Business Research Methods Chapter 7 and 8

Chapter Seven: Data Analysis and Presentation

7.1 Introduction

After collecting data from the field, the researcher has to process and analyze then in order to arrive
at certain conclusions which may or may not support the hypothesis which he had formulated
towards the beginning of his research work. Planning for data processing must be done well in
advance of field work as an integral part of the research design

 The collected data are known as „raw data.‟ The raw data are meaningless unless certain
statistical treatment is given to them.
 Analysis of data means to make the raw data meaningful or to draw some results from the data
after the proper treatment.
The analysis of data serves the following main functions:
 To make the raw data meaningful,
 To test null hypothesis,
 To obtain the significant results,
 To draw some inferences or make generalization,
The Following are the stages through which the raw data must be processed in order
ultimately to deliver the final products.

7.2 Data Editing

Editing means to look for and remove any errors, incompleteness or in consistency in the data, if
the raw data are inconsistent it will greatly distort the results of any inquiry. Therefore, at this
stage, certain questions are specified for 100 percent editing because they are known to be
especially troublesome or particularly critical to study objectives. The editor is responsible for
seeing that the data are:
 As accurate as possible;
 Consistent with other facts secured; uniformly entered; as complete as possible; Acceptable
for tabulation; and
 Arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

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Editing should be done through field editing and central editing.

Field Editing: It consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for completing
(translating or rewriting) what the later written in abbreviated and/or in illegible from at the time of
recording the respondent‟s responses. This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that
individual writing styles often can be difficult for other to decipher. This sort of editing should be
done as soon as possible after the interview, preferable on the very day or on next day. While doing
field auditing, the investigator must restrain himself and must not correct errors of omissions by
simply guessing what the informant would have said if the question had been asked.

Central Editing: This should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get although editing by a
single editing by a single editing a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large enquiry.

7.3 Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes. Coding is necessary for classes which
contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at
the designing stage of the questionnaire.
Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must reduce in to
homogenous groups for getting meaningful relationships. In this step data having common
characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided in to a number of
groups or classes. Classification can be of like following two types, depending upon the nature of
the phenomenon involved:

Classification according to Attributes: Data are classified on the basis of common characteristics
which can either be descriptive or numerical. Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative
phenomenon, which cannot be measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an
individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known
as statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be classification according to attributes.
Such classifications can be simple or manifold classification: In simple classifications we consider
only one attribute and divided the universe in to two classes- one consisting of items possessing
attributes and the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute. Manifold

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classification we consider two or more attributes simultaneously, and divided the data in to number
of classes.
Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical
characteristics refer to quantitative phenomena which can be measured through some statistical
units. Data relating to income production, age, weight etc. Come under this Category. Such data are
known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals.
Tabulation: When a mass data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to
arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. In the broader sense, tabulation is the
process of summarizing data and displaying the same in compact from for the further analysis. In
the broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is
essential because of the following reasons: It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum; It facilitates the process of comparison; It facilitates the
summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions; and It provides a basis for various
statistical computations.
7.4 Types of Analysis
The manner in which data can be analyzed depends to a great extent up on the measurement and
sampling procedure followed in their collection. Depending up on these two components the
analysis is always more precise and objective. It also enables the readers of the study to evaluate the
quality of the research. This is not possible in the case of non-statistical analysis which is always
qualitative and therefore less accurate. Analysis may therefore be categorized as descriptive analysis
and inferential analysis.
Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive statistical analysis is concerned with numerical description
of a particular group observed and any similarity to those outside the group cannot be taken for
granted. The data describe one group and that one group only.
 Much simple research involves descriptive statistics and provides valuable information about
the nature of a particular group or class.
Most commonly used methods of descriptive analysis are:
 Calculating frequency distribution usually in percentages of items under study.
 Calculating percentiles and percentile ranks.
 Calculating measures of central tendency-mean, median and mode and establishing norms.
 Calculating measures of dispersion - standard deviation/mean deviation, quartile deviation
and range.

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 Calculating measures of relationship - coefficient of correlation, reliability and validity by

the rank-difference and product moment methods.
 Graphical presentation of data – frequency, polygon curve, histogram, etc. While analyzing
their data investigations usually make use of as many of the above simple statistical devices
as necessary for the purpose of their study.

