Energy Equation

• Expanded Bernoulli's equation

• More general flow equation than Bernoulli’s

• Includes energy loss or gain

Recall - Restrictions on the use of the Bernoulli’s

Equation.
 Motor
hL
hR

1
2 2
hA
Valve
Pump
1

• hA = Energy added by mechanical device (Pump)

• hR = Energy removed (Motor/Turbine)
• hL = Energy losses (Friction + Minor losses)
 Motor
hL
hR

1
2 2
hA
Valve
Pump
1

Total Energy per Unit Weight (from pts 1 and 2)

h + hA − hR − hL = h
'
1
'
2
But
2
P1 u
h = + z1 +
' 1

1
2g
2
P2 u
h = + z2 +
' 2

2
2g
So

2 2
P1 u P2 u
+ z1 + 1
+ hA − hR − hL = + z2 + 2
 2g  2g
➢ Energy equation is written in the direction of
flow.
➢ Algebraic signs are very critical

From above:
➢ Pump adds energy ( + hA )

➢ Frictional losses remove energy (− hL )

➢ Motor extracts energy ( − hR )

Example

1
Large
reservoir 4.5 m

10.0 m
2
10 cm

Find hL
Q = 0.03m3/s
From point 1 →point 2
2 2
P1 u P2 u
+ z1 + 1
+ hA − hR − hL = + z2 + 2
 2g  2g
P1 and P2 Both Atmospheric pressure.
Exposed to the atmosphere
2
u
01 Reservoir large. So valid for very large
2g surface area.

hA = hR = 0 No mechanical devices

Hence 2
u 2
u
z1 − hL = z2 + 2
or hL = z1 − z2 − 2

2g 2g
 2
0.03m3 /s 
(Q A) 2 
  (0.1) / 4
2
hL = 14.5 − = 14.5m −
2g 2(9.81m/s2 )

= 13.76 m
These losses are frictional (pipe friction)
and minor (valves, elbows)
Pump power Requirements
Energy Transfer
Pump power =  Weight flow rate
Weight of fluid
= Energy transfer rate
PA = hAW = hAQ
W = Q = Weight flow rate
Mechanical Efficiency
PA Power deliverd to fluid
Em  = Em  1
PI Power put into pump
Em = 0.7 − 0.9 Typical hydraulic pumps
Fluid Motors (Turbines)

PR  hRW = hRQ

Po Power output of motor

Em  =  1.0
PR Power delivered by fluid
Example Given the following values

B
296 kPa

0.053 m

20.0 m Check
-28 kPa
Valve

Pump

A
0.078 m
➢ Determine the power of the pump, if the
pump efficiency is 0.85.
Solution
Power delivered by pump to fluid:

PA = hAW = hAQ

2 2
PA u PB u
+ zA + + hA − hL =
A
+ zB + B
 2g  2g
 PB − PA 2
u −u
2
hA = + ( zB − z A ) +
B A
+ hL
 2g

PA − PB 296 − (−28)kN / m 2
= = 38.3m
 3
(0.86)(9.81kN / m )

Z B − Z A = 20.0 m
u −u
2 2
(Q / AB ) − (Q / AA )
2
B
=
A
=
2g 2g
hA = 38.4 m + 20.0 m + 1.7 m + 1.9 m = 62.0 m

PA = hAW = hAQ

PA Power deliverd to fluid

Em  =
PI Power put into pump

If Em = 0.85, Calculate Power put into the pump

PA PA
PI = =
Em 0.85
EXERCISE
In a pipe conveying water, pressure gauges are
inserted at points 1 and 2, where diameters are
respectively 15 cm and 7.5 cm. When a discharge
of 0.02 m3/s occurs and the flow is downward,
the pressure at point 2 is 1.96 kN/m2greater 2than
that at point 1. If losses are taken as h = K u1 ,
2g
where u1 is the velocity at point 1, determine the
value of k.
2 2

5m

1 1
Venturi-Meter
About 6

About 20

2
1

z2
z1 h
Datum
➢ Venturi-meter - Device for measuring discharge.
It consist of: Rapidly converging section, Throat
and Diverging section (diffuser).
❖ The rapidly converging section increases
velocity of flow and hence reduces the
pressure.
❖ The gently diverging section (diffuser)
returns the Venturi-meter to the original
dimensions of pipe.
➢ Knowing the pressure difference between two
points, the Discharge can be calculated.
➢ Energy loss in the Venturi-meter is assumed to
be very small.
Apply Bernoulli's equation along the streamline
from point 1 to 2
About 6

About
20 2
1

z2
z1 h
Datum

2 2
p1 u p2 u
+ + z1 =
1
+ + z2 2
g 2 g g 2 g
Using continuity equation, we can find velocity u2

