Ship Construction

 
Ship Dimensions and Form
General Cargo Vessel
These types of ships in general are built with longitudinal framing at the decks and in the double
bottoms. Transverse framing is at the sides.
Profile

 
The transverse strength is given by fitting transverses at the deck and plate floors are fitted in the
double bottoms.
Longitudinal framing is not usual in general cargo vessels due to the high broken stowage
involved. Also deep transverses then have to be fitted about 3.7 metres to give the ship transverse
strength.
Bilge wells are fitted with a cubic capacity of 0.17 cbm. Nowadays ceiling on top of tank tops
are generally not fitted as such the plating is increased by 2mm. However where ceiling is fitted
they should be removable in sections. The ceiling where fitted should have a clear space for
drainage at least of 12.5mm.
Cargo battens are fitted to the sides and to the turn of the bilges – size of 50mm thick and
spacing between rows of 230mm.
Midship
Shown above is a centre line bulkhead in the lower hold and in the tween deck. This extends
from the transverse watertight bulkhead to the hatch coamings.
Tankers
These ships may have two or more longitudinal bulkheads – today with double hull concept at
least 3 but normally 4.
The bottom and deck are also framed longitudinally and so are the sides and the sides of the
longitudinal bulkheads.
The length of a tank is not to exceed 0.2L. As the size of the tanker grows transverse wash
bulkhead are fitted at about mid length of the tank. These are for size of tanks over 0.1L or 15m
whichever is more.
Centre line was bulk heads are fitted where the breadth exceeds the dimensions as laid out in the
Rules for different size of tanks.
Cofferdams are provided both forward of the oil carrying space as well as in from of the ER
bulkhead. Generally the pumproom is located within the cofferdam aft. Some ships have a
forward pump room located in the forward cofferdam.
The cofferdams are to be at least 760mm in length
Some smaller ships have a combined transverse and longitudinal framing system.
In lieu of bulwarks these ships are to have open rails on deck.
Cargo tanks are tested by a head of water in the cargo tank – 2.45m above the highest point of
the tank.
Generally a system of staggered test is undertaken. Alternate tanks are filled and the empty tanks
is inspected. Once all the empty tanks are inspected, the filled tanks are empties and the reverse
tanks are filled and the other alternates inspected.
Inspecting of the tank welding are done by rafting within a tank.
Profile

Plan

Midship
 
Bulk Carriers:
These ships are characterised by their ability to carry cargo in bulk. If carrying grain and other
lighter cargo all the holds are filled.
However if heavy cargo such as iron ore is carried then alternate holds are filled and to the
designed loads only.
Profile

The vessel may be constructed on the combined system, longitudinal framing together with
transverse framing which are fitted at the sides. The longitudinal framing is fitted in the double
bottoms, the deck and the bottoms of the wing tanks.
The wing tanks may be utilised to carry cargo as well as remain empty. They carry ballast water
during the ballast passage.
Transverse webs are fitted at in the wing tanks at intervals as laid out in the Rules. And side
stringers are fitted at about 1/3rd and 2/3rd the depth of the tanks.
Plan

Midship

 
Combination Carriers:
These ships are capable of carrying ore as well as oil in bulk.
Transverse bulkheads are usually of the cofferdam type with all the stiffening on the inside.
There is a rise of floor of the inner bottom which facilitates drainage to the drain well arranged
on the centre line. The pipelines run through a duct keel. The duct keep entrance in the
pumproom has a oil and gas tight door.
Profile
On the top the hatch covers are mainly the side rolling Macgregor type.
The hatch breadth is usually about 50% of the breadth of the beam. The main disadvantage of
this type of ship is the stability – since they are not built with a longitudinal partition in the
centre the free surface effect is enormous and this necessitates overall loading complexities.
Plan

Together with this is the sloshing effect which tend to damage the fitting inside.
The stability book would give the loading levels as well as the loading stability requirements as
per the Rules.
Midship
Container:
Longitudinal framing is used throughout the main body length of the ship. Transverse framing is
used on the fore part and the after part.
Profile

