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Soft Skills & Metacognition as Inclusion Amplifiers in the 21st Century

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Paper—Soft Skills & Metacognition as Inclusion Amplifiers in the 21st Century

Soft Skills & Metacognition as Inclusion Amplifiers in the

21st Century
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v17i04.20567

Eleni Mitsea, Athanasios Drigas (*), Panagiotis Mantas

Net Media Lab-Mind & Brain R&D,
Institute of Informatics and Telecommunications
N.C.S.R. ‘Demokritos’, Athens, Greece
dr@iit.demokritos.gr

Abstract—In the present paper we investigate soft skills in the light of met-
acognition. We seek the essential soft skills in the 21st century including green
skills and look into their cognitive and metacognitive background. Enlightening
the soft skills’ dependence on metacognition, we conclude on a metacognition-
based approach and suggest useful tools and strategies. The metacognitive ap-
proach of soft skills can be applied in a variety of educational contexts as a
training paradigm to accelerate the inclusion and success of students, employees
and citizens, especially those belonging in vulnerable groups like persons with
disabilities.

Keywords—Soft-skills, green skills, mental abilities, executive functions, met-

acognition, intelligence, inclusion, employability, education

1 Introduction

The megatrends of the Fourth Industrial Revolution are ready to shape our future.
The technological revolution, the cultural changes, demographic shifts, migration and
climate change bring major challenges and opportunities in all areas of human activi-
ty, especially in regards with the necessary skills so as to be inclusive at school, at
work, in everyday life [1].
Researches reveal that soft skills are a prerequisite in the 21st century when most
people do not possess [2,3]. There is not a single term or definition of soft skills and
this is an additional problem in the literature. In general, soft skills refer to a wide
range of intra- and inter-personal (socio-emotional) skills that guarantee personal,
academic and professional success [4]. Besides lacking a clear definition and with
many researchers trying to classify them [2], there is a lot of ambiguity about what are
the “real” soft skills, what is their real nature.
Metacognition refers to a set of self-regulatory functions and skills that enable the
individual to respond successfully in all areas of life. Metacognitive processes in-
clude, among others, self-observation, self-regulation, reflection, self-assessment, and
the ability to modify and adapt cognitive and emotional functions [5]. According to
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, next to socio-

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emotional skills, metacognitive skills are becoming most essential in the 21st century
[6].
The purpose of this paper is to study soft skills in the light of metacognition.
We seek the soft skills that are considered necessary, examine them using the models
of metacognition developed by Drigas al. [5, 7] and recommend strategies and tools
for the development of soft skills that can be used at school, academic and individual
level.

2 Soft Skills Needed for Inclusion In The 21st Century

According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [6],

three types of skills are necessary for the future:
1. Cognitive and meta-cognitive skills include critical thinking, creative thinking,
learning-to-learn and self-regulation.
2. Social and emotional skills involve empathy, self-efficacy, responsibility and col-
laboration.
3. Practical and physical skills, which include using new information and communi-
cation technology devices.
The World Economic Forum reports [8] that the most essential skills one must de-
velop are: analytical thinking and innovation, active learning and learning strategies,
complex problem-solving, critical thinking and analysis, creativity, originality and
initiative, leadership and social influence, resilience and stress management, emotion-
al intelligence, reasoning, problem-solving, systems analysis and evaluation, persua-
sion and negotiation.
Mekala et al. [9] examined students’ perception of skills required in the 21st centu-
ry. An online survey with self-rating questionnaire has been administered among 111
final year college students using random sampling technique. Specifically, they in-
cluded skills such as creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving,
communication and collaboration, flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-
direction, productivity and accountability, social and cross-cultural skills, leadership
and responsibility skills. The study has concluded that students lack especially soft
skills such as communication and collaboration.
Majid et al. [3] investigated students’ perception as to the importance of soft skills
in their education and employment. According to a questionnaire, the top five im-
portant soft skills identified by 188 undergraduate business management students
were: teamwork and collaboration, decision-making, problem-solving, time manage-
ment and critical thinking. It is noteworthy that to a large extent students failed to
recognize the importance of soft skills in terms of academic achievement.
Employers want qualified graduates who combine both soft skills and technical
skills. Mahasneh et al. [2] analyzed 32 literature documents that address soft skill
classification/frameworks across a variety of disciplines. A list of 120 soft skills was
classified in 12 clusters: Social intelligence, communication, workplace thinking, self-
intelligence, conflict resolution and negotiation, planning and organizing, teamwork

