polymers

Article
Mathematical Modeling and Optimization of Fused Filament
Fabrication (FFF) Process Parameters for Shape Deviation
Control of Polyamide 6 Using Taguchi Method
Zohreh Shakeri 1, *, Khaled Benfriha 1 , Mohammadali Shirinbayan 2 , Mohammad Ahmadifar 1,2
and Abbas Tcharkhtchi 2

1 Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, CNAM, PIMM, HESAM University, F-75013 Paris, France;
khaled.benfriha@ensam.eu (K.B.); mohammad.ahmadifar@ensam.eu (M.A.)
2 Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, CNAM, LCPI, HESAM University, F-75013 Paris, France;
Mohammadali.shirinbayan@ensam.eu (M.S.); abbas.tcharkhtchi@ensam.eu (A.T.)
* Correspondence: zohreh.shakeri@ensam.eu

Abstract: Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a layer-by-layer additive manufacturing (AM) process
for producing parts. For industries to gain a competitive advantage, reducing product development
cycle time is a basic goal. As a result, industries’ attention has turned away from traditional product
development processes toward rapid prototyping techniques. Because different process parameters



employed in this method significantly impact the quality of FFF manufactured parts, it is essential to


optimize FFF process parameters to enhance component quality. The paper presents optimization of
Citation: Shakeri, Z.; Benfriha, K.; fused filament fabrication process parameters to improve the shape deviation such as cylindricity and
Shirinbayan, M.; Ahmadifar, M.; circularity of 3D printed parts with the Taguchi optimization method. The effect of thickness, infill
Tcharkhtchi, A. Mathematical pattern, number of walls, and layer height was investigated as variable parameters for experiments on
Modeling and Optimization of Fused
cylindricity and circularity. The MarkForged® used Nylon White (PA6) to create the parts. ANOVA
Filament Fabrication (FFF) Process
and the S/N ratio are also used to evaluate and optimize the influence of chosen factors. As a result,
Parameters for Shape Deviation
it was concluded that the hexagonal infill pattern, the thickness of 5 mm, wall layer of 2, and a layer
Control of Polyamide 6 Using
height of 1.125 mm were known to be the optimal process parameters for circularity and cylindricity
Taguchi Method. Polymers 2021, 13,
3697. https://doi.org/10.3390/
in experiments. Then a linear regression model was created to observe the relationship between the
polym13213697 control variables with cylindricity and circularity. The results were confirmed by a confirmation test.

Academic Editors: Antonio Gloria Keywords: Taguchi design; ANOVA; FFF; response surface; cylindricity; process optimization
and Roberto De Santis

Received: 17 September 2021

Accepted: 22 October 2021 1. Introduction
Published: 27 October 2021
In the additive manufacturing process (AM), one of the fast prototyping methods, the
CAD model is designed first and then made in 3D. The AM process is a layer-by-layer
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
production process. Other names for this process are layer manufacturing, additive pro-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
cases, free-form fabrication, and solid free-form fabrication [1]. Three-dimensional printed
published maps and institutional affil-
parts show different properties depending on other AM techniques [2]. Fused deposition
iations.
modeling (FDM), selective laser melting (SLM), multi-jet modeling (MJM), laminated object
manufacturing (LOM), and stereolithography (SLA) and selective laser sintering (SLS) are
various additive manufacturing (AM) methods [3–8]. Additive manufacturing provides
the ability to produce complex geometries that are difficult to produce by conventional
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. methods without complex tooling. The usage of AM technology has risen in recent years.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Today, the use of AM method has increased because it reduces post-processing, material
This article is an open access article
wastes, lower costs, creates high customization manufacturing parts, and greatly reduces
distributed under the terms and
overall product development [9,10].
conditions of the Creative Commons
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is the most common process, and it is a 3D printing
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
process that has been extensively investigated to produce metal and thermoplastic struc-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
tures [11]. Due to less waste of material, high quality, and low manufacturing cost it is a

Polymers 2021, 13, 3697. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13213697 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 2 of 17

common extrusion-based process [12]. FFF is a material extrusion process, according to

ISO/ASTM terminology [13]. Thermoplastics are the base material in the form of filament
that is selectively deposited through a nozzle over a movable bed. Among the different
thermoplastics, we can mention PLA, ABS, ASA, and Nylon, which are more common in
AM [14]. One can note that the limitation of this method is dimensional and geometrical
accuracy. The Stratasys Company introduced this technology, and the proprietary term
fused deposition modeling (FDM) was established [13].
Polyamide is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic with repeated amide sequences in
the polymer backbone and H bonds between neighboring polymer chains. It has good
mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. PA6, PA12, and PA66 are all varieties of
this thermoplastic, depending on the monomers that make it up. They are employed in
wind turbines and oil and gas. PA6 is a low-cost, widely used synthetic polymer with wide
applications. In the automobile industry, these polymers are commonly used. To improve
some of its characteristics, extensive research is continuously being done [15,16].
Various process parameters utilized in this technique have an impact on the quality
of FFF produced components [17]. On the other hand, the geometrical tolerance of AM-
3D printed parts is mostly determined by the process parameters’ setting. The process
parameter could achieve improvement of the quality of prototypes by making appropriate
adjustments to manufacturing parameters [18–20].
Fisher [21] proposed the concept of design of experiments (DOE) in the 1920s. DOEs
are a structured and systematic method of running and evaluating controlled experiments
to identify the factors that influence output variables. Because each component is in-
dependent of the others, this is a multivariable testing technique that varies them all
simultaneously. DOEs define the specific setting levels of a couple of variables at which
each run of the experiment will be carried out. For experimental planning, the Taguchi
design method is a crucial tool. It provides a methodical and effective approach to cost,
quality, and performance optimization. Taguchi [22] is the developer of the Taguchi design.
A greater number of parameters may be evaluated at once in the Taguchi design method,
and the optimal configuration can be reached with fewer resources than in the classic
DOE approach. In fact, the main advantages of adopting Taguchi’s approach to design
experiments with a simplicity of the experimental plan and the capability of studying
interactions between multiple process parameters. The Taguchi orthogonal array (OA) is
a basic fractional factorial design. It is a fractional orthogonal design based on a design
matrix that lets users evaluate a set of many factor combinations at several levels. The
Taguchi L9 [23,24] orthogonal array is a good experimental design approach with a small
number of tests.
The response surface method is also one of the DOEs that examines the effect of
different parameters on responses. This method helps to improve responses through a set
including regression analysis and parameter optimization [25]. Many researchers have
studied the effect and optimization of FDM process parameters on the shape deviation
in FFF. Also, simple specimens and experimental designs such as Taguchi, ANOVA, and
others are used in experimental investigations [26].
For example, Lee and Abdulla [27], using the Taguchi method, investigated the optimal
elastic performance of a piece of ABS produced by 3D printing to achieve the maximum
throwing distance from the prototype. They concluded that FDM variables such as raster
angle, air gap and layer thickness have a major effect on the compliant ABS prototype’s
elastic behavior.
Alafaghani and Qattawi [28], utilized the Taguchi technique to study the effects of infill
density, infill pattern, layer height, and extrusion temperature in terms of the mechanical
properties and dimensional accuracy of the FDM process with PLA filament. The results
indicate that a lower extrusion temperature, smaller layer thickness, lower infill density,
and hexagonal infill pattern will improve the dimensional accuracy. Also, with optimal
layer thickness, higher extrusion temperature, and a larger infill density and triangle infill
pattern, the strength of FDM parts is at a maximum.
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 3 of 17