Inferential Analysis
When a particular finding emerges from data analysis the manager asks whether the empirical
findings represent the true picture or have occurred as a result of sampling accident. Statistical
inference is the process where we generalize from sample results to a population from which the
sample has been drawn. Thus, statistical inference is the process where we extend our knowledge
obtained from a random sample, which is only a small part of the population to the whole
population. Broadly, statistical inference involves hypothesis testing.

Hypotheses Testing
If we find a difference between two samples, we would like to know, is this a “real” difference (i.e.,
is it present in the population) or just a “chance” difference (i.e. it could just be the result of random
sampling error).
Hypothesis begins with an assumption called a hypothesis that we make about a population
parameter. We then collect sample data and calculate sample statistics such as mean, standard
deviation to decide how likely it is that our hypothesized population parameter is correct.
Essentially, the process involves judging whether a difference between a sample and assumed
population value is significant or not. The smaller the difference the greater the chance that our
hypothesized value for the mean is correct.

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Chapter Eight
Interpretation and Reporting the Research Result

8.1 Introduction
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get ruined. It is only
through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his/her
findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and sustain several times, the
researcher may arrive at generalizations. But, in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
he/she would try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. This may at times result in new
questions, leading to further researches. All this analytical information and consequential
inference(s) may well be communicated, preferably through research report, to the consumers of
research results who may be either an individual or a group of individuals or some public/private
organization.

8.2 Meaning of Interpretation

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The task
of interpretation has two major aspects viz.
(i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with
those of another, and
(ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts.
In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results
of other research, theory and hypotheses. Thus, interpretation is the device through which the
factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be
better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further
researches.

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8.3 Why Interpretation?

Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research findings lie
in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research process because of the
following reasons:
a) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle that
works beneath his findings. Through this s/he can link up his findings with those of other
studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete world
of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in
research can be maintained.
b) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the
quest for more knowledge.
c) Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his/his findings are what
they are and can make others to understand the real significance of the research findings.
d) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into hypotheses
for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition from
exploratory to experimental research.

8.4 Technique of Interpretation

The task of interpretation is not an easy job; rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the part
of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher
may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The
technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
a) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which s/he has found and
must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to
find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his/her diversified
research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and
concepts be formulated.
b) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting
the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the
problem under consideration.
c) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having
insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out

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omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct
interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
d) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. S/He must be in no hurry while
interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the
beginning, may not at all be accurate.

8.5 Precautions in Interpretation

One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and analyzed, wrong
interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the task
of interpretation be accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct
perspective.
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
1. At the beginning, researcher must always satisfy him/herself that;
a) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences;
b) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
2. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of
interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due to wrong
interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond the range of
observations, identification of correlation with causation and the like. Another major pitfall
is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the basis of confirmation of
particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test results accepting the hypothesis must be
interpreted as “being in accord” with the hypothesis, rather than as “confirming the validity
of the hypothesis”. The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so that false
generalization may not take place. He should be well equipped with and must know the
correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.
3. He/she must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such s/he must take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions
that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions
concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of
results.

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4. S/he must never lose sight of the fact that his/her task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that are
initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on proper lines.
Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the
coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions.
Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and the results must be framed within
their limits.
5. The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there should
be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical
conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and
empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.” He/she must pay
special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation.

8.6 Report Writing

Research report is considered to be a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the
most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking
generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to others.
The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.

Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the
significance of writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing of report as an
integral part of the research process. But, the general opinion is in favour of treating the
presentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research project.
Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different
from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished
by the researcher with utmost care; s/he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the
purpose.

Steps in Writing Report

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps
involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the final
outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (e) preparation of the final

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bibliography; and (f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief
mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better understanding.

Logical Analysis of the Subject Matter: It is the first step, which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b)
chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often
consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The
directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

Preparation of the Final Outline: It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the
framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”

Preparation of the Rough Draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation
of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down
what s/he has done in the context of his research study. S/he will write down the procedure adopted
by him/her in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced, the
technique of analysis adopted, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions
the researcher wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.

Rewriting and Polishing of the Rough Draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all
formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful
revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and
polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The
researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion;
does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it
resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.” In addition the researcher should give
due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the
mechanics of writing - grammar, spelling and usage.

Preparation of the Final Bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final
bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of
books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works

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which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be
divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second
part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern of
bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is
not the only way of presenting bibliography. The entries in bibliography should be made adopting
APA or Harvard Styles attached with this material.