The ships are built having a cellular construction at the sides. Strong longitudinal box girders are
formed port and starboard by the upper deck – the second deck – top of the shell plating and top
of the longitudinal bulkhead. The upper deck and the sheer strake form the box girder. These
girders also provide stiffness against racking stresses and used as water ballast tank spaces.
Midship
A form of bulkhead is fitted at intervals, centre to centre with water tight bulkheads being fitted
as required by the Rules. The bulkhead gives support to the double bottom structure.
The container guides consist of angle bars about 150mm x 150mm x 14mm thick connected to
vertical webs and adjoining structure spaced 2.6m apart. The bottom of the guides is bolted to
brackets welded to the tank top and beams. The brackets are welded to doubling plates, which
are welded to the tank top.
Ro – Ro
Roll on Roll off ships have generally two ramps at either end of the ship to facilitate the loading
of vehicles.
The main characteristic of these types of ships is the clear decks un interrupted by transverse
bulkheads. Deck heights are sufficient to accommodate the various types of vehicles carried.
Profile
The lower decks may be used for carriage of cars while the upper may be used for the carriage of
bigger vehicles.
Transverse strength is maintained by fitting deep closely spaced web frames in conjunction with
deep beams. These are usually fitted every 4th frame and about 3 m apart.
The lower decks which are divided by watertight bulkheads have hydraulically operated sliding
bulkhead doors which are opened while working cargo in port.
The deck thickness is increased to take the concentrated loads; a reduction in the spacing of the
longitudinals with an increase in size. A centre line row of pillars is fitted.
Ramps are fitted at the bow and at the stern to facilitate the loading and discharging of vehicles.
The separate decks are reached by fixed and sometimes hydraulically operated foldable operated
ramps.
A service car is provided within the ship to transfer the lashing gear to the different decks.
Midship

The stern ramps are generally set at an angle to the ships centre line to ensure that the ship can
work cargo in any berth.
Passenger:
The basic construction of these vessels follows the dry cargo vessel in their detail, a large
number of decks being fitted.
Profile

Each passenger ship is differently built with the naval architects and the classification societies
agreeing on the various additions to the various pillars and bulkheads.
However the basic rule and the provisions of SOLAS, MARPOL are complied with.
Midship

 
Midship in way of ER
 
Definitions
Camber
The purpose of rounding the beam is to ensure a good drainage of the water and also to
strengthen the upper deck and the upper flange of the ship girder against longitudinal bending
stresses- especially the compression stresses.
Rise Of Floor
This is the distance from the ‘line of floor’ to the horizontal, measured at the ship side. Purpose
basically is to allow drainage of the double bottom water/ oil to the centre line suctions.
Tumblehome
This is the inward slope of the side plating from the water line to the upper deck – today ships
generally do not have a tumblehome.
Flare
This is the curvature of the side plating at the forward and gives additional buoyancy and thus
helps to prevent the bows from diving too deeply into the water when pitching.
The anchors are also clear when lowered from the flare of a ship.
Sheer
This is the rise of ships deck fore and aft. This again adds buoyancy to the ends where it is
needed during pitching. For calculating the freeboard a correction is applied for the sheer. In
modern ship the after sheer has been greatly reduced.

Rake
This is the slope, which the forward end has with between the bottom plating and the upper deck.
The length between perpendiculars and the length overall difference is mostly due to the rake
forward. It helps to cut the water and thus adds to the ships form.
Parallel Middle Body
This is the part of the main body of the ship and it is a box like structure enabling maximum
cargo carrying capacity. It also helps in the pushing when tugs are used to assist the vessel in
berthing. Cargo stowage is also greatly facilitated.
Entrance
This part is the fore end of the ship and helps give the box like mid length a ship shaped
structure.
Run
The after part similarly to the fore part entrance helps in giving the box like mid length a ship
shaped structure and thus the handling of the vessel is enhanced.

“Length” means 96 per cent of the total length on a waterline at 85 per cent of the least moulded
depth measured from the top of the keel, or the length from the fore side of the stem to the axis
of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater. In ships designed with a rake of keel the
waterline on which this length is measured shall be parallel to the designed waterline.
 
Moulded breadth: is the greatest moulded breadth – measured inside plating.
Breadth (B) is the greatest moulded breadth of the ship at or below the deepest subdivision load
line.
Draught (d) is the vertical distance from the moulded baseline at midlength to the waterline in
question.
Depth and the draught both are measured from the top of the keel. The depth is measure from the
top of the deck beam. If there is a camber then allowance is given as 1/3 rd of the camber.
The rest of the meanings are all self-explanatory.
 
