FUEL OUTLET MANIFOLD
0 OXIDANT INLET MANlF(X.D
@ OXIDANT OUTLET MANIFOLD (Nol Shownl
Figure 4. SHEET METAL STACK DESIGN

227
CARBON DEPOSITION IN MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS
David O. Ham and Gregory W. Lord

Physical Sciences Inc.
Research Park/ P.O. Box 3100
Andover/ MA 01810
Carbon deposits can form on molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)

anode materials or inlet hardware from the carbon monoxide in
the fuel mix. These deposits can block electrode poreS/
decreasing reactivity/ or can completely clog the inlet and
block the fuel flow. The usual approach for preventing car
bon deposition is to add steam to the fuel. Steam addition
requires heat to generate the high temperature steam and
reduces cell operating efficiency due to fuel dilution. If
we can limit steam addition to the minimum necessary to
obtain compositions near the equilibrium carbon formation
boundary while maintaining carbon free operation/ we can
attain an efficiency gain of two to three percent compared
with normal operation.
We have investigated carbon deposition on various MCFC mate

rials to obtain sufficient understanding of this process to
guide the choice of conditions for efficient operation. We
interpreted our experimental results by comparing them with
equilibrium and partial equilibrium calculations of carbon
boundaries and species concentrations. In this analysis the
Gibb's phase rule specifies that three/ and only three/ inde
pendent reactions can be considered among the five indepen
dent components of the system/ the fuel species H 2 1 H 2 O/ CO,
C O 2 3 nd CH 4 . No detailed mechanisms are available to guide
our choice of reactions/ so we have chosen the three sim
plest/ global reactions as our complete set. These reactions
along with their common names are:
water-gas shift CO + H 2O ^ CO 2 + H 2 (1)
raethanation CO +3 H 2 ^ CH 4 + H 2 O (2)
Boudouard 2C0 ^ C + CO 2 (3)
All three reactions are reversible/ heterogeneous reactions.

Rates of these reactions will depend upon the surface on
which they occur. Equilibrium constants for the reactions
are independent of the metal surface but depend upon the form
of carbon deposited which may be determined by the metal
surface.
228
HAM AND LORD
- 2-
Our experiments were performed at 925 K and at both 1 and

5 atmospheres total pressure. The materials we studied were
smooth nickel and stainless steel, representative of inlet
hardware, and both new and used nickel/chrome (Ni(Cr)) anode
materials. We performed two types of experiments. Using
simulated fuel mixes we determined whether carbon was formed
for various compositions. We also performed experiments
omitting components such as CH 4 , CO 2 or H 2 O so that progress
of reactions 1, 2 and 3 could be followed sensitively by
detecting small amounts of these species formed. Details of
these experiments are available in PSI report TR-398. In
this abstract we will only summarize our results and
conclusions.
Our measurements show that carbon deposition is determined

largely by the kinetic behavior of the three reactions
involved. A partial equilibrium carbon deposition boundary,
neglecting reaction (2 ), seems to be a useful criterion for
carbon fouling. This is true because on all surfaces tested
we found the Boudouard reaction is faster than the water gas
shift reaction which is much faster than the methanation
reaction at MCFC conditions.
Carbon fouling problems are not expected on Ni(Cr) anode

materials, especially after initial stages of operation,
because rates for the water gas shift reaction on this mate
rial are adequate to stay close to partial equilibrium. In
addition, the reaction of the fuel gas as it traverses the
fuel cell electrode reduces the CO concentration, moving the
gas mixture away from the carbon forming zone. Carbon foul
ing is most likely to occur on the smooth metallic surfaces
of the inlet hardware where reaction rates for the water gas
shift reaction are slow.
Carbon deposition can be suppressed by CO 2 addition rather

than the usual H 2 O addition even if the water gas shift reac
tion is slow. CO 2 can be added economically as anode gas
recycle in an MCFC power plant.
Improved catalytic activity of any of the surfaces in an MCFC

will reduce the possibilities for carbon fouling. Catalysts
in the cell for internal reforming of methane should be espe
cially effective because they enhance the methanation reac
tion so that full equilibrium carbon deposition boundaries
apply as opposed to no methane, partial equilibrium bound
aries. A high surface area metallic catalyst coating could
be used on inlet hardware components as a solution to fouling
in this likely problem region.
This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy

through Morgantown Energy Technology Center under contract
number DE-AC21-81MC16242.
229
MAGNESIUM OXIDE BASED INTERNAL REFORMING CATALYSTS
FOR THE DIRECT MCFC
N. Giordano” , F. Frusteri”” , P. Tsiaikaras” ° ,

A. Mezzapica” and A. Parmaliana”°
“ CNR-TAE Institute - Salita S. Lucia, 39 - 98013 Pistunina
MESSINA (ITALY)
°°Institute for Industrial Chemistry - University of Messina
Via del Verdi - 98100 MESSINA (ITALY)
I n t r o d u c t i on
As direct utilization of methane in the direct molten

carbonate fuel cells (DMCFC) is e x p e c t e d to o f f e r h i g h e r
efficiencies, ever Increasing attention has been recently
paid to s e a r c h of c a t a l y s t s ( 1 ,2 ) w h i c h c o u l d o f f e r h i g h
activity together with satisfactory the r m a l and chemical
resistance to the s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n s of the cells. F u r t h e r ,
as modeling of DMCF (3) requires reliable kinetic data,
the n e e d o f e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n on c a t a l y t i c a c t i v i t y
of c a n d i d a t e c a t a l y s t s is s t r e n g t h e n e d .
In t his w o r k we r e p o r t p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s of " o u t - o f - t h e
c ell" experiments in the steam reforming of CH . K i n e t i c
data on some model Ni/MgO and Ni/y LiAlO^ catalysts are
reported under reference conditions approaching extreme
GHSV (up to 150.000 h and T lo w e r than the baseline
T ( 9 2 3 ° K ) . E m p h a s i s is p l a c e d on a n o v e l N i / M g O f o r m u l a t i o n
which takes advantages of unique characteristics of an
" a s - r e c e i v e d " c o m m e r c i a l M g O s u p p o r t (Ube?(^ 500).
Experimental
2
A series of Ni/MgO (ûpport S.A.= 35 m /g) and Ni/yLlAlO
(support S.A.= 30 m /g) catalysts varying by the % o?
Ni h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d by the p o r e - f i l l i n g p r o c e d u r e using
Ni-acetylacetonate as the precursor. Unless otherwise
stated (see Table 1), c a t a l y s t s w e r e a c t i v a t e d at T (T )
of 6 7 3 ° K (H^-2h) and further at 8 9 8 “K (H^-lh). Catalytfc
experiments w e r e c a r r i e d out in a c o n v e n t i o n a l f l o w m i c r o
reactor (L = 3 0 0 mm; I.D. = 4 mm) suitable for integral
and differential measurements. CH , He and N , regulated
4 2 ’
by a mass-flow controller, were bubbled into the water
saturator, thermostatically controlled (T = ± 0 , 0 1 ° C ) . Ca
talytic activity measurementswere made at atmospheric
pressure and at t e m p e r a t u r e ranging from 798“ to
9 2 3 “K at gaseous space velocity (GHSV) m a d e to v a r y f r o m
1 , 5 0 0 to 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 h . The initial H 0/CH volumetric ratio
2 4
w a s set at 2.54.
2 30
GIORDANO ET AL
- 2 -
Results and Discussion
The performance of model catalysts is compared (at the

reference T = 8 9 8°K) in Fig. 1 in t e r m s of % c o n v e r s i o n
of C H as f u n c t i o n of the GHSV. The k i n e t i c r ate co n s t a n t s ,
4
e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g to a p s e u d o - f i r s t o r d e r k i n e t i c model;
-— GHSV In 1/(1 - a )
CH.
w he r e a = conv.%, are r e p o r t e d in T a b l e 1 f o r f e w exemplary

specimens, under comparable conditions. As evident (Fig.
1 ), thermodynamic conversions are approactêd on both types
of catalysts at any GHSV below 12.500 h . Departure f rom
equilibrium at any higher value proves undoubtdely that
MgO-based catalysts are more active tha t the y -LiAlO^
based ones. Variations in the a c t i v a t i o n p r o c e d u r e (h i g h e r
T^) offer the possibility of increasing the catalytic
activity of both catalysts but differences still remain
in favour of MgO-based catalysts. Superior activity of
M g O - b a s e d c a t a l y s t s is f u r t h e r e v i d e n t if k i n e t i c c o n s t a n t s
are compared on the b a s i s of the r e s p e c t i v e n i c k e l m e t a l
s u r f a c e a r e a s (Table 1).
TABLE 1
KINETIC CONSTANTS FOR R E F O R M I N G OF CH, IN O U T - O F - T H E

4
CELL CONDITIONS T^= 8 9 8 “K, P= 1 atm, H,,0/CH = 2.54
R 2 4
% Ni MSA Pretreat. GHSV Conv. Kinetic rate

fp0 constant
Catalyst wt% m2/gNi h -1 %
M m ^ C H 4cpnv.
atm
MPF-2 Ni/MgO 9.6 87 s.p. 37.500 5 7.5 297

MPF-2 Ni/MgO 9.6 n. d. T = 9 9 8 “K 3 7 . 5 0 0 80. 0 352
A
MPF-2 Ni/MgO 9.6 87 s.p. 150.000 26. 3 463
MPF-3 Ni/MgO 14 21 .2 s.p. 150.000 17. 0 300
MPF-4 Ni/MgO 14 n.d. s.p . 150.000 33.0 585
A Ni/y LlAlOg 11.5 46. 6 s.p. 30.000 87 246
A Ni/yLiAlO 11.5 46.6 s.p. 150.000 12 211
A Ni/yLlAlO 11.5 n.d. T =998'>K 150.000 21 370
A
* s.p. = standard procedure.
231
GIORDANO ET AL
- 3 -
100-
T. Reac. 898 K H 2 0 / C H 4 - 2 ,54
90-
CAT D (A) lt,5SNi/LiAI02
/-V
80- CAT o (nPF-2) 9.2 « N i / M g O
w
w 70- CAT A ( M P F - 3 ) 14,O S N I / M g O
CAT. 0 (M PF -4 ) 14,0SNI/Mq0
1 60-
0 50-
40-
X 30-
K
f. 20-
10-
0- --
1 -- 1-- I
25000 50000 75000 100000 125000 150000
-I
GHSV ( h ‘
FIGURE 1
% CH4 C o n v e r s i o n vs G H S V (h )
Values of the s p e c i f i c ^kinetîc co^nstants greater tha n

500 M m o l e s C H ^ (conv) fact obt a i n e d
in case of MgO-based c'l3;alysts even at T= 8 9 8 ° K ; th e s e
values well fulfill the e x p e c t a t i o n of a long service
in DMCF (4). It is anticipated that the superior activity
of M g O - b a s e d catalysts comes as a r e s u l t of a d i f f e r e n t
spatial arrangement of costituents Ni active sites, as
combined RXD and TPR m e a s u rements seem to i n d i c a t e . With
reduction of the Ni precursors (by TPR) occurring on
y - LiAlOg at a much faster rates and lower T than in
case o f M g O - b a s e d c a t a l y s t s it is s t r e s s e d t hat the c r u x
of the p r o b l e m s is the n a t u r e of the m e t a l s u p p o r t i n t e r a c
tions. Better understanding of these characteristics is
a prerequisite f o r an improvement of p r e s e n t f o r m u l a t i o n s
also in v i e w of a s c r e e n i n g of c a t a l y s t s w h i c h s a v e s in
the time-consuming stability tests under "in-cell" condi
tions .
Conclusions
Catalytic activity experiments in the out-of-the cell
ble conditions, Ni-^gO-based catalysts are, in general,

m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n Ni y-LiAlO based catalysts. Compa r i s o y
emphasizes differences at GHSV as high as 150.000 h
an d this allows determination of kinetic rate constants
approaching differential conditions. Superior activity
of MgO-based catalysts might be a consequence of a d i f f e r e n t
232
GIORDANO ET AL
- 4 -
spatial arrangements of Ni in the support lattice and

t h i s a d d s in q u a l i f y i n g t h i s c l a s s of c a t a l y s t s for f u r t h e r
experimentation.
Aknowledgment
Work performed under contract from ENEA (Italy).
References
1. B.S. Bak e r , S.D. Burn, C. Lee, M. M a r u a n d P. P a t e l . " I n

ternal R e f o r m i n g for Natural Gas Fueled M o l t e n Carbonate
Fuel Cells".Final Report for GRl Contract, N. 5080-344-
03 0 2 , Energy R e s e a r c h Corp. Danbury, CT, USA.
2. E.H. C a m a r a a n d E.T. Ong. " M o l t e n C a r b o n a t e Fue l C e l l Com

ponent Development". Fuel C e l l S e m i n a r 1983. O r l a n d o F l o
rida, USA.
3. G. W i l e m s k i , H.G. G h e z e l - A y a g h , P.S. Pate l , M.C. M a r u "Mo

d e l i n g of I n t e r n a l R e f o r m i n g D i r e c t Fue l C e l l " . Fuel Cell
Seminar 1985. Tucson, Arizona, USA.
4. H.C. M a r u . Q u a r t e r l y P r o g r e s s R e p o r t . DOE Project D E A C03-

76 ( E T - 1 1 3 0 4 ) , ERC, D a n b u r y , CT.
233
ELECTRONIC DEFECTS IN LiPeOj
J. L. Smith, G. H. K u c e r a , N. 0. M i n h , a n d J. R. Moreschl
Argonne, Illinois 60A39
L i F e 0 2 is u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t as an a l t e r n a t i v e c a t h o d e in
m o l t e n c a r b o n a t e fuel cells. It is c h e m i c a l l y s t a b l e , h a s
low s o l u b i l i t y , and d o e s not m i g r a t e u n d e r f u e l c e l l c o n d i
tions. In the d o p e d s t a t e , L i F e 0 2 h a s b e e n p r o d u c e d w i t h
r e s i s t i v i t i e s of 10 S?-cm in r e a l i s t i c c a t h o d e g a s e s ; u n d e r
s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s , u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 has a r e s i s t i v i t y of - 3 0 0
S -c m. W h i l e the d o p e d m a t e r i a l a p p e a r s to be a d e q u a t e for
f u e l c e l l u s e, f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t is b e i n g p u r s u e d . A
b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the d e t a i l s of the c o n d u c t i o n
m e c h a n i s m s of the m a t e r i a l wov\ld a i d in t h i s e n d e a v o r .
It is k n o w n , f r o m o u r p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s , th at the r e s i s
tivity, p, of u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 is s e n s i t i v e to r e a c t i o n g a s
c o n d i t i o n s (1). T h e r e f o r e , it is r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e t h a t
s m a l l c h a n g e s in s t o i c h i o m e t r y h a v e o c c u r r e d . Conductivity
( I / p ) is t h e n c a u s e d by e l e c t r o n i c d e f e c t s w h i c h r e s u l t f r o m
e q u i l i b r a t i o n w i t h the f u e l c e l l c a t h o d e e n v i r o n m e n t . With
L i F e 0 2 , th e p r o b l e m s of d e a l i n g w i t h a t e r n a r y o x i d e m u s t be
considered. S m y t h ( 2 , 3 ) a n d S c h m a l z r i e d (A) in t h e i r d i s
c u s s i o n s of t he n o n s t o i c h i o m e t r y of t e r n a r y o x i d e s , p o i n t
o ut t h a t in a d d i t i o n to t e m p e r a t u r e a nd o x y g e n p a r t i a l p r e s
sures ( v a r i a b l e s r e l e v a n t for b i n a r y o x i d e s t u d i e s ) a n o t h e r
v a r i a b l e , s u c h as t he a c t i v i t y of o n e of the c o n s t i t u e n t
b i n a r y o x i d e s , m u s t be s p e c i f i e d for c o m p l e t e t h e r m o d y n a m i c
d e f i n i t i o n of t he s y s t e m . B e c a u s e of the w o r k i n g e n v i r o n
m e n t of a c a r b o n a t e f u e l c e l l c a t h o d e , the l i t h i a a c t i v i t y
is the m o s t r e a s o n a b l e a d d i t i o n a l s p e c i f i e d v a r i a b l e . It
is a p p a r e n t t h a t the l i t h i a a c t i v i t y is a f u n c t i o n of e l e c
t r o l y t e melt and c o v e r gas c o m p o s i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y the P r n 2
a n d Pfj20 c o v e r g as. T h i s s t u d y s e e k s to i d e n t i f y t he
d e f e c t s t r u c t u r e a n d n o n s t o i c h i o m e t r i e s of u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2
p r e p a r e d in a i r a n d in t y p i c a l c a t h o d e g a s u s i n g a v a r i e t y
of t e s t s i n c l u d i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y , S e e b e c k , a n d t h e r m o g r a v i -
m e t r i c m e a s u r e m e n t s in c o n t r o l l e d g a s e n v i r o n m e n t s .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
A l l s a m p l e s of u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 , p r e p a r e d for t e s t i n g , w e r e
s y n t h e s i z e d by a s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e to a s s u r e a p p r o p r i a t e
stoichiometry. B r i e f l y , the p r o c e d u r e is as f o l l o w s . A
f i n e p o w d e r e d F e 2 0 j is m i x e d w i t h s t o i c h i o m e t r i c L i 2 C 0 2 p l u s
about 5 0 Z excess L r 2 C O j - K 2 C 02 eutectic. T h e m i x t u r e is
r e a c t e d at the t e m p e r a t u r e , g a s c o m p o s i t i o n a n d p r e s s u r e
under study. After synthesis, the r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s a r e
w a t e r w a s h e d to r e m o v e e x c e s s c a r b o n a t e s a n d a r e a i r d r i e d .
X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s is p e r f o r m e d to i d e n t i f y t he
phase(s) formed. Sintered pellets, - 2.5 cm d i a x 0 . 1 6 cm
t h i c k a r e m a d e for r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s by t he v a n d e r
P a u w t e c h n i q u e (5) a n d f or S e e b e c k c o e f f i c i e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s .
T h e r m o g r a v i m e t i i c m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e m a d e u s i n g the w a s h e d a n d
d r i e d r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t h e l d in a go Id l i n e d A I 2 O 2 c u p w i t h a
Cahn microbalanre.
2 34
S M I T H E T AL
- 2 -
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To g a i n i n s i g h t into s e m i c o n d u c t o r type and t h e r e f o r e d e f e c t

s t r u c t u r e , the e f f e c t of c o v e r g a s c o m p o s i t i o n on r e s i s
t i v i t y is s t u d i e d . F i g u r e 1 is a p l o t of the r e s i s t i v i t y at
6 5 0 ° C of u n d o p e d L i F e O n p r e p a r e d in a i r as a f u n c t i o n of
time and c o v e r gas. T h e d a t a s h o w a d e c r e a s e in r e s i s t i v i t y
w i t h a n i n c r e a s e in P q 2 ! t h i s b e h a v i o r is an i n d i c a t i o n of a
p-type semiconductor. T h i s s u g g e s t s t he p r e s e n c e of Fe in
t h e m a t e r i a l ; if c o n d u c t i o n w e r e d u e to Fe , i n c r e a s e s in
P q 2 w o u l d c a u s e an i n c r e a s e In r e s i s t i v i t y . F a y a r d ( 6 ), in
an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of c r y s t a l l i n e f o r m s of L i F e 0 2 , s u g g e s t e d
n o n s t o i c h i o m e t r i c LiFe02 having a lithium excess (Li/Fe>l).
A n d e r s o n (7) f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d a l i t h i u m s u b s t i t u t i o n for
i r o n to f o r m th e l i t h i u m e x c e s s c o m p o u n d a n d , t h r o u g h
c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s , s h o w e d Fe was formed. As s t a t e d
e a r l i e r , o u r s t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t r e s i s t i v i t y of u n d o p e d
L i F e 0 2 is a f f e c t e d by r e a c t i o n g a s c o n d i t i o n s , i .e., a o n e -
h u n d r e d f o l d i n c r e a s e in r e s i s t i v i t y as c o m p a r e d to a ir
p r e p a r e d L i F e 0 2 is o b s e r v e d in u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 p r e p a r e d in a
0.3 a t m C 0 2 - b a I a n c e air e n v i r o n m e n t . These results also
s u g g e s t t h a t in l ow P q q 2 ’ ^ l i t h i u m - r i c h c o m p o u n d is f o r m e d .
At h i g h e r P q q 2 ’ s y n t h e s i s m o l t e n s a l t s ( 1 1 2 0 0 ^ a nd
^t itectic) w o u l d e q u i l i b r a t e w i t h the c o v e r g a s
c a u s i n g a c h a n g e in th e l i t h i a a c t i v i t y , r e s u l t i n g in a l e s s
l i t h i u m - r i c h compound. B e c a u s e of the r e s p o n s e of the
r e s i s t i v i t y w i t h c h a n g i n g P q 2 ss w e l l as P q o 2 ’ ^
that a i r - p r e p a r e d u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 has b oth cation, Li/Fe
ratio, and oxygen nonstoi c h i o m e t r y . However, t his type of
m e a s u r e m e n t c a n n o t d e s c r i b e the L i F e 0 2 s y s t e m c o m p l e t e l y .
S e e b e c k m e a s u r e m e n t s g i v e d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n on s e m i
c o n d u c t o r t ype. A p o s i t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t is i n d i c a t i v e of a
p - t y p e a n d a n e g a t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t of an n - t y p e . F i g u r e 2 is
a p l o t of S e e b e c k c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e
and c o v e r gas. All u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 t e s t e d e x h i b i t e d a
p o s i t i v e S e e b e c k c o e f f i c i e n t at l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s . This
i n d i c a t e s p - t y p e c o n d u c t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e Fe . H o w e v e r , an
n - t y p e c o n d u c t i o n is a l s o s e e n in s o m e s i t u a t i o n s . The data
s h o w that u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 , air p r e p a r e d / C 0 2 m e a s u r e d , and C O 2
p r e p a r e d / a i r m e a s u r e d b o t h c h a n g e f r o m p- to n - t y p e c o n d u c
tors. B e c a u s e t h e s e t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s of c o n d u c t i o n
t y p e a r e l o w ( - 6 5 0 ® C ) a n d n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l , it is l i k e l y
t h a t t he c h a n g e is d u e to a s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a , i .e., L i 2 0
a n d / o r O j loss. In a i r p r e p a r e d / a i r m e a s u r e d L i F e 0 2 no
s i m i l a r b e h a v i o r o c c u r s ; h o w e v e r , the S e e b e c k c o e f f i c i e n t is
s e e n to b e g i n d e c r e a s i n g at 8 5 0 ° C , s u g g e s t i n g a c h a n g e in
stoichiometry. T h e d i f f e r e n c e in S e e b e c k b e h a v i o r b e t w e e n
a i r p r e p a r e d / a i r m e a s u r e d L i F e 0 2 a n d C O 2 p r e p a r e d or C O 2
m e a s u r e d m a t e r i a l c an be v i e w e d ' a s the r e s u l t of
Li]^^jjFe 2 _j, 0 2 + XCO2 ^ (l-x)Li Fe02 • xLi2 C0 j + x / 2 O2 (1 )
w h i c h g o v e r n s the e x c e s s litliium i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d / o r
lithium excess removal. S u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e for n o n s t o i
c h i o m e t r y d u e to o x y g e n e x c e s s m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d by o t h e r
methods.
235
S M I T H ET A L
- 3 -
T h e r m o g r a V i m e t r i c m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m a d e in an e f f o r t to
d e t e r m i n e t he n u m b e r d e n s i t y of the d e f e c t s r e s u l t i n g f r o m
l i t h i u m a n d / o r o x y g e n n o n s t o i c h i o m e t r y in L i F e 0 2 > Initial
e f f o r t s w e r e f o c u s e d on a s c e r t a i n i n g the d e g r e e of l i t h i u m
excess. A s e r i e s of m e a s u r e m e n t s on C O 2 p r e p a r e d L i F e 0 2
s h o w e d o n l y a n e g l i g i b l e t o t a l m a s s c h a n g e ( < 0 . 2 m g ) on a
s a m p l e w e i g h i n g - 2 5 0 - 3 0 0 mg, i n d i c a t i n g v e r y l i t t l e or no
lithium excess. F i g u r e 3 s h o w s t he t o t a l m a s s c h a n g e of an
u n d o p e d , a i r p r e p a r e d s a m p l e of L i F e 0 2 , i n i t i a l l y w e i g h i n g
- 3 0 0 mg, m e a s u r e d at 6 5 0 ° C , f i r s t in n i g h P q q 2 ( - 0 . 0 1 a t m )
a n d t h e n in l o w P q q 2 ( ~ - 0 0 0 3 a t m ) as a f u n c t i o n of t im e.
T h e d a t a s h o w th at a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in m a s s o c c u r s in
h i g h P r Q 2 w i t h -35 h r e q u i r e d for e q u i l i b r i u m . The c o r
r e s p o n d i n g d e c r e a s e in m a s s in l ow P(-q2 ^ a g r e e m e n t
w i t h the w e i g h t gain. F r o m t h e s e d a t a , a v a l u e of x = 0 . 0 1 A
w a s d e t e r m i n e d for n o n s t 0 i c h i o m e t r i c Li 1 + X The
o x y g e n n o n s t o i c h i o r a e t r y is s t i l l u n d e r s t u d y . F i g u r e 4 is a
p l o t of the l e a s t s q u a r e s fit of t o t a l m a s s c h a n g e of a i r
p r e p a r e d L i F e 0 2 as a f u n c t i o n of P q 2 the i s o t h e r m s 6 50,
7 00, a n d 7 5 0 ° C . T h e a n a l y s i s of t h e s e d a t a h a s n o t y e t b e e n
c o m p l e t e d , but it is a p p a r e n t th at at a n y g i v e n P q 2 in
c r e a s e in m a s s o c c u r s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , i n d i
c a t i n g an u p t a k e of O 2 .
T h e s t u d i e s on u n d o p e d L i F e 0 2 to d a t e h a v e p r o v i d e d an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c o n d u c t i o n m e c h a n i s m s a n d of t he e f f e c t
of r e a c t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t on the s t o i c h i o m e t r y of t he m a t e -
rial. T h e s e m i c o n d u c t or t y p e a n d its r e g i o n of i n f l u e n c e as
w e l l as the d e g r e e of c a t i o n n o n s t o i c h i o m e t r y h a v e b e e n
a s s e s s e d w h i l e th at of o x y g e n n o n s t o i c h i o m e t r y is u n d e r w a y .
It s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n the d e f e c t e q u i l i b r i u m
c o n s t a n t s f r o m the P q 2 t h e r m o g r a v i m e t r i c m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d
a c c o r d i n g l y the AH and AS of the d e f e c t r e a c t i o n .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
W o r k s u p p o r t e d by the U. S. D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y , M o r g a n t o w n
Energy T e c h n o l o g y Center, Fuel Cell Projects Section under
C o n t r a c t No. W - 3 1 - 1 0 9 - E N G - 3 8 , a n d p e r f o r m e d u n d e r the d i r e c
t i o n of W. J. H u b e r . __________________
The iobmitted manuscriDt has been authored
by a coDUactor o( the U. S, G w etnw ent
under contract No. W -31-109-ENG-38.
contribution, or allow others to do $0, for
REFERENCES U. S. Government purposes.
N. 0. M i n h , G. H. K u c e r a , a n d J. L. S m i t h , P r o c . of the
F i f t h In t. S y m p . on M o l t e n Salt.s, M. L. S a b o u n g i -
B l a n d e r , et a l., E d s . , T h e E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l S o c i e t y ,
P e n n i n g t o n , NJ ( 1 9 B 6 ) p. 59 7.
2 . D . M. Smyth, J. Solid State Chem., 1^6, 73 (1976).
3. D. M. Smyth, J. Solid State Chem., 20, 3 59 (1977).
4 . H . Schmalzried, Prog. Solid State Chem , 2, 265 (1965).
5. L. J . v an del Pauw, Philips Re Rep., 13(1), 1 (1958).
6 . M . Fayard, Ann . Chim. (Palis), 6 , 1279 (1961)
7. J . C. A n d e i s o n and M . S c h ic b e 1 J. Phys. Chem. Solids,
25 . 961 ( 1 9 6 A ) .
236
SMITH ET AL
- A -
E
u
o
Air
>
w
0)
a>
QC
0 too 200 300 400 500 600 700 600

Time (h)
FIGURE 1
RESISTIVITY OF UNDOPED, AIR PREPARED LiFeO^ AT 650 C.
0.7 0.8 0.9 I 1.1 1.2 1.3

1 000/T (K )
FIGURE 2
SEEBECK COEFFICIENT OF UNDOPED LlFe02 ( ■ AIR PREPARED/

AIR MEASURED, 0 0 0 2 PREPARED/AIR MEASURED, # CO 2
PREPARED/CO 2 MEASURED.
237
SMITH ET AL
- 5 -
4
O.Ufltm 0j*0.01atm COj*0.85«lm N,
0.20alm 0,-0.0003atm C0,-0.80atm N,
E
« 3
O)
c
CO
x:
O 2
O)
©
5 1
lo
S
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (h)
FIGURE 3
THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS AT 650°C OF

UNDOPED LiFeO^ PREPARED IN AIR.
< 0.0
< - 0.2
0 0.1 0.2 O.J 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0 , P R E S S U R E (A T M )
FIGURE 4
MASS CHANGE OF UNDOPED LiFe02 ( 650 C,

---------- 700°C,------ 750OC).
238
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF GAMMA-LITHIUM ALUMINATE
FOR USE IN MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS
G. H. Fairchild and P. M. Brown

Foote Mineral Company
Route 100
Exton, PA 19341 USA
INTRODUCTION
Lithium aluminate, a lithium aluminum oxide having the formula L1A102, has
found application as an electrolyte support medium in molten carbonate fuel
cells^' This compound can be prepared from the calcination of various
lithium and alumina sources^”^.
Three crystal modifications of LiA102 have been characterized: a, B, and Y-

Both a and B-LiA102 undergo an irreversible transformation to Y -LiA102 in
the presence of Li 2 C0 3 /K2 C0 3 (62 mol % Li2C03/38 mol % K2 CO2 )
at 650°C and 700°C, respectively5. The phase changes are accompanied by
a change in particle morphology and a decrease in surface area. From a
thermodynamics standpoint, Y-LiA 1 0 2 is the most desirable crystalline form
for MCFC applications.
Foote Mineral Company has commercialized two Y-LiA102 products for specific
application in MCFC technology: a high surface area (8-12 m^/g) and a low
surface area (0.5-1.0 m^/g) product. High-surface area Y-LiA102 is used
in MCFC matrices primarily for electrolyte retention. Low surface area
Y-LiA 1 0 2 can be viewed as a larger particle size inert ceramic material to
be added to the electrolyte matrix for strength and crack attenuation.
Mixtures of high and low surface area Y-LiA102 provide a broader range of
particle sizes to allow better packing and forming characteristics.
PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Physical and chemical properties for high and low surface area Y-LiA102 are
summarized in Table I.S.E.M. photographs of the high and low surface area
products are shown in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. Particle size
distribution curves for these products are given in Figures 3 and 4. High
surface area Y-LiA 1 0 2 consists of smaller particles and a narrower particle
size distribution when compared to low surface area Y-L 1 A 1 0 2 .
Properties of ceramic bodies made from various blends of high surface area and
low surface area Y-L1A102 have been determined. The results are given in
Table II. Although the firing temperature used (1200°C) is well in excess
of MCFC operating temperatures, the relative effect of various LiA102 blends
on shrinkage, strength, and porosity can be used for comparison. Ceramic
bodies made from high surface area Y-LiA 1 0 2 exhibit the highest compressive
strength, but also have the greatest shrinkage upon firing. Addition of low
surface area Y-L1A102 ( 3 0 % ) appears to decrease shrinkage while maintaining
a high structural stength and porosity.
239
G. H. FAIRCHILD
- 2 -
REFERENCES
1. Benjamin, T. G. and Camara, E. H., "The Fuel Cell: Key to Practically

Unlimited Energy", Foote Prints, Vol. 48, Ho. 2, 1985.
2. Maru, H. C., Paetsch, L. , and Plgeaud, A., "Review of Molten Carbonate

Fuel Cell Technology", Proc. Symp. on Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
Technology, The Electrochem. S o c . , Vol. 84-13, p. 20, 1984.
3. Klnoshlta, K . , Sim, J. W . , and Ackerman, J. P., "Preparation and

Characterization of Lithium Aluminate", Mater. Res. Bull., Vol. 13, p.
445, 1978.
4. Klnoshlta, K . , Sim, J. W. and Kucera, G. H. , "Synthesis of Fine Particle

Size Lithium Aluminate for Application In Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells",
Mater. Res. Bui., Vol. 14, p. 1357, 1979.
5. Klnoshlta, K . , "Electrolyte Structures for Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells",

DOE/EPRl workshop on Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells, WS-78-135, p. 4-5, 1979.
TABLE I
Physical and Chemical Properties of High and Low Surface Area -LIAIO 2
High Surface Low Surface

Area LIAIO 2 Area LIAIO 2
Typical Chemical Analysis:
LI2 O 22.5% 22.5%
AI2 O3 77.0% 77.0%
Typical Physical Analysis:
Phase Composition 95% gamma 97% gamma

5% alpha 3% alpha
Surface Area (B.E.T.) 8 - 1 2 m2 /g 0.5-1.0 M^/g
Particle Size: 97% -325 mesh 87% -325 mesh
Bulk Density:
Free Fall 12 lbs./ft.3 35 lbs./ft.3

Packed 30 lbs./ft.3 90 lbs./ft.3
2 40
G. H. FAIRCHILD
- 3 -
TABLE II
Properties of Various Blends

of High Surface Area (8-12 m^/g) and
Low Surface Area CO.5-1.0 m^/g) -LiA102
Composition Densities (Ibs/ft.-) Properties of Fired

Percent Compact
% High X Low Green Fired Shrinkage
Surface Surface Compact Compact Upon Compressive Apparent
Area Area (3800 psi) (1200 C) Firing Strength (psi) Porosity (X)
100 — 62 102 15.9 9600 40.0
70 30 72 93 9.04 5600 44.4
50 50 79 96 7.88 3000 40.3
30 70 89 110 7.63 3300 30.1
_ 100 103 113 3.61 4000 28.6
241
G. H. FAIRCHILD
- 4 -
Ipni 5 pm
Figure 1. S.E.M. Photographs of High Surface Area Y-LiA102
10 p m 25 p ra
Figure 2. S.E.M. Photographs of Low Surface Area Y-LiA102
242
G. H. FAIRCHILD
- 5 -
0
m i
0
1.0 2,0 3.0 5.0 5.0 7.0

P f t R T I C L E D I AME T E R (-ml
■'if;urp 3. Part i c l e Size D i s t r i b u t i o n for H i g h S u r f a c e A r e a Y-LiAlO-,
0 5.0 10. 0 15.0 20,0 25.0
P A R T I C L E D I A ME T E R ( . m)
F igure 4. ILarticle Size D i s t r i b u t i o n for Lo w S u rf a c e A r e a Y-LiA10.j
243
M ATERIAL STUDIES ON
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL
T.Kodama, Y.Miyazaki, S.Tanase

M.Yanagida, K.Tanimoto, S.Kose
Gove r n m e n t Industrial R e search Institute, Osaka
1-8-31, M i d o r i g a o k a , I k e d a - s h i , O s a k a 563 J a p a n
INTRODUCTION
G o v e r n m e n t I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , O s a k a (GIRIO)
started s t u d i e s on c ell m a t e r i a l s of m o l t e n c a r b o n a t e fuel
c e l l (MCFC) f r o m 1981 in the M o o n l i g h t P r o j e c t .
At present, our surveying efforts of electrode and

e l e c t r o l y t e m a t r i x m a t e r i a l s are c o n t i n u e d , a n d the p h y s i c a l
properties data such as melting poin t , electric
conductivity, v a p o r p r e s s u r e etc. are b e i n g a c c u m u l a t e d for
b i n a r y o r t e r n a r y s y s t e m s of c a r b o n a t e e l e c t r o l y t e s .
O u r a c t i v i t i e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e are introduced and some

r e s e n t r e s u l t s are s h o w n in this paper.
SURVEY CELL MATERIALS
We are s u r v e y i n g c e l l m a t e r i a l s by m e a n s of immersion
method into m o l t e n carbonate. F e - b a s e d or N i - b a s e d a l l o y s
and electric c o nductive c e ramics for electrodes, a n d n o n or
io n i c conductive ceramics for electrolyte matrix were
investigated. O v e r a h u n d r e d k i n d s of m a t e r i a l s h a v e been
surveyed so far. In order to simplify to analyze a
contribution of c o m p o n e n t s in F e - b a s e d a l l o y s to an anti
corrosion characteristic, we f a b r i c a t e d som e s a m p l e rods
( 3 x 4 x 2 5 m m ) c o m p o s e d of one a d d i t i v e s u c h as Si,Al. or C r as
s h o w n in T A B L E I. C o r r o s i o n te s t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t in t h r e e
p h a s e s ; t h a t is, in a t m o s p h e r e of 1/2 C 0 „ / 0 „ ( d e n o t e d by A),
in molten carbonate (L i ^ C O ^ / K ^ C O ^ , 62 / 38m o l % ; L ) and at
i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n the g a s a n d the l i q u i d ( I ) . The c o r r o s i o n
rate o r p e n e t r a t i o n ra t e ( P ) w a s e s t i m a t e d f r o m w e i g h t c h a n g e
f o l l o w i n g E q .1.
P=X/(dxS) (1)
w h e r e X, d a n d S d e n o t e w e i g h t cha n g e , density and surface

area of the rod, respectively. The r e s u l t s are s h o w n in
F I G U R E 1. It c a n be s e e n that an a d d i t i o n of C r is e f f e c t i v e
clearly for anti-corrosion. Corrosion products on each
specimen was investigated by SEM photograph and X-ray
analysis.
244
KOD A M A ET AL
- 2 -
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTROLYTE
T he physical p r o p e r t i e s d a t a of binary and ternary

systems of molten carbonate were being accumulated. In
order to o b t a i n less c o r r o s i v e m o l t e n carbonate, we are
trying addition of a l k a l i n e e a r t h m e t a l c a r b o n a t e s u c h as
CaCO _ , BaC O „ , and SrCO^ to conventional binary system
(L i „ c O _ - K C 0 „ ) . The phase d i a g r a m of melting point of
ternary systems, CaC0_-Li„CO„-K„CO„ and BaC0„-Li„C0„-K„C0_
are shown in FIGURE 2 and FIGURE 3, respectively?
Conductivity m e a s u rement was also carr i e d out for ternary
system s u c h as B a C O , -Li^COg-K^COg. The r e s u l t is s h o w n in
F I G U R E 4.
CELL TESTING
Some m a t e r i a l s w e r e c h o s e n as c a n d i d a t e m a t e r i a l s for
cathode, especially. At p r e s e n t , f a b r i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s for
p o r o u s e l e c t r o d e ar e b e i n g e x a m i n e d . A n d c ell t e s t i n g u s i n g
th e s e e l e c t r o d e s is a lso b e i n g c a r r i e d out.
Corrosion Rate (mm/y)
FIGURE 1
FS-K I
Results of Cor r o s i o n Tests of FS-U-G
B i n a r y Fe-ba s e d Alloys.
FS-2/ L
L:Liquid Phase FS-2( I
I :I n t e r f a c e FS-2 I G
G:Gas Phase
FS-3( L
FS-3( X
FS-3( G
FA-1 ( L
FA-1 ( I
FA-1 ( G
FA-2 I L
FA-2 ( I
FA-2 ( G
FA-3 ( L
FA-3 { I
FA-3 (,G
FC-KL
FC-1 ( I
FC-1 (-G
F C -2 ( l
F C -2 ( I
FC-2 (-G
FC-3 ( L
FC-3 I T
FC-3 ( G
245
CaCOa
850
800
700
600
500
800 700'
FIGURE 2 Phase Diagram of Melting Points of

Ternary System, CaCO^-Li
BaCC
9 0 0 °C
8 0 0 °C
7 0 0 °C
6 0 0 °C
5 0 0 °C
7 Q Q °C
FIGURE 3 Phase Diagram of Melting Points of

Ternary S y s t e m ,BaC02-Li2C02-K2C02•
2 46
t / C
ilOO 1000 900 800 700
10 p
L A tr r . o s D h e r e : C O .
0.5
0.2
■m
0.5
material .mp/C Ea/kJ-moi
Li-CO.-K-CO^(50:50) 514 26.7

2 J 2 3
Li.,C0^-K2C0^-EaC0^ (45:45:10) 504 30.7
Li^CO^-K^CO^-BaCO^ (40:40:20) 503 30.2

0.2
U.,C0.-K_CD.,-3aCD-(35:35:30) 664 29.1
^ J 2 J J
Li^CO^-K^GO^-BaOO^(50:30;40) (778) 2S-3
0.1
0.7 0.3 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
1000/T /
FIGURE 4 Temperature Dependence of Conductivities of

Ter n a r y System, B a C O ^ - L i ^ C O ^ - K ^ C O ^ .
Ta b l e l Chemical Composition of Binary

Fe-based Alloys.
C S : Vf n S C J Cr A. 1 Mg C a N
F S 1 0.CO31 6-8 3 O.OOli 0.0006 0.0014 <0.001 0.00 2 <0.0002 0.CC02 0.CCG8
F S 2 0.0 0 3 7 13-93 0.0010 0.0007 0.0011 0.001 <0.001 <0.0002 0.00C4 O.OC07
F S 3 0.CO34 2 2 ^ 0.0018 0.00 03 0.0010 <0.001 0.00 2 <0.0002 <0.0002 0.00 03
F A 1 0.0 0 1 6 <0.005 0.0070 0.00 13 0.0016 <0.001 <0.0002 0.0002 0.00 26