Q = u1 A1 = u2 A2

u1 A1
u2 =
A2
➢ Substituting this into the B.E. and rearranging

p1 − p2 
u  A1 2  2

+ z1 − z2 =   − 1
1
g 2 g  A2  
 

 p1 − p2 
2 g  + z1 − z 2 
u1 =  g 
2
 A1 
  − 1
 A2 
Theoretical discharge is calculated as:
Qideal = u1 A1
Actual discharge, taking into account losses due
to friction:
Qactual = Cd Qideal = Cd u1 A1
 p1 − p2 
2 g + z1 − z 2 
Qactual = C d A1 A2  g 
A1 − A2
2 2
Express discharge in terms of the manometer readings

About 6

About 20

2
1

z2
z1 h
Datum
 Manometer Equation

p1 + gz1 = p2 +  man gh + g( z 2 − h)

Simplify p1 − p2   man 
+ z1 − z2 = h − 1
g   

Hence actual discharge

  man 
2 gh − 1
Qactual = C d A1 A2   
A1 − A2
2 2
Expression for discharge does not include any terms
for elevation or orientation (z1 or z2) of the
Venturi-meter.

Hence the Venturi-meter can be at any convenient

angle to function.

The smoother the contraction, less the head loss

C d → 1.0
Typically

C d  0.96 − 0.98
The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi-meter:
• Gradual and steady deceleration after the throat.
➢ It ensures that, pressure rises again to a value
near the original value before the Venturi-
meter.

• The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8

degrees.

➢ If the angle is wider than this limit, the flow

might separate from the walls resulting in
increased friction, energy and pressure loss.
 • If the angle is less than this limit, the meter becomes
very long. Hence pressure losses again become
significant.

The efficiency of the diffuser, is rarely greater than

80%.
Example Given the following :
u B is f (p),  = 9.81kN / m 3

Find u A and Q

B
100mm 
0.60 m
A Unknown “y”
400mm 

1.50 m

Specific gravity = 1.29

Known parameters z A − zB , DA , DB

Consider Point A and B

2 2
pA uA pB uB
+ zA + = + zB +
 2g  2g
p A − pB uB − u A2
2
+ ( z A − zB ) =
 2g

But z A − zB = 0.60m
" y" is unknown
Manometer equation

p A +  ( y) +  (1.50) −  g (1.50) −  ( y) −  (0.60) = pB

p A − pB =  (0.60 − 1.50) +  g (1.50)

𝛾𝑔 = (1.29)(𝛾𝑤 = 9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3)=12.65 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3

Now we need p A − pB , so divide by 



𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 𝛾𝑔
= −0.90 + (1.50) = 1.04
𝛾 𝛾
Using continuity Q=uA

AA
AAu A = ABuB uB = u A
AB

−3
125.6  10
uB = −3
u A = 15.9u A
7.9  10

u = 252.8u
2
B
2
A

u − u = 252.8u − u = 251.8u
2
B
2
A
2
A
2
A
2
A
 p A − pB uB − u A2
2
+ ( z A − zB ) =
 2g

251.8
1.04 − 0.60 = 𝑢𝐴2
(2)(9.81)

(2)(9.81)(0.44)
𝑢𝐴 = = 0.185 m/s
251.8

𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑢𝐴 = 123.6 × 10−3 × 0.185 = 0.023m3 /s

Two sides of a cylinder fitted with a piston are connected to
the inlet and the throat of a horizontal venturi meter. If the
diameters at the inlet and the throat are 10 cm and 6 cm
respectively and the velocity the velocity of water in the pipe
is 5 m/s, calculate the force on the piston. The diameter of the
piston is 2 cm. Ignore losses and the area of the piston rod.

1 2

C
Flow through a Small Orifice

1
Aactual
orifice
h

2
Vena-contracta

Datum

• Consider flow from a tank through a hole (orifice)

in the side close to the base.
• General arrangement of streamlines as above
• Shape of holes edges is sharp – Hence Contact
between hole and the fluid minimized.

➢ This means frictional losses decreased.

• Streamlines contract after the orifice to a

minimum value when they become parallel.

• At this point, the velocity and pressure

become uniform across the jet.

• Convergence is called vena-contracta. (‘Latin

'contracted vein').
• To calculate the flow, it is important to know the
amount of contraction
• Determine the velocity at the orifice using
Bernoulli's equation.
➢Apply Bernoulli's equation to the
streamline joining:

❖ Point 1 at the surface of the

reservoir to point 2 at the centre of
the orifice.
2 2
p1 u1 p2 u2
+ z1 + = + z2 +
 2g  2g
• Surface velocity head (u12/2g  0) is negligible
and the pressure head (p1/ = 0) is zero .

• At the orifice, jet is open to the atmosphere so

pressure head (p2/  = 0) zero.

