MAT240

CHAPTER 8
A. 8.1
1. sampling distribution
2. μ; σ / √n
3. standard error; mean
4. True.
5. False.
6. False.
7. The sampling distribution of x ̅ (sample mean) is approximately normal with a mean of 30 and a
standard deviation of approximately 2.53.
8. No, because the Central Limit Theorem states that regardless of the shape of the underlying
population, the sampling distribution of x ̅ becomes approximately normal as the sample size, n,
increases. The sampling distribution of x ̅ is normal or approximately normal with
μ x = 82 and σ x = 2/√55 = 0.27.
9. For μ = 78, σ = 14, and n = 49: 11. For μ = 63, σ = 5, and n = 21:
μ x = 78 μ x= 63
σ x = 14 / √49 = 14 / 7 = 2 σ x = 5 / √21
10. For μ = 80, σ = 36, and n = 81: 12. For μ = 42, σ = 14, and n = 20:
μ x = 80 μ x = 42
σ x = 36 / √81 = 36 / 9 = 4 σ x = 14 / √20
13.
14.
a) The value of μ x = 600.
b) μ x + σ x = 630
σ x = 630 – 600 = 30
The value of σ x = 30
c) The shape of the population is normal.
d) If n = 9,
σ
σx = = 30
√n
σ
= 30
√9
=> σ = 90.
15. (a) The sampling distribution of x ̅ (sample mean) is approximately normal with a mean of 89 and a
standard deviation of 3.
(b) P( x̅ > 94.4 )
The z-score is ( 94.4 – 89 ) / 3 ≈ 1.8.
P(z > 1.8) ≈ 0.0359.
(c) P( x̅ ≤ 82.25 )
The z-score: ( 82.25 - 89 ) / 3 ≈ -2.25 / 3 ≈ -0.75.
P(z ≤ -0.75) ≈ 0.2266.
(d) P( 84.65 < x̅ < 95.45 ) can be calculated by finding the z-scores for both values:
( 84.65 – 89 ) / 3 ≈ -1.45 and ( 95.45 – 89 ) / 3 ≈ 2.15.
P( -1.45 < z < 2.15 ) ≈ 0.8531.
16. (a) The sampling distribution of x ̅ (sample mean) is approximately normal with a mean of 83 and a
standard deviation of 4.
(b) P(x̅ > 88.6), we calculate the z-score: (88.6 - 83) / 4 = 1.4.
P(z > 1.4) ≈ 0.0808.
(c) P(x̅ ≤ 74), we calculate the z-score: (74 - 83) / 4 = -2.25.
P(z ≤ -2.25) ≈ 0.0122.
(d) P(79.6 < x̅ < 91), we calculate the z-scores: (79.6 - 83) / 4 = -0.85 and (91 - 83) / 4 = 2.
P(-0.85 < z < 2) ≈ 0.6990.
17. (a) In order to use the normal model to compute probabilities regarding the sample mean, the
distribution of the population should be approximately normal, or the sample size should be sufficiently
large (typically n ≥ 30) due to the Central Limit Theorem. Assuming the normal model can be used, the
sampling distribution of x ̅ will be approximately normal with a mean of μ (population mean) and a
standard deviation of σ/√n (population standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample
size).
(b) Assuming the normal model can be used, to determine P(x ̅ < 72.6), we calculate the z-score: (72.6 -
69) / (15 / √12), and then use the standard normal distribution table or calculator to find the
corresponding probability.
(c) Assuming the normal model can be used, to determine P(x ̅ ≥ 70.2), we can use the complement rule:
P(x̅ ≥ 70.2) = 1 - P(x̅ < 70.2). We calculate P(x ̅ < 70.2) using the z-score and subtract it from 1.
18. (a) In order to use the normal model to compute probabilities involving the sample mean, the
distribution of the population should be approximately normal, or the sample size should be sufficiently
large (typically n ≥ 30) due to the Central Limit Theorem. Assuming this condition is true, the sampling
distribution of x̅ will be approximately normal with a mean of μ (population mean) and a standard
deviation of σ/√n (population standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size).
(b) Assuming the normal model can be used, to determine P(x ̅ < 66.9), we calculate the z-score and use
the standard normal distribution table or calculator.
(c) Assuming the normal model can be used, to determine P(x ̅ ≥ 65.3), we calculate the complement of
P(x̅ < 65.3) using the z-score.
(d) Increasing the sample size reduces the standard deviation of the sampling distribution, making the
probabilities in parts (b) and (c) more accurate and less variable. This is because a larger sample size
provides a better representation of the population distribution and aligns more closely with the
assumptions of the Central Limit Theorem.
19. Gestation Period The length of human pregnancies is approximately normally distributed with
mean μ = 266 days and standard deviation σ = 16 days.
(a) What is the probability a randomly selected pregnancy lasts less than 260 days?
(b) Suppose a random sample of 20 pregnancies is obtained. Describe the sampling distribution of the
sample mean length of human pregnancies.
(c) What is the probability that a random sample of 20 pregnancies has a mean gestation period of
260 days or less?
(d) What is the probability that a random sample of 50 pregnancies has a mean gestation period of
260 days or less?
(e) What might you conclude if a random sample of 50 pregnancies resulted in a mean gestation
period of 260 days or less?
(f) What is the probability a random sample of size 15 will have a mean gestation period within 10
days of the mean?
(a) To find the probability that a randomly selected pregnancy lasts less than 260 days, we need to
calculate the area under the normal distribution curve to the left of 260 days.
Using the z-score formula: z = (x - μ) / σ
z = (260 - 266) / 16
z = -0.375
The z-value of -0.375 in the standard normal distribution table, we find that the area to the left is
approximately 0.355.
Therefore, the probability that a randomly selected pregnancy lasts less than 260 days is approximately
0.355 or 35.5%.
(b) The sampling distribution of the sample mean length of human pregnancies, when a random sample
of 20 pregnancies is obtained, will be approximately normally distributed. The mean of the sampling
distribution will still be equal to the population mean (μ = 266), and the standard deviation of the
sampling distribution (standard error) can be calculated using the formula:
σ_sample_mean = σ / √n
For this case, σ = 16 (given) and n = 20 (sample size).
σ_sample_mean = 16 / √20
σ_sample_mean ≈ 3.577
Therefore, the sampling distribution of the sample mean length of human pregnancies has a mean of
266 days and a standard deviation of approximately 3.577 days.
(c) z = (x - μ) / (σ / √n)
z = (260 - 266) / (16 / √20)
z ≈ -1.772
Using the z-table or a statistical calculator, the area to the left of -1.772 is approximately 0.039.
Therefore, the probability that a random sample of 20 pregnancies has a mean gestation period of 260
days or less is approximately 0.039 or 3.9%.
(d) Following the same approach as in part (c), but this time with a sample size of 50, we have:
z = (260 - 266) / (16 / √50)
z ≈ -2.236
Therefore, the probability that a random sample of 50 pregnancies has a mean gestation period of 260
days or less is approximately 0.013 or 1.3%.
(e) If a random sample of 50 pregnancies resulted in a mean gestation period of 260 days or less, it
would suggest that the sample mean is significantly shorter than the population mean of 266 days. Since
the probability of obtaining such a sample mean is relatively low (approximately 1.3%), it indicates that
the observed sample mean is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. This could lead us to consider
that there may be a difference or factor influencing the gestation period in this particular sample of
pregnancies. Further investigation or analysis may be warranted to explore the potential reasons behind
the shorter gestation periods in this sample.
(f) σ_sample_mean = σ / √n
For this case, σ = 16 (given) and n = 15 (sample size).
We want the sample mean to be within 10 days of the mean, which means the range would be from (μ -
10) to (μ + 10).
z 1 = (260 - 266) / 4.131 ≈ -1.452
z 2 = (276 - 266) / 4.131 ≈ 2.417
Using the z-table or a statistical calculator, we can find the area between z 1 and z 2, which represents the
probability that the sample mean falls within 10 days of the mean. Let's denote this probability as P.
P ≈ 0.913
Therefore, the probability that a random sample of size 15 will have a mean gestation period within 10
days of the mean is approximately 0.913 or 91.3%.
20. Upper Leg Length The upper leg length of 20- to 29-year-old males is normally distributed with a
mean length of 43.7 cm and a standard deviation of 4.2 cm.
(a) What is the probability that a randomly selected 20- to 29-year- old male has an upper leg length
that is less than 40 cm?
(b) A random sample of 9 males who are 20 to 29 years old is obtained. What is the probability that
the mean upper leg length is less than 40 cm?
(c) What is the probability that a random sample of 12 males who are 20–29 years old results in a
mean upper leg length that is less than 40 cm?
(d) What effect does increasing the sample size have on the probability? Provide an explanation for
this result.
(e) A random sample of 15 males who are 20–29 years old results in a mean upper leg length of 46 cm.
Do you find this result unusual? Why?
(a) The probability that a randomly selected 20- to 29-year-old male has an upper leg length less than 40
cm can be calculated using the z-score formula: z = (x - μ) / σ
For this case, x = 40 cm, μ = 43.7 cm, and σ = 4.2 cm.
z = (40 - 43.7) / 4.2
z ≈ -0.881
Using the z-table or a statistical calculator, we can find the area to the left of -0.881, which represents
the probability that an individual has an upper leg length less than 40 cm. Let's denote this probability as
P.
P ≈ 0.190
Therefore, the probability that a randomly selected 20- to 29-year-old male has an upper leg length less
than 40 cm is approximately 0.190 or 19.0%.
(b) When a random sample of 9 males who are 20 to 29 years old is obtained, the sampling distribution
of the sample mean will be approximately normally distributed. The mean of the sampling distribution
will still be equal to the population mean (μ = 43.7 cm), and the standard deviation of the sampling
distribution (standard error) can be calculated using the formula: σ_sample_mean = σ / √n
For this case, σ = 4.2 cm (given) and n = 9 (sample size).
σ_sample_mean = 4.2 / √9
We want to find the probability that the mean upper leg length is less than 40 cm. We can use the z-
score formula again: z = (x - μ) / (σ / √n)
z = (40 - 43.7) / (4.2 / √9)
z ≈ -2.143
Using the z-table or a statistical calculator, we can find the area to the left of -2.143, which represents
the probability that the sample mean upper leg length is less than 40 cm. Let's denote this probability as
P.
P ≈ 0.016
Therefore, the probability that a random sample of 9 males who are 20 to 29 years old has a mean
upper leg length less than 40 cm is approximately 0.016 or 1.6%.
(c) Following the same approach as in part (b), but this time with a sample size of 12, we have:
z = (40 - 43.7) / (4.2 / √12)
z ≈ -2.754
Therefore, the probability that a random sample of 12 males who are 20–29 years old results in a mean
upper leg length less than 40 cm is approximately 0.003 or 0.3%.
(d) Increasing the sample size generally leads to a narrower sampling distribution of the sample mean.
As the sample size increases, the standard deviation of the sample mean (standard error) decreases.
This means that the sample mean becomes a more precise estimate of the population mean.
With a larger sample size, the probability of obtaining a mean upper leg length less than 40 cm
decreases. This is because the standard error decreases, making it less likely to observe extreme values
in the sample mean.
(e) A sample mean upper leg length of 46 cm may be considered unusual if it is significantly different
from the population mean and falls outside the range of expected values. To determine if the result is
unusual, we need to consider the variability in the data and calculate the z-score.
Assuming the population standard deviation (σ) is the same as the standard deviation of the individual
measurements (4.2 cm), we can calculate the standard error of the sample mean:
For this case, σ = 4.2 cm (given) and n = 15 (sample size).
Now, we can calculate the z-score for the sample mean:
z = (x - μ) / σ_sample_mean
z = (46 - 43.7) / 1.084
z ≈ 2.12
Using the z-table or a statistical calculator, we can find the area to the right of 2.12, which represents
the probability of obtaining a sample mean of 46 cm or greater. Let's denote this probability as P.
P ≈ 0.017
The probability of obtaining a sample mean of 46 cm or greater is approximately 0.017 or 1.7%.
Given that the probability is relatively low, it suggests that the observed sample mean is unlikely to have
occurred by chance alone, assuming the population mean is 43.7 cm. Thus, the result of a mean upper
leg length of 46 cm may be considered unusual.
21. Reading Rates The reading speed of second-grade students in a large city is approximately normal,
with a mean of 92 words per minute (wpm) and a standard deviation of 10 wpm.
(a) What is the probability a randomly selected student from this population will read at more than 97
words per minute?
(b) What is the probability that a random sample of 12 second-grade students from the city results in
a mean reading rate of more than 97 words per minute?
(c) What is the probability that a random sample of 24 second- grade students from the city results in
a mean reading rate of more than 97 words per minute?
this result.
(e) A teacher instituted a new reading program at school. After 10 weeks in the program, it was found
that the mean reading speed of a random sample of 21 second-grade students was 94.6 wpm. What
might you conclude based on this result?
(f) There is a 5% chance that the mean reading speed of a random sample of 20 second-grade students
will exceed what value?
(a) Given: μ = 90; σ = 10