F A 2 0.0 0 1 6 0.00 6 0.0028 0.0 0 1 2 o . c o is O.COl 8.37 <0.0002 < 0.0002 0.0017
FAG 0.00 28 0.010 Q.OOI 4 0.00 10 0 .0 0 2 ! O.COl ’ 3.31 0.0003 <0.0002 0.0021
F A 4 0.0 0 3 6 0.02 2 0.0021 0.0CC8 0.0029 <0.001 02. S3 0.0045 < 0.0002 0.0023
F C 1 0.00 19 0.00 7 0.0005 0.0016 0.0014 4 .9 2 0.001 <0.0002 0.0004 0.0088
F C 2 0.0 0 4 6 0.00 6 0.00 08 0.0 0 1 6 G.C015 i2 - 3 2 0.0 0 2 <0.0002 0.0CO4 0.00 52
F C 3 0.0 0 2 7 0.021 0.0008 0.00 16 0.0014 2 1 ^ O.C04 <0.0002 0.00 06 0.0121
F C 4 0.0 0 6 3 0.01 4 O.COlO 0.0016 0.0014 iU 2 0.00 2 <0.0002 0.00 28 0.0163
247
D EVELOPMENT OF PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
M. M A T S U M O T O , A. H I J I K A T A A N D Y. O T A K A
MITSUBISHI ELECTRIC CORPORATION, KOBE WORKS
1-1-2 W A D A S A K I - C H O , H Y O G O - K U , K O B E 652, J A P A N
INTRODUCTION
Phosphoric acid tends to be driven out of the due

p o s i t i o n s a n d to lose the d e s i r a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r m a m o n g
the c e l l c o n s t i t u e n t s d u r i n g the c ell o p e r a t i o n . Although
al l t he d r i v i n g f o r c e s of the p h o s p h o r i c a c i d to m o v e are
not c l e a r l y k n o w n , the r o u t e s are known w ith their weights
of Importance. Some routes are via electrode backing
substrates. P h o s p h o r i c acid. In the f o r m of m i c r o s t r e a m ,
fl o w s f r o m t he c a t a l y s t l a y e r s to t h e s e p a r a t o r t h r o u g h the
backings. In o r d e r to p r e v e n t t h e p h o s p h o r i c a c i d s t r e a m
from occurring, wetproofing treatment of the backing
s u b s t r a t e Is c a r r i e d out.
In th e we t p r o c e s s of m a n u f a c t u r i n g e l e c t r o d e s , b a c k i n g
s u b s t r a t e Is c o a t e d w i t h c a t a l y s t p a s t e s . W e t p r o o f i n g of
th e substrates Influences the surface roughness of the
c a t a l y s t l a y e r In the s u b s t r a t e sid e and the gas d i f f u s i o n ,
a n d th e c o u n t e r d i f f u s i o n of w a t e r v a p o u r also, w i t h the
formation of phosphoric acid film near the electrode
s u r f a c e In t he s u b s t r a t e .
Th e a u t h o r s I n t e n d to m a k e c l e a r In thi s p a p e r , the
e f f e c t s o f w e t p r o o f i n g on cel l p e r f o r m a n c e .
Wetproofing Procedure
S u b s t r a t e , c o n s i s t i n g of c a r b o n f i b r e s a n d b i n d e r , was
coated with diverse f l u o r o p o l y m e r s a n d b a k e d at d i v e r s e
temperatures. The carbon fibre Is of petroleum pitch
origin, about l 4 p m In d i a m e t e r , I n t e r p l a n a r s p a c l n g s of
0(002) b e i n g 0.3^90nm. T o t a l p o r e v o l u m e of the u n t r e a t e d
s u b s t r a t e Is 76% of a p p a r e n t b u l k v o l u m e a n d m e d i a n por e
d i a m e t e r is 6 4 p m . A q u e o u s d i s p e r s i o n s of f l u o r o p o l y m e r s ,
c o n t a i n i n g s u r f a c e a c t i v e a g e n t , a r e d i l u t e d a n d s p r a y e d or
o t h e r w i s e ar e c o n d i t i o n e d w i t h s ome v i s c o s i t y I n c r e a s i n g
a g e n t s f o l l o w e d by r e v e r s e r o l l c o a tin g.
Effects of w e t p r o o f i n g on p h o s p h o r i c acid transfer
Fig. 1 s h o w s phosphoric acid absorption of separator

t h r o u g h w e t p r o o f e d s u b s t r a t e at 200°C. 3 0 0 m g P T F E Is s p r a y
ed o n e a c h cm^ of the substrate f o l l o w e d by b a k i n g at
375°C. A m o u n t of a b s o r b e d p h o s p h o r i c a c i d is e s t i m a t e d by
wei g h i n g each component. In e a r l i e r p e r i o d of time, the
w e i g h t o f t he s u b s t r a t e i n c r e a s e s , w h i l e no w e i g h t g a i n of
t he separator Is o b s e r v e d . After som e p e r i o d of time,
w e i g h t g a i n of t h e s e p a r a t o r s tarts, w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to
the t i m e th e front of p h o s p h o r i c a c i d p a s s e s t h e I n t e r f a c e
248
MATSUMOTO ET AL
- 2 -
of theseparator
a n d th e s u b s t r a t e .
Essentially
s i m i l a r s h a p e s of 500 ■
curves were
obtained in the Separator o
1.0
cases of FE P 100 ■
( poly t e t r a f l u o r o - „ 50 ■
ethylene cn 0.5
E
hexafluoro- o
propylene) and Di 10 ■
PTFE, of spraying
and reverse roll 5- A fO
coating, of Su b s t rat e
I-
diverse coating
amounts of , 1 0.1
f l u o r o p o l y m e r s , of 10 100 1000
diverse baking ti me (h)
temperatures,
especially of
uncoated Fig. 1 HjiPOi) t r a n s f e r to s e p a r a t o r
substrate. through substrate
However, the
w e i g h t g a i n of
l ess w e t p r o o f e d s u b s t r a t e is l a r g e r , a c c o r d i n g l y i n d u c t i o n
p e r i o d o f w e i g h t g a i n o f the s e p a r a t o r s h o r t e r . It i m p l i e s
t ha t it is very
difficult to cut
perfectly the
stream of
p h o s p h o r i c a c i d in
the substrate by
wetproof treatment
a lo n e . It is w e l l
known that t he
cross section of
c a r b o n f i b r e sh o w s
t he r a d i a l o r t h e
onion structure,
t he former
predominant.
Interlameliar
spacings grow in
the calcination
process of
substrate
manufacturing.
The structure
appears at a low
Fig. 2 S e c o n d a r y e l e c t r o n i m a g e of calcination
carbon fibre surface treated temperature below
with PTFE dispersion, still 1000°C. Particle
unbaked size of
lum fluorocarbon
polymers in the
d i s p e r s i o n is to o
l a r g e to e n t e r the
249
MATSUMOTO ET AL
- 3 -
interlamellar spaclngs and the inner surface of carbon

fibres remains hydrophillic. As is shown in F i g . 2,
f lu (,-rocarbon p o l y m e r particles form a monolayer on the
o u t e r s u r f a c e of c a r b o n fibre. S i m i l a r p h e n o m e n o n is o f t e n
n o t i c e d u n d e r an o p t i c a l m i c r o s c o p e w h e n d i s p e r s i n g l i q u i d
added to de-agglomerate secondary particles is drying.
Element particles f l o w to d r y i n g site a n d t h e r e form a
mosaic monolayer. T h e m o n o l a y e r has i n e v i t a b l y a v a c a n c y
at th e f i n a l d r y i n g area, w h i c h is s h o w n in F i g . 2. Even
a f t e r b a k i n g , the v a c a n c y is left h y d r o p h i l l i c o w i n g to the
poor throwing power of the fluoropolymers. It is a lso
d i f f i c u l t to c o v e r w i t h the p o l y m e r the e n d s of c a r b o n
fibres. Th e r e s i d u a l a m o u n t of p h o s p h o r i c a c i d t r a n s f e r is
p r o b a b l y due to the u n c o v e r e d s u r f a c e r e g i o n of the c a r b o n
fibres. We c an o n l y m a k e s m a l l the s t r e a m of p h o s p h o r i c
a c i d by w e t p r o o f i n g of the s u b s t r a t e . For example, carbon
p a p e r s u b s t r a t e , 0. 4mm thick, of a n a t o m i z e d c e l l a f t e r a
l o n g p e r i o d of o p e r a t i o n c o n t a i n s abc^; 0.5 to 1.0 m g / c m ^
of p h o s p h o r i c acid. This amount of p h o s p h o r i c acid is
t h o u g h t to c o r r e s p o n d m a i n l y to that t r a p p e d in i n t e r n a l
v a c a n c y in c a r b o n fibres.
Effect on e l e c t r i c a l contact resistance
Contact resistance between separator and substrate

creases at a n y r a t e t h r o u g h the f o r m a t i o n of w e t p r o o f i n g
polymer film on
the substrate.
F i g .3 sh o w s the
relat i o n s h i p
150 among contact
A 250 m g / c m 3 P T F E , S P R resistance,
• 360m g / c m 3 P T F E , K R C c o a t i n g a m o u n t s of
O 260 m g / c m 3 P T F E , R R C f l u o r o p o l y m e r s and
contact pressure.
100
+ uncoated
U n d e r an a d e q u a t e
pressure,
increment of
contact resistance
between wetproofed
50 substrate and
separator over
tha t of uncoated
substrate
corresponds only
0
0 5 10 to a few mV at
c u r r e n t d e n s i t y of
contact pressure (kg/cra^)
200mA/cm^. At the
same ti m e , it
Implies tha t the
i-g.3 m lectrical contact resistance i n c r e a s i n g contact
b c-tween separator and substrate a r e a under
pressure includes
uncoated portion
of the s u r f a c o of
250
MATSUMOTO ET AL
- 4 -
carbon fibres. Difference between spraying and reverse

roll coating is based on the depth profile of distribution
of PTFE in the substi'ate.
Effect on gas permeability
Fluoropolymer has its own volume. For example, lOmg

PTFE per cm^ of substrate corresponds to about 4.6 pi loss
of pore volume per cmF . In addition it makes sometimes
films and blocks among carbon fibres depending on wet proof
treatment procedures. Distribution and film thickness of
phosphoric acid in the electrodes depends also on
wetproofing of the substrates. Roughness of the surface of
catalyst layer on the substrate side depends on the
hydrophobicity of the substrate.
Gas permeability can directly be determined. On the
other hand, and 0^ gains are measures of it. Fig. 4
shows gas permeability directly measured in the dry versus
h y d r o p h o b i c i t y . Gas permeability decreases with am.junt of
f l u .r o p o l y m e r s . The differences of the effects on the
basis of kinds of fluoropolymer and coating process can
easily be accounted for from the view point of throwing
power. When the substrate is wetted with phosphoric acid,
additional decrease of gas permeability would take place.
Fi g . 5 shows that the effect of phosphoric acid is
negligibly small in normal conditions of cell operation.
100 FEP
iSPR)
hydrophobicity on
gas permeability
of substrate
PTFE
(SPR)
SPR spray
RRC reverse roll
coating
10
PTFE
(RRC)
340°C baking
0 10 20
c o a t in g amount o f f 1 uoropolyrners
(mg/cm2 )
251
MATSUMOTO ET AL
- 5 -
00
The effect of
wetproofing of
substrate on
efficiency of the
electrode depends
on gas
permeability of
10 the electrode in
the working state
with complicated
factors in it.
In F i g . 6 is
shown the
relationship
between limiting
0 250 500 750 1000 current of cathode
half cells and the
H3 PO4 in s u b s tra te gas permeability.
(mg/cm3)
Fig.5 Effect of phosphoric

acid in uncoated
substrate on gas
permeability
E
U
<
E
cu
u
1000
<D
X5
O
M-
O
+->
C
O)
S-
S- 750
3
o
cn
20 10 20 100
gas p e r m e a b il it y (N cm^/min cm2 mmAq)
Fig.6 Relationship between limitting current and

gas permeability of cathode
252
MATSUMOTO ET AL
According to theoretical calculations, diffusion

polarization is comparable to the others and is dependent
mainly on the tortosity of gas passage to the phosphoric
acid film covering the reaction sites. In F i g . 7 are
plotted 0^ gains of single cells with cathodes using
substrates of diverse coating amounts of PTFE.
25
00
75
d i f f e r e n t type
o f cel 1s
50
0 100 200 300 400 500
PTFE c o a tin g ( mg/cm 3)

Fig.7 0^ gains versus hydrophobicity of cathodes
0^ gain is sum of the effect on gas p ermeability of the

substrate and of that of the catalyst layer formed on the
substrate.
Summary
W e tproofing of substrate affects cell performance, as is

shown in the dlagran. below. It acts on cell life and
output inversely, each effect innegllgibly large. The
authors made clear the details of the effects through
physical properties of cell components.
H 3 P O 4 loss ife
wet
p ro ofing
s u b st ra te perfo rm an ce
gas diffu si on
cel 1
o ut pu t
internal
r e s is ta nc e
253
HY DROGEN STORAGE OPTIONS F O R FUEL CELLS
Sidney Gross
B oeing Aerospace Com pany
S e a ttle , W ashington 9812^
H y d rog e n /o xyg e n fu e l c e lls can be used in a v a rie ty o f c o m m e rc ia l, m ilita r y , and

aerospace a p p lic a tio n s w here the hydrogen m ust be sto re d . A p p lic a tio n s in clu d e :
0 T e r r e s tr ia l v e h icle s
o U n d e rw a te r ve h icle s
o M ilita r y in s ta lla tio n s
o Standby or e m e rg e n cy in s ta lla tio n s
o S p a c e c ra ft
F or some o f these a p p lic a tio n s , i t is p re fe ra b le to sto re hydrogen In a fo rm th a t

is m ore e a sily accessible th a n as a c ry o g e n ic liq u id , a p re ssu rize d gas, o r to
re fo rm a h yd ro ca rb on . C h e m ic a l storage and sto ra g e as h ydrides becom e v e ry
a ttr a c tiv e f o r some o f these a p p lic a tio n s . The storage m eth o d s e le c te d fo r any
s p e c ific a p p lic a tio n w ill depend on th e r e la tiv e im p o rta n c e o f such fa c to rs as
system w e ig h t, system vo lu m e , c o s t, re c h a rg e a b ility , and th e rm a l co n sid e ra tio n s.
H yd rid es are an a ttr a c tiv e m eth o d fo r s to rin g hydrogen. It is possible w ith

hydrides to s to re hydrogen in a s m a lle r volum e th a n f o r liq u id h yd ro g e n . This
process re s u lts in th e g e n e ra tio n o f heat as th e h yd rid e is fo rm e d , so h e a t m ust
be supplied to rem ove th e h ydrogen. Pressure is also an im p o rta n t fa c to r in th is
process. E a rly e ffo rts to develop hyd rid e s fo r secondary b a tte rie s re s u lte d in a
gradual p h y s ic a l d e te rio ra tio n o f th e h yd rid e m a te ria l due to vo lu m e changes.
M o d ific a tio n has been m ade to th e co m p o sitio n o f th e m a te ria ls to c o rr e c t th a t
d e fic ie n c y . T here are fo u r m a jo r c ry s ta llin e com pound typ e s:
C om pound Type Exam ples
A2 B Mg 2 Ni; Mg 2 Cu
AB T iF e ; T iF e g .g M n o .l; T iF e o .g N io .2
AB2 Z rF e 2 ; T iC r2 ; T iV o.6Feo.15M n1.25
AB5 L a N i5 ; M is c h m e ta l-N i5 ; M is c h m e ta l-N iij.1 5 F e o .8 5
The g re a te s t a m ount o f hydrogen s to re d in hyd rid e s appears to be w ith th e use o f

am orphous m a te ria ls , as opposed to th e m ore com m on c ry s ta llin e m a te ria ls . Up
to th re e w e ig h t p e rc e n t o f hydrogen can be s to re d fo r o p e ra tio n a t room
te m p e ra tu re , and even g re a te r am ounts are o b ta in a b le using h ig h te m p e ra tu re
e x tra c tio n .
C h e m ic a l s to ra g e o f hydrogen also has good p ro m ise fo r some a p p lic a tio n s .

C a n d id a te c h e m ic a ls in clu d e VH2, Z rH 2 , Z rN iH , N H 3, N a B H ij, and Fe + H C l.
C ry s ta llin e a lu m in o s ilic a te s , re fe rre d to as z e o lite s , can also s to re hydrogen by
in s e rtio n in to m o le c u la r-s c a le channels and c a v itie s . A n o th e r approach is
s torage o f hydrogen in glass m icro sp h e re s, ty p ic a lly 5 to 200 m icro n s in d ia m e te r
w ith w a ll thicknesses in th e range o f 0.25 to 5.0 m icro n s. H yd rog e n can be
s to re d a t v e ry high pressure, on th e o rd e r o f 800 a tm ospheres, w ith a th e o re tic a l
c a p a c ity o f 11% by w e ig h t. The hydrogen is re co ve re d by h e a tin g th e spheres to
about 2 2 5 0 c , w hereupon th e hydrogen d iffu se s o u t th ro u g h th e w a lls o f th e
spheres. S t ill a n other m e th o d is a b so rp tio n on high su rfa ce a re a a c tiv a te d
carbons, t y p ic a lly a t liq u id n itro g e n te m p e ra tu re . Up to 7 w t. % o f hydrogen can
be s to re d a t 600 psig.
254
DESIGN AND ECONOMICS OF LARGE FUEL CELL POWER PLANTS
V. Minkov, E. Daniels, C. Dennis, and M. Krumpelt

Argonne, IL 60439-4837
INTRODUCTION
Fuel cells, in general, can provide a number of benefits relative to state-

of-the-art energy conversion technologies. Among these are (1) modularity
(which provides the opportunity to minimize risks associated with capacity
expansion planning without losing the benefits of scale economies), and (2 )
excellent part-load performance. In addition, fuel cells are environmen
tally benign. However, unless fuel cell systems are competitive with
alternative technologies net of these benefits, the market potential for
fuel cells will be limited to some unique applications.
At Argonne National Laboratory we recently assessed the economics of fuel

cell power plants for 575 MW utility central stations. The results are
discussed by M. Krumpelt elsewhere in this volume. Initially we based our
assessment on fuel cell systems taken from tbe literature. It became
apparent that the cost of the initial set of fuel cells plus the replace
ments represented a large share of the system cost, and in fact made the
fuel cell systems more costly than the competing technology. We suspected
that the systems had been designed assuming high efficiencies were
synonymous with good economics, but no attempts bad been made to determine
the most economical combination of fuel cells, combustion turbines, and
steam turbines.
In this extended abstract, we discuss two new system designs for phosphoric
acid and molten carbonate fuel cells. Both designs were developed cascading
the flow of energy through the fuel cells, combustion turbine and steam
turbine. By varying the utilization of fuel in the fuel cells and the
current density, the distribution of power among the prime movers is being
changed, and effects of those changes analyzed.
A decrease in fuel utilization improves the fuel cell performance because

the average hydrogen and oxygen concentration in the fuel cells will be
higher. An increase in current density has two effects. First, the speci
fic cost of the fuel cell decreases because power output increases for a
given cell area. Second, additional thermal energy is released in the cells
which can then be recovered resulting in a larger capacity bottoming
section.
The general approach for evaluating and developing cost-effective fuel-cell

systems is to optimize them for minimum cost of electricity (COE) through
integrated thermodynamic simulation and cost analysis using our SALT code .
The essence of the analyses is to determine the most cost effective
configurations and flow of energy within power systems that are represented
schematically in Fig. 1. As shown, any change in the energy flows within
the system can affect the net energy output which can range from about 40 to
55% of the energy input. Further, because specific costs of each component
are different, the specification of the energy flows will affect total
system capital cost and COE. During the optimization, the energy flows were
redistrihuted in such a way to provide the minimal COE.
25 5
MINKOV, ET AL.
- 2 -
PAFC DESIGN
The starting point for the PAFC reference design was the recent study by
Kinetic Technology International (KTI) . However, after a brief evaluation
of alternative gasification technologies, we chose to use an oxygen-blown
Texaco gasifier rather than either the Wellman-Galusha or Kohlegas Nordhein
(KGN) gasification technology used in the KTI study.
The process flow diagram for the PAFC design is presented in Fig. 2. As
shown, the coal slurry is converted to a hydrogen-rich synthesis gas in an
oxygen-blown Texaco gasifier. The hot raw synthesis gas is cooled through a
series of boilers and heat exchangers to the inlet temperature required for
the Selexol acid gas removal (AGR) unit. The high temperature shift conver
sion which employs a conventional low temperature shift sulfur tolerant
catalyst is upstream of the Selexol unit. Also, the high-temperature shift
(the first of three stages of shift to reduce CO concentration to less than
1 molX required by the PAFC) is accomplished without steam injection as
there is sufficient steam in the synthesis gas from a Texaco gasifier to
shift about one-third of the CO to CO 2 .
In the AGR unit, sulfur and ammonia are removed to ppm levels as also
required by the PAFC. Elemental sulfur is recovered in the CLAUS unit
followed by combustion of the tail-gas in the SCOT unit. Typically, an
oxide guard bed will be employed between the AGR and PAFC anode inlet to
protect the PAFC in the event of high sulfur carryover. The clean gas is
then reheated prior to expansion. Shifting of the CO down to less than
1 mol% is accomplished by the intermediate and low-temperature shift
converters. The depleted fuel leaving the fuel cell is combusted in the
cathode exhaust stream, then the combined flow is expanded in the gas
turbine which drives the compressors for the PAFC oxidant requirements prior
to exiting the plant stack.
The fuel cell stacks are water-cooled and heat is recovered to produce
medium-pressure steam for the integrated steam cycle.
This flowsheet is essentially an ANL design with many design features taken
from various literature sources. However, we have departed from the
traditional practice in two areas: shifting and fuel utilization.
Shifting of CO requires a considerable amount of HnO. The H 2 O is conven

tionally supplied in the form of steam, which could otherwise have been used
to drive the steam turbine. In our design, no steam is diverted from the
turbine at all.
The shift reactors are located at points where other H 2 O is already present
in sufficient quantity (high temperature shift) or where hot water rather
than steam may be injected. To preheat the water, very low quality heat is
used which would otherwise not be recovered.
In addition to the new "shifting" approach and reduced fuel-cell fuel

utilization, as we discussed before, we improved the performance of PAFC
power plant design by superheating steam from the cooling system prior to
entering the steam turbine and by increasing the inlet temperature before
the gas turbine.
256
MINKOV, ET AL.
- 3 -
MCFC DESIGN
A common design feature in all the literature designs for MCFCs is a direct
transfer of the depleted fuel from the anode exit to the cathode inlet (as
in the GE design, for instance) . The reason, no doubt, is to supply the
cathode with carbon dioxide whicb is needed in the cell reaction. In
addition, the increased flow rate through the cathode is needed for tbe
purpose of fuel cell cooling.
From a system's standpoint, such direct coupling of the anode and cathode
streams is far from optimal, because the heat from combusting the residual
fuel could be used more efficiently in a gas turbine. Furthermore, the heat
generated in the fuel cell should be cascaded first through a gas turbine
followed by steam generation.
The advanced MCFC design is shown in Fig. 3. The gasification and clean-up
section up to the point of entering the fuel cell anode side remains
unchanged from the design described by GE. Leaving the anode, the depleted
fuel passes through a heat exchanger which is needed tobring the fresh fuel
to the required inlet temperature of the fuel cell, and is then oxidized by
the cathode exit gas. The resultant combustion gas is directed immediately
to the gas turbine, which rotates an electric generator and the air
compressors.
After passing the gas turbine, the now decompressed but still fairly hot gas
is used to preheat air, and then to generate steam in a series of super
heaters, boilers, and economizers. At this point, the stream is split. One
part exits the system through the stack. The other part, after additional
cooling, is recirculated to supply carbon dioxide to the air stream and to
increase the cathode flow rate. Thus, the combustion gas with C O j is
returned to the cathode, but without sacrificing the efficiency of the gas
turbine, and without having to cool the fuel cell by recirculating cathode
gas through steam generators.
The three section steam turbine consists of high-, intermediate- and low-
pressure turbines. Tbe high-pressure steam turbine provides a needed amount
of steam to be mixed with the clean fuel gas in order to prevent carbon
deposition. After the high-pressure turbine, steam flows through the
intermediate- and low-pressure turbines. If necessary, a certain amount of
water in the steam can be removed between these two turbines to ensure an
acceptable steam quality at the end of turbine expansion process.
After a steam condenser, the condensate flow merges with make-up water and
passes through the economizer. Then, the feed water merges with water
coming down from the steam separator (drum) and splits into two parts. One
part boils in the boiler of the gasification system, the other part in the
boiler of the bottoming section. Both steam flows merge again in the
separator (drum) from where the saturated steam is directed to the
superheater and then to the steam turbines.
So far, we have not mentioned one new component required in the design. It
is the heat exchanger in the C O 9 return loop. Before mixing with air and
recompression, the gas needs to be cooled. Because it is a gas-to-gas heat
exchanger, it will be fairly large. We estimated that its cost accounts for
about 0.7^ of system COE.
257
MINKOV, ET AL.
- A -
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION
As mentioned, two major parameters were analyzed and optimized for PAFC and
MCFC systems: fuel cell fuel utilization, and current density. For brevity
the results of the analysis will be discussed for the MCFC system only. In
order to determine the efficiency and COE of the new design for different
fuel utilizations and current densities it is necessary to define the
performance of the fuel cell under those conditions. Molten carbonate fuel
cells have been modeled by Wilemski . His code computes polarization curves
for a variety of flow conditions, such as cross-, counter-, and co-flow, and
for either constant flows or constant utilizations. Predicted cell
potentials are given in Fig. 4.
Using the data from Fig. 4, we optimized the system and found the values of
fuel-cell fuel utilization and current density at which COE is minimized.
Figure 5 shows a plot of the COE versus fuel utilization in the fuel cell.
The plot shows a dramatic decrease of the COE as the fuel utilization (FU)
decreases. At a current density of 1800 A/m , which is typical for MCFC
systems in the literature, the COE is still not at a minimum at our lowest
FU of 45%, but is several mill/kWh below the COE of the literature system.
Very clearly, a fuel utilization of 85% as commonly proposed for central
station power plants is not cost effective.
Figure 6 shows the COE versus current density for five different fuel
utilizations. The optimum current density is about 4000 A/m in the ANL
design.
Figure 7 shows contributions to the total system output from the fuel cells
and bottoming sections. As expected, the contribution of the fuel cell to
the total power output declines with lower FU, while the gas and steam
turbine outputs increase. For the low FU conditions that are favored
economically, the gas turbine capacity exceeds that of the fuel cells in all
cases.
The optimum fuel utilization will vary with fuel cell stack cost. All the
above data were obtained for out "reference" assumption of $ 2 2 /ft plus
contingencies, which corresponds to $300/m . Lower stack costs shift the
minimum to higher fuel utilizations.
CONCLUSIONS
To put the results of the optimized fuel cell systems in perspective, we

list the main characteristics in Table 1 together with numbers representing
the conventional designs. The latter were obtained by simulating the PAFC
and MCFC flowsheet in Figs. 2 and 3 for 85% fuel utililzation and 2000 A/m
current density.
The COE data for the "conventional" designs indicate that the two fuel cell
systems would be contenders for future base-load utility applications, but
only if a utility attaches additional value to the so-called intangibles
such as environmental acceptability, modularity, etc.
However, for the advanced designs the COE of the MCFC system is lower than
that of the Combined-Cycle by 3 mills/kUh. The PAFC system almost breaks
even with the combined cycle and will have an economic advantage at loca
tions where intangibles impact the economics.
Perhaps the single most important conclusion to be drawn from our study is
that fuel cells are most competitive in central station applications when
258
MINKOV, ET AL.
- 5 -
operated at low fuel utilization and providing a smaller percentage of the
total electrical capacity of the plant.
Table 1. Technical and Economic Summary of Fuel-Cell and Combine-Cycle

Central Station Power Plants (575 MV(e), 1984 dollars)
Combined-
Cycle Power
PAFC MCFC Plant
Cost of Electricity, mills/kwh
■ "Conventional" Designs 61.7 55.4
•Advanced Designs 55.6 48.7 50.9*)
Specific costs, $/kW**^

• "Conventional" Designs 2890/2260 2440/1980 1620
• Advanced Designs 2110/1920 2260/2100
Efficiency, %
• "Conventional" Designs 42.2 47.7 37.2
•Advanced Designs 37.9 44.1
Current Density, A/m

• "Conventional" Designs 2000 2000
•Advanced Designs 4800 4000
Fuel Utilization, %
• "Conventional" Designs 85 85
•Advanced Designs 45 55
*) With reduced SO 2 and NO^, emission equal to that of PAFC and MCFC.
) Total cost/cost without fuel-cell replacement component.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Work sponsored by the Morgantown Energy Technology Center of the U.S.

Department of Energy under U.S. Government Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38.
Important suggestions by C. Zeh, the Program Manager, are appreciated.
The Rtbmined manuscript has been authored

bv a contractor ol the U .S . Government
u lrfe, contract No. W -31.109-ENG-38,
Accordlnsly. the U. S. Government retamt a
nonexclusive, royaity-free iicense to publish
contribution, or aiiov, others to do so, for
U . S. Government p u rp o s e s .______________
REFERENCES
1. "The System Analysis Language Translator (SALT): User's Guide,

H. K. Geyer and G. F. Berry, Argonne National Laboratory, ANL/FE-85-3,
1985.
2. "Site-Specific Assessment of a 150-MW Coal Gasification Fuel Cell Power

Plant," Kinetics Technology International Corporation, EPRI, EM-3162,
1983.
3. "Development of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Power Plant," General Electric

Company, FC-17019-82-14, 1982.
4. "Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Performance Model Update: Final Report,"

G. Wilemski, et al.. Physical Sciences, Inc., DOE, DOE/FE/15078/1742,
1985.
259
MINKOV, ET AL.
- 6 -
G A S I F I C A T I O N
C L E A N -U P
Fig. 1. Important Interfaces
Between Major Components of
? ) S H IF T C O N V E R S IO N
the Coal-based Fuel Cell
Power Plant; question marks
S E C T IO N P R E P A R A T IO N indicate need for optimiza
tion.
STEAM GAS OXYGEN

T U R B IN E P R E P A R A T IO N
S E C T IO N
ENERGY O UTPUT
GROSS
ENER G Y LO SS ENERGY ENERGY LO S S

BY C O M B.
N ET = 4 0 - 5 5 G A S - 30 - 40
Fig. 2. Advanced PAFC

Power Plant
Configuration.
-0
260
MINKOV, ET AL.
- 7 -
0- Fig. 3. Advanced MCFC Power

Plant Configuration.
l O IL C H [ < 1
Fig. 4. MCFC Voltage vs

Current Density
for Various Fuel
Utilizations.
2000 3000 4000

C u rre n t D e n s ity ( A /m ^ }
54
53 Fig. 5. Cost of Electricity vs

Fuel Utilization.
52
51
50
49
48
45 55 65 75 as
F u el C e ll F u el U tiliz a tio n (% )
261
MINKOV, ET AL.
54
53
52
Design
51
50
49
40
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
C u rre n t D e n s ity , A /m ^
Fig. 6 . Cost of Electricity MCFC Plant

vs Current Density.
P la n t T o ta l
t
® 60
O
3
a 50 •
0
1 <0
V/
\
/ \ GT
1 1 1 1
—
55 65 75 85
F u e l C e ll F u e i- U tfliz a tio n <%)
Fig. 7. Power Distribution of MCFC Power

Plant vs Fuel Utilization.
262
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF COAL GASIFIER/PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL
POWER PLANTS ON AN ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET
Cheng-yi Lu
Cleveland, OH 44135
The objective of this study is to identify the most promising

integrated coal gasifier (CG)/PAFC design and its optimal
operating conditions. Many system studies have been conducted
separately on both coal gasification with associated
contaminant control, and phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) to
determine the performance and economics of each. There are
very few studies that have been combined both systems.
A spreadsheet-created process flowsheet simulation model using

a personal computer is very user-friendly and has an advantage
of interaction, especially during the preliminary system
synthesis work. Material and energy balances for each
component (unit operation) in the CG/PAFC system are formulated
on a spreadsheet. Then a power plant system is synthesized by
coordinating and integrating unit operation models. The
interactive feature will allow the designer to review the
calculation, make decisions based on the preliminary results,
and quickly correct mistakes or faulty assumptions.
The system or "single-staged" approach is applied in this

study. Thermodynamic balances are used to set up algebraic
equations, then one can calculate the physical and chemical
properties of the streams for one operating condition, such as
the mean temperature and pressure.
Conceptual Designs of CG/PAFC Powerplant for Cogeneration
Conceptual designs for seven CG/PAFC integrated systems for

cogeneration application have been completed. A reference
system using methane as the fuel is also developed.
For each design the input quantity of coal is about the same
amount (288 TPD). The criterion for the design is to produce
the maximum amount of electricity. The developed systems
cogenerate 20-28 MW electric power and 8-28 MW 50 psig steam.
For comparison, a steam turbine is assumed to convert the
thermal energy in each system into electric energy.
The coal gasifiers integrated in to these designs are listed in

the order of the status of commercialization (from most
developed to the least) as follows: Wellman-Galusha (W-G)
air-blown, Koppers-Totzek (GKT) oxygen-blown, Texaco
oxygen-blown. High Temperature Winkler (HTW) oxygen-blown,
Westinghouse oxygen-blown, Kohlegas Nordrhein GmbH (KGN)
air-blown, and TRW Catalytic Hydrogen Process (CHP). The
typical material and energy balances for the selected CGs,
which are reported in References 1, 2, 3, and 4 are used in
this study.
Cold gas cleanup is considered in the design because of its

ability to clean ammonia to 0.1 to 1.0 ppm, which PAFC can
263
Lu
- 2 -
tolerate, in the fuel stream. The physical absorption process

such as Selexol with CLAUS and SCOT units is selected for the
high pressure coal derived gases (e.g., gases from Texaco and
Westinghouse CGs). The liguid-phase oxidation (Stretford)
process is used for cleaning the low to median pressure (16 to
160 psia) coal derived gases. An iron oxide guard bed is used
in the methane-fueled/PAFC reference design for the same
purpose.
International Fuel Cells' (IFC) water-cooled PAFC stack is used

in the design. The operating conditions are fixed at IFC's 11
MW powerplant rated conditions. A semi-empirically based
parametric relationship was used to calculate current density
(CD)-voltage characteristics.
One of the designs, which was integrated KGN CG with the PAFC
powerplant, is shown in Figure 1.
B U R N I R
C L E A N L P
'Gl
C G
Figure 1 KGN/PAFC Integrated System Diagram
The capital cost, operating cost, and cost of electricity (COE)

models are also developed on a separate spreadsheet. Real
constant 1984 $ dollars are used in all of the studies. The
COE estimating methodology used in this analysis is consistent
with the 1982 EPRI TAG for calculating the 30 year levelized
revenue requirements. The COE (mills/kWh) depends on many
assumptions - debt rate, inflation rate, tax rate, etc. Such
2 64
Lu
- 3 -
an explicit table calculation is ideal for using a spreadsheet.

Figure 2 compares efficiencies and COEs for CG/PAFC integrated
systems with a methane-fueled PAFC system as a reference . Two
methane costs ($6 and $3.5/mm Btu) are considered for the
reference design. These preliminary results show that the
air-blown CG/PAFC systems have a higher efficiency (for KGN CG)
and a lower COE (for W-G and KGN CGs), which results from the
low power consumption and low cost of air compression relative
to the oxygen plant. The reference design results in the
lowest capital investment, but the resulting COE depends
heavily on the price of methane.
CDS? OK ELECTKICITY (COF) P(3WERPLAM SYSTEM EFFICIENCY
120 60 4C
■JNKl l.R
CHP
COAL GASIFIER
Fuel Cost “ < 2 / m m Btu for Coal
Methane fueled/PAFC i Efficiency i 44.2 T.