Anitha and Arunachalam [18], using the Taguchi method (L18 orthogonal array),
examined parameters such as road width, speed deposition, layer height on surface rough-
ness. They observed that layer height, followed by road width and deposition speed, had
the greatest influence on surface roughness.
Rizea and Anghel [29] investigated the effect of three critical parameters, including
layer thickness, infill density, and orientation, on flatness and dimensional accuracy of
Z-ULTRAT parts produced under FDM using the Taguchi method and L9 orthogonal array.
Finally, they found that the effect of layer thickness and infill pattern was more significant
than the orientation on shape deviation.
Sood and Ohdar [30], used the central composite design method, which is one of
the DOE methods, and ANOVA analysis to optimize the parameters to investigate the
impact of process parameters on specimen mechanical strength. Five basic process settings
were studied, including raster angle, orientation, raster width, layer thickness and air gap
and their impact on specimen responses, including tensile, flexural, and impact strength.
Small raster angle, thick raster, lower number of layers and zero air gap will increase the
mechanical strength.
Sheth and George [31] comprehended that spindle speed, feed rate, and the interaction
between them have significant effects on cylindricity. They concluded that at lower spindle
speeds, cylindricity is minimum.
Das and Mhapsekar [32], have evaluated the effect of FDM process parameters on
optimization for the cylindricity tolerances with build orientation which minimize the
support contact area. The circularity error is reduced with lower infill density. Also when
the circular object is oriented with the vertical axis as the center and the base with the
horizontal axis, the circularity error is minimal.
Aslani and Chaidas [33], applied the Taguchi method (L9) to estimate the effect of wall
thickness and extraction temperature on dimensional accuracy and the surface quality of
PLA parts under the FFF process. According to the results obtained, they understood that
the dimensional accuracy and surface quality of PLA is improved and optimized using
high-temperature extraction and average wall thickness values.
Chang and Huang [34] have worked on the optimization of raster width, contour
width, raster angle, and contour depth variables for the optimization of flatness and
cylindricity in FDM parts. The contour depth has the greatest influence, according to the
ANOVA analysis of individual process parameters. Contour width is the second most
important parameter, and raster width and raster angle have the least values.
Prakash and Sivakumar [35], investigated the effect of three parameters: filling density,
horizontal and vertical orientation on the circularity of ABS parts 3D printed by the FDM
method. It should be noted that they used the Taguchi method. They found that when a
circular object is oriented with the vertical axis as the center and the horizontal axis as the
base, the error on circularity is reduced compared to other orientations. The circularity of
the parts is more influenced by the horizontal orientation.
Doloi and Kumar [36], applied the Taguchi approach to determine the impact of
several process parameters on circularity error and diametrical deviation of ABS parts
produced by FDM, including layer thickness, bed temperature, extruder temperature,
infill density, and speed. From the results, it was found that in low bed temperature and
moderate layer thickness, diametrical variation decreased. Also, the lowest circularity error
was obtained at high speed, lower layer height, lower extruder temperature, and moderate
infill density.
Using the Taguchi approach, Nagendra and Vikas [37], investigate how infill pattern,
layer height, build orientation, and infill density impacted dimensional accuracy (DA),
flatness, and cylindricity. An analysis of variance was used to assess the influence of
process factors.
Saqib and Urbanic [38] investigated the influence on component accuracy on the
FDM process by process variables with geometric shapes. In fact, to investigate the
most influential process variables on the deformation of printed 3D parts, they designed
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 4 of 17

experiments on flatness and circularity. The layer height, work envelope, and orientation
were all investigated. The variation in cylindricity was maximum at 90◦ orientations,
according to the results.
One of the most critical problems in the manufacturing of polymer parts is deformation
during the process, which depends on the material’s rheological behavior. Also, 3D printing
as one of the manufacturing methods is deformed due to the presence of micro voids in
the interfaces of the deposited layers and layered structure of the 3D printing. Therefore
dimensional stability is an essential factor for the designer. One of the methods to control
geometric accuracy and reduce the resulting errors is to optimize the process parameters.
In this paper, the cylindricity and the circularity as geometric tolerances of PA6 parts
fabricated by FFF with variable parameters such as infill pattern, wall layers, layer height,
and thickness were analyzed. The S/N ratios and ANOVA were employed to analyze the
significant impacts and find the optimal parameter for minimum cylindricity and circularity
simultaneously. Regression model of cylindricity and circularity was developed to predict
them and to examine the correlation between different variables, which determines the
relationship between each response and process parameters.