(a) The z-value is the sample mean decreased by the population mean, divided by the standard
deviation:
x−µ
z= = 95 – 90/10 ≈ 0.50
σ
Determine the corresponding probability using normal probability table in the appendix.
P(X > 95) = P(Z > 0.50) = 1 − P(Z < 0.50) = 1 - 0.6915 = 0.3085
(b) When a random sample of 12 second-grade students is obtained, the sampling distribution of the
sample mean will be approximately normally distributed. The mean of the sampling distribution will still
be equal to the population mean (μ = 92 wpm), and the standard deviation of the sampling distribution
(standard error) can be calculated using the formula: σ_sample_mean = σ / √n
For this case, σ = 10 wpm (given) and n = 12 (sample size).
We want to find the probability that the mean reading rate of the sample is more than 97 words per
minute. We can use the z-score formula again:
z = (x - μ) / (σ / √n)
z = (97 - 92) / (10 / √12)
z ≈ 0.865
the probability that the sample mean reading rate is more than 97 words per minute. Let's denote this
probability as P.
P ≈ 0.193
Therefore, the probability that a random sample of 12 second-grade students results in a mean reading
rate of more than 97 words per minute is approximately 0.193 or 19.3%.
z = (97 - 92) / (10 / √24)
z ≈ 1.643
Using the z-table or a statistical calculator, the area to the right of 1.643 is approximately 0.0505.
Therefore, the probability that a random sample of 24 second-grade students results in a mean reading
rate of more than 97 words per minute is approximately 0.0505 or 5.05%.
(d) We note that the probability decreases as the sample size n increases.
Increasing the sample size, decreases the probability when the interval for the sample mean does not
contain the population mean µ.
(e) n = 20
σ
The sampling distribution of the sample mean has mean µ and standard deviation .
√n
The z-value is the sample mean decreased by the population mean, divided by the standard deviation:
x−µ 92.8−90
z= = ≈ 1.25
σ / √ n 10 / √20
Determine the corresponding probability using normal probability table in the appendix.
P( x > 92.8) = P(Z > 1.25) = 1 – P(Z < 1.25) = 1 – 0.8944= 0.1056
The probability is large (more than 0.05), thus the event is not unusual and thus the new program does
nots appear to bes more effective than the old program.
(f) If 5% of the data values exceed the value x, then 95% of the data values are below the value x.
Determine the z-score corresponding to 95% or 0.95 using normal probability table in the appendix.
z = 1.645
σ
The sampling distribution of the sample men has mean µ andd standard deviation .
√n
The z-value is the sample mean decreased by the population mean, divided by the standard deviation:
x−µ σ 10
z= => x̅ = µ + z = 90 + 1.645 ≈ 93.6783.
σ /√n √n √20
22. Geyser Eruption Suppose a geyser has a mean time between eruptions of 74 minutes. If the
interval of time between the eruptions is normally distributed with standard deviation 26 minutes,
answer the following questions.
(a) What is the probability that a randomly selected time interval between eruptions is longer than 85
minutes?
(b) What is the probability that a random sample of 10 time intervals between eruptions has a mean
longer than 85 minutes?
(c) What is the probability that a random sample of 26 time intervals between eruptions has a mean
this result.
(e) What might you conclude if a random sample of 26 time intervals between eruptions has a mean
(f) On a certain day, suppose there are 22 time intervals for Old Faithful. Treating these 22 eruptions
as a random sample, the likelihood the mean length of time between eruptions exceeds _________
minutes is 0.20.
(a) z = (x - μ) / σ. For this case, x = 85 minutes, μ = 74 minutes, and σ = 26 minutes.
z = (85 - 74) / 26
z ≈ 0.423
the probability that a time interval is longer than 85 minutes. Let's denote this probability as P.
P ≈ 0.6645
The probability that a randomly selected time interval between eruptions is longer than 85 minutes is
approximately 66.45%.
(b) σ_sample_mean = σ / √n
For this case, σ = 26 minutes (given) and n = 10 (sample size).
We want to find the probability that the mean of the sample is longer than 85 minutes. We can use the
z-score formula again: z = (x - μ) / (σ / √n)
z = (85 - 74) / (26 / √10)
z ≈ 1.327
The probability that a random sample of 10 time intervals between eruptions has a mean longer than 85
minutes is approximately 9.25%.
z = (85 - 74) / (26 / √26)
z ≈ 2.007
The probability that a random sample of 26 time intervals between eruptions has a mean longer than 85
minutes is approximately 2.24%.
(d) Increasing the sample size decreases the probability of obtaining a mean longer than 85 minutes.
This is because a larger sample size reduces the variability and uncertainty in the estimate of the
population mean.
(e) If a random sample of 26 time intervals between eruptions has a mean longer than 85 minutes, it
suggests that the average time interval between eruptions is longer than the population mean of 74
minutes.
(f) The mean length of time between eruptions for a random sample of 22 time intervals is likely to
exceed approximately 70.68 minutes with a 20% chance.
23. Rates of Return in Stocks The S&P 500 is a collection of 500 stocks of publicly traded companies.
Using data obtained from Yahoo! Finance, the monthly rates of return of the S&P500 since 1950 are
normally distributed. The mean rate of return is 0.007233 (0.7233%), and the standard deviation for
rate of return is 0.04135 (4.135%).
(a) What is the probability that a randomly selected month has a positive rate of return? That is, what
is P(x > 0)?
(b) Treating the next 12 months as a simple random sample, what is the probability that the mean
monthly rate of return will be positive? That is, with n = 12, what is P(x ̅ > 0)?
(c) Treating the next 24 months as a simple random sample, what is the probability that the mean
monthly rate of return will be positive?
(d) Treating the next 36 months as a simple random sample, what is the probability that the mean
monthly rate of return will be positive?
(e) Use the results of parts (b)–(d) to describe the likelihood of earning a positive rate of return on
stocks as the investment time horizon increases.
Z = (X - μ) / σ
where Z is the standard score, X is the value we want to find the probability for, μ is the mean, and σ is
the standard deviation.
(b) Probability that the mean monthly rate of return for the next 12 months will be positive:
Given n = 12, we need to calculate the Z-score for 0:

Z = (0 - 0.007233) / (0.04135 / sqrt(12)) ≈ -0.801
Using a Z-table or a statistical calculator, we find that the probability corresponding to a Z-score of -
0.801 is approximately 0.2119. Therefore, the probability that the mean monthly rate of return for the
next 12 months will be positive is 1 - 0.2119 = 0.7881 or 78.81%.
(c) Probability that the mean monthly rate of return for the next 24 months will be positive:
Given n = 24, we need to calculate the Z-score for 0:
Z = (0 - 0.007233) / (0.04135 / sqrt(24)) ≈ -1.131
1.131 is approximately 0.1286. Therefore, the probability that the mean monthly rate of return for the
next 24 months will be positive is 1 - 0.1286 = 0.8714 or 87.14%.
24. Winning Poker A very good poker player is expected to earn $1 per hand in $100/$200 Texas
Hold’em. The standard deviation is approximately $32.
(a) What is the probability a very good poker player earns a profit (more than $0) after playing 50
hands in $100/$200 Texas Hold’em?
(b) What is the probability a very good poker player loses (earns less than $0) after playing 100 hands
in $100/$200 Texas Hold’em?
(c) What proportion of the time can a very good poker player expect to earn at least $500 after playing
100 hands in $100/$200 Texas Hold’em? Hint: $500 after 100 hands is a mean of $5 per hand.
(d) Would it be unusual for a very good poker player to lose at least $1000 after playing 100 hands in
$100/$200 Texas Hold’em?
(e) Suppose twenty hands are played per hour. What is the probability that a very good poker player
earns a profit during a twenty-four hour marathon session?
Z = (X - μ) / σ
where Z is the standard score, X is the value we want to find the probability for, μ is the mean, and σ is
the standard deviation.
(a) Probability of earning a profit after playing 50 hands:
The expected earnings after playing 50 hands would be 50 * $1 = $50. The standard deviation for 50
hands would be sqrt(50) * $32 ≈ $226.27. We want to find the probability of earning more than $0,
which is equivalent to finding the probability of earning more than $50 - the mean.
Z = ($0 - $50) / $226.27 ≈ -0.221
0.221 is approximately 0.4131. Therefore, the probability that a very good poker player earns a profit
after playing 50 hands is approximately 1 - 0.4131 = 0.5869 or 58.69%.
(b) Probability of losing after playing 100 hands:
The expected earnings after playing 100 hands would be 100 * $1 = $100. The standard deviation for
100 hands would be sqrt(100) * $32 = $320. We want to find the probability of earning less than $0,
which is equivalent to finding the probability of earning less than $100 - the mean.
Z = ($0 - $100) / $320 ≈ -0.313
0.313 is approximately 0.3770. Therefore, the probability that a very good poker player loses after
playing 100 hands is approximately 0.3770 or 37.70%.
(c) Proportion of the time earning at least $500 after playing 100 hands:
100 hands would be sqrt(100) * $32 = $320. We want to find the proportion of the time earning at least
$500, which is equivalent to finding the proportion of the area under the normal distribution curve to
the right of $500 - the mean.
Z = ($500 - $100) / $320 ≈ 1.5625
Using a Z-table or a statistical calculator, we find that the probability corresponding to a Z-score of
1.5625 is approximately 0.9406. Therefore, the proportion of the time a very good poker player can
expect to earn at least $500 after playing 100 hands is approximately 0.9406 or 94.06%.
(d) Unusual to lose at least $1000 after playing 100 hands:

100 hands would be sqrt(100) * $32 = $320. We want to find the probability of losing at least $1000,
which is equivalent to finding the probability of earning less than $1000 - the mean.
Z = ($1000 - $100) / $320 ≈ 2.8125
Using a Z-table or a statistical calculator, we find that the probability corresponding to a Z-score of
2.8125 is approximately 0.9979. Therefore, it would be unusual for a very good poker player to lose at
least $1000 after playing 100 hands, as the probability is approximately 1 - 0.9979 = 0.0021 or 0.21%.
(e) Probability of earning a profit during a twenty-four hour marathon session:
In a 24-hour marathon session, with twenty hands played per hour, the total number of hands played
would be 24 * 20 = 480 hands. The expected earnings would be 480 * $1 = $480. The standard deviation
for 480 hands would be sqrt(480) * $32 ≈ $2264.88. We want to find the probability of earning more
than $0, which is equivalent to finding the probability of earning more than $480 - the mean.
Z = ($0 - $480) / $2264.88 ≈ -0.212
0.212 is approximately 0.4157. Therefore, the probability that a very good poker player earns a profit
during a twenty-four hour marathon session is approximately 1 - 0.4157 = 0.5843 or 58.43%.
25. Oil Change The shape of the distribution of the time required to get an oil change at a 10-minute
oil-change facility is unknown. However, records indicate that the mean time for an oil change is 11.4
minutes, and the standard deviation for oil-change time is 3.2 minutes.
(a) To compute probabilities regarding the sample mean using the normal model, what size sample
would be required?
(b) What is the probability that a random sample of n = 40 oil changes results in a sample mean time
of less than 10 minutes?
(c) Suppose the manager agrees to pay each employee a $50 bonus if they meet a certain goal. On a
typical Saturday, the oil-change facility will perform 40 oil changes between 10 a.m. and 12 p.m.
Treating this as a random sample, what mean oil-change time would there be a 10% chance of being
at or below? This will be the goal established by the manager.
26. Time Spent in the Drive-Through The quality-control manager of a Long John Silver’s restaurant
wants to analyze the length of time that a car spends at the drive-through window waiting for an
order. It is determined that the mean time spent at the window is 59.3 seconds with a standard
deviation of 13.1 seconds. The distribution of time at the window is skewed right (data based on
information provided by Danica Williams, student at Joliet Junior College).
(a) To obtain probabilities regarding a sample mean using the normal model, what size sample is
required?
(b) The quality-control manager wishes to use a new delivery system designed to get cars through the
drive-through system faster. A random sample of 40 cars results in a sample mean time spent at the
window of 56.8 seconds. What is the probability of obtaining a sample mean of 56.8 seconds or less,
assuming that the population mean is 59.3 seconds? Do you think that the new system is effective?
(c) Treat the next 50 cars that arrive as a simple random sample. There is a 15% chance the mean time
will be at or below _________ seconds.
(b)
27. Insect Fragments The Food and Drug Administration sets Food Defect Action Levels (FDALs) for
some of the various foreign substances that inevitably end up in the food we eat and liquids we drink.
For example, the FDAL for insect filth in peanut butter is 3 insect fragments (larvae, eggs, body parts,
and so on) per 10 grams. A random sample of 50 ten-gram portions of peanut butter is obtained and
results in a sample mean of x̅ = 3.6 insect fragments per ten-gram portion.
(a) Why is the sampling distribution of x̅ approximately normal?
(b) What is the mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ̅ assuming that µ = 3 and
σ = √ 3?
(c) What is the probability that a simple random sample of 50 ten-gram portions results in a mean of
at least 3.6 insect fragments? Is this result unusual? What might we conclude?
(a) The sampling distribution of x ̅ (sample mean) is approximately normal due to the Central Limit
Theorem. The Central Limit Theorem states that when the sample size is large enough (typically n ≥ 30)
and the samples are drawn independently from a population, the distribution of the sample mean will
be approximately normal regardless of the shape of the population distribution.
(b) Assuming µ = 3 (population mean) and σ = √3 (population standard deviation), the mean and
standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ̅ can be calculated as follows:
Mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ ( μ x) = µ = 3
Standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ̅ (σ x ) = σ / √n = √3 / √50 = √(3/50) ≈ 0.196
Therefore, the mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ is 3 and the standard deviation is approximately
0.196.
(c) To find the probability that a simple random sample of 50 ten-gram portions results in a mean of at
least 3.6 insect fragments, we can calculate the Z-score using the formula:
Z = (x̅ - µ) / (σ x )
Z = (3.6 - 3) / 0.196 ≈ 3.06
Using a Z-table or a statistical calculator, we find that the probability corresponding to a Z-score of 3.06
is extremely close to 1 (approximately 0.9999).
This result indicates that the probability of obtaining a mean of at least 3.6 insect fragments in a sample
of 50 ten-gram portions is very high. It is not unusual because the probability is almost 1. We can
conclude that the sample mean of 3.6 insect fragments per ten-gram portion is likely to be a common
occurrence and is not significantly different from the population mean of 3 insect fragments per ten-
gram portion.
28. Burger King’s Drive-Through Suppose that cars arrive at Burger King’s drive-through at the rate of
20 cars every hour between 12:00 noon and 1:00 p.m. A random sample of 40 one- hour time periods
between 12:00 noon and 1:00 p.m. is selected and has 22.1 as the mean number of cars arriving.
(a) Why is the sampling distribution of x̅ approximately normal?
(b) What is the mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ̅ assuming that μ = 20
and σ = √ 20?
(c) What is the probability that a simple random sample of 40 one-hour time periods results in a mean
of at least 22.1 cars? Is this result unusual? What might we conclude?
(b) Assuming μ = 20 (population mean) and σ = √20 (population standard deviation), the mean and
standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ̅ can be calculated as follows:
Mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ ( μ x) = μ = 20
Standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ̅ (σ x ) = σ / √n = √20 / √40 = √(20/40) = √(1/2) = 0.707
Therefore, the mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ is 20 and the standard deviation is approximately
0.707.
29. Watching Television The amount of time Americans spend watching television is closely monitored
by firms such as AC Nielsen because this helps determine advertising pricing for commercials.
(a) Do you think the variable “weekly time spent watching television” would be normally distributed?
If not, what shape would you expect the variable to have?
(b) According to the American Time Use Survey, adult Americans spend 2.35 hours per day watching
television on a weekday. Assume that the standard deviation for “time spent watching television on a
weekday” is 1.93 hours. If a random sample of 40 adult Americans is obtained, describe the sampling
distribution of x̅, the mean amount of time spent watching television on a weekday.
(c) Determine the probability that a random sample of 40 adult Americans results in a mean time
watching television on a weekday of between 2 and 3 hours.
(d) One consequence of the popularity of the Internet is that it is thought to reduce television
watching. Suppose that a random sample of 35 individuals who consider themselves to be avid
Internet users results in a mean time of 1.89 hours watching television on a weekday. Determine the
likelihood of obtaining a sample mean of 1.89 hours or less from a population whose mean is
presumed to be 2.35 hours. Based on the result obtained, do you think avid Internet users watch less
television?
(a) The variable "weekly time spent watching television" is unlikely to be normally distributed. It is more
likely to have a right-skewed distribution.
b) The sampling distribution of x ̅ (mean amount of time spent watching television on a weekday) can be
approximated as normal due to the Central Limit Theorem, given that the sample size is large enough
(typically n ≥ 30) and the samples are drawn independently from the population. For this particular
scenario, the mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ would be equal to the population mean (2.35
hours), and the standard deviation would be equal to the population standard deviation divided by the
square root of the sample size (1.93 / sqrt(40)).
(c) To determine the probability that a random sample of 40 adult Americans results in a mean time
watching television on a weekday between 2 and 3 hours, we need to find the probability corresponding
to the Z-scores for 2 and 3 hours.
Z1 = (2 - 2.35) / (1.93 / sqrt(40))
Z2 = (3 - 2.35) / (1.93 / sqrt(40))
Using a Z-table or a statistical calculator, we can find the probabilities corresponding to these Z-scores
and subtract the probability corresponding to Z1 from the probability corresponding to Z2 to find the
desired probability.
(d) To determine the likelihood of obtaining a sample mean of 1.89 hours or less from a population with
a mean of 2.35 hours, we can calculate the Z-score using the formula:
Z = (x̅ - μ) / (σ / sqrt(n))
Z = (1.89 - 2.35) / (1.93 / sqrt(35))