COE t 74. 46 mllls/kWh ($ 3. S/mm Btu for Mothone)
COE I 96.92 mllls/kWh ($ 6/«w Btu for Methane)
Figure 2 Comparisons of Efficiencies and COEs for

CG/PAFC Integrate Powerplant Systems
The recommended CG for a CG/PAFC system contains the following

conditions:
1 . air-blown.
2. operating pressure is at a minimum of 25% higher than

the operating pressure for the PAFC. It has an advantage
to operate the CG at close to the minimum pressure.
3. operating temperature should be higher than the boiling

points of oils and tars (1200°F) and with an operating
pressure that will produce high hydrogen-content and low
methane-content (in the order of 5%) raw gases.
Trade-off and Sensitivity Analyses of Fuel Utilization Ratio

and Operating Current Density for the PAFC
In the previous section the operating conditions for the PAFC

are fixed to the present values reported by IFC. But the
capital cost and the efficiency are proportional to the fuel
265
Lu
- 4
utilization ratio (FUR), which is defined as the energy ratio

of consumed hydrogen to total input fuel. To consume all the
fuel in the PAFC is one of the limiting conditions, but it
suffers very high capital cost for the powerplant. Another
limiting condition is with all the fuel burned in the bottoming
c ycle, which decreases both the capital investment and the
system efficiency. The simulation and economic models of a
generic PAFC/bottoming cycle subsystem (Figure 3) is developed
to study the effect of the FUR on the electric generation
efficiency and COE. Various fuel compositions from several
fuel processors (including the CG and shift converters) are
used as input data.
Figure 3 Generic
STEAM PAFC/Bottoming Cycle
Subsystem Flow Diagram
M te r Fuel
C oolant
A spreadsheet application result is shown in Figure 4 for the

KGN CG produced coal gases. Table 1 lists the values of FUR at
which the maximum allowable firing temperature of gas turbine
(2000 °F), the maximum efficiency, and the minimum COE for
six Icinds of CG produced coal gases are reached.
E f f i c i e n c y or COE Rat i o
1. 06
1.03 Figure 4 Efficiency

1 .0 2
and COE Ratios vs FUR
COE/Mln. COE of PAFC (KGN CG
1. 01 Produced Coal Gases)
0. 97 L- >------- ^—
0. 67 0. 60 0. 69 0.7 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76
Fuel Utilization Ratio (to To t o l Inp u t Fuel)

PAFC Input Fuel Coaiposttion# i M«thon« . 0.0274.
Corbon Monoxidei 0.006. Carbon DioxIdei 0.2447.
StBOii. 0.0336. Hydrogeni 0.3625. Nitrogeni 0.326
266
Lu
- 5
CGs W-G GKT Texaco HTW W KGN
Oxidant Used Air Oxygen Oxygen Oxygen Oxygen Air
PAFC Input Fuel Composition

CH4 0.0149 0 0.0025 0.0199 0.0417 0.0274
CO 0.0171 0.0195 0 .0 2 1 2 0.0162 0.0207 0.0059
CO2 0.2453 0.4214 0.3777 0.3910 0.3865 0.2447
H2 O 0.0144 0.0146 0.0229 0.0148 0.0172 0.0336
0.3746 0.5335 0.5701 0.5533 0.5250 0.3625
N2 0.3338 0 .0 1 1 0 0.0056 0.0043 0.0090 0.3259
Fuel Flow Rate (Ib-mole/hr.) 3970 2817 2833 2711 2564 3903
FUR 1?
(1) Max. Firing T (2000 °F) 0.72 0.75 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.72
(Max. Value)
(2) Max. Efficiency 0.70 0.73 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.70
(3) Min. COE 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.69
Improvements ivith Optimal FUR (i)

Efficiency 0.81 6.18 5.08 0.08 5.91 0,84
COE 2.18 9.11 7.66 0.30 2.96 0.27
Table 1 Improvements with Optimal Fuel Utilization Ratio
The following conclusions can be drawn from this trade-off

study.
(1) The optimal FURs for the minimum COE can be grouped into
two categories, 0.69 for air blown CGs and 0.735 for oxygen
blown CGs.
(2) The values of FUR for the minimum COE and the maximum
electrical efficiency are close.
(3) The maximum allowable firing temperature of the gas turbine

is almost always reached in the optimal solution.
A higher operating current density (300 ASF instead of 200 ASF

in the previous study) was used in the trade-off analysis of
the generic PAFC/bottoming cycle subsystem. The input coolant
conditions were adjusted to meet the operation requirement
(i.e., 405 °F operating temperature). This adjustment
included a higher coolant flow rate, and a lower coolant input
pressure and temperature compared to the conditions needed in
200 ASF operation. The values were calculated from the
engineering model for an IFC stac)c which was developed
previously. The results show that the saving of a minimum COE,
when the optimal FUR being used, is about 3.6% compared to that
for a 200 ASF current density operation. The values of the
optimal FUR at 200 ASF and 300 ASF are close.
References
1. Synthetic Fuels Associates, Inc., "Coal Gasification
Systems: A Guide to Status, Applications and Economics."
EPRI Report AP-3109, June 1983.
2. Kinetics Technology Intl. Cor., "Site-Specific Assessment of
a 150-MW Coal Gasification Fuel Cell Power Plants," EPRI
Report EM-3162, Nov. 1983.
3. Physical Sciences Inc., "Advanced Coal Gasifier - Fuel Cell
Power Plant Systems Design," NTIS No. 83N33317, Jan. 1983.
4. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Systems Analysis of Advanced
Technology Coal-Based Power P lants." JPL D-1867, March 1985.
267
PERFORMANCE AND CORROSION RESISTANT
SUPPORTS FOR ACID FUEL CELLS
A. Kush, P. Yeh, H. Dhar, a n d L. C h r i s t n e r

Energy Research Corporation
D a n b u r y , CT 06813
A r e v i e w o f E R C 's e x p e r i e n c e on a l t e r n a t e c a t a l y s t
supports for atmospheric and pressurized phosphoric
acid fuel cells is presented. Equivalent performance
was demonstrated for graphitized and nongraphitized
carbon black supports as s h o w n in F i g u r e 1, although
the c o r r o s i o n r a t e s a r e at l e a s t two o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e
different. T he m o s t c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l t e s t e d
t o - d a t e is a 2 7 0 0 ° C h e a t t r e a t e d c a r b o n b l a c k f r o m C a b o t
Corporation known as Black Pearls 2000. A comparison
of t y p i c a l c o r r o s i o n r a t e s is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2.
Performance measurements at various potentials

a n d p r e s s u r e s h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d to a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t
of changes in c o r r o s i o n ra t e . Operation in t h e r a n g e
of 7 0 0 m V a n d 8 5 0 m V a n d 1a t m to 120 p s i a r e v e a l e d no
basic diff e r e n c e in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e los s b e h a v i o r e v e n
though t he carbon catalyst support had very different
a p p a r e n t c o r r o s i o n rate s . A los s in a c t i v i t y w a s o b s e r v e d
for all materials. Apparently there is a loss which
is f o r a l l m a t e r i a l s . A p p a r e n t l y t h e r e is a l o s s w h i c h
is u n r e l a t e d to d i f f u s i o n a n d c o r r o s i o n resistance of
the c a r b o n s u p p o r t . A t y p i c a l loss b e h a v i o r is s h o w n in
F i g u r e 3■
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
This work was supported in part by DOE under

N A S A c o n t r a c t D E N 3- 29 O (under a subcontract from W e s t i n g
h o u s e ).
O p e r a tin g C o n d itio n s : 190°C, 4.7 a tm , 83% f u e l (H^) a n d

50% o x i d a n t ( a i r ) u t i l i z a t i o n
.000
900
000
700
P e r f o r m a n c e R a n g e of
S t a n d a r d V u l c a n Cells
600
Cell AS- 5 3 ( P t / H T BP C a thode)
Cell AS- 6 1 (HT Pt / H T BP Catho'
10 20 40 60 100 200 300

C U R R E N T D ENSITY, mA/cm^
Figure 1 rolarlzation of H e a t - T r e a t e d Black Pearls Cathodes
268
A. Kush et al
-2-
Vulcan, 30% PTFE

Vulcan, 3% PTFE
C o n s e l , 30% PTFE
Shawinigan, 30% PTFE
HT Black Pearls, 10% PTFE
HT Bl a c k Pearls, 30% PTFE
-2
1x10
CT
E
<
£
C-,
Z -3
K
D
U
z
o
w
o
Di
c
o
- 4
IxlO 190°C, 1 atm.
-5
1x10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
TIME, HR.
FIGU RE 2 C o r r o s io n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f V a r io u s
C a rb o n S u p p o r t M a t e r ia ls
269
A. Kush et al
-3-
OrilHATING CON D I T I O N S : 325 mA/cm^, IIQOC, 70 psi. 831 fuel (H2) and
50i o x i d a n t (air) util i z a
(HT P t /Vulcan)
W
O
<
O
>
□□
<
z tiD,
6(10
500
0 2,000 4 ,000 6,000 8,000
C E L L LIFE, Hr.
FIG U R E 3 PERFORMANCE OF VULCAN,

S H AW IN IG AN , AND BLACK PEARLS CATHODES A T PRESSURE
270
DEVELOPMENT OF A MEMBRANE ALKALINE FUEL CELL FOR
CAUSTIC CONCENTRATION IN THE CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY
E.J. Taylor/ A. Gelb/ and R. Waterhouse

Physical Sciences Inc.
Research Park
Andover/ MA 01810
The objective of the PSI/Department of Energy cooperative

agreement/ "Application of Fuel Cells to Chlorine-Caustic
Technology/" is to demonstrate the feasibility of improving
the efficiency of the chlorine/caustic soda production proc
ess. Due to the magnitude of this industry/ efficiency
improvements have a significant impact on the nation's energy
usage. The daily production of chlorine in the U.S./
50/000 tons (1)/ translates into an equivalent energy con
sumption by the chlor-alkali industry of 287 /OOO bbl of oil
daily.
Previously (2/3)/ we presented the results of an energy and

economic analysis of three cases: 1 ) conve ntional membrane
electrolysis cell tec hnology: 2 ) membrane e lectrolysis cell
technology incorporat ing phosphoric acid fu el cells; and
3) membrane electroly sis cell coupled with a membrane alka-
line fuel cell reacto r (PSI system). In ca se 1 / the by-
product hydrogen from the electrolysis cell is used in the
evaporators to concen trate the caustic soda from 30 wt% to
50 wt%. For case 2, the by-product hydroge n from the elec-
trolysis cell is used to generate electric power in the phos-
phoric acid fuel cell s. Case 2 resulted in 6 % energy savings
compared to Case 1.
In the PSI system (see Figure 1)/ the dilute sodium hydroxide
(~ 30 wt%) from the membrane electrolysis cell is split and
Cl 2
J't
Figure 1. Process flow diagram of the PSI coupled

membrane electrolysis cell/membrane
alkaline fuel cell reactor
271
TAYLOR ET AL.
- 2-
goes into the alkaline fuel cell which contains a cation

selective membrane separating the anode and cathode chambers.
By-product hydrogen produced in the membrane electrolysis
cell is used as fuel at the anode of the fuel cell and oxygen
from air is the oxidant. Due to the presence of the cation
selective membrane, the electrochemical reactions concentrate
the caustic soda in the catholyte and dilute the caustic soda
in the anolyte. The sodium hydroxide catholyte leaves the
alkaline fuel cell at ~ 50 wt% and the anolyte leaves at
21 wt%. The anolyte is recycled back to the cathode side of
the electrolysis cell. Thus the alkaline fuel cell serves
two functions: 1 ) to concentrate caustic and 2 ) to generate
electrical power. The most significant advantage of the PSI
system over current technologies is that caustic concentra
tion is carried out in the fuel cell without any need for
external energy input. Additionally, the alkaline fuel cell
provides an efficient way to use the by-product hydrogen to
cogenerate electricity.
To date, we have studied Nafion 901® and seven developmental

membranes (DuPont) under conditions relevant to the PSI sys
tem. Initial screening in 30 wt% anolyte/catholyte and
25 wt% NaOH anolyte/40 wt% NaOH catholyte has indicated
DuPont development membrane Al to be the most promising.
We considered different modes of operation of the membrane

alkaline fuel cell. As shown schematically in Figure 2, co
flow and counter-flow schemes result in different types of
anolyte/catholyte environments for the membranes. In the co
flow scheme the 30 wt% caustic enters at one end of the con
centrator cell and the 20 and 50 wt% caustic solutions exit
20% 30%
30% NaOH NaOH NaOH
Na+
20% 50% 30% 50%

NaOH NaOH NaOH NaOH
A- 3 0 9 1
Figure 2. Schematic of co- and counter-flow

concepts for the membrane alkaline
fuel cell concentrator
*Nafion is a registered trademark of the E.I. DuPont

deNemours and Company.
272
TAYLOR ET AL.
-3-
at the other end. In the case of the counterflow scheme, the

caustic streams en ter and exit from opposite ends of the con-
centrator. In ord er to determine the effect of the co-flow
versus the counter flow scheme on membrane performance, a
test matrix coveri ng 30 to 50 wt% of NaOH catholyte and
20 to 40 wt% NaOH anolyte was designed. Membrane Al was
evaluated under th e conditions of this test matrix(4,5). A
systems study has verified the ability of the membrane alka-
line fuel cell to concentrate the caustic soda to 50 wt%
using the experime ntally determined membrane properties.
From these tests, we determined that the membrane alkaline

fuel cell concentrator performance is better under co-flow
conditions then counterflow conditions. In Figure 3 we pre
sent membrane voltage drop data for three co-flow conditions
along with the hydrogen-air alkaline fuel cell performance
data of the Institute for Hydrogen Systems (6 ).
A PROJ. ALK FC
A MEM Al 30X . 30X NaOH
• HEM Al 40t - 251 NaOH
■ MEM A] sot - 20t NaOH
0 100 200 300 400 450
CURRENT DENSITY (aA/cit^)

A-3996
Figure 3. Alkaline fuel cell polarization and

membrane polarization under conditions
of co-flow conditions
The intersection of the membrane voltage drop data with the

IHS alkaline fuel cell performance data represents the opera
ting current density which would result in zero net power
from the fuel cell. At higher current densities, external
power is required by the membrane alkaline fuel cell. At
lower current densities, power is generated by the membrane
alkaline fuel cell. The optimal operating current density of
the membrane alkaline fuel cell concentrator is defined by a
tradeoff of energy power production and capital considera
tions. At low current densities, the electric power output
which may be used in the electrolysis cell is increased but
the membrane alkaline fuel cell area (and hence capital cost)
required to concentrate a given amount of caustic soda is
also increased. Conversely, at high current densities the
273
TAYLOR ET A L .
-4-
capital cost is decreased but the electric power output is

also decreased. At current densities of ~200 raA/ cm^ our
system delivers 300 mV of d.c. electricity.
To date; we have demonstrated the performance of an advanced

cation exchange membrane in the electrolyte environment rele
vant to the PSI system. We are currently evaluating electro
catalyst materials in the catholyte environment and; in
future research efforts, we will evaluate membrane and elec
trode performance stability. Finally, we will demonstrate
the system performance in a bench scale (~60 cra^) process
development unit.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the U.S.

Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Programs, and
Mr. W. Sonnet for support under Contract No. DE-FC-07-
841012495. Additionally, the efforts of Dr. L. Burton of
DuPont are gratefully acknowledged. Helpful discussions with
G. Wilemski, D. Ham and A. Boni are also gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. D.E. Hall and E. Spore, "Report of the Electrolytic

Industries for the Year 1984," J. Electrochem. Soc.
132(7), 252C-285C , 1985.
2. A. Gelb, A. Garman, D. Bloomfield, and H. Piperopoulou,

"Application of Fuel Cells to Chlorine-Caustic Technol
ogy," 1985 National Fuel Cell Seminar Abstracts, Courte
sy Associates, Inc., Washington, DC, Tuscon, A R , May 19-
22, 1985.
3. A. Gelb and E.J. Taylor, "Application of Fuel Cells to
Chlorine-Caustic Technology," Proceedings of the Sympo
sium on Separation Processes, AIChE, Seattle, W A , 1985.
4. E.J. Taylor, R. Waterhouse, J. Campbell, and A. Gelb,

"The Development of a Membrane Alkaline Fuel Cell Reac
tor for Energy Conservation in the Chlor-Alkali Indus
try," Proc. Symposium on Land Leveling and Energy Con
servation in Industrial Processes, Chin (ed). The Elec
trochemical Society, Boston, MA, 1986.
5. E.J. Taylor, R. Waterhouse, A. Gelb, "Applications of

Fuel Cells to Chlorine-Caustic Technology," 21st lECEC,
1986.
6. K. Tomantschger, S. Srinivasan, R. Findley, J. Joanes,

F. McClusky, A. Reid, K. Kordesch, "Development of a
500-watt Bipolar Alkaline Fuel Cell," Proceedings of
the 20th Intersociety Energy Conversion Conference,
Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1985.
2 74
DEVELOPMENT OF POLYMER FUEL CELLS
FOR
CANADIAN DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL DEFENCE
D.S. Watkins, K.W. Dircks, D.G. Epp, D.D. McLeod

Ballard Technologies Corporation, BTC Fuel Cells Division
North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Introduction
Ballard Technologies Corporation (BTC) is developing solid

p o l y m e r elect r o l y t e fuel cell or Polymer Fuel Cell (PFC)
t e c h n o l o g y in conjunction with the Canadian Department of
National Defence. The work began in January 1984.
D u r i n g P h a s e I (Technology A c quisition) , BTC a c q u i r e d

state-of-the-art PFC technology for Canada. The technology
was d e m o n s t r a t e d in s i ngle cells and stacks w i t h power
outputs up to 280 W.
The overall objective of the development program is to develop

low cost PFC t e c h n o l o g y in Canad i a n industry capable of
m e e t i n g a number of m i l i t a r y and civilian applications.
BTC's intention is to develop this technology with the goal
of manufacturing and selling PFC power plants for military
and civilian requirements worldwide.
Previous analysis by the Canadian Defence Research Establish

ment Ottawa (DREG) indicated that PFC technology could meet
most potential defence applications for fuel cells such as
portable field generators and propulsion for submarines. In
addition, this type of fuel cell technology would also be
sui t a b l e for a n u m b e r of c iv i l i a n a p p l i c a t i o n s such as
portable generators for cottage, boat and industrial use as
well as the prime power source for hybrid electric vehicles
and other transportation applications.
Successful deployment of Polymer Fuel Cells depends on cost

r e d u c t i o n and/or increases in power density together with
the ability to operate on practical fuels and oxidants such
as reformed methanol and air.
The majority of powerplant cost resides in the power section

or fuel cell stack. Cost can be reduced through the use of
low cost membranes, low cost catalyst loadings and/or the
ability to operate at high power density.
Phase I ran from J a n u a r y 1984 to M a r c h 1986. Phase II

(Technology Improvement) will run from April 1986 to March
1987. The follo w i ng briefly describes what was achieved
during Phase I and Phase II up until about July 1986.
Phase I - Technoloav Accmisition
The objectives of Phase I were to acquire state-of-the-art PFC

technology, demonstrate cost reduction and operation on CO
containing fuel gas, identify suitable low cost membranes as
alternatives to high cost Nafion and, deliver three 50 to
100 W PFC stacks. BTC met or exceeded all objectives.
275
WATKINS ET AL
-2-
W o r k performed during Phase I included the development of

the Membrane/Electrode Assembly (MEA) and associated single
cell, stack and test station hardware.
Na f i o n membrane and Ft catalyzed porous carbon electrodes

form the baseline MEA. Baseline catalyst loadings are 4 mg
Pt/cm2 for each electrode or 8 mg Pt/cm^ total. About 300
MEAs were built during Phase I.
Low c u r rent de n s i t y (LCD) and high current density (HOD)

h a r d w a r e we r e developed. L C D r e f e r s to h a r d w a r e w h i c h
o perates at less than about 2 50 m A / c m ^ . H C D refers to
hardware which is capable of operating up to 1000 m A / c m ^ .
The LCD hardware has Plexiglas end plates and uses 0-ring
sealing. There is no provision for controlled temperature
operation. The cell operates under atmospheric pressure at
a temperature of about 55°C. The cell is fed dry gasses and
employs passive water removal via polypropylene wicks. The
anode cell plates are grooved non-porous graphite while the
cathode plates are grooved porous carbon. Active cell area
is 31 cm^.
The HCD har d w a r e has a l u m i n u m endplates, use s spray-on

silicone gasket sealing and is designed to be expandable to
a m u l t i c e l l stack. C o n t r o l l e d t e m p e r a t u r e operation is
provided by water circulated within the cell. The cell has
operated under pressures up to 100 psig and temperatures up
to 100°C. The cell is fed dry gasses which are internally
humidified by water vapor transport across a membrane. The
h u m i d i f i c a t i o n w a t e r comes from cooling water circulated
within the cell. Product water is removed with the excess
o x i dant stream. The cell p l a t e s are computer numerical
control (CNC) machined graphite. A plastic pneumatic piston
in one endplate provides cell plate compression for sealing
and minimum contact resistance. Active area is 51 cm^/cell.
During Phase I, operation of single cells up to 1000 mA/cm^

of active cell area was demonstrated. Pressures ranged from
atmospheric to 100 psig and temperatures from 50 to 100°C.
R e a c t a n t s incl u d e d H j / 0 2 , H 2 / a i r and simulated reformed
methanol (reformate)/air.
Single cell power outputs up to 26 W on H 2/air in 51 cm^

active area cells were demonstrated. Currents were up to 50
A. Single cell power densities over 500 mW/cm^ of active
cell area were demonstrated.
Reduction of the Pt catalyst loading by one half on H 2/air

at current densities of about 200 mA/cm^ in the LCD hardware
was successful. Performance at 4 mg Pt/cm^ total after over
1000 hours of c o n t i n u o u s operation on H 2 /air was 95% of
baseline performance at 8 mg Pt/cm^ total.
Operation of single cells on pretreated reformate/air at low

and high c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s w a s demonstrated. Simulated
reformed methanol or reformate was taken as 0.3% CO, 25% CO 2
276
WATKINS ET AL
-3-
with the balance Bj. In the LCD hardware, performance was

0.66 V @ 211 itiA/cm^ after 240 hours. Operating pressure was
atmospheric while temperature was about 55°C. As a compar
ison, performance on H 2/air is about 0.70 V @ 223 m A/cm^.
In the HCD hardware, perfojrmance on pretreated reformate/air

was 0.54 V @ 4 34 mA/cm^. Operating pressure was about 2 0
psig while temperature was 70°C. As a comparison, performance
on H 2/air is about 0.65 V @ 440 mA/cm^ under similar condi
tions of temperature and pressure.
During Phase I, an in house low cost membrane (BTC Membranes

Inc.) was identified as being suitable for use in a Polymer
Fuel Cell. This membrane is being tested during Phase II.
As mentioned. Phase I deliverables were three 50 to 100 W

PFC stacks. BTC significantly exceeded this goal with the
delivery of one 280 W H 2/ O 2 , 190 W H 2 /air 12 cell stack and,
two 140 W H 2/ O 2 , 100 W H 2/air 6 cell stacks. Tables I and II
show performances of a 12 cell stack on H 2 /air and H 2/ O 2
respectively.
Phase II - Technoloav Improvement
The o b j e c t i v e of Phase II (April 8 6 to March 87) is to

significantly advance PFC technology through the development
of a high current density reformate/air stack. High current
d e n s i t y performan c e / l i f e testing on H 2/air, reformate/air
and, at low catalyst loading on H 2/air will be performed in
single cells. Testing of BTC Meitiiranes Inc. low cost PFC
m e m b r a n e s in add i t i o n to p r o m i s i n g membranes from other
companies will also be done.
Table III shows performance of the HCD hardware on medium

pressure B 2/ O 2 80°C after 1200 hours operation on H 2 /air
at 500 mA/cm^. Table IV shows performance on low pressure
H 2 / a i r at 75°C after 1150 hours operation at 500 m A / c m ^ .
Table V shows performance on high pressure H 2/air at 92°C.
Preliminary testing of BTC Membranes Inc. low cost membrane

at high current density (4 00 mA/cm^) has shown performance
slightly better than Nafion after about 150 hours of opera
tion.
Table I
Performance of a 12 Cell Stack - Hydrogen/Air
15 psig H 2/20 psig Air - 65°C
Volts Current Power Volt/Cell Current Density

(A) (W) (mA/cm^)
9.3 8.8 82 0.78 174
7.4 25.6 190 0.62 506
277
WATKINS ET AL
-4-
Table II
Performance of a 12 Cell Stack- Hydrogen/Oxygen
15 psig H 2/20 psig O 2 - 60°C
Volts Current Power Volt/Cell Current Density

(A) (W) (iriA/cm^)
9.9 9.3 92 0.83 184
7.8 26.7 208 0.65 528
82°C
6.9 40.5 280 0.58 800
Table III
Performance on Medium Pressure H 2 / O 2 after 1200 Hours
30 psig H 2 / 3 O psig O 2 - 80 °C
Volts Current Density Power Density

(mA/cm^) (mW/cm^)
0.89 108 96
0.78 323 252
0.70 538 377
Table IV
Performance on Low Pressure H 2 /Air after 1150 Hours
10 psig H 2/20 psig Air - 75°C

(mA/cm^) (mW/cm^)
0.79 108 85
0 .68 323 220
0 .60 500 300
Table V
Performance on High Pressure Hydrogen/Air
5 psig H 2/IOO psig Air - 92°C

(mA/cm^) (mW/cm^)
0.86 100 86
0.80 200 160
0.74 400 296
0. 69 540 373
0. 65 660 429
0.57 880 502
0. 52 990 515
278
F U E L C E L L S AS A L O N G RANGE HIGHWAY
VEHICLE PROPULSION ALTERNATIVE
R . L . Re n t z
Mueller Associates, Inc.
Baltimore, Maryland 21227
G. L. H a g e y a n d R, S. K i r k , P h . U .
U . S . D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y
W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. 20545
INTRODUCTION
T h e i n t e r e s t in f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g y f or h i g h w a y
v e h i c l e a p p l i c a t i o n s is r o o t e d in i t s p o t e n t i a l for v e r y
high e ne r g y c o n v e r s i o n efficiency, negligible exhaust
e m i s s i o n s , and a b i l i t y to u t i l i z e c o a l a n d / o r b i o m a s s
d e r i v e d fuel s o u r c e s . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of f u e l c e l l
t e c h n o l o g y f o r a u t o m o t i v e h i g h w a y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n is b o t h
l o n g - t e r m and h i g h r i s k . The potential pay-off, however,
in t e r m s of p e t r o l e u m a n d e n e r g y s a v i n g s as w e l l as
e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e n e f i t s , is t r e m e n d o u s .
STUDY OBJECTIVE
A c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s of f u e l c e l l s for
a uto m o t i v e highway t r a n s p o r t a t i o n which analyzes and
d o c u m e n t s in o n e s t u d y t h e v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s , t he
various candidates, where technology actually stands, what
t e c h n o l o g y c a p a b i l i t y w o u l d be r e q u i r e d , as w e l l as
providing a consistent d a t a b a s e , h a s n o t y e t b e e n d o n e f or
t he l o n g - t e r m . S u c h a s t u d y w o u l d l e a d to a n e v a l u a t i o n of
t he R & D r e q u i r e d to d e v e l o p a d v a n c e d f u e l c e l l s f o r
a u t o m o t i v e h i g h w a y v e h i c l e u s e a n d i n c l u d e a n a s s e s s m e n t of
their l i v e l i h o o d for s u c c e s s . R e s u l t s c o u l d l e a d to t he
f o u n d a t i o n for a d i r e c t e d R & D p r o g r a m .
STUDY METHODOLOGY
At l e a s t t w o r e c e n t a s s e s s m e n t s h a v e a t t e m p t e d to
m e t n o d i c a l l y a n a l y z e f u e l c e l l s for a u t o m o t i v e h i g h w a y
transportation. The Los A l a m o s National L a b o r a t o r y (LANL)
has a n a l y z e d t h r e e d e v e l o p m e n t a l f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r
automotive highway vehicle applications using a consistent
s e t of g r o u n d r u l e s a n d a v e h i c l e s i m u l a t i o n c o m p u t e r
p r o g r a m . (1) J P L , i n a b r o a d e r a s s e s s m e n t of a d v a n c e d
e l e c t r i c a n d h y b r i d v e h i c l e s , u s e d a s i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e to
e x a m i n e t h e n e a r - t e r m p o t e n t i a l of f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g y . ( 2 )
T h e s e p r e v i o u s s t u d y e f f o r t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t in
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e v i a b l e f u e l c e l l c a n d i d a t e s for
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d t h e a r e a s u p o n w h i c h to f o c u s r e s e a r c h
but w i t h o u t s p e c i f i c q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e n e e d e d
ac hi e v e m e n t s .
279
RENTZ ET AL
-2-
P R I M A R Y S T U D Y T O O L — T h e A d v a n c e d V e h i c l e A s s e s s m e n t by
JPL for DOE was n o t a b l y d i f f e r e n t fro m o t h e r a s s e s s m e n t
s t u d i e s in t h a t it m i g h t b e d e s c r i b e d as a " t o p d o w n " s t u d y .
M e t h o d o l o g y of the J P L s t u d y is s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l y in
Figure 1 .
V E H I C L E S Y S T E M S A F T E R M A R K E T P R E F E R E N C E
S U B S Y S T E M A S S E S S M E N T
A N A L Y S E S A N A L Y S E S A N A L Y S E S
M I S S I O N
/ Power \ D E F I N I T I O N
r S o u r c e 1
iCharacteristicsj
Characteristics!
P e r f o r m a n c e
R e q u i r e m e n t s
P r o d u c t i o n C O N C E P T U A L
C o s t V E H I C L E D E S I G N S
E st imate s
P E R F O R M A N C E
U s e
A N A L Y S E S
Pat terns
C O S T
Availability
A N A L Y S E S
S Y N T H E S I S I m p o r t a n t
Attributes
R E S E A R C H P R I O R I T I E S
D E V E L O P M E N T R E Q U I R E M E N T S
Figure 1. Advanced Vehicle Assessment Methodology
It b e g a n ( S t e p 1) f i r s t w i t h m i s s i o n d e f i n i t i o n / p e r f o r m a n c e
r e q u i r e m e n t s , use p a t t e r n s c o u p l e d w i t h s u b s y s t e m
r equirem e n t s / v e h i c l e characteristics, power source
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d c o s t e s t i m a t e s to d e r i v e r e q u i r e m e n t s
f o r t h e k e y e l e m e n t w h i c h is t h e p r i m e m o v e r . These latter
r e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e t h e n u s e d ( S t e p 2) to c o l l e c t m a t e r i a l
f r o m n o t a b l e e x p e r t s a n d d e v e l o p e r s w h i c h w e r e e v a l u a t e d to
p r o j e c t f u t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e n e r g y s t o r a g e
d e v i c e s for the e a r l y 1 9 9 0 ' s time frame. These future
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e t h e n u s e d ( S t e p 3 ), t h r o u g h s i m u l a t i o n
m o d e l i n g , to p r o j e c t t h e r e s u l t a n t v e h i c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of i n i t i a l c o s t , l i f e c y c l e c o s t , e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d
b r e a k - e v e n f u e l p r i c e c o m p a r e d to a r e f e r e n c e p r o j e c t e d
i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e (ICE) v e h i c l e . The overall
o b j e c t i v e o f t h e J P L s t u d y w a s to d e v e l o p a m e t h o d o l o g y to
c o m p a r e m a n y d i f f e r e n t t e c h n o l o g i e s on a c o n s i s t e n t b a s i s
a n d to e m p l o y e t h e d e v e l o p e d m e t h o d o l o g y to m a k e the
compar is o n .
280
R E N T Z ET AL
-3-
STUDY MR T H O D O L O G Y - - T h e s t u d y m e t h 0 d 0 1 o g y ( se e F i g u r e
2 ) would be g i n with a s c r e e n i n g a s se s sm e n t Th e s e r e e n i ng
a ssessment wo u 1 d f 0 1 l o w t h e pr e vi o u s 1 y d e s c r i be d J P L
me t h o d o l o g y a nd w o u l d u t i 1 i ze » to t h e e xt e nt po s s ib 1 e , t h e
ex 1 s 1 1 ng d a ta b a s e . F i r s t , the J PL S te P 1 t e c h n i q ue wo ul d
be a p p l i e d t0 derive r equ i r eme n t s fo r t h e prime m o v e r
S C R E E N I N G
D E F I N E V E H I C L E R E Q U I R E M E N T S
S T U D Y
D E F I N E B A S E L I N E P R O J E C T E D
F U E L C E L L C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
C A L C U L A T E V E H I C L E
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S F O R C A N D I D A T E
F U E L C E L L T E C H N O L O G I E S
D E F I N I T I O N O F M O S T
P R O M I S I N G F U E L C E L L C O N C E P T S
D E F I N E P R O M I S I N G R & D N E E D S
PERFORM C O M P U TE R S IM O L A T IO N
S E N S m V IT Y A N A L Y S E S
I D E N T I F Y B E S T A P P R O A C H E S
P E R F O R M R I S K / B E N E F I T A S S E S S M E N T
C O N C L U S I O N S
Figure 2. Planned Study Methodology
A s t u d y w i l l h a v e to be c o n d u c t e d to u p d a t e t h e J P L d a t a
b a s e in o r d e r to d e f i n e v e h i c l e m i s s i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e
r e q u i r e m e n t s and use p a t t e r n s for the y e a r 2 0 0 0 and b e y o n d .
T h e s a m e u p d a t e o p e r a t i o n m u s t a l s o b e p e r f o r m e d u p o n the
J P L d a t a b a s e for s u b s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d v e h i c l e
characteristics. T h e s e t w o d a t a b a s e s w o u l d t h e n y i e l d t he
r e q u i r e m e n t s to be i m p o s e d u p o n c a n d i d a t e f u e l c e l l s y s t e m s .
281
RENTZ ET AL
-4_
T h e n , t h e J P L S t e p 2 t e c h n i q u e w o u l d b e a p p l i e d to y i e l d
i n i t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e p o t e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
fuel c e l l c o n c e p t s and t e c h n o l o g i e s in the post 2 0 0 0 time
f r a m e b a s e d on c u r r e n t k n o w l e d g e a nd r e s e a r c h t r e n d s .
T h e n , t h e J P L S t e p 3 c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n w o u l d be a p p l i e d
in o r d e r to p r o j e c t t h e r e s u l t a n t v e h i c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
fo r t h e v a r i o u s f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g i e s c o m p a r e d to a
reference projected ICE-driven vehicle.
T h e n e x t s t e p in the f u el c e l l s t u d y m e t h o d o l o g y w o u l d
be to u t i l i z e t h e J P L c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n p r o g r a m as a t o o l
to p e r f o r m s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s e s to e v a l u a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l
of f u r t h e r f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g y a d v a n c e s a n d to a s s i s t in
a s s e s s i n g the d i r e c t i o n s and g o a l s of R & D . B e f o r e t he
s i m u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d , it is n e c e s s a r y to i d e n t i f y , f o r
e a c h fuel cell c o n c e p t a n d t e c h n o l o g y , the m o s t p r o m i s i n g
a r e a s for t e c h n i c a l a d v a n c e m e n t and t h e n e s t i m a t e th e i r
s e n s i t i v i t y on s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e a n d c o s t . Each candidate
a d v a n c e m e n t c a n t h e n be e x p l o r e d to a s s e s s i t s r e l a t i v e
v a l u e v e r s u s o t h e r a d v a n c e m e n t s to t h e f u e l c e l l or
supporting subsystems.
OBSERVATIONS
o Fuel cell t e c h n o l o g y offers cl e a r p o t e n t i a l

b e n e f i t s for a u t o m o t i v e h i g h w a y v e h i c l e a p p l i c a t i o n s .
These benefits include highly e f f i cient fuel utilization,
the a b i l i t y to u t i l i z e n o n - p e t r o l e u m f u e l s , a n d
dramatically reduced adverse environmental impacts.
o A s a r e s u l t of d r a m a t i c a d v a n c e s in b o t h t h e s t a t e
of f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
d e m a n d s of f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g y f o r h i g h w a y v e h i c l e
a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e p o t e n t i a l of f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g y n o w
w a r r a n t s m o r e r i g o r o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n for h i g h w a y v e h i c l e
propulsion.
o I n l i g h t of t h e a b o v e s t a t e m e n t , it is o b s e r v e d
t h a t n o c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s a s s e s s m e n t of t h e
l o n g - t e r m ( p o s t 2 0 0 0 t i m e p e r i o d ) p o t e n t i a l of f u e l c e l l
t e c h n o l o g y for h i g h w a y v e h i c l e a p p l i c a t i o n s has b e e n
conducted .
o If a f u e l c e l l p r o g r a m is i n i t i a t e d f o r a u t o m o t i v e
highway vehicle applications, a comprehensive systems
a n a l y s i s a s h e r e i n d e s c r i b e d s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d as the
first step. T h i s s t u d y w o u l d t h e n f u l l y a n a l y z e and
d o c u m e n t t h e p o t e n t i a l of a d v a n c e d f u e l c e l l s a n d i d e n t i f y
f r u i t f u l d i r e c t i o n s to f o c u s a n R & D p r o g r a m .
282
RENTZ ET AL
-5-
REFERENCES
1. D. K . L y n n , " A n a l y s i s of Fuel Cell S y s t e m s For

T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , " Los Alam o s National Laboratory.
2. K . S . H a r d y et a l ., " A d v a n c e d V e h i c l e S y s t e m s
A s s e s s m e n t , " J e t P r o p u l s i o n L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t N o. 84-79,
J a n u a r y 1985.
283
LIFE PREDICTION OF FUEL CELL REFORMER TUBE
BY CREEP-FATIGUE ANALYSIS
T.Yokomaku, M.Saori, T.Okuda, A.Nohara, H.Tai, Y.Imoto

Kobe Steel Ltd.
1-3-18 Wakinohama-cho, Chuo-ku
Kobe, Japan
1. Introduction
The steam reformer in fuel-cell application is required

to be compact in size and fast in response to the frequent
startup/shutdown cycles. As a result, reformer tubes are
subjected to extremely high temperature and severe thermal
cycling like an example shown in Fig.1. Since such a condi
tion will produce both creep- and fatigue-damage in tubes,
creep-fatigue interaction should be taken into consideration
not only in tube-material selection but also in structural
design for fuel-cell reformer.
In this study, a suitable life assessment method for
reformer tubes was developed by analysing creep-fatigue data
on various m.aterials. Also, appropriate tube materials were
discussed applying this method to the model tube under a
typical operating condition.
2. Experiment and Analysis
2.1 Creep and LCF test

Creep and LCF tests were
carried out at 800°and 1000°C on
a series of materials taken from
new- and used-centrifugally cast
tubes(Table 1). Four different
triangular strainwaves, fast- — Ibbmm"
i75rT>m
fast, fast-slow, slow-fast and
(a) Boundary condition
slow-slow (defined as pp, .pc,
cp and c c , respectively) were
rIOOO Tn^953r
used in LCF tests. A few tests
were performed under trapezoidal T, =896*C
waveforms with 15 min tension
hold.
800 0.6hf 7.5tv O.Shr
2.2 FEM analysis 15.5 24 39.5 48

The elastic-creep analysis Time, t (hr)
T = 17.0(To-Tt)lnr+Ti -8 6 .7 8 (T o -T j)
by finite element method was
conducted on the model tube |(b) Temperature condition [
shown in Fig.1. Two consecutive
Pi =4.9k9/cm*
loading cycles were analysed for
two candidate materials, low-C- ypn=3.7ka/cm*
HP-Nb and HP-BST-M(Table 1). ■9k9/cmV/
The creep equation used in this 15 24 39 48
analysis had the following form; Time, t (hr)
S„ = acs^ t^ (1 ) |(c) Pressure condition |
The instantaneous creep strain Fig.1 The model tube for

was negligibly small. FEM stress-strain anlysis
284
YOKOMAKU ET AL
- 2 -
Table 1 Chemical compositions of test tubes
Material C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Nb Ti Others
HK40 .43 0 .88 0.52 .013 .013 24.4 21.3 _ _
HP .48 1 .19 0 .78 .013 .014 25.5 34.3 - -
HP-Nb .45 0 .99 1 .33 .017 .016 24 .8 35.1 1 .38 -

Low-C-HP-Nb .1 3 1 .02 1.01 .013 .007 25. 1 35.2 0.88 -
HP-BST-M .49 0 .90 0.81 .010 .009 24.9 35.0 0.72 .10 tr
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Creep Rupture Property

Creep rupture curves at 1000°C of various materials are
shown in Fig.2. HP-BST-M showed the highest strength,
followed by HP-Nb, HP, low-C-HP-Nb, and HK40. The addition
of appropriate amount of Nb and/or Ti to HP-alloy improved
creep rupture strength, which is attributed to precipita
tion of fine Nb- and/or Ti-carbides.
1000"C
H P «T -M
b Low C-HP-Nb HP
(A
in
HK-
0.5
Tim e to CTeep ru ptu re , t r ( h r)
Fig.2 Creep rupture curves of various materials
3.2 Low-Cycie-Fatique Property

The effect of strain waveforms on LCF life was shown in
Fig.3. The pp-waveform gave the longest life, while cp- and
hold-waveforms were the most damaging to materials. Metal-
lographic examinations of failed specimens revealed that the
fatigue-dominated (transgranular) failure occured under pp-
and pc-conditions. On the other hand, the creep-dominated
(intergranular) failure took place under cp- and hold-type
test conditions, which resulted in large reduction in fatigue
life. Therefore, the evaluation by cp- or hold-type LCF
test is required for the selection of tube materials.
The cp-type fatigue lives of various new- and used-
materials were compared in Fig.4. It is shown that low-C-
HP-Nb and HP-BST-M had more excellent lives than conven
tional HK40 and HP. Fatigue life can be improved generally
by increasing ductility. Since Nb and/or Ti improved both
creep ductility and strength, these elements were more ef
fective to improve cp-property than lowering C-content.
285
YOKOMAKU ET AL
- 3 -
PP
te n s io n I \
h o ld 7
a L o w C -H P -N b
m L o w -H P -B S T -M
0.03
F a tig u e life , N f (c y c le s )
Fig. 3 Effect of waveforms on LCF life

10' 800°G, CP-test, A£t=0.5%
lootfc eoo*c
n As cast
A - A c p
M Aged □ o - PC
/vv v v Tension
^ hr>lrt
op
o
o 200
L /C HP
HP HP-Nb
HP-Nb Bsr-M Estimated life, (cycles)
Fig.4 Comparison of cp-life for Fig.5 Life estimation

various materials by SRP method
3.3 The Creep-Fatique Life Assessment Method

The estimation by the conventional linear-damage-rule
(LDR), which is based on a linear summation of creep- and
fatigue-damage, was too conservative for 8 0 0 ° C , but uncon
servative for 1 0 0 0 ' ’ c . The other method, strain-range-
partitioning (SRP), requires to partition the inelastic strain
range, (5 "^^, into four basic strain ranges r '^8. i
) and rachet strain These basic straiR^rangis are*^^
reSated independently to cyclic life, N . ., as follows;
13
. N. . = B. .
13 13 13 (2)
The life can be calculated by applying each Nij for as
sociated strain range , 4 ^ , to the following equation;
1/N = 1/N
-E 1/N + 1/N -E 1/N + S/D (3)
pp pc cp cc c
where Dc is creep ductility. The predicted life by SRP
method was in good agreement with the observed life as
shown in Fig.5.
286
YOKOMAKU ET AL
- 4 -
cvi Element 1
S
aj
|b
0 1000 2000 3000

0.2 time, t (min) E quivalent slroin, S m7.)
Cl
0.13 •/, 0.00176V,

-p
G
0 1000 2000 3000
H P -B S T -M
E le m e n t 1
1000 2000
time, t (min)
(a) (b)
Fig.6 Stress- and strain-history of model tube
Table 2 Results of FEM analysis for model tube
Inelastic Rachet Estimated
Material strain range strain life
A£in(%) 5(%) N (cycles)
case 1 Low-C-HP-Nb 0.148 0.00352 1 ,700
case 2 HP-BST-M 0.130 0.00175 2,290
3.4 Creep-Fatique Life Estimation of the Model Tube