2. Materials and Methods

In this research, the Markforged printer, one of the advanced FFF desktop 3D printers,
has been used to 3D print the parts from polyamide 6 (Figure 1). Nylon White is a
commercial material that Markforged Company (Watertown, MA, USA) developed. Nylon
6 or polycaprolactam are other names for polyamide 6 (PA6). It is one of the most widely
used polyamides in the world due to its versatility. It also outperforms other polymers
such as PLA and ABS in terms of mechanical properties, and the surface quality of PA 6 is
excellent. Also, the 3D printer used is capable of printing limited materials such as PA 6,
so this material was selected for experiments. As shown in Figure 2 for the experiments,
hollow cylindrical parts with a fixed height of 40 mm and inner diameter of 10 mm, but
variable outer diameter with the amounts of 20, 30, and 40 mm, were designed by CATIA-
V5 software (V5, Dassault Systèmes, Paris, France), and STL files have been exported from
it. The parts were printed using thermoplastic (polyamide 6) at a temperature of 273 ◦ C.
Table 1 represents the levels, and the process parameters that will be employed in the
experiment. In this table the column of thickness shows the difference between the outer
and inner diameter, and infill pattern identifies the structure and shape of the material
inside of a part. Also, the thickness of each layer of deposited material is given by layer
height, and wall layer indicates the thickness of the part’s walls. In this printer, some
parameters have limitations, for example, for the layer height variable, the numbers 1,
1.125 and 2 can be selected. The selection of these parameters and the selection of different
levels of each parameter primarily were performed based on the limitation of the variable
parameters of the markforged 3D printer. Selected thicknesses were considered to observe
both small and large dimensions of the responses. The number of wall layers was also
selected based on the dimensions of the cylinder. Considering the volume required to apply
different infill patterns, the number of one wall created an unsuitable surface in the cylinder.
Table 2 shows the Taguchi orthogonal array that controls the parameter combinations for
each experiment.
Polymers
Polymers2021,
2021,13,
13,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 5 5ofof1717
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 5 of 17

Figure
Figure1.1.
Figure 1.Markforged
Markforged3D
Markforged 3Dprinter.
3D printer.
printer.

Figure
Figure2.2.
Figure Hollow
2.Hollow cylindrical
Hollowcylindrical parts.
cylindricalparts.
parts.

Table
Table
Table1. The
1.1.The process
Theprocess parameters
processparameters and
parametersand their
andtheir levels.
theirlevels.
levels.

Level Thickness(mm)
Level
Level Thickness (mm)
Thickness(mm) Infill
Infill
Infill Pattern
Pattern
Pattern LayerHeight(mm)
Layer
Layer Height (mm)
Height(mm) WallLayer
Wall
Wall Layer
Layer
11 1 55 5 Hexagonal
Hexagonal
Hexagonal 111 222
22 2 10
10 10 Rectangular
Rectangular
Rectangular 1.125
1.125
1.125 333
33 3 15
15 15 Triangular
Triangular
Triangular 222 444

The
Thestandard
standardmodeling
modelingsoftware
softwareCATIA-V5™
CATIA-V5™was wasused
usedforfor3D
3Dmodeling.
modeling.An AnSTLSTL
The standard modeling software CATIA-V5™ was used for 3D modeling. An STL
file
fileisisextracted
extractedfrom fromthethedesigned
designedCAD CADmodel.
model.Then,
Then,pieces
pieceswere
were3D 3Dprinted,
printed,andandallallthe
the
file is extracted from the designed CAD model. Then, pieces were 3D printed, and all the
parts
partswerewerescanned
scannedwith withaa3D 3Dlaser
laserscanner
scannernamed
namedSolutionix
SolutionixD500D500(Medit,
(Medit,Seoul,
Seoul,Korea).
Korea).
parts were scanned with a 3D laser scanner named Solutionix D500 (Medit, Seoul, Korea).
This
Thisprofessional
professionalscanner
scannerspecializes
specializesininscanning
scanningsmall
smalland anddetailed
detailedthings
thingsand andthethemost
most
This professional scanner specializes in scanning small and detailed things and the most
complex
complexproducts.
products.ItIthas hasaaresolution
resolutionofof0.055
0.055mm mmand andan anaccuracy
accuracyofof0.01 0.01mm.
mm.Also,
Also,the the
complex products. It has a resolution of 0.055 mm and an accuracy of 0.01 mm. Also,
scan
scanspeed
speedininthis
thisscanner
scannerisishigh
highbecause
becauseofofmore
morepowerful
powerfulengines
enginesand andenhanced
enhancedalgo-algo-
the scan speed in this scanner is high because of more powerful engines and enhanced
rithms.
rithms.The The3D 3Dscanner
scannerscans
scansthe
theproduct
productfromfrommultiple
multipleangles
anglesautomatically.
automatically.AAblue bluelight
light
algorithms. The 3D scanner scans the product from multiple angles automatically. A blue
reflects
reflectsobjects
objectsand andreaches
reachesthethecamera
cameralens,
lens,which
whichobtains
obtainspoint-by-point
point-by-pointcoordinate
coordinate
light reflects objects and reaches the camera lens, which obtains point-by-point coordinate
measurements
measurementsand andgeometry
geometryofofthe theparts.
parts.The
TheSTL
STLfiles
fileswere
wereexported
exportedfromfromthe theSolutionix
Solutionix
measurements and geometry of the parts. The STL files were exported from the Solutionix
ezScan
ezScan which
which controls
controls the
the Solutionix
Solutionix D500
D500 scanner.
scanner. The
The evaluation
evaluation ofofshape
shape deviation
deviation er-
er-
ezScan which controls the Solutionix D500 scanner. The evaluation of shape deviation
rors
rors was
was undertaken
undertaken with
with Geomagic
Geomagic ®®Control
® Control X™X™ software
software (based
(based onon ASME
ASME Y14.5M
Y14.5M
errors was undertaken with Geomagic Control X™ software (based on ASME Y14.5M
standard,
standard,v2020.1.1,
standard, v2020.1.1,3D
v2020.1.1, 3DSystems,
3D Systems,Research
Systems, ResearchTriangle,
Research Triangle,SC,
Triangle, SC,USA)
SC, USA)by
USA) bycomparing
by comparingthe
comparing theCAD
the CAD
CAD
model
model whit STL files were exported from Solutionix ezScan™. On the other hand, The The
model whit
whit STL
STL files
fileswere
were exported
exported from
from Solutionix
Solutionix ezScan™.
ezScan™. On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, The
STL
STL
STLscanned
scanned scanned file
filemust
file must must be
bealigned
be aligned withwith
aligned withCAD
CAD usingusing
CAD using component
component
component alignment
alignment
alignment totoobtain
to obtain obtain con-
con-
consistent
results. At least four points of cloud data must be matched to the CAD model during the
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 6 of 17

alignment process. The circularity and cylindricity were evaluated by using the standard
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
ASME
Y14.5M 19,941 The measured values of cylindricity and circularity are shown 7 ofin
17
Table 3. In Figure 3, each step in the flowchart will be used in the rest of the article.

Figure3.3.Flowchart
Figure Flowchartof
ofimplementing
implementingthe
thesteps.
steps.