Using a Z-table or a statistical calculator, we can find the probability corresponding to this Z-score. Based
on the result obtained, we can assess whether avid Internet users watch less television. If the probability
is sufficiently low, it would suggest that avid Internet users do watch less television compared to the
general population.
30. ATM Withdrawals According to Crown ATM Network, the mean ATM withdrawal is $67. Assume
31. a)
c, d)
e) The standard deviation of the sampling distribution is:

32.
33.
34. Sampling distribution of a statistic is the distribution of values of that sample statistic when we take
repeated samples of size n from the population.
35. The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) is a fundamental concept in statistics that describes the behavior of
the sampling distribution of a sample mean or the sum of a large number of independent and identically
distributed (i.i.d.) random variables, regardless of the shape of the original population distribution.
36. An "infinite population" refers to a population that is very large, so large that it can be considered as
effectively infinite for statistical analysis.
The finite population correction factor is a correction applied to the standard deviation or standard error
when working with samples from finite populations. It accounts for the fact that the variability in the
sample may differ from the variability in the population due to the finite size of the population.
The factor can be ignored when the sample size is small relative to the population size. Although there is
no specific threshold, a common guideline is that the sample size should be less than 5-10% of the
population size. Ignoring the correction factor in such cases does not significantly affect the accuracy of
the results because the sample itself provides a reasonable representation of the population.
37. Without performing any computations, we can conclude that the probability P(90 ≤ x ̅ ≤ 110) will be
higher for a random sample of size n = 20 compared to a random sample of size n = 10.
As the sample size increases, the sampling distribution of the mean becomes narrower and more
precise. This means that the likelihood of observing a sample mean within a specific range, such as 90 to
110, increases with a larger sample size. Therefore, the probability of the sample mean falling within this
range will be higher for the sample of size 20 compared to the sample of size 10.
38. Since distribution in c is skewed to right so it need highest sample size for sampling distribution of
sample mean to be approximately normal distribution.
Since distribution in b is normal distribution so it need smallest sample size for sampling distribution of
sample mean to be approximately normal distribution.
Therefore correct order: b, a, c
39. Suppose Jack and Diane are each attempting to use simulation to describe the sampling
distribution from a population that is skewed left with mean 50 and standard deviation 15. Jack
obtains 1000 random samples of size n = 3 from the population, finds the mean of the 1000 samples,
and determines the standard deviation of the means. Diane does the same simulation, but obtains
1000 random samples of size n = 35 from the population.
(a) Describe the shape you expect for Jack’s distribution of sample means. Describe the shape you
expect for Diane’s distribution of sample means.
(b) What do you expect the mean of Jack’s distribution to be? What do you expect the mean of
Diane’s distribution to be?
(c) What do you expect the standard deviation of Jack’s distribution to be? What do you expect the
standard deviation of Diane’s distribution to be?
(a) Both Jack's and Diane's distributions of sample means are expected to be approximately normally
distributed. However, Jack's distribution may have a slightly more noticeable departure from perfect
normality due to the smaller sample size of n = 3. Diane's distribution, on the other hand, with a larger
sample size of n = 35, will be closer to a symmetric and bell-shaped normal distribution.
(b) The mean of both Jack's and Diane's distributions of sample means is expected to be equal to the
population mean of 50. According to the Central Limit Theorem, the mean of the distribution of sample
means will be equal to the population mean.
(c) The standard deviation of Jack's distribution of sample means (standard error) is expected to be
smaller than the population standard deviation of 15. The larger the sample size, the smaller the
standard deviation of the distribution of sample means. Therefore, Diane's distribution of sample means
will have a smaller standard deviation compared to Jack's distribution, reflecting the increased precision
obtained with a larger sample size.
40. Sleepy Suppose you want to study the number of hours of sleep you get each evening. To do so,
you look at the calendar and randomly select 10 days out of the next 300 days and record the number
of hours you sleep.
(a) Explain why number of hours of sleep in a night by you is a random variable.
(b) Is the random variable “number of hours of sleep in a night” quantitative or qualitative?
(c) After you obtain your ten nights of data, you compute the mean number of hours of sleep. Is this a
statistic or a parameter? Why?
(d) Is the mean number of hours computed in part (c) a random variable? Why? If it is a random
variable, what is the source of variation?
41. Sleepy Again Suppose you want to study the number of hours of sleep full-time college students at
your college get each evening. To do so, you obtain a list of full-time students at your college, obtain a
simple random sample of ten students, and ask each of them to disclose how many hours of sleep
they obtained the most recent Monday.
(a) What is the population of interest in this study? What is the sample?
(b) Explain why number of hours of sleep in this study is a random variable.
(c) After you obtain your ten observations, you compute the mean number of hours of sleep. Is this a
statistic or a parameter? Why?
(d) Is the mean number of hours computed in part (c) a random variable? Why? If it is a random
variable, what is the source of variation? How does the source of variation in this study differ from
that of Problem 40?
(a) The population of interest in this study is the full-time college students at your college. The sample is
the subset of ten students that you obtain from the population.
(b) The number of hours of sleep in this study is a random variable because it can take different values
depending on each individual student's sleep duration. The number of hours of sleep is not fixed and can
vary from one student to another.
(c) The mean number of hours of sleep computed after obtaining the ten observations is a statistic. A
statistic is a numerical summary calculated from a sample, and in this case, the mean is computed from
the sample of ten students. It provides an estimate of the population parameter.
(d) Yes, the mean number of hours computed in part (c) is a random variable. It is a random variable
because it can vary depending on which ten students were selected for the sample. If different samples
of ten students were chosen, the computed mean number of hours would differ. The source of variation
in the mean number of hours is the random selection of students from the population.
B. 8.2
1. 0.44 or 44%.
2. sample proportion; x/n
3. False
4. True
5. The shape of the sampling distribution of p̂ (sample proportion) is approximately normal when
the following conditions are met:
 Random sampling from the population.
 Independent observations within the sample.
 Sufficiently large sample size (typically np ≥ 5 and n(1-p) ≥ 5).
Under these conditions, the sampling distribution of p̂ will have a bell-shaped and symmetric
distribution, resembling a normal distribution.
6. As the sample size increases, the standard deviation of p̂ (sample proportion) decreases. If the
sample size is increased by a factor of 4, the standard deviation of p̂ will decrease.
7. For a sample size of 200 (n = 200) and a population proportion of 0.4 (p = 0.4), assuming a
population size of 10,000, the sampling distribution of p̂ will be approximately normal with a mean
of 0.4 and a standard deviation of √((0.4(1-0.4))/200).
11. (a) The sampling distribution of p̂ (sample proportion) can be approximated as approximately
normal with a mean of 0.8 and a standard deviation of √((0.8(1-0.8))/200).
(b) The probability of obtaining x = 170 or more individuals with the characteristic (p̂ ≥ 0.85) can be
calculated using the z-score. The z-score is (0.85 - 0.8) / (√((0.8(1-0.8))/200)). We can then find the
corresponding probability using the standard normal distribution table or statistical software.
(c) The probability of obtaining x = 146 or fewer individuals with the characteristic (p̂ ≤ 0.73) can be
calculated using the z-score. The z-score is (0.73 - 0.8) / (√((0.8(1-0.8))/200)). We can find the
(b) The probability of obtaining x = 93 or more individuals with the characteristic (p̂ ≥ 0.62) can be
calculated using the z-score. The z-score is (0.62 - 0.6) / (√((0.6(1-0.6))/150)). We can then find the
(c) The probability of obtaining x = 81 or fewer individuals with the characteristic (p̂ ≤ 0.54) can be
calculated using the z-score. The z-score is (0.54 - 0.6) / (√((0.6(1-0.6))/150)). We can find the
(b) The probability of obtaining x = 480 or more individuals with the characteristic can be calculated
using the z-score. The z-score is (0.48 - 0.44) / (√((0.44(1-0.44))/1000)). We can then find the
(c) The probability of obtaining x = 410 or fewer individuals with the characteristic can be calculated
using the z-score. The z-score is (0.41 - 0.44) / (√((0.44(1-0.44))/1000)). We can find the
(b) The probability of obtaining x = 657 or more individuals with the characteristic can be calculated
using the z-score. The z-score is (0.45 - 0.42) / (√((0.42(1-0.42))/1460)). We can then find the
(c) The probability of obtaining x = 584 or fewer individuals with the characteristic can be calculated
using the z-score. The z-score is (0.4 - 0.42) / (√((0.42(1-0.42))/1460)). We can find the
15. a) The response to this question is qualitative. The reason is that the question asks whether a
person can or cannot order a meal in a foreign language, which is a yes/no or categorical response.
It does not involve a numerical measurement or quantity.
b ) The sample proportion, denoted as p̂ , is a random variable because it can take different values
depending on the individuals sampled. When selecting a sample of 200 Americans, the responses
can vary, leading to different proportions of people who can order a meal in a foreign language. The
source of variability in the sample proportion comes from the fact that different samples may have
different compositions of individuals who can or cannot order a meal in a foreign language.
c) Explanation: The sampling distribution of p̂ , the proportion of Americans who can order a meal in
a foreign language, follows an approximately normal distribution under certain conditions. The
requirements for the model include:
 Random sample: The sample of 200 Americans should be selected randomly from the
population to ensure representativeness.
 Independence: Each person's response should be independent of others, meaning one
person's ability to order a meal in a foreign language does not influence another person's
ability.
 Success-failure condition: The number of successes (Americans who can order a meal in a
foreign language) and failures (Americans who cannot) should each be greater than or equal
to 10. This ensures that the sample proportion is not too close to 0 or 1, allowing the normal
approximation to hold.
16. (a) The response to the question is qualitative because it asks for a subjective assessment
("satisfied" or "not satisfied") rather than a numerical measurement.
(b) The sample proportion, p̂ , is a random variable because it can vary from one sample to another. The
variability comes from the fact that different random samples may yield different proportions due to
chance.
(c) The sampling distribution of p̂ can be approximated as approximately normal if the sample size is
sufficiently large and the sampling is conducted randomly. The requirements include a random sample,
independence of responses, and an adequate sample size.
(d) To find the probability that the proportion exceeds 0.85, we can calculate P(p̂ > 0.85) using the
normal approximation by calculating the z-score and finding the corresponding probability.
(e) It would be unusual for 75 or fewer out of 100 Americans to be satisfied if the true proportion in the
population is 0.82. This can be determined by calculating the probability P(p̂ ≤ 0.75) using the same
methods.
17. a) Normal Distribution
Proportion ( P ) =0.39
Standard Deviation ( sd )= Sqrt (P*Q /n) = Sqrt(0.39*0.61/500)
Normal Distribution = Z= X- u / sd ~ N(0,1)
b) P(X < 0.38) = (0.38-0.39)/0.0218
= -0.01/0.0218= -0.4587 = P ( Z <-0.4587) From Standard Normal Table
= 0.3232
c) To find P(a < = Z < = b) = F(b) - F(a)
P(X < 0.4) = (0.4-0.39)/0.0218 = 0.01/0.0218 = 0.4587
= P ( Z <0.4587) From Standard Normal Table
= 0.67678
P(X < 0.45) = (0.45-0.39)/0.0218 = 0.06/0.0218 = 2.7523
= P ( Z <2.7523) From Standard Normal Table
= 0.99704
P(0.4 < X < 0.45) = 0.99704-0.67678 = 0.3203
d) To determine if it would be unusual for 210 or more adult Americans out of 500 to believe marriage is
obsolete, we calculate the probability P(p̂ ≥ 0.42) using the normal approximation. This involves
calculating the z-score for 0.42 and finding the corresponding probability using the standard normal
distribution table or statistical software. If the probability is low (typically less than 0.05), it would be
considered unusual.
18. a) It follows Normal distribution with p = 1 - 0.29 = 0.71 and
standard deviation = sqrt(p*(1 - p)/n) =sqrt(0.71*0.29/500) = 0.02029286
b) P(p̂ > 0.3) = P((p̂ - p)/sqrt(p*(1- p)/n) >(0.3 - 0.29)/sqrt(0.29*(1 - 0.29)/500))
= P(Z > 0.49) = 0.3121 (from standard normal table)