The stress- and strain-history at maximum stress region
(inner surface of tube) are shown in Fig.6 (a). It implies
nearly strain-controlled trapezoidal waveform is repeated in
the model tube. The equivalent stress-strain loop at the
region is shown in Fig. 6(b). The value of inelastic strain
range and rachet strain, which are major factors determining
LCF life, are summarized in Table 2.
The lower-bound life, which will be useful for a con
servative design, can be obtained by regarding inelastic
strain range as completely cp-type strain range. About 35%
life extension can be expected by using HP-BST-M for this
reformer model, as compared with low-C-HP-Nb.
4. Conclusions
(1) The strain-range-partitioning method is an appropriate

creep-fatigue life assessment for fuel-cell reformer tubes.
(2) HP-BST-M has superior creep and fatigue resistances.
(3) About 35% life extension can be expected by using HP-
BST-M for a typical reformer model, as compared with low-
C-HP-Nb.
287
T E S T A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S OF A F U E L C E L L
A IR P R E S S U R I Z A T I O N S Y STEM USI N G THE
S Y S T E M T E S T A B I L I T Y A N D M A I N T E N A N C E P R O G R A M (STAMP)
C. R. U n k l e and H. P. H i m p l e r , Jr.
ARINC Research Corporation
255 1 R i v a Roa d
Annapolis, Maryland 21 4 0 1
This paper describes a c o mputer-aided model, u s e d for

conducting testability analyses and d e v e l o p i n g fault-
isolation strategies, and its a p p l i c a t i o n to a m a j o r
s u b s y s t e m of a f uel cel l po w e r plant. The a p p l i c a t i o n was
c h o s e n to d e m o n s t r a t e the n e e d for e n h a n c e d m a i n t e n a n c e
p r o c e d u r e s a n d d e s i g n for t e s t a b i l i t y .
T h e c o m p u t e r - a i d e d m o d e l is A R I N C R e s e a r c h C o r p o r a t i o n ' s
S y s t e m T e s t a b i l i t y and M a i n t e n a n c e P r o g r a m (STAMP). Through
e n g i n e e r i n g a n a l y s i s of the f u n c t i o n a l f l o w of a system,
the f i r s t - o r d e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g c o m p o n e n t s a n d tes t
p o i n t s ar e d e t e r m i n e d . A dependency-analysis algorithm
w i t h i n S T A M P t h e n i d e n t i f i e s all h i g h e r - o r d e r d e p e n d e n c i e s
and t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t to f a u l t i s o l a t i o n and
maintenance. This process permits a complete tes t a b i l i t y
a s s e s s m e n t , i n c l u d i n g a u t o m a t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c o m p o n e n t
a m b i guity groups, r e d u n d a n t test points, f e e d b a c k loops,
and m u l t i p l e - f a i l u r e c o n f l i c t s . The model also provides
t e s t a b i l i t y m e a s u r e s tha t are u s e f u l in c o m p a r i n g c o m p e t i n g
d e s i g n s an d in e v a l u a t i n g the e f f e c t s of t e s t a b i l i t y d e s i g n
c h a n g e s s u c h as t e s t - p o i n t r e l o c a t i o n s .
STAMP also dev e l o p s f a u l t - i s o l a t i o n strategies. A new

a p p r o a c h b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r e t i c s p r o v i d e s t r o u b l e
s h o o t i n g p r o c e d u r e s tha t m i n i m i z e the e x p e c t e d n u m b e r of
tests required. The STAMP f a u l t - i s o l a t i o n a p p r o a c h can
c o n s i d e r s u c h i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s as f a i l u r e rate, t e s t time,
and t e s t c o s t to y i e l d s t r a t e g i e s that h a v e o p t i m a l c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s w i t h r e s p e c t to the u s e of m a i n t e n a n c e r e s o u r c e s .
In s u m m a r y , S T A M P is a p o w e r f u l , f l e x i b l e t ool for i m p r o v i n g
d e s i g n t e s t a b i l i t y and m a i n t e n a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T e s t a b i l i t y is n o w r e c o g n i z e d as a m a j o r e n g i n e e r i n g d i s c i
p l i n e for c o n t r o l l i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e a n d c o s t of s y s t e m
f a u l t i s o l a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e . Studies have confirmed
t hat t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g or f a u l t i s o l a t i o n is a m a j o r c o n s u m e r
of m a i n t e n a n c e r e s o u r c e s and c a n s e r i o u s l y d e g r a d e o p e r a
tional availability. System testability design must address
the q u a n t i t y and l o c a t i o n of tes t p o i n t s as w e l l as the
t r o u b leshooting strategy. S T A M P c a n be a p p l i e d to all
s y s t e m l e v e l s -- f r o m p i e c e p a r t s to s u b s y s t e m s -- c o n s i s t
ent w i t h the m a i n t e n a n c e r e p l a c e m e n t c o n c e p t a n d e l e c t r o n i c
an d n o n e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m s . For electronic systems, STAMP
c a n be u s e d to d e v e l o p or e v a l u a t e the tes t p r o g r a m s for
built-in test equip m e n t (BITE) and for a u t o m a t i c tes t
e q u i p m e n t (ATE). A c o n s i s t e n c y c h e c k p r o c e d u r e is a v a i l a b l e
w i t h i n S T A M P to p r o v i d e a n a l y s i s of f a l s e - a l a r m p o t e n t i a l .
288
C. R. UNKLE
-2-
S T A M P p r o v i d e s t wo t y p e s of f a u l t - i s o l a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s .
O n e t y p e is th e e q u i v a l e n t of a t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g m a n u a l , in
w h i c h S T A M P d e v e l o p s f a u l t - i s o l a t i o n "tr e e s " c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by th e k n o w n i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s of the f a i l e d system. The
s e c o n d t y p e of f a u l t - i s o l a t i o n s t r a t e g y u s e s the a l g o r i t h m
"on line" a n d g u i d e s the t e c h n i c i a n t h r o u g h the f a ult-
i s o l a t i o n t a s k v i a c o m p u t e r v i d e o output.
S T A M P a l s o a l l o w s for t e x t u a l or p i c t o r i a l d i s p l a y of the
d e t a i l e d t e s t d i r e c t i o n s for r e p a i r or r e p l a c e m e n t . In
d e s i g n , p r o t o t y p e , and f i e l d e d - s y s t e m a p p l i c a t i o n s , S T A M P
has y i e l d e d u p to 75 p e r c e n t i m p r o v e m e n t in t e s t a b i l i t y and
fault-isolation characteristics: its u s e h a s r e d u c e d the
m e a n t i m e to r e s t o r e (MTTR) of f i e l d e d s y s t e m s and h e l p e d
in the w r i t i n g of A T E d r i v e r p r o g r a m s .
S T A M P ha s th e f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s , w h i c h c a n p r o v i d e the
a c q u i s i t i o n m a n a g e r or the s y s t e m u s e r w i t h a p o w e r f u l tool
for e n s u r i n g or i m p r o v i n g t e s t a b i l i t y and f a u l t i s o l a t i o n :
• Simplified inputs
• G e n e r a t i o n of t e s t a b i l i t y a s s e s s m e n t r e p o r t s
• Identification of ambiguities, redundant test
p o i n t s , and f e e d b a c k loops
• Fault-isolation strategies
• S p e c i f i c a t i o n of i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s (e.g., f a i l u r e
rate, t e s t time, or c o s t w e i g h t i n g )
• Multiple-failure analyses
• A u t o m a t i c g e n e r a t i o n of fa u l t trees
S T A M P has a l e a r n i n g c a p a b i l i t y , w h e r e i n the h i s t o r y of
f a i l u r e c a u s e s is r e c o r d e d a n d the i n f o r m a t i o n is u s e d as a
w e i g h t i n g f a c t o r for f a u l t - t r e e g e n e r a t i o n . This process
is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 1. T h e p r o c e d u r e is a p p l i c a b l e to
a ll s y s t e m s t h a t h a v e a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p and m a y be
u s e d for h a r d w a r e s y s t e m s ( e l e c t r o n i c and n o n e l e c t r o n i c ) as
w e l l as s o f t w a r e d e b u g g i n g , m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s , a n d m a n a g e
ment analysis.
To d e m o n s t r a t e S T A M P ' S c a p a b i l i t i e s as a d e s i g n tool and

m a i n t e n a n c e aid, A R I N C R e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d a n a n a l y s i s of
t h e ai r p r e s s u r i z a t i o n s y s t e m (APS) of a f u e l cel l p o w e r
plant under development. T h e o u t p u t s of t h e a n a l y s i s w e r e
STAMP-generated fault-isolation trees and testability
m e a s u r e s t h a t w e r e u s e d to a s s e s s S T A M P ' S a b i l i t y to i s o l a t e
f a i l u r e s u s i n g a d e f i n e d n u m b e r of te s t s or test points.
289
C. R. UNKLE
-3-
Input Begin Fault

Syinptoms Isolation
Update
Compute Weights Learning Learning
File J File
Display
Choose Test
Done
Responses
Display
Compute
Repair
Failures
Procedure
*Video tape or disk may be added as an option.
Figure 1. STAMP REPAIR ASSISTANCE IMPLEMENTATION

OF F A U L T - I S O L A T I O N M E T H ODOLOGY
W o r k i n g f r o m e x i s t i n g s y s t e m d o c u m e n t a t i o n ( p r o c e s s and
instrumentation diagrams [P&IDs] and f a i l u r e m o d e s and
e f f e c t s a n a l y s e s [ FMEAs]), A R I N C R e s e a r c h c r e a t e d i n i t i a l
t e s t d e p e n d e n c y m o d e l s for two m o d e s of A P S o p e r a t i o n a
s t a r t - u p m o d e an d a r u n mode. These initial models were
t h e n u s e d b y S T A M P to g e n e r a t e a t e s t a b i l i t y r e p o r t for the
APS. The STAMP testability report identified component
a m b i g u i t y g r o u p s and c o m p o n e n t l e verage . An ambiguity
g r o u p is d e f i n e d as a f a i l u r e e v e n t w h o s e c a u s e m a y d e p e n d
on m o r e t h a n on e c o m p o n e n t ; i.e., the f a i l u r e e v e n t c a n n o t
be u n i q u e l y d e f i n e d as h a v i n g b e e n c a u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y by
the f a i l u r e of a s p e c i f i e d c o m p o n e n t . Component leverage
is a m e a s u r e of the p e r c e n t of s u b s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s u n i q u e l y
f a u l t i s o l a t a b l e w i t h g i v e n t est p oints. F r o m the i n f o r
m a t i o n p r o v i d e d by the t e s t a b i l i t y r e p orts, a d e t e r m i n a t i o n
w a s m a d e as to the a d e q u a c y of the d e f i n e d te s t s and test
points. W h e r e results were inadequate, a d d i t i o n a l test
p o i n t s w e r e a d d e d and s p e c i f i c te s t s d e f i n e d to i m p r o v e
system testability. T h i s n e w i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e n fed back
i nto STAMP, an d n e w r e s u l t s w e r e g e n e r a t e d . This iterative
p r o c e s s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l an a c c e p t a b l e level of t e s t c a p a
bility was achieved.
290
C. R. UNKLE
-4-
S o m e c o m p o n e n t s of the s t a r t - u p m o d e w e r e n o t r e q u i r e d for
the r u n m o d e . I n i t i a l r e s u l t s for the s t a r t - u p m o d e s h o w e d
t hat o n l y 33 p e r c e n t of m o r e t h a n 54 A P S c o m p o n e n t s w e r e
u n i q u e l y i s o l a t a b l e by u s i n g 15 e x i s t i n g t est points. By
usi n g S T A M P - g e n e r a t e d tes t a b i l i t y reports, A R I N C Res e a r c h
w a s a b l e to d e f i n e an a d d i t i o n a l 26 tests, w h i c h i n c r e a s e d
the p e r c e n t a g e of u n i g u e l y i s o l a t a b l e c o m p o n e n t s to 77.4.
T h i s f i n d i n g i m p l i e s that, w i t h the a d d i t i o n of te s t s
d e f i n e d t h r o u g h S T A M P u s age, f a u l t - i s o l a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y in
the e v e n t of a f a i l u r e at s t a r t - u p is m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d .
S i m i l a r r e s u l t s w e r e a c h i e v e d for the run m o d e of o p e r a t i o n .
O n the b a s i s of the e x p e r i e n c e of the s t a r t - u p m o d e a n a l
ysis, i n i t i a l S T A M P r e s u l t s s h o w e d t h a t 60 p e r c e n t of all
components defined were u n i quely isolatable. W i t h the aid
of STAM P , t e s t s w e r e d efi ed s u c h t hat u n i q u e f a u l t i s o l a
t i o n w a s i m p r o v e d to g r e a t e r t h a n 75 p e r c e n t . In addi t i o n ,
for the A P S a n a l y s i s f a u l t t r e e s w e r e o p t i m i z e d on f r e q u e n c y
of f a i l u r e s u c h t hat the m o s t u n r e l i a b l e c o m p o n e n t s w e r e
i s o l a t e d first, u s i n g the f e w e s t jmber of te s t s poss i b l e .
Thus, f a u l t t r e e s are a v a l u a b l e a i d in the c r e a t i o n of
t r o u b l e s h o o t i n g c h a r t s or p r o c e d u r e s to be c o n t a i n e d in the
system m a i n t e n a n c e manuals.
291
EFFECT OF IMPROVED HEAT TRANSEER CATALYST SUPPORT
ON STEAM REEORMING OF METHANE
N. Rohatgi and G. E. Voecks

J e t P rop ulsio n Laboratory
4800 Oak Grove D rive
Pasadena, CA 91109
The t r a n s f e r o f heat i n t o and through the c a t a l y s t bed is a key e l e

ment in the successful o p e ra tio n of an e f f i c i e n t steam r e fo r m e r. W ith in
the c a t a l y s t bed, heat is t r a n s f e r r e d p r i m a r i l y by conduction and convec
tio n . In con v en tion al packed c a t a l y s t beds, where the c a t a l y s t is normal
l y comprised o f i n s u l a t i n g , c era m ic -type m a t e r i a l , a compromise is ach eiv-
ed between the siz e o f c a t a l y s t p a r t i c l e s which w i l l m ain ta in high heat
t r a n s f e r w ith o u t r a i s i n g the bed pressure drop t o an unacceptable l e v e l .
Maintainance o f the balance o f heat t r a n s f e r , pressure d i f f e r e n t i a l , and
c a t a l y s t a c t i v i t y f o r a c h e m ic a lly dynamic system such as in the case of
steam re form ing is d i f f i c u l t t o achieve in s m a ll, e f f i c i e n t r e a c t o r s .
For the past few years at JPL, an a l t e r n a t i v e c a t a l y s t system has

been under i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r steam re form ing in which a metal is used as
the c a t a l y s t support as opposed t o a conventional alumina p a r t i c l e packed
bed. The purpose of examining t h i s novel c a t a l y s t system was t o determine
the e xte n t t o which the heat t r a n s f e r improvements t h a t a metal support
would o f f e r t o the steam r e fo rm in g a c t i v i t y could be achie ved, w h ile at
the same tim e reducing the bed pressure drop. The i n i t i a l work was done
w ith an alumina-washcoated, n i c k e l - c a t a l y z e d , honeycomb design m on olith o f
t h i n metal s u p p o rt. The a c t i v i t y t h a t was recorded was b e t t e r than t h a t
of a comparable packed bed of con ven tion al n ic k e l steam re fo rm in g c a t a
ly s t. The pressure drop was on the order o f two orders o f magnitude less
in the honeycomb m on o lith due t o the high void f r a c t i o n . While t h i s c a t a
l y s t had not been op tim ize d f o r performance, i t did i l l u s t r a t e t h a t the
use o f a metal support could p ro v id e im p ortan t improvements in the opera
t i o n o f a steam re fo rm e r. The questio ns which were raised were 1) how
much was the heat t r a n s f e r improved by use of the metal s u p p o r t, 2 ) what
was the im p o rta n t heat t r a n s f e r mechanism t h a t a s s is te d in t h i s a c t i v i t y
i f heat t r a n s f e r was im proved, and 3) was the a c t i v i t y of the n ic k e l
increased by use o f the wa shcoating approach r a t h e r than heat t r a n s f e r
improvements being r e s p o n s ib le f o r the improved performance.
The f i r s t step in d e te r m in in g the r e l a t i v e impact o f each o f the

parameters which could have c o n t ri b u t e d t o the observed in crease in a c t i v
i t y was t o determine the heat t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a metal m onolith
w ith a honeycomb d e sig n. This work was conducted and a heat t r a n s f e r
model was developed in an e f f o r t t o e x p la in the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the para
meters at work in the heat t r a n s f e r mechanisms. A comparison was made t o
a packed bed in an exp erim e ntal task which inclu ded v a ry in g the flo w r a t e s
of n i t r o g e n , as w e ll as the o u ts id e w all tem pe rature s. The r e s u lt s showed
t h a t the honeycomb design does p ro v id e f o r more un ifo rm tem perature p ro
f i l e s throughout the m on o lith and a higher bed e x i t tem perature at the
c e n t e r l i n e could be achieved at low space v e l o c i t y . However, i t also
showed t h a t 1 ) the heat t r a n s f e r was p r i m a r i l y by conduction and t h a t a
to r t u o u s path was necessary t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y improve the heat t r a n s f e r
from w a ll to c e n t e r l i n e , and 2 ) the washcoated c a t a l y s t was probably more
a c t i v e than the c o n v en tion al c a t a l y s t observed in the e a r l i e r t e s t s . In
o rd er t o c l a r i f y the pa ra m e tric a n a l y s is , f u r t h e r t e s t s were r e q u ire d .
292
Rohatgi and G. E. Voecks
-2-
Experimental steam re form ing o f methane was performed on a novel

metal supported (m o n o lith ) n ic k e l c a t a l y s t and compared t o a conventional
n i c k e l c a t a l y s t bed. The experimental apparatus used was an Inconel tube
6.0 cm diamete r and 107 cm long in which a bed of c a t a l y s t 8 .6 cm long was
p o s it io n e d . The tube was lo cated in a three-zoned fu rn a c e . Thermocouples
(36) were eraplaced throu gh ou t the c a t a l y s t bed t o measure the ra d ia l and
a x i a l bed tem pe rature s. Gas i n l e t and o u t l e t temperatures as w ell as the
tube s kin tem peratures were also m on itore d. Goth n itro g e n and steam/meth
ane were flowed in de pen de ntly through the beds in o rd er t o gain in fo rm a
t i o n on heat t r a n s f e r under a c t i v e and i n a c t i v e o p e r a t i o n . Four d i f f e r e n t
flo w r a t e s were used at one e x te rn a l tube w a ll tem perature o f approxim ately
845°C (1550°F). The f lo w r a t e s v a rie d over a range of gaseous i n l e t h o u rly
space v e l o c i t i e s (G^HSV) o f from 3350 t o 8400 h r ” . The n ic k e l c a t a ly s t
was 10 wt% f o r the m o n o lith and 15 wt% f o r the 6.4 X 6.4 mm r i g h t c y l i n d e r
p a r t i c l e packed bed. The c o n f ig u r a t io n o f the m o n o lith provided f o r a
t o r t u o u s path f o r the gas flo w which allowed f o r t h r e e dimensional commun
i c a t i o n o f the gases through the bed as compared t o two dimensional f o r a
honeycomb m o n o lith desig n.
R esults from these t e s t s over a G^risv range of 3350 t o 6700 h r ” ^

i l l u s t r a t e t h a t the m on o lith c a t a l y s t bed, r e l a t i v e t o the packed bed,
mai n t a i n s :
1. Higher i n l e t temperatures [ g r e a t e r than 150 C ° ] ,
2. Higher a c t i v i t y [ a p p r o x im a t e ly 5%],
3. Lower pressure drop [ a p p r o x im a t e ly 10” ^ ] ,
4. A d iv e r g e n t tendency in a x i a l tem perature p r o f i l e .
The bed i n l e t r a d ia l tem perature v a rie d as much as 270 C“ f o r the packed
bed, w h ile the h igh es t temperature d e v ia t i o n f o r the m o n o lith was 110 C°.
At a G^-HSV o f 8400 h r ” , the packed bed c a t a l y s t was s l i g h t l y more
a c t i v e than the m o n o lit h . The tem perature p r o f i l e s were q u it e d i f f e r e n t
in t h a t the c e n t e r l i n e temperature f o r th e packed bed was 100 C° lower
than the m o n o lit h . The i n d i c a t i o n from these t e s t s is t h a t the a c t i v i t y
o f the n ic k e l c a t a l y s t , which was present at n e a rly two orders o f magni
tude le ss on the m on o lith than on the packed bed p a r t i c l e s , is maintained
because of the increased heat t r a n s f e r p r o p e r t i e s in h e r e n t in the mono
lith . The evidence of t h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d in the comparison of the tem
p e r a tu r e p r o f i l e s t h a t w i l l be pre sente d. In Fig ure 1 is the comparison
of the methane conversion between the m on o lith and the packed beds over
the f o u r space v e l o c i t i e s used in these t e s t s .
Based on the r e s u l t s from the experimental r e s u l t s , i t is c le a r t h a t

the metal supported c a t a l y s t (m o n o lith ) does p ro v id e a d e f i n i t e advantage
t o m a in t a in in g c a t a l y t i c a c t i v i t y over a con v en tion al packed bed, w h ile
s im u lta n e o u s ly not in c r e a s in g the pressure drop through the bed. Use of
t h i s type o f c a t a l y s t in the i n l e t p o r t i o n o f the steam re form ing r e a c t o r ,
f o r example, would add a s i g n i f i c a n t improvement in the steam reformer
e f f i c ie n c y .
293
N. Rohatgi and G. E. Voecks
-3-
100
P A C K E D BED
90
80
70
60
to 50
ir
o 40
0
1
o
30
20
10
3350 5000 6700 8400

G A SEO U S (IN L E T ) H O U R L Y SPACE V E L O C IT Y
Fig ure 1. R e la t iv e A c t i v i t i e s o f the M o n o lit h ic vs Packed C a ta ly s t Bed

f o r the Steam Reforming o f Methane.
References
1. F ly tz a n i- S te p h a n o p o u lo s , M. and Voecks, G. E ., in "Conversion o f Hydro

carbons f o r Fuel C ell A p p l i c a t i o n s " , DOE F in a l Report, DOE/ET-11326-1,
JPL Publ. No. 82-37, October 1981.
2. E ly tz a n i-S te p h a n o p o u lo s , M., Charng, T . , and Voecks, G. E., in "Model

ing o f Heat T r a n s fe r in N o n-Adia batic M onolith Reactors and Experimen
t a l Comparisons o f Metal M on olit hs w i t h Packed Beds", Chem. Eng. S c i . ,
Vol. 41, No. 5, pp. 1203-1212, 1986.
Acknowledgement
Funding f o r t h i s work was receiv ed from the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
Program managed by th e NASA/Lewis Research Center f o r th e U. S. Department
of Energy/Morgantown Energy Technology Center.
294
INTEGRATED ELECTRODE SUBSTRATE OF
PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL ( KES-I
H.Fukuda, and M.Shigeta

Kureha Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.
1-9-11, Horidomecho, Nihonbashi
Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Introduction
Various kinds of carbon electrode substrates for phosphoric

acid fuel cell { PAFC ) have been developed at Kureha
Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. In addition to a carbon paper
type and a mold type, which are currently sold to fuel cell
manufacturing companies, an Integrated Electrode Substrate
( KES-I ) has been developed for the purpose of lowing the
electical and thermal resistance, improving the strength and
reducing the cost. This paper presents the features of the
KES-I.
Structure of KES-I
The structure of KES-I is shown in Fig.l.

It consists of a separator, a couple of ribbed electrode
substrates and edge seal plates on both sides of each ribbed
electrode substrate. Ribbed electrode substrate is made of a
porous carabon material, while separator and seal plate are
of dense carbon which is impermeable to reactant gases.
They are bonded onto both faces of the separator, and then
carbonized in an inert atomosphere at about 2,000°C.
A separator and a couple of electrode substrates are united
to form a new type of electrode substrate including a
separator.
R ibbed E le c tro d e Edge Seal Plate
S e p a ra to r
R ibbed E le c tro d e
In te g ra te d
E lectro de
j B o n d in g S ubstrate
C a rb o n iz in g
F ig. 1 In te g ra te d E le c tro d e S u b s tr a te (K E S - I)
295
FUKUDA ET AL .
-2-
Th e features of KE S - I
Th e p u r p o s e and merits of this integrated substrate are shown

in T a b l e - 1 .
Table-1 E f f e c t s of I n t e g r a t e d E l e c t r o d e
S u b s t r a t e ( KE S - I )
Purpose Merit
R e d u c t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l H i g h e f f i c i e n c y or
resistance between electrode high current
substrate and separator density
R e d u c t i o n of t h e r m a l H i g h e f f i c i e n c y or
resistance between electrode high current density
substrate and separator or d e c r e a s e of
n u m b e r of c o o l e r
Mechanically strong Easy handling & thi n

electrode electrode
R e d u c t i o n of r a w m a t e r i a l R e d u c e d c ost
consmption & fabrication
process
T h e f u e l c e l l e q u i p p e d w i t h K E S - I has l o w e l e c t r i c a l and
thermal resi s t a n c e between the separator and electrode
s u b s t r a t e , r e s u l t i n g in h i g h e f f i c i e n c y or h i g h c u r r e n t
d e n s i t y , or r e d u c e d n u m b e r of i n t e r - c o o l e r s in the stac k . A
c o m p a r i s o n of p r o p e r t i e s b e t w e e n K E S - I and o r d i n a r y c a s e is
s h o w n in T a b l e - 2 .
Table-2 C o m p a r i s o n of p r o p e r t i e s b e t w e e n
K E S - I a n d o r d i n a r y case.
Item Uni t KES-I Ordinary

case
Elctrical m ohm*cm^ 18 75
res i s t a n c e
Thermal m*hr°C / kcal 4 7 .2

res i s t a n c e
Thickness mm 3.8 4 .5
Flexural kg-mm 10 0 .9
strength
296
FUKUDA ET A L .
-3-
The o r d i n a r y case was m e a s u r e d by p u t t i n g a s e p a r a t o r between

a couple of e l e c t r o d e s u b s t r a t e s wi t h o u t bonding.
E l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e f o r c a r b o n m a t e r i a l s in t h e f u e l cel l
w a s a b o u t on e f o r t h of tha t f o u n d in t h e o r d i n a r y case.
E l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of K E S - I is n e a r l y s a m e as the
c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e of t h e e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of a s e p a r a t o r
a n d a c o u p l e of e l e c t r o d e s u b s t r a t e s . It m e a n s t h a t the
c o n t a c t r e s i s t a n c e b e t w e e n a s e p a r a t o r a n d a c o u p l e of
e l e c t r o d e s u b s t r a t e s is n e g l i g i b l e in KES- I .
T h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e a l s o d e c r e a s e s b y half.
K E S - I is v e r y s t r o n g m e c h a n i c a l l y , b e c a u s e it has a s e p a r a t o r
w h i c h is a b o u t 10 t i m e s s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e e l e c t r o d e
s u b s t r a t e , as a core. It m a k e s h a n d l i n g e a s i e r a n d r e d u c e s
h a n d l i n g loss in c a t a l y s t t r e a t m e n t a n d a s s e m b l i n g . D u e to
th e e x i s t e n c e of t h i s s t r o n g s e p a r a t o r as a core, K E S - I can
be m a d e t h i n n e r a n d t h e r a w m a t e r i a l c o n s u m p t i o n is r e d u c e d .
As th e e l e c t r o d e s u b s t r a t e a n d t h e s e p a r a t o r c a n be p r o c e s s e d
in th e s a m e m a n n e r { e x t r u d i n g , m o l d i n g , etc. ), the
p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t y of K E S - I c a n be s i m p l i f i e d .
K E S - I h a s e d g e s e a l p a r t s in b o t h s i d e of e a c h r i b b e d
electrode substrate. As t h e s e p a r t s a r e i m p e r m e a b l e to
r e a c t a n t g a s e s , K E S - I d o e s not r e q u i r e t h e e d g e s e a l
t r e a t m e n t of e l e c t r o d e s u b s t r a t e .
T h e s e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s h a v e d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d the a s s e m b l y
cost.
Our research and development activities on K E S - I in K U R E H A

ar e s h o w n in F i g . 2.
1 Size o f KE S- [ '8 4 '8 5 '8 6 '8 7 1 88

1 1
36 cm ' R D
8 0 0 cm ' R D V / // / // / Z /^ //A
4 0 0 0 cm R D 'vyjyj//////zzzzzz
c o m m e rc i a l
10,000 c m ’ R D ''^///TTZZZz
com mercial
Fig. 2 R D o f KES I in K U R E H A
297
FUKUDA ET A L .
-4-
A l l th e t a r g e t s in p r o p e r t i e s w e r e a c h i e v e d u s i n g K E S - I of
36 cm2 c l a s s in 1984, t h e n the s c a l e - u p p r o b l e m s w e r e s t u d i e d
u s i n g s e v e r a l p i e c e s of K E S - I of 800 c m ^ c l a s s in 1985.
T h e p r o b l e m s s u c h as w a r p a n d c r a c k s a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h the
s c a l e - u p o f e l e c t r o d e w e r e so l v e d . Using the k n o w - h o w s
a c c u m u l a t e d in t h e s e s c a l e - u p e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e K E S - I of
4 , 0 0 0 c m ^ c l a s s has b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y p r o d u c e d in a t r i a l run.
T h e K E S - I o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 c m ^ c l a s s w i l l be p r o o d u c e d w i t h o u t a n y
serious scale-up problems. C u r r e n t l y several h u n d r e d pieces
of K E S - I o f t h e 4 , 0 0 0 c m ^ c l a s s are b e i n g p r o d u c e d u n d e r
s p o n s o r s h i p of t h e N e w E n e r g y D e v e l o p m e n t O r g a n i z a t i o n
{ N E D O ).
As a l l t he p r o b l e m s a p p e a r to be s l v e d up to t h i s stage,
K U R E H A has a p l a n to b r i n g K E S - I of t h e 4 , 0 0 0 c m ^ c l a s s to
m a r k e t f r o m th e f a l l of nex t year.
T h e K E S - I of 1 0 , 0 0 0 c m ^ c l a s s w i l l be the n e x t i t e m in the
p r o g r a m a n d b e b r o u g h t to m a r k e t in e a r l y 1988.
Acknowledgement
This work was s u p p o r t e d by the New E n e r g y D e v e l o p m e n t

O r g a n i z a t i o n ( N E D O ) in 1984, a n d is a l s o s u p p o r t e d b y N E D O
in 1986 a n d 1987.
298
COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF COOLING EFFECTS IN
PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL STACK
C h e n g - y i L u a n d A l d e n F. P r e s l e r
NASA Lewis Resea rch Center
Cleveland, O H 44135
F o r t h e d e s i g n of p h o s p h o r i c a c i d f u e l c e l l (PAFC) s y s t e m s ,
m o d e l i n g is n e e d e d to o b t a i n t h e l o c a l c u r r e n t g e n e r a t i o n as a
f u n c t i o n of temperature, pressure, r e a c t a n t utilization, flow
r a t e , f e e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , v o l t a g e , etc. A generic
e n g i n e e r i n g a n a l y t i c m o d e l for s i m u l a t i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of
P A F C p o w e r p l a n t is d e v e l o p e d b y c o m b i n i n g e n e r g y , mass, a n d
e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l analyses. T h i s m o d e l c a l c u l a t e s the
t e m p e r a t u r e , c u r r e n t d e n s i t y (CD), a n d f l o w r a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
fo r v a r i o u s c o o l a n t a n d d e s i g n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s s p e c i f i e d b y the
user. It a l s o is u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t s of d e s i g n a n d
o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s o n the p e r f o r m a n c e .
T w o e x a m p l e s of th e s i m u l a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d here. Figure 1
s h o w s th e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n as c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e m o d e l
fo r a n a i r - c o o l e d P A F C p l a t e of s i m i l a r s i z e a n d
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as t h a t of W e s t i n g h o u s e stac)c 561 (Ref.l ). A
b r a n c h e d c o o l i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n ( F i g u r e 4b) is a p p l i e d in the
c o o l i n g p l a t e s w h i c h a r e s e p a r a t e d b y f i v e c e l l pla t e s . It is
n o t e d t h a t t h e h o t - s p o t is s h i f t e d to r i g h t as t h e fue l i n p u t
t e m p e r a t u r e is m u c h l o w e r t h a n m e a n o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e .
A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2. The temperature
d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h i n a w a t e r - c o o l e d P A F C stac)t a r e p r e s e n t e d
for a s y s t e m h aving seven c ell p lates s a n d w i c h e d betw e e n each
p a i r o f c o o l i n g p l a t e s , w h i c h is s i m i l a r to I F C l O - f t ^ s h o r t
stacJc. A 3 0 - p a s s s e r p e n t i n e t y p e c o o l i n g t u b e is m o l d e d in
t h e c o o l i n g p l a t e ( F i g u r e 4a). It c a n b e o b s e r v e d t h a t a
p a r a b o l i c t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t in t h e staclc d i r e c t i o n .
Applications for C o o l i n g Effe c t s Study
R e d u c i n g t h e n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f CD, a n d t h u s n o n - u n i f o r m i t y of
heat generation, one can increase the operating temperature
w h i c h in t u r n increases e f ficiency. E f f o r t s of i m p r o v i n g t h e
u n i f o r m i t y o f p e r f o r m a n c e h a v e b e e n m a d e in t w o d i r e c t i o n s .
O n e d i r e c t i o n is to r e d e s i g n t h e g e o m e t r y of r e a c t a n t s t r e a m s
a c r o s s t h e c e l l p l a t e in o r d e r to o b t a i n c o n s t a n t r e a c t a n t
utilization. T h i s w i l l r e s u l t in a n u n i f o r m C D d i s t r i b u t i o n .
cell configurations
S t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t U - f l o w ( e x a m p l e s of U - f l o w a r e s h o w n in
F i g u r e 3 a n d F i g u r e 4a) p r o d u c e s m o r e u n i f o r m C D d i s t r i b u t i o n
t h a n s t a n d a r d c r o s s - f l o w cell. A stu d y on an isothermal cell
w i t h f o u r p a t t e r n s a n d d i v e r s e f l o w a r e a r a t i o s of r e a c t a n t
f l o w s is p e r f o r m e d . Of t h e t r i a l p a t t e r n s , w h i c h i n c l u d e
299
Lu & Presler
- 2 -
1-1, 1-2, 2-1, a n d 2-2 p a s s e s , the 2-1 p a s s e s (2 f o r f u e l f l o w

a n d 1 fo r a i r flow) w i t h a r e a f r a c t i o n R1 = 0.4 (R1 is d e f i n e d
in F i g u r e 2), g i v e t h e b e s t C D d i s t r i b u t i o n s in b o t h a m b i e n t
a n d p r e s s u r i z e d (4.75 ata) c o n d i t i o n s . Figure 3 shows the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a r e a r a t i o f o r the 2-1 p a s s case. Being
c o m p a r e d w i t h 2-2 p a s s p a t t e r n w i t h e q u a l o x i d a n t U - f l o w a r e a
a n d 2:1 (R2:R1) a r e a r a t i o in t h e f u e l f l o w d i r e c t i o n ( F i g u r e
4a), th e o p t i m a l 2-1 p a t t e r n c a n d e c r e a s e t h e r a n g e of C D
( m a x i m u m C D - m i n i m u m CD) o n o n e p l a t e f r o m 0.1 t o 0. 0 7 7
A/cm2 fo r t h e s a m e o p e r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s (4.75 ata) l i s t e d in
F i g u r e 3. E v e n f o r a 2-2 p a s s p a t t e r n w i t h e q u a l o x i d a n t
U - f l o w area, t h e c u r r e n t d e s i g n is n o t a g o o d o n e ( f r o m an
u n i f o r m i t y p o i n t of v i e w ) . T h e p a t e n t e d W e s t i n g h o u s e "Z"
p l a t e (Ref. 1) c o m b i n e s c o u n t e r - f l o w , c o - f l o w , a n d c r o s s - f l o w
of reactants. T h i s r e s u l t s in m o r e u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n s t h a n
t h e c r o s s - f l o w cell.
cooling schemes
T h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n is to d e v i s e b e t t e r c o o l i n g s c h e m e s .
T h e r e a r e t w o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r i m p r o v e m e n t ; o n e is to r e m o v e
m o r e h e a t a t th e l o c a t i o n s of h i g h e s t CD, a n d t h e o t h e r is to
i m p r o v e t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r b e t w e e n c o o l a n t a n d staclc.
F o r t h e w a t e r c o o l e d PAFC, a n u n e q u a l p i t c h l a y o u t of
s e r p e n t i n e t y p e c o o l i n g t u b e w i l l p r o v i d e m o r e c o o l a n t for t h e
m o r e h e a t g e n e r a t e d area, a n d t h u s w i l l r e s u l t in a n e v e n
temperature distribution. A d e s i g n , w i t h 16 p a s s e s o n t h e
r i g h t h a l f (of e q u a l o x i d a n t U - f l o w area) a n d 14 p a s s e s o n t h e
left, w i t h a l o n g e r p i t c h in t h e f i r s t t h r e e p a s s e s , w i l l
d e c r e a s e t h e a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e f r o m 28.6 °K (in an
e x i s t i n g e q u a l 3 0 - p a s s d e s i g n ) t o 26.1 °K. The optimal
l a y o u t is d e p e n d e n t o n t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y
t h e C D w h i c h is c h a n g e d in t h e l o a d r a m p i n g per i o d .
A s i m i l a r r e s u l t w a s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e a i r - c o o l e d stac}c. The
v a r y i n g - w i d t h s c h e m e ( F i g u r e 4c), b y w h i c h m o r e c o o l a n t f l o w s
t h r o u g h t h e m o r e h e a t g e n e r a t i n g area, w i l l d e c r e a s e t h e pealt
t e m p e r a t u r e b y 30% at W e s t i n g h o u s e 7.5 M W p o w e r p l a n t r a t e d
conditions. In addition, this s i mple s t r u c t u r e d s c heme does
not suffer from structural d e fects and complications w h i c h the
b r a n c h e d c h a n n e l does.
T h e b r a n c h e d c o o l i n g c h a n n e l w a s d e s i g n e d to p r e v e n t the
f o r m a t i o n of f u l l y d e v e l o p e d flow, to i n c r e a s e t h e f l o w r a t e
(as t h e t o t a l c r o s s e c t i o n a l a r e a is d e c r e a s e d ) , a n d to
i n c r e a s e t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r area. In o n e study, t h i s l a y o u t
c a n s a v e th e c o o l a n t i n p u t b y 17% a n d r e d u c e the pea)c
t e m p e r a t u r e b y 33% w i t h t h e s a m e a v e r a g e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
as a s t r a i g h t c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
300
Lu & Presler
- 3 -
T w o - p h a s e h e a t t r a n s f e r is an a d v a n t a g e of t h e w a t e r - c o o l e d
stack. O n e c o n s t r a i n t o n thi s is l i m i t i n g s t e a m q u a l i t y of
c o o l a n t to a v o i d f i l m - b o i l i n g . Moreover, the pressure,
t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d f l o w r a t e of c o o l a n t a n d t h e n u m b e r of c e l l
p l a t e s s a n d w i c h e d b e t w e e n e a c h p a i r of c o o l i n g p l a t e s s h o u l d be
o p t i m i z e d v e r s u s t h e cost.
Reference:
1. H o o v e r , D . Q . , "C e l l M o d u l e a n d F u e l C o n d i t i o n e r
D e v e l o p m e n t " , W e s t i n g h o u s e R e p o r t , Feb. 1982.
: 1S6 aA/ca^
: O . M Volt
Sulk Air Rise : S S .4 °
Alr(Cooling Air ? 391 ‘ t Process Air S 418

0.21 0^
0.78
0.01 H ,0
Figure 1 C a l c u l a t e d T e m p e r a t u r e P r o f i l e in a 30 c m x 43 c m
A i r - C o o l e d PAFC w i t h Cross-Flow.
CELL TEMPERATURE ( ° K )
Fuel
0. P153 A/cm'
.Cooling
Plate
4 80 °K
NORMALIZED DISTANCE FROM CCWLANT INLET, X/L

Area : 9300 cm'
Figure 2 Temperature Distributions Along Coolant Flow

D i r e c t i o n F o r a W a t e r - C o o l e d P A F C S t a c k (PI, P2,
P3, & P4 a r e C e l l P l a t e s C o u n t e d f r o m t h e C o o l i n g
P l a t e to Cen t e r )
301
Lu & Presler
- 4 -
Arfi 46 « 46 c
Figure 3 Current Density Uniformity Comparisons (2-1 P a s s e s )
W 1dth Kot Io IV 1 V.' V3 1 0 5 0

L ■nglt-. Kot lo ILl L2 L.3) • b 3 ?
a 2-2 P a s s F l o w P a t t e r n a n d b One Branched Cooling

Serpentine Cooling Tube Channel
0
-1 1- "
0
t-»
n
-■>1 !
•'*
tttttttttttttttttttttttt
COOLANT INLET
c Varying Width Cooling Channel Configuration
Figure 4 Various Cell Configurations and Cooling Schemes
302
ADVANCED ELECTROCATALYSTS FOR PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS
V. Jalan
ElectroChem
Woburn, MA 01801
R. King and A. A ntoin e

NASA - Lewis Research Center
Clevelan d, OH 44135
J .A . Kosek
G in e r, In c .
Waltham, MA 02254-9147
An a b s t r a c t o f t h i s p r e s e n ta tio n was not a v a ila b l e

a t press tim e . Copies w i l l be provid ed to attendees a t
the Seminar.
30 3
E C O N O M I C S T U D Y O N E U E L CEI.l. P O W E R
G E N E R A T I O N A T K E N T E N G V I L L A G E IN
INDONESIA FOR RURAL ELECTR I F I C A T I O N
Meirios Moechtar
Directorate for E n e r g y C o n v e r s i o n and C o n s e r v a t i o n
BPP Teknologi
Jl. M.H. T h a m r i n 8, 14th Fl o o r
J a k a r t a 10340, I n d o n e s i a
ABSTRACT
Th e i n c r e a s e d e m p h a s i s on ru r a l d e v e l o p m e n t in I n d o n e s i a w i l l
m e a n i n c r e a s e d d e m a n d for s m a l l - s c a l e s o u r c e s of e n e r g y , s i n c e
m o s t r u r a l a r e a s in I n d o n e s i a w i l l not be reached s o o n by the
e l e c t r i c grid. For example, small-scale energy sources are
needed to power public TV set, small pumping system for
d r i n k i n g wat e r , refrigerator for health center, and other
s m a l l e l e c t r i c a p p l i a n c e s for h o u s e h o l d s in r e m o t e areas. Fuel
cells c ost moreinitially tha n doe s the e q u i p m e n t now in
w i d e s p r e a d us e for s u c h a p p l i c a t i o n s - c h i e f l y p r i m a r y c e l l s
an d d i e s e l g e n e r a t o r - s i m i l a r to s o l a r c e l l s - but in m a n y
c a s e s w i l l be c h e a p e r in the l o n g run.
T h i s p a p e r d i s c u s s e s the cost c o m p a r i s o n of e n e r g y g e n e r a t e d
b y fuel cell p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n , s o l a r cell, d i e s e l g e n e r a t o r ,
a n d the e x t e n s i o n of e l e c t r i c grid. The s i t e that is c h o s e n
fo r t his study is K e n t e n g , an agricultural village. The
results indicated that there are sufficient economic
i n c e n t i v e s for fuel cel l p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n in this c a s e if the
projected goals of c a p i t a l c ost a n d heat rat e can b e met.
304
MDDELLING OF POHXIS GAS-DIFFTJSION ELECTRODE STRUCTURES
PGR PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS
Stonehart and Anne Ngoc-Diep Ho

Stonehart Associates, Inc.
17 Cottage Road
Madison, Conn. 06443
and
B. Cutlip and Shian C h e m g Yang