3. Results
Table and Discussion
2. L9 orthogonal array.
3.1. Analysis of Experimental Data
No. of Trial Thickness (mm) Infill Pattern Layer Height (mm) Wall Layer
S/N ratio and ANOVA were used to analyze data from the experiments. Experi-
1 5 Hexagonal 1 2
mental measured data of Table 3 for the cylindricity and circularity were analyzed by
2 statistical software
using the 5 Rectangular
MINITAB 1.125 PA,USA).
19.0® (LLC, State College, 3
3 5 Triangular 2 4
3.2. Analysis
4 Using S/N Ratio
10 Hexagonal 1.125 4
To5analyze the effect10 of process variables
Rectangularon each response
2 (cylindricity), the
2 S/N ra-
tio was utilized. When the experimental results were presented as S/N ratios, it was dis-
6 10 Triangular 1 3
covered that they varied linearly. For the data analysis, out of the different quality char-
7 of S/N ratio, the
acteristics 15 ’smaller is better’
Hexagonal 2 ratio (η) can be3obtained
was considered. S/N
by using8 Equation (1), where
15 Rectangular
MSD stands 1
for mean-square deviation, 4 of the
the average
data points
9 is indicated by
15 the Y, and Y 0 represents the target
Triangular value, and σ is the 2variance.
1.125
2

Equation (2) calculates the MSD value [30].

η = −10 log(MSD) (1)
MSD = σ2 − (Y − Y0)2 (2)
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 7 of 17

Table 3. Measured values of cylindricity and circularity.

Mean cyl (mm) Mean cir (mm)

No. of Trial cyl 1 (mm) cyl 2 (mm) cir 1 (mm) cir 2 (mm)
(±St Dev) (±St Dev)
1 0.1112 0.1101 0.11065 (±0.0007778) 0.0864 0.0878 0.0871 (±0.0009899)
2 0.1047 0.1024 0.10355 (±0.0016263) 0.0853 0.0741 0.0797 (±0.0079196)
3 0.1648 0.1612 0.163 (±0.0025456) 0.1463 0.01376 0.14195 (±0.0937199)
4 0.1309 0.1294 0.13015 (±0.0010607) 0.1098 0.0975 0.10365 (±0.0086974)
5 0.1571 0.1528 0.15445 (±0.0030406) 0.1192 0.1204 0.1198 (±0.0008485)
6 0.1646 0.1644 0.1645 (±0.0001414) 0.1267 0.1262 0.12645 (±0.0003536)
7 0.2423 0.2444 0.24335 (±0.0014849) 0.2018 0.2015 0.20165 (±0.0002121)
8 0.26 0.263 0.2615 (±0.0021213) 0.1897 0.1943 0.192 (±0.0032527)
9 0.2287 0.2267 0.2277 (±0.0014142) 0.1798 0.176 0.1779 (±0.0026870)

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Analysis of Experimental Data
S/N ratio and ANOVA were used to analyze data from the experiments. Experimental
measured data of Table 3 for the cylindricity and circularity were analyzed by using the
statistical software MINITAB 19.0® (LLC, State College, PA, USA).

3.2. Analysis Using S/N Ratio

To analyze the effect of process variables on each response (cylindricity), the S/N
ratio was utilized. When the experimental results were presented as S/N ratios, it was
discovered that they varied linearly. For the data analysis, out of the different quality
characteristics of S/N ratio, the ‘smaller is better’ was considered. S/N ratio (η) can be
obtained by using Equation (1), where MSD stands for mean-square deviation, the average
of the data points is indicated by the Y, and Y0 represents the target value, and σ2 is the
variance. Equation (2) calculates the MSD value [30].

η = −10 log(MSD) (1)

MSD = σ2 − (Y − Y0 )2 (2)

3.3. Response Table for S/N Ratio for Cylindricity and Circularity
These S/N ratios are added for each level of each parameter according to Taguchi’s
procedures, and then their average is determined. The highest minus the lowest average
is the delta statistic and the individual contribution of the parameters (Rank) is shown in
Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4. Response of variable parameters for cylindricity.

Level Thickness (mm) Infill Pattern Layer Height (mm) Wall Layer
1 18.19 16.37 15.48 16.06
2 16.53 15.85 16.75 15.88
3 12.26 14.76 14.74 15.04
Delta 5.93 1.61 2.01 1.02
Rank 1 4 2 3
 2 16.53 15.85 16.75 15.88
3 12.26 14.76 14.74 15.04
Delta 5.93 1.61 2.01 1.02
Rank 1 4 2 3
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 8 of 17

Table 5. Response of variable parameters for circularity.

Table 5. Response of variable parameters for circularity.
Level Thickness (mm) Infill Pattern Layer Height (mm) Wall Layer
1Level 20.04 (mm)
Thickness Infill18.27
Pattern Layer Height17.83
(mm) Wall Layer18.21
21 18.69
20.04 18.25
18.27 17.83 18.89 18.21 17.95
32 14.41
18.69 16.64
18.25 18.89 16.43 17.95 16.99
Delta3 5.63
14.41 1.63
16.64 16.43 2.45 16.99 1.22
Rank
Delta 15.63 1.633 2.45 2 1.22 4
Rank 1 3 2 4
3.4. Mean Affects Plots for S/N Ratios
3.4. Mean Affects 4Plots
In Figures andfor5,S/N
TheRatios
S/N graphs were used to determine the optimal parameters
in theInform of average
Figures S/NS/N
4 and 5, The ratios for cylindricity
graphs were used toand circularity.
determine As minimization
the optimal parameters of the
in the form of average S/N ratios for cylindricity and circularity. As minimization
output parameters is required, the smaller is better is selected to maximize mathematical of the
output parameters is required, the smaller is better is selected to maximize
expression for the S/N ratio for cylindricity and circularity. In Figures 4A–D and 5A–D mathematical
expression for the S/N ratio for cylindricity and circularity. In Figures 4A–D and 5A–D cor-
correspond to thickness, infill pattern, layer height, and wall layer, respectively. The hor-
respond to thickness, infill pattern, layer height, and wall layer, respectively. The horizontal
izontal axis shows the different levels for each parameter. According to the respective av-
axis shows the different levels for each parameter. According to the respective average
erage S/N ratios,
S/N ratios, all phases
all phases of theof the given
given graphsgraphs show
show that inthat
the 5incm
thethickness,
5 cm thickness, hexagonal
hexagonal
infill
infill pattern, 1.125 mm layer height, and two wall layers are the required 3D printingprinting
pattern, 1.125 mm layer height, and two wall layers are the required 3D
parameters
parameters forforthe
thebest
bestcylindricity
cylindricity andand circularity
circularity values.
values.