Writing the Final Draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise
and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there
may be”, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract
terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be
incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research
findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain
interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to
solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to
the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

8.7 Layout/Format of the Research Report

A written format of a research work is known as thesis or research report. All such works may differ
considerably in scope of treatment and details of presentation. Even then all types of research
reports are expected to follow a general uniform, common pattern of format, style and structure.
The general format of research report is evolved and it has become a tradition in academic area. A
research report or thesis is an organized format of research work done. It is viewed in three major
categories:
A. Preliminaries,
B. Textual Body, and
C. References.
Each category has been outlined further as follows:
A. Preliminary Section
1. Title page
2. Abstract or Executive Summary
3. Acknowledgements
4. Table of content
5. List of tables (if any)
6. List of figures (if any)
7. List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

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B. Main Body of Report or Textual Body

1. Introduction
(a) Background of the organization (optional)
(b) Background of the study/ problem
(c) Statement of the problem (including the research questions)
(d) Objectives of the study
(e) Significance of the problem
(f) Assumptions and delimitations
(g) Definitions of important terms used
(h) Scope of the study
(i) Limitation of the study
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Design or Methodology of research
Method and procedure used
Sources of data and tools of research
Techniques of data collection
Sampling techniques and procedures
Analysis tools used
4. Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
(a) Presentation of data
(b) Analysis of data
(c) Discussion of results
5. Conclusions and Recommendation
(a) Main Findings and inferences
(b) Implication of the findings and limitations
(c) Suggestions for further studies (recommendations)
C. Reference Section
1. Bibliography
2. Appendices (if any)
3. Index or glossary (if any).
The detailed explanation of each aspect is given here

A. Preliminary Section
As the preliminaries form a significant part of the whole thesis report, due care should be taken in
preparing them. If the specifications are already laid down by some colleges or universities they
should be observed. However, a general standard pattern suggested here in each case will be helpful
for a researcher.
1. Title Page
This is the first page of a thesis or a dissertation. It includes:
(a) Title of thesis/paper.

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(b) Purpose or relationship of the thesis to the course or degree requirement.

(c) College and/or department in which the candidate has been admitted for the degree.
(d) Name of the university to which it is submitted.
(e) Name of the candidate.
(f) Month and year of submission or acceptance.
The title should be accurate, concise and clearly printed in capital letters. It should convey the main
theme of the problem investigated and if possible one should give a clue about the method or type
of research involved. A specimen of title page has been presented here.

TITLE

A research paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for B.A

Degree in Accounting

Department of Accounting and finance

Faculty of Business and Economics

Addis Ababa University

BY
AUTHOR

Advisor‟s Name

The month and year of submission

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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2. Preface or Acknowledgement
A preface is different from introduction. It is a brief account of the purport or the origin and the
utility of the study for which the thesis is presented. It also includes the acknowledgement to the
persons and sources that have been helpful to the investigator. If the researcher does not want to
mention anything about the study on this page except acknowledging debt to others, it will be
desirable to use the title simple and restrained without flattery and effusive recognition for help by
the family members and others. The preface should not be too long with too many details about the
research work or its organization, which can appear in introduction. The word PREFACE or
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT should be typed in capital letters. It should be written in an impressive
way.

3. Table of Contents
This section lists all the main chapter headings and the essential sub-heading in each with the
appropriate page numbers against each. The listing of main chapters is generally preceded by some
preliminaries like preface or acknowledgement, list of tables, list of figures, abstract or synopsis and
their respective pages in small Roman numbers and followed at the end by appendices, and Indexes.
Contents should neither be too detailed nor too sketchy; the table of contents should serve an
important purpose in providing an outline of the contents of the report. The capitalized title
„Contents‟ should be the central heading of the page and the capitalized word „CHAPTER‟ and
„PAGE‟ should lead to the numbers of chapters and those of pages respectively on the left and right
margins. An example‟ has‟ been given in the tabular of form.

4. List of Tables
The table of contents is followed by the list of tables on a separate page. This list of tables consists
of the titles or captions of the tables included “in the thesis along with the page number where these
can be located. It has been illustrated here.
The capitalized title „LIST OF TABLES‟ should be the central heading of the page and the capital
words „TABLE‟ and „PAGE‟ should lead to the numbers and those of pages respectively at left and
right margins.
5. List of Figures and Illustrations

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If any charts graphs or any other illustrations are used in the thesis, a list of figures on a separate
page is prepared in the same form as the list of tables except that they are numbered with Arabic
numbers.
(B) Main Body of Report or Textual Body
The text of the thesis is the most important section in the organization of research report. The
quality of worth of thesis is mainly examined. It is the original production of the researcher. The
report of the main body serves the function of demonstrating the competence of the researcher. If
any sentence, paragraph, concept fails to serve the single function within a given section or chapter,
it is irrelevant. The subject matter of any chapter should be relevant to that point. Generally the
main body of the research reports consists of five or six chapters.