Dept, of Chanical Engineering
University of Connecticut
Storrs, C c m . 06268
Progress in the development of o ptimized gas-diffusion electrode

structures for p h o s p h o r i c acid fuel cells requires a detailed
understanding of the physical p a r a meters operating w i thin the porous
electrodes. The challenge heretofore has always b een to obtain a
sufficiently detailed model that takes into account all of the kinetic,
conduction (electronic and ionic), and diffusion parameters (gas-phase
and liquid-phase), operating w i t h i n the porous electrode structure.
Previously the link between the theoretical models and real experimental
data has not been sufficiently solid so that predictive capabilities for
development of real electrode structures could be obtained. The present
w o r k ha s fulfilled that connection and exact descriptions of d ynamic
processes w i t h i n porous gas-diffusion electrode structures have been
obtained. The linkage between the experimental data and the theoretical
model is very good.
Extensive com p u t e r m odelling now is able to separate diffusivity

parameters, reaction kinetic parameters, and conduction parameters within
the gas-phase, the solid-phase, and within the liquid-phase. Comparisons
of the m o d e l to experimental perfo r m a n c e data are carried out using
diagnostic gas mixtures of oxygen, air, 1% oxygen in helium, and 1%
oxygen in nitrogen. The use of helium in a diagnostic gas mixture allows
a separation of diffusivities for oxygen molecules in the electrolyte
free regions of the electrode structure (the diffusitivity of oxygen in
h e l i u m is s i gnificantly greater than the diffusitivity of oxygen in
nitrogen).
305
By fitting the rac3del of the electrode structure to the experimental
pe r f o r m a n c e data, n umerical values have been obtained for all of the
jhysical parameters operating within the electrode structure. An example
of the success for fitting the theoretical model to the experimental data
is shown in Figure 1. Here, the electrode contains 0.5 mg/cm^ of Pt and
is supported o n an ungrapitized black (Vulcan XC-72). The data w e r e
obtained under galvemostatic conditions using BC1200 potentiostats with
iR correction, it should be noted that the iR correction solves for the
ionic resistance in the free electrolyte up to the face of the electrode,
b u t does not solve for that resistance w i t h i n the electrode structure.
Operating characteristics are 190°C in 100% phosphoric acid w i t h all
gases humidified at 62°C with water saturation. This maintains the acid
concentration. The data obtained in Figure 1 were for intermediate gas
flow rates (80cc/min. cm^). At these flow rates, and at high utilization
of the oxygen (either high current density or low oxygen concentration),
the theoretical model correctly predicts that diffusion of oxygen
molec u l e s to the reaction sites produces voltage losses. Numerical
values for the solution of the data set shown in Figure 1 will be
presented. With an increase in the gas flow rate to 320cc/min. cm^, this
gas t ransport limitation no longer controls and the data set shown in
Figure 2 is obtained. Here, m ass transport of oxygen molecules to the
reaction sites is no longer limiting and the major voltage loss becomes
ionic conductions within the electrode structure. The numerical values
for the ccmputer solution are also provided.
Not only has the theoretical work, in conjunction with the experimental
work, b e e n able to define mor e exactly the operation of porous gas
diffusion electrodes in real fuel cell environments, but it has enabled
for the first time, a determination of the gradients within the electrode
structure. These gradients are: the localized electrode potential within
the electrode a t the electrocatalyst sites; the oxygen concentration
gradient within the electrode structure as a function of current density;
and the localized reaction rate through the porous electrode structure.
c -oiderable success has been obtained for cathode structures. Numerical

values have also been obtained for anodes operating on simulated reformed
fuel mixtures. The modelling for the t w o electrodes (anodes and
cathodes) are similar, although the electrode reactions are distinctly
dissimilar.
Acknowledgement: This work was performed under the NASA Contract DEM3-
350, R. King, P r o g r a m Manager, NASA-Lewis Research Center, Cleveland,
O hio 44135.
306
CATHODE PERFORMANCE CURVE
POINTS:DATA;CURVES:UODEL 2
0.9
«
t- 0.0 A
a
0 □
>
0.7
<
M 0.6
h
z
u 0.5 -
H
0
U,
O .- i -
a
Q
0 0.3 ■
z
h
u 0.2
u
M
0.1 -
5 10 50 100 500 1000 5000

0 I M M ) n- »»»{■
FIGURE 1. Experimental data on electrode AH180, Fitting parameters carried out according
to the detailed model but locking the oxygen kinetic point on the third (10 mA/
cm^) datum on the air curve,
□ O2 » N 2 ;y l0 = 0 .0 1 ♦ AIR O PURE O 2 A O 2 .H e ;y l0 '0 .0 1
CATHODE PERFORMANCE CURVE

POINTS; DATA; CURVES: MODEL AH2-003
0.9 -
0.7
0 .6 -
h
Z
u 0.5 -
H
0
&
0.4 -
»
Q
0 0.3 -
a
H
U 0.2 -
U
a
u
0.1 -
20 50 100 300 500 800
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.8 2.8 3
CURRENT DENSITT [U A /C M » :2 ]
;y l0 = 0 .0 1 + A IR o PURE 0., :y l0 = 0 .0 1
Figure 2. Experimental data on electrode AII2-003. Fitting parameters carried out to ttie
detailed model. Comparison between experimental data and theoretical fitting
(solid lines). 307
ASSESSMENT OF MOLTEN CARBONATE AND PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS
FOR UTILITY CENTRAL STATION APPLICATIONS
M. Krumpelt, V. Minkov, E. Daniels, C. Dennis

Argonne, IL 60439
Considerable government resources have been allocated to the development of

fuel cells in recent years. Motivated by projected oil conservation, major
programs were initiated in the late seventies to scale-up the Phosphoric
Acid and Molten Carbonate fuel cells. Due to their high efficiency and
the,ir ability to operate on gasified coal, the fuel cells were seen as an
excellent technology for future utility base-load plants.
Much has changed in the world economy since these programs were initiated.
Energy prices have not risen as anticipated, and capacity projections by
utilities have been revised downward. A reassessment of the economic
viability of fuel cells for the intended applications is needed.
The difficulty of assessing fuel cells for power plant applications is in

estimating the economics of such plants on a consistent basis with more
mature technologies. Plant costs for a technology that is still in a
development stage are often grossly underestimated simply because the need
for certain types of equipment is not recognized. Then, when estimating
the operating costs, developers tend to be optimistic in their performance
assumptions.
Recognizing these sources of error we emphasized the engineering aspects of

the cost analysis in the assessment reported here.
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
After selecting representative competing technologies we establish a

process diagram for each system to be analyzed. The process is then
simulated by computer to determine the system efficiencies, using identical
performance assumptions for similar pieces of equipment. The steam turbine
isentropic efficiency, for example, is assumed to be 85% in all systems
that have equivalent steam conditions. Our code calculates a complete
energy and mass balance of the entire process, giving temperature,
pressure, flow rate, and enthalpy at the inlet and exit of every piece of
equipment in the process.
Ue then estimate the equipment costs for the plant using cost algorithms.
Some of the algorithms are simple functions of size, consisting of a
scaling exponent and a base cost number for a given size. However, for
turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, and some other components we use
algorithms that reflect operating conditions in addition to size. For a
combustion turbine, for example, the flame temperature is part of the cost
equation.
Operating and maintenance expenses are estimated using the rules

recommended by the Electric Power Research Institute .
To obtain a cost of electricity estimate for each system, we amortize the

plant cost over 30 years (except fuel cells which are replaced every 40,000
hours). Project and process contingencies are applied to the equipment
costs in conformance with TAG . Fuel costs are calculated using a cost of
coal of $2.00/million Btu.
308
KRUMPELT, ET AL.
- 2 -
SYSTEM SELECTION
Existing utility central stations are either nuclear or use pulverized

coal/oil combustion technology. A design representing state-of-the-art
pulverized coal combustion plants was taken from the literature as our
benchmark competing system.
A second competing system selected for our assessment is the gas turbine
combined cycle operating on gasified coal. This technology is in the
demonstration stage at Barstow, California, and represents a potential
future power plant technology. Again, we took a system design from the
li terature.
A system design for a 150 MU power plant based on phosphoric acid fuel
cells was described by Brown . Wellman Galusha gasifiers were used.
Rather than correcting the system efficiency for the energy content of the
coal fines which are produced by Uellman Galusha gasifiers, we decided to
conceptualize a system for Texaco gasifiers. Our system design is dis
cussed by V. Minkov elsewhere in this volume.
Molten carbonate fuel cells were evaluated by General Electric for utility
central stations . Ue used the the GE design initially for our assessment.
As the analysis progressed, it became clear that the economics of a MCFC
system could be considerably improved by decreasing the power output from
the fuel cells relative to the power output from the bottoming section of
the power plant. However, provisions had to be made to raise the inlet
temperature and hence the efficiency of the combustion turbine. Ue
eventually made several design changes which are discussed by V. Minkov
elsewhere in this volume. The economics of the ANL designs were used for
the assessment.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
To compare the four plants some groundrules had to be established. The

size of all plants was set for a net electrical capacity of 575 MU.
Illinois No. 6 coal with a higher heating value of 12 235 Btu/lb was
specified as input. The performance of the major power producing or
consuming components was taken as shown in Table 1. The fuel cell
operating conditions assume about twice the power density than that usually
considered (see V. Minkov's abstract for reasons).
The results of our thermodynamic simulation are summarized in Table 2.

Although higher than for the competing systems, the efficiencies of the
fuel cell systems are only in the upper thirties or low forties. The
reason is that both fuel cell systems have substantial turbine capacities,
because the economics of such systems are better than when most of the
power is generated by the fuel cells (see Minkov's abstract for detail).
Cost of electricity estimates are listed in Table 3. Sulfur removal equip

ment for the two competing plants was sized to meet the New Source Perfor
mance Standard, and for the fuel cell systems to meet a specification of
1 ppm H 2 S at the fuel cell inlet. For each of the systems, the various
contributions to the COE are given. The two fuel cell plants are a bit
more expensive than the competing technology, but have lower fuel costs.
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
The impact of plant size, fuel cost, and fuel cell stack life on the
economic viability of the fuel cell systems was analyzed. The study showed
309
KRUMPELT, ET AL.
- 3 -
Table 1. Subsystem Component Performances
Steam Turbines
Maximum inlet temperature & pressure 1 0 0 0 ° F and 1800 psia
Condenser pressure 2.5 in Hg
High-pressure (>30 atm) turbine
isentropic efficiency 0.85
Low-pressure (<3 atm) turbine
isentropic efficiency 0.82
Intermediate-pressure (3-30 atm)
turbine isentropic efficiency 0.86
Gas Turbine Isentropic Efficiency 0.87
Compressors
Axial isentropic efficiency 0.82
Centrifugal isentropic efficiency 0.65
Pump Efficiency 0.75

DC to AC Inverter Efficiency 0.96
Plant Stack Exhaust Temperature 260°F
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells 0.66 V at 475 mA/cm and
45% fuel utilization
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells 0.6 V at 400 mA/cm and
65% fuel utilization
Table 2. Power Summary
Power (MU)
PC/FGD GTCC PAFC MCFC
Fuel Cells 0 0 234 246
Expansion Turbine 0 25 33 53
Gas Turbine 0 768 335 636
Steam Turbine 612 216 175 101
Compressors -327 -108 -362
Auxilliary Power
including oxygen plant -37 -107 -94 -99
Net Power 575 575 575 575
Net Efficiency (% HHV) 35.3 37.2 37.9 44.1
that a decrease of the design capacity from 575 MW(e) to 100 MU(e) would
increase the competitiveness of the fuel cell systems by 4% over the
competing combined cycle.
A change in coal pi ice to Sl/10^ Btu would change the difference between
molten carbonate fuel cell and combined cycle COEs by approximately 1%.
For a coal cost of S5-6/10 Btu, the COE of the MCFC power plant will be 3-
4% lower than that of the combined cycle.
310
KRUMPELT, ET AL.
. A -
Table 3. Cost Components of COE Estimates.
Cost Components
(mills/KUh)
EQUIPMENT PC/FGD GTCC PAFC MCFC
EQUIPMENT
Coal handling and preparation 0.81 0.98 0.88 0.78

Oxidant preparation 0.00 2.23 2.05 1.91
Gasification, cooling, and
ash handling 0.00 3.55 3.47 3.00
Desulfurization 2.51 0.71 1.45 1.26

Iron oxide guard 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.13
Sulfur recovery and tail
gas treating 0.00 0.24 0.24 0.21
Shift conversion 0.00 0.00 0.74 0.00
Fuel cells 0.00 0.00 1.67 2.04
Power conditioning 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.63
Steam turbine generator set 4.08 0.49 0.62 0.27
Gas turbine generator 0.00 1.84 0.74 1.06
Heat exchanger steam
generat ion 3.80 1.10 1.09 0.93
Cooling tower 0.49 0.25 0.22 0.22
Electrical equipment and
instruments 2.51 2.48 2.59 2.51
General facilities 2.10 2.00 2.34 2.09
AFUDC 1.53 1.49 1.77 1.60
Other capital charges 1.10 0.88 1.03 0.92
Fuel cell replacement 0.00 0.00 2.11 1.45
Subtotal 18.93 18.25 23.77 21.01
OPERATION & MAINTENANCE
Fixed OS.M 6.50 8.34 9.60 8.72

Variable Q&M 1.62 2.09 2.40 2.18
Subtotal 8.12 10.43 12.00 10.90
FUEL 21.40 20.18 19.82 16.80
TOTAL COST OF ELECTRICITY 48.45 48.86 55.59 48.71
If fuel cell developers are not able to provide a cell with 40,000-hr life,
the system economies will be affected significantly. For example, for a
replacement every 20,000 hr instead of AO,000 hr, the COE of the MCFC
system would Increase by 5-6%, eliminating the competitive advantage of the
MCFC relative to the combined cycle. Alternatively, if a stack life of
100,000 hrs were achieved, an additional 3% cost would be saved.
CONCLUSIONS
The COE estimates of all four technologies are rather close to each other,
suggesting that the fuel cells are still viable contenders for future
utility plants.
311
KRUMPELT, ET AL.
- 5 ^
The balance would be shifted in favor of the fuel cells if sulfur emission
regulations should become tighter. Further, the three gasification based
plants are modular, each having 6 or 7 parallel trains, while the pulver
ized coal combustion plant was costed as one train. The availability of
the modular systems may be higher because repairs and maintenance can be
performed by shutting down just one of the trains.
Alternatively, if utility base-load plants should become smaller in the

future, the gasification based plants would still have about the same COEs,
whereas the pulverized coal combustion plants would become more expensive.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Work sponsored by the Morgantown Energy Technology Center of the U.S.

Department of Energy under U.S. Government Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38.
Important suggestions by C. Zeh, the Program Manager, are appreciated.
T fw ju b fT itte d m a n y jc rip t h»$ been authored

bv a con tractor ot th e U. S. Governmettt
urtder contract No. W-31 10 ^6 N G -3 8 -
A ccordinglv. the U. S. Government retains a
nonexclusive, royaltv-tree license to publish
o r reproduce th e published fo rm o< this
c o n trib u tio n , or allow others to do so, fo r
U. S. Governm ent purposes.
REFERENCES
1. M. K. Geyer and G. P. Berry, "The System Analyses Language Translator

(SALT) User Guide," ANL/FE-85-3 (1985).
2. TAG, Technical Assessment G u i d e , EPRI-P-2410-512, May 1982.
3. "Design of Advanced Fossil Fuel Systems (DAFFS)," ANL/FE-83-9.
4. J. Brown, A. Murphy, P. Pietrogrande and J. Tien, "Site Specific

Assessment of a 150-MW Coal Gasification Fuel Cell Power Plant," EPRI-
EM-3162, November 1983.
5. K. M. Parker, "Development of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Power Plant,"

D0E/ET/17019-T3, September 1982.
312
A COMPARISON OF PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS TO INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINE COGENERATION SYSTEMS AS SUPPLIERS OF
UNINTERRUPTABLE POWER
Gordon C. AHing, Jr.

Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Cambridge, MA 02140
Charles Miles
Navy Civil Engineering Laboratory
Pt . Hueneme, CA
The US Navy operates a number of facilities around the

world which require highly reliable or uninterruptable
power. The conventional method for satisfying this need
is to install a number of back-up engine-driven generators
and power conditioning equipment. The number of genera
tors is dictated by the level of redundancy needed to meet
the reliability goal. The conventional solution to this
problem dictates that a large capital investment remains
unused most of its life. The Navy Civil Engineering
Laboratory commissioned Arthur D. Little, Inc. to study
the economic feasibility of using the stand-by equipment
in a cogeneration mode.
In this study, ADL used a lifecycle cost-benefit analysis

to compare a phosphoric acid fuel cell based system and
two internal combustion engine based packaged cogeneration
systems to the conventional uninterruptable power system
(UPS) option. The key features of the three cogeneration
systems are summarized in Table 1. Most of these data
TABLE 1
COGENERATION SYSTEM DATA
Thermo
Electron Cogenic
Fuel Cell CM-60 M-120
Unit Capacity KW 50 60 1 2 0
Capital Cost (Installed) 1460 800 1 0 0 0
$/KW
Maintenance $/KW-h 0.009 0.015 0. 015
Hot Water Temperature F 160 2 2 0 2 1 0
Steam Pressure PSIG 60 N/A N/A

Fuel Nat. Gas Nat. Gas Diesel
Full Load Efficiency (%)
Electrical 33.4 26 29
Total 67.6 83 81
Useful Life (yr.) 25 1 0 1 0
Unit Availability (%) 97 97 97
313
Gordon. C. Ailing, Jr,
Page 2
were supplied by the manufacturers of the respective

systems. Most fuel cell data were provided by United
Technologies Corporation. The fuel cell cost is an ADL
estimate for moderate production levels. The baseline
system components are summarized in Table 2. These are
ADL estimates based on a 1980 NASA study.
TABLE 2
BASELINE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Component Cost
Baseline System Capacity (1983 Dollars)
Centrifugal Chiller 360 Ton 121,000
Boiler, Gas Fired 14 MMBTU/hr 147.000
Domestic Hot Water Tank 10,000 g a l 18,000
Air Handler Units 40,000 CFM/unit 54,000/unit

(4 units)
Cooling Tower 360 Ton 36,000
Conventional UPS* 250 KVA 301.000
* (Includes: batteries, rectifier, inverter, generators

and switch gear)
The basis of comparison was a simulated hospital building

in Washington, D.C. Cogenerated thermal energy was used
to meet service hot water and space conditioning loads
while generated electricity satisfied both equipment and
lighting loads. All economic analysis used constant 1983
dollars. Fuel prices were based on 1983 DOE estimates and
inflation rates were based on US Bureau of Labor and
Statistics data.
The simulation used the Arthur D. Little, Inc. Cogenera

tion Computer Model. The model starts with hourly loads
for space heating, space cooling, service hot water and
electricity (non HVAC). The building hourly HVAC equip
ment operation is modeled to determine hourly fuel and
electricity consumption. The hourly figures are then
totaled to determine the annual consumption and these
results are passed to an economic model which uses realis
tic energy price structures and inflation rates to calcu
late a lifecycle total cost and savings. The economic
results are then used to optimize the mix of HVAC equip
ment such that the combined cogeneration/HVAC system
yields the greatest net lifecycle savings. The economic
results are summarized in Table 3.
31 4
Gordon C. Ailing, Jr.
Page 3
TABLE 3
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF OPTIMIZED SYSTEMS
Fuel Cell CM-60 M-120
Total Lifecycle Cost 6.32 7.47 8.67

(10 Dollars)
Net.Lifecycle Savings 1.95 0.80 (4.11)

(10 Dollars)
Savings/Investment Ratio 6.12 2.07 5.8 5
Annual Energy Savings/Cap- 7.15 4.55 44.1

ital Cost Ratio MBTU/yr/$
These results show that, of the three systems, the fuel cell
has the lowest lifecycle cost and greatest net lifecycle
savings. One of the IC engine based systems also shows
positive lifecycle savings while the other does not. The
poor economic performance of the Cogenic unit results from
the large unit capacity and the number of units needed to
meet the redundancy requirement for the system. This combi
nation of factors resulted in a great deal of unused
generator capacity, and, as a result, the system capital
cost was not recovered.
The sensitivity of the results to three key assumptions was

also studied. Figure 1 shows that the preference for the
fuel cell over the CM-60 system disappears when the
installed cost of fuel cells approaches the current value of
$4 ,0 0 0 /KW. Figure 2 shows that the preference for fuel
cells is relatively insensitive to cell life expectancy
because future replacement costs are discounted and have
little impact on the total present value cost. Figure 3
shows that the results are sensitive to fuel cell
availability in that if availability were reduced to about
5 5 % the advantage of fuel cells would be neutralized.
Availability data from the GRI sponsored field test may
reveal the importance of this result.
In conclusion, on-site cogeneration can be a cost-effective

way to supply uninterruptable power when it is required. In
addition, the fuel cell is the preferred power source for
the application studied. The preference for fuel cells,
however, is strongly dependent upon assumptions regarding
capital cost and unit availability. If an alternate set of
assumptions were used, the advantage of fuel cells could be
eliminated.
315
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
FIGURE 2
EFFECT OF FUEL C ELL CAPITAL COST ON NET LIFECYCLE SAVINGS EFFECT OF FUEL CELL LIFE EXPECTANCY ON NET LIFECYCLE SAVINGS
|TECOGENCM60|
0 1000 2000 )000 SOOO .0
FIGURE 3
EFFECT OF FUEL CELL AVAILABILITY ON NET LIFECYCLE SAVINGS
O
o
a
o
D
CU r>
00
ft)
>
)-•
H-
H*
P
30
(TECOGEN CM-60) *
U
•-»
SITE SPECIFIC
FUEL CELL/COAL GASIFICATION PLANT DESIGNS
Thomas J. Grant and Paul J. Estreich

Ebasco Services Inc.
New York, New York 10048
Ebasco Services Incorporated was commissioned by the

Department of the Army (DOA) to study whether fuel cell
technology could be combined with a coal gasification
cogeneration program at specific sites where coal con
version potential existed. The objective of the program
was to determine if the fuel cell/coal gasification concept
would lead to increase in energy efficiency, higher con
version standards, and economic benefits sufficient to
attract third-party equity investment to off-set a
significant portion of the funds required from the DOA.
This paper reports on the designs of the fuel cell/coal

gasification plant for the four sites chosen. Each site-
specific design took into account the indigenous coal
supply alternatives, land use, present and future thermal-
electric demand, local energy markets, climate, esthetic
requirements and other variables. System designs were
developed around an 11.6 MW fuel cell module being developed
by United Technologies Corporation (UTC) and 7.5 MW fuel
cell module being developed by Westinghouse.
The four plant sites were:

Georgetown University Campus, Washington, D.C.
Scranton Army Ammunition Plant, Scranton, Pa.
Fort Hood, Texas
Fort Greely, Alaska
BASE SYSTEM DESIGN

A functional block diagram of the base system is shown in
Figure 1. Coal is gasified by two 50% capacity air blown
atmospheric single stage Wellman-Galusha gasifiers. Wellman-
Galusha gasifiers were chosen because of their commercial
availability in sizes compatible with this project and their
ability to handle a large range of coals. Feed coal require
ments were based on producing sufficient fuel gas to meet the
fuel cell manufacturer's design input.
The hot gases are scrubbed of particulates, ammonia and

volatile tars and oils. The tars and oils are recovered
for their heating value. The cooled gas is compressed and
directed to a CO shift section where hydrogen concentration
of the gas is increased to the range of 30% to 35%.
The gas contains sulfur compound impurities which must be

reduced to less than 5 ppm to prevent long term degradation
of the fuel cell electrodes. A liquid oxidation Stretford
type of removal process was utilized. Elemental sulfur was
recovered for offsite sale.
The cleaned gas is fed to a fuel cell section consisting of

either one 11.6 MWe fuel cell module designed by UTC or one
7.5 MWe fuel cell module designed by Westinghouse. Due to
317
GRANT ET AL
- 2 -
FIGURE 1 FLOW DIAGRAM
the different cooling schemes and operating temperatures,

the thermal management system (TMS) for the two fuel cell
vendors were different.
THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Thermal Management System (TMS) receives and manages
heat from the fuel cell electrochemical reaction, from the
catalytic combustion of fuel cell vent gases and from any
process heat source including by-product tars and oils.
Energy of the fuel cell vent gases is recovered by catalytic

combustion of the mixture which drives a gas expander prior
to being routed to a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG).
Steam is obtained from both the fuel cell coolant loop and
the HRSG. Some of this steam is diverted for use in the CO
shift process and for feedwater heating. The remaining or
"net available steam" is apportioned between the production
of additional power by a steam turbine-generator and for
export to the site customer.
Firing the tars and oils produced during gasification in a

burner located upstream of the HRSG raises the expander
exhaust gas temperature approximately doubling the heat
recovery. However, depending on the available market for
tars and oils, this by-product may be sold rather than
burned.
318
GRANT ET AL
- 3 -
The Westinghouse TMS has additional equipment because the

fuel cell is air cooled. There are two separate steam
systems: low pressure served by the cooling air HRSG and
high pressure served by the combustion gas HRSG. Steam
is also used to drive the cooling air circulator and
cathode air compressor.
PLANT PEREORMANCE
A fuel cell cogeneration system design was sucessfully
integrated into the local plant at each site, and required
about 2 acres of land excluding coal storage. The perfor
mance of the six plant designs are summarized in Table 2.
The thermal efficiency, steam and electric output vary;
and may be understood by examining the TMS design and the
properties of the coal utilized.
Thermal Efficiency - The biggest effect on thermal efficiency

was the disposition of tars and oils, and the plant electric
to thermal (E/T) ratio. Thermal efficiencies were lowest at
those sites where tars and oils were sold instead of burned
or not produced because of the coal type. Plant efficiency
increases as steam is emphasized over electricity production,
thereby avoiding the electric conversion losses. Steam
production is increased to meet the customers needs or due
to the firing of the tars and oils. However, if electric
rates are high enough, opting for the lower efficiency plant
having greater electrical output may well provide the higher
return on investment.
Coal Properties - Coal properties affect system performance

largely by determining the composition of the raw gas and
the quantity of by-product tars and oils. Depending upon
the amount of hydrogen and CO produced in the raw g a s , more
or less steam must be supplied to the CO shift process. Tar
and oil production depend upon the coal volatile matter and
are an important energy source for the system when fired as
a supplementary energy source. The gasification of anthracite
produced the lowest amount of hydrogen and consumed the
largest amount of steam while producing no tars for supple
mentary firing.
Fuel Cell Gas Flow - Gas flow rates to the fuel cell anode
and cathode depend on the coal properties and the fuel cell
manufacturer's design. In the anthracite fueled Scranton
system, anode gas flow is about 357o more than the Fort Hood
lignite design. This results in higher internal power demand
as well as higher piping and gas processing costs. Similarly,
flow of compressed air to the cathode is a function of fuel
cell oxygen utilization efficiency. A higher efficiency
requires less air flow and for the same cathode pressure,
less compressor work per kw.
319
TABLE 1 - PERFORMANCE SUMMARY
WASH. DC SCRANTON, PA FT. HOOD, TX. FT. GREELY
Fuel Cell* UTC UTC W UTC UTC W

Coal Type Eastern Eastern Sub Sub
Bituminous Bituminous Anthracite Lignite bitumin-C bitumin-C
Coal Input to Gasl- 172.2 172. 2 91.5 286.3 244.8 175.6
fier, tpd
Gross Power, M W ac 14.4 15.9 8.8 14.6 14.0 9.9
Auxllary Power, MW 3.6 3.6 4.1 3.5 3.8 4.8
Net Power, MW 10.8 12.3 4.7 11.1 10.2 5.1
U) Gross Steam Output, 38,100 79,100 36,400 66,800 62,400 46,300
N5 PPH
O
Steam for internal 21,500 29,800 33,500 25,500 32,300 32,600
use PPH
Net Available Steam, 16,600 48,300 2,900 41,300 30,100 13,700
PPH**
Tars and O i l s , PPH 2,163*** 2,163 0 1,434 1,224 878
Thermal Efficiency, 23.8 27.7 19.0 36.9 38.9 28.9
o/o
E/T Ratio, KW/mmBtuh 5,400 1,270 1,600 540 433 370
* UTC: United Technologies, Inc. W: Westinghouse

Available either for export or power generation
*** Tars and oils sold at Washington, D.C. site instead of burned
DEVELOPMENTS AND APPLICATIONS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL
POWER PLANT MODELS
Cheng-yi Lu and Alden F. Presler

Cleveland, OH 44135
Under DOE support, NASA Lewis Research Center (LeRC)/Cleveland

State University (CSU) have developed simulation models capable
of predicting the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) power plant
system performance under steady and transient states, and of
designing the configuration of components and the synthesis of
systems optimally. The nature of these models and their
applications are presented.
Two kinds of computer models are developed. One is the system

model and the other is the engineering model. The system or
"single-stage" model calculates the material and energy
balances and the physical and chemical properties of the
streeims at one operating condition, such as the mean
temperature and pressure. The engineering or "multi-staged"
model, which usually is solved by the finite-difference method,
handles the balances and properties at different sections.
There are four areas of application that the developed models

could operate in. For the system model these are :
(1) To use on the system conceptual designs, where the layouts
of power plant systems, with various fuel processors (i.e.,
coal gasifiers, methane steam reformer, and shift
converters), are defined.
(2) To perform, being combined with cost and optimization
models, the trade-off and sensitivity analyses of system
synthesis.
For the engineering model these are :

(1) To simulate the designed system's performance in the
transient state (i.e., load changing period).
(2) To optimize the component configurations and operating
conditions.
The application of system model in the design of coal

gasifier/PAFC integrated systems will be shown at the Poster
Session of this Seminar, then illustrations presented here will
be on engineering analytic models.
For the engineering model, two major component models in the

PAFC system are presented here: one is the PAFC stack, and the
other is the methane-steam reformer.
PAFC Stack
A generic PAFC stack model to calculate the current density and
temperature distributions at steady state in the stack was
developed. A semi-empirical formula to estimate the
polarization curve was used. A symmetrical set of cell plates
321
Lu & Presler
- 2 -
and cooling plates is analyzed; this set has one half of a

cooling plate and a half number of cell plates sandwiched
between every pair of cooling plates. This generic stack model
can be used for simulating the performances of various kinds of
coolant, configurations of cell plates, flow patterns, and
cooling schemes. Two usages of this model have been applied:
one to improve the cooling effects (the results will be
presented in the Poster Session of this Seminar); the other to
predict the input conditions of coolant for various current
density (CD) operations in a water-cooled PAFC stack. Summary
of the results for various CD operations is presented in Table
1. As expected, the higher current density operation will
result in lower efficiency and higher power. The trade-off
between stack cost and fuel cost should be performed to
determine the optimal CD.
A dynamic model to handle air-cooled PAFC stack at load

changing period was also developed. Simulated results using
this model are shown in Figure 1. Transient temperature
profiles on the symmetric (middle) cell plate are shown for
ramping of the stack output from 100% to 47% of full load. The
initial steady state (ISS) and final steady state (FSS)
temperatures are given, plus an intermediate calculation at
10.152 seconds. Analyses of these typical cases can determine
stable ramping rates and dead times for the power plant control
purposes.
Reformer
A generic kinetic distributed reformer model was developed to
simulate the performance of steam reformer at steady state and
transient state. Various features of the reformer can be
handled in this model, which include straight-through flow of
feed gas, regenerative operation (with or without shift
converter catalyst), and fixed wall temperature profile types.
One generic regenerative reformer diagram and simulation
results for a steady state performance are shown in Figure 2.
Transient Responses of PAFC System (Ref. 1)

By combining all the unit operation models, one can simulate
the PAFC power plant system at steady and transient states.
The system considered here is a Westinghouse 7.5 MW air-cooled
PAFC powerplant using methane as the fuel. One simplified
system diagram is shown in Figure 3. In this study the load is
step-changed from full to 90%. Several assumptions were made:
changes of PAFC operating pressure and temperature are assumed
to follow the constant phosphoric acid concentration line (Ref.
2); in addition, two reservoirs for FC fuel and oxidant are
added to offset the transport lag in the fuel processor
subsystem. The variables that can be manipulated for control
of the system are the input flow rates of fuel (methane) and
oxidant (air), which are changed in proportion to the power
change. Figure 4 shows the temperature changing rates at
322
Lu & Presler
- 3 -
several locations as a function of the elapsed time. The

response of an isolated fuel cell stack to a step change in
input conditions is much greater than that for the whole
system, especially the fuel processor unit. In the present
example the transient time period is 3.3 minutes for the fuel
cell stack compared to 14.36 minutes for the whole system.
In conclusion, with these developed models one can predict the

PAFC power plant system performance under steady and transient
states, as well as design the configuration of components and
the synthesis of systems optimally.
References:
1. Lu, C.Y., "Transient Responses of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
Power Plant System." Ph. D. Disertation, CSU, Dec. 1983.
2. Pierce, B.L., "PAFC Power Plant Control Mode Trade S t udy,"
Westinghouse Report, DRM: 095, Dec. 1981.
CO COOLAtn' IHPUT CELL PLATE COOLAWT OUTPUT POWER OUTPUT
Flow Rate Pin Tin Tave. Tnax. Tmin. Stean Tout Pout Power
(ASF) (pph) (psi) (OF) (Of) (Of) (Of) (1) (OF) (psi) (volt) (w)
200 249 210 362 405 428 381 8.4 368 166 0.75 44
300 386 178 347 405 441 372 8.8 350 132 0.71 62
350 450 162 330 40G 460 367 7.8 347 125 0.69 70
Constraints: Tntax. < 460 Tave. = 405 Stean < 101
Operating Conditions:
Operating Pressure: 120 psia Utilization of Hydrogen: 851
Utilization of Oxidant: 701 Cell Area: lOft^
Input Fuel Coôsitions: 0.546 H2 . 0.007 CO. 0.405 CO2 . 0.023 H 2 O. and 0.018 N2 .
Table 1 Water Coolant Input Conditions at Various

Operating Current Density
ISS: T=465 »K
1=0.325 A/cm^
V=0.688 Volt
Figure 1 Transient
^ 10.? sec. Changes of Temperature
T=464 »K Contour Lines in an
i=0.i353 A/cm^ Air-Cooled Plate with
V=0.775 Volt
Cross Flow
r SS: N 46 2
i=0,1356 A/cm^
MR ((). ,'IIH 0? <>'>d V=0.774 Volt
(.Odd Change fro m 100' t o <17.
323
Lu & Presler
- 4 -
Figure 2 Simulated
i>i ti Temperature Profiles of a
Regenerative Steam
Reformer
^^ .--------' Rwf orm»r Go*
0 0. I 0 .? 0 .3 0 .4 0. b 0 .6 0 .7 0 .0 0.9
Length Rotio
T i-«for«*r goe , 650 - 1251 - 906
I cotibuetion goa i ?4B9 - 794 P
T . a l l . 729 - 1709T
Figure 3 7.5 MW
Air-Cooled PAFC
Powerplant Diagram for
Transient State Study
A nod« CnhouSt
LTSC O u tp u t Figure 4 Temperature

R e fo rm e r O u tp u t
Changing Rate at
Transient State (Load
Changed from Full to 90%)
324
FUEL CELL AND FUEL CELL/BATTERY HYBRID
POWER SOURCES FOR VEHICLES
Pandit G. Patil
Department of Energy
Office of Transportation Systems, Department of Energy
James R. Huff and Hugh S. Murray

Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos, New Mexico 87 545
Fuel cells potentially can provide the range advantages of

an ICE in a power system but with clean and quiet opera
tion. Because a fuel cell will deliver power as long as
fuel and air are supplied, the range is limited only by the
amount of fuel carried. Proton e x c h a n g e m e m b r a n e (PEM)
fuel cells show the most promise for use in passenger vehi
cles. The features of a PEM system will be discussed. De
composed methanol is proposed as the fuel. However, the
system may be limited in its ability to respond to severe
load transients because of the thermal inertia of the fuel
processing system. Furthermore, in order to be able to
satisfy the large peak power requirements in automotive
duty cycles, the fuel cell system may require cooling, fuel
delivery, and reaction air supply subsystems sized to meet
peak power conditions, thereby worsening weight and volume
considerations. For these reasons and because of improve
ments in battery performance over the past several years, a
fuel cell/battery hybrid power source feasibility study was
carried out based on phosphoric acid and PEM fuel cells in
c o n j u n c t i o n with advanced lead-acid and nickel-zinc bat
teries. Fuel cells and batteries complement each other for
the electric propulsion automotive application, providing
long range, peak acceleration power, and recharge capabili
ties. As a hybrid configuration, the fuel cell/battery
system may offer the a d v a n t a g e of reduced complexity,
weight and volume compared to ICE/battery hybrids because
the fuel cell and battery both have e l e c t r i c a l outputs,
e l i m i n a t i n g the need for co m p l e x m e c h a n i c a l - e l e c t r i c a l
couplings. Resu l t s of this hybrid a s s e s s m e n t will be
discussed.
325
FINANCIAL AND STRATEGIC BENEFITS OF FUEL CELLS
David M. Rigney
Palo Alto, CA 94303
Mark Farber
Temple, Barker and Sloane
Lexington, MA 02173
Introduction
The conventional means employed by utilities to evaluate

which generation technology to use focuses on production
cost comparisons and the present value of future revenue
requirements (PVRR) necessary to cover the cost of
production, return of capital investment and the approved
rate of return to the utility. Utilities use sensitivity
analysis to determine how much the study results will
change due to some incremental change in input data. This
type of analysis focuses attention on the input variables
and the probability that one set of them will more likely
occur than another set. Pick which assumptions will most
likely occur and the corresponding mix of generation units
that produce the lowest PVRR is most likely seen as the
best choice.
But utilities have found that this approach can lead to

plant construction programs that are lowest cost in the
long term (20 to 30 years) if the assumed conditions
prevail, but that are, in the near term, terribly
inflexible and financially disastrous in times of
uncertainty if some conditions change radically such as
load growth, cost of plant, or construction lead times.
It's not a question of planning to meet what you think
might happen; it's a matter of planning to be flexible
enough to respond to a number of situations that you don't
think will happen, but that are too important to ignore.
The high efficiency fuel cell with its modular character,

small size and short lead time was seen as a technology
that would give utilities the financial flexibility they
need in times of uncertainty where the wrong decision could
ruin the company and/or cause excessive burdens on the
ratepayer.
EPRI and the Fuel Cell Users Group (FCOG) therefore formed
a task force of utility planners (system, financial and
corporate) to assist EPRI in identifying and quantifying
the financial and strategic benefits of applying fuel
cells.
Approach
The utility planners developed a 5000 MW hypothetical

utility with realistic existing generation, load, plant
costs, etc. Optimal 20 year generation expansion plans
326
David M. Rigney
2
were developed with fuel cells and without fuel cells, both
under conditions of certainty, that is, conventional
analysis. These served as base cases for future
reference. Then the effects of uncertainty in capital
cost, lead time and load growth were determined and
compared against the base case. Specific indicators of
financial significance were used by the task force for
comparison to the reference cases. Such indicators are
total construction expenses, required external financing,
total capitalization, interest coverage ratio (by how much
do pretax earnings exceed fixed charges like interest) and
AFUDC to common stock earnings (how much is allowance for
funds used during construction--no cash earnings--as a
percent of total earnings).
The base case was:
1. Most likely scenario.
The cases of uncertainty were:
2. Coal plants cost one third more than expected.
3. Coal plants take two years longer to build than

expected.
4. Load grows more quickly than expected.
5. Load grows more slowly than expected.
6. Fuel cells cost fifty percent more than expected.
In each case the unexpected condition is typically noted by

the planner several or more years into the 20 year
expansion period. The planner reacts to the unexpected and
reoptimizes the plan. The study results provide objective,
measurable values of indicators used by utilities to
measure how things are going both if fuel cells were
available and if they were not available.
Results
The results of each scenario were:
1. Most Likely Scenario. This scenario sets forth base

case assumptions and compares a conventional capacity
mix--coal units and combustion turbines (CTs)--with an
alternative plan that also includes fuel cells. By
the year 2008, fuel cells come to constitute 10
percent of capacity. The substitution of fuel cells
over a 20-year planning horizon reduces the present
value of revenue requirements by $57 million. The
average total price of electricity in the Fuel Cells
Case is higher than in the Conventional Case in the
early years, but lower by a greater amount in later
327
David M. Rigney
3
years. Largely because of the postponement of coal

units, the Fuel Cells Case, compared with the
Conventional Case, lowers overall construction costs
by $137 million and total capitalization by $347
million. Over the length of the planning period,
external financing declines, and two common indicators
of financial condition improve--interest coverage
ratio and the ratio of AFDC to earnings available for
common stockholders.
2. High Coal Capital Cost Scenario. In the midst of coal

unit construction, the utility realizes that capital
requirements have been underestimated. The substitu
tion of fuel cells allows the postponement or
cancellation of coal units. The Fuel Cells Case
reduces the present value of revenue requirements by
$131 million. The substitution of fuel cells also
lowers total capitalization by 20 percent, or $2.7
billion. Indicators of financial health follow the
same pattern as external financing requirements.
Interest coverage and quality of earnings improve in
all years but four.
3. Long Coal Lead Time Scenario. While building new coal

capacity, the utility finds that construction takes
more time than anticipated. In the Conventional Case,
longer coal lead time means higher financing costs,
and combustion turbines are used to make up the
shortfall in capacity. Using fuel cells reduces the
present value of revenue requirements by $73 mil
lion. Over the planning period, total capitalization
in the Fuel Cells Case declines $1.95 billion from the
Conventional Case. Again, the utility's quality of
earnings and interest coverage ratio both improve,
compared to the Conventional Case, from the
substitution of fuel cells.
4. High Load Growth Scenario. In the Conventional Case,

the utility, having underestimated demand, quickly
adds combustion turbine capacity and initiates coal
unit construction. In the Fuel Cells Case, fuel cells
provide a much more economical alternative than CTs at
medium capacity factors to meet the capacity
shortfall. Fuel cells reduce revenue requirements by
$154 million from the Conventional Case and reduce
prices in every year they operate. The fuel cells'
high capital costs relative to CTs prevent financial
benefits from appearing until late in the planning
period; but fuel cost savings more than compensate for
the difference. Furthermore, the fuel cells' short
lead time also compensates for initial investment and
helps to maintain healthy financial indicators, as in
The previous scenarios.
5. Low Load Growth Scenario. In the Conventional Case,
328
David M. Rigney
4
the utility responds to lower than expected demand by

cancelling CTs but reserve margins still climb to 37
percent. In the Fuel Cell Case, early fuel cells are
cancelled. The present value of revenue requirements
in the Fuel Cells Case is $51 million lower than in
the Conventional Case. External financing is lower in
the Fuel Cells Case in the early years, but higher
later on, while total capitalization is consistently
lower. The benefits of fuel cells for other financial
indicators are strongest during the period of greatest
uncertainty.
6. High Fuel Cell Capital Cost Scenario. In this

scenario, the risks of a new technology are
encountered as fuel cell capital costs rise beyond
expectations, causing the present value of revenue
requirements in the Fuel Cells Case to exceed the
Conventional Case for the first time. The average
price to consumers is also consistently slightly
higher. Nevertheless, external financing and total
capitalization still are both reduced, and the other
financial indicators are superior to the Conventional
Case in most years.
General Observations
The most salient of the quantified results from the six

scenarios are summarized in Figures 1, 2, and 3. The
reported values reflect the following characteristics of
fuel cells relative to CTs and coal units:
o In general, fuel cells pose less of a financial burden

than coal units because fuel cells have shorter lead
times, are built in smaller sizes, and are less
capital intensive.
o Fuel cells can help utilities hedge against uncertain

ties such as load growth because of their short lead
times. In case of lower-than-expected load growth,
fuel cells can be canceled more easily than coal
plants and as easily at CTs. In case of higher-than-
expected load growth, fuel cells can be added more
quickly than coal plants and are much more economical
to operate than CTs at intermediate capacity factors.
o Fuel cells also reduce technological risk exposure.