Figure 4.
Figure Main effect
4. Main effectplot
plotcylindricity. A, A,
cylindricity. B, C,
B, and D represent
C, and the Thickness,
D represent Infill Pattern,
the Thickness, Layer Layer
Infill Pattern,
height, and
height, and Wall
WallLayer, respectively.
Layer, respectively.
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 9 of 17

Figure 5.
Figure Main effect
5. Main effectplot
plotcircularity.
circularity.A,A,
B, B,
C, C,
and D represent
and the Thickness,
D represent Infill Infill
the Thickness, Pattern, Layer Layer
Pattern,
height, and Wall Layer, respectively.
height, and Wall Layer, respectively.
3.5. Analysis of Variance
3.5. Analysis of Variance
The ANOVA method was used to determine the significance and contribution of each
Theparameter
process ANOVAto method wasvariables.
the response used toThe determine
results arethe significance
shown in Tables 6and and contribution
7, where of
each process parameter
DF represents to the response
degrees of freedom, and Adj SS variables.
shows theThe results
adjusted sum areofshown
squaresin andTables
can 6 and
bewhere
7, calculated as shown in degrees
DF represents Equationof (3)freedom,
where η i shows
and Adj the SS
mean S/Nthe
shows ratioadjusted
and η j shows
sum the
of squares
total mean of S/N ratio and n is total number of experiments. Adj MS
and can be calculated as shown in Equation (3) where ηi shows the mean S/N ratio and ηj is the adjusted mean
sum of the
shows squares,
totalF-Value
mean of p-Value
andS/N ratioare thenvariance
and is total of the group
number of means and probability
experiments. Adj MS is the
value respectively. p-Value describes the significance level of each parameter, and it can
adjusted mean sum of squares, F-Value and p-Value are the variance of the group means
be calculated as shown in the 4, where SSD is sum of squared deviations each process
and probability
parameter and SS value respectively. p-Value describes the significance level of each param-
T is Total sum of squared deviations [30]. The findings reveal that the
eter, andofitthickness
F-Value can be calculated as shown
and infill pattern in the
is greater than4,the
where
F-ValueSSDofisthesum
wallof squared
layer deviations
and layer
each process parameter and SS is Total sum of squared deviations
height. As a result, they have the greatest influence on cylindricity and circularity values.
T [30]. The findings re-
veal that the F-Value of thickness and infill pattern is greater than the F-Value of the wall
n
∑ have

2
layer and layer height. As a result, ss T =they ηi − η jthe greatest influence on cylindricity (3) and
circularity values. i =1

seq ss D
P= (4)
𝑠𝑠 s=eq ssT 𝜂 𝜂 (3)

𝑠
Table 6. Response of variable parameters of cylindricity. 𝑠𝑠
𝑃= (4)
𝑠 𝑠𝑠
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value p-Value
A 2 0.023508 0.011754 35.49 0.027
Table 6. Response of variable parameters of cylindricity.
B 2 0.000841 0.000421 1.27 0.441
Source
C DF2 Adj SS
0.001806 Adj MS
0.000903 F-Value
0.72 0.268 p-Value
A
D 22 0.023508
0.000662 0.011754
0.000331 - 35.49 - 0.027
B
Pulled Error 22 0.000841
0.000662 0.000421
0.000331 - 1.27 0.559 0.441
C
Total 28 0.001806
0.026818 0.000903
0.01374 - 0.72 - 0.268
D 2 0.000662 0.000331 - -
Pulled Error 2 0.000662 0.000331 - 0.559
Total 8 0.026818 0.01374 - -
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 10 of 17

Table 7. Response of variable parameters of circularity.

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value p-Value

A 2 0.013321 0.00666 28.51 0.034
B 2 0.000657 0.000328 1.41 0.416
C 2 0.0001749 0.000875 3.74 0.211
D 2 0.000467 0.000234 - -
Pulled Error 2 0.000467 0.000234 - 0.584
Total 8 0.016194 0.008331 - -

3.6. Response Surface Regression Model

Since the Taguchi approach just analyzes the major factors which influence variables,
without taking account of the correlation between them, response surface regression was
used to determine the relationship between the control variables and response variables for
polyamide 6. The purpose of the response surface method is to formulate the response as a
function of contributing variables and to discover the best set of factor levels that provides
the best response value depending on the research goals.
Constants and predictor coefficients made up the regression model. The linear re-
sponse surface regression model is represented by Equation (5) [39].

y = β 0 + β 1 x1 + β 2 x2 + . . . + β j x j + ε (5)

where xi is the process parameter and β is the coefficient to be determined based on the
experimental data (β0 = constant coefficients , β1 , β2 , . . . , βj = linear coefficients) and ε
describes the measurement error. The response y can be any of the output parameters.
Models were developed by using the software MINITAB 19.0® .
Linear regression equation used in the estimation of cylindricity values:

cylindricity = −0.0260 + 0.01185 A + 0.0118 B + 0.0192 C + 0.0102 D (6)

Linear regression equation used in the estimation of circularity values:

circularity = −0.0317 + 0.00876 A+ 0.0090 B + 0.0365 C + 0.0088 D (7)

Here A, B, C and D are the factors that represent the thickness, infill pattern, layer
height and wall layer, respectively. The above empirical model predicts the cylindricity
and circularity for any combination of process parameters. The correlation coefficient or
R-squared is a statistical measure that represents a dependent variable’s proportion of
variation and usually is between 0 to 100%. In the preceding model of cylindricity and
circularity, the values of R-squared is 86.40% and 84.67%, respectively, which demonstrates
that the actual and predicted values have a good correlation.
In a DoE study, response surface plots are extremely beneficial for evaluating the
interaction effects between two parameters simultaneously on the responses. The contours
of a response surface will be plotted to help visualize the shape of the response surface,
and each contour corresponds to a certain response surface height. Response surface plots
and contour plots of each two parameter combination on cylindricity (Figures 6 and 7) and
circularity (Figures 8 and 9) are plotted when the other two parameters are held constant
at their default values, as shown in the upper right area. As is shown in Figures 6 and 7,
cylindricity is plotted versus different levels. Contour plots show that cylindricity is
minimal at low thickness values and hexagonal infill patterns (B). Similarly, from the
interaction plot of the thickness and layer height on cylindricity at low values of thickness
and layer height levels, cylindricity is minimum. Also, at low levels of thickness and levels
of wall layer, cylindricity is low. Cylindricity is minimum at low layer height levels and
hexagonal infill pattern. At low wall layer levels and hexagonal infill pattern, cylindricity
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 11 of 17

Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW Also, cylindricity is minimal in low wall layers and low layer height values. 11
is low. Theof 3D
17
surface plots show the same combination of process variables.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Cylindricity
Cylindricity surface
surface plots.
plots.
 Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 12 of 17

Figure 7. Cylindricity contour plots.