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and collaboration, workplace diversity, workplace ethics, stress management, work-

place productivity, workplace professionalism.
Qadir et al. [10], taking into account various taxonomies, described the essential
competencies that future electrical and computer engineers must acquire. In addition
to technical skills, they include the metacognitive skills, the breadth skills and the
inter/intrapersonal skills. The metacognitive skills involve four important concepts,
namely growth mindset, transfer skills, critical thinking and lifelong learning. The
breadth skills refer to the holistic multidisciplinary learning, synthetic and integrative
thinking, design thinking, systems thinking and visualization skills. Finally, they un-
derline the inter/intra-personal skills such as communication, teamwork, collabora-
tion, global competence, creativity and innovation, entrepreneurship and focus on
wisdom and ethics.
As the literature shows, the authors focus more on interpersonal and intrapersonal
skills. However, one of the greatest dangers that humanity faces and will face in the
current century is climate change. Climate change drives labor demand and skills
towards a sustainable development. The various organizations point out that the fore-
most skills in all sectors and at all levels will be the green skills. According to this,
people should at least adopt responsible and eco-friendly behaviors so as to cause
minimal harm to the environment [11, 12].

3 Metacognition, The Foundation of Soft Skills: Building The

“Real” Skills

In this section, we will utilize the models of metacognition developed by Drigas et

al. [5, 7] to shed light on the relationship between soft skills and metacognition. Met-
acognitive development depends on eight pillars. In short, it requires one’s deep theo-
retical and practical knowledge in combination with the abilities of self-observation,
self-regulation, adaptation, recognition, discrimination and remembrance [5]. Mind-
fulness constitutes simultaneously a counterpart of metacognition and an umbrella
term showing people’s awareness over the ways metacognition works [7]. According
to these models, soft skills development depends on the following nine metacognitive
pillars:

3.1 The cognitive and metacognitive background of soft skills

What is the real nature of soft skills? What is their cognitive and metacognitive
background? Usually, we believe that soft skills are non-cognitive. Actually, they
depend on fundamental mental abilities such as the following [5, 13, 14].
• Attention
• Concentration
• Memory
• Perception
• Recognition of hidden patterns

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• Association
• Processing speed
• Speed reaction
• Language
• Coordination
• Prediction
• Action
Soft skills like critical thinking, creativity, time management, planning, reasoning,
following instructions, problem solving depend mostly on attention and working
memory. Specifically, attention and working memory help people to concentrate, to
hold their goals on mind, to associate, to recognize what is relevant, to see relations
and connections between ideas seemingly unrelated, to discern elements from an
integrated whole and recombine in new ways. Working memory influence the pro-
cessing speed, the pace at which people understand and react to the information they
receive [13]. Critical thinking, for instance, is dependent upon attention, perception
and memory. Critical thinkers should be able to attend, manipulate data in the work-
ing memory, organize information in the long-term memory, recall and transform
existing schemata (representations of knowledge) into more abstract [14].
In fact, the proper functioning of soft skills relies on the executive functions, the
basic “control” system that supervises higher mental abilities like attention and
memory responsible for skill development and self-regulated behavior. Executive
functions empower the individual’s ability to control attention, impulses, emotions
and behaviors. A controlled cognitive system guarantees that one can stay focused on
tasks despite distractions, resist unwanted thoughts, temptations and impulsivity and
inappropriate behavior [13].
Metacognition is a higher order “control” system capable of gaining awareness of
its own processes. Humans stand out because they are able to become aware of their
own cognitive functions, to monitor, regulate and adapt them appropriately in order to
achieve even higher levels of self-development. Thus, metacognition constitutes the
key factor that allows people to manage their cognitive functions in ways that make
them creative, cooperative, critical, resilient, decisive, and flexible [5]. Metacognition,
for instance, helps people to be creative even though they are not especially creative.

3.2 Self-awareness
People that aspire to be better learners, communicators, decision makers and team-
players should use the above knowledge as means of self-assessment so as to identify
their strengths and weaknesses and then try to find the appropriate strategies that
compensate for these weaknesses. McConnell et al. [15] reviewed the nonacademic
behaviors of good students and successful employees with mild to moderate disabili-
ties. Objective self-assessment was ranked high in the variables for success. They
were aware of their “Achilles’ heel”, the barriers they had to break and unwilling to
let them define their life. They adopted strategies that helped them advance in life.