c) P(0.25 < p̂ < 0.3)
= P((0.25 - 0.29)/sqrt(0.29*(1 - 0.29)/500) <Z< (0.3 - 0.29)/sqrt(0.29*(1 - 0.29)/500))
= P(-1.97 < Z < 0.49) = 0.6635 (from standard normal table)
d) 125/500 = 0.25
P(p̂ < 0.25) =P(Z < -1.97) = 0.0244 (from standard normal table)
Since the probability is less than 0.05, it would be unusual for a random sample of 500 adults to result in
125 or fewer who do not own a credit card.
19. The observed proportion of 132 out of 1,200 Americans indicating they are afraid to fly is not
enough evidence to conclude that the proportion of Americans who are afraid to fly has increased.
Reasons include potential sampling bias, random sampling variation, the need for confidence intervals,
and the absence of historical comparisons.
20. The sample result of 52 out of 250 women indicating they have never given birth is not enough
evidence to conclude that the proportion of women 40-44 years of age who have not given birth has
increased since the Pew study. Reasons include potential sampling bias, random sampling variation, the
need for confidence intervals, and the absence of a direct comparison to the original study's timeframe.
21. The likelihood of obtaining the sample results of 164 out of 310 voters favoring the referendum,
given a population proportion of 0.49, is very low. This suggests that the observed result is unlikely to
have occurred by chance if the population proportion is indeed 0.49. This highlights the dangers of using
exit polling to call elections as non-sampling errors, such as selection bias, nonresponse bias,
misreporting or recall bias, and social desirability bias, can significantly disrupt the findings. It is
important to consider other factors and use statistical modeling in conjunction with exit polling for more
accurate election predictions.
22. engineer accepts the shipment when no of defect < 10
probability of engineer accepts the shipment
= p(x < 10)=p(z < [(10/500) - 0.04]/sqrt(0.04*[0.96/500)] = p(z < -2.2822) = 0.011239
Without performing the calculations, it is difficult to determine the exact probability. However, if the
probability of the engineer accepting the shipment is high, it suggests that the number of defective
resistors in the sample is not significantly different from what would be expected based on the 4%
defect rate. In that case, the acceptance policy of the engineer could be considered sound.
23.
24. Now, for a simple random sample with sample size = n and population proportion = p, the sampling
distribution of p̂ is approximately normal when: n*p*(1 - p) ≥ 10.
a) p = 0.9 n = requirred sample size...
so , n* ( 09 * 0.1 ) ≥ 10 => n ≥ 111.1111
so, minimum sample size = 112. So, we need atleast 12 more teenagers in the sample.
b) p = 0.95..
so, n* 0.95 * 0.05 ≥ 10 or, n ≥ 210.5263
Mimimum sample size = 211. So, we need atleast 111 more teenagers in our sample.
25. a) As the belief in reincarnation could only have one of the 2 possible answers: Yes or no, therefore
this is a case of a categorical variable here. Therefore, this is qualitative variable here.
b) This could happen due to the sampling erorr or the standard error in the distribution of the sample
proportion. Since both of them are not taking the whole population, but only taking 100 sample points,
these 100 points could be very different from each other and not exactly representing the population
thus causing sampling errors and difference in the final proportions: 0.18 vs 0.22 in this case.
c) It is important to random select to avoid any kind of bias in the sample which might make it not a
good representative sample of the given population of the American teens. Therefore, random sampling
is done for the experiment here.
d) The expected number here is computed as: E(X) = np = 100*0.21 = 21 here
26. The normal model assumes that the sample proportion follows a normal distribution when the
sample size is sufficiently large, regardless of the population proportion. However, this assumption may
not hold when the sample size is small, and the population proportion is unknown. In this case, the
sample proportion follows a binomial distribution, and the normal model is not appropriate.
To determine whether a sample proportion of 0.75 or higher from a population whose proportion is
0.65 is unusual, we need to use the binomial distribution. Specifically, we can use the binomial
probability formula to calculate the probability of observing 15 or more households in favor of an
increase in assessments out of a random sample of 20 households, given that the true proportion is
0.65. If the probability is low, say less than 5%, we can conclude that a sample proportion is 0.75 or
higher is unusual and unlikely to have occurred by chance.
27. Here given that Probability of passengers who miss a flight is 0.0995.
a) Here we have to findout the probabilitythat 25 or more passengers will miss a flight.
n = 290, p = 0.0995.
np = 290 x 0.0995 = 28.855 ≥ 10
n(1-p) = 290 x (1 - 0.0995) = 261.145 ≥ 10
So, we have to approximate it to normal distribution with mean µ = np = 28.855 and
σ = √ np(1− p) = √ 290∗0.0995∗(1−0.0995) = 5.0974
Then, P(x ≥ 25) = 1 – P(x < 25) = 1 – P(x < 25 – 0.5)
= 1 - P(x < 24·5) (using continuity correction)

= 1 - P( z < -0.85)
= 1 - P(-∞ < z < -0.85)
= 1 - [P(-∞ < z < 0) - P(-0.85 < Z < 0)] = 1 - [0.5 - 0.3023] = 0.8023 (from z table)
b) n-320, P = 1 - 0.0995 = 0.9005
Then, µ = np - 320 x 0.9005 = 288.16 ≥ 10
σ = √ np(1− p) = √ 320∗0.9005∗(1−0.9005) = 5.3546.
Then, P( x ≤ 300) = 1 – P(x > 300)
= 1 – P(x > 300 + 0.5) = 1 – P(x > 300.5)
= 1 – P(z > 2.30) = 1 – P(2.30 < z < ∞) = 0.9893 (from z-table).
C. Review exercises
1. In your own words, explain what a sampling distribution is.
Sampling distribution of a statistic is the distribution of values of that sample statistic when we
take repeated samples of size n from the population.
2. Under what conditions is the sampling distribution of x normal?
Sample distribution of sample mean is approximately normal if the sample size is large enough.
3. Under what conditions is the sampling distribution of ^p approximately normal?
Let p: population proportion and n: sample size
Sampling distribution of sample proportion is approximately normal if
i) n×p ≥ 10
ii) n×(1-p) ≥ 10
4. What are the mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ? What are the mean
and standard deviation of the sampling distribution of ^p?
+) The mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ is equal to the population mean, which means:
Mean(x)̅ = μ
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ,̅ also known as the standard error of the mean,
is calculated using the formula:
Standard deviation(x)̅ = σ / √(n)
where σ is the population standard deviation and n is the sample size.
+) The mean of the sampling distribution of p̂ is equal to the population proportion, which means:
Mean(p̂ ) = p
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of p̂ , also known as the standard error of the
proportion, is calculated using the formula:
Standard deviation(p̂ ) = √((p * (1 - p)) / n)