Figure 7. Cylindricity contour plots.

Contourand
Contour andsurface
surface plots
plots forfor circularity
circularity are shown
are shown against
against various
various levelslevels in Figures
in Figures 8 and 9.
8 and 9. From the interaction plot of the thickness and infill pattern, low
From the interaction plot of the thickness and infill pattern, low values of the thickness, values of the
thickness,
and and infill
hexagonal hexagonal
patterns,infill patterns, iscircularity
circularity is low.
low. At lower At lower
thickness thickness
and and layer
layer height levels,
height levels, circularity is also minimal. Circularity is low at low thickness
circularity is also minimal. Circularity is low at low thickness levels and wall layers levels andvalues.
wall
layers values. Circularity is minimal in lower layer height levels and hexagonal
Circularity is minimal in lower layer height levels and hexagonal infill pattern. Also, lower infill pat-
tern.layer
wall Also, levels
lower with
wall layer levels with
a hexagonal a hexagonal
infill infill pattern
pattern provide lower provide lower
circularity. circularity.is
Cylindricity
Cylindricity is minimal in low wall layers levels and low layer height
minimal in low wall layers levels and low layer height values. The 3D contour plots values. The 3D con-
show
tour plots show the same combination
the same combination of process variables. of process variables.
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 13 of 17

Figure
Figure8.
8.Circularity
Circularitysurface
surfaceplots.
plots.
 Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 14 of 17

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Circularity
Circularity contour
contour plots.
plots.

Taguchi design
Taguchi design was
was used
used toto create
create reproducible
reproducible andandvalid
validresults
resultstotoinvestigate
investigatethe
the
effectof
effect ofselected
selectedparameters
parametersonon
thethe geometrical
geometrical error.
error. ThisThis
studystudy revealed
revealed many many unex-
unexpected
pected findings.
findings. The impact
The impact of eachof is
each is further
further analyzed
analyzed by impact
by the the impact of parameters
of parameters on on
the
the responses
responses andand compared
compared withwith related
related sources:
sources:
1.
1. Parts
Parts with
with higher
higher thickness
thicknesshave havemoremorematerial
materialmassmassthanthanthethesmaller
smallerdiameter
diameterparts,parts,
and
and this
this causes
causes the thegravity
gravityforce,
force,which
whichisisoneoneofofthetheforces
forcesaffecting
affectingthe thedeformation,
deformation,
to
to bebe higher,
higher, andand it it will
will cause
cause moremore geometric
geometricerror errorso sothat
thatthethelowest
lowestthickness
thicknessisis
shown better responses.
shown better responses.
2.
2. As
As ititturns
turnsout,out,the theamount
amount of of
geometric
geometric error is minimal
error is minimal in the inhexagonal
the hexagonal infill pat-
infill
tern. This could be due to the polymer nodes. The more
pattern. This could be due to the polymer nodes. The more nodes, the tighter nodes, the tighter the piecethe
and
piecetheandless
thedeformation.
less deformation. Since the number
Since of polymer
the number nodes increases
of polymer in the hexag-
nodes increases in the
onal pattern,
hexagonal the deformation
pattern, the deformation is less than
is lessother
thaninfill
otherpatterns. In the research
infill patterns. men-
In the research
tioned
mentioned in the
in introduction,
the introduction, the the
effect of the
effect infill
of the pattern
infill pattern waswasstudied,
studied, and
and similarly,
similarly,
the
the hexagonal
hexagonal infill
infill waswasintroduced
introducedas asthe
theoptimal
optimalinfill
infillpattern
pattern[28]. [28].
3.
3. As the layer height is decreased, the number of deposited
As the layer height is decreased, the number of deposited layers increases, layers increases,andand thisthis
will
will cause more interfaces and adhesion will be reduced.
cause more interfaces and adhesion will be reduced. On the other hand, a high On the other hand, a high
layer
layer
heightheight
causescauses
higherhigher thermal thermal gradients
gradients betweenbetween the layers,
the layers, and more and more defor-
deformation
mation will be accrued, and geometrical errors will be increased.
will be accrued, and geometrical errors will be increased. But as mentioned in the But as mentioned
in the literature
literature of the of the article
article with different
with different materials,
materials, it wasitobserved
was observed that asthattheas the height
layer layer
height decreased,
decreased, the shape the errors
shape errors
decreased.decreased. The reason
The reason may be may
thebe typetheoftype of material
material that is
that
usedisinused
thisin this article.
article. However,However, the layer
the layer heightheight
studystudy
resultsresults
in otherin other materials
materials such
such as ABS and PLA showed that the lower the layer height,
as ABS and PLA showed that the lower the layer height, the lower the geometric and the lower the geometric
and dimensional
dimensional accuracy
accuracy at lower
at lower layerlayer heights.
heights. ThisThis difference
difference in results
in results betweenbetween
other
other research and the current research can be due to the
research and the current research can be due to the limitation of the 3D printer limitation of the 3D printer
used
used
becausebecause
valuesvalues
less than less1than 1 andthan
and more more than 2 be
2 cannot cannot
selectedbe selected as layer
as layer height height
[28,36,40].
4. [28,36,40].
According to the results, it was found that the amount of cylindricity and circularity
4. According
is less for ato the results,
lower numberitof was
wall found thatThis
layers. the may
amount of cylindricity
be because, and circularity
in 3D printing of parts,
is
theless forlayers
wall a lower arenumber of wall layers.
first deposited on theThis may beand
platform, because,
then thein 3D printing
internal of parts,
infill will be
the wall layers are first deposited on the platform, and then the
deposited. During this short period, the wall layer will be fully solidified. Therefore, internal infill will be
deposited. During this short period, the wall layer will be fully
we will not have good adhesion in the interface of walls and infill sections compared solidified. Therefore,
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 15 of 17

to the internal infill section. However, wall thickness (wall layer) studies on PLA
revealed that the dimensional accuracy would be improved and optimized in average
wall thickness values. The explanation for the variation in findings might be related
to limitations in the design of the cylinders and 3D printers that were utilized. The
type of material used may affect the results [33].