 
Definitions
Forward perpendicular
This is represented by a line, which is perpendicular to the intersection of the designed load
water-line with the forward side of the stem.
After perpendicular
A line represents this, which is perpendicular to the intersection of the after edge of the
rudderpost with the designed load water line. This is the case for both single and twin-screw
ships. For some ships having no rudderpost, the after perpendicular is taken as the centre-line of
the rudderstock.
Length between perpendiculars
This is the horizontal distance between the forward and after perpendiculars.
Length on the designed load waterline
This is the length, as measured on the water-line of the ship when floating in still water in the
loaded, or designed, condition.
Length overall
This is the length measured from the extreme point forward to the extreme point aft.
Base line
This represents the lowest extremity of the moulded surface of the ship. At the point where the
moulded base line cuts the midship section a horizontal line is drawn, and it is this line, which
acts as the datum, or base line, for all hydrostatic calculations. This line may, or may not, be
parallel to the load water line depending on the type of ship.
Moulded depth
This is the vertical distance between the moulded base line and the top of the beams of the
uppermost continuous deck measured at the side amidships.
Moulded beam
This is the maximum beam, or breadth, of the ship measured inside the inner shell strakes of
plating, and usually occurs amidships.
Moulded draught
This is the draught measured to any water-line, either forward or aft, using the moulded base line
as a datum.
Extreme beam
This is the maximum breadth including all side plating, permanent fenders etc.
Extreme draught
This is obtained by adding to the draught moulded the distance between the moulded base line
and a line touching the lowest point of the underside of the keel. This line is continued to the FP
and AP, where it is used as the datum for the sets of draught marks

Ship Construction
Hull Structure
 

Structural components on ships’ plans and drawings: frames, floors, transverse frames, deck
beams, knees, brackets, shell plating, decks, tank top, stringers, bulkheads and stiffeners, pillars,
hatch girders and beams, coamings, bulwarks
 
 

 
Bow and stern framing, cant beams, breasthooks
 
Description of standard steel sections: flat plate, offset bulb plate, equal angle, unequal
angle, channel, and tee

 
Longitudinal, transverse and combined systems of framing on transverse sections
of the ships
Longitudinal framing – Open floors

Longitudinal framing – Plate floors

 
Transverse framing – Plate floors

Duct keel
 

 
Stress concentration in the deck round hatch openings
Holes cut in the deck plating by way of hatchways, masts and others create areas of high local
stress due to lack of continuity created by the opening.
Compensation for loss of strength at hatch openings
Compensation around some of these openings may be overcome by increasing the sizes of the
material used, buy a careful disposition of the material and by paying careful attention to the
structural design.

Compensating for the stress concentration around hatch corners by rounding off the square hatch
corner ends
 
 
The corners radiused to reduce the stress concentration
A hatch corner in plan view, showing the structural arrangements
A transverse section through a hatch coaming, showing the arrangement of coamings and deep
webs

 
 
Deck-freeing arrangements - scuppers, freeing ports, and open rails

 
Connection of superstructures to the hull at the ship’s side

A plane bulkhead, showing connections to deck, sides and double bottom and the
arrangement of stiffeners
 

A corrugated bulkhead
Transverse bulkheads have vertical corrugations and fore and aft bulkheads have
horizontal ones
The basic idea of a bulkhead in addition to the water tight integrity is to add to the girder strength
of the ship beam.
Thus for a transverse bulkhead, which extends from the port to the starboard side or vice versa,
the framing is done in a vertical manner so that the compressive and the tensile stress may be
reduced for the beam.
Similarly for a longitudinal bulkhead which runs parallel to the shipside the framing is done
vertically, again so that the additional strength would enhance the stress compensating effect of
the ship beam.
Construction of the corrugated bulkhead

A fitted corrugated bulkhead

 
Purpose of bilge keels and their attachment to the ship’s side
Bilge keels are fitted at the turn of the bilge to resist rolling. They also improve the
steering qualities of the ship – though very slightly.
The ends are to be gradually tapered and should not end on an un-stiffened panel.
 

Stress relieving while fitting the bilge keel

  
The limber boards were removable for cleaning as they were frequently damaged (edges) leaving
gaps through which cargo residue would accumulate.
Modern ships do not have the side bilges and have only a strum box at the after end of the holds
and these are connected in the similar way to pipelines, which run through the DB’s.