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Specifically, they tried to make the appropriate choices, to set high but realistic goals
and be flexible enough to achieve them.
Individuals should know which factors influence the development of soft skills ei-
ther positively or negatively and apply this knowledge appropriately in real life. Posi-
tivity and calmness, for instance, boost motivation and self-esteem. Multi-tasking,
clutter and procrastination have a negative impact on time-management. The ability to
communicate slows down due to stress and emotional barriers like anger, low self-
esteem, taboos, expectations, prejudices, lack of attention or motivation and physical
disabilities [16]. Even lack of sleep or physical exercise may result in inattention,
forgetfulness, poorer reasoning, creativity and problem solving [13].

3.3 (Self)-observation
Self-observation refers to the internal attention, the ability to watch and to perceive
in real time the cognitive states and operations [5]. During this process, one observes
himself as a subject of attention that thinks, feels and acts [17]. Creative problem-
solving demands of individuals to observe their own actions, their strategies, the pro-
cesses of selecting more appropriate strategies, the regulation processes, and the pro-
gress toward a goal. They should be on the alert for things going wrong so as to step
up to correct them or alter their plans [18]. Analytical skills, a prerequisite for solving
problems, presuppose constant observation and evaluation [10, 19]. Self-observation
is of the essence since it facilitates social relationships so that one can live harmoni-
ously in social groups. Specifically, it enhances one’s ability to predict behaviors, by
learning to observe, recognize and associate one’s own behavior with others’ reac-
tions [17].

3.4 Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the ability to consciously change, regulate and fine tune via deci-
sions the cognitive abilities themselves as well as the mental and emotional states [5].
Self-regulation allows people to change or inhibit thoughts, emotions, impulses, be-
haviors so as to feel a sense of accomplishment. Self-regulation helps people to be
focused at work, as in resisting temptations (i.e., browsing the internet) [17]. The
ability to self-regulate depends on the executive functions and in particular attention
which brings one in a state of awareness where one consciously controls conflicts on a
cognitive and socio-emotional level [13, 20]. Self-observation and self-control are
where the intrapersonal as well as the interpersonal skills find common ground [5].
Failures in self-regulation can lead to anti-social behaviors [17]. Conflict resolution,
for instance, depends on the ability to regulate any negative emotion showing emo-
tional maturity, in other words to gain self-control [19]. Individuals rectify situations
and re-establish good relations within a group. Self-regulation functions proactively
like refrain from prejudice and in general making a good impression. In some cases, it
helps with stereotypes, overcoming one’s fear of conforming to another’s negative
beliefs [17].

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3.5 Adaptation
Adaptation as a metacognitive ability allows for the conscious change of the opera-
tional status of one’s cognitive abilities, becoming more flexible at work, meeting the
various demands of social situations, being more productive, successful and happy.
Adaptation is impossible without self-monitoring and self-regulation [5]. When the
above condition takes place people can change perspective, namely think out of the
box or “see” others’ perspectives. They are open to feedback, acknowledge and accept
their mistakes, make alternative plans, prioritize [13]. Can one solve problems without
the above metacognitive skills? Adaptation boosts entrepreneurship since it makes
people flexible enough to take advantage of unexpected opportunities, to adapt as the
rules change. When one finds new uses in things it is not only creative and innovative
but also flexible. Even verbal fluency is a form of flexibility. Finally, adaptation ena-
bles people to overcome inertial tendencies and change bad habits [13], for instance
adopting eco-friendly behaviors.

3.6 Recognition
Recognition means perceiving all aspects of situations internal and external, “see-
ing” the totality, thinking holistically so as to achieve goals, solve various problems or
be ready to jump at a chance [5]. Recognition presupposes that one learns from eve-
rything, makes good use of all available sources of human learning (i.e., cognitive,
emotional, psychomotor). In a more practical view, one becomes “a jack of all
trades”, a polymath, a person who knows the rules about learning new skills [10]. In
this age of uncertainty, the metacognitive ability of Recognition helps people to be
inclusive, to overcome unemployment, to survive; It enables one to transfer and apply
knowledge, recognize the right questions, causes, relations, consequences, conceptual
frameworks. On a higher level of creative thinking, one conceives new ideas [10],
perceives the world in new ways, identifies hidden patterns, and makes connections
between seemingly unrelated phenomena. Entrepreneurial thinking skills depend on
the ability to recognize new and real opportunities [19].

3.7 Discrimination
Discrimination means to filter thoughts, emotions and situations; make appropriate
choices that are more helpful, positive, and supportive for reaching targets, success
fulfillment and development [5]. This metacognitive ability helps to choose the right
thoughts and emotions, the right goals, the right strategies, the right jobs, the right
social networks maximizing strengths and minimizing weaknesses [15]. In a world
inundated with data and information, critical thinking requires to filter information, so
as to identify the root cause of a problem, recognize biases and logical fallacies [10].
Decision making is the ability to make appropriate choices concentrating on what is
most important or useful [19]. Even time management depends on people’s ability
prioritize between tasks [16].