3.7. Confirmation Test

To validate the established empirical models, a confirmation experiment was carried
out. The optimal process parameter condition was used to conduct a confirmation test. The
optimal values for parameters were hexagonal infill pattern, two wall layers, 1.125 mm
layer height, and 5 cm thickness. Therefore, a part with optimal parameters was 3 D
printed, and the Solutionix D500 scanner measured the cylindricity and circularity values.
Then the optimal values of the parameters were placed in the developed cylindricity and
circularity formulas, and the obtained values were compared with the values obtained
from the experiment. Table 8 shows these values. Because of the uncertainty, output
response was predicted to fall within the confidence interval range. The confirmation test
revealed that the suggested models for cylindricity and circularity were acceptable in 95%
of the experimental domain’s confidence interval (CI). According to the results presented
in Table 8, it was found that the error of cylindricity and circularity is less than 20%, which
is acceptable [41]. The results of the confirmation tests indicate that the optimization was
successful.

Table 8. Comparison of cylindricity and circularity predicted by ANOVA and confirmation experiment.

Shape Error Predictions (±95% CI) (mm) Experimental (mm) Error (%)
cylindricity 0.08705 (±0.1733) 0.10261 15.1
circularity 0.06851 (±0.1367) 0.07822 12.4

4. Conclusions
The present work leads to the following conclusions of experimental research on the
effect of layer height, infill pattern, and the number of wall layers on shape deviation
(cylindricity and circularity) in different thicknesses in the FFF process.
According to the L9 orthogonal array, the experiments were carried out by a MarkForged®
Mark Two 3D printer.
The cylindricity and circularity indicator was measured using a Solutionix D500
scanner and Geomagic® Control X™ software. According to the results from ANOVA, the
layer height and thickness influence is much more significant than the influence of the infill
pattern and wall layers on cylindricity. Similarly, the effect of layer height and thickness on
circularity is much more significant than the influence of the infill pattern and wall layers,
according to DOE and optimization results.
Also, the results can help the designer to understand the phenomenological interac-
tions between the parts’ dimensions and the evolution of the geometric tolerances. From
the (S/N) analysis for the cylindricity and circularity, it was found that layer height of
1.125 mm, hexagonal infill pattern, 5 mm thickness, and two wall layers were the optimal
process parameters to minimize shape deviations. Also, a regression model was developed,
and a confirmation test was applied to show that the predictions are in good agreement
with experimental data.
Three-dimensional printing results can be influenced by unstable machine conditions,
operator error, and other factors. Regression models were established to predict cylindricity
and circularity.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.S., K.B., A.T. and M.S; methodology, Z.S.; software,
Z.S.; validation, Z.S., K.B., A.T., M.A. and M.S.; formal analysis, Z.S.; investigation, Z.S.; resources,
Z.S., K.B., A.T., M.A. and. M.S.; data curation, Z.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.S., K.B.,
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 16 of 17

A.T., M.A. and M.S writing—review and editing, Z.S., K.B., A.T., M.A. and M.S.; visualization, Z.S.;
supervision, K.B., A.T. and M.S.; project administration, K.B., A.T. and M.S. funding acquisition, K.B.,
A.T. and M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies. In 91 on Terminology; Astm International: West Conshohocken,
PA, USA, 2012.
2. Zolfagharian, A.; Khosravani, M.R.; Kaynak, A. Fracture resistance analysis of 3D-printed polymers. Polymers 2020, 12, 302.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Katarzyna, B.; Piesowicz, E.; Szymański, P.; Ślaczka,
˛ W.; Pijanowski, M. Polymer composite manufacturing by FDM 3D printing
technology. In MATEC Web of Conferences; EDP Sciences: Les Ulis, France, 2018; Volume 237, p. 02006.
4. Bárnik, F.; Vaško, M.; Sága, M.; Handrik, M.; Sapietová, A. Mechanical properties of structures produced by 3D printing from
composite materials. In MATEC Web of Conferences; EDP Sciences: Les Ulis, France, 2019; Volume 254, p. 01018.
5. Bai, X.; Ding, G.; Zhang, K.; Wang, W.; Zhou, N.; Fang, D.; He, R. Stereolithography additive manufacturing and sintering
approaches of SiC ceramics. Open Ceram. 2021, 5, 100046. [CrossRef]
6. Qadri, S. A Critical Study and Analysis of Process Parameters of Selective Laser Sintering Rapid Prototyping; Elsevier BV: Amsterdam,
The Netherlands, 2021.
7. He, Q.; Xia, H.; Liu, J.; Ao, X.; Lin, S. Modeling and numerical studies of selective laser melting: Multiphase flow, solidification
and heat transfer. Mater. Des. 2020, 196, 109115. [CrossRef]
8. Taylor, A.C.; Beirne, S.; Alici, G.; Wallace, G.G. System and process development for coaxial extrusion in fused deposition
modelling. Rapid Prototyp. J. 2017, 23, 543–550. [CrossRef]
9. Polak, R.; Sedlacek, F.; Raz, K. Determination of FDM Printer Settings with Regard to Geometrical Accuracy. In Proceedings of
the 28th DAAAM International Symposium, Zadar, Croatia, 5–12 November 2017; pp. 0561–0566.
10. Ford, S.L.N. Additive manufacturing technology: Potential implications for US manufacturing competitiveness. J. Int. Com. Econ.
2014, 6, 40.
11. Singh, B.; Kumar, R.; Chohan, J.S. Polymer matrix composites in 3D printing: A state of art review. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 33,
1562–1567. [CrossRef]
12. Küpper, D.; Heising, W.; Corman, G.; Wolfgang, M.; Knizek, C.; Lukic, V. Get Ready for Industrialized Additive Manufacturing;
DigitalBCG, Boston Consulting Group: Zürich, Switzerland, 2017.
13. Saleh Alghamdi, S.; John, S.; Roy Choudhury, N.; Dutta, N.K. Additive manufacturing of polymer materials: Progress, promise
and challenges. Polymers 2021, 13, 753. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Black, H.T.; Celina, M.C.; McElhanon, J.R. Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials Opportunities and Emerging
Applications. Available online: https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1561754 (accessed on 21 October 2021).
15. Vidakis, N.; Petousis, M.; Tzounis, L.; Maniadi, A.; Velidakis, E.; Mountakis, N.; Kechagias, J.D. Sustainable additive manufactur-
ing: Mechanical response of polyamide 12 over multiple recycling processes. Materials 2021, 14, 466. [CrossRef]
16. Krishna, S.; Sreedhar, I.; Patel, C.M. Molecular dynamics simulation of polyamide-based materials—A review. Comput. Mater. Sci.
2021, 200, 110853. [CrossRef]
17. Ahmadifar, M.; Benfriha, K.; Shirinbayan, M.; Tcharkhtchi, A. Additive Manufacturing of Polymer-Based Composites Using
Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF): A Review. Appl. Compos. Mater. 2021, 1–46. [CrossRef]
18. Anitha, R.; Arunachalam, S.; Radhakrishnan, P. Critical Parameters Influencing the Quality of Prototype in Fused Deposition
Modeling. J. Process. Technol. 2001, 118, 385–388. [CrossRef]
19. Brajlih, T.; Valentan, B.; Balic, J.; Drstvensek, I. Speed and accuracy evaluation of additive manufacturing machines. Rapid Prototyp.
J. 2011, 17, 64–75. [CrossRef]
20. Relvas, C.; Ramos, A.; Completo, A.; Simões, J.A. A systematic approach for an accuracy level using rapid prototyping
technologies. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part. B J. Eng. Manuf. 2012, 226, 2023–2034. [CrossRef]
21. Fisher, R.A. Design of experiments. Br. Med. J. 1936, 1, 554. [CrossRef]
22. Bagchi, T.P. Taguchi Methods Explained: Practical Steps to Robust Design; Prentice-Hall: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1993.
23. Kechagias, J.D.; Tsiolikas, A.; Petousis, M.; Ninikas, K.; Vidakis, N.; Tzounis, L. A robust methodology for optimizing the topology
and the learning parameters of an ANN for accurate predictions of laser-cut edges surface roughness. Simul. Model. Pract. Theory
2022, 114, 102414. [CrossRef]
Polymers 2021, 13, 3697 17 of 17