Chapter 1: Introduction
The main purpose of this chapter is to indicate the need and scope of the study. It consists
essentially of the statement of research inquiry. It is reported in past tense form of work completed.
The problem objectives, hypotheses, assumptions and delimitations of the study are reported
precisely. If an introduction is required, the researcher should make certain that it is an introduction
that generates an interest and appropriate mental set which introductions are regarded as capable of
producing. It must be long enough to do its jobs and nothing more.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

This chapter is essential in most of the research studies. It presents the comprehensive development
of the problem background. It indicates what has already been studied by others, which has a
bearing upon the present study.
The review of literature stresses two aspects: the first is the consideration of the subject-matter and
it is likely more important than the other. The second is related to methodology and design. The
review chapter is devoted to the development of the problem statement or the object of the inquiry.
The review is utilized to retain a direct relevancy to the study in hand. It is the balancing chapter of
the research report.
Chapter 3: Design or Methodology of Research
This chapter indicates the line of approach of the study. The first aspect deals with the method,
population and sample of the study and second part provides the tools and techniques employed in
the research. It also presents the procedure of the study. The whole plan of the study is discussed in
detail under this chapter.

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Administration of tools and scoring procedure are reported systematically. The data organization
and presentation should be given in this section. It may be reported in a separate chapter of the
report.
Chapter 4: Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of the Data
In this chapter analysis and results are reported so as to draw the inferences of the study. The
analysis of data is presented in tabular form and in figures or pictorial presentation. The results are
interpreted at length. This chapter provides the original work or contribution by the researcher. The
communicative accuracy is required in this chapter. The text must be developed to ensure an
effective ordering of the evidences.
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
This is most important chapter of the report. It requires the creative and reflective aspect of the
researcher. The results are discussed to make them more meaningful comparison of the results with
the evidence in the review section should be woven into the text whenever such a discussion can
serve to clarify the points being reported. This is the final chapter of a report, thus findings of the
study are summarized and suggestions for the further studies are also given. The implications and
delimitations of the findings are also mentioned in this section. The main thrust in the section is the
answer of the question or solution of the problem. The validity of the findings should be mentioned.

(C) Reference Section

This is the third section of a research report. It consists of generally the bibliography and appendices.
It is also essential to include glossary and index for the convenience of the readers. The
bibliography, appendix, glossary and index all these are written on a separate page - in the centre
with capital letters.

1. Bibliography
The bibliography is a list of the printed sources utilized in the research work. The publications
used for information-yield but not quoted in the report may also be included in the bibliography.
If the foot-notes references in the text are numbered to refer to the source in the bibliography,
the entries must be numerically listed in the order of appearance in the text. The various format
manuals include information on form for the bibliography. If the list of sources is too large the
bibliography should be categorized in the following sections: Books, monographs, documents
and reports, periodicals and journals, essay and articles, unpublished thesis and material and
newspapers. If selected sources are reported the words „Selected Bibliography‟ should be

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written. In writing bibliography, the surname is written first than initials, year of publication,
title of the book, publishers name, place and total number of pages. See the examples from the
materials attached.

2. Appendix
An appendix is the important reference materials category. It includes the material which cannot be
logically included in the main body or textual body of the research report or the relevant materials
too unwieldy to include in the main body. The appendix usually includes: tools of research,
statistical tables and sometime raw-data (when data were processed through computer). Even the
material of minor importance e.g. forms, letters, reminders, interview sheets, blank questionnaires,
charts, tables, lengthy questions, report of cases (if follow-up or case studies have been conducted).
The tools and other material should be placed first and tables at the end and page numbers should be
assigned in Roman Numbers (i, ii, xxi).

3. Index and Glossary

The index includes authors and subjects and topics or words in alphabetical order. In the report
glossary should be provided. It includes the meanings or definitions of some words and terms „used
in the research report. Some notations symbols or abbreviations should be explained what actually
they mean or indicate in the study.

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