Once again, fuel cells' modularity and short lead time
mean that they do not require as much commitment as a
coal plant; this advantage lowers the impact of
unforeseen adverse changes in cost, performance,
leadtime, or regulatory requirements.
It is important to recognize the relative size of the fuel

cell program and its benefits to this test case utility.
To put the results in Figures 1 and 2 into context, the
329
David M. Rigney
5
Most Likely 57
High Coal Cost 131
Coal Delay
High Load Growth 154
Low Load Growth 51
High FC Cost -53
Cost Benef i t
Figure 1. Reduction in Revenue Requirements

(millions of 1984 discounted dollars)
present value of revenue requirements is reduced $57

million (in the Most likely scenario) from $18.6 billion.
Total capitalization is reduced $347 million from $10.5
billion in the year 2008. While these reductions may seem
small when compared to the entire company, they are not
insignificant when compared to the scale of the fuel cell
program— the present value of the fuel cell capital
expenditures is approximately $250 million.
Perhaps the most important finding of this research is that

the benefits of fuel cells generally increase under
uncertainty. Figure 1 shows that the economic benefits (as
indicated by the reduction of revenue requirements) are
greatest for unexpected load growth, when the short lead
times of fuel cells have a high value. Revenue require
ments increase only for the unexpected increases in fuel
cell capital costs.
The financial benefits of fuel cells are even more robust

as shown in Fi gures 2 and 3. In every scenario, including
High Fuel Cell Capital Cost, fuel cells lead to lower
financing requ irements. For three of the six scenarios,
the capitaliza tion reductions are dramatic— $1.1 billion to
$2.7 bi11 ion. Similarly, the quality of earnings
(summarized he re by the average improvement in the
ratio of AFDC to earnings during the three worst years)
improves for a 11 scenarios, again including the case of
high fuel cell capital cost.
330
David M. Rigney
6
Most Likely 347
High Coal 2714

Cost
Coal Delay 1945
High Load 1107

Growth
Low Load 435

Growth
High FC 306
Cost
Cost Benef i t
Figure 2. Reduction in Total Capitalization

(millions of dollars)
Most Likely 4.51
High Coal 5.01

Cost
Coal Delay
High Load 5 . 21
Growth
Low Load 2.91

Growth
High FC 5.31
Cost
Cost Benef it
Figure 3. Improvement of Worst AFDC/Earnings

Ratios (average of three worst values)
Conclusions
The benefits of fuel cells, which recommend them to the

consideration of electric utility managers planning for an
uncertain future, are both financial and strategic.
331
David M. Rigney
7
o The introduction of fuel cells is likely to reduce the

need for external financing and to improve traditional
measures of financial condition.
o The introduction of fuel cells can help a utility

manage better in the face of unexpected changes in
planning forecasts. The greater the uncertainty, the
greater the expected benefits of fuel cells. In
addition, the downside risks are small.
References
1. EPRI Final Report EM-4511, April 1986.
2. lAE International Symposium on Fuel Cell and Advanced

Battery, January 21-22, 1985, Tokyo, Japan.
3. Credit Overview by Standard and Poor, August 1983.
332
COALBED METHANE AS A FUEL
FOR FUEL CELL POWER PLANTS
A. F. E l l i s , H. T. Newton
Southern Company S e r v ic e s , Inc.
Research and Development Department
Birmingham, Alabama 35202
C. E. B r e t t , D. A. Thompson
The U n i v e r s i t y of Alabama
School o f Hines and Energy Development
Tuscaloosa, Alabama 354B7
On January 31, 19B6, Southern Company Services (SCS), along w ith Kaneb
Serv ices and The U n i v e r s i t y of Alabama School of Mines and Energy
Development (SOMED), completed a t e s t p r o j e c t t h a t in clu d e d the f i r s t
o p e r a tio n ever o f a f u e l c e l l w i t h coalbed methane f u e l . The t e s t
v e r i f i e d t h a t o n s it e f u e l c e l l s are h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t and capable of using
the la r g e ( a p p ro x im a te ly BOO t r i l l i o n cubic f e e t ) U.S. resource of
coalbed methane (F ig u r e 1 ) . The r e s u l t s were achieved d u r in g a 16-month
t e s t of a 40-kW phosphoric acid f u e l c e l l a t The U n i v e r s i t y o f Alabama
Student Recreation Center in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
7 6 i'' t
2 4 Tel 10 30 Tti
Figure 1 Coalbed Methane Resources In The United States
The SCS f u e l c e l l was p a r t of the 40-kW O nsite Fuel C e ll F ie ld Test

Program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, the Gas Research
I n s t i t u t e , and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fuel C e lls ( t h e f u e l c e l l m a n u fa c tu r e r) . In
t h i s program, 46 f u e l c e l l s were t e s te d by 37 p a r t i c i p a n t s a t 42 s i t e s in
th e U.S. and Japan. Unconventional f u e ls such as coalbed methane
rece iv e d s p e c ia l emphasis in t e s t i n g by two of the program p a r t i c i p a n t s .
333
Ellis, et al
-2-
SCS, Kaneb and SOMED funded the I n s t a l l a t i o n , o p e r a tio n , and maintenance

of the f u e l c e l l a t the r e c r e a t io n c e n t e r . Several unique fe a tu r e s made
t h e r e c r e a t io n c e n te r a p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e t e s t s i t e , in c l u d i n g i t s
design and c o n s t r u c t io n as an energy e f f i c i e n t b u i l d i n g in c o r p o r a t in g
a q u i f e r thermal energy storag e and passive s o l a r p r i n c i p l e s . However, of
most importance was the presence nearby o f two coalbed methane p r o d u c tio n
w e lls which support ongoing U n i v e r s i t y o f Alabama research programs t o
recover n a t u r a l gas from coal seams lo ca te d some 2 0 0 0 f e e t beneath the
campus. These w e lls provid ed the o p p o r t u n it y f o r o p e r a tio n o f th e f u e l
c e l l on coalbed methane.
Nine months o f s i t e energy consumption data were c o l l e c t e d t o c o n f ir m the

r e c r e a t io n c e n t e r ' s c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h the 40-kW f u e l c e l l . The u n i t was
d e liv e r e d on August 30, 1984 and i n s t a l l a t i o n proceeded w i t h connection
t o the e l e c t r i c g r i d and i n t e r f a c e o f the f u e l c e l l heat recovery
equipment t o the b u i l d i n g hot wa te r system ( F ig u re 2 ) . The f i r s t
succe ssful s t a r t u p was achieved on October 4, 1984 and the f u e l c e l l was
operated f o r a t o t a l of 8011 ho urs. A 6 8 -p e r c e n t o p e r a tin g a v a i l a b i l i t y
was achieved u n t i l o p e r a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s were te rm in a te d on January 31,
1986. The f u e l c e l l was retu rn e d t o I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fuel C e lls on February
17, 1986.
A L A B A M A POWER
G R ID
T R A N S fO R M E R
E L E C T R tC iT Y
G R ID B U IL D IN G
C O N N EC T
U N IT S YSTEM
TRANSFORM ER
FUEL CE LL
S E P A R A TO R B U IL D IN G
_ ^ H O T W ATER
STO R A G E SYSTEM
D E W A T E R IN G
PUMP
COMPRESSOR
2 400 H
U NDERGROUND W ATER
^ C :^ M E T H A N E ^ ^ M E T H A N E ^ COALBED
Figure 2 Schematic of SCS Fuel Cell Installation
Performing as p r e d i c te d , the f u e l c e l l achieved an average e l e c t r i c a l

e f f i c i e n c y of 37 percent and an average o v e r a l l f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n o f 50
pe rcen t i n c lu d in g recovered heat ( F ig u r e 3 ) . O verall e f f i c i e n c i e s
r e g u l a r l y exceeded 70 pe rce n t d u rin g high b u i l d i n g usage p e r io d s . The
f u e l c e l l provid ed more than 230,000 kWh o f e l e c t r i c i t y and 286 m i l l i o n
Btu of heat (equal t o 450,000 g a llo n s o f 145°F hot w ate r) t o the
r e c r e a t io n c e n t e r, su p p ly in g o n e - f o u r t h of the b u i l d i n g ' s t o t a l
requirement over the e n t i r e t e s t p e r io d . I t i s estimated t h a t $4800 in
energy cost savings r e s u lt e d from using the f u e l c e l l e l e c t r i c a l and
therm al o u tp u t.
334
Ellis, et al
-3-
lO O n
80-
o
GC
O V E R A L L (4 9% )
r 60-
>
>
u
I
40-
m E L E C T R IC A L (3 7% )
z
u. 20-
~r I I
0 2 00 0 4000 6 000 8 000
H O U R S O F O P E R A T IO N
• L o w e r H e a tin g V a lu e
Figure 3 SCS Fuel Cell Efficiency Versus Tin-.e

(6376 Data Hours Plotted)
I n i t i a l o p e ra tio n using coalbed methane f u e l was s u c c e s s f u ll y achieved on

Hay 29, 1985. Over the n e x t 4 months, 900 hours of o p e ra tio n were
accumulated on t h i s f u e l in c l u d i n g th re e runs of more than 200 hours
each. No s i g n i f i c a n t performance d i f f e r e n c e s were found f o r f u e l c e l l
o p e r a tio n on coalbed methane versus commercial n a t u r a l gas ( F ig u r e 4 ).
D i f f i c u l t h y d r o lo g ic c o n d i t i o n s and mechanical problems a ss o cia te d w i t h
th e methane w e l l s , methane sup ply s t a t i o n , and the f u e l c e l l prevented
a d d i t i o n a l o p e r a tin g tim e on coalbed methane. The unusual h y d r o lo g ic
problems experienced were s i t e s p e c i f i c and should not be an o b s t a c le t o
commercial coalbed methane reco v ery programs. Fuel c e l l t e s t tim e w ith
coalbed methane was s u f f i c i e n t t o c l e a r l y demonstrate i t s a c c e p t a b i l i t y
as a f u e l source.
A l l the major goals and o b j e c t i v e s o f th e t e s t were achie ved. The t e s t

developed in fo r m a t io n on an im p o rta n t n a t io n a l energy r esour ce (coalbed
methane), provid ed hands-on exp erience w i t h f u e l c e l l te c h n o lo g y ,
analyzed th e business p o t e n t i a l of o n s it e f u e l c e l l s , and pro vid e d a ctu a l
experience w i t h small cog en e ra tio n and d i s t r i b u t e d power p r o d u c tio n .
Several im p o r ta n t co n c lu s io n s were d e riv e d t h a t a f f e c t o n s i t e f u e l c e l l
c o m m e r c ia liz a tio n p o t e n t i a l .
335
Ellis, et al
-4-
210n
S P E C IF IC A T IO N
200 -
o
>
uj' 190 -
O
<
h-
§ 180-
O LE G E N D :
a
• N A T U R A L G AS
170 - X CO ALBED M ETH AN E
160
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
DC C U R R E N T , AM PS
Figure 4 Power Section Performance For SCS Fuel Cell
O nsit e Fuel C e ll Technology. The t e s t proved t h a t coalbed methane is a

s u i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e f u e l f o r f u e l c e l l systems designed f o r n a t u r a l gas
op era tion. The f u e l c e l l power p l a n t performed as p re d ic te d w i t h the new
te ch nolog y components ( i . e . , c e l l stack,- r e fo rm e r , and power c o n d i t i o n e r )
f u n c t i o n i n g s a t i s f a c t o r i l y on both coalbed methane and commercial gas.
Host problems encountered d u r in g the t e s t were caused by c o n v en tion al
a u x i l i a r y systems associa te d w i t h therm al management and water
tre a tm e n t. S i m p l i f i c a t i o n and improved m a t e r i a ls s e l e c t i o n and q u a l i t y
c o n t r o l in these systems w i l l be r e q u ire d .
U t i l i t y O perations and Personnel C o m p a t i b i l i t y . No s i g n i f i c a n t u t i l i t y

c o m p a t i b i l i t y problems were i d e n t i f i e d . Southern e l e c t r i c system
personnel c u r r e n t l y have the necessary s k i l l s t o design s i t e in t e r f a c e s
and perfo rm f u e l c e l l maintenance, a lth ou gh some f u r t h e r d i a g n o s t ic
t r a i n i n g would be needed. A lso , care must be taken t o address e l e c t r i c
g r i d in te r c o n n e c t s a f e ty and o p e r a ti o n a l is s u e s . Fuel c e l l grounding
r eq uire m en ts, as an example, should be determined on a s i t e s p e c i f i c
basis t o pre ve n t unacceptable v o lta g e hazards from o c c u r r in g d u rin g
p o s s ib le e l e c t r i c a l f a u l t s .
Onsite Fuel C e ll Energy S e r v i c e . O nsite f u e l c e l l s are capable o f

producing energy o f the same q u a l i t y as c o n v e n tio n a l s e r v i c e . High
r e l i a b i l i t y remains t o be demonstrated, a lth ou gh the t e s t showed t h a t
s i g n i f i c a n t improvements are l i k e l y in commercial u n i t s . Coalbed methane
resources e x i s t i n many areas of the U.S. and c ould p r o v id e a means f o r
expanding the p o t e n t i a l o n s it e f u e l c e l l marke t.
336
OPERATION OF FUEL CELLS
ON LANDFILL GAS
FUEL - UTILITY, CONTRACTOR, AND
MANUFACTURER PERSPECTIVE
John D. Leeper
Southern California Edisoh Company
Rosemead, California 9I77U
David W. Warren and Paolo Pietrogrande

Kinetics Technology International Corporation
Monrovia, California 91016
Lawrence M. Handley
International Fuel Cell Corporation
South Windsor, Connecticut 06074
INTRODUCTION
This paper describes how three individual companies worked

together to prove the viability of using landfill gas in a
phosphoric acid fuel cell power plant (FCPP). The companies
are: Southern California Edison Company (Edison), an electric
utility; Kinetics Technology International Corporation (KTl), a
worldwide engineering contractor; and International Fuel Cells
Corporation (IFC), a leading fuel cell manufacturer.
Edison has been involved in various fuel cell development

activities since 1972 and as a result of those activities,
believe FCPP have unique capabilities to use gaseous waste
fuels available in our seirvice territory. The nationwide
program sponsored by the Department of Energy (DOE) and the Gas
Research Institute to field test forty-six 40 kW phosphoric
acid FCPP provided an ideal vehicle for Edison to demonstrate
this unique capability. In late 1982, Edison submitted a
proposal to DOE to field test a 40 kW fuel cell on either
processed landfill or digester gas. Edison's proposal was
accepted and in December 1984, received a 40 kW FCPP.
The FCPP was installed at the Industry Hills Exhibit-

Conference Center and operated on a landfill gas feedstock
which was upgraded to natural gas specifications. The gas was
upgraded by using activated carbon for trace contaminates
removal and a membrane system for CO 2 removal. The Industry
Hills FCPP operated over 5,500 hours proving the technical
viability of using processed landfill gas. Although the
technical feasibility of FCPP operation on upgraded landfill
gas was confirmed, internal studies indicated that the economic
viability of fuel cells could be enhanced by using landfill gas
without the costly equipment necessary to upgrade the fuel to
natural gas specifications.
In order to explore the feasibility of direct biogas util

ization in F C P P 's , KTl was contracted by Edison to analyze the
337
LEEPER ET AL
- 2 -
performance and identify any potential problems of operating

the 40 kW PC18 FCPP on untreated landfill gas, i.e., without
CO 2 removal. KTl developed for Edison an analytical model
which considered both process and instrument related capacity
limitations. KTl concluded in that assessment that with
appropriate control modifications, the PC18 was capable of
achieving 50-75X of the rated capacity.
After KTl completed the assessment on the 40 kW unit, Edison

approached IFC soliciting their participation in an off
specification test program to use landfill gas without CO 2
removal at Industry Hills. IFC agreed to participate in the
test and suggested specific control modifications which would
be necessary prior to using a lower Btu gas. In April 1986,
the 40 kW FCPP at Industry Hills successfully operated nearly
100 hours on landfill gas without CO 2 removal. The CO 2
content of the gas had little impact on unit efficiency. The
unit was found to operate in a stable fashion at 65% of rated
capacity and achieved 72% capacity for short periods thus
confirming the model predictions. The off specification gas
testing and field test was concluded on April 17, when the
FCPP tripped due to an electrical grid separation causing high
reformer temperatures. The high reformer temperature resulted
from the fuel control valve being on manual mode and the unit
was unable to respond to the sudden drop in load. Further
analysis now indicates that the 11 MW PC23 FCPP is capable of
achieving full rated capacity while operating on untreated
landfill g a s .
In the following subsections, each of the program partici

pants present their own unique perspective on the subject of
biogas utilization in FCPP.
UTILITY PERSPECTIVE
Edison as an electric utility must explore new ways to pro

vide low cost electricity for our customers in the future.
Studies performed by us and others have identified over 1,000
MWe of alternative fuel resources in the form of landfill gas
or municipal refuse located within Edison's service territory
which could be used for the production of electrical energy.
One factor which diminishes Edison's ability to utilize this

vast resource pool using conventional power generation methods
is the concern for air quality in the L.A. basin. However, a
fuel cell is unique in that electricity is produced by an
electrochemical reaction instead of by combustion. Thus, the
use of fuel cells would allow Edison to produce electricity
with minimal air quality impact while simultaneously taking
advantage of inexpensive local alternate fuels. The operation
of the 40 kW FCPP at Industry Hills on landfill gas is
significant not only in that it provided direct utility
operating and maintenance experience but offered a means to
338
LEEPER ET AL
- 3 -
use an available intraterritory resources in an environment

ally acceptable manner.
ENGINEERING CONTRACTOR PERSPECTIVE
KTI's participation in FCPP development was a natural role for

an engineering contractor experienced in the transformation of
hydrocarbon feedstocks to hydrogen. Engineering contractors
are commonly confronted with the task of integrating special
ized subcomponent technologies within a system framework - be
it a modern petrochemical complex or a fuel cell power plant.
KTl believes that as the fuel cell market matures, the
electric utility industry will require contractors to package
fuel-flexible systems which are specifically configured to
meet their objectives.
In an endeavor to develop more fuel-flexible systems and

to expand the range of acceptable FCPP feedstocks, KTl
recently completed a study for the Electric Power Research
Institute(l) to determine the feasibility of direct
utilization of untreated landfill gas in a commercial size
FCPP. The modular 11 MW plant described in EPRI publication
EM- 3 1 6 1 (2 ) served as the baseline design for this analysis.
The results of the study indicated that no technical barriers

would prevent the direct utilization of untreated landfill gas
in the 11 MW unit. A maximum derating penalty of 16X was
calculated for the baseline design. Minor modification of
certain critical heat exchangers reduced the derating penalty
to only lOX. Excluding the energy for landfill gas compres
sion, the heat rate for the unit operating on landfill gas was
only marginally higher than for operation on natural gas.
Based on the study results, it was concluded that there is no
economic incentive to remove carbon dioxide from landfill gas
prior to use in a FCPP. Successful field tests at the
Industry Hills facility lend credibility to the analytical
models used to derive these results and furthermore confirm
the technical feasibility of direct landfill gas use in a FCPP.
MANUFACTURER PERSPECTIVE
For the last 20 years. United Technologies (and now its

subsidiary IFC, International Fuel Cells) has put considerable
effort into development of phosphoric acid fuel cell power
plants for utility applications. This effort is now paying
off. Within a few years, IFC expects to see utilities
operating larger-scale demonstration plants which will be the
forerunners of mass-produced units for the world market.
As a manufacturer of commercial FCPP, IFC has an interest in

supplying systems capable of operating on the broadest
possible range of fuel feedstocks. The 40 kW PC18 was
originally designed to run on pipeline natural gas, and the
339
LEEPER ET AL
- 4 -
11 MW PC23 is presently being designed to run on natural gas

and/or liquid distillate. Obviously a fuel cell plant will
run best on the fuels for which it was designee. Therefore,
the results of the operation of the 40 kW FCPP operated on
untreated landfill gas are particularly encouraging.
IFC has carried the KTl analysis of the effects of landfill

gas on the 11 MW power plant one step further by taking into
account the system changes to the design which have been made
since the publication of the EPRI reference document, EM-3161.
The effect of these changes have been favorable. While a

small heat rate degradation is still predicted due to the
inefficiency of heating and cooling the carbon dioxide in the
landfill gas, it now appears the PC23 can achieve its full
11 MW rated power on untreated landfill gas because the heat
exchanger and reformer limitations identified by KTl have been
alleviated in the new design. Therefore, minor changes to
control and valve specifications are expected to be adequate
to preclude any derating of the PC23 capability.
IFC also examined KTI's concerns about carbon formation,

reformer performance, and burner operation with the higher
carbon dioxide concentration and higher volume flow associ
ated with landfill gas. IFC concluded none of these issues
presented a real problem.
Based on this work, IFC concluded fuel cell power plants could
be sited near large landfills and operated on landfill gas
without removing the carbon dioxide. If the landfill gas
supply is insufficient to support the fuel cell plant by
itself, natural gas could be mixed with the landfill gas to
provide the necessary amount of methane.
CONCLUSION
Each of the participants in this program have offered their

own diverse perspective on the feasibility of power genera
tion from landfill gas in FCPP's. Common among each of these
perspectives is the conclusion that FCPP's may offer a
strategic and environmentally acceptable means for power
generation from local alternate fuel resources which might
otherwise be wasted.
REFERENCES
1. P. Pietrogrande, D. Warren, S. Mullick, "Performance

Evaluation for a 11 MW Fuel Cell Power Plant which
Utilizes a Generic Landfill Gas Feedstock," Kinetics
Technology International Corporation for EPRI (unpub
lished but available from EPRI), January 15, 1986.
2. UTC Corporation, "Description of a Generic 11 MW Fuel
Cell Power Plant," EM3161, September 1983.
340
MTCI'S ADVANCED FUEL PROCESSOR DEVELOPMENT
DR. M O M T A Z N. MANS O U R , DR. K. DURAI-SWAMY
M A N AGEMENT AND TECHNICAL CONSULTANTS, INC.
P.O. BOX 21
COL U M B I A , MD 21045
Management and T e c h n i c a l Consultants, Inc. (MTCI) is d e v e l o p i n g an
Advanced Fuel Processor that has successfully p r o c e s s e d No. 2 fuel
o il u n d e r a D O E C o n tract. MTCI's Fuel Processor employs a
two-stage s y s t e m in w h i c h the f i rst stage is a f l u i d i z e d bed
catalytic reactor. M T C I b u ilt and o p e r a t e d the first sta g e o n No.
2 f u e l oil.
In a D O D f u n d e d study, m o r e t h a n 99. 9 % of the f e e d s t o c k (DF #2) was
reformed to p r o d u c t g a s in the first stage, wit h v i r t u a l l y no soot
f o r m a t i o n or o t h e r c a r b o n l a y d o w n on t h e cat a l y s t .
The demonstrated s y s t e m wa s a b e n c h s c ale u n i t o p e r a t i n g at 40 to
60 p s i g and 1 6 5 0 to 18 0 0 ° F w i t h feed r a t e s of oil in the 3 to 7
Ibm/hr r a n g e and steam-to-carbon ratios of 3 to 10. A novel
f e a t u r e of the b e n c h scale unit is a p r o p r i e t a r y 12 K W i m m e r s i b l e
electrical h e a t e r w h i c h ca n o p e r a t e u p t o 190 0 ° F c o n t i n u o u s l y .
D e s c r i p t i o n of r e s u l t s obtained in the a b o v e study are presented in
t h e paper.
341
AIR FORCE REMOTE SITE FUEL CELL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
Mr. Walter G. Taschek

Power Generation Division
US Army Belvoir RD&E Center
Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060-5606
Mr. Jerrell M. Turner and LT Joseph Fellner

Energy Conversion Branch
Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433
The objective of this congressionally mandated program is to

demonstrate logistic fueled fuel cell power plants at an Air
Force remote site in Alaska in the early 1990s. Performance
goals are 40% electrical efficiency based on the fuel's
lower heating value, 20 year life and 30% life cycle cost
savings over existing diesel engine generators.
In August of 1984, a Memorandum of Understanding was

established between the Air Force Wright Aeronautical
Laboratories (AFWAL) and the Belvoir Research, Development
and Engineering Center (Belvoir). AFWAL is responsible for
program management and Belvoir has responsibility for tech
nical accomplishment.
Primary aspects of the program are:
° Field test a 40kW power plant at Elmendorf Air Force

Base, Alaska.
° Demonstrate processes capable of converting diesel fuel

to fuel cell quality hydrogen.
° Establish requirements for remote site fuel cell power

plants and determine performance and life cycle cost
baseline of the competition.
° Conduct the Remote Site Fuel Cell Development.
° Demonstrate power plant(s) at an Air Force site in

Alaska in the early 1990s.
40kW Power Plant Field Test at Elmendorf Air Force B a s e .
The 40kW field test program sponsored by the Gas Industry

and DOE has been described in an earlier session. The
Elmendorf power plant is the last of four installed at DOD
sites. Since start-up on July 23, 1985 the power plant has
accumulated 7600 hours of operation (as of 8/28/86) for an
availability of 79%. This has been one of the best power
plants in the fleet. Virtually all operation and main
tenance has been performed by Government personnel at
Elmendorf Air Force Base. They are credited with keeping
downtime to a minimum.
342
TASCHEK ET AL
- 2 -
The field test, originally planned for one year, has been
extended until 1988 to enable assessment of component dura
bility. The Fort Belvoir, Virginia power plant operated by
the Facilities Engineering Support Agency is included in the
extended test.
Fuel Conditioning Process Demonstration.
Processes capable of converting diesel fuel to fuel cell

quality hydrogen were sought. Contracts were awarded to
three firms in August of 1985. Table 1 summarizes the
outcome. Preliminary and final technical reports have been
distributed.
Remote Site Evaluation - Life Cycle Cost.
The Alaskan Air Command manages manned, remote radar sites

throughout Alaska. Many of the sites have been completely
replaced during 1984 and 1985 with modern facilities. The
power plant consists of four 250kW or 175kW diesel engine
generator sets depending on the site. Waste heat from the
engine and exhaust is transferred to a glycol loop and is
used for facility and hot water heating. These moder
nizations have resulted in greatly reduced fuel consumption
and manpower.
Several sites are accessible only by air, others have sea

sonal windows to barge materials and supplies. Sites are
operated by Radio Corporation of America personnel. A photo
of a modern remote site is shown at Figure 1.
Science Applications International Corporation, under

contract since January 1985, has determined general power
plant requirements and has instrumented two sites to obtain
thermal, electrical and fuel usage. In addition, a life
cycle cost model has been developed and will be applied to
existing power plants. This work was described at the
Poster Session and a report covering the 1985 effort has
been published.
In summary, the activities described above are in support of

the power plant development program and eventual demonstra
tion. Award of the development contract is anticipated in
early 1987.
343
TABLE 1
DIESEL FUEL CONDITIONING DEMONSTRATIONS
ENERGY RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL R.M. PARSONS CO.

CORP FUEL CELLS
O FUEL IS FIRST O CYCLIC REAC o STEAM REFORMING

DESULFURIZED TOR - ONE FOLLOWED BY
MAKES H2 AUTOTHERMAL h3
O CLEAN FUEL IS WHILE OTHER REFORMING >
CD
STEAM REFORMED IS REGENERATED O
I 3
a
O CATALYSTS BY o SULFUR IS o SULFUR IS u>
HALDOR TOPSOE REMOVED AFTER REMOVED AFTER I K1
REFORMING REFORMING
>
O PROPRIETARY O PROPRIETARY
RHODIUM TOYO ENG. CO
CATALYST CATALYST & PROCESS
O 400 HOUR DEMO o PROCESS FAILED O PROCESS INOPERABLE

COMPLETED DURING FIRST DUE TO MECHANICAL
20 HOURS OPER. PROBLEMS
O PERFORMANCE AS
PREDICTED o NOT A POWER O DEMONSTRATION
PLANT CONTEN INCONCLUSIVE -
O VIABLE POWER DER PROCESS MAY BE A
PLANT CONTENDER VIABLE CONTENDER
FIGURE 1
CO Im
Ln
MODERN REMOTE SITE

MARKET ASSESSMENT OF BY-PRODUCT GASEOUS FUELS
FOR PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS
J. Michael Torrey
La Jolla CA 92038
John D. Leeper
Southern California Edison
Rosemead; CA 91770
INTRODUCTION
Southern California Edison (Edison) is a leader in evaluating

fuel cells that operate on by-product gaseous fuels. The
completion of a 40 kW fuel cell field test at the Industry
Hills Exhibit-Conference Center has proven through operation
on landfill gas that the fuel cell technology can utilize
waste derived fuels. The use of by-product gaseous fuels for
power generation offers a utility and its customers many
benefits including the displacement of scarce fuel oil and
natural gas resources. and a decrease in the adverse social
impact of by-product waste disposal. This paper presents the
results of a study by Science Applications International
Corporation (SAIC), looking at the technical and economic
market potential for 11 MW fuel cell power plants within
Edison's territory.
FUEL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
The conversion of by-product wastes into gaseous fuels can be

achieved through three basic processes: anaerobic digestion,
thermal gasification and direct utilization. The processes
involve different technologies which are best suited to a
particular type of waste input. Table 1 presents several
market segments along with the conversion processes which are
most technologically compatible.
TABLE 1
BY-PRODUCT CONVERSION PROCESS BY MARKET SEGMENT
Anaerobic Direct
Market Segment Digestion Gasification Utilization
Agricultural Crops X X
Agricultural - Livestock X X
Food and Kindred X X
Lumber and Furniture - X
Paper/Allied Products - X
Sewage Systems
Biogas
Stable Sludge - X
Refuse Systems
Transfer Stations X X
Landfills
346
TORREY ET AL.
2-
T h e a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s h a s b een w i d e l y u s e d in the
t r e a t m e n t of o r g a n i c s e w a g e s o l i d s an d r e s u l t s in a g a s e o u s
p r o d u c t t ha t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 p e r c e n t m e t h a n e and 40 p e r -
cent c arb o n dioxide. The d i g e s t e r gas is a m e d i u m Btu gas
w i t h a h e a t i n g v a l u e in the 5 0 0 to 6 5 0 B t u / s c f range. Gasifi
c a t i o n of b i o m a s s is a c c o m p l i s h e d by s u p p l y i n g l i m i t e d a m o u n t s
of air (or o x y g e n ) to a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c t i o n c h a m b e r to
produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen. C a r bo n d iox ide and
h y d r o c a r b o n s are a l s o p r o d u c e d . P r o d u c t gas c o m p o s i t i o n and
y i e l d d e p e n d on the o x y g o n c o n t e n t of the c o m b u s t i o n a i r ,
g a s i f i e r de s i g n , c o m b u s t i o n rate, f e e d s t o c k q u a l i t y pressure
and temperature, etc. Direct utilization involves the
c a p t u r i n g of m e t h a n e gas p r od u ce d by the decomposition of
organic material. At a landfill site, several wells are
d r i l l e d a n d p l a c e d at s p e c i f i c d i s t a n c e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r and
the gas is w i t h d r a w n u n d e r vacuum .
F i v e g e n e r i c f uel s y s t e m s w e r e s p e c i f i e d in the s t u d y w h i c h
c o u l d m e e t the input fu e l r e q u i r e m e n t s of th e 11 MW fue l cell.
T h e s e i n c l u d e two g a s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m s (MSW, w o o d w aste), two
anaerobic digestion systems (MSW, livestock manure/food
p r o d u c t s ) a n d a l a n d f i l l gas r e c o v e r y s y s t e m . These systems
were specified according to the waste by-products of the
m a r k e t s e g m e n t s a n d s i z e d for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 M M B t u / h r .
TECHNICAL MARKET QUANTIFICATION
F o r eac h m a r k e t s e g m e n t studi e d , the t o t a l n u m b e r of 11 MW

fuel cells which could be supported by the available
b y - p r o d u c t fuels was calculated. T h e n u m b e r of p o w e r p l a n t s
were aggregated by site for each m a r k e t segment except
agricultural-livestock w h i c h w a s a g g r e g a t e d by cou n t y . It
w a s a s s u m e d tha t the fuel cel l w o u l d be l o c a t e d at e a c h s ite
h a v i n g an a d e q u a t e f uel r e s o u r c e . For a g r i c u l t u r a l - l i v e s t o c k ,
the m a n u r e b y - p r o d u c t w a s t e s w o u l d h a v e to be t r a n s p o r t e d to a
l o c a t i o n c e n t r a l to the m a n u r e r e s o u r c e . T a b l e 2 p r e s e n t s the
t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e m a r k e t p o t e n t i a l e s t i m a t e for E d i s o n ' s
service territory.
TABLE 2
S U M M A R Y OF TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE MARKET POTENTIAL
No. of 11 MW
Market Segment Fuel Cells Total MW
Agricultural Livestock 21 231

Food Processor 7 77
Paper & Allied Products 6 66
MSW Transfer Stations 51 561
Landfills 33 363
Total 118 1 ,298
3A7
TORREY ET AL.
■-3-
T h e 11 M W fuel c ell w a s a s s u m e d to h a v e a fuel i n p u t r a t e of

93 . 5 M M B t u / h r at ful l loa d (heat r a t e of 8 5 0 0 B t u / k W h ) . For
th i s study, Edison decided to a p p l y the fuel cell as an
i n t e r m e d i a t e / p e a k g e n e r a t i n g u n i t u s i n g a c a p a c i t y f a c t o r of
40 p e r c e n t (37.4 M M B t u / h r ) . T h e m a r k e t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n task
i d e n t i f i e d th o s e s i t e s h a v i n g a p o t e n t i a l of 3 7 . 4 M M B t u / h r or
m o r e of g a s e o u s fuel. S i t e s h a v i n g a fuel p o t e n t i a l b e l o w the
3 7 . 4 M M B t u li m i t w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
A total t e c h n i c a l p o t e n t i a l of 118 p o w e r p l a n t s w a s c a l c u l a t e d
for the f i v e b e s t m a r k e t s e g m e n t s r e p r e s e n t i n g 1 , 2 9 8 M W of
fue l cell c a p a c i t y . T h i s is a t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e m a r k e t
p o t e n t i a l b a s e d on a 40 p e r c e n t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r . Operating
the fuel cell at f ull load would reduce the number of
t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e s i t e s or r e q u i r e s u p p l e m e n t a l n a t u r a l ga s
u s e b e c a u s e of an i n c r e a s e d r e q u i r e m e n t for fuel.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
T a b l e 3 p r e s e n t s the e s t i m a t e d s y s t e m and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s for

e a c h of the f i v e f uel c o n v e r s i o n s y s t e m s s p e c i f i e d p r e v i o u s l y .
T h e s e are i l l u s t r a t i v e o n l y and do not r e p r e s e n t d e t a i l e d c o s t
studies.
TABLE 3
ESTIMATED SYSTEM AND O&M COSTS FOR B Y- P R O D U C T FUEL PROCESSING
Estimated
Technology Market Segment System Costs O&M Costs/Yr
Anaerobic Transfer $19,500,000 $ -135,000

Digestion Stations
(MSW)
Anaerobic Agricultural $16,100,000 $ 975,000

Digestion Livestock
(Livestock
Manure)
Gasification Transfer $ 6 , 000,000 $ -190,000

(MSW) Stations
Gasification Lumber & Furniture $ 4,500,000 $1,600,000

(Crop & Wood Paper & Allied
Wastes) Products
Direct Landfills $ 2 , 100,000 $ 200,000

Utilization
T h e e s t i m a t e d s y s t e m c o s t s i n c l u d e the n e c e s s a r y f r o n t end
p r o c e s s i n g e q u i p m e n t , the d i g e s t e r s or g a s i f i e r s , a n d the g a s
c l e a n u p and ga s s t o r a g e e q u i p m e n t . T h e e s t i m a t e s a r e b a s e d on
discussions with personnel f r o m the G a s R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e
( G R I ), Omnifuels Gasification Systems, Energy Products of
348
TORREY ET AL.
-4-
Idaho, and Wa ste M an age men t, Inc. C o s t s for t he a n a e r o b i c

digester systems are based on pilot projects rather than
existing facilities. A c t u a l c o s t s w i l l d e p e n d on s p e c i f i c
site and m a n u f a c t u r e r r e q u i r e m e n t s and are p r o v i d e d for
information only. Annual O&M costs include the waste
f e e d s t o c k ( i n c l u d i n g t i p p i n g fee c r e d i t s ) , labor, m a t e r i a l s ,
power and was te disposal. T h e two s y s t e m s w h i c h p r o c e s s M S W
h a v e n e g a t i v e O & M c o s t s b e c a u s e t i p p i n g fee s a r e a s s u m e d to be
a r e v e n u e sou rce.
T h e l e v e l i z e d o p e r a t i n g c o s t s for the b y - p r o d u c t f u e l s w e r e
c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g an a s s u m p t i o n of u t i l i t y o w n e r s h i p of the
fuel p r oc e s s i n g equi pmen t. An i n s t a l l e d cos t of $ 2 , 7 0 0 / k W and
a c a r r y i n g c h a r g e of 2 1 . 0 p e r c e n t was a s s u m e d w h i c h i n c l u d e s a
20 y e a r p l a n t l i f e a n d a 14 p e r c e n t c o s t of c a p i t a l . As can
be seen in F i g u r e 1, o n l y g a s i f i c a t i o n of M S W a n d d i r e c t
u t i l i z a t i o n at l a n d f i l l s h a v e a l o w e r fuel cos t t h an n a t u r a l
gas. T h i s is d u e p r i n c i p a l l y to the t i p p i n g fee c r e d i t s t h at
a r e ta k e n for M S W g a s i f i c a t i o n and the l o w e r c a p i t a l c o s t of
l a n d f i l l gas r e c o v e r y s y s t e m s . L e v e l iz ed o p e r a ti n g costs are
all h i g h e r t ha n a gas t u r b i n e o p e r a t i n g on n a t u r a l gas.
I I LE V ELIZE D FUEL C O S T
□ L E V E LIZ E D O PER ATIN G C O S T S
G A S TURBINE O P E R A TIN G C O S T ,
LA N D FILL MSW NATURAL W OOD M S W /F O O D LIV E S T O C K

GAS G A S IFIC A TIO N G AS G ASIFIC ATIO N PR O C ESSIN G DIGESTER
DIGESTER
FUEL TYPE
FIGURE 1
LEVELIZED FUEL AND TOTAL OPERATIN G COSTS FOR 11 M W F U E L C E L L
CONCLUSIONS
A significant by-product market exists in E d i s o n ' s s e r v i c e

territory, however, th e e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y of f uel c e l l s is
heavily dependent upon lowering the fuel cell's installed
cost. O n c e e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y is e s t a b l i s h e d , the c o m b i n a t i o n
of h i g h e l e c t r i c a l e f f i c i e n c y and b y - p r o d u c t g a s c a p a b i l i t y
s h o u l d m a k e fu e l c e l l s an a t t r a c t i v e g e n e r a t i o n a l t e r n a t i v e
for e l e ct ri c utili ties .
349
PROSPECTS OF FUEL CELL APPLICATION
FOR INDUSTRIAL USE IN JAPAN
M. S h i o i r i , T . S a to m i
The I n s t i t u t e o f A p p lie d E n e rg y
T o kyo , Japan
In t r o d u c tio n
F u e l c e l l s o f f e r a d v a n ta g e s o v e r th e c o n v e n t io n a l p r o c e s s o f pow er
g e n e r a t io n i n t h a t t h e y :
- r a i s e th e e f f i c i e n c y o f g e n e r a t i o n ; p l a n t s i n th e s m a ll 100 kW-
1 MW c l a s s c o u ld d e v e lo p th e e f f i c i e n c y e q u i v a l e n t o f l a r g e s c a le
pow er g e n e r a tio n ;
- p ro d u c e w a s te h e a t o f a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h t e m p e r a tu r e w h ic h c o u ld
be c o m b in e d w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y f o r u se i n a c h ie v in g a h ig h e r l e v e l
o f o v e r a ll e f f ic ie n c y .
T h ey a r e e x p e c te d t o s e r v e a c t u a l l y f o r o n - s i t e u s e , a s w e l l a s p u rp o s e s
o f u t i l i t y g e n e r a tio n .
The c o n v e n t io n a l o n - s i t e g e n e r a t io n h a s so f a r be en p ro m o te d i n
th e i n d u s t r i a l f i e l d o f Japan. Up f o r d is c u s s i o n h e r e a r e p r o s p e c t s
o f f u e l c e l l a p p l i c a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l u s e , one o f t h e p r o m is in g m a rk e t
f o r th e m .
1. P r e s e n t S t a t u s o f A u to g e n e r a tio n ( o n - s i t e g e n e r a tio n ) and