24. Maazinejad, B.; Mohammadnia, O.; Ali, G.A.; Makhlouf, A.S.; Nadagouda, M.N.; Sillanpää, M.; Sadegh, H. Taguchi L9 (34)
orthogonal array study based on methylene blue removal by single-walled carbon nanotubes-amine: Adsorption optimization
using the experimental design method, kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics. J. Mol. Liq. 2020, 298, 112001. [CrossRef]
25. Gunst, R.F.; Mason, R.L. Fractional factorial design. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Comput. Stat. 2009, 1, 234–244. [CrossRef]
26. Karna, S.K.; Sahai, R. An overview on Taguchi method. Int. J. Eng. Math. Sci. 2012, 1, 1–7.
27. Lee, B.; Abdullah, J.; Khan, Z. Optimization of rapid prototyping parameters for production of flexible ABS object. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 2005, 169, 54–61. [CrossRef]
28. Alafaghani, A.; Qattawi, A. Investigating the effect of fused deposition modeling processing parame- ters using Taguchi de-sign
of experiment method. J. Manuf. Process. 2018, 36, 164–174. [CrossRef]
29. Rizea, A.D.; Anghel, D.C.; Iordache, D.M. Study of the deviation of shape for the parts obtained by additive manufacturing. IOP
Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 1009, 012050. [CrossRef]
30. Sood, A.K.; Ohdar, R.K.; Mahapatra, S.S. Parametric appraisal of mechanical property of fused deposition modelling processed
parts. Mater. Des. 2010, 31, 287–295. [CrossRef]
31. Sheth, S.; George, P.M. Experimental investigation, prediction and optimization of cylin- dricity and perpendicularity during
drilling of WCB material using grey relational analysis. Precis. Eng. 2016, 45, 33–43. [CrossRef]
32. Das, P.; Mhapsekar, K.; Chowdhury, S.; Samant, R.; Anand, S. Selection of build orientation for optimal support structures and
minimum part errors in additive manufacturing. Comput. Des. Appl. 2017, 14, 1–13. [CrossRef]
33. Aslani, K.-E.; Chaidas, D.; Kechagias, J.; Kyratsis, P.; Salonitis, K. Quality Performance Evaluation of Thin Walled PLA 3D Printed
Parts Using the Taguchi Method and Grey Relational Analysis. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2020, 4, 47. [CrossRef]
34. Chang, D.Y.; Huang, B.H. Studies on profile error and extruding aperture for the RP parts using the fused deposition modeling
process. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2011, 53, 1027–1037. [CrossRef]
35. Eswaran, P.; Sivakumar, K.; Subramaniyan, M. Minimizing error on circularity of FDM manufactured part. Mater. Today Proc.
2018, 5, 6675–6683. [CrossRef]
36. Doli, B. Analysis of fused deposition modeling process for additive manufacturing of Abs parts. In Proceedings of the 10
International conference on precision, meso, micro and nano engineering (COPEN 10), Chennai, Tamilnadu, India, 7–9 September
2017; pp. 7–9.
37. Maurya, N.K.; Rastogi, V.; Singh, P. Fabrication of prototype connecting rod of PLA plas- tic material using FDM prototype
technology. Indian J. Eng. Mater. Sci. (IJEMS) 2021, 27, 333–343.
38. Saqib, S.; Urbanic, J. An experimental study to determine geometric and dimensional accuracy impact factors for fused deposition
modelled parts. In Enabling Manufacturing Competitiveness and Economic—Sustainability; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany,
2012; pp. 293–298.
39. Myers, R.H.; Khuri, A.I.; Carter, W.H. Response surface methodology: 1966–l988. Technometrics 1989, 31, 137–157. [CrossRef]
40. Benfriha, K.; Ahmadifar, M.; Shirinbayan, M.; Tcharkhtchi, A. Effect of process parameters on thermal and mechanical properties
of polymer-based composites using fused filament fabrication. Polym. Compos. 2021. [CrossRef]
41. Cetin, M.H.; Ozcelik, B.; Kuram, E.; Demirbas, E. Evaluation of vegetable based cutting fluids with extreme pressure and cutting
parameters in turning of AISI 304L by Taguchi method. J. Clean. Prod. 2011, 19, 2049–2056. [CrossRef]