where p is the population proportion and n is the sample size.
5. Energy Need during Pregnancy The total energy need during pregnancy is normally distributed, with
mean µ = 2600 kcal/day and standard deviation σ = 50 kcal/day.
(a) Is total energy need during pregnancy qualitative or quantitative?
(b) What is the probability that a randomly selected pregnant woman has an energy need of more
than 2625 kcal/day? Is this result unusual?
(c) Describe the sampling distribution of x , the sample mean daily energy requirement for a random
sample of 20 pregnant women. What might be the source of variability in the sample mean?
(d) What is the probability that a random sample of 20 pregnant women has a mean energy need of
more than 2625 kcal/day? Is this result unusual?
(a) The total energy need during pregnancy is quantitative since it represents a numerical measurement
or quantity.
(b) We calculate the z-score and use the standard normal distribution table or a calculator.
The z-score is calculated as: z = (x - µ) / σ
Substituting the values, we have:
z = (2625 - 2600) / 50 = 0.5
Using the standard normal distribution table or calculator, we find that the probability corresponding to
a z-score of 0.5 is approximately 0.6915. This means that approximately 69.15% of pregnant women
have an energy need of more than 2625 kcal/day.
Determining whether this result is unusual depends on the context and the specific criteria for defining
unusual events. In general, if we consider a probability less than 5% (or 0.05) as unusual, then a
probability of 0.6915 is not considered unusual. However, the determination of what is considered
unusual is subjective and can vary depending on the specific application or context.
(c) The sampling distribution of x,̅ the sample mean daily energy requirement for a random sample of 20
pregnant women, is also approximately normally distributed. According to the Central Limit Theorem,
for a sufficiently large sample size, the sampling distribution of the sample mean becomes
approximately normal, regardless of the shape of the population distribution. In this case, since the
sample size is 20, we can assume the sampling distribution of x ̅ is approximately normal.
The source of variability in the sample mean arises from the natural variability in the individual energy
needs of pregnant women within the population. Each pregnant woman may have a slightly different
energy need, resulting in variability in the sample means calculated from different samples.
(d) We calculate the z-score using the formula: z = (x ̅ - µ) / (σ / √n)
Substituting the given values, we have:
z = (2625 - 2600) / (50 / √20) ≈ 0.71

a z-score of 0.71 is approximately 0.7611. This means that there is approximately a 76.11% probability
that a random sample of 20 pregnant women has a mean energy need of more than 2625 kcal/day.
Whether this result is considered unusual depends on the specific criteria for defining unusual events. If
we consider a probability less than 5% (or 0.05) as unusual, then a probability of 0.7611 is not
considered unusual. However, the determination of what is considered unusual is subjective and can
vary based on the specific context or application.
6. Copper Tubing A machine at K&A Tube & Manufacturing Company produces a certain copper tubing
component in a refrigeration unit. The tubing components produced by the manufacturer have a
mean diameter of 0.75 inch with a standard deviation of 0.004 inch. The quality-control inspector
takes a random sample of 30 components once each week and calculates the mean diameter of these
components. If the mean is either less than 0.748 inch or greater than 0.752 inch, the inspector
concludes that the machine needs an adjustment.
(a) Describe the sampling distribution of x , the sample mean diameter, for a random sample of 30
such components.
(b) What is the probability that, based on a random sample of 30 such components, the inspector will
conclude that the machine needs an adjustment when, in fact, the machine is correctly calibrated?
(a) The sampling distribution of x,̅ the sample mean diameter for a random sample of 30 components,
can be approximated as a normal distribution. According to the Central Limit Theorem, when the sample
size is sufficiently large (typically considered n ≥ 30), the sampling distribution of the sample mean
becomes approximately normal, regardless of the shape of the population distribution.
In this case, the population mean diameter is 0.75 inch, and the standard deviation of the population is
0.004 inch. The mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ will also be 0.75 inch, which means it is an
unbiased estimator of the population mean.
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ,̅ also known as the standard error of the mean,
can be calculated using the formula:
Standard deviation(x)̅ = σ / √n
where σ is the population standard deviation and n is the sample size. Substituting the values, we have:
Standard deviation(x)̅ = 0.004 / √30 ≈ 0.00073 inch
This standard deviation represents the average variability in the sample means calculated from different
samples of size 30.
(b) The machine is correctly calibrated, we need to find the probability of observing a sample mean
diameter less than 0.748 inch or greater than 0.752 inch, assuming the population mean is actually 0.75
inch.
To do this, we can calculate the z-scores for both cutoff values and use the standard normal distribution
table or a calculator to find the corresponding probabilities.
For the lower cutoff:

z = (x - µ) / (σ / √n) = (0.748 - 0.75) / (0.004 / √30) ≈ -4.08
For the upper cutoff:
z = (x - µ) / (σ / √n) = (0.752 - 0.75) / (0.004 / √30) ≈ 4.08
Using the standard normal distribution table or calculator, the probability of observing a z-score less
than -4.08 or greater than 4.08 is essentially 0.
Therefore, the probability that the inspector will conclude that the machine needs an adjustment when,
in fact, the machine is correctly calibrated is approximately 0.
7. Number of Televisions Based on data obtained from AC Nielsen, the mean number of televisions in a
household in the United States is 2.24. Assume that the population standard deviation number of
television sets in the United States is 1.38.
(a) Do you believe the shape of the distribution of number of television sets follows a normal
distribution? Why or why not?
(b) A random sample of 40 households results in a total of 102 television sets. What is the mean
number of televisions in these 40 households?
(c) What is the probability of obtaining the sample mean obtained in part (b) if the population mean is
2.24? Does the statistic from part (b) contradict the results reported by AC Nielsen?
(a) Without specific information or data on the distribution of the number of television sets in
households, it is difficult to definitively determine whether the shape of the distribution follows a
normal distribution. However, the assumption of a normal distribution can be reasonable if the number
of television sets is influenced by multiple independent factors and the Central Limit Theorem holds. In
practice, the number of television sets in households may not strictly follow a perfect normal
distribution, but it could be approximately normal if the sample size is sufficiently large.
(b) The mean number of televisions in these 40 households can be calculated by dividing the total
number of television sets (102) by the sample size (40):
Mean number of televisions = Total number of televisions / Sample size = 102 / 40 = 2.55
Therefore, the mean number of televisions in these 40 households is 2.55.
(c) To determine the probability of obtaining the sample mean obtained in part (b) if the population
mean is 2.24, we need to calculate the z-score and use the standard normal distribution.
The z-score is calculated as: z = (x ̅ - µ) / (σ / √n)
Substituting the values, we have: z = (2.55 - 2.24) / (1.38 / √40) ≈ 2.071
Using the standard normal distribution table or calculator, we find that the probability of obtaining a z-
score of 2.071 or more extreme is approximately 0.019. This means there is a 1.9% probability of
obtaining a sample mean of 2.55 or higher if the population mean is actually 2.24.
The statistic from part (b) does not necessarily contradict the results reported by AC Nielsen. The
probability of obtaining the sample mean of 2.55 or higher, assuming the population mean is 2.24, is not
extremely low. Therefore, the statistic from part (b) is within a reasonable range, and it does not
strongly contradict the reported mean of 2.24 by AC Nielsen.
8. Entrepreneurship A Gallup survey indicated that 72% of 18- to 29-year-olds, if given a choice, would
prefer to start their own business rather than work for someone else. A random sample of 600 18- to
29-year-olds is obtained today.
(a) Is the variable start own business versus work for someone else qualitative or quantitative?
(b) Describe the sampling distribution of ^p, the sample proportion of 18- to 29-year-olds who would
prefer to start their own business. Explain the source of variability in the sample proportion.
(c) In a random sample of 600 18- to 29-year-olds, what is the probability that no more than 70%
would prefer to start their own business?
(d) Would it be unusual if a random sample of 600 18- to 29-year-olds resulted in 450 or more who
would prefer to start their own business?
(a) The variable "start own business versus work for someone else" is qualitative. It represents a
categorical choice or preference between two options.
(b) The sampling distribution of p̂ , the sample proportion of 18- to 29-year-olds who would prefer to
start their own business, can be approximated by a normal distribution. According to the Central Limit
Theorem, when the sample size is sufficiently large, the sampling distribution of the sample proportion
The source of variability in the sample proportion arises from the random selection of individuals in the
sample. Each individual may have a different preference for starting their own business, and the sample
proportion may differ from the true population proportion due to sampling variability.
(c) To find the probability that no more than 70% of the random sample would prefer to start their own
business, we need to calculate the z-score and use the standard normal distribution.
The z-score is calculated as:
z = (p̂ - p) / √(p * (1 - p) / n)
where p̂ is the sample proportion, p is the population proportion (0.72), and n is the sample size (600).
Substituting the values, we have:
z = (0.70 - 0.72) / √(0.72 * (1 - 0.72) / 600) ≈ -1.25
a z-score of -1.25 is approximately 0.1056. Therefore, the probability that no more than 70% of the
random sample would prefer to start their own business is approximately 0.1056 or 10.56%.
(d) To determine if it would be unusual to have a random sample of 600 18- to 29-year-olds result in 450
or more individuals who would prefer to start their own business, we can calculate the z-score.
The z-score is calculated as: z = (x - np) / √(np(1 - p))