A p p l i c a b i l i t y o f F u e l C e lls in Japan
A u to g e n e r a te d e n e rg y o f 75 m i l l i o n MWh i n 1984 a c c o u n te d f o r some

12% o f J a p a n 's t o t a l po w e r r e q u ir e m e n ts w h ic h s to o d a t 58 0 m i l l i o n MWh
th a t y e a r. As a s h a re o f i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y , a u t o g e n e r a t io n i n s t a l l a
t i o n s c o v e re d some 9% ( 4 ,9 0 0 MW) o f a t o t a l l i c e n s e d o u t p u t o f 1 6 0 ,0 0 0
MW. F o r i n d u s t r i a l u s e w e re 92% ( 1 3 ,6 0 0 MW) o f th e s e a u t o g e n e r a t io n
i n s t a l l a t i o n s , w i t h o n ly 4% ea ch f o r c o m m e rc ia l an d t r a f f i c u s e .
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a u t o g e n e r a t io n i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l f i e l d o f J a p a n
a re :
- th a t p e tr o le u m p ro d u c ts , paper and p u lp , and c h e m ic a ls —
in d u s t r ie s w ith a demand of h ig h h e a t/e le c tr ic ity r a tio —
a c c o u n t f o r some 40% o f a u t o g e n e r a t io n — a l e v e l h ig h e r th a n
f o r any o t h e r ty p e o f i n d u s t r y ;
- t h a t o f t h e b e s t t h r e e a r e c h e m ic a ls , p a p e r an d p u lp , and i r o n
an d s t e e l . T h ey c o v e r some 84% o f t o t a l a u t o g e n e r a t io n fo r
in d u s t r ia l use .
A c la s s ific a tio n of th e s e a u t o g e n e r a t io n in s t a lla t io n s by ty p e
o f g e n e r a t io n g iv e s th e r m a l po w e r g e n e r a t io n 94%, 83% i s s e rv e d by s te a m
po w e r p l a n t s and n e a r l y 70% a r e o f th e c o - g e n e r a t i o n t y p e . ( F ig . 1)
A u t o g e n e r a t io n , th o u g h s t e a d i l y on th e in c r e a s e up t i l l th e m id d le
of 1 9 7 0 's , has n o t in c r e a s e d c l e a r l y i n t h e p a s t te n y e a r s . I t a p p e a rs
t h a t m a t u r i t y h a s s e t t l e d i n f o r th e u s e o f th e c o n v e n t i o n a l ty p e o f
a u t o g e n e r a t io n .
T h e r e f o r e , th o s e f i e l d s o f i n d u s t r y w h ic h a r e a d v a n c e d in th e u se
of th e c o n v e n t i o n a l ty p e may n o t h a v e so much a new m a rk e t f o r th e
in t r o d u c t io n o f f u e l c e l l s . So a s u i t b l e m a r k e t i s i n th e r e p la c e m e n t
o f e x is tin g f a c i l i t i e s .
T a b le 1 show s t h e a c t u a l u s e o f a u t o g e n e r a t io n and th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y
o f f u e l c e ll s f o r th e i n d u s t r i a l u s e . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o im p r o v e o f
350
M. Shioiri, T. Satomi
-2-
g e n e r a t io n e f f ic ie n c y , d iv e r s ific a tio n of w o r k in g fu e l, s u b s ta n tia l

r e d u c tio n s o f i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s ts , and e f f e c t i v e p r o d u c t io n o f h ig h e r
te m p e r a tu r e h e a t , i n o r d e r t o s u b s t i t u t e f u e l c e l l s f o r th e c o n v e n t io n a l
ty p e o f i n d u s t r y a u t o g e n e r a t io n i n t h e f u t u r e .
2. F re s h M a rk e t f o r F u e l C e lls
We e x te n d our in v e s t ig a t io n s of th e m a rk e t p o s s ib ilit ie s in
i n d u s t r i e s fro m th e e c o n o m ic a l p o i n t o f v ie w . F i g u r e 2 show s th e c o s t s
o f p u rc h a s e d e l e c t r i c i t y i n J a p a n , o f s te a m t u r b i n e g e n e r a t io n and o f
f u e l c e l l s g e n e r a t io n a g a i n s t i n s t a l l a t i o n s c a l e . ( C r e d i t s f o r co m b in e d
h e a t and p o w e r a r e i n c l u d e d . )
T h is f ig u r e show s:
(1 ) t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e s y s te m o f p u rc h a s e d e l e c t r i c i t y ra te s is
d e s ig n e d t o re d u c e them by s te p s o f e x c e s s f o r 500 kW and
2 MW;
(2 ) th a t s te a m power p la n ts can g e n e r a te e le c t r ic ity at a
d e c lin in g cost i f th e y a r e o f a s c a le l a r g e r th a n 10 MW,
b u t th e 100 kW - 1 MW c l a s s o f th e m i n v o l v i n g a h ig h e r
in s ta lla tio n c o s ts lo s e s c o m p e t i t i v e p o s it io n to w a rd
p u rc h a s e d e l e c t r i c i t y , and
(3 ) th a t fu e l c e lls cost cause l i t t l e change due t o th e s c a le
o f p la n ts , th o s e in t h e s m a ll 100 kW - 1 MW c l a s s w ill
h a v e a d v a n ta g e s .
T h e r e f o r e , an i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y i s b e c o m in g o f n o t m ore th a n 2 MW a s
th e way o f i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f u e l c e l l s .
T a b le 2 show s t h e t e m p e r a tu r e l e v e l s o f h e a t r e q u i r e d by ty p e o f
in d u s tr y . W a ste h e a t fr o m f u e l c e l l s r e g i s t e r s some 20 0°C u n d e r th e
p h o s p h o r ic a c i d ty p e t h a t i s advanced in d e v e lo p m e n t. I t h o ld s o u t
p r o m is e f o r i n d u s t r i e s i n ne ed o f h e a t o f up t o th o s e te m p e r a tu r e s .
As a r e s u l t , a fo o d p r o c e s s in g and t e x t i l e s may be p ic k e d o u t f o r
in t r o d u c t io n o f fu e l c e lls fro m th o s e i n d u s t r i e s . B o th a r e l e s s t o
in t r o d u c e a u to g e n e r a tio n , and c o n s is t s of s m a ll an d m e d iu m - s iz e
f a c t o r i e s e x i s t i n g i n much g r e a t e r n u m b e rs th a n b i g f a c t o r i e s . So much
o f t h e h e a t t h e y n e e d i s i n t h e ra n g e o f r e l a t i v e l y lo w te m p e r a tu r e s .
A t r i a l c a l c u l a t i o n o f l a t e n t demand was made w i t h r e g a r d t o a
fo o d p r o c e s s in g and t e x t i l e i n d u s t r i e s . G iv e n 100 kW a s t h e m inim um
i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y o f a f u e l c e l l p l a n t , f a c t o r i e s on a g r e a t e r s c a le
o f p o w e r r e q u ir e m e n t s c o u ld b r in g a b o u t an e s t im a t e d demand o f 5 ,0 0 0
MW. Among th e s e f a c t o r i e s , th o s e o f a s c a le l a r g e r th a n 500 kW w e re
a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 , r e q u i r i n g a t o t a l o f 3 ,2 0 0 MW, a n d th o s e s m a ll and m id iu m
s i z e f a c t o r i e s i n t h e 100 kW - 5 0 0 kW c l a s s n u m b e re d 6 ,5 0 0 , r e q u i r i n g
a t o t a l o f 1 ,6 0 0 MW.
I n w h a t p r o p o r t i o n t o th e s e f i g u r e s f u e l c e l l s w i l l come i n t o u se
i s e f f e c t e d b y th e m e th o d o f s e r v ic e f o r f u e l c e l l s m a c h in g w i t h dem and,
th e o p t i m a l r a t i o o f i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y t o h e a t demand an d so o n .
3. C o n c lu s io n
The l i k e l i h o o d i s t h a t f u e l c e l l a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r i n d u s t r i a l u se
g i v e r e a s o n a b le p r o m is e o f i n t r o d u c t i o n :
(1 ) a t th e t im e w hen th e e x i s t i n g a u t o g e n e r a t io n i n s t a l l a t i o n s
a r e r e p la c e d , and
351
-3-
(2 ) in th e ty p e o f in d u s tr y w h ic h h a s r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll s c a le
fa c t o r ie s fa ilin g to show th e ir e c o n o m ic m e r its w ith
c o n v e n t i o n a l s y s te m s .
E n t r y i n t o th e s e m a r k e ts w i l l n o t be g a in e d u n le s s s t e p s a r e ta k e d t o
r e s o l v e s u c h t e c h n i c a l p ro b le m s a s :
(1 ) a c h ie v in g t h e d e s ir e d i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t and p e rfo r m a n c e g o a ls ,
( 2 ) a s s u r in g r e lia b ilit y and o p e r a b i l i t y ( m a in t e n a n c e - f r e e and
o th e r fe a tu re s ) on a l e v e l not in fe r io r to th e e x is tin g
g e n e r a t in g i n s t a l l a t i o n s ,
( 3 ) d e v e lo p in g t e c h n o lo g y f o r t h e r e c o v e r y o f h ig h t e m p e r a tu r e
w a s te h e a t o f h ig h u t i l i t y v a lu e , and
( 4 ) p r o m o t in g d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f w o r k in g f u e l .
TA B LE 1 THE A C T U A L USE OF AU TOG ENERATION FOR THE IN D U S T R IA L USE
Type Ma j or
Field Fuel Factor Comments for ]
generator
Power Machinery GT Heavy & Both for on-peak and Hi<^ efficiency#
generation light oil emergency use cost# and starti
G£ standstill chara
teristics
Nonferrous Merits of Select low-
Condensate Coal use and gasi
metals mass power cost fuel
Coal tion combined
use & large
Ceramics MCFC
Hydropower scale ge n
eration
By-product Effective Refining of by-p
Iron & gas use of b y gas; hight outpu
Condensate
steel product with low partial
BFG
(waste) gas pressure H't
CDG
Co-genera Petroleum LOG Let co g e n Difficult to mak
Bleed
tion products HC eration raisf fuel out of b y
B ackpres K, total energy product liquid?
sure efficiency
C heavy oil/ .
system
Common use LNG as substitut
Paper & Black
of boiler &
pulp liquid Generation effic
other equip
high enough to c
ment
fuel cost gap
Chemical Heavy oil Generation C heavy oil Raise temperatur
in line with & other low- waste heat
heat demand cost fuel
easy to
handle
TABLE 2 THE TEMPERATURE LEVELS OF HEAT REQUIRED BY TYPE OF INDUSTRY

(unit:%)
pe ra tu re below from
Ve 1s 100"C ~ 1 5 0 “C — 183‘’c 183'’C
Type of industry-'-...^.^^^
Food processing 2.5 62.3 16.6 18.6
Textiles 0.4 50.3 49.3 0
Wooden goods 1.1 9.3 6.6 83.0
Paper and Pulp 0 85.9 4.1 0
Chemicals 4.8 26.5 50.0 18.8
Rubber goods 0 26.3 53.4 20.4
Pottery industry 0 85.6 14.4 0
352
-4-
HYDRO POWER
BACKPRESSURE INTERNAL COMBUSTION POWER

TURBINE.
11.oz 6.U GAS TURBINE ETC
BLEEDER
BACKPRESSURE TURBINE
13,600 CONDENSATE TURBINE

20.11 MW
38.71
BLEEDER CONDENSATE
THERMAL POWER TURBINE
CO-GENERATION USE (7 0 Z )
F IG .l AUTOGENERATION INSTALLATIONS OF IN DUSTRIAL USE ( u n it:^
¥/kW h
25 THE COST OF STEAMTURBINE
20
THE COST OF PURCHASED POWER
THE GENERATION COST PROPORTION

OF DESIRED IN STALLATION COSTS
FOR FUEL CELLS
10
0,1 1 10 100 1000
In s t a lla tio n s c a le MW
F IG .2 RELATIONS BETWEEN GENERATION SCALE AND GENERATION COST
35 3
APPLICATIONS OF FUEL CELLS TO THE
PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY
J. H. A lt s e i m e r , J. F. Roach, M. C. Krupka
Los Alamos N a tio n a l L a b o ra to ry
Los Alamos, NM 87545
J. M. Anderson
P r e s id e n t, Energy O ptio ns, In c .
Lake Charle s, LA 70606
Under the sponsorship o f the U.S. Department o f Energy’ s (DOE) Advanced

Energy Conversion Program O f f i c e , Los Alamos N a tio n a l L a b o ra to ry has been
a n a ly z in g and assessing p o t e n t i a l a p p l ic a t io n s o f fu e l c e l l s in the p e rio d
1990 t o 2000. A r e p o r t on c h l o r - a l k a l i in d u s t r y a p p l i c a t i o n s has been
pu blis he d ( I ) and a r e p o r t on petroleum r e f i n e r y a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l be pub
li s h e d in the near f u t u r e . This paper deals w i t h the r e f i n e r y stud y. The
I n d u s t r i a l Fuel C e ll A s s o c ia t io n (IFCA) a s s is te d in the conduct o f th e Los
Alamos s t u d ie s , and Joseph M. Anderson, former IFCA E xecu tiv e D i r e c t o r ,
co o rd in a te d the IFCA in p u t . The d i f f e r e n t process req uire m en ts o f th e i n
d u s t ry were c h a r a c t e r iz e d and energy requirem ents determ in ed. The
c o m p e t it iv e cog e n e ra tio n systems were a ls o c h a r a c t e r i z e d . To a s s i s t in
the t e c h n ic a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s , a q u e s t io n n a ir e was sent t o plan n in g p e r
sonnel in a l l o f the m ajor r e f i n e r y p l a n ts in th e U.S. Using a Los Alamos
computer code ( 2 ) , l e v e l i z e d energy (steam + e l e c t r i c i t y ) co s ts were c a l
c u la te d f o r the d i f f e r e n t c o m p e t it iv e systems t o de term in e t h e i r economic
c o m p e titiv e n e s s . Other economic f a c t o r s were a ls o e v a lu ated t h a t might
have a be arin g on th e c ho ic e o f a cog en eratio n system.
The l a r g e s t f r a c t i o n o f a r e f i n e r y ’ s thermal req uire m en t i s i n the d i r e c t

heat form. A q u a n t i t y o f process heat equal t o r o u g h ly o n e - t h i r d o f the
d i r e c t heat is embodied in steam and used f o r a v a r i e t y o f purposes.
Steam pressures range from ap pro xim ately 15 t o 650 p s ig and even up t o
1500 p s ig . The l a t t e r high pressure i s not necessary f o r the processes
but is sometimes used t o generate power w i t h b a ck-pre ssure t u r b i n e s , w i t h
the back pressures being about 600 t o 700 p s ig . R e la t iv e t o the energy
used f o r d i r e c t heat and steam, the energy used f o r e l e c t r i c power ge n e r
a t io n i s low.
H ig h ly d e t a i l e d d is c u s s io n s o f th e major r e f i n e r y processes are given in

re fe re n ce s 3 and 4. Steam requirements vary from p l a n t t o p l a n t f o r a
given process. Reasons f o r t h i s can in c lu d e process e f f i c i e n c y improve
ments, o ld vs. new p l a n t s , i n t e r n a l processing d i f f e r e n c e s t o produce the
same p r o d u c t, p o s s ib le p l a n t c a p a c ity d i f f e r e n c e s , process emphasis on a
d i f f e r e n t pro d u ct but using the ba sic process nomenclature, and combina
t i o n s o f th e p re v io u s reasons. A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n i s observed f o r the
fu e l and e l e c t r i c i t y require m ents f o r the v a rio u s r e f i n i n g processes.
Under these c irc u m sta nc e s, an energy d e s c r i p t i o n f o r a " t y p i c a l " r e f i n e r y
becomes a d i f f i c u l t t a s k . Neverthe le ss, a model was c o n s t ru c t e d and
energy requirem ents determined f o r a 150,000 Bbl/D r e f i n e r y , a s iz e ex
pected t o compete in f u t u r e f u e ls markets. This p l a n t r e q u i r e s 50 MW o f
e l e c t r i c power a t 100% c a p a c i t y , g i v i n g a value o f 8 kWh/Bbl o f crude.
T o ta l connected load is p ro ba bly a t h i r d h ig h e r, o r around 65 MW. The
power re quire m en t and the high pressure steam req uire m en t w i l l vary i n
v e r s e ly from one r e f i n e r y t o anothe r, depending on how many t u r b i n e d r i v e s
the y use on t h e i r c e n t r i f u g a l compressors and la r g e pumps. The steam con
sumptions in e x i s t i n g o l d e r r e f i n e r i e s are g e n e r a ll y h ig h e r than shown.
The t o t a l energy consumption o f the model r e f i n e r y is 559 M B tu /B b l. By
way o f comparison, the average energy consumption o f U.S. r e f i n e r i e s in
1983 was 580 M B tu /B b l.
354
J. H. Altseimer, et a l .
- 2 -
From the responses t o the q u e s t io n n a ir e , i t was found t h a t the t o t a l

e l e c t r i c a l demand pe r r e f i n e r y ranged from le ss than 10 MWe t o between 100
t o 200 MWe w i t h 29% a t 11 t o 25 MWe and 36% a t 51 t o 100 MWe. An average
e l e c t r i c a l demand o f 10.8 kWh/bbl o f c a p a c ity was i n d i c a t e d . There ap
pears t o be a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t in s e l l i n g excess power. The i n d u s t r y ’ s
p re sen t e l e c t r i c a l c a p a c i t y is about 4000 MWe. C o nsid ering t h a t f u e l c e l l
systems are mod ular, th e respondents e stim a te d t h a t th e i n i t i a l f a c i l i t y
would p ro b a b ly be no l a r g e r than 5 MW. Subse- quent u n i t s would p ro ba bly
be in the 6-20 MW range, w i t h o n ly 22% as small as 5 MW. The respondents
e s tim a te d t h a t f u e l c e l l s could make s i g n i f i c a n t in roa ds as an energy
source by th e y e a r 2 0 0 0 , depending on th e le v e l o f savings such systems
c ou ld o f f e r .
In a d d i t i o n t o t h r e e f u e l c e l l t e c h n o lo g ie s con sid ered f o r petroleum

r e f i n e r y a p p l i c a t i o n s , th e gas t u r b i n e combined c y c le (GTCC), and coke
f l u i d i z e d bed b o i l e r (CFBB) o p tio n s were in clu d e d in th e o v e r a l l a n a l y s is .
The th r e e f u e l c e l l t e c h n o lo g ie s were phosphoric a c id (PAFC), molten c a r b
onate (MCFC), and s o l i d oxide (SOFC). The GTCC te c h nolog y is th e most
l i k e l y c o m p e t it iv e c o g e n e ra tio n system in the coming decade. For a l l but
t h e CFBB co g e n e ra tio n t e c h n o lo g ie s , we "n o rm a liz e d " t o a 50,000 l b / h r
steam o u t p u t . A 300,000 l b / h r steam o u tp u t was s e le c te d f o r th e CFBB
based on c u r r e n t p r o to t y p e s . Table I shows our assumptions f o r the
o p e r a tin g and performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e ca n d id a te c og en eratio n
systems. Assumptions f o r a steam b o i l e r are a ls o shown because the y were
used t o e s tim a te th e v alue o f steam in a petro le um r e f i n e r y .
TABLE 1
OPERATING AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ASSUMED FDR POHER AND STEAM

GENERATING SYSTEMS IN PETROLEUM REFINERIES
PAFC MCFC SOFC GTCC Purchased Coke

System Param eters Case Case Case Case Power P lus F lu id iz e d
I 2 1 2 B o ile r Bed B o ile r
Fuel Type N.G. N.G. N .G .* N .G .* N.G. N.G. N.G. R e fin e ry

Coke
FueU H eat In p u t 149x10® 167x10® 252x10® 276x10® 161x10® 145x10® 409x10® 506x10®
(lO '^ B tu /h r)
E le c t r i c i t y (MMe) 18.3 - 2 2 .0 , 38.4 4 3.7 , 21.3 , 14.9 0 7.5
Steam ( l b / h r ) 50x10^ 50x10-^ 50x10-^ 50x10-’ 50x10-’ 50x10’’ 300x10’’ 300x10-’
(p s ig ) 15-125 15-125 125-400 400-600 15-50 125-400 -600 -650
E f f ic ie n c ie s :
E le c t r ic a l (X) 42 45 52 54 45 35 _ -5
Heat E x tr a c tio n ( t ) 38 30 23 21 35 40 85 -8 0
O v e ra ll ( t ) 80 75 75 75 80 75 85 -8 5
M.G. - N a tu ra l Gas
*O th e r f o s s i l fu e ls can a ls o be used.
We had t o assume t y p i c a l o p e r a tin g and cost parameters but except f o r pos

s i b l y th e GTCC, th e performance and c o s t assumptions are based p r i n c i p a l l y
on paper s t u d ie s and educated e s tim a te s . T h e re f o r e , th e base-case c o n d i
t i o n s f o r each system do not n e c e s s a r ily re p re s e n t e q u i v a le n t l e v e l s o f
accuracy. A more r e a l i s t i c economic comparison i s pre sente d in F ig ure I
where net e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t in g costs (it/kW) are p l o t t e d a g a in s t c a p i t a l
cos ts ( t / k U ) . The h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s a t 4.5 and 5.1 i/kW h, the net gener
a t in g co s ts f o r th e GTCC b a s e - l in e systems p r o v id e ready benchmarks
a g a in s t which t o judge c o s t co m p e titive n e ss o f o t h e r systems. One can
read break-even c a p i t a l co s ts d i r e c t l y from the f i g u r e i t s e l f . For ex
ample, the PAFC te c h nolog y (case 2) a t $510/kW and $450/kW p r o v id e s the
355
- 3 -
same le v e l i z e d annual e l e c t r i c i t y c os ts as the c o n v e n tio n a l gas t u r b i n e

combined c y c le te c h n o lo g y , case 2 and case 1, r e s p e c t i v e l y . However, the
MCFC i s s i m i l a r l y comparable a t $760 and $720 per k i l o w a t t r e s p e c t i v e l y .
We have not p l o t t e d the second PAFC case, case 1, o p t io n f o r the
d i f f e r e n c e in r e s u l t s i s f a i r l y sm a ll. The CFBB te ch nolog y r e s u l t s in
s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r g e n e r a tio n costs than the f u e l c e l l te c h n o lo g ie s at
c a p i t a l costs below $1500/kW. However, i f the coke r e f i n e r y f u e l i s
p ric e d lower ($ 1 .5 0 /1 0 “ Btu assumption used in b a s e lin e c om p utatio n) then
the p l o t f o r CFBB w i l l f a l l commensurately. The CFBB i s b a s i c a l l y a steam
g e n e ra to r w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y o n ly a secondary p ro d u c t.
14
19
£.
* '»
<0 10
co
o
o
tu
o •
Ul QTCC, ■eWCNMAWK
-J
111
> 4
111
J
-I S
<
5 »
S Y S T E M C A P ITA L C O S T S ( $ / k W )
F ig . 1. TLEC f o r r e f i n e r y base case systems.
Petroleum r e f i n e r i e s in the U.S. have decreased in both number and

c a p a c ity d u r in g the past 5-8 y e a rs . Today, t h e re are fewer than 190
o p e r a tin g r e f i n e r i e s and a d d i t i o n a l c lo s in g s are l i k e l y . Product im ports
t o the U.S. are on th e r i s e ; and w o rld -w id e r e f i n i n g c a p a c i t y c o n tin u e s to
increase as more producers e n t e r the downstream m arket. The p r i c e o f o i l
has f a l l e n r e c e n t l y ; the market mix o f products co n tin u e s t o s h i f t away
from "h e a v ie s ” t o " l i g h t s ; " the q u a l i t y o f crude processed by r e f i n e r i e s ,
on average, i s lo w er today than in the p a s t; and p r o f i t s and p r o f i t
margins are r e l a t i v e l y l o w - - a l l o f which in d ic a t e s t h a t even f u r t h e r
pressure on U.S. r e f i n i n g c a p a c i t y could e a s i l y r e s u l t in more r e d u c t io n s .
New investm ent in p l a n t and equipment, although necessary t o upgrade some
o l d e r r e f i n e r i e s and t o in cre a s e th rou gh pu t o f marketa ble pro du cts
( l i g h t s ) , w i l l be delayed f u r t h e r .
The o v e r a l l pro gn osis f o r pe trole um r e f i n i n g in the U.S. i s not good.

However, expansion o f r e f i n e r y c a p a c i ty in c e r t a i n pro du ct c a t e g o r i e s w i l l
occur as demand c o n tin u e s t o s h i f t and even as t o t a l c a p a c i t y decreases.
This increm ental c a p a c i t y expansion may o f f e r f u e l c e l l s an o p p o r t u n i t y
because f u e l c e l l s can e a s i l y be i n s t a l l e d in incremented u n i t s . The
r e s u l t s o f our i n d u s t r y survey suggest t h a t the market p o t e n t i a l o f f u e l
356
- 4 -
c e l l s may be g r e a t e s t as a supplemental energy source t o e x i s t i n g power

and steam g e n e r a t in g systems.
There are severa l o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t could e f f e c t the market p o t e n t i a l o f

fuel c e lls . F i r s t , th e c o s t d i f f e r e n c e between f u e l c e l l net g e n e ra tin g
c o s t and p re s e n t o r c o n v e n tio n a l systems costs would have t o be above the
15 t o 20% range f o r la r g e scale purchases. The PAFC te ch n o lo g y could
achieve t h a t goal in th e ne xt decade i f systems p r i c e s are lowered as much
as some have f o r e c a s t o r b e l i e v e - - a f a c t o r o f 2 o r more separate s those
c a p i t a l c o s t f i g u r e s to d a y. However, th e PAFC te c h n o lo g y w i l l o n ly have a
l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n because o f i t s r e l a t i v e l y low steam pre ssure and
tem perature o p e r a tin g l e v e l s {a lth o u g h th e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t low pressure
and tem perature re q uire m en ts in a r e f i n e r y ) . Second, because o f the
h ig h e r pre ssure and tem perature require m ents o f a r e f i n e r y t h e r e was
s tr o n g i n d i c a t i o n t h a t th e MCFC and SOFC te c h n o lo g ie s would be b e t t e r
lo n g -te rm can didate s f o r a d o p tio n . Both o f these t e c h n o lo g ie s have
r e c e iv e d in crea sed a t t e n t i o n in th e R&D community o f l a t e . T h i r d , these
two t e c h n o lo g ie s c ould p o t e n t i a l l y make use o f a v a r i e t y o f f u e l sources
a v a i l a b l e in the r e f i n e r y such as o ff- g a s e s and coke. The PAFC technology
r e q u i r e s n a t u r a l gas o r hydrogen, a f u e l t h a t has grown i n v alue t h a t f a r
exceeds t h a t o f n a t u r a l gas i t s e l f .
S tates w i t h la r g e c a p a c i ty and r e l a t i v e l y high i n d u s t r i a l e l e c t r i c a l r a t e s

would appear t o be p o t e n t i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e markets f o r f u e l c e l l s . The
s t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , L o u is ia n a , and Texas comprise n e a r l y 60% o f U.S.
r e f i n i n g c a p a c i t y and in two o f the th r e e have r e l a t i v e l y h igh e l e c t r i c
ra te s. E l e c t r i c r a t e s are f o r e c a s t t o d r a m a t i c a l l y in cre a s e i n th e t h i r d ,
and a l l face h ig h e r p r i c e s in th e f u t u r e due t o new p l a n t expansion coming
on l i n e , n u c le a r r a t e shocks, and h ig h e r n a t u ra l gas p r i c e s - - e s p e c i a l l y
t r u e f o r Texas and L o u is ia n a where much o f e x i s t i n g e l e c t r i c c a p a c i ty is
g a s -fire d . Texas and C a l i f o r n i a are consid ered two o f the more s u p p o rtiv e
s t a t e s - - b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y and r a t e s t r u c t u r e w i s e - - f o r c o g e n e ra tio n .
By examining again F ig . 1, and c o n s id e rin g t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y p r i c e s could
e a s i l y be 2 t o 3 i/kWh h ig h e r than the " b a s e - l in e GTCC re fe r e n c e l i n e s ,
then f u e l c e l l s lo o k more pro m is in g even a t h ig h e r c a p i t a l c o s t s .
However, th e GTCC te ch n o lo g y appears t o be a d i f f i c u l t c o m p e t it o r and w i l l
l i k e l y remain so f o r a number o f yea rs.
References
1. J. H. A l t s e i m e r , F. Roach, J. A. Anderson, and C. A. Mangeng, "The

P o t e n t ia l A p p l i c a t i o n o f Fuel C e lls in the C h l o r - A l a l i I n d u s t r y , "
Department o f Energy r e p o r t D0E/MC/A146-1986 (Los Alamos N a tion al
L a b o ra to ry r e p o r t LA-10516-MS) August 1985.
2. R. W. H a rdie , " B i c y c l e I I : A Computer Code f o r C a l c u l a t i n g L e v e liz e d

L i f e - C y c l e C o s ts , " Los Alamos N a tio n a l L a b o ra to ry r e p o r t LA-8909
(November 1981).
3. J. H. Gary and G. E. Handwerk, Petroleum R e fi n in g Technology and

Economics, 2nd Ed., Revised and Expanded, M. Dekker, I n c . , New York
and Basel (1984).
4. L. L. Gaines and A. M, Wolsky, "Energy and M a t e r i a l Flows in Petroleum

R e f i n i n g , " Argonne N a tio n a l La bo ratory r e p o r t ANL/CNSV-10 (Febru ary
I9 8 I).
35 7
FUEL CELL INTEGRATION WITH RENEWABLE POWER TECHNOLOGIES;
SOME TECHNICAL POSSIBILITIES AND POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Fred Sissine
Science Policy Research Division
Congressional Research Service
Library of Congress
Washington, D.C. 20540
Changing wind speeds and solar insolation levels can cause the
power output of wind and solar-electric technologies to vary drama
tically from minute-to-minute and from day-to-day. This problem of
output variability is a major constraint on the number of appl ic a
tions and the energy contribution which can be derived from wind
and solar-electric technologies.
Fuel cells have recently demonstrated a capability to acco mo

date rapidly changing power demands, and may offer new hope for sol
ving the output variability problem. This suggests that their com
bination with renewable power technologies could yield a system
which produces firm power and derives much of its energy from renew
able resources. Such complementarity could enhance the at tractive
ness of windfarms and other solar operations to electric utilities.
It could also spawn a new generation of firm power technologies for
rural and isolated areas. However, there are three technical pr ob
lems which must be addressed in order to prove that fuel cells can
be successfully integrated with wind and solar electric technologies.
First, although the Gas Research Institute field tests have

shown that small fuel cells can follow commercial building loads,
the adequacy of these designs to match the more erratic output pat
terns of wind machines and windfarms is yet to be demonstrated. For
applications in isolated environments, there is the additional pr ob
lem of meeting a variable demand. Although the fuel cell stack is
able to respond almost instantaneously to any load condition, the
fuel reformer has a much slower response rate. The current design
of reformers may not be able to produce hydrogen-enriched gas quickly
enough to respond to fast-changing wind outputs and load demands.
Second, the technological requirements for integrating fuel

cells with wind and other renewable energy technologies remain to be
explored. In order to coordinate the fuel cell's output with the
wind output, an integrated system will require some connecting equip
ment which would likely include a power handling device and a m i cro
processor control apparatus. Also, research is needed to determine
the most appropriate configuration of the system for particular
358
c l i m a t i c and g e o g r a p h ic c o n d i t i o n s . The p r im a r y g o a l o f t h i s e f f o r t
i s t o o p t im iz e th e b a la n c e among c o m p o n e n ts w h i l e m in im iz in g c a p i t a l
and o p e r a t in g c o s t s . T h is w o u ld p r i m a r i l y i n v o l v e a d e t e r m in a t i o n
o f th e ty p e s ( w in d , s o l a r , b a t t e r i e s , e t c . ) and s iz e s ( 2 0 - k w , 4 0 -k w ,
100-k.w ) o f c o m p o n e n ts th r o u g h c o m p u te r s i m u l a t i o n and f i e l d t e s t s .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , b y v a r y in g th e s i z e o f th e re n e w a b le e n e r g y t e c h n o l o
g ie s and th e f u e l s t o r a g e m e c h a n is m , t h i s r e s e a r c h c o u ld y i e l d d a ta
on how t o manage th e f u e l i n v e n t o r y a t m inim um c o s t . F in a lly ,
r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d on e q u ip m e n t f o r th e i n t e g r a t e d s y s te m t h a t
w o u ld e n a b le th e l o c a l e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y t o d is p a t c h i t when i t s
o u tp u t i s ne eded .
T h i r d , i t has n o t y e t be en shown w h e th e r f u e l c e l l s ca n co m p e te
e c o n o m ic a lly w i t h d i e s e l e n g in e s as an o u t p u t - l e v e l i n g d e v ic e f o r
re n e w a b le p o w e r t e c h n o l o g i e s . DO E's W ind E n e rg y P ro g ra m i s c u r r e n t l y
s u p p o r t in g r e s e a r c h on i n t e g r a t e d w i n d - d i e s e l s y s te m s , g i v i n g t h i s
te c h n o lo g y a h e a d s t a r t o n i n t e g r a t e d w i n d - f u e l c e l l s y s te m s . F o r
e ig n d e v e lo p m e n ts i n i n t e g r a t e d w i n d - d i e s e l s y s te m s a ls o h a v e a he ad
s t a r t on i n t e g r a t e d w i n d - f u e l c e l l s y s te m s . W in d - d ie s e l s y s te m s
may h a v e an a d d i t i o n a l edge b e c a u s e b o th u t i l i t i e s and i s o l a t e d
u s e r s a r e m ore f a m i l i a r w i t h d i e s e l p o w e r e q u ip m e n t th a n th e y a r e
w ith f u e l c e l l s . B u t p e rh a p s th e m o s t im p o r t a n t a d v a n ta g e w o r k in g
f o r d i e s e l s i s t h e i r much lo w e r c a p i t a l c o s t , e v e n when com p a re d
w i t h p r o j e c t e d c o s t s f o r th e 2 0 0 -k w p h o s p h o r ic a c id f u e l c e l l s b e in g
n e g o t ia t e d b e tw e e n gas u t i l i t i e s and I n t e r n a t i o n a l F u e l C e l l s , I n c .
359
FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF ON-SITE FUEL CELLS
FOR A GAS UTILITY
STEVE KNABLE
GAS RESEARCH INSTITUTE
An abstract of this presentation was not available at press

time. Copies will be provided to attendees at the Seminar.
360
P O T E N T I A L OF F U E L C E L L A P P L I C A T I O N S F O R
D E C E N T R A L I Z E D P O W E R G E N E R A T I O N IN I N D I A
J .D .P a n d y a
F e 11 o V/
lata En e r g y R e s e a r c h Ins ti tut e
7 , Jor B a g h
New Delhi 110003 INDIA
E n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n is an i n d e x o f a c o u n t r y ' s e c o n o m i c
d e v e l o p m e n t . It h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t if t h e e c o n o m i c
growth r a t e s in I n d i a a r e to be in t h e r a n g e o f 5 - 6 ?o, the
e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y s u p p l y w o u l d h a v e to i n c r e a s e f o u r - f o l d in
t h e n e x t 20 y e a r s . The tot al i n s t a l l e d e l e c t r i c i t y g eneraticn
c a p a c i t y in t h e c o u n t r y w a s m e r e l y 2 , 3 0 0 m W in 1 950. S i n c e
t h e n a n i m p r e s s i v e g r o w t h by a f a c t o r o f 30 h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d
T he t o t a l i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y as on M a r c h 31, 1 9 8 5 w a s
4 2 , 7 7 1 MW. T a b l e 1 g i v e s a b r e a k u p o f t h e i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y
as p e r t h e m o d e o f g e n e r a t i o n . A s is s e e n f r o m the t a b l e ,
I n d i a r e l i e s h e a v i l y on h y d r o ( 3 2 a n d c o a l f i r e d ( 6 3 ?o)
thermal power stations.
lABLE 1
INSTALLED UTILITY POWER GENERATING CAPACITY IN INDIA
Mode of Generation Capacity (MW)
Coal 27080
Hydro 1 3856
Nuclear 1 0 95
G as 561
Diesel 179
Total 42771
The d e m a n d f o r p o w e r , h o w e v e r , h a s o u t s t r i p p e d its
a v a i l a b i l i t y . T h e p e r i o d s of c o m f o r t a b l e p o w e r s u p p l y
p o s i t i o n g e n e r a l l y n o t i c e d s o o n a f t e r t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g of
new g e n e r a t i n g c ap a c i t y are s u c c e s s i v e l y b e c o m i n g sho r t en ed
a n d t h e n e w c a p a c i t y is b e i n g u t i l i s e d a l m o s t as s o o n as the
c o m m i s s i o n i n g is o v e r . T h e r a t e of g r o w t h in e l e c t r i c i t y
c o n s u m p t i o n w h i c h a v e r a g e d 12.7?i p e r a n n u m ( c o m p o u n d e d )
d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e 1 9 5 0 - 6 0 c a m e d o w n d r a s t i c a l l y to 6.54?i in
t h e p e r i o d 1 9 7 0 - 8 0 . The s h a r p d e c l i n e in t he g r o w t h r a t e of
e l e c t r i c i t y c o n s u m p t i o n d u r i n g the r e c e n t y e a r s c a n be
l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t e d to w i d e s p r e a d p o w e r s h o r t a g e s a c c e n t u a t e d
by t h e s h o r t f a l l in a c h i e v e m e n t o f t a r g e t s s e t for i n s t a l l i n g
n ew g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y , f r e q u e n t m o n s o o n f a i l u r e and
t r a n s p o r t b o t t l e n e c k s in c o a l m o v e m e n t . A p a r t f r o m t h i s , the
g r o w t h o f t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m h a s not
m a t c h e d the e x p a n s i o n of pow er g e n e r a t i o n ca pa cit y, thereby
a f f e c t i n g b o t h t h e q u a l i t y a n d the r e l i a b i l i t y of p o w e r
s u p pl y. The p r e s e n t p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n
l o s s e s a v e r a g e 2 0 ?o as a g a i n s t l e s s t h a n 1 0 % in t h e d e v e l o p e d
c o u n t r i e s m a i n l y d u e to t h e l o w e r d e n s i t y o f p o w e r d e m a n d .
361
J .D .P A ND Y A
-2-
l o n g e r d i s t a n c e s a n d t he l ow t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e s . T he
g r o w t h in e l e c t r i c i t y c o n s u m p t i o n d u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e ,
t h e r e f o r e , a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t s t he g r o w t h o f a v a i l a b i l i t y of
p o w e r r a t h e r t h a n d e m a n d for it. T he c o n t i n u e d r e s t r i c t i o n s
on t he u s e o f e l e c t r i c i t y h a s u n d o u b t e d l y a f f e c t e d t h e
industrial and ag ricultural development of the c o un tr y .
An i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e of t h e p o w e r s c e n a r i o in I n d i a is the
e x t r e m e l y low per c a p i t a c o n s u m p t i o n of e l e c t r i c i t y
p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e r u r a l a r e a s . The p e r c a p i t a e l e c t r i c a l
e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n in t he c o u n t r y w a s a b o u t 2 5 0 k W h in 1 985.
It is c l e a r t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c i t y c o n s u m p t i o n w o u l d h a v e to
be e n h a n c e d a n d t h e r e f o r e , it s a v a i l a b i l i t y , if e c o n o m i c
a c t i v i t y , p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d i n c o m e s a r e to be i n c r e a s e d . A
l a r g e p a r t o f I n d i a is n ot yet c o v e r e d by an e l e c t r i c n e t w o r l
However, even wh ere e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n has r e a c h e d , e l e c t r i c i t y
s u p p l y is n o t o n l y u n r e l i a b l e a n d e r r a t i c , b u t h a s a l s o
p r o v e d u n e c o n o m i c a l for i s o l a t e d a n d d i s p e r s e d s e t t l e m e n t s .
T h i s is on a c c o u n t o f t he h i g h i n c r e m e n t a l c o s t of d i s t r i b u t
i on on the o n e h a n d , a n d l o w l o a d f a c t o r s , r e s u l t i n g f r o m
v e r y l ow p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r on t he o t h e r . T he u s e of d i e s e l
for s m a l l - s c a l e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n a n d k e r o s e n e for l i g h t i n g
h a v e i n c r e a s e d o v e r t h e p a s t f ew y e a r s . H o w e v e r , t h e i r
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s for d e c e n t r a l i z e d s u p p l y a r e v e r y h i g h
and the s u p p l i e s are u n r e l i a b l e and e r r a t i c . T h es e f u el s
c o u l d be u s e d m o r e g a i n f u l l y in e n e r g y e f f i c i e n t m o d e r n
p l a n t a n d e g u i p m e n t , if s u i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s for d e c e n t r a l i
zed p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n are found.
T he n o n - c o m m e r c i a l f o r m s of e n e r g y ( f u e l w o o d , a g r i c u l t u r a l
r e s i d u e s a n d a n i m a l w a s t e s ) s t i l l p r o v i d e for m o r e t h a n 8 0 ?o
of t h e t o t a l e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s in r u r a l a n d o v e r 5 0 ?o in
urban households. T h o u g h the n o n - c o m m e r c i a l e n e r g y s o u r c e s
a r e o b t a i n e d at p r a c t i c a l l y 'zer o' f i n a n c i a l c o s t , t h e y a re
u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v e r y h i g h s o c i a l c o s t s on a c c o u n t
of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n c a u s e d by t h e m . Not only
do t h e y c r e a t e an i m b a l a n c e in t he e c o s y s t e m s , t h e y a r e
u t i l i z e d at v e r y p o o r e f f i c i e n c i e s . Of a l l t h e n e w e r v i s t a s
in p o w e r p l a n n i n g , f ue l c e l l s o f f e r o n e of t h e b e s t a n d the
m o s t e f f i c i e n t e n e r g y t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t o v e r c o m e s the
i n h e r e n t i l l s o f th e c e n t r a l g r i d s y s t e m , a n d m a n y a
p r o b l e m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e n e r a t i o n of e l e c t r i c i t y from
f o s s i l f u e l s . In r u r a l a n d s e m i u r b a n a r e a s , b i o g a s c a n n ot
o n l y s e r v e for c o o k i n g , b u t c a n a l s o b e u t i l i s e d for
electricity generation. In t he c o n t e x t o f a v a s t n e t w o r k
o f b i o g a s p l a n t s in I n d i a , d o v e t a i l i n g f u e l c e l l t e c h n o l o g y
w i t h t h e s i m p l e b i o g a s s y s t e m c o u l d r e s u l t in a s e l f
sustained decentralized energy system catering effectively
to t he d i v e r s e c o n s u m p t i o n n e e d s of a p a r t i c u l a r area,
h o w s o e v e r l o w t h e l o a d f a c t o r m a y be.
T he p r e v a i l i n g e n e r g y s c e n a r i o d e m a n d s n e w s t r a t e g i e s for
e n e r g y a n d p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y to p r o v i d e a m o d i c u m
of s u b s t a n t i a l e n e r g y s u p p l i e s to t h e m i l l i o n s in the
362
J .D . P A N D Y A
-3-
c o u n t r y s i d e . F u e l c e l l p o w e r p l a n t s o p e r a t i n g on l o c a l l y
a v a i l a b l e fuels, t h e r e f o r e , can b e c o m e the mo st c r u c i a l
f a c t o r in p o w e r p l a n n i n g in t he c o u n t r y . Ihe p o t e n t i a l
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f u e l s for p h o s p h o r i c a c i d f u e l c e l l s w a s
e x a m i n e d in d e t a i l . T h r e e f u e l s , n a m e l y , n a t u r a l gas,
e th an o l and bi og a s have been found s u i t a b l e with spe ci fi c
r e f e r e n c e to I n d i a n c o n d i t i o n s . B i o g a s is m a i n l y p r o d u c e d
f r o m a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n of a n i m a l w a s t e s in I n d i a . W h e r e a s
e t h a n o l is p r o d u c e d by f e r m e n t a t i o n of m o l a s s e s . O t h e r
b i o m a s s f e e d s t o c k s fo r p r o d u c t i o n of b i o g a s a n d e t h a n o l h as
now b ee n a s u b j e c t of w i de d i s c u s s i o n . T a bl e 2 sh o ws total
p o t e n t i a l a n d e s t i m a t e d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f v a r i o u s f u e l s for
PAFC applicatio ns .
TABLE 2
TOTAL PO TE NTI AL AND E S T I M A T E D A V A I L A B I L I T Y