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3.8 Mnemosyne
Mnemosyne means memory in Greek. It is the state of metacognitive awareness in
which people are independent at home, at work, at school; Mnemosyne allows people
to apply the rules of self-achievement on a case-by-case basis, to be aware of their
mental tools making good use of them [5]. Mnemosyne makes people self-motivated,
since they don’t need close supervision but they are committed to their goals, always
seeking opportunities. They are generally positive, self-confident, resilient and adapt-
able to change [16]. Mnemosyne is about cultivating a growth mindset. A person
with a growth mindset focuses on goals, hard work and effort, treating failure as a
learning opportunity. In addition, it includes appreciation of diversity and respect of
the different cultures [10].

3.9 Mindfulness
Mindfulness is the integration and application all of the above-mentioned meta-
cognitive abilities in practice. Mindfulness exists when attention is turned inward to
operate upon itself, when attention obtains stability, control, when memory becomes
flexible. It is present every time one applies self-observation and self-regulation of a
psychological content, self-talk, emotions, stress and impulses. As regards the soft
skills, mindfulness translates to effective communication, less conflict, better working
relationships, increased creativity and innovation. It also allows active listening with
increased awareness, less judgment, more acceptance of others. It promotes self-
motivation, leadership, trust, empathy and compassion. Mindfulness increases team
cohesion and allows team-group members to develop and use shared structures of
knowledge leading to the development of high-performance work teams. [5,7, 21].

4 Metacognitive Strategies to Support Soft Skills Acquisition

School-based programs like Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) could help students

achieve greater social, emotional, and academic success. SEL programs focus on five
key areas: self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, relationship skills and
responsible decision-making. Specifically, such programs guide students to recognize
strengths and weaknesses, to cultivate self-esteem. Students also learn to show empa-
thy, manage their emotions, negotiate, assess risks and make good decisions. SEL
programs not only boost soft skills but have become an umbrella that encompasses
various different educational programs that focus on violence prevention, anti-
bullying, drug prevention, and school discipline [22].
Another good example in school intervention programs is this attempt at helping
people with disabilities to develop job-related social skills. People with disabilities
face various barriers to employment. One reason is because of poor job-related social
skills. Thus, many people with disabilities are deprived of the right to be included in
the society and live independently. Programs that train soft and employment skills
help people with autism (in particular high-functioning autistic cases) to improve

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social skills, self-confidence, empathy, self-efficacy, and psychological wellness so as

to be engaged in social and vocational activities [23].
Research has shown promise as to the effectiveness of mindfulness-based pro-
grams in schools, by improving control of attention and executive functioning, bol-
stering social-emotional resiliencies both helping teachers and students manage
school-related stressors. These programs offer various exercises and techniques like
breathing, relaxation, tactile perceptual activities, body scan, guided imagery, mind-
ful listening. Many schools have begun to integrate these programs into their curricula
[24].
Other exercises supporting the development of soft skills in the school-setting are
[25]:
• Projects in which students communicate with peers outside their classroom
• Role-play scenarios that help students to express ideas and concepts
• Student-made documentaries or videos about environmental issues
• Rotating classroom responsibilities
• Energy conservation programs exploring how school could be more energy
sufficient
• Analyzing issues from multiple perspectives
• Debating about ethical issues
• Designing their own business or company website
• Doing research (i.e., on new technologies)
• Collaborating on projects
• Reflecting on their own work and progress verbally, through representations
or graphs
• Building their own games
Technological tools can be used to teach, learn or enhance soft skills at home, at
school or at work. Some useful tools are [26-28]:
• Massive open online courses (MOOCS)
• Open Educational Resources
• Social Media
• Online Games
• Computer Games
• Web 2.0 tools
• 3D printers
• Mini robots (e.g., Bee Bots)
• Virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR)
• Cloud-based platforms
• Websites and applications
Massive open online courses help self-directed learning, creativity, communication
and flexibility [27]. The use of social media allows people to share and exchange
ideas, connect and build relationships, Social media apps also boost communication
with people outside the classroom or campus. Online videos and digital games may

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enhance critical thinking skills. People learn to make quick and accurate decisions in
such games. 3D printers are useful tools in improving problem-solving skills, crea-
tivity and innovation. Apps and cloud-based platforms improve students’ time man-
agement skills whereby they learn to keep track of all their notes, documents and
images in one central data storage, making it easier to find everything they need for an
assignment. This requires proper data management to ease the process of retrieving
information [26]. VR/AR technology raises the level of engagement, promotes self-
learning and multi-sensory learning. It also improves attention, memory, visuo-spatial
abilities. Finally, it helps students to collaborate with self-confidence and be creative
[28].