• Datum line taken through the centre of the

orifice, hence
➢ z1 = h and z2 =0
2
u2
0+h+0 = 0+0+
2g
u2 = 2 gh Theoretical velocity
Discharge through the orifice

• Continuity Equation:

Q = Au
• Hence:

Qactual = Aactual uactual

• Actual velocity

uactual = Cvut
Cv - Coefficient of velocity (0.97 - 0.99)

• The Actual area of flow (jet) is area of the vena-

contracta not the area of the orifice.
• Area at vena-contracta obtained by using the
coefficient of contraction for the orifice

Aactual = Cc Aorifice Cc - Coefficient of contraction

 • Discharge through the orifice

Q = Au
Qactual = Aactualuactual = (Cc Aorifice )(Cvut )
= CcCv Aorificeut
= Cd Aorificeut
= C d Aorifice 2 gh
Cd - Coefficient of discharge
Cd = CcCv
Determination of Coefficient of Velocity

Three methods used:

➢ Trajectory method (By measurement of

coordinates)

➢ Momentum method

➢ Pitot-tube Method
By measurement of coordinates (Trajectory method)

H
venacontracta
x
x
y
y

➢ Measure horizontal and vertical coordinates of the

jet as it falls under gravity.

➢ Jet contracts and forms the vena-contracta at a

distance of d/2 from plane of the orifice.
Let
• u , be the velocity at the vena-contracta

• x and y , be the coordinates of a point on the jet

after time t.

• Applying the equation of motion

x = ut
1 2
y = 0 + gt
2
• Eliminating t 2
2 yu
x=
g
But
u = Cv 2 gH
• So 2
2 yCv ( 2 gH )
x= = Cv 4 yH
g

2 Knowing x and y, and the head

x
Cv = H, Coefficient of velocity is
4 yH obtained
• A circular orifice, 2.0 cm diameter is made in the vertical
wall of a tank. The jet fall vertically through 0.75 m while
moving horizontally through a distance of 3.0 m.
Calculate the coefficient of velocity if the head causing
flow is 4.0 m. If the discharge is 1.80  10-3 m3/s,
calculate C c and C d
2 2
x 3.0
Cv = = = 0.87
4 yH 4  0.75  4.0
Q 1.80  10 −3
Cd = = = 0.64
A 2 gH 
 0.02 2  2  9.81  4.0
4
Cd 0.64
Cc = = = 0.74
Cv 0.87
 EXERCISE
A jet of water, issuing from a sharp edged vertical orifice
under a constant head of 10.0cm, at a certain point, has
the horizontal and vertical coordinates measured from
the vena-contracta as 20.0cm and 10.5cm respectfully.
Find the value of Cv. Also find the value of Cc if Cd=0.60.

EXERCISE
Water discharge at the rate of 98.2 litres/s through a
120mm diameter vertical sharp-edged orifice placed
under a constant head of 10metres. A point, on the jet,
measured from the vena-contracta of the jet has
coordinates 4.5metres horizontal and 0.54 metres
vertical . Find the co-efficient Cv, Cc and Cd of the orifice.
Time taken for fluid level to fall through
height, h

dh

h1
h2
In a small amount of time dt,

Volume measured at the jet = Qdt = Aju jdt

Volume Removed from tank VT = − AT dh

The two are equal − AT dh = Aj u j dt

Solving for time − AT
dt = dh
Aju j
So − AT
dt = dh
Cd Aorifice 2 gh

− AT −1 / 2
dt = h dh
Cd Aorifice 2 g

Integrating from depth h1 to h2

t2 − AT h2
t1
dt =
Cd Aorifice 2 g 
h1
h −1 / 2 dh
 − AT 1/ 2
(h2 − h1 )
1/ 2
(t2 − t1 ) =
Cd Aorifice 2 g 1/ 2

Time to drain a tank from h1 to h2

2𝐴 𝑇 1/2 1/2
t= (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 2𝑔
Example
What is the time taken to drain a tank from 4.5m to
0.7m. Tank diameter, D = 4.5m; Nozzle diameter = 700mm.
Take Cd = 0.92
Solution:
4.52 0.07 m 2
AT =  = 15.91m 2 ; Aorifice =  = 0.004m 2
4 4
AT
= 15.91 / 0.004 = 3977 .5
Aorifice
2(3977.5) 1/2 1/2
t= [(4.5) − (0.7) ]
0.92∗ 29.81m/s 2

t = 2940.5s = 49.0 min

Time for a Tank to Empty

2𝐴 𝑇 1/2 1/2
t= (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) h2 = 0
𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 2𝑔
Tank empty
 EXERCISE
A circular tank of diameter 1.5m contains water up to a
height of 4m. An orifice of 40mm diameter is provided
at its bottom. If Cd=0.62, find the height of water above
the orifice after 10 minutes.

An orifice of diameter 150mm is fitted at the bottom of

a boiler drum of length 6m and a diameter of 2m. The
drum is horizontal and contains water up to a height of
1.8m. Find the time required to empty the boiler. Take
Cd=0.6.