OF V A R I O U S F U E L S F O R P A F C
Fuel Total p o t en tia l Estimated Total

a v a i l a b i l i t y per availability potential
annum for P A F C for P A F C
installat
i on ( MW ;
Natural Gas 15000 M m ’ 750 M m ’ 500

Ethanol 1 6 . 4 7 Mt 8.235 500
8 io g a s 20,000 M m ’ 8000 M m ’ 3000
T he c o s t o f e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t i o n u s i n g f u e l c e l l s w a s
c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r o p t i o n s for d e c e n t r a l i z e d e l e c t r i c i t y
g e n e r a t i o n s u c h as p h o t o v o l t a i c a n d w i n d t u r b i n e s . T h o u g h
the f u e l c e l l o p t i o n is f o u n d to be a t t r a c t i v e a s c o m p a r e d
to o t h e r d e c e n t r a l i z e d o p t i o n s , t h e c o s t o f f u e l c e l l
s t a c k h a s to be r e d u c e d to a b o u t $ 1 0 0 0 / k W to p r o v i d e
e l e c t r i c i t y at c o m p e t i t i v e p r i c e t h a n c e n t r a l g r i d s u p p l y .
H o w e v e r , g i v e n t h e r a p i d g r o w t h in d e m a n d for p o w e r in the
c o u n t r y a n d t he i n c r e a s i n g c a p i t a l i n t e n s i t y a n d p e a k to
b a s e l o a d p o w e r r a t i o , it is u n l i k e l y t h a t th e g r o w i n g
g a p b e t w e e n d e m a n d a n d s u p p l y w o u l d be r e d u c e d . The p r e s e n t
s i t u a t i o n o f f e r s a m p l e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for t he a p p l i c a t i o n of
s m a l l s i z e d ( 1 0 - 2 0 0 kW) f u e l c e l l s . A f i e l d demonstration
p r o j e c t s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n to c a r r y o u t a s i t e s p e c i f i c
t e c h n o - e c o n o m i c f e a s i b i l i t y of f u e l c e l l b i o g a s / e t h a n o l
s y s t e m in I n d i a .
36 3
N A X T O N A T . FIJKT- 012 F R O C 3 R A M ANT> JXS
Ar*r»l^TOAXTON I N TNOONK^; IA A
F»ROF*OSKD F»ROGFJLAM
M€‘i ri os Moechiar
Directorate for Ene r g y C o n v e r s i o n and C o n s e r v a t i o n
RPP Teknolog i
Jl. M . H . T h a m r i n 8 , 14t.h F l o o r
J a k a r t a 10340, I n d o n e s i a
T.M. Soelaiman
D e p artment of E 1 e (irieal E n g i n e e r i n g
I n a t i t u t e of Techn<jlogy ^ B a n d u n g (TTE)
J 1 . G a n e s h a 10
Bandung, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the long-term proposed program of a

N a t i o n a l Fuel Cell technical c a p a b i l i t y and a p p l i c a t i o n in
I n d o n e s i a . T h e p r o p o s a l f o r t h i s p r o g r a m w i l l b e p rejjared b y
an Indonesia Fuel Cell Group which is consisted of
r e s e a r c h e r s , s c i e n t i s t s , e n t e r p r e n e u rs , g o v e r n m e n t . offit:ial,
p o t e n t i a l users, and i n t e r e s t e d foreign c o u n t e r - p a r t s .
T h e f i r s t g o a l o f t h i s p r o g r a m is to a c q u i r e , analyze, and
d o c u m e n t o f f u e l r e s o u r c e s d a t a in I n d o n e s i a . In t h i s t a s k ,
there will also be a study on ihe fuel coll market
penetration in Indonesia. The other sub-programs will be
e m p h a s i z e d on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e c h n i c a l c : a p a b i l i t y .
INTRODUCTION
T h e p r o b l e m on p r o v i d i n g e n e r g y in I n d o n e s i a is s t i l l on<.'
t h a t c a n n o t b e s o l v e d y e t , a l t h o u g h I n d o n e s i a h a s m a n y po
t e n s i a l e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s , s u c h as f o s s i l f u e l s ( oil, n a t u r a l
gas, c o a l ) , h y d r o p o w e r , s o l a r e n e r g y , b i o m a s s , e t c .
This problem is not only caused b y th<i limitation of

national income, but also on the technological know ho w,
geographical conditions, inefficient conventional power
supply, etc. Therefore, a technology adoption on the new
energy conversion devices, e s p o c : i a l l y o n e w h ir:h h a s b r i g h t
prospects, s h o u l d be implemented for t h e b e n e f i t s o f this
country.
In r e a l i z a t i o n o n e o f t h e p r o s p e c t e d n e w ent'rgy c o n ver s ion

technologies, a National Fuel Cell Program for’ ifidonesLci
will be proposed by a Fuel Ccl I G r o u p . This group will
consist of a small g r o u p o f e x p o r t s w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
a n d k n o w l e d g e o f f u e l c e l l p h e n o m e n a a n d d e v i c e s , f uel c eil
systems and sub-systems, fuel r e s o u r c e s in I n d o n e s i a , fuel
c e l l m a r k e t s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s in I n d o n e s i a , a n d t h e pit*sent
status of fuel cell t e c h n o l o g y on a w o r l d - w i d e basis. In
o r d e r to b u i l d up t h i s c a p a b i l i t y , t h e F uel C e l l G r o u p mus t
establish several sub-programs which each of 1 liero will
364
M('ir i.js M( i <'{• li 1 .1 r - ukI T.M. SorlHinirin
i n (• i u f l <' s { Mr f 11o V (' I ( ) {>ni(' ri I , f \ i <• i ! i I y : u j 11 • • cj u i pi n<' n t s r ' •'

q ij L t eiif <• n t , r- e'' u j r e d h ti d g ’ c t ,<* x j m *i I ed s «' h r d u L , o I .
T his pJogi'Min is ;j ( ils i n i t i >i I st;ig(* and g o vorrii i n-Mi I ’ s

a j’p ro v a J niu si s t i l l ho o b la in o d as w<?ll as i i i t e r o s i among
t h s c i o n ! i s I si n I n d o n r>s i a . 1n f o r t to h o 1p I n d o ii <>s i a in
th is fii'spc'rt has hcên s h o w n .
PROGHAM OB.JKCTIVKS
' th(' gfMHMa I o b j f ' c l ivc' o (' th is prograni i s. to c'stablish I lu'

n t M o s s a I y c a p a h i 1 i t i o s w h i c li w i l l p f o v i d<' t h e re quired focus
a/jd f ' oru/H I ' or t oclni i ca 1 and s t a f f d o v c 1opi Hon t in the f i c* 1 d
of fuoi {f'llto(h n olo gy a n d a j q ) I i <■a 1 i o n in Indonesia. Those
<I p ; d ) i I i t i OS a r c * d i v i do d into s ix k (' y a r » ' a s w ith t ho i r
s p e (• i f i t f.d:) j e <: t i v o s i n o 1. u d o :
1. A c c j u i r i n g , a n a l y z i n g a n d d<x* ui D<’ n l i n g f u e l rc;sourc:es da ta

The object ive of th is .sub p r c j g i a m is to develop the
' a p r d) i I i t y to a c (jn i i ( ' , a n a l y z e ' ..m d d o o ui no ii 1 d a t a of t ti (•
fuel tesoufces w h i < - h c a n l)o expected meet the fuel c ol]
i; V s t (' m s p ec - i f i <s j t i o n s for a pp I M a t i o n i rt 1 n d o n e s i a .
2. Im plem entation o f fu e l c e ll demo p l a n t - The gonoral oh

Jc' < Ii v f ' of th is sill) program is to d c' l no n s t r a t c' the
s u i I at ) i ] i t y of f u <' 1 <. ( ' 1 1 u t i l i z a t i o n s as a ni (?ans o f
a f'h i ('V i n g r* I I ' o t r i f i c a I i o n and sat i s f y i n go M u ' r n ofxls ,
such as lloMmal onrMgy, I. r<.‘ t od w ater, (.'I. c .
d. A c q u irin g a f a c i l i t y fo r tt's lin g fuel cc^ll syst('m*s com

ponents - Th <' (.>hjoctive of th is task i .s to provid
iriforinat ion to manu f a c t u c ( ' i s and users of Inc! cc'll sys
terns and compoiu^nls w h ic h w ill ensure that fuel c e ll
hardware' used in Indoru'sia mt'ots ('s t ah 1 i slic'd standi-ud
for p('r f o r n i a n c e and r e l i a b i l i t y . In o r d e r to be su ccess
fu I , t h i s sut) p r o g r a m m u s t ultiinatc'ly include tire dc'
veldpment of commun I ca I 1 o n s chaniK'ls w ith l h<> i n t e r ' e s t e d
!• a n u f a <• t u r e r s , p o t e n s i n i users, arol s c i o n t i s t s .
1. Kslab 1 isb in g a conlcr o f e x c e lle n c e in fuel c e ll techno

log ics The o l » j e < 1 i VC' of th is t.isk is to e s ta b lis h a
f a c i l i t y t <* c o n d u c t l o s e a r c h pro,j(.‘ c t s l ‘ < . >c u s e d on key
j) r () b 1 c' l ns r e i a I od to fuel ( ( ' I I I (' c h n o 1 o g i ( ' s . I n i t i a l l y ,
the prim ary t'oi'us of th is subi T o g r a m wi l l be on PAFC
( P h o s {>h o I' I c A c i d K uc' 1C e l l ; . Other I (' c h n o I o g i I'S w i l l b •'
id e n tifie d and w i l l evolve .as ( h a n g i n g nec'ds and ('C (.)n i> in i c
f a c t o r s modi fy the market scenario.
. Supporting the design and a n a l y s i s of fuel c e ll a p p lica

tio n s The objc'cM i v e of thi s sub [)rogiam is to dcvelojj
and s u s t a i n a base o f e x p e rtis e in the p r in c ip le s , to o ls,
a n d n u 'I h o d o 1 o g 1 e s of fuel ci'I 1 .system d e s i g n w)ii()i wi l l
perm it the fuel c e ll la h o ra lo ry to a( t a s a resoum'e for
Indonesia ma n u f a c t u r c ' r s and usc'rs o f sin h s y s t e m s .
365
Meirios Moechtar and T.M. Soelaiman
3 '
An a l y z i n g the data from test and demo i n s t a l l a t i o n s - This

s u b p r o g r a m h a s i h e m a j o r o b j e c t i v e o f p r o v i d i n g d a t a on
the porfotmanre of operating fuel cell systems. The
subsidiary objectives include : analyzing the data to
identify trends, problems areas and specific factors
contributing to f a i l u r e s ; d o c u m e n t i n g and disseminating
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , et c. T h i s c a p a b i l i t y w i l l b e o f h e l p f o r
designers, manufacturers, suppliers and users in
i m p r o v i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e of s u b s e q u e n t l y f i e l d e d s y s t e m s
ud c o m p o n e n t s .
PROGRAM OVERVIEW
T h e fo( us o f t li is p r o g r a m d u r i n g t h e f i r s t y e a r w i l l b e on
the a c q u i r i n g , a n a l y z i n g an d d o c u m e n t i n g of fuel resources
data in Indonf'sia. Other- activities which will also be
conducted are introducing the fuel cell power plant
advantages, (establishing communication channel with
i>ot('nsial u s e r s , preparing a s t u d y on t h e f u e l c e l l m a r k e t
penetrcition w h i c h will intrludr* t h e t e c h n i c a l , e c o n o m i c a l a n d
e n V i r'o n m e n t a 1 a s p e c t s .
In t he further v(‘a r s , the activities will he. mainly

emphasLzed on the technical capability development, as
rummarized on tabic; 1. For the whole ac'tivities, ihe
estimated budget. is amount to US$ 1.86 M (year 1985),
i n c l u d ( “d for <‘qui j)ment, training, building, and
m is e e 1 l a n e o u s .
KUTIJRK O U T L O O K
As the; N a t i o n a l F uel C e l l P r o g r a m is b e i n g d e v e l o p e d , it is
also needed to assess on t h e prospect of fuel cell
a p p I icat io ns in lndt>ni;sia. T h erefore', the efforts to
introduce the advantages on fuel cell power system
impli'me nt at ion in Indonesia should be performed by
e.'s t ab 1 i s h i n g the communication channel with i ts possibly
pot('us ia l u s e r s e i t h e r o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p r i v a t e secrtors.
In doing so, the t e c h n i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a l a s s e s s m e n t on t h i s

: .i ibj< s h o u l d bc' u n d (ertaken. A l s o , a n o t h e r a s p e c t h a s to bo
(.-t
I a k f'n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i.e. environmental aspect, since

flier c w i l l bc> a r e g u l a t i o n on the environment protection
w h i I'h w i l l bc expired on J u l y 1987. So that, it is very
inl'Tcsled in e s t a b l i s h i n g this assessment since t he
api>licat ion of fuel cell pl a n t can be e x p e c t e d meet those
<isf)«M.-ls, e sp(‘c i a l l y if the; t a r g e t s on its capital
costs, life time and heat rate can be r e a c h e d in t h e n e a r
fu 1 u r c .
Thf' p r o j e < ( if)u on th(' fue l c('1 1 a p p l i c a t i o n in Indonesia is

s u m m a r i z e d on t a b l e 2 b e l o w :
366
Meirios Moechtar and T.M. So ('lainian
- 4 -
Table 2. Prejeetion on FucPI Cell Ap{> I ieat ion
A p p ] i c; n t i o n F u e l (I n i t r: a p a f: i t y n (■ m a r k K
1 . P o w e r S t a t i o n C o a l , 1. N G > fin 0 MW A t o II f r t; y
r e s o u r c e
2 . r n d o s t r i a I L N G , L P G 2 2 6 MW c o - g e n -
3 . R u r a l E l e c t . B { o m a r. r. 7 0 - 2 0 0 k w S t a n d A 1 o ri e
4 . U r b a n E l e c t r N G , L P G 2 - i n n MW I n t e r C o n n
S . T r a n n p o r t M e i r> a n o 1 , f : N G 1 2 2 0 MW s t a n d A ) o It f*
Th e p r o s p e c t of fuel cc'l 1 n p p I ical ion in f n d o n e s i a is oir.o

interested if it is seen from v i e w of point. of its
population and projc?eted eiK‘r4 (y ronsiimpt ion in a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Prog' ia m ( P K f l T A ) in Indone.sin.
The p o p u l a t i o n In the* e n d o f nex t decade' is i>r(-'d icl ed w i i I
be of m o r e than 200 m i l l i o n peo])le. A n d at the fsame } imc,
the proj(K:ted c'nc*r^fy c on s u m p t i on/c'ap i I a / y *'a r is a l o u t
k W H o r t o t a l l y is at r a t e o f 100 T W H . M e anwhi le^, t he prcsc'nt
p o p u l a t i o n a n d e n e r g y c o n s u m p t ion arc* 1G7 m i l l ion pc'op 1 e a nd
a b o u t 80 k W H / c a p i t a / y e a r r e s p e c t i v e l y .
367
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Project Dereo Plant - Deno Plant - Continue of - Continue of - Continue of - Services Ac - Continue of - Continue of
Data Collec Demo Data Deno Plant Demo Plant tivities for Teste Cval. All Projects
tion/Analy Collection - Testing of - Develop Stds industry Progrw from Previous
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PAFC Device
THE PC23 FUEL CELL - A STRATEGIC ALTERNATIVE
L a w r e n c e M. H a n d l e y G e o r g e W. M a y
I n t e r n a t i o n a l F u e l C e l l s Corp. B e c h t e l N a t i o n a l , Inc.
South Windsor, CT 05074 S a n F r a n c i s c o , C A 94 1 1 9
For m any electric utilities, today's business climate is

ha r s h and uncertain. R e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s n o w t e n d to p e n a l
ize u t i l i t i e s that build plants whi c h are n o t " u s e d and
u s e f u l , " b u t l o a d g r o w t h v a r i e s w i t h an u n p r e d i c t a b l e e c o n o
my. Increasingly stringent environmental regulations can
le a d to e x t e n s i v e d elays. V a r i a t i o n s in t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d
p r i c e o f fuel or p u r c h a s e d p o w e r m a y s u b j e c t a u t i l i t y to
prudency rev i e w s . Meanwhile, high interest rates make
l o n g - t e r m c o n s t r u c t i o n an e x p e n s i v e a n d r i s k y p r o p o s i t i o n .
In t h e f a c e of t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , utilities have limited

op t i o n s . O n e v e r y a t t r a c t i v e o p t i o n is to a d d s h o r t - l e a d
ti m e c a p a c i t y in s mall i n c r e m e n t s as n e e d e d a n d in a f o r m
w h i c h is a c c e p t a b l e to b o t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s a n d r e g u l a t o r s .
Fuel cell po w e r p l a n t s can be built in small, efficient

bl o c k s . B e c a u s e of t h e i r a t t r a c t i v e environmental charac
teristics, l i c e n s i n g a n d s i t i n g are s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . Fuel
ce l l p l a n t s c a n b e f a c t o r y - p r o d u c e d in v olume, a s s e m b l e d into
t r u c k - t r a n s p o r t a b l e e q u i p m e n t p a c k a g e s , d r o p p e d o n t o p a d s at
p r e - e n g i n e e r e d sites, a n d i n t e r c o n n e c t e d w i t h m i n i m u m o n - s i t e
c o n s t r u c t i o n -- all of w h i c h t r a n s l a t e s i n t o a l e a d t i m e of
about 2 years fo r production unit s . The combination of
small-capacity increments with short lead times enables
u t i l i t i e s to m a t c h c a p a c i t y i n c r e m e n t s w i t h s y s t e m needs.
Th e r a p i d l o a d r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i e s o f fuel c e l l s h a v e
recently attracted attention because they offer leveraged
p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n c o s t savings. A small p e r c e n t a g e of d i s
p e r s e d f uel c e l l c a p a c i t y in an e l e c t r i c u t i l i t y s y s t e m c a n
i m p r o v e t he e c o n o m i c s of t h e w h o l e system. F uel c e l l p l a n t s
c a n h e l p s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h t h e r a p i d r e s p o n s e p o r t i o n of the
operating reserve requirements, liberating baseload plants
fr o m t h i s duty. In t h i s way, fuel c e l l s c a n m a x i m i z e u s e of
b a s e l o a d p l a n t s fo r b u l k p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n . In addi t i o n , the
b a s e l o a d p l a n t s -- f o s s i l o r h y d r o e l e c t r i c -- c a n n o w r u n at
t h e i r o p t i m u m h e a t r a t e s or "b e s t g a t e s . " Maintenance needs
of t h e b a s e l o a d e q u i p m e n t are reduced. In an e x a m p l e 5000-
m e g a w a t t system, th e a d d i t i o n of 5 p e r c e n t fuel c e l l c a p a c i t y
sa v e s b e t w e e n 4 p e r c e n t a n d 7 p e r c e n t of the u t i l i t y ' s t o t a l
a n n u a l p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n cost.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l F u e l C e l l s is d e s i g n i n g a n d d e v e l o p i n g a n e w
fuel c e l l p o w e r plant, d e s i g n a t e d t h e PC23, for sale to
utilities. T h e P C 2 3 is a comp l e t e , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d g e n e r a t i n g
p l a n t w h i c h c o n v e r t s n a t u r a l g a s or l i q u i d h y d r o c a r b o n fuel
in t o t h r e e - p h a s e p o w e r at the u t i l i t y ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n v o l t a g e .
It p r o d u c e s 11 m e g a w a t t s n e t ac at a h e a t rat e of 8 3 0 0
B t u / k i l o w a t t - h o u r . T h e PC2 3 h a s t h e f a s t r e s p o n s e a n d g o o d
369
HANDLEY AND MAY
- 2 -
p a r t - p o w e r e f f i c i e n c y n e e d e d b y an i n t e r m e d i a t e g e n e r a t o r .
I n i t i a l p l a n t s w i l l b e b u i l t to o p e r a t e on a v a i l a b l e f u e l s --
natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons. As o t h e r f u e l s -- coal
gases, landfill gas, digester gases -- become av a i l a b l e ,
t h e s e p l a n t s c a n be a d a p t e d to u s e them. H e a t f r o m the p l a n t
c a n b e r e c o v e r e d ; in t h i s w a y u p to 80 p e r c e n t of t h e fuel
e n ergy c an be utilized. A t 11 m e g a w a t t s , the P C23 p r o v i d e s
u s e r s w i t h a p r a c t i c a l g e n e r a t i o n i n c r e m e n t at an a c c e p t a b l e
level of investment.
B a s e d o n the e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d in 25 y e a r s of fuel c e l l p o w e r
plant development, the P C 2 3 is a r e a s o n a b l e e x t e n s i o n of
d e m o n strated technology. T h e l e s s o n s l e a r n e d in a s e r i e s of
p l a n t s f r o m th e f i r s t A p o l l o s p a c e c r a f t fuel cel l to the
1 . 0 - m e g a w a t t p i l o t p l a n t in 197 7 to t h e r e c e n t 4.5 m e g a w a t t
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a re b e i n g u s e d to a d v a n t a g e .
T h e s e p r o g r a m s h a v e p r o v e n t h e v i a b i l i t y of m a n y f e a t u r e s
t h a t h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the P C 2 3 design. Factory
m o d u l a r asse m b l y, h i g h e f f i c i e n c y in sm a l l p o w e r i n c r e m e n t s ,
lo w exhaust emission levels, automatic control and m o n i
to r ing, s i t i n g a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n in u r b a n areas, a n d o p e r a t i o n
b y u t i l i t y p e r s o n n e l -- all h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y d e m o n
strated .
O n - g o i n g p r o g r a m s are a i m e d at t r a n s l a t i n g thi s e x p e r i e n c e
into qual i t y hardware that can be m a n u f a c t u r e d economically.
F u e l c e l l c o m p o n e n t s for u s e in p o w e r p l a n t s are c u r r e n t l y
undergoing tes ting. C r i t i c a l s u b s y s t e m s a n d c o m p o n e n t s in
t h e dc m o d u l e , w a t e r t r e a t m e n t system, p o w e r c o n d i t i o n e r , a n d
c o n t r o l s y s t e m w i l l b e s u b j e c t e d to i n d i v i d u a l v e r i f i c a t i o n
tests.
T o p r o v i d e a c o m p l e t e p o w e r p l a n t d e s i g n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h U.S.
u t i l i t y s t a n d a r d s at a m i n i m u m cost, IFC e n t e r e d last yea r
i n t o a c o o p e r a t i v e a g r e e m e n t w i t h B e c h t e l , o n e of t h e w o r l d ' s
most e x p erienced power plant e n g i n e e r s - c o n s t r u c t o r s . Bechtel
c o m p l e m e n t s I F C ' s fuel c e l l c a p a b i l i t i e s b y p r e p a r i n g the
P C 2 3 s t a n d a r d p l a n t a r r a n g e m e n t , d e s i g n i n g a n d f u r n i s h i n g the
s u p p o r t sys t e m s , a n d p r o v i d i n g o n - s i t e i n s t a l l a t i o n services.
T h e P C 2 3 s u p p o r t s y s t e m s to be f u r n i s h e d b y B e c h t e l i n c l u d e
p l a n t fire protection, a u x i l i a r y e l e c t r i c p o w e r s u p p l y and
distribution, a n d p l a n t s e r v i c e system s. Bechtel will use
the same design approach as IFC by developing factory-
a s s e m b l e d , t r u c k - t r a n s p o r t a b l e m o d u l e s f o r t h e s e systems. In
a d d i t i o n , B e c h t e l is a lso r e v i e w i n g t h e o v e r a l l d e s i g n and
a r r a n g e m e n t to e n s u r e c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h u t i l i t y o p e r a t i o n s and
m a i n t e n a n c e p r a c t i c e s as w e l l as s a f e t y a n d q u a l i t y .
F o r t h o s e c a s e s w h e r e local c o n d i t i o n s d i c t a t e c h a n g e s to the
standard d e s i g n, Bechtel will offer PC23 purchasers any
n e c e s s a r y s i t e - s p e c i f i c e n g i n e e r i n g a n d d e s i g n s ervices.
370
HANDLEY AND MAY
- 3 -
IFC and B e c h t e l t o g e t h e r p r o v i d e th e tot al r a n g e of design,

development, manufacturing, installation, and c o m m i s si on i ng
re s o u r c e s .
T h e fuel cell is a p o w e r g e n e r a t o r w h i c h offers a vital

alternative for dealing with m a ny u t i l i t y problems. IFC
pr o p o s e s that utilities, i n d i v i d u a l l y or as r e g i o n a l con
sortia, evaluate first-hand the fuel cell's potential by
p u r c h a s i n g i n i t i a l PC 2 3 p o w e r pl a n t s . For t h i s p u r p ose, IFC
wi l l m a n u f a c t u r e and d e l i v e r p l a n t s o n a f i x e d - p r i c e basis,
w i t h d e l i v e r y s t a r t i n g in 1989. O u r h o p e a n d e x p e c t a t i o n is
t h a t the p r o g r a m w i l l p r o v i d e to u t i l i t i e s the e v i d e n c e of
f uel c ell v i a b i l i t y , which will enable IFC to make the
t r a n s i t i o n to a b o n a fid e s u p p l i e r of r e l i a b l e and e c o n o m i c a l
f uel c ell g e n e r a t i n g e q u i p m e n t . We e x p e c t t h i s p r o g r a m wil l
h a v e a n u m b e r of f e a t u r e s w h i c h w i l l p r o v e u s e f u l b o t h to
u t i l i t i e s a n d to the m a n u f a c t u r e r :
o T h e i n i t i a l p o w e r p l a n t s w i l l h a v e the c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s of th e p r o d u c t i o n u n i t s to follow.
o T h e n u m b e r of i n i t i a l p o w e r p l a n t s wil l be s u f f i
c i e n t to p r o v i d e an o p p o r t u n i t y for a b r o a d s e g m e n t
of u t i l i t i e s to e v a l u a t e fuel c e l l s f i r s t - h a n d in
o r d e r to d e v e l o p the m a r k e t for f u t u r e p r o d u c t i o n
orders.
o Enough hardware will be produced to establish

q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s a n d d o c u m e n t the c o s t s of p r o d u c
tion .
o F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t to v e r i f y the
p e r f o r m a n c e a n d r e l i a b i l i t y of the p o w e r p l a n t and
its c o m p o n e n t s for b o t h u t i l i t i e s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r .
o T h e p r o g r a m w i l l be m a n a g e a b l e financially by both
IFC a n d the u t i l i t i e s .
If t h i s c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n ste p is s u p p o r t e d b y the e l e c t r i c
u t i l i t y i ndust ry, t h e s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e w i l l p o s i t i o n b o t h
t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d u t i l i t y s e g m e n t s for b r o a d u s e of fuel
c e l l s in the 1 9 9 0 ' s.
371
T H E W E S T I N G H O U S E 1.5 M W F U E L C E L L P I L O T P O W E R P L A N T
THE NEXT STEP TO COMMERCIALIZATION
Donald Newby
T he W e s t i n g h o u s e c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n p r o g r a m for a i r - c o o l e d
p h o s p h o r i c a c i d f u e l c e l l s is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a s t a n d a r d
i z e d , f a c t o r y p r o d u c e d 7.5 M W P o w e r Plan t . These plants
s h o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e for c o m m e r c i a l s a l e s in t h e e a r l y
1 9 9 0 's, h o w e v e r , a c c e p t a n c e b y t h e U t i l i t y I n d u s t r y w i l l
r equ i r e f irm o p e r a t i n g and e c onomic data. Westinghouse
b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i s d a t a s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d j o i n t l y w i t h
i n t e r e s t e d U t i l i t i e s to e n s u r e s u i t a b i l i t y f o r t h e i r
decision making process. Additionally, to ensure
a c c e p t a n c e of t h e i r c o m m e r c i a l o f f e r i n g , t h e p l a n t s h o u l d
b e d e v e l o p e d w i t h as b r o a d a s p e c t r u m o f U t i l i t y t e c h n i c a l
i n p u t as p o s s i b l e .
T o a c h i e v e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s , W e s t i n g h o u s e i n t e n d s to
b u i l d a 1.5 M W P i l o t P o w e r P l a n t as t h e n e x t s t e p in
t h e i r c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n progreim a n d is s o l i c i t i n g U t i l i t y
financial and technical participation.
T h e d e s i g n of t h e p l a n t is n o t a s c a l e d d o w n v e r s i o n of
t h e 7.5 M W p l a n t , b u t r a t h e r a c o m p o s i t e of f u l l s i z e
systems and components. T h i s is p o s s i b l e d u e to t h e
a p p r o a c h W e s t i n g h o u s e h a s t a k e n to e n s u r e a h i g h l y
r e l i a b l e 7 .5 M W p l a n t b y b r e a k i n g m o s t m a j o r s y s t e m s i n t o
modules. A s s h o w n in F i g u r e s 1 a n d 2, t h e r e s u l t i n g f l o w
s c h e m a t i c s fo r t h e t w o p l a n t s a r e v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l ,
a l l o w i n g t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e s a m e c o n t r o l r o o m a n d a
full sized rotating equip m e n t system. The fuel processor
s y s t e m w a s l a r g e l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s i z e of
the plant. T h e 7.5 M W p l a n t d e s i g n c a l l s f o r s i x r e f o r m e r
m o d u l e s ; t h e r e f o r e , u t i l i z a t i o n o f o n e of t h e s e r e f o r m e r
m o d u l e s w i l l p r o d u c e s u f f i c i e n t h y d r o g e n to f u e l 1 . 2 5 M W
of fuel cells. Since the W e s t i n g h o u s e sta n d a r d fuel cell
m o d u l e is r a t e d a t 375 kW, f o u r w i l l r e q u i r e o p e r a t i o n of
the single reformer module at full capacity; and w i t h
s o m e s u p p l e m e n t a l h y d r o g e n , a l l o w p r o d u c t i o n of 1.5 M W of
e l e c t r i c a l power. T h e 1.5 M W p l a n t w i l l a l s o b e n e f i t
f r o m t h e r e f o r m e r t e s t p r o g r a m p r e s e n t l y u n d e r w a y at t h e
manufacturer. T h i s t e s t p r o g r a m w i l l b e c o m p l e t e d in
1987, a l l o w i n g t h e t e s t e d r e f o r m e r h a r d w a r e to be u s e d as
p a r t o f t h e 1.5 M W p l a n t . F o u r 375 k W f u e l c e l l m o d u l e s
also fit the configuration requirements for the
m o d u l a r i z e d po w e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n a n d in v e r t e r systems,
t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g f u l l s i z e c o m p o n e n t s f o r t h e s e s y s t e m s to
be utilized.
372
D o n a l d N ew b y
-2-
FUEL CELL
FIGURE 1
7.5 MW POWER PLANT SIMPLIFIED FLOW SCHEMATIC
FU E L CELL
FIGURE 2
1.5 M W P I L O T P O W E R P L A N T S I M P L I F I E D F LOW S C H E MATIC
373
D o n a l d N ew b y
-3 -
T h e m a j o r s y s t e m s o f t h e 1.5 M W P i l o t P o w e r P l a n t w i l l ,
t h e r e f o r e , b e d e s i g n e d a n d p r o c u r e d to 7.5 M W p l a n t s p e c i
fications; and c o m p o n e n t s wil l be o p e r a t e d at full rated
conditions. T h i s w i l l r e s u l t in s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e a n d
t o t a l p l a n t i n t e g r a t i o n t e s t s c l o s e l y m a t c h i n g t h e 7.5 M W
p l a n t , f a c i l i t a t i n g e a r l y r e s o l u t i o n of s t a r t - u p p r o b l e m s ,
c o n f i r m a t i o n of t r a d e s t u d i e s , a n d t h e c o n d u c t i n g of m e a n
i n g f u l t e s t s to d e v e l o p e c o n o m i c p r e d i c t i o n s .
The f o r e g o i n g a p p r o a c h m i n i m i z e s the f i n a n c i a l c o m m i t m e n t
o f a n y o n e p a r t i c i p a n t , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to
i n f l u e n c e t h e d e s i g n of t h e 7.5 M W p l a n t a n d o b t a i n h a n d s -
on operating experience. T h i s h a s p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e for
p o t e n t i a l f u t u r e u s e r s of f uel c e l l p l a n t s s i n c e i n d i v i d
u a l i z a t i o n of p l a n t s w i l l b e d i f f i c u l t w h e n v i r t u a l l y t h e
e n t i r e p l a n t m u s t be f a c t o r y m a s s p r o d u c e d to m e e t c o s t
goals. In v i e w of this, W e s t i n g h o u s e c o n s i d e r s it
e s s e n t i a l to h a v e as w i d e a c r o s s s e c t i o n of u t i l i t y
p a r t i c i p a t i o n as p o s s i b l e in t h e 1.5 M W p r o g r a m . This
i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h w i l l p r o v i d e U t i l i t i e s a t o o l to
answer operational and economic questions and ensure
a c c e p t a n c e of t h e e v e n t u a l 7.5 M W c o m m e r c i a l o f f e r i n g .
374
COMMERCIALIZATION OF ENGELHARD
PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
BY
D i a n e T. H o oie, P.E.
Product Manager, Fuel Cells
Engelhard Corporation
M e n l o Park , CN 40
E di son, N J 08818
E n g e l h a r d is c u r r e n t l y d e v e l o p i n g t w o (2) fue l cel l

s yst ems con cepts; vehicu la r and on-site. A discussion
of t h e p r o t o t y p e t e s t i n g a n d c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n p l a n s for
e a c h of t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d .
V e h i c u l a r s y s t e m s r a n g e f r o m 5 to 30 kW a n d c a n be f u e l e d
by m e t h a n o l o r No. 2 d i e s e l . P r o p a n e is a l s o b e i n g
e x a m i n e d as a p o t e n t i a l fuel. T h i s t e c h n o l o g y is
e x p e c t e d to be c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e by 1988.
E n g e l h a r d is a l s o d e v e l o p i n g a n o n - s i t e s y s t e m in the
m o d u l e size r a n g e of 25 to 50 kW. T h e s e m o d u l e s c a n be
u s e d i n d i v i d u a l l y or c o m b i n e d to m u l t i - m e g a w a t t s i z e a n d
c a n be f u e l e d by a n y h y d r o g e n - r i c h s t r e a m . Prototype
t e s t i n g of t h e s e u n i t s is p l a n n e d b e g i n n i n g in 1987.
3 75
Federal agencies and departments are equal opportunity employers and
are committed to insuring that the benefits of programs receiving federal
financial assistance are available to all eligible persons regardless of race,
color, national origin, handicap or age.
1986 Fuel Cell John J. Cuttica D.M. Jewell
Coordinating Group (las Research in s tiliu e r . S . Departm ent o f Bnergr
<S(i()(> W est B ryn M a w r Avenue .M orgtintow n Bnergx'
Representatives Chicajfo, IL (ilKi.'Jl T eclino lo g y Center
.'itilO Collins F e rry Road
Edward Gillis M o rg tin to w n . W \ ' 2()oO,o
K lectric f^ m e r
Kesearcli In stitu te Jerreil M. Turner
.'M12 H illvietv Avenue . \ ir i-'orce \ \ r ig iit
Raio A lto , C A 9 i;i(i;i •Aeronautictil Labortitorie;
A F W A L /F O O A
Graham Hagey W rig h t-i'a tte rs o n .AF'H. OF
I .S. D epartm ent ol i.")i;i;i
Rnerjty, l'K-2.')
W ashington. DC 2(101.") Marvin Warshay
N.ASA Lew is Resetircii Cei,
■Mail Stop 201-.')
21000 B ro o kp tirk Road
Cleveland. O H 11 l.'f.')
Sem inar Coorclintiled b>'

Courtesy Associates, Inc.
W ashington. D.C.
(202) :D7-,")900

Fuel Cell Seminar: O Ctober 2 6 - 2 9, 1 9 8 6 Tucson, Arizona

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1986

5 :0 0 - W eicom ing Reception

Monday, October 27, 1986

1:00- Gas Industry’s 4 0 kW Program

3 :3 0 - Poster Session on Solid Oxide Technology

Chairperson: Alayme A. Adams

3 :3 0 - Poster Session on Phosphoric Acid Technoiogy

7 :0 0 - W estern Theme P arty and Cookout

7:30 am Continental B reakfast

8 :3 0 - Phosphoric Acid Fuei Ceii Program

8 :3 0 - Carbonate Fuei Ceii Technoiogy

11:30 a m - B uffet Luncheon

1 :0 0 - Phosphoric Acid Fuei Celi Systems

3 :0 0 - Poster Session on MoKen Carbonate Technology

“ Development of Electrode :ind Electrohte Plate for Molten Carbonate

3 :0 0 - Poster Session on Power Plant Technology

6:00- Japanese Reception

7:30 am Continental B reakfast

8 :3 0 - Fuei Cell Power Plant Designs

1:00- Fuel Cell Application and Economic Assessments

2 :3 0 - Plans for Commercial Development

4 :3 0 pm Conclusion of th e 198 6 Fuel Cell Seminar

An abstract of this presentation was not available

New Energy Development Organization ( NEDO )

The Agency of National Resources and Energy of MITI is promot­

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

On the manufacturers' side, development of a component techno­

Shikoku EPCo. 1 MW Natural gr.s

water-cooled PAFC at the Date Power Station. Preparations for

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

Since 1960, universities, government and private research lab­

Table 1 MCFC Cell, Stack Tests in Japan ( State of R&D )

Hitachi Ltd. Toshiba Corp. M i tsubishi Electric Fuji E l ectric Corp. I. a. I.

Fuel Cell Application Fields and Their Potencial Markets

Possible are a of I n t r o d u c t i o n case

installation use up to the d i s t r i b u t i o n line lev el

(C ap aci ty: 20 M W - 30MW)

Introduction in r e g i o n s where concentration

Introduction in such business-use buildings

B.E.Cost ($/kW) Potential Market (MW)

cf) 1$ = 160 yen

F.R. Kalhammer and E.A. Gillis

Fuel cell development activities have been underway in the

Most of the U.S. developmental activities were begun long

W C. Raoine and T.C. Londos

In December, 1983, the Gas Research Institute (GRI), the

This field testing effort is one part of an overall Onsite

GRI and DOE coordinate the Program to promote and foster

POWER PLANT INSTALLATION EXPERIENCE

Each utility participant was responsible for power plant site

Two-thirds of the utility participants did the site/power

installation once the power plant was delivered. The average

Thermally, the power plants were used for domestic water

The majority of power plants were sited outdoors. However,

POWER PLANT OPERATING EXPERIENCE

Utility operating experience indicates that the power plants

Measured thermal performance of the power plants averaged

The major operational problems involved the stack coolant

1. The utility participants encountered no insurmountable

The Agency of National Resources and Energy of MITI is promot

On the manufacturers' side, development of a component techno

Since 1960, universities, government and private research lab

Grounded phases in the grid-connected mode resulted in immedi

The out-of-limit frequency test for the grid-connected oper

The voltage T H D s , at full load, are approximately .8 percent