5 Discussion and Conclusion

According to Gardner, there are eight distinct intelligences: linguistic, logical-

mathematical, musical, bodily kinaesthetic, visual-spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal
and naturalistic intelligence. Interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic seem to be
the most important intelligences that underlie the soft skills needed in the 21st era.
Interpersonal intelligence turns one’s attention outward, towards behaviors, feelings
and motivations of others. Intrapersonal intelligence turns attention inward, allowing
one to recognize and discriminate between basic or more complex feelings. Natural-
istic intelligence is about how sensitive individuals are about environmental issues
[29-30]. According to Drigas et al. [31], Gardner’s intelligences are not one-
dimensional, but each one is structured on 8 layers. Each layer represents a higher
state of knowledge, intelligence and consciousness. Metacognition plays decisive role
in the process of ascending these layers, of “building” the knowledge, of developing
the intelligence. Thus, it is obvious, that soft skills development is impossible without
metacognition.
The present paper examined the relationship between soft skills and metacognition.
Initially, it was found that soft skills have a rich cognitive background, led by atten-
tion, working memory and other executive functions. With regard to metacognition,
the investigation showed that soft skills are entirely dependent on the development of
metacognitive skills.
According to the metacognitive approach, the development of soft skills requires:
1. Systematic education on soft skills theory including cognitive and metacognitive
theories.
2. Reality-based training in order to achieve self-awareness of strengths and weak-
nesses through experience, identify new areas of development and employ appro-
priate strategies to compensate for weaknesses.
3. Training on (self)-observation via various techniques that strengthen attentional
control, the foundation of soft skills development.
4. Training on self-regulation in order to develop a set of self-regulatory strategies
for overcoming the everyday barriers towards achievement.

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5. Training on adaptability and flexibility in various domains (cognitive, emotional,

and behavioral) so as to be better prepared to adjust to uncertainty, to rapid
change.
6. Training on Recognition, the metacognitive ability to think “out of the box”, iden-
tify and grasp opportunities so as to be inclusive.
7. Training on Discrimination, the metacognitive ability to filter, to be critical in or-
der to make the right decisions.
8. Cultivation of a growth mindset (mnemosyne) which enables you to focus on
goals, hard work and effort, treating failure as a learning opportunity.
9. Cultivation of mindfulness, an umbrella term that encompasses all metacognitive
abilities and makes you totally inclusive. Mindfulness makes you a team player, a
peaceful leader, the future-ready mind.
We conclude that soft skills are fully trainable. Only when individuals train their
metacognitive skills can they develop the appropriate cognitive and socio-emotional
skills that will make them inclusive into the academic, working and social environ-
ment.
It is essential to recognize the challenges and the opportunities of our century in
order to pave the way for a more inclusive society while offering financial security,
equal opportunities and social justice for all including those with disabilities [1].
The metacognitive approach of soft skills development could be exploited as a
training paradigm both on an individual and collective level. On an individual level, it
could be utilized by students, parents, employees and employers. On a collective lev-
el, if large organizations utilize this training paradigm could very well design new
educational programs for students, employees and citizens. Not in the least, it could
provide substance for the development of new technological tools.

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7 Authors

Eleni Mitsea is with Institute of Informatics and Telecommunications - Net Media

Lab and Mind-Brain R&D, Agia Paraskevi, 153 10, Athens, Greece (e-mail:
e.mitsea@gmail.com).
Athanasios Drigas is a Research Director at N.C.S.R. ‘Demokritos’, Institute of
Informatics and Telecommunications - Net Media Lab and Mind-Brain R&D, Agia
Paraskevi, 153 10, Athens, Greece (e-mail: dr@iit.demokritos.gr).
Panagiotis Mantas is a Permanent Advisor at Ministry of Education and is collab-
orating Researcher at Institute of Informatics and Telecommunications – Net Media
Lab and Mind-Brain R&D, Agia Paraskevi, 153 10, Athens, Greece (e-mail: (e-mail:
panagiotisnmantas@gmail.com )

Article submitted 2020-12-16. Resubmitted 2021-01-14. Final acceptance 2021-01-14. Final version
published as submitted by the authors.

132 http://www.i-joe.org

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