where x is the observed number of individuals with the preference (450), n is the sample size (600), and
p is the population proportion (0.72).
Substituting the values, we have: z = (450 - (600 * 0.72)) / √(600 * 0.72 * (1 - 0.72)) ≈ -3.67
a z-score of -3.67 is approximately 0.0002 or 0.02%. This means that the probability of observing 450 or
more individuals who would prefer to start their own business in a random sample of 600 is extremely
low.
Therefore, it would be considered unusual to have a random sample of 600 18- to 29-year-olds result in
450 or more individuals who would prefer to start their own business.
9. Advanced Degrees According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2009, 10% of adults 25 years and older in
the United States had advanced degrees. A researcher with the U.S. Department of Education surveys
500 randomly selected adults 25 years of age or older and finds that 60 of them have an advanced
degree. Explain why this is not necessarily evidence that the proportion of adults 25 years of age or
older with advanced degrees has increased.
The fact that the researcher found that 60 out of 500 randomly selected adults have an advanced
degree does not necessarily provide evidence that the proportion of adults 25 years of age or older with
advanced degrees has increased. There are a few reasons for this:
+) Sampling variability: The researcher surveyed a sample of 500 adults, which is a subset of the entire
population of adults 25 years and older. Due to random sampling, there will always be some variability
in the sample proportions obtained. The observed proportion of 60 out of 500 (12%) having advanced
degrees may simply be a result of random sampling and not reflect the true proportion in the entire
population.
+) Sampling error: Even if the true proportion of adults with advanced degrees remains constant over
time, sampling error can cause the observed proportion in a sample to deviate from the true population
proportion. In this case, the observed proportion of 12% could be a result of sampling error rather than
an actual increase in the proportion of adults with advanced degrees.
+) Comparison to a specific benchmark: The statement mentions that in 2009, 10% of adults 25 years
and older had advanced degrees. The researcher's findings do not provide a direct comparison to the
2009 proportion or any other specific benchmark. Without comparing the current findings to the
previously known proportion, it is not possible to determine if there has been a change over time.
To draw conclusions about changes in the proportion of adults with advanced degrees, one would need
to conduct a systematic study with appropriate sampling methods, compare the findings to previous
data or benchmarks, and analyze the results using appropriate statistical tests.
10. Variability in Baseball Suppose, during the course of a typical season, a batter has 500 at-bats. This
means the player has the opportunity to get a hit 500 times during the course of a season. Further,
suppose a batter is a career 0.280 hitter (he averages 280 hits every 1000 at-bats or he has 280
successes in 1000 trials of the experiment), so the population proportion of hits is 0.280.
(a) Assuming each at-bat is an independent event, describe the sampling distribution of ^p, the
proportion of hits in 500 at-bats over the course of a season.
(b) Would it be unusual for a player who is a career 0.280 hitter to have a season in which he hits at
least 0.310?
(c) Would it be unusual for the player who hit 0.310 one season to hit below 0.255 the following
season?
(d) Explain why a career 0.280 hitter could easily have a batting average between 0.260 and 0.300.
(e) Use the result of part (d) to explain that a player who hit 0.260 in a season may not be a worse
player than one who hit 0.300.
(a) The sampling distribution of p̂ , the proportion of hits in 500 at-bats over the course of a season, can
be approximated by a normal distribution. According to the Central Limit Theorem, when the sample
size is sufficiently large (n > 30) and the observations are independent, the sampling distribution of p̂
(b) To determine if it would be unusual for a player who is a career 0.280 hitter to have a season in
which he hits at least 0.310, we can calculate the z-score and use the standard normal distribution.
The z-score is calculated as: z = (p̂ - p) / √(p * (1 - p) / n)
where p̂ is the sample proportion (0.310), p is the population proportion (0.280), and n is the sample
size (500).
Substituting the values, we have: z = (0.310 - 0.280) / √(0.280 * (1 - 0.280) / 500) ≈ 2.21
a z-score of 2.21 or higher is approximately 0.014 or 1.4%. This means that the probability of a player
who is a career 0.280 hitter having a season with a hit proportion of at least 0.310 is about 1.4%. Since
this probability is relatively low, it would be considered unusual for such a player to have a season with a
hit proportion of at least 0.310.
(c) To determine if it would be unusual for the player who hit 0.310 in one season to hit below 0.255 the
following season, we can use a similar approach and calculate the z-score.
The z-score is calculated as: z = (p̂ - p) / √(p * (1 - p) / n)
where p̂ is the sample proportion (0.255), p is the population proportion (0.310), and n is the sample
size (500).
Substituting the values, we have: z = (0.255 - 0.310) / √(0.310 * (1 - 0.310) / 500) ≈ -3.29
a z-score of -3.29 is extremely low (close to 0). This means that the probability of a player who hit 0.310
one season hitting below 0.255 the following season is very low. It would be considered unusual for such
a player to have a drop in the hit proportion to below 0.255.
(d) A career 0.280 hitter could easily have a batting average between 0.260 and 0.300 due to the
inherent variability in baseball performance. Each season is a relatively small sample of at-bats
compared to the player's entire career. The sample proportions (batting averages) in each season can
fluctuate due to factors such as variations in the pitcher's skill, weather conditions, injuries, or random
chance. This variability can cause the player's batting average to deviate from their career average.
(e) Based on the explanation in part (d), a player who hit 0.260 in a season may not necessarily be a
worse player than one who hit 0.300. The difference in batting averages could be due to random
variation and does not necessarily reflect a significant difference in their skill or ability. It is possible that
the player who hit 0.260 had a season with some unlucky outcomes or faced particularly challenging
opponents, while the player who hit 0.300 had some fortunate outcomes or faced weaker opponents.
To make a reliable judgment about the players' skill, it would be necessary to consider a larger sample of
seasons or more comprehensive statistical analysis.
D. Chapter test
1. State the Central Limit Theorem.
The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) is a fundamental concept in statistics that describes the
behavior of the sampling distribution of a sample mean or the sum of a large number of
independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) random variables, regardless of the shape of the
original population distribution.
2. If a random sample of size 36 is obtained from a population with mean 50 and standard deviation
24, what is the mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample mean?
According to the Central Limit Theorem, the mean (μ) of the sampling distribution of the sample mean is
equal to the mean of the population, which in this case is 50.
The standard deviation (σ) of the sampling distribution of the sample mean can be calculated using the
formula: σ/sqrt(n),
where σ is the standard deviation of the population, and n is the sample size.
In this case, the standard deviation of the population is 24, and the sample size is 36. We have:
σ/sqrt(n) = 24/sqrt(36) = 24/6 = 4.
Therefore, the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample mean is 4.
3. The charge life of a certain lithium ion battery for camcorders is normally distributed, with mean 90
minutes and standard deviation 35 minutes.
(a) What is the probability that a randomly selected battery of this type lasts more than 100 minutes
on a single charge? Is this result unusual?
(b) Describe the sampling distribution of x , the sample mean charge life for a random sample of 10
such batteries.
(c) What is the probability that a random sample of 10 such batteries has a mean charge life of more
than 100 minutes? Is this result unusual?
(d) What is the probability that a random sample of 25 such batteries has a mean charge life of more
than 100 minutes?
(e) Explain what causes the probabilities in parts (c) and (d) to be different.
(a) We use the z-score formula and the standard normal distribution.
The z-score can be calculated as: z = (x - μ) / σ
In this case, x = 100 minutes, μ = 90 minutes, and σ = 35 minutes.
 z = (100 - 90) / 35 = 10 / 35 = 0.2857
The probability of a randomly selected battery lasting more than 100 minutes is approximately 0.3938 or
39.38%. This result is not considered unusual since it is not extremely high or low.
(b) The sampling distribution of x,̅ the sample mean charge life for a random sample of 10 batteries,
follows a normal distribution. The mean of the sampling distribution is equal to the population mean (μ),
which is 90 minutes in this case. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution (σ_ x )̅ can be
calculated using the formula: σ_ x ̅ = σ / sqrt(n), where σ is the standard deviation of the population and
n is the sample size.
In this case, σ = 35 minutes and n = 10 batteries.
σ_ x̅ = 35 / sqrt(10) ≈ 11.07 minutes
Therefore, the sampling distribution of x ̅ has a mean of 90 minutes and a standard deviation of
approximately 11.07 minutes.
(c) We use the z-score formula and the sampling distribution of x .̅
z = (x - μ) / (σ_ x)̅
In this case, x = 100 minutes, μ = 90 minutes, and σ_ x ̅ ≈ 11.07 minutes.
z = (100 - 90) / 11.07 ≈ 0.902
The probability of a random sample of 10 batteries having a mean charge life of more than 100 minutes
is approximately 0.1826 or 18.26%. This result is not considered unusual since it is not extremely high or
low.
(d) n = 25 batteries.
σ_ x̅ = 35 / sqrt(25) = 35 / 5 = 7 minutes
z = (x - μ) / (σ_ x )̅
In this case, x = 100 minutes, μ = 90 minutes, and σ_ x ̅ = 7 minutes.
z = (100 - 90) / 7 ≈ 1.429
The probability of a random sample of 25 batteries having a mean charge life of more than 100 minutes
is approximately 0.0764 or 7.64%. This result is not considered unusual since it is not extremely high or
low.
(e) The probabilities in parts (c) and (d) are different because the sample sizes are different. As the
sample size increases, the standard deviation of the sampling distribution (σ_ x )̅ decreases, leading to a
narrower distribution. This means that as the sample size increases, it becomes less likely to observe
extreme values in the sample mean. In other words, larger sample sizes provide more precise estimates
of the population mean, resulting in smaller probabilities for extreme values.
4. A machine used for filling plastic bottles with a soft drink has a known standard deviation of σ =
0.05 liter. The target mean fill volume is µ = 2.0 liters.
(a) Describe the sampling distribution of x̅, the sample mean fill volume, for a random sample of 45
such bottles.
(b) A quality-control manager obtains a random sample of 45 bottles. He will shut down the machine
if the sample mean of these 45 bottles is less than 1.98 liters or greater than 2.02 liters. What is the
probability that the quality-control manager will shut down the machine even though the machine is
correctly calibrated?
(a) The sampling distribution of x,̅ the sample mean fill volume for a random sample of 45 bottles,
follows a normal distribution. The mean of the sampling distribution is equal to the population mean (µ),
which is 2.0 liters in this case. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution (σ_ x )̅ can be
calculated using the formula: σ_ x ̅ = σ / sqrt(n), where σ is the standard deviation of the population and
n is the sample size.
In this case, σ = 0.05 liters and n = 45 bottles.
 σ_ x̅ = 0.05 / sqrt(45) ≈ 0.0075 liters
Therefore, the sampling distribution of x ̅ has a mean of 2.0 liters and a standard deviation of
approximately 0.0075 liters.
(b) We need to find the probability that the sample mean of the 45 bottles falls below 1.98 liters or
above 2.02 liters.
The z-scores for both cutoff values:
z 1 = (1.98 - 2.0) / (0.05 / sqrt(45)) ≈ -1.897
z 2 = (2.02 - 2.0) / (0.05 / sqrt(45)) ≈ 1.897
P(z < -1.897) ≈ 0.0287
P(z > 1.897) ≈ 0.0287
However, since we are interested in either case (less than 1.98 liters or greater than 2.02 liters), we
need to calculate the total probability:
P(z < -1.897 or z > 1.897) = P(z < -1.897) + P(z > 1.897) ≈ 0.0287 + 0.0287 ≈ 0.0574
Therefore, the probability that the quality-control manager will shut down the machine, even though it
is correctly calibrated, is approximately 0.0574 or 5.74%.
5. According to the National Center for Health Statistics, 22.4% of adults are smokers. A random
sample of 300 adults is obtained.
(a) Describe the sampling distribution of ^p, the sample proportion of adults who smoke.
(b) In a random sample of 300 adults, what is the probability that at least 50 are smokers?
(c) Would it be unusual if a random sample of 300 adults results in 18% or less being smokers?
(a) The sampling distribution of ^p, the sample proportion of adults who smoke, for a random sample of
300 adults follows an approximately normal distribution. The mean of the sampling distribution is equal
to the population proportion (p), which is 0.224 in this case. The standard deviation of the sampling
distribution (σ_ ^p) can be calculated using the formula: σ_ ^p = sqrt((p * (1 - p)) / n), where p is the
population proportion and n is the sample size.
In this case, p = 0.224 and n = 300.
σ_ ^p= sqrt((0.224 * (1 - 0.224)) / 300) ≈ 0.0205
Therefore, the sampling distribution of ^p has a mean of 0.224 and a standard deviation of approximately
0.0205.
(b) To find the probability that at least 50 out of 300 adults in a random sample are smokers, we need to
calculate the probability of observing 50 or more smokers.
We can use the normal approximation to the binomial distribution since the sample size is large (n =
300) and assuming the observations are independent.
Define X as the number of smokers in the sample. We are interested in finding P(X ≥ 50).
Using the mean (μ) and standard deviation (σ) of the sampling distribution:
μ = n * p = 300 * 0.224 = 67.2
σ = sqrt(n * p * (1 - p)) = sqrt(300 * 0.224 * (1 - 0.224)) ≈ 7.16
To find the probability, we can calculate the z-score for 50 smokers:
z = (50 - μ) / σ = (50 - 67.2) / 7.16 ≈ -2.4
Using the standard normal distribution table or a calculator, we can find the probability associated with
the z-score:
P(X ≥ 50) ≈ P(Z ≥ -2.4) ≈ 0.992
Therefore, the probability that at least 50 out of 300 adults in a random sample are smokers is
approximately 0.992 or 99.2%.
(c) z = ( ^p- p) / sqrt((p * (1 - p)) / n)
In this case, ^p= 0.18, p = 0.224, and n = 300.
z = (0.18 - 0.224) / sqrt((0.224 * (1 - 0.224)) / 300) ≈ -3.104

P( ^p≤ 0.18) ≈ P(Z ≤ -3.104) ≈ 0.00194
The probability that a random sample of 300 adults results in 18% or less being smokers is
approximately 0.00194 or 0.194%.
Since this probability is quite low, it would be considered unusual for a random sample of 300 adults to
have 18% or fewer smokers.
6. Peanut and tree nut allergies are considered to be the most serious food allergies. According to the
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, roughly 1% of Americans are allergic to peanuts
or tree nuts. A random sample of 1500 Americans is obtained.
(a) Explain why a large sample is needed for the distribution of the sample proportion to be
approximately normal.
(b) Would it be unusual if a random sample of 1500 Americans results in fewer than 10 with peanut or
tree nut allergies?
(a) A large sample is needed for the distribution of the sample proportion to be approximately normal
because it allows us to satisfy two important conditions: the sample size should be sufficiently large, and
the individual observations within the sample should be independent.
When the sample size is large, the central limit theorem applies, which states that the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion becomes approximately normal, regardless of the shape of the
population distribution. This is because as the sample size increases, the distribution of the sample
proportion approaches a normal distribution.
The independence assumption is also crucial. In this context, it means that each individual's allergic
status should be independent of the others in the sample. If the sample is randomly selected and the
individuals are independent, the observations can be treated as independent, and the normality
assumption holds.
(b) Define X as the number of individuals in the sample with peanut or tree nut allergies. We are
interested in finding P(X < 10).
μ = n * p = 1500 * 0.01 = 15
σ = sqrt(n * p * (1 - p)) = sqrt(1500 * 0.01 * 0.99) ≈ 3.873
Calculate the z-score for X = 10:
z = (10 - μ) / σ = (10 - 15) / 3.873 ≈ -1.29
P(X < 10) ≈ P(Z < -1.29) ≈ 0.098
The probability that a random sample of 1500 Americans results in fewer than 10 individuals with
peanut or tree nut allergies is approximately 0.098 or 9.8%.
Since this probability is not extremely low (less than 5%), it would not be considered unusual for a
random sample of 1500 Americans to have fewer than 10 individuals with peanut or tree nut allergies.
7. Net worth is defined as total assets (value of house, cars, money, etc.) minus total liabilities
(mortgage balance, credit card debt, etc.). According to a recent study by TNS Financial Services, 7% of
American households had a net worth in excess of $1 million (excluding their primary residence). A
random sample of 1000 American households results in 82 having a net worth in excess of $1 million.
Explain why the results of this survey do not necessarily imply that the proportion of households with
a net worth in excess of $1 million has increased.
The results of this survey do not necessarily imply that the proportion of households with a net worth in
excess of $1 million has increased because the survey only represents a sample of American households,
not the entire population. It is important to distinguish between sample statistics and population
parameters.
In this case, the survey was conducted on a random sample of 1000 American households, and 82 of
them were found to have a net worth in excess of $1 million. This sample proportion of 82/1000 (or
0.082) is an estimate of the proportion of all American households with a net worth in excess of $1
million.
However, sample proportions are subject to sampling variability. This means that if we were to take
multiple random samples of the same size from the population, we would likely obtain slightly different
sample proportions each time. These variations are expected due to the inherent randomness in the
sampling process.
To draw conclusions about the population based on the sample results, we need to consider the margin
of error and confidence interval associated with the estimate. The margin of error indicates the range
within which the true population proportion is likely to fall. The confidence interval provides a range of
plausible values for the population proportion, considering the sampling variability.
Without information about the margin of error and confidence interval for the survey, it is not
appropriate to conclude that the proportion of households with a net worth in excess of $1 million has
increased based solely on the observed proportion from the sample. To make such a claim, we would
need additional evidence or a more comprehensive analysis of the data.

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CHAPTER 8

3. standard error; mean

μ x = 82 and σ x = 2/√55 = 0.27.

a) The value of μ x = 600.

c) The shape of the population is normal.

The z-score is ( 94.4 – 89 ) / 3 ≈ 1.8.

P(z > 1.8) ≈ 0.0359.

The z-score: ( 82.25 - 89 ) / 3 ≈ -2.25 / 3 ≈ -0.75.

P(z ≤ -0.75) ≈ 0.2266.

( 84.65 – 89 ) / 3 ≈ -1.45 and ( 95.45 – 89 ) / 3 ≈ 2.15.

P( -1.45 < z < 2.15 ) ≈ 0.8531.

P(z > 1.4) ≈ 0.0808.

(c) P(x̅ ≤ 74), we calculate the z-score: (74 - 83) / 4 = -2.25.

P(z ≤ -2.25) ≈ 0.0122.

P(-0.85 < z < 2) ≈ 0.6990.

Using the z-score formula: z = (x - μ) / σ

z = (260 - 266) / (16 / √20)

z = (260 - 266) / (16 / √50)

For this case, σ = 16 (given) and n = 15 (sample size).

z 1 = (260 - 266) / 4.131 ≈ -1.452

z 2 = (276 - 266) / 4.131 ≈ 2.417

For this case, x = 40 cm, μ = 43.7 cm, and σ = 4.2 cm.

z = (40 - 43.7) / 4.2

For this case, σ = 4.2 cm (given) and n = 9 (sample size).

z = (40 - 43.7) / (4.2 / √9)

σ_sample_mean = 4.2 / √12

z = (40 - 43.7) / (4.2 / √12)

For this case, σ = 4.2 cm (given) and n = 15 (sample size).

σ_sample_mean = 4.2 / √15

Now, we can calculate the z-score for the sample mean:

z = (46 - 43.7) / 1.084

The probability of obtaining a sample mean of 46 cm or greater is approximately 0.017 or 1.7%.

(a) Given: μ = 90; σ = 10

For this case, σ = 10 wpm (given) and n = 12 (sample size).

z = (97 - 92) / (10 / √12)

z = (97 - 92) / (10 / √24)

(a) z = (x - μ) / σ. For this case, x = 85 minutes, μ = 74 minutes, and σ = 26 minutes.

For this case, σ = 26 minutes (given) and n = 10 (sample size).

z = (85 - 74) / (26 / √10)

z = (85 - 74) / (26 / √26)

Given n = 12, we need to calculate the Z-score for 0:

Given n = 24, we need to calculate the Z-score for 0:

Z = (0 - 0.007233) / (0.04135 / sqrt(24)) ≈ -1.131

(a) Probability of earning a profit after playing 50 hands:

Z = ($0 - $50) / $226.27 ≈ -0.221

(b) Probability of losing after playing 100 hands:

Z = ($0 - $100) / $320 ≈ -0.313

Z = ($500 - $100) / $320 ≈ 1.5625

(d) Unusual to lose at least $1000 after playing 100 hands:

Z = ($1000 - $100) / $320 ≈ 2.8125

(e) Probability of earning a profit during a twenty-four hour marathon session:

Z = ($0 - $480) / $2264.88 ≈ -0.212

(a) Why is the sampling distribution of x̅ approximately normal?

Mean of the sampling distribution of x ̅ ( μ x) = µ = 3

Standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x ̅ (σ x ) = σ / √n = √3 / √50 = √(3/50) ≈ 0.196

Z = (3.6 - 3) / 0.196 ≈ 3.06

(a) Why is the sampling distribution of x̅ approximately normal?

Z1 = (2 - 2.35) / (1.93 / sqrt(40))

Z2 = (3 - 2.35) / (1.93 / sqrt(40))

Standard Deviation ( sd )= Sqrt (PQ /n) = Sqrt(0.390.61/500)

standard deviation = sqrt(p(1 - p)/n) =sqrt(0.710.29/500) = 0.02029286

b) P(p̂ > 0.3) = P((p̂ - p)/sqrt(p(1- p)/n) >(0.3 - 0.29)/sqrt(0.29(1 - 0.29)/500))

= P((0.25 - 0.29)/sqrt(0.29(1 - 0.29)/500) <Z< (0.3 - 0.29)/sqrt(0.29(1 - 0